THE LIBRARY 
 
 OF 
 
 THE UNIVERSITY 
 OF CALIFORNIA 
 
 PRESENTED BY 
 
 PROF. CHARLES A. KOFOID AND 
 MRS. PRUDENCE W. KOFOID 
 
GERMANY; 
 
 THE SPIRIT OF HER 
 
 HISTORY, LITERATURE, SOCIAL CONDITION, 
 
 NATIONAL ECONOMY; 
 
 ILLUSTRATED BY REFERENCE TO HER 
 
 PHYSICAL, MORAL, AND POLITICAL STATISTICS, 
 
 COMPARISON WITH OTHER COUNTRIES. 
 
 BY 
 
 BISSET HAWKINS, M.D. OXON, F.R.S., 
 %\ 
 
 FELLOW OF THE ROYAL COLLEGE OF PHYSICIANS ; 
 
 INSPECTOR OF PRISONS ; LATE PROFESSOR AT KING'S COLLEGE ; AND MEMBER OF 
 THE ROYAL GEOGRAPHICAL AND STATISTICAL SOCIETIES. 
 
 LONDON: 
 JOHN W. PARKER, WEST STRAND. 
 
 M.DCCC.XXXVIII. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 THE object of the following work is to make a small 
 contribution to that science, which, however little it may 
 be cultivated, is only second in importance to one other, 
 I mean the branch of knowledge which has at various 
 times been designated Political Science, Political Philo- 
 sophy, Polity, and State Economy. This is something 
 quite distinct from, and, I venture to affirm, more in- 
 teresting to society, than the limited study of Political 
 Economy, which forms only a section of it, and which 
 confines itself to the production and distribution of wealth. 
 The science of State Economy, on the other hand, how- 
 ever much it has been neglected in this country,* includes 
 the whole internal regulation of states, their resources, 
 their composition, and their means of improvement. 
 
 The country to which this volume is devoted has been 
 often described by travellers of various tastes and talents, 
 each working on his own peculiar plan, and pursuing his 
 distinct path; but no work in our own language, and 
 none with which I am acquainted in any other idiom, 
 attempts to draw so comprehensive a picture of the 
 entire land, or to afford, even within the limits of many 
 volumes, so concentrated a view of its various features. 
 The learned men, indeed, who spring so abundantly from 
 that soil, have not neglected to portray, with the utmost 
 minuteness, the country on which they cast so much 
 
 b 
 
 M30922O 
 
vi PREFACE. 
 
 lustre, but their labours are scattered over an extensive, 
 and not always accessible ground. 
 
 The eminent German writers who have illustrated 
 the statistics, institutions, and geography of their own 
 country, will pardon the omissions as well as the com- 
 missions of this work, which derives nearly all that is 
 most valuable in its composition from their researches. 
 They will discern imperfections in many parts which will 
 not be equally perceptible to other eyes ; but I am too 
 well acquainted with their candour not to foresee that 
 the desire which animates me of rendering justice to 
 Germany, will ensure on their part a liberal interpreta- 
 tion, if not a welcome. Although the subject is far from 
 being exhausted in this volume, and is not even fully 
 treated in all its parts, yet by most English readers it will 
 be found sufficiently large, if not abundantly long. 
 
 I am far from professing to present either a Geography 
 or a Topography of Germany, but my endeavour is 
 rather to point out all that is most remarkable and 
 characteristic in that country; all which distinguishes it 
 from its neighbours ; all which connects it with the 
 political, literary, and social state of mankind; and all 
 which marks its actual condition and prospects. Some 
 readers will find a few things here which they did not 
 expect, and others will look in vain for some objects 
 which they hoped to discover. It was necessary to make 
 a selection out of so vast a whole; and I have often 
 sought rather for that which lies under the surface, and 
 which is least current in the works of travellers and 
 geographers, than for matters familiar to all, and readily 
 available in other sources. The quality and the interest 
 of materials have guided my choice much more than 
 
PREFACE. vti 
 
 their disposition to form a compact and uniform system. 
 Thus I have omitted nearly all that relates to geology, 
 natural history, and climate, while I have indulged 
 freely in most branches of statistics, and have even 
 introduced prisons and mineral waters. An author 
 can hardly be blamed for not doing that of which he 
 does not announce any intention ; those, in short, who 
 feel an interest in Germany, will not quarrel with the 
 topics which I have handled ; and those who are indif- 
 ferent to the subject, assuredly would not be satisfied 
 with a description still more bulky, various, and prolix. 
 
 J[ shall be amply rewarded if this imperfect compilation 
 should in any degree awaken the attention of Englishmen 
 to a country which is allied to them by closer and more 
 natural ties than any other section of Europe: to a 
 people who harmonize with us in character, in many of 
 their tastes, and in extraction ; and who are disposed to 
 regard us with a more fraternal eye than any other, ex- 
 cept, perhaps, the Norwegians, Swedes, and Danes. Our 
 literature has, in Germany, found its warmest admirers, 
 and its ablest commentators; and long habits of peace 
 have generated towards us an alliance of the heart, not 
 dependant on treaties, and not capable of being stifled by 
 decrees. In moments of calamity, to that quarter we 
 must turn with the best probability of support, if the sen- 
 timent of national gratitude does really exist at all ; and in 
 all seasons, those amongst us who may find it convenient 
 to quit their own country, or to educate their children 
 abroad, will there meet with the nearest equivalent for 
 the home which they abandon, and will incur the least 
 risk of corrupting the morals of their children, at the 
 same time that they secure for them accomplishments, 
 
 b 2 
 
Vlll PREFACE. 
 
 which, if they must be sought elsewhere, can nowhere be 
 so easily acquired as in Germany. 
 
 It would be tedious to enumerate the various sources to 
 which I have had recourse ; many are quoted in the text, 
 or in notes, several have been obtained on the spot during 
 a lengthened residence, and some from frequent oral 
 and written communication with natives. Throughout, I 
 have been most largely indebted to the " Statistical and 
 Genealogical Almanac*," published annually at Weimar, 
 originally edited by the late indefatigable Hassel, and 
 continued in the most elaborate manner by Dr. Froriep, 
 the chief of the remarkable " Industrie Comptoir" at 
 Weimar, from which so many excellent productions have 
 emanated. Stein's admirable " Manual of Geography 
 and Statistics," has also contributed to my stores f. 
 
 For the chapter on prisons, embracing also some por- 
 tion of criminal and moral statistics, I am indebted to 
 the elaborate notes which Lagarmitte has appended to 
 the Strasburg edition of " Julius on Prisons," published 
 in 1831. Among the miscellaneous authorities to whom 
 I must express my obligations, I may enumerate in 
 general terms, the well-known names of Balbi, Bickes, 
 Hasse], Malchus, Schnabel, Schb'n, Berghaus's " Jour- 
 nal ," and the " Revue Germanique," which has ceased 
 to exist. 
 
 The history of German literature, as far as the name 
 
 * " Genealogisch-Historisch-Statistisches Almanach." To the " Al- 
 manack de Gotha, published annually at Gotha, in the French language, 
 I have also been occasionally indebted. 
 
 t " Handbuch der Geographic und Statistik." (Volume the 
 second.) 
 
 J " Annalen der Erd-Vb'lker und Staatenkunde," Berlin. We per- 
 ceive with pleasure that Berghaus is now publishing a very elaborate 
 systematic work, entitled " Allgemeine Lander und Yolkerkunde." 
 
PREFACE. ix 
 
 of Schiller, is derived from lectures delivered at the 
 university of Bonn, by the venerable and widely-known 
 W. A. von Schlegel ; this is the first time that they 
 have appeared in any form, and I am indebted for 
 them to the copious notes taken on the spot by my 
 accomplished friend, Mr. George Toynbee, Member of 
 the Royal College of Surgeons of London. To the 
 talents and learning of this gentleman I must express 
 my grateful acknowledgment for very much valuable 
 assistance afforded in other parts of this work, and 
 especially in the continuation of the history of German 
 literature to the present day. 
 
 For the materials of the history of the nobility of 
 Germany, I am indebted to the " Geschichte des Adels," 
 of Rauschnick. The account of the mineral waters has 
 been derived from the " Balneographisches Statistisch- 
 Historisches Hand und Worterbuch," by Von Zedlitz. 
 The anecdotes of the orders of knighthood have been 
 supplied by the " Almanach de Gotha." To the well- 
 known repertory, the " Conversations-Lexikon," (eighth 
 edition,) and to its Supplement, the " Conversations- 
 Lexikon der Neuesten Zeit und Literatur," we have had 
 frequent recourse. 
 
 The tables in the Appendix are not offered as posi- 
 tive facts, but merely as probable approximations to 
 the real state of things; they can only be regarded 
 as x evidence afforded by various writers, collected at 
 varying periods ; and, although more or less correct 
 at the time at which they were at first severally 
 published, may no longer be applicable to the existing 
 condition of things. Statistical science is not to be 
 depreciated because its results are not permanent; in 
 
X PREFACE. 
 
 this respect it partakes of the alloy of almost all human 
 sciences,- whose principles and whose facts are succes- 
 sively rejected or modified in each coming generation ; 
 yet the labours of our predecessors are not on that 
 account useless, and those who subsequently work in the 
 same mine profit by their errors, omissions, and exag- 
 gerations, and employ them as a safety-lamp to guide 
 their steps in future researches. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 SECTION I. GERMANY CONSIDERED AS A WHOLE. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 Pago 
 
 Sketch of the History of Germany, from the earliest Period to the 
 present Time - 1 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 General View of Germany. Name, Position, Surface, Climate ; 
 Rivers, Canals, Railroads, Products; Population, Language, 
 Universities, Periodicals, Theatres; Manufactures, Exports 
 and Imports ; the New Commercial Union ; Political Consti- 
 tution. General Statistical View of each of the States form- 
 ing the German Confederation - - 39 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 The Mediatized Princes of Germany. View of the Extent and 
 Population of their Domains, and of their Revenues - - 51 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 The Nobility of Germany. View of its General History. The 
 Austrian Nobility ; Bavarian Nobility ; Suabian and Rhenish 
 Nobility ; Brunswick Nobility ; Prussian Nobility. , Sketch 
 of the present state of the German Nobility - 55 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 Biographical and Critical View of Modern German Literature. 
 Modern German Literature, from the time of Gottsched to 
 the era of Goethe and Schiller. Gottsched, Hagedorn, and 
 Haller. Bodmer and Breitinger. J. E. Schlegel, Gellert. 
 Klopstock's early labours. First productions of Wieland, 
 Sulzer, Gleim, Uz, Kleist, Ramler, Gesner. The School of Ber- 
 lin Lessing, Mendelsohn, and Nicolai. Engel, Winkelman. 
 "Works of Klopstock, of Lessing, and of Wieland, Voss, Her- 
 der, Burger, Goethe, Schiller - - 78 
 
Xll CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 Page 
 
 Modern German Literature, continued. The Romantic School ; 
 Augustus William von Schlegel; Frederic von Schlegel ; Tieck, 
 Wackenroder, and Novalis; Achim von Arnim and Brentano; 
 Sclileiermachcr, Gb'rres, and Steffens ; Kleist, Fouque, and 
 Horn. German Humourists of the past Century; Thummel, 
 Hippel, and Lichtenstein. Humourists of the present Century; 
 Richter, Hoffman, and Chamisso. Werner, Milliner, and Grill- 
 parzer; Kbrner. Modern Lyric Poets; Uhland, Schwab, 
 Riickert, Platen, and Chamisso. Henry Heine, and Boerne - 115 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 Historical, Political, and Scientific Writers of Germany * - .147 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 Modern German Artists. Architects, Sculptors, Painters. Encou- 
 ragement afforded to the Fine Arts at Munich by the King of 
 Bavaria, and Reflections on the Results. Importance of afford- 
 ing free Access to Public Edifices and Collections. Music in 
 Germany. The Drama - - 151 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 Chronological Outline of the Progress of Literature, Science, Art, 
 and Civilization in Germany, from their early Periods, to the 
 present Time - - 161 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 Literary Statistics of Germany. The Modern Press. Enumera- 
 tion of the chief Libraries, with estimates of their Extent - 165 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 On Religion in Germany. Rationalism; Supranaturalism. Theo- 
 logical Education. Constitution of the Church; Proportion 
 of Ministers of Religion to the Population; Church Pro- 
 perty ; Church Patronage ; Salaries of Clergymen who are 
 not of the Established Church. Religious Sects in Germany : 
 The Moravians, Socinians, Mennonites, Pietists, Herrnhuters, 
 Swedenborgians - -171 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 Education in Germany. General View of the Universities. Aca- 
 demical Regulations. Translation of the Prospectus of Lec- 
 tures delivered at the University of Gottingen. Particulars 
 
CONTENTS. Xlll 
 
 Pago 
 
 respecting the mode of Life at a German University. Pre- 
 paratory Schools. Gymnasiums, Lyceums, Pedagogiums. 
 Education in Austria. System of Public Education in Prussia. 
 Normal Schools - - 187 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 Prisons and Prisoners in Germany. Introductory Remarks on the 
 Discipline of Prisons. An account of the Prisons of Germany 
 before their later improvements. Criminal Legislation in 
 Austria. Present Condition and Statistics of the principal 
 Prisons of Germany : their degree of Security ; State of 
 Health, Medical Police, Diet, and Mortality; Modes of Inspec- 
 tion, Classification, Labour; Education, Elementary Instruc- 
 tion, Religious Instruction, Worship ; Punishments. The care 
 taken of the Prisoner on his liberation. Concluding Reflec- 
 tions - 206 
 
 CHAPTER XIY. 
 
 The Mineral Waters and Baths of Germany. Aix-la-Chapelle, 
 Alexanderbad, Alexisbad, Altwasser, Baden near Vienna, 
 Baden-Baden, Berka, Bocklet, Briickenau, Cannstadt, Carls- 
 bad, Carlsbrunn, Cudowa, Cuxhaven, Dinkhold, Dobbelbad, 
 Doberan, Draitsch, Eger, Eilsen, Ems, Fachingen, Franzen- 
 brunn, Freyenwalde, Gastein, Griesbach, Gross- Wardein, 
 Hercules-Baths, Hirschberg, Kissingen, Landeck, Lauchstadt, 
 Liebenstein, Mannersdorf, Marienbad, Meinberg, Nenndorf, 
 Nieder Setters, Nierenstein, Nordheim, Ofen, Puttbus, Pyr- 
 mont, Rehburg, Reinerz, Riigenwalde, Salzbrunn, Schandau, 
 Schlangenbad, Schwalbach, Seidschutz, Sedlitz, Selters, Swine- 
 munde, Teinach, Toeplitz, Travemiinde, Warmbrunn, Wis- 
 baden, Wildbad. - 239 
 
 CHAPTER XY. 
 Orders of Knighthood in the several States of Germany - - 265 
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 Reflections on the Political and Social Condition of Germany - 272 
 CHAPTER XVII. 
 
 Censorship of the Press, and State of the Law relative to Literary 
 Property - - 289 
 
 CHAPTER XVIII. 
 Anecdotes of the Newspaper Press - - 296 
 
XIV CONTENTS. 
 
 SECTION II. GERMANY CONSIDERED IN ITS PARTS. 
 
 CHAPTER XIX. 
 
 Page 
 
 The Empire of Austria. The ruling Family. Provinces and 
 Population; principal Towns; Races. Religion; number of 
 Clergy; Monasteries in Bohemia; Universities. Budget; 
 Army; Navy. Form of Government; Officers of Govern- 
 ment; Officers of the Court. Births and Deaths; Statistics 
 of the Population of Bohemia; number of Medical Men in an 
 Austrian Province ; Statistics of Vienna. Criminal Statistics 
 of the Empire of Austria - - 303 
 
 CHAPTER XX. 
 
 The Kingdom of Prussia. Nationality. The Royal Family. 
 Provinces and Population. Births and Deaths. Principal 
 Towns. Races. Religion ; Number of Clergy. Universities 
 and other Educational Institutions. Budget; Paper Money 
 in Circulation. Army ; Pay of the Army. Form of Govern- 
 ment; Provincial Diets; Officers of Government, and their 
 Salaries; List of Questions respecting the character and 
 qualifications of Candidates for Office in Prussia ; Officers of 
 the Court. Statistics of Berlin. Statistics of the Government- 
 District of Potsdam. Statistics of Education. System of 
 Police respecting Public Women, Houses of 111 Fame, and the 
 like. Criminal Statistics of the Seven Provinces of Old 
 Prussia, during Three Years; Number of Arrests at Berlin; 
 Juvenile Delinquents. Courts of Law. On the Military ten- 
 dency of Prussia - 317 
 
 CHAPTER XXI. 
 
 The Kingdom of Bavaria. The Royal Family. Circles and 
 Population; Principal Towns. Religion. Universities and 
 Schools. Budget; Army. Form of Government ; Officers of 
 Government, and of the Crown. Statistics of the Population. 
 Produce. Cultivation. Manufactures. Military Conscrip- 
 tion. Vaccination. Statistics of the General Hospital at 
 Munich for Nineteen Years. Number of Illegitimate Chil- 
 dren. Courts of Justice ------- 343 
 
CONTENTS. XV 
 
 CHAPTER XXII. 
 
 Page 
 
 The Kingdom of Saxony. The Ruling Family. Circles and 
 Population; Principal Towns. Races. Religion. Educational 
 Institutions. Budget; Army. Form of Government ; Officers 
 of Government, and of the Court. Statistics of the Popu- 
 lation ; Births and Deaths ; Number of Medical Men ; Num- 
 ber of Deaf, Dumb, and Blind. Statistics of Education. Statis- 
 tics of the Married State. Suicides and Accidents. Criminal 
 Statistics. Salaries, Rent of Houses, and the like - 351 
 
 CHAPTER XXIII. 
 
 The Kingdom of Hanover. History of Hanover, from the earliest 
 period to the present time. Genealogy of the reigning 
 Families of Hanover and Brunswick. Present Royal Family. 
 Statistical View of the Provinces of Hanover, and of their 
 Population; Births and Deaths ; Principal Towns. Religion; 
 Religious Institutions. Educational Institutions, Teachers, 
 and Scholars. Prisons. Budget. Army. Density of Popu- 
 lation; Relative Proportion of Civic Population. Statistics 
 of Cultivation, and Proportion of Cultivated to Uncultivated 
 Land. Division of Landed Property. Exports and Imports. 
 Ships. Number of Tradesmen. Physical Character of the 
 Country. Products. Manufactures. Character of the Inha- 
 bitants. Administration of Justice,. Description of the Town 
 of Hanover. The Town of Gottingen - 360 
 
 CHAPTER XXIV. 
 
 The Duchy of Brunswick. The History of Brunswick; the 
 Ruling Family; Districts and Population; Mediatized Pos- 
 sessions of the Duke; Principal Towns. Religion, Religious 
 Institutions, Educational Institutions. Budget ; Army. Form 
 of Government. Physical character of the Country; Products, 
 Manufactures, Exports and Imports - - 393 
 
 CHAPTER XXV. 
 
 The Kingdom of Wurtemberg. The Ruling Family; Circles and 
 Population ; Principal Towns. Religion ; Educational Insti- 
 tutions. Budget; Army. Form of Government; Ministers, 
 and Officers of the Court. Births and Deaths ; Emigration ; 
 Premature Marriages - - 398 
 
 CHAPTER XXVI. 
 
 The Grand Duchy of Baden. The Ruling Family ; Circles and 
 Population; Principal Towns. Religion; Educational Insti- 
 
XVI CONTENTS. 
 
 Pago 
 
 tutions. Religious Institutions. Budget; Army. Form of 
 Government ; Ministers of Government, and Officers of the 
 Court. Criminal and Legal Statistics ; Miscellanies - - 403 
 
 CHAPTER XXVII. 
 
 The Electorate of Hesse-Cassel. The Ruling Family; Provinces 
 and Population ; Principal Towns. Religion ; Educational 
 Institutions. Budget; Army. Form of Government; Ministers, 
 and Officers of the Court - - 407 
 
 CHAPTER XXYIII. 
 
 The Grand Duchy of Hesse-Darmstadt. The Ruling Family ; 
 Provinces and Population ; Cultivation ; Division of "Wooded 
 Property ; Principal Towns. Religion ; Educational Insti- 
 tutions. Budget; Army. Form of Government; Ministers, 
 and Officers of Court - 409 
 
 CHAPTER XXIX. 
 
 The Landgraviate of Hesse-Homburg. The Ruling Family; 
 Provinces and Population; Towns; Religion; Private Property 
 of the Landgrave ; Budget, Army ; Form of Government ; 
 Minister, Officers of the Court - - 413 
 
 CHAPTER XXX. 
 
 The Duchy of Nassau. The Ruling Family; Provinces and 
 Population; Cultivation; Births and Deaths in 1833. Prin- 
 cipal Towns. Religion; Educational Institutions. Budget; 
 Army. Form of Government ; Ministers and Officers of the 
 Court - 415 
 
 CHAPTER XXXI. 
 
 The Grand Duchy of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach. The Ruling Fa- 
 mily; Provinces and Population; Principal Towns. Religion; 
 ' Educational Institutions. Budget ; Army. Form of Govern- 
 ment ; Ministers ; Diet ; Officers of the Court - - 418 
 
 CHAPTER XXXII. 
 
 The Duchy of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. The Ruling Family ; Pro- 
 vinces and Population ; Principal Towns. Educational 
 Institutions. Budget ; Form of Government ; Ministers ; 
 Administration of Justice, Officers of the Court. Sketch of 
 the recent History of this Duchy. Physical Character of the 
 Country; Products, Manufactures, Exports. The Town of 
 Coburg. The Town of Gotha. Fortunes of the Reigning 
 Family - - 421 
 
CONTENTS. XV11 
 
 CHAPTER XXXIII. 
 
 Page 
 
 The Duchy of Saxe-Altenburg. The Ruling Family ; Provinces 
 and Population; Principal Towns. Religion; Educational 
 Institutions. Budget; Form of Government; Ministers, and 
 Officers of the Court - - 427 
 
 CHAPTER XXXIV. 
 
 The Duchy of Saxe-Meiningen-Hildburghausen. The Ruling 
 Family ; Provinces and Population ; Principal Towns. Reli- 
 gion; Educational Institutions. Budget; Form of Govern- 
 ment; Diet; Administration; Historical Sketch of the Ducal 
 line of Saxe-Meiningen. Nature and Products of the Country. 
 Town of Meiningen - - 429 
 
 CHAPTER XXXV. 
 
 The Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg-Strelitz. The Ruling Family ; 
 Provinces and Population ; Principal Towns ; Births and 
 Deaths in 1835. Educational Institutions. Budget ; Army. 
 Form of Government; Officers of Government, and of the 
 Court. Nature of the Country; Manufactures. Religion; 
 Public Instruction ; Administration of Justice - - 436 
 
 CHAPTER XXXVI. 
 
 The Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin. The Ruling Fa- 
 mily ; Provinces and Population ; Births and Deaths in 1835. 
 Principal Towns. Religion; Educational Institutions. Budget; 
 Army. Form of Government ; Ministers ; Officers of the 
 Court. Character of the Inhabitants of the two Duchies. 
 Chronology of the two Duchies; Historical Sketch of the 
 Reigning Family of the two Duchies - 438 
 
 CHAPTER XXXVII. 
 
 The Dukedoms of Anhalt. The Ruling Families; Provinces and 
 Population; Mediatized Possessions; Principal Towns; Pos- 
 sessions in Russia of the Duke of Cothen. Religion. Budget; 
 Army. Form of Government; Ministers, and Officers of 
 Court - - 444 
 
 CHAPTER XXXVIII. 
 
 The Principality of Waldeck. The Ruling Family; Districts 
 and Population ; Towns. Religion. Budget. Form of 
 Government ; Officers of Government, and of the Court - 446 
 
XV111 CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXIX. 
 
 Page 
 
 The Principality of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen. The Ruling 
 Family; Area: Population; Towns. Religion. Private Pro- 
 perty of the Prince. Budget; Army. Form of Government ; 
 Ministers - 448 
 
 CHAPTER XL. 
 
 The Principality of Hohenzollern-Hechingen. The Ruling Fa- 
 mily ; Area ; Population ; Towns. Budget ; Army. Form of 
 Government; Ministers - - 449 
 
 CHAPTER XLI. 
 
 The Principality of Schwarzburg-Sondershausen. The Ruling 
 Family; Districts and Population; Towns. Religion. Budget; 
 Army. Form of Government ; Officers of Government, and of 
 the Court - 451 
 
 CHAPTER XLII. 
 
 The Principality of Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt. The Ruling Fa- 
 mily. Districts and Population ; Towns. Religion ; Budget ; 
 Army. Form of Government, Officers of Government and of 
 the Court - 452 
 
 CHAPTER XLIII. 
 
 The Principality of Liechtenstein. The Ruling Family; Area; 
 Mediatized Possessions of the Prince; Towns. Budget; 
 Army. Form of Government ; Officers of Government - - 453 
 
 CHAPTER XLIY. 
 
 The Duchy of Holstein. The Ruling Family; Districts and 
 Population; Towns. Religion. Budget; Army. Form of 
 Government - - 455 
 
 CHAPTER XLY. 
 
 The Principalities of Reuss. The Ruling Families; Divisions and 
 Population; Principal Towns. Budget; Army. Form of 
 Government; Ministers and Officers of the Courts - - 456 
 
 CHAPTER XLYI. 
 
 The Grand Duchy of Oldenburg. The Ruling Family; Provinces 
 and Population ; Births and Deaths in 1833. Religion ; 
 Educational Institutions. Army. Form of Government; 
 Ministers, and Officers of the Court - - 458 
 
CONTENTS. XIX 
 
 CHAPTER XLVII. 
 
 Page 
 
 The Grand Duchy of Luxemburg. The Ruling Family. Area and 
 Population; Races; Religion; Towns; Budget; Army. Form 
 of Government - 460 
 
 CHAPTER XLVIII. 
 
 The Principality of Lippe. The Ruling Family. Districts and 
 Population. Towns. Religion. Budget; Army. Form of 
 Government ; Officers of Government, and of the Court - 462 
 
 CHAPTER XLIX. 
 
 The Principality of Schauenburg. The Ruling Family. Districts 
 and Population. Towns. Religion. Budget; Army. Form 
 of Government ; Ministers - 463 
 
 CHAPTER L. 
 
 The Countship of Bentinck. A Half Sovereignty. The Ruling 
 Family; Population - 464 
 
 CHAPTER LI. 
 
 The Free Towns. Frankfort: Territory and Population; Reli- 
 gion ; Form of Government ; Revenue, and Army. LubecJc: 
 Territory and Population; Religion; Towns; Form of 
 Government; Army; Revenue. Bremen: Territory and Po- 
 pulation ; Religion; Towns; Births and Deaths in 1833. 
 Form of Government. Army; Budget. Hamburg: Territory 
 and Population; Religion; Towns; Form of Government; 
 Army; Revenue. - - 465 
 
 CONCLUSION ....---..- 470 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 I. Comparative View of the Proportion of Taxes paid yearly by 
 each individual, taking an average in the various States of 
 Germany, and for the sake of illustration, in the other States 
 
 of Europe - - 471 
 
 II. Comparative View of the Proportion of the Military to the 
 whole Population in the various States of Germany, and in 
 
 the other States of Europe - 472 
 
XX 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 Page 
 
 III. Comparative Rate of Agricultural Wages in Germany, and 
 
 in other States of Europe - - 472 
 
 IV. Comparative Table of the Proportion of Legitimate to Ille- 
 gitimate Births in various Countries and Cities of Germany, 
 and of other European States - - 473 
 
 V. Table, showing the Number of Scholars attending Schools in 
 the principal European States, and their Proportion to the 
 entire Population - - 474 
 
 NOTE on p. 78 
 
 NOTE on p. 173. The Supranaturalists in Germany - 
 
 NOTE on p. 182. The Pietists 
 
 -475 
 
 - 475 
 
 - 475 
 
 ERRATA. 
 
 Page 
 
 44, in the note, for Untersachungen uber Berolkerung, read Untersuchungen 
 uber Bevolkerung. 
 
 55, line 10, for monarchies, read mono, rchies. 
 
 78, line 4 of Contents, for Uzkleist, read Ux 9 Kleist. Line 5, of the same 
 
 Contents, for Gesser, read Gesner. 
 115, line 3 of Contents, for Goores, read Gorres. 
 142, line 22, after they, add defy. 
 144, line 24, for genuine, read genial. 
 162, last line of the text, for Oranach, read Cranach. 
 
GERMANY. 
 
 SECTION L 
 GERMANY CONSIDERED AS A WHOLE. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 Sketch of the History of Germany, from the earliest Period 
 to the present Time. 
 
 THE Germany of the Romans comprised not merely the marshy 
 and woody region bounded by the Rhine, Danube, Vistula, and 
 the Baltic, but also Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Finnland, 
 Livonia, and Prussia. The races which inhabited these terri- 
 tories, resembled each other more or less in physical character, 
 manners, and language, and were considered to have had a 
 common origin. The ancient German was of huge stature ; he 
 had reddish hair and blue eyes ; he was more tolerant of cold 
 and hunger than of heat and thirst ; loyal, faithful, and unsus- 
 picious towards his friend, he well knew how to dissimulate and 
 deceive when acting against an enemy ; impatient of control, he 
 regarded independence as the greatest earthly blessing, and 
 would sooner sacrifice his life than lose his liberty. Unac- 
 quainted not only with luxuries, but with the common arts of 
 life, such as agriculture, the use of metals, and writing, his 
 principal means of existence were furnished by scanty herds, 
 and the precarious booty of the chase. In time of peace he 
 was given to drunkenness and gambling, and was accustomed 
 to regard as divine suggestions, the plans which he formed whilst 
 in a state of intoxication. 
 
 The government of these races was democratic ; on the shores 
 of the Baltic, it is true, the heads of several tribes were called 
 kings, but regal power, as the moderns understand it, was never 
 
2 SKETCH OF THE [SECT. I. 
 
 exercised. There were general assemblies of the people, into 
 which, at a certain age, every youth was received, and where, 
 either at fixed times, or on extraordinary occasions, deliberations 
 were held on the necessity of declaring peace or war, and on the 
 choice of leaders. On such occasions, they expressed their 
 approval of a proposition by striking their weapons on their 
 shields, and their disapprobation by hollow murmurs. On occa- 
 sions of imminent danger, several tribes often chose a single 
 leader, generally some chief noted for his bravery, whose 
 example was more efficacious than his commands. The power of 
 the military chieftain was in abeyance in time of peace, when the 
 sole authorities were civil officers chosen in the general assemblies, 
 to decide disputes and administer justice in particular districts. 
 These officers were called princes, and had each a guard and a 
 council composed of one hundred persons, but they had no 
 power to condemn a freeman to death, or even to cause him to 
 be imprisoned or beaten. 
 
 Bravery was held to be the cardinal virtue of the men of the 
 ancient German tribes, and chastity of their women. Polygamy 
 was only tolerated in the princes, and divorces were of rare occur- 
 rence. Adultery was an inexpiable offence, and of seduction no 
 defence was admitted. The religious opinions of this people 
 could only be crude and imperfect; they adored the sun, moon, 
 fire and earth, but they attributed the supreme direction of 
 human affairs to certain gods, the creatures of their imagination, 
 whose will and decrees it was the duty of the priests to ascertain. 
 They believed in a future world, where the courageous are 
 rewarded by feasts, where they narrate their former exploits, 
 and drink beer from immense horns, or from the sculls of their 
 enemies. 
 
 The origin of the ancient Germans, though very obscure, is 
 doubtless Asiatic: Joseph von Hammer calls them a Bactrio- 
 Median race. They first became known to the Romans in the 
 year before Christ 114, when they invaded the Alpine regions, 
 defeated the consul Papirius Carbo, and carried on a successful 
 war against the republic for many years, till they were com- 
 pletely routed by Marius, B.C. 10], At this period they were 
 
CH. I.] HISTORY OF GERMANY. 
 
 called the Cimbri, but very little was known respecting their 
 origin or character. The next notice we find of them, is in the 
 wars of Caesar, who after he had conquered Gaul, repulsed 
 Ariovistus, a leader of the Germans, who had invaded and wished 
 to settle in that country. Caesar twice crossed the Rhine, not 
 with the view of making conquests in the German deserts, but 
 for the purpose of protecting Gaul from ultra-rhenane incur- 
 sions ; in his later Gallic wars, however, he had Germans in his 
 pay, as also in his campaign against Pompey. The first exten- 
 sive invasion of Germany was made by Tiberius, who advanced 
 as far as the Elbe; but the career of Roman conquest was 
 shortly interrupted by the defeat, or rather destruction, of three 
 legions under Quintilius Varus, by Herman the Cheruscian, in 
 the ninth year before Christ. The Romans now repassed the 
 Rhine, and never recovered their former ground, notwithstanding 
 the efforts of the heroic Germanicus ; indeed, they were shortly 
 compelled to abandon the project of subjugating Germany. 
 
 In the first century after Christ, the relation of the Barbarians 
 to the Romans was completely altered ; the policy of the latter 
 was no longer aggressive, and they were happy now to be able to 
 defend themselves against the predatory attacks, which, in the 
 intervals of civil war, the Germans were in the habit of making 
 on their neighbours. In the year 220, new races, the Visigoths, 
 Gepidi, and Herulians, appeared in Dacia, and about the same 
 time we first hear of the Alemanni, a mixture of Teutonic 
 tribes, to protect themselves against whom, the Romans erected 
 the Vallum Romanorum, parts of which still remain between 
 Jacthausen and CEhringen. As the empire became weaker, 
 the Franks, who, together with the Alemanni, were the most 
 powerful German people, advanced as far as Spain, and shortly 
 afterwards completely conquered Gaul, where they formed a state 
 of which the first king was Clovis, and which was afterwards to 
 comprehend Germany, or at least the territories of the Saxons, 
 Thuringians, and Alemanni. Clovis died in the year 511, and 
 was succeeded by his son, Thierry I., who subjugated the Thurin- 
 gians, made the Saxons tributary to his power, and gave laws to 
 the Suabians and Bavarians. Thierry died in 534. The reigns 
 
 B 2 
 
4) SKETCH OF THE [SECT. I. 
 
 of his immediate successors are only remarkable for the bloody 
 wars carried on between the Franks and the Saxons. The later 
 Merovingian kings proved themselves to be a degenerate race; 
 they led, for the most part, secluded lives of effeminacy and 
 debauchery, and abandoned the duties of government to the 
 mayors of the palace, who abusing their authority, shortly suc- 
 ceeded in placing themselves on the throne. 
 
 The last Merovingian king was Childeric III., who was deposed 
 in 750, by Pepin, his mayor of the palace, who, after confining 
 him in the abbey of St. Berten, assumed the reins of government, 
 and founded the Carlovingian dynasty. By this time the poli- 
 tical constitution of most of the German nations had made a 
 considerable advance towards its modern state. The government 
 of the Franks was monarchical, and the succession hereditary ; 
 the king made war or concluded peace without consulting the 
 states ; and new laws were issued at an assembly of the people, 
 not so much that they might receive the consent of the latter, as 
 in order that they might be solemnly established. The states 
 were divided into two classes : the first was composed of bishops, 
 abbots, dukes, and counts, who had a deliberative voice in all the 
 assemblies ; the second was composed of magistrates and inferior 
 officers, whose only duty was to receive the orders of the other. 
 Measures were proposed by the king through his referendary ; 
 the states of the first class deliberated on, and the sovereign 
 decided respecting them ; in the form of laws they were then 
 communicated to the states of the second class, who were enjoined 
 to execute them. The dukes were merely governors of provinces, 
 who received orders from the sovereign; instead of a salary, 
 they had a certain domain assigned them, from which they drew 
 their revenues; for instance, the town of Wurzburg and its 
 dependencies were the domain of the dukes of Franconia, and at 
 a subsequent period, the circle of Wurtemberg was that of the 
 dukes of Saxony. The counts, subordinate to the dukes, adminis- 
 tered justice in districts which were called pagi or gauen hence 
 the names of provinces, Breisgau, Argau, Rheingau, &c. Royal 
 commissaries missi dominici travelled through the duchies at 
 stated times, to watch over the impartial administration of justice, 
 
CH. I.] HISTORY OF GERMANY. 5 
 
 a duty which was also assigned to the bishops. Final appeals were 
 made to the count palatine, who was also the judge of the court. 
 Neither duke nor count was an hereditary title ; but the sovereign 
 very generally conferred the dignity on the sons or brothers of 
 those who had previously been invested with it. Though the 
 office of a count was purely civil, he commanded the troops of 
 his district in time of war ; he was called a margrave when the 
 defence of a border territory was entrusted to him. After the 
 counts, came the noble signers or barons, who owned the greatest 
 part of the territory either as fiefs, or allodial estates. The last 
 order was that of the ordinary nobles, who composed the force of 
 the armies, and whose military services were repaid by small fiefs, 
 which were only granted for life, and on condition that the vassal 
 should take up arms on the demand of the prince. The rest of 
 the nation was composed of artisans and of serfs : the latter had 
 been reduced to a state of servitude by the fortune of war, or 
 had entered it voluntarily, for a certain annual retribution. 
 
 Pepin, the son of Charles Martel, ascended the throne of the 
 Merovingians in the thirty-sixth year of his age, after the pope, 
 Zachary, had sanctioned his usurpation : he was the first king 
 of France who was crowned with ecclesiastical ceremonies. An 
 intimate alliance existed between this prince and the pope, whom, 
 in 755, he joined in chastising the enemy of the latter, Astolfus, 
 king of the Lombards, notwithstanding that his states were 
 decidedly opposed to his interference with Italian politics. Pepin 
 carried on successful wars against the Bavarians and Saxons: 
 the latter were compelled to pay him a tribute of three hundred 
 horses ; and one of the conditions of a treaty between them and 
 the Franks was, that the monks of Fulda should be allowed to 
 instruct them in the Christian religion. 
 
 Pepin died in 7^8, and was succeeded by his two sons, 
 Charlemagne and Carloman. On the decease of the latter in 
 771 5 the former became sole ruler of all the empire of the Franks. 
 In 772? a great war was undertaken against the Saxons, prin- 
 cipally at the instigation of the bishop of Fulda, whose Christian 
 missionaries they had massacred: this contest long continued, 
 with various, and at first, with very undecided results ; in 782, 
 
6 SKETCH OF THE [SECT. I. 
 
 Wittekind defeated at Sintal the army of Charlemagne, who 
 revenged himself by the massacre of Verden, where he decapitated 
 four thousand five hundred of the partisans of his adversary ; at 
 last, vanquished in two sanguinary battles, Wittekind and his 
 brother Albion submitted to the Franks, and were baptized at 
 Altigny. In 7^1, Pepin, son of Charlemagne, was crowned 
 king of Italy, and Louis, his brother, king of Aquitaine, 
 
 Conquest invariably attended the arms of Charlemagne ; he 
 defeated the duke of Bavaria, and parcelled out his duchy into 
 counties; subjugated the Sclavonians in Pomerania; and routed 
 the Huns, who had ravaged Bavaria : in Italy, his arms were 
 equally successful against the empress Irene. In 800, he was 
 crowned emperor of the West at Rome, by Pope Leo II. 
 Three years afterwards is the date of the last revolt of the 
 Saxons ; they were again defeated, and Charlemagne now trans- 
 ported ten thousand Saxon families into the interior of his 
 dominions, and gave their possessions to the Obotrites ; finally, 
 the nation was incorporated with the empire of the Franks. The 
 last wars of Charlemagne were successful expeditions against the 
 Bohemians and the Danes. He died in 81 4, and was buried at 
 Aix-la-Chapelle, where the emperor Otho III. afterwards opened 
 his tomb, and found him sitting on a throne clothed in his 
 imperial robes. 
 
 In 1163, this emperor was placed amongst the saints of the 
 Romish church by the anti-pope, Pascal III. ; and fourteen 
 years afterwards by the pope, Alexander III. Though he did 
 not know how to write, he was very learned for the age in which 
 lie lived, and was a great patron of the sciences. He married 
 successively four wives, and had five concubines. The territories 
 which he governed were immense : he possessed all France, the 
 county of Barcelona in Spain, Italy as far as Benevento, all 
 Germany, the Low Countries, and a part of Hungary. 
 
 Louis the Debonnaire, son of Charlemagne, and of Hildegarde, 
 a Suabian princess, was proclaimed emperor a year before the 
 death of his father. He signalised the commencement of his 
 reign by allowing the banished Saxons to return to their homes. 
 The government of this prince was perpetually disturbed by his 
 
CH. I.] HISTORY OF GERMANY. 7 
 
 sons, who rebelled against him and quarrelled with one another. 
 In 832, the pope, Gregory IV., entered France for the purpose 
 of pacifying these troubles, but he finally took part with the sons 
 against the father, who was deposed, and confined in the monas- 
 tery of Prum. He was accused of viewing with indifference the 
 debaucheries of his wife, Judith, daughter of the count of 
 Weingarten, in Suabia, of having murdered Bernard, king of 
 Italy, and of having neglected to hold the customary assemblies 
 in the month of March ; for these offences he was constrained to 
 do penance in public. He was afterwards absolved by his 
 bishops at St. Denis ; but his rebellious sons continued to harass 
 him as before. He died near Mainz in 84*0, whilst marching 
 against his third son, Lewis, whom he had made king of Ger- 
 many in 817. 
 
 This prince caused the Bible to be translated into the German 
 language, in which several of his laws were published. To 
 ensure the fidelity of his subjects he alienated a great part of his 
 domains ; and in this way may be explained how the fiefs came 
 to be hereditary. In the last division which Lewis the Debon- 
 naire made of his possessions, the imperial dignity, Italy, and the 
 kingdoms of Lorraine and Burgundy, were allotted to Lothaire, 
 Germany to Lewis, and France to Charles the Bald. The ambi- 
 tion of the eldest brother compelled the two latter to unite their 
 forces against him in order to repel his encroachments ; and a 
 battle was fought at Fontenai, near Auxerre in Burgundy, where 
 Lothaire was completely defeated. A treaty of peace was shortly 
 afterwards concluded at Verdun, by which Lewis was confirmed 
 in the possession of that part of the empire to the right of 
 the Rhine ; several towns, as Spire, Mainz, were also conceded 
 to him propter vini copiam, according to the writers of the 
 day. 
 
 Lewis the German subdued the Obotrites of Mecklenbourg, 
 and made their leaders dukes. In 860, he established a law, by 
 virtue of which the states were entitled to co-operate in whatever 
 was undertaken within the boundaries of the kingdom. In 870, 
 he gained possession of a part of the kingdom of Lorraine, viz., of 
 the Low Countries, and of the towns of Mainz, Treves, and Cologne. 
 
8 SKETCH OF THE [SECT. I. 
 
 This prince died in 876, and his territories were divided between 
 his three sons: Carloman, the eldest, obtained Bavaria and its 
 dependencies; Lewis III. was made king of Saxony and of 
 Franconia, and of that part of Lorraine mentioned above ; and 
 Charles the Fat received Suabia, Switzerland, and Alsatia. Car- 
 loman took possession of Italy, and was proclaimed king in 877 ' 
 he died without legitimate issue in 880 ; and Bavaria now fell to 
 his brother Lewis, Italy to Charles the Fat. Lewis had also no 
 legitimate issue ; he died, 882, of chagrin, after having been 
 defeated by the Normans, who had invaded Saxony. Charles the 
 Fat now reigned over the united territories of Lewis the German ; 
 and in 884, he was made regent of France, during the minority 
 of Charles the Simple ; he had already been crowned emperor by 
 the pope, John VIII., in 883. Though this prince could com- 
 mand forces equal to those of Charlemagne, his personal weakness 
 and incapacity were such that he was deposed in 887? by the 
 common consent of all his subjects ; the French choosing Eudes, 
 count of Paris, to be their sovereign, the Italians, the Dukes 
 Guy and Berenger, and the Germans, Arnvul, the illegitimate 
 son of Carloman, the late king of Bavaria. 
 
 Arnvul was poisoned in Italy, in 899. An assembly of the 
 states was now held at Forcheim, and Lewis, son of the late 
 sovereign, a boy of seven years of age, was elected king, because, 
 says Hatton, the archbishop of Mainz, in his letter to Pope 
 John IX., the states thought it better to follow the ancient usage 
 of the Franks, whose sovereigns were all of the same family, than 
 to introduce a new custom. 
 
 In 906 and several succeeding years, Germany was ravaged 
 by the Huns, who gained several victories, and were only averted 
 by the payment of an annual tribute; they finally turned 
 their arms against Italy. Lewis IV. died, without having been 
 married, in 911 ; he was the last Carlovingian prince who reigned 
 in Germany. As the German monarchy had been a conquest of 
 Charlemagne, it might be expected that it would remain an 
 hereditary possession of his family ; and that now, on the death 
 of the last descendant of Lewis the Debonnaire, it would pass to 
 the line of Charles the Bald, which was now represented by 
 
CH. I.] HISTORY OF GERMANY. 
 
 Charles the Simple ; but that prince was too feeble to enforce his 
 rights at home, much less to follow up his claims abroad, and 
 hence the German states proceeded without hesitation to elect a 
 sovereign from their own body. The nobles, who thus assumed 
 the power of disposing of the crown, now began to stipulate for 
 new rights and exclusive privileges. 
 
 The duchies and counties which had formerly been governed 
 by lieutenants or commissaries of the sovereign, now began to 
 be regarded as hereditary fiefs. By degrees, the nobilities and 
 states of the different duchies which had previously only acknow- 
 ledged the sovereignty of the king, came to be absolutely 
 dependant on their dukes, and to hold as fiefs the estates 
 which had formerly been in the grant of the crown. Finally, 
 the dukes possessed themselves of the domains which had be- 
 longed to the sovereign in the respective districts. The clergy 
 also, soon extended their dominions; for the sovereign, dreading 
 the increasing power of the now almost independent nobility, 
 was glad to exempt the ecclesiastical princes from their juris- 
 diction, and to oppose the latter to them. 
 
 At the period of which we are treating, the states of Germany 
 were divided into two classes ; the one composed of the Bavarians, 
 Suabians, and Franconians ; the other of the Saxons : these 
 states being united, elected unanimously Otto the Great, duke 
 of Saxony, to be king of Germany, in 912. The great age of 
 this prince, however, prevented him from accepting the crown ; 
 and he recommended them to choose in his stead Conrad, count 
 of Franconia, who was accordingly crowned king, October 19th, 
 of the same year. During the reign of this prince, Germany 
 was again desolated by the Huns, who advanced as far as Alsatia 
 and Lorraine. 
 
 Conrad died in 919, and the states elected Henry the Fowler, 
 duke of Saxony, to be his successor. The Huns had now 
 adopted such a regular system of depredation in Germany, that 
 Henry was compelled to make important changes in the general 
 constitution of the country in order to repel them : he set on 
 foot a large body of cavalry, which he disciplined with great 
 assiduity ; he built several towns, and compelled the ninth part 
 
10 SKETCH OF THE [SECT. I. 
 
 of the inhabitants of the country to take up their abode in them ; 
 the Saxon and other towns already existing, he surrounded with 
 walls. He decreed that all public assemblies and feasts should 
 be held in cities alone ; and he gave to his new citizens several 
 prerogatives and privileges, even obliging the country-people to 
 furnish them with provisions, and to transport the third part of 
 their harvests to the magazines of the cities. Such was, in a 
 great measure, the origin of the cities, of their communities and 
 guilds. The patrician families were the descendants of nobles 
 wKo had changed their country for a town abode. Henry was a 
 warlike prince : besides defeating the Huns, he conquered Bran- 
 denbourg, Misnia, and Lusatia, from the Sclavonians, and 
 created margraves for the defence of those provinces. The Huns 
 were finally defeated at the great battle of Merseburg, where their 
 army was entirely cut to pieces. This sovereign died in 936, 
 whilst meditating an expedition into Italy ; and was buried in the 
 abbey of Quedlinburg, which he had founded. 
 
 Otho, son of Henry the Fowler, succeeded his father ; he was 
 elected at Aix-la-Chapelle, where, after the dukes, princes, and 
 other nobles had voted for him, Hildebert, the archbishop of 
 Mainz, presented him to the people, who approved the election by 
 holding up their hands. After the ceremony of the coronation, 
 which was performed by the archbishop of Mainz, Otho dined 
 in public, and was waited on at table by the dukes of his empire: 
 Arnoul, duke of Bavaria, acted as marshal, Eberhard, duke of 
 Franconia, as grand seneschal, and Herman, duke of Suabia, 
 as grand cup-bearer. The early part of the reign of Otho, who 
 was surnamed the Great, was distracted by the revolts of his 
 nobles : his latter years were occupied by Italian expeditions. 
 It was to him that the German clergy was principally indebted 
 for its power and prosperity ; he conferred entire duchies and 
 counties upon its dignitaries, and allowed them to exercise the 
 same rights as the secular princes. 
 
 At the diet held at Stella in 942, there was a great dispute 
 amongst the German jurisconsults, as to whether a child born 
 after the death of its father, ought to share the heritage of the 
 latter conjointly with its uncles ; Otho decreed that the question 
 
CH. I.] HISTORY OF GERMANY. 11 
 
 should be decided by a duel, which it accordingly was; two 
 champions were appointed, and the one who represented the cause 
 of the nephew gained the victory. It would seem that Otho was 
 in the habit of allowing a right to be proved either by oath or by 
 a duel, at the option of the petitioner. 
 
 Otho married Edith, daughter of Edward, king of England, 
 and sister of King Athelstan. In 962, he was crowned emperor 
 by Pope John XII., whom he shortly afterwards cited to 
 appear before the council of Rome, to answer charges of sacri- 
 lege and other enormous crimes : the pope refusing to obey the 
 summons, was deposed to the council, which, in concert with 
 the emperor, elected in his place Leo VIII. In 964, a famous 
 decree of the council of Rome gave to Otho, and to all his 
 successors, the right of electing the pope, as also of appointing 
 all bishops and archbishops in his kingdoms : it was also declared 
 that the emperor was entitled to name his successor. After the 
 death of Edith, Otho married Adelaide, daughter of Ralph, 
 king of the two Burgundies, who was the first Roman empress 
 and queen of Germany who was crowned, and by whom he had 
 a son, Otho, who succeeded him on his death in 97& 
 
 Otho II. had already been elected king of Germany in 961, 
 and crowned emperor in 967 : he married in 97^, Theophania, 
 niece of John Zimisces, emperor of the East. He died at the 
 early age of twenty-eight, at Rome, and was buried in the church 
 of St. Peter. 
 
 Otho III., the son and successor of the late emperor, was only 
 three years of age on the death of his father, when he was 
 crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle. At the death of Pope John XV. 
 he made Bruno, son of Otho, duke of Franconia, his successor, 
 and was crowned by him in 995, after having been elected 
 emperor, in 982, by the diet of Verona. Otho III. was poisoned 
 in 1002. The reign of his successor, Henry II., or the Lame, 
 the last of the Saxon emperors, presents nothing worthy of notice 
 in a sketch like the present. 
 
 Under the Saxon emperors, the counts palatine had their origin ; 
 there were two principal officers so called, the one for the Saxons, 
 the other for the Franks ; and subordinate ones in several of the 
 
12 SKETCH OF THE [SECT. I. 
 
 large duchies. The two palatins in chief were independent one 
 of the other, and decided, under the authority of the emperor, 
 not only causes of appeal, but also the disputes between the 
 princes of Germany and the vassals of the crown residing in 
 their territories. The count palatine was not merely a judge; he 
 was also the hereditary governor of the lands and domains of the 
 emperor in his district, and receiver-general of finance. As 
 the emperors and kings of Germany had no fixed residence, 
 and held their courts sometimes in one province and sometimes 
 in another, they had palaces in all the principal cities, and 
 domains in each province for their support during their stay ; 
 and during their absence, the conservation of their rights was 
 entrusted to the counts palatine. 
 
 Under the Saxon emperors, the power and possessions of the 
 clergy increased to such an extent, that the body became at last 
 more formidable to the sovereign than the secular princes. 
 
 We shall here enumerate the rights which were enjoyed at this 
 period by the emperor and by the states, in their individual 
 capacities, or collectively as the diet. The emperor had the right 
 of conferring all the great benefices, of confirming or annulling 
 the election of the popes, of convoking councils and causing 
 them to decide on ecclesiastical affairs, of conferring the title of 
 king on his vassals, of granting vacant fiefs, of receiving the 
 revenues of the empire accruing from the domains, tolls, gold 
 and silver mines, tributes of the Jews, and fines, of disposing of 
 Italy as its sovereign, of establishing fairs and cities, and con- 
 ferring civic rights, of convoking diets and fixing their duration, 
 of coining and of granting that privilege to the states, and of 
 causing justice to be administered in the territories of the states. 
 
 The states, in their collective capacity as the diet, elected the 
 kings of Germany, appointed their guardians, passed laws, 
 declared war and concluded peace, decided the disputes of other 
 states, and judged and condemned other states accused of crime 
 and rebellion. In their own territories, the states could form 
 alliances amongst themselves, declare war and build fortresses, 
 send ambassadors to foreign princes, transmit their fiefs to their 
 sons, assemble their provincial states and cause their vassals to be 
 
CH. I.] HISTORY OF GERMANY. 13 
 
 tried by them. The states were also privileged by the emperor, 
 to coin money, to establish fairs, to exact tolls, to receive Jews, 
 administer justice, and possess gold mines. 
 
 We now come to the period when the dukes of the house of 
 Franconia ascended the throne of Germany. The first sovereign 
 of this line was Conrad II., who was chosen by a majority of 
 votes in 1024; he was crowned at Mainz by the archbishop. 
 His nobles took the oath of fidelity in the following order : first 
 the bishops, then the dukes, then the other princes and high 
 officers ; afterwards the barons or free lords, then the ordinary 
 nobles ; and finally, the freemen attached to the high nobility by 
 fiefs or certain duties. Conrad was crowned king of Italy at 
 Milan, and afterwards at Monza. He passed a law which 
 decreed that no vassal should be deprived of his fief, except for 
 felony, and by the judgment of his peers. He died at Utrecht 
 in 1039. 
 
 It was under the sovereigns of this line that the regulations 
 respecting the expedition to Italy were first enforced. We find 
 that it was then the custom for the kings of Germany, before 
 going to Italy to be crowned emperors, to announce their inten- 
 tion a year and six weeks before-hand ; then all the vassals of the 
 crown must assemble on the plain of Roncale, to be passed in 
 review ; the nobles must also bring with them their vassals ; and 
 all, of whatever rank, who did not appear, forfeited their fiefs. At 
 this period, the princes had already their officers of court, namely, 
 a marshal, a seneschal, a cupbearer, and a chamberlain. 
 
 To show the relation which existed at this time between many 
 inferior nobles and the dukes, we may quote here the answer 
 which, according to Wippon, the counts and lords of the duchy 
 of Suabia made to Duke Ernest when he summoned them to 
 rebel against the emperor : " If we were the slaves of the king, 
 and he had subjected us to your laws, we would follow you in all 
 your enterprises ; but we are free, and the emperor is nothing 
 more than the common defender of our liberties, which we shall 
 lose if we separate ourselves from him ; therefore, as soon as you 
 require of us that which is unjust, we shall make use of our 
 
14 SKETCH OF THE [SECT. I. 
 
 liberty to return to the emperor, who has only submitted us to 
 you under certain conditions." 
 
 Conrad died in 1039, and was succeeded by his son, Henry III. 
 The times of Conrad and Henry were the most flourishing period 
 of the German monarchy ; but the early death of the latter, in 
 1056, the minority of his son, Henry IV., and the feminine 
 government of the mother of the latter, Agnes of Guienne, were 
 but too favourable to the designs of the great nobles. A con- 
 tingent misfortune might have brought the imperial throne into 
 a dependant state ; and such a misfortune at length befell it in 
 the increase of the papal power. Henry IV. was engaged, at an 
 early period of his reign, in a war against the Saxons ; and, at 
 the same time, Rudolf of Rheinfeld, duke of Suabia, and Bcr- 
 told of Zacringhen, duke of Carinthia, united their arms against 
 him. In 1076, the king, after having had numerous disputes 
 with the pope, ventured on his deposition at a diet held at 
 Worms. When the bishops made this known in Rome, the 
 knights and the people of that city, always ready to embrace the 
 side of those who exalted the cause of Rome, took up arms under 
 the prefect of the town, but the pope represented to them that 
 spiritual arms alone must gain the victory in this contest. He 
 assembled a hundred and ten bishops, and put under the bann, 
 Siegfried, archbishop of Mainz, the disturber of the German 
 empire, together with all the bishops and abbots who had been 
 present at the diet of Worms; lastly, he extended the same 
 penalty to the king, declaring that he who had violated the 
 honours of the church, had more than deserved to lose his own. 
 " I will give him peace," said Gregory, " when he shall seek 
 peace with God," (meaning with himself). " I cannot find that 
 when the Lord confided to the apostle the keys of heaven and 
 hell, he made any exception in favour of kings." 
 
 At this crisis, Guelph, duke of Bavaria, Bertold, and Rudolf, 
 consulted together, and gave occasion to the summoning of a diet, 
 in which they urged the king, since those who for a year and a 
 day remained under the bann forfeited their estates, to oblige the 
 pope to come to Germany. The people at this period, influenced 
 
CH. I.] HISTOliy OF GERMANY. 15 
 
 by the monks,, who, by castration, fasting, silence, and strict 
 obedience to their orders, had attained a high degree of popular 
 veneration, were for the most part determined in favour of the 
 cause of Rome. The emperor, apprehensive of the consequences 
 that might ensue if the pope should make his appearance on the 
 German side of the Alps, preferred to go and seek absolution in 
 Italy. He found Gregory at Canossa, a strong fortress belonging 
 to Matilda, countess of Este, which had been formed by nature 
 and art, as a secure asylum. After the king had for three days 
 and nights entreated pardon, with lamentation, in penitential gar- 
 ments, and with naked feet, Gregory gave him absolution, under 
 an engagement that he should, within a limited time, and accor- 
 ding to the good pleasure of the pope, reconcile himself with the 
 German princes and their party. Notwithstanding these attempts 
 at reconciliation, his enemies in the empire declared shortly after- 
 wards Duke Rudolf, king of the Germans ; but the fortune of 
 arms was on the side of Henry; Rudolf was slain in 1080, and 
 Herman of Luxemburg, his successor, fell through his own 
 pusillanimity. The pope was now expelled from Rome, yet the 
 public sentiment destroyed the effect of the emperor's victories. 
 The altar afforded an asylum against the exertion of the royal 
 power, and the privileges of particular ranks began to display an 
 influence, which in the sequel became, in an unforeseen manner, 
 beneficial to the interests of humanity. The king's enemies were 
 in his own house ; his eldest born, who had revolted, was scarcely 
 dead, when his second son, Henry, imitating the former, raised a 
 rebellious hand against the declining strength of his father, who 
 had already fought sixty-five battles : the sons of the monarch 
 were ever ready to enter into litigation against the privileges of 
 the crown, so long as they had it not in their possession. In 
 1106, the fiftieth year of his reign, Henry IV. was reduced to 
 the necessity of yielding the insignia of monarchy into the hands 
 of his son. Grief and vexation shortened his days; and after 
 his death his body remained five years above ground, in a little 
 chapel, in the cathedral at Spires, until, released from the bann, it 
 at length obtained rest in a consecrated grave. He was succeeded 
 by his son, Henry V., who married Matilda, daughter of Henry I. 
 
16 SKETCH OF THE [SECT. I. 
 
 of England ; after his decease, this princess was united to Geoffrey 
 of Anjou, by whom she had a son, afterwards Henry II., king of 
 England. Henry V. renewed the war against the papal chair, in 
 which his father had fallen a sacrifice to the ambition of the pope. 
 In 1111, Paschalis II. in the midst of a solemn assembly in the 
 metropolitan church of the Christian world, was seized and made 
 captive by this emperor. But so powerful was the voice of public 
 opinion, that no victory, no rival pope, no calumnious, or even 
 just reproaches, were sufficiently powerful to secure to the 
 emperor a decisive advantage. At length, in 1122, Pope 
 Callixtus II. compromised the dispute concerning investitures 
 with Henry V. ; it was agreed, " that the election should be left 
 to the capitularies : the spiritual investiture should be performed 
 by the pope with a ring and staff, and that of the temporalities 
 by the emperor, with the sceptre ; that a privilege should also be 
 reserved to the emperor to be present, either in person or by his 
 commissaries, at the election and consecration ; and in the case of 
 any difference of opinion, to support the pretensions of the better 
 party." 
 
 About this time the progressive culture of estates, and the 
 growth of arts, enriched the husbandmen and artificers, and a new 
 interest was thus formed in opposition to the powerful nobility. 
 The third state adhered to the monarch and the great lords, from 
 whom it obtained liberties which gave it security. The people of 
 this class gradually flocked to cities, which afforded them the safety 
 founded upon union ; and several cities often formed alliances 
 with each other. Already, under the house of Henry I. and 
 Conrad II., the rights of the cities of Soest, Cologne, Magdeburg, 
 and Lubeck, became examples to other places ; and the towns 
 founded by the dukes of Zaehringen soon showed that free men 
 can do nothing better to secure their independence than to 
 assemble themselves in numerous communities. 
 
 Henry V. died 1125, and the states assembled at Mainz, elected 
 Lothaire, count of Supplinburg, to succeed him. At this period 
 the power of the emperor had dwindled to a shadow ; formerly 
 he had balanced the clergy against the temporal states, and 
 had hoped by patronising the former, to strengthen his position ; 
 
CH. I.] HISTORY OF GERMANY. 17 
 
 but these expectations were futile, for the clergy used its increase 
 of power to embarrass, instead of to assist him, and went over 
 to the party of the nobles instead of joining him against them. 
 
 About this time, the office of count became hereditary, and 
 those who held it, instead of signing themselves as heretofore, 
 simply Henry Count, or Ulrich Count, as the case might be, now 
 assumed the names of the districts over which they had been 
 appointed. Under the Franconian emperors, the law of primoge- 
 niture was observed in the heritage of duchies and counties ; but 
 under the Suabian line which succeeded them, it fell into disuse. 
 
 Lothaire II., the last of the Franconian emperors, died in 1137, 
 and Conrad, duke of Franconia, son of Frederic of Hohenstauffen, 
 and of Agnes, daughter of Henry IV., was elected at Coblenz to 
 succeed him. At the death of this prince in 1152, his nephew, 
 Frederic I., surnamed Barbarossa, then in the flower of his 
 age, and already celebrated for military exploits, ascended the 
 throne. 
 
 Rome soon experienced how much Frederic was capable of effect- 
 ing against or in favour of papacy ; for when, in 1 159, the cardinals 
 could not agree in the choice of a successor to Hadrian IV., he 
 wrote to them, declaring that he would summon a general assem- 
 bly of all Christendom. They then united their endeavours in 
 favour of Alexander III., a prelate of distinguished courage and 
 experience ; but a synod, held by the emperor at Pavia, declared 
 for Octavius, who assumed the name of Victor IV. Alexander 
 pronounced the bann of the church against his opponent, declared 
 the emperor to have forfeited the crown, and endeavoured to 
 rouse in his own cause all the Christian courts. But the army of 
 the emperor, at the head of which fought the two archbishops of 
 Mainz and of Cologne, marched towards Rome, and Alexander 
 fled to Montpellier. In the mean time, the greatest and strongest 
 towns of Lombardy had formed a combination for establishing a 
 free republic, and a similar spirit began anew to display itself in 
 Rome. The cities embraced the cause of Alexander, from appre- 
 hension of the imperial power ; and the two great factions of the 
 Guelphs who favoured the papacy, and the Ghibellines in oppo- 
 sition to it, were now formed. 
 
 c 
 
18 SKETCH OF THE [SECT. I. 
 
 The emperor entered Italy, burnt Crema, Tortona, and Milan ; 
 ordered salt to be strewed where the latter had stood, and com- 
 manded that fields and meadows should be formed on the site 
 of its ancient palaces ; the fortresses he gave into the hands of 
 Ghibelline lords. Long and severe was the struggle of Frederic 
 against Alexander and the Lombard towns: at last, after a 
 victorious campaign, he offered peace on condition that both the 
 popes should resign their pretensions, and that a free election 
 should unite the Christian world ; however, the proposal was not 
 listened to, and the emperor marched as a conqueror into Rome. 
 But the intemperance of his soldiers thinned his ranks, and 
 carried off almost all the princes of the army ; so that the victory 
 most desired was to escape the pestilence, and to obtain refuge in 
 the Apennines from the troops of the Lombard towns. 
 
 In 1168 we find Milan rebuilt, and in the space of a year the 
 abode of 15,000 warriors. In 1174, Frederic had again recourse 
 to arms ; but two years afterwards was completely defeated by 
 the Milanese at Legnano. The emperor, on this occasion, was 
 not so much humiliated by the success of his adversaries, as by 
 the defection of his friend, Henry the Lion, at a time when he 
 was suffering the pressure of calamity, and in spite of his personal 
 remonstrances. In the eighteenth year of the schism, Frederic 
 was reconciled with Pope Alexander : he kissed the feet of the 
 pontiff, who hastened to embrace him and conduct him to the 
 altar. The cities were confirmed, for a certain period, in the 
 rights of which they had possessed themselves ; and Alexander, 
 the father of the Italian republics, made a triumphal entry into 
 Rome, which the old consuls might have envied him. 
 
 On the return of Frederic to Germany, he proceeded to punish 
 the treason of Henry the Lion, who refusing to appear before 
 the diet to answer the charges against him, was deprived of his 
 honours, fiefs, and other dignities, and, indeed, of all except his 
 allodial possessions of Brunswick and Luneburg. His extensive 
 territories were divided as follows : The duchy of Saxony and 
 the circle of Wittenberg, were given to Bernard of Anhalt ; the 
 duchy of Westphalia fell to the archbishop of Cologne, who had 
 been his principal enemy ; the county of Holstein was made a 
 
CH. L] HISTORY OF GERMANY. 19 
 
 fief of the empire ; the archbishop of Mainz obtained Eichsfeld ; 
 and, indeed, most of the neighbouring ecclesiastical princes had 
 their territories enlarged at the expense of the duke. The land- 
 graves of Thuringia possessed themselves of the county palatine 
 of Saxony. The duchy of Bavaria was given to Otto von 
 Wittelsbach, the ancestor of the present royal family of Bavaria. 
 The counties of Carinthia, Styria, and Tyrol, which had formerly 
 been subordinate to this duchy, now became imperial fiefs. 
 Lubeck and Ratisbon were declared imperial cities; and the 
 Sclavonian princes, who had been vassals of Henry, were made 
 princes of the empire under the name of dukes of Pomerania. 
 Thus the treason of the duke of Brunswick entailed consequences 
 which completely altered the face of the German empire. 
 
 In 1188 a diet was held at Mainz, where Barbarossa and a 
 great part of the German nobility took the cross. The crusading 
 army assembled at Presburg, marched through Hungary, spread 
 terror among the Greeks, defeated the army of the Seljukes, and 
 arrived at the frontier of Syria. Not far from the place where 
 Alexander the Great incurred the risk of death from a similar 
 accident, the emperor perished by bathing in the cold stream of 
 Saleph ; he was buried at Antioch in 1190. During this crusade, 
 Frederic, duke of Suabia, son of the emperor, founded the 
 Teutonic order, of which the first grand-master was Henry 
 Wallpot of Bassenheim ; it was afterwards confirmed, in 1191, 
 by Pope Celestinus. 
 
 Barbarossa was succeeded by his son, Henry VI., who became 
 more powerful in Italy than any of his predecessors. This prince 
 obliged the duke of Austria to deliver Richard Coeur de Lion 
 into his hands, and would not release him until after he had 
 purchased his ransom with seventy thousand marks of silver. 
 He laid claim to the mines of Saxony, which were now becoming 
 celebrated, as belonging to the crown, and forced the possessors to 
 give up at least one-third of the revenue. The Cyprian king, of 
 the house of Lusignan, and Leo, king of the neighbouring 
 Armenia, or properly Cilicia, acknowledged his power, which was 
 greater than any other prince in Christendom possessed. He had 
 persuaded a great proportion of the princes of the empire to 
 
 c 2 
 
20 SKETCH OF THE [SECT. I. 
 
 assent that the throne of Germany should be declared hereditary ; 
 but was prevented from carrying this important plan into execu- 
 tion by death, when he had only attained his thirty-second year. 
 According to some, he was poisoned by his empress, Constance, 
 daughter of Roger, king of Sicily, to avenge the cruelty with 
 which he had treated her rebellious countrymen. 
 
 The states now made choice, not of his son Frederic, who was 
 but three years, old, but of his brother Philip, to whom some 
 princes, however, from disaffection or apprehensions for their 
 liberties, opposed Otho IV., the son of Henry the Lion. While 
 these rivals threw the empire into disorder, Naples and Sicily, and 
 the celebrated pope, Innocent III., acknowledged the pretensions 
 of Frederic. The war between Philip and Otho terminated in 
 favour of the former, who, in 1207, was crowned at Aix-la- 
 Chapelle, by the archbishop of Cologne ; but the succeeding year 
 terminated both his reign and his life : he was murdered, June 
 22, 1208, at Bamberg, by Otto von Wittelsbach. 
 
 The states now assembled at Frankfort, and agreed on the 
 election of Otho, who also received the imperial crown from 
 Innocent III., after having sworn to maintain and defend the 
 rights of the empire, to protect the church, and especially the 
 holy see, and not to attack the youthful Frederic, king of Naples 
 and Sicily. Notwithstanding these pledges, Otho soon rushed 
 precipitately into the same measures which had involved his pre- 
 decessors in so many conflicts with the Roman see. Accordingly, 
 Innocent excommunicated him, and the princes of the empire 
 abandoned him for Frederic, son of Henry VI., who, accompanied 
 by the bishops, entered Germany in 1212, and was crowned at 
 Mainz. Otho, too feeble to resist his successful rival, retired to 
 his duchy of Brunswick. Shortly afterwards, in conjunction 
 with his ally, the count of Flanders, he was completely defeated 
 at Bouvines by the French : he died at Harzburg in 1218. 
 
 Frederic II. was animated by an heroic spirit; he was equal 
 to the bravest of the ancient Caesars, and in intelligence superior 
 to most of them. He conceived the same partiality for the poetry 
 of the Proven9als, which his father, and his son Conrad, with many 
 other princes and lords of those times, had entertained for that 
 
CH. I.] HISTORY OF GERMANY. 21 
 
 of the Germans : tenderness, animation, and elegance pervade the 
 works of this prince and of his noble relatives. Love and virtue 
 were not their only themes; the corruptions of the age were 
 reprehended in their verses, and the exploits of Richard and 
 Saladin celebrated ; the lyre resounded with the praises of God, 
 the beauties of the firmament and of all nature, and with the 
 imaginary scenes of romance. Frederic was gifted with a pene- 
 trating genius ; but amidst his sublimity he was endowed with 
 grace and gentleness; and his affability and true humanity 
 endeared him to all. He possessed immovable firmness, and a 
 greatness of individual character, the impression of which long 
 survived his death*. 
 
 In 1215, this sovereign exacted an oath from his nobles not to 
 coin bad money, not to levy extraordinary tolls, and not to steal 
 on the highway. The Teutonic knights, being obliged to quit 
 Acre, returned to Germany, where their grand-master was received 
 into the number of the imperial princes. The popes, in order to 
 keep Frederic employed in distant countries, compelled him to 
 enter into an engagement to deliver the holy sepulchre ; which, 
 after having been excommunicated for his delay by Gregory IX., 
 he was obliged to fulfil in 1229. He concluded his eastern expe- 
 dition without bloodshed, for Meledin, the sultan of Egypt, gave 
 up to him the sovereignty of Jerusalem, Bethlehem, Nazareth, 
 and other holy places, without resorting to arms. 
 
 Gregory IX. had ascended the papal chair in the eighty-fifth 
 year of his age, and held it fourteen years in perpetual contention 
 with the emperor : he was succeeded by Innocent IV. In the 
 employment of spiritual arms, the use of other weapons was not 
 lost sight of; but the former were now wielded with more than 
 usual energy by both parties. The emperor also ridiculed the 
 affected solemnity of his adversaries, and endeavoured by every 
 means in his power to lower their influence. So little, indeed, did 
 he respect either clerical immunities or popular prejudices, that 
 he suffered priests convicted of crimes, to be hanged or burned ; 
 
 * Such is the eulogy pronounced on this remarkable man by the historian 
 MUller ; but some other writers entertain an opinion far less favourable. 
 
22 SKETCH OF THE [SECT. I. 
 
 and he built a city in the south of Italy for the Saracens whom 
 he had subdued; but the time for effecting the revolution which 
 he meditated had not yet arrived. 
 
 In 1240 he was excommunicated by the pope, who accused him 
 of having blasphemed Jesus Christ at the diet of Frankfort, and 
 of having formed a design to extirpate the Christian religion : this 
 accusation, however, the emperor successfully repelled. Germany 
 remained faithful to Frederic, until Henry, his eldest son, deserted 
 him ; after whose death the landgrave of Thuringia, and then 
 William, count of Holland, were opposed to the condemned 
 Frederic with the imperial title. The latter resisted with un- 
 shaken fortitude, until fortune was unfaithful to him in every 
 region of his empire. Public opinion, under the guidance of his 
 bitterest enemies, was the occasion of his ruin, and he died in 
 1252, a prey to woe and disappointment. 
 
 During the troubles of this period, the imperial power 
 diminished, whilst that of the states increased : the latter now 
 arrogated to themselves the right of deposing as well as of electing 
 the emperor, and claimed a voice in the creation of princes, and in 
 the distribution of fiefs : in their own territories, now hereditary, 
 the chiefs ruled with unbounded sway, and though much harassed 
 by their own nobles, would admit of no interference from the 
 emperor. 
 
 Neither Conrad, the son of Frederic, who fell in the defence of 
 his hereditary possessions ; nor William, who perished prematurely 
 by a different fate ; nor the duke of Cornwall, brother of the 
 English king, who was elected by some of the princes, and only 
 knew how to sell privileges in order to reimburse himself for the 
 sums they had cost him ; nor Alphonso of Castile, to whom others 
 confided the crown ; nor any other prince in Christendom, found 
 himself possessed of the power requisite for restoring the royal 
 authority in Germany, and the imperial dignity in Europe, 
 to that degree of eminence which had been maintained during 
 the three preceding centuries. The supreme magistracy of 
 the European commonwealth fell into such a state of weak- 
 ness, that the three-and-twenty years which followed the death of 
 Frederic, are termed by many an interregnum, or a period of 
 
CH. I.] HISTORY OF GERMANY. 23 
 
 vacation of the throne ; and we may so consider them without 
 doing injustice to the character of the age. 
 
 This interregnum facilitated the consolidation of the power 
 of the states; they now seized upon the domains of the crown 
 which were situated in their respective territories. No diets were 
 held for the administration of justice; disputes were decided by 
 duels; and the roads, the navigable waters, and, indeed, the 
 whole face of the country, was exposed to the predatory excur- 
 sions of lawless knights and nobles, who inhabited innumerable 
 fortresses. 
 
 In 1255, the states, interested in the maintenance of peace and 
 order, united in common defence : thus was formed the Rhenish 
 confederacy; and minor associations of the same nature were 
 established throughout the country. The Hanseatic league was 
 now called into existence, and was shortly composed of eighty of 
 the finest cities of Germany : these were divided into four classes, 
 Lubeck was at the head of the first, and of the league in 
 general; Cologne of the second, Brunswick of the third, and 
 Dantzic of the fourth. Abroad, this celebrated commercial union 
 had its principal establishments at London, Bruges, Bergen, and 
 Novogorod. 
 
 We have already seen the people excluded from the election 
 of the emperor : but an electoral college was next founded, which 
 excluded from the exercise of that function the great mass of the 
 nobility, and conferred it exclusively on the chief temporal and 
 spiritual princes. This limitation of their powers was regarded, 
 however, by many of the nobles as a benefit : they were glad to 
 be relieved from the danger and expense of journeying to attend 
 the diets, to which they had formerly been peremptorily summoned. 
 
 Conrad IV. died in 1254, at the age of twenty-eight. His 
 son Conradin, the last of the Hohenstauffen, was taken prisoner 
 in Italy, at the battle of Aquila, in 1268, and beheaded at Naples 
 by the brutal Charles of Anjou. 
 
 In 1273, the prince electors of Germany, wearied of the 
 anarchy which had now prevailed for several years, determined 
 at length to give a new chief to the empire : they were partly, 
 also, incited to this by the pope, Gregory X., who threatened to 
 
24 SKETCH OF THE [SECT. I. 
 
 elect one himself. Their choice fell upon Rudolf, count of 
 Hapsburg, whose hereditary power was inconsiderable; but as 
 he had been richly endowed by nature, he found resources which 
 ensured him success, in his great capacity and military talents. 
 He conducted the affairs of his government with benevolence and 
 paternal dignity. He laid the foundation of the power of his 
 family, by investing his sons with the duchies of Austria, Styria, 
 Wendismark, and Carniola, as fiefs of the empire, and by marry- 
 ing three of his daughters to the electors of Bavaria, Saxony, 
 and Brandenburg. 
 
 The death of Rudolf took place in 1291 ; it was followed by 
 an interregnum of nine months, which was terminated by the 
 election of Adolf, count of Nassau, notwithstanding the efforts 
 of Albert, son of the late emperor, who was too powerful and 
 ambitious to suit the designs of the electors, accustomed to 
 measure their own strength by the weakness of their sovereign. 
 The new emperor was not rich enough to repay the citizens of 
 Frankfort the expenses of his election ; nor could he raise twelve 
 thousand marks of silver, to pay for the province of Thuringia, 
 which he had bought of Albert the Unnatural, its landgrave. 
 Partly in order to obtain the money necessary for this purpose, he 
 entered into a subsidiary treaty against France, with Edward, 
 king of England. 
 
 Whilst the emperor was encountering an unexpected opposi- 
 tion in taking possession of Thuringia, Albert of Austria, son of 
 Rudolf, encouraged by his various embarrassments, formed a 
 strong party against him, and procured himself to be elected in 
 his stead. Adolf, who was a valiant commander, contended 
 unsuccessfully for his dignity: after having been formally deposed 
 by a diet held at Mainz, he was killed by the hand of his rival, at 
 the battle of Gelheim, in 1298. The privileges of the nobles, 
 and the rights of the people were detested by Albert, because 
 they continually opposed obstacles to his will. He endea- 
 voured to carry his arbitrary designs into execution, in every 
 possible mode; to strengthen his position and increase his 
 pecuniary resources, he attempted to aggrandize himself at the 
 expense of the margraves of Misnia, to form a Swiss principality 
 
CH. I.] HISTORY OF GERMANY. 25 
 
 for one of his sons, and to rule absolutely in Styria; and such 
 was his courage and ability, that he succeeded in almost all his 
 enterprises. He humbled the states, but drew upon himself so 
 much hatred on that account, that his neighbours entered into 
 a confederacy against him ; at length, in 1308, he was mur- 
 dered in Switzerland, by his nepnew John, son of Rudolf, prince 
 of Suabia, not without the concurrence, as is supposed, of several 
 of the other princes. 
 
 Henry, count of Luxemburg, who was recommended only by 
 his personal merit, succeeded to the throne of Germany, under 
 the title of Henry VII. John, the son of this prince, was chosen 
 king of Bohemia, and in 1311, was left regent of Germany, whilst 
 the emperor undertook an expedition to Italy, partly for the pur- 
 pose of pacifying the Guelphs and Ghibellines, whose quarrels 
 still agitated the peninsula, notwithstanding that the disputes 
 between the popes and emperors had long been settled. In 1313, 
 whilst preparing to attack the king of Naples, the emperor died 
 suddenly, it is supposed of poison administered by a Dominican 
 monk. The electors, unable to agree on the choice of a successor 
 to the throne, were now divided into two parties ; one of which 
 favoured the pretensions of Lewis of Bavaria, and the other, 
 those of Frederic, duke of Austria. A war ensued, which lasted 
 four years, and was at last decided on the field of Muhldorf, in 
 favour of Lewis : his rival was afterwards imprisoned in the 
 castle of Trausnitz. Lewis, following the example of his four 
 predecessors, endeavoured to consolidate the power of his family, 
 and obtained the sovereignty of Brandenburg for his eldest son, 
 Lewis. The policy of the house of Luxemburg, and the influ- 
 ence of the pope, effectually destroyed the peace of this emperor 
 and his family : and before the period of his death, which took 
 place in 1347? some of the electors were already occupied in 
 choosing a successor. Lewis V. was the first German emperor 
 who constantly resided in his hereditary states; the imperial 
 domains no longer sufficing for the maintenance of a court. The 
 crown was now offered to Edward III., of England, who, after 
 some deliberation, refused it ; finally, after various intrigues, and 
 considerable delay, it was conferred on Charles of Luxemburg, 
 
26 SKETCH OF THE [SECT. I. 
 
 son and successor of John of Bohemia, who purchased the con- 
 currence of his rivals, the margrave of Misnia and the count of 
 Schwarzburg, with thirty-two thousand marks. It appeared 
 to be the chief object of Charles, during an administration of 
 thirty years, to increase the power and splendour of his house, by 
 obtaining from the alienable domains and privileges, the greatest 
 possible amount of money, and other advantages. On his journey 
 to Italy, he sold freedom to some of the towns, and independent 
 power to the tyrants who oppressed other parts of that country ; 
 but, on the other hand, he promised not to visit it again, without 
 the consent of the pope ; and not to pass a night in Rome. He 
 promulgated that fundamental law of the empire, the Golden 
 Bull, which regulates the election of the German monarchs ; its 
 style partakes strongly of the spirit of the times. It begins 
 with an apostrophe to Satan, anger, pride, and luxury, and fixes 
 the number of electors at seven, who are to oppose the seven 
 mortal sins. It speaks of the fall of the angels, of a heavenly 
 paradise, of Pompey, and of Csesar ; and asserts that the govern- 
 ment of Germany is modelled after the Trinity. Charles IV. so 
 increased his hereditary dominions, that in 1373, they extended 
 from the boundaries of Austria to those of Pomerania. In order 
 to secure the election of his son Wenceslaf, as his successor, he 
 bribed the electors with one hundred thousand gold florins, and 
 abandoned to them several imperial cities, and the tolls levied on 
 the Rhine : thus were perverted the last sources of the imperial 
 revenue. It was now discovered that the imperial dignity might 
 be enabled by good management to repay to its possessor the 
 expenses its acquisition had occasioned. 
 
 Charles IV. died in 1378. Wenceslaf, his son and successor, 
 evinced principles which were disagreeable both to the clergy and 
 nobility. The nobles of Bohemia, who thought him too partial 
 to the people, made him a prisoner under pretence of violent and 
 immoral conduct, and put him into the safe custody of the dukes 
 of Austria. He made his escape; but six years afterwards, on 
 the most shallow pretences, was deposed by the spiritual electors, 
 and by the count palatine, who shortly afterwards became his suc- 
 cessor. Wenceslaf was so little like other men , that he acquiesced 
 
CH. I.] HISTORY OF GERMANY. 27 
 
 very willingly in his own deposition. He is accused by the 
 monkish annalists of his time of all kinds of debauchery and 
 cruelty; but it is not improbable that some of the accusations 
 against him may have had their origin in the favour which he 
 showed to the reformers, Huss and Ziska. One of the reasons 
 alleged by the electors for deposing him was, that his manners 
 were unworthy of an emperor, and that he allowed dogs to sleep 
 in his chamber. 
 
 Frederic, duke of Brunswick, was elected in the place of 
 Wenceslaf, but on his return from Frankfort was murdered by 
 the count of Waldeck. Rupert, count palatine of the Rhine, a 
 prince of prudent and upright intentions, next obtained the 
 crown. After his death, in 1410, it was bestowed on Jodochus 
 of Luxemburg, margrave of Moravia, a nephew of Charles IV. 
 On the decease of this monarch, which soon followed his election, 
 Sigismund, king of Hungary, brother of Wenceslaf, was unani- 
 mously chosen. In 1414, this prince summoned the council of 
 Constance, which was attended, it is said, by eighteen thousand 
 prelates and priests, and sixteen thousand princes and nobles; 
 amongst other persons assembled on this occasion, were seven 
 hundred and eighteen courtesans, protected by the magistracy. 
 It was here decreed that a council was superior to the pope. 
 Huss was summoned to Constance, where he appeared, provided 
 with a safe-conduct from the emperor ; this, however, was violated, 
 and the honest and zealous reformer was burnt alive. From this 
 time, Sigismund became so much the object of popular hatred, 
 that he was obliged to maintain a war of eighteen years' duration 
 against Ziska, Procopius, and other leaders of the Hussites; 
 and only a few months before his death, attained to the quiet 
 possession of the Bohemian crown, which had been bequeathed to 
 him by his brother, Wenceslaf. He narrowly escaped captivity 
 or death by the arms of the Turks at Nicopolis ; and was after- 
 wards imprisoned by his Hungarian nobles. Sigismund was so 
 destitute of money, that he was obliged to sell the electorate of 
 Brandenburg for four hundred thousand marks, to Frederic, 
 of Hohenzollern. He received also, the sum of one hundred 
 thousand marks from Frederic, margrave of Misnia, as the price 
 
28 SKETCH OF THE [SECT. I. 
 
 of the electoral hat of Saxony. Barbara, daughter of the count of 
 Hilley, the second wife of Sigismund, rendered herself notorious 
 for her debauchery, and was called the Messalina of Germany. 
 
 Sigismund died in 1437, and was succeeded by Albert II., 
 duke of Austria. The only enterprise of moment in which this 
 prince was engaged, during his short reign, was an expedition 
 against the Turks, but he died in 1439, before any action took 
 place. The electors who, though they desired an emperor, did 
 not mean him to be their master, now conferred the crown on 
 Frederic, duke of Austria, a feeble prince, who was obliged to 
 give up a considerable portion of that half of the hereditary Ger- 
 man dominions which belonged to his house. This prince died 
 in 1493, after the states had several times menaced to depose him, 
 on account of that very incapacity to which he owed his election ; 
 they accused him of neglecting public affairs, of allowing the 
 peace of the empire to be disturbed with impunity, and of a lax 
 administration of justice. The greatest confusion prevailed 
 during his reign, and the empire was agitated by perpetual 
 civil wars. 
 
 The patriotic emperor, Maximilian I., son of the preceding, 
 endeavoured to remedy the defects in the political constitution 
 of Germany, the danger of which became apparent, in propor- 
 tion to the advancement of the neighbouring power of France. 
 He divided the country into circles, and it was designed that the 
 constitution of each circle should be a representation in minia- 
 ture of the whole empire; and that each should possess its sepa- 
 rate president, assemblies, and regulations. This was an excellent 
 plan, but its execution was impeded by the religious dissensions 
 which arose soon after this period. 
 
 To put an end to the incessant feuds which were carried on 
 under the savage maxim that "might gives right," a supreme 
 court of justice was established; a perpetual internal peace was 
 proclaimed, all feuds were prohibited, and an imperial regency 
 was appointed, to act in the absence of the emperor. The 
 supreme court was composed of a judge, four presidents, and 
 fifty assessors: the latter were chosen by the different states. It 
 had been the custom of the emperor, Frederic III., to commute 
 
CH. I.] HISTORY OF GERMANY. 29 
 
 the military assistance which the states were bound to afford him 
 for a certain sum of money: Maximilian followed this example, 
 but instead of appropriating all which he thus obtained, he 
 devoted a part of it to the maintenance of a body of regular 
 troops (Lanxknechte). At this period, the power of the states 
 was such, that the emperor can only be regarded as the president 
 of an assembly of sovereigns. The pretensions of the church 
 were at this time exorbitant; the registers of the diet from 1450 
 to 1512, are filled with complaints against the popes, whom the 
 ecclesiastical princes did not hesitate to accuse of having rendered 
 tributary the free empire of Germany. The territories of the 
 secular nobles were drained of money for the purchase of indul- 
 gences, of which the commissaries of Alexander VI. and Leo X. 
 made an infamous traffic, for the defraying the expenses of the 
 Jubilasum in 1500, and for the construction of the church of St. 
 Peter, at Rome. At the same time, the corrupt morals of the 
 priesthood, and the scandalous abuses of the ecclesiastical govern- 
 ment, rendered reform inevitably necessary. At length Luther, 
 of whom we first hear in 1517? executed a work which had been 
 for ages in a course of preparation. 
 
 Maximilian I. died in 1519, and was succeeded by his grand- 
 son, Charles V., son of Philip, archduke of Austria, and king of 
 Castile, who died before his father, in 1506. The house of 
 Hapsburg had united under its sway, Spain, Naples, Sicily, 
 Austria, Burgundy, the imperial crown of Germany, Mexico and 
 Peru, and had nearly added Bohemia and Hungary to its pos- 
 sessions, when two individuals rescued from its yoke the freedom 
 of Europe: one of these was Francis I., the most accomplished 
 knight of his era ; and the other, Martin Luther. Nothing was 
 wanting to render Charles V. the greatest prince in Europe, 
 except that quality which Luther opposed to him, the dauntless 
 courage inspired by the consciousness of pure intentions. 
 Charles had more ability to conceive than to execute ; he was 
 suspicious, crafty, and not capable of estimating the moral force 
 of his adversaries. His power appeared immeasurable, while he 
 was, in fact, under the necessity of concealing the mediocrity of 
 his resources : though king of the opulent territories of the South, 
 
30 SKETCH OF THE [SECT. I. 
 
 heir of Burgundy, and lord of the new world, he was often 
 destitute of money, from want of which proceeded weakness in 
 a military discipline, which was also in itself defective in 
 system. Charles did not arrive in Germany till 1520, when he 
 was crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle by the ecclesiastical electors. In 
 the same year, Luther called on the pope, Leo X., to appoint 
 commissioners to examine the doctrines contained in his attacks 
 on Tetzel, the vendor of the absolutions; but the pope refused to 
 comply with his demand, ordered his theses to be burnt, and 
 excommunicated him after allowing a certain period in which to 
 retract. The Reformation now commenced, supported by the 
 elector of Saxony and several other princes. Luther, as it easily 
 happens in revolutions, was probably carried by contradiction 
 and opposition much farther than he at first intended to go ; and 
 his cause, having once been adopted by the nation, became 
 invincible. He destroyed a great portion of the strange garb in 
 which truth had been in the dark ages enveloped, if not totally 
 hidden. The Bible, of which he made an excellent translation, 
 was the foundation and support of his whole system. It was in 
 vain that the pope enjoined the German states to prosecute 
 Luther : they replied by a long enumeration of complaints against 
 the holy see, which was signed by the Catholic princes, as well 
 as by the partisans of Luther. At this period, Charles V. was 
 prevented from attempting summarily to repress the new doctrines 
 by a war with Francis I., which broke out in 1522, and raged 
 without intermission till the battle of Pavia, in 1525. 
 
 In 1530, a diet was held at Augsburg, at which the Protes- 
 tants delivered to the emperor a confession of faith : and the 
 union which the princes of their party formed shortly afterwards 
 at Smalkalde gave them political importance. The war which 
 was conducted by John Frederick, elector of Saxony, Philip, 
 landgrave of Hesse-Cassel, and other Protestant princes, against 
 Charles V., broke out on the death of Francis I. and of Luther, 
 which happened nearly at the same time, and about fifteen years 
 after the conclusion of the league of Smalkalde. It was carried 
 on in a feeble and unconnected manner, and, in 1547? the Pro- 
 testants were completely defeated at Muhlberg, and the elector 
 
CH. I.] HIST011Y OF GERMANY. 31 
 
 of Saxony made prisoner. Charles, free from his rival of France 
 and from the opposition ot the Germans, now forgot his charac- 
 teristic moderation : he assumed at once a despotic bearing ; 
 threatened to execute the elector of Saxony without consulting 
 the states ; compelled the landgrave to demand pardon of him 
 on his knees ; annihilated the league of Smalkalde, and assembled 
 a diet at Augsburg, after filling the town and neighbourhood 
 with his troops. But this conduct was more calculated to irritate 
 than to terrify, and its results were quite contrary to what the 
 emperor expected : at length, in 1555, he was obliged to liberate 
 the imprisoned princes, and conclude a formal peace in matters of 
 religion. 
 
 In the same year Charles V. ceded to his son Philip, the Low 
 Countries and the territories which he possessed in Italy, after 
 having repeated in vain his efforts to procure for him the imperial 
 crown. More enfeebled by diseases which had impaired his vital 
 powers, and by various causes of dissatisfaction, than by age, he 
 took the resolution, soon after the conclusion of the religious 
 peace, wholly to withdraw himself from public affairs. In his 
 youth he had given up his hereditary dominions in Germany, to 
 his brother ; and during one of those frequent intervals in which 
 his confidence in his own fortune failed him, had caused Ferdinand 
 instead of his own son to be declared king of the Romans, or pre- 
 sumptive successor to the imperial crown : in like manner, he now 
 actually transferred the empire to the former, and all his other 
 dominions to the latter. He himself withdrew to the monastery 
 of St. Just, which is situated among well-watered gardens and 
 meadows in the plains of Estremadura, where he lived with his 
 sisters, the widowed queens of France and Hungary, like a man 
 whose happiness is entirely independent of external greatness : he 
 passed two years, and terminated his life in this retirement, at the 
 age of fifty-eight. 
 
 Ferdinand I., brother of Charles, ascended the throne of 
 Germany in 1558, after having been king of Hungary and 
 Bohemia for twenty years, and king of the Romans since 1530. 
 In this reign was held a general assembly of the Protestants at 
 Naumburg, where all the changes which had been made in the 
 
32 SKETCH OF THE [SECT. I. 
 
 confession of Augsburg, in order to approximate it to the system 
 of Calvin, were corrected. Ferdinand I. died in 1564, and was 
 succeeded by his son, Maximilian II. Philip II., son of Charles 
 V., received no assistance from the German branch of the house 
 of Austria, between which and the court of Spain an unceasing 
 coolness and distrust subsisted for sixty years. Maximilian, like 
 his father, was a prudent and judicious ruler: he maintained 
 toleration, and was principally anxjous for the peace and prosperity 
 of his people. In 1568, the Emperor Maximilian accorded to 
 the Austrian Protestants the free exercise of their religion. On 
 his death, in 1576, he was succeeded by his son, Rudolf II., who 
 is described as having been a great distiller, a good astronomer, a 
 very tolerable esquire, but a very bad emperor. 
 
 At this period, the electorate of Saxony was the most flourishing 
 state of the empire, and its prosperity was only disturbed by the 
 divisions of the kindred sects of Augsburg and Geneva, which 
 were driven to the utmost pitch of exasperation by the mis-named 
 form of concord. While individual states were advancing in the 
 career of improvement, the common bond of union between them, 
 instead of becoming firmer, was relaxed by controversies. When 
 the visitation of the supreme court, before mentioned, came to 
 the turn of the Protestant states, the necessary work was com- 
 pletely at a stand. Rudolf was compelled by his brother Matthias, 
 who afterwards succeeded him on the imperial throne, to abdicate 
 the crowns of Bohemia and Hungary. Matthias was not destitute 
 of talents ; but both he and Rudolf died without male issue, the 
 former in 1619, the latter in 1612. Under Matthias the power 
 of the states seems to have increased : they only granted subsidies 
 to the emperor for specific purposes ; and they exercised the right 
 of electing a king of the Romans during his life-time and in spite 
 of his opposition. 
 
 Ferdinand II., grandson of Ferdinand I., who now succeeded 
 to the throne, had been educated in Spain, and appeared to be 
 governed by this one prevailing maxim with regard to his duty as 
 a monarch, " that it was necessary that his own creed in matters 
 of religion, should be the only mode of faith in his dominions ; 
 and in temporal affairs, his boundless authority, the only power." 
 
CH. I.] HISTORY OF GERMANY. 33 
 
 Under this emperor, raged that great contest between the Protes - 
 tants and Catholics, which, from the period of its duration has 
 been called the Thirty Years' War: it is divided into its Palatine, 
 Danish, Swedish, and French periods. Frederick, son-in-law of 
 James I. of England, the fifth elector palatine of that name, 
 being elected king of Bohemia by the states of that kingdom, 
 carried on a war with the emperor. Being defeated, in 1620, at 
 the battle of Prague, and abandoned by his allies, he was driven 
 from Bohemia and deprived of his other states. Shortly afterwards 
 Christian of Brunswick and Count Mansfeld, the Protestant 
 leaders in the north of Germany, were completely defeated by 
 Tilly. Christian IV. of Denmark then placed himself at the 
 head of the confederacy against the emperor : he possessed the 
 physical strength of the old Northern heroes, as well as their 
 activity and love of glory, but his deficiencies as a statesman and 
 in the science of war were so evident that he was quickly con- 
 vinced of his own weakness : having lost, in 1626, the battle of 
 Lutter, in which Tilly commanded the Austrian forces, he signed, 
 three years after, a separate peace with the emperor. Wallenstein, 
 admiral of the East Sea and duke of Mecklenburg, ravaged the 
 north of Germany after the defeat of the king of Denmark : 
 Stralsund alone held out against him, and was given up for pro- 
 tection to the Swedes in 1628. In 1630 Gustavus Adolphus 
 landed at Usedom and assumed the command of the Protestants, 
 whose cause now appeared to be desperate, but his brilliant 
 campaigns turned the tide of success in their favour. On his 
 death at the battle of Lutzen, the principal weight 'of the war 
 rested on France. The French armies under the command of 
 Turenne and Conde, and the Swedish, under Baner, Torstenston 
 and Wrangel, were now decidedly triumphant, and brought the 
 contest to a conclusion. 
 
 By the peace of Westphalia, in 1648, Sweden and France 
 obtained districts of Germany; Brandenburg, Mecklenburg, 
 and Brunswick-Luneburg received, as compensation, the secula- 
 rized domains of the church ; the Palatinate became the eighth 
 electorate ; the Protestants gained liberty of conscience ; and the 
 imperial authority over the princes of the empire was diminished. 
 
34 SKETCH OF THE [SECT. I. 
 
 This was the epoch of several important changes in the internal 
 constitution of Germany : standing armies were now maintained, 
 and a regular system of taxation established. The emperor 
 Ferdinand III. died before the peace, in 1637, and was succeeded 
 by his son Ferdinand III., at whose death, in 1658, Leopold I. 
 ascended the throne. Notwithstanding the pacific disposition of 
 this emperor, he was involved in several contests with Turkey 
 and France ; of the war of the Spanish succession he did not live 
 to see the termination. In 1692, Brunswick-Luneburg was 
 made the ninth electorate, much to the dissatisfaction of the elder 
 branch of the family of Guelph. In 1701, Prussia became a 
 kingdom, and its influence on the affairs of the empire gradually 
 increased from this time. The son of Leopold, Joseph I., pro- 
 secuted the war of the Spanish succession, and placed the electors 
 of Bavaria and Cologne under the bann of the empire for having 
 made common cause with France. On the premature death of 
 Joseph in 1711 , his brother Charles VI. was invested with the 
 imperial dignity. This prince was an ambitious competitor for 
 the Spanish crown, but the peace of liastadt in 1714 frustrated 
 his projects. He succeeded, however, in establishing that celebrated 
 Austrian family law respecting the succession, which is called 
 the Pragmatic Sanction. In 1733, he took part in the Polish 
 war in favour of Augustus III. of Saxony, against Stanislaus 
 Lescinsky, who was favoured by Lewis XV. : it was terminated 
 favourably for the Saxons, by the peace of Vienna in 1735. In 
 1739, peace was purchased from the Turks by the concession of 
 Belgrade, Servia, and Orsova. 
 
 Charles VI. was the last male representative of the house of 
 Hapsburg : at his death in 1740, his daughter Maria Theresa 
 succeeded to the government of his hereditary possessions. But 
 the prince elector, Charles Albert of Bavaria, disputed her right 
 to the Austrian succession, and in 1742 opposed her as emperor 
 of Germany, under the name of Charles VII. A war of eight 
 years' duration ensued, which was concluded after the death of 
 her rival, on terms favourable to Maria Theresa, who, in the 
 mean time, had been involved in two wars respecting Silesia with 
 Frederic II. of Prussia. On the 15th of September, 1745, her 
 
Cil. I.] HISTOllY OF GERMANY. 35 
 
 husband, Francis I., was elected emperor of Germany. The 
 dispute respecting Silesia continued, and gave rise to the Seven 
 Years' War, which lasted till the peace of Hubertsburg, in 1763. 
 
 In 1765, Joseph II. succeeded his father as emperor. The 
 first acts of his government were a revision of the administration 
 of justice and of the system of finance: he next abolished the 
 order of the Jesuits in his dominions, following the example of 
 some other European sovereigns. The character of this prince 
 and the tendency of the time were manifested by the seculari- 
 zation of monasteries, the edict of toleration of October 13, 
 1781, and the granting a greater share of liberty to the press 
 than it had hitherto enjoyed. The insurrection in Belgium, and 
 the renewal of the war against the Turks, troubled the last years 
 of this emperor, who died oppressed with cares, February 20, 
 1790. Joseph was bold, but too precipitate; he had not suffi- 
 ciently studied the temper of his subjects, and he outstripped 
 their intelligence and their wants. He undertook an unequal 
 contest against the voice of mankind, and the work of his life 
 perished with him. 
 
 Leopold II., his brother, was now called from Tuscany to 
 receive the imperial crown. In the succeeding year, Prussia 
 interfered between the Austrians and the Turks, and peace was con- 
 cluded. The storm of revolution which had long been gathering, 
 and which had at length burst over France, threatened Germany 
 also with devastation : on the 25th of August, 1791 5 Leopold 
 and Frederic William II. of Prussia, entered into an alliance at 
 Pilnitz, to maintain the integrity of the German constitution and 
 empire, and to support the rights of the royal family of France. 
 A few months afterwards, Leopold died, but his son and suc- 
 cessor, Francis II., entered into the same league with Prussia. 
 When the National Assembly declared war against Austria, the 
 challenge was accepted by the whole German empire, November 
 23, 1792. After the unsuccessful campaign of the duke of 
 Brunswick and other failures, Prussia and several other German 
 states concluded a separate peace with the new republic in 1795 ; 
 and two years afterwards, the war between France and Austria 
 was interrupted by the treaty of Campo Formio. Negotiations 
 
 D2 
 
36 SKETCH OF THE [SECT. I. 
 
 for peace between the empire and France were entered into at 
 Rastadt, but they were frustrated by the renewal of hostilities in 
 1799. The peace of Luneville, which was concluded February 
 9, 1801, made the Rhine the boundary of France, to which 
 the empire ceded a territory of more than 1200 square miles, and 
 containing nearly 4,000,000 of inhabitants. 
 
 In 1804, Francis II. constituted Austria an hereditary empire, 
 and soon afterwards, in conjunction with Russia, declared war 
 against the emperor of the French. In the campaign which 
 ensued, Ulrn surrendered to the French, who on the 2nd of 
 December, 1805, completely defeated the allied sovereigns at 
 Austerlitz: the peace of Presburg concluded this war, in 
 which, three states of the empire, Bavaria, Wurtemberg, and 
 Baden, had taken part as allies of France. In the following 
 year, sixteen German princes separated themselves from the em- 
 pire, and formed a union, of which the constitution was organized 
 at Paris, July, 1806, and laid before the general imperial assembly 
 at Regensburg, on the succeeding 1st of August, by the French 
 charge d'affaires, Bacher. The union thus established was called 
 the Rhenish Confederacy, and its members subjected themselves 
 to the emperor of the French as their protector. This decisive 
 measure was speedily followed by another. 
 
 Napoleon declared, " that he regarded this confederacy as a 
 natural and necessary consequence of the peace of Presburg; 
 that the diet had long ceased to have a will ; that the union of 
 Hanover with Prussia had abolished one electorate, and that the 
 king of Sweden had incorporated one of the imperial provinces 
 with his other states ; that, therefore, he did not recognise the 
 existence of the German constitution, but on the other hand, was 
 ready to acknowledge the unlimited sovereignty of the princes 
 whose territories had hitherto composed the empire, and enter 
 into the same relations with them as with the other independent 
 sovereign powers of Europe. 1 ' By these means the German 
 empire of millennial duration was dissolved : on the 6th of 
 August, 1806, the Emperor Francis resigned the imperial crown, 
 and declared his hereditary possessions to be separate from the 
 German empire. 
 
Oil. I.] HISTORY OF GERMANY. 3J 
 
 In 1806, the confederated states of the Rhine were called on 
 to furnish troops for a fresh war of Napoleon against Prussia, 
 Russia, Saxony, and Sweden. In October, the power of the 
 first-mentioned kingdom was completely annihilated at Jena, and 
 peace was shortly afterwards concluded at Tilsit. The Rhenish 
 confederacy was now joined by eleven princes of Northern Ger- 
 many; and in 1807, tne kingdom of Westphalia was erected for 
 Jerome Buonaparte out of Prussian, Hessian, and Brunswickian 
 provinces. 
 
 In 1809, a new war broke out between France and Austria, on 
 the 9th of April : between the 20th and 23rd of the same month, 
 three battles were fought, at Abensberg, Eckmuhl, and Ratisbon ; 
 and Vienna capitulated on the 12th of May. By the peace of 
 Vienna, of the 16th of October, Austria ceded the Illy nan 
 provinces on the right bank of the Save to France; Saltz- 
 burg, to Bavaria ; districts in Lusatia, and the whole of West 
 Galicia, to Saxony ; and the emperor consented to the marriage 
 of his daughter with Napoleon. When Napoleon undertook 
 his fatal expedition into Russia, in 1812, Austria and the numer- 
 ous members of the Rhenish confederacy, were forced to furnish 
 contingents to his army ; and 100,000 Germans found their 
 graves in the wilds of Russia. The French on their retreat from 
 Moscow were severely pressed by the Russians; to whom the 
 king of Prussia formally joined himself at Kalisch, February 28, 
 1813: at the same time, several states of the North flew to arms 
 in the cause of liberation : insurrections broke out at Lubeck and 
 Hamburg, and all Germany was agitated by the hope of a speedy 
 emancipation from her disgraceful bondage. On the 10th of 
 August, Austria deserted Napoleon and went over to the allies, 
 whose arms, owing to their unanimity and enthusiasm, were soon 
 to be crowned by permanent success. On the 8th of October, 
 1813, the Bavarians quitted the ranks of the oppressor to fight 
 for their country^ freedom, and ten days afterwards, the battle 
 of Leipsic overthrew the domination of the French in Germany. 
 The Rhenish confederacy now fell to ruins ; the king of Wur- 
 temberg joined the allies on the 2nd of November, and the other 
 sovereigns of the South shortly followed his example. The 
 
HISTORY OF GERMANY. [SECT. I. 
 
 French retreated beyond the Rhine, and were pursued by the 
 allies, who entered Paris, March 31, 1814. On the 30th of May, 
 peace was concluded at Paris : France restored all its conquests, 
 with the exception of Montbeillard and a few small districts. 
 
 It was decided that the German states should remain indepen- 
 dent, but connected by a federative union, which was shortly 
 afterwards established by the congress of Vienna. Thus, Ger- 
 many has ceased to be a single, united empire, and is changed 
 into a union of states, which are bound by a system of co-ordina- 
 tion, but not of subordination : they are collectively represented 
 by a diet, which held its first sitting at Frankfort, November 
 5, 1816. 
 
 In order to animate their subjects in the war which was waged 
 against Napoleon for the national existence, some of the sove- 
 reigns promised to present them with a constitutional form of 
 government, in the room of an arbitrary one, and, at the con- 
 clusion of that vehement and honourable struggle, they redeemed 
 their pledge in various modes and seasons. If the sanguine have 
 not obtained all that they expected, and if the immediate results 
 have not been satisfactory to all, something must be allowed to 
 the suddenness of the measure, to the imperfections inseparable 
 from a first experiment, and to the want of training and appren- 
 ticeship. For a nation does not accustom itself in a few years to 
 constitutional forms ; they must grow even through centuries to 
 maturity before the fruit can be abundant, wholesome and grate- 
 ful. One of the most fatal political errors of our age, is the 
 belief that every people are ripe for a constitution, and that 
 all, in the first moment of fruition, are capable of converting 
 possession into happiness. The soil must first undergo a slow 
 preparatory cultivation, and many a harvest must be reaped 
 without present profit but still, not all in vain.* 
 
 * The English language is not very rich in histories of Germany, but we may 
 refer the reader to Charles Butler's Succinct History of the Revolutions of the 
 Empire of Germany (1812), Halliday's Works on the History of Hanover, 
 Brunswick, and the Guelphs ; Dunham's History of the Germanic Empire, in 
 3 vols., forming a part of Lardner's Cyclopaedia (1834-5); and, above all, to the 
 Universal History of John von Mtiller, eloquently translated by Dr. Prichard, 
 3 vols. (1818). See also Greenwood's History of Germany, as far as the year 
 774. (4to.) 
 
39 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 GENERAL VIEW OF GERMANY. 
 
 Name, Position, Surface, Climate; Rivers, Canals, Railroads, Products; 
 Population, Language, Universities, Periodicals, Theatres; Manu- 
 factures, Exports and Imports, the New Commercial Union ; Poli- 
 tical Constitution. General Statistical View of each of the States 
 forming the German Confederation. 
 
 OF all the leading European countries, Germany is the least 
 familiarly known, and until a recent period, the least frequented 
 by strangers, if we except two or three of its Baths, which were 
 anything but German in their manners and aspect. This obscurity, 
 which is, happily, daily yielding to a brighter dawn, has been 
 protracted by a variety of causes. One of the chief of these has 
 been the later development of its literary and artistical genius, 
 another has been the difficulty of the language, and the too long 
 adherence to the Gothic letters, which have frightened many a 
 timid student, and, which, it is to be hoped, will soon be entirely 
 disused. It is true that this old method of printing has been 
 valued by some as a national characteristic, but it is assuredly one 
 of no value ; and it would be well, also, if the peculiar manner of 
 hand-writing were discarded at the same sweep. The excessive 
 cultivation of the French language in almost all the schools of 
 Europe, and more particularly in our own ; its general employ- 
 ment in diplomacy, and the overweening partiality formerly enter- 
 tained towards it among the higher ranks of Germany, have proved 
 powerful impediments to a better knowledge of this great country. 
 Bad roads, inconvenient conveyance, and frequent occupations of 
 armies, may be also added to the catalogue of obstacles which no 
 longer exist. 
 
 The name of Germany is believed be derived from two words, 
 the first of which means either war, or a sword, and the second 
 is a man ; together they imply bravery, as does the word Frank. 
 
40 GENERAL VIEW [SECT. I. 
 
 The Germany of the ancients covered a much larger space than 
 that of our own time, as it appears to have designated not only 
 the actual Germany, but also other regions which have been before 
 enumerated. The people who inhabited these countries were 
 called Teutones, perhaps from the name of one of their deities, 
 hence the common appellation of Teutonic applied to all the Ger- 
 manic family, and hence also the word Teutschland or Deutsch- 
 land. The etymology of the word Alemanni, whence Allemagne, 
 is so variously given that I shall not pretend to interpret it. 
 
 Placed in the centre of Europe, Germany forms nearly the 
 fourteenth part of that quarter of the world, and about the two 
 hundred and ninth part of the world itself. It is larger than the 
 whole of Great Britain of Ireland and of Italy taken together, 
 larger than France, Belgium and Holland taken together, and, in 
 its whole extent, it comprises, including rivers and lakes, 248,832 
 English square miles. Its length on the Baltic amounts to eighty- 
 three German miles ; on the German ocean to nearly thirty-six 
 German miles, and on the Adriatic Sea to forty German miles, 
 and its entire extent of coast, consequently, ranges as far as one 
 hundred and fifty-nine German miles.* 
 
 The physical aspect of the country presents every variety of 
 feature. In the north it is level, and includes extensive sandy dis- 
 tricts, and large peat marshes ; and in this direction, the coast is 
 in some places so low as to require dikes in order to defend it 
 against the sea. The centre and the south are diversified by 
 noble mountains. In rivers it is more favoured than any other 
 European country ; the Rhine runs one hundred and ninety 
 German miles, during a greater part of which it continues navi- 
 gable ; the Elbe extends five hundred and seventy-five English 
 miles in length, and is also a navigable stream ; and the grand 
 Danube does not complete the list, while it appears destined, here- 
 after, to eclipse all the others in political importance. 
 
 The climate of Germany seems to have altered its character 
 
 * The student who desires an exact account of German measures of length and 
 value will refer to Itineraries and Geographies ; but, for the sake of assisting the 
 general reader in forming round comparisons, the German mile may be rated at 
 four miles English ; the florin at two shillings, and the thaler, or dollar, at four 
 shillings ; this is not an exact computation, but the most convenient one. 
 
CH. II.] OF GERMANY. 41 
 
 under the influence of civilization. It was intensely cold in the 
 age of Caesar and of Tacitus, but the country was at that period 
 uncultivated, barren, cheerless beset with marshes and with im- 
 mense gloomy forests. The Hercynian forest is said, in the time 
 of Caesar, to have been nine days' journey in length, and six in 
 breadth ; it is now lost in various woods, which are called by 
 separate names. At present several extensive forests still stud 
 the traveller's road, and the mountains are often crowned with 
 picturesque woods. The care of these forests occupies a large 
 population, of various degrees of rank and education, and lends a 
 peculiar trait to German life, and not the only one which originates 
 in its local circumstances. It is in the mountains and forests of 
 Germany that we must wander in search of wild tradition, fairy 
 lore, and still surviving specimens of bold, racy, pastoral character, 
 starting in rude relief from above the surrounding tamer level of 
 cities and of commerce. 
 
 In the north of Germany the air is moist, and colder than in the 
 mountainous central districts. The south is more dry than the 
 north, but less warm than the central parts. Winter reigns 
 almost constantly in the higher mountains, or yields but for a 
 transient moment to the sunbeam; but in the narrow valleys 
 which abound in the mountainous ranges, the atmosphere is often 
 oppressively close. In the Southern Tyrol, and the country 
 which borders the Adriatic, we breathe almost an Italian air, and 
 witness southern fruits in a kindred element. The climate of 
 Germany has been by Malte Brun divided into three great zones, 
 which admit also of subdivisions. The first embraces the northern 
 plains, more damp than cold, and exposed to vicissitudes from 
 every wind. It is open to the influence of two seas, but the 
 north-west plain is most foggy and least cold, while the north- 
 east plain suffers most from tempests. The second zone contains 
 all the middle part of Germany, Moravia, Bohemia, Saxony, 
 Franconia, Suabia, the Rhine country, and Hesse-Cassel ; here 
 the mountains protect from the sea, the seasons are not interrupted 
 in their natural progress by the winds, and fogs are not common, 
 but the elevation of the soil diminishes the degree of warmth 
 which is natural to that latitude when on the level of the ocean. 
 
42 GENERAL VIEW [SECT. I. 
 
 This is considered by Malte Brun the most agreeable climate of 
 Germany, the most wholesome, and the most favourable to the 
 vine. The third zone is that of the Alps, where the considerable 
 elevation and the rapid declivities produce the extremes of tem- 
 perature eternal glaciers in one part, perfumed valleys in another, 
 and an alternate rude health and decline of the vineyard. 
 
 The principal German rivers are the Rhine, into which flow 
 the Wutach, Wiesen, Kauder, Treisam, Kinzig, Rench, Murg, 
 Neckar, Main, Mosel, Lahn ; the Danube which receives the 
 Iller, Biber, Ilm, Usel, Inn, Ens, Steyer ; the Weser which is 
 formed by the junction of the Werra and the Fulda; the Elbe 
 into which flow the Moldau, Mulde, Saale, the Oder and the 
 Etsch. The Vistula also rises in Germany. 
 
 There are not many canals in Germany ; the principal are the 
 Eider canal, the Plauen canal between the Elbe and the Havel ; 
 the Finow and Mullroese canals, the latter between the Spree and 
 the Oder ; the canal in Bavaria between the Isar and the Ammer, 
 the Papenburg canals ; the Vienna canal, from that city to 
 beyond Neustadt; and the canal which unites the Steckenitz 
 with the Trave at Lubeck. 
 
 Railroads are not neglected in Germany, but their extension 
 depends on the will of the governments, which does not always 
 correspond with the interests of individuals. A statement has 
 been made, we know not how correctly, that the king of Prussia 
 stipulates in his permission to railroad companies, that all such 
 railroads may be taken possession of by his government at any 
 time, on making a compensation to the existing shareholders : 
 and that at the end of ninety years, all such railroads shall 
 become unconditionally the property of the state. A railroad 
 has been commenced between Antwerp and Cologne ; another is 
 contemplated between Cologne and Amsterdam. Between Dresden 
 and Leipzig, and between Vienna and Briinn, railroads are in 
 progress, or already completed. Bavaria has the honour of 
 having opened the first one in Germany for steam-carriages : this 
 was from Furth to Nuremberg. From Linz there is a rail-road 
 as far as Gmlinden, and another from Linz to Budweis. These 
 railroads are not all traversed by steam-carriages. 
 
CH. II.] OF GERMANY. 43 
 
 The principal mineral products are: silver, (123,000 marks 
 annually,) found chiefly in the Erzgebirge and in the Harz ; 
 gold (182 marks); iron (3,000,000 cwt) ; copper (39,000 cwt.); 
 tin (8,000 cwt.) ; lead (200,000 cwt.) ; quicksilver (6,180 cwt.), 
 in Idria and Zweibrucken ; cinnabar (8,000 cwt.) ; cobalt 
 (1 6,000 cwt. ); zinc; sulphur; coal; marble; alabaster; gypsum; 
 alum ; vitriol ; bismuth ; antimony ; saltpetre ; lime ; asbes- 
 tos ; slate, grinding, rolling, mill, sand and pumice stones; 
 chalcedony ; 'basalt ; agate ; amethysts ; granite ; porphyry ; 
 precious stones ; great quantities of spring and rock salt (6,000,000 
 cwt. is produced by seventy-six salt-works, now in operation). 
 The chief vegetable products are: corn, maize, buck- wheat, garden 
 fruits, pulse, potatoes, hemp, flax, hops, rapeseed, madder, woad, 
 saffron, aniseed, liquorice- wood, coriander-seeds, mustard. The 
 most common trees are oaks, beeches, firs, pines, larches, alders, 
 birch. Of wine thirteen million eimer annually are made on 
 the Rhine, Neckar, Main, near Meissen and Naumburg in 
 Saxony, in Austria and Bohemia. 
 
 Among the animals of Germany are: abundant horned cattle 
 (calculated at 14,000,000); horses (about 2,000,000), of which 
 the best breeds are in Mecklenburg, Holstein, Oldenburg and 
 East Friesland; sheep (26,000,000) of which there are fine 
 breeds in Brandenburg and Saxony, and a peculiar one with 
 coarse wool found only on the heath of Luneburg ; swine 
 (8,000,000); goats; asses; mules and deer. In the south also 
 are found bears, wolves, lynxes, the chamois, marmots, foxes, 
 otters, and beavers. There are also tame and wild fowl, as black- 
 cocks and partridges. Geese abound in Pomerania, East Fries- 
 land, and Mecklenburg. There are quantities of bees and silk- 
 worms. The principal fish are sturgeon, pike, salmon, carp, 
 tench, eels, lampreys, Swedish anchovies, trout ; crabs and other 
 shell-fish. 
 
 The number of inhabitants was, at the close of the year 1837, 
 37,336,825. The annual proportion of births to the population is 
 one in twenty-seven, of deaths one in forty-five, and of marriages, 
 one in a hundred. Such is the recent statement of Moreau de 
 Jonnes, with respect to Germany, at large, but in the various 
 
44 GENERAL VIEW [SECT. I. 
 
 individual states these numbers are different in amount. On the 
 whole it appears that marriages are more numerous in propor- 
 tion in Germany than in any other European state, that births 
 are more numerous there in proportion to the population, than 
 in France, England, and Scotland, and that the annual propor- 
 tion of deaths is also greater than in Great Britain*. There are 
 2390 cities, of which thirty-four contain more than 20,000 inha- 
 bitants; 2340 towns, 104,000 villages and hamlets, and 5,025,000 
 houses. The inhabitants belong to two separate races; 27,705,000 
 are Germans, and 5,325,000 are Sclavonians, who are scattered 
 throughout the east of Germany. The population includes like- 
 wise 188,000 Italians, in Illyria and the Tyrol ; and about 
 300,000 French and Walloons. 18,376,000 Germans are 
 Catholics, who still send to Rome about 300,000 florins annually, 
 for dispensations; and 15,145,600 are Protestants. To these 
 must be added 25,000 Moravian brothers, 5,000 Mennonites, 
 2,000 belonging to the Greek Church, 292,500 Jews, a few 
 Quakers and other sectarians. 
 
 The number of paupers in Germany (excluding Austria and 
 Prussia) is estimated by Schmidt at one in twenty of the whole 
 population. The proportion of the agricultural population to the 
 other inhabitants in all Germany (exclusive of Austria and 
 Prussia) is rated by Schmidt as three to onef. The German 
 language has doubtless an Asiatic origin, and is thought by some 
 to have been derived from the Sanscrit, and by others from the 
 Persian. The first traces of its cultivation in Europe are furnished 
 by the labours of Bishop Ulfilas, a Goth, who flourished in the 
 latter half of the fourth century, and who translated the Evan- 
 gelists into a language, which is generally called Gothic, but 
 which is in fact the basis of Upper German (Ober Deutsch). 
 This latter, which was once spoken all over Southern Germany, 
 and compared with which the Lower German (Nieder Deutsch 
 or Platt Deutsch) was only an insignificant dialect, is not to be 
 confounded with the High German (Hoc/i Deustch) of our days, 
 
 * Moreau de Jonnes. Statistique de la Grande Bretagne et de 1'Irlaude. 1837-8. 
 -\ Untersfclmngeii ttber Be^olkerung Arbeitslobn, imd Pauperism, von Dr. F. ? 
 Schmidt (Leipzig, 1836). 
 
CH. II.] OF GERMANY". 45 
 
 which is a language of, comparatively speaking, very modern 
 origin, which was not spoken originally by any particular race, 
 but which in modern times has been gradually formed out of the 
 other dialects by the labours of the learned. This language is 
 principally derived from the Upper German (Ober Deutsch), 
 but it is not the same. The latter first began to be really culti- 
 vated in the eighth century, under Charlemagne. Afterwards the 
 Minnesingers contributed greatly to polish and perfect it. High 
 German (Hoch Deutsch) may be said to have been modelled by 
 Luther when he translated the Bible. With him commence the 
 history and literature of the German language as we have it at 
 present, The principal dialects at present spoken are, the Aleman 
 in Suabia, the Franconian, the Bavarian, the Thurmgian, the 
 idiom of the Lower Rhine, the Platt Deutsch in the north of 
 Germany, and those of North-eastern Prussia. 
 
 The peculiar facility which this language possesses in forming 
 new expressions, or, in other words, its vigorous creative faculty, 
 prevents it from attaining a complete stage of existence ; it is 
 always in transition. The great writers continually invent new 
 words, which rapidly find their way into the national idiom. 
 Sporschil observes in his Dictionary, that the two words Wunder* 
 and Zauber-\- will suffice to exemplify this exuberance. There are 
 few productions of nature and art, few objects of hill, field, or 
 valley, that would not admit of an intelligible and expressive 
 form, when compounded with these two wordsj. The German 
 language is very unequally spoken ; a remarkable variety on 
 point of correctness and elegance prevails even among persons of 
 education. Indeed it is not uncommon to hear it remarked of a 
 German gentleman, that he speaks his language well. On the 
 whole, probably, the German language is nowhere heard in higher 
 perfection than in the city of Hanover. 
 
 The universities are remarkably numerous ; there are twenty- 
 three, viz : those of Berlin, Gottingen, Halle, Breslau, Leipsic, 
 Heidelberg, Jena, Munich, Innspruck, Graetz, Prague, Vienna, 
 
 * Wonder. -j- Magic. 
 
 J Vollstandiges Englisch-Deutschjfs, und Deutsch-Englishes Wdrterbuch, 
 page vi, Leipzig, 1838. 
 
46 GENERAL VJEW [SECT. I. 
 
 Greifswalde, Wurzburg, Erlangen, Tubingen, Freiburg, Mar- 
 burg, Giessen, Kiel, Konigsberg, Rostock and Bonn. Of these 
 seven are Catholic : three, viz. Breslau, Bonn, and Tubingen, both 
 Catholic and Protestant, and all the rest are Protestant. 
 
 In 1830, there were at these universities 890 teachers and 
 nearly 19,000 students. The annual expenditure of the re- 
 spective governments upon them is, at Bonn 150,000 florins, at 
 Giessen 47,791, at Heidelberg 74,000, at Tubingen 100,000, at 
 Breslau 91,000, at Halle 98,000, at Erlangen 72,800, and at 
 Jena 75,000 florins. There are 370 gymnasiums, and 150 places 
 containing public libraries. In Germany there are more authors 
 than in any other European nation: the number at present amounts 
 to about 10,000. In 1833, there were 121 political daily and 
 weekly newspapers, and 284 non-political newspapers, without 
 enumerating different advertising and official papers, and 161 
 periodical journals. 
 
 Permanent theatres are established in fifty-two cities ; and 
 there are also more than thirty itinerant companies. The best 
 theatres are at Berlin, Vienna, Weimar, Munich, Brunswick, 
 Frankfort on the Maine, Hamburg, Nuremberg and Dresden. 
 In 1829, the entire number of persons employed in the German 
 theatres was 3,500, which may therefore be considered as the sum 
 total of the Thespian profession. 
 
 The chief German manufactories are, of linen, in Silesia, 
 Bohemia, Westphalia ; of woollen goods, on the Lower Rhine, 
 in Saxony, Silesia, Brandenburg, &c. ; of silk, leather, cotton 
 goods and lace in the Erzgebirge ; of tapestry, paper, and glass 
 in Bohemia and Silesia ; of mirrors, near Nuremberg ; of china, 
 at Berlin, Meissen, and Vienna ; of delft-ware, of which there are 
 fifty-five, and which together with the twenty-five of china, employ 
 about 8,000 men; of jewellery, at Berlin and Augsburg; of 
 iron wares, in Westphalia and the Rhenish countries; of fire- 
 arms and sword-blades, at Spandau, Potsdam, and several other 
 places ; of cannon, at several capitals ; of gunpowder, tobacco, 
 artificial flowers, straw-hats, musical and other instruments, 
 beer, brandy, liqueurs, vitriol, and sugar. The principal ex- 
 ports are, wood, corn (to the value of 10,000,000 of dollars), 
 
CH. II.] OF GERMANY. 47 
 
 wine, linen, (formerly to the value of 30,000,000 of dollars), 
 thread, iron, steel, Nuremberg wares, china, quicksilver, glass, 
 mirrors, cattle, fruit, wool, salt, potash, smoked and salt meats, 
 earthenware, wax, leather, lead, woollen and cotton goods, lace, 
 rags, bones, quills, skins, alum, lead, vitriol, cinnabar, and 
 brass wire. The chief imports are wine, tobacco, southern fruits, 
 colonial goods, millinery, fancy ornaments, and Russian linseed 
 (to the value of 1,000,000 dollars annually). The most impor- 
 tant maritime towns are, Hamburg, Altona, Bremen, Emden, 
 Lubeck, Rostock, Stettin, Trieste, Wismar; and the principal 
 places for inland trade are, Vienna, Leipsic, Augsburg, Breslau, 
 Berlin, Frankfort on the Maine, and Frankfort on the Oder, 
 Nuremberg, Brunswick, Aix-la-Chapelle, Cologne, Elberfeld, 
 Mainz, Botzen, and Prague. The most important fairs are at 
 Leipsic, Frankfort on the Maine, Naumburg, Brunswick, Botzen, 
 and Offenbach. 
 
 The commercial union lately formed, at the instigation and 
 under the direction of Prussia, among several German states, and 
 which is accordingly denominated in the Conversations Lexicon, 
 the Prussian-German Zoll Verein demands some mention. The 
 avowed object is to encourage German trade, and to unite all 
 under one common system of customs. The partners in this 
 union have agreed to establish one same scale of duties, to get rid 
 of all intermediate custom-houses, and to divide among the partner 
 states the profits accruing, in proportion to the population of each. 
 Thus, the restraints on internal transport have been mitigated. 
 The following states compose the association : Prussia, Bavaria, 
 Saxony, Wurtemberg, Baden, Hesse-Darmstadt, Cassel, Nassau, 
 Frankfort on the Maine; Hanover, and Brunswick, and the 
 Hanse Towns, have hitherto stood aloof. In 1835 an union was 
 formed between Hanover, Brunswick, and Oldenburg ; this com- 
 bination endeavoured to gain over to its party, Lippe-Schaum- 
 burg, and Lippe-Detmold ; and has finally acceded to a conjoint 
 union with the Germanic Commercial Association. Holstein is 
 neutral. Mecklenburg has entered into a treaty with France. 
 Austria has all along remained independent, but it appears that 
 a commercial treaty is likely to be formed between her and 
 
48 GENERAL VIEW [SECT. I. 
 
 England; two states which seem eminently calculated to render 
 mutual service to each other, both in peace and war, and which 
 are united by long interchange of good offices. 
 
 The political constitution of Germany was fixed by the treaty 
 of Vienna, concluded June 8, 1815; according to which, the sove- 
 reign princes and free towns form the Germanic confederation, 
 the object of which is the maintenance of the external and internal 
 safety of Germany, and the independence and inviolability of the 
 several states. The affairs of the confederation are regulated by 
 a diet, the members of which have, through the medium of their 
 plenipotentiaries, many of them separate and entire votes, and 
 others, collective votes. Austria, Prussia, Bavaria, Saxony, 
 Hanover, Wurtemberg, Baden, Hesse-Cassel, Hesse-Darmstadt, 
 Holstein, and Luxemburg, have each one vote. The grand- 
 ducal and ducal houses have one conjointly ; as also Brunswick 
 and Nassau; the two Mecklenburgs; Oldenburg, Anhalt, and 
 Schwarzburg; Hohenzollern, Lichtenstein, Reuss, Lippe, and 
 Waldeck ; and finally, the free towns ; thus there are altogether 
 seventeen votes. Austria has the presidency of the diet. Each 
 member is entitled to originate and bring forward propositions, 
 which the diet is bound to deliberate upon within a certain period. 
 When a proposition relates to the formation and alteration of 
 the fundamental laws of the confederation, when it refers to the 
 federal act itself, or to the organic federal institutions, or when it 
 involves arrangements of any kind, which are of general import- 
 ance, the assembly is formed into a plenum, in which case, how- 
 ever, in consideration of the difference in the extent of the several 
 federal states, the following proportionate distribution of votes has 
 been agreed upon: Austria, Prussia, Saxony, Bavaria, Hanover, 
 and Wurtemberg have each four; Baden, Hesse-Cassel, Hesse- 
 Darmstadt, Holstein, and Luxemburg, each three; Brunswick, 
 Mecklenburg-Schwerin, and Nassau, have each two votes; Weimar, 
 Altenburg, Meiningen, Coburg-Gotha, Mecklenburg-Strelitz, 
 Oldenburg, the three Anhalts, the two Schwarzburgs, the two 
 Hohenzollerns, Lichtenstein, Waldeck, the two branches of Reuss, 
 Lippe-Schaumburg, Lippe-Detmold, Hesse-Homburg, Lubeck, 
 Frankfort, Bremen, and Hamburg, each one ; making altogether 
 sixty-nine votes. 
 
CH. II.] OF GERMANY. 49 
 
 The question as to whether any particular subject require the 
 decision of the Plenum is determined by a majority of votes in 
 the smaller assembly, where also all decisions which have to be sub- 
 mitted to the Plenum are prepared. In both, a majority of votes 
 decides the question, but in the latter it must consist of two-thirds 
 of the whole number of voices. Moreover, in all cases where the 
 alteration of a fundamental law is agitated, or when the question to 
 be decided affects the organic federal institutions, or matters of 
 religion, a majority in either assembly of less than two-thirds 
 is invalid. The diet is permanent, but is enabled, when the 
 subjects of deliberation are disposed of, to adjourn for a certain 
 time not exceeding four months. 
 
 To those readers who may desire to obtain an intimate 
 acquaintance with the topography, local history, antiquities and 
 amusements of Germany, we are glad to have an opportunity of 
 recommending two excellent volumes which have recently appeared, 
 and which surpass all their predecessors in variety and minute- 
 ness; these are, the Handbook for Travellers on the Con- 
 tinent, including Northern Germany* and the Handbook for 
 Travellers in Southern Germany. It is but justice to declare 
 that no work of the same extent at all equal in value, has appeared, 
 even in the German language; the Guide of Reichard improved 
 by subsequent editors, comes the nearest to it, but still with a long 
 interval. 
 
 We shall conclude this miscellaneous chapter with a tabular 
 view of all the German states, arranged according to their com- 
 parative rank, and displaying their extent, population, revenue, 
 and military contingent, or contribution to the army of the 
 confederation. 
 
50 
 
 STATISTICAL VIEW OF THE GERMAN CONFEDERATION. 
 
 STATES. 
 
 Area in 
 Geographical 
 Square Miles. 
 
 Population 
 in 1831. 
 
 Contingent 
 to the Army 
 of the 
 Confederation 
 
 Revenue in 
 Convention 
 Florins. 
 
 Inhabit- 
 ants to 
 Sq. Mile. 
 
 1 Austria 
 
 3,667.85 
 3,359.28 
 
 1,477.* 
 271. 6 ? 
 695.*7 
 359. 20 
 
 279.54 
 
 208.90 
 177 
 172.55 
 108.60 
 66. 8^ 
 23.4i 
 
 37.60 
 41.7=! 
 
 70.37 
 
 223.88 
 36. 13 
 116 
 82. 7 
 17 
 16 
 15 
 16. 90 
 19. 10 
 6. 50 
 18." 
 2. 45 
 6. 84 
 21. 10 
 20. 60 
 
 9.75 
 
 21. 66 
 7. 84 
 6.' 5 
 
 4.33 
 
 3.2i 
 
 7.10 
 
 10,374,736 
 9,986,755 
 4,187,397 
 1,558,553 
 1,662,500 
 1,587,448 
 1,208,697 
 677,849 
 736,919 
 410,385 
 315,000 
 238,672 
 114,048 
 130,231 
 142,064 
 245,783 
 463,362 
 85,418 
 250,000 
 362,652 
 57,629 
 43,325 
 36,000 
 54,080 
 62,000 
 21,000 
 42,341 
 5,800 
 25,500 
 59,500 
 77,500 
 23,128 
 56,000 
 23,000 
 46 503 
 
 94,822 
 79,234 
 35,800 
 12,000 
 13,054 
 13,955 
 10,000 
 5,679 
 6,195 
 3,900 
 2,556 
 2,010 
 982 
 1,366 
 1,150 
 2,096 
 3,580 
 717 
 2,177 
 3,028 
 529 
 370 
 325 
 451 
 539 
 145 
 370 
 55 
 206 
 538 
 690 
 240 
 518 
 200 
 406 
 475 
 485 
 1,298 
 
 70,500,000 
 
 70,000,000 
 
 28,000,836 
 11,000,000 
 11,000,000 
 11,000,000 
 10,393,606 
 5,200,000 
 5,296,000 
 2,400,000 
 1,800,000 
 1,875,000 
 682,560 
 1,200,000 
 1,100,000 
 2,376,933 
 2,300,000 
 500,000 
 1,500,000 
 2,810,000 
 
 710,000 
 
 450,000 
 400,000 
 400,000 
 325,000 
 130,000 
 300,000 
 22,000 
 140,000 
 470,000 
 490,000 
 215,000 
 400,000 
 180,000 
 400,000 
 760,000 
 700,000 
 1,500,000 
 
 3,142 
 3,096 
 2,874 
 5,873 
 2,402 
 4,706 
 4,526 
 3,300 
 4,436 
 2,555 
 2,808 
 3,608 
 5,028 
 3,607 
 3,504 
 3,540 
 2,046 
 2,361 
 2,224 
 4,385 
 3,390 
 2,821 
 2,677 
 3,122 
 2,257 
 3,230 
 2,320 
 2,387 
 4,413 
 3,263 
 3,724 
 2,830 
 2,585 
 2,948 
 6,962 
 12,471 
 11,560 
 19,818 
 
 
 
 
 5 Hanover 
 
 
 7 Baden . . 
 
 8 Hesse-Cassel 
 
 9 Hesse-Darmstadt 
 
 10 Holstein 
 
 1 1 Luxemburg 
 
 
 13 Saxe-Altenburg 
 
 
 1 5 Saxe-Meiningen 
 
 
 17 Mecklenburg-Schwerin 
 18 Mecklenburg-Strelitz 
 19 Oldenburg 
 
 20 Nassau 
 
 21 Anhalt-Dessau 
 
 22 Anhalt-Bernburg 
 
 23 Anhalt-Kothcn 
 
 24 Schwarzburg-Sondershausen 
 25 Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt ... 
 26 Hohenzollern-Hechingen .... 
 27 Holienzollern-Sigmaringen 
 28 Lichtenstein 
 
 29 Reuss (elder line) 
 
 30 Reuss ( younger line) 
 
 31 Lippe-Detmold 
 
 32 Schaumburg-Lippe 
 
 33 Waldeck 
 
 34 Hesse Homburg 
 
 35 Lubeck 
 
 36 Frankfort 
 
 54,000 
 52,000 
 154,000 
 
 37 Bremen 
 
 38 Hamburg 
 
 Total 
 
 11,599. 28 
 
 34,838,423 302,272 
 
 248,936,935 
 
 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 
 THE MEDIATISED PRINCES OF GERMANY. 
 
 View of the Extent and Population of their Domains, and of their 
 
 Revenues. 
 
 PREVIOUSLY to the revolutionary wars, and to the invasion of the 
 French, Germany was divided into about three hundred sove- 
 reignties, and their temporal and ecclesiastical rulers possessed 
 all the attributes of kings, with the exception of their allegiance 
 to the emperor of Germany. A great part of them were swept 
 away by the political tempests, and became mediatised, or merged 
 in the greater states*. 
 
 In order to establish a permanent, uniform, and legal position 
 of the formerly independent mediatised princes, who became 
 mediate in and since the year 1806, the German powers have 
 agreed on the following points : 
 
 First, That all mediatised princes and counts should be placed 
 amongst the high nobility of Germany, together with which the 
 right of equal birth should be conceded to them. 
 
 Secondly, That they should be the principal noblemen of the 
 states to which they belong, where also they and their families 
 should form the privileged class, more particularly in respect to 
 taxation. 
 
 Thirdly, That they shall permanently possess all those rights 
 
 * The German empire, as it was then called, was divided into nine circles, Austria, 
 Bavaria, Suabia, Franconia, the Upper 'Rhine and the Lower Rhine, Westphalia, 
 Upper Saxony and Lower Saxony. There were also some districts which were not 
 included in any one of the nine circles, and yet were considered as belonging to the 
 German empire, such as Moravia, Lusatia, Silesia, Bohemia, and others. The 
 Austrian Low Countries, which had once formed the circle of Burgundy, had long 
 ceased to be considered as a part of the empire. These circles contained a multi- 
 tude of small independent states ; there were also fifty-one imperial cities, consti- 
 tuting so many republics. 
 
 Those who wish to study the fine old Gothic and feudal forms of Old Germany, 
 with all its curious appendages, should consult Busching^s Geography. (English 
 Trans,, 6 vols. 4to.) 
 
52 THE MEDIATISED PRINCES. [SECT. I. 
 
 and privileges, in respect to their persons, family, and property, 
 which are connected with the tenure and enjoyment of their 
 possessions, and which do not interfere with the higher rights of 
 government, and with the executive. 
 
 Austria ratified these provisions, and decreed, Sept. 9, 1825, 
 that the titles of the mediatised princes should correspond to their 
 independent ones. Thus the predicate Durchlaucht * is con- 
 ceded to princes, and the predicate Erlaucht ( to counts. Since 
 1833, the predicate Durchlauc/it, which was formerly only pos- 
 sessed by the chief of the house, has been assumed by all its 
 members. 
 
 The following catalogue of the mediatised princes and counts, 
 has been obtained from HasseFs Statistischer Umriss der Sdmmt- 
 lichen Europaischen Staaten, published in 1823. The popula- 
 tion and revenues have, of course, fluctuated since that date. 
 
 * Serene Highness. f Highness. 
 
Cn. III.] 
 
 THE MEDIATISED PRINCES. 
 
 53 
 
 I. 
 
 Names of the Mediatised Princes. 
 
 Sovereignties to which they 
 are subject. 
 
 Extent of 
 Territory 
 in Geogra 
 pineal 
 Sq. Miles. 
 
 Population. 
 
 Total 
 Revenue 
 in Con- 
 vention 
 Florins. 
 
 1 Arember 01 ' 
 
 Prussia and Hanover ... 
 Baden 
 
 44.88 
 1.70 
 
 19.90 
 3. 2 5 
 
 .80 
 
 5. 50 
 
 .50 
 10.25 
 
 .10 
 
 37. 21 
 
 2. 25 
 7 
 
 5.50 
 2.50 
 2.50 
 
 8. 5 
 
 4< 50 
 6.4* 
 
 6.39 
 
 3. 33 
 
 24.82 
 2.38 
 
 8. 3 ' 
 
 10. 03 
 15 
 
 2.70 
 1.80 
 
 3. 69 
 
 14.44 
 
 31 
 
 14.io 
 
 4 08 
 
 20> 
 3. 80 
 3. 05 
 
 1.90 
 
 5.*i 
 5. 90 
 
 9. 45 
 
 4 
 6. 14 
 
 12. 88 
 
 4. 50 
 6 
 3 
 5.7 
 
 7 .88 
 1.25 
 8.70 
 
 4.25 
 
 71,158 
 2,430 
 28,780 
 10,493 
 1,894 
 10,870 
 859 
 23,851 
 870 
 85,071 
 11,011 
 12,534 
 23,000 
 10,800 
 8,000 
 8,000 
 28,000 
 14,558 
 17,698 
 26,057 
 11,359 
 87,010 
 4,620 
 
 21,708 
 
 28,352 
 12,511 
 5,939 
 3,581 
 13,910 
 41,954 
 45,779 
 33,473 
 15,005 
 38,875 
 15,000 
 20,000 
 6,500 
 42,500 
 10,679 
 
 27,743 
 
 ' 9,033 
 16,736 
 
 30,746 
 
 9,700 
 15,000 
 6,900 
 16,609 
 22,289 
 2,235 
 16,569 
 10,777 
 
 400,000 
 20,000 
 160,000 
 60,000 
 110,000 
 60,000 
 180,000 
 30,000 
 1,500,000 
 600,000 
 70,000 
 30,000 
 100,000 
 80,000 
 50,000 
 50,000 
 100,000 
 90,000 
 90,000 
 150,000 
 170,000 
 570,000 
 120,000 
 
 170,000 
 
 350,000 
 150,000 
 180,000 
 25,000 
 110,000 
 300,000 
 200,000 
 180,000 
 100,000 
 210,000 
 40,000 
 ,45,000 
 20,000 
 80,000 
 300,000 
 
 105,000 
 
 60,000 
 300,000 
 
 350,000 
 40,000 
 
 70,000 
 
 30,000 
 
 70,000 
 
 110,000 
 100,000 
 85,000 
 90,000 
 
 2 Baden- Hochberg 
 
 3 Bentlieim-Bentheim 
 
 Hanover and Prussia ... 
 
 4 Bentheim-Tecklenburg 
 5 Colloredo 
 
 ^Vurtember " . . 
 
 6 Croy 
 
 Prussia 
 
 7 Dietrichstein 
 
 \Vurtemberg 
 
 8 Eichstedt 
 
 Bavaria 
 
 9 Esterhazy 
 
 Ditto 
 
 1 Furstenberg 
 
 Wurtemberg, Baden .... 
 Bavaria 
 
 1 1 Fugger-Babenhausen 
 
 12 Hesse 
 
 Prussia . .... 
 
 13 Hohenlohe-Barbenstehi ... 
 14 Hohenlohe-Iaxtberg 
 1 5 Holienlohe-Kirchberg 
 16 Hohenlohe-Langenburg .... 
 17 Hohenlohe-Oehringen ... 
 
 
 Ditto 
 
 Ditto 
 
 Ditto 
 
 Ditto 
 
 1 8 Holienlohe-Schillingsfurst . . . 
 19 Hohenlohe-Wallersteiii .... 
 20 Isenbur^-Bierstein 
 
 Bavaria & Wurtemberg 
 ^Vurtemberg 
 
 Hesse-Cassel, Hesse .... 
 Prussia 
 
 2 1 Kaunitz 
 
 22 Leiningen-Amorbach 
 23 Ley en 
 
 Bavaria, Baden 
 
 Baden ... . 
 
 24 Lowenstein-Freudenberg ... 
 
 25 Lowenstein-Rosenberg 
 26 Looz-Corswaren 
 27 Mettemich 
 
 1 Bavaria, Wurtemberg, 1 
 I Hesse f 
 
 Do., Baden, Do., Hesse 
 Prussia and Hanover ... 
 Wurtemberg 
 
 28 Oesterreich-Schaumburg ... 
 29 Oettingen-Oettingen 
 30 Oettingen-Wallersteiii 
 31 Salm-Horstmar 
 
 
 Bavaria, Wurtemberg ... 
 Ditto, Ditto 
 
 Prussia 
 
 32 Salm-Kirburg 
 
 Ditto 
 
 
 Wurtemberg, Baden .... 
 Prussia 
 
 34 Salm-Salm 
 
 
 
 36 Schonburg-Penigk 
 
 Ditto 
 
 37 Schonburg-Rochsburg 
 
 Ditto 
 
 38 Schonburg-Waldenburg ... 
 
 Ditto 
 
 40 Solms-Braunfels 
 
 Prussia, Wurtemberg, ) 
 
 i TTo<2 1 
 
 41 Solms-Hohensolms and Lich 
 
 Prussia and Hesse 
 
 Ditto Ditto 
 
 43 Tlmrn and Taxis 
 
 i Bavaria, Wurtemberg, \ 
 
 44 Waldburg-Trauchburg 
 
 I 1 onenzollern 1 
 
 45 Waldburg-Waldsee 
 
 
 46 Waldburg-Wurzach 
 
 Ditto 
 
 47 Wied-Neuwied 
 
 Prussia and Nassau 
 Ditto Ditto 
 
 48 Wiprl "Rnnkpl 
 
 49 W^ndischffratz 
 
 
 50 Witgenstein-Burleburg 
 5 1 Witgenstein- Witgenstein . . . 
 
 
 Ditto 
 
 
 Total 
 
 422.33 
 
 1,049,820 
 
 
THE MEDIATISED PRINCES. 
 
 [SECT. I. 
 
 II. 
 
 Names of Mediatised Counts. 
 
 Sovereignties to which 
 they are subject. 
 
 Extent of 
 Territory in 
 geographical 
 Square Miles. 
 
 Population. 
 
 Total 
 Revenue 
 in Con- 
 vention 
 Florins. 
 
 1 Aspremont 
 
 
 10 
 
 1*25 
 1 
 3. 42 
 
 2.13 
 
 4, 
 
 3." 
 
 3. 18 
 1 
 I. 30 
 4. 25 
 I.*-' 
 4 ' J 
 4* 
 
 .10 
 
 3. 15 
 
 3. 86 
 1.' 
 
 2.90 
 .00 
 .58 
 2.15 
 1.75 
 I> 
 
 3. 50 
 
 % 50 
 
 !.*> 
 .45 
 3.03 
 
 1.25 
 2.75 
 4.60 
 2.55 
 .75 
 2.65 
 5.30 
 
 4.20 
 
 1.25 
 
 I. 50 
 25 
 
 5 
 
 I. 50 
 
 281 
 2,820 
 2,800 
 4,929 
 4,520 
 11,691 
 9,815 
 11,914 
 2,007 
 3,912 
 11,980 
 2,334 
 1,274 
 12,000 
 518 
 10,960 
 10,167 
 5,104 
 3,062 
 1,963 
 1,860 
 4,363 
 3,175 
 2,300 
 7,H7 
 1,250 
 3,855 
 2,090 
 6,697 
 1,200 
 5,296 
 10,990 
 5,681 
 1,478 
 3,497 
 11,028 
 5,265 
 1,938 
 
 4,291 
 
 930 
 13,564 
 2,871 
 
 50,000 
 110,000 
 15,000 
 25,000 
 20,000 
 50,000 
 40,000 
 50,000 
 12,000 
 15,000 
 60,000 
 20,000 
 10,000 
 45,000 
 10,000 
 45,000 
 50,000 
 35,000 
 90,000 
 15,000 
 14,000 
 45,000 
 25,000 
 36,000 
 50,000 
 84,000 
 12,000 
 32,000 
 25,000 
 40,000 
 75,000 
 30,000 
 30,000 
 100,000 
 
 70,000 
 
 30,000 
 15,000 
 15,000 
 
 30,000 
 
 12,000 
 35,000 
 48,000 
 
 2 Bentinck 
 
 Holstein, Oldenburg . 
 
 3 Bomelberg (Freiherr) . 
 4 Castel-Rernlingen 
 5 Castel-Rudenhausen... 
 6 Krbach-Erbach 
 
 
 Ditto 
 
 Ditto Hesse 
 
 7 Erbach-Ftirstpnau . ... 
 
 
 8 Erbach-Schaenberg ... 
 9 Fugger-Dietenheim ... 
 10 Fugger-Glott 
 
 Ditto 
 
 
 
 1 1 Fugger-Kirchberg 
 12 Fugger-Kirchheim ... 
 13 Fugger-Nordeudorf ... 
 14 Giech 
 
 Ditto, Wurteinberg . 
 
 Do. and Wurtemberg 
 
 15 Grote 
 
 
 16 Isenburg-Budingen ... 
 17 Isenburg-Meerholz ... 
 18 Isenburg-Wachtersbach 
 10 Konigseck Autendorf.. 
 20 Leiningen-Billigheim .. 
 21 Leiningen-Neudenau... 
 22 Leiningen-Westerburg 
 23 Neipperg 
 
 Hesse 
 
 Do. and Wurtemberg 
 Ditto 
 
 
 Baden 
 
 Ditto 
 
 Hesse, Nassau 
 
 "Wurtember" 
 
 24 Ortenburg 
 
 
 25 Pappenheim 
 
 Ditto 
 
 26 Plettenberg 
 
 
 27 PUckler 
 
 Ditto 
 
 28 Quadt .. 
 
 Ditto 
 
 29 Rechturn-Lempurg ... 
 30 Schasberg 
 
 Bavaria 
 
 
 31 Schonborn 
 
 
 32 Solms-Laubach 
 
 Hesse Saxony 
 
 33 Solms-Rodelheim 
 
 
 34 Stadion 
 35 Sternberg .... 
 
 Bavaria 
 
 36 Stolberg-Rosla 
 
 Prussia Hesse*** . 
 
 37 Stolberg-Stolberg ... 
 
 
 38 Torring 
 
 
 39 Waldbols-Basseuheim 
 
 40 Waldeck-Bergheim ... 
 41 Walmoden 
 
 (Bavaria, Wurtem-1 
 1 berg, Nassau .../ 
 AV urteniberg 
 
 
 42 Wartenberg 
 
 
 Total amount of the 
 mediatised territories 
 of Counts, and their 
 
 
 91. 34 
 422. M 
 
 214,761 
 1,049,820 
 
 
 Ditto of Princes 
 
 
 
 
 5 13. "7 
 
 1,264,581 
 
 
 
55 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 THE NOBILITY OF GERMANY. 
 
 View of its general History, The Austrian Nobility. The Bavarian 
 Nobility. The Suabian and Rhenish Nobility. The Brunswick 
 Nobility. The Prussian Nobility. Sketch of the present state of 
 the German Nobility. 
 
 A COMPLETE history of the nobility of Europe is a blank which 
 remains to be filled up in modern literature. No class of men 
 has undergone such cruel reverses, and none has borne them with 
 so much fortitude. None have contributed so largely to the 
 encouragement of literature and the fine arts ; none have done 
 so much to embellish their respective countries. Such a class has 
 always existed, and will always continue to exist, under whatever 
 appellation they may be designated. Whether the title of noble 
 be conceded to them or not, still, in republics as well as in 
 monarchies, certain individuals will be prominent through a great 
 name achieved by their forefathers, through great possessions, 
 and through personal distinction won by themselves. In our 
 own country, the nobles have gradually obtained for us some of 
 the dearest privileges which we enjoy. 
 
 The German nobility does not possess all the moral influence 
 which it is essential to the well-being of society that this order 
 should exercise. This is partly to be attributed to their exces- 
 sive number, and to the careless and sometimes sordid manner in 
 which the rank has been multiplied ; partly to the circumstance 
 of the title being participated by all the sons ; partly to their 
 former reluctance to engage in any pursuit except the army and 
 the court ; and partly to their mistaken aversion to intermarry 
 with families not endowed with the requisite quarterings. But 
 these matters will be better illustrated by a view of their political 
 and social progress from a remote epoch downwards. 
 
56 THE NOBILITY OF GERMANY. [SECT. I. 
 
 The character of the German nobility, like that of the French 
 and Italian, has undergone in modern times an essential change. 
 Throughout the middle ages, and down indeed to the peace of 
 Westphalia, the position which the nobles maintained in the state 
 was diametrically opposed to that which they hold at present. 
 We find them formerly more or less independent, and, generally, 
 inimical to the sovereign power. They used frequently to inti- 
 midate the monarch by threatening to refuse him pecuniary 
 supplies, or the military services of themselves and their vassals 
 for the defence of the state. In their own possessions they ruled 
 without control, and exercised considerable influence on the 
 general government. In most of the German states they met as 
 a diet, to counsel with the prince, and discuss topics of common 
 interest. In their original and most simple form, these deliber- 
 ations were mere conversations, and were known by no other 
 name. Subsequently they received a regular constitution, and 
 the qualifications of those entitled to take part in them were dis- 
 tinctly defined. The members of the diet were the officials at 
 court, such as the chamberlains, marshals, and cupbearers * ; 
 the chief officers of government, the principal prelates, and, 
 finally, the owners of fiefs of a certain value. Such diets were 
 common throughout Germany, so early as the latter half of the 
 thirteenth century. At a somewhat later period, the deputies of 
 the more important towns were admitted as members, but their 
 influence was always extremely limited. 
 
 During the first two centuries of their existence, the German 
 diets often found it very difficult to seize the power which they 
 felt themselves competent to claim. In several states, the mo- 
 narch had sufficient private property for the purposes of govern- 
 ment, so that his nobles had no hold upon him by refusing him 
 supplies. Still, wherever the active assistance of his subjects was 
 indispensable, the sovereign, however indisposed to have recourse 
 to it, was compelled to receive the advice, and entreat the co- 
 operation, of their chiefs. The power of tne nobility increased 
 
 * It is worthy of remark, as characteristic of the ancient position of the German 
 nobility, that these officials performed the duties of their office by proxy, and only 
 appeared at court, themselves, on legislative occasions. 
 
CH. IV.] THE NOBILITY OF GEUMANY. 5^ 
 
 considerably in the fifteenth century, when expensive wars and 
 more extravagant habits reduced the prince to the necessity of 
 sacrificing a part of his independence, and of conceding privileges 
 prejudicial to his supremacy, for the purpose of obtaining ampler 
 supplies. Nevertheless, he usually clung to power with the 
 greatest tenacity. To avert its loss, he often mortgaged all his 
 possessions, and taxed to the utmost the peasants who were under 
 his immediate control. 
 
 On such occasions the nobles were wont to keep aloof, in anti- 
 cipation of the moment, when their sovereign would be obliged, 
 after having exhausted all his private resources, to lend an un- 
 willing ear to their exorbitant demands. When this critical 
 juncture had arrived, they assembled to receive his propositions. 
 Of these diets, the temporal nobles formed always the majority ; 
 there were sometimes no prelates, and generally no deputies of 
 towns. They seldom absolutely refused to submit to the taxation 
 which their sovereign proposed, but their compliance was never 
 granted without conditions advantageous to themselves. Generally 
 speaking, he rewarded any alacrity they might display in reliev- 
 ing his wants, by a corresponding liberality in satisfying their 
 prayers. The compliance of the nobles, however, only affected 
 their serfs. The ancient privileges of their order exempted them 
 from taxation, and military aid was all the service which they 
 were bound to render to the chief of the state. 
 
 The respective German diets were in possession of documents, 
 containing grants and confirmations of privileges, which they had 
 wrung from their sovereigns on various occasions. These rights 
 and privileges were various in different states. But the following 
 had been obtained by the nobles in nearly all : 1st, That no 
 tax whatever could be imposed without their consent ; 2nd, that 
 their assent was necessary to declarations both of war and peace ; 
 3rd, that they were to be consulted on all divisions and changes 
 of territory ; 4th, that they were to be left uncontrolled in the 
 administration of their own domains ; 5th, that they were entitled 
 to superintend the receipt and expenditure of the public money ; 
 6th, that they were to be allowed to mediate between their own 
 
58 THE NOBILITY OF GERMANY. [SECT. I. 
 
 and foreign princes ; 7th, that they could assemble at their own 
 discretion for the purpose of deliberation ; and, 8thly, that they 
 were legally entitled to oppose any infraction of their rights on 
 the part of the sovereign. 
 
 The earliest notice of German diets occurs in the history of 
 Bavaria. They existed, also, at a very remote period in Austria 
 and Styria. As early as the tenth century, we find comitia or 
 placita in these states, which were constituted by the officers of 
 government and by the nobles (proceres and prior es). In the 
 north of Germany, this institution is of later date. The relation 
 which we have described as existing in the different states between 
 the nobles and their sovereign, lasted, as we have stated above, 
 till the peace of Westphalia, about which time it began to merge 
 in one of an opposite character. Instead of being, as formerly, 
 opposed to the monarch, the nobles now became his principal 
 support ; they sought and effected the amalgamation of interests, 
 which had previously been essentially distinct. This change, in 
 appearance voluntary on their part, was in fact an inevitable 
 result of circumstances. The frequent wars which had at first 
 tended to confirm their independent position, at last undermined 
 their power. For, in the course of time, standing armies became 
 indispensable, which, though of small force, contributed, in a 
 great measure, to render the sovereign independent of his inter- 
 ested. allies. Moreover, they were efficient agents by which he 
 could chastise the insolence of the latter, and reduce individuals 
 amongst them to a speedy sense of their duty. 
 
 Then, again, experience, and the march of state-policy, supplied 
 successive monarchs with expedients for breaking up the conso- 
 lidated power of the feudal chiefs. Intestinal divisions were 
 easily induced and fostered amongst the latter, who were accus- 
 tomed for the most part to remain isolated in their holds and 
 fastnesses, in which the arts and devices of modern civilization 
 could hardly find a home. Consequently, they were easily 
 divided, and when divided, were more easily subjected to a 
 regular monarchical form of government. To these causes, 
 which were of themselves sufficient to reduce the ancient impor- 
 
CH. IV.] THE NOBILITY OF GERMANY. 59 
 
 tance of the nobility, must be added the general spirit of our 
 modern ages, which is diametrically opposed to the lawless irre- 
 gularity of the feudal times. 
 
 But the attachment to power, which is inherent in human 
 nature, indicated, as it were instinctively, to the German nobles, 
 the only direction in which it could now be obtained. As it was 
 no longer possible to wring it from the sovereign, they now deter- 
 mined to share it with him. Instead of opposing him as formerly, 
 they became his most intimate allies. The throne which they 
 were wont to undermine, they now took upon them to support. 
 Their proffered alliance, the sovereign was neither willing nor 
 able to reject. Indeed, under the new constitution of things, this 
 amicable relation of the noble to the monarch, was as natural as the 
 one which it superseded. Accordingly, it has continued more or 
 less unchanged, and we find it without any essential alteration in 
 the Germany of the present day. But before we enter upon the 
 general condition of the German nobility at present, we shall give 
 a brief outline of the history of the respective nobilities, in the 
 several states into which Germany is divided. 
 
 I. The nobility of Austria Proper, i. e., of the archduchy, of 
 Carinthia, Carniola, and the Tyrol, was always one of the most 
 powerful in Germany. This was owing, partly, to the favour 
 with which as a body it was regarded by the house of Hapsburg. 
 Other circumstances conducive to this power, were the frequent 
 divisions of territory which weakened the Austrian sovereigns, and 
 the vicinity of the warlike Hungarians, against whom its aid was 
 so often required. The nobles were not the sole members of the 
 diet in all the Austrian provinces. In the archduchy, deputies 
 of towns were admitted, and in Tyrol, of the peasants, but they 
 were never in sufficient number to affect the predominance of the 
 nobility. 
 
 In Austria, the officers of court were hereditary ; and the 
 twelve principal ones conferred great importance upon the twelve 
 illustrious families by whom they were held. These latter had 
 exclusive and extraordinany privileges. They were exempted 
 from taxation ; in their castles, they could under no pretext be 
 molested, and even in the capital, they were responsible to no law 
 
60 THE NOBILITY OF GERMANY. [SECT. I. 
 
 but their own will. By virtue of the contract of Landau, no 
 article grown on the estates of any noble was taxable, not even 
 when it was brought to the towns to be sold. 
 
 The Austrian nobility was divided into two classes, that of 
 lords and that of knights (der Herren and Ritterstand). No 
 commoner could by any chance obtain possessions which had 
 been held by a member of either. When the estates of a noble- 
 man had been confiscated, they could only be granted to another 
 who was of the same rank as the former possessor. Whilst the 
 power of the Austrian nobles checked the sway of the sovereign, 
 they in their turn encountered opposition from the subordinate 
 classes of citizens and peasants. The latter broke out into open 
 insurrection against the nobility in 1502, but it terminated in 
 producing a state of subjugation more abject than that which 
 they had attempted to throw off. The citizens were continually 
 striving to assert and maintain a precarious independence, and 
 they generally embraced the cause of the sovereign, from whom 
 they naturally expected protection against the encroachments of 
 the nobility. 
 
 The Reformation found many followers amongst the Austrian 
 nobles, and about the year 1532, they felt themselves strong 
 enough to demand the free exercise and tolerance of the reformed 
 religion. This, the Emperor Ferdinand neither dared to grant 
 nor to refuse. The religious meetings of the Protestants were not, 
 however, interrupted, though they were not sanctioned. From 
 Maximilian, the successor of Ferdinand, the diet demanded the 
 banishment of the Jesuits. But to this, the emperor, though not 
 a rigid Catholic, refused to consent ; he was afraid of irritating 
 the pope ; yet, in order to conciliate the affections of his Protes- 
 tant nobles, he tolerated the public profession of the Protestant 
 faith. 
 
 After him, Rudolf II., who had been educated in Spain, 
 adopted every means to prevent the spread of the reformed 
 doctrines, and by this policy, irritated the peasants to insur- 
 rection (1591), and excited the opposition of the nobles, who, 
 allured by the promises of the emperor's brother, Matthias, leagued 
 themselves with him to dethrone Rudolf. After they had attained 
 
CH. IV.] THE NOBILITY OF GERMANY. 61 
 
 their object, Matthias refused to fulfil his promises; but they 
 joined their forces to those of the Hungarian Protestants, and 
 quickly compelled him to desist from the execution of his 
 treacherous plans. His natural aversion to Protestantism, for 
 which he had ambitiously simulated an attachment, was of course 
 increased by these unfortunate disputes, and he took every con- 
 venient opportunity of manifesting it, and thus alienated the 
 affections of his most powerful subjects. The diet assembled 
 at Linz (1614) refused him all assistance, though he was in 
 imminent danger from the marauding Turks. 
 
 Matthias was only sovereign of the archduchy of Austria. 
 His brother, Ferdinand, governed Carinthia, Styria, and Carniola. 
 This prince was an inveterate enemy of the Protestant cause, and 
 lie proceeded actually to depopulate those parts of his dominions 
 which were not inhabited by Catholics. Although indulgent to 
 his nobles on other points, he was inexorable on this. Conse- 
 quently, as his power and resolution rendered opposition futile, 
 those who remained steadfast in their faith were obliged to 
 emigrate, and those who adhered or returned to Catholicism were 
 loaded with favours by their sovereign. They paid no tolls nor 
 taxes, and possessed numerous monopolies and privileges in trade 
 and commerce. Whilst the towns envied their prosperity, the 
 villages groaned under their oppression. The peasants were 
 compelled to deliver up to them their children for menial service, 
 and were not allowed to sell anything except to their feudal chief, 
 to whose generosity, therefore, the price was always left. This 
 state of things caused frequent insurrections of the peasants, 
 which always terminated in their defeat, and left them at last 
 the slaves of the nobility. It was in the archduchy of Austria, 
 that the Protestant nobles were the most numerous and the most 
 powerful. They rebelled in 1620, against Ferdinand II., because 
 lie refused to tolerate their faith. With the aid, however, of 
 the duke of Bavaria, he defeated and subdued them. Many 
 of their estates were confiscated and granted to his faithful 
 Catholics, several of whom acquired at this juncture the immense 
 possessions, which render their families remarkable at the present 
 day. 
 
62 THE NOBILITY OF GERMANY. [SECT. I. 
 
 During the Thirty Years' War, the Austrian nobles suffered less 
 from plunder and exaction than those of more northern states. 
 But the number of their serfs was greatly diminished in order to 
 fill the ranks of the Catholic armies. In that time of religious per- 
 secution, their genuine attachment to the cause of Rome was often 
 suspected. They were in consequence often subject to vexatious 
 persecutions, and the clergy took advantage of their equivocal 
 position, to increase, at their expense, its riches and power. 
 Towards the latter end of the seventeenth century, the Austrian 
 nobility began to lose its former independence and importance. 
 The grand causes of its decline were the introduction of standing 
 armies, the improvement of military tactics, and the establishment 
 throughout the country of regular tribunals, which superseded the 
 feudal courts of justice. Nevertheless, during the reigns of 
 Leopold I., Joseph I. and Charles VI., they were still possessed 
 of great power, from their numbers and riches, from their holding 
 all the principal offices both of court and state, and thus surround- 
 ing, and often guiding, the sovereign. But the diet, which had 
 been wont to oppose the will of the latter, now sank into insignifi- 
 cance. Charles VI. was the last who by an oath confirmed its 
 rights and privileges. The new attitude in which the nobles now 
 found themselves was far from favourable to their improvement. 
 In their former lawless independence, each had sought to dis- 
 tinguish himself in some rude way, and was ranked accordingly; 
 there had been room for emulation, and for the display both of 
 mental and physical superiority. But now that the body had 
 lost its independence, and found its interest in assiduous sub- 
 serviency, individual distinction was no longer possible. Birth and 
 precedence became the only titles to promotion. Mental cultiva- 
 tion was neglected, because it brought with it no external advan- 
 tages, and the morals of the nobles received the same impress of 
 subserviency which their general condition had undergone. We 
 no longer find them the hardy champions of liberty of conscience, 
 preferring destitution to a dishonourable prosperity. In ceasing 
 to respect themselves, they lost also the respect of others. When 
 Maria Theresa ascended the throne in 1740, she neither deigned 
 to receive their homage, nor to confirm their privileges, not that 
 
CH. IV.] THE NOBILITY OF GERMANY. 63 
 
 she was indisposed to protect them, but that she considered them, 
 as a body, unworthy of important notice. During her reign the 
 diet was in abeyance, and in its place existed a committee, com- 
 posed of five prelates, five lords, and five knights, who, on account 
 of their limited number, never dared to incur the displeasure, by 
 opposing the will, of the empress. Her nobility were no longer 
 exempt from taxation, and lost many of the privileges which they 
 had formerly exercised to the prejudice of the inferior classes. 
 But her son and successor, the celebrated Joseph II., was the 
 great reformer of the Austrian nobility. He left scarcely any of 
 its exclusive rights and privileges untouched ; he added to its 
 burden of taxation, liberated the serfs, protected the peasant 
 against encroachment and oppression, and administered impartial 
 justice. Capacity, and not rank alone, became the title to pro- 
 motion. These alterations, however they might affect individuals, 
 "infused fresh life into the body at large, and were finally produc- 
 tive of the most beneficial effects. 
 
 II. The relation which existed in Bavaria during the middle ages 
 between noble and sovereign was of a singular nature. The former 
 had numerous and very important privileges, but had reason to 
 complain of their systematic infraction by the latter. In the 
 fourteenth century we find the nobles accusing their monarch of 
 conferring court-dignities on foreigners, of chicanery towards his 
 own nobility, to whom he was difficult of access, and of depriving 
 them of their ancient rights of hunting. They specify instances, 
 in which members of their body had been seized and carried off 
 by night, and their daughters forcibly married to foreigners*. 
 The measures taken by the monarch to limit the power of his 
 nobles mainly owed their success to the divisions among the 
 latter, between the two classes of whom, the lords and the knights, 
 the greatest enmity and jealousy prevailed, Two-thirds of the 
 lords (Herreri), and only one-third of the inferior nobles, were 
 eligible to the diet. Each of these classes was perpetually en- 
 gaged in combating the ambition of the other, and the conse- 
 quence was, that, till a comparatively recent period, they were 
 
 * It was not till 1517 that the inferior Bavarian nobles were authorized by the 
 nobles to give their daughters in marriage to those whom they thought fit. 
 
64 THE NOBILITY OF GERMANY. [SECT. I. 
 
 easily kept in check by the sovereign. But divisions of territory 
 which took place in the fifteenth century, encouraged them to 
 postpone for a period their private quarrels to the common pursuit 
 of power. They now united and presented a formidable front to 
 their royal antagonists, from whom they proceeded to demand 
 that all counsellors and officials should be chosen from their body, 
 and that all the privileges which they had ever usurped should be 
 confirmed. But the members of- the ruling family united them- 
 selves also, and thus the nobles were obliged to content them- 
 selves with a confirmation of their unquestioned privileges, and 
 with the advantages which they were accustomed to take of the 
 embarrassments into which numerous wars and expensive courts 
 necessarily led their rulers. They imposed taxes on the peasant 
 at their own discretion, and it was generally in vain that their 
 monarch attempted to interfere in favour of the latter. 
 
 William IV. was the first Bavarian prince who, at the head of a 
 mercenary army, victoriously repelled the attacks which the nobles 
 were in the constant habit of making on their sovereign. But the 
 expensive court of his son Albert V. again rendered him dependant 
 on the diet, and if it had not been for the alliance and vicinity of 
 his son-in-law, the Emperor Ferdinand, he would have become 
 its subject instead of its sovereign. As it was, he was obliged to 
 make to them considerable concessions, and amongst others, that 
 of religious toleration. During the latter years of his life, this 
 prince became a mere tool of the Jesuits, whose astute leaders for 
 a long period held the reins of government in Bavaria, and regu- 
 lated the public expenditure, of course to the advantage of their 
 own body, notwithstanding the frequent opposition and continual 
 discontent of the nobility. The simple hardihood of the latter 
 was no match for the crafty policy of the priests, who braved their 
 open opposition, baffled their secret conspiracies, and reduced 
 them indeed to a state of insignificance from which they did not 
 emerge for several generations. Instead of being bold and enter- 
 prising as formerly, they became inert and apathetic. When Maxi- 
 milian I., a prince of talent and ardour, ascended the throne, 
 in 1597> he was obliged to declare them unequal to the command 
 of troops, or to the duties of civil offices, and to confer both upon 
 
CH. IV.] THE NOBILITY OF GERMANY. 65 
 
 foreigners. Of course they complained bitterly of this preference, 
 but his ready answer was, that the cause of complaint should be 
 removed, as soon as they could supply him with individuals com- 
 petent to direct or govern. The only privilege which the Bavarian 
 nobility preserved intact at this epoch was its freedom from tax- 
 ation, and so unimportant was it become as an element of the 
 government, that, from 1512 to 1570 no diet whatever was con- 
 voked. During the Thirty Years' War, its possessions suffered 
 immensely from the plundering armies. In 1669, the sovereign, 
 burdened with debts, threw a great part of them upon the 
 shoulders of the nobility, which now presented a melancholy 
 spectacle. The majority of its members were impoverished and 
 without credit, uneducated and without prospect of advancement 
 or promotion. In order to preserve the institution from utter 
 ruin, the prince-elector introduced in 16J2 the law of primogeni- 
 ture. But the nobles continued to suffer during the whole of the 
 eighteenth century from the ambition of their rulers, which they 
 were too weak and too divided to check, and which brought upon 
 the country more than once the curse of a foreign invasion. With 
 Maximilian Joseph, a better day seemed to dawn, but the favour 
 again extended to the Jesuits continued to prevent the nobles from 
 capacitating themselves for that sphere of operations which their 
 position in the state destined for them. 
 
 III. As Suabia and Rhenish Germany were divided in the 
 middle ages, and so far indeed as the last century, into innumerable 
 states, the nobility could never form one compact and formidable 
 body. Moreover, it had here more than elsewhere to fear from 
 insubordination and insurrections of the peasants, and therefore 
 found it often expedient to make common cause with, instead of 
 opposing, the sovereign. The Suabian nobles were miserably im- 
 poverished during the Thirty Years 1 War. Baden and Wurtem- 
 berg were both overrun, and repeatedly ravaged by the Spaniards ; 
 many nobles emigrated, and those who remained were reduced to 
 actual want. The provisions of the peace of Westphalia were so 
 favourable to monarchical power, that the nobility, had it been 
 disposed, would have found it difficult to play its former indepen- 
 dent part. But the force of circumstances had already reduced 
 
66 THE NOBILITY OF GERMANY. [SECT. I. 
 
 it to obscurity, when diplomacy came to exclude it from a share 
 in the government. Thus the north-west of Germany presented, 
 as far as the nobility is concerned, a very different picture from 
 the south-east. In Suabia and on the Rhine generally, no diet 
 dared to refuse supplies to its sovereign, even if they were 
 demanded for purposes of extravagance, and when remonstrance 
 was made, it came only from the deputies of towns. On the 
 whole the Rhenish nobles were quite contented to be subservient 
 to the sovereign, provided that he granted and secured to them 
 certain privileges. They were also devoted to the maintenance 
 of the Romish tenets. When Gebhard, the prince-elector of 
 Cologne, become a convert to the reformed religion, and endea- 
 voured to establish it in his territories, he met with the most 
 violent opposition, and was finally banished by his nobles. 
 
 The nobility of Juliers, Cleves, Mark, Berg, and Ravens- 
 berg, distinguished itself from its southern neighbours by more 
 warlike propensities. At the peace of Westphalia, it was 
 with great difficulty that its members could be made to desist 
 from frequently resorting to club-law, and from embroiling 
 themselves in bloody feuds on the most frivolous pretexts. 
 In 1521, John III. of Cleves was obliged publicly to execute 
 several of the robber-knights (Raub+ritter), notwithstanding 
 that they belonged to some of the highest families in his duchy. 
 In 1590, we find his son and successor, William, continuing the 
 work of reform. He abrogated the supremacy of the feudal 
 courts of justice (Patrimonial-Gerichte), and decreed, that, 
 under pain of forfeiting all his rights and privileges, no nobleman 
 should proceed, himself, against his peasants for refusing to work, 
 for cutting down fruit-trees, for mischievous idleness, or for 
 running into debt, but should bring them before a regular 
 court of justice. But it was only a resolute and able sovereign 
 who could enforce these regulations, and the effeminate son of 
 Duke William was totally unequal to the task of keeping a 
 nobility in check, which had been irritated by the measures of his 
 father. On his demanding supplies from the diet for paying off 
 the public debt, only eight thousand dollars were granted to him, 
 and a sum to pay the garrisons of his fortresses was flatly refused. 
 
CH. IV.] THE NOBILITY OF GERMANY. 6*J 
 
 Moreover, his whole nobility besieged him with complaints. The 
 duchess, more capable than her imbecile husband of causing the 
 sovereign dignity to be respected, was first imprisoned and then 
 strangled. After this the nobles abandoned all reserve, assumed 
 the reins of government, seized and wasted the revenue, and, in 
 order to silence the legitimate menaces of the heirs to the crown, 
 married the unfortunate duke to a princess of Lorraine. The 
 former died in 1609, when the neighbouring powers invaded and 
 divided his territories, and soon reduced the nobles to their former 
 submission. 
 
 In the lesser German states, down even to a late period, feuds 
 were not at all uncommon between the noble and his sovereign. 
 In the sixteenth century, for instance, some members of the noble 
 family of Salder conceived themselves insulted by their liege 
 lord, the bishop of Hildesheim. To revenge themselves, they 
 entered into a league with the dukes of Brunswick and with 
 other noblemen of Hildesheim. The bishop on his part was not 
 behind-hand in forming alliances and preparing for war. The 
 adverse armies met at Soltau (1520), where, after a sanguinary 
 contest, the party of the nobles was completely defeated. A 
 similar but more important feud took place about the same time 
 in the bishopric of Wurzburg. Some noblemen, incited by one 
 of their chiefs, Von Grumbach, murdered the bishop. The cathe- 
 dral chapter instantly denounced Grumbach to the emperor ; but 
 before it could proceed further, he took possession of Wurzburg, 
 made prisoners of all the priests 3 compelled them to swear that 
 they would revoke their denunciation, and exacted from them a 
 large sum of money. Nevertheless, he was put under the bann of 
 the empire, and, after a protracted defence, finally brought to 
 justice. Singular as it may appear, this marauding chief had 
 managed to enlist several ruling powers in his cause, amongst 
 others John Frederick, duke of Saxony, who was included in his 
 outlawry, taken prisoner at his defeat, and carried to Vienna, 
 where he was exposed in a straw hat to the scorn of the public, 
 and where he died after a confinement of eight and twenty years. 
 
 IV. The nobles of Brunswick and Luneburg were amongst 
 the most restless and unruly in Germany. The numerous wars in 
 
 p 2 
 
68 THE NOBILITY OF GERMANY. [SECT. I. 
 
 these states, the repeated divisions of territory, and the expense 
 consequent on the maintenance of numerous courts, weakened the 
 sovereigns at the same time that they rendered them dependant on 
 their nobles for supplies. Henry and Henry Julius were the first 
 who, by introducing the law of primogeniture, which, however, 
 they were far from establishing, attempted to reform the constitu- 
 tion of the nobility. The former of these princes founded a regular 
 system of justice, the latter equalized taxation. But they pur- 
 chased, as it were, these improvements by conceding to the nobles 
 privileges and monopolies which they enjoyed to the prejudice of 
 the inferior classes. 
 
 The accession of the family of Luneburg to the throne of 
 Great Britain was favourable to the power and pretensions of the 
 Hanoverian nobility. The government was invested in a ministry 
 which was chosen exclusively from this body. Since that time 
 more particularly, the Hanoverian nobles have been celebrated in 
 Germany for their lofty deportment and attachment to their 
 order. And as they have had the government for the most part 
 in their own hands, they have maintained the advantageous posi- 
 tion which the nobilities of other German states have gradually 
 been obliged to surrender. The historian must record to their 
 credit, that they have been distinguished of late years for talents 
 both civil and military, and that their body has rendered great 
 services to their country. 
 
 V. Before the house of Zollern acceded to the throne of Bran- 
 denburg, the nobility was quite lawless and independent. It 
 had got possession of the sovereign's domains and of the public 
 revenue, and regarded the prince merely as the first nobleman of 
 the country, without considering itself at all bound to obey him. 
 Indeed it only acted in conjunction with him, when his plans 
 were compatible with its interest. The first princes of the house 
 of Zollern were engaged in a continual contest with the nobles in 
 order to maintain their supremacy, and to recover the domains of 
 which their predecessors had been deprived. In the sixteenth cen- 
 tury, John Cicero was obliged to have recourse to an alliance with 
 his commoners in order more effectually to combat his nobility. 
 With their aid he awed the whole body, punished the robber- 
 
Cir. IV.] THE MOBILITY OF GERMANY. 69 
 
 knights, and destroyed fifteen of their castles. But though he, in. 
 some measure, prevented their manifestation, he could not totally 
 eradicate their plundering propensities. During the reign of his 
 successor, Joachim, some of the noblemen who filled offices at court 
 amused themselves with highway robbery during the night. But 
 the prince, far from tolerating these disgraceful proceedings, pro- 
 secuted the offenders inexorably, and when his favourite, Von Lin- 
 denburg, was found to have been guilty of the prevailing crime, 
 he caused even him to be executed. The nobles were extremely 
 irritated by this severity, and one of them, Von Otterstaedt, had 
 the audacity to write over the door of the prince's bedchamber, 
 " Joachim, take care of yourself, for if you fall into our hands we 
 will hang you."" He even went so far as to assemble a band of 
 knights, and watch for an opportunity of carrying his menace 
 into execution. But the prince, warned of the plot, took measures 
 to frustrate it ; he arrested the chief, caused him to be hanged 
 and quartered, and his head to be exposed over the gate of the 
 town. The wild licentiousness of the nobility now began to yield 
 to the influence of civilization. Impartial justice was administered 
 by the government, public instruction encouraged, and the pro- 
 mulgation of Lutheran doctrines was of the greatest benefit to 
 the morals of the country. The nobility began to assume the 
 form of an institution of the country, and under George John, 
 the grandson of Joachim, it took upon itself without reluctance 
 to pay a third of the public debt. Still, so long as they 
 had means of opposition within reach, the nobles were not 
 untrue to their pristine character of insubordination. They 
 instinctively took advantage of any weakness or embarrassment 
 of the sovereign to press their former claims. We find Duke 
 Albert the First complaining to his diet, that he had not a florin a 
 day for pocket-money. His youthful successor, Albert Frederick, 
 who came to the throne in 1568, having manifested the intention 
 of curbing the insolence of his nobles, they harassed and tormented 
 him to such a degree that he became insane, and as they allowed 
 him no medical relief, he remained so to the end of his life (1618). 
 In this cruel conspiracy, the spiritual and temporal nobles were 
 equally guilty. 
 
70 THE NOBILITY OF GERMANY. [SECT. I. 
 
 During the Thirty Years 1 War, the nobility was the only class 
 which managed to escape overwhelming misfortune. The peasants 
 were impoverished, the towns sacked, and the sovereign, George 
 William, reduced to utter insignificance. Such was the state of 
 things two or three centuries ago in Germany, that unless a prince 
 had courage enough to conquer, and talents to maintain a dignified 
 position, the circumstances in which he was placed were so 
 inimical to the establishment of monarchical power, that the first 
 difficulty which presented itself was often sufficient to involve 
 him in ruin. 
 
 The lawless excesses of the Prussian nobles continued to pre- 
 vail more or less till the accession to the throne, in 1640, of the 
 celebrated elector, Frederick William the Great. This prince 
 sought an appropriate remedy for the public ills in a standing 
 army. He combated with the greatest vigour and perseverance 
 the open and secret antipathy of his nobility. He caused a 
 Prussian nobleman who was intriguing against him at Warsaw to 
 be arrested, and brought home to be executed, though this was 
 contrary to the law of nations. At the head of a well-disciplined 
 force, he paid very little attention to the remonstrances and objec- 
 tions with which the diet met his demands for supplies. At last 
 he imposed taxes without demanding its consent, abolished the 
 freedom from taxation which the nobles had hitherto enjoyed, 
 gave the peasant legal protection against their oppression and 
 caprice, and abrogated such of their privileges as were incom- 
 patible with good government. Opposition was useless against 
 the courageous head of a victorious army, and a prince respected 
 for his talents by all the cabinets of Europe. Thus we find the 
 old state of things completely reversed, and a nobility which but 
 a few years before had insulted with impunity the sovereign 
 power, now submissively subject to the slightest manifestations of 
 its will. A radical change took place in the character of the 
 body; and during the succeeding reign of Frederick I., of 
 whose weakness they might have taken advantage, and whose 
 extravagance was alone sufficient to irritate them, they no longer 
 showed a desire of having recourse to their ancient schemes of 
 opposition. 
 
CH. IV.] THE NOBILITY OF GERMANY. 7^ 
 
 During the reigns of Frederick I., and of his successor, Frede- 
 rick the Great, the circumstances in which the Prussian nobles 
 were placed were very peculiar. The former prince had no court; 
 he lived like a private nobleman, and was surrounded only by the 
 officers of his army. The court of Frederick the Great was filled 
 with foreigners, and was modelled in every respect after that of 
 the French. Both princes were autocrats in every sense of the 
 word, and in conferring the dignities of state, or offices of govern- 
 ment, they neither of them listened to any foreign suggestion. 
 And though their nobles found readier access to place, they were 
 held more responsible than the untitled citizen. Rank alone was 
 with these princes no title to promotion, and negligence or inca- 
 pacity brought with them a summary dismissal. The nobles 
 were no longer permitted to be guilty of capricious injustice 
 towards the inferior classes. As they were not exempt from tax- 
 ation, and as their estates were far from fertile, and but few of 
 them entailed, none of the families amongst them could boast of 
 very great riches, and many were comparatively poor. Thus, to 
 preserve an elevated position, they were forced to seek distinction 
 in the civil or military service of the state. These were amongst 
 the causes which earned for modern Prussia a fair name 
 amongst European nations. The nobles manifested in a new form 
 their ancient chivalry, in the campaigns of Frederick against the 
 Swedes and the Turks, on the Rhine and in Poland. With a 
 slender pay, they found glory a sufficient recompense. Thus 
 during the whole of the eighteenth century, the Prussian nobles 
 remained free from effeminate vices. With them the simpler 
 virtues, and the dignity which springs from the consciousness of 
 having performed honourable duties, supplied the place of elegance 
 of manners and of the accomplishments which only flourish in the 
 bosom of a luxurious peace. 
 
 Having thus given an historical sketch of the respective nobili- 
 ties in the principal German states, we shall now continue the 
 general picture, and proceed to an account of its present condition. 
 We have already related that its fortunes were greatly changed 
 about the period of the peace of Westphalia, when standing armies 
 were introduced, and German governments verged towards a 
 
72 THE NOU1L1TY OF GEKMANY. [SECT. I. 
 
 purer monarchy. At tins time, the diets in some states, as in the 
 Palatinate, ceased to exist, and in others, for instance in Austria, 
 Bavaria, and Brandenburg, lost all influence in the government. 
 They remained most powerful in Saxony, Brunswick, Mecklen- 
 burg, and Hesse. Besides the monarchical tendency of the West- 
 phalian peace, other circumstances coincided to change the feudal 
 independence of the nobles into courtly submission. In the 
 seventeenth, and in the early part of the eighteenth century, 
 several princes mounted foreign thrones, and found soldiers 
 abroad to quell any insubordination at home. The example of 
 Louis XIV. was not without effect ; the German courts began 
 to assume the ceremonious form, and the nobles who shone in 
 them to regard with contempt those of their order who preferred 
 privacy to splendour. At a later period, the contrast between 
 the nobility at court and the nobility in the country (der Hof 
 und der Landadel), became very striking. 
 
 Very shortly after the peace of Westphalia, the French began 
 to exercise a baneful influence on the manners and morals of the 
 German nobility. Under Louis XIV. this contagion was at its 
 height. He was the most powerful monarch in Europe. his 
 court was the most brilliant, his policy the most refined, his 
 government was esteemed the wisest, and he himself was allowed 
 to be the most perfect gentleman of his time. Most of the German 
 princes visited and were enchanted by the court of Versailles ; 
 they took it for their model ; and the French language, French 
 morals and manners, were introduced at almost all the courts 
 beyond the lihine. No nobleman was accomplished, or could 
 reckon on fortune at court, who could not speak French, and who 
 could not imitate the dress and tone of France. But the country 
 nobles remained uninfluenced by this social revolution. They 
 preserved their rough exterior, maintained their ancient reputation 
 for uprightness and simplicity, were perhaps a little too proud 
 of their rank, and too fond of making their inferiors feel their 
 elevation, but they were, at all events, free from the vices which 
 accompany luxury and dissipation. 
 
 Those, also, of the nobles who entered upon a military career 
 were preserved from the influence of foreign effeminacy. They 
 
CH. IV.] THE NOBILITY OF GKKMAXV. 7^ 
 
 were perhaps not celebrated for an attachment to the severer 
 virtues, but the discipline which the execution of their duty in- 
 volved, and the sense of honour which their profession was calcu- 
 lated to call forth and encourage, distinguished them advan- 
 tageously from the nobility at court. Fortunately for Germany, 
 the Gallomania was not of long duration. Indeed it was easy to 
 foresee, that, however prevalent French forms and the French 
 language might become, the morality of the Germans was too 
 deeply interwoven with their national character, to afford a per- 
 manent hold to French example. During the latter half of the 
 eighteenth century, it began to die away even at the courts which 
 had been most zealous in encouraging it. It was banished from 
 Dresden by Frederick Augustus. In Baden, Brunswick, Wolfen- 
 buttel, and in several other states, princes ascended the throne 
 whose personal character \vas alone sufficient to introduce an effec- 
 tual reform. At this period, too, the nationality of the Germans 
 seemed to awake as from an unhealthy slumber. The long years 
 of lethargy and slothful dependance were forgotten, and the 
 nation suddenly manifested all the signs of reviving youth. A new 
 literature was created, and science was cultivated in a new spirit. 
 To these changes, the nobility was no stranger ; but while it 
 reaped its share of the general advantages, it was exposed to 
 peculiar losses. The spirit of the time was inimical to the privileges 
 to which it was naturally attached. As no popular revolutions 
 had yet rendered the governments cautious, the plebeians were 
 allowed to attack the aristocracy with a boldness which would not 
 now be tolerated. Their principal grounds of accusation were, 
 that the nobility alone was eligible to civil and military posts, that 
 it was still in the exclusive possession of monopolies, and that the 
 services which it imposed on the peasant were incompatible with 
 humanity, and much less with justice. These allegations, and the 
 deductions which were drawn from them, the nobility met with 
 either indifference or contempt ; though here and there individuals 
 were found who replied to the charges with the same spirit in 
 which they were made. This polemical relation could not but 
 increase the mistrust which had already existed between these 
 
74* THE NOBILITY OF GERMANY. [SECT. I. 
 
 two classes of society. Such was the state of feeling at the breaking 
 out of the French revolution. 
 
 The first measures of the democratic party in France were very 
 generally applauded in Germany. The public mind had been 
 prepared for them by the termination of the American war. But 
 the sympathy of the two neighbouring nations was of short dura- 
 tion. The horrors which were perpetrated in France produced 
 the greatest indignation in Germany, and changed the prospects of 
 the country. No one dared to hope for improvement in his own 
 constitution, when an attempt to attain it elsewhere had just been 
 productive of such signal misfortunes. The invectives and com- 
 plaints which had lately been regarded as of little importance, 
 were now denounced as treasonable practices. The sovereign be- 
 came convinced that the nobles were the natural defenders of the 
 throne, and would hear of no accusation against them. Thus they 
 not only maintained their ancient position, but fancied that they 
 had secured it from attack ; but the sequel deceived the hopes 
 which they fondly entertained. The French invasion of Germany 
 precipitated them into an abyss of unparalleled misfortunes. The 
 nobility on the left bank of the Rhine became subject to France, 
 and lost at once all its privileges. The provisions of the peace of 
 Luneville abolished the diets in all the states which it concerned. 
 The members of the Rhenish confederacy were also empowered 
 to abolish at pleasure the privileges of the nobility. Many availed 
 themselves of the right, and only the king of Saxony and the 
 dukes of Mecklenburg left their diets invested with their former 
 functions, and the principal privileges of their nobilities untouched. 
 Except in Austria, the religious endowments, of which the re- 
 venues had been enjoyed by the sons of noble families, were 
 confiscated. In those states in which the Code Napoleon was 
 introduced, the nobility lost its personal privileges, and became 
 even liable to conscription. In Austria alone of all the German 
 states, it escaped a share of the general misfortune. 
 
 The unhappy termination of the war of 1806 brought about a 
 complete change of Prussian policy. The government was 
 obliged to strain every nerve to preserve itself from utter ruin. 
 
CH. IV.] THE NOBILITY OF GERMANY. *J5 
 
 In order to infuse an active spirit into the people, servitude 
 (Erbunterthdnigkeit) was abolished, the plebeian was allowed 
 to purchase the estates of noblemen, the nobility was declared 
 liable to conscription, and a system of army-promotion was in- 
 troduced which excluded the pretensions of birth in the choice 
 of a candidate. 
 
 Thus, in the majority of the German states, the nobility had 
 lost by degrees the greater part of its privileges, when the defeat 
 of the French in 1814, gave Europe reason to anticipate a perma- 
 nent peace. At this happy epoch, the nobility expected perhaps 
 to recover its former importance. But experience has shown that 
 this institution, which in the middle ages was the predominant 
 element of society, is not likely in Germany to regain its ascen- 
 dancy. The absolute monarch, supported by his army, and 
 beloved by his people, was no longer willing to tolerate an aristo- 
 cracy in share of his government. He was disposed to confer on it 
 his favours, but not to divide with it the prerogatives of a ruler. 
 
 The middle classes of society had risen into new importance, 
 and were naturally inclined to look with a jealous eye on the 
 pretensions of birth. Education was become more universal, and 
 riches were no longer in the hands of the nobles alone. The 
 peasant could not be driven again into servitude, nor the com- 
 moner excluded from civil and military posts, nor deprived of 
 estates of which he had obtained possession by legal means. To 
 institute new sinecures or to revive old ones, could neither in 
 modesty be demanded, nor in reason justified. But though the 
 German nobility could by no possibility arrive at its former 
 power and importance, the congress of Vienna secured to it all 
 the privileges which it could exercise without prejudice to the 
 other classes of society, and without infringing upon the prero- 
 gatives of the sovereign. 
 
 The present nobility of Germany consists of the mediatised 
 princes (die ehemaligen unmittelbaren Reichstdnde) and the 
 mediatised knights (die ehemalige Reichsritterschaff)^ as well as 
 of the ancient nobles 
 
 The mediatised princes are the highest, and rank near the sove- 
 reign powers. The control which they are allowed to exercise over 
 
76 THE NOBILITY OF GERMANY. [SECT. I. 
 
 their domains, and those inhabiting them, is as complete as is consis- 
 tent with the good government of the state in which their posses- 
 sions are situated. They are free to reside in whatever part of 
 Germany they please, and also to enter into foreign service. They 
 are only amenable to a high court of justice, and are not liable to 
 conscription, but they are still subject to the general jurisdiction 
 of the country. In unimportant affairs, they administer justice 
 on their own domains, regulate the local police, superintend the 
 woods and forests, possess the right of church-presentation, and 
 preside over the department of public instruction. Their deci- 
 sions, however, are not allowed to contradict the general laws 
 of the country. Should these rights not be respected by their 
 sovereigns, they are empowered to appeal to the German diet 
 at Frankfort, which has conferred upon them, since the con- 
 gress of Vienna, several new honours. The titles are continued 
 to them which they bore when independent; and they and their 
 families are prayed for, in the church service, immediately after 
 the sovereign. On their decease, the bells are tolled for eight 
 days, in all the churches on their domains. For all offences 
 against the state, excepting military insubordination, they can 
 only be tried by their peers. In the government of their domains, 
 too, they have lately been rendered more independent of their 
 sovereigns, but they are still bound to proceed consistently with 
 the spirit of the laws of their respective countries. 
 
 The mediatised knights, who were independent before the dis- 
 solution of the German empire, and who only differed from the 
 princes above-mentioned, by their not having a voice in the im- 
 perial diet, now enjoy the same privileges as the latter, but in a 
 less degree. 
 
 The ordinary nobility in the different German states, is sub- 
 jected to the respective sovereign powers. In no two countries is 
 its position the same. It has almost everywhere lost its exemp- 
 tion from taxation, and its remaining privileges are rather forms 
 than solid advantages. In the constitutional states, however, it 
 takes part in the government as a legislative chamber, and in 
 several it still continues to administer justice in minor affairs on 
 its own domains, and to exercise the right of church-presentation. 
 
CH. IV.] THE NOBILITY OF GERMANY. 77 
 
 On the whole, however, its position is rather to be ascribed to the 
 respect which it inspires, than to the privileges to which it is 
 legally entitled. 
 
 The king of Prussia, and, I believe, some other German poten- 
 tates, now require an university education, and certain prelimi- 
 nary tests from all candidates for office; this circumstance alone, 
 will probably tend to elevate the character of the German 
 nobility, because they will be compelled to undergo a regular 
 educational discipline, and to sustain competition ; but they have 
 also a still more difficult trial to endure in Prussia, in a struggle 
 against increasing poverty. 
 
 The number of noble individuals in Austria was estimated by 
 Li ch ten stern at 475,000. But Hassel believes that this calcula- 
 tion falls far short of the truth. In 17^5, the nobility of Hun- 
 gary alone were estimated at 162,495; and in 1816, the male 
 nobles of Milan were reckoned at 3,859. The number of nobles 
 in Prussia was computed by Hassel, in 1822, at about 200,000. 
 Spain has been estimated to possess the most numerous nobility ; 
 Poland, probably, is at least equal in this respect; Austria and 
 Prussia follow, then Russia, then France, next Sweden, and 
 England stands, perhaps, last; Italy is less known. 
 
CHAPTER V. 
 
 BIOGRAPHICAL AND CRITICAL VIEW OF MODERN GERMAN 
 LITERATURE. 
 
 Modern German Literature, from the time of Gottsched to the era of 
 Goethe and Schiller. Gottsched, Hagedorn, and Haller. Bodmer 
 and Breitinger. J. E. Schlegel, Gellert. Klopstock's early labours. 
 First productions of Wieland, Sulzer, Gleim, Utflkleist, Ramler, 
 i Gesjer. The school of Berlin Lessing, Mendelsohn, and Nicolai. 
 Engel, WinJcelman. Works of KlopstocJc, of Lessing, and of 
 Wieland, Voss, Herder, Burger , Goethe, Schiller. 
 
 THE early literature of Germany does not possess the same 
 interest for the general reader, nor for the antiquarian, which is 
 found so abundantly in the cotemporary writings of England, 
 France and Italy. The early literature of Germany did not 
 represent the national mind, nor did it tend much to enlighten nor 
 to move it. It principally consists in treatises, more or less 
 elaborate, on matters of theology, jurisprudence, natural history, 
 physics, and medicine, with no small sprinkling of alchemy, astro- 
 logy, and metaphysics. These were almost all written in Latin, 
 which appears to have been almost a second tongue, used 
 familiarly in conversation, and still more familiarly in composi- 
 tion. Thousands of bulky folios, and tens of thousands of slender 
 theses and dissertations, still occupy the shelves of the German 
 libraries, but are seldom removed from their place of repose. 
 When we commence the literature of Germany at its so-called 
 modern period, we, in fact, exhibit all that is a subject of inquiry, 
 or a source of gratification, among ordinary readers. 
 
 The modern literature of Germany may be said to commence 
 with Gottsched, who was born in the year 1700, and who died in 
 1766. He was educated at Konigsberg, where he took the degree 
 of Master of Philosophy, in 1723. He was shortly afterwards 
 obliged to quit Prussia, where his stature exposed him to the risk 
 
OH. V.] MODERN GERMAN LITERATURE. 79 
 
 of being forced to enter the ranks of the king of Prussia's giant- 
 grenadiers. He took refuge at Leipsic, and was elected professor 
 at the university there, in the year 1730. Gottsched claimed the 
 character of an universal genius, which he was far from being able 
 to support. He attempted to play at once, the philosopher, the 
 grammarian, the critic, and the poet. But he survived his own 
 fame, and is now consigned to a degree of oblivion which he cer- 
 tainly does not deserve. In estimating his services as an author, it 
 must be remembered that he had all possible disadvantages to con- 
 tend with; his language was only just emerging from barbarism; 
 he had no national models to mould or guide him; and the age in 
 which he lived, showed no signs of vigorous life. It was a period 
 of transition, of which the peculiarity is a want of character. He 
 introduced a more cultivated style, attacked pedantic extremes, 
 and excited useful controversy. But he did not occupy himself 
 with style and form exclusively; he may be said to have founded 
 the periodical literature; he encouraged numerous young authors, 
 and placed the learned world on a better footing with the book- 
 sellers. With the assistance of a number of scholars, whom he 
 had gradually gathered around him, he published a translation of 
 Bayle, whose work, from its free and novel cast, produced a great 
 sensation in Germany. Though a grave Professor, he did not 
 disdain to interfere with the theatre, and his criticism succeeded 
 in driving away the Merry- Andrew (Hanswurst) from the stage. 
 A Leipsic lady assisted his reforming career by the introduction 
 of feeble translations from the French. The influence of the 
 pseudo-classic rules of France on the German drama lasted 
 till the criticism of Lessing demolished it at a blow, and 
 rushed unfortunately to an opposite extreme. The period of 
 Gottsched's glory was between the twentieth and fortieth years 
 of the last century. At that time a host of scholars, all living 
 at Leipsic, surrounded him like a family. His lady was in- 
 fected with the mania of the day, and translated the French 
 tragedians, whilst he imitated the Cato of Addison. In these 
 palmy days, our Professor assumed a proportionate degree of 
 presumption and conceit. He legislated for the literary world 
 with a dictatorial air ; but into the nature of man, where alone 
 
80 MODERN GERMAN LITERATURE. [SECT. I. 
 
 the laws of criticism are seated, he never deigned to cast a glance. 
 Aristotle he misunderstood, and his imitation of the French was 
 clumsy and imperfect. From ~[ f joti to 17^3, Germany was dis- 
 turbed by the Seven Years'* War, during which Frederic the 
 Great frequently occupied Saxony, and held his court at Leipsic. 
 Although this sovereign was more a Frenchman than a German, 
 still he condescended sometimes to notice his own language, and 
 he encouraged Gottsched, who was called to court to represent 
 German literature. Here, as an avowed admirer of the French, 
 Gottsched found himself, of course, at home, and was delighted 
 to support the predilections of the king by his learned authority. 
 He was rewarded by some French verses of the latter, in which 
 he was entitled the Swan of Saxony. Goethe has left us a highly 
 amusing account of the first visit which he paid to Gottsched. By 
 mistake he was ushered into the dressing-room of the Professor, 
 who, as he entered, clapped on his wig with great dispatch, then 
 boxed his blundering valet's ear with one hand, and received his 
 guest with the other. 
 
 Gottsched'' s system of ciiticism is particularly open to the 
 charge of superficiality and weakness. The relation in which 
 he stood to his more immediate followers, most of whom were 
 his opponents, will lead us again to this subject. 
 
 Principal Works of Gottsched. Critical System of Poetry 
 (1730). Poems (1736). German Grammar (1748). German 
 Theatre (1750). 
 
 Hagedorn and Haller were eight years younger than Gott- 
 sched ; they were both born in 1708. They died, the former in 
 1754, the latter in 1777- Hagedorn was a native of Holstein, 
 and spent the greater part of his life at Hamburg. In this part 
 of the country, at that period, Low German ( Platt Deutsch) 
 was in every mouth it was the language of ordinary, if not 
 of cultivated conversation. Haller was born in Switzerland, at 
 Berne, a town more French than German, and he had to learn 
 German with a grammar and dictionary. In classing, then, 
 these poets together, we only refer to some similar points in the 
 character and tendency of their works. They commenced an 
 indirect opposition to Gottsched, and as they overthrew him, 
 
CH. V.] MODERN GERMAN LITERATURE. 81 
 
 without expressly aiming at him, they rendered his overthrow 
 the more complete. The criticism of the Leipsic Professor was 
 entirely negative. He had prescribed only sobriety of expression, 
 and such poetical enthusiasm as could help itself just as well with 
 prose as verse. Haller introduced the freedom of English litera- 
 ture into Germany. He, at first, took Pope for his model ; but 
 if lie excels him in depth and solidity, he is his inferior in point 
 of style. Haller deserted poetry for physiology at thirty, and 
 would fain apologize afterwards, for having devoted so much time 
 to the Muses. Poetry, he complains, is a frivolous occupation, 
 and as for his effusions, one was written on a journey, another 
 during his recovery from an illness, and the rest on similar 
 occasions. His poem, " The Alps," however, must receive justice 
 from the critic, though it may have been rejected by its author; 
 it contains touches of nature worthy of a master-hand. Haller's 
 satires are written in a terse and manly style. His moral essays 
 are a species of one-sided declamation, where the orator launches 
 without a compass, and sails through innumerable topics without 
 arriving at any result. Some of Pope^s works are of the same 
 nature, and his " Essay on Man" has no claim to its title ; 
 but there is a force and vigour in the style of Haller, which 
 counterbalances all his faults. It is needless to say that these 
 sins were loudly decried by Gottsched, and that, at the news of 
 Haller's rising fame, all Leipsic was in an uproar. It is a com- 
 mon prejudice, that a man cannot distinguish himself eminently 
 in two departments. The philosophic reputation of Haller has 
 injured his fame as a poet. To his scientific eminence, he owed 
 his professorship at the university of Gottingen. Here he 
 was an active contributor to Der Gelehrte Anxeiger, at that 
 time the most famous periodical in Germany. During his 
 residence at Gottingen, he wrote a political romance (Usong) 
 clothed in Asiatic form, which has since been consigned to 
 oblivion. Haller was a man of a serious and somewhat gloomy 
 temperament, which betrayed him, at last, into a state of morbid 
 melancholy. His religious faith was neither cheerful nor con- 
 solatory, and for some years preceding his decease, he required the 
 
82 MODERN GERMAN LITERATURE. [SECT. I. 
 
 constant attention of a spiritual adviser. In estimating the com- 
 parative worth of Haller's works, we must never forget that he 
 was without German models. He had the classics certainly, but 
 their sphere is too remote for the imitation of a genial poet, who 
 feels the necessity of giving expression to life as he breathes and 
 feels it. The light of classic literature is pure and beautiful, but 
 cold and dead. The best of Haller's works is undoubtedly " The 
 Alps," in which he manifests a .close intimacy with nature, and 
 great depth of thought. The Frilhling of Kleist, and the " Sea- 
 sons" of Thomson, of which the former is an imitation, are the 
 best monitors of the necessity which exists for giving a rigorous 
 form to descriptive poetry. Some of Mailer's moral poems seek 
 to reconcile the old quarrel between free-inquiry and faith. One 
 of the most remarkable amongst them is a comparison between the 
 fortitude in suffering of a Christian missionary and of an American 
 warrior. Haller wrote odes, but in imitation of the French of 
 Baptiste Rousseau, for instance. These compositions instead of 
 being poetical, are a collection of rhetorical rhymes. The criticism 
 of our poet-philosopher is not of much value ; for to criticise a 
 literature which is without models is to thresh empty straw. 
 
 Principal Works of Haller. Poems (1732). The Alps 
 (1748). Usong (1771). Alfred (1773). 
 
 Hagedorn, who, though he lived in such different circumstances, 
 is generally classed with Haller, was a man of a very different 
 temperament. He was sociable and extremely cheerful, and his 
 aim was the moderate one of avoiding extravagance, and of 
 attaining perfection in a very minor department. He possessed 
 but little invention, and his way of life was not calculated to 
 supply this deficiency. His reading was such as no one now 
 would pride himself on, being composed principally of second 
 and third-rate English and French poets. His favourite models 
 were Horace, Boileau and Samuel Johnson. Like Boileau, 
 he endeavoured to adapt the Horatian satire to modern life. 
 In his imitation of the Journey' to Brundusium, a worthy 
 Hamburg cit, Herr Lisco, figures as Maecenas, and the Marien- 
 gasse as the Via Sacra. He attempted to write epigrams, but his 
 
CH. V.] MODERN GERMAN LITERATURE. 83 
 
 pen was too mild, and the objects at which they were directed too 
 indefinite to ensure their success. A man may as well shoot into 
 the air and take his chance of hitting anything, as write an 
 epigram with a general aim. The spirit of personality, as Martial 
 has taught us, is an indispensable requisite. Unfortunately, 
 too, epigrams have become a sort of common property, descending 
 from generation to generation, and their genealogy is often to be 
 distinctly traced. The " Fables" of Hagedorn, in imitation of 
 La Fontaine, improved much on the German standard, and excited 
 further progress. Gellert and Lichtwer took up the subject 
 shortly afterwards, and remained masters of the field, till the 
 " Fables'" of Lessing effected as great a revolution in this, as his 
 philosophy accomplished in all other departments of German 
 literature. 
 
 Principal Works of Hagedorn. Poetical Essays (1729). 
 Fables and Stories in Verse (1738). The Universal Prayer, in 
 imitation of Pope (1742). On Happiness (1743). The Gossip 
 (1744). 
 
 Between the fortieth and fiftieth years of the last century, 
 at which time the fame of Hagedorn was fast superseding that of 
 Gottsched, appeared two opponents of the latter who did not con- 
 fine themselves to an indirect system of attack. These were 
 Bodmer and Breitinger, who founded what is called the Swiss 
 school of criticism. Bodmer was born at Zurich, 1698, and died 
 there, 1783. He commenced his literary career by publishing a 
 periodical work in 1722. In 1725, he was called to the chair of 
 History in the university of his native town. Breitinger was born at 
 Zurich, 1701, he filled there the University chair of Greek and 
 Hebrew, and died, 177^- These two carried on a paper war with 
 Gottsched, and contributed by their abuse to his downfal, without 
 increasing their own fame. Their great poetical authority was, 
 as usual, Aristotle, whom, from the imperfect study of classical 
 literature at that time, they probably did not understand, or they 
 would have known that, however great was his philosophic 
 acumen, Aristotle had no pretensions to the title of a critic of 
 poetry. The great merit of the Swiss school consisted in the 
 further introduction of English literature to the notice of the 
 
 G 2 
 
84 MODERN GERMAN LITERATURE. [SECT. I. 
 
 German public. They studied Pope and Addison, whose criticism, 
 though somewhat tame, is still freer than that of the French. But 
 the " Paradise Lost" of Milton was the chief object of their ad- 
 miration. They had long been on the search for an epic in blank 
 verse, in order to silence the one-sided criticism of Gottsched, 
 who would acknowledge no poetry, unless it were clothed in 
 rhyme. The idea of an epic, in those days, implied supernatural 
 agency, as well as human heroism. The former was designated 
 by the French word, machinerie, an unhappy term, derived pro- 
 bably from the machinery by the aid of which the gods of ancient 
 tragedy descended upon the stage. Milton corresponded in 
 every respect to the prevailing definition of an epic poet, and 
 Bodmer translated the majestic verse of Milton into clumsy and 
 tedious German prose. 
 
 The Swiss school was devoid of a consistent philosophy, and 
 failed in the qualifications and acquirements essential for the office 
 of general criticism. We must strive hard and long before the 
 point is gained, at which we can survey European literature. 
 Each national poet must be studied in his own home, amongst his 
 countrymen ; he is no bird of paradise flying in universal air. 
 Bodmer wrote a bad " Art of Poetry,"" but then he had no poetry 
 of which to treat. Amongst the popular bards of those clays, 
 were Von Besser, master of ceremonies to the king of Prussia ; 
 Koenig who wrote a muster-roll of Saxon and Prussian soldiers 
 in rhyme ; and Lowenstein, whose tragedies are so long, that in 
 order to sit out their representation one would be compelled 
 to take a meal or two and a night-cap into the theatre. 
 
 Principal Works of Bodmer. Translation of Milton (1732). 
 Critical Letters (1746). The Noachide (1762). Principles 
 of the German Language (1768). 
 
 Principal Works of Breitinger. Artis Cogitandi Principia 
 (1736). Critical Essay on the Art of Poetry (1740). Orationes 
 Solemnes (1776). 
 
 Notwithstanding the exertions of the Swiss school, Leipsic 
 continued, even after the expiration of Gottsched's popularity, to 
 be the metropolis of literary Germany. In the middle of the 
 last century, it was the residence of Gellert and Klopstock, of 
 
CH. V.] MODERN GERMAN LITERATURE. 85 
 
 Kramer, Rabener, and several others, whom we shall not have 
 space to dilate upon. But somewhat earlier than these, flourished 
 J. E. Schlegel, who was born in 1718, and who died in Denmark, 
 in 1749. He was the first who gave a character to the German 
 theatre, and is, therefore, in his relation to German dramatic 
 literature, especially worthy of notice. He commenced his career by 
 translating some tragedies of Sophocles and Euripides into German 
 rhyme. Though he abandoned the French school of tragedy, 
 he was not quite free from its influence. If his " Herrman" 
 were free from the intrigues which its example rendered essential 
 to the success of a play, and were somewhat bolder in its construc- 
 tion, it would command unreserved admiration ; as it is, however, 
 it is superior to the "Herrman" of Klopstock. It is one of the first 
 productions of modern German literature, and well calculated 
 to develop and encourage national feelings. Indeed, it contains so 
 many allusions to freedom and independence, that during the 
 time of the French domination, the theatrical censors would never 
 have allowed it to be performed. In Denmark, Schlegel wrote 
 a comedy, called the " Triumph of Good Women," and prefixed 
 to it a dissertation, in which he attempts to prove that pro- 
 ductions of this class should never be written in rhyme. But 
 comedy, the subject of which is drawn from e very-day life, may 
 require the assistance of rhyme, to preserve it from falling through 
 the various grades of the lighter drama into a species without 
 elevation and without form. The favourite plays of the aera we 
 are now considering, were of the kind technically called charac- 
 teristic, in which a character made up of extremes, whose vices 
 might be either moral or mental, was 'put to all sorts of trials, 
 through five tedious acts. Schlegel brought on the Copenhagen 
 stage, " The Dumb Beauty," a rhymed comedy in one act, which 
 is admirable of its kind. From this author, the influence of 
 French taste on the German drama dates its decline ; all subse- 
 quent attempts to modify French plays for that stage, have been 
 decided failures. If these productions are of any worth, it lies 
 in their consistency and unity, which are destroyed as soon as 
 they are altered. 
 
 Schiller and Goethe have, on this account, failed in their 
 
86 MODERN GERMAN LITERATURE. [SECT. I. 
 
 translations from Racine and Voltaire into German rhymeless 
 verse. For some time after the period of which we are now 
 treating, Shakspeare seems to have been unknown in Germany. 
 Bodmer quotes him under the name of Sasper, and a bibliopolist 
 of those days tells us, that he had heard a great deal about him, 
 but that he had been unable to obtain any of his works. 
 
 Principal Works of J. E. Schlegel Henry the Lion (1742). 
 Orestes and Pylades (1742). . Herrman (1746). Comedies 
 
 (1747). 
 
 Gellert was born three years before J. E. Schlegel, and sur- 
 vived him till 1769. His father was a clergyman at Haynichen, 
 near Freiberg, in Saxony. He received the elements of his 
 education at Meissen, and went to study at the University of 
 Leipsic, in 1734. Here he spent the remainder of his life, first 
 as a private tutor, and subsequently as a professor. His first 
 literary arena, was the periodical literature of Leipsic. Gellert 
 is one of those authors, who, by a prudent management of very 
 little talent, earn considerable fame. The public has confounded 
 the man with the poet ; and his literary insignificance was for- 
 gotten by those who admired the goodness of his heart. Fame, 
 however, seems now determined to vindicate its impartiality, and 
 is consigning poor Gellert to undeserved neglect. His comedies 
 are the weakest of his works; one finishes perusing them, really 
 without knowing what all the five acts have been about. His 
 tales and fables are much too similar ; he seems to have con- 
 founded the species. The " Letters'" of Gellert were received with 
 great applause, and have survived, in general estimation, many of 
 his works. But it is impossible that a book, the interest of 
 which is but local and temporary, should take its stand amongst 
 the classics of a nation. 
 
 Principal Works of Gellert. Fables (1746). Moral and 
 Didactic Poems (1754). Miscellaneous Works (17-56). 
 
 Frederic Gottlieb Klopstock was born in 1724, at the abbey 
 of Quedlinburg, where his father was employed. He was the 
 eldest of ten children. From 1739 to 1745, he was at school 
 at Pforta, near Naumburg ; he completed his education at the 
 University of Leipsic. The first years of his fame he spent in 
 
CH. V.] MODERN GERMAN LITERATURE. 87 
 
 travelling through various parts of Germany. Afterwards, from 
 1751 to 177^5 he resided at Copenhagen, where he was pensioned 
 by the king of Denmark. The latter part of his life was passed 
 at Hamburg, where, in his sixty-seventh year, he contracted a 
 second marriage, and where he died in 1803. 
 
 Klopstock came to Leipsic in the year 1746, when he had 
 already commenced his great poem, "The Messiah, 1 ' and was full 
 plans for its completion. It would be useless to deny, that in 
 some parts of it he has imitated Milton, but on the whole he 
 pursued an original path. 
 
 Klopstock had no ability in rhyming; his muse was neither 
 docile nor pliant. On this score, he was at first considerably 
 embarrassed, being far from decided as to what measure he should 
 choose for his verse. He intended, at first, to write in rhymeless 
 Alexandrines the worst form he could possibly have chosen. 
 Fortunately, he hit upon the hexameter, in which his success was 
 signal and complete. The first cantos of the Messiah were pub- 
 lished, 1748, in a periodical which issued from the Lpipsic press. 
 The effect which it produced upon the public, cannot be measured, 
 even by the greatest possible sensation which a work can now 
 create. 
 
 In our days, politics usurp all attention, and have almost 
 driven literature from the field. It is only during a temporary 
 calm, during an armistice, as it were, of the agitating powers, 
 that we can devote time to quiet, unimpassioned enjoyment. In 
 Klopstock's time, the public had scarcely anything to divert its 
 attention from his remarkable work. It roused all Germany 
 from Leipsic to its circumference, and Bodmer, from the valleys 
 of Switzerland, hailed its author as the morning star of a new 
 time. The old Swiss critic was surrounded by several disciples, 
 whom he was training for the path which Klopstock had so boldly 
 entered. The most noted of these were Wieland, Sulzer, and 
 Gessner. Bodmer was, himself, engaged in turning the Old 
 Testament into a series of epics, of which the principal one has 
 the Flood for its subject. The perusal of these poems always 
 excites the same painful feelings which travelling produces on a 
 rough road in a carriage without springs. 
 
88 MODERN GERMAN LITERATURE. [SECT. I. 
 
 In the year 17^0, we find Klopstock a visitor of Bodmer ; but, 
 unfortunately, the difference in their characters and years did not 
 allow the same congeniality of society as of poetical principles. 
 But mutual respect and admiration survived personal disappoint- 
 ment. In speaking of the Wieland of this period, we must not 
 confound him with the Wieland who dazzled Germany in the 
 year 170*3. They are one person, it is true; but the one person 
 underwent a complete metamorphosis. At this period, he 
 espoused the cause of Plato against that of Epicurus, and wrote 
 a poem to refute the " De rerum Natura," of Lucretius. Besides 
 this, he composed Scriptural epics, in unwieldly verse ; as, for in- 
 stance Der gepriifte Abraham. Sulzer was the scholar of Bodmer 
 in poetry, and of Leibnitz in philosophy. Or, rather, the creed 
 which he professed, and which was very popular just at that 
 period, was an amalgamation of all possible systems. Sulzer's 
 book on the fine arts is now almost forgotten ; its object is to 
 prove their morality, and their morality is undeniable, but they 
 must not be used expressly for a moral end. As soon as this bias 
 is detected, they lose their beauty and effect. 
 
 The works of Gessner, originally a disciple of Bodmer, will 
 be described after noticing another school to which he afterwards 
 belonged. 
 
 From Leipsic and Zurich, we are now called to Halle. It was 
 at this university that several poets of congenial natures Gleim, 
 Uz, Kleist, and llamler received their education and com- 
 menced their literary career. Gleim held an office under govern- 
 ment, and resided, the greater part of his life, at Halberstadt. 
 His first productions were Anacreontic poems ; he afterwards 
 wrote others of various descriptions, but he never attained excel- 
 lence in any department. He was a dilettante, and seems to have 
 had no serious call to appear before the world as a poet. His 
 private character, which was admirable in every respect, has 
 assisted him to a portion of that fame which genius only should 
 reap. As he advanced in years, he received the appellation of 
 Father Gleim, and Halberstadt was visited by youthful poets who 
 flocked thither, like pilgrims, from all parts of Germany. But 
 Gleim, though a faithful friend, was a much too indulgent critic. 
 
CH. V.] MODERN GERMAN LITERATURE. 89 
 
 This, however, served to maintain his reputation amongst the 
 young and aspiring, and he lived like Nestor, to advise and direct 
 a third generation. So late as the beginning of this century, his 
 voice was heard at intervals. He survived, indeed, the fame of 
 all his productions, except, perhaps, of his " War Songs of a 
 Prussian Grenadier," and these do not owe all their popularity to 
 their poetical merit. 
 
 Uz was a great friend of Gleim, and devoted his attention 
 chiefly to the ode. His favourite model was Horace, and he con- 
 tributed much to the study of the Roman poets. He wrote, 
 also, didactic poems, in which he incorporated the doctrine 
 of optimism lately propounded by Leibnitz. He attacked the 
 school of Klopstock, but the warmth which glowed in some of 
 his own erotic descriptions gave his opponents means of rejoinder 
 which they were far from neglecting. Wieland, of all others, 
 signalized himself in attacking Uz, for crimes of which he was 
 himself doomed to be the perpetrator ; the author of " The New 
 Amadis" would, probably, have given something in his latter 
 years to have been able to recal the unchristian zeal with which 
 he had appeared on behalf of decorum. But its fruits were in the 
 hands of the public, and his puritanical effusions were ranged on 
 the same shelf with other productions of his pen, which morality 
 is unable to justify. 
 
 Kleist was a young nobleman, and an officer in the Prussian 
 service. He fought in the ranks of Frederick the Great during 
 the Seven Years' War, and was killed at the battle of Kunersdorf. 
 His longing for repose, and the partiality with which he sketched 
 the peace he was never fated to enjoy, betray, in all his works, 
 the soldier-poet. His " Spring" is an imitation of the " Seasons" 
 of Thomson, which is composed of a series of pictures drawn 
 with truth and feeling, but in no definite form, and with no 
 general spirit pervading the whole. He has all the faults, and, it 
 cannot be denied, all the beauties of his model ; but poetry 
 is not entirely a descriptive art. The works of Kleist were dis- 
 figured by the corrections of Rainier ; and it is only lately that 
 they have been published from the original manuscripts. Ramler 
 has the credit of having tamed whatever was original and energetic 
 
90 MODERN GERMAN LITERATURE. [SECT. I. 
 
 in the poetry of his period down to his own standard of correct 
 mediocrity. In his old age he versified the Idylls of Gessner, 
 which had never possessed great merit, but which he deprived of 
 all they had. Gessner, after having been educated in the principles 
 of the Swiss school, came to Berlin about the year 1750, to learn 
 the trade of a bookseller. Disgusted, however, with this occupa- 
 tion, he took to painting, for which nature seems to have intended 
 him. He had received no instruction in the art, and he painted, 
 at first, a number of landscapes with common oil, so that they 
 would not dry. It was his distress on this account, which led 
 him to seek and ask the advice of the Professor of Painting. The 
 talent of Gessner was now soon recognised, and his landscapes 
 have always been very justly praised. Unfortunately, we cannot 
 say as much for his literary publications. His Idylls are land- 
 scapes, as far as he could make them such with pen, ink and 
 paper. His characters are like those of Ossian, speaking spirits 
 and shadows, drawn on a coloured horizon, and sweeping along 
 luxuriant ground. Probably, his reason for not writing in verse 
 was because he could not. But, still, his is not the poetic prose 
 which has been so much cultivated by the French, by Bitaube, 
 for instance, and by Chateaubriand. It is perfectly simple and 
 natural ; but the subject is not one to which these qualities can 
 give much value. He had, probably, Theocritus for his model, 
 whose works, however, he could not read in the original. But it 
 would be a mistake to suppose that he resembles the classic 
 idyllist. The shepherds of Theocritus are not the innocent 
 beings, nor are his shepherdesses so blissfully ignorant, as is gene- 
 rally imagined. In fact, the productions in which they appear are 
 sketches of a state of society which then really existed. It was 
 his successors, and not Theocritus, who forsook reality to paint 
 a golden age. With the " Aminta" of Tasso, and the " Pastor 
 Fido"of Guarini, Gessner appears to have been quite unacquainted. 
 His " Death of Abel," in which he followed the steps of Bodmer 
 and Klopstock, has no claims to originality, and therefore, none to 
 notice. 
 
 Between the fortieth and sixtieth years of the last century, a 
 literary school exerted itself with success in improving the style 
 
CH. V.] MODERN GERMAN LITERATURE. 91 
 
 and construction of German prose. It has happened with Ger- 
 many, as with many other nations, that its poetry arrived at a 
 considerable degree of perfection, whilst its prose was still quite 
 neglected. We are now about to speak of the works of Lessing 
 and his friends. Gotthold Ephraim Lessing was born in 1729, 
 and died shortly after he had reached his fiftieth year. His birth- 
 place was Kamenz, a little town in Lusatia. At the age of twelve, 
 he was sent to a school at Meissen which enjoyed a great reputa- 
 tion at that period. It was in 17^6 that he visited the university 
 of Leipsic, where he became acquainted with numerous literary 
 characters. Here, in a weekly journal, he published his first 
 productions. His subsequent place of residence he very often 
 changed. We find him engaged in literary pursuits alternately 
 at Leipsic, Wittenberg and Berlin ; subsequently, he became 
 superintendent of the theatre at Hamburg, and finally, librarian 
 at Wolfenbuttel, where he died, 1781. Lessing is one of those 
 who have been over-praised ; he was even esteemed a great poet; 
 but we cannot now concede to him the inspiration of poetical 
 genius. He was endowed with numerous and very different 
 capacities ; but his studies were desultory, and he had much 
 more zeal than perseverance. He was restless, paradoxical, and, 
 to use a word which was not born when he lived, but to which 
 he answered exactly, revolutionary. His exertions and acquisitions 
 were immense. He had a perpetual thirst for new discoveries, 
 and for discovering new views of old ones ; but his plan of pro- 
 ceeding was fitful and irregular. His whole way of life corre- 
 sponded to the bias of his mental character; he was, in every sense 
 of the word, eccentric. 
 
 At Berlin he was associated with Sulzer, whom we have 
 already noticed, Moses Mendelsohn, and Nicolai. They devoted 
 themselves principally to literary criticism, and their organ was 
 the Allgemeine Deutsche Bibliotheke. They had, however, no 
 real universality, which is essentially requisite to true criticism, 
 their views were narrow, and their j udgment confined. But their 
 prose was full of life and nerve, widely remote from the dulness 
 of that of the Leipsic school, and from the clumsiness of that of 
 the Swiss. The poetical works of Lessing consist chiefly of songs 
 
92 MODERN GERMAN LITERATURE. [SECT. I. 
 
 and translations. But he could commence no poem without laying 
 down a theory for his own guidance ; he was always calling him- 
 self to account, and mistrusting his impulses, a habit which 
 affords us sufficient evidence of his want of the innate confidence 
 which characterizes a great mind. He wrote comedies, which 
 now are all including even Minna von Barnhelm nearly for- 
 gotten. He was the author of fables and epigrams, and of new 
 theories on both. His Dramaturgic worked a revolution in the 
 theatre. In his tragedies of Miss Sarah Samson and of Emilia 
 Galotti, his chief object seems to be, to put into practice a theory 
 which he had broached, that the true drama requires the heroic 
 virtues to be domesticized, and not to be propped upon French 
 stilts. At Wolfenbuttel we find him in a new character, invading 
 the region of theology. In the library there, he raked up an old 
 manuscript of sceptical biblical criticism, of which probably its 
 author had been afraid ; and he ventured to publish some parts 
 of it. He wished to show, he said, his candour and tolerance. 
 But these professions did not shield him from innumerable attacks. 
 The duke of Brunswick interfered, and Lessing was compelled to 
 be silent ; but the chagrin and disappointment consequent on this 
 affair probably contributed to shorten his life. About this time he 
 wrote " Nathan the Wise," a drama, in which his ideas respecting 
 the relations which various religious tenets bear to each other are 
 given to the world. After having been banished from theology, 
 the indefatigable Lessing devoted himself to philosophical specu- 
 lation ; he became a student of Spinoza, and the predilection which 
 he manifested for the system of that philosopher raised another 
 outcry against him. Lessing was a man of enormous learning, but 
 even in his favourite department of the drama, he never arrived 
 at a perfect comprehension of the Greek tragedians. 
 
 Principal Works of Lessing. Miss Sarah Samson (1755). 
 Philotas (1759). Minna von Barnhelm (1763). Laocoon (1765). 
 Dramaturgic (1767-8). Emilia Galotti (1772). Nathan the Wise 
 
 0779.) 
 
 Moses Mendelsohn was born 1729, and died 1786. He was 
 a native of Dessau, where his father was a public notary. He 
 first came to Berlin, his future permanent abode, in 17^2, and 
 
CH. V.] MODERN GERMAN LITERATURE. 93 
 
 he made there the acquaintance of Lessing in 1754. He was born 
 and remained to his death in the Jewish profession, but his cha- 
 racter was independent, and his mind free from prejudices. His 
 principal work is his Phaedon, of which the object is to demon- 
 strate the immortality of the soul by the aid of modern philosophy. 
 In the latter part of his career, we find him appearing as an oppo- 
 nent of Kant, but this was a part which he was then too old and 
 too weak to play with any effect. The style of Mendelsohn is 
 regular and elegant. His character differed considerably from 
 that of Lessing ; he was a mild, calm, benevolent man, and his 
 works, consequently, want the boldness and originality of those 
 of his friend. He assisted in editing the " Letters on Modern 
 Literature," and devoted himself, at last, to theology. Besides 
 Kant, Jacobi roused him also to a public attack. The latter had 
 had a conversation with Lessing shortly before his death, in which 
 he had almost avowed himself a convert to the pantheism of 
 Sponiza. He had published this conversation, and was charged 
 by the Berlin friends of Lessing, and principally by Mendelsohn, 
 with having misrepresented the opinions of the latter. Jacobi 
 replied that he had been the only confidant of Lessing, and that 
 the philosopher had not communicated his opinions to them, 
 because he feared that they would not be able to understand him. 
 Principal Works of Mendelsohn. Letters on Literature 
 (1761-5). Pope as a Metaphysician [in conjunction with Lessing] 
 (1755). Phasdon (1767). Jerusalem (1783). Morning Hours 
 (1785). 
 
 Another friend of Lessing, at Berlin, was Engel, who was born 
 in 1741, and who died at the commencement of this century. He 
 was for some time the tutor of the present king of Prussia. 
 Afterwards he was appointed superintendent of the theatre at 
 Berlin, and wrote a book on the Mimic Art*. In this work we 
 find the fruits of Lessing's theory, for Engel, whilst writing on 
 the drama, forgets that a drama ought to be a poem. According 
 to him, close imitation is the actor's only road to perfection : in 
 fact, he recognises only talent, and forgets that such a thing as 
 genius exists. 
 
 * Translated by Henry Siddons. 
 
94 MODERN GERMAN LITERATURE. [SECT. I. 
 
 None of the followers of Lessing have rendered themselves more 
 famous than Nicolai, who, however, only adhered to the negative 
 precepts of his master. Many, indeed, of his disciples were only 
 acquainted with the scepticism of Lessing, and, though ostensibly 
 treading in his path, they brought discredit on his system. 
 
 Next appears an individual who ran an independent career, 
 as influential and brilliant as it was singular. Winkelman, the 
 son of a shoemaker, was born in 1717> an d spent some of the 
 best years of his life as an usher. He first saw the light at 
 Steindall, a town in the Old Mark of Brandenburg, where he 
 received the rudiments of his education. He afterwards passed 
 two years at the University of Halle. Then, for a consider- 
 able time, we find him in the most straitened circumstances, 
 burning with a deep love of art, which he was unable to gratify, 
 till lie became acquainted, at Dresden, with the pope^s nuncio, 
 Archinto, who persuaded him to abjure the Protestant faith, and 
 to try his fortune at Rome. The remainder of his life he spent 
 in Italy, where he wrote most of his works. He was murdered 
 by an Italian, at Trieste, June 8th, 1768. From his earliest 
 youth, Winkelman was filled (if the expression may be allowed) 
 with a prophetic inspiration ; he felt that he was born to distin- 
 guish himself, without knowing precisely in what department. 
 Fortunately, he became acquainted with Oeser at Dresden, and 
 obtained with his assistance, a thorough knowledge of the treasures 
 of art which that city possesses. He was the first learned man 
 of modern times who breathed the spirit of antiquity. Before his 
 time, the field upon which he entered was encumbered with 
 philologers quarrelling about manuscripts, and antiquarians dis- 
 puting on the manner in which the Romans tied their shoe- 
 strings. These worthies had discussed every possible variety of 
 external form, while neglecting even to mention an internal spirit. 
 The only individuals, who imbibed a classic spirit from the 
 immortal relics of the old world, were the artists, the painters, 
 for instance, of the Italian schools. It is easily to be recognized 
 in Michael Angelo, and the works of Raphael may be readily 
 divided into those produced before, and those conceived after he 
 had become acquainted with it. 
 
CH. V.] . MODERN GERMAN LITERATURE. 95 
 
 The great work of Winkelman (which was sent in portions 
 from Italy to Germany) is his 4< Universal History of Art." The 
 title is a misnomer ; it should have run thus, " The History of 
 Sculpture amongst the Greeks."" Winkelman was unacquainted 
 both with architecture and painting. His chief work announced 
 one great truth, but was disfigured by innumerable errors. The 
 extremes into which its author was always running, must be, in a 
 great measure, excused him, when we recollect that his contem- 
 poraries combined the greatest ignorance of art with the greatest 
 mannerism in treating of it. Unfortunately, he became, at last, 
 partial and one-sided ; considered himself as an Italian, and 
 would acknowledge no genius beyond the Alps. He published a 
 work, " Monumenta Inedita," in his adopted language, in which 
 he seems to have allowed his friendship for Cardinal Albani to 
 have biassed him not a little in his judgment of the works of art 
 in the possession of the latter. But his enthusiasm redeems all 
 his faults, and often clothes his subject in a strain worthy of his 
 classic models. He showed with a master-hand how intimately 
 and inseparably art and poetry are bound together. He formed 
 the old world anew, from the fragments which have come down to 
 us unexplained by each other. He sends the poet as well as the 
 sculptor to Italy, to study the Apollo and the Laocoon of the 
 statuary. He demonstrates that eloquence and music have their 
 birth in the same principle as poetry and art, and that they are to 
 be woven into the same grand whole. But still, we must remember 
 that, though Winkelman felt like a poet, he never thought like a 
 philosopher. He is seldom clear, sometimes unintelligible, and 
 often, even in his better moments, he must be contented with the 
 appellation of an eloquent stammerer. 
 
 Principal Works of Winkelman. Reflections on the Imita- 
 tions of Greek Sculpture and Painting (1756). Remarks on the 
 Architecture of the Ancients (1761). On the Perception of the 
 Beautiful in Works of Art (1763). History of Art* (1764). 
 
 It will be necessary now to return analytically on our own 
 
 * His great work on the History of Art lias not been translated into English, 
 but a French translation may be procured. Fuseli translated into English one of 
 his smaller works. 
 
96 MODERN GERMAN LITERATURE. [SECT. I. 
 
 steps, and to examine more in detail what we have been hitherto 
 viewing collectively. We commence again with Klopstock, and 
 shall consider him first as the poet of " The Messiah," the work 
 which occupied the best twenty-five years of his life. Let us 
 anticipate the consideration of it, by a few reflections on the ideas 
 entertained at the commencement of the last century on the 
 nature of the epic. The grand and indispensable duty of the 
 epic poet was held to be the imitation of the ancients especially 
 of Homer. But in order to imitate, one must first understand ; 
 and the critics of those days were quite in the dark as to the 
 essential nature of the Homeric rhapsodies. Recent research has 
 cast a new light upon these everlasting monuments of ancient 
 art. They are to be considered, not so much the work of an 
 individual, as the gradual formation of an age. That which we 
 possess under the name of Homer's epics, is the genuine core 
 of Greek tradition, gradually formed and gradually perfected. 
 No epic poet can be inspired without an enthusiastic belief of 
 the truth of that which he sings, and this was a requisite which 
 modern critics could, till of late years, never discover. Again, 
 supernatural interposition, and the subjection of the human will 
 to the decrees of fate, cannot be subjects of admiration to the 
 Christian world. The morality of our dispensation is opposed to 
 that of the old mythology. The first principle of our religion 
 teaches us the responsibility of a free agent, but the holiest duty 
 of the Greeks was a frequently blind obedience to an arbitrary 
 decree. As they never recognised this distinction, modern epic 
 writers have, for the most part, been guilty of the most palpable 
 blunders. It is unnecessary here to enumerate the number of 
 abortions of this class, which have made their appearance from 
 time to time. The real epics of the modern world have been 
 generally either unknown or neglected ; for instance, the tradi- 
 tionary ones of the North (as of Ossian) ; the old German 
 poems, such as the " Nibelungen Lied ;" the Spanish legends, 
 and others. 
 
 The nature of Klopstock's poem suggests a comparison with 
 that of Milton, and this must terminate by our acknowledging 
 the superiority of the latter. The epic requires for its subject a 
 
CH. V.] MODERN GERMAN LITERATURE. 97 
 
 struggle, the result of which, however confidently it may be 
 anticipated, must be for the time uncertain. Satan, the hero of 
 Milton, is undefeated, even at the falling of the curtain, though 
 prophecies and episodes announce to us his approaching downfal. 
 But in Klopstock, the Almighty is the grand agent, and there- 
 fore all struggle is impossible, and all show of resistance vain. 
 The acting principle in Milton is an individual and daring will ; 
 in Klopstock, an immutable and unswerving fate. 
 
 The second part of Klopstock's poem verges too much towards 
 the lyrical, where all active interest ceases. His characters are 
 too definitely divided into good and bad ; though Milton avoided 
 this rock somewhat equivocally by adding nobility even to the 
 vice of Satan. Still Klopstock was a great poet, for he founded 
 a new sera. He was full of the dignity of his calling, was inspired 
 by the sublimity of his subject, was a master of description, 
 and a bard who roused his age from indifference to enthusiasm. 
 From the consideration of his great work we pass on to his Odes, 
 which he composed in all periods of his life, and which form, 
 indeed, a kind of autobiography. These compositions have been 
 accused, with justice, of a kind of ostentatious originality, of 
 obscurity for its own sake, and of a multiplicity of recondite allu- 
 sions beyond all license. The introduction of the Northern 
 mythology, in many of his odes, is productive of a bad effect, 
 and his dramas are rendered still more uninteresting from the 
 same cause. His Scandinavian deities, like his angels in " The 
 Messiah," are but shadows answering to no definite ideas, formerly 
 unknown to the reader, and now when more familiar, uninterest- 
 ing. His dramas are monotonous productions ; the wildness they 
 often affect was foreign to the inspiration of their author ; they 
 are only apparently terse, and artificially laconic. 
 
 Klopstock encouraged in himself, and excited in others, a vein 
 of overweening Germanism ; according to him people may neglect 
 everything foreign, merely because they have not produced it. 
 Another of his peculiarities was, that he looked upon versification 
 as something quite beneath his serious attention ; rhyme he held 
 to be barbarous ; and when the Nibelungen Lied appeared in a 
 modern edition, he refused to notice it, because it was not in blank 
 
 H 
 
98 MODERN GERMAN LITERATURE. [SECT. I. 
 
 verse. In 1774, Klopstock published his "Learned Republic/ 1 of 
 which the style is admirable ; but its allegorical form was much 
 too obscure for the multitude, and its tone was too dogmatical 
 and oracular for the learned. Amongst his latest works were his 
 " Grammatical Dialogues," which were neglected more than they 
 deserved, and a " System of Orthography," full of whimsicalities 
 and inapplicable propositions. 
 
 Principal Works of Klopstock. First cantos of The Messiah 
 (1748). Termination of the Messiah (1769), Death of Adam, 
 a drama (1757). Dramas (1769-84). Odes (1771). Trea- 
 tise on German Orthography (177^)- Grammatical Dialogues 
 
 (1794). 
 
 To return to Lessing, more particularly to his dramatic career: 
 this he commenced by comedies, which, though they would be, 
 perhaps, flat and tedious to the public of this day, are still of 
 relative and historical importance. One of them, " Minna von 
 Barnhelm," attained unusual popularity, for it was a national 
 picture, and anything national in those days was new, and the 
 public were agreeably surprised to find something contiguous, 
 which they had always imagined to be distant and foreign. In 
 some of these plays, however, there is a sentimentality which is 
 measured, epigrammatic, and too often artificial. One of his 
 first tragedies was "Miss Sarah Samson," one of those touching 
 domestic dramas, then so popular, in which the events are much 
 too exaggerated for the sphere in which they occur. As soon as 
 his name became celebrated in the dramatic world, he received an 
 invitation from the company of players at Hamburg, of whom, 
 the well-known Eckhoff was the manager, to take upon him the 
 literary superintendence of their theatre. A branch of his duty 
 here consisted in the publication of a theatrical journal, Die 
 Hamburger Dramaturgic, which has since become a standard 
 book in German literature. At this period, he wrote nothing for 
 the boards himself; but, now that his own productive period had 
 expired, he became very zealous in discovering the laws which 
 should have regulated it. 
 
 In his theory of the drama, singular inconsistencies and bold 
 truths stand side by side. In the first place, he acknowledges 
 
CH. V.] MODERN GERMAN LITERATURE. 99 
 
 unreservedly the authority of Aristotle, and goes so far as to call 
 him the dramatic Euclid. But while he retained his allegiance to 
 the Greek, he entered into an alliance with a Frenchman, whose 
 system was exactly opposite ; this was Diderot, whose system was 
 based on a false idea of the natural, and who strenuously endea- 
 voured to banish all poetry from the stage. The influence of 
 Diderot has not yet expired in Germany ; and Lessing still con- 
 tinues to be regarded as his scholar, although in his last dramatic 
 production, " Nathan," he deserted his system *. Nothing 
 can be more witty than the polemical articles of our author 
 against Racine and Voltaire, and few things better than the 
 criticisms on Shakspeare, which are contained in his " Drama- 
 turgie." The bad effects, however, of his prosaic system are 
 visible in the first dramatic productions of Goethe and Schiller, 
 and in the works of Iffland and Kotzebue. Iffland brought 
 the kitchen on the stage, and gave dramatic lessons on domestic 
 economy. The public, after having been plagued with their 
 debts, disorders, and family disputes at home, had to endure a 
 second edition of them at the theatre. Kotzebue^s material was a 
 slippery moral, whitewashed with magnanimity : more business- 
 like^than Iffland, he generally let a rich nabob fall from the clouds 
 to pay all debts, quiet all quarrels, and liberate the dramatis 
 personce from prison before the conclusion of the piece. The 
 works of both were written in prose, and at last, the players, who 
 were as fond of nature as the public, could not be induced to 
 perform any piece which was written in verse, unless, indeed, they 
 were deceived by its being transcribed without a margin and 
 without capital letters, and were allowed to deliver it as they 
 pleased. Schiller was, for some time, obliged to have recourse 
 to this method, in order to get his dramas represented. 
 
 We now proceed to an account of the literary career of 
 Christopher Martin Wieland, who was born at Biberach, in 
 Suabia, in 1733, and who died in 1813. At the age of fourteen 
 he was sent to school at Klosterbergen, near Magdeburg ; and 
 thence he went to reside at Erfurt, with one of his relations. 
 
 * " Nathan" has been translated by Taylor, in his Historic Survey of " German 
 Poetry," 
 
 H 2 
 
100 MODERN GERMAN LITERATURE. [SECT. I. 
 
 Shortly afterwards we find him at Tubingen, attempting to study 
 the law, a profession, however, which he could never bring him- 
 self cordially to embrace. In 1752, he had devoted himself to 
 literature exclusively, and was living in the house of Bodmer, at 
 Zurich, which place, however, he soon quitted, and led an 
 unsettled life till he was invited to Weimar by the Duchess 
 Amelia, whose friendship and protection he enjoyed to the day 
 of his death . 
 
 We have described him, at first, as an adherent of Bodmer, 
 and a zealous cultivator of the biblical epic ; but about 1 765 his 
 character underwent a complete transition; he now appeared 
 as the author of comic stories, and of romances, as " Agathon," 
 " Musarion," and " The New Amadis." The philosophy which he 
 here inculcated was a kind of eclectic epicureanism ; he was afraid 
 of virtue running into excess, and would fain deprive her of even 
 the semblance of enthusiasm. His grand problem seems to have 
 been, to combine sensuality with grace. That he was a tasteful 
 writer no one can deny, but as a moral teacher he was decidedly 
 reprehensible. The exalted efforts of our nature, he always 
 affected to view with scrupulous suspicion ; any love, except the 
 sensual passion, he decried as deceit or an illusion. He once 
 ventured to call the virtue of Cato a Dulcinea ; but this called 
 down upon him the indignation of the philosophic and excellent 
 Jacobi, and in no trifling degree. Wieland, it would almost 
 seem, wished to make a treaty with virtue, and to allow her certain 
 rights, on condition that she should desist from the persecution 
 of vice. 
 
 As a prose writer, Wieland must be contented to take a much 
 lower station than as a poet : his diffuseness is perhaps his least 
 fault, for it is generally graceful ; but his style is complex, and 
 full of parentheses. Greece, in its bright period between Pericles 
 and Alexander, is his scene and subject; but his heroes, instead 
 of being Greeks, are moderns, and of the French school. His 
 light and humorous manner he chiefly owed to the study of Cer- 
 vantes, Sterne, and La Fontaine ; his disposition to philosophise 
 is his own. In his prose works he has an unhappy method ot 
 betraying his erudition too consciously, by recondite allusions, 
 
CH. V.] MODERN GERMAN LITERATURE. 101 
 
 and, what is worse, by foreign words. It is somewhat remark- 
 able, that his moral laxity and slippery descriptions should have 
 been received favourably by a public then so unaccustomed to such 
 liberties as the German ; certainly they would have been tolerated 
 in no other than a Grecian garb, and in no form except that of a 
 philosophic romance : though here we must observe, that Wie- 
 land's philosophy is far more dangerous than his elegant licen- 
 tiousness ; the latter addresses itself only to the senses, whilst the 
 former strikes at the very basis of our moral nature. 
 
 The last great work of Wieland was his " Oberon," on which 
 his poetic fame is greatly grounded, though, in fact, it is rather a 
 story in verse than a poem. It is an arbitrary, and far from har- 
 monious, mixture of the fairy tale and the heroic legend. Then, 
 again, even in the distant age of which it treats, and in the land 
 of fairy, Wieland never forgets his philosophy and himself. How 
 differently Ariosto, whose imitator he once announced himself to 
 be, pictures the same period, displaying all the depth, clearness, 
 and childlike, but healthy, simplicity of the epic poet ! 
 
 The repose of Wieland's declining years was somewhat dis- 
 turbed bv the anxiety of his old friends to remind him of his 
 desertion of the severe morality which he had formerly professed ; 
 but his conciliatory character had its effect even on the most violent 
 of these. In private life, we must do him the justice to say, he 
 was one of the most amiable of mankind ; and it is his evident 
 benevolence which has, doubtless, greatly contributed to hide 
 from every eye except that of the critic, the prejudicial effects 
 which his works are calculated to produce. 
 
 Principal Works of Wieland. The Nature of Things (1751). 
 Spring (1752). The Trial of Abraham (1753). Lady Jane 
 Grey, a Tragedy (1758). Comic Tales (1762). Don Sylvio 
 de Kosalva (1766). Agathon (1767). The Graces (1770). 
 The New Amadis (1771). The Abderites (1773). Oberon 
 (1780). Euthanasia (1805)*. 
 
 We have now finished our retrospective review, and shall pro- 
 
 * The " Oberon" has been well translated by the late Mr. Sotheby. The 
 story has been agreeably exhibited to the public by Mr. Planche, in his opera of 
 " Oberon." Some of his lesser prose compositions have been translated in the 
 " Varieties of Literature." 
 
102 MODERN GERMAN LITERATURE. [SECT. I. 
 
 ceed to the grand epoch of German literature, to the appearance 
 of men who are its glory and its boast. But let us, before we enter 
 upon the works of Herder, Goethe, and Schiller, give a short 
 sketch of the character of Voss, a man of acknowledged merit, who 
 cannot well be classed with any school. 
 
 John Henry Voss was a native of Mecklenburg, where he 
 was born in 1751. After having been at school at Branden- 
 burg, he studied at Gottingen. During the best part of his life, 
 he was a schoolmaster in the North of Germany ; afterwards, he 
 was attached to the University of Heidelberg, at which town he 
 died in 1826. Voss was a man who owed his success entirely to 
 his own exertions ; born in unfavourable circumstances, he reached 
 no trifling eminence in learning and literature. 
 
 In speaking of his poems, it is necessary to make a critical 
 distinction between the different editions : in the first, of eight 
 volumes, he incurred considerable censure from frequent coarse- 
 ness of expression, and a disgusting fidelity of delineation in the 
 treatment of unpoetical subjects; in the last, of four volumes, he 
 expunged the parts most repugnant to the intervening criticism. 
 His songs are genuine effusions of powerful feelings naturally 
 expressed, but without much pretension to originality. His 
 Idylls contain his happiest efforts ; in the description of rural 
 rites and feasts he is often inimitable. Unfortunately, he too 
 frequently deserts the poetical for the vulgar view of such sub- 
 jects ; taste, which alone can draw the line between them, he 
 unfortunately did not possess. The best idyll of Voss is his 
 excellent poem of " Luise," in which, with a spirit caught from 
 the bard of the Odyssey, he charms the reader with the simplest 
 details respecting a country clergyman and his happy family. 
 The translations of Voss have had much more influence on German 
 literature than his original works. The accuracy with which he 
 has reproduced the classics in that language is astonishing ; but, 
 unfortunately, the grace, harmony, and simplicity of the original 
 are too often lost in his translation. 
 
 Principal Works of Voss. Translation of Homer (1793). 
 Translation of Virgil (1799). Translation of Horace (1806). 
 Luise (1795). Idylls (1800). Lyrical Poems (1802). 
 
CH. V.] MODERN GERMAN LITERATURE. 103 
 
 Herder, the friend and early patron of Goethe, was born at 
 Mohringen, a small place in East Prussia, in 1744 ; his father 
 was a schoolmaster, and he received from him the rudiments of 
 his education. At an early age, he was persuaded to go to 
 Russia and study medicine, and was at Konigsberg on his way 
 thither, when he determined to embrace the profession of theology. 
 In 1768, he became travelling tutor to the duke of Holstein- 
 Eutin. In 177^ ne was appointed court preacher at Bucke- 
 burg; and five years afterwards was called to Weimar, where he 
 found a most gracious reception, and a permanent abode. 
 
 Herder was a critic, and in the best sense of the word, one 
 who was fonder of dwelling upon beauties, than of searching out 
 defects. He was of a pliable, plastic, susceptible nature ; at last, 
 perhaps, he verged towards the undecided and indefinite; and 
 even in his best years, we too often miss in him the strength and 
 acuteness of a master-mind. He first gave to German literature 
 that cosmopolitical tendency, which has increased since his time 
 to such a degree, as to have become its peculiar boast. Herder 
 was a poet, but not a philosopher ; rather a literary than a 
 learned man. He had the faculty of happily divining where he 
 could not see very clearly. Though acquainted with many 
 languages, he had not a thorough knowledge of one. His 
 researches on the subject of popular and legendary poetry seem 
 to have led him to the conclusion, that the Muses can only be 
 successfully cultivated by their rudest votaries. But this is a 
 grand mistake ; Art is natural to man, who cannot, even in his 
 wildest state, be lost to a love of it ; and why should poetry be 
 deprived of its aid ? We do not disgrace the heavenly guest by 
 clothing her in a costly dress; we rather heighten the variety of 
 her beauties, and of our own enjoyment. 
 
 Principal Works of Herder. On the Origin of Language 
 (1770). Spirit of Hebrew Poetry (1782). Ideas towards a 
 Philosophical History of Mankind (1784). Letters on the Pro- 
 gress of Humanity (1793). Reason and Experience (1799)*. 
 
 * Herder's History of Man has been translated by Charles Johnston, (in 4to., 
 and in 2 vols. 8vo.) His work on Hebrew Poetry has been translated in America, 
 (2 vols.) Some specimens of his style are also to be found in "The Linguist," and 
 in the German translations on the Hamiltonian plan, by Staehle. 
 
104 MODERN GERMAN LITERATURE. [SECT. I. 
 
 Herder and Buerger are both fond of characterising Homer 
 as the poet of the people; but the fact is, that the Greek singers 
 of his age practised their art not in public, but in the halls and 
 palaces of princes, and it was not till the decline of Greece that 
 their voices were heard in the streets. Let it not to be supposed, 
 however, that we undervalue the meritorious exertions of Herder 
 and Buerger in the field of popular poetry; the former discovered 
 the treasures of by-gone ages, and the latter coined them anew 
 for the enjoyment of the present. 
 
 Buerger's ballads, and particularly his " Leonora," and " The 
 Wild Huntsman," are amongst the most splendid productions of 
 which German literature can boast. Nor can we, whilst admiring 
 his works, omit to commemorate the amiable character of the unfor- 
 tunate Buerger. Although his poems, precious as they are, still 
 want the high worth of their ancient models, yet he little merited 
 the severe attacks of Schiller, whose lofty rhetoric imposed on 
 and wounded him, and was yet, in fact, beneath his notice*. 
 
 Johann Wolfgang von Goethe was born on the 28th of August, 
 1749) at Frankfort on the Main, where he received his early edu- 
 cation: he afterwards studied at Strasburg and Leipsic, and spent 
 his manhood and old age at Weimar. A number of circum- 
 stances combined to call into action the poetical faculties with 
 which he was endowed. He was born at a period when the public 
 were susceptible, without being satiated; Klopstock had awakened 
 them to the beauties of poetry, and Wieland had kept the imagi- 
 nation alive. The learned world had been revolutionised by the 
 boldness of Lessing, and the genius of Winkelman. The poli- 
 tical horizon was bright ^ith unwonted colours; in the north, a 
 new kingdom was rising under the auspices of the great Frederic, 
 and the south of Germany was shortly afterwards agitated by the 
 imperial innovator, Joseph II. Freedom in an innocent garb 
 became a fashionable guest at German courts; and the sovereigns 
 vied with each other in granting freer institutions to their subjects. 
 In his first works, Goethe was the advocate of that which he felt to 
 be Nature, against that which he thought to be Art. His " Gotz 
 
 * Buerger's ballad of " Leonora," has been several times translated into English ; 
 and in particular by the late William Spenser, and by Walter Scott. 
 
CH. V.] MODERN GERMAN LITERATURE. 105 
 
 von Berlichingen," was written in defiance of all the old dramatic 
 laws; and in " Werter" he would seem to have aimed at the aboli- 
 tion of the conventional and artificial, and at the recognition of 
 what was called the voice of Nature in their stead. 
 
 Gotz is an historical tragedy, of which the hero flourished in the 
 beginning of the fifteenth century ; his iron hand is still to be 
 seen at Heilbronn ; and an autobiography, composed with all the 
 sterling simplicity of his age, has descended to us under his name. 
 Goethe's play fulfils the first requisition of the dramatic critic; it 
 is conceived in the spirit of the age which it portrays; its 
 characters live before us, and whilst we behold them, we breathe 
 the air of romance, and live in the olden time. Unfortunately, 
 its irregularity of construction and mass of incident render an 
 adequate representation of it impossible. Gotz von Berlichingen 
 was the first Ritter-schauspiel (drama of chivalry), and was 
 followed immediately by a thousand imitations : the species has 
 continued to degenerate, and is become at last the disgrace of 
 German literature. 
 
 A year after Gotz, appeared " The Sorrows of Werter," which 
 produced an incalculable effect upon the public, by whom it was 
 tumultuously received. This book is a singular mixture of truth 
 and fiction; to a certain extent, the author identified himself with 
 his hero, and then superadded the misfortunes of a young man 
 named Jerusalem, whose suicide, the consequence of an unfor- 
 tunate passion, made at that time considerable sensation. As far 
 as the sentiments and feelings of Werter are concerned, we may 
 take the identification to be complete; though how far the author 
 was conscious of it at the time of writing is uncertain. 
 
 Of the attacks which this work met with at the hands of the 
 critics, Goethe took no notice ; but he subsequently added one to 
 their number, in his " Triumph of Sentimentality." With this 
 latter word, " Werter" was the first to make us acquainted ; great 
 as is the part which it has played in our time, we may search for 
 it in vain before the days of Goethe. The feeling, though now 
 naturalised in Germany, is of foreign origin. The Nouvelle 
 Heloise of Rousseau first perfectly incorporated it, and is com- 
 posed of little else; it is more artificial, but less morally objec- 
 
106 MODERN GERMAN LITERATURE. [SECT. I. 
 
 tionable than " Werter." In England, Sterne had touched the 
 same chord, but with a steadier hand and a healthier result. 
 The work, however, which mainly contributed to establish the 
 fashionable feeling in Germany, was the " Ossian" of Macpherson, 
 in which the morbid refinement of the moderns is pictured to have 
 existed at an age, and amongst a people, where no refinement 
 whatever was known . 
 
 The next works of Goethe were- two dramas in prose, " Stella," 
 and " Clavigo," which contain all the faults of his former produc- 
 tions, and very few of their beauties. He presents us here with 
 a picture of the dissolution of all definite and decided character, 
 in obedience to the involuntary and immediate voice of what he 
 was pleased to call Nature ; and the very force with which he had 
 before sketched this condition in " Werter," would seem now to be 
 dissipated by the enervating theme. " Stella," he entitled a tragedy 
 for lovers, but a good tragedy cannot be usurped by any class ; 
 it addresses itself to mankind at large. The hero is a worthless 
 character, who is subject to every feeling, and faithful to none. 
 Discontented with ordinary felicity, he sets out in search of 
 something more than happiness. After deserting his wife and 
 daughter, and uniting himself to the innocent and lovely heroine, 
 without any diminution of his passion for the latter, remorse 
 seizes him on account of his treatment of the former, and he hits 
 upon the convenient idea of arranging the matter so as to be 
 able to live with both, in a way of his own, somewhat repugnant 
 to conjugal institutions. In these plays, Goethe allows all 
 emotions and feelings to have their course, without disturbing 
 them by even the mention of morality; but such a system under- 
 mines all strength of mind, all dignity of character, and instead 
 of having a right to our sympathy, it demands our contempt. 
 " Stella" has been compared with the " Count of Gleichen;" but, 
 whoever has attentively perused the old legend, will feel that there 
 is little analogy between them; the husband here is separated by a 
 continent from his spouse; he has been long supposed to be dead, 
 and he owed his life to the fair Saracen, whose love, though he 
 returned, he had not sought. 
 
 Shortly after the publication of these dramas, a metamorphosis 
 
CH. V.] MODERN GERMAN LITERATURE. 107 
 
 began to take place in the literary character of Goethe; he 
 recognised his errors, and was one of the few men of his time who 
 rescued himself from the influence of his works; he withdrew to 
 study and self-examination, and all that was heard of him for 
 some years, was an indefinite report of his being engaged in the 
 composition of " Faust." In 1788, he published " Egmont," the 
 most theatrical of his tragedies, in which he is no longer true 
 to his theory of the natural, for the language, instead of being the 
 prose of common life, rises often to the poetical. 
 
 At this period Goethe made a deep study of the Greek tragedy, 
 and recognised the poetical foundation on which Shakspeare's 
 world is built; the result of this is to be traced in his " Iphigenia 
 in Tauris;" and "Egmont" is a sufficient proof of the progress he 
 had made in the comprehension of the English dramatist. The 
 idea of making Tasso the hero of a play, occurred to Goethe 
 during a journey through Italy. His drama of this name has a 
 certain incidental interest, inasmuch as it doubtless, to a certain 
 extent, describes his own situation. The love of a poet for a 
 princess, and the embarrassing circumstances with which it is 
 accompanied, were subjects with which he was not unacquainted. 
 The elegance and correctness of diction in this poem, cannot be 
 surpassed; but it had faults which no one had anticipated in 
 Goethe ; it was too cold, too artificial. He had not only under- 
 gone a change, but he had passed to the opposite of his former 
 self. He was now a courtier, and in this, as well as in others of 
 his compositions, would seem to be visited by conflicting sugges- 
 tions, by those of his old genius and by those of his new character. 
 The work which bears most prominently the stamp of the assumed 
 elevation of which at this period he is justly accused, is his 
 " Natural Daughter;" of this it has been justly said, that it is as 
 polished and as cold as marble; the indifference with which it was 
 received by the public warned the prudent poet to return to 
 nature. 
 
 In 1794, Goethe published his " Wilhelm Meister," which was 
 received by the public with indifference; the literary world, how- 
 ever, prepared its ultimate success by enthusiastic laudation. 
 The style of this work is admirable: the clearness and depth of 
 
108 MODERN GERMAN LITERATURE. [SECT. I. 
 
 thought it displays, are alike remarkable, but it has the one great 
 fault of its great author it is an imperfect whole. It does not 
 solve the problem which forms its foundation ; it is but an intro- 
 duction, a beginning without an end. Still, though the frame is 
 imperfect, it contains figures which are gloriously painted. The 
 views of the drama and of art in general which it displays, are 
 worthy of more praise than the philosophy which the author puts 
 into the mouths of men who contemplate life from a point the 
 exact position of which it is difficult to understand. 
 
 During the early part of his career, Goethe had paid but little 
 attent.ion to versification, though some of his most durable fame 
 rests on the versified productions of his youth his ballads 
 and songs, which for melody and depth of feeling, are truly 
 singular. He now, to exercise himself in the composition of 
 hexameters, composed an excellent version of Reynard the Fox, 
 in that form, of which he shortly afterwards showed himself a 
 master, in his " Herrmann and Dorothea." This work regained 
 for him, in a great measure, the favour of the public; its genuine 
 warmth of feeling, and poetic truth, were universally applauded. 
 It is doubly valuable, as showing both the critical and imaginative 
 faculties of our author; as being at once a modern poem, and the 
 representative of the ancient epic of the Greeks. 
 
 Though Goethe was manager of the theatre at Weimar, he did 
 not contribute much by his writings to the modern progress of 
 the drama; the exertion of interesting and exciting a multitude, 
 was foreign to the contemplative repose of his nature; and even 
 where, as in " Faust," his genius assumes a dramatic form, it is as 
 far as possible removed from the theatrical. 
 
 The tragedy of " Faust," was one of Goethe's earliest and latest 
 labours ; the first part was published in 1790, and it was not 
 finished till 1831. This is one of the most genial works of the 
 greatest German poet, but it is not a philosophic whole. It 
 displays dramatic talent, but its different scenes, the force 
 and beauty of some of which are perhaps unequalled, were 
 nevertheless not composed with any determinate view of their 
 ultimate position. The idea of finding a philosophic system in 
 this poem is ludicrous, and the volumes which have been published 
 
CH. V.] MODERN GERMAN LITERATURE. 109 
 
 with that intention are only valuable as curiosities. Perhaps it 
 would have been more perfect as a poem, had it never been 
 finished ; as it now stands, it has the requisites to completeness 
 of a beginning and an end, but at a considerable sacrifice of con- 
 nexion. It has been given to the public in four successive por- 
 tions, and each succeeding part has confuted at least half the 
 liberal criticisms which had been heaped upon the former one. 
 
 The episode of Faust and Helen, in the second part, may be 
 viewed as an attempt at the union of the principles of classic and 
 romantic poetry. Towards the conclusion of the work, he 
 wanders more and more into phantasmagorical regions ; in con- 
 formity, doubtless, with the nature of the legend, but not equally 
 so with the manner in which he had at first connected the subject 
 with reality. A mixture of weakness and obscurity is, perhaps, 
 the unavoidable concomitant of age ; depth of thought and feel- 
 ing may remain, but vigour to express them vanishes with youth. 
 Thus, in the last creations of Goethe, the outline is gone, and 
 the figure melts away on all sides into air. 
 
 Goethe did not shine in a critical capacity ; he prescribed to 
 all artists a strict imitation of the ancients ; but this is at once a 
 narrow-minded and discouraging doctrine, for every age, unless 
 it be worthless, must have a character of its own. The genius 
 of the middle ages displayed unrivalled excellence in many de- 
 partments which were uncultivated by the classics ; and if 
 originality is to be proscribed, Goethe himself must be content 
 to lose the greatest part of his reputation. In his later criticisms, 
 Goethe displays a childish self-complacency, and an amicable 
 tolerance of mediocrity ; he was not only indisposed to censure 
 anything, but inclined to praise all that he noticed *. 
 
 * Goethe has almost invariably been described in the language of unqualified 
 panegyric, and his character as a man is little known to foreigners. Menzel, in 
 his " Deutsche Literatur," has done some service in probing thoroughly the pre- 
 tensions of Goethe ; perhaps he has been somewhat rough in his manipulation. 
 Genius is a gift of nature, but the use which we make of it is our own, and for this 
 we may justly be brought to judgment. Goethe possessed more influence than any 
 writer ever enjoyed ; idolised by his countrymen, caressed in palaces, and sung in 
 the cottage, he might have done something more than amuse. No one was ever 
 improved by his works, none ever became less sensual, less worldly, less intriguing, 
 less profane. Although he has touched every string of literature, nowhere does 
 
110 MODERN GERMAN LITERATURE. [SECT. I. 
 
 Principal Works of Goethe. Gotz von Berlichingen, (1773). 
 Clavigo (1774). Werter (1774). Stella (1776). Iphigenia 
 (1787). Egmont (1788). Tasso (1790). Faust (1790). 
 The Gross Cophta (1792). Wilhelm Meister's Apprenticeship 
 (1794-6). Herrman and Dorothea (1798). The Natural 
 Daughter (1804). Elective Affinities (1809). Autobiography 
 (1811-22). Wilhelm Meister's Wandering Years (1821)*. 
 
 Frederic Schiller was born at Marbach, in Suabia, where his 
 father, an army chaplain, was stationed, in 1759. In 177^> he 
 went to Stuttgard to study medicine, but he soon deserted this 
 profession for literary pursuits, and accordingly was severely 
 censured for his irregularities by the duke of Wurtemberg, 
 who refused to authorise him to quit the medical school. 
 Schiller left the country in consequence, and lived for some time 
 under a false name at Bauerbach. In 1785, he went to reside 
 
 he rouse to patriotism, to religious reverence, to the domestic duties ; one 
 almost confounds the notion of right and wrong in reading his works, all seems 
 blended and confused, amusement and the fine arts, theatres and critics, the 
 passions and the cleverest modes of gratifying them, appear the great object of 
 life. Let one short trait suffice : when Napoleon entered Berlin in triumph, 
 Miiller wrote a Discourse in French (De la Gloire de Frederic), in which he 
 compared the Conqueror to the old Prussian hero ; Goethe translated it into 
 German ; and at another time, wrote an Epithalamium for this evil genius of his 
 country. 
 
 * The extreme popularity which Goethe enjoys in Germany, and the continual 
 recurrence of his name in conversation, will render the English reader curious to 
 ascertain the best form in which he can be seen at home. His "Werter" has 
 never been well translated into English ; the work which is sold under that title, 
 is only a feeble imitation from a poor French copy. " Gotz von Berlichingen," it 
 was one of the earliest efforts of Walter Scott to translate. The "Wilhelm 
 Meister" has been admirably translated by Mr. Carlyle, but does not appear to 
 have been much read. Some of his smaller poems have been translated by the 
 late M. G. Lewis, and by Mr. Dodd in his " Autumn on the Rhine ;" some by 
 the Rev. Dr. Hawtrey, Head Master of Eton School, in his volume called 
 "Auswahl von Goethe's Lyrischen Gedichten." His "Iphigenia in Tauris," has 
 been translated by Taylor, of Norwich. A few short specimens of Goethe have 
 been well rendered by the late unfortunate Mr. Boileau, in "The Linguist." In 
 the several collections of " German Tales," published by Carlyle and Gillies, some 
 more of his prose fictions are contained. His drama of " Faust," has been suc- 
 cessively introduced to the public by Lord Francis Egerton, who led the way, by 
 Hayward, Syme, Anster, Blackie, and Talbot. His "Autobiography" has been 
 translated from the unfinished French version. Those who wish for ample details 
 respecting this singular writer, will be highly gratified by the elegant " Charac- 
 teristics of Goethe," from the pen of Mrs. Austin, who has so ably laboured in the 
 German harvest ; but they do not unfold the whole man. 
 
CH. V.] MODERN GERMAN LITERATURE. Ill 
 
 at Leipsic, and four years afterwards, he accepted the Professor- 
 ship of History at Jena, at which place he remained till he 
 removed to Weimar, where he died in 1805. 
 
 The circumstances of Schiller's youth, were exactly such as to 
 prevent the harmonious development and cultivation of his intel- 
 lectual faculties ; his character was inconsistent with his situation, 
 and his youth was a perpetual struggle. 
 
 Nothing could possibly be more galling to a mind like his than 
 the arbitrary regulations of the military institution at Stuttgard, 
 in which he was educated. Here he wrote his Titanic poem, 
 " The Robbers," which indicates sufficiently the wild force of 
 his character, and the despotism of the circumstances which 
 had almost driven him to madness. This work is worse than 
 " Werter," because more unnatural ; with loud pretensions to 
 originality, it bears prominent marks of imitation. 
 
 Francis Moor is a prosaic Richard III., exciting equal hatred, 
 but demanding no admiration. The fame which this play ob- 
 tained for him, freed Schiller from the shackles of his situation, 
 and he now was appointed to a post in connexion with the theatre, 
 at Mannheim, where he published his " Fiesco" and his " Cabal 
 and Love." Perhaps the peculiar feature of the former is its 
 political bearing ; which forms its chief claim to originality. 
 " Cabal and Love" abounds in convulsive demonstrations of 
 passion. To his first career of enthusiasm succeeded, with 
 Schiller as well as with Goethe, a period of self-examination and 
 study. His next production was " Don Carlos," of which the 
 outline is good, the plot powerful, and the execution a manifest 
 improvement on his former works. Its versification, however, is 
 indifferent throughout: the style keeps a middle course be- 
 tween his former extravagance and the lofty rhetoric of the 
 French : the political philosophy which pervades it, is as foreign 
 to the century which it represents, as it would be to the most 
 distant we can imagine. It professes to be an historical picture, 
 but it is, in fact, a work of invention ; and the rude features 
 of the poet's former muse, break everywhere through the more 
 civilized mask he had now attempted to assume. A year 
 after the appearance of " Don Carlos," Schiller published his 
 
112 MODERN GERMAN LITERATURE. [SECT. I. 
 
 fragment on the history of the insurrection in the Netherlands, 
 a subject which he had not studied very profoundly, and which 
 he did not know how properly to treat. The duty of the true 
 historian is, if the expression may be used, to reflect events, 
 and not to reflect upon them. Our author now essayed the 
 " History of the Thirty Years 1 War,"" and showed that he had 
 made considerable improvement as an historical writer ; indeed, 
 his whole life was a series of improvements. 
 
 In 1 798, appeared " Wallen stein," a play in three parts, of which 
 the first is not connected with the others, of which the second has 
 no end, and the third no beginning. About this time, Schiller 
 avowed himself a disciple of Kant, whose terminology imposed 
 on the public to such an extent, that it was thought he had found 
 a key to all the difficulties in the arts and sciences. Our author's 
 philosophical disquisitions were more than ordinarily successful, 
 because he was, at any rate, either intelligible or elegantly 
 obscure; but he was too abstract and refined to produce any 
 more than a temporary impression. The negative axioms of 
 Kant's philosophy were true, though the positive were shadowy 
 and unsatisfactory ; indeed, his whole system was sceptical, 
 though his followers long persisted in boasting of its constructive 
 powers. 
 
 After the publication of " Wallenstein, 11 which was enthusiasti- 
 cally received both by the reading and the theatrical public, 
 Schiller devoted himself more exclusively to the drama ; and he 
 now struck into a path which was to be intermediate between the 
 classic and the romantic, though, in fact, it was only situated 
 between both without being allied to either. Of his subsequent 
 plays, " Mary Stuart, 11 is one of the best ; its representation is 
 very effective, though partly at the expense of historical truth. 
 In his " Maid of Orleans, 11 considering the romantic view which 
 he took of the character of his heroine, the colouring of the 
 execution was too faint ; for Schiller, though of a bold and un- 
 compromising nature, was timid and misgiving as an artist. 
 
 The " Bride of Messina, 11 and its preface, may be looked upon 
 as a confession which Schiller was at the trouble of making of 
 his own imperfections ; and from the latter, which betrays a com- 
 
CH. V.] MODERN GERMAN LITERATURE. 113 
 
 plete confusion in his ideas respecting the theory of the drama, 
 we may gather, that he understood the classic principle which he 
 sought to imitate, no better than the romantic which he wished 
 to avoid. It is the truth and beauty of single passages, belong- 
 ing more to lyric than to dramatic poetry, which constitute, in the 
 public mind, Schiller's great claims to dramatic excellence ; but 
 the poetical episodes of a drama are often its most glaring faults. 
 
 The " Bride of Messina" is half-ancient and half- modern, both 
 Christian and classic, without an attempt at alliance between the 
 opposite elements. It is impossible to imagine a costume for this 
 play. The chorus differs from that of the Greeks, in being 
 divided into two interested parties, who do everything but come 
 to blows for their leaders. But the Greek chorus is essentially an 
 impartial whole ; and represents the ideal, contemplative spec- 
 tator of the drama. 
 
 Even the last and best play of Schiller, " William Tell," is 
 not free from a trace of his love of tragic antithesis ; the murder 
 of the emperor Albert is something quite foreign to the liberation 
 of Switzerland ; and it is evident that the murderer is merely 
 introduced for the purpose of being contrasted with Tell. 
 The local truth of this drama is extraordinary, particularly 
 when we recollect that Schiller had never been in Switzerland : 
 he was indebted for it, in a great measure, doubtless, to the 
 admirable history of John von M tiller. 
 
 The lyrical poetry of Schiller has been eminently successful, 
 both at home and abroad ; and his ballads have been held up as 
 perfect models. But, in truth, this is his weakest side, and his 
 ballads are among the worst which we possess. All his works 
 are more or less imperfect, but these are glaringly faulty ; for 
 everywhere, even in the simple legends of old which they profess 
 to revivify, we are troubled with his philosophic reflections and 
 the discord of a modern nature. Had he lived longer, it is 
 uncertain how far he might have been successful in correcting all 
 his faults ; some of them appear too deeply rooted to have been 
 ever thoroughly eradicated. But let us conclude justly, by 
 remembering to praise the candour which rendered him alive to 
 
114 MODERN GERMAN LITERATURE. [SECT. I. 
 
 his defects, and the genuine modesty which always restrained him 
 from great pretensions*. 
 
 Principal Works of Schiller. The Robbers (1781). Fiesco 
 (1783). Cabal and Love (1784). History of the Revolution 
 in the Netherlands (1788). History of the Thirty Years' War 
 (1791). Wallenstein (1798). Maria Stuart (1800). Joan of 
 Arc (1801). The Bride of Messina (1803). William Tell 
 (1804). 
 
 There is also a novel by him, translated by Mr. Roscoe, in his 
 " German Novelists," called " The Apparitionist." 
 
 * The reader will recollect that the above character of Schiller, is only the 
 private estimate formed of him by Professor Schlegel, who entertains a very 
 different opinion on this head from that which is current in Germany and else- 
 where. The " Life of Schiller," by Carlyle, may be studied as an opposite view. 
 All, or nearly all, of the works of Schiller may be read in English. Among the 
 translations deserve particularly to be noticed, the " Wallenstein," by Cole- 
 ridge, truly remarkable for its kindred fire of genius, and the " Camp of Wallen- 
 stein," excellently rendered by Lord Francis Egerton. His "Minor Poems" have 
 been often before the public. " Fiesco," the " Minister," " Mary Stuart," the 
 " Robbers," " Don Carlos," and " William Tell," have all been well translated, 
 and some more than once. The " Thirty Years' War," and the " Ghost-seer," are 
 also accessible. Mr. Carlyle has enriched our literature with an admirable " Life 
 of Schiller," full of poetic feeling and refined criticism. It has been translated 
 into German, and is considered by the Germans as the best memoir extant of their 
 poet. It abounds in instructive views of the literature and taste of that region. 
 
115 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 MODERN GERMAN LITERATURE, CONTINUED. 
 
 The Romantic School. Augustus William von Schlegel. Frederic 
 Schlegel. Tieck, Wackenroder, and Novalis. Achim wn Arnim 
 and Brentano. Schleiermacher, Gjores, and Steffens. Kleist, 
 Fouque, and Horn. German Humourists of the past Century. 
 Thiimmel, Hippel and Lichtenstein. Humourists of the present 
 Century. Richter, Hoffman, and Chamisso. Werner, Milliner, 
 and Grillparzer. Koerner. Modern Lyric Poets. Uhland, 
 Schwab, Rikkert, Platen, and Chamisso. Henry Heine, and Boerne. 
 
 IN the latter part of the last century, a school made its appear- 
 ance in Germany, which has obtained the appellation of Romantic. 
 The term, which is rather indefinite, does not correspond very 
 distinctly to its character. We are not to imagine that it was 
 opposed to the spirit of the classic ages, which, on the contrary, 
 it joyfully acknowledged and devoutly revered ; but it believed 
 that, while this spirit could not be too highly prized, it still 
 ruled too exclusively in the world of art. The new school held, 
 that we moderns are far removed from the state of being in which 
 the classic spirit was born and flourished, and that, therefore, it 
 can no longer have a living existence amongst us. 
 
 The Romantic School may be looked upon as a reaction against 
 a preceding extreme. Goethe and Schiller had half disowned 
 Christianity, the latter indirectly, the former by an overt attack. 
 They both looked upon it with indifference, if not with repug- 
 nance, as incompatible with their aesthetical theories. At any 
 rate, to whatever extent they may have rejected its form, the fact 
 is undeniable, that its spirit found no place in their works. A 
 grand object of Goethe's endeavours appears to have been, to 
 escape from its influence; and he would seem to have composed 
 many of his works, and more particularly his Roman elegies, and 
 some of his epigrams, to show that he had succeeded. Under 
 
 i 2 
 
116 MODERN GERMAN LITERATURE. [SECT. I. 
 
 such circumstances a reaction was inevitable. The cold, remote, 
 and artistic theories which he exclusively favoured, could not 
 find access to men of impassioned natures and ardent imagina- 
 tions, for they were enthusiastically devoted to the Present, from 
 the impressions of which he sought to fly. He wished to be 
 thought a Greek, but they were Christians and could not forget 
 it. They recognised the beauty of the classic world, but re- 
 garded it as something foreign and afar off, and looked for crea- 
 tive inspiration and more genial impressions to the works of 
 modern art. They left Greece and Rome for the Christian 
 middle ages. And as soon as they had proclaimed their object, 
 the time assumed the character of a new era. The relics of old 
 German painting were brought out from obscurity, and welcomed 
 with enthusiasm. The Gothic architecture, regarded as a myste- 
 rious manifestation of the Catholic spirit, was worshipped in all 
 its remains. The quaint ditties of the Minnesingers were heard 
 on every lip. Not only at home, but abroad, all records of the 
 faith and devotion of the chivalric ages were eagerly sought for, 
 and appropriated to the purposes of the school. Italy saw 
 poetical pilgrims arrive to do homage to its pictorial treasures. 
 The dramas of Calderon were translated, and studied with a 
 religious fervour ; Shakspeare also, though his genius, which, if it 
 was not exclusively Christian, like that of his Spanish contem- 
 porary, still belonged exclusively to a Christian age, met with 
 unreserved and enthusiastic acknowledgment. 
 
 Herder and his friends had already wandered, far and wide, 
 amongst the Hebrews, Spaniards, and old English, and had 
 brought manifold treasures back to their German home. But 
 they had had no other object than that of discovering genius, 
 wherever and under whatever form it existed. The members of 
 the Romantic School, on the other hand, set out with the end and 
 aim of poetically re-establishing Catholicism. They were devoted 
 to the cause of an hierarchy, and laboured to give a theocratical 
 form to the general government. This has been their main and 
 leading principle. They may have been, to some extent, uncon- 
 scious of it, at first, and many may have deserted it on fully 
 discovering its tendency, but this does not invalidate the general 
 
CH. VI.] MODERN GERMAN LITERATURE. 
 
 statement. However, the Romantic School was not actuated to 
 such an extent by party principles, as to be blind to all which 
 did not further its particular objects. Indeed, it was the first to 
 make generally known the profundity of Goethe's genius ; and it 
 was only when he refused to give a Christian character to his 
 productions, that the indignation of Novalis was roused against 
 him, that Frederic Schlegel called him a German Voltaire, and 
 that his brother, William, pronounced him a Heathen converted 
 to Mahometanism, a creed for which, strange to say, Goethe is 
 known to have entertained a decided predilection. 
 
 The founders and most active members of the Romantic School 
 were the Schlegels, Frederic and William, Tieck and Novalis. 
 
 Augustus William von Schlegel was born at Hanover, in the 
 year 17^7- At a comparatively early age, he went to Gottingen 
 to study theology, which he in a short time deserted, nominally 
 for philosophy, but in reality for literary pursuits. Gottingen 
 he left to be tutor in a family at Amsterdam, where he resided 
 three years, and then returned to Germany, and settled at Jena. 
 Here, till the year 1799, he was actively engaged in writing for 
 different periodicals, principally for Schiller's " Horen," and the 
 Jena " Literaturzeitung." In 1802, we find him lecturing at 
 Berlin on literature, art, and the spirit of the age. Shortly after- 
 wards he became acquainted with Madame de Stael, in whose 
 company he left Germany, for foreign travel, in 1805. With 
 her, he resided, at intervals, at Copet, and visited Italy, France, 
 Vienna and Stockholm. In 1808, he gave his celebrated lectures, 
 at Vienna, on dramatic art and literature. In 1813, he shared 
 the political character of his time, and acted in the capacity of 
 private secretary to the crown-prince of Sweden, by whom the 
 ancient title of his family was restored to him. After the fall 
 of Napoleon, he returned to Madame de Stael, whose society he 
 frequented till her decease, when he was appointed to the Professor- 
 ship at Bonn, which he still continues to hold. 
 
 William Schlegel is distinguished for critical, rather than crea- 
 tive power. No original work of genius has issued from his mind. 
 He is a master of comprehension and analysis. Few men have 
 combined such immense learning as he possesses, with such a fine 
 
118 MODERN GERMAN LITERATURE. [SECT. I. 
 
 sense of the beautiful, and such a rigorous critical system. He 
 has been entitled, and not unjustly, the first critic of modern times. 
 His classical acquirements are of the first order, and he has written 
 imitations of the ancients, which show that he was fully capable 
 of embodying the spirit of old. With the literature of the 
 middle ages, and particularly with that of our Elizabethan era, 
 he is intimately acquainted. He seems to lose the character of 
 his nation as soon as he passes her boundaries, and to assume that 
 of any other country the literature of which he may examine, 
 criticise, or translate. He is bound by no ties or associations, 
 and acknowledges only a general standard of truth, beauty, and 
 genius. He may be said to have established the critical system 
 which at present obtains in Germany, and which is essentially 
 superior to that which any other country possesses. 
 
 His earliest studies he devoted to the classics. Before he was 
 twenty, he wrote an excellent treatise on the geography of the 
 Homeric world. But he soon deserted mere philology, and took 
 an active share in the literary campaigns of the time. He began 
 to make his critical principles known in the periodicals, and 
 commenced his translation of Shakspeare. Of the former, we 
 can only mention here the general nature and bearing. As a 
 critic, Schlegel has always insisted on a rigorous definition, and 
 an impartial judgment. He views the works of literature in 
 connexion with the time and country which gave them birth. 
 He holds that there are certain internal laws which ought to give 
 its suitable form to a poem, and that, therefore, the construction 
 of the latter can never be regulated by abstract dicta or philoso- 
 phical conclusions. He compares the cramping of genius by 
 rules, to an attempt to mould a fruit into a different shape from 
 that which Nature has given it. In the works of great authors, 
 he proves that an apparently irregular arrangement is demanded by 
 the nature of the subject, and by the spirit in whicli it is treated. 
 He demonstrates that every scene in Shakspeare is necessary to 
 the perfection of the whole, which must inevitably be injured by 
 any alteration. He wages incessant war with the narrow-minded 
 commentators, who are always quarrelling with the past because 
 it is not the present. In fine, he can transport himself into all 
 
CH. VI.] MODERN GERMAN LITERATURE. 119 
 
 ages and countries, and thus familiarise himself with the spirit 
 in which every national poem was written. He enters into its 
 intimate constitution, and feels, as it were, its creation anew. He 
 divests himself of all preconceived notions, and studies it as a 
 natural philosopher would a new organization. 
 
 Schlegel's translation of Shakspeare, which he commenced in 
 1797> is unique ; unfortunately he has not finished it. The latter 
 part of the last century was the most active period of his life. 
 He then resided at Jena, where a singular intimacy prevailed 
 amongst the members of his own party, and where he was in 
 constant communication with some of the most celebrated men of 
 his time. His school was too daring and sarcastic to please the 
 elder literati, or to suit the public generally. The latter was 
 indignant at the ridicule which it heaped, without mercy, on old 
 Wieland, who was then in the hey-day of his popularity. Even 
 Goethe and Schiller were not very well pleased with the clamour 
 which was raised by these new aspirants for fame. The latter 
 went so far as to call the two Schlegels, " prigs." 
 
 At this period, William Schlegel was vigorously engaged in 
 attacking Kotzebue, who had just written against him his 
 u Hyperborean Ass." The dramatist, though his arguments 
 were of the weakest, was a match for his opponent, in daring 
 assertion and abuse. He anathematised all the newer literature, 
 and declared that even Goethe did not know how to write 
 German. SchlegePs parody is of the happiest description. A 
 short poem of his, written about this time, to ridicule the dif- 
 ferent styles of Voss, Schmidt, and Matthison, is perfect of its 
 kind. But his opinion of the length to which the satirist may 
 proceed, does not at all accord with the good-natured views of 
 the German public, which was sadly outraged but a few years 
 ago, when he published some sharp, but playful, attacks on 
 Goethe and Schiller in the " Muses' Almanack." 
 
 The most important work of Schlegel is, perhaps, his " Lectures 
 on Dramatic Art and Literature," which contain a complete survey 
 and critical history of the drama, from its rise to the present day. 
 No particular theory is predominant throughout, and no partial 
 leaning is evident to any particular form. The Greek drama is 
 
120 MODERN GERMAN LITERATURE. [SECT. I. 
 
 thoroughly appreciated, and elevated far beyond the point to 
 which mere philologers would raise it. No comparisons are made 
 between subjects which have no right to be compared. No foreign 
 rules are brought to bear on national productions. Sophocles and 
 Shakspeare stand side by side, perfect and independent in their 
 separate spheres. It is only with regard to one country that 
 Schlegel would, at first, seem to be prejudiced. He is deaf to the 
 dramatic and poetical pretensions of the French. With the 
 solitary exception of the " Athalie" of Racine, he ridicules all their 
 tragedies. Nor does the far-famed Moliere find any favour at 
 his hands. He displayed, says Schlegel, no talent in true comedy, 
 which ought not to be propped on satire and burlesque ; he was 
 rather an ironical preacher of rhymed morality than a dramatic 
 poet. He analyzes the plots of his principal plays, and shows that 
 they are neither rational nor imaginative poetical nor philosophi- 
 cal. He maintains that whatever the " Tartuffe" may be, it is 
 neither true comedy nor an approach to it. These novel opinions, 
 (though they have since been fast gaining ground and making 
 swift progress to general acceptation) created a great sensation at 
 the time, even amongst the Germans, who had been accustomed, 
 since the days of Lessing, to treat French literature with consider- 
 able contempt. Several writers, still harbouring the Gallic pre- 
 dilections of the elder German literati, protested against them, and 
 even old Goethe felt himself, at a later period, called upon to come 
 forward, in his formal way, and censure the unceremonious manner 
 in which Moliere had been treated by his countryman. SchlegePs 
 work has been ably translated into English by Mr. Black, and, 
 therefore, there is no occasion for us to mention here the fine 
 analysis which it gives of the works of Shakspeare. The lyrical 
 poems of Schlegel are more celebrated for beauty and elegance 
 of form, and correctness of expression, than for force of original 
 genius. 
 
 Of late years, Schlegel has turned his attention almost ex- 
 clusively to Oriental literature, which he has cultivated with all 
 the ardour and industry of his younger days. It is in Sanscrit 
 that he is chiefly proficient. For the reprinting of classic works 
 in this language, the Prussian government has furnished him with 
 
CH. V.] MODERN GERMAN LITERATURE. 121 
 
 a printing-press at Bonn. The manner in which the study of 
 Oriental literature is prosecuted in other countries has also been 
 an object of such solicitude to him, that he has not hesitated to 
 attack foreign professors whose proceedings were not in accordance 
 with his views. In 1828, he found it necessary publicly to repel 
 the charge of having ever really belonged to the Catholic Pro- 
 paganda, which, from the tendency of his earlier labours, Voss, 
 his bitter enemy, and the Rationalists, had often brought against 
 him. 
 
 Principal Works of W. A. Schlegel. On the Geography of 
 the Homeric World (1787). Translation of Shakspeare (1797- 
 1810). Poems (1800). Triumphal Arch for the Theatre. 
 President, Kotzebue (1800). Ion (1803). Spanish Theatre 
 (1803-9). Dramatic Art and Literature* (1809). Indian Library 
 (1820). 
 
 Frederick von Schlegel, the brother of the preceding, was born, 
 1772, at Hanover, and received his earliest education from an 
 elder brother and an uncle, who were both country clergymen. 
 At first, he was intended for a merchant, and sent to a counting- 
 house at Leipsic. But a commercial occupation was so incom- 
 patible with his tastes and habits, that his father was persuaded 
 to allow him to quit it for a learned profession. Accordingly, he 
 went to Gottingen and entered himself at the university as a 
 student of philology. He finished his studies at Leipsic, and 
 after residing some time at Berlin became a private teacher at the 
 University of Jena. Here he made the acquaintance of the 
 daughter of Mendelsohn, whom he afterwards married, and with 
 whom, after passing a short time at Dresden, he visited Paris, 
 where we find him. in 1802, delivering lectures on philosophy. 
 On his return to Germany, he and his wife made a public and 
 solemn recantation of the Protestant faith, and went over to 
 Catholicism ; the Cathedral at Cologne was appropriately chosen 
 for the ceremony. In 1808, Frederick Schlegel went to Vienna, 
 and the year after accompanied the Archduke Charles in his 
 unfortunate campaign ; at this stirring period his pen was 
 employed in rousing the German people against foreign oppression 
 by passionate appeals to their national feelings and recollections 
 
122 MODERN GERMAN LITERATURE. [SECT. I. 
 
 of ancient glory. In 1811, he lectured at Vienna on Modern 
 History. Some of his writings obtained for him, first the atten- 
 tion, and then the confidence of Prince Metternich, who appointed 
 him secretary of legation to the Austrian embassy at Frankfort. 
 He returned, however, to Vienna in 1818, and devoted himself 
 once more to literary pursuits. He died in 1829, whilst giving a 
 course of lectures at Dresden on the philosophy of language. 
 
 Frederick Schlegel does not equal his brother William in taste, 
 elegance and versatility, but was perhaps his superior in vastness of 
 conception and depth of thought. His intellectual career may be 
 divided into several stages. During the first, he distinguished 
 himself by intense study, and by the rapid acquirement of classical 
 knowledge. His first work of importance, " The Greeks and 
 Romans," was highly praised by the philologer Heyne. But he 
 soon left the classical world, to take a share in contemporary 
 literature, and even whilst engaged with Schleiermacher in the 
 translation of Plato, wrote a number of critical and polemical 
 articles in the " Athenaeum," a periodical of which he and his 
 brother were editors. Many of his dissertations on Goethe, and, 
 particularly, on "Wilhelm Meister," are contained in this journal. 
 In 1799, we find him in the new character of an equivocal novel 
 writer it was in that year that he published his "Lucinde." This 
 work, of which only a part was ever completed, and in which a 
 licentious imagination is allowed unbridled play with sensual 
 subjects, created a great sensation in Germany. It was about the 
 period of its publication that its author settled at Jena, and 
 his private life there is said to have corresponded to the prin- 
 ciples which his recent writings had inculcated. He became 
 one of the loudest partisans of the Romantic School, which was 
 just then in progress of formation. That he left his " Lucinde" 
 unfinished shows that its character did not indicate a settled ten- 
 dency of his nature. For some time after its publication he 
 seems to have vacillated between various systems and to have 
 really devoted himself to none. He essayed his powers in a 
 dramatic, and in various lyrical forms. He then took up the 
 study of the southern languages, and of the works of art which the 
 middle ages have left us. These pursuits contributed to pave the 
 
CH. V.] MODERN GERMAN LITERATURE. 123 
 
 way to the grand and final change, which his moral and mental 
 character was destined to undergo. This change was his conver- 
 sion to the Romish church, of which he soon became one of the 
 most zealous and unwearied agents. From this time forth, he 
 assumed a decided character, and his efforts were exerted in a 
 definite direction. Whatever he undertook was undertaken in the 
 cause of the Roman Catholic church. Even his celebrated work, 
 on the " Wisdom and Language of the Indians," is composed in a 
 Catholic spirit. In his " Modern History" and " History of 
 Ancient and Modern Literature," he strenuously advocates the 
 same creed. Everywhere is Romanism defended and rescued from 
 obloquy, and its opponents attacked and reviled. Luther is treated 
 very unceremoniously as an adventurer, and as a man of bad moral 
 character. The sincerity of Schlegel is, perhaps, as undoubted 
 as his talent, but he is justly accused of many inconsistencies. His 
 death, which occurred after an excess at table, gave rise to much 
 recrimination between his friends and the liberal party in Ger- 
 many, to which he was particularly obnoxious from his desertion 
 of Protestantism, the mysticism of his creed, and his leaning to 
 despotic power. 
 
 Principal Works of Frederick Schlegel. The Greeks and 
 Romans (1797). Lucinde (1799). Alarkos, a drama (1802). 
 Collection of the Romantic Poems of the Middle Ages (1804). 
 On the Language and Wisdom of the Indians (1808). Poems 
 (1809). On Modern History (1811). Lectures on the History 
 of Ancient and Modern Literature [admirably translated by Mr. 
 Lockhart] (1815). Philosophy of Life (1828). Philosophy of 
 History (1829) [well translated by Mr. Robertson]. Lectures, 
 principally on the Philosophy of Language (1829). 
 
 Ludwig Tieck was born at Berlin, in the year 177& Few 
 facts are known respecting his youth and early education, except 
 that he went to school at Berlin, and afterwards studied at Halle. 
 The Prussian capital was the scene of the first period of his 
 literary activity. He was intimately connected with the noted 
 Nicolai, the bookseller, at whose impulse he is said to have written 
 some of his early works. Disputes, however, soon arose between 
 patron and client, and the latter left Berlin about the year 
 
124 MODERN GERMAN LITERATURE. [SECT. I. 
 
 1798, for Hamburg, where he married the daughter of Alberti, a 
 clergyman. Then he lived for some time at Jena, which he 
 quitted in 1801, for Dresden, when he devoted himself exclu- 
 sively to the study of Art. From Dresden he retired to a 
 poetical solitude near Frankfort on the Oder, and remained there 
 for some time. 
 
 In 1806, we find him at Rome, busily engaged in the study of 
 the old German manuscripts with .which the library of the Vatican 
 abounds. On his return to Germany, he led on the whole an 
 unsettled life, till he was appointed to the superintendance of the 
 theatre at Dresden, in which city he still lives. 
 
 Tieck is to be regarded as the true founder of the Romantic 
 School in Germany. He united the creative with the critical 
 faculty. Whilst he analysed the old world of literature, his genius 
 contributed to the new one. He not only saw into the defects of 
 the past and present, but he knew how to reform them. In this 
 respect, the Schlegels were deficient ; whatever may have been the 
 extent of their reasoning powers, their invention was nearly barren. 
 After his admirable history, and critical analysis of the drama, 
 the elder Schlegel has nothing better to prescribe to the modern 
 cultivators of the dramatic art, than a modified imitation of 
 Shakspeare, forgetting that such a recommendation runs directly 
 counter to tne essential doctrines of his own criticism. But Tieck 
 had a world within him, and had no occasion to look abroad for 
 rules and models. His works were not the results of reflection, 
 but, as it were, the spontaneous progeny of a rich imagination. 
 He came forth in a monotonous and prosy time. Goethe had 
 sunk into temporary obscurity, and was occupied more with 
 scientific than with literary pursuits. The shock of Schiller^s 
 first appearance had subsided, and the middle course he was then 
 steering, was anything but favourable to the free exercise of the 
 imagination, which had also lately suffered numerous indignities 
 from a school of German Utilitarians, who, from the nature of 
 their characters, were disposed to cry down everything which 
 soared above mediocrity, and whose demi-god was Intellect, the 
 modern march of which they were amongst the first to commence. 
 These were the famous Philistines, of whom there lias been so 
 
CH. VI.] MODERN GERMAN LITERATURE. 125 
 
 much talk both in Germany and in other countries. It would be 
 difficult to enumerate the names of their chiefs, for most of them 
 have gone to their long homes, without leaving any behind them. 
 They were only formidable from the numbers, which, like all 
 popular and superficial sects, they had managed to rank on their 
 side. Those whose fame survives them, live only in the witty 
 abuse of their adversaries. It was, as we have before observed, 
 under the patronage of Nicolai, the bookseller, who was a great 
 leader amongst the Philistines, that Tieck was ushered into 
 public notice ; and it was some time before the native force of 
 his genius was able to shake off all the effects of habit and asso- 
 ciation. His first work, c; William Lovel," gave but few indica- 
 tions of the character he was shortly to assume. It is a dark 
 story, which plays principally in Italy ; many of its incidents are 
 revolting, and its whole colour is tragical. The mind of its author 
 was not yet matured, or perhaps it languished under sinister im- 
 pressions. But the innate grace of Tieck's nature could not long 
 lie hidden . Nor could the susceptibility of his poetic soul allow 
 him to listen quietly to the insults which imagination was daily 
 receiving at the hands of his intellectual patrons. Accordingly, 
 he did justice to himself and his poetic mission in his " Popular 
 Legends," ( Volksmdrchen) , and he avenged the Muses on their 
 enemies in his satirical dramas. From the appearance of these 
 works, the activity of the Romantic School in Germany may be 
 dated. Let us first give some account of his " Popular Legends," 
 which have since been embodied in his " Phantasus," and to 
 which the English reader has access in the spirited translations 
 of Mr. Carlyle. These legends are remarkable for their beauty, 
 their genuine simplicity, and a mysterious intimacy, not so much 
 with the works as with the workings of Nature. All her changes 
 and metamorphoses, the poet follows with a watchful ear and a 
 faithful hand. He would seem to have hung on the bosom of 
 our common mother, and to have become familiar with the simple, 
 yet miraculous power which directs all her operations. These 
 legends have a freshness about them like that of the earliest 
 morning, a sweetness as of wild flowers, and a calm beauty, 
 caught as it were, from a radiant sunset, or a rising moon. The 
 
126 MODERN GERMAN LITERATURE. [SECT. I. 
 
 reader of the " Runenberg," is brought face to face with the pre- 
 siding spirits of the animal and vegetable kingdoms ; now he feels 
 as if he were embosomed in luxurious vegetation, bathed in fer- 
 tilising dew and fanned by balmy zephyrs ; and now, as if he 
 were transported to cavern-depths, or darkest mines, where moun- 
 tain-spirits exercise an unholy influence. All the other legends, 
 "The Fair Eckbert," " The Fairies," and " The Trusty Eckart," 
 have the same beauty and significance, but it is impossible, by 
 mere description, to give any idea of their peculiar nature they 
 must be studied and felt, to be at all understood. 
 
 The satirical dramas of our author are as remarkable for their 
 wit and humour, as his other works for their grace and truth. 
 Indeed, he has been called, and with justice, the Romantic Aris- 
 tophanes. His principal productions, in this character, are his 
 " Puss in Boots," and the " World Topsy-turvy." They are 
 directed against the Philistines in general, and against Kotzebue, 
 Iffland, and some critics and philologers in particular. They are 
 alike superior in conception and execution, and dealt blows 
 which were never forgiven. But we doubt whether they would 
 be relished or appreciated by the English public. They are 
 sometimes witty without an apparent object, the imagination of 
 the author playing with its own creations. This capricious sport- 
 iveness of the fancy, of which our poets of the Shakspearian 
 age furnished so many examples, we are in danger of losing in 
 becoming modern and merely rational. 
 
 In some works, Tieck has shown a leaning to Romanism; 
 such are his " Genevieve," a drama founded on the old legend, 
 and " Sternbald's Wanderings," which are dedicated to the fine 
 arts. But all that he wrote, at one period, betrayed more or less 
 of the same tendency. 
 
 Tieck has given to Germany the best translation which it pos- 
 sesses of Cervantes. With the study of Shakspeare he has been 
 occupied all his life ; the last century saw a translation of the 
 " Tempest" by him, and some letters on its author. To the pre- 
 sent day, he has been engaged in collecting materials, and giving 
 shape to his opinions on Shakspeare. The great work which he 
 has announced, on the genius and writings of the latter, has been 
 
CH. VI.] MODERN GERMAN LITERATURE. 127 
 
 anticipated with singular eagerness by the German public; and, 
 indeed, that which he has already written on the subject warrants 
 great expectations, and two or three of his articles on Shakspeare, 
 contained in a small work in two volumes, called " Dramaturgical 
 Papers,*" display a better acquaintance with the genius of our 
 great poet than perhaps any other inquirer has shown. 
 
 His studies and researches have led him to some apparently 
 paradoxical conclusions. He maintains, for instance, that the 
 essence of the nature of Lady Macbeth is overweening love, and 
 that the celebrated soliloquy of Hamlet does not relate to suicide. 
 A closer and more acute piece of reasoning than the one by which 
 he arrives at this latter conclusion, can rarely be perused. 
 
 Tieck was in London in 1818, and wept in our national 
 theatres over the mutilation of Shakspeare. Of course he has 
 no mercy for the improvements of Tate, and the alterations of 
 Garrick. He could hardly find words to express his indignation 
 at the way in which Macbeth was represented at Drury Lane. He 
 saw John Kemble, whose Coriolanus he applauded, but at whose 
 Hamlet he smiled, take leave of the stage. The arbitrary 
 interpretations, and, according to him, unjustifiable interpolations 
 of Kean, he could not tolerate. He saw Macready, then in his 
 noviciate, perform in a modern tragedy, and Tieck foretold his 
 future fame *. Miss O'Neill was his favourite heroine. Tieck 
 was very much satisfied with his visit to England, and three of 
 his most agreeable days were spent with Coleridge at Highgate. 
 
 After some years' cessation of his literary activity, Tieck ap- 
 peared again as an author, about fourteen years ago, but in a 
 new character. The zeal and enthusiasm of his early years had 
 subsided, and had been followed by a perfect calm. The rich- 
 ness, buoyancy and petulance of an imagination impatient of 
 control had vanished, and was succeeded by complete regularity 
 and repose. He who had formerly done all from impulse, 
 now subjected himself unreservedly to the sway of reason. At 
 times, he would seem almost to have become one of those very 
 Philistines, on whom it was his wont so stoutly to fall foul. But 
 
 * And would now be highly gratified by his restoration of Shakspeare in his 
 genuine form and pressure. 
 
128 MODERN GERMAN LITERATURE. [SECT. I. 
 
 this idea is not so much suggested by the character of his later 
 works, as by their comparison with his former. We allude here 
 to the " Tales" (Novellen), of which his latter years have been 
 so productive. They are as perfect as anything he has written, 
 but they are not of so high an order as his earlier works. They 
 are psychological rather than poetical, treat of principle rather 
 than passion, and their sphere is the head instead of the heart. 
 When the spirit of the age takes an erratic direction, its faults and 
 failings find a clear mirror in these works. Tieck never moralizes, 
 but simply warns by telling the plain, unvarnished truth. He 
 shows " the very age and body of the time." He is too much of 
 a philosopher to fly into a passion with his fellow-men, at whose 
 follies, on the contrary, he slily smiles. Tieck's " Novellen" are 
 not the works of an optimist, they unbare too cruelly our inevit- 
 able weaknesses, and repeat too plainly that folly is the heir-loom 
 of our race. A vein of irony pervades them, of an effect some- 
 times too harsh. It would seem, now and then, as if the author 
 wished to disown his kind, so completely does he despise it. We 
 doubt whether such impressions ought to be left by works of art, 
 and whether our author in striving not to be polemical, has not, 
 in order to effect his object, been actuated by a polemical spirit. 
 In point of style and form, these compositions are highly finished. 
 
 Amongst the number we may be allowed to point out as our 
 favourites, " The Poefs Life," part the first, " The Poefs 
 Death," " The Travellers," " Fortune makes Wise," " The 
 Betrothing," " The Witches 1 Sabbath," and " The Revolt in the 
 Cevennes." The last-mentioned story, borders on the historical 
 species of Scott, of whom our author has most unjustly said, " It 
 is surprising how little he wants to be a poet, but how much that 
 little outweighs all he is." 
 
 Tieck continues to reside at Dresden, where the theatre, which 
 is under his management, does him infinite credit, and where his 
 evening readings of his own and other works (often of Shak- 
 speare), are the delight of all who are fortunate enough to be 
 admitted to hear them. 
 
 Principal Works of Tieck. Abdallah (1795). William 
 Lovel (1796). Popular Legends (Volksmarchen) (1797). Sa- 
 
CH. VI.] MODERN GERMAN LITERATURE. 129 
 
 tirical Dramas (1798). Phantasies on Art (1799). Sternbald's 
 Wanderings (1798). Translation of Don Quixote (1799-1801). 
 Lyrical Poems (1800). The Emperor Octavian (1804). Gene- 
 vieve (1804). Phantasus (1814). The Pictures (1822). The 
 Travellers (1823)*. 
 
 It is difficult to determine, whether the early enthusiasm of 
 Tieck on the subject of art was originally his own, or whether it 
 was not, to a great extent, imparted to him by his youthful 
 friends. Certain it is, that amongst the latter there were several 
 equally devoted with himself to the study of the painters of the 
 German and Italian middle ages, and equally impressed with the 
 idea of imbuing the fine arts with the spirit of Christianity. First 
 and foremost amongst these, stands Henry William Wackenroder, 
 who was born at Berlin in 177^? and who died there, 1797- Few 
 have shown a zeal like his in the execution of an abstract purpose. 
 A religious fervour pervades all he has written ; and lends the 
 most glowing colours to the pictures of his imagination. His 
 principal work is his " Effusions of a Monk devoted to Art," but 
 he also contributed to several productions of Tieck. Probably, 
 he took the lead of the latter in their common direction. Their 
 joint operations were loudly hailed, and eagerly responded to by 
 the German artists at home and abroad. Winkelman and Greece 
 were forgotten for Durer and his pupils, and for the school of 
 Raphael. As is always the case with the young, on the occasion 
 of sudden changes, they were guilty of extravagancies. They 
 became, some of them, bigots and fanatics, and many of them 
 rendered themselves ridiculous by adopting the garb as well as 
 imitating the spirit of the middle ages. The elder German 
 artists regarded, at first, this wild intoxication with silent pity, 
 and allowed its earlier outbreaks to pass unheeded ; but they did 
 not fail, ultimately, to register their protest against it. And, at 
 last, Goethe inflicted on the new system, already verging towards 
 its decline, a mortal blow, in a paper entitled, " On the Christian, 
 
 * "The Old Man of the Mountain," "The Lovecharm," and the "Pietro of 
 Abano," have been translated, in one volume, 1831. In the collections of " German 
 Romances," published by Roscoe and Carlyle, will be found some of his tales. 
 " Farmer the Genius," has been recently published in the English language at 
 Brunswick. 
 
 K 
 
130 MODERN GERMAN LITERATURE. [SECT. I. 
 
 Patriotic, new German Art," published in the second number of 
 his periodical, " Art and Antiquity." 
 
 Nearly the same relation in which Wackenroder stands to 
 Tieck the artist, Novalis bears to Tieck the poet. He shared 
 the love of the latter for mystery and symbol, and the object of 
 his literary endeavour appears to have been to erect literature 
 into a kind of religion. In his eyes all is wonder, and the most 
 wonderful of all is that daily life which we are accustomed to 
 consider vapid and monotonous. It suffices for him to touch upon 
 an ordinary circumstance, and it assumes an infinite significance. 
 He did not live long enough to finish his principal work, so that 
 we can hardly define his object, though we may indicate the 
 direction he was taking. This, as may be presumed, was not 
 towards a recognition of our conscious powers and reasoning 
 faculties as the highest elements of our nature, but rather the 
 contrary. He was born amongst the antipodes of the sceptical 
 world. He rather loved to believe than sought to doubt. He 
 preferred to base his system upon the unchangeable groundwork 
 of our nature, rather than to support it merely on those secondary 
 powers, the active existence of which mainly depends on cultiva- 
 tion, and the exercise of which must always be exposed to the 
 influence of error. To the Rationalists and Indifferentists with 
 whom Germany abounds he was not only naturally averse, but 
 actively opposed. Towards Goethe his bearing was always ini- 
 mical, and to his " Wilhelm Meister," he would fain have opposed 
 the emotions of a living and a loving faith. 
 
 Novalis was the assumed name of the Baron von Hardenberg, 
 who was born in 177^ 5 and who died in 1801. His life was 
 short, restless and unfortunate. The premature death of a lady 
 he deeply loved, hastened his own. After his decease, his works 
 were published in two volumes by Frederick Schlegel and Tieck ; 
 the most remarkable are " Heinrich von Ofterdingen," an un- 
 finished romance displaying all the mystical peculiarities of its 
 author, clothed in a simple and singularly beautiful style, and 
 his " Hymns to the Night," remarkable for their devout sub- 
 limity. 
 
 We have now concluded our notice of the men who founded 
 
CH. VI.] MODERN GERMAN LITERATURE. 131 
 
 that which has been called the Romantic School in Germany. We 
 have alluded to the reaction to which it owed its origin, and we 
 have described the characters and labours of its principal chiefs. 
 It has been seen that its actual existence, as an active literary 
 body, lasted but for a very short space of time. The founders, 
 however much of its character they might subsequently retain, 
 soon separated, and each took his peculiar path. 
 
 Frederick Schlegel turned to philosophy, diplomacy, and 
 Romanism, and his latter years were only reminded of his earlier 
 pursuits and predilections by a dedication of Tieck, in which the 
 latter commemorates his ancient admiration of the drama of 
 " Genevieve." We can well imagine that the few days which 
 these celebrated men spent together, previously to the sudden 
 death of one of them, must have discovered to them the immense 
 distance which separated them. The one had become more than 
 ever devoted to the Church of Rome, from which the other had not 
 only gradually withdrawn himself, but towards which he would 
 seem to have taken up an offensive position. Of the elder Schlegel, 
 Tieck must now speak as a merely personal friend, who has long 
 left him for pursuits to which he is an utter stranger. He, himself, 
 as we have seen, became soon unfaithful to his early character, 
 and gradually deserted it for an opposite one*. But, whatever 
 became of the men, their works effected a revolution, of which 
 most evident marks are visible in the literature of the present day. 
 They kindled a spirit with which others were inspired, though 
 they neglected it, and every author of eminence who has appeared 
 in Germany, during the present century, is, in some degree, their 
 scholar. 
 
 Two men, the tendency of whose works is analogous to that of 
 the Romantic School, and who have since flourished, are Achim 
 von Arnim and Clemens Brentano. They are generally classed 
 together, from their having both affixed their names to a collec- 
 tion of ballads, entitled " The Boy's Wonder-Horn." These 
 songs, which bear the genuine impress of the German national 
 character, gave a new direction to lyrical poetry. The sub- 
 sequent works of these authors were prose-fictions, which never 
 
 * See his Novelle, "The Witches' Sabbath." 
 
 K 2 
 
132 . MODERN GERMAN LITERATURE. [SECT. I. 
 
 attained any great popularity. Arnim deals in the horrible and 
 fantastic ; Brentano in the eccentric and humorous. In the 
 works of the former, for instance in the " Countess Dolores, 11 
 and " Isabella of Egypt," there are scenes of the wildest and 
 most extravagant description. We will instance one from 
 " Isabella." It presents us with four persons travelling together 
 in a carriage to celebrate a wedding, at Buik in Belgium ; they 
 are, an old gipsy, who is at the same time a witch; an individual 
 who is called a Bdrenhauter (from barenhaut, a bearskin, 
 forming his dress), who perpetually shivers with cold, and is 
 not a bonajide living being, but a corpse which has deserted its 
 grave to earn a few ducats, by engaging itself for seven years as 
 a servant; the third passenger is a Golem, i. e.> a figure of clay, 
 to all appearance a beautiful woman, on whose forehead is 
 written in Hebrew letters the word Truth, and who falls to dust 
 as soon as this word is erased ; finally, we have the field-marshal 
 Cornelius Nepos, who is no relation to our classical acquaintance 
 of that name, and who, indeed, is no other than the root man- 
 drake, which Isabella of Egypt had plucked underneath a gibbot, 
 and which had transformed itself under her hands into a horrible 
 dwarf. The imagination of Arnim, whilst giving birth to these 
 monstrous creations, seems in no state of violent excitement. The 
 tenour of his story is as calm, as if it breathed the most ordinary 
 subjects. He conjures up Death and his train of gloomy 
 horrors, as if he only required their presence to become more 
 sportive and simple than a child. For him life and the present 
 have no charms; he flies to the grave of the past, and warms in 
 the embrace of death. 
 
 The style of Arnim is masterly, and there are parts of his 
 compositions which are perfect, but taken as a whole they are 
 incongruous, and the impression they leave is unsatisfactory. 
 His critical opinions were the same as those of his friend Bren- 
 tano, together with whom, some thirty years ago, he edited a 
 periodical at Heidelberg, which was the terror of Voss and the 
 Rationalists. Arnim attached himself decidedly to none of the 
 religious parties in Germany. Brentano, on the contrary, 
 belongs to the Catholic propagandists, and is most zealously 
 
CH. VI.] MODERN GERMAN LITERATURE. 133 
 
 devoted to the cause of the Romish church. Of late years, 
 indeed, he is become more theological than literary. He has 
 spent several years of his life in taking down the revelations of a 
 Westphalian nun, who is reported by the Catholics to have been 
 favoured with a miraculous share of divine inspiration. He is a 
 great advocate of the Catholic sisterhood at Coblenz, which is 
 celebrated for its simple piety and exemplary self-denial. Bren- 
 tano spends his days at Frankfort, often travelling to Munich, 
 the head-quarters of German Catholicism. The youth of his 
 ultra-Romish sect celebrate him as one of the first German 
 poets. They assert that what he has published, though avowedly 
 of the first order, will bear no comparison with many of his works 
 still in manuscript. According to them, he towers infinitely 
 above Tieck, who has deserted his better self and sunk to medi- 
 ocrity. He is destined, they say, to usher in a new poetical era, 
 and to recall the imagination from profane excursions to spiritual 
 and sublime pursuits. 
 
 Brentano has not cared to do much to verify these predictions. 
 From that which he has published, however, we are far from with- 
 holding its meed of praise. His principal poem, " The Foundation 
 of Prague," embodies the spirit of a poetical and heroic age. 
 His comedy of " Ponce de Leon," contains, perhaps, more real 
 wit than any of which Germany can boast. In some of his tales, 
 as in the " History of the good Casperl and the beautiful Nan- 
 nerl," there is a touching simplicity, combined with a pathos 
 which invites repeated and never-tiring contemplation. Others, 
 as " The Three Wehmiiller, or Hungarian National Faces," 
 abound in rich descriptions and comical incidents. In some, 
 again, as in " The Three Nuts," the tragical is mysteriously 
 blended with the humorous, and the tears which they summon 
 forth are accompanied with involuntary smiles. Finally, that 
 Brentano is a poet of high rank, can be doubted by no one who 
 has perused even his most unpretending productions; a few 
 verses, for instance, which he wrote, some years ago, in aid of a 
 charitable purpose, contain a figurative picture of dawning day, 
 which in its peculiar style has, perhaps, rarely been equalled. 
 
 We now pass to two classes of authors, who have written works 
 
134 MODERN GERMAN LITERATURE. [SECT. I. 
 
 analogous in character or tendency to those of the Romantic 
 School. The first is composed of men who only occasionally, or 
 for a short period of their career, devoted their attention to litera- 
 ture. Amongst these we may particularise Schleiermacher, 
 Gorres, and Steffens. 
 
 Schleiermacher was the translator of Plato, and in his early 
 study of the Greek philosopher was associated with Frederick 
 Schlegel. Their friendship appears to have been of the warmest 
 kind. When the latter published his obnoxious story, " Lucinde," 
 the former wrote letters in " The Athenaeum," praising and 
 illustrating it. Schleiermacher was born at Breslau, in 1768, 
 and died at Berlin, in 1834. It is foreign to our immediate 
 subject to enumerate his theological works. 
 
 Gorres and Steffens are friends of Tieck and the Schlegels, but 
 their works are rather of a political and philosophical, than of a 
 literary character. Gorres was an enthusiastic politician during 
 the war against the French, and was called by the Parisian 
 journalists, la cinquieme puissance. Since that time, he has 
 joined the Catholic Propagandists, and is become a religious 
 mystic. He is now Professor at Munich, where he sometimes 
 lectures on Universal History, but is said never, even at the end 
 of the session, to have arrived further than an account of the 
 Flood, such matter does his imagination afford for a description 
 of the antediluvian world. Amongst his literary productions, 
 may be instanced his " Account of Popular Legends," and his 
 contributions to the Heidelberg periodical of Arnim and Bren- 
 tano. His political writings, for which he was proscribed in 
 Prussia, are, " Germany and the Revolution" (1819), and 
 " Europe and the Revolution" (1821). His persecution was 
 unnecessary, for his writings were too abstract, and verged already 
 too much towards the mystical, ever to find readers amongst the 
 people. Gorres has written on various departments of natural 
 philosophy, and is well acquainted with the Persian language and 
 literature. He was born at Coblenz, 177^> and the most 
 remarkable event of his life was his mission to Paris in 1799, the 
 object of which was the junction of the provinces on the left bank 
 of the Rhine with France. He returned to Coblenz without 
 
CH. VI.] MODERN GERMAN LITERATURE. 135 
 
 having been able to obtain an audience of the First Consul on the 
 subject. 
 
 Steffens was born in Norway at Stavanger, in 177^? but has 
 lived more than forty years in Germany. His attention was at 
 first directed to metaphysics and natural philosophy. He studied 
 under Werner at Freiberg, and afterwards gave lectures himself 
 on geology. At the time of the liberation -war, he combated in 
 the cause of his adopted country both with the pen and the 
 sword. At the conclusion of the war, he wrote works of a some- 
 what similar tendency to those of Gorres. The most remarkable 
 of these is his " Considerations on the present Time, particularly 
 with respect to Germany.'' 1 Steffens has experienced a great 
 number of religious changes and con version s s of which he has 
 always duly informed the public. He never, that we know of, 
 went over to Romanism, but he has been several times dissatisfied 
 with Protestantism, until he has again succeeded in moulding it 
 to meet his altered views. One of his most noted tracts on the 
 subject of his religious experience is entitled, " How I again 
 became a Lutheran, and what my Lutheranism is." Of late 
 years Steffens has followed in the track of his friend Tieck, as a 
 writer of tales (novellen). He is more religious than the latter, 
 and his object appears to be more polemical and profound. But 
 though his style and the spirit of his stories are often more 
 welcome to our hearts than those of Tieck, we cannot praise their 
 execution. His details are disjointed, and there is often some- 
 thing forced and stiff in his descriptions ; the precise nature of his 
 object, too, is often extremely doubtful. His principal novellen 
 are " Malcolm," " Walseth and Leith," and " The Four Nor- 
 wegians." Steffens is at present Professor at Berlin, and is one 
 of the most remarkable of the German philosophical Pietists. 
 
 To describe the relation in which the last-mentioned writers, 
 and, indeed, the Romantic School generally, stand to Schelling 
 and the modern German philosophy, would lead us beyond our 
 limits, and belongs, indeed, rather to a philosophical than a 
 literary history. 
 
 The second of the two classes of authors, of whom we made 
 mention above, is composed of men who devoted themselves exclu- 
 
136 MODERN GERMAN LITERATURE. [SECT. I. 
 
 sively to literature, but whose success has not been of the highest 
 order. Of these we may enumerate Henry von Kleist, the Baron 
 de la Motte Fouque, and Francis Horn. Kleist was born in 
 177^ and died by his own hand, 1811. Since his death, his 
 works have been collected by Tieck, and published with a critical 
 introduction, and memoir of their author. There can be no 
 doubt that Kleist was a man of genius, but his restless character, 
 and the unfortunate circumstances in which he was placed, pre- 
 vented him from fully developing it. His principal production, 
 " Catherine of Heilbronn," a dramatic poem, is an original con- 
 ception, and is executed in a masterly manner. It contains a 
 beautiful picture of love in its simplest, meekest form, enduring 
 the rudest trials, and remaining true to itself to the last. The 
 " Tales" of Kleist surprise the English reader, by presenting 
 qualities to which one is quite unaccustomed beyond the Rhine. 
 They are divested of all reflection, speculation, and discursive 
 dialogue. The author seems to be in the situation of a reporter, 
 who is in want of space even for a succinct detail of important 
 facts. The current of the narrative is so rapid and strong, that 
 the reader is irresistibly carried to the end. Some of these stories 
 are historical ; " Michael Kohlhaas," for instance, is a true and 
 stirring picture of the Lutheran times. Others would seem mere 
 anecdotes, if the skill of the narrator and his knowledge of human 
 nature did not render even the slightest incident of importance. 
 The style of these productions is terse, nervous, clear, and per- 
 fectly original. 
 
 Frederic Baron de la Motte Fouque is the nephew of the 
 celebrated general of the same name, who served under Frederic 
 the Great ; he was born at Berlin in 1777' He was destined for 
 a military career, and bore arms in the early Prussian campaign 
 against the French revolution. Afterwards, he devoted himself 
 to literary pursuits, under the auspices of the elder Schlegel, but 
 in the eventful year 1813, he again exchanged the pen for the 
 sword. His principal productions are romances, in which his 
 leaning towards the feudal times, and desire to recall them, are 
 very evident. But as an author, he is too tedious and prolix to 
 exert a strong influence over the public. The style and execu- 
 
CH. VI.] MODERN GERMAN LITERATURE. 137 
 
 tion of his story of " Undine" are graceful, and the " Magic 
 Ring' 1 is original*. 
 
 Francis Horn, a critic and writer of fiction, resides at Berlin. 
 He is a man of considerable acquirements and commendable 
 industry; his style is agreeable, but the general character of his 
 writings is tame. 
 
 We shall now treat of several authors, whom we shall class 
 together, not from their having formed a school, but from their 
 having trod the same path. We allude to German writers of a 
 humourous character, or of a decidedly satirical tendency. In the 
 literary history of the last century, three figure in this category ; 
 namely, Thiimmel, Hippel, and Lichtenberg-f. 
 
 Thummel was born at Schonfeld, near Leipsic, in 1738, and 
 was educated at the university of the latter town. He subse- 
 quently became, first, privy-councillor, and then minister of the 
 duchy of Coburg, but retired from public life so early as 1783. 
 He died in 1817- His first production was a comic epic, but the 
 work with which his fame is identified, is his " Journey in the 
 Southern provinces of France, in the years 1785 and 1786." 
 This, which is a work of fiction, and which contains scenes of 
 considerable humour, would be much too tedious for our present 
 public. Its author, however, deserves praise as having been one 
 of the first German writers, who eschewed the pedantry and 
 stiffness which had hitherto characterized the national literature. 
 
 Hippel was born, 1741, in East Prussia, and died, 1796, at 
 Konigsberg. He was an eccentric character, of powerful mind, 
 original humour and singular habits. He is chiefly remarkable 
 as a humourist, but from his polemical standing as a scholar of 
 Kant, and from the obscurity in which he sometimes chooses to 
 involve both his subject and the end he has in view, the circula- 
 tion of his works has never been commensurate with his literary 
 fame. 
 
 Lichtenberg was born, 1742, at Over Ramstadt, in Ilesse- 
 Darmstadt. At the town of Darmstadt, where he was sent to 
 
 * His " Undine" and the " Magic Ring" have appeared in an English form. 
 f Some specimens of his " Illustrations of Hogarth" have appeared in " Black- 
 wood's Magazine." The son of this remarkable man fills, at London, a diplomatic 
 post from the Court of Hanover. 
 
138 MODERN GERMAN LITERATURE. [SECT. I. 
 
 school, his talents and industry attracted the attention of the 
 sovereign, who took him under his protection and supported him. 
 In 1763, we find him at Gottingen, commencing his astrono- 
 mical studies. He shortly became Professor at the University, 
 and, as such, made two or three visits to London, about the year 
 1770. His acquaintance with England and English literature 
 was very extensive, and contributed greatly to mould his literary 
 character. He took great interest in our theatre, on which, and 
 its hero, Garrick, his letters are very interesting. In 177^? ne 
 wrote a witty attack on Lavater, which did not, however, prevent 
 him from becoming, subsequently, the friend of the physiogno- 
 mist. About the same, he engaged in a literary quarrel with 
 Zimmerman, who returned his sportive satires with virulent 
 abuse. Lichtenberg was a man of most varied attainments. His 
 proper province was natural philosophy, in many departments of 
 which, particularly in the science of electricity, he has made 
 important discoveries. Philology, also occupied a share of his 
 attention, for we find him in 1781 attacking Voss, on the defects 
 of his theory of Greek pronunciation. His most celebrated work, 
 and that on which his fame as a humorist is chiefly grounded, 
 is his " Complete Explanation of Hogarth's Copper-plates," in 
 which he has fully entered into the spirit of our artist. He died, 
 February 24, 1799. 
 
 The principal humourists of whom Germany has had to boast 
 during the present century, are Jean Paul Frederic Ilichter, 
 Hoffman and Chamisso. Richter, commonly called Jean Paul, 
 was born at Wunscedel, near Baireuth, March 21, 1763. He 
 received the rudiments of his education at Hof, near his native 
 place, and in 1780, he went to study at the University of Leipsic. 
 He was originally intended for a clergyman, but shortly after the 
 commencement of his academical career, he neglected his theolo- 
 gical pursuits, and devoted himself to literature. His father, 
 whose pecuniary means were very limited, dying young, he was 
 subject to much anxiety and embarrassment, particularly on 
 account of his widowed mother, to whom he was tenderly 
 attached. It was with great difficulty that he obtained, as an 
 author and tutor, sufficient money for both their support. In 
 
Cn. VI.] MODERN GERMAN LITERATURE. 139 
 
 1790, he accepted the office of schoolmaster, at a small place 
 called Schwarzenbach. It was here that he made those important 
 studies on the infant character, and on the gradual development 
 of the mind, the results of which enrich his later works. The 
 events of the life of this celebrated author are few and unimpor- 
 tant. In 1794, he changed his residence at Schwarzenbach for 
 Hof, whence, at the latter end of the last century, he made a 
 journey to the North of Germany, where, his fame having already 
 preceded him, he experienced the most gratifying reception. He 
 married in 1803, and settled at Baireuth, where he died, Novem- 
 ber 14, 1825. 
 
 The character of Richter, like that of his writings, was com- 
 pounded of the sentimental and the humourous. He had the heart 
 of a woman and the head of a philosopher. No human being 
 ever felt more profoundly, but none ever submitted his feelings to 
 a closer analysis, or speculated upon them with greater freedom. 
 The susceptibilities of Jean Paul were not temporary and 
 evanescent, but permanent and grounded in the very essence of 
 his nature. His affections were always alive; his heart was 
 always warm ; his whole life was one strenuous outpouring of 
 inborn love. This same heavenly quality pervades his humourous 
 as well as his sentimental scenes. He has a kind smile for those 
 follies and weaknesses inherent in our nature, which he would 
 shame by exposure, but not shock by rudely attacking. Some- 
 times he treats even with affection those old foibles of our human 
 kind, which have accompanied it from its earliest date, and of 
 which the most distant future will hardly see it divested. 
 
 Unfortunately, the conceptions of Jean Paul are not executed 
 in a manner worthy of them. His style has often been animad- 
 verted on, but never, we think, sufficiently censured. The plans 
 of his works are often strangely incongruous, loosely followed out 
 and capriciously interrupted. His dictionary is about twice as 
 large as that of any other German classic, but he is not so 
 essentially difficult as intentionally obscure. He drags in similies 
 out of the abstractest sciences, and is repeatedly guilty of the 
 most uncalled-for digressions. For these reasons, though he has 
 been very popular in Germany, his fame has never been acknow- 
 
140 MODERN GERMAN LITERATURE. [SECT. I. 
 
 ledged by the learned. Schiller, for instance, seems to have 
 regarded him as an unaccountable being, with whom he could 
 have little fellowship, and whom it was difficult properly to 
 understand. Goethe barely acknowledges his genius, and then 
 hastens to censure his wilful neglect of it. The critics by pro- 
 fession passed him over, for the most part, unnoticed. For the 
 causes above-mentioned, the popularity of Jean Paul has of late 
 years declined in Germany, and he can never become a favourite 
 abroad*. 
 
 Principal Works of Richter. Greenland Trials (1783). 
 Selection from the Devil's Papers (1788). Hesperus (1794). 
 Quintus Fixlein (1796). Biographical Recreations under the 
 skull of a Giantess (1796). The Campaner Valley, or the 
 Immortality of the Soul (1798). Titan (1806). Katzenberger's 
 Journey to the Bath (1809). Levana, or a Theory of Education 
 (1807). 
 
 Hoffman was born at Konigsberg, January 24, 177^- He was 
 a lawyer by profession, and was appointed in 1808, assessor in the 
 government district of Posen. In 1803, he visited Warsaw, in 
 some official capacity, but the invasion of the French in 1806, 
 finished his career in that city. In 1816, he was promoted to 
 the rank of counsellor in the court of judicature of Berlin, where 
 he died July 24, 1822. From his youth he devoted his leisure 
 hours to the study of music. His productions are a farrago of 
 the humourous and the horrible. To some of them, the reader is 
 at a loss which of the two characters to affix, there is something 
 so ludicrous in the terror they sometimes inspire. 
 
 The original tendency of Hoffmanns character seems to have 
 been towards the comic, and that he cultivated this vein with 
 great success, is fully shown in his " History of Master Flea, 1 ' 
 and " The Confessions of the Cat, Murr. 1 ' In other works, as in 
 the " Night-pieces, 11 and the " Devil's Elixir, 11 the terrible is the 
 almost exclusive feature, and is portrayed with wild force and in 
 the strongest colours. The genius of Hoffman was convulsive, 
 
 * Some single tales and specimens have been published in an English form : as 
 in the collections of " German Romance," " The Linguist," and some periodical 
 works. Those who combine in one idea the writings of Burton and of Sterne, will 
 form no bad conception of the good Richter. 
 
CH. VI.] MODERN GKRMAN LITERATURE. 141 
 
 and his temperament unhappy. The discord of his nature he 
 increased by satisfying its cravings for undue excitement. He 
 became the victim of his own imagination, and was himself ap- 
 palled at the terrors which it conjured up at his beck. At last, 
 his creations became nothing but caricatures, and his mental 
 vision diseased and distorted. The intemperate habits in which 
 he finally indulged hastened his death, which was brought about 
 by a nervous disease, in the fifty-fourth year of his age*. 
 
 Chamisso is a Frenchman by birth, who emigrated in his 
 childhood to Germany. He was born at the castle of Boncourt, 
 in Champagne, 1781. During the war against France, he 
 entered the Prussian service, and bore arms against Napoleon. 
 In 1815, he accompanied young Kotzebue in his journey round 
 the world, and was absent three years. He resides at present at 
 Berlin. Chamisso's proper character is that of a botanist and 
 naturalist generally, but his book, " The strange history of 
 Peter Schlemil, or the Man without a Shadow," has earned him 
 literary fame. The conception of this story is original, and the 
 execution ingenious. It belongs to a class of productions little 
 cultivated in our practical age. It is the offspring of an imagin- 
 ation, which has no evident aim, except the pleasure of creating. 
 No critic, that we have heard of, has succeeded in fastening a 
 moral on this singular fictionf. 
 
 The German dramatists since Schiller, have followed two 
 directions ; both of which may be traced to his example. The 
 one is a modern adaptation of the fatalism of the ancients, 
 which is what he attempted in the " Bride of Messina."" Several 
 writers have followed him in this line, and have been more suc- 
 cessful with the public, though not with the critics. We may 
 instance here, the dramatic labours of Werner 5 Mullner, and 
 Grillparzer. One of Werner's most remarkable works, is " The 
 
 * The " Devil's Elixir" has been well translated into English, and is a work 
 that will delight the lovers of the Supernatural Romantic, belonging to the class 
 of " The Monk," by Lewis, and " Melmoth," by Maturin. It abounds in the 
 fiercest transitions from comedy to melo-drama, and contains many happy descrip- 
 tions, and burning expressions. 
 
 j- It has been translated by Dr. Bo wring, but under the name of a wrong 
 author, De la Motte Fouque being substituted on the title page for Chamisso. 
 
142 MODERN GERMAN LITERATURE. [SECT. I. 
 
 24th of February," so called from that day having been ever fatal 
 to a family, three members of which, a father, mother, and their 
 son, form the dramatis personce. Werner was a man of 
 remarkably eccentric character, and extremely fickle in his belief. 
 He was first a strenuous Protestant, and as such, wrote his "Martin 
 Luther, or the Consecration of Power," in which the rude charac- 
 ter of the Saxon monk is invested with the dignity of a heavenly 
 mission. Catholicism palls before him, and all their cherished 
 prejudices desert its devotees. Catherine of Bora, the nun, who 
 at first abhors his very name, no sooner beholds him, than she 
 finds herself at once converted to Protestantism, and destined to 
 be his wife. But scarcely had Werner written this remarkable 
 drama, that he himself became a Catholic, and as if to atone for 
 his former heresy, entered a religious order. His subsequent 
 works have the same tendency (but in a more extravagant 
 degree) as those of Frederic Schlegel, and the more decided 
 Catholics of the Romantic School. To promote the progress of 
 the papal religion was now the grand object of all he wrote. 
 This is very evident in his " Sons of the Valley," in which a most 
 enchanting picture is drawn of the order of the Knights Templars. 
 But parts of this, as well as of his other principal drama, " The 
 Cross on the East Sea," are so extremely mystical, that they 
 ordinary comprehension. Werner died in 1823. 
 
 Miillner is chiefly known by his tragedy of " Guilt," the most 
 celebrated of its class of dramas. These may be easily defined; 
 their dialogue is lyrical and harmonious, and gives great scope to 
 histrionic declamation ; their catastrophes are brought about by 
 decrees of fate, and are generally of an appalling nature, calcu- 
 lated to produce a solemn theatrical effect. 
 
 At the time Milliner's high-sounding verses were first published, 
 they were always on the lips of the German youth, and his bold 
 figures were universally admired. How often have the following 
 lines from the tragedy of " Guilt" been enthusiastically quoted ! 
 
 It is clear that Hell is open, 
 And its lurid reflection 
 Gleams through the night, 
 So that the paths are visible, 
 Which the devil treads on earth. 
 
CH. VI.] MODERN GERMAN LITERATURE. 143 
 
 Mullner appeared as a poet late in life, and his education was 
 unfavourable to his literary progress ; his early studies had been 
 devoted to law and mathematics. This accounts for his forced 
 dignity, and laboured style; and for his want of genuine sim- 
 plicity. From 1820 to 1825, he edited the " Morgenblatt," where 
 his critical sarcasm created him a host of enemies. He died 
 in 1829. 
 
 Grillparzer merely deserves mention as a successful writer of 
 this school. His most noted plays are " The Ancestress," and 
 " Sappho." 
 
 Of the dramatists who followed the general system of Schiller, 
 Koerner is the most remarkable. But his genius was rather lyric 
 than dramatic, and his heroes instead of being tragically pathetic, 
 are often only sentimentally weak. The most valuable of his pro- 
 ductions were songs breathing a fiery spirit of patriotism, and 
 hatred to foreign oppression, published under the title of " The 
 Lyre and the Sword." He was killed in the Liberation- war, in 
 his twenty-third year, and his memory was long held sacred by 
 the youth of his time. 
 
 Among the latest writers for the German stage, appear 
 Houwald, Auffenberg and Raupach, but none even of their most 
 popular tragedies can lay claim to distinguished merit. 
 
 The most famous lyric poets of whom Germany at present boasts, 
 are Uhland, Schwab, Riickert, and Count Platen. Chamisso, too, 
 of whom we made mention as a humourist, has also distinguished 
 himself in this character. 
 
 Uhland is celebrated for the melody of his verse and the sim- 
 plicity of his style. His muse is angelically pure, and there is a 
 sweet melancholy in his strain, in which he sometimes indulges so 
 far, as to have incurred the charge of effeminacy. Goethe 
 expressed an opinion, that the constitution of his muse was con- 
 sumptive. His dramas have not been very successful. He is 
 said to be now engaged in preparing a work on the Minnesingers 
 and Troubadours. 
 
 Schwab, like Uhland, his friend, is a Suabian, and is a suc- 
 cessful follower of the latter. In conjunction with Chamisso, he 
 now edits the " Muses' Almanack." 
 
144 MODERN GERMAN LITERATURE. [SECT. I. 
 
 Count Platen is an excellent classical scholar, remarkable for 
 the elegance and correctness of his German verse. His metrical 
 proficiency exceeds that of all his predecessors, even of Schlegel 
 himself. Some time ago he attracted great attention from the 
 enthusiastic confidence with which he promised great performances. 
 
 Ruckert is an Oriental scholar of vast acquisitions, whose 
 metrical skill [is equal to that of Platen, and who lays juster 
 claims to originality. His versified translations from Eastern 
 models, have excited astonishment even in Germany, and can 
 scarcely be equalled in any other European language. Many of 
 his original poems are as perfect in their sphere, as those of 
 Uhland. But even the most celebrated productions of some of 
 these poets, would probably disappoint the English student; the 
 range of German lyric poetry is more limited than our own, 
 and its construction is much more artificial; its character is often 
 too ornamental, and its end and aim too exclusively artistic. 
 
 The political fever of modern times has not failed in Germany 
 as in other countries, to affect the literature of the day. We 
 shall briefly notice the man whose writings betray its influence 
 in every page, and who may be said to represent the new Ger- 
 man school Henry Heine. It would be useless to deny the 
 talent of this author, but it is perverted or unhealthy. The 
 extravagance of his conceptions, though it may attract at first, is 
 so forced and unnatural, as finally to disgust the reader. Gen/^al f. 
 extravagance we can admire, without seeking to chill it with 
 criticism, for there is no assignable limit to the range of the imagi- 
 nation ; but Heine is a comedian who is always conscious of the 
 presence of the public. In all his works, there is a constant craving 
 after effect. He is but a pseudo-poet there where he is thought 
 to have succeeded best, we hold that he has juggled most. Even 
 the quaint pathos of his " Book of Songs," (which has found so 
 many admirers,) we cannot but regard as a solemn mockery. 
 His four volumes of Reisebilder, (Pictures of Travel,) contain 
 many startling, and some witty antitheses, but nothing which 
 leaves a permanent or gratifying impression. His works may 
 furnish a little temporary amusement, but they are not perennially 
 refreshing, like the genuine creations of genius. His book on 
 
CH. VI.] MODERN GERMAN LITERATURE. 145 
 
 German literature contains, amongst many inaccuracies, some 
 brilliant ideas, happily expressed; but he would seem to have no 
 settled opinions on the subject of which he treats, and to write 
 merely for the purpose of saying smart things, or of gratifying 
 personal pique. On the French he has lavished flattery, which 
 would be coarse from any lips, but which is unnatural from 
 those of a German, and which, its objects will regard as no great 
 compliment. The vanity of Heine is such, that perhaps no other 
 writer of any age or country has indulged in such indefatigable 
 admiration of himself. It is impossible to define distinctly the 
 object of Heine's writings ; their tendency sometimes appears to 
 be republican, though at others, he asserts that he is a most 
 devoted advocate of monarchy. The anti-christian tendency of 
 his writings, is, however, very evident throughout, nor does he 
 take much pains to conceal it. 
 
 It is unnecessary to mention some small disciples of a new little 
 German school, who have chiefly distinguished themselves by a 
 servile admiration of the French, and a propensity to sneer at 
 their own country. One individual who is sometimes coupled 
 with this group, is Boerne, lately dead, a critic, and the author 
 of a work in several volumes, entitled " Letters from Paris," 
 (1830-4,) the subject-matter of which was the politics of the 
 day. The notoriety which this production has obtained, is rather 
 to be attributed to its levity and boldness, qualities hitherto 
 unknown in German political discussion, than to any intrinsic 
 importance. Boerne, like Heine, was of Jewish extraction. 
 
 Thus, then, we are compelled to close our history of German 
 literature with some of the least illustrious of its names. And to 
 illustrate better the whole subject, we shall append a most impor- 
 tant, however painful remark, emanating from Mr. Carlyle, one 
 of its best informed as well as warmest friends. 
 
 " In Richter alone, among the great (and even sometimes truly 
 moral) writers of his day, do we find the immortality of the soul 
 expressly insisted on; nay so much as incidentally alluded to. 
 This is a fact well meriting investigation and reflection, but here 
 is not the place for treating it. The two venerable Jacobis 
 belong in character, if scarcely in date, to an older school ; so also 
 
 L 
 
146 MODERN GERMAN LITERATURE. [SECT. I. 
 
 does Herder, from whom Richter learned much, both morally 
 and intellectually, and \vhom he seems to have loved and 
 reverenced beyond any other. Wieland is intelligible enough ; 
 a sceptic in the style of Bolingbroke and Shaftesbury, what we 
 call a French or Scotch sceptic, a rather shallow species. Lessing 
 also is a sceptic, but of a much nobler sort; a doubter, who 
 deserved to believe *." 
 
 * German Romance, with Biographical and Critical Notices, vol. iii. p. 16. 
 
147 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 HISTORICAL, POLITICAL AND SCIENTIFIC WRITERS OF 
 GERMANY. 
 
 IT would be an act of injustice to pass over in total silence 
 many other names which have ornamented the literature of 
 Germany in various departments less popular among general 
 readers. To illustrate properly the merits of her scientific, his- 
 torical, antiquarian, theological and statistical writers would 
 demand an entire volume ; we shall content ourselves in this place 
 with a bare enumeration. 
 
 John von Muller stands at the head of the historians : his 
 " Universal History" abounds in profound reflections, and is the 
 fruit of elaborate research, produced in an eloquent and con- 
 densed form* : his History of Switzerland has not yet found a 
 translator into our language, but is still more valued in Germany. 
 The works of Heeren, Raumer, and of Niebuhrf-, are well known 
 amongst us. Luden, Leo, and Wachsmuth, are less familiar. 
 
 All nations assign the palm to German commentators on the 
 ancient writers ; to German philologists, lexicographers, etymolo- 
 gists and grammarians : in that country, indeed, the old classical 
 taste finds its fondest home, and perhaps its last stronghold. 
 Adelung, Boeckh, Grimm, Heyne, Von Hammer, William von 
 Humboldt, Schveighauser, Bekker, and Wolff, are illustrious 
 members of the above class. 
 
 * Translated by Dr. Prichard, of Bristol, who is well known as an original 
 writer. Its only blemish is the reserved, timid, and mysterious tone in which the 
 author treats of religion. 
 
 f- Nearly all the works of Heeren have been translated into English, and have 
 been published by Mr. Talboys of Oxford, who has been very instrumental in 
 clothing many standard German works in an English dress. Raumer's most im- 
 portant work (History of the Hohenstauffen) is promised in English, but has not yet 
 appeared. Of Niebuhr's work on Rome there are two translations, of which the 
 most complete is by Thirlwall and Hare. A pleasing life of the father of Niebuhr, 
 distinguished by his travels in Arabia, and written by the historian, his son, 
 has been translated by Staehle in one of the numbers of the " Library of Useful 
 Knowledge." 
 
 L 2 
 
148 HISTORICAL, POLITICAL, [SECT. I. 
 
 The theological writers are not to be regarded with such 
 cordial respect, because, however extensive may be their attain- 
 ments, and however acute their criticism, it is impossible to deny 
 that some of the most eminent, as well as many of the less con- 
 spicuous, have distorted and defaced the plain language of the 
 New Testament, and have endeavoured to substitute in its place a 
 spurious and feeble interpretation of Christianity, destroying the 
 force of its miracles, introducing natural causes in the room of 
 supernatural agency, and degrading our Saviour from his divine 
 birth. A few theologians still, however, maintain an unequal 
 contest in favour of the genuine doctrines, which are the only 
 solid foundation of virtue and happiness : and the best wish which 
 a friend of Germany can cherish is, that this small but noble 
 band may daily increase and extend its influence. Gesenius, 
 Griesbach, Michaelis, Mosheim, Paulus, Schleiermacher, Tholuck 
 and Wegschneider are some of the most remarkable names in the 
 theological catalogue*. 
 
 In the cultivation of systematic geography and of statistics, the 
 Germans will readily be acknowledged to be unrivalled. The 
 great work of Busching set an example for future geographers, 
 but it has nowhere been so ably followed as among his own 
 countrymen, who have advanced in rapid succession. Hassel, 
 Stein, Ritter, Crome, Meusel, Malchus, and Schnabel, are all 
 classic names in geography and statistics. Burdach, Bickes, 
 Cannabich, Casper, Finke, Hoffman, Julius, Lichtenstern, Mem- 
 minger, Mittermaier, and some others, deserve most honourable 
 mention also under this head. 
 
 Intimately connected and blended with the statistical and 
 geographical writers are those who have devoted themselves to 
 political philosophy and state-economy. To this class belong 
 Schubert, author of the " Manual of the Universal State-economy 
 of Europe," (Handbuch der Allgemeinen Staatskunde von 
 JEuropa 9 ) Poelitz ; Von Rotteck and Welcker, who are publish- 
 ing an extensive Dictionary of Political Science (Staats-Lexikon) 
 at Altona ; Malchus, Rau, and not a few others. 
 
 * More information on this head will be found in our chapter on Religion. The 
 German divines have obtained more translators in the United States than in 
 England. 
 
CH. VII.] AND SCIENTIFIC WRITERS OF GERMANY. 149 
 
 Among the most distinguished authorities in jurisprudence are 
 Savigny, Hugo, Bach, Gans, and Mittermaier ; in no country is 
 the philosophy of legislation more sedulously investigated, and in 
 none are more learned lawyers to be found. It is true that the 
 forms of trial, and the procedure of courts of justice, do not 
 correspond in excellence with the character of the jurisconsults; 
 but this circumstance is not peculiar to Germany. Everywhere 
 we observe that improvements in the administration of justice 
 seldom emanate from the professors of law, but are generally 
 forced upon them by the progress of public opinion, and the 
 gradual enlightenment of the public mind. Independently of 
 this, the lawyer in Germany is more cramped by the pressure of 
 political customs and institutions than in some other countries. 
 
 The most celebrated anatomists and physiologists of whom 
 modern Germany has had to boast are, Lieberkiihn, the three 
 Meckels, Zinn, Wrisberg, Mayer, Walther, Scemmering, Loder, 
 Gall, Seiler, Weber, Blumenbach*, Rudolphi-f-, Tiedemann, 
 Nitzsch, Purkinje, Treviranus, CarusJ, Burdach, Baer, Rathke, 
 Otto, Muller, Wagner. In the practice of medicine, Frank, Horn, 
 and Hufeland|| have distinguished themselves generally; Swediaur 
 and Schmidt in treating of syphilitic diseases; Stuetz in cata- 
 lepsy; Marcus, Hildebrandt, and Albers in fevers, particularly in 
 typhus ; Kreysig in diseases of the heart ; Reuss and Kiefer in 
 exanthematous disorders; Golis in hydrocephalus^]", and Puchelt 
 in diseases of the veins. The chief surgeons of modern times are 
 Richter, Beer, Schmidt, Himly, Langenbeck, Rust, Beck, 
 Walther, Von Graefe**, and Von Ammon. 
 
 * This illustrious veteran has always been the true friend of England. His 
 works, which are equally conspicuous for their accuracy, condensation, and 
 elegance of style, have been almost all translated into English. He may be con- 
 sidered as the father and almost the founder of modern natural history. 
 
 f The first part of his u Physiology," which is valuable especially 'for its biblio- 
 graphical part, has been translated. 
 
 J The " Comparative Anatomy" of Carus has been translated by Mr. Gore, of 
 Bath. 
 
 Whose " Physiology" has lately appeared in English, as well as that of Tiede- 
 mann. 
 
 || Well known in England by his ** Art of prolonging Life," which Goethe, a 
 genuine epicurean, pronounced to be the Art of rendering Life tedious. 
 
 f Translated by the late Dr. Gooch. * A native of Poland. 
 
150 MEDICAL MEN. [SECT. I. 
 
 It is barely just to declare that the German medical men are 
 the most learned of all Europe in all which relates to the literature 
 of their science. Nowhere are the preliminary examinations so 
 severe, and in their extensive knowledge of languages they amply 
 partake of the usual accomplishment of their countrymen. In the 
 branches of forensic medicine, medical police, and ophthalmic 
 surgery they stand at the head of their European brethren ; and 
 we shall probably not be far wrong in awarding to them the palm 
 in theoretical pharmacy, in medical botany, and in dietetics. 
 More than all others they have cultivated the obscure and unpro- 
 mising study of animal magnetism. Hahnemann of Leipsic has 
 founded a doctrine of homoeopathy, of which it is here sufficient 
 to say that it does not rank among its followers a single distin- 
 guished name, and that it has utterly failed, when subjected to 
 the statistical test. 
 
 Among the natural philosophers and natural historians may be 
 pre-eminently ranked the names of Herschell, F. H. A. Von 
 Humboldt, Gauss, Oken, Scheele, and last, but far from the 
 least, Cuvier, who was born at Montbeliard, in the then duchy of 
 Wurtemberg, and who received his education at Stuttgard. 
 
151 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 MODERN GERMAN ARTISTS. 
 
 Architects, Sculptors, Painters. Encouragement afforded to the Fine 
 Arts at Munich by the King of Bavaria, and Re/lections on the 
 Results. Importance of affording free Access to Public Edifices and 
 Collections. Music in Germany. The Drama. 
 
 PASSING over ancient art, we open the page of modern German 
 architecture with a notice of Frederic Weinbrenner, who was 
 born at Carlsruhe in 1766, and who died there in 1826*. His 
 style was rather heavy, and his imitation of the ancients not 
 always successful : indeed, he was more remarkable as having 
 fonnded a school which boasted of several men of talent, than for 
 anything which he effected himself as an architect. Moller of 
 Darmstadt, Burmtz of Frankfort, and Huebsch of Carlsruhe, 
 were all his scholars. Moller is the architect of the theatre, and of 
 the Catholic church in the form of a rotunda, at Darmstadt*. 
 
 A friend of Weinbrenner, Von Thouret, Professor at Stuttgard, 
 was born at Ludwigsburg in 1766, and was intended at first for a 
 painter. He was educated in Italy. It was to him that Goethe 
 entrusted the completion of the palace and the erection of the 
 theatre at Weimar. 
 
 The greatest names in the history of modern German archi- 
 tecture are those of Frederic Schinkel, a Prussian, born in 1781, 
 and of Leo Von Klenze, now at Munich, born at Hildesheim, 
 in 1784. They distinguished themselves advantageously from 
 Weinbrenner and his scholars, by a more intimate comprehension 
 of ancient art, and by a display of original and creative power ; 
 and they may properly be regarded as the founders of the 
 modern German school of Architecture. Klenze is the more 
 remarkable for his correctness and purity of style, Schinkel for 
 his originality. Amongst the works of the former, are the 
 Glyptothek at Munich, an admirable specimen of the Ionic 
 
 * Some of Moller's works have been translated into English. 
 
152 MODERN GERMAN ARTISTS. [SECT. I. 
 
 order ; the new Konigsbau in the Florentine style ; the All- 
 Saints' 1 chapel in the Byzantinian manner, and the Kaufhaus 
 in the Venetian. He is at present engaged in the construction 
 of the Walhalla. Schinkel was educated as a painter, and 
 seems more disposed to copy from his imagination than from the 
 ancients. He sometimes proceeds, however, to a certain degree 
 in the spirit of the classic world, and of the middle ages, as in his 
 Hauptwache at Berlin, and in his monument on the Kreuzberg: 
 but his more remarkable edifices, such as the new Werder church, 
 the Singing Academy, and the Museum, at Berlin, are in a 
 style entirely his own. 
 
 A celebrated German architect of modern date was Von Fischer, 
 Professor at Munich, who died young. Amongst his scholars we 
 may enumerate Gaertner, who was made Professor of Architecture 
 at Munich in 1820, and Superintendant of the Royal Porcelain 
 Manufactory, and who built the Library and Lud wig's church 
 there in the pure Byzantinian style; and Ohmuller, who was 
 commissioned to erect a monument and school at Wittelsbach, the 
 ancestral residence of the Bavarian royal family, in the old German 
 style, to which of late years considerable attention has been paid. 
 A work on that subject has been written by Moller, and a 
 splendid one on the Cologne Cathedral by Boisserie. The 
 Florinus church at Coblenz has been lately restored, and a new 
 church at Treis built in the Gothic style by Von Lassaulx. Among 
 the minor schools of architecture in Germany, we may mention 
 that of Jussow at Cassel, in which Ruhl and Mueller of Gottingen 
 were educated. Chateauneuf and Ludolf have distinguished 
 themselves at Hamburg, where the former has erected the Ex- 
 change, and the latter, the Bank. Professor Thuermer, the 
 architect of the Dresden Post-office, has gained, of late years, con- 
 siderable reputation in Saxony. On the whole, the architectural 
 art may be said to flourish now in Germany, particularly when 
 we compare its present state with the low ebb to which it was 
 reduced during the greater part of the last century*. 
 
 The oldest of the more celebrated German living sculptors are, 
 
 * In some recent numbers of the " Foreign Quarterly Review" will be found 
 more elaborate information on German Architecture. 
 
CH. VIII.] MODERN GERMAN ARTISTS. 153 
 
 Dannecker, Schadow, and Ohmacht. Among the most remark- 
 able works which the first has executed of late years are, an 
 admirable figure of Christ* ; a figure of Faith praying, for the 
 monument of the Princess Ida of Oldenburg ; and a statue of John 
 the Baptist, for the Grecian chapel on the Rothenberg. Of his 
 scholars we may mention, Distelbarth of Stuttgard, noted for his 
 vases and bas-reliefs; Zwerger of Frankfort, for his statue of 
 St. Mark, and of Ganymede, and his bust of J. H. Voss ; and 
 Wagner of Stuttgard, for his statues of Ariadne and Bacchus, 
 his busts and bas-reliefs. Ohmacht is Professor at Strasburg, and 
 has lately executed a bust of Klopstock for the duke of Olden- 
 burg, and a marble statue of Hebe. The fruits of Schadow's 
 recent labours are the statue of Luther at Wittenberg, and that 
 of Blucher at Rostock. 
 
 Thorwaldsen, the Dane, has had several German scholars, of 
 whom the most noted are, Von der Launitz, Freund, and Herr- 
 man. But there has, hitherto, been only one great school of 
 sculpture in Germany, that of Schadow, to which Rauch and 
 Tieck belong. Christian Rauch, Professor to the Academy at 
 Berlin, is remarkable for the truth, grace and power of his execu- 
 tion. His works prove him to be a man of great penetration, and, 
 at the same time, of an imaginative mind. He possesses the 
 secret of giving a dignified effect to modern costume. He has 
 recently executed busts of Zelter and Schleiermacher, a colossal 
 statue of Frederic William I., at Gumbinnen, and a monu- 
 ment for Franke, the founder of the orphan-asylum at Halle. 
 Amongst his other works are an admirable little figure of Goethe, 
 but above all a monument to Queen Louisa of Prussiat, and to 
 Maximilian Joseph, of Bavaria. 
 
 * The Christ of Dannecker is a colossal figure, in the possession, I believe, of the 
 empress of Russia. It appeared to me one of the finest specimens extant of modern 
 sculpture, breathing a solemn tranquillity, and a pensive benevolence very difficult 
 to combine with noble dignity of demeanour. 
 
 f- A worthy companion, in excellence of art, to the Christ of Dannecker. This 
 admirable woman, no less the brave and patriotic queen, than the tender wife and 
 mother, and one of the loveliest and most gentle of her sex, has never yet received, 
 in foreign countries, the honour due to her memory, and a hundred lives have 
 been written since her time not half so deserving of commemoration. She reflects 
 the highest lustre on the house of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, and on the Prussian royal 
 
154) MODERN GERMAN ARTISTS. [SECT. I. 
 
 Christian Frederic Tieck, Professor of Sculpture to the Academy 
 of Berlin, was born in that city in 177^- This artist has studied 
 nature profoundly, and is well versed in classic art. His execu- 
 tion is singularly perfect and harmonious. His Ganymede and 
 his Shepherd are admirable works of art, and worthy of a 
 Grecian sculptor. He has recently executed busts of the crown- 
 princess, of Niemeyer, and of Milder the singer. Several 
 scholars of the Berlin Academy bave distinguished themselves in 
 sculpture, as, for instance, the brothers Wichman and Rietschell. 
 
 The most noted sculptors at Munich, are Eberhard, Wagner, 
 and Schwanthaler, who, however, have been far from attaining 
 the degree of excellence which has earned such fame for the 
 school of Berlin. Eberhard is most happy in religious subjects, 
 as in his monument of the Princess Caroline, at Munich. 
 Wagner, who is also an excellent painter, has been lately com- 
 missioned to execute a frieze for the Walhalla, the subjects of 
 which are to be taken from the ancient history of Germany ; lie 
 is one of the most learned of modern artists. Schwanthaler 
 is principally celebrated for his reliefs. The principal sculptors 
 at Vienna, are Zauner, whose chief work is a colossal statue of 
 Joseph II., and Fischer, Professor to the Academy. 
 
 Raphael Mengs, F. G. Fueger, and Angelica Kaufman, Ger- 
 man painters of the last century, have left few works behind them 
 which merit the reputation they enjoyed amongst their contem- 
 poraries; possessed of talent, they seem to have been impatient 
 of rules, and averse to study ; and they deserted nature for an 
 indefinite ideal, which had no foundation in truth. 
 
 Carstens, born in 1754, was the first to tread successfully the 
 path which Winkelman had pointed out, and to seize the spirit of 
 the classic world : unfortunately, he died so early as 1798. 
 
 family, of which she became the ornament : her surviving sister is the queen of 
 Hanover. Mildness, purity, affability and simplicity, were the least brilliant, but 
 the best of her qualities : and to complete her character, she was hated and slan- 
 dered by Buonaparte. How beautiful, how touching were some of her latter words ! 
 " I shall not be named by posterity among celebrated women, but they who knew 
 the troubles of our time will say of me, She suffered much, and with constancy ; 
 and may such be able to add hereafter, She gave birth to children who deserved 
 better days, who tried hard to accomplish them, and at last succeeded." And they 
 have succeeded. 
 
CH. VIII.] MODERN GERMAN ARTISTS. 155 
 
 Tischbein, the friend of Goethe, was rather a dilettante than a 
 true artist ; few of his works display intrinsic merit. 
 
 Koch, whose illustrations of Dante are excellent, followed in 
 the steps of Carstens, some of whose unfinished pictures he 
 completed. 
 
 Another worthy successor of the same artist was Wachter of 
 Stuttgard, remarkable for the truth, power, expression, and 
 harmony of his colouring. In his rich and diversified illustrations 
 of Biblical and Christian subjects, he preserves a classic form. 
 His principal paintings are, his Job, the Death of Socrates, the 
 Burial of Christ, and Homer and the Muse of History. 
 
 John and Francis Riepenhausen of Gottingen, differed from 
 the school of Carstens in their more ornamental execution, and in 
 greater elegance of form : Raphael was their favourite master. 
 
 Other painters nearly of the same period were, Klengel, Grassi, 
 Pochman, Fetter, Krafft, and Vogel. 
 
 The Modern German School springs from the year 1810, and 
 its principal supporters are Overbeck, Cornelius, the Veits, W. 
 Schadow, and Scheffer. Its tendency is allied to that of the 
 German artists of the middle ages; it addresses itself to the 
 religious feelings of our nature, and prefers simplicity and force 
 to ornament and grace. 
 
 Overbeck was first a pupil of Fueger, and then of Wachter ; 
 but the master to whom he has principally been indebted is 
 Albert Durer. The study of the latter may be said to have 
 converted him into a painter of the Romantic School. Overbeck's 
 great altar-piece, the Entrance of Christ into Jerusalem, is now at 
 Lubeck. He himself is living, at present, at Rome. 
 
 Cornelius, the boast of the Modern German School, was born 
 at Dusseldorf, in 17&7 5 ne ^ s now a resident at Munich. At the 
 outset of his career, this artist sought for something more in 
 painting than mere obedience to a set of technical precepts ; he 
 rejected empty forms, and became inspired with a new spirit. 
 He regarded religion as the proper field of art, and the painters 
 especially imbued with it, were those whom he fondly studied. The 
 Academy of Arts at Dusseldorf owes to him its present eminence. 
 The colleagues of Cornelius, at Munich, are, Zimmermann, 
 
156 MODERN GERMAN ARTISTS. [SECT. I. 
 
 Schnorr, Hess, and Schlotthauer. The first is Professor of His- 
 torical Painting, and has lately finished two large pictures, a 
 Holy Family, and a John the Baptist. 
 
 Schnorr is, at present, engaged in decorating five rooms of the 
 palace with pictures, the subjects of which are to be taken from 
 the Nibelungen-Lied. 
 
 Schadow, the son of the sculptor of that name, is at the head 
 of the school of Dusseldorf, which is noted for the originality and 
 excellence of its oil-paintings : by some, it is considered as the 
 best modern school of historical painting. He distinguished him- 
 self from the Romantic School at Munich, by a more delicate 
 invention and a more finished execution, and by a greater leaning 
 towards elegance of form. Amongst his principal works we may 
 mention, Christ and his Apostles, Mignon, and Caritas. His 
 most approved scholars are, Huebner, Hildebrandt, the now 
 celebrated Lessing, and Bendemann. 
 
 The brothers John and Philip Veit, whom we enumerated 
 among the founders of the Romantic School, were born, the for- 
 mer in 1791, the latter in 1793. They were both educated at 
 Rome, where they were the constant associates of Cornelius and 
 Overbeck. Philip is now at Frankfort, but the elder brother 
 continues to reside in Italy. 
 
 The principal painters at Berlin are, Professor Wach, and his 
 scholars, Duege, Henning, and Hopfgarten. This school is noted 
 for its good execution, correctness of form, and harmonious 
 arrangement. At Dresden, Peter Hess is famed for his battle- 
 pieces. 
 
 The best modern German landscape painters are, Fries of Carls- 
 ruhe, Rottman and Morgenstern of Munich; Fearnley*, Schilbach 
 of Darmstadt, Richter and Dahl of Dresden, and Schirmer and 
 Ahlborn of Berlin. The most distinguished painters of animals 
 are, W. Peter, at present at Rome, Kernz of Carlsruhe, Wagen- 
 bauer, Adam, and Schnitzler at Munich, Klein at Nuremberg, 
 and Klueger of Berlin. 
 
 To the Germans, and particularly to Munich, is to be 
 ascribed the invention of lithography, and the high degree of 
 
 * A native of Norway, at present established in London. 
 
CH. VIII.] MODERN GERMAN ARTISTS. 157 
 
 perfection to which this economical and most useful art has at- 
 tained. While alluding to Munich, it is with the utmost grati- 
 fication that we dwell upon the noble monuments which the 
 present king of Bavaria has there raised to the fine arts. With- 
 out the pecuniary resources of more powerful sovereigns, he has 
 accomplished more by judicious perseverance, and well-timed 
 liberality, than any other monarch of our own time. But the 
 lustre which he has thus conferred on his small capital, is not to 
 be viewed merely as a matter of taste nor of sentiment ; in a 
 political, commercial, and moral point of view, he has enriched his 
 country both for the present and the future. It has become the 
 resort of strangers from all parts of Europe ; its artists are 
 obtaining a wide field for exertion ; and Munich, from the rank 
 of a third-rate city, is now rising to a level with the first. It was 
 formerly only remarkable for its judicious institutions of a cha- 
 ritable nature, founded through the zeal of the Anglo-American 
 Count Rumford ; few travellers passed through it, and still 
 fewer remained. 
 
 Let us not believe that commerce and manufactures are the 
 only roads to civilization and opulence ; and, above all, let those 
 who possess the treasures of the fine arts impart them freely to 
 the public, and thus earn for themselves a more brilliant celebrity 
 than that which attends on mere private acquisition ; while they 
 sow in the universal mind around them a fruitful seed of refine- 
 ment, springing up into innocent pleasures, and diffusing by its 
 flowers the sweet odour of humanity. 
 
 Several individuals in our own country enjoy funds, no less 
 abundant than those which have enabled King Louis, of Bavaria, 
 to effect so much benefit, and they might thus confer on their 
 respective neighbourhoods the same celebrity, the same attraction, 
 and the same stimulus to industry ; and let them not be dis- 
 couraged by the unjust sneers which are so often levelled at the 
 people of England. Once freely and kindly admitted to galleries 
 of the arts, to libraries, to cathedrals, to majestic edifices of every 
 kind, and to parks and gardens, the humbler classes of England 
 will prove that they can enjoy these indulgences with as much 
 forbearance and decency as the natives of despotic states, and as 
 
158 MODERN GERMAN ARTISTS. [SECT. I. 
 
 the inhabitants of those foreign cities in which an ever-vigilant 
 and all-powerful police prevents almost the possibility of disorder. 
 It is the habit of exclusion which tends to induce the very 
 rudeness of which some fastidious persons are so fearful ; once 
 accustom a people to partake, and they will satisfy their appetite 
 with moderation. But it would be difficult, I believe impossible, 
 to show that the people of England do commit the abuses which 
 are charged upon them. We have heard of none such at the 
 National Gallery, nor at the British Museum, nor at the 
 Museum of the College of Surgeons at Edinburgh, at which the 
 admission is free to all. Signs of a kindlier sympathy, in this 
 respect, are beginning to declare themselves among those who 
 have the power of leading the way ; we may mention a recent 
 instance, in which the Cathedral of Norwich has been thrown 
 open to the public daily, for one hour, at the time when it is 
 not devoted to divine service; and the increased facility of 
 admission to St. PauPs Cathedral. The recent formation of an 
 association, composed of individuals of all parties, with the duke 
 of Sussex as its president, devoted to the promotion of free 
 access to public edifices, is a favourable omen. 
 
 To return to our more immediate subject. In the cultivation 
 of that most delightful of all the fine arts, music, the Germans 
 stand, by common consent, at the head of all the world. There 
 the science and practice of this solace of life are carried to a 
 perfection, and pursued to an extent, which it would be vain to 
 seek in any other part of the globe. Those who, from old pre- 
 judices, expect to find a rival in Italy, will be grievously disap- 
 pointed. In the village schools of Germany, singing is taught 
 as a branch of education; a group of peasants, or a regiment 
 of soldiers, will there execute choral music in a better taste than 
 some of the professional choirs in other parts of Europe. In 
 most of the large towns are academies, at which instrumental and 
 vocal music are gratuitously, or almost gratuitously, taught. It 
 forms the staple amusement of every bathing-place, of every 
 public garden, of almost every society. Good music is sought 
 and prized, from whatever quarter it may proceed, not merely 
 the composition and performance of noted names, not merely that 
 
CH. VIII.] MODERN GERMAN ARTISTS. 159 
 
 which is new, but the truly good of all times, climes, and per- 
 sons, is estimated at its just value. I shall not pause to inquire 
 how it happens that in the more southern parts of Europe, the 
 pretended genial soil of melody, the true musical genius is com- 
 paratively so barren, and the taste and mechanism in proportion 
 so scanty, and so partial ; but, whatever may be the cause, not 
 only is Germany the most methodical and the most learned, but 
 she alone appears endued with the true enthusiasm, the full 
 temperament of melody. To enumerate the great musical 
 authors of Germany, would be to repeat a host of names familiar 
 to all who honour sweet sounds ; a small triumphant band will 
 suffice, at the head of whom stand Handel, Gluck, Haydn, 
 Mozart, and Weber, who have translated their art into a new 
 language, pouring out at one moment rushing torrents of sublime 
 eloquence, and at another gently gliding into the heart in spor- 
 tive or murmuring streamlets. 
 
 As to the instrumental performers of Germany, their names 
 abound in the catalogue of every orchestra and concert in Europe. 
 Of great singers she has not been so fruitful, although many 
 such have been born of German parents established in foreign 
 countries ; and I believe that the impediment of language, and 
 the vogue of the Italian school, have contributed to keep others 
 in obscurity. In our own time, Sontag and Schroeder Devrient 
 have elevated the national claims to vocal distinction. Even in 
 the sister art of dancing, which some may, from prepossession, 
 infer to be uncongenial to the soil, there are some most successful 
 candidates for fame, such as Heberle and the two Elslers ; and, 
 in short, as Germany is the home of music, so also is it the only 
 land in which, in these later and sadder days, the dance maintains 
 its footing as a thoroughly national pastime. 
 
 A chapter on the fine arts of Germany ought not to be closed 
 without an incidental allusion to the state of the drama in 
 Germany. Of the merits of the chief dramatic productions we 
 have spoken in the account of German writers; but the present 
 age is not more favourable to original dramatic composition in 
 Germany than in other countries. Throughout Europe we find 
 that opera, musical farce and splendid decorations, are making 
 
160 MODERN GERMAN ARTISTS. [SECT. I. 
 
 rapid strides, while tragedy and comedy live almost entirely on 
 the past; in all parts of Europe, also, we observe that the 
 theatre is gradually less frequented by the higher classes, and 
 more attended by the lower ones. This circumstance is readily 
 explained by the increasing mental cultivation of both ranks : the 
 higher find more pleasure in private society and in the bosom 
 of their families, while the latter are attracted by the growing 
 developement of their faculties and tastes to seek for new ideas 
 and fresh pastimes. In Germany, however, the drama still 
 retains a firm hold on all classes of society : it forms almost an 
 integral portion of daily existence to a large mass of the popula- 
 tion. Very many persons repair to the theatre almost nightly 
 to dissipate ennui ; and the amusements usually commence and 
 terminate at an early hour. The German actors are chiefly 
 remarkable for their industry and attention ; carelessness is rare; 
 all the details are carefully studied and represented. A tendency 
 sometimes breaks out to a sentimental whine, or a nasal twang, 
 which is more easy to understand than to describe ; but this tone 
 is not uncommon, also, in the national conversation. The Ger- 
 man actors resemble the English rather than the French ; they 
 are energetic in tragedy, and can frolic in the broad humour of 
 farce. But, on the whole, the warmest encouragement is at pre- 
 sent afforded to opera, which is nowhere else so faithfully and so 
 earnestly exhibited, and nowhere else so judiciously appreciated. 
 
161 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 Chronological Outline of the Progress of Literature^ Science, Art, and 
 Civilization in Germany, from their early Periods to the present 
 Time. 
 
 273. THE first vineries laid out on the Rhine. 
 
 370. Ulphilas translates the Bible. 
 
 700. The mines in Bohemia were discovered. 
 
 779. Tithes were instituted by Charlemagne, for the support of 
 the clergy, churches, schools, and poor. 
 
 785. Germany is become a Christian country. 
 
 800. The laws of Charlemagne promulgated. 
 
 869. Ottfried, a monk at Weissenberg, introduces sacred music. 
 
 968. Silver-mines discovered in the Harz. 
 1016. Worms cathedral built. 
 
 1050. Commencement of the period of club-law (Faustrecht). 
 1167- The Freiberg mines discovered. 
 1180. The Vehmgerichte, or Secret Tribunal, established. 
 
 The chivalric poetry of the Suabians flourished. 
 1190. Soldiers first paid by the emperor, Henry VI. 
 1248. Cathedral of Cologne built. 
 
 1260 The Hanseatic League holds its first diet at Lubeck. 
 1285. Cloth manufactory established at Nuremberg. 
 1300. Gunpowder discovered by Berthold Schwarz. 
 1302. Great linen manufactory established at Augsburg. 
 1318. Frauenlob of Mainz died, the first of the master-singers. 
 1331. The great fair at Erfurt established, for communication 
 
 between Northern and Southern Germany. 
 1348. The first German university founded at Prague. 
 
 1360. Brandy imported by Frankfort merchants from Asia. 
 
 1361. Tauler, the great Dominican preacher in the German 
 
 language, died. 
 1365. The university of Vienna founded. 
 
 M 
 
162 OUTLINE OF THE PROGRESS OF [SECT. I 
 
 A. D. 
 
 1380. The Cologne school of painting flourishes. 
 
 1409- First German apothecary's shop opened at Leipsic. 
 
 1415. Martyrdom of Huss. 
 
 1428. The Hanse fleet, of 280 ships and 12,000 sailors, governs 
 
 the North Seas. 
 
 1440. Copper-plate printing discovered in Germany. 
 1450. Club-law superseded by absolute monarchy. 
 
 The art of printing discovered at Mainz *. 
 1483. Date of the German popular stories, Eulenspiegel and 
 
 Reynard the Fox. 
 
 1485. Death of Agricola, the first professor of Greek at Heidel- 
 
 berg. 
 
 1486. The first censor appointed at Mainz by the archbishop. 
 1492. The Cathedral of Ulm completed. 
 
 1498. First great fair held at Brunswick. 
 
 Copernicus announces his system of astronomy about this 
 
 period. 
 1516. The infamous sale of absolutions by Tetzelf. 
 
 Conrad Gessner born, the German Pliny, the first who 
 
 formed a museum of natural history. 
 Watches were first made at Nuremberg about this time. 
 15iy. Luther fastens the ninety-five Theses on the door of 
 
 Wittenberg church. 
 
 1520. The German painters, Albert Durer and 0ranach, 
 flourished. 
 
 * The attempt to apply the printing from blocks to the production of books, 
 which Gutenberg commenced at Strasburg, he continued at Mainz; and it is 
 evident that about the year 1450 he had already prepared a number of engraved 
 blocks, when, finding himself prevented by want of means from bringing his invention 
 to perfection, he was about to renounce all further thought upon the subject ; but 
 he was enabled by the advice and pecuniary assistance of John Fust, a citizen 
 of Mainz, to carry his long-cherished idea into effect. (See the "Foreign 
 Quarterly Review," April, 1837, for an interesting history of the invention of 
 printing.) 
 
 -|- He was appointed to this Romish traffic by the pope, and carried it on during 
 fifteen years ; he travelled through Saxony in a waggon, furnished with two large 
 boxes, one of which was consecrated to the letters of indulgence, and the other was 
 to hold the money which they were sold for. He offered absolution even for 
 murder, perjury, and adultery. 
 
CH. IX.] LITERATURE, SCIENCE, AND ART. 163 
 
 A. D. 
 
 1524. The first Protestant university was founded at Marburg. 
 1530. The Augsburg Confession published. 
 
 Jordens, a mason at Brunswick, discovers a wheel for 
 
 spinning flax. 
 
 1534. Luther finishes his translation of the Bible. 
 1541. Death of Paracelsus. 
 
 1553. The Jesuits make their appearance in Austria. 
 1555. Peace of Augsburg and toleration of Protestantism . 
 1571. Kepler born. 
 1576. Hans Sachs died. 
 1577- Rubens born at Cologne. 
 1592. First book-fair at Leipsic. 
 1614. Valentine Andrea, a native of Wurtemberg, founds the 
 
 sect of the Rosicrusians. 
 1619. The bank of Hamburg established. 
 1624. Jacob Behmen died. 
 1630. The Hanse Towns cease to flourish. 
 1637- The thermometer invented by Drebbel. 
 1640. The Silesian poets, Opitz and Gryphius, flourish. 
 
 1650. The air-pump invented by Guericke of Magdeburg. 
 
 1651. Potatoes first brought to Berlin. 
 
 1669. Abraham von Santa Clara preaches at Vienna. 
 
 1670. Hoffmanswaldau and Lowenstein, the imitators of the 
 
 Italian poet, Marini, flourish in Silesia. 
 
 1672. The pressure of the air illustrated by the two brass hemi- 
 spheres invented by Guericke of Magdeburg. 
 1695. The Orphan Asylum at Halle founded. 
 Coffee first brought to Leipsic. 
 
 Lectures first delivered in the German language at Halle. 
 1708. Stahl, the professor of medicine, flourishes at Halle. 
 The great plague breaks out at Vienna. 
 
 1710. The porcelain manufactory of Meissen established. 
 
 1711. Leibnitz founds the Academy of Sciences at Berlin. 
 1722. Count Zinzendorf, the founder of the Moravian sect, 
 
 becomes conspicuous. 
 1724. The poet Klopstock born at Quedlinburg. 
 
 M 2 
 
164 PROGRESS OF LITERATURE, SCIENCE, AMD ART. [SECT. I. 
 
 A. D. 
 
 1732. Haydn, the composer, born. 
 
 1734. The composers, Handel, Bach, and Gluck, flourish. 
 
 174*7. The Dresden gallery of paintings becomes remarkable. 
 
 1749. Goethe born at Frankfort. 
 
 1774. Werner publishes his Geognostic Theory of the Earth. 
 
 1781. Kant is distinguished for his metaphysical views at 
 
 Konigsberg. 
 1791. Mozart died. 
 
 1794. Fichte, a metaphysical philosopher, is professor at Jena. 
 1796. Lithography invented by Sennefelder. 
 1800. The German sculptors, Dannecker, Tieck, and Rauch, 
 
 acquire celebrity. 
 1805. The death of Schiller. 
 1814. Violent disputes, particularly at Halle, between the 
 
 Rationalists and Pietists, two religious parties. 
 1818. Commencement of the Prussian commercial league. 
 
165 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 LITERARY STATISTICS OF GERMANY. 
 
 The Modern Press. Enumeration of the chief Libraries, with estimates 
 
 of their extent. 
 
 A MOST remarkable increase in the number of books published in 
 Germany has taken place of late years, owing partly to the 
 greater demand for German books in foreign countries, and partly 
 to the tranquillity and prosperity of peace. Previously to the 
 year 1814, the annual amount of works published in Germany is 
 said to have been about 2000. This number has gradually 
 augmented in the following proportion: 
 
 In 1814, were published 2529 works; in 1816, 3197; in 1822, 
 4288; in 1827, 5108; in 1830, 5926; in 1831, 5508; in 1832, 
 6122; in 1833, 5653; in 1834, 6074*. 
 
 Each succeeding catalogue of the Leipsic Fair is more bulky 
 than its predecessor. That of the late Easter Fair of 1837> forms 
 a volume of 26 sheets, and contains 4353 new works, or new 
 editions. Of these 429 were published abroad, leaving for Ger- 
 many (including Switzerland, Hungary, and that part of Prussia 
 not belonging to the German confederation) 3924. In the total 
 number there are, 
 
 Books and pamphlets in the German language - - 3200 
 
 Books and pamphlets in the ancient languages - - 302 
 
 Books and pamphlets in living foreign languages - - 539 
 
 Novels - 144 
 
 Plays - - 23 
 
 Musical Publications - -42 
 
 Maps - - 103 
 
 Of the above, 239 are translations from foreign languages, 
 (among the novels alone, 44) and 349 periodicals. 
 
 The whole were produced by 561 publishers, of whom Basse 
 of Quedlinburg furnished 92 works, Reitzel of Copenhagen 82, 
 
 * See Strang's " Germany in 1831," vol. ii. p. 455. 
 
166 LITERARY STATISTICS OF GERMANY. [SECT. I. 
 
 Reimer of Berlin, 53, the house of Metzler in Stuttgard 46, that 
 of Arnold in Dresden 45, that of Cotta in Stuttgard 44, Brockhaus 
 of Leipsic 42, Friedlein of Leipsic 41, Voigt of Weimar 40. 
 
 The principal states of Germany contributed in the following 
 proportions to the general amount: Austria, 226 (in Vienna 
 alone, 165); Prussia, 1151 (in Berlin 425); Bavaria, 469; 
 Saxony, 669 (Leipsic alone, 556) ; Hanover, 106 ; Wurtemberg, 
 331; Baden, 156; the Hessian states, 141; Holstein, 40; the 
 four Saxon duchies, 160 ; Brunswick, 45 ; Frankfort, 55 ; Ham- 
 burg, 123*. 
 
 The publications of 1834, have been in a more minute and 
 illustrative manner classified. Of the entire 6074, 1327 come 
 under the head of belles lettres and the fine arts, including 358 
 novels, 173 plays, and 109 works on music; 1141 under theology, 
 including 550 sermons and devotional works; 880 under history, 
 including 212 biographies, and 87 works on antiquities; 777 
 under politics and political economy ; under medicine 639, inclu- 
 ding 81 on chemistry and pharmacy, J8 on the new homoeopathic 
 method of treatment, and 42 on veterinary medicine; 597 under 
 philology ; 400 under the natural sciences ; 385 under geography 
 and travels; 338 under technology; 285 under jurisprudence; 
 269 under philosophy and literature in general; 237 under 
 domestic and rural economy ; 217 under education ; 212 under 
 mathematics; 187 under military science and equitation; 175 
 under commerce and mining ; 55 under forests and the chase ; and 
 finally, there were 200 of miscellaneous contents. 
 
 We perceive that the number of new publications was formerly 
 much greater in Germany than in France, from the following 
 comparative number of books published in the two countries. 
 
 In GERMANY. 
 In the Years In France. At Easter. At Michaelmas. 
 
 1814 979 1490 1039 
 
 1815 1712 1777 973 
 
 1816 1851 1997 1200 
 
 1817 2126 2345 1187 
 
 * From the " Foreign Quarterly Review," October, 1837 : a mine of informa- 
 tion, to whose past and present valuable numbers all readers must have recourse, 
 who seek for copious details, and just criticism on German matters. 
 
CH. X.] LITERARY STATISTICS OF GERMANY. 167 
 
 In GERMANY. 
 In the Years In France. At Easter. At Michaelmas. 
 
 1818 2431 2294 1487 
 
 1819 2441 2648 1268 
 
 1820 2465 2640 1318 
 
 1821 2617 3012 985 
 
 1822 3114 2729 1554 
 
 1823 2687 2558 1751 
 
 1824 3436 2870 1641 
 
 1825 3569 3196 .. 1640 
 
 1 1826 4347 2648 2056 
 
 33,775 32,204 18,099 
 
 *./ 
 
 50,303 
 In France - - 33,77.5 
 
 Balance in favour of Germany - - 16,528 
 
 Latterly, however, the French press appears to have gained 
 some advance, as in 1828, when above 7000 publications are said 
 to have been printed in France. 
 
 Our excellent " Foreign Quarterly Review" states, that the 
 number of periodical works enumerated in the Leipsic catalogue 
 for 1836, is 297. The names of 530 publishers are given in this 
 catalogue. An Augsburg journal has lately affirmed, that on a 
 moderate calculation, 10,000,000 of volumes are annually printed 
 in Germany ; and as every half-yearly catalogue contains the 
 names of more than 1000 German writers, it has been assumed 
 that there are now living in Germany, more than 50,000 persons 
 who have perpetrated one or more books. The total value of all 
 the books published annually, has been estimated at from 5,000,000 
 to 6,000,000 of dollars. 
 
 To illustrate the increase of the book-trade during the last 
 hundred years, we may cite the fact, that Leipsic contained in 
 1722 only 19 bookselling establishments, and 13 printing-offices; 
 while in 1836 it was in possession of 116 of the former, and 22 of 
 the latter. 
 
 The following is a table of the principal German libraries, 
 and of the size of each, according to different authorities. It is 
 
168 LITERARY STATISTICS OF GERMANY. [SECT. I. 
 
 curious to observe the discrepancies in the statements, on a matter 
 which appears so easily susceptible of proof. 
 
 The Royal Library at Berlin, contains according to 
 
 Volumes. Manuscripts. Pamphlets. 
 
 Sclmabel- - - - 140,000 7,000 
 
 Hassel - - - 160,000 
 
 Malchus .... 160,000 
 
 Bissinger - - - 160,000 
 
 Guthrie, edited by Langlois 180,000 
 
 Arnati- - - - 190,000 
 
 Ebert .... 200,000 2,000 
 
 Schubert - - - 220,000 
 
 Wachler- - - - 250,000 4,611 
 
 Zedlitz 3 to 400,000 7,000, and upwards. 
 
 The Royal Library at Dresden contains, according to 
 
 Volumes. Manuscripts. Pamphlets. 
 
 Schnabel - - - 200,000 5,000 
 
 Ebert .... 220,000 2,700 150,000 
 
 Duchesne - - - 240,000 
 
 Hassel .... 250,000 
 
 Andr- - - - 250,000 4,000 40,000 
 
 Malchus- - - - 250,000 4,000 100,000 
 
 Arnati 260,000 5,000 
 
 The Library of the University at Breslau contains, accord- 
 ing to 
 
 Volumes. 
 
 Stein 100,000 
 
 Hassel 115,000 
 
 Zedlitz 130,000 to 140,000 
 
 Wachler 200,000 
 
 The Library of the University of Gottingen contains, accord- 
 ing to 
 
 Volumes. Manuscripts. Pamphlets. 
 
 Arnati, about - - - 200,000 
 
 Villenave - - - 200,000 5,000 110,000 
 
 Stein .... 280,000 
 
 Bailly .... 240,000 5,000 110,000 
 
 Hassel .... 295,000 5,000 110,000 
 
 Wachler - - - 300,000 
 
 Malchus . . . - 400,000 
 
CH. X.] LITERARY STATISTICS OF GERMANY. 169 
 
 The Ducal Library of Wolfenbuttel contains, according to 
 
 Volumes. Manuscripts. Pamphlets. 
 
 Schubert - - - 100,000 
 
 Bailly .... 109,000 4,000 40,000 
 
 Stein .... 120,000 
 
 Hassel - ... 190,000 
 
 Bissinger, more than - 200,000 4,000 100,000 
 
 Arnati .... 200,000 10,000 
 
 Malchus - - - 210,000 
 
 The Library of the University at Freiburg contains, accord- 
 ing to 
 
 Volumes. 
 
 Hassel - - 19,000 
 
 Malchus 30,000 
 
 Schubert ------- 100,000 
 
 Stein 100,000 
 
 The Royal Library at Stuttgard contains, according to 
 
 Volumes. Manuscripts. Pamphlets. 
 
 Arnati, more than - - 30,000 
 
 Ebert - - - - 130,000 
 
 Malchus - - - - 140,000 3,000 
 
 PHeningen - - - 160,000 1,800 137,000 
 
 Andrd - - - - 170,000 
 
 Bailly .... 170,000 
 
 Hassel .... 200,000 
 
 Stein .... 200,000 
 
 The Central, or Royal Library at Munich, contains, accord- 
 ing to 
 
 Volumes. Manuscripts. 
 
 Dibdin 300,000 
 
 Ebert 300,000 9,000 
 
 Hassel 400,000 
 
 Malchus 400,000 
 
 Arnati, more than ... 400,000 
 
 Streit 400,000 8,000 
 
 Schnabel . - - - 400,000 90,000 
 
 Duchesne 500,000 
 
 Wachler 600,000 
 
170 LITERARY STATISTICS OF GERMANY. [SECT. I. 
 
 The following is the table which Mr. Balbi has constructed, 
 with a view of showing the real contents of the principal libraries 
 
 in Germany*. 
 
 No. of No. of 
 Volumes. Manuscripts. 
 
 Royal Library at Munich - - - 540,000 16,000 
 
 Imperial ditto at Vienna - - 284,000 16,000 
 
 Royal ditto at Berlin - - - 280,000 5,000 
 
 Royal ditto at Dresden - - 260,000 2,700 
 
 University ditto at Gottingen - - 250,000 5,000 
 
 Ducal ditto at Wolfenbuttel - 200,000? 4,500 
 
 Royal ditto at Stuttgard - - 174,000 1,800 
 
 University ditto at Breslau - - 150,000 2,300 
 
 Ditto ditto at Munich - - 150,000 2,000? 
 
 The book-trade was thirty years ago in the hands of only 300 
 booksellers or publishers ; at present there are more than 1000. 
 Throughout the whole Germanic Confederation, there is one 
 bookseller to 93,000 souls, but in Austria one only in 122,222. 
 Saxony furnishes the greatest number of new publications, next 
 Prussia, and then Austria, but Austria is far behind in point of 
 numbers. The number of booksellers in London has been com- 
 puted, we know not how correctly, at above 800-f*. 
 
 For further information connected with the subject, we must 
 refer the reader to our two chapters on the " Censorship," and on 
 " Newspapers.' 1 
 
 * See his curious and elaborate dissertation, " Sur les Difficulty's qu' offre la Sta- 
 tistique Comparee des Bibliotheques," in Berghaus's Annalen, for August, 1835. 
 We understand with much pleasure, that this most laborious and highly-gifted 
 statistician has been appointed to an office of importance by the emperor of 
 Austria, who has displayed true sagacity in securing the services of this eminent 
 Portuguese. 
 
 f- See " American Almanack," for 1838, p. 99. 
 
171 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 ON RELIGION IN GERMANY. 
 
 Rationalism. Supranaturalism. Theological Education. Constitution 
 of the Church. Proportion of Ministers of Religion to the Population. 
 Church Property. Church Patronage. Salaries of Clergymen who 
 are not of th& 'Established Church. Religious /Sects in Germany: 
 The Moravians, Socinians^ Mennonites, Pietists , fferrnhuters, Sweden- 
 lorgians. 
 
 OF all the subjects treated of in this work, this is the one which 
 I approach with the greatest diffidence; knowing well that I 
 shall give heavy offence to many worthy clergymen in Germany, 
 yet anxious to speak that which appears to me to be the truth on 
 the most important of all topics. Impressed with an earnest 
 belief, that, in proportion as a people departs from the Chris- 
 tianity delivered in the New Testament, it loses the straight road 
 equally to public and to private happiness, I cannot avoid infer- 
 ring that the new mode of interpreting the Scriptures which has 
 sprung up in Germany, is the darkest cloud which lowers upon the 
 horizon of that country. With an innate disposition to humility 
 and reverence, the Germans have been conducted by some of their 
 spiritual teachers to the borders of a precipice, one leap from 
 which will plunge them into Deism. And, if we are to judge 
 from the tone of many popular writings, from the feelings enter- 
 tained by many towards the clergy, and from the spirit in which 
 religious matters are often handled in society, we must anticipate, 
 however reluctantly, that, not only in Germany, but in some other 
 parts of Europe, the heaviest calamity impending over the whole 
 fabric of society in our time, is the lengthening stride of bold 
 scepticism in some parts, and the more stealthy onwards-creeping 
 step of critical cavil in others*. 
 
 * If a statement contained in the "Gentleman's Magazine," for April, 1828, is 
 correct, the doctrine of the Trinity has been omitted in the last Catechism pub- 
 lished by the Church of Geneva, and the Church of Lausanne has protested 
 against the Socinianism of the Genevese church. If I was rightly informed in 
 Denmark, Rationalism is there also making some way. 
 
172 RELIGION IN GERMANY. [SECT. I. 
 
 Rationalism in Germany is of kindred origin to the sceptical 
 philosophy which was so prevalent in France during the last 
 century. The most notorious amongst its early professors were 
 the Aufkldrer (apostles of intellect), Nicolai and his friends, the 
 contributors to the Allgemeine Deutsche Bibliotheke. 
 
 A Socinian interpretation of the Scriptures had been, it is true, 
 long known before them, and indeed frequently advocated, but 
 they were the first who earnestly and zealously sought to found 
 on it a popular creed. 
 
 The Allgemeine Deutsche Bibliotheke was founded in 1766. 
 But there were numerous theologians of that period, not immedi- 
 ately connected with its editors, who laboured in the same cause. 
 Of these, the most eminent were Teller (Lehrbuch des Christ- 
 lichen Glaubens, 1764), and Semmler, professor of theology at 
 Halle, who is called the father of the modern Rationalists. The 
 reckless boldness of Semmler raised him a host of enemies, who 
 were, however, unsuccessful in preserving the public mind from 
 the baneful effects of his doctrines. Moreover, he found efficient 
 supporters in Jerusalem, in Eberhard, who denied the operations 
 of grace, in Bahrdt, who first, specially, attacked the doctrines of 
 the Trinity, and in Junghaus. But these, with the exception of 
 Semmler and Bahrdt, though they agreed with the Rationalists 
 of the present day in rejecting the essential doctrines of original 
 sin, grace and redemption, were still not so far advanced in a 
 negative career as the latter, inasmuch as most of them admitted 
 that the Scriptures contain a positive and supernatural revelation. 
 
 Bahrdt was at the head of a sect called the Naturalists, the 
 principal object of which was to explain away or deny the 
 miracles. 
 
 The philosophy of Kant, which was very popular in Germany 
 about the year 1790, was not without considerable influence upon 
 the doctrines of theology. Tieftrunk, Schmidt, Ammon, Staudlin, 
 and Krug, were amongst the most zealous in enlisting it in the cause 
 of religion. But its positions, that the invisible is not an object 
 of conception but of belief, and that morality is the only test of 
 truth, never obtained very general acceptation. The doctrines of 
 the Rationalists had been long making progress, before they were 
 
CH. XL] RELIGION IN GERMANY. 173 
 
 reduced to systematic order. The first to effect this were Rohr, 
 now clerical superintendant of the grand duchy of Weimar, in his 
 Brief e ilber den Rationalismus (1813), and Wegschneider, in 
 his Institutiones Theologicce Christiana Dogmaticoe, first pub- 
 lished in 1815, and which have since passed through more than 
 ten editions. From the nature of these works it is clear, that the 
 fundamental doctrine of modern Rationalism is, that the mission 
 of Christ and the whole scheme of revelation were merely intended 
 for our instruction in certain principles, the truth of which unin- 
 spired human reason, would alone, in process of time, have been able 
 to establish. They consequently disclose to us the frightful fact, 
 that all the essential doctrines of Christianity are unreservedly 
 rejected by their authors. Besides the above-mentioned, the most 
 noted German Rationalists of modern times, are Gesenius, the 
 celebrated Hebrew scholar, De Wette, Schleiermacher*, whose 
 symbolic system, though it assumed the appearance of Chris- 
 tianity, was far from including its essence, Bretschneider, 
 Fritsche, and Paulus. 
 
 The Supranaturalists in Germany, are those who maintain the 
 necessity and reality of a supernatural revelation, but who deny 
 the doctrine of original sin. They also disbelieve in the existence 
 of angels and demons. The most noted leaders of this party, are 
 Storr, Reinhard, and Ammon, who have all given in more or 
 less to the system of accommodation, i. e., of seeking to explain 
 away the wonders of revelation to the level of human reason. 
 
 Theological Education in Germany. In Protestant Germany, 
 those who intend to enter the church, commence their education 
 at the gymnasium, where they generally remain till their 
 eighteenth or nineteenth year. Here they are taught Hebrew, 
 
 * Schleiermacher is thus characterized by Robinson, an American divine : " He 
 seems to stand between the Rationalists and the Evangelical party, being, however, 
 more distant from the former than from the latter. It was related to the writer 
 by Harms, of Kiel, that he himself, and several of his acquaintances, had been 
 brought from Rationalism by the logic of Schleiermacher; but not being able to rest 
 in the position which he had taken, they had gone forward to embrace the evan- 
 gelical doctrines." A concise view of the Universities and of the state of Theolo- 
 gical Education in Germany. By E. Robinson, Professor Extraordinary in the 
 Theological Seminary at Andover. 
 
174 RELIGION IN GERMANY. [SECT. I. 
 
 and are instructed in the doctrines of religion, generally according 
 to some theological compendium, of which there are so many for 
 the use of students. In the lower classes of the gymnasiums, the 
 historical parts of the Bible are read and explained. In Wur- 
 temberg, there are six theological seminaries, of which four are 
 Protestant, and to which all young persons intended for the 
 church are sent*. 
 
 The Catholic clergy throughout all Germany are educated in 
 seminaries. From the gymnasium or seminary, the student 
 passes to the university, and it is not generally, till this period, 
 that he definitively chooses his profession. 
 
 In Saxony, Baden, Hanover, and most other German states, the 
 student is allowed to enter under what professor he pleases, and 
 is also permitted to spend some portion of his academical career 
 at a foreign university. But in Prussia, Hesse, and Wurtemberg, 
 both the former privilege (that of Hbrfreiheit) and the latter are 
 restricted to a certain extent. In Wurtemberg, the students of 
 theology, after having spent a certain period of time at the pre- 
 paratory seminaries above-mentioned, are removed to a higher 
 one at Tubingen. At most German universities, the students 
 are initiated into the practice of the ministry by lectures and 
 homiletic societies, which latter are generally directed by some 
 distinguished teacher. 
 
 The theologians have to pass several examinations, viz., those 
 at the university, which are made at the end of each academical 
 year, that "pro candidatura" and that "pro ministerio" 
 
 The university examinations are conducted by the professors 
 of the theological faculty ; they are not universal, but have 
 only been introduced during the last ten or fifteen years, in 
 Prussia., Saxony, and some other states. 
 
 At the conclusion of his academical career, the student passes 
 his examination "pro candidatura" generally called "the first 
 examination." It is conducted in Prussia by the provincial con- 
 sistory, in Saxony by the supreme consistory. Two years i after 
 
 * We may here remark that Wurtemberg has produced some able opponents of 
 the new levelling system in religion. Tubingen has the reputation of being the 
 only university which has not departed from the doctrines of the Reformation. 
 
CH. XL] RELIGION IN GERMANY. 
 
 this, or at a still later period, he must submit to the grand 
 examination "pro minister io" 
 
 In Prussia, this is conducted by a particular committee, com- 
 posed of professors of the University of Berlin ; in Saxony, by 
 the different consistories. At these two last-mentioned examina- 
 tions, the student has to write treatises in Latin or German, on 
 exegetic, dogmatic, or historical subjects, to answer questions put 
 at the discretion of the examiners, to preach two sermons before 
 the latter, and, finally, to catechise children on any given religious 
 subject. From the period of his grand examination, to that of 
 his obtaining a place in the church, the theologian is not under 
 any immediate superintendence. He is generally required, how- 
 ever, to preach once a year before the superintendant of the 
 diocese in which he resides, and in some parts, as in Saxe-Gotha, 
 to write a treatise on a religious subject proposed by the con- 
 sistory. 
 
 In Mecklenburg, Nassau, Hanover, and at Wittenberg, in 
 Prussia, there are seminaries where theologians, after having 
 passed their final examination, live together until they are called 
 to the ministry. But by far the greater number become tutors 
 in gymnasiums, private teachers, and (especially in Wurtemberg) 
 assistants to the clergy. In order to keep up their theological 
 acquirements, and prepare themselves for the exercise of the 
 clerical functions, they generally form private homiletical socie- 
 ties, presided over, in most cases, by a superintendant. After the 
 theologian has been appointed to a living, he is confirmed by the 
 consistory, and enters into a certain engagement with it. In some 
 states, the young minister promises to promulgate no doctrine 
 which is opposed to the Augsburg confession ; in others, he 
 merely pledges himself, in general terms, to follow, as his guide, 
 the Holy Writ. The day after the confirmation, he is ordained, 
 usually by the superintendant, and in the presence of a great 
 number of clergymen. 
 
 In the kingdom of Saxony, all clergymen have to deliver two 
 sermons a year before the superintendant of the diocese. In the 
 Saxon duchies, they are bound, also, to write one or more .trea- 
 tises annually on theological subjects. 
 
176 RELIGION IN GERMANY. [SECT. I. 
 
 Constitution of the Church in Germany. As the Reformers 
 occupied themselves exclusively with the spiritual concerns of the 
 Church, its secular administration, in the Protestant states, fell, 
 at a very early period, into the hands of the respective govern- 
 ments. These latter established consistories, which since the middle 
 of the sixteenth century have gradually increased in authority, 
 so as finally to constitute the only legislative and administrative 
 power of the Church. As they were appointed by the govern- 
 ments, they were of course more or less dependant upon them, and 
 are particularly so at the present day. The summum jus circa 
 sacra is exercised by a minister of the crown, assisted by coun- 
 sellors, who are generally members of the consistory. This is the 
 case in Prussia, Hanover, Saxony, Weimar, Gotha, Bavaria, and 
 Wurtemberg. But the power of the minister is limited, Firstly, 
 by the consistories themselves, which are considered as the repre- 
 sentatives of the Church, and which in some states, as in Hanover, 
 are formed by the whole clergy of the country. Secondly, it is 
 limited, as in Wurtemberg, by the highest ecclesiastical dignitaries 
 or prelates, who maintain, to a certain extent, an independent 
 position. Thirdly, by the representatives of the country, forming 
 the diets, as in Saxony, Wurtemberg, Baden and Hesse, where 
 the heads of the Church have permanent seats in the Chambers, 
 and where clergymen are eligible as deputies. Fourthly, it is 
 limited by synods. In Baden, general synods were instituted on 
 the union of the two churches in 1821, and have been held twice; 
 viz., in that year, and in 1834. In Bavaria there are synods 
 every fourth year. 
 
 The Catholic Church is of course very differently situated to 
 the Protestant. In the former, wherever established, the supreme 
 authority is shared, to a certain extent, by the pope. The Congress 
 of Vienna left it to the different governments to treat separately 
 with the pope on ecclesiastical affairs. Accordingly treaties 
 (concordats) were entered into with Rome by Bavaria in 1817> 
 by Prussia in 1821, by Wurtemberg and Baden, in 1830. The 
 object of these treaties was to define the limits of temporal and 
 papal authority in ecclesiastical affairs. In Bavaria, the king 
 appoints to bishoprics and archbishoprics, but the clergy are 
 
CH. XL] RELIGION IN GERMANY. 177 
 
 allowed to be in direct communication with Rome. In Prussia, 
 bishops are appointed by the chapters, in accordance with the 
 wishes of the king ; the inferior presentations are at the disposal 
 of the pope or of the bishops*. The Catholic clergy or laity 
 are permitted to communicate with Rome, but only through the 
 bishops and the government. The treaties at present existing 
 between the smaller Protestant states and the pope are only pro- 
 visional. In Hanover, the bishop cannot be appointed without 
 the consent of the chapters and government, and of the pope ; the 
 canons are appointed by the chapters, the bishops, and the govern- 
 ment ; the inferior clergy by the two consistories. In Saxony, 
 the apostolic vicarship and its consistory are now under the 
 immediate control of government. In Wurtemberg, Hesse, and 
 Nassau, the authority of the pope is somewhat more predominant 
 than in the above-mentioned states ; in the Saxon duchies, on the 
 contrary, it is less so. In Baden, it is now decreed that Catholic 
 synods are to be held every tenth year, in the presence of com- 
 missioners appointed by government. 
 
 In Austria, the archbishops are elected by the pope and the 
 government conjointly : the bishops by the latter exclusively. 
 The communication of the clergy with Rome, and the decrees of 
 the pope, are subject to the " Placet" of the government. 
 
 The highest administrative authorities of the Protestant Church 
 are the consistories, which are in most cases subject to the imme- 
 diate control of the government. In Prussia, each of the eight 
 provinces has its consistory, at the head of which is the president 
 
 * To illustrate the kind of authority which the Protestant king of Prussia pos- 
 sesses over the Roman Catholic Church in his dominions, we shall instance a very 
 recent occurrence. The king, being offended with the conduct of the archbishop 
 of Cologne, issued in November, 1837, a decree, ordering him to quit his see, for- 
 bidding any persons to communicate on public affairs with him under heavy 
 penalties, and directing the chapter to act during his suspension. The decree 
 begins thus : " The archbishop of Cologne has attempted, ever since his election to 
 that see, to exercise his functions in a manner entirely incompatible with the 
 fundamental laws of the monarchy, as no bishop has ever attempted, and as is not 
 to be tolerated in any of the states of Germany." The sequel of this was, that 
 a carriage stopped at the gate of the episcopal palace, the approaches to which, as 
 well as the adjacent streets, were occupied by troops of the line under arms. The 
 archbishop, accompanied by two superior officers, got into the carriage, which, 
 passing between the numerous troops that lined the streets, drove to the nearest gate, 
 and was, in an instant, outside of the walls of Cologne. 
 
178 RELIGION IN GERMANY. [SECT. I. 
 
 of the provincial government. Each consistory has two depart- 
 ments, that of ecclesiastical and that of scholastic affairs ; to its 
 province, also, belongs the drawing up of statistical reports relative 
 to parochial registration. The jurisdiction on matrimonial affairs 
 has been transferred to the secular authorities, since the establish- 
 ment of the Landrecht. The territory of the kingdom of Saxony 
 is very unequally divided into three consistories ; that of Dresden, 
 which decides on all generally important matters, and which is 
 called the supreme consistory, embracing seven-eighths of the whole 
 country. In Saxony, jurisdiction in matrimonial affairs still 
 appertains to the consistories. In the Saxon duchies, the con- 
 sistories have a general superintendant as their spiritual head, and 
 this is the case, for the most part, throughout Protestant Germany. 
 In Bavaria, the Protestant supreme consistory is only partially 
 subject to the control of the government ; there are three inferior 
 consistories. In Austria, there is one consistory at Vienna for the 
 Lutheran and Reformed Churches, and under it are nine super- 
 intendants. 
 
 The highest administrative authorities of the Catholic Church 
 are archbishops, bishops, deans, &c. In the Protestant states, 
 the highest authorities of the Catholic Church are bishops and 
 consistories, as in Hanover, Prussia, Baden, &c.; or apostolic 
 vicars and consistories, as in Saxony. 
 
 The ecclesiastical authorities which rank next to the consistories 
 are either general superintendants, superintendants, or deans. In 
 Hanover, there are fourteen of the former, who act under the con- 
 sistories, and who have acting under each of them, ten or twelve 
 inspectors. Thus, reckoning the population of Hanover at 
 1,400,000, there is a general superintendant to every 100,000 
 inhabitants, and an inspector to every 10,000. An inspectorship 
 generally comprehends from ten to fifteen parishes. In Hesse, 
 there are four consistories, twelve general superintendants, and 
 seventy superintendants. The Protestant population being 560,000, 
 there is one general superintendant to every 46,000 inhabitants, 
 and one superintendant to every 8,000. In Wurtemberg there 
 are, one consistory, six prelates, fifty deaneries, and eight hundred 
 and sixty-five parishes. Thus, the Protestant population amounting 
 
CH. XL] RELIGION IN GERMANY, 179 
 
 to 1,660,000, there is one prelate to 276,666 inhabitants, and one 
 dean to 33,200. In Saxony there are thirty superintendants, or 
 one to every 51,666 inhabitants. 
 
 PROPORTION OF MINISTERS OF RELIGION TO THE POPULATION. 
 
 Prussia. We have not been able to discover the number of 
 the Protestant ministers. The Catholic population amounts to 
 4,816,813, and there are 3,200 Catholic parishes; thus there 
 are 1,505 persons to each parish. Saxony : In this country there 
 is one Lutheran minister to 1,600 inhabitants, and one Catholic 
 minister to 432. In Saxe Altenburg, there is one minister 
 to 800 inhabitants; in Hanover, one to 1,146 amongst the 
 Lutherans, one to 940 in the Reformed Church, and one to 710 
 amongst the Catholics. In Wurtemberg, there is one Lutheran 
 minister to 1,300 inhabitants, and one Catholic to 628. In 
 Catholic Austria, there is one ecclesiastic to 500 inhabitants ; of 
 the Reformed Church there are 2,035 parishes, and 815 persons to 
 each parish ; of the Lutherans there are 807 parishes, and 1,400 
 persons to each parish ; there are 50,000 Unitarians, who have 
 111 ministers, which is one minister to 459 individuals. In 
 Bavaria, there is one minister to 1,000 inhabitants among the 
 Catholics, and one to 914 among the Protestants. 
 
 Church Property in the Protestant States. A considerable 
 part of the church -property in Germany was seized upon by the 
 governments when the monasteries were secularized at the 
 Reformation ; another portion, consisting of ground-rent, has, 
 for some time, never been realized, and, finally, a part has been 
 expended (as in Saxony,) for the establishment of schools, and 
 on the relief of the poor. However, the little landed property 
 belonging to each parish-church, has, for the most part, remained 
 in the possession of the clergy, and is now the principal source of 
 their income. 
 
 In most livings, there is a parsonage-house, surrounded by 
 gardens and orchards. Tithes are very common, and the value 
 of them sometimes equals that of the church-lands. The clergy- 
 man has also certain fees, on the occasion of marriages, baptisms, 
 burials and confirmations (these are called Accidenzien). Where 
 
 N 2 
 
180 RELIGION IN GERMANY. [SECT. I. 
 
 the income from these sources is too limited, the government makes 
 up the deficiency. In some parts, and particularly in the north 
 of Germany, it is customary, at certain periods of the year, to 
 make presents to the clergymen. On the whole, in Protestant 
 Germany, the incomes of the country-clergy vary from 350 to 
 800 dollars ; some have less than the former sum, and some as 
 much as 1,000, 1,200, or 1,600 dollars. The value of a living 
 often depends on the price of corn, and on the profit which the 
 clergyman is capable of drawing from his glebe-lands. The livings 
 in towns are somewhat more valuable, varying from 450 to 1,000 
 dollars on an average. The two most valuable livings in Saxony 
 are of 4,000 dollars a year, but, in both cases, this income is 
 chiefly derived from fees. 
 
 In no part of Germany, has the church-property been better 
 preserved from spoliation than in Hanover, where, consequently, 
 the clergy are better paid. In Wurtemberg, the property of the 
 church has been consolidated, and applied not only to ecclesiastical 
 purposes, but to the establishment of schools, and to the relief of 
 the poor. Moreover, in 1806, it was united with the royal 
 domains, and subjected to the same administration. The lands 
 attached to the country-churches have not, however, shared this 
 fate, but are under the control of ecclesiastical commissioners. In 
 Nassau, the average value of livings is from 600 to 1,800 florins, 
 of deaneries from 1,300 to 1,800; the Protestant bishop has an 
 income of 3,000 florins. In Prussia, the government pays out of 
 the treasury to the support of the church, 2,326,000 dollars 
 annually. 
 
 Church Property in Catholic States. In Austria, not only 
 are the clergy taxed in common with the lay citizens, but parti- 
 cular imposts are laid upon their body. The value of the church- 
 property in this empire is 200,000,000 florins ; besides a fund 
 called the Religious Fund, constituted by the purchase-money of 
 church-property (monasteries, &c.) sold by the Emperor Joseph, 
 the annual interest of which is two and a half millions of florins. 
 In Bavaria, the archbishop has an income of 20,000 florins, and 
 the bishops of from 12,000 to 15,000 florins. 
 
 Church Patronage. In Germany, the greater number of 
 
CH. XL] RELIGION IN GERMANY. 181 
 
 church -presentations are at the disposal of the governments, only 
 a fourth part being in the hands of private individuals. In 
 Hanover, 219 only out of 852 livings are in the gift of private 
 patrons. The latter are generally noblemen, large landed pro- 
 prietors, magistrates, or superintendants. Before a minister is 
 definitively appointed by government, the ecclesiastical superin- 
 tendant of the district demands of the congregation, whether they 
 have any objection to the character or doctrines of the individual 
 to whose care their spiritual interests are about to be confided. 
 But this is, in general, a mere form. Advantage, however, has 
 been taken of it, in one or two cases, since 1830, to oppose the 
 wishes of the government. 
 
 Salaries of Clergymen who are not of the Established Church. 
 In most Protestant states, the Catholic and the Established 
 churches are placed upon the same footing. But as the ministers 
 of the former persuasion are more numerous than those of the 
 latter, and as, owing to the practice of celibacy, their wants are 
 fewer, their incomes are generally less. On the other hand, the 
 Catholic dignitaries are much better paid than the Protestant 
 ones. In Rhenish Prussia, the Catholic archbishops have an 
 annual income of 12,000 dollars, the bishops of 8,000, the deans of 
 1,800 or 2,000, the canons of 1,000 or 1,200. This money is now 
 paid out of the treasury ; the estates from which these dignitaries 
 formerly derived their incomes having all been secularized. In 
 Saxony, where the ruling family is of the Catholic religion, 
 though the great mass of the population is Protestant, the clergy 
 of the former persuasion are so well paid, as to cause great jealousy 
 amongst those who are followers of the latter. In Hanover, and 
 in Hesse-Cassel, the Catholic clergy are equally well paid with 
 the Protestant, though this is not the case in Wurtemberg and 
 Baden. 
 
 In Austria, the Protestant clergy are provided for by their 
 congregations, which have also to pay the jura stolce to the 
 Catholic priests. In Bavaria, the expenses of the Protestant 
 church are defrayed by the government. 
 
 We believe that the Jews throughout Germany are obliged, 
 themselves, to defray the expenses of worship. 
 
182 RELIGION IN GERMANY. [SECT. I. 
 
 RELIGIOUS SECTS IN GERMANY. 
 
 Bohemian or Moravian Brothers. Some of this sect, the 
 descendants of the Taborites, who were the more strict amongst 
 the Hussites, are still to be found in Germany. At Berlin and 
 Dresden, there are small congregations of them ; also in Moravia, 
 Silesia, and Upper Lusatia. In matters of doctrine, their only 
 authority is the Bible, which, they explain according to the 
 Augustinian theory. In reference to their progress in religious 
 experience, they are divided in to beginners, advancing, and perfect 
 Christians ; they admit the presence of our Lord in the Sacra- 
 ment of the Holy Supper, but in a mystical manner ; and they 
 have a very strict ecclesiastical discipline. 
 
 Socinians. The head-quarters of this sect are in Transyl- 
 vania. A few of them settled in Prussia, in 177^? and formed 
 two congregations, at Rudau and at Andreaswalde ; that of the 
 latter place, however, is the only one which exists at present. 
 
 Mennonites. In the year 1820, 2000 Mennonites settled in 
 Schleswig, and built the town of Friedreicbsstadt They call 
 themselves Taufgesinnte. In 1830, some people in Mecklen- 
 burg, who stood in no relation to the Mennonites, rejected the 
 baptism of infants, but the government interfered, and they were 
 compelled to abandon their new doctrines. 
 
 The Pietists, properly so called, were the followers of Spener, 
 and resided principally at Halle. As a sect, they are now extinct, 
 but the term is still applied to the more mystical and zealous 
 Protestants. 
 
 Herrnhuters. The Herrnhuters were originally Moravian 
 fugitives, who settled, in 1722, at Berthelsdorf, the estate of Count 
 Zinzendorf, who shortly after their arrival formed them into a 
 community, which was recognised by the Saxon government. 
 Their creed is that of evangelical Christianity. Their principal 
 congregations are at Herrnhuth, Berthelsdorf, Niesky, Neudre- 
 tendorf, Ebersdorf and Neuwied. They differ from the pietists 
 and methodists in rejecting the doctrine that a vehement contrition 
 is necessary to regeneration. Every congregation is divided into 
 choruses, according to the various ages and sexes of its members. 
 
CH, XI.] RELIGION IN GERMANY. 183 
 
 Sinners and lukewarm professors are submitted to the operation 
 of a gradual discipline. 
 
 Swedenborgians. Swedenborg has a few followers in Wur- 
 temberg, where lately Tafel of the Royal Library, Hofacker, 
 and others, publicly espoused his doctrines. Swedenborg was a 
 sort of mystical Rationalist, rejecting the doctrines of the Trinity 
 and of the Atonement. 
 
 Other sects which may be mentioned, but which are now either 
 extinct, or nearly so, are the Gichtelians, or followers of Gichtel, 
 a mystic of Ratisbon ; the Schivenkfeldians, in Silesia ; the 
 Manhardists, separatists from the Catholic church in Tyrol, who 
 rejected the priests that had submitted to Napoleon ; and the 
 Philalethes, a deistical sect at Kiel. 
 
 In addition to the German sources above indicated, we must 
 refer those who are desirous of deeper information on the sub- 
 ject of Rationalism, and of the German school of theology, to 
 the writings of Mr. Rose, the respected Principal of King's 
 College ; of Dr. Pusey, Professor of Hebrew at Oxford ; of 
 Professor Hoppus, of the London University ; to two recent 
 articles in the " Church of England Quarterly Review," (October, 
 1837, alld January, 1838); to " A Concise View of the Univer- 
 sities in Germany:" by Edward Robinson, Professor at Andover, 
 U. S. ; to the article " Rationalismus," in the Conversations- 
 Leocikon^ and to scattered views in most modern German theo- 
 logical writings. 
 
 In order to afford a fuller illustration of the ecclesiastical 
 polity of Prussia, we subjoin some of the statements furnished 
 by Mr. Hoffman on this head to the British government in 1835. 
 
 The ministerial department for ecclesiastical affairs is the cen- 
 tral authority for all religious matters, including also the Jewish 
 worship; as also the exercise of the supreme episcopal authority 
 over the Protestant church. Each province has in addition its 
 consistory, subordinate to the ministerial department, to watch 
 over the affairs regarding the Protestant faith and worship. The 
 consistory includes only members of the Protestant faith, and is 
 presided over by the highest civil authority of the province, the 
 
184 RELIGION IN GERMANY. [SECT. I. 
 
 chief president (Ober-prasident). The general superintendant 
 is a privileged member of this board. 
 
 " By the right of patronage the king confers a number of 
 livings and other clerical offices in all provinces among both con- 
 fessions. By his episcopal power, he appoints the Protestant 
 general superintendants, and members of the consistories. By an 
 indult implicitly contained in the bull De salute animarum, the 
 king likewise appoints the Catholic cathedral provosts, and fills up 
 those canonries which become vacant in mense papali, but in this 
 case the see of Home gives the provista, or the institution. 
 
 " The appointment of Catholic bishops is regulated by the bull 
 De salute animarum of 1821, (Preussische Gesetx-Sammlung 
 of 1821, No. 12,) that is to say, the chapter has the right of 
 election. The difference between election and postulation is 
 abrogated, and therefore every ecclesiastic, whether he belongs to 
 the chapter or diocese or not, is eligible, even foreign clergymen, 
 but only after a previous royal permission. A contemporary 
 brief of Pope Pius VII. obliges the chapters to elect personam 
 regi gratam. The king fixes the day of election within the 
 canonical term. He sends a commissioner, who takes no part in 
 the canonical affairs of the election, but assumes, notwithstanding, 
 the initiative, by declaring to the members of the chapter, the 
 intentions of the crown. By these means, not only has the 
 election of an individual disliked by the court been avoided, but 
 the choice falls always on those whose promotion to the rank of 
 bishop the court had in view. The person canonically chosen 
 receives his confirmation from the pope, and the approbation from 
 the sovereign. The pope is required to entrust a Prussian prelate 
 with the consecration. 
 
 " The Landrecht, 65, tit. 2, vol. ii., provides that ordination 
 can only be given to a clerical office which affords a maintenance. 
 Accordingly, ordination, even in the Catholic church, is only 
 granted upon proof of the right of admission according to the 
 canonical law, and is besides restricted by a regulation, obliging 
 the bishops to deliver a list of the candidates for ordination, 
 and to declare the necessity for them, to the chief president of 
 
CH. XL] RELIGION IN GERMANY. 185 
 
 the province. There is, however, rather a scarcity than a 
 superabundance of Catholic clergymen. Nobody, without a 
 special permission, is permitted to be ordained abroad. Land- 
 recht, vol. ii. tit. 2, 64. 
 
 " There exist no general rules respecting the support of the 
 clergy. Only the incomes of the higher Catholic clergy are fixed 
 by the bull De salute animarum^ namely, for the archbishop and 
 prince-bishop of Breslau at 12,000 Prussian dollars ; (about 
 1,750/.); for the other bishops 8,000 Prussian dollars, for the 
 dignitaries of cathedral chapters respectively, 2,000, 1,800, 1,400 
 Prussian dollars; and for canons or prebends, respectively, 1,200, 
 1,000 and 800 Prussian dollars, besides house-room. The 
 incomes of all other livings, either of the Protestant or Catholic 
 church, are very different. The clergyman receives his income 
 either in kind or in money. It is paid in kind when it arises 
 from a real estate belonging to his benefice, which he manages 
 himself, or when it is rendered to him by landed proprietors. Of 
 the same kind are tithes, rents, and other payments from land. The 
 money-income of the clergy arises partly out of the public 
 revenues of the crown, or of the parishes, either as a salary or 
 compensation for appropriated lands or ground-rents, or as rents 
 from private estates, or from endowments laid out at interest. 
 The crown has undertaken the above-mentioned payment of the 
 Catholic dignitaries, since their landed property had been appro- 
 priated to the public revenue. In the Trans-Rhenane part of the 
 kingdom, where, during the French sway, the church property 
 was seized and chiefly alienated, the crown pays a salary to the 
 clergy, as a compensation, according to a concordat entered into 
 by the French consular government with Pope Pius VII. 
 
 " The maintenance of the clergy proceeds in general from the 
 peculiar endowment of each congregation. Where this is not the 
 case, the congregation that desires the service of a clergyman, is 
 responsible for his maintenance. The government in general is 
 not obliged to guarantee the salary of the clergy of either confes- 
 sion. Where such is the case, a special legal right, or a special 
 liberality, is supposed. Nevertheless, the number of parishes is 
 
186 RELIGION IN GERMANY. [SECT. I. 
 
 not small, which in this case enjoy a support out of the public 
 funds by the favour of the king. 
 
 "In general every parish possesses a place of worship for its 
 exclusive use. The case is called a simultaneum, when two 
 congregations of different confessions are entitled to the use of 
 the same building for divine service ; which is very rare, and 
 then generally depends on old usage. In the Trans-Ilhenane 
 part of the kingdom it is prohibited by law. 
 
 " In general every church has its own fund (bonafabrica), out 
 of which it has to defray the expense of building, repairing, and 
 the expenses caused by divine service. Where this is not the 
 case, the subsidiary obligation falls, according to the difference in 
 the constitution of the provincial or local law, either upon the 
 beneficed clergyman, if he has more than a sufficient living (con- 
 gruarri)) or the parish, if there is no patron, or the patron together 
 with the parish, or the patron exclusively, or the proprietor of the 
 church tithes (decimator), or the civil commune. In cases of 
 urgent necessity the assistance of government is accorded, but 
 only as a bounty, if there be no special legal ground providing 
 for it. 11 
 
187 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 EDUCATION IN GERMANY. 
 
 General View of the Universities. Academical Regulations. Trans- 
 lation of the Prospectus of Lectures delivered at the University of 
 Gottingen. Particulars respecting the mode of Life at a German 
 University. Preparatory Schools. Gymnasiums., Lyceums, Peda- 
 gogiums. Education in Austria. System, of Public Education in 
 Prussia. Normal /Schools. 
 
 IT is undeniable, that no country possesses so ample a pro- 
 vision for the education of all ranks of people, in all sciences and 
 arts, as Germany. It is in this country, then, that the results of 
 education may be most advantageously ascertained and weighed. 
 Some may observe, in answer to this, that the want of free insti- 
 tutions, and of an unshackled developement of mind, is an 
 obstacle to a full statement of, and decision upon, the results. 
 This may be true, to a certain degree, but the fact with which 
 we set out remains unaltered. A singular contrast exists between 
 the tendency and the consequences of an English and a German 
 education. The German education is particularly engrossed with 
 the physical and practical sciences; the English one is rather 
 occupied with theological and moral principles, with the % cultiva- 
 tion of the ancient classics, with poetry and rhetoric. Yet, in the 
 end, the Englishman becomes most practical, and the German 
 the most theoretical and sentimental. 
 
 Tbe facility with which the highest education may be obtained 
 in Germany, naturally introduces into the arena of life an immense 
 proportion of candidates for its higher prizes, too many of whom 
 finally obtain disappointment, if not entire destitution, while not 
 a few bury their obscure heart-burnings in the chance pittance 
 afforded by foreign countries, already overstocked with aspirants 
 of indigenous origin. Thus, in the course of ten recent years, 
 the number of Protestant clergymen has doubled in Prussia, and 
 
188 EDUCATION IN GERMANY. [SECT. I. 
 
 the Roman Catholic priesthood has tripled ; the lawyers have 
 increased one-fourth, but the doctors in medicine only one-seventh. 
 At the beginning of this period there was one lawyer in 12,600 
 inhabitants, at the end there was one in 8,562 ; there was one 
 doctor of medicine, at the beginning, in 27,000 souls, and at last 
 one in 25,205. In consequence of the increase of students in the 
 late years, there was recently in Prussia so many as 
 
 One student of theology in 442 inhabitants. 
 " " law in 822 " " 
 
 " " medicine in 5,660 " " 
 But the state in Prussia only requires 
 
 One clergyman for - - - 1,350 inhabitants. 
 
 One lawyer for ----- 822 " " 
 
 One doctor of medicine for 3,516 " " 
 
 How many of those now employed must accordingly die or 
 retreat, in order to make room for the forthcoming ! In the 
 smaller states of Germany the prospect is still more disheartening. 
 In the duchy of Baden, only eight vacancies annually occur of 
 offices in the law, enjoying a fixed salary, while so many as forty- 
 six candidates present themselves annually for examination ; and 
 there are already so many as two hundred and fifty-one candidates 
 examined and approved, and awaiting the long-deferred turn*. 
 
 The following is a list of the universities of Germany, with the 
 year of their foundation, the number of professors attached to 
 each, and the number of students attending them in 1827 : 
 
 Founded in Number of Number of 
 
 Universities of the Year Professors. Students. 
 
 Prague .... 1348 55 1,449 
 
 Vienna - - - 1365 77 1,685 
 
 Heidelberg - - - 1368 55 626 
 
 Wurzburg - - - 1403 31 660 
 
 Leipsic .... 1409 81 1,384 
 
 Rostock - - - 1419 34 201 
 
 Friburg - . - 1450 35 556 
 
 Greifswalde - - 1456 30 227 
 
 Tubingen . - - 1477 44 827 
 
 Schbn. Allgemeine Gesclrichte und Statistik der Europaischen Civilisation. 
 (Leipzig, 1833), p. 183. 
 
CH. XII.] EDUCATION IN GERMANY. 189 
 
 Founded in Number of Number of 
 
 Universities of the Year Professors. Students. 
 
 Marburg - - - 1527 38 304 
 
 Konigsberg - - - 1544 23 303 
 
 Jena .... 1558 51 432 
 
 Giessen ... 1607 39 371 
 
 Kiel - ... 1665 26 238 
 
 Halle .... 1694 64 1,119 
 
 Breslau - - - 1702 49 710 
 
 Gdttingen ... 1734 89 1,545 
 
 Erlangen . - - 1743 34 498 
 
 Berlin - ... 1810 86 1,245 
 
 Bonn- - - - 1818 42 526 
 
 Munich- - - - 1825 71 1,123 
 
 The sums allowed for the support of the universities, by their 
 respective states, is not large. The professors derive their chief 
 emolument from the students who attend their private courses ; 
 they are hence stimulated to extend their reputation, to diffuse 
 themselves, and to compete with each other. Their energies are 
 thus awakened and sustained, but a certain portion of indepen- 
 dence of character is endangered. The salary allotted to the 
 professors is not uniform, but fluctuates according to the reputa- 
 tion of the individual, and to other circumstances. 
 
 A few years since it was decreed in Hanover, that no youth 
 shall commence the study of any of the faculties, until he have 
 passed a previous examination. Greek, Latin, German, French, 
 Natural Philosophy, Mathematics, and History, form the basis of 
 this examination : part of it is viva voce, and part on paper. 
 An exercise is performed in writing in each of the four languages. 
 If the student is deficient, he is rejected, and is prevented for the 
 present from commencing the study of his faculty. This pre- 
 vious rejection often occurs. If successful, he may begin his 
 studies, which in the case of the medical student must be con- 
 tinued during three years and a half. He must attend both the 
 winter and summer courses. There are two short vacations only 
 in the year ; about five weeks at Easter, and five at Michaelmas. 
 The order in which the different lectures are attended is left 
 entirely to the discretion of the student. He may begin with 
 
190 EDUCATION IN GERMANY. [SECT. I. 
 
 botany or with obstetrics, according to his own inclination. On 
 going up for his final examination for a degree, he produces 
 certificates of having attended, at least, one course of the most 
 indispensable branches : auxiliary departments are not so rigidly 
 enforced. A student, for instance, is not obliged to produce 
 certificates of attendance on the surgical clinic, or on the princi- 
 ples of surgery ; but anatomy, chemistry, materia medica, botany, 
 and the practice of medicine, ape all indispensable. A single 
 examination conducts the student to his degree: it lasts five 
 hours, and is now entirely carried on in the German language. 
 The principal professors of each faculty are present : the exa- 
 mination takes place in private, at the house of the dean of the 
 faculty, who is changed every year. No part of the examina- 
 tion is in writing, unless a prescription is demanded of the 
 student. Having passed through this ordeal, the student delivers 
 a thesis in public, in Latin, and chooses three opponents in general, 
 who carry on a public discussion, if they think proper. The 
 expense of a degree is about 25/. Still, after having performed 
 all these duties, the graduate cannot practise in any part of the 
 kingdom, until he has undergone another examination at the 
 metropolis, this is called the State (Staafs) examen, and costs 
 about two pounds more. This examination lasts about three 
 hours, and comprehends nearly the same subjects as those required 
 at Gottingen. In addition to the viva voce questions, he per- 
 forms three manuscript exercises, for the inspection of the state- 
 commissioners at Hanover. A nearly similar course of study 
 prevails in the universities of all the German states. 
 
 The following is a literal translation of the Latin prospectus 
 of the lectures delivered at the university of Gottingen, during 
 a recent winter sessions : 
 
 FACULTY OP THEOLOGY. 
 
 Theo. Jac. Planck, Doctor of Divinity and P. P. O., will treat of and 
 expound, God willing and giving him strength, in the present winter 
 semester, h. viii. ix., Encyclopcediac Theology, taking as a guide his 
 Compendium, written for the use of his lectures in 1831, entitled 
 Grundriss der Theologischen Encyclopaedic, now published by Ruprecht 
 
CH. XII.] EDUCATION IN GERMANY. 191 
 
 and Vandenhoeck ; and h. xi. xii., he will treat of the first part of 
 Ecclesiastical History ; on both subjects he will lecture four times a 
 week. 
 
 D. David J. Pott, P. P. 0., will interpret privatim h. ix. x., th& 
 Gospel and Epistles of St. John, with copious digressions on the principal 
 opinions of the Jews as occurring in the New Testament ; h. x. xi., 
 he will expound the Psalms, treating also of their grammatical con- 
 struction; h. ii. iii., he will lecture on the Homiletic Art, and will 
 also continue to regulate the different exercises of the scholars of the 
 Royal Homiletic Seminary. 
 
 Henry Planck, Dr. and P. P. 0., announces six private lectures per 
 week, to form the other part of his exegetic course, including the 
 writings of St. John, the Gospel, and the Epistles; h. ix. x., he will 
 lecture on the Acts of the Apostles; h. xi. xii., he will give wn.historieo- 
 critical introduction to the sacred books of the New Testament He will 
 also continue, in his usual manner, to regulate the exercises of the 
 Theological Society. 
 
 G. C. F. Liicke, Dr. and P. P. 0., privatim : 1. h. ix., he will inter- 
 pret, in six lessons weekly, the Epistles of St. Paul to the Thessalonians, 
 Galatians, Romans, and Philippians, giving first an introduction to all 
 St. Paul's Epistles ; 2. h. xi., he will teach the Christian Dogmatic in six 
 lessons weekly ; he will also hold conferences with his class on dog- 
 matic questions at a convenient hour. Publice : he will continue, in 
 his usual way, to regulate the exercises of the Latin Theological 
 Society, on Thursdays, at seven in the evening. 
 
 J. C. L. Gieseler, Dr. and P. P. 0., will give the second part of 
 Ecclesiastical History, six times a week, h. viii. ; the History of Dogmas 
 five times, h. v. 
 
 J. P. Trefurt, Dr., Honorary Prof., will deliver, privatim : 1. h. i. ii., 
 on Mondays, Tuesdays, Thursdays and Fridays, the Precepts of the 
 Catechetical Art, with the first practical exercises ; 2. h. ix. x., five 
 times weekly, Pastoral Theology, with an outline of Protestant 
 Ecclesiastical Law, as far as a knowledge of it seems necessary for a 
 minister of the Divine word. In both courses of lectures, he will 
 use his Conspectus, Tabell. Leitfaden zu AJcad. Vorlesungen itber die 
 Pastor allehre, published 1825. Publice : h. i. ii., twice weekly, he 
 will continue in his usual way to regulate the exercises of the Cate- 
 chetical Seminary. 
 
192 EDUCATION IN GERMANY. [SECT. I. 
 
 FACULTY OF LAW. 
 
 G. J. F. Meister, h. x. xi., will teach from his Compendium 
 Criminal Law, including Criminal Process, h. iii. iv., he will deliver 
 the Theory of the Civil Process, according to the text of Martini. 
 
 G. Hugo, h. viii., will give the History of Civil Law ; h. x., the 
 Encyclopaedia of Law, leaving his books for private study. 
 
 Anton. Bauer, D., h. xi. xii., will teach the Institutions of Roman 
 Law, according to the text of Waldeck ; h. x. xi., Criminal Law, 
 from his Compendium ; h. ii. iii., four times a week. Natural Law 
 from the third edition of his Compendium ; h. viii. ix., four times a 
 week, he will expound to the Nassau students, The constitution and 
 administration of the duchy of Nassau. 
 
 F. Bergmann, Dr., h. ix., four times a week, will hold his class of 
 practical law (processuale practicum) ; h. x., three times a week he 
 will institute pleadings with the assistance of his book, Beitrage zur 
 Einleitung in die Praxis der Civil processe fyc. ; h. i., five times a week, 
 he will deliver the Hanoverian Common Law. 
 
 J. F. L. Goeschen, Dr., h. ix. x., and h. xi. xii., will lecture on 
 the Pandects, from the new edition of his book ; h. i. ii., he will give 
 the History and Antiquities of the Roman Law, chiejly of the Common 
 Law. 
 
 G. G. Albrecht, h. xi., will lecture six times a week on German 
 Public Law ; h. ii., five times weekly, on the History of German Law, 
 loth Public and Private. 
 
 F. Blume, Dr., h. ix. xi., will teach the doctrine of Pandects, daily, 
 from his book, Grundriss des Pandectenrechts ; h. iii., he will interpret 
 the first books of the Digests of Justinian, after giving a History of 
 Digests. 
 
 FACULTY OF MEDICINE. 
 
 J. F. Blumenbach, Dr., h. viii. ix., four times a week, will lecture 
 on Comparative Anatomy; h. iii. iv., on Natural History. 
 
 C. Himly, Dr., h. x., six times a week, will expound the more 
 special nosology and therapeutics of the digestive, respiratory, uropoietic 
 and other systems; h. xi., daily, will give clinical and medico-chirurgical 
 instructions, in the hospital, and in private houses of the town and 
 neighbourhood, in the manner described in his book, Verfassung der 
 Med. Chir. Klinik zu Gottingen, ]803. Privatissime, at convenient 
 hours, he will instruct in the Operative Surgery of the Eye and Ear. 
 
CH. XII.] EDUCATION IN GERMANY. 193 
 
 H. Schrader, Dr., h. ii. iii., four times a week, will treat of the 
 Pharmacological part of Materia Medica ; h. xi. xii., twice weekly, 
 he will lecture on the Linnsean Cryptogamia; and, also, twice weekly, 
 h. ii. iii., on Vegetable Anatomy and Physiology ; h. xi. xii., on 
 Wednesdays, he will show the rarer plants which are cultivated in the 
 hothouses of the Botanical Garden. At the accustomed hours he will 
 institute Botanical Excursions towards furthering the knowledge of 
 cryptogamic plants. 
 
 C. J. M. Langenbeck, Dr., Professor of Anatomy and Surgery, h. 
 i. ii., will give Anatomical demonstrations , according to his book, 
 (Anat. Handbuch Tabell. Entworfen,) in which he will go through 
 Splanchnology, Angiology and Neurology r , and which he will illustrate 
 by his Anatomical plates ; h. ii. iv., he will instruct his class in the 
 Art of Dissection ; h. vi. vii., p.m., he will lecture on the second part 
 of Surgery ; h. ix. x., he will direct the clinical surgical exercises in 
 the Surgical Hospital. Privatissime, he will give a course of Manual 
 Surgery, and a course of Operative Ocular Surgery. 
 
 F. Stromeyer, D., Professor of Chemistry and Pharmacy, h. ix. x., 
 six times a week, will give Experimental, Theoretical Chemistry ; h. 
 viii. ix., three times a week, Vegetable Chemistry; and, at the same 
 hour, twice a week, Animal Chemistry ; h. i. iii., twice a week, he 
 will attend in the Chemical Laboratory and direct, in the usual way, 
 the Chemical Manipulations. 
 
 D. J. G. Conradi, h. iii., four times a week, will lecture on Pathology 
 and General Therapeutics; h. v., four times a week, on the second part 
 of Pathology and Special Therapeutics, embracing anormal excretions, 
 cachexies, pains, eclyses, spasmodic diseases, and diseases of the mind, 
 according to the third edition of his Compendium; h. ix., he will 
 teach the Practice of Medicine in the Clinical Institution. 
 
 A. F. Hempel, Dr., h. x. xi., twice weekly, will teach Osteology 
 and Syndesmology ; h. x. xii., he will superintend the dissection of 
 bodies ; h. i. ii., he will explain Myology in anatomical demonstrations. 
 
 L. J. C. Mende, Dr., h. viii., five times a week, will teach the 
 Obstetric Art and Science; h. ix., on Saturdays, and at every other 
 opportunity, he will superintend Obstetric Operations, at the Royal 
 Obstetric Hospital ; he will be ready to give more private instruction 
 in this art to those who require it'; h. iii., p.m., four times a week, he 
 will expound the treatment of the Diseases of pregnant, parturient, and 
 puerperal Women ; h. v., five times a week, he will lecture on Forensic 
 
 Medicine. 
 
 o 
 
EDUCATION IN GERMANY. [SECT. I. 
 
 C, F. IT. Marx, Dr., h. iii. iv., will treat of Pathology and Special 
 Therapeutics, or, after an introduction, that part which comprehends 
 nervous diseases, cachexies, retentions, and fluxes. On account of its 
 present prevalence, he will treat more fully of Cholera, taking as a 
 guide his book recently published on that disease. 
 
 FACULTY OF PHILOSOPHY. 
 
 J. D. Reuss w r ill give the History of Universal Literature. 
 
 T. C. Tychsen, h. ix., will illustrate the antiquities of the Hebrews, 
 using his printed Conspectus as a text-book ; h. ii., he will comment 
 on the prophecies of Isaiah. Publice, he will illustrate the Hebrew 
 songs found in the historical books, at an hour which will be indicated 
 on the black board. 
 
 C. G. Mitscherlich, h. xi. xii., on Saturdays, will regulate the dis- 
 cussions of the pupils in the Royal Philological Seminary; h. ii. iii., 
 privatim, he will translate the Agamemnon of j^Eschylus, the (Edipus 
 Tyrannus of Sophocles, and the Cyclops and Phcenissas of Euripides. 
 
 A. H. L. Heeren, h. xi. xii., will teach the Statistics, general and 
 special, of the British Empire, France, Russia, and the United States ; 
 h. iv. v., the History of the principal Kingdoms of Europe, from the 
 national migrations to the present time. 
 
 G. E. Schulze, h. viii. ix., five times a week, will read Logic and 
 the Encyclopaedia of Philosophy, the former according to the fifth edition 
 of his Compendium ; h. iv. v., he will teach Metaphysics, with the 
 Philosophic Doctrine of Religion. 
 
 B. F. Thibaut, h. vi. vii., will deliver Pure Mathematics; h. iii. 
 iv., the Differential and Integral Calculus. 
 
 C. F. Gauss, h. x., will explain the Use of the Calculation of Pro- 
 labilities applied to the Mathematics, especially to astronomy, to the 
 higher geodesy, and to crystallometry ; in his more private lessons 
 he will teach Practical Astronomy. 
 
 J. F. L. Haussman, h. viii. ix., twice a week, will teach Agricul- 
 ture; h. x. xi., six times weekly, Mineralogy, from the second 
 edition of his work. Privatissime, h. viii. ix., four times a week, he 
 will treat of Metallurgy. 
 
 C. L. Harding, h. x. xi., will give the elements of Astronomy; 
 h. ii. iii., he will expound the Nautical Art. 
 
 G. F. Benecke, h. vi. vii., p. m., four times a week, will deliver the 
 Elements of the English Language. He will arrange to give a course 
 
CH. XII.] EDUCATION IN GERMANY. 195 
 
 of German Literature to those who are occupied with the study of 
 ancient poetry ; he will be ready to assist those who require more 
 private instruction. 
 
 C. Bunsen, h. viii. ix., will treat of Physical Geography ; h. iv. v., 
 five times a week, he will give the elements of the Italian, Spanish and 
 Portuguese languages ; h. v. vi., four times a week, he will expound 
 the Prcecepta Styli Theodisci. 
 
 L. Dissen, publice, h. xi. xii., Mondays and Tuesdays, the pupils 
 of the Royal Philological Seminary will translate in his presence the 
 Ajax of Sophocles ; privatim, h. iii. iv., five times a week, he himself 
 will lecture on Roman Antiquities. 
 
 Solangia Arland, four times a week, at the hour convenient to his 
 class, will give the History of French Literature in the French lan- 
 guage ; he will continue his more private lessons in the usual way. 
 
 F. Saalfeld, h. v. vi., will lecture, 1. on Universal Policy, or the 
 Science of constituting and administering the Republic, using as a guide 
 his Conspectus ; 2. on Political Economy, also, the Art of managing the 
 Public Revenue, according to his prospectus (ap. Rup. and Vanden- 
 hoeck), h. x. xi.; 3. on the Positive Law of Nations, three times a 
 week, h. ix. x., according to his Conspectus (ap. Rup. and Vand.) ; 4. 
 on the Universal History of the Present Time, from the breaking out 
 of the French revolution to our days, according to his Conspectus (ap. 
 Rup. and Vand.), h. iii. iv. 
 
 C. O. Miiller will exercise, publice, the pupils of the Royal Philolo- 
 gical Seminary, in explaining the play, The Captives of Plautus, twice 
 a week, h. xi. xii. Privatim, h. ix. x., five times a week, he will 
 teach the Mythology and History of the Religion of the Ancients ; 
 h. x. xi., also five times a week, he will deliver the History of the 
 Greek and Latin Languages. 
 
 A. "Wendt, h. viii. ix., four times a week, will expound Psycho- 
 logy, or Psychological Anthropology, according to theses to be commu- 
 nicated to his auditory; h. x. xi., five times a week, he will give a 
 conspectus of the History of Philosophy, using as a guide his edition of 
 the Compendium of Tennemann (fifth edition, Leipsic, 1829) ; 
 h. v. vi., five times a week, he will propound ^Esthetics, or the 
 Doctrine of the Nature of the Beautiful and of Poetry, adding an out- 
 line of the History of German Poetry, from his theses. Finally, he 
 will institute gratuitous philosophical exercises. 
 
 F. C. Dahlmann, 1. h. ix., six times weekly, will lecture on German 
 
 o '2 
 
196 EDUCATION IN GERMANY. [SECT. I. 
 
 History, according to his work, Quellenkunde der Deutschen Geschichte 
 (1830, ap. Dietrich) ; 2. h.x., five times weekly, on Political Economy ; 
 3. h. iii., five times weekly, on Universal Policy, when he will give a 
 full explanation of Police. 
 
 J. Grimm, h. iv. v., four times a week, will teach the Grammar 
 of the Ancient German Language, and its relation to that of the 
 modern. 
 
 G. C. J. Ulrich, h. xi., on Saturdays, will lecture publice on the 
 doctrine of Perspective; h. ii., privatim, on Pure Mathematics; h. iv., 
 on Trigonometry, Polygonometry, and Stereometry, according to his 
 Compendium; h. ix., on Algebra and Analytical Geometry; h. xi., on 
 Practical Mathematics; h. i., on Civil Architecture. 
 
 C. Hoeck, h. v. vi., five times a week, will deliver Universal Ancient 
 History; h. iv. v., he will expound, philologically and historically, 
 the Philippics and other public orations of Demosthenes. 
 
 G. H. E. Ewald, h. x., will translate the book of the prophet 
 Isaiah ; h. ii., he will expound the ArcJiceology of the Bible, with the 
 History of the Hebrews. Publice, h. i., on Mondays and Wednesdays, 
 he will illustrate to the students of Sanscrit and Arabic select rhapso- 
 dies of the Mahabharata; on Thursdays and Fridays, the Koran and 
 Hamasa; h. vi., on Fridays, he will exercise the Exegetic Society, in 
 the usual manner. 
 
 G. Weber will announce his Physical Lectures on the black board 
 at a convenient time. 
 
 EXTRAORDINARY PROFESSORS. 
 I. OF THE THEOLOGICAL FACULTY. 
 
 G. Reiche in the coming semester, 1. will translate, six times a week, 
 the Lesser Epistles of St. Paul, h. ix. x.; 2. h. ii. iii., will give an 
 Historico-Critical Introduction to the Canonical Books of the New 
 Testament; 3. h. ii. iv., he will teach Theological Encyclopaedia and 
 Methodology. He will examine the hearers of his exegetic lectures two 
 or three times a week. He will take a future opportunity of agreeing 
 on the hour of instruction with those who may require private exami- 
 nations. 
 
 II. OF THE FACULTY OF LAW. 
 
 G. J. Ribbendorf, D.,will teach, privatim, 1. h. xi., and on Tuesdays 
 and Fridays also at nine, the Institutions of Roman Law ; 2. h. x. The 
 
CH. XII.] EDUCATION IN GEUMANY. 197 
 
 History and Antiquities of the Roman Law ; 3. h. ii., five times a 
 week, the Doctrine of Heritages. 
 
 W. T. Kraut, Dr., li. ix. x., and h. xi. xii., six times a week, 
 will lecture on German Common Law (with feudal law) from his book, 
 Grundriss zu Vorlesungen uber das Deutsche Privatrecht. Gottingen, 
 1830 ; h. ii. iii., five times a week, on Ecclesiastical Law, from the 
 fifth edition of the Compendium of Wiesianus, published by him. 
 
 III. OP THE MEDICAL FACULTY. 
 
 J. F. Osiander, h. ii., will treat of the practical part of the Obstetric 
 Art, which comprehends the method of treating both natural and 
 preternatural births. 
 
 IV. OP THE PHILOSOPHICAL FACULTY. 
 
 G. Grimm will translate, privatim, four times a week, the epic 
 poem, called Iwein, edited at Berlin, 1827, by Benecke and Lach- 
 mann. 
 
 F. T. Bartling, Dr. Ph., 1. will demonstrate, publice, h. ii., twice a 
 week, the orders of the Polypetalous Plants ; 2. h. ii., four times a week, 
 he will also give the history of Cryptogamic Plants ; and h. xi., four 
 times a week, will teach Organography and Vegetable Physiology. 
 
 E. Schmidt will deliver Popular Astronomy ', h. vi.; Analysis, 
 together with Analytical Geometry, h. iii. 
 
 * * * * # 
 
 E. F. Ayrer, Master of Equitation, will continue in his usual 
 manner, his equestrian exercises in the Royal Riding-school. Privatim, 
 he will teach that part of the veterinary art which treats of training 
 the horse. 
 
 F. C. Lappe, Dr., Director of the Royal Veterinary Institution, 
 h. i. ii., five times a week, will give the Anatomy and Physiology of 
 the domestic animals used for agricultural purposes ; h. ii. iii., four 
 times a week, Veterinary Materia Medica; h. x. xi., he will con- 
 tinue the practical exercises in the usual manner. 
 
 Music and the Art of Drawing, also the Languages and Literature 
 of the most cultivated nations of Europe, will be taught by intelligent 
 and learned men, who will announce, in the usual place, the subject 
 and time of their lectures. Gymnastics and the Art of Fencing will 
 be taught by stipendiary masters. 
 
198 EDUCATION IN GERMANY. [SECT. I. 
 
 The annual salaries of the professors, at the smaller German 
 universities, vary from five hundred to twelve hundred florins ; in 
 the Prussian universities, where it must also be taken into con- 
 sideration the expense of living is greater, they receive as many 
 dollars. It is not customary for German students to lodge in the 
 houses of the professors ; but foreigners are received into them 
 sometimes : there is no general rule for the expense of such an 
 arrangement. The number of duels varies very much at the 
 different universities ; some of them are celebrated for their pre- 
 valence, whilst, in others, particularly in Prussia, they are nearly 
 suppressed. At Giessen, where there are from four to five hun- 
 dred students, there are perhaps a hundred duels annually : at 
 Wurzburg, the proportion is somewhat greater, and at Heidel- 
 berg larger still. In the universities situated in large towns, as 
 in Berlin, and Vienna, duels were always comparatively rare, 
 and are now very seldom resorted to. The annual average 
 expenditure of a German student at a university is about five 
 hundred florins ; in the north, it is somewhat more ; in the south, 
 considerably less. The fees for lectures amount to about one 
 hundred florins annually, supposing the student to attend four 
 classes each semester, which is the usual number. A good 
 lodging may be had at Heidelberg or Tubingen for twenty-five 
 florins per semester, but at Bonn or Berlin it would cost at least 
 as many dollars. At even the dearer universities, a shilling is 
 considered a considerable price for a dinner; many of the 
 students dine for sixpence, and some for less than that. 
 
 The time which a medical student has to pass at the university, 
 before he can present himself for examination, is generally five 
 years : the students of law and theology a year less. The theo- 
 logians are often extremely poor, and bring with them from the 
 burgomaster of their village a testimonium paupertatis, by 
 virtue of which they are admitted free even to the private lectures 
 of the professors. The slenderness of the sum with which many 
 of these are provided, for the defraying of their academical 
 expenses, is very remarkable. The students, or academical 
 citizens, as they were called, have hitherto been a privileged body 
 in Germany, only amenable to the university-laws and regula- 
 
CH. XII.] EDUCATION IN GERMANY. 199 
 
 tions; and though this state of things is now in progress of 
 abolition, its forms are still more or less respected in most of the 
 universities. The number of students annually rusticated used 
 to be very limited, before the recent operation of political causes. 
 Formerly, on an average, not more than one or two were expelled 
 in a year ; but lately whole bodies have been banished, to the 
 number of fifty or sixty, at some peculiar crises. 
 
 The corrections and punishments in force are the following : 
 Imprisonment, consilium abeundi, relegatio^ and relegatio in 
 perpetuum. 
 
 Gambling is allowed, but not gambling-houses. The number 
 of students who keep horses is extremely small ; indeed, at the 
 majority of the universities none do so ; the few who ride, hire 
 their steeds. In the small towns containing universities, there are 
 no brothels licensed by the governments. Students of licentious 
 habits occasionally make expeditions to some neighbouring large 
 town ; from Bonn 3 they go to Cologne ; from Heidelberg, to 
 Mannheim ; and from Marburg, to Frankfort. Though brothels 
 are forbidden, there are still in most of these small places two 
 or three prostitutes, who are generally of the very lowest order. 
 There are some few profligate individuals to be found in each 
 university ; but from the spirit of party which divides the students 
 into distinct classes, they fortunately come very little into con- 
 tact with, and consequently cannot corrupt the mass, which, on 
 the whole, is moral in conduct. For a student to have an ille- 
 gitimate child, is a case so rare as to form quite an exception to 
 the general rule. Beer-drinking and smoking are sometimes 
 indulged in to excess. 
 
 No sumptuary laws are in force, but no tradesman can summon 
 a student for more than a certain sum. In Giessen, for instance, 
 a tailor cannot claim more than twelve florins, a shoemaker more 
 than ten, a victualler more than the amount of a two months' 
 bill, or a lodging-house keeper more than half a year's rent. 
 
 The schools at which students are prepared for the university, 
 are called Gymnasiums, Lyceums, and Pedagogiurus, ; they are 
 generally established by the government, and the expense of 
 instruction at them is very moderate. Boarding-schools are not 
 
200 EDUCATION IN GERMANY. [SECT. I. 
 
 very common. The children of parents residing in the country, 
 who are intended for learned professions, are generally sent to 
 lodge with a friend in some neighbouring town, where they enter 
 at the gymnasium as day-scholars. Boarding-schools, frequented 
 by foreigners, are chiefly to be found in the north of Germany : 
 amongst some others, we may instance establishments of this 
 kind at Halle in Saxony, and at Ilfeld in Hanover. At the latter 
 place, the terms, including every thing, are two hundred dollars 
 a year for the foreigner, and one hundred and thirty-five for the 
 Hanoverian. 
 
 Parochial schools exist in all parts of Germany, and education 
 is not only, generally, almost gratuitous for the poorer classes, 
 but it is to a certain degree enforced by law. At most of these, 
 singing is a part of the elementary education imparted, and a 
 most beneficial portion, because it harmonises the mind, affords 
 an innocent amusement for unemployed hours, and is a bond of 
 union in humble societies. 
 
 SYSTEM OF EDUCATION IN AUSTRIA. 
 
 We shall confine ourselves to a mere sketch of the classes of 
 seminaries existing in Austria. They may be divided into : 
 
 I. National schools, among which are the schools of every 
 parish, in which a register is kept, open to all ages; head 
 schools, existing in the chief towns, designed for instructing 
 youth in mechanical occupations ; normal schools, for the pur- 
 pose of educating teachers ; and civic schools, destined for afford- 
 ing practical knowledge in commerce and the arts. With the 
 exception of Hungary and Transylvania, the proportion of pupils 
 attending the above schools is about one in ten of the whole 
 population ; and there is, on an average, one master to every 
 sixty pupils. 
 
 II. Besides these national schools, there are classical ones, 
 which consist of the ordinary land gymnasiums, and of the 
 lyceums, and university gymnasiums. These seminaries are sup- 
 ported by the fees of the pupils, and by endowments and grants : 
 they resemble, in some respects, our classical schools, are subjected 
 to a fixed course of study, and use a fixed selection of books. 
 
CH. XII.] EDUCATION IN GERMANY. 201 
 
 III. They are preparatory to the nine universities of Austria. 
 There are several medical schools, and special institutions, as for 
 mining, polytechnics, agriculture, and Oriental languages, in 
 different towns, not connected with the universities. 
 
 SYSTEM OF POPULAR EDUCATION IN PRUSSIA. 
 
 We shall speak more largely on this topic, in consequence of 
 the large share of attention which it has excited in other coun- 
 tries, and of the frequent reference made to it. We do not pre- 
 sume to decide as to its special merits, in comparison with the 
 system pursued in other parts of Germany ; but we believe that 
 all the states deserve attention and inquiry in almost an equal 
 degree. The territory of the kingdom of Prussia is divided into 
 ten provinces, which are subdivided into departments, circles, and 
 parishes. Every department has a board of education, which 
 employs school-inspectors, who reside in the chief towns of every 
 circle, and who inspect all the schools in it. Every circle and 
 parish has also its school-board, and every school its proper 
 inspectors or committee: the clergyman of the parish is, by virtue 
 of his office, one of the inspectors. There is also another officer, 
 the school-councillor, who inspects the schools, quickens and 
 keeps alive the interest of the different boards and schoolmasters, 
 and reports to the higher authorities. The whole system, since 
 it came into operation in 1819, has been under the cognizance 
 and control of the Minister of Public Instruction, who is assisted 
 in his deliberations by a council. The minister, though fully 
 informed of the results of the system, by long and accurate 
 reports from the dependant functionaries, does not interfere 
 minutely with its details. The functionaries in the department 
 of Public Instruction, have, for the most part, a salary attached 
 to their office. The educational establishments are, 1. elemen- 
 tary, or primary schools ; 2. burgher, or middle schools, gymna- 
 siums ; and, 3. universities. 
 
 All parents who are unable to prove that they can give their 
 children a competent education at home, are bound by law to 
 send them to school, as soon as they have reached the age of five 
 years. All masters and manufacturers, who employ children as 
 
202 EDUCATION IN GERMANY. [SECT. I. 
 
 servants or apprentices, are required to give them a suitable edu- 
 cation from their seventh to their fourteenth year inclusive. No 
 child can be removed from school, till the inspectors have exa- 
 mined whether he has gone through the whole elementary course. 
 Care is everywhere taken to furnish necessitous parents with the 
 means of sending their children to school, by providing them with 
 clothing and books. The schools are supported by endowments 
 variously derived, by a tax upon, property, and by contributions 
 of parents who are able to pay for the education of their children. 
 The number of children in a school must not be too great, nor 
 can one master have more than a hundred scholars. No school- 
 master collects the fees ; this must be done by the board or 
 committee. Children are permitted to contribute to a fund for the 
 education of those who are too poor to pay their portion of the 
 charge. There are some schools in large places entirely free to 
 the poor. No schoolmaster is allowed to increase his income by 
 occupations inconsistent with the dignity of his office. The com- 
 mittees are legally responsible for all the expenses of the schools, 
 and for the management of their funds. 
 
 The school-houses must be built in a healthy situation, must 
 contain good-sized rooms, be well ventilated, and kept with great 
 neatness : in villages or small towns, they have a garden belonging 
 to them, which is made available to the scholars for instruction in 
 botany and horticulture. In front of, or behind, the school, a 
 gravelled court must be laid out for exercises. Maps and geo- 
 graphical instruments, models for drawing and writing, instru- 
 ments and collections for studying mathematics and natural 
 history, are supplied, according to the wants of the scholars. 
 
 The first object of every school, says the law of 1819? is to 
 train up the young in such a manner as to implant in their 
 minds a knowledge of the relation of man to God, and, at the 
 same time, to excite them to govern their lives according to the 
 spirit and precepts of Christianity. The daily occupations, there- 
 fore, shall begin and end with a short prayer, and some pious 
 reflections ; and all the solemnities of the schools shall be inter- 
 spersed with songs of a religious character. Obedience to the 
 laws, fidelity and attachment to the sovereign and state, are to be 
 
CH. XII.] EDUCATION IN GERMANY, 203 
 
 carefully inculcated. No kind of punishment which has a ten- 
 dency to weaken the sentiment of honour shall in any case be 
 inflicted. Incorrigible scholars, after the necessary attempts to 
 reclaim them have proved futile, are to be expelled. 
 
 In the elementary schools the course of instruction is to com- 
 prehend Religion, as a means of forming the moral character of 
 children according to the positive truths of Christianity ; the 
 German language, and the language of the country in provinces 
 where another is spoken ; the elements of geometry and drawing ; 
 calculation and practical arithmetic ; the elements of physics, 
 geography, general history, and especially the history of Prussia ; 
 singing, principally for the purpose of religious exercises; 
 writing and gymnastic exercises; and the simplest mechanical 
 and agricultural operations. The instructions in religion, read- 
 ing, writing, arithmetic, and singing, are to be strictly indispen- 
 sable in every school. 
 
 In the burgher or middle schools, the course of instruction is 
 to include, besides the most important of the foregoing subjects, 
 exercises in style; the modern foreign languages, in the German 
 part of the country as an accessory branch of study ; Latin, as a 
 means of exercising the faculties of the pupil, and of determining 
 whether he is to enter the higher schools ; the elements of mathe- 
 matics, and a thorough course of practical arithmetic ; and the 
 Prussian laws and constitution. 
 
 Periodical examinations are to be held; and on quitting the 
 elementary school, the pupil is to receive a certificate as to his 
 capacity, and his moral and religious disposition, signed by 
 the masters and the school-committee. No special books are 
 to be prescribed for the different branches of instruction in 
 the primary schools, which are to be free to adopt the best 
 works as they appear. For religious instruction, which in Pro- 
 testant schools is founded mainly on the Holy Scriptures, 
 the Bible, and the Catechism generally adopted, shall be used. 
 The New Testament shall be given to children who can read. 
 The more advanced scholars shall have the whole Bible, in 
 Luther's translation: this book shall also be used for the religious 
 instruction in all the classes of the gymnasiums. Public exami- 
 
204 EDUCATION IN GERMANY. [SECT. I. 
 
 nations of the boys 1 schools are to take place at intervals, and, if 
 possible, on days celebrated in the national history. Examinations 
 of the girls'* schools shall also be held, but only in the presence of 
 the masters and parents. Parents may address complaints to the 
 proper authorities, respecting the education of their children, but 
 they must not present any obstacle to the conformation of the 
 latter to the rules established in the schools. 
 
 Clergymen are to seize every, opportunity, whether at church, 
 or during their visits of inspection, of reminding teachers of their 
 high and holy mission, and the people of their duty towards the 
 public instructors. The people, in short, are to be brought, as 
 much as possible, to regard education as one of the essential con- 
 ditions of public life, and daily to take deeper interest in its 
 progress. 
 
 In 1833, there were about fifty schools for teachers (or Normal 
 Schools, as they are sometimes called) in Prussia, in which the 
 course of study lasts three years. The demand for new teachers 
 in the respective departments is regularly ascertained, and no 
 more are educated than can find employment in the country. 
 The same establishments train masters for the lower and higher 
 schools ; the expense of them is chiefly defrayed by government. 
 The supply of teachers is not entirely furnished by these semi- 
 naries; but the standard of fitness which is set up in them, is 
 applied by law to all other candidates for the office of teaching. 
 Females have to go through a certain system of preparation for 
 the tuition of their own sex. 
 
 The election and nomination of schoolmasters are decided by 
 the committee and inspector of schools conjointly, who generally 
 apply to the seminaries above mentioned for teachers, and never 
 accept one unless he is recommended according to law. The 
 appointment is ratified by the provincial board, and sometimes by 
 the ministerial authorities. Incompetent teachers are sometimes 
 returned to their seminary for additional preparation ; and no 
 inefficient teaching nor lax discipline overlooked or permitted in 
 the schools. The directors of schools are expected to be the 
 guides and friends of the teachers. They are bound, says the 
 law, especially to attend to the young masters, to give them 
 
CH. XII.] EDUCATION IN GERMANY. 205 
 
 advice, set them right, and excite them to aim at perfection, by 
 attending to the plans of more experienced masters, by forming 
 conferences, and by studying the best works on education. 
 
 Of the children in the Prussian monarchy, between the ages 
 of seven and fourteen, it is calculated that ^f are educated in the 
 public schools. 
 
 It must not be supposed that these regulations are always 
 carried into effect ; they are sometimes evaded, or inadequately 
 carried into practice. 
 
 After this compact and pleasing picture of the Prussian system 
 of public education, it is natural to inquire into the results which 
 it has actually produced. On this subject I find it impossible to 
 produce any satisfactory authority. It is in vain to &eek for 
 results in the works of those who have only studied the plan in 
 its program, and in decrees, and who have not looked into the 
 farmhouse, the barrack, the manufactory, and the cottage, for 
 the measure of its realisation. 
 
 Let me not be understood to speak with disrespect of a 
 noble attempt to advance humanity; I only maintain, that such 
 measures are to be tested by their operation on the mass of society, 
 and that, in appreciating political experiments, we are not merely 
 to analyse them upon paper. An admirable feature of it is the 
 reverence which it encourages for the Christian religion. I am 
 the last person to attach much weight to my own observations, 
 but, in default of the remarks of others, I have not succeeded in 
 discovering that the Prussian peasant or artisan is better informed, 
 or more moral than his neighbours ; his manners are not superior, 
 nor does he appear to solace his hours of leisure more than others, 
 with study, or books. But the formation of character is so inti- 
 mately blended in Prussia with the military system, which con- 
 verts every man into a soldier, for a certain period of his life, that 
 it is difficult to ascertain the respective share which is to be 
 ascribed to the various elements which combine to mould the 
 individual. The most intelligent and best informed peasant in 
 Europe has appeared to me to be the Scotch, while the Austrian 
 rustic is perhaps the happiest. 
 
200 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 PRISONS AND PRISONERS IN GERMANY. 
 
 Introductory Remarks on the Discipline of Prisons. An account 
 of the Prisons of Germany before their later improvements. Cri- 
 minal Legislation in Austria. Present Condition and Statistics 
 of the principal Prisons of Germany. Their degree of Security. 
 State of Health^ Medical Police, Diet, and Mortality. Modes of 
 Inspection, Classification, Labour. Education, Elementary Instruc- 
 tion, Religious Instruction, Worship. Punishments. The care taken 
 of the Prisoner on his liberation. Concluding Reflections. 
 
 ONE of the most gratifying features in the clouded countenance 
 of our age is the attention which is devoted, more or less, in all 
 civilised countries, to the improvement of prisons, and to criminal 
 legislation and statistics. I shall make no apology, then, for the 
 pages which are here set apart for the German side of the topic; 
 and a few cursory observations on the state of prisons in England, 
 will form no unsuitable introduction. 
 
 In the greater part of our county gaols a remarkable degree of 
 cleanliness and neatness reigns throughout. This observation will 
 not be considered trivial by those who appreciate the influence 
 which these two qualities daily exercise over the health of the 
 body, and the discipline of the mind. Among the borough and 
 town gaols, and those placed under local jurisdiction, these cha- 
 racteristics are far less prominent, and sometimes, indeed, entirely 
 disappear ; but these blemishes, in the various shades in which 
 they exist, seem to be derived rather from the narrow space and 
 unsuitableness of the building, from the limited funds, the scanty 
 salaries, and the insufficient service, than from wilful neglect on 
 the part of the keepers, who, indeed, are often sensible of evils 
 which they do not possess the power of remedying. 
 
 From the recent introduction of silence into some prisons, I 
 have not yet been able to trace a single instance of mischievous 
 
CH. XIII.] PRISON DISCIPLINE. 207 
 
 consequences. My conversations with prisoners, officers, surgeons, 
 chaplains and magistrates, have not led to the discovery of any 
 case in which disease, either of body or of mind, has been affirmed 
 by any party to have grown out of this mode of discipline. The 
 experiment, it is true, has not yet been practised for a long 
 period; but the persons most conversant with the interior of 
 prisons, who have favoured me with their conclusions on this 
 head, pronounce decidedly in its favour, and entertain an expec- 
 tation of its probable efficacy in increasing the repugnance to 
 incarceration. But great vigilance is necessary in order to ensure 
 a real, and not merely a nominal observance of it. 
 
 Solitary, or separate confinement, respecting the propriety and 
 practicability of which opinions are divided, and experience has as 
 yet been only short and limited, cannot be generally adopted in our 
 present buildings. Nor ought solitary confinement to be adopted 
 in any prison, without defining the mode, in which alone, con- 
 sistently with humanity, and with just attention to mental and 
 bodily health, it can be carried into operation. The details are 
 not to be resigned to the caprice of individuals, to makeshifts, 
 and to accident. Separate confinement for the convicted, should 
 never be imposed, for any term exceeding a few days, unless 
 accompanied by the following indispensable conditions, wnich are 
 the more necessary to be complied with in our gaols, because they 
 have not been usually constructed, like the American peniten- 
 tiaries, with this express object in view. 
 
 First. A cell moderately warmed in the winter. 
 Second. A cell light, well ventilated, and large enough to 
 enable the prisoner to labour or to read with ease, and to move 
 about in freely. 
 
 Third. A provision of suitable work or of books. 
 Fourth. Daily separate visits of the chaplain, the surgeon, 
 and the gaoler, with a privilege of briefly conversing with them. 
 
 Fifth. Daily exercise, of at least one hour, not taken all at one 
 time. 
 
 Sixth. A discretionary power confided to the surgeon, of 
 allowing still more exercise, when he thinks it advisable. 
 
208 PRISON DISCIPLINE. [SECT. I. 
 
 Seventh. A visit made at least once a month to each prisoner 
 thus confined, by one of the visiting magistrates. 
 
 But in only a small number of prisons, as they are at present 
 constituted, with their existing cells, officers, funds, and salaries, 
 can such confinement be safely enforced. The conditions above 
 proposed, would necessitate an entire remodelling in many in- 
 stances: and the magistrates and the public will not easily consent 
 to try a new, and as yet uncertain, experiment, at a large cost, after 
 having already incurred heavy disbursements on the former plan 
 of classification ; and least of all at a time when all are anxious 
 to reduce the amount of rates. 
 
 I am led thus to the conclusion that it would be most inexpe- 
 dient to employ any compulsory interference in favour of separate 
 confinement, which would only conduct to an irregular, inade- 
 quate, and unfair trial of it in prisons not fully prepared. If 
 any evil accidents should arise from partial and premature 
 attempts, the public confidence would be shaken, and a sudden 
 reaction and abandonment of the whole system might be the 
 unexpected result. 
 
 I believe, however, that it will be utterly impracticable to carry 
 this system into general operation in England, on account of the 
 enormous expense attendant on it, if it is carried out in a humane 
 spirit ; but if it must be tried at all, it would probably answer 
 best if confined to a few penitentiaries erected and arranged for 
 this particular object. But, even in such places, I must express 
 my earnest dissent from any plan which contemplates the con- 
 tinual confinement of the prisoner in his cell, without any portion 
 of daily exercise in the open air. 
 
 Wherever this system is applied to untried prisoners, they 
 ought to be permitted, in addition to the precautions above spe- 
 cified, to enjoy a double portion of exercise, as well as ample 
 means of intercourse with their friends : but, rather than at once 
 to level the ancient distinction between a house of detention and 
 a house of correction, it would be preferable, in my opinion, to 
 allow to the untried the free use of their yards, restricting them, 
 at the same time, from conversation with each other, and from 
 
CH. XIII.] PRISON DISCIPLINE. 209 
 
 the dangerous privilege of a day-room*. Yet, however desirable 
 it may be to restrain prisoners of every class from associating 
 together, and mutually corrupting each other, in day-rooms, it is 
 not safe to close the door of the only room in which a fire burns 
 in winter, unless some means have been employed to impart a 
 moderate warmth to the cells. 
 
 Previously, indeed, to any extension of the plan of confinement 
 in separate cells, it appears highly necessary to consider the various 
 modes of warming the cells which may be most conveniently 
 adopted in different prisons. This is a point which requires the 
 immediate attention of those who may contemplate the introduc- 
 tion of any such system into the establishments which they 
 superintend. 
 
 There have been three aeras in the history of prisons, in 
 England, each of which has been successively and almost inevi- 
 tably forced onwards by its predecessor. The first period of 
 neglect, filth, and disease, aroused the attention of the great 
 Howard, and of those who immediately trod in his steps ; 
 public feeling was awakened throughout Europe, and amendment 
 began. But indiscreet liberality went too far in some cases; 
 under the auspices of kind, but imprudent reformers, a prison 
 with us became at length a more luxurious place than some 
 farm-houses ; certain individuals found it so comfortable, that 
 they even committed petty offences in order to secure the privi- 
 lege of admission. This second stage has led to our actual point ; 
 at which, while every suitable provision is made for bodily and 
 mental health, we endeavour to render a prison so disagreeable 
 an abode, that no one may carelessly enter, nor be tempted to 
 return. 
 
 We shall commence our account of German prisons, with a 
 rapid glance at the state of those establishments at the period 
 when the modern views began to pass from theory into 
 practice. As early as 1780, the labours of Howard were natu- 
 ralized in Germany, and since that time, the appearance of 
 numerous writings, and the publication of some isolated govern- 
 
 * Some of the above remarks are extracted from my " Second Report on the 
 Prisons of the Southern and Western Districts," laid before Parliament in 1837. 
 
 r 
 
210 PRISON DISCIPLINE. [SECT. I. 
 
 ment-edicts, have given proof that the ideas of the English 
 philanthropist have not fallen upon an ungrateful soil. But, still, 
 these were feeble precursors of improvement, and, as late as 1803, 
 we find the Prussian minister, Arnim, declaring " that the state 
 of the Prussian prisons was such, that palliative remedies were no 
 longer of any avail, and that it was absolutely necessary to attack 
 the abuses which exist in them at the root." 
 
 The prisons of Bavaria, according to Baron Weveld, were in 
 the same miserable condition. At this period indeed, throughout 
 Germany, the places of confinement for criminals were generally 
 subterraneous, dark and moist ; and, in many, no provision 
 whatever was made for supplying warmth in winter. The cells 
 were always infested with vermin, and the prisoners in the most 
 filthy and abject condition. The government of the prisons was 
 in the hands of numbers of officials of all descriptions, and was 
 properly attended to by none. The ministers of the interior, of 
 justice, and of war, the commanders of fortresses, provincial 
 governors, consistories, and even private individuals, were in the 
 habit of interfering in the management of different prisons. No 
 general system was ever proposed, much less established. In 
 many cases, prisons were united to hospitals and lunatic asylums, 
 and even to workhouses and orphan asylums. 
 
 Prisons in Germany, at the time of which we are speaking, 
 were extremely numerous ; few contained two hundred prisoners, 
 and the average number of their inmates was estimated at from 
 forty to fifty. Consequently, the number of persons employed 
 in their management was very great in proportion to the sum 
 total of prisoners, but was small, and altogether insufficient, in 
 reference to each individual prison. Little importance was at 
 that time attached to the subject of criminal legislation, and we 
 are now surprised at the smallness of the sum which was then 
 allotted in the budgets to the maintenance and improvement of 
 prisons. The efficiency, for the purpose of confinement, of the 
 establishments in question, may be estimated by the following 
 facts, extracted from authentic reports on Prussian prisons. 
 
 All the prisoners confined in the fortress of Gleiwitz escaped 
 in a single night, in the year 1800. At Wesel, nearly a whole 
 
CH. XIII.] PRISON DISCIPLINE. 211 
 
 band of brigands, who had been condemned to hard labour for 
 life, escaped from confinement. In 1799, five great offenders 
 escaped from Schweidnitz ; in 1800, three from Cosel, and, 
 among other instances, twelve from Clarenburg. No measures 
 were taken for observing the conduct of the prisoners, and 
 for preventing that communication between them, the effect of 
 which is to train up to crime the less hardened offender. In 
 many prisons, the male and female culprits were suffered to 
 remain together both night and day ; in others, they were sepa- 
 rated at night, but, in scarcely any, were proper measures taken 
 for their complete separation. Again, some of these establish- 
 ments were always extremely crowded, whilst others were nearly 
 empty, and had become entirely useless. 
 
 According to Arnim, whose facts are authentic, the house 
 of correction at Colberg did not contain one prisoner in 1790 ; 
 in 1791, only one prisoner was admitted into it, and in 
 1796, only three. On the other hand, at Wesel, the neglect of 
 management and want of room reduced several prisoners, whose 
 reason, on their admission, was somewhat affected, to a state of 
 raging madness. " The inmates of most of these places were either 
 entirely deprived of the light of day, as at Custrin or at Zul- 
 lichau, or received it only through a very narrow aperture, as at 
 Rathenow, Lenzen, and Falkenburg. The atmosphere of almost 
 all was unhealthy to a dangerous degree, and the filthy condition 
 of the interior, contributed not a little to increase this dreadful 
 evil. At Baireuth, it was necessary to employ artificial means 
 for the purpose of bringing a supply of fresh air into the esta- 
 blishment; at Dantzic, the moisture was so great, that water 
 streamed down the walls at every season of the year. At Berlin, 
 Warsing and Schlechtendahl, reporters on the state of the Stadt- 
 Voigtei prison, declared, that " it was no small sacrifice to visit 
 a prison in such a state." At Minden, to use the words of the 
 provincial government, " the prison was scarcely good enough for 
 a stable." At Baireuth, in 1799, it was stated in a report, as a 
 great act of kindness, that the prisoners were allowed fresh straw 
 for their bedding every three months. 
 
 In 1803, there was only one prison in all Prussia, that of 
 
 p 2 
 
212 PRISON DISCIPLINE. [SECT. I. 
 
 Tapiau, where the criminals received necessary clothing at the 
 expense of the establishment. In all others, this was only 
 granted as a favour and in cases of extreme necessity. At Berlin, 
 in the Stadt-Voigtei prison, a new shirt was now and then given, 
 at the expense of the establishment, to those who were reduced 
 to a state of absolute nakedness. With respect to the food of the 
 prisoners, the utmost irregularity and uncertainty prevailed. In 
 some places, as at Roessel, it was-good, and perhaps too abundant, 
 but in most cases it was furnished by contractors, who were not 
 subject to any control. At Baireuth, according to Voldendorff, 
 the messes of the prisoners were examined by a physician, and 
 found not only inadequate to nutrition, but positively inimical to 
 the health. A great cause of the perpetuation of these abuses 
 was the fact, that the contractors for furnishing the diet were 
 themselves petty officers of the prison. On the attention paid in 
 those times to the prisoners who were ill, let us quote again the 
 reporters on the Stadt-Voigtei at Berlin : " The sick," they say, 
 " are destitute of every kind of attention ; and so great is the 
 neglect under which they suffer, that, in general, they prefer to 
 quit the infirmary and return to the wards of the prison ; where, 
 though they are less commodiously lodged, they, at least, hope to 
 experience the compassion and aid of their companions in mis- 
 fortune.'" 
 
 At the time of which we are treating, there were three de- 
 scriptions of prisons in Germany ; viz., houses of arrest and 
 detention, houses of correction, and fortresses. In the former, no 
 sort of employment was assigned to the prisoners, and in the 
 fortresses, they were only employed on the public works. The 
 houses of correction ( Zuchthduser ) were superior in this as well 
 as in several other respects, though, in some even of them, no 
 work whatever was allotted to the prisoners, and in many others, 
 the system of employment was so imperfectly followed out, that 
 it availed but little for any profitable purpose. In some places, 
 as at Stettin, Stargard, and Col berg, it was left to the discretion 
 of the prisoners, whether they would work or not. No person 
 watched their labours, and the only masters they had to stimulate 
 them to exertion were hunger and want. It was quite a matter 
 
CH. XIII.] PRISON DISCIPLINE. 213 
 
 of chance, whether their employments had any share in training 
 them to a future life of activity and industry. The most com- 
 mon trades were not exercised in the prisons, and the occupations 
 almost universally pursued, were spinning, carding wool, polish- 
 ing glass, and rasping wood. The profits resulting from the 
 labours of the prisoners reverted in every case to contractors, 
 who farmed this privilege at a small rent, and the former were 
 rarely encouraged to work for their own benefit after their allotted 
 task was finished, which would have given them an opportunity 
 of earning something to assist them after their release. 
 
 No attention whatever was paid to the moral and religious 
 improvement of the prisoners. In a few of the gaols, there was a 
 chaplain, but the greater part were without any religious instruc- 
 tor. In one alone, that of Halle, the prisoners were allowed to 
 have private conferences with the chaplain. During the eigh- 
 teenth century, several of the places of religious worship attached 
 to prisons were shut up, or converted to other purposes. 
 
 Before we pass to a description of the present state of prisons in 
 Germany, we shall say a few words on the criminal legislation of 
 Austria, which has preserved a distinct and somewhat remarkable 
 character. Austria has been severely reproached for having so 
 frequently recourse to the bastinado, and for the severity of its 
 " schwereste Kerker strafe" (closest or hardest imprisonment). 
 But we must recollect that the bastinado is employed, at the 
 present day, with but few exceptions, in all the prisons of Ger- 
 many, and in all the "bagnes" of France, and, we may add, 
 in several penitentiaries of America. The Austrian govern- 
 ment, indeed, was one of the first which endeavoured to pre- 
 vent the abuse of this punishment. With regard to the 
 schwereste Kerkerstrafe, we must not forget, that this punish- 
 ment is inflicted by a code, which admits neither of transportation 
 nor of forced labour, and which does not ordain capital punish- 
 ment, like the French, for numerous crimes, such as, coining, 
 infanticide, and arson. Moreover, says Jenull*, it is not in- 
 flicted in a manner which can be injurious to the health of the 
 
 * Das Oesterreichische Crlmmalrecht nach seinen Grunden und seinem Geiste. 
 1820, 
 
214 riUSON DISCIPLINE. [SECT. I. 
 
 culprit ; those who suffer it have as much fresh air as the nature 
 of their labour will permit ; their diet is similar to that with which 
 many poor families are contented, and, finally, it is only had 
 recourse to in the following extreme cases ; viz., misprision of 
 treason ; infanticide, when committed upon a legitimate child ; 
 arson, robbery of an aggravated description, and as a commutation 
 of the punishment of death. Austria, too, it must be recollected 
 had already banished from her -code, preliminary torture and all 
 the barbarous accessories of capital punishment, before France had 
 made any real reform in her penal laws. At the present time, the 
 criminal legislation of Austria is one of the most humane and 
 enlightened in Europe. The directors of gaols are enjoined, in 
 taking measures to secure a prisoner, neither to wound his feelings 
 nor his person. The prisoners are always to be treated by the 
 directors as well as by the gaolers with great caution, mildness, 
 and attention. Improper modes of conduct, or gross and offensive 
 acts on the part of the gaolers towards the prisoners, are to be 
 punished with the greatest severity*. In a repertory of juris- 
 prudence, published at Vienna, there is an article upon the 
 moral improvement of convicts, which displays considerable 
 talent. The system of the author, who was for some time 
 director of one of the largest Austrian prisons, is that of 
 Arnim and Weveld. Labour, classification, religious instruc- 
 tion, elementary education, he admits, and recommends to be 
 actively employed ; but the state, he says, ought only to make 
 use of them as furnishing an opportunity of improvement to the 
 prisoner, and is not to disturb itself about the effects whicli they 
 may produce upon his moral system. In a word, it ought to do 
 that which is in its power, happen what may. " Every other 
 system," he continues, " will only lead to despotism. The heart 
 of man is a sanctuary which one friend opens to another, and into 
 which the eye of God penetrates, but the state cannot look within 
 it, without entering upon a dangerous track." 
 
 We shall now speak of the present state of the prisons of 
 Germany under the heads of, their security, health, inspection 
 
 * See Pratobevera, " Materialen fur Gesetxkunde und Rechtspflege in den Oes~ 
 terreichischen Staaten. ' ' Wien, 1816. 
 
CH. XIII.] PRISON DISCIPLINE. 215 
 
 and classification, labour, and moral and religious instruction. 
 Under each head, the principal prisons of the respective states will 
 be instanced. 
 
 With respect to Security, we shall commence with the Prus- 
 sian prison of Naugard. The severe discipline prevailing here, 
 which is altogether of a military nature, has produced the most 
 beneficial results. It is well adapted to the character of men 
 of brutalized feelings, since it serves to repress their inclination 
 to disorder. Nevertheless, the director is far from finding in 
 a rigorous discipline the only guarantee for the security of the 
 establishment, and he is, above everything, careful to distinguish 
 mere signs of obedience and subordination amongst his prisoners, 
 from that internal and involuntary respect with which they ought 
 to be inspired, on recognising the moral object of the system to 
 which they are submitted. A new floor of this prison has lately 
 been constructed, which has been set apart for the younger 
 criminals ; it is composed of twelve chambers (capable of con- 
 taining from one to seven prisoners each), and of three rooms for 
 working in, sufficiently large to contain fifty individuals. 
 
 The prison of Luckau, also in Prussia, was formerly a convent, 
 and from 1747 to 1818 was at once a house of correction, an 
 asylum for lunatics, a workhouse, an orphan asylum, and a 
 seminary for schoolmasters. These different establishments were 
 successively separated from each other, and since 1827 the prison 
 of Luckau has received a regular organization, and has been 
 placed under the direction of a committee, two of the members of 
 which are appointed by the king, and two by the states. This 
 establishment is composed of four different buildings, a large 
 garden, a terrace, and outhouses for cooking. The first of the 
 buildings, called the old house, has three stories ; it is one hun- 
 dred and sixty-four feet long, fifty-three of which are occupied 
 by a handsome chapel, which is provided with an organ. It 
 contains only male prisoners, except in the washing and shoe- 
 making rooms. The prisoners of the most dangerous class 
 sleep by twos or threes in chambers shut up by bolts, and 
 those of the second or less dangerous class sleep together in one 
 room. The new house, erected in 17^8, contains a church, a 
 
216 PRISON DISCIPLINE. [SECT. I. 
 
 dwelling-house for the director, and the necessary accommodations 
 for making tapestry, which is the principal occupation of the 
 convicts ; it is used for the reception of females only. The third 
 building is sixty-two feet in length; it is an infirmary, and contains 
 also baths, and work-rooms for dyers. The fourth is the dwelling 
 of the physician and the five masters of the works. All these 
 buildings are in a situation favourable to the health of their 
 inmates, they are surrounded by small gardens, and two plots of 
 grass, which are used as bleaching and dyeing grounds. There is 
 a military guard in the prison both night and day, and at nine 
 o^clock the porter has to deliver up the keys to the inspector. In 
 winter and in dark nights, the court is lighted by four lanterns. 
 One hundred and thirty-nine prisoners were recently in confine- 
 ment at Luckau, six of whom are imprisoned for life ; nine of the 
 others were confined as vagabonds. 
 
 Another Prussian prison, that of Schweidnitz, which was com- 
 pleted in 1801, consists of two great buildings, formerly the 
 property of the Jesuits, containing twenty-three work-rooms, an 
 infirmary, dormitories, lodgings for a part of the officers, a large 
 room for prayer, and a refectory. The prison is large enough 
 for three hundred culprits. The cells are under continual inspec- 
 tion during the night. The experiment has been tried here of 
 placing the culprits without the walls of the prison, either in 
 service, or in apprenticeship ; of 1055 thus disposed of, 451 
 escaped, of whom 309 were retaken ; 66 other convicts escaped 
 from the prison itself. The prisoners who escape, and who are 
 retaken, wear a yellow sleeve, and are not permitted, like the others, 
 to purchase salt, butter and tobacco with the surplus of their gains. 
 
 The prison or House of Correction (Landarbeitshaus) of 
 Brauweiler, formerly a Benedictine abbey, is two miles distant from 
 Cologne. It is a fine building of one story, 269 feet in length, 31 
 in width, and 34 in height, and was erected in the middle of the 
 eighteenth century. It has sixteen acres of garden belonging to 
 it, surrounded by a wall ten feet high, and seventy-two acres of 
 arable land without the enclosure. It is capable of containing 
 six hundred prisoners, and is maintained by the four districts of 
 Cologne, Diisseldorf, Aix-la-Chapelle, and Coblenz. 
 
CH. XIII.] PRISON DISCIPLINE. 217 
 
 During the years 1811 to 1825, 665 prisoners died, and 520 
 escaped, out of 77^9 admitted. During the year 1826, this prison 
 received thirty-six boys and seventeen girls under the age of six- 
 teen, and one hundred and seventy two men and eighty-three 
 women above that age, in all, three hundred and eight persons ; 
 two hundred and forty-one of these were set at liberty, forty-seven 
 died, four succeeded in escaping, and fourteen who attempted to 
 escape were recaptured. 
 
 The prison of Cologne contains eighty-six apartments of 
 different descriptions; attached to it are several courts, and a 
 garden of three-quarters of an acre, surrounded by a wall about 
 thirty feet high. The instances of escape from it are very rare. 
 The prisoners are guarded by six soldiers who are reinforced at 
 night. The dimensions of the building do not permit the prisoners 
 to have separate apartments. 
 
 There are five old prisons at Hamburg, three of which, die 
 Pferdmarktswache, die Grossnetimarktswache, and die Ganse- 
 marktswache> are houses of arrest ; two only, die Roggenkiste and 
 das SpinnhauS) are for the reception of criminals properly so 
 called. We shall speak first of the Spinnhaus^ which is the most 
 remarkable, and then of the new prison, which is not included in 
 the above. The former, with the courts which are attached to it, 
 comprises a space of 17,370 square feet ; the church alone occu- 
 pies 2975. On entering, we find on the left hand a porter's lodge, 
 and on the right a dwelling for the steward. Passing through the 
 kitchen of the latter, we come to a cellar which contains the 
 potatoes and other provisions which it is necessary to keep in 
 such a place. A little further is the bread store-room. On the 
 right, too, is a large copper basin which is filled with water by an 
 hydraulic machine in the city. Pipes conduct the water into the 
 kitchen, to the places where the servants and work-people are 
 occupied in washing utensils. We next come to the kitchens, 
 where there are copper cauldrons, each capable of containing a 
 sufficient portion for three hundred persons. Above the kitchen, 
 wood is kept. 
 
 On the first floor are the rooms of the persons employed in the 
 prison, and the large presses which contain the prisoners' linen 
 
218 PRISON DISCIPLINE. [SECT. I. 
 
 and clothing. A small staircase leads hence to the first work- 
 room, where the thread is prepared, which is afterwards brought 
 into a side room to be twisted. In the doors of this room, as well 
 as of all the others, small inspection windows are placed. The 
 rooms for twisting, and also those for spinning, which come next 
 to them, are the prisoners'* dormitories. Behind the latter are 
 two dark cells, which are used for disciplinary punishments. 
 A staircase leads from this part of the establishment to the first 
 court, and the visitor sees on his left in descending it, a place (der 
 tipinnwinkel), which contains seven cells for the greatest crimi- 
 nals. Fifty other cells of this description are dispersed throughout 
 the establishment. On the left side of the court of which we have 
 spoken, is the entrance to the church. The building in the centre 
 is kept for women and for master-workmen. All the windows are 
 furnished with bars of iron, so disposed, as to render impossible 
 all communication between the prisoners of different rooms. 
 
 The new prison (Detentions gefdngniss) is intended for indi- 
 viduals suspected of crimes, and for those who have been con- 
 victed of slight offences. It consists of a principal building, with 
 two wings at right angles. The underground chambers, the 
 ground floor, and the first story, are arched ; the staircases are of 
 stone. The chambers on each floor open into corridors, well 
 lighted, and well ventilated. The apartments underground are 
 quite free from moisture ; amongst them are not only the kitchen 
 and store-rooms, but seven or eight cells for prisoners sentenced to 
 solitary confinement. Other cells, intended for the same purpose, 
 are placed on the third floor ; these only receive light from above. 
 The height of these chambers varies from eleven to twelve feet. 
 The windows are very high, and if it were not for the gratings 
 which cover them, the destination of the building would be for- 
 gotten. The first and second floors are exclusively reserved for 
 prisoners. The chambers receive but little light, because the 
 windows are very narrow. No attempt has been made here to 
 apportion the degree of light, and of other conveniences in the 
 rooms, to the greater or less degree of criminality of the inmates ; 
 all the rooms are alike in these respects. 
 
 The prison of Gliickstadt, the best in the German dominions 
 
CH. XIII.] PRISON DISCIPLINE. 219 
 
 of the king of Denmark, was organised in 1819. It is a building 
 of one story, without any subterraneous apartments, and its two 
 wings run into two different streets. On the ground-floor, on one 
 side, are the lodgings of the officers of the prison, the kitchen, 
 the bakehouse, the store-room, and the refectory; on the other 
 side, are four work-rooms, two of which communicate with the 
 street, and two with the court, which is separated from them by 
 a corridor, and a room where the work is distributed. The first 
 story contains rooms for the sick, situated on each side of a long 
 corridor, and work-rooms communicating with the court and the 
 store-rooms. Above the refectory is the church, and above the 
 work-rooms are the night-cells, separated from one another by a 
 staircase and a shoemaker's work-room. The court, which forms 
 a square, is terminated on the third side by a building of one 
 story intended for carrying on different trades; on the fourth 
 side, is an isolated building, containing fire-engines, and different 
 apparatus. 
 
 This prison is reserved exclusively for men. The women are 
 confined in another building of one story, situated in the middle 
 of a square adjoining the principal prison. The prison of Gliick- 
 stadt is so constructed as to permit the watchmen to observe the 
 convicts without being perceived by them. The use of chains is 
 almost entirely suppressed; in 1825, they were worn by ten 
 prisoners only. The culprits who are confined for life are placed 
 in the rooms which command the most extensive prospect of the 
 surrounding country. 
 
 Notwithstanding its imperfections, the prison of Gliickstadt is 
 now made the model of all others which are constructed in that 
 country. 
 
 The prison of Preetz, also in Holstein, would seem to have 
 been allowed to remain, in order to serve as a means of com- 
 parison between the old and new systems. All the rooms of 
 which it is composed, are subterraneous ; they receive light and 
 air only through grated openings, and the atmosphere which is 
 breathed within them is totally corrupted. The gaoler, himself, 
 speaks of them with horror. Unhappily, many of the prisons of 
 
220 PRISON DISCIPLINE. [SECT. I. 
 
 the duchy of Schleswig-Holstein are in an equally bad state; the 
 instances of escape are very numerous. 
 
 We now pass to the South of Germany, and first to the prison 
 of Mannheim. This establishment contains about two hundred 
 culprits. It consists of two stories, besides the ground floor, and 
 the subterraneous apartments ; it is situated in the centre of the 
 city, and is surrounded by a court. The church and sacristy are 
 on the ground floor. This floor contains, also, besides one large 
 and two small sleeping-rooms, a chamber of observation of the 
 governor (Zuchtmeister), another chamber for judicial examina- 
 tions, a small office, a chamber for linen, four vaulted rooms 
 which receive the light by small, round windows, communi- 
 cating with the court, and which are capable of being warmed 
 during winter, and two necessaries. The upper part of the 
 church, which is destined for the prisoners, is on the first floor. On 
 the second floor is a large work-room, above the church, a small 
 one, and several sleeping-rooms. On the north-west side of the 
 court is a small garden, a kitchen, washhouse, storehouses for 
 bread and for wood, a pig-stye and a poultry yard. The prison 
 is bounded on the west by different buildings, and by the resi- 
 dence of the director; on the south, and on the east, by 
 private houses, which are separated from it by a wall, common 
 to both. 
 
 With the exception of this last boundary, which does not pre- 
 sent sufficient obstacles to communication with persons without, 
 the Mannheim prison leaves but little to desire under the head of 
 security. Various plots have been formed by the prisoners, 
 during twenty-five recent years, for obtaining their liberty, but 
 they have all been discovered in time; and of four persons who 
 have attempted to escape, during the last sixteen years, only one 
 has succeeded. 
 
 The prison of Freiburg, situated in the city of that name, is 
 bounded on the north, north-east, and west, by streets; on the 
 south and east, it is not confined by buildings; a very large court 
 surrounds it on three sides; and the whole of the establishment is 
 surrounded by a wall, twenty feet in height. The principal 
 
CH. XIII.] PJUSON* DISCIPLINE. 221 
 
 building is two hundred and twenty-seven feet long, and consists 
 of two stories. On the first floor is an infirmary for the men, and 
 six prisoners' dormitories. The work-rooms are on the second 
 floor. The north-eastern extremity of the building is traversed 
 by a canal, which receives the filth and impurities, and prevents 
 any corruption of the atmosphere. 
 
 Judging from the actual state of the dormitories and work- 
 rooms, this prison is capable of containing one hundred and sixty 
 men, and forty women ; the infirmary for the men has room for 
 twenty-three persons ; that for the women for seven. Thirteen 
 individuals are charged with the duty of inspecting the conduct 
 of the prisoners, and of superintending their labours. The 
 military appointed to guard the prison, are a subaltern officer, a 
 corporal and nine soldiers. 
 
 The prison of Kaiserslautern, in Rhenish Bavaria, js at once 
 a place of confinement for persons condemned to hard labour, a 
 house of confinement, and a house of correction. Those who are 
 condemned to hard labour have a chain attached to each foot with 
 a weight at the end of it, or, if the nature of their labours will 
 permit, they are coupled two and two. All criminals are chained 
 by one leg during the night, as soon as they are discovered to be 
 dangerous. All correspondence with persons either in or out of 
 the prison is forbidden them. If letters are addressed to them, 
 the director opens them, ascertains their contents, and afterwards 
 communicates to them all which he thinks proper for them to 
 know. Prisoners of a less degree of criminality are not so 
 rigorously treated. 
 
 The next head under which we are to consider German prisons 
 is that of their Salubrity ; and here we shall allude to the lodging 
 of the prisoners, the air and exercise afforded them, their cleanli- 
 ness, food, dress, and the treatment of the sick. 
 
 And, first, in respect of lodging : the German prisons are no 
 longer so crowded as formerly. Prussia has distinguished herself 
 in attending to this point. Austria has provided in her penal 
 code for enlarging the interior of her prisons. 
 
 The folio wino- table shows the number of inmates in the 
 
222 PRISON DISCIPLINE. [SECT. I. 
 
 prisons of Wurtemberg, in 1829, and, also, the number for which 
 they were respectively built. 
 
 Houses of 
 
 Pt f Coition 
 
 A ,. <3^ 
 
 I 
 
 W tf- p |" ^~ ~ M-| Total. 
 
 ! If I fill li !: 
 
 N ^cr^Mnr} io io ios - 2 c ? is 22 <> i4is 
 
 Number of goners, \ u ? j y fi 2 142Q 
 
 January 1, 1829. J 
 
 At Gluckstadt, the work-rooms are large and well-lighted ; on 
 the floor are chests which serve as seats for the workmen, and 
 contain their property. There is glass in the doors, through 
 which the prisoners are inspected. In the sleeping-room, the beds 
 are in a line, but, sometimes, the want of space renders it neces- 
 sary to place one above another. Each prisoner has his separate 
 bed, which is composed of a mattress and pillow, stuffed with 
 chaff, two sheets, and one coverlit in summer and two in winter. 
 The aged, who are in ill-health, have feather-beds. The 
 prisoners have clean sheets once a month. 
 
 At Freiburg, the bedsteads are of oak, contain two persons, 
 and are removed two feet and a half from each other. The more 
 dangerous prisoners, and those who are in ill-health, sleep alone. 
 The bed consists of a mattress, weighing thirty pounds, of a 
 pillow stuffed with chaff', of two bleached hempen sheets, and of 
 two woollen coverlits in winter and one in summer. By the side 
 of each bed is a spittoon ; and in each room, are two tables for 
 washing, and water for drinking; each prisoner has his washing- 
 basin and towel. There is a night-stool in every sleeping-room. 
 The rooms are lighted by two lanterns, and in all there are small 
 windows, through which the watchmen are strictly bound to look 
 into them every quarter of an hour. 
 
 At Cologne, also, the nature of the building will not allow of 
 each prisoner having a cell and a bed to himself. Iron bedsteads 
 have been introduced here into the infirmary, and are about to 
 be so throughout the prison. 
 
CH. XIII. ] PRISON DISCIPLINE. 
 
 223 
 
 At Hamburg, the system of heating the new prison with warm 
 water conveyed in pipes has been adopted. 
 
 With respect to air and exercise in German prisons, we may 
 remark, that at Freiburg, fresh air is admitted every day into 
 the corridors, refectories, bed and working-rooms, and that they 
 are fumigated with juniper. 
 
 At Naugard, the air is changed twice a day, and such prisoners 
 as do not work in the open air, are taken every day into the 
 court of the prison, and remain there for some time. 
 
 At Gliickstadt, the prisoners have large courts to walk in ; 
 where they remain for half an hour at a time. 
 
 In the prison lately constructed at Hamburg, the only place 
 for exercise is a court thirty feet wide, and sixty-nine long, which 
 is enclosed by a high wall; but it must not be forgotten, that it is 
 merely a place of detention, and that prisoners never remain in it 
 long. 
 
 An Austrian lawyer, a manager of prisons, has well observed 
 that in ensuring the cleanliness of prisons, we ought not to fear 
 the charge of affectation. Cleanliness, he truly says, is one of 
 those qualities, the habit of which having been once acquired is 
 never lost. In the Austrian prison of Linz, which serves as a 
 model for all the others in that empire, the prisoners, both male 
 and female, are charged with the duty of cleaning the building. 
 
 In the prison of Mannheim, there are baths, and the prisoners 
 are supplied with soap and towels. They are shaved once in 
 eight days, and their hair is cut as often as necessary. The bed 
 and work-rooms are regularly washed, and are whitewashed once 
 a year. 
 
 At Luchau, in Prussia, the prisoners are obliged to wash 
 themselves after every meal, and thoroughly every Saturday 
 evening. Their body-linen and towels are changed every week ; 
 their sheets every three months, except when they are ill. Twice 
 a year the mattresses and pillows are washed, and stuffed with 
 clean straw ; the wooden bedsteads are also taken to pieces, and 
 washed with warm water. 
 
 At Naugard, Cologne, and at the fortress of Coburg, arrange- 
 ments similar to the foregoing are in force, and in the latter, a 
 
224 PRISON DISCIPLINE. [Sxcx. I. 
 
 reward is given annually to those prisoners who are most noted 
 for their cleanliness. 
 
 At Gliickstadt, the rooms are swept every day, and washed 
 once a month. 
 
 At Giistrow, in Mecklenburg-Schwerin, deviations from clean- 
 liness are severely punished ; the sleeping-cells, passages, and 
 staircases are fumigated every day with vinegar, the work-rooms 
 are washed every three weeks ; smoking is forbidden, and the 
 prisoners are obliged to wash every time they quit work. 
 
 At Freiburg, the prisoners have a bath every month, and a 
 foot-bath every fifteen days. 
 
 At Kaiserslautern, in Rhenish Bavaria, the work-rooms, corri- 
 dors, and sleeping-cells are swept every day, and washed once a 
 week. 
 
 With respect to diet, we have collected the following facts : 
 At Naugard, the government only supports those prisoners who 
 can produce a certificate of poverty. Provisions are furnished 
 by contract. Prisoners of a superior class are obliged to adopt 
 the same diet as the others ; except that they are allowed some- 
 times to purchase meat for dinner and soup for supper. 
 
 At Schweidnitz, the prisoners' breakfast consists of a soup 
 made of bread, flour, or potatoes ; for dinner they have peas, oat- 
 meal, potatoes, turnips or sourkraut, and two pounds of bread ; 
 once a fortnight they have a quarter of a pound of meat, and on 
 holidays half a pound. 
 
 The composition of the soup for two hundred persons, in the 
 prison of Gliickstadt, is as follows : Three pecks of oatmeal, 
 a large quantity of potatoes, four pecks of carrots, and from 
 one hundred and thirty to one hundred and thirty-five pounds 
 of fresh meat (ten ounces per head). Sometimes, they have 
 bacon-soup, and, sometimes, the Rumford soup. 
 
 At Dresden, the prisoners have soup for breakfast, vegetables 
 for dinner, and two pounds of bread each per diem. 
 
 At Mannheim, each prisoner has, daily, one pound and a half 
 of good bread, half a pint of soup and as much vegetables ; and 
 on Sundays and holidays, one pound and a quarter of meat ; 
 before trial, they have the same quantity of meat every other day. 
 
CH. XIII.] PRISON DISCIPLINE. 225 
 
 The provisions are furnished by a contractor, under the super- 
 intendance of the director. 
 
 At Brauweiler, in Rhenish Prussia, the diet is similar to the 
 above, but the prisoners who are sentenced to hard labour, receive 
 an extra allowance of meat, soup, beer, brandy, and bread. The 
 aged are allowed a little tobacco. 
 
 At Cologne, the prisoners in good health have one pound and 
 a half of black bread daily ; for breakfast, soup composed of 
 three ounces and a half of wheat flour, half an ounce of butter 
 and half an ounce of salt. The dinner consists alternately of 
 potatoes, sauerkraut, oatmeal, peas, beans, and lentils. 
 
 At Gustrow, the prisoner has one pound and a half of rye- 
 bread daily, two quarts of beer, soup for breakfast, and vegetables 
 for dinner ; besides this, the prisoners of the first class have one- 
 third of a pound of meat twice a week, and the other five days, 
 herring, sausages or tripe; those of the second class have one- 
 third of a pound of meat on Sundays, and tripe twice a week. 
 Those of the first class have butter and cheese in the evening, 
 and those of the second, salt to eat with their remaining bread. 
 
 In Austria, the prisoner has one pound of bread per diem; a 
 farinaceous dish with milk three times a week ; and on Sundays, 
 a soup with a quarter of a pound of meat, and the farinaceous 
 dish again; but by working industriously, he is allowed to 
 improve his condition. 
 
 In respect to clothing, the prisoner at Mannheim receives the 
 following articles of dress at the expense of the state ; viz., a cap 
 and waistcoat of cloth, two pairs of trowsers of canvas ticking, 
 and two under- waistcoats of the same stuff, a woollen waistcoat, 
 two pairs of worsted or cotton stockings, three shirts, two pocket 
 handkerchiefs, and two cravats. The colour of the dress is gray 
 for those guilty of lighter offences, and gray mixed with black 
 for the others. 
 
 At Luckau, the prisoners condemned for six months or less, 
 retain the dress which they bring into the prison ; the others, 
 unless the committee of the establishment permit the contrary in 
 some instances, all wear the costume of the establishment, which 
 is gray and yellow. 
 
 Q. 
 
226 PRISON DISCIPLINE. [SECT. I. 
 
 At Brauweiler, all the culprits wear the prison-dress, which is 
 good and warm. 
 
 At Cologne, dresses are only given in cases of necessity ; they 
 consist of jackets and trowsers of gray cloth, shirts, socks and 
 caps ; those who work have leather shoes ; the others, wooden 
 ones. The women have striped dresses which wash, shoes and 
 stockings. 
 
 At Hamburg, the culprits on -entering prison lay aside their 
 own dresses, and receive from the establishment, three shirts, two 
 pairs of stockings, a pair of trowsers, a jacket and a waistcoat. 
 
 At Kaiserslautern, the prisoners are dressed in gray cloth ; 
 they have an unbleached linen cravat, which is changed every 
 week ; a waistcoat, an under-waistcoat, a pair of linen trowsers, 
 which are washed as often as necessary, stockings clean every 
 week, shoes, a shirt clean every week and bleached twice a year, 
 one pocket handkerchief per week, and a cloak of gray cloth for 
 the cold weather, as well as a cap of the same material. 
 
 The women's dress is composed of a black cap, a neck-hand- 
 kerchief and an apron of unbleached linen ; a black gown and a 
 jacket of striped stuff; a pocket-handkerchief, worsted stockings, 
 shoes and a shift ; their linen is changed as often as that of the 
 men. The prisoners condemned for criminal offences wear 
 coloured dresses, half gray and half brown. 
 
 In Austria, the prisoners' dress consists of a jacket and trowsers, 
 of linen in summer, and of common cloth in winter, of a pair of 
 shoes and a cloth-cap. The women have two pair of stays, one 
 for winter the other for summer, a gown, an apron, thread 
 stockings and a pair of slippers: their linen is changed every 
 week. 
 
 We now come to the treatment of the sick in the German 
 prisons. At Plessenburg, in Bavaria, the mortality of the sick is 
 two and a half per cent. The beds in the infirmary are composed 
 of a paillasse, a mattress, a pillow, a coverlit, and sheets which are 
 changed every day. The patients are treated with the greatest 
 care, and are allowed both meat and wine when necessary. 
 
 At Mannheim as soon as a prisoner is ill, the physician orders 
 him to the infirmary, which is a large place, very airy and lighted 
 
CH. XIII.] PRISON DISCIPLINE. 227 
 
 by five windows. The salary of the physician is 300 florins, that 
 of the surgeon, 133 florins. Patients suffering under contagious 
 diseases are kept separate from the rest. The proportion of the 
 sick to the whole number of culprits is as one to seven. When 
 signs of mental alienation are manifested by a prisoner, he is con- 
 fined alone, and if the disorder continues, is sent to the Lunatic 
 Asylum. 
 
 At Naugard, the men employed in the infirmary are taken from 
 the prisoners of the first class ; the nurses may be the wives of 
 the prison-officers. As soon as a prisoner is ill, he is transferred 
 from the control of the director to that of the physician. In 1828, 
 when intermittent fevers were very frequent, the mortality of all 
 the inmates was one in sixty -six, and in 1829, when they re- 
 appeared, one in forty-six. 
 
 At Schweidnitz the mortality is five per cent. At Brauweiler, 
 in 1826, 746 prisoners were admitted into the infirmary, and 980 
 others were treated for lighter complaints in the prison itself; of 
 these 1726, 1587 were cured, and forty-seven died. 
 
 At Freiburg, the physician is obliged, when the circumstances 
 of the case require it, to see his patients two or three times a day, 
 and always to visit the prison daily; he is also bound to send in 
 a detailed report at the end of the year. At Kaiserslautern the 
 physician sees that the regulations of cleanliness are fully carried 
 into effect, superintends the diet and clothing of the prisoners, 
 and visits daily. 
 
 We now come to speak of Inspection, the third of the heads 
 under which we proposed to treat of German prisons : and we 
 may remark, at the outset, that they are not well constructed for 
 facilitating this object. In the prisons of Southern Germany the 
 culprits are generally compelled to be silent during the hours of 
 labour ; at Freiburg it is forbidden to the prisoners to speak, at 
 any time, to any one except the director and the superintendants; 
 and the punishment here for communicating by signs is more 
 severe than for breaking silence. They are not even allowed to 
 raise their eyes to look at the visitors of the establishment. 
 Their conduct is incessantly watched, and any negligences in per- 
 forming devotional duties are severely punished. At Aix-la- 
 
PRISON DISCIPLINE. [SECT. I. 
 
 Chapelle, the superintendance is very imperfect, being chiefly 
 intrusted to the director, the task-master, and to three old soldiers 
 in bad health, who often require as much watching as the prisoners. 
 
 At Naugard this duty is exercised by the inspector of police, 
 the inspector of the work, and by twelve superintendants who are 
 armed and accoutred like Serjeants of police. They remain with 
 the prisoners all day, except when they have other duties to fulfil 
 in the establishment. In this pr-ison, the bell rings for rising at 
 four in summer and half-past six in winter, when the superin- 
 tendants and steward attend to see that the prisoners wash them- 
 selves properly, and keep the prison clean ; then they order the 
 prison to be fumigated throughout. Breakfast follows, when the 
 superintendants receive from the director his orders for the day, 
 of which they begin to regulate the execution as soon as the meal 
 is finished. Half an hour after labour has ceased, viz., at half- 
 past eight in summer, and at half-past four in winter, the bell 
 rings for the prisoners to be conducted to their cells. At Gustrow 
 the prisoners rise all the year round at four, and retire to their 
 cells at nine. 
 
 In Austria the prisoners rise at five, make their beds, open 
 their windows, fumigate, and afterwards wash at the fountains in 
 the court, under the eyes of the guard. There are morning- 
 prayers at a quarter to six, after which the prisoners are conducted 
 to work. At seven they have one pound and a half of bread 
 each, which is to serve them all day. At eleven, they enter the 
 bed-rooms where they pray in common ; each then goes to fetch 
 his dinner; they are allowed from dinner to mid-day for recreation. 
 They finish work at seven ; on Saturdays, at six. They retire to 
 rest, after evening-prayers, at a quarter to eight in winter, and at 
 a quarter to nine in summer. 
 
 The principle of Classification has been successively acted upon 
 in most of the prisons of Germany. At Naugard, the men are 
 divided into three classes, and the women into two. The divisions 
 are founded on the degree of crime and on the seventy of the 
 punishment, but as the latter does not always afford a just indica- 
 tion of the viciousness of the prisoner, this rule admits of exceptions 
 founded on signs of repentance exhibited by different culprits. 
 
CH. XIII. ] PRISON DISCIPLINE. 229 
 
 At Luckau the sexes are rigorously separated, and lodged in 
 different buildings. The men are divided into two classes, one 
 of which is composed of the principal criminals and also of those 
 who appear to be dangerous characters, whatever may be the 
 degree of the offence which they are expiating at the time ; the 
 second class consists of those who are imprisoned for a com- 
 paratively short period, and who are not regarded as dangerous. 
 
 In Rhenish Prussia classification of prisoners is still imperfect ; 
 at Cologne, the sexes are separated, but prisoners of the same sex 
 are not classified. A separate locality has, however, been re- 
 cently granted to those who exhibit signs of good conduct. An 
 edict of 1811 ordains the separation of different species of convicts 
 in the duchy of Nassau. An ordinance of 1813 prescribed the 
 separation of the young from the old in the prisons of Holstein, 
 but it had not been generally carried into effect in 1828. There 
 does not appear to be any classification at Gliickstadt, but the 
 efficiency of the system of superintendance somewhat counter- 
 balances this defect. At Freiburg, the sexes only are separated; 
 at Mannheim, besides this division, the culprits form two classes, 
 and at Kaiserslautern, three. 
 
 In respect to the Labour which is executed by the culprits, 
 the prisons of Germany deserve particular attention. The 
 spinning and rasping which were formerly carried on in these 
 establishments were doubly objectionable, as affording but little 
 pecuniary profit, and being of little service to the prisoners on 
 their liberation. It was the jealousy of the different trades and 
 corporations which restricted the employments of the prisoners, 
 and the same obstacle prevails, though to a much less extent, at 
 present. The prisoners at Munich are employed in an excellent 
 manufactory of cloth, and as tailors and shoemakers. The cloth 
 alone, which is of the quality worn by the higher classes, produces 
 a revenue to the government of more than 50,000 florins yearly. 
 The prisoners in Holstein are still, for the most part, unemployed; 
 but not so in Schleswig, particularly at Gliickstadt, where each 
 prisoner is bound to do a certain quantity of work, which if he 
 neglects he is punished ; if he does more than is required, he is 
 paid for the surplus. The prisoners are employed in spinning, 
 
PRISON DISCIPLINE. [SECT. I. 
 
 carding wool, knitting stockings, weaving, making pipes for fire- 
 engines, and sail-cloth. 
 
 At Dresden the prisoners are employed in cleaving wood, 
 breaking stones down to sand, and dragging coals through the 
 town. The inhabitants can obtain the prisoners to do any sort of 
 work for them, by paying five groschen per day to the establish- 
 ment. 
 
 At Plessenburg there is a cloth manufactory and a bakehouse 
 in the prison. The prisoners are allowed to work a little for 
 themselves. The managers of the prison allow culprits who have 
 been liberated to become the superintendants of the others when 
 at work. 
 
 At Mannheim the employments of the prisoners are dressing 
 hemp, weaving, knitting, making clothes, shoes, and, lately, 
 manufacturing list. The superintendants of the different kinds of 
 works receive four hundred florins a year. Some of the prisoners 
 are employed in making the furniture of the establishment, and 
 others are employed by the inhabitants, at their own houses, to 
 cleave wood. At Freiburg the prisoners are employed in stone- 
 cutting, weaving, carpenter's- work, and as masons, shoemakers, 
 tailors, locksmiths, and clockmakers. At Cologne, a certain 
 number of prisoners are without occupation, those, for instance, 
 who are condemned to a short imprisonment, debtors, and those 
 of the untried who are not likely to remain long. Trades of all 
 sorts are carried on by the rest of the prisoners ; amongst others, 
 lithography. 
 
 The following table shows the numbers of employed and 
 unemployed in the prison of Aix-la-Chapelle, in 1828: 
 
 Men employed in weaving, carding, &c., or as tailors, mechanics, &c. - 763 
 Men employed in the kitchen, infirmary, and in the service of the 
 
 establishment - .... - 55 
 
 Total employed - - - - 818 
 The men unemployed, were, 
 
 Prisoners placed au secret - - - - -43 
 
 Ditto of weak body or mind - - - - - 87 
 
 Ditto sick ........ 162 
 
CH. XIII.] PRISON DISCIPLINE. 231 
 
 Prisoners of a certain rank, and debtors - - 14 
 
 Ditto condemned to pay a fine, or confined for a short period - 400 
 
 Ditto confined temporarily in this establishment, in transit - 109 
 
 Total unemployed - - 815 
 
 The number of women employed in knitting, weaving, &c., was 197 
 Ditto in the service of the establishment - 9 
 
 Total employed - - - 206 
 
 The women placed au secret - - - - 23 
 
 Ditto in ill health - - - 28 
 
 Ditto debtors, or confined for a short period ... 87 
 
 Ditto temporarily imprisoned, in transit - - - - 60 
 
 Total unemployed - - - 198 
 
 Since 1826, a treadmill has been used in the house of correc- 
 tion at Hamburg. The diameter of the wheel is seven feet and 
 a half ; it has twenty-one steps; ten prisoners are employed at it 
 eight hours a day ; they are divided into two sections of five 
 each, and relieve each other every five minutes; during this 
 short space of time they have to mount four hundred and twenty 
 steps. 
 
 At Giistrow, several trades are exercised, and the object of 
 employment is, not only. to keep the prisoners occupied during 
 their stay in the prison, but to teach them a useful vocation for 
 the future. 
 
 At Rudolstadt, in the duchy of Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt, the 
 prisoners are employed in turning a wheel, the noise of which 
 constrains them to silence ; it sets in motion a machine for cloth- 
 making. 
 
 At Naugard, the object of the management has been, not to 
 turn the prison into a manufactory, but to employ the prisoners 
 in any occupation which they had previously been taught. At 
 Kaiserslautern, the treadmill and several occupations have been 
 introduced. 
 
 Before we conclude this subject, we shall say a few words on 
 the savings of prisoners, and on the produce of their labour in 
 general. 
 
232 PIIISON DISCIPLINE. [SECT. I. 
 
 In Austria, the daily task allotted to each prisoner is such, that 
 the very industrious have a little time to work for themselves. 
 The half of what the prisoner earns for himself is set apart to be 
 given him at his liberation ; the other half he can spend in buy- 
 ing bread, beer, or broth. In order to appreciate this privilege, 
 we must remember that the Austrian prisoner has, for three days 
 of the week, only a pound of bread for all provision. 
 
 At Naugard, the prisoner has first to pay for his support by 
 his labour, before he receives anything extra. What he saves, is 
 placed in the Savings'-bank at Stettin, and should he die in con- 
 finement, it goes to his heirs. On his quitting the prison, he not 
 only receives his extra earnings, but he is duly recommended 
 where he is likely to obtain employment. In respect to their 
 gains, all the prisoners are put as much as possible on the same 
 footing ; and half is at their disposal for the purchase of provi- 
 sions, a little brandy, and, on Sundays, of tobacco for chewing. 
 
 At Dresden, the sum accruing from surplus labour is never 
 placed at the prisoner's disposal until his liberation. 
 
 At Hamburg, the system of surplus labour has not been 
 adopted ; but a part of what the prisoners earn reverts to them. 
 
 The other German prisons resemble more or less the above, in 
 the arrangements they have introduced respecting the employment 
 of prisoners. 
 
 At Coburg, half the gain is given weekly to the prisoners to 
 spend ; and the other half is retained until their discharge. 
 
 At Mannheim, elementary instruction of a mutual kind has 
 been introduced, by which reading, writing, and arithmetic are 
 tanght ; it takes place for an hour every day. On Sundays, one 
 of the convicts reads portions of the Bible to the others. 
 
 At Freiburg, the Sundays and holidays are devoted to the in- 
 struction of such prisoners as desire it, in reading, writing, and 
 accounts. Of 6941 prisoners who were confined at Schweidnitz, 
 from 1801 to 1826, 1500 learned to read, 1250 to write, and 
 970 to cast accounts. This establishment has a regular school 
 master. 
 
 At Naugard, a prisoner is charged provisionally with the 
 elementary instruction of his companions ; but only the better 
 
CH. XIII.] PRISON DISCIPLINE. 233 
 
 prisoners are taught to write, from a fear that they may abuse the 
 acquisition. 
 
 The following table shows the state of elementary instruction 
 in those prisons to which the influence of the Rheno-Westphalian 
 Prison Society had extended, two years after its formation. 
 
 Total No. Not able Not able Not able to 
 of Prisoners. to read. to write, cast accounts. 
 
 House of Correction at Dusseldorf 220 90 150 150 
 
 House of Arrest at Cleves - 152 80 120 120 
 
 Criminal Prison at Wesel - - 140 60 85 85 
 
 Ditto at Cologne .... 290 130 200 200 
 
 House of Arrest at Cologne - 280 130 
 
 House of Correction at Brauweiler 516 435 
 
 In the Stadt-Voigtei prison at Berlin, no measures have been 
 taken to promote elementary instruction : the women only receive 
 it, owing to the exertions of a committee of ladies. At Spandau, 
 a school was established in 1824, where the prisoners are taught 
 reading, writing and accounts ; the schoolmaster has a salary of 
 fifty dollars. At Brandenburg thirty or forty are chosen out of 
 three or four hundred prisoners to receive elementary instruction 
 thrice a week. At Prenzlau and at Potsdam, the young prisoners 
 alone are instructed and are sent to school in the respective 
 towns. 
 
 At Luckati, Konigsberg, Rawicz, Brieg, Munster, Werden, 
 Aix-la-Chapelle, and Malmedy, there is religious, but no elemen- 
 tary instruction. At Lichtenburg, the clergyman is the school- 
 master, and at Treves, on Sundays and holidays, the prisoners are 
 in structed in reading, writing, arithmetic and drawing; whilst 
 the young Protestants go regularly to a school in the town. 
 
 In the house of correction at Brauweiler there are a schoolmaster 
 and a schoolmistress; the former has two hundred and sixty-two 
 dollars, the latter, two hundred dollars, salary. The prisoners 
 are taught spelling, reading, writing, the history of their country, 
 arithmetic, drawing and singing, and natural history. In 1826, 
 the school contained one hundred and sixty-two children of from 
 five to sixteen, and twenty-one persons above that age. The 
 boys learn the military exercise, during the hours of recreation, 
 and form a well organised company, which has a commander, 
 
234 PRISON DISCIPLINE. [SECT. I. 
 
 eight sub-officers, eight corporals, four drummers, and six trum- 
 peters ; this company materially contributes to the maintenance of 
 order. There is an annual-examination of the school. 
 
 In the Austrian prisons, Sunday-schools only have been esta- 
 blished, where reading, writing and arithmetic are taught to those 
 who desire it. 
 
 Our next topic is the Religious instruction which is imparted 
 to prisoners in Germany. In Austria, the chaplains of the gaols 
 have ordinary and extraordinary duties; the former consist of the 
 ceremonies of worship, of regular religious instruction, and of the 
 administration of confession and of the sacrament every three 
 months to those who request it ; the latter consist of admonitory 
 visits to the prisoner on his admission and at his departure. The 
 chaplain has also to visit the sick, and sometimes the work-rooms. 
 The Protestant prisoners are under the spiritual care of pastors 
 of their own faith, who have interviews with them at stated times. 
 The care which the Austrian government takes to define in what 
 cases the prisoners may confer privately with the chaplain, shows 
 evidently that it considers such communications as exceptions to 
 its system, which is rather passive than active. 
 
 A different principle prevails in the Prussian prison of 
 Naugard. Here the most scrupulous measures are taken in 
 order that the chaplain and director may become thoroughly 
 acquainted with the character of each prisoner, the circumstances 
 of his crime, his previous life, his family relations, and the state 
 of his moral nature. The chaplain is bound to visit the prisoners 
 frequently, to gain the confidence of each, to become their friend 
 and father, to concert measures with the director for improving 
 the situation of those who deserve it, and in cases of complete and 
 sincere regeneration to recommend them to the royal clemency. 
 
 Religious instruction is still very limited in the prisons of 
 Rhenish Prussia ; however, for some years past, they have been 
 recovering from the defective state in this respect, in which 
 they were left by the French government. Almost all the prisons 
 of Old Prussia have their chaplains, and in all there are sermons 
 on Sundays and holidays. Prayer-books, bibles, and testaments 
 are distributed amongst the prisoners, and, in some places, the 
 
CH. XIII.] PRISON DISCIPLINE. 235 
 
 work entitled, Stunden der Andacht (Hours of Devotion). In 
 the Hamburg prison, religious service is performed on Sundays 
 and holidays, and all the prisoners take the sacrament twice a 
 year. At Mannheim and at Freiburg, mass is celebrated on 
 Sunday morning, and religious instruction is given in the after- 
 noon ; on Tuesdays and Fridays, the same forms are repeated at 
 Mannheim. 
 
 The principal disciplinary punishment in Germany is the bas- 
 tinado, which is everywhere resorted to, except in the city of 
 Hamburg, and in the Rhenish provinces, where the Code Napoleon 
 is still in force. Solitary confinement has also been adopted as a 
 punishment in several German prisons. 
 
 In the prison at Munich, the disciplinary punishments are, the 
 bastinado for the men, and solitary imprisonment for the women ; 
 in Austria, they are reprehension, either private, or before all the 
 prisoners, exclusion from recreation, bread-and-water diet, the 
 bastinado for the men, and whipping for the women. At Dresden, 
 Plessenburg, and Mannheim, they resemble, more or less, the fore- 
 going, as also at Naugard. At Luckau, in addition to the above 
 punishments, the men are sometimes put in irons. At Kaisers- 
 lautern, in Rhenish Bavaria, the disciplinary punishments are, 
 privation of soup, or diminution of the daily allowance of 
 bread, solitary imprisonment and a certain quantity of labour for 
 a period not exceeding eight days; solitary imprisonment and 
 labour without soup, for a period not exceeding fifteen days; and, 
 finally, solitary confinement without light or occupation and with 
 the hands and feet fettered for the same period. At Brauweiler, 
 the only disciplinary punishment is solitary confinement, which 
 can be inflicted for three days up to three months. 
 
 A praiseworthy care is taken by the respective govern- 
 ments of the prisoners after their liberation. At Hamburg 
 it not unfrequently happens, that the prisoner receives on his 
 liberation a sum of from two hundred to three hundred marks, as 
 the produce of his labour. When the conduct of the prisoner has 
 been good, exertions are made to establish him honestly. In 
 the duchy of Nassau, if the prisoner's gains do not amount to a 
 certain sum, the deficiency is supplied by the government. In all 
 
236 PRISON DISCIPLINE. [SECl. I. 
 
 cases he receives a new dress gratis, and care is taken to replace 
 him well in the world, and to prevent him from returning to his 
 former career. In Rhine-Prussia, as soon as the prisoner is 
 liberated, he is protected and assisted by the Rheno-Westphalian 
 society. In Austria it is the authorities of the police who are 
 bound to superintend him, and to aid in his restoration to society. 
 
 On the proportion between the recommittals and the sum total 
 of admissions, we have selected the following facts. Of 1700 
 culprits confined at Plessenburg, during five years, one hundred 
 and forty-eight had already been once imprisoned, and twenty-one 
 twice. At Brauweiler, out of three hundred and eight prisoners, 
 ninety-seven were twice imprisoned, eight thrice, and two five 
 times. The prisoners who have been recommitted form a second 
 class, and their diet is not so good as is that of the first. Of 2071 
 prisoners admitted during the year 1828 into the prison of Aix-la- 
 Chapelle, 1215 men and 275 women were committed for the first 
 time, two hundred and thirty-six men and ninety-two women for 
 the second, one hundred and forty-seven men and sixty-eight 
 women for the third, twenty-nine men and two women for the 
 fourth, five men and one woman for the fifth, and one man for the 
 seventh time. Of seventy juvenile prisoners confined at Frankfort 
 on the Oder in 1826, forty-eight boys and eleven girls may be 
 regarded as improved, inasmuch as till 1830 at least, they had 
 been convicted of no fresh offence ; and nine boys and two girls 
 were recommitted. 
 
 Here, then, we terminate the abstract which we have made 
 from the minute and instructive researches of M. Lagarmitte. 
 To render the statement more complete, it should be added that 
 Dr. Julius, of Berlin, (well known for his devotion to the subject, 
 and for his systematic lectures upon it,) has been lately sent to 
 America by the king of Prussia, in order to report upon the state 
 of the Penitentiaries of the United States. Dr. Julius promises 
 the results of his observations in detail, and, for the present, 
 has issued a pamphlet in which he declares himself, in general 
 terms, favourable to the system of separate confinement pursued 
 in some of those establishments. The two French commissioners, 
 De Beaumont and De Toqueville, have also reported favourably on 
 
CH. XIII. ] P1USON DISCIPLINE. 23J 
 
 it, but they doubt the possibility of introducing it into France*. 
 M. Lucas, the inspector general of the French prisons, has de- 
 clared himself strongly opposed to it. Nor has the mind of the 
 public been as yet prepared to admit it with cordiality, by repeated 
 proofs of its efficacy. A large part of our knowledge of this 
 subject is derived from the United States, which contain, according 
 to Dr. Julius of Berlin (the latest personal inquirer), eight 
 penitentiaries conducted upon this system. But the United States 
 do not possess the means of transportation ; and the majority of 
 the inmates of these penitentiaries corresponds with that class of 
 our own offenders which is sentenced to exile ; seclusion for a long 
 period is there deemed essential to reformation, but with us the 
 term of confinement is usually short in comparison. In those 
 prisons which are not adapted for the Separate plan, the Silent 
 system will always be advantageous ; the separate system, indeed, 
 includes the silent one, but adds something still more severe than 
 silence, namely, seclusion*}*. 
 
 The branch of my inquiries which has afforded me the most 
 unmixed satisfaction, is that which relates to the proportion of 
 deaths which occurs in the principal gaols of England. The 
 rate of mortality is, in most of these abodes, so remarkably 
 low, that I can confidently affirm, that in very few situations of 
 life is an adult less likely to die than in a well-conducted English 
 
 * " The expense of Penitentiaries built upon the Philadelphia plan is so con- 
 siderable, that it would seem to us imprudent to propose the adoption of this plan 
 for our country. Too heavy a burden would be thrown on society, for which the 
 most happy results of the system could hardly offer an equivalent. Yet the Auburn 
 system, whose merit in theory is not less incontestible, is, as we have shown above, 
 much cheaper in its execution ; it is, therefore, this system which we should wish 
 to see applied to our prisons, if the question were only to choose between the two." 
 (Beaum. et Tog., Amer. Transl., p. 90.) MM. Demetz and Blouet, recently 
 commissioned by the French government on a fresh investigation, report, that the 
 cost of each cell on the Philadelphia plan will be 3,561 francs for Paris, and 2,136 
 for the Provinces. 
 
 f As to the admitting prisoners to the privilege of conversing with their friends, 
 with the chaplain and surgeon and governor, in this respect the Silent and 
 Separate plans are similar, .and both admit of it. In short, separate con- 
 finement, means seclusion and silence, except when friends or prison officers 
 enter ; while the silent plan does not separate from the sight of fellow prisoners, 
 nor from labouring in gangs or groups, and admits the same facility of conversing 
 with friends, and with the officers of the prison. 
 
238 PIUSON DISCIPLINE. [SECT. I. 
 
 prison. A most remarkable difference is presented in this respect 
 by the prisons of America, France, Germany, and Belgium. It 
 would be irrelevant to pursue the subject any further in this 
 place. 
 
 It would be most advantageous if benevolent persons would 
 turn their attention to the helpless condition of the individual 
 who quits a prison, as well as to the discipline of its inmates. 
 Permanent reformation is hopeless, unless some means of gaining 
 a future livelihood are provided for the despised and rejected 
 being, against whom every door is closed, except that of the beer- 
 shop, and who often leaves his last home with scarcely a shilling 
 in his pocket. Some benevolent societies have been formed in our 
 own and other countries in order to afford an industrious asylum, 
 or the means of labour, to those who have been discharged from 
 prison. Others have been created for the reformation of juvenile 
 offenders, and for the education of the children of criminals. But 
 this moral wilderness has only been reclaimed in a few scanty 
 spots : it is but too vast, and the cultivators as yet are few. And 
 it is difficult to conceive a nobler, a more Christian employment 
 of money, of time, and of energy, than to supply the liberated 
 prisoner with an opportunity of earning an honest livelihood. 
 
 Those who are desirous of more minute information respecting 
 the prisons of Germany will do well to consult, in addition to the 
 works of Julius ; Friedlander, " Bibliographic Methodique des 
 Ouvrages publiees en Allemagne sur les Pauvres, precedee d'un 
 Coup d'CEil Historique sur les Pauvres, les Prisons, les Hopitaux," 
 (Paris, 1822) ; Ristelhueber, " Wegweiser der Literatur der 
 Waisenpflege, und der Gefangnisskunde," (Coin, 1831) ; Inglis's 
 "Tyrol," for an account of the prisons at Munich and Innspruck; 
 the Reports of the London Society for the Improvement of Prison 
 Discipline; and the "Journal des Prisons," edited at Paris by B. 
 Appert. For an account of the old aspect of these institutions, 
 reference may be made to the noble Howard's " State of Prisons." 
 
239 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 THE MINERAL WATERS AND BATHS OF GERMANY. 
 
 Aix-la-Chapelle. Alexanderbad. Alexisbad. Altwasser. Baden near 
 Vienna. Baden-Baden. Berka. Bocklet. Bruckenau. Cann- 
 
 stadt. Carlsbad. Carlsbrunn. Cudowa. Cuxhaven. Dinkhold. 
 
 Dobbelbad. Doberan. Draitsch. Eger. Eilsen* Ems. Fachin* 
 
 gen. Franzenbrunn. Freyenwalde. Gastein. Griesbach. Gross- 
 Wardein. Hercules-Baths. Hirschberg. Kissingm. Landeck. 
 
 Lauchstadt. Llebenstein. Mannersdorf. Marienbad. Meinberg. 
 
 Nenndorf. Nieder Selters. Nierenstein. Nordheim. Ofen. Puttbus. 
 
 Pyrmont. Rehburg. Reinerg. Rugenwalde. Salzbrunn. Schan- 
 
 dau. Schlangenbad. Schwalbach. Seidschutz. Sedlitz. Sellers. 
 
 Swinemunde. Teinach. Toeplitz. Travemunde. Warmbrunn. 
 Wisbaden. Wildbad. 
 
 THE baths, spas, or mineral waters of Germany, constitute so 
 large a portion of amusement, health, and profit to the inhabitants, 
 are so attractive to strangers, and enter so widely into its natural 
 history and social geography, that it requires no apology to intro- 
 duce them at some length to the reader. Those who desire more 
 copious illustrations will probably have recourse to the volumes 
 lately published by Dr. Granville, and to the German works of 
 Osann, Bley, Richter, and Mosch : the literature of Germany is par- 
 ticularly rich in all that relates to the history of baths and mineral 
 waters; they appear, indeed, to have always been a matter of 
 fonder interest to the Germans than to other Europeans. We have 
 preferred the alphabetical arrangement, as most convenient for 
 reference. Their celebrity is constantly fluctuating : new springs 
 rise occasionally into a notoriety, not always dependant on their 
 positive efficacy, but humble slaves to the caprices of speculating 
 proprietors, and of distinguished visitors. 
 
 Aix-la-Chapelle. This town, one of the most noted of the 
 German watering-places, boasts of an illustrious antiquity. Its 
 
240 MINERAL WATERS OF GERMANY. [SECT. I. 
 
 situation, on the boundaries of three monarchies, has greatly con- 
 tributed to its celebrity. It is now annually frequented by 
 between four and five thousand persons. Its hot sulphureous 
 waters are both used for bathing and are taken internally, and 
 maintain their early celebrity as a curative agent in gout, abdo- 
 minal diseases, cutaneous affections, and obstructions. 
 
 Two products of these springs deserve a particular mention, 
 viz., der Badestein (bathstone) .deposited in the tubes through 
 which the waters are conducted, and the sulphur precipitated by 
 the vapour of the Kaiser Spring. This latter is esteemed purer 
 than any other sulphur, and is, therefore, always preferred for 
 medicinal purposes. There are several chalybeate springs, one 
 of which has only lately been discovered. 
 
 Since 1831, thermal salt has been prepared from the springs 
 of Aix-la-Chapelle, and this, together with the thermal sulphur, 
 precipitated by the Kaiser Spring, will render it possible to imitate 
 the waters at a distance, as far as nature can be imitated. 
 
 There are hotels in immediate connexion with most of the 
 baths. Private lodgings cost from one to four dollars weekly. 
 In the hotels, for the same period, from four to ten Prussian 
 dollars are paid ; the price of dinner at the table d'hote, is from 
 one-third to two-thirds of a Prussian dollar. 
 
 The hire of coaches is dear ; for instance, from four to six 
 dollars are paid for a single afternoon's ride. 
 
 Amongst the numerous places of amusement and public resort 
 are the gambling Casino, the concert and ball-rooms, tea-gardens, 
 Tivoli, and some neighbouring villages, romantically situated. 
 
 The latest and best works on Aix-la-Chapelle and its mineral 
 springs, are Beschreibung von Aachen von Quite, 4to. Ausgabe, 
 1829 ; and Die Heilquellen von Aachen, von J. P. Monheim, 
 Aachen and Leipsic, 1829. 
 
 ANALYSIS OP THE KAISER SPRING. 
 
 1. Solid matter in sixteen ounces. 
 
 Sulphate of Soda Is grains. 
 
 Muriate of ditto - 22 T s ff do. 
 
 Carbonate of ditto 4 5 3 5 do. 
 
 Carbonate of Lime ..... A do. 
 
 Carbonate of Magnesia 3 do. 
 
CH. XIV.] MINERAL WATERS OF GERMANY. 241 
 
 2. Gaseous matter in sixteen ounces. 
 
 Carbonic Acid Gas - - - - - 85 cubic inches. 
 
 Sulphuretted Hydrogen - - - - - 13j do. 
 
 Alexanderbad, in Bavaria, lies half a league from the town of 
 Wunsiedel, and close to the village of Sichersreuth. The acidu- 
 lated spring here was discovered in 1734, and the building which 
 encloses it, erected in 1741. The last margraves of Branden- 
 burg-Baireuth expended large sums of money on this watering- 
 place, in erecting several buildings which form a half-circle. 
 Numerous and very diversified walks in the charming neighbour- 
 hood render a stay here extremely agreeable. Curious masses of 
 rock claim especially the attention of the visitor. The spring is 
 somewhat similar to the Selter-water. A very agreeable beverage 
 is made by mixing it with wine, sugar, and currant-juice. It is 
 an excellent remedy in cases of relaxation, mucous cough, 
 diarrhoea, female complaints, eruptions and sores. On account 
 of its tonic quality, it is often taken after a course of the Carlsbad 
 waters. The place is not at present very much frequented, 
 although living there is cheap and very agreeable. 
 
 The next post-station is Wunsiedel. The best account of this 
 mineral spring is by Vogel, Die Mineralquellen des Konigreichs 
 Baiern. Alexanderbad is seventy-one leagues from Munich. 
 ANALYSIS OP THE SPRING, BY VOGEL. 
 
 Sulphate of Soda O'lO grains in 16 oz. 
 
 Carbonate of ditto 0'30 do. 
 
 Muriate of ditto 0'20 do. 
 
 Carbonate of Magnesia - - - - 0*25 do. 
 
 Carbonate of Lime - 112 do. 
 
 Carbonate of Iron 0'28 do. 
 
 Silica 0-25 do. 
 
 Solid matter .... 2'50 do. 
 
 Carbonic Acid Gas, 28*2 cubic inches in 16 oz. 
 
 Alexisbad. This celebrated watering-place is situated in the 
 Seekethal, in the Lower Harz, and in the duchy of Anhalt- 
 Bernburg. The spring here was first discovered by the miners, 
 who, at an early period, were familiar with this romantic region. 
 But it was not till the year 1766 that it was chemically examined, 
 and it was first visited by invalids in the succeeding year. It 
 
242 MINERAL WATERS OF GERMANY. [SECT. I. 
 
 never, however, became much known, till in 1800, the researches 
 of Von Grafe, who was then surgeon to the duke of Anhalt, esta- 
 blished its reputation. 
 
 In the years 1809 and 1810, the first buildings were erected, 
 and in 1812, the number of visitors was three hundred and 
 fifty-six. Since that time, two chalybeate springs have been 
 discovered in the immediate neighbourhood. 
 
 The principal buildings at Alexisbad are, the Saloon, with 
 adjoining gaming-rooms, the Lodging-house, containing sixty 
 apartments, the Traiteur-house, with thirty rooms for the use of 
 travellers, the New Baths, and the Ducal Pavilion, situated on the 
 banks of a mountain-stream, surrounded by beautiful and roman- 
 tic walks. The expense here is moderate, particularly that of 
 lodging and bathing. 
 
 The neighbouring little town of Harzgerode furnishes the 
 necessaries of life, and receives visitors when Alexisbad is full. 
 
 The nearest post-station is Ballenstadt. The best account of 
 the mineral spring is by Grafe. 
 
 ANALYSIS BY GRAFE. 
 
 Sulphate of Soda l'| grains in 16 oz. 
 
 Sulphate of Magnesia ... 0*{| do. 
 
 Sulphate of Lime ----- O'f do. 
 
 Resinous extractive matter - - 0' do. 
 
 Muriate of Magnesia - - - - O'f do. 
 
 Muriate of Lime O'f do. 
 
 Sulphate of Iron 1'f do. 
 
 Muriate of ditto l- T 5 g do. 
 
 Carbonate of ditto - - - - - <H do- 
 Solid matter - - - 6- T 5 B do. 
 
 Altwasser is a village .in the circle of Waldenburg, in the 
 Prussian province of Silesia. It has been a watering-place since 
 the middle of the last century, and was formerly much frequented 
 by the Polish nobility. 
 
 The waters are prescribed in abdominal affections, gout, melan- 
 choly, chlorosis, hysteria, and nervous weakness. 
 
 There are five fountains. The principal ingredients of the 
 waters are the carbonates of soda, lime and magnesia, and car- 
 bonic acid gas, in the proportion of twenty-four cubic inches 
 
CH. XIV.] MINERAL WATERS OF GERMANY. 243 
 
 in sixteen ounces. Here, as in all the larger Silesian watering- 
 places, the guests are divided into three classes with respect to 
 the charge for bathing; the first pays seven groschen, the second 
 and the third three, for a bath. 
 
 The place is pleasantly situated in a narrow valley, and contains 
 a royal palace. The walks in the neighbourhood are delightful. 
 A musical corps of the miners plays every day on the promenade. 
 
 Many invalids drink the waters of the neighbouring Salzbrunn, 
 and only bathe at Altwasser. This place is becoming more fre- 
 quented than formerly. The nearest post-station is Friedland. 
 
 Baden near Vienna. This watering-place is situated in a 
 delightful neighbourhood, and boasts of a beautiful park, a 
 theatre, a casino, several palaces, and numerous seats of Austrian 
 nobles. The water is strongly impregnated with salts and sulphur, 
 and with it is made an artificial slime for medicinal application. 
 The springs are efficacious in incipient mucous phthisis, in gout, 
 cutaneous diseases, paralysis, contractions, scrofula, and various 
 sores. They are used both for bathing and drinking. Till within 
 the last fe\v years, Baden has been the most frequented of German, 
 watering-places ; it combines all the advantages of an agreeable 
 way of life, with very moderate prices. Lodging is particularly 
 cheap. The neighbourhood is extremely attractive. In 1831, 
 the monthly rent of a room was from twelve to twenty-five florins. 
 Vienna is two German miles from Baden. 
 
 ANALYSIS OF THE SPRING, BY VOLTA. 
 
 Sulphate of Soda If grains in 16 oz. 
 
 Muriate of Soda .... 3 do. 
 
 Sulphate of Lime - - - - - 3 do. 
 
 Carbonate of Lime - - - - 3 $ do. 
 
 Sulphate of Magnesia - - - - 1| do. 
 
 Carbonate of do. 2 5 8 T do. 
 
 Muriate of Alumina - - 1 do. 
 
 Carbonic Acid Gas - - - - 1 ^f cubic inches in 16 oz. 
 Sulphuretted Hydrogen - - - 4f do. 
 
 Baden-Baden is situated on the Os or Oesbach, in the grand 
 duchy of Baden. Its celebrated warm springs were known at a 
 very remote period. The town contains about four hundred 
 houses and three thousand inhabitants. It was founded by the 
 
 B 2 
 
244 MINERAL WATERS OF GERMANY. [SECT. I. 
 
 emperor Adrian, and embellished by Aurelius Antoninus. Baden 
 and its neighbourhood are beautified by numerous private seats, 
 by lovely walks, vineries, meadows and English gardens. There 
 are several ancient buildings, which have been converted to modern 
 purposes. There are sixteen principal springs. In August, 1832, 
 the number of visitors at Baden was eight thousand. The public 
 buildings are remarkably numerous and splendid. The waters 
 are prescribed for gout, paralysis, cutaneous diseases, ulcers, 
 and abdominal affections. The best account of this noted place is 
 contained in Schrader's Geschichte Badens. The best German 
 society is not to be sought here ; but there is no lack of gambling 
 and dissipation. 
 
 ANALYSIS OF THE PRINCIPAL SPRING, BY SALZER. 
 
 Muriate of Soda 17 A grains in 16 oz. 
 
 Sulphate of Lime .... 2 f do. 
 
 Muriate of do. ----- 1 T V do. 
 
 Carbonate of do. - ... 1 T 4 5 5 5 do. 
 
 Muriate of Magnesia - - - - || do. 
 
 Oxide of Iron - - - - 5 3 S do. 
 
 JBerka is situated on the river Ilm, in the grand duchy of 
 Saxe-Weimar, about three leagues from the capital. A sulphureous 
 spring was discovered here in 1813, and a chalybeate one in the 
 succeeding year. They rise in a meadow which has since been 
 changed into a garden. In the buildings and arrangements, the 
 convenience of the invalid, and the pleasure of the gayer visitors, 
 are alike regarded. The nearest post-station is Weimar. 
 
 Booklet is a village in the valley of the river Saale, about two 
 leagues from Kissingen and fourteen from Wiirzburg, where there 
 is an excellent chalybeate spring. The neighbourhood presents 
 delightful valleys, skirted by well-wooded hills. The baths are 
 enclosed in six noble buildings ; and the whole is the property of 
 the state. The beauty of the neighbourhood, and the excellent 
 arrangements which have been made there, have rendered Bocklet 
 a very fashionable resort. The houses are elegantly furnished, 
 and the beds excellent. A dinner costs from twenty-four to forty 
 kreutzers. The way of life here is stiller and more retired than in 
 most watering-places. The waters are particularly efficacious in 
 all nervous affections, chronic maladies, and diseases of females. 
 
CH. XIV.] MINERAL WATERS OF GERMANY. 245 
 
 They ebb and flow about every twenty-eight hours. For further 
 particulars, see Dr. Haus's Bocklet und seine Heilquellen, 
 Wurxburg, 1831. 
 
 ANALYSIS OF THE LUDWIGSQTJELLE AND FHIEDREICHSQUELLE,BY VOGEL. 
 
 Ludwigsq. Friedreichsq. 
 
 Muriate of Soda - - 27*50 grains 5 -50 grains in 16 oz. 
 
 Sulphate of Soda - - G'25 do 3-25 do. 
 
 Muriate of Potash - - 1'25 'do 075 do. 
 
 Muriate of Magnesia - 0*75 do 075 do. 
 
 Carbonate of Lime - 7 -25 do 6'25 do. 
 
 Carbonate of Magnesia - 1*25 do 0'75 do. j 
 
 Carbonate of Iron - - 0'65 do 0'25 do. 
 
 Silica - --- 0'50 do 0'25 do. 
 
 Of Carbonic Acid Gas, 31 cubic inches are contained in 16 ounces of the 
 Ludwigsquelle, and 26| in the Friedreichsquelle. 
 
 Briickenau. This ancient Bavarian watering-place is situated 
 in the Upper Mayn circle. It owes its present celebrity to the 
 patronage of the king of Bavaria, and to the assertion of Hufeland 
 that its waters, great quantities of which are exported, are equal 
 to those of Schwalbach ; they are said to DC the purest chalybeate 
 known. They are as clear as crystal, very brisk, and pleasantly 
 acid. Their medicinal effect is decidedly tonic, and they are par- 
 ticularly efficacious in nervous disorders. The spring rises half 
 a league from the town in a lovely valley. The public buildings 
 are numerous, and very tastefully and conveniently constructed. 
 Briickenau is a post-station. 
 
 Cannstadt is an old town in the kingdom of Wurtemberg, 
 about two English miles from Stuttgard, and situated in the 
 lovely valley of the Neckar. In this place there are no less than 
 thirty-seven mineral springs. The effect which the water pro- 
 duces upon the animal system is, to invigorate the secreting 
 organs ; it is also a laxative and a reputed solvent. The bathing- 
 houses are commodious. A dinner at the best table d'hote costs 
 forty-eight kreutzers. There are vineries in the neighbourhood, 
 which presents numerous interesting objects to the antiquarian 
 and lover of nature. The climate is mild and pleasant. Never- 
 theless, Cannstadt is not much frequented, except for a few days, 
 by persons from Stuttgard. The principal ingredients of the 
 
246 MINERAL WATERS OF GERMANY. [SECT. I. 
 
 water are muriate of soda and carbonic acid gas, with both of 
 which it is strongly impregnated. 
 
 Carlsbad is situated in the kingdom of Bohemia, on both sides 
 of the river Tepel, at about forty degrees North latitude, and at 
 one hundred and eighty-two fathoms above the level of the sea. 
 This celebrated watering-place derives its origin and name from 
 the emperor Charles the Fourth, who recovered here from the 
 wounds he had received at the battle of Cressy. 
 
 In 1581, the first bathing-house for the poor was erected here 
 by the count of Schlick. Altogether, there are at least a dozen 
 springs. Numerous relics are faithfully preserved at Carlsbad of 
 the noble and illustrious guests who have visited it from time to 
 time. Several parts of the town are named after different dis- 
 tinguished visitors. In 1832, Carlsbad contained four hundred 
 and fifteen houses, and three thousand two hundred inhabitants. 
 In the season, it presents a scene of remarkable variety and anima- 
 tion. Since 1831, arrangements have been made in order that the 
 baths may be used in winter as well as in summer. A bath costs, 
 according to the style of building and furniture, from twelve to 
 twenty-four kreutzers. The year 1833 was one of the most brilliant 
 that Carlsbad has ever seen ; 6,500 visitors were present, amongst 
 whom were several crowned heads, and renowned generals. A 
 peculiar custom here is, that no one is allowed to carry arms ; 
 even officers are not permitted to wear their side-arms. 
 
 A good dinner at a table cThote costs thirty-six kreutzers. 
 There are numbers of ruins, romantic villages, valleys, &c., in 
 the neighbourhood, to which, during the season, excursions are 
 constantly made. Since the discovery of the Carlsbad springs, 
 several hundred persons have written respecting them. A good 
 modern author on the subject, is Porsehrnann, Der Schloss- 
 brunnen %u Carlsbad. Prag. 1817- Dr. de Cairo has written 
 a guide-book, in the French language. 
 
 ANALYSIS OF THE SPRUDEL AT CARLSBAD, BY BERZELIUS. 
 
 Sulphate of Soda IG'86916 grains in 16 oz. 
 
 Muriate of ditto 7 '97583 do. 
 
 Carbonate of ditto 9-69500 do. 
 
 Carbonate of Lime .... 10'05005 do. 
 
CH. XIV.] MINERAL WATERS OF GERMANY. 24<7 
 
 Fluoride of Calcium .... '02458 grains in 16 oz. 
 
 Phosphate of Lime .... 0'00169 do. 
 
 Carbonate of Strontia .... '00737 do. 
 
 Carbonate of Magnesia - - - I '36965 do. 
 
 Phosphate of Alumina .... '00246 do. 
 
 Carbonate of Iron ... - '02780 do. 
 
 Carbonate of Manganese - - - '00645 do. 
 
 Silica 0-57725 do. 
 
 Solid matter- - - 49'60719 do. 
 
 Carlsbrunn is situated in Austrian Silesia, about three leagues 
 from Freudenthal, which is the nearest post-station. It lies in the 
 narrow, wild, and well- wooded valley of the Oppa. It contains 
 chalybeate and acidulous springs. The buildings consist of 
 a bathing-house, some lodging-houses, a public room, and an 
 hotel. This is one of those retired watering-places which are only 
 visited by invalids. There are some wild and extensive views in 
 the neighbourhood. 
 
 Cudowa is a village in the circle of Glatz, in Prussian Silesia, 
 very near the Bohemian boundaries. It contains several extensive 
 bathing-houses, and other buildings. The springs are alkaline- 
 chalybeate, and are amongst the strongest in Germany. In 1829, 
 185 families, consisting of 348 persons, visited Cudowa, but 
 the number has since diminished. The nearest post-station is 
 Reinerz. 
 
 Cuochaven, a watering-place, is situated at the mouth of the 
 Elbe, on the North Sea. It has been a sea-bathing place since 
 1816. It boasts of a beautiful new bathing-house, near the 
 haven, which contains a great number of apartments, halls, and 
 galleries. On the beach are conveyances for sea-bathing. In the 
 evening, there are always amusements here, such as balls, and con- 
 certs. The nearest post-station is Ritzebuttel. 
 
 Dinkhold, in Nassau, situated not far from where the Lahn 
 falls into the Rhine, contains an alkaline-chalybeate spring. It is 
 rich in iron, bitter, but not unpleasant, and is a very good tonic 
 and stomachic. The nearest post-station is Ems. 
 
 Dobbelbad is a bathing-place in Styria, about half a league from 
 Gratz. It is the property of the States-general. The waters are 
 
248 MINERAL WATERS OF GERMANY. [SECT. I. 
 
 cold, sharp, and bitter, and contain calcareous and chalybeate 
 salts. Most of the visitors here are females. The nearest post- 
 station is Gratz. 
 
 Doberan is a market-town of the grand duchy of Mecklenburg- 
 Schwerin, about half a mile from which, on the shore of the 
 Baltic, is the oldest and most popular sea-bathing place in 
 Germany. It contains a ducal palace, with beautiful gardens, 
 There is also a handsome theatre, and a large public room in the 
 form of a pavilion. This place was a favourite residence of the 
 late lamented grand duke. There are several lakes in the neigh- 
 bourhood. In the month of August, swan-hunting on the Covent- 
 lake is a favourite amusement. The nearest post-station is 
 Rostock. 
 
 Draitsch) or Godesberg, is situated near the Rhine, about a 
 league from Bonn. About a hundred yards from this lovely 
 village there is a mineral spring. It has been a watering-place 
 since 1789, but was much more frequented before the French war 
 than at present. Dr. Harless, of Bonn, has examined the waters, 
 and pronounced them to be chalybeate, and mildly stimulant. 
 The part of the Rhine valley in which this place is situated, is 
 extremely beautiful; on the one side it is bounded by the Seven 
 Mountains, the foremost of which is the Drachenfels, and on the 
 other by woody hills. The nearest post-station is Bonn. 
 
 Eger, or Franxenbrunn, is a watering-place in the Ellbogner 
 circle of the kingdom of Bohemia. The springs are half a mile 
 from the town. The buildings round them are remarkable for 
 their elegance and convenience. Prices here are moderate; 
 thirty-six kreutzers are paid for an excellent dinner at a table 
 d'hote. There are four springs. From 150,000 to 200,000 
 bottles of the water are exported annually. Their medicinal 
 effects are universally celebrated in affections of the lungs, 
 kidneys, and liver. The way of life at Eger is tranquil and 
 retired. It is one of the few places where the guests have free 
 license to hunt. The season commences rather later than in most 
 other places, and lasts till the middle of September. The number 
 of visitors is between nine hundred and a thousand annually. 
 The climate is rather cold. The town of Eger is a post-station. 
 
CH.;XIV.] MINERAL WATERS OF GERMANY. 249 
 
 ANALYSIS OF THE PRINCIPAL SPRING, BY TROMSDORF. 
 
 Muriate of Soda 8 '9333 grains in 16 oz. 
 
 Sulphate of ditto .... 25-4166 do. 
 
 Bicarbonate of ditto .... 8'4556 do. 
 
 Carbonate of Lime - 1-6000 do. 
 
 Ditto of Magnesia 0'5333 do. 
 
 Ditto of Lithia 0*0026 do. 
 
 Ditto of Strontia - - -. - - 0'0013 do. 
 
 Ditto of Iron 0'0680 do. 
 
 Ditto of Manganese .... 0*0040 do. 
 
 Phosphate of Lime - ... 0-0213 do. 
 
 Phosphate of Magnesia - - - - 0-0106 do. 
 
 Silica 0-3666 do. 
 
 Solid matter - - - 45-4142 in 16 oz. 
 Carbonic Acid Gas, 21'106 cubic inches in 16 oz. 
 
 Eilsen is situated in the principality of Lippe-Schaumburg, 
 a league from the capital, Biickeburg, and twelve leagues from 
 the city of Hanover. It is a poor village, but rich in mineral 
 springs, of which seven are saline and sulphureous, and four 
 chalybeate. The bathing-house, which is an excellent building, 
 is the property of the prince. In 1833, the season commenced 
 June 1, and ended September 2. The large lodging-house con- 
 tains 140 rooms. In the season, balls and concerts are the chief 
 amusements; gambling is forbidden to the natives. The sur- 
 rounding country is agreeable. Biickeburg is the nearest post- 
 station. 
 
 Ems, in the duchy of Nassau, lies in the deep and narrow 
 valley of the Lahn. The baths here were known to the Romans, 
 and were celebrated throughout the middle ages. The public 
 buildings are elegant, extensive, and very commodious. The 
 price of a room, in 1832, in the two large bathing-houses, was 
 from twenty-four kreutzers to two florins, daily. A good dinner 
 costs about a florin ; wine is at forty-eight kreutzers a bottle. 
 This place is extremely rich in mineral springs, which have been 
 found particularly efficacious in diseases of the eyes, also in 
 glandular and cutaneous disorders. The fashionable period 
 for Ems, was between the years 1815 and 1820. On this 
 
250 MINERAL WATERS OF GERMANY. [SECT. I. 
 
 watering-place, read Hiilshoff, Ems und seine Quellen. Mun- 
 ster, 1831. 
 
 ANALYSIS OF THE KRAENCHEN SPRING, BY STUVE. 
 
 Sulphate of Potash 0'5924 grains in 16 oz. 
 
 Sulphate of Soda 0-1213 do. 
 
 Muriate of ditto 7'7974 do. 
 
 Carbonate of ditto - 0'7H8 do. 
 
 Carbonate of Lithia - - - - 0-0167 do. 
 
 Silica 0-4139 do. 
 
 Phosphate of Alumina .... 0'0018 do. 
 
 FluateofLime 0'0019 do. 
 
 Carbonate of ditto 0*1407 do. 
 
 Ditto of Magnesia .... 0'7887 do. 
 
 Ditto of Strontia ----- 0-0107 do. 
 
 Ditto of Barytes 0*0020 do. 
 
 Ditto of Iron 0-0164 do. 
 
 Ditto of Manganese . - ... 0-0037 do. 
 
 Solid matter - - 19'6194 do. 
 
 Fachingen is in the duchy of Nassau, two miles north of 
 Wisbaden, on the Lahn. The mineral waters of this place are 
 universally celebrated, and sent even to America. The village 
 lies between high mountains ; the springs rise in a meadow, and 
 are three in number. The taste of the principal one is piquant, 
 acidulated, and somewhat, bitter, and contains a good deal of car- 
 bonic acid gas, and iron. It is efficacious in crudities, obstruc- 
 tions, and weakness of digestion, also in gouty and nervous 
 affections. The place is not frequented by invalids, but 300,000 
 bottles of the water have been exported annually. The nearest 
 post-station is Limburg. 
 
 Franzenbrunn. See Eger. 
 
 Freyenwalde is a town not far from the Oder, in the Prussian 
 province of Brandenburg. About half a league distant from it, in 
 a meadow- valley surrounded by wooded hills, is a mineral spring 
 and bathing-house. Round these are other buildings, one of 
 which is a small theatre. This place was formerly much patro- 
 nized by the Prussian royal family. Here Frederic William I. 
 used to send his giant-grenadiers. The waters are not particularly 
 efficacious, but have been found useful in gout and rheumatism ; 
 
CH. XIV. MINERAL WATERS OF GERMANY. 251 
 
 they are chalybeate; and are said to taste like ink, and smell like 
 gunpowder. The neighbourhood is extremely agreeable. The 
 town is a post-station. 
 
 Gastein. This Austrian watering-place, situated in the Salz- 
 zach circle, was known to the Romans, and strongly recom- 
 mended by Paracelsus. It lies at the foot of mountains which 
 are a continuation of the Norian Alps. There are here four 
 principal springs, and a bathing-house for horses. The place is 
 visited by about one thousand guests annually, chiefly of the 
 higher classes, and foreigners. 
 
 The waters are clear, are without either smell or taste, and 
 contain no gas ; and in 16 oz., only 2 grains of solid matter, 
 which is chiefly mineral alkali. The warmest of the springs 
 elevates the thermometer to 35 Reaumur, and possesses the 
 property of affecting the magnetic needle, which, however, 
 the water loses as it cools. The springs are very promotive 
 of vegetable fertility. They are prescribed in nervous relaxa- 
 tion, hypochondriasis, and scrofula. Gastein is sixteen miles 
 from Salzburg. The latest author on this place is Strietz, Les 
 Bains de Gastein^ et leur effet admirable dans les Maladies les 
 plus desesperees. Gastein is a post-station. 
 
 Godesberg. See Draitsch. 
 
 Griesbach is a small village near fVeudenstadt, in the duchy 
 of Baden. The spring for which it is celebrated is a saline- 
 chalybeate, which has been found beneficial in incipient diseases 
 of the lungs, hemorrhoids, gout, and jaundice. The neighbour- 
 hood consists of meadows, intersected by trout-streams, and 
 bounded by hills. There are also some wide and woody pro- 
 spects. Some years ago, it was visited by the grand duke. The 
 nearest post-station is Freudenstadt. 
 
 Gross- Wardein, a watering-place in Hungary, is an important 
 town in the Bihar district. The warm springs rise in the neigh- 
 bouring mountains, and flow towards the town. They contain 
 iron, selenium, and sulphate of magnesia, and enjoy great reputa- 
 tion in the cure of stone, paralysis, and diseases of the skin. 
 
 The banks of the streams in which these waters flow, are often 
 covered with tents pitched by visitors from the neighbourhood. 
 
252 MINERAL WATERS OF GERMANY. [SECT. I. 
 
 No good analysis has yet been made of these springs. The town 
 is a post-station. 
 
 Hercules- Baths, or Mehadia. These Hungarian springs rise 
 in Banat, and in the district of the Wallachian-Illyrian regiment. 
 They are all warm ; some 42 (R.) They were esteemed by the 
 Romans, and are now visited annually by 1,400 persons from 
 Hungary, Croatia, Sclavonia, Transylvania, &c. By the Romans 
 they were consecrated to Hercules. In the dark and barbarous 
 ages, amidst frequent wars and migrations, and under the 
 dominion of the crescent, they were neglected and forgotten. 
 Though the springs are sometimes called Mehadia, they rise 
 nearly a mile from that town, in the long and romantic valley of 
 the Czerna. 
 
 There are a great number of baths in splendid public build- 
 ings, arranged with every imaginable attention to comfort and 
 convenience. Ball, concert and billiard-rooms, and all the other 
 buildings common to watering-places, are here in abundance. 
 The waters are very rich in hydrogen, and are useful in relaxa- 
 tion, cutaneous disorders, paralysis, and the sequelae of apoplexy. 
 The credit which they enjoy in the neighbourhood is unbounded. 
 See Dr. Schwarzott, Die Herkulesbdder bei Mehadia. Wien, 
 1831. 
 
 Hirschberg, or Warmbrynn, is a small but beautiful market- 
 town, lying on both banks of the Zacken in Prussian Silesia, in 
 the district of Liegnitz. The warm sulphureous springs here 
 were discovered in 1176, and since that time their reputation has 
 always been very extensive. They are now surrounded by four 
 hundred noble buildings, and were visited in 1831, by 2,958 
 persons, of whom 2,617 were invalids. There are six principal 
 bathing-houses; also, an hospital for the poor, of whom four 
 hundred annually receive, gratuitously, the benefit of these waters. 
 
 The temperature of these springs is from 24 to 30 (R.) They 
 are used with good effect in rheumatism, gout, glandular, cuta- 
 neous, abdominal affections, and inflammation of the eyes. 
 
 In respect to the situation and surrounding country, few 
 watering-places can compete with it. Pumps and vapour-baths 
 are here, comparatively, very cheap, and the necessaries of life 
 
CH. XIV.] MINERAL WATERS OF GERMANY. 253 
 
 not expensive. The latest description of this watering-place is 
 by Bergemann, Warmbrunn und seine Heilquellen. Hirschberg, 
 1831. Hirschberg is a post-station. 
 
 ANALYSIS OF THE PROBSTEI-BAD, BY TSCHORTNER. 
 
 Carbonate of Soda 5 '014 grains in 16 oz. 
 
 Sulphate of ditto 2*666 do. 
 
 Sulphate of Lime ----- 0*290 do. 
 
 Muriate of Soda ----- 0*666 do. 
 
 Carbonate of Lime ----- 1*043 do. 
 
 Silica 0*754 do. 
 
 Resin 0*057 do. 
 
 Solid matter - - - 10*490 do. 
 
 Sulphuretted Hydrogen Gas, 6*666 cubic inches in 16 oz. 
 
 Kissingen is a Bavarian town, in the Lower Majn circle, the 
 rising celebrity of which is to be attributed to the peculiar excel- 
 lence of its mineral waters, and to the improvements in its 
 establishments. The town lies in a valley of meadows, enclosed 
 by vine-clad hills ; past it flows the river Saale. The situation 
 and whole neighbourhood of the place are extremely beautiful. 
 The bathing-houses and other public buildings are in the most 
 elegant style. The principal spring is called the Ragotzi ; its 
 waters are clear and bright when firs.t drawn, but they shortly 
 turn yellowish, and deposit a red sediment. To the taste, they 
 are acidulated, salt and bitter. They are very efficacious in 
 indigestion, gout, affections of the kidneys, congestion, and cuta- 
 neous diseases. 
 
 Another spring, the Pandur, which is very rich in carbonic 
 acid gas, is at once a laxative and a remedy in diarrhoea. Pro- 
 visions here are good, particularly the wines, and prices not high. 
 
 In 1833, there were 1,400 guests at Kissingen, amongst whom 
 were members of several royal familes. 
 
 Landeck is a town in Prussian Silesia, which gives its name to 
 some mineral springs about a quarter of a league from it. These 
 were celebrated as early as the thirteenth century, but were 
 nearly forgotten, when they were visited in 1766, by Frederic 
 the Great. 
 
254 MINERAL WATERS OF GERMANY. [SECT. I. 
 
 The public buildings underwent great improvement at the 
 beginning of this century. The number of guests here annually, 
 some years ago, was from six hundred to eight hundred; at 
 present it does not amount to more than five hundred. There 
 are four principal baths. The hotels are not very good. One 
 of the springs has a temperature of 84 (F.) Another, which 
 contains a great deal of sulphuretted hydrogen, is given with 
 good effect in gout, scrofula, and some cases of hemorrhage. 
 
 The surrounding country is rich in natural beauties ; most of 
 the neighbouring streams contain trout. The nearest post-station 
 is Glatz. 
 
 Lauchstadt is situated in Prussian Saxony, in the circle of 
 Merseburg. A saline chalybeate spring was discovered here in 
 1810. There are several excellent public buildings, among which 
 is a theatre, formerly honoured by the superintendance of the 
 poet Goethe. 
 
 In 1831, there were four hundred visitors at Lauchstadt. The 
 springs here never freeze, and maintain an equable temperature 
 of 48 (F.) This place is a mile from Merseburg, which is the 
 nearest post-station. 
 
 Liebenstein is a village in the duchy of Saxe-Meiningen, two 
 German miles and a half south of Eisenach, and four north of 
 Meiningen. It lies on the south-western border of the Thurin- 
 gian forest, in a romantic and fruitful country. Its springs have 
 been celebrated since 1606. 
 
 The public buildings are excellent. Dinners cost from twenty- 
 four kreutzers to a florin; from four to six florins are paid monthly 
 for a room. There are several natural curiosities in the neigh- 
 bourhood. The waters are strongly impregnated with alkalies, 
 iron, and carbonic acid gas, and are of great service in the treat- 
 ment of hypochondriasis, hysteria, and weakness of the stomach. 
 
 The nearest post-station is Wizelrode. The queen dowager 
 of England resided here during her visit to Germany, in 1834. 
 
 Mannersdorf is situated at a short distance to the south-east 
 of Vienna. Its alkaline springs are much warmer in winter than 
 in summer, and contain ten grains of selenium, and twelve of 
 sulphate of magnesia, in every two pounds. They are very 
 
CH. XIV.] MINERAL WATERS OF GERMANY. 255 
 
 serviceable in all disorders arising from congestion, local or 
 general. The next post-station is Wimpassing. 
 
 Marienbad is situated in Bohemia, at about 49 North latitude, 
 and lies about three hundred and twenty-two fathoms above the 
 level of the sea. This noted watering-place is of recent celebrity; 
 in 1813, its springs flowed neglected through a region, which 
 answered exactly to the description of the ancient German marshy 
 forests, intersected by streams, and interrupted by rocky moun- 
 tains. Since that time, however, at least eighty elegant buildings 
 have sprung up round the mineral springs in this wilderness. 
 In 1832, there were 1,528 visitors, of whom one hundred and 
 forty were Prussians, seventy-eight Russians, and fifty-four Poles. 
 
 The walks in the neighbourhood are extremely agreeable. 
 There are five principal mineral springs, strongly impregnated 
 with mineral alkali and carbonic acid gas. These waters are 
 largely exported, having been found very beneficial in congestions, 
 scrofula and dropsy ; but the respective springs differ so much 
 in their chemical composition, that there is scarcely any complaint 
 for which one or other of them may not be adapted. 
 
 Accounts of these springs are to be found in the forty-sixth 
 volume of " Hufeland^s Journal,"" and in Gerle^s Beschreibung der 
 Bohmischen B cider. Prag. 1827- The nearest post-station is 
 Plan. 
 
 Meinberg is a village and watering-place in the principality of 
 Lippe-Detmold, very near the Prussian boundaries. The public 
 buildings are good, and the musical band excellent. Gambling, 
 beyond a certain extent, is not permitted. The family of the 
 prince of Lippe visits Meinberg almost every year. The springs 
 are alkaline and sulphureous. The nearest post-station is 
 Detmold. 
 
 A r enndorfis a pretty village and watering-place, in the county 
 of Schaumburg, belonging to the electorate of Hesse. The first 
 buildings were erected here in 1786; the principal are, the 
 electoral palace, three bathing-houses, and a lodging-house. The 
 arrangements are admirably adapted for the convenience of 
 visitors. There are three principal springs, each containing a 
 large proportion of sulphur. For a detailed account of their 
 
256 MINERAL WATERS OF GERMANY. [SECT. I. 
 
 medicinal effect, see Wutzer, Ueber die Schwefelquellen %u 
 Nenndorf 9 Leipsig, 1824. Nenndorf is a post-station. 
 
 Niederselters, or Setters, is situated in the dukedom of Nassau, 
 on the road between Frankfort and Cologne, three leagues from 
 Limburg, which is the nearest post-station. Its mineral springs, 
 which are amongst the most celebrated in Europe, were discovered 
 in the middle of the sixteenth century. In 1819, one and a half 
 million bottles of these waters were exported, and in 1832 it had 
 considerably increased. The temperature of the springs is 12 
 (R.) The present price of one hundred bottles is from fourteen 
 to sixteen florins. This water increases the activity of the 
 lymphatic and glandular system, and not being heating, is 
 equally adapted for the plethoric and the debilitated. Bischoff* 
 published the latest work on the Sellers' waters in 1826. 
 
 ANALYSIS OF BISCHOFF. 
 
 Carbonate of Soda .... 5*8553 grains desiccated in 16 oz. 
 
 Sulphate of do .... 0*2488 do. 
 
 Muriate of do. .... 16*2855 do. 
 
 Phosphate of do. .... 0*2748 do. 
 
 Carbonate of Lime ... 1*8672 do. 
 
 Carbonate of Magnesia - - -1*5958 do. 
 
 Carbonate of Iron ... 0*1542 do. 
 
 Silica 0-2892 do. 
 
 Solid matter - - - 26*5703 do. 
 
 Carbonic Acid" Gas - - - - 15*5714 cubic inches in 16 oz. 
 
 Nierenstein is a town in the grand duchy of Hesse, noted for 
 its wine, and for a mineral spring strongly impregnated with 
 sulphuretted hydrogen. The nearest post-station is Darmstadt. 
 
 Nordheim, a town in the kingdom of Hanover, possesses a 
 sulphureous spring, which was discovered in 1804. For an account 
 of its medical efficacy, see Redderson's Ueber die Zeugnisse und 
 Krankheitsgeschichte in Jahre 1807- Einbeck, 1808. The 
 nearest post-station is Hanover. 
 
 Ofen is an important watering-place in Hungary, near Pest, 
 from which it is separated by the Danube. This town has often 
 been under Turkish dominion, of which there are many relics in 
 
Gil. XIV.] MINERAL WATERS OF GERMANY. 257 
 
 the neighbourhood. The principal buildings and spring are 
 called the Kaiser-bad ; the former was erected either by Mohamed 
 Pascha or Hussein. In the hotel opposite it, there are still three 
 Turkish baths. The price of a bath is from twenty-seven to 
 thirty kreutzers. The stream of the principal spring turns seven 
 mills, and gives at its rise eight hundred and forty cubic feet in 
 an hour. The water is acid, saline, chalybeate, and sulphureous, 
 and is an excellent remedy in diseases of the urinary organs, in 
 rheumatic head-ache, and in diseases of the abdominal viscera. 
 Ofen is a post-station. 
 
 Poesing is a royal Hungarian free town, near which rises on a 
 vine-hill, a cold chalybeate spring. When first discovered, it was 
 only used for the cure of intermittent fever ; but it has since been 
 found equally successful in stone and its kindred maladies. 
 Besides iron, it contains mineral alkali and selenium. The bathing- 
 house was erected in 1777* ^ vvo se ^ s f pipes run through all the 
 rooms, the one containing hot, the other cold mineral water, so 
 that the guests can bathe at pleasure. The surrounding country 
 is exquisitely beautiful. To the south of the place is an immense 
 oak-wood. Poesing is a post-station. 
 
 Puttbus is a small Prussian town, in Pomerania, near Stralsund, 
 which is the nearest post-station. It lies in the isle of Rugen. 
 It is the residence of the prince of Puttbus, whose palace is sur- 
 rounded by a lovely park. There is a bathing-house near the 
 town with the usual public buildings. Puttbus is rather a place 
 of temporary resort for travellers through the fine island, than 
 of residence for invalids. 
 
 Pyrmont is a market-town in the valley of the Emmer, in the 
 principality of Waldeck. Its mineral springs were esteemed by 
 Charlemagne, and during all the middle ages their reputation 
 was unequalled. In the year 1556, there were 10,000 guests at 
 Pyrmont from all parts of Europe. In the latter half of the 
 seventeenth century, its fame diminished, partly, doubtless, on 
 account of the writings of Bergzabern, who asserted that its waters 
 were poisonous. Nevertheless, it continued to enjoy great celebrity, 
 and was honoured, during the last century, by the presence of 
 several crowned heads. The public and private buildings rival 
 
258 MINERAL WATERS OF GERMANY. [SECT. I. 
 
 those of most watering-places in Europe. There are twelve principal 
 springs, the waters of which are of undoubted efficacy in diseases 
 of females, nephritic complaints, scrofula, rheumatism, and diseases 
 of the eyes. The latest author on Pyrmont is Harnier, Resume 
 d* Analyse et d 1 Experience sur les Eaux de Pyrmont. This town 
 is a post-station. 
 
 ANALYSIS OP THE PRINCIPAL SPRING (DIE TRINKQUELLE), BY BRANDES. 
 
 Carbonate of Soda - 
 
 - 4-0235 desiccated grains in 
 
 16 oz. 
 
 Sulphate of ditto - 
 
 1-5586 
 
 do. 
 
 Sulphate of Magnesia 
 
 - 3-1628 
 
 do. 
 
 Carbonate of Iron 
 
 0-7389 
 
 do. 
 
 Muriate of Magnesia 
 
 - 0-4276 
 
 do. 
 
 Muriate of Soda - 
 
 0-4046 
 
 do. 
 
 Hydrothionate of Soda - 
 
 - 0-0657 
 
 do. 
 
 Phosphate of Potash - 
 
 0-1012 
 
 do. 
 
 Sulphate of Lithia - 
 
 - 0-0030 
 
 do. 
 
 Sulphate of Lime 
 
 6-0320 
 
 do. 
 
 Carbonate of Lime 
 
 5-8733 
 
 do. 
 
 Carbonate of Magnesia 
 
 0*1933 
 
 do. 
 
 Carbonate of Manganese - 
 
 - 0-0200 
 
 do. 
 
 Sulphate of Strontia 
 
 0-0217 
 
 do. 
 
 Sulphate of Baryta 
 
 - 0-0015 
 
 do. 
 
 Silica .... 
 
 0-0954 
 
 do. 
 
 Resinous matter 
 
 - 0-1133 
 
 do. 
 
 Solid matter - 22-8364 do. 
 
 Carbonic Acid Gas - 44*92 cubic inches in 16 oz. 
 Sulphuretted Hydrogen - - - 0-84 do. 
 
 Rehburg is a town in the principality of Calenberg, in the 
 kingdom of Hanover, at a distance from which of half a mile 
 there are sulphureous and saline springs. They are prescribed 
 with beneficial effect in gout, stiffness of the joints, irritability of 
 the nerves, convulsions (such as epilepsy and St. Vitus 1 dance), 
 and cutaneous diseases. The public buildings are good, and the 
 town is a post-station. 
 
 Reinerz is a small town in the circle of Glatz in Prussian 
 Silesia, at the distance of an English mile from which there are 
 several mineral springs. Round them there are good public 
 buildings of the usual description. The principal spring rises 
 in a gray, clayey soil, tastes brisk, salt and vitriolic, and froths 
 
CH. XIV.] MINERAL WATERS OF GERMANY. 259 
 
 considerably. In 1829, there were seven hundred and fifty two 
 guests, a great part of whom were Polish nobles. The season 
 begins in June and ends in August. The water is prescribed in 
 diseases of the thoracic and abdominal viscera. In respect to 
 payment, visitors are divided into three classes, the highest pays a 
 shilling weekly for baths, the lowest, sixpence. Lodgings cost 
 from one to four dollars weekly. The springs rise at an altitude 
 of 1678 feet above the level of the sea, The neighbourhood is 
 very attractive. Mosch wrote on these baths in 1 832. Reinerz 
 is a post-station. 
 
 Rugenwalde is a Prussian sea-bathing place, on the coast of 
 the Baltic, at the mouth of the Wipper. There is a beautiful 
 walk between the town and the bathing-establishment. Living 
 here, as everywhere in Pomerania, is very cheap. This place is a 
 post-station. 
 
 Salxbrunn is a large village in Prussian Silesia, in the circle of 
 Waldenburg. It lies in a pleasing valley surrounded by lofty 
 mountains. Of late years, the springs at this place have attained 
 great celebrity, and it has improved accordingly. There are 
 three scales of payment, viz. one shilling and sixpence, a shilling, 
 and sixpence weekly, for the waters, for music and the pro- 
 menades. The quantity of water exported annually, has increased 
 of late years from less than twenty thousand to more than one 
 hundred thousand bottles, some of which are sent as far as India. 
 The number of guests has increased with still greater rapidity. 
 In 1816, there were only sixty-six, and in 1832, thirteen hundred 
 and twelve. In 1830, there were one hundred goats and twenty 
 asses kept, to furnish whey, nine thousand quarts of which are 
 annually consumed here. One of the springs, the Oberbrunnen, 
 is a good remedy in thoracic affections, glandular swellings, 
 arid visceral obstructions. Another principal one, the Miihl- 
 brunnen, requires considerable caution as to its administration. 
 It is never prescribed to plethoric patients, but to such only as 
 suffer from relaxation, and inactivity of the digestive organs. 
 The air of Salzbrunn is very pure, and tolerably mild ; and the 
 surrounding country is rich in natural beauties. The latest and 
 best writer on Salzbrunn is Zemplin, Die Brunnen und Mol- 
 
 s 2 
 
260 MINERAL WATERS OF GERMANY. [SECT. I. 
 
 kenanstalt von Salzbrunn. Breslau, 1832. Freiburg is the 
 next post-station. 
 
 ANLYSIS OP THE OBERBRUNNEN, BY FISCHER. 
 
 Carbonate of Soda - 8'000 grains in 16oz. 
 
 Sulphate of ditto 3'200 do. 
 
 Muriate of ditto 1*012 do. 
 
 Carbonate of Lime .... 2'060 do. 
 
 Carbonate of Magnesia - -. - 1*100 do. 
 
 Silica 0-240 do. 
 
 Iron 0-018 do. 
 
 Solid matter - - - 16*000 do. 
 
 In 16 oz. there are 98 cubic inches of Carbonic Acid Gas, in a free state, and 
 130 do. in combination. 
 
 Schandau is a town on the Elbe, in Saxony, four miles from 
 Dresden, which has been noted for its mineral springs through the 
 last century. There is here a massive bathing-house, which contains 
 an elegant public room, and numerous chambers. The place is 
 not much frequented, notwithstanding the beauties of the Saxon 
 Switzerland, by which it is surrounded. The waters contain 
 iron, and sulphuretted hydrogen. There are nine different 
 springs. The nearest post-station is Dresden. 
 
 Schlangenbad, in the duchy of Nassau, is three leagues from 
 Wisbaden, and four from Mainz. Its mineral springs are said to 
 have been discovered two hundred years ago, by a shepherd, 
 whilst tending his flocks. Their temperature is 21 (R.) The 
 water is clear and inodorous. Hufeland speaks thus of its medi- 
 cinal effects : "It softens, gently relaxes, solves, purifies, and 
 composes. I know no mineral water so adapted for those kinds 
 of nervous disorders, which, particularly in females, cannot bear 
 he slightest irritation. . For such affections, the waters of Schlan- 
 genbad are an unique remedy." 
 
 This is a calm and retired place, where pleasure is only sought 
 in private circles, or in solitude. The surrounding scenery is 
 beautiful. A great proportion of the guests are females, with 
 whom riding on asses is a favourite amusement. The latest 
 work on this place is, Schlangenbad und seine Heiltugend. 
 
CH. XIV.] MINERAL WATERS OF GERMANY. 261 
 
 Darmstadt, 1824. We have also the " Bubbles" of Sir F. 
 Head. Schlangenbad is a post-station. 
 
 Schwalbach, or Langenschwalbach, is a small watering-place 
 in the duchy of Nassau, four leagues from Wisbaden, and six 
 from Mainz. It lies in a deep and narrow valley, at one end of 
 which is a spring, called the Wembrunnen, and at the other, a 
 second, called the Stahlbrunnen. Both are surrounded by 
 elegant buildings. The Stahlbrunnen, according to Hufeland, is 
 an excellent remedy in those cases of debility which result from a 
 too excited state of the sanguineous system, and from hemorrhage. 
 The Weinbrunnen is noted for its richness in carbonic acid gas. 
 All the Schwalbach waters are given with success, in the various 
 affections of the lymphatic system, and in the long list of diseases 
 resulting from obstructions and congestions of the abdominal 
 viscera. The buildings here are excellent ; the wine of the sur- 
 rounding country cheap and good ; and the agreeable social tone 
 which prevails, tends, also, to make it a favourite with the public. 
 The number of visitors is 1500 or 1600 annually. As the 
 climate is rather cold, the season does not commence till the 
 middle of June; it terminates at the end of August. The 
 neighbourhood is extremely interesting. The latest writer on 
 Schwalbach is Tenner, Schwalbach und seine Heilquellen, 1823. 
 Sir F. Head has brought this place into English vogue. 
 
 ANALYSIS OF THE WEINBRUNNEN, BY BUCHHOLZ. 
 Carbonate and Muriate of Soda - - - 3 grains in 16 oz. 
 
 Ditto of Lime 2 do. 
 
 Ditto of Magnesia 3 do. 
 
 Oxide of Iron ------- | do. 
 
 Of Carbonic Acid Gas there are 14| cubic inches in 16 oz. 
 
 Seidschutx is a town in Bohemia, a league and a half from 
 Bilin, and a quarter of a league from Sedlitz. It lies on the 
 bare declivity of a mountain, and near it rise at least twenty 
 mineral springs. The water is bitter, inodorous, and as clear as 
 crystal; it contains 160 grains of solid matter in 16 oz., of which, 
 nearly half is sulphate of magnesia, the other half being princi- 
 pally composed of nitrate of magnesia, and of the sulphates of 
 potash and soda; it also contains a little carbonic acid gas. 
 
262 MINERAL WATERS OF GERMANY. [SECT. I. 
 
 temperature of the waters is always lower than that of the atmo- 
 sphere. A hundred thousand bottles of them are exported 
 annually. In the neighbouring town of Bilin, a great quantity 
 of sulphate of magnesia is prepared from them. They are pro- 
 perly prescribed in all cases where laxatives are indicated. 
 Hufeland particularly recommends them in cerebral congestion, 
 catarrhal rheumatism, and in eruptions of plethoric subjects, 
 particularly of young females. . The nearest post-station is 
 Leutmeritz. 
 
 Sedlitx is only a quarter of a league from the last-mentioned 
 place, and its springs are of a similar nature. They became cele- 
 brated in consequence of the researches of Hoffman in 
 
 ANALYSIS BY NAUMANN. 
 
 Sulphate of Lime ..-.-. 8 grains in 16 oz. 
 
 Carbonate of ditto - ... 8 ......... do. 
 
 Sulphate of Magnesia ..... 104 ......... do. 
 
 Muriate of ditto ..... 3 ......... do. 
 
 Carbonate of ditto ..... 3 ......... do. 
 
 Solid matter - - - 126 ......... do. 
 
 Selters. See Nieder Setters. 
 
 Swinemunde is a sea-bathing-place in Prussian Pomerania. 
 It is recommended by suitable establishments, situated half a 
 league from the town, and separated from it by a wood. In 1833, 
 the season commenced June 20, and ended September 20. 
 
 Teinach, or Deinach, is situated in the Black-forest circle of 
 the kingdom of Wurtemberg. Its springs have a pleasant taste, 
 and are rich in carbonic acid gas, alkaline salts, and iron. The 
 water is of great service in nervous debility, paralysis, gout, 
 jaundice, and cutaneous diseases. This place is not so much 
 frequented as formerly. The nearest post-station is Calw. 
 
 Teplitz is a town in the Leutmeritz circle of the kingdom of 
 Bohemia, situated at 30 North latitude, and 648 feet above the 
 level of the sea. Its mineral springs were discovered A.D. 762. 
 The town contains at present, 400 houses, and 2,500 inhabitants. 
 There is a palace, and a great number of splendid buildings 
 belonging to the nobility. Prices here are comparatively moderate. 
 From three to ten florins are paid weekly for a room ; a good 
 
CH. XIV.] MINERAL WATERS OF GERMANY. 263 
 
 dinner at a table d'hote costs from thirty to forty kreutzers. 
 There are several charitable institutions, amongst which may 
 be instanced, the Austrian, Prussian, and Saxon military hos- 
 pitals. In 1830, there were eleven springs, and eighty-four 
 baths. A single bath costs eight, ten, or twelve kreutzers. 
 In 1810, the number of visitors amounted to 2,568, in 1822, 
 to 2,600, but since 1828, it has at least doubled. The waters 
 are particularly serviceable in all kinds of chronic rheumatism, 
 in diseases of the joints and bones generally, in chronic ulcers 
 and eruptions, in indurations, contractions, and nervous com- 
 plaints. They are prejudicial in cases of phthisis, dropsy, and 
 intermittent fever, In several diseases, gout for instance, the 
 Carlsbad waters are taken first, and those of Teplitz afterwards. 
 The latter are taken to second the effect of bathing, in cases of 
 imperfect digestion, impeded abdominal circulation, and female 
 complaints. Teplitz has been resorted to as a watering-place, since 
 1589. In 1712, Peter the Great visited it with a beneficial 
 result. During the present century, the town has been altered 
 and beautified in such a manner, that it may be said to have been 
 rebuilt. The walks at Teplitz, during the season, present a 
 most animated scene. It is one of the gayest of the German 
 watering-places, and political conferences have of late conferred 
 upon it universal celebrity. It is situated in a delightful neigh- 
 bourhood. The latest writer on Teplitz, is Gross, Die Tep- 
 litzer Heilquellen in ihrer positiven Wirkung. Leipzig, 1832. 
 
 ANALYSIS OP THK HAUPTQUELLE, BY AMBROZZI. 
 
 Sulphate of Soda .... - 1*696 grains in 16 oz. 
 
 Muriate of ditto 0*776 do. 
 
 Carbonate of ditto 12*240 do. 
 
 Carbonate of Lime - - 0*340 do. 
 
 Silica - - - - - - . 0*420 do. 
 
 Resin, and extractive matter - - - 6*100 do. 
 
 Carbonate of Iron ----- 0*036 do. 
 
 Solid Matter ... 15*608 do. 
 
 Of Carbonic Acid Gas there is 2*400 cubic inches in 16oz. 
 
 Travemiinde, a town and sea-bathing place belonging to 
 Lubeck, is situated on the border of the North Sea. The sur- 
 
B MINERAL WATE11S OF GERMANY. [SECT. I. 
 
 rounding country is flat and not very agreeable. The town, 
 from which the bathing-establishment is a quarter of a mile dis- 
 tant, is poor and unimportant. Prices are high at Travemunde, 
 compared with other German watering-places. Lubeck is the 
 nearest post-station. 
 
 Warmbrunn. See Plirschbery. 
 
 Wisbaden, the capital of the duchy of Nassau, is celebrated 
 for the medicinal efficacy of its -mineral springs, and for the 
 elegance of its public buildings. This is one of the most ancient 
 watering-places in Germany, and is mentioned in the works of 
 Pliny. The town lies in a deep valley, and contains 600 houses, 
 and about 6,500 inhabitants. The number of visitors annually, 
 amounts to about 5,000. The season begins in May, and often 
 does not end till October. The temperature of the springs varies 
 from 140 to 150 (F.) The waters are powerful remedial agents ; 
 they act chiefly on the cutaneous and glandular systems, on the 
 intestines, and vessels of the abdomen. They are uncommonly 
 beneficial in chronic rheumatism, in all forms of gout, in scrofula, 
 congestion, and nervous affections. A good writer on Wisbaden, 
 is Peez, Wiesbadens Heilquellen und ihre Kraft, 1823. 
 
 ANALYSIS OF THE WATERS. 
 
 Muriate of Soda - - - 46'i 7 5 grains in 1C oz. 
 
 Sulphate of ditto 8-ff do. 
 
 Muriate of Lime - - - - 5' 5 4 T do. 
 
 Carbonate of ditto - - - - \'\ do. 
 
 Muriate of Magnesia - - - - O'jg do. 
 
 Carbonate of ditto ----- O'f| do. 
 
 Alumina - - - - - - O'j do. 
 
 Extractive matter "- - - - 2' T 7 S - do. 
 
 Carbonate of Iron - - - - O'.^ do. 
 
 Of Carbonic Acid Gas, there is 5^ cubic inches in 16 oz. 
 Wildbad is a small town in the Black- forest circle of the king- 
 dom of Wurtemberg, five leagues from Calw, which is the nearest 
 post- station. It is kept so warm by subterraneous springs, 
 that no snow lies on it, and the grass grows in winter. These 
 springs, which are the only warm ones in Wurtemberg, flow out 
 of a granite rock, and are received into basins, one of which is 
 1,064 feet in circumference. The temperature of some of these 
 springs is 30 (R.) 
 
265 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 
 ORDERS OF KNIGHTHOOD IN THE SEVERAL STATES OF 
 GERMANY. 
 
 AUSTRIAN ORDERS OF KNIGHTHOOD. 
 
 The order of the Golden Fleece was instituted by Philip, duke 
 of Burgundy, on the day of his marriage \vith Isabella, princess of 
 Portugal. Its statutes are dated November 27, 1431. The 
 sovereigns both of Austria and Spain confer the dignities of this 
 order with almost the same decoration. No knight, with the 
 exception of ruling powers, can wear any other order with that 
 of the Golden Fleece. 
 
 The order of Maria Theresa was founded by the empress 
 whose name it bears, during the Seven Years'* War, and is only 
 conferred for military services. The number of its members is 
 unlimited ; they are divided into three classes ; viz., the grand 
 crosses, the commanders, and the knights. There are eight pen- 
 sions of 1,500 florins for the first class, sixteen of 800 florins 
 for the second, one hundred of 600 florins for the first division of 
 knights, and one hundred of 100 florins for the second division. 
 The widows of members pensioned or not pensioned, receive the 
 half of the pension corresponding to the rank of their husbands. 
 
 The order of St. Stephen was founded May 5, 1764, by 
 Maria Theresa, and is conferred as a reward for talent and 
 military services. The grand mastership is attached to the crown 
 of Hungary. Its members are divided into three classes, and 
 every Austrian becomes a privy-councillor on receiving the grand 
 cross or that of a commander. 
 
 The order of Leopold was founded January 8, 1808, by 
 Francis I., and was intended to serve as an acknowledgement 
 and recompense of the services rendered to the state, and to the 
 imperial house, by the Austrian nobility. The number of mem- 
 bers is unlimited. 
 
 The order of the Iron Crown was instituted February 12, 
 
266 ORDERS OF KNIGHTHOOD. [SECT. I. 
 
 1816, by Francis I., to commemorate the re-union of the Italian 
 provinces with the Austrian empire. All are admitted into it, 
 without any distinction of rank, who have given strong proof of 
 attachment to their sovereign, or who have signalized themselves 
 by any useful interprise. There are twenty knights of the first 
 class, thirty of the second, and fifty of the third, the princes of 
 the imperial house not included. 
 
 The Teutonic order was instituted in 1190, by Frederic, duke 
 of Suabia, who intrusted to its members the defence of the Holy 
 Land, the protection of the church and its ministers, of widows 
 and orphans. Henry Walpot of Bassenheim, was its first grand 
 master. The order obtained territories from the duke of 
 Masovia, for serving against Prussian Pagans in the year 1227- 
 
 After the loss of the Holy Land, the grand master fixed his 
 residence, first at Venice, and subsequently at Marburg. The 
 power of this order was on the increase till 1350, after which it 
 began to decline. It lost a great part of its Prussian possessions 
 by the second treaty of Thorn (1466). 
 
 In 1525, the grand master, Albert of Brandenburg, was made 
 hereditary duke of East Prussia, under Polish supremacy ; then 
 the sovereign of the order took up his residence at Marienthal 
 (1 527)9 and was received a member of the circle of Franconia. 
 
 In 1792, the order was in possession of the grand mastership 
 of Marienthal, and of eleven bailiwicks. By the peace of Lune- 
 ville (1801), it lost the bailiwicks of Coblenz, of Altenbriesen, 
 of Lorraine, and a part of those of Alsatia and Burgundy. It 
 received as an indemnity the chapters, abbeys and convents of 
 Vorarlberg in Austrian Suabia, and all the disposable convents 
 of the dioceses of Augsburg and Constance, except those of 
 Brisgovia. 
 
 Baden took possession of the territories of the Teutonic order, 
 December 3, 1805, and, afterwards, during the various changes 
 which succeeded, they were variously distributed. Finally, by 
 virtue of a decree of the congress of Vienna, the archduke Maxi- 
 milian of Austria was invested with the grand mastership of the 
 order, and as such, entitled to receive the revenues from its pos- 
 sessions at Frankfort on the Main, and in Silesia. 
 
CH. XV.] ORDERS OF KNIGHTHOOD. 267 
 
 Order of St. John of Jerusalem at Malta, of which the 
 Grand- Prior ate is in Bohemia. 
 
 The grand prior of this order obtained in 1546, of the 
 Emperor Charles V., the dignity of prince of the empire, and a 
 seat and voice in the German diet. The order had possessions 
 on the left bank of the Rhine, comprehending eleven square miles, 
 containing 19,800 inhabitants, and yielding an annual revenue of 
 143,000 florins. In exchange for these, it received, in 1803, the 
 abbeys of St. Blaise, Trudpert, Schuttern, St. Peter, and Ten- 
 nenbach, and their dependencies, yielding an annual revenue of 
 154,000 florins. During the French wars the order met with 
 various disasters, which led to its suppression in several states. 
 
 At present, Austria possesses the court of the order at Frank- 
 fort, and holds its sovereignty ; but all that now remains to it in 
 Germany, is the grand priorate of Bohemia, and some comman- 
 deries in Austria, Moravia, and Prussian Silesia. 
 
 Other Austrian orders are those of Elizabeth-Theresa and of 
 the Starry Cross. There is a medal for Military virtue, and of 
 Civil honour, a cross of honour in gold and silver, and a mark of 
 distinction for veterans. 
 
 THE BADEN ORDERS OF KNIGHTHOOD. 
 
 The order of Military merit was instituted by Duke Charles 
 Frederic, April 4, 18Q7- Its members are divided into three 
 classes, to each of which appertain pensions, the highest of 400 
 florins. Generals only can receive the grand cross of this order. 
 
 The order of the Lion of Zaehringen was founded by Charles, 
 grand duke of Baden, December 26, 1812, the birth-day of his 
 duchess Stephanie, to commemorate the origin of the dukes of 
 Zaehringen. Besides these, there is an order of Fidelity, and a 
 cross of Military Merit. 
 
 BAVARIAN ORDERS OF KNIGHTHOOD. 
 
 The order of St. Hubert was created by Girard V., duke of 
 Berg, in 1444, to commemorate a victory which he had obtained 
 over Arnaud d'Egmont. It was renewed in 1709 by the 
 elector-palatine, John William. Only ruling princes and their 
 descendants can receive the cross of this order. 
 
268 ORDERS OF KNIGHTHOOD. [SECT. I. 
 
 The order of St. George. The crusading dukes of Bavaria, 
 Otho III. and Eckard, are said to have been the founders of this 
 order. It was renewed April 24?, 1729, by the Emperor Charles 
 VI., in honour of Religion, of the Immaculate Conception, and of 
 St. George. Every knight, on his admission, takes an oath 
 expressive of his devotion to the objects of the order. It is 
 divided into three classes, and has ecclesiastical members ; viz., 
 a bishop, deans and chaplains. 
 
 The Military order of Maximilian Joseph was instituted by 
 that sovereign, March 1, 1806, when the royal dignity was 
 established in Bavaria. It is a recompense for all remarkable 
 actions in the public service, not prescribed by ordinary duty, in 
 which talent, presence of mind, or courage is displayed. The 
 chapter of the order examines into the character of candidates, 
 and presents them to the king, who decides on their admission. 
 Pensions and various privileges are attached to this order, which 
 is divided into three classes. 
 
 The order of Civil Merit of the Bavarian Crown, was created 
 by the same sovereign, to reward merit in the civil service of the 
 state, and distinguished patriotic virtue. It is divided into four 
 classes ; viz., twenty-four grand crosses, not including those who 
 are knights of the order of St. Hubert, forty commanders, one 
 hundred and sixty knights, and an unlimited number of persons 
 decorated with gold and silver medals. He who has received the 
 decorations of the three first classes obtains the privilege of 
 assuming an hereditary title of nobility, but this privilege has 
 lately been limited. The children of deceased knights receive a 
 pension of from 250 to 300 florins. 
 
 The order of St. Clement was instituted September 29, 1693, 
 by Joseph Clement, duke of Bavaria, and was renewed in 1808 
 by Maximilian Joseph. Its primitive object was the support of 
 religion, and the defence of divine honour; but it has latterly 
 been conferred as a reward of patriotic virtues. It is divided 
 into four classes, of which the three first are composed of nobles 
 exclusively ; into the last, that of honorary knights, men of 
 merit of all classes are admitted, without distinction of rank or 
 religion. 
 
CH. XV.] ORDERS OF KNIGHTHOOD. 269 
 
 The Royal order of Louis was founded by King Louis I., for 
 those officials who have passed fifty years, satisfactorily to the 
 government, in the civil, military, or ecclesiastical service of the 
 state, or in that of the court. 
 
 The order of Theresa was instituted December 12, 1827, by 
 Theresa, queen of Bavaria. It is intended for the daughters of 
 noble families, in reduced circumstances, and, with it, is con- 
 ferred a pension of 300 florins. Besides these, there is an order 
 of Elizabeth, founded in 1766. 
 
 BRUNSWICK ORDERS OF KNIGHTHOOD. 
 
 The order of Henry the Lion was instituted April 25, 1835, 
 by Duke William, to reward civil and military merit, and 
 eminence in the arts and sciences. It is divided into four classes. 
 A cross of merit is also attached to this order. 
 
 A Cross of distinction for Military services was decreed April 
 1, 1833. 
 
 HANOVERIAN ORDERS OF KNIGHTHOOD. 
 
 The order of the Guelph was instituted by the Prince-Regent, 
 afterwards George IV., August 12, 1815, to commemorate the 
 epoch when Hanover was liberated from the French domination 
 and elevated to the rank of a kingdom. It is divided into three 
 classes. The grand cross is only conferred on persons of the rank 
 of lieutenant-generals, and for services rendered on occasions when 
 they acted on their own authority. The dignity of commander 
 is granted to the rank of major-general. But no rank is specified 
 for the candidates for the knighthood of this order. The sove- 
 reign of this order is the king of Hanover. 
 
 ORDERS OF KNIGHTHOOD OF THE ELECTORATE OF HESSE. 
 
 The order of the Golden Lion was instituted August 14, 177^> 
 by the landgrave Frederic II. It is divided into three classes, 
 and is conferred as a reward for distinction in the civil and 
 military service of the state. 
 
 The order of the Iron Helmet ', created March 14, 1814, cor- 
 responds to the Prussian order of the Iron Cross. There are, also, 
 an order of Military Merit and a cross of Merit. 
 
270 OEDERS OF KNIGHTHOOD. [SECT. I. 
 
 ORDERS OF KNIGHTHOOD OF THE GRAND DUCHY OF HESSE. 
 
 The order of Louis was instituted by the grand duke Louis, 
 August 25, 1807- It is divided into five classes. The grand 
 cross is only conferred on princes, or persons with the title of 
 Excellency. 
 
 A mark of honour for Military Service was established 
 December 26, 1823. 
 
 PRUSSIAN ORDERS OF KNIGHTHOOD. 
 
 The order of the Black Eagle was founded by Frederic III., 
 elector of Brandenburg, January 18, 1701, n the day on which he 
 was crowned king of Prussia. In 1835, there were one hundred 
 and eleven knights of this order, of whom eleven were princes of 
 the royal family ; fifty-four foreign sovereigns and princes ; 
 fifteen Prussian knights ; and thirty-one foreigners. 
 
 The order of the Red Eagle was formerly called the order of 
 Concord, and received its present name in 1734. It was reformed 
 by the margrave of Baireuth-Culmbach in 1777> a d by him 
 transmitted to Frederic William of Prussia, in 1791. Its knights 
 rank next to those of the Black Eagle. It is divided into three 
 classes. 
 
 The order of the Iron Cross was instituted by Frederic Wil- 
 liam III., and conferred on all who had distinguished themselves 
 in the Liberation-War. 
 
 There are, also, a Prussian order of Merit, an order of St. John, 
 and of Louisa. A decoration of Merit for having saved a fellow- 
 creature from danger, was instituted February 1, 1835. 
 
 SAXON ORDERS OF KNIGHTHOOD. 
 
 The Military order of St. Henry was instituted by Augustus 
 III., king of Poland and elector of Saxony, October 7> 17^6, as 
 a recompense for brilliant military exploits. It is divided into 
 three classes. 
 
 The order of Civil Merit was created by Frederic Augustus, 
 June 7> 1815, on his return to Saxony. It is conferred on those 
 who are distinguished for patriotic merit, and on foreigners who 
 
CH. XV.] ORDETIS OF KNIGHTHOOD. 271 
 
 have earned the gratitude of Saxony. It is divided into four 
 classes. 
 
 There are, also, an order of the Crown of Saxony, and a medal 
 of Military merit. 
 
 In the duchy of Saxe Weimar, there is an order of Vigilance, 
 and in those of Saxe Gotha, Saxe Altenburg, and Saxe Meinin- 
 gen, a ducal order of the Ernestinian line. 
 
 WURTEMBERG ORDERS OF KNIGHTHOOD. 
 
 The order of Military merit was created February 11, 17^9, 
 by Charles Eugene, as a recompense for those officers who had 
 distinguished themselves in the Seven Years' War. It was re- 
 newed in 1799, by Frederic I., and totally reformed in 1806. It 
 is now divided into three classes. 
 
 The order of Civil merit, with which is now united the order 
 of the Golden Eagle, was instituted by King Frederic, November 
 6, 1806. It is divided into three classes. Every councillor can 
 claim it, who has served with zeal during twenty-four years ; 
 personal nobility is conferred with it. This order is, at present, 
 known by the name of the order of the Crown of Wurtemberg. 
 
 There are, also, an order of Frederic, and a medal of Civil 
 Merit in gold and silver. 
 
 Since the desire of distinction is inherent in mankind, and has 
 been the source of many of the greatest actions and works which 
 have embellished and benefited society, we cannot join with those 
 who profess to depreciate such rewards. When profusely dis- 
 tributed, they lose, of course, a portion of their value ; but there 
 are many individuals who do not desire money, and who require 
 some such stimulus as an incentive to exertion. 
 
272 
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 REFLECTIONS ON THE POLITICAL AND SOCIAL CONDITION 
 OF GERMANY. 
 
 NOTHING appears more easy, at- first sight, than to deliver an 
 < oracular sentence on the morality, the refinement, the hospitality, 
 and the disposition of various countries and cities; a visit of a 
 few weeks suffices with some to afford the requisite data, and 
 others seat themselves on the tripod after a casual intercourse 
 with four or five natives, or supported by the experience of a few 
 adventures at an inn. It appears to me that the only safe road 
 to experience on this head lies in the domain of Statistics; it 
 is only by a large comparison of facts, published by the 
 respective local authorities, that an approximation to the truth 
 can be attained ; and I refer with far more confidence to such 
 documents scattered throughout this volume, than to the follow- 
 ing personal impressions. 
 
 To deliver a correct opinion on the political condition and sen- 
 timents of any given country is one of the most difficult tasks 
 that can be attempted; which any one will admit who observes 
 the diversity of sentences pronounced respecting the tendencies 
 of his own countrymen. We find, in fact, in every nation, that 
 society is divided into four or five political classes, each of which 
 supposes itself to be infallible, and the traveller is generally con- 
 verted to the tenets of that sect, whatever it may be, into which 
 he happens to have been thrown by accident, by his position 
 in life, or by his previous tastes. One party is for rudely push- 
 ing forwards, another is disposed to progress cautiously, a third 
 is willing to stand still, and a fourth entertains an Epicurean 
 carelessness as to every movement, except that which may inter- 
 fere with his own amusements or pursuits. I shall endeavour 
 briefly to sketch out the general outline of political views and of 
 social life in Germany, but with little hope of success, and with 
 no expectation of satisfying all judges. 
 
CH. XVI.] CONDITION OF GERMANY. 273 
 
 The complaint is sometimes heard in Germany, that it does 
 not form one great empire; that it is so much subdivided 
 as to lose the importance and consideration, which ought to 
 attach to so many millions of people ; and some look forward 
 with eager anticipation, to the period when this wish may be 
 consummated. Others more soberly confine their views to the 
 possible formation of two great states out of the numerous 
 elements, of which Austria and Prussia might form the centres. 
 But it is difficult to foresee all the good which is imagined by 
 speculators, as likely to accrue from such a centralisation of 
 dominion. The manufacturers of Germany are already boldly 
 competing with those of England and France; its maritime 
 relations are not capable of any very considerable extension, 
 because nature has stinted sea-ports to it. As far as political and 
 military weight can go, Germany has earned for itself a dignified 
 preponderance. What more is to be obtained from this desired 
 fusion of states? Is a larger portion of freedom, more pro- 
 sperity, more happiness, descried in the visionary distance? 
 There are some advantages which a native of Germany possesses 
 in a higher degree than any other European. One of these con- 
 sists in the greater number of employments which lie open to his 
 ambition and his talents. All the numerous German states afford 
 existence to their own respective cabinet ministers, envoys, generals, 
 dignitaries, and civil officers, of various denominations. In some 
 situations, which only a single individual fills in England and 
 France, perhaps twenty individuals are installed throughout 
 Germany. England sends only one minister to France, while 
 Germany sends about thirteen ; and the same observation applies 
 to several other functions*. In short, a German enjoys several 
 chances of obtaining an honourable post for the exercise of his 
 
 * According to Schon, the following is the comparative number of persons em- 
 ployed in the administration of the State in different countries : namely, 
 
 In Scandinavia - 1 in 294 
 
 Spain 1 462 
 
 Prussia - - 1 630 
 
 England - 11000 
 
 (See his Allgemeine Geschichte und Statistik der Europ'dischen Civilisation, 
 p. 223.) 
 
POLITICAL AND SOCIAL [SECT. I. 
 
 talents or industry, where the Englishman and Frenchman have 
 only a single ticket in the lottery of life. The same advantage is 
 extended to the Germans who cultivate literature and science. 
 In the British Islands, we have, perhaps, five universities which 
 correspond in character to the thirty German universities ; add to 
 this, that a German university contains usually about twice the 
 number of professors, who are included in the English ones. 
 But the German states also display innumerable colleges, gymna- 
 siums, and lyceums, not to be found in any similar proportion 
 among ourselves, and each marshalling its own peculiar array of 
 professors, curators, librarians, and other such officers. 
 
 There are hundreds among us capable of filling such situa- 
 tions, with distinction to themselves, and with benefit to the 
 public ; but they have no opportunities of obtaining such favour- 
 able positions, and they linger in obscurity, sometimes in involun- 
 tary idleness. Some, indeed, may profess to despise such honours 
 and the theory of indifference is very convenient; but if we 
 regard life with a practical eye, it is impossible to deny that the 
 opportunity of earning fame and employment, is both encou- 
 raging to individuals, and profitable to the public. A much 
 smaller income suffices, where the station yields some dignity 
 and no one ever despised the respect of those among whom he 
 lives, but the man who was unable to attain it. 
 
 Let us examine another benefit which the minute division of 
 Germany into independent states, confers on the German public. 
 Every sovereign, however low in the scale, is anxious to dis- 
 tinguish and embellish his territory ; accordingly, he forms 
 museums of antiquities, and of natural history; he collects 
 large public libraries; he creates academies for the fine arts; he 
 plans extensive gardens, and other places of recreation for his 
 subjects. And thus, for one such establishment in England and 
 France, we shall find about twenty in Germany of all which, 
 the public partake most freely. The inhabitant of a great pro- 
 vincial town in England or France, must travel to London or 
 Paris in search of such objects; but the citizen of Munich, or of 
 Dresden, is not obliged to wander to Berlin or Vienna, in pursuit 
 of that which lies near his own door. 
 
CH. XVI.] CONDITION OF GERMANY. 275 
 
 Examples of this sort might be drawn without end. It would 
 be easy to show in what respect Stuttgard differs from Newcastle, 
 or Weimar from Narbonne, but it is unnecessary to multiply 
 comparisons. Many persons will reply, that in order to purchase 
 such privileges, the poorer classes suffer, for the benefit of the 
 middle and higher ones, and that taxation presses heavily, in 
 order to bring about such results. But on personal examination, 
 it will be found that the peasantry and artisans of Germany, are 
 not less happy than the corresponding ranks in the greater states 
 of Europe, although their wants and enjoyments may differ in 
 quality ; nor can it be with truth asserted, that the German is 
 more heavily taxed, in proportion, than other Europeans. 
 
 Such remarks will not be misinterpreted into an attempt to 
 maintain that Germany is the most fortunate country in Europe, 
 and to undervalue that which is excellent among ourselves, and 
 our neighbours. I trust that no one will suspect me of a dispo- 
 sition to depreciate our own father-land ; indeed, on account of a 
 former work on Medical Statistics, I have been taxed with 
 undue partiality towards our own country. My only object is to 
 state with candour, the advantages which flow from that which 
 many are disposed to call an evil source namely, the partition of 
 one great country into several kingdoms. 
 
 It must be admitted, that this subdivision of the great German 
 family does not tend to induce mutual affection among all its com- 
 ponent members ; the innate love of country, which is one of the 
 best gifts of our nature, becomes diluted, and sometimes entirely 
 evaporates. A German is sometimes heard to wish, that Fortune 
 had created him the native of some other more compact country; 
 and thus he becomes an excellent colonist, an accommodating 
 traveller, and readily forgets in new lands, the usages of the 
 old home ; in short, he is too pliant, too diffusive. 
 
 The expenditure attendant on so many courts, is one of the 
 arguments which is sometimes adduced against them but this is 
 counterbalanced by the paternal and unrestricted welcome which 
 invites the people to a participation in the enjoyments which are 
 thus obtained. Every palace, gallery, garden, and park is open ; 
 the money which is received from the subject, is returned to him 
 
 T 2 
 
27^ POLITICAL AND SOCIAL [SECT. I. 
 
 in a considerable degree, in the form of mental and bodily amuse- 
 ment; and assuredly, few private individuals in other countries, 
 however wealthy, are in the habit of emulating the German 
 sovereigns in this respect. 
 
 In countries, indeed, which have long been subjected to an 
 absolute rule, or to a government approaching to absolutism, we 
 find that much more pains are taken to provide amusements for 
 the lower classes, than among limited monarchies and republics. 
 The reasons are obvious, but, whatever they may be, the results 
 are visible in every part of Germany, where the most abundant 
 means of recreation are brought into action for the use of those 
 who cannot afford to lay out gardens, nor to collect parties of 
 friends at their own houses, nor to purchase tickets for spectacles 
 and concerts. Another feature equally pleasing and usually pro- 
 minent in such countries, is, a gracious and cordial familiarity 
 prevailing between the highest and the lowest. This friendly 
 intercourse is owing, indeed, to the extreme dependance of the 
 lower upon the higher, which renders the kindness safe and un- 
 abused ; and another cause lies in the ubiquity and strength of 
 the police, which is ever awake and present to prevent miscon- 
 duct. Madame de Genlis, in this spirit, contrasts the rural fetes 
 which were so frequent in France before the first revolution, at 
 which the lord and lady of the village danced freely among their 
 rustic guests, with the absence of all such intimacy which she 
 found to prevail in France under a representative government. 
 
 Let us not be supposed, in enumerating such agreeable pecu- 
 liarities, to prefer a gilded and tinkling despotism, to the indepen- 
 dence of free citizens ; but the truth must still be told. Every 
 form of human affairs has its bright and its gloomy aspect ; we 
 cannot unite in any one system, all imaginable blessings; but 
 those who have not gained one prize, may at least be consoled 
 with the possession of another. In proportion as free institutions 
 advance, men appear to have a tendency to separate themselves 
 into small knots, to insulate themselves from the mass ; there is 
 less familiarity between various classes ; a desire to seek enjoyment 
 in one's own room, in one^s own circle, arises, instead of blending 
 with an unlimited public, for the sake of mutual support, protec- 
 
CH. XVI.] CONDITION OF GERMANY. 277 
 
 tion, and exhilaration. Happy and wise are those who, blest 
 with a birthright of free institutions, can still seek to make those 
 around them happy, instead of confining their solicitude to their 
 own immediate group or coterie. 
 
 Let us borrow from Germany a little more of this frank and 
 courteous deportment towards those who happen to be born a 
 few degrees lower than ourselves in the scale of wealth, rank, or 
 education. The grand remedy for most of the evils of England 
 must be sought in a more intimate approximation of the different 
 grades of society ; it is not money which is needed, that is every- 
 where throughout England most liberally dispensed ; but a little 
 more communication, less dread of contamination from impure 
 mixture, a softening of asperities of manner, a greater readiness 
 to greet, these are the bands which alone are wanting to unite 
 more firmly all the various members of our great community. 
 Is the daughter of a peer, or of a country gentleman, or of a 
 banker, or of a barrister, less modest, less feminine, less graceful, 
 because she occasionally stands next in the public ball to the 
 daughter of a respectable tradesman ? Is the cottage only to be 
 entered on the eve of an election ? No man ought to be con- 
 sidered as a piece of lumber, to be made use of as a stop-gap, or as 
 a barrier in the case of an emergency, and then to be thrown aside 
 as useless until the next year of need. These remarks, which to 
 some will appear coarse and ill-timed, proceed from one who, in 
 all humility, would not only preserve all that is precious among 
 ourselves, but who would gladly revive much that once prevailed, 
 but which now appears to be losing ground. 
 
 It is not easy to decide on the positive amount or degree of 
 political discontent in Germany, because its voice is in some states 
 almost entirely suppressed, and in some others only escapes in a 
 whisper, or in an obscure murmur. Few travellers, I believe, 
 will affirm that there is as much actual discontent in Germany, 
 as in France, although France has made a large stride on the 
 road to freedom. Most philosophers have deemed that in Eng- 
 land we have attained all the liberty which can be reasonably 
 enjoyed ; yet, here also, there is no paucity of grumblers. In 
 England it is sometimes difficult to ascertain the nature of the 
 
278 POLITICAL AND SOCIAL [SECT. I. 
 
 grievance, because different parties entertain totally opposite 
 opinions; but in Germany, we believe that the most generally 
 lamented evils are, the restrictions on the press, the impediments 
 to locomotion from the passport system, the excessive spirit of 
 interference on the part of the police, and the dictation of the 
 Diet to the smaller states through the influence of the greater 
 ones. In Germany, much of our own prosperity is attributed to 
 the non-interference on the part o'f the government ; while many 
 among ourselves are perpetually invoking it to centralise, to un- 
 dertake national education, and to stretch out its hand in every 
 direction. The excessive propensity to reduce the most trifling 
 facts to writing, to accumulate masses of useless documents, to 
 register that which deserves to be forgotten, to multiply verbose 
 forms of office, to transmit papers through a multitude of hands 
 without receiving any improvement on their passage, is also one 
 of the most prominent themes of complaint in Germany. In 
 Bavaria, the ministry of war got rid of seventy thousand state- 
 ments in one year, which had been slumbering in its portfolios. 
 In Prussia, the most trifling judicial matter, whose solution 
 depends on a higher court, passes through the hands of forty- 
 eight persons, before the parties interested receive any notice or 
 summons. (Schon, p. 223.) 
 
 Among the national peculiarities, the excessive addiction to 
 smoking has been reproached, but unreasonably. In every part 
 of the world, and in every class of society, some mode of obtaining 
 solace or relaxation after fatigue or toil, some excitement or 
 stimulant, is resorted to, and happy are those who have recourse 
 to an amusement so comparatively innocent. It is certain that 
 this habit disposes the mind to serenity, to a mild repose, to con- 
 tentment, and to cheerfulness ; a smoking community is never a 
 riotous, nor a pugnacious, nor a brawling one; and it would be 
 difficult to discover anywhere a populace more good-tempered, 
 peaceful, and inoffensive, than that of Germany. At all events, 
 such an amusement will be preferred to the glass of spirits con- 
 tinually repeated during the day, and too frequently closing it in 
 bloodshed, or conducting gradually its victim to a premature 
 grave, or to the living tomb of character, industry, and decency. 
 
CH. XVI.] CONDITION OF GERMANY. 279 
 
 We ought not to be too fastidious towards the innocent amuse- 
 ments of others, and especially of the peasant and the artisan 
 when they only entrench upon the prerogative of the organ of 
 smell. The German labourer, seated at a table in a public 
 garden, quietly smoking his pipe, listening to excellent music, 
 and surrounded by his family, is no mean spectacle of human 
 happiness and respectability *. 
 
 It has long been thought, both by Englishmen and by 
 foreigners, that no country presents so many specimens of origi- 
 nality of character, of various tastes and habits, of eccentricity 
 in modes of thinking and acting, as England. Whatever may 
 have once been the case, I am inclined to believe that this dis- 
 tinction no longer belongs pre-eminently to England, but that 
 the palm, in this respect, must be assigned to Germany. It is 
 possible that Germany may at present resemble, in some features, 
 the aspect which our country, perhaps, presented a century ago. 
 But in England, we perceive, in our own time, a tendency rather 
 to the adoption of one uniform standard in dress, in deportment, 
 in habits of life, and in amusements: instead of studying to 
 please themselves, most persons among us appear to strive after 
 the attainment of a tame uniformity. As soon as any fashion or 
 taste becomes once known in England, it rapidly circulates 
 through the extremities of the kingdom ; even in dinners, in 
 furniture, in phrases, each seems to sacrifice the individual on the 
 altar of the community. The prejudices and opinions of our 
 neighbours are studied and dreaded ; the voice of the world is 
 alone heard, and equally in public and in private becomes the 
 regulator of our daily movements. The circumstance is probably 
 mainly owing to the rapid and constant communication which 
 occurs between all parts of our country, and forms us into one 
 large family ; the general disposition is thus to look upwards 
 and around, instead of to turn inwardly. When an English 
 
 * The habitual fare of the German peasant is extremely moderate : it is chiefly 
 composed of a black heavy bread, usually rye, with vegetables, and the produce 
 of the dairy ; the returns to the Poor Law Commissioners add, " meat once or 
 twice a week ;" but meat is a rare luxury in many rural districts ; a little weak 
 milk-coffee is highly prized. I believe that the Prussian private soldier has a 
 daily ration of half a pound of meat. 
 
280 POLITICAL AND SOCIAL [SECT. I. 
 
 physician visited the German phrenologist, Gall, at Paris, he found 
 him in an apartment tenanted by innumerable birds; Gall said 
 to him with a smile, " You would be afraid of doing this in 
 England. 1 ' The Germans, in short, are less the slaves of fashion 
 and of exclusive tastes, than probably any other great European 
 people; each considers his own means and inclinations, and pur- 
 sues them without deference to others, and also without offence ; 
 no one stares in Germany at a deshabille, no one is surprised at 
 an uncouth coat ; no one paragraphs his follies, parties, furniture, 
 or writings, in the newspaper ; but an unpretending independence 
 of character passes current and unnoticed. 
 
 Since nowhere in the world exist such ample and easily acces- 
 sible institutions for education as in Germany, we are naturally 
 led to inquire into the influence which they exert upon the well- 
 being of society. There is no science, and there are very few 
 arts, which may not there most easily and very cheaply be studied 
 by all who are desirous; the means of a decent education are 
 open to all, are almost forced upon all ; and the facilities of 
 acquiring a most complete education are denied to none. What, 
 then, are the fruits which this deeply-rooted and widely-spreading 
 tree are found to produce? The answer is most difficult; we 
 are anxious to afford it impartially. It lies in a simple fact, 
 which is too often excluded from the argument of education ; 
 whatsoever education may be given to mankind, one half of the 
 number who nominally receive it will scarcely be found to have 
 derived much permanent and final advantage from it, or to retain 
 much in their memory. Lecture-rooms may be opened gratui- 
 tously, books may be accumulated, but early impressions, acci- 
 dents, indolence, and bad dispositions will defeat our expectations. 
 It is a melancholy truth, but it must be told. Although a small 
 knot of individuals in Germany is more learned than a similar 
 number to be found in any other country, who create and devour 
 more books than any others, yet it will hardly be asserted, that 
 the bulk of the German nation are more virtuous, more wise, more 
 agreeable, more temperate in the enjoyments of life, more useful 
 in their generation, than the corresponding mass of some other 
 European communities, which possess the opportunities of mental 
 
CH. XVI.] CONDITION' OF GERMANY. 281 
 
 improvement in a more limited extent. It is one thing to learn, 
 and another to retain and to practise ; when the studious and the 
 practical combine in the same individual, then alone is the higher 
 character of man developed ; but such an union occurs rarely 
 any where, and not often in Germany. We admit with pleasure 
 one distinguished result of education in Germany, the respect 
 which is paid to the literary and scientific character. On the 
 other hand, it must be confessed, that the most favourable posi- 
 tion, with regard to mental cultivation, conducts there more fre- 
 quently to a refined taste in the fine arts, or to a barren erudition, 
 than to those pursuits which have for their aim the general 
 improvement of humanity. The German will reply, that his 
 exclusion from active political life is the source; but a wide field 
 is still open for all the best energies of his nature, in the cultiva- 
 tion of the Christian character, and one in which there are fewer 
 competitors, and a surer recompense, than in the chamber of 
 deputies, or in the columns of a newspaper. Unsettled principles 
 of action are too often his blemish. 
 
 It appears to me that one essential defect in the system of 
 German university education, is the absence of a good pervading 
 instruction in religion ; it is true that there are numerous theolo- 
 gical courses delivered for the benefit of students destined for the 
 church, but these do not reach the mass of other pupils: they 
 do not necessarily participate in this first and last requisite of an 
 elevated education *. Every science is copiously taught, is almost 
 overtaught, except that master-science which alone teaches us 
 rightly to apply all the rest, without which all the rest are com- 
 paratively valueless, and which, if not sown in the earlier years 
 of our existence, will seldom find a fertile soil. We have alluded 
 to this subject in the chapter devoted to the religious state of 
 Germany. 
 
 The condition of the female sex in every situation depends 
 
 * The student who attends a German university is not compelled, as latterly at 
 Oxford and Cambridge, to study the history, evidences, and text of the Christian 
 religion, unless he is destined for the church. This is the most important im- 
 provement that has been ever made in academical education ; its results are 
 already visible in the universities themselves, and in the character of the present 
 and rising generation. 
 
282 POLITICAL AND SOCIAL [SECT. I. 
 
 upon the example which is placed before her, and on the treat- 
 ment which she experiences from the stronger portion of the 
 community ; and nowhere is this truth more palpable than in 
 Germany. There the temperament of woman is cast in a happy 
 mould ; gentle, kind, unambitious, unaffected, she is less intent 
 upon adorning herself, than on administering to the happiness of 
 those around her; she is fenced round with few artificial re- 
 straints; and nowhere is the natural woman more distinctly 
 discernible beneath the social crust. But her feelings are warm, 
 her taste for pleasure is lively ; she continually breathes the 
 atmosphere of the song, and of the dance ; in society she often 
 meets with too much laxity of opinion and usage ; and her 
 full and confiding heart requires a helpmate on whom to lean 
 through life. When this support is granted to her, she generally 
 exhibits all the domestic virtues in their vernal bloom. When 
 transplanted to a strange soil, she usually reflects honour on the 
 country which gave her birth, not less by the numerous minor 
 accomplishments which embellish our present existence, than by 
 the habits which prepare us for a future one. 
 
 It must be admitted, notwithstanding, that the facility of 
 obtaining divorces in the Protestant states, and the large propor- 
 tion of natural children, are the weak side of German morality: 
 but it would be easy to prove, that it is not on the female inhabi- 
 tants that the blame is to be balanced. 
 
 The Germans are not so domestic a people as the English, yet, 
 perhaps, more so than the French. The taste of the middle and 
 lower classes carries them incessantly to public gardens, coffee- 
 houses, the table d'hote, and the theatre. In the neighbourhood 
 of every town are one, two, three, or more public gardens, in 
 which a good band of music is stationed at the hours of resort ; 
 some parties promenade, in a few even dancing is practised, but 
 the greater part of the visitors seat themselves in the open air, 
 consuming ices, coffee and beer, the women often knitting, the 
 men usually engaged in smoking. The musicians send one of 
 their number round to the company, who collects, on a sheet of 
 music, a few pence from the liberal. The theatre is a universal 
 amusement, and a constant theme of criticism and conversation. 
 
CH. XVI.] CONDITION OF GERMANY. 283 
 
 A large portion of the male population dine daily at the table 
 d'hote, not long after mid-day, and here a considerable portion of 
 their time is dissipated. The higher orders, in addition to the 
 theatre, derive one of their chief gratifications from a summer visit 
 to some mineral spring, and here they live altogether in a family 
 manner ; entire families at these baths dine and sup, and even 
 breakfast, in public. In the smaller towns, the men of learning 
 confine themselves unintermittingly to their cabinets, and it is in 
 such scenes that the real learned German is most in his element ; 
 an individual almost totally distinct from the rest of his European 
 colleagues, in the intenseness of his studies, the extent of his ac- 
 quirements, and the simplicity of his manners. The cosmopolitan 
 man of learning, who understands most of the European lan- 
 guages, and some of the oriental ones, who is conversant with 
 almost every science, is,' perhaps, only to be found, at the present 
 moment, in Germany : he differs from most other specimens of 
 the same class, not only in his attainments, but in his scrupulous 
 exactitude, in the conscientious manner in which he weighs 
 evidence, and records every minute shade of fact, and also in his 
 impartiality, and in that genial love for his calling which enables 
 him to disregard pecuniary profit, and confines his anxiety to the 
 noble ambition of instructing his brethren, of conciliating the suf- 
 frages of the wise, and of laying the foundation of a posthumous 
 fame, which, alas ! is too rarely completed into a lasting edifice. 
 Those who are in search of precise, faithful and extended collec- 
 tions of facts, which omit nothing, and trace every thing to its 
 source, must turn exclusively to the literature of this country, 
 which, indeed, forms a vast and inexhaustible mine, in which the 
 patient German collects the native ore, while more careless or 
 more idle labourers from other countries too frequently carry off 
 the precious metal, without always acknowledging the friendly 
 hand which has worked and which continues to work during 
 night and day. 
 
 Frankness, honesty, simplicity and diffidence, are original cha- 
 racteristics of the national character, sometimes disappearing on 
 the frontiers, but strongly marked in the centre, and above all 
 conspicuous in the smaller towns, and in the rural districts. 
 
284 POLITICAL AND SOCIAL [SECT. I. 
 
 Modesty is a peculiarity of the German character, which 
 appears, indeed, to a certain degree innate in all the great family 
 diffused from this stock throughout the North of Europe. It is 
 only in the Germanic family, in which our own race is of course 
 included, that the characteristic of diffidence is to be usually seen, 
 which manifests itself under various forms, but especially in a 
 respect for the opinions of others, in a distrust of one^s own power 
 of pleasing, and in an earnest endeavour to conciliate and to 
 accommodate. It would be invidious to pursue this topic into 
 the various national comparisons which it is capable of suggesting. 
 In the countries in which this trait is not part of the national 
 character, it is too often misinterpreted into pride and arrogance, 
 of which it is the very antipodes. 
 
 The natural modesty of the German character often falls into a 
 painful and unworthy extreme, when it undervalues all that 
 belongs to its own soil, and exaggerates the merits and beauties 
 of other scenes. No country, perhaps, presents a greater variety 
 of interesting objects of nature and art, but instead of appreci- 
 ating that which belongs to himself, the German too frequently 
 indulges in a vague and meretricious rapture, inspired by remi- 
 niscences or visions of other regions*. Schiller finely, but in a 
 desponding and too timid mood, touches on this chord of his 
 countrymen, and tries to awaken it to a more genial tone. His 
 ode is too instructive to be curtailed. 
 
 * This self-abasing spirit, so constantly inculcated by our Heavenly Teacher on 
 the individual man, is no longer a virtue when it tends to depress the national 
 spirit ; a man should, if possible, be proud of his country, although arrogance 
 cannot be tolerated in himself. The preference of French literature and manners 
 so long exhibited by the rulers and nobility of former generations in Germany, 
 deadened that warm and generous enthusiasm which naturally clings to the soil of 
 our birth ; Frederic the Great scarcely deigned to read a German book, and his 
 intimate friends and councillors were foreigners. The princes and higher classes 
 of that time were glad to correspond and to converse in French ; and every 
 native taste and talent were depreciated as vulgar. When Voltaire was once 
 arranging some Prussian grenadiers as subordinate actors at a rehearsal of his 
 tragedy at Potsdam, he dared to exclaim, because they could not comprehend his 
 French, "J'ai demande des hommes, et Ton me donne des Allemands." Bitter 
 were the fruits which this anti-national deportment produced in Germany. At the 
 commencement of the late wars, the German people did not easily awaken from this 
 torpid attitude into which they had been so unwillingly thrown ; the house was 
 ready swept and prepared for the foreign invader, who seems to have been regarded 
 as a superior being. 
 
CH. XVI.] CONDITION OF GERMANY. 285 
 
 " Dear friends, there have been more glorious times than ours 
 that is not to be disputed ; and a nobler people have once existed. 
 Were even history silent about it, a thousand stones dug from 
 the bosom of the earth, give striking evidence. But they are 
 gone; that highly favoured race has vanished. We, we are 
 living. Ours are the passing hours, and the living have their 
 claims. Friends, there are, as the far-travelled wanderer tells us, 
 happier regions than the country in which we live indifferently 
 well ; but if nature denies us much, knowledge is friendly, 
 smiling upon us, and our hearts are warmed by its lights. 
 Though the laurel does not prosper here, and the myrtle becomes 
 the prey of our winter, yet the cheerful foliage of the vine thrives 
 to crown our brows. 
 
 " There is, no doubt, more bustle on the busy shores of the 
 Thames, in the market of this earth, where four worlds exchange 
 their treasures. A thousand vessels arrive and depart; every 
 thing most precious may be had there, and money, the divinity of 
 the world, rules triumphant. But it is not from the troubled mud 
 of brooks, swollen by heavy rains, that the image of the sun is 
 reflected ; this plays only on the smooth surface or the calm 
 rivulet. The beggar at the gates of the castle of St. Angelo, has 
 a more splendid dwelling than we in our North, for he beholds 
 everlasting and unparalleled Rome. He is surrounded by a 
 throng of beautiful and magnificent objects, and a second heaven, 
 the marvellous dome of St. Peter, rises before him into the sky. 
 But Rome, in all its splendour, is the tomb of past glory; it is 
 only the fresh plant which buds in the cheering revolving hour 
 which exhales life. Greater things may happen elsewhere, than 
 with us in our little sphere ; yet nothing new is seen under the 
 sun. But on the boards that represent the world, we tranquilly 
 behold the great deeds of all ages ingeniously passing before our 
 eyes. Every thing in life is but repeated ; imagination alone is 
 ever young, nothing is free from growing antiquated, but what 
 never and nowhere occurred*." 
 
 It is of little moment to discuss the character of others, unless 
 we endeavour to deduce some results applicable, more or less, to 
 the illustration and improvement of our own ; and this reflection 
 * Translated by Boileau, in " The Linguist." 
 
POLITICAL AND SOCIAL [SKCT. I. 
 
 conducts us to the most delicate and difficult part of our brief 
 estimate. A singular period has arisen in Europe, and is fast 
 arriving at maturity ; it consists in the rapid increase of know- 
 ledge in the lower classes, in the diffusion and misrepresentations 
 of newspapers, in the augmentation of the middle ranks in num- 
 ber and wealth, and in the losses and confusion which the higher 
 families have in many parts experienced, through the ravages of 
 war, the plunder of foreign invasion, the changes of territory, and 
 the whirlwind of revolutions. The problem, then, which awaits 
 solution, and which earnestly demands the deepest consideration 
 of the wise and virtuous, is, to regulate this new movement 
 aright, and so to direct the helm, that the vessel may not lose its 
 course, and that all on board may not be shipwrecked, with the 
 exception of a few unprincipled and selfish passengers, who also 
 must, at last, share the common fate. 
 
 In Germany, this new motion communicated to society is in a 
 certain degree softened and eased by the friendly tone which, 
 more or less, prevails among the different classes of the commu- 
 nity ; an extreme affability, beginning at the highest point, and 
 gradually descending to the base, seems likely to prevent violent 
 collisions, and to diminish the friction. A truth of inexpressible 
 value in all the relations of life is there acknowledged and prac- 
 tised as a fundamental usage of intercourse ; namely, that all are 
 to be treated with respect, that no superiority of rank or fortune 
 can warrant arrogance of demeanour, or pride of speech. Man- 
 kind will far more readily forgive even great vices than a breach 
 of courtesy ; and we have ample experience in all biography and 
 history, that kindness and affability of manner form the real 
 secret of conciliating golden opinions. It is not sufficient that 
 laws should be equally administered between different ranks ; it 
 is still highly necessary, in order to preserve social harmony, that 
 a cordial, gentle, and unpresuming deportment should be observed 
 by those who are placed on an eminence, and whose example, 
 whether good or evil, in this respect, will assuredly be imitated 
 in various shades by all the intermediate classes, until we arrive 
 at the lowest. It is impossible to deny, however painful may be 
 the avowal, that a certain pride of deportment prevails frequently 
 
CH. XVI.] CONDITION OF GERMANY. 287 
 
 in our own country ; not at all confined to the higher classes, but 
 very conspicuous in all, from which none is exempt in its inter- 
 course with those below it, and which may be traced even in 
 stronger characters in the farmer, the tradesman, and the domestic 
 servant, than in the middle orders, and is again more prominent 
 in the middle orders than in the highest. A certain bitterness of 
 feeling is thus engendered, which, although it stimulates men to 
 rise above their own original position to the one next above them, 
 renders them too apt to entertain calumnious reports, to encourage 
 the slander of newspapers, and to propagate scandal. A separa- 
 tion of interests and a mutual jealousy is thus fomented between 
 the different classes, which, in calamitous and difficult times, will 
 tend to harden the feelings of each class against the one above it, 
 and to inspire a hateful satisfaction in witnessing the degradation 
 of others. This sentiment of distrust and repulsion is unhappily 
 encouraged by political incendiaries not confined to any one rank, 
 but to be found in all conditions, who seek to propel themselves 
 into an unnatural popularity, or to gain some temporary, sordid 
 object, by declamations against the oppressions of the rich, against 
 the miseries wilfully inflicted upon the poor, and by a sweeping 
 abuse of the aristocracy to which they themselves belong, and 
 whose spirit they themselves breathe in an inflated degree. 
 
 This so-called aristocracy, is not in England, the proper title 
 of any particular set of men, but belongs equally to all ; it is 
 found in the habits, language, and behaviour of the servantsVhall, 
 the vestry, and the coffee-room, as commonly as in the counting- 
 house, the ball-room, or the race-course ; and in all these places, 
 it is far more highly coloured than in the palace, the college, or 
 the literary and scientific meeting. No where, indeed, is aristo- 
 cracy more legibly written than on some of those persons who 
 inveigh most vehemently against it on the hustings and in legis- 
 lative assemblies : and who, in the midst of their cheap public 
 pretensions to universal equality, exhibit in the private scenes of 
 life all the haughtiness, the illiberal prejudices and the exclusive- 
 ness which we are apt to attribute to despotic princes, but which 
 is certainly seldom to be found among the rulers of Germany. 
 
 Would it not be more patriotic, more wise, more kind, instead 
 
288 POLITICAL CONDITION OF GERMANY. [SECT. I. 
 
 of holding out to the poor expectations and promises which are 
 incapable of being fulfilled, instead of exasperating them against 
 those on whose prosperity they ultimately depend, to encourage 
 in them a taste for innocent pleasures, and to provide them 
 with the means of enjoying them such as public gardens, 
 gratuitous schools for music, cheap concert-rooms, public libraries, 
 nay, dancing-rooms*, and facilities for manly sports? Such are 
 the elements of contentment, of cheerfulness, and of a friendly 
 reciprocity of feeling and sympathy between the upper and lower 
 classes, and not delusive suggestions of cheap bread, or of an 
 impossible degree of reduced taxation. A desire and a necessity 
 for relaxation are inseparable from all beings engaged in toil ; it 
 is the business, then, and the interest, equally as it is the duty, of 
 legislators and of wealthy and influential individuals, to promote 
 these objects. The artisan and the peasant have not the means, 
 nor always the requisite knowledge, to prepare suitable recrea- 
 tions on a large scale for their respective classes ; they are thus 
 driven insensibly, we may almost say inevitably, to the gin-shop, 
 and the beer-house, at which fatal haunts after dissipating at the 
 same time their scanty savings and their health, they return to 
 their accustomed labour sullen and unrefreshed, while their wives 
 and children have not only been denied any participation in their 
 so-called amusements, but are suffering daily privations in conse- 
 quence. These remarks may appear trivial to some ; others will 
 object to increasing the number of places of resort on the ground 
 of the supposed attendant debauchery and bad company. But 
 places of amusement might be easily promoted, from which the 
 sale of spirits and of beer should be excluded, and a vigilant 
 police might avert riot and theft as easily as in other countries. 
 It is a libel on our countrymen to argue that they cannot use 
 recreation without abusing it ; but they cannot find it unassisted; 
 they must be taken by the hand. The experiment has not yet 
 been tried ; but its timely adoption will tend to rivet more firmly 
 the rapidly-dividing links of the social chain. 
 
 * I feel an humble satisfaction in having been one of the first to point out the 
 want of public gardens at Manchester, in my Report on the Factory Commission 
 of 1833. 
 
289 
 
 CHAPTER XVII. 
 
 CENSORSHIP OF THE PRESS, AND STATE OP THE LAW ' 
 RELATIVE TO LITERARY PROPERTY. 
 
 THE restrictions imposed on printing and publishing in a greater 
 or less degree throughout Germany, form the most common theme 
 of the discontented in that country, and a frequent subject of 
 sympathy among foreigners. It is impossible to deny that the 
 degree in which these are enforced is the greatest blot visible on 
 the political aspect of Germany; although we willingly admit 
 that freedom ought not to be corrupted into licentious calumny, 
 and that this grating restraint, however mischievous so far as 
 regards the publication of truth, exempts those who suffer it from 
 numberless cruel inroads into the privacy of families, and from, 
 the circulation of atrocious libels whose bitterness can never be 
 extracted or neutralized by the verdict of a jury. 
 
 Every work, or journal, before it can be printed, must be 
 examined by a censor : for the different departments of literature, 
 there are different censors, and whatever they please to strike out, 
 cannot be printed. Formerly it was allowed to indicate where 
 the censor had struck out any sentences by inserting dashes in 
 
 their place, as . But an ordinance of the Diet issued 
 
 in 1832, has now forbidden this, because it was found that all 
 newspapers and other publications which bore those marks of the 
 censor's severity were eagerly sought after and readily sold. At 
 present, however much an article may have been mutilated by the 
 censor, the author is not allowed to publish it, until he has joined 
 together the fragments to which it has been reduced, and made of 
 th mi, moreover, a connected whole. 
 
 Occasionally, papers were published with only a few words 
 straggling down a column, and with mangled paragraphs of 
 which often no sense at all could be made. To supply the defi- 
 
 u 
 
290 CENSORSHIP OF THE PRESS. [SECT. I. 
 
 ciencies in these cases, and divine the missing adjectives, was 
 very naturally looked upon at last as a dangerous exercise for the 
 public ingenuity. 
 
 All books and periodicals are compelled to pay for the care 
 which the censor bestows upon them, and are obliged often to 
 remunerate him for depriving them of a part of their value. 
 When he has examined his copy and made any alterations 
 which he deems necessary, he delivers it to the printer, who is 
 bound to submit to him the proof-sheet in order that he may satisfy 
 himself that his alterations have been properly carried into effect. 
 Having attended to this, he returns it, accompanied by a certificate 
 that the work has been properly censured. Then, and not till 
 then, can it be legally published. It might be supposed, that, 
 after having been thus rigorously criticised, the work, once pub- 
 lished, would have nothing more to fear from the hands of the 
 police. But this is far from being the case. However strictly 
 it may have been censured, it may still be seized and confiscated, 
 and that too, without any indemnity to the proprietor, if it should 
 happen to excite any unruly sentiments in its readers, or to offend 
 the sensitiveness of men in office. This is another proof that there 
 is no certain tenure of literary property in Germany, for no 
 person can be certain that his works will not some time or other 
 be confiscated, or, as it is technically called, " suppressed." 
 
 The procedure with books is simple and summary enough; 
 they are seized, and once seized, they are never allowed to re- 
 appear. When it is a newspaper which has given offence, not 
 only is the offending number suppressed, but its editors are not 
 allowed to continue its publication, nor, what is more, to take a 
 part in the direction of any other journal for the space of five 
 years. But even such rigorous measures as these have not been 
 deemed sufficient by the Diet. Tired of condemning single 
 offenders, it undertook, in 1835, to suppress a wholesale mass of 
 books. It decreed that all the works which had been already 
 published by Heine, Gutzkow, Wienbarg, Mundt, Laube, 
 Cottenkamp, and some others, should be confiscated, and further, 
 that all which they might in future write should be condemned 
 beforehand. 
 
CH. XVII.] CENSORSHIP OF THE PRESS. 291 
 
 Let us now turn for an instant to some of the individual 
 governments, and observe the manner in which they treat their 
 literary men. 
 
 We will commence with Prussia, which has the reputation of 
 being one of the most enlightened of the European states. A. 
 censor is installed in every Prussian town in which a printing- 
 office exists, and in the smaller ones he is said to be generally the 
 person who is at the head of the police. The instructions with 
 which these officials are furnished forbid them to allow anything 
 to be printed, which, according to their judgment, may be in any 
 degree injurious to religion, to morality, or to the state. Though 
 no license is allowed to the writer, the most extensive license is 
 granted to his censors. They accordingly will not allow reproaches 
 to be levelled against any act of the government. It may be said 
 that an author has the right of appeal, but the delay and expense 
 which attend it are such as to deprive it of solid advantage ; the 
 appeal, in fact, is directed not to an independent body, but to 
 individuals who are the servants of the government. In Prussia, 
 no person is allowed to become editor of a journal (political or 
 literary), until he has proved before a committee specially 
 appointed that he has safe opinions (xuverlassige Gesinnungeri) 
 on religion and politics. No person is allowed to send a manu- 
 script out of the country to be printed, unless it has been first 
 examined by his local censor. A work by a Prussian which has 
 not been so censured cannot be introduced into the country, 
 without incurring the risk of being seized as soon as the fact comes 
 to the knowledge of the supreme college of censure (Ober-Censur- 
 Collegium). Thus a Prussian author is not upon a level with 
 foreigners, whose works are admitted after due examination of 
 their contents. He must either consent to be censured or cease 
 to write. About two years ago, on the publication, by Dr. 
 Foerster, of a life of the eccentric Frederic William I. (the 
 father of Frederic the Great), a royal ordinance appeared, forbid- 
 ding all future historians who might treat of the house of 
 Hohenzollern, to blame " unnecessarily" the ancestors of the 
 ruling family, or to adduce any " superfluous" fact which might 
 tend to their discredit. 
 
 u 2 
 
292 CENSORSHIP OF THE PRESS. [SECT. I. 
 
 In Saxony, a short time ago, the government was only prevented 
 from imposing new fetters on the press, by energetic representations 
 from the numerous booksellers of Leipsic, tending to prove that 
 the accomplishment of such a project would be the source of their 
 utter ruin. 
 
 In 181 9, when the first severe measures against the liberty of 
 the press issued from Carlsbad, it was announced that they were 
 only to remain in force during six years. But at the expiration 
 of that period they were tacitly renewed, and finally confirmed 
 by the ordinances of June, 1834, in which the Diet at the same 
 time makes a singular promise "not to impede in any way the free 
 development of the national genius, as embodied in literature."" 
 
 The German governments used formerly to make some pre- 
 tensions to clemency in not punishing a troublesome author more 
 severely than by confiscating his writings. They contrasted 
 themselves advantageously on this score, with their neighbours, 
 the French. But, at present, a comparison will terminate in 
 favour of the latter. The following have been communicated to 
 us as a few instances of the treatment which some modern literary 
 men in Germany have experienced at the hands of their respective 
 governments. Dr. W. Schulze, of Darmstadt, for writing in 
 too free a style, was tried by a court-martial, because some ten 
 or fifteen years before he had been an officer in the army; by 
 this tribunal, he was condemned to five years'* imprisonment. 
 So, also, Seybold, a novelist, a native of Wurtemberg, lias been 
 for several years, and still continues, a prisoner, on account of his 
 writings. And, in Bavaria, an author who is convicted of having 
 treated the king with disrespect, is condemned, not only to be 
 imprisoned, but to beg the king's pardon whilst kneeling before 
 his image. 
 
 Such anecdotes as these may perhaps be exaggerated ; few are 
 in a position sufficiently favourable to enable them to ascertain the 
 positive facts of a case, and least of all in countries where both 
 sides are not always permitted to be freely stated. It must not, 
 however, be supposed, that the same degree of rigour prevails in 
 all the states ; the states which have obtained a constitutional 
 form of government appear disposed to relax it, but are from 
 
CH. XVII.] CENSORSHIP OF THE PRESS. 293 
 
 time to time impeded in their laudable aim by the decrees of the 
 Diet. I was informed at Berlin, in 1823, that not even a dancing 
 master, nor a teacher of languages, nor an artist, could print his 
 card or prospectus without previously submitting it to the super- 
 vision of the censor; but a stranger is sometimes misled by 
 ignorance or banter. 
 
 In all countries the author receives but slender protection from 
 the laws ; with the exception, indeed, of newspaper editors, few 
 men enjoy less personal influence ; and, until an international 
 system is established on this head, their recompense will remain 
 moderate, and their labour insecure. No general system exists in 
 Germany, by virtue of which literary property is secured to its 
 author. Most other civilized nations have some certain laws on 
 this subject, but in Germany the security of literary property is 
 entirely dependant on the caprices of the several governments 
 composing the confederation. In some states it is protected, but 
 in others, as, for instance, in Wurtemberg, and in Austria, any 
 work may be pirated which has not been published under the 
 especial protection of their respective governments. Before the 
 publisher could undertake the edition of Goethe 1 s works which 
 appeared about ten years ago, he was obliged to solicit protection 
 against piracy from each of the thirty-eight German governments 
 and it was granted to him in all cases as a privilege; and this 
 is the only work which has appeared with the " privilege of pro- 
 tection" from the whole German confederacy. 
 
 In 1832, the Diet made a distinct promise to protect literary 
 property. A committee composed of members of the Diet was 
 appointed at Frankfort, for the purpose of taking measures to 
 submit all such property to an uniform system of legislation 
 throughout the country. But, as yet, the old abuses have 
 neither been abolished nor abated. 
 
 A new law of literary property has, however, been ordained in 
 Prussia at the commencement of the present year: it will perhaps 
 be imitated in other parts of Germany. According to this regula- 
 tion, which we copy from the Literary Gazette, u The authors of 
 works of literature, the sciences, and the arts, in Prussia, are secured 
 an exclusive privilege of publishing, multiplying, and copying them 
 
294 CENSORSHIP OF THE PRESS. [SECT. I. 
 
 during the term of their natural lives ; and the same privilege is 
 extended to their representatives for a period of thirty years from 
 the day of their deaths. Violations of this privilege are punishable 
 respectively with fines of from fifty to a thousand thalers, and by 
 a confiscation of the pirated copies. The same privileges and pro- 
 tection are granted to anonymous and pseudonymous authors for 
 fifteen years, and to academies, universities, and other corporations, 
 for thirty years from the first publication of the works. Also, all 
 persons printing and publishing sermons, delivered in churches, 
 or lectures of professors, are deemed guilty of the same offence of 
 piracy, and are liable to the same penalties. The following cases 
 are not to be considered as piracies: 1. The reproduction of 
 isolated passages from a work already printed. 2. The citation 
 of isolated paragraphs, pieces of poetry, &c. in critical or historico- 
 literary works, or in collections for the use of schools. 3. Trans- 
 lations of printed works. Translations, however, are to be con- 
 sidered as piracies under the following circumstances, viz. Such 
 as are made into German of a work published by a German 
 author in any one of the dead languages ; and when an author 
 has published a work in several living languages at one and the 
 same time, another is published in any or either of those languages 
 in which it originally appeared. By subsequent provisions, the 
 same protection is granted to the authors of works in geography, 
 topography, natural history, and architecture, and other pro- 
 ductions of a similar nature, and likewise to musical compositions. 
 Further, all multiplications of paintings or drawings, by means of 
 engravings on copper, steel, wood, stone, or other materials, are 
 interdicted vmder the same penalties ; and likewise of all casts or 
 copies of works in sculpture. Another class forbids the publica- 
 tion of any works of art resembling originals, whether upon a 
 larger or smaller scale than the originals, or under any other 
 circumstances which may warrant their being considered as simple 
 imitations of originals. All representations of dramatic works 
 upon licensed theatres, without permission of their authors, are 
 forbidden ; and, if any such are made, the full receipts of the 
 house, without any deduction for the expenses, and whether the 
 piece is performed alone or in conjunction with others, are to be 
 
CENSORSHIP OF THE PRESS. 295 
 
 payable as a fine ; two-thirds of which are to be paid to the 
 author, and the other third to the fund for the benefit of the poor 
 of the place in which the surreptitious performance is made. The 
 new law is applicable to all literary, scientific, musical, and 
 dramatic works, and productions of the arts already in existence: 
 this law is to be applicable to works published in a foreign state, 
 in so far as the rights established in that state are conferred 
 equally by the laws of the said state to works published in 
 Prussia." 
 
296 
 
 CHAPTER XVIII. 
 ANECDOTES OF THE NEWSPAPER PRESS. 
 
 ALTHOUGH in every German state, a system of censure for 
 literary productions prevails, there is probably no country where 
 so many periodical works are published. Every German loves to 
 be an author, and almost all who have had a classical education, 
 have, at one time or other, written an article in some journal. 
 
 Since the liberty of the press does not exist in Germany, almost 
 all the newspapers are the mere organs of the various govern- 
 ments; a few maintain a show of independence, but the reality is 
 impossible, under a regular system of censure. No newspaper 
 can be established without the permission of government, and 
 this permission is only granted to a privileged few. The Ger- 
 man newspapers, consequently, can only be of general interest, in 
 so far as they indicate the tendencies of their respective govern- 
 ments, or of any foreign power, such as Russia, which may have 
 obtained some control in their direction. 
 
 Prussian Newspapers. The Prussian government has lately 
 decreed that no person shall be allowed to edit a newspaper, who 
 has not received his education at an university. Four political 
 journals are published at Berlin. The first which we shall mention, 
 is the State-gazette, (Staatsxeitutig^) which is the special organ of 
 the government. It is edited by some official of the foreign depart- 
 ment, (at present by M. Cottel,) and affords publication to state- 
 ments and articles emanating from the ministry. Its size is that 
 of the larger French newspapers; the first two and a half pages are 
 commonly devoted to foreign affairs, and are principally filled with 
 extracts from foreign journals ; to home affairs not a column, and 
 sometimes not even half a column, is devoted ; the remainder of 
 the journal is filled with reviews, scientific notices, and the like. 
 Leading articles (as they are called in the English papers,) are 
 not to be found at all in this journal; neither does it contain any 
 discussions whatever on any branch of internal policy. The 
 
CH. XVIII.] THE NEWSPAPER PRESS. 297 
 
 chief correspondence which it inserts at present is from Spain and 
 Portugal. Connected with the 'State-gazette, which appears 
 daily, is a literary paper called the " Magazine of Foreign 
 Literature" (Magaxin fur die Liter atur des Auslandes). The 
 State-gazette is supposed to sell about 9000 copies. 
 
 " The Gazette of Haude and Spener," (die Haude und 
 Spenersche Zeitung,) is now the property of Dr. Spiker, libra- 
 rian to the king, who is also its editor*. Its arrangement 
 is almost the same as that of the State-gazette; but English 
 politics are treated in it at greater length. It is edited in a 
 Conservative tone. Raumer is its theatrical critic, and as such, 
 enriches it with some excellent dramaturgic articles. This jour- 
 nal is published daily ; it sells perhaps 14,000 copies, and is said 
 to bring in a profit of at least 5000/. a year. Its form is 
 that of our " Athenaeum." It contains advertisements sufficient 
 to cover all its expenses. 
 
 " Voss^s Gazette," (die Vossische Zeitung^) is of the same 
 form and arrangement as the last-mentioned. Its principal editor 
 is M. Rellstab, well known in Berlin as a writer of fiction, and as 
 a musical critic. This paper has the reputation of being some- 
 what liberal, but not in the sense in which liberalism is interpreted 
 by an English Radical. It appears daily, except on Sundays, 
 and has about 12,000 subscribers. 
 
 " The Weekly Political Journal of Berlin," (das Berliner 
 politische UTochenblatt,) is perhaps the boldest, most talented, 
 and most consistent advocate of the doctrines of absolutism 
 which at present exists in Europe. According to its views of state- 
 policy, an English Ultra-Tory would be sublimed into a Liberal. 
 This journal was formerly edited by Professor Jarke, who from 
 the talent he displayed in it, and the principles he advocated, 
 recommended himself to the notice of Prince Metternich, from 
 whom he received an appointment in Austria, where he at pre- 
 sent resides. His successor, Major Streit, seconded by several 
 
 * This gentleman is well known to English travellers by his courtesy, hospitality, 
 and extensive knowledge of our literature and language. To the literary world lie 
 is familiar, as the author of a good book of Travels in England, which has been 
 translated into English and Dutch. 
 
298 THE NEWSPAPER PRESS. [SECT. I. 
 
 assistants, continues to wage his weekly war with no mean re- 
 sources. This paper is by some regarded as an organ of the party 
 which was conducted by the 1 ate Prince Charles of Mecklenburg- 
 Strelitz. It has no very extensive circulation. 
 
 Besides these journals published in Berlin, a paper appears in 
 the chief towns of every government district, (Regierunys- 
 bexirk,) after whose name it is called, as for instance, the 
 " Gazette of Magdeburg," " of Cologne." On the whole there 
 are twenty-five of these political journals. They are under 
 the direct superintendance of a local censor, and are, neverthe- 
 less, not permitted to insert any article which has not already 
 appeared in the State-gazette of Berlin. In their respective dis- 
 tricts, they enjoy a monopoly of advertisements, i. e. every person 
 who wishes to advertise, must advertise in (them. If the editor 
 of one of these provincial journals should consider himself harshly 
 treated by the local censor, he has the right of appeal to the 
 supreme president of the province, but this personage may 
 happen to reside at a great distance, so that, if he decides in 
 favour of the editor, (a case of unfrequent occurrence,) so much 
 time must necessarily elapse before the decision can reach him, 
 that the point at issue loses most of its importance. 
 
 " The Hamburg Impartial Correspondent," (der Hamburger 
 Unparteische Correspondent^) was established more than a 
 hundred years ago, and for the first fifty years of its existence was 
 the only journal of any note in the north of Germany. It had 
 formerly the reputation of being liberal, but is now said to be 
 in the interest of the Russian government, which appears to send 
 numerous articles of a semi-official character. It contains, also, 
 sometimes, communications from Berlin, which look as if supplied 
 by persons connected with the government. 
 
 " The Hanoverian Gazette," (Hanoverische Zeitung,) is edited 
 by Dr. Pertz, principal archivist (archivarius,) of the kingdom 
 of Hanover. Its politics are Conservative. It contains official 
 communications, and publishes, from time to time, correspondence 
 supplied perhaps by persons connected with different German 
 governments, and attached to foreign embassies. 
 
 " The Gazette for Villages," (Dorf-%eitung>) appears at Hild- 
 
CH. XVIII.] THE NEWSPAPER PRESS, 299 
 
 burghausen, in the state of Saxe-Meiningen, and has a very con- 
 siderable circulation amongst the German people. It is edited 
 by the clerical superintendant, Nonne. It is written in a good, 
 popular style ; it always takes bold views of general subjects, 
 and of politics as far as circumstances admit. It is published 
 twice a week. 
 
 " The Leipzig Gazette" has a Conservative spirit, and has a 
 noted correspondence from Berlin. It appears daily, except 
 Sundays. 
 
 The Frankfort papers are the following : 
 
 1. The Gazette of the General Post-office" (die Ober-Post- 
 amts-xeitung). This journal is edited by Dr. Thomas, and some 
 of its articles are from the clever pen of Mr. Berly. Its politics 
 are those of a moderate Whig ; it is published daily. 
 
 2. " The Journal of Frankfort" (das Frankfurter Journal). 
 This newspaper was established before the Thirty- Years 1 War, 
 and is the oldest in Germany. The editor is Mr. Heller, whose 
 articles are of a somewhat liberal tendency. It is a daily paper. 
 
 3. u The Journal of Frankfort," in French (le Journal de 
 Francfort). The editor of this journal is Mr. Charles Durand, 
 who formerly was editor of the " Journal de la Haye," and at 
 present writes in a vein favourable to the Russian government. 
 The Journal de Francfort contains numerous articles, which seem 
 to have been written either at St. Petersburg, or by Russian 
 diplomatists abroad. Some years ago, Mr. Durand resided for 
 several months in the Russian capital, where he received marks 
 of the imperial favour. He is a very able writer, and English 
 readers, who desire to take in a good epitome of continental news 
 in the French language, cannot fare better than by subscribing to 
 this convenient journal. 
 
 " The Nuremberg Correspondent," and " The Franconian 
 Mercury," are daily papers of a somewhat liberal tendency. The 
 former is published at Nuremberg, the latter at Bamberg. 
 
 " The Universal Augsburg Gazette," (die allgemeine Augs- 
 burger-zeitung, usually styled Die Allgemeine Zeitung,) edited 
 by Dr. Gustavus Kolb, is the German paper which enjoys the 
 widest European fame. It was established by the late bookseller 
 
300 THE NEWSPAPER PRESS. [SECT. I. 
 
 of Stuttgard and Tubingen, Baron Cotta of Cottendorf, and has 
 generally been in the interest of the party which was dominant 
 for the time being, sometimes leaning towards liberalism, and 
 sometimes towards absolutism. At this moment, its tendency is 
 in the latter direction. Its chief merit consists in the detailed 
 and well-written correspondence which it presents from almost all 
 the countries of Europe. Its correspondents are generally very 
 well-informed, and are frequently persons filling situations under 
 governments. The Austrian and Prussian governments are said 
 to have the greatest share of influence on its character. I believe, 
 however, that good articles are readily admitted into this journal, 
 from whatever quarter they may proceed : but the censor will 
 sometimes mutilate them. 
 
 " The German Courier, 1 ' (der Deutsche Courier,) is a daily 
 paper published at Stuttgard, and edited by Dr. Weil. This 
 journal espouses the cause of the German constitutional states 
 against the attacks of the writers who maintain Austrian and 
 Prussian views. It has always warmly defended King Louis 
 Philippe, and the revolution of 1830, in opposition to the organs 
 of the absolute powers. 
 
 " The Suabian Mercury," (der Schwdbische MerkurJ) is also 
 a daily paper published at Stuttgard, and of a liberal cast. Its 
 correspondence is sometimes valuable. 
 
 " The Austrian Observer," (der Oestreichische Beobachter^) is 
 a daily paper published at Vienna. Its principal editor is Edler 
 von Pilat. This journal is said to represent the sentiments of 
 Prince Metternich, the truly remarkable prime minister of Austria, 
 who during so many years has safely guided the imperial vessel 
 through tempests and rocks, and who has received so large a portion 
 of abuse in foreign countries, from persons who know but little 
 about him*. 
 
 * It is to be regretted that the English Cabinet, of whatever party composed, 
 docs not always adopt some one journal, as a faithful and steady representative of 
 its sentiments. In default of such a reflection of its own political character, the 
 English ministries are perpetually mistaken., both as to their spirit, intentions, and 
 actual proceedings, as well at home as in foreign countries. Irritation is excited 
 against them, in consequence of certain articles which appear in journals supposed 
 to be under their control, but which, in fact, distort them, and not uufrequently^ 
 even attack them. 
 
CH. XVIII.] THE NEWSPAPER PRESS. 301 
 
 An attempt has been made, to show the proportion of periodical 
 works and of newspapers, in various parts of Europe. This list 
 affords to 
 
 Austria, one journal among ... 376,000 inhabitants. 
 
 Prussia ; - - 43,000 
 
 Vienna - 11,558 
 
 Berlin - 4,074 
 
 The number of journals published in Austria in 1837, amounts 
 to 72, 21 of which are furnished by Vienna. The Lombardo- 
 Venetian kingdom issues 34; Milan alone, 25, Venice 6, and 
 Verona 4. 
 
 Two English journals are at present published in Germany ; 
 " The Englishman," at Stuttgard, and " The British Museum," at 
 Bielefeld. They are both devoted to entertaining literature 
 alone. 
 
 We have not enumerated all the newspapers which are pub- 
 lished in Germany ; and probably, at the moment when we are 
 making this brief statement new candidates are starting on their 
 career. Still less will it be convenient to describe the numerous 
 periodical miscellanies which emanate from that quarter in illus- 
 tration of every branch of knowledge and art. We had intended 
 to name the most distinguished, but the difficulty of making an 
 impartial selection, and of rendering justice to all, deters us from 
 the attempt. 
 
303 
 
 SECTION II. 
 GERMANY CONSIDERED IN ITS PARTS. 
 
 CHAPTER XIX. 
 THE EMPIRE OF AUSTRIA. 
 
 The ruling Family. Provinces and Population; principal Towns ; 
 Races. Religion; number of Clergy ; Monasteries in Bohemia; 
 Universities. Budget; Army; Navy. Form of Government; 
 Officers of Government ; Officers of the Court. Births and Deaths ; 
 Statistics of the Population of Bohemia ; number of Medical Men in 
 an Austrian Province; Statistics of Vienna. Criminal Statistics 
 of the Empire of Austria. 
 
 IN the great panorama of Germany, the Austrian empire forms 
 the most curious and picturesque object to every class of^>b- 
 servers. There we find the greatest variety of dialects, of dresses, 
 of usages, but all blended into one powerful, if not harmonious 
 mass, moving with regularity, and, if not rapidly advancing, 
 making nevertheless a steady step onwards. There we observe 
 inconsistencies, which the framers of systems will find it difficult 
 to reconcile ; but the true point of view from which Austria ought 
 to be viewed, is the variety of its component parts, and the 
 extreme difficulty of maintaining them together, except by a rigid 
 and inflexible political system. Yet, severe as is the Austrian 
 system towards real or supposed political offences, nowhere is a 
 better provision made for the elementary instruction of the inha- 
 bitants, and nowhere perhaps is a greater degree of happiness 
 enjoyed, than in the Germanic portion of the empire : it is only 
 in the Italian dominions that the murmur of disaffection springs 
 from the heart. 
 
304 EMPIRE OF AUSTRIA. [SECT. II. 
 
 It is a mistake to suppose that every political feature in 
 Austria continues unchanged. A slow and unobserved progress 
 is at work, not announcing its march by outcry and violence, but 
 gently and insensibly accommodating the condition of men and 
 of things to the alterations in the proceedings in other parts of 
 of the world, and to the wants of their own portion. Thus, in 
 1785 there existed in Bohemia, 6,257 ecclesiastics, 1,577 n bles, 
 3,077 officials, and 85,000 citizens*; and in 1795 we find a 
 dawn of change, which, in the year 1805 continues, and per- 
 severes through 1815, until in the year 1825 we perceive the last 
 results, demonstrating a very singular transposition or dislocation 
 in the various classes of society: the ecclesiastics are greatly 
 diminished, the nobles are somewhat augmented, the official 
 persons are nearly trebled in number, and the amount of those 
 described as citizens is decreased -f. 
 
 The imperial house of Austria is of the Catholic religion. The 
 present emperor is Ferdinand I., born April 19, 1793, crowned 
 king of Hungary, September 28, 1830, who succeeded his father, 
 Francis I., March 2, 1835. He married, 1831, Caroline, 
 princess of Sardinia. He has three sisters, Maria Louisa, 
 duchess of Parma; Maria Clementina, married to the prince 
 of - Salerno ; and Maria Anna, abbess at Prague ; and one 
 brother, Francis, born in 1802, married, 1824, to Sophia, 
 princess of Bavaria, by whom he has three sons and one daughter. 
 Francis, the eldest son, was born August 18, 1830. The 
 mother-in-law of the emperor, Caroline, princess of Bavaria, born 
 in 1792, is still living. The emperor has five uncles, viz., 
 Charles, duke of Teschen ; Joseph, palatine of Hungary; John, 
 general of cavalry ; Rainer, vice-king of Lombardy ; and Lewis, 
 general of artillery. Charles, who married a princess of Nassau- 
 Weilburg. Joseph, who has been thrice married, first to Alex- 
 andrina Paulowna, a Russian grand-princess ; secondly, to Her- 
 
 * In 1795, 4,790 ecclesiastics, 1,C77 nobles, 3,202 officials, 81,751 citizens. 
 
 1805, 4,210 2,051 5,393 74,281 
 
 1815, 4,142 2,053 9,350 72,338 
 
 1825, 4,006 2,267 9,986 66,210 
 
 J- Schon, Op. Cit., p. 231. 
 
CH. XIX.] 
 
 EMPIRE OF AUSTRIA. 
 
 305 
 
 mine, princess of Anhalt-Bernburg-Schaumburg ; and, thirdly, 
 to Maria, daughter of Prince Lewis of Wurtemberg. Rainer, who 
 married a princess of Savoy-Carignano. They have all several 
 children. 
 
 The following is a view of the provinces of Austria, and of 
 their population *. 
 
 PROVINCES. 
 
 Area in 
 Geographical 
 Sq. Miles. 
 
 Population. 
 
 Towns. 
 
 Market 
 Towns and 
 Villages. 
 
 Lower Austria 1 
 
 
 ( 1 246 520 
 
 35 
 
 4 500 
 
 Upper Austria 1 
 
 70S. 65 
 
 | 835*43 1 
 
 17 
 
 6 925 
 
 Styria 
 
 400 12 
 
 855 720 
 
 20 
 
 3 643 
 
 Illvria 
 
 519 ? 4 
 
 1 190 000 
 
 54 
 
 7 223 
 
 Tyrol and Vorarlberg 
 
 519.40 
 
 784,472 
 
 22 
 
 1,731 
 
 
 949 , 35 
 
 3 888 828 
 
 278 
 
 11 926 
 
 
 482 01 
 
 2 037 941 
 
 118 
 
 3 733 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Sclavonia and Boundaries . . . J 
 
 4,181. 50 
 1 109 8 
 
 10,472,142 
 1 748 420 
 
 62 
 13 
 
 12,279 
 2 630 
 
 
 1 548 
 
 4 380 508 
 
 95 
 
 6 141 
 
 Dalmatia 
 
 274 
 
 326,415 
 
 9 
 
 1,002 
 
 Kiistenland (Coast Land) 
 Militairgranze (MilitaryBound.) 
 
 143 
 609 
 852 
 
 420,971 
 1,016,322 
 4 278 902 
 
 37 
 12 
 56 
 
 920 
 726 
 11 434 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 12 295 85 
 
 33 482 692 
 
 799 
 
 73 839 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 The proportion in which the inhabitants of Austria are dis- 
 tributed in the country and in towns, is nearly similar to the 
 Prussian scale. In the country live -j^, and in the towns ^j-. 
 There are six villages to a square mile in Austria, but only one 
 town to fifteen square miles (. The proportion of the agricultural 
 classes to the manufacturing, is said to be as four to one. The 
 proportion of paupers is one in 25 of the whole massj. 
 
 Great pains have latterly been taken to improve the cultivation 
 of the soil in Austria. About 81 parts in 100 of the cultivable 
 portion have been brought into use. The arable land forms less 
 than half of the available surface: the forests and woodlands, 
 more than a third. The vineyards occupy about a fiftieth part, 
 
 * As given in the Genealogisch-Historisch-Statistischer Almanach of Weimar, 
 for 1837. 
 
 f Schon, Gesch. und Statistik der Europ. Civilisation, p. 161. 
 
 J Untersuchungen liber Bevb'lkerung, Arbeitslohn, und Pauperism, von F. 
 Schmidt, p. 322. (Leipzig, 1836.) 
 
306 KMP1RE OF AUSTRIA. [SECT. II. 
 
 and the meadow-land and grazing-land, each about an eleventh 
 part of the whole cultivable surface. Malchus estimates the 
 gross quantity of grain produced at about 82,070,000 quarters, 
 of which about 17,820,000 being reserved for seed-corn, a surplus 
 of 64,250,000 will remain for consumption or export. 
 
 The principal towns are, Vienna (319,873 inhabitants), Milan 
 (130,399), Venice (113,000), Prague (102,462), Pest (56,577), 
 Lemberg (55,500), Verona (55,000), Trieste (46,000), Debreczyn 
 (45,375), Gratz (40,000), Pressburg (37,180), Brunn (36,000), 
 Padua (35,000), Brescia (35,000), Theresienstadt (34,924), 
 Szegedin (32,209), Bergamo (32,000), Ofen (30,011), Vicenza 
 (30,000). Besides these, there are nine other towns containing 
 more than 20,000 inhabitants. 
 
 The population is composed of 14,875,000 Sclavonians, 
 5,850,000 Germans, 4,400,000 Italians, 4,100,000 Magyars, 
 1,800,000 Wallachians, 470,000 Jews, 110,000 Gipsies, 13,500 
 Armenians, 4,000 Greeks, 1,500 Clementinians, 1,000 Osmans 
 and French. 
 
 With respect to religion, 25,441,000 are Catholics, 2,900,000 
 members of the Greek church, 1,600,000 of the Reformed church, 
 1,150,000 Lutherans, 470,000 Jews, 50,000 Unitarians, 13,500 
 Armenians, 500 Mohammedans. 
 
 The Catholic clergy consists of three cardinals, 13 archbishops, 
 and 70 bishops, and the cathedral chapters of 2568 clergymen. 
 According to the official reports of 1828, there were 69,515 
 secular and other clergymen. The whole body of clergy com- 
 prises 72,169 individuals, the spiritual orders of knighthood, 
 the professors of seminaries and colleges, and the students, not 
 included. 
 
 There are 294 abbeys, 537 monasteries, and 110 nunneries. 
 There are 18 evangelical and one protestant superintendant- 
 ship. 
 
 In Bohemia there are 79 monasteries, viz., 37 in the archdiocese 
 of Prague, 20 in the diocese of Leutmeritz, 12 in the diocese of 
 Konigsgratz, and 10 in the diocese of Budweis. 
 
 The university of Vienna numbers 1,954 students, of Prague 
 1,449, of Pavia 1,300, of Padua 410, of Pest 1,710, of Lemberg 
 
CH. XIX.] EMPIRE OF AUSTRIA. 307 
 
 1,010, of Innsbruck 352, of Gratz 321 ; there is also a university 
 at Olmutz. 
 
 The revenue of Austria amounts to 130,000,000 florins. Its 
 principal sources are as follows : 
 
 Florins. 
 
 Land-tax 42,000,000 
 
 Indirect taxes 32,000,000 
 
 Regalien* 36,000,000 
 
 Domains and Forests 8,000,000 
 
 Interest of Government Property -|-, &c. - - 12,000,000 
 
 The expenditure of the state, in time of peace, amounts to 
 125,000,000 florins annually. The public debt is 500,000,000 
 florins. In the beginning of 1834, there were in circulation 
 26,766,588 florins, paper money. 
 
 It would be unjust to pass over in silence some remarkable 
 transactions relative to the finances of Austria, which we rather 
 record in the words of a German, than in our own. Our 
 authority is Schneller, who speaks thus in a passage of the third 
 volume of his " History of Bohemia," translated and cited in a 
 recent number of the " British and Foreign Review." We have 
 omitted some of his comments. 
 
 " No sooner was Count Wallis called from the post of Oberst- 
 burg-graf in Prague to that of finance-minister in Vienna, than 
 he perceived that the financial measures of Counts Saurau, Zichy, 
 and Odonell, from 1790 to 1811, had only caused a momentary 
 relief, without any permanent amelioration. Voluntary contribu- 
 tions had been called for ; the silver of the churches had been 
 taken ; a base currency, of half its nominal value, had been issued ; 
 the exportation of the metals had been prohibited ; a compulsory 
 loan of seventy-five millions of florins had been decreed, to 
 diminish the quantity of bank notes ; immense duties had been 
 laid upon all colonial produce ; the post money had been raised 
 two or three times ; a property-tax of one-half per cent, had been 
 introduced for an indefinite period; the emperor had publicly 
 
 * Jura Regalia. Monies accruing from privileges connected with the sovereign 
 power. 
 
 f* Proxentmuschl'dge, 
 
 X 2 
 
EMPIRE OF AUSTRIA. [SECT. II. 
 
 promised to stop any further issue of bank notes, but he was 
 compelled again to have recourse to them: nevertheless, all was 
 in vain. 
 
 " The floating bank notes had imperceptibly risen to an amount 
 of one thousand and sixty millions of florins (106,000,000/. ster- 
 ling); the amount of the interest-paying debt was never exactly 
 known, but it was doubtless even more considerable ; the salaries 
 of all public officers and the expenditure of the state had of 
 course risen enormously in proportion to the depreciation of the 
 currency; all these palpable evils were to be remedied at once by 
 the bold project and the determined character of Count Wallis. 
 
 " The coup d'etat which that minister carried into execution 
 received the approbation of his majesty on the llth of February, 
 1811; the important orders were printed with the greatest 
 secresy in the imperial printing-office ; a copy of the patent was 
 sent, sealed, to all the governors of the empire, who were to open 
 it at the same hour, on the 15th of March, 1811 ; these orders 
 were instantly to be acted upon, without remonstrance, and 
 without the assent of the states. In what did this master-stroke 
 consist? In the substitution of quittances for bank notes, so 
 that five florins of the latter were paid by one florin of the former, 
 in all public as well as private transactions. 
 
 " The whole financial system throughout the empire was 
 changed. In the following war of 1813 a fresh issue of two 
 hundred and twelve millions in paper was made, besides 
 anticipationscheine to three times that amount. When Count 
 Stadion succeeded Count Wallis the paper money was so fallen, 
 that he found it necessary to reduce it from two hundred and 
 fifty to one hundred ; the consequence was, that, in every part of 
 the empire, the property of minors, hospitals, all institutions, and 
 capitalists, was reduced from one hundred thousand to twenty 
 thousand by Wallis, and from twenty to eight thousand by 
 Stadion. The state was compelled to borrow, after the peace, 
 first twenty millions and afterwards thirty-eight millions of 
 Rothschild, and nearly as much again from other contractors." 
 
 Austria has also, we believe, made another very large loan, 
 within the year succeeding the revolution of July. 
 
CH. XIX.] EMPIRE OF AUSTRIA. 309 
 
 Men. 
 
 The Standing Army amounts to 271,404 
 
 And consists of Men. 
 
 Ninety-two regiments of Infantry - - 188,621 
 
 Thirty-seven ditto of Cavalry - - - - 39,024 
 
 Five ditto of Artillery 17,790 
 
 Engineers - - - - - - 2,757 
 
 Sundry denominations ----- 23,212 
 
 The Recruits and Militia amount to 479,000 
 
 Total 750,404 
 
 The number of higher officers, not including those in active 
 service, is 239 ; of staff and other officers, about 10,000, of under- 
 officers 31,200, of civil officers attached to the army 1590. The 
 number of horses is 70,000. 
 
 The navy consists of three ships of the line (unrigged), eight 
 frigates, one corvette, eight brigs, four schooners, and seven 
 smaller vessels altogether, thirty-one ships of war. 
 
 This is an hereditary but mixed monarchy, consisting of several 
 inseparable provinces incorporated into one state, under the pro- 
 tection of a chief, who bears the title of emperor, and, with the 
 original German provinces, forming part of the German confede- 
 racy. The emperor combines all the rights of government, with 
 the exception of those which he shares with the Hungarian diet 
 by virtue of capitulation-oaths. Every province of the imperial 
 state, with the exception of the Military Boundaries, of Dalmatia, 
 and of the Sea-coast, has its representatives, though with very 
 unequal privileges. Only those of Hungary and Transylvania 
 can take part in the legislature. The representatives of the other 
 states have a much more limited sphere of action ; they can only 
 make representations, and regulate the distribution of taxes. 
 There are no fundamental laws which obtain for the whole of this 
 empire ; but there are Hausgesetze, as the Pragmatic Sanction, 
 &c., and every state or province has its particular charters of 
 different kinds (Charten und Handvesteri). 
 
 The chief officers of government are four state and cabinet minis- 
 ters, of whom one is chancellor and minister of foreign affairs, and 
 
310 EMPIRE OF AUSTRIA. [SECT. II. 
 
 two have seats in the council for home affairs, in which, also, are 
 two archdukes, and several councillors. There is a director of 
 the private cabinet of the emperor, and a president of the general 
 chamber of accounts. In each of the provinces, there is a president 
 of the government. 
 
 The chief officers of the imperial court are, a first-grand-master, 
 a grand-chamberlain, a grand-marshal, a grand-equerry, a grand- 
 master of the kitchens, a grand-keeper of the plate, a grand- 
 master of the house, a grand-huntsman, an intendant-general of 
 buildings, a director of the amusements of the court, a grand- 
 master of the ceremonies. 
 
 The Austrian government is remarkably free from any taint of 
 ostentation or vanity ; it takes no pains to procure itself a good 
 name, and appears quite a stranger to the arts of puffing and 
 self-praise. Perhaps it might earn a more popular character if 
 it condescended to practise such manoeuvres, but it steers quietly 
 and independently its course. Although generally reputed to be 
 an enemy to publicity, in few countries are the statistical reports 
 more ample ; it shows no disfavour towards Protestantism, and 
 has now established a Protestant college in its metropolis. 
 Foreigners are not excluded from its service ; several of our own 
 countrymen are enrolled in its army, and strangers are admitted 
 even to political employments. Above all we must render justice 
 to the temperance, the humility, the affability, the mildness of its 
 imperial family. 
 
 The attention which is here bestowed on the most minute 
 details affecting the health and well-being of the subject is re- 
 markable ; I am far from saying that this ubiquitous interference 
 is worthy of imitation in all respects, but some of its cares are 
 laudable. The most abundant provision exists for the sick poor: 
 no interment of a body can take place until it has been examined 
 by the state-physician of the district. The sale of bad or spoiled 
 food is checked ; no poisonous article can be sold, even in the 
 smallest dose, unless on the prescription of a licensed practitioner. 
 It is even said that the musicians at the baths are ordered to play 
 only cheerful tunes ; but, whether such an injunction exists or 
 
CH. XIX.] EMPIRE OF AUSTRIA. 311 
 
 not, it is certain that nothing escapes the eye of the authorities, 
 who are indulgent parents to the docile and submissive, but 
 stern and unyielding to the restless and discontented. 
 
 From 1828 to 1833 inclusive, the average annual number of 
 births in the Austrian dominions (Hungary not included) was 
 764,290 ; of marriages, 167,704 ; and of deaths, 688,763. The 
 men generally marry between twenty-four and thirty ; the women, 
 between twenty and twenty-four. There is one marriage annually 
 to 130 individuals. The number of female to male births is as 
 1,000 to 1,062. About every tenth child is illegitimate. The 
 average number of children to a marriage is four and a half. 
 The number of persons who die between forty and sixty is about 
 the same as that of those who die between sixty and eighty. 
 During six years, from 1829 to 1831 inclusive, 3375 persons have 
 reached the age of 100, that is, 82 in every 100,000. The most 
 healthy districts are Croatia, Carinthia and Styria the least so, 
 Lombardy and Venice. The mean duration of life is thirty-five 
 and one-fifth years. Of the 645,767 deaths which occurred in 
 Ui34, 614,946 were from ordinary diseases, 11,882 from local 
 diseases, 4414 from the small pox, 7^7 fr m suicide, and five 
 were inflicted by the executioner. 
 
 In 1788, of every 207 individuals in the kingdom of Bohemia, 
 107 were females. In 1815, in consequence of the French wars, 
 of 222, 122 were females. After the peace the usual proportion 
 was re-established ; accordingly, in 1827? we find that of 211, 111 
 were females. 
 
 The mean population of Bohemia, from 1784 to 1814 inclu- 
 sive, was 3,023,420 ; in 1827, it was 3,736,840. During the 
 former period, there were 3,788,362 birth?, 3,011,702 deaths, 
 and 722,954 marriages. From 1815 to 1828 (14 years), there 
 were 2,031,225 births, 1,404,045 deaths, and 383,416 marriages. 
 From 1785 to 1815, every 1000 couples produced 5,240 children, 
 and from 1815 to 1828, 5,296 children. In every eight births, 
 one is illegitimate. The Bohemians are the most remarkable of 
 all the Sclavonic people, for matrimonial fecundity. During the 
 former of the above-mentioned periods, there were 125 births to 
 every 100 deaths, during the second, 144. During both periods, 
 
312 EMPIRE OF AUSTRIA. [SECT. II. 
 
 there was one birth annually to 23 inhabitants ; and one death 
 to 30 during the former period, and one to 34 during the 
 second. 
 
 In 1800, there were 4312 ecclesiastics, 1741 nobles, (heads 
 of families,) 3457 persons employed by government, 83,817 
 citizens, &c., and 125,527 peasants. In 1827, there were 4115 
 ecclesiastics, 2285 nobles, 10,088 persons employed by govern- 
 ment, 69,942 citizens, &c., and 141,436 peasants. From 
 1806 to 1827 inclusive, 157,571 Bohemians entered into the 
 military service, 89,661 left it, and 67,910 died, or remained in 
 the ranks. 
 
 Of 3955 children born in Prague, in 1828, 1404 were illegiti- 
 mate. The legitimate were 1291 boys, and 1260 girls; the 
 illegitimate were 731 boys and 673 girls. Out of the above total 
 number of births, the number of the still-born amounted to 107 
 boys and 97 girls. In the Foundling Hospital of Prague, 1125 
 children were born in the year 1827- The number of marriages 
 in the same year was 661. 
 
 The total number of deaths was 4096. Of these, 1133 were 
 of children under or not exceeding one year old : 
 
 836 were from 1 to 4 years old. 
 
 405 420 
 
 521 2040 
 
 517 4060 
 
 544 6080 
 
 132 80 100 
 
 and 8 were above 100 years of age. 
 
 Among the above number of deaths, were six suicides, one 
 murdered, two executed, 26 drowned, 4046 died of disease, and 15 
 were shot (but in what manner is not explained). Of the 4096 
 persons who died, 3773 were Catholics, 256 Jews, and only 67 
 were Protestants*. 
 
 To give an idea of the passage of travellers through Prague, 
 the number of passports received at the police-office of that city, 
 
 * Strang's u Germany in 1831," vol. ii., p. 192. 
 
CH. XIX.] EMPIRE OF AUSTRIA. 313 
 
 in 1829, amounted to 51,333 ; of these passports, 16,074 belonged 
 to foreign merchants and tourists, 17,059 to mechanics, and 
 18,200 to Jews*. 
 
 In order to point out the proportion which prevails of the 
 medical profession to the population, we shall state that there is a 
 province in Austria which contains 821,690 inhabitants. The 
 number of medical men residing in this province is as follows : 
 48 physicians (or doctors of medicine and surgery) ; 349 surgeons 
 of inferior grade (corresponding to our general practitioners) ; 
 one veterinary surgeon ; 38 pharmaceutists (or licensed drug- 
 gists) ; and 666 licensed midwives. 
 
 The Austrian capital, Vienna, contains 6660 registered citizens, 
 and 4970 licensed to trade on their own account. There are 173 
 bakers, 88 bookbinders, 112 twiners, 21 diamond cutters, 210 
 jewellers'* workmen, 280 gardeners, 130 milliners, 1554 tailors, 
 177<5 shoemakers, 565 silk- weavers, 915 carpenters, 200 watch- 
 makers, and 920 weavers. There are 100 butchers, 450 milk- 
 men, 915 dealers in provisions, 885 innkeepers, and 170 hosiers. 
 About 100 manufactories have warehouses in Vienna, and 250 
 hawkers are licensed to sell in the town. Of the population, 
 153,368 are males, and 166,505 females. The rich and those in 
 easy circumstances are 8000, the officials 5000, and the servants 
 30,000. There are 'JQQ hackney coachmen, about 50 wine- 
 cellars, more than 50 coffee-houses, and about 500 ale-houses. 
 The number of horses is 10,000, of dogs 20,000, so that there is 
 one dog to about fifteen inhabitants. In 1830, 385,848 casks of 
 beer were consumed, 23,686 cwt. of butter and lard, 46,006,370 
 eggs, 11,899 cwt. of fish, 621,000 birds (game), 1,087,188 other 
 birds, 258,445 pails of milk, 708,000 head of cattle, and 348,930 
 barrels of wine and must. 
 
 Vienna is one of the most orderly and agreeable cities in the 
 world ; intoxication or rudeness are rare ; pauperism is kept out 
 of sight. The secret police cannot be reduced to calculation, but 
 the police employed to patrol the city and suburbs amount to 
 about 700. In no city probably are strangers treated with greater 
 
 * Strang's " Germany," vol. ii., p. 224, 
 
314 EMPIRE OF AUSTRIA. [SECT. II. 
 
 civility ; if I were to speak my own impression, Vienna stands 
 first in this respect, and Copenhagen the second. 
 
 Important commercial advantages, and unforeseen political 
 results, will, doubtless, accrue as well to Vienna, as to the whole 
 empire of Austria, from the Steam Navigation recently introduced 
 on the Danube. Two English ship-builders, Andrews and 
 Prichard, in 1828, obtained an exclusive privilege for three years, 
 for carrying this scheme into effect. A Company has since been 
 formed to prosecute further this great object ; one of the most 
 zealous promoters has been the patriotic Count Szecheny ; it 
 enjoys a charter for twenty-five years. There are nine steam- 
 boats, now forming a chain of communication between Vienna and 
 Constantinople*. 
 
 It is admitted that, of all the states of Germany, Austria is the 
 one in which justice is most cheaply administered ; the fees of 
 the advocates and other members of the legal profession are fixed 
 by decree. The local authorities are enjoined to attempt to effect 
 an agreement in all civil disputes. 
 
 At the first opening of the Continent, it was the universal 
 fashion to level every sort of opprobrium on the severity of the 
 Austrian police, and on the supposed exclusion of all publications 
 of a free tendency. Nevertheless, at the very moment when such 
 statements were common, I found in the Merchants' Reading 
 Room at Vieima, in the year 1823, the Morning Chronicle, the 
 Constitutionnel, and the Edinburgh Review. No visitor nor 
 native can complain that his personal amusements or his studies 
 are impeded, and nowhere is a better provision made for the 
 security of property and of person. Every one understands, that 
 the measures of the government are not to be attacked ; but, with 
 this exception, and that of the unnecessary rigour of passports, 
 there is no country in which a well-disposed individual is so little 
 annoyed. I am no defender of the spirit of the government, but, 
 in order to criticise it with justice, the observer ought to stand 
 behind the scenes. 
 
 The average income of every Austrian, afforded by a rude 
 
 * For ample particulars respecting the Steam Navigation of the Danube, 
 consult the " Handbook for Travellers in Southern Germany," p. 353. 
 
CH. XIX.] EMPIRE OF AUSTRIA. 315 
 
 division of revenues among the whole population, has been esti- 
 mated at 182 francs, or about seven guineas, yearly. To show 
 the proportion which has thus been endeavoured to be formed 
 between the yearly income of the European population*, 
 
 Francs 
 
 The Englishman has been rated to enjoy ... 486 yearly 
 Netherlander ... . - - 214 
 
 Frenchman --..._. 201 
 Austrian ----.-_ 182 
 
 Prussian - - -._ - . . 141 
 
 And, allowing three individuals on an average to each family, 
 this would make the annual income of 
 
 Francs 
 
 An English Family _._..- 1,458 yearly 
 Netherlandish ..._.._ 642 
 
 French - - 605 
 
 Austrian ........ 546 
 
 Prussian ........ 425 
 
 The following was the proportion of the number of every kind 
 of indictments for offences to the population, during the five 
 years of 1824, 1825, 1826, 1827, and 1828, in seven provinces 
 of Austria. 
 
 _ . , . Indictments to 
 
 Provinces. Population. Inhabitants. 
 
 Moravia and Silesia - German and Sclavoiiiaii to 1707 
 
 Austria Proper - - German - - - - - to 16 76 
 
 Bohemia - - - - Sclavonian and German to 1428 
 
 Galicia Polish to 1382 
 
 Interior Austria - - German, Sclavonian and Italian - to 609 
 
 Tyrol and Vorarlberg German and Italian - to 322 
 
 Dalniatia - - - - Sclavonian - - - - - to 138 
 
 * See Sell on, who very properly points out that such a table, however correct 
 it may be in itself, does not afford a very clear indication of the actual income of 
 any class of the community. Thus, in France, it was ascertained, somo years ago, 
 that the average daily income of each inhabitant was fifty-four centimes (about 
 five-pence halfpenny), but the positive income of above six millions of inhabitants 
 in fact exceeded that sum, while a large majority, in fact, received less than that 
 sum daily ; that is, in round numbers, seven millions could spend forty centimes 
 daily, seven millions only thirty-three, and seven other millions only twenty-five 
 centimes. 
 
316 EMPIRE OF AUSTETA. [SECT. II. 
 
 The proportion of children visiting the schools, among one 
 thousand able to attend, was, in the same provinces, in the years 
 1824, 1825, and 1828, the following: 
 
 From 1,000 Children, 
 Evinces, went to School. 
 
 Austria Proper - 948 
 
 Tyrol and Vorarlberg 945 
 
 Moravia and Silesia - - - - - - -919 
 
 Bohemia 906 
 
 Dalmatia 649 
 
 Interior Austria ........ 443 
 
 Galicia 115 
 
 In comparing these two tables, I find the increase of crime with 
 a decrease of education nearly agreeing in Austria-Proper, in 
 Moravia, Silesia, Bohemia, in Interior Austria, and even in 
 Dalmatia, where the numbers are too small to furnish a fair and 
 accurate judgment. But on the reverse, the Tyrolese, one of the 
 noblest and bravest races of the world, sending nineteen-twentieths 
 of their children to school, give more occupation to Austrian 
 judges, than all the other provinces of the empire, except Dal- 
 matia, the common asylum of fugitives from lawless Turkey ; and 
 Galicia, whose Polish inhabitants, shunning, like their brethren 
 in Prussia, popular instruction, send only the ninth part of their 
 children to school, and furnish, at the same time, far fewer 
 criminals than Interior Austria, Tyrol, or Dalmatia. The great 
 amount of crime in Tyrol, may be, perhaps, accounted for, by 
 the character of the Tyrolese, who, like most mountaineers, prefer, 
 in their spirit of independence, to revenge a wrong, rather than to 
 go to law ; and by the circumstance, that a very great number of 
 the male population of Tyrol annually travel into foreign coun- 
 tries as pedlars, with goods manufactured at home*. 
 
 * See observations by Dr. Julius in Francis Lieber on the Relation between 
 Education and Crime, p. 17. (Philadelphia, 1835). 
 
317 
 
 CHAPTER XX. 
 THE KINGDOM OF PRUSSIA. 
 
 Nationality. The Royal Family. Provinces and Population. Births 
 and Deaths. Principal Towns. Races. Religion; Number of Clergy. 
 Universities and other Educational Institutions. Budget; Paper 
 Money in Circulation. Army; Pay of the Army. Form of Govern- 
 ment; Provincial Diets ; Officers of Government, and their Salaries ; 
 List of Questions respecting the character and qualifications of Candi- 
 dates for Office in Prussia; Officers of the Court. Statistics of 
 Berlin. Statistics of the Government- District of Potsdam. Statistics 
 of Education. System of Police respecting Public Women, Houses 
 of III Fame, and the like. Criminal Statistics of the Seven Provinces 
 of Old Prussia, during Three Years; Number of Arrests at 
 Berlin ; Juvenile Delinquents. Courts of Law. On the Military 
 tendency of Prussia. 
 
 PRUSSIA is remarkable for its long sufferings and mortifications 
 during the late wars, and not less so for the energy with which 
 her natives finally rallied. In her bosom she still retains several 
 deep-seated and corroding cares, some of which are not likely to 
 be diminished by time. But the Prussians have the wisdom and 
 the virtue not to amuse the world with their internal sorrows ; 
 one of the best traits in the Prussian character is Nationality, a 
 quality indispensable to greatness, however much it may be 
 sneered at by cosmopolites of our own days, who love that nation 
 the best in which they can procure the best dinner at the least 
 cost ; the Prussians are not the people to depreciate the merit of 
 their great generals, nor to unveil the nakedness of their land to 
 the malignant eye of the stranger. In this respect, they offer a 
 strong contrast to certain writers and orators of our country, 
 whose favourite theme appears to be the crimes, the errors, and 
 the feebleness of England. Prussia stands in rather a critical 
 position with regard to the future, but her sons do not boast of a 
 mother's weakness. The resources of the nation are scarcely equal 
 
318 KINGDOM OF PRUSSIA. [SECT. II. 
 
 to the rank which it seeks to maintain among the powers of Europe; 
 and in spite of industry, and ingenuity, and perseverance, the 
 res angusta domi will probably long remain the most dangerous 
 of its enemies. 
 
 The royal house of Prussia is of the Protestant religion. The 
 present king is Frederic William III., born August 3, 177^> 
 who succeeded his father, November 16, 1797- He married, 
 first, in 1793, Louisa, princess of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, who died 
 1810, and, secondly, in morganatic marriage, 1824, Augusta, 
 daughter of Count Ferdinand von Harrach, who bears the title 
 of princess of Liegnitz. By his first wife, he has four sons and 
 three daughters ; viz., Frederic William, the heir apparent, born 
 1795, married, 1823, to Elizabeth, princess of Bavaria ; William, 
 married to Augusta, princess of Saxe- Weimar, by whom he has 
 a son, Frederic William, born 1831 ; Charles, married to Maria, 
 princess of Saxe- Weimar, by whom he has one son and two 
 daughters ; Albert, married to Marianne, princess of the Nether- 
 lands. The daughters are, Charlotte, born 1798, married to the 
 emperor of Russia; Alexandrina, married to the grand duke of 
 Mecklenburg-Schwerin ; and Louisa, married to Prince Frederic 
 of the Netherlands. 
 
 The king had three sisters, of whom two, Wilhelmina, queen 
 of the Netherlands, and the duchess of York (his half-sister), 
 are deceased, and Augusta, married to the elector of Hesse ; and 
 two brothers, Henry, general of infantry, and William, governor 
 of the fortress of Mainz, married to Marianne, princess of Hesse- 
 Homburg, by whom he has two sons and one daughter. 
 
 The number of nobles was rated by Hassel, in 1822, at 
 200,000. But the number of noble families in Prussia, has been 
 lately estimated (by the Berlin correspondent of the Morning 
 Chronicle) at 20,000. I cannot at all vouch for the correctness 
 of this last calculation. 
 
CH. XX.] 
 
 KINGDOM OF PRUSSIA. 
 
 319 
 
 The following is a view of the provinces and of their popula- 
 tion : 
 
 I. BRANDENBURG - 
 
 Districts. 
 
 1. Potsdam and Berlin 
 
 2. Frankfort on the Oder 
 
 II. POMERANIA 
 
 1. Stettiu - 
 
 2. Coslin 
 
 3. Stralsund 
 
 III. SILESIA - 
 
 1. Breslau - 
 
 2. Oppeln 
 
 3. Liegnitz - 
 
 IV. SAXONY - 
 
 1. Magdeburg 
 
 2. Merseburg - 
 
 3. Erfurt - 
 
 V. WESTPHALIA 
 
 1. Munster 
 
 2. Minden 
 
 3. Arensburg 
 
 VI. RHINE-PRUSSIA - 
 
 1. Cologne 
 
 2. Dusseldorf - 
 
 3. Coblenz - 
 
 4. Treves 
 
 5. Aix-la-Chapelle - 
 
 VII. PRUSSIA 
 
 1. Kb'nigsberg 
 
 2. Gumbinnen 
 
 3. Dantzic - 
 
 4* Marienwerder 
 
 VIII. POSEN 
 
 1. Posen 
 
 2. Bromberg 
 
 Total - 
 Neufcliatel 
 
 Total - 
 
 Area in 
 
 
 Geographical 
 
 
 Square Miles. 
 
 Population. 
 
 730. 94 ... 
 
 1,579,939 
 
 373.*> ... 
 
 896,761 
 
 357. 25 ... 
 
 683,188 
 
 567. 10 ." 
 
 912,223 
 
 233. 13 ... 
 
 432,570 
 
 258. 49 ... 
 
 329,298 
 
 75. 48 ... 
 
 150,355 
 
 741. ? 4 ... 
 
 2,464,414 
 
 248. 14 ... 
 
 960,881 
 
 243. 03 ... 
 
 730,044 
 
 250. 54 ... 
 
 773,489 
 
 460. 63 ... 
 
 1,449,587 
 
 210. 13 ... 
 
 562,932 
 
 188. 75 ... 
 
 604,303 
 
 61.'* ... 
 
 282,352 
 
 367. 60 - 
 
 1,261,996 
 
 132." ... 
 
 399,896 
 
 94. 85 ... 
 
 396,325 
 
 140. 53 ... 
 
 465,775 
 
 491. 27 ... 
 
 2,253,687 
 
 73. 08 ... 
 
 399,808 
 
 100. * 9 ... 
 
 706,803 
 
 109. 54 ... 
 
 436,828 
 
 121. 54 ... 
 
 390,415 
 
 75. 54 ... 
 
 354,742 
 
 1,178. 03 ... 
 
 1,989,608 
 
 408. 12 ... 
 
 716,456 
 
 298. 21 ... 
 
 527,115 
 
 152. 28 ... 
 
 326,549 
 
 319. 41 ... 
 
 455,807 
 
 536. 51 ... 
 
 1,056,278 
 
 321. 63 ... 
 
 730,047 
 
 214. 8 ... 
 
 326,231 
 
 5,073. 82 ... 
 
 13,068,960 
 
 13.** ... 
 
 56,073 
 
 5,087 . Ot ... 
 
 13,125,033 
 
320 KINGDOM OP PRUSSIA. [SECT. II. 
 
 To show how large a proportion of the inhabitants live in the 
 country, Schon states that -ffo belong to this class, while only 
 j^j- are domiciled in towns. There are only three villages to a 
 square mile, which is a small number compared with Austria and 
 with England ; but then, there is one town in six square miles, 
 which is more than double the proportion of Austria. 
 
 The proportion of the agricultural population to the manu- 
 facturing, is about five to one. About one in 30 of the whole 
 population is said to be in the state of pauperism*. 
 
 In the province of Prussian Saxony, in 1835, there were 
 58,165 births, 29,903 of males, 28,262 of females ; 36,611 deaths, 
 19,773 of males, 18,878 of females; and 13,658 marriages. 
 
 In the province of Pomerania, there were, in the district of 
 Stettin, 16,546 births, 11,299 deaths, and 3975 marriages. 
 
 In the district of Coslin, there were 14,033 births, 8847 
 deaths, and 3181 marriages. 
 
 In the district of Dantzic, there were 13,444 births, and 10,306 
 deaths; 6993 were male, and 6451 female births. 
 
 In the district of Marienwerder, there were 21,421 births, and 
 14,027 deaths; of the births, 11,078 were male, and 10,343 female. 
 
 In the district of Gumbinnen, there were 21,362 births, 
 19,267 deaths, and 4192 marriages. 
 
 In the district of Posen, there were 29,954 births, 15,330 
 male, and 14,624 female; 20,930 deaths; and 6971 marriages. 
 
 According to the latest rates (Cataster-aufnahmen), the eight 
 government districts of the Rhine, Prussia, and Westphalia 
 contain 18,128,208 acres (morgen) of land, 536,015 dwelling- 
 houses, and 3,452,242 inhabitants. 
 
 The following are the principal towns of Prussia, and their 
 population, according to the census of 1831 : Berlin (252,000 
 inhabitants), Breslau (86,052), Konigsberg (62,375), Cologne 
 (61,098), Dantzic (54,660), Magdeburg (39,806), Aix-la-Chapelle 
 (37,669), Elberfeld (32,074), Stettin (30,575), Posen (26,738), 
 Halle (24,790), Barmen (24,288), Potsdam (23,758), Erfurt 
 (22,759). 
 
 * Untersuclmngen liber Bevblkerung, Arbeitslolm, und Pauperism, von Dr. 
 Friedrich Schmidt, p, 325 (Leipzig, 1836). 
 
CH. XX.] KINGDOM OF PRUSSIA. 321 
 
 On the whole, there are in Prussia, 985 towns, 281 market- 
 towns, and 34,451 villages and hamlets. In 1828, there were 
 16,919 churches and chapels, 91,436 mills, manufactories, and 
 private magazines, and 1,600,531 stables, barns, and hovels; 
 altogether, 3,434,606 buildings. 
 
 Of the inhabitants, 10,350,000 are Germans, 2,078,000 Scla- 
 vonians, 90,000 French, and 167,330 Jews. With respect to 
 religion, 7,941,721 are Protestants, 4,915,153 Catholics, 14,756 
 Mennonites, and 167,330 Jews. The Protestants have one church 
 to 1009 inhabitants ; the Roman Catholics have one to 1051 ; 
 and the Jews have one synagogue to 211 of their race. The 
 Catholic clergy consists of 2 archbishops, 2 episcopal princes, 
 3 bishops, 8 suffragans, 25 prelates, and 99 canons. The num- 
 ber of secular priests, is 3500; that of vicars, chaplains, &c., 
 1900. There are about 2000 monks, and 1000 nuns. Alto- 
 gether, there are 8537 clergymen*. The Protestant clergy con- 
 sists of 4 bishops, 369 superintendants, and 5720 parish priests. 
 The proportion of Protestant students of theology to the Roman 
 Catholics, is said to be as three to one. 
 
 At the University of Berlin in 1834-5, were 1,800 students. 
 
 Ditto of Halle - - - 1833 888 
 
 Ditto of Breslau - - - 1836 758 
 
 Ditto of Bonn - - - 1836 686 
 
 Ditto of Konigsberg - - 1834-5 437 
 
 Ditto of Greifswalde - - 1829 154 
 
 Ditto of Munster - - 1829 361 
 
 Seventeen Englishmen studied in these universities in 1836. 
 
 The harmony" which exists between the Protestants and the Roman Catholics in 
 Prussia, is often contrasted with the unhappy discord which prevails in Ireland. 
 There are two causes, each of which is alone almost sufficient to explain the causes 
 of this different face of things : in Prussia, the Romish clergy, from the highest to 
 the lowest, are more or less dependant on the crown; and the Romish priest or 
 bishop who should in Prussia exert himself to divert the minds of the people into a 
 particular political channel, would soon feel the iron hand of the government. All 
 is consequently smooth on the surface, although the under-current is not equally 
 tranquil. The other cause is, a numerous, powerful, everywhere-present, con- 
 stantly-corresponding gendarmerie, who alike prevent outrage, and unfailingly 
 and unflinchingly seize its promoters. A system of tumult, or a combination to 
 procure any end by violent means, is hopeless. Whenever the Romish clergy in 
 Ireland is salaried by the government, and a judicious Poor Law is established, the 
 terrorism, agitation, and discord will sink from the boiling-point to Zero. 
 
 Y 
 
322 KINGDOM OF PRUSSIA. [SECT. II. 
 
 There are ten seminaries for schoolmasters in the province of 
 Prussia, five in Brandenburg, four in Pomerania, five in Silesia, 
 five in Posen, six in Saxony, four in Westphalia, and four in 
 Rhine-Prussia ; altogether forty- four. 
 
 The following is a view of the state of Finance in Prussia, 
 in 1835 : 
 
 REVENUE. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Net Produce of the Domains and Forests - - 4,212,000 
 
 ' Sale, &c. of Domains - - 1,000,000 
 
 Produce of the Mines, Salt Works, and Porcelain Manufac- 
 tory at Berlin - - 717,000 
 From the Post-office 1,200,000 
 From Lotteries - - - 669,000 
 From Taxes and Duties : Dollars, 
 a. Land-tax - - 9,735,000 
 1. Income-tax* - 6,404,000 
 
 c. Trade-tax f - 1,973,000 
 
 d. Duties on goods imported, exported, and 
 passing through the country ; on the con- 
 sumption of home products ; tolls of roads, 
 havens, canals, 'flood-gates, &c. ; duties on 
 shipping and stamps ... 20,052,000 
 
 e. Revenue from the Salt-regie * 5,366,000 
 
 M 43,530,000 
 
 Surplus Revenue of the principality of Lichtenberg - - 80,000 
 
 From sources not included in the above ... 332,000 
 
 Total Revenue .... 51,740,000 
 
 EXPENDITURE. 
 
 Dollars. 
 Interest of the general and provincial Debt, and Dollars. 
 
 expenses of its administration - - 6,397,000 
 
 Paid off the Debt - 2,480,000 
 
 Interest and paying off the new provincial Debts 41,000 
 
 8,918,000 
 
 Pensions, Life Annuities, and Gratuities ... 2,550,000 
 Capitals and Sureties withdrawn, and Indemnities for abolished 
 
 rights and privileges - 963,000 
 
 * The income-tax only affects the officers of government, who are taxed accord- 
 ing to their salary. 
 
 f- This is a tax on the calling of a tradesman, and is different for every trade. 
 
CH. XX.] KINGDOM OF PRUSSIA. 323 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 For the Private Cabinet, the Office of the Ministry of State, 
 State-book-keeping, administration of the Exchequer, and 
 of the Mint, State and Provincial Archives, the Secre- 
 tariate of State, the Supreme Chamber of Accounts, the 
 General Commission of Orders, and the Statistical Office - 308,000 
 For the Department of Religious Instruction and Medical 
 
 Affairs - 2,683,000 
 
 For the Department of the Ministry of the Interior, and of the i 
 
 Police - - 2,184,000 
 
 To the Minister of the Interior, for trades, and general com- 
 missions - - 173,000 
 For the Department of Trade and Manufacture, for buildings 
 
 and water- works ..... 1,369,000 
 
 For the Roads, and Road-debts .... 2,852,000 
 For the Ministry of Foreign Affairs .... 681,000 
 For the Ministry of War, and Military Orphan-Houses - 23,462,000 
 For the Administration of Finance - - 159,000 
 
 For the Administration of the Domains and Forests - 94,000 
 
 For the Ministry of Justice - - - 2,061,000 
 
 For the High Presidents and Provincial Governments - 1,766,000 
 For the^ Studs - - 167,000 
 
 For covering Deficiencies, for Extraordinary Expenses, and for 
 
 Public Improvements - - - - - 1,350,000 
 
 Total Expenditure - - - 51,740,000 
 
 On January 1, 1833 according to an official report, the public 
 debt of Prussia amounted to 175,868,830 dollars, 10 groschen, 
 and 6 pfennigs. 
 
 There are now in circulation, 17,242,347 dollars in paper 
 money. There are 99,244 fifty-dollar notes, 995,502 five-dollar, 
 and 7,302,637 one-dollar notes. 
 
 The following is the composition of the Army : 
 
 Men. 
 Standing Army ....-- 159,090 
 
 Which is thus divided : Men. 
 
 The Guard - J 7,908 
 Infantry of the Line - - - 104,712 
 Cavalry 19 > 132 
 
 Artillery - - - 15,718 
 
 Gendarmerie, Chasseurs - - - !>720 
 
 (There are about 122,000 men in actual service.) 
 
 Y 2 
 
324 
 
 KINGDOM OF PRUSSIA. 
 
 [SECT. II. 
 
 Men. 
 Standing Army -..--- 159,090 
 
 Reserve, or Militia answering to the first summons (Landwehr 
 
 ersten Aufgebots) 230,000 
 
 Reserve, or Militia answering to the second summons (zweiten 
 
 Aufgebots} - - - - - 180,000 
 
 Total 
 
 569,090 
 
 The corps of officers consisted, in 1829, of 1 field-marshal, 3 
 generals of cavalry, 7 generals of infantry, 33 general lieutenants, 
 65 general majors, 128 colonels, 95 colonel lieutenants, 554 
 majors, 1,614 captains of horse and foot, 1,534 first lieutenants, 
 and 5,037 second lieutenants. 
 
 The following table shows the regular yearly pay of the army 
 (exclusive of rations and service-money). 
 
 General of Infantry 
 
 General of Cavalry 
 
 Chief of the General Staff 
 
 Intendant - 
 
 Councillor of the Intendancy 
 
 Assessor of ditto 
 
 Corps-auditor - 
 
 General Staff Surgeon 
 
 Chief Staff Surgeon 
 
 Surgeon to a regiment 
 
 Ditto to a battalion 
 
 Ditto to a company - 
 
 Lieutenant-general 
 
 Major-general - - 
 
 Colonel - ... 
 
 Lieutenant-colonel - 
 
 Major ... 
 
 Captain of Cavalry - 
 
 Captain (1st class) 
 
 Captain (2d class) - 
 
 First Lieutenant - 
 
 Second ditto - 
 
 Sergeant of Horse ( Wachmeister) 
 
 Sergeant ... 
 
 Chief Fire-worker 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 - 
 
 12,000 
 
 - 
 
 12,000 
 
 . 
 
 12,000 
 
 - 
 
 1,800 
 
 . 
 
 1,200 
 
 - 
 
 700 
 
 - 
 
 800 
 
 2,000 to 
 
 3,000 
 
 1,200 to 
 
 1,500 
 
 - 
 
 1,000 
 
 - 
 
 500 
 
 . 
 
 120 
 
 - 
 
 5,416 
 
 - 
 
 4,416 
 
 - 
 
 2,908 
 
 - 
 
 2,908 
 
 1,800 to 
 
 1,900 
 
 - 
 
 1,300 
 
 - 
 
 1,200 
 
 . 
 
 600 
 
 . 
 
 360 
 
 . 
 
 204 
 
 - 
 
 120 
 
 . 
 
 102 
 
 132 
 
CH. XX.] KINGDOM OF PRUSSIA. 325 
 
 Dollars. 
 Fire-worker ... . .73 
 
 Bombardier ..-.-..48 
 Corporal ...---. 60 
 
 Private in the Guards - - - - - - 36 
 
 Private ------- 30 
 
 Including rations and service-money, the privates have yearly 
 100 dollars pay, the corporals and drummers 150, the sergeants 
 from 200 to 250, the lieutenants from 300 to 600, and the cap- 
 tains from 800 to 1,700. 
 
 After a service of a certain number of years, the retiring- 
 officer and soldier are entitled to a pension, unless some civil 
 office has been conferred upon them. It is, or has been, a prevail- 
 ing principle of the Prussian government, to instal the veteran in 
 some vacant civil appointment. If the value of such an appoint- 
 ment is less than the amount of the pension due, the deficiency is 
 supplied to him. A lieutenant-coLb<te> and a major, after a service 
 of twenty-five years, receive a pension of about 11 31. per annum, 
 a first captain obtains about 85/. annually. The widows of officers 
 also acquire a title to a pension. 
 
 Every Prussian must be a soldier during a certain part of his 
 existence. From the twenty-sixth to the thirty-second year of his 
 age, every individual forms a part of the first division of the 
 Landwehr (or militia) ; from the thirty-second to the fortieth 
 year of his age, he is ranged in the second division ; from forty 
 to fifty he belongs to the Landsturm (or army of emergency, or 
 levy in mass). The expenses of the army absorb in Prussia 
 nearly one-half of the revenue. 
 
 The government of Prussia is a monarchy, limited in a very 
 slight degree ; there is no chamber of representatives for the 
 whole kingdom ; but in all the provinces, chambers have either 
 been re-established or newly-constituted, which in general have a 
 deliberative voice, and a share in the distribution of taxes. But 
 the monarch has all the rights of government in his hand ; he is 
 the source of the laws, and he sets in motion the whole machine 
 of the state, of which his capital is the centre. The monarchy is 
 hereditary; there is no general fundamental law, though there 
 
326 
 
 KINGDOM OF PRUSSIA. 
 
 [SECT. II, 
 
 are provincial laws, and laws of the royal house (Hausgesetze). 
 The monarchy, or at least the greater part of it, is included in 
 the German confederacy. 
 
 The provincial assemblies of the kingdom of Prussia, (each 
 province having its own assembly,) are thus composed : 
 
 Equest. Deputies of Dep. of Total Population, 
 
 Nobles. Order. Towns. Country. Members. 
 
 1828. 
 
 . ... 
 
 35 ... 
 
 22 ... 
 
 12 ... 
 
 69 ... 
 
 1,539,602 
 
 ... 
 
 25 ... 
 
 16 ... 
 
 8 ... 
 
 49 ... 
 
 877,555 
 
 6 ... 
 
 36 ... 
 
 18 ... 
 
 14 ... 
 
 84 ... 
 
 2,396,551 
 
 ... 
 
 45 ... 
 
 28 ... 
 
 22 ... 
 
 95 ... 
 
 2,008,361 
 
 6 ... 
 
 29 ... 
 
 24 ... 
 
 13 ... 
 
 72 ... 
 
 1,409,382 
 
 ;es4 ... 
 
 25 ... 
 
 25 ... 
 
 25 ... 
 
 79 ... 
 
 2,202,322 
 
 11 ... 
 
 20 ... 
 
 20 ... 
 
 20 ... 
 
 71 ... 
 
 1,228,544 
 
 ... 
 
 24 ... 
 
 16 ... 
 
 8 ... 
 
 48 ... 
 
 1,064,506 
 
 Brandenburg 
 
 Pomerania 
 
 Silesia 
 
 Prussia 
 
 Saxony - 
 
 Rhenish Provinces 4 
 
 Westphalia - 
 
 Posen 
 
 27 ... 239 ... 179 ... 122 ... 567 ... 12,726,823 
 
 Inasmuch as the first two classes, constituting the aristocracy of 
 the chambers, comprise 266 votes, and the last two, constituting 
 their democratical branch, possess 301 votes, there would appear 
 to be a trifling preponderance in favour of the latter, but this is 
 more than counterbalanced by two important considerations. In 
 the first place, the exclusive right of presiding over the assemblies 
 of the state, as well as in its committees, and over the commissions 
 which it may appoint, is vested in the equestrian order ; and in 
 the second, this order being composed of ground landlords, the 
 independence of the country-representatives is, in almost every 
 instance, not only merely neutralized, but a perfect dead letter- 
 Adding, therefore, to the 266 votes, the 122 from those represen- 
 tatives, we have a total of 388, which exceeds the majority of 
 two-thirds of the votes required to pass any legislative measure. 
 
 It is also deserving of remark, that even in those provinces 
 where the towns possess the greatest number of representatives, 
 that number, in no case, exceeds one-third of the whole aggregate 
 of votes ; so that the agricultural interest is certain to predominate 
 on every occasion, excepting where so unnatural a state of things 
 shall exist as a want of harmony in its three constituent parts. 
 These assemblies exercise a control over, and immediately parti- 
 
CH. XX.] KINGDOM OF PRUSSIA. 32? 
 
 cipate in, the civil affairs of their respective provinces. Property 
 is the exclusive basis of representation. They were first called 
 into existence by the royal rescript of 1823, which gave them the 
 power of advising and deliberating in all legislative matters, 
 having reference to the rights of persons, property, and to fiscal 
 arrangements. The immediate object of their institution is 
 universally considered to be the preparation of minds and 
 habits for a national legislature. Such a course, indeed, is 
 accordant with the policy of the sovereign to whose hands the 
 sceptre is committed ; for it ought not to be forgotten that he 
 paved the way for these very assemblies themselves, first, by 
 restoring personal liberty under the rescript of October, 1807, 
 which abolished hereditary servitude; next, by placing the 
 administration of all communal properties under the superin- 
 tendance of the districts themselves in 1808 ; and, in the last 
 place, by extending the abolition of feudal servitude in 1819 to 
 the acquisitions made by the crown of Prussia in Lusatia and 
 Saxony, and to the other districts where it still remained in force. 
 
 The chief officers of government are, a minister of foreign affairs, 
 of finance, of religious instruction and medical affairs, of the 
 royal-house and of court-affairs, of the interior for trade, of the 
 interior for police, two ministers of justice, a minister of war, and 
 a general-post-master. There is a state-council, composed of 
 fifty-three members, which is divided into six departments. In 
 the different provinces, there are presidents of the respective 
 governments. 
 
 The names of the inferior Prussian officials will be found in the 
 following Table, which shows the pay of all the functionaries : 
 
 A. MINISTERIAL FUNCTIONARIES. 
 
 Ministers of State have ------ 12,000 dollars annually. 
 
 Privy-Councillors with the title, Excellency - 8,000 
 
 Directors - - 4,000 to 5,000 
 
 Councillors - 2,000 .., 2,800 
 
 Assessors - - ' -" ' 80 
 
 Secretaries .... 1,000 ...^1,500 
 
 Directors of the Board of Financial Control - 1,800 ... 2,000 
 
 Members of that Board - 600 ... 1,600 
 
 Masters of the Records - - - 1,200 ... 1,500 .. 
 
KINGDOM OF PRUSSIA. 
 
 [SECT. II, 
 
 Eegistrars - - - - - 600 to 1,200 dollars annually. 
 
 Journalists - - 800 ... 1,400 
 
 Directory of the Chancery of Clerks - - 1,200 ... 1,400 
 
 Clerks - - - 400 ... 800 
 
 Chief Clerk of the Cash - 1,500 ... 2,000 
 
 Cashier - 1,000 ... 1,600 
 
 Comptroller of the Cash - - 800 . . . 1 ,200 
 
 Book-keeper 600 ... 1,000 
 
 Clerks of the Cash, and their assistants - 300 ... 500 
 
 Servants of the same department -300 ... 400 
 
 Servants of the Chancery - -' - 200 ... 350 
 
 Masters of Messengers (of whom some still exist) - 500 
 
 Porters - - 400 
 
 B. PROVINCIAL FUNCTIONARIES. 
 
 The High President has - 6,000 dollars annually. 
 
 President - 2,500 to 3,500 
 
 Directors - - 1,600 ... 2,000 
 
 Councillors - - 800 ... 1,600 
 
 Assessors - 500 ... 600 
 
 i first class - 1,000 
 
 SeCreta " C8 { second do. . . 400 ... 600 
 
 Registrars - 400 ... 1,000 
 
 Members of the Financial Board of Control 400 ... 1,200 
 
 Chief of the Clerks - 800 
 
 Clerks - - 200 ... 600 
 
 Messengers - ... 100 ... 150 
 
 Chief Clerk of the Cash - - 1,500 
 
 Comptrollers ... 400 ... 600 
 
 Cashier - - 600 ... 800 
 
 Book-keeper - 400 ... 700 
 
 Clerk of the Cash - 200 ... ,300 
 
 President of the Supreme Court of Justice - 4,000 
 
 Councillors of the same - - 1,000 ... 1,800 
 
 Assessors of the same ... 500 ... 800 
 
 Secretaries of the same - - 600 ... 1,000 
 
 Registrars of the same .... 400 ... 800 
 
 Clerks of Salaries and Deposits of the same - 400 . . . 1,000 
 
 Members of the Board of Control of the same 600 ... 1,000 
 
 Clerks of the same - - - 250 ... 600 
 
 Under-Sheriffs (Land-rathe} - 600 ... 800 
 
 In the selection and recompense of its servants, the Prussian 
 government is particularly prudent. As before stated, a uni- 
 versity education is necessary for all candidates for the higher 
 
CH. XX.] KINGDOM OF PRUSSIA. 329 
 
 posts ; rank is not at all preferred ; the salaries are moderate ; 
 and instead of giving pensions to superannuated officials, it 
 obliges the successor to pay out of his salary a fixed portion to 
 the former incumbent during his lifetime. 
 
 The following is a list of the questions, or substance of ques- 
 tions, which must be answered to the satisfaction of the ministry, 
 before any individual can be received into the Prussian service. 
 
 I. Description of the Individual. 1. Name. 2. Office, or employ- 
 ment. 3. Place of abode. 
 
 II. Particulars of birth, $c. 1. The day of his birth. 2. Where 
 born. 3. Condition of his parents. 4. Mother-tongue. 
 
 III. Education. 1. "What school was he educated at? 2. Has he 
 been educated anywhere besides at school? 3. To what trade or pro- 
 fession was he originally brought up ? 4. His occupation previously to 
 entering the civil or military service. 
 
 IY. Former Public Service, Military or Civil. I. Has he completed 
 his military duties, and if not, why? 2. In what branch of military 
 service has he been engaged ? 3. His previous civil occupation, with 
 the date of his entering on, and quitting, it. 4. In what civil service 
 has he been hitherto actually employed ? 5. His oath on first entering 
 the public service. 6. Where is the attestation ? 7- What is its date ? 
 8. Does he possess orders, badges, or other distinctions ? 
 
 Y. Particulars respecting Ms present Service and Condition. -1. Is he 
 active? 2. Does he discharge the duties of his own office? 3. By 
 what title has his appointment been obtained? 4. Is he employed 
 permanently, provisionally, on trial, or does he hold a commission? 
 5. Salary and emoluments, and from what funds? 6. Does he from 
 private business derive any additional income? and if so, to what 
 amount ? 7- What is his rank in the Landwehr, if he is still in it? 
 
 YI. Particulars respecting Property. 1 . Does he derive his income 
 from his own resources, or from those of a member of his family? does 
 he receive private assistance ? 2. Has he landed property, and what? 
 3. How much security can he provide for his office ? 4. How much 
 security is he himself capable of providing ? By his own means ? By 
 guarantee ? 5. How much of the security has he been excused from 
 paying? 6. Has he debts, and how many specifically? f j. Does 
 he, contribute to the fund for the relief of widows, and if so, to what 
 amount ? 
 
 VII. Particulars respecting Family. 1. Is he married, single, a 
 
330 KINGDOM OF PRUSSIA. [SECT. II. 
 
 widower, or divorced ? 2. His wife's father. 3. Number of his chil- 
 dren : a. provided for; I. unprovided for, under nine years of age; 
 c. adopted, or step-children. 4. Relations besides wife and children, 
 whom he maintains or assists. 5. To what tradespeople is he related, 
 to the third degree ? 
 
 VIII. Mode of Life. 1 1. Have he or his wife any wants above their 
 station, and what are they? 2. What recreations or amusements is he 
 partial to ? 3. How much rent does he pay ? for how many rooms, 
 with stoves in them ? 4. Number of servants, and amount of their 
 wages. 5. How many horses does he keep? 
 
 IX. Physical Constitution. 1. General state of health. 2. Habitual 
 complaints. 3. Inconvenient wounds. 4. Bodily strength, and patience 
 in enduring fatigue. 5. Quickness of sight and hearing. 
 
 X. Character. 1. Is he honest, honourable, persevering, economical, 
 discreet, courageous, disinterested, veracious, regular, polite, temperate, 
 diligent, sociable, friendly, obedient? prone to debauchery, chicanery, 
 or frivolous intrigue? is he passionate, or timid and retiring? is he 
 inclined to gambling, dissipation, and turmoil? is he inconsiderate, 
 vindictive, or servile ? 
 
 XI. Knowledge of the World. 1. Is he courteous to the tax-paying 
 community? 2. Does he know how to keep on a friendly footing 
 with other departments ? 3. Does he know how to make his inferiors 
 perform their duties cheerfully? 
 
 XII. Abilities. 1. Natural abilities and discernment. 2. Quick 
 perception. 3. Quick decision. 4. Calm execution. 5. Good memory. 
 
 XIII. Accomplishments. 1. What foreign languages does he speak? 
 2. How does he speak German ? 3. Does he write German orthogra- 
 phically, and grammatically? 4. Is his hand- writing good and legible? 
 5. What accounts is he conversant with ? 6. Has he studied mathe- 
 matics ? 7- Does he understand chemistry ? 8. What other sciences 
 is he conversant with ? 9. Can he draw ? ride ? does he understand 
 how to use fire-arms ? 10. Does he possess a good exterior, and are 
 his address and manners prepossessing ? 
 
 XIV. Results of his Official Management. 1 . Have the receipts under 
 his management generally increased or diminished ? 2. Has he been 
 commended during the past year? 3. Has he been reprimanded? 
 4. Has he been punished ? and if so, for what ? 
 
 XV. Recommendations. 1. Does he deserve unconditional employ- 
 ment or promotion? 2. For what offices is ho qualified, and for what 
 in particular ? 3. Is a removal expedient ? 4. Has he received any 
 
CH. XX.] KINGDOM OF PRUSSIA. 331 
 
 promises as to a change in the days of his official duties ? 5. Is it 
 advisable to pension him? 6. What reasonable and proper wishes 
 has he ? 
 
 The grand officers of court are, a grand chamberlain, a grand 
 master of the ceremonies, a grand marshal and intendant of the 
 royal gardens, a grand equerry, a general intendant of museums 
 and exhibitions, a grand huntsman, a general intendant of the 
 theatres, a grand cup-bearer, a captain of the palace, a chief 
 huntsman of the court, and a marshal of the court. 
 
 The Prussian government, with the best motives, has distri- 
 buted the common lands of many villages; up to the year 1819, 
 it had distributed the common lands of 1328, and had thus created 
 12,058 new proprietors. There is an evil, which is, however, 
 constantly on the increase ; this is, the extent of mortgages and 
 debts among the proprietors of lands and houses; whose enter- 
 prise and industry are thus heavily shackled. In 1827, the 
 Prussian tribunals are said to have taken cognizance of no less 
 than 17?547 processes of Foreclosure*. 
 
 It is even said, that in West Prussia, out of 262 large pro- 
 perties, only 67 are free from debts, and that 71 are sequestrated. 
 The great subdivision of lands, and the abolition of restrictions as 
 to the practice of trades, and as to the right of settlement in a 
 place, have induced a disproportion between the population and the 
 resources of industry. 
 
 In the year 1833, 9341 children were born in the city of Berlin, 
 4738 boys, and 4603 girls. There were 7940 deaths. Of illegi- 
 timate births, there ,were 736 male, and 755 female, of whom, 
 however, 7^3 died shortly after their birth. There were 103 
 twin-births, and 2032 marriages. 376 persons died between 70 
 and 80, 396 between 80 and 90, and 21 above 90. The deaths 
 were most frequent in the months of April, May, and June. In the 
 Charite Hospital, Dec. 31st, 1832, there were 728 patients, and 
 5969 more were admitted in the course of the succeeding year, 
 altogether 6697 ; f these, 4903 were dismissed cured, and 116 
 as incurable, 7 ran awa jj an ^ 916 died ; altogether, 5942. Con- 
 sequently, Dec. 31, 1833, 705 persons remained under treatment, 
 * Subhastations-processe. 
 
332 KINGDOM OF PRUSSIA. [SECT. II. 
 
 viz. 351 men, 338 women, and 16 children. In 1833, 62,412 
 strangers entered, and 61,210 left Berlin; of the former, 6012, of 
 the latter 5094, were foreigners. To the Stadt Voigtei prison 
 were brought, on the whole, 9900 persons, viz. 7^70 males, and 
 2430 females ; 1373 were committed and sent to the respective 
 criminal courts*. There were 3048 thefts, the perpetrators of 
 only 1008 of which were detected. There were 84 fires in the 
 town and neighbourhood, of which 6 were considerable. The 
 number of suicides was ^ more than the average, viz., 63, of 
 which 11 were committed by women. 94 persons were killed by 
 accidents of various kinds. 10,139 wispels (a wispel is four 
 bushels) of wheat, 3910 of rye, 5990 of barley, 8955 of oats, 
 entered the town by land; 11,332 of wheat, 11,611 of rye, 2324 
 of barley, and 9157 of oats, by water. 
 
 In 1836, Berlin contained 266,000 inhabitants, amongst whom 
 were 263 medical men, 266 bakers, 81 bankers, 152 barbers, 122 
 brandy-distillers, 37 brewers, and 51 coffee-house keepers, 110 
 confectioners, 56 midwives, more than 600 painters of different 
 descriptions, 500 grocers (materialist en) , 150 professors, 57 
 large milliners, 68 restaurateurs, 2145 tailors, 1950 shoemakers, 
 124 innkeepers, and 113 tobacconists. There 24 burial-places, 
 32 printing-offices, 84 hotels, 4 prisons, 78 inns, 40 churches, 39 
 shops for objects of art, 40 licensed pawnbrokers, 206 schools, 
 and 53 periodicals. 
 
 According to Thaers, a peasant with a small family, in Prussia 
 and Brandenburg, requires for his support, 102 Prussian dollars 
 annually. 
 
 The following abstract of the state of the savings-banks in the 
 kingdom of Prussia may not be without its interest, as connected 
 with the statistics of that country : 
 
 * Robberies and crimes of all sorts are greatly on the increase in Berlin, if we 
 are to believe a recent number of the Journal de Francfort. According to the official 
 accounts, above 10,600 persons were arrested in the course of the year 1830, and 
 2870 robberies are reported during the same period; but the Journal adds, that it 
 is well known, that the catalogue of robberies does not comprise one half of those 
 which have been really committed. In Berlin, as well as in London and Paris, the 
 increase of youthful offenders, and the number of vagabond boys wandering about 
 the streets, studying mischief, and supporting themselves by precarious and often 
 criminal means, has excited the attention of the government. 
 
CH. XX.] 
 
 KINGDOM OF PRUSSIA. 
 
 333 
 
 Number Deposited 
 of Savings' yearly. 
 
 Drawn 
 
 out. 
 
 Present 
 Capital. 
 
 Banks. 
 
 Thalers. 
 
 Thalers. 
 
 Thalers. 
 
 Prussia Proper - 
 
 4 
 
 .. 67,476 
 
 ... 43,552 
 
 144,274 
 
 Silesia - 
 
 22 
 
 ... 207,511 
 
 ... 134,044 
 
 ... 451,221 
 
 Pomerania - 
 
 8 
 
 ... 196,871 
 
 ... 154,325 
 
 952,157 
 
 Brandenburg - 
 
 8 
 
 ... 448,608 
 
 ... 401,105 
 
 ... 1,849,109 
 
 Prussian Saxony 
 
 13 
 
 ... 258,574 
 
 ... 171,744 
 
 ... 907,757 
 
 Westphalia 
 
 8 
 
 85,557 
 
 ... 75,035 
 
 ... 141,920 
 
 Rhenish Provinces - 
 
 17 
 
 ... 98,585 
 
 ... 61,804 
 
 ... 403,331 
 
 Total - - 80 1,363,182 1,040,609 4,849,769 
 
 From a recent official return of the valued rent of the city of 
 Berlin, we are led to infer that the rental is moderate in propor- 
 tion to that of some other cities of Europe, which are more fre- 
 quented by travellers and absentees. Out of all the lodgings of 
 the city, more than one-fourth part pay less than 30, and rather 
 more than one-half pay from 30 to 50, dollars of annual rent. 
 There are not quite 500 lodgings which pay from 500 to 1000 
 dollars of annual rent, and not 40 which pay 1000 dollars 
 annually. There are not 20 houses in Berlin which pay so much 
 as from 1200 to 1500 dollars for annual rent, or which, in English 
 money are rented at from 180Z. to 225/. yearly. The entire rent 
 of all the 41,037 lodgings of Berlin amounted, in 1824, only to 
 3,657,690 dollars (about 600 X 000/.)*. 
 
 Out of 49,935 families inhabiting Berlin in a recent year, 
 12,087 were unable to pay the communal taxes. From 1822 to 
 1826, the number of mendicants doubled itself, and the number of 
 families receiving relief, rose from 2990 to 3475-f*. 
 
 In 1834, there were 26,548 births in the government-district 
 of Potsdam, of which 13,781 were male, and 12,767 female; of 
 these 2163 were illegitimate, and 1161 premature and still-born. 
 Amongst them, there were 348 twin births, and three of three 
 children ; consequently, one child in 12 was illegitimate, one in 
 222 still-born, and there was one twin-born in 76. 20,619 per- 
 sons died, 10,872 males and 9,747 females. 5080 died at less 
 than a year old, that is, the.fifth of the whole number of children 
 born ; 52 died at more than 90, viz., 24 men and 28 women. 
 2543 died of old age, 4660 of inflammatory diseases, 7885 of 
 
 Strang, i. 270, 271. 
 
 Schbn, Op. Cit. 169. 
 
334 KINGDOM OF PRUSSIA. [SlCT. II. 
 
 internal chronic diseases, 1684 of sudden attacks, 367 f external 
 diseases, 239 during delivery and in childbed ; one of every 111 
 children, therefore, cost the mother her life. 554 died of the 
 small-pox, 362 by accidents, and 130 by suicide. 
 
 The proportion of lunatics to the population in Prussia has 
 been rated, perhaps incorrectly, as one in 666i. 
 
 The total number of blind persons in Silesia was estimated, a 
 few years ago by Schon, at 2000, at which time there existed 
 in that province of Prussia only two institutions for their relief. 
 
 In 1830 and 1831, there were 109 gymnasiums and colleges 
 in Prussia, at which were instructed 23,767 pupils. The number 
 of students in the seven universities of the monarchy was, during 
 the winter of 1829-30, 6160, of whom 1211 were strangers. In 
 the university of Berlin alone were 127 professors, of whom 49 
 were ordinary and 42 extraordinary ; 29 were private teachers, 
 and 7 professors of the arts. At the University of Berlin were 
 1816 pupils, of whom 
 
 585 studied Theology, 
 674 Law, 
 302 Medicine, and 
 255 - Philosophy. 
 
 At the same time there were at Bonne 937 students, of whom 
 
 6 were studying Catholic divinity, 
 156 Protestant divinity, 
 
 250 Law, 
 
 145 Medicine, 
 
 117 Philosophy. 
 
 In the elementary schools of the Prussian dominions in 1831, 
 the proportion of scholars to every 1000 inhabitants was 147, or 
 about one in seven ; the aggregate of scholars being 1,937,934 
 (987,475 boys, and 950,459 girls). The number of teachers of 
 all denominations, male and female, was 24,919, and the number 
 of schools 21,889. 
 
 The middle schools (Mittelschuleri) existing in the Prussian 
 states, in the same year, amounted to 823, viz., 481 for boys and 
 342 for girls, besides the gymnasiums and other superior schools, 
 
CH. XX.]' KINGDOM OF PRUSSIA. 335 
 
 140 in number. In the middle schools for boys, there were 1532 
 teachers ; and in the middle schools for girls, the teachers of both 
 sexes were 1,278. In the gymnasiums and other superior schools, 
 the numbers of head and assistant teachers were, respectively, 
 1124 and 369. The number of male pupils frequenting the 
 middle schools was 56,789, and of female pupils 46,598, making 
 a total of 103,477 ; while the number of pupils receiving instruc- 
 tion in the gymnasiums, amounted to 26,041. 
 
 The proportion of divorces in the kingdom of Prussia is so 
 many as one in 37 marriages*. The amount is so large as 
 to be scarcely credible. Unfortunately the review from which 
 I quote it is a mixed digest of three German statistical works, 
 and it does not state from which of the three this painful result 
 is obtained. The reader will do well to compare it with an 
 equally extraordinary calculation relative to the divorces of 
 Saxony, given under that head. 
 
 The following statement is connected with the moral statistics 
 of Berlin ; and we present it with some accessory details. There 
 exist at present in the city of Berlin, 
 
 2 Houses of ill fame of the first class. 
 26 second class. 
 
 3 third, or lowest class. 
 
 Total . . 31 Houses. 
 
 The number of prostitutes inhabiting these houses is 275; 
 there are also 26 who have private lodgings ; so that the whole 
 amount of those whose names are inscribed at the police-office, 
 in 1837, as prostitutes, is 301. 
 
 To compare this number with Paris we shall state, that on the 
 last day of the year 1834, there were 3816 females registered by 
 the police of Paris; of these 63 were declared by the medical 
 inspectors to be labouring under syphilis, which is a proportion 
 of about one in 60 ; a more satisfactory result than had been 
 obtained at any previous period. In 1800, the proportion of 
 those thus affected, had been so high as one in 9 ; in 1812, one 
 
 * Bulletin Universel, Sect, Geographique, torn, v., p. 67. 
 
336 KINGDOM OF PRUSSIA. [SECT. II. 
 
 in 24 ; and 1816, one in 26. The monthly average of the whole 
 year, 1834, was about one in 43. As to the origin or birth-place 
 of these registered women, the Department of the Seine (in which 
 Paris is situated,) furnished about a fourth part; next in fre- 
 quency occur the departments most near to Paris, and several 
 manufacturing districts. Among the foreigners, Belgium sup- 
 plied the largest amount, 61 ; next Prussia, 16 ; then Switzer- 
 land, 13; Holland 10, the United' States 7> England 5, Ireland 
 3 : five were from Italy, one from Austria, and one from Russia. 
 The natives of several other countries are enumerated*. 
 
 In Prussia, the following regulations have been established 
 respecting prostitutes and houses of ill fame: All prostitutes 
 must take up their abode in houses which are licensed by the police. 
 These are not tolerated except in large and populous towns, 
 and there only in unfrequented and obscure streets. They are 
 under the strict superintendance of the police, and are regularly 
 visited by a medical man. Spirituous liquors are not allowed to 
 be sold in them. No person can be received an inmate of them 
 without the knowledge of the police ; and the infraction of this 
 regulation is severely punished. Girls of tender age are not 
 allowed, under any pretext, to enter such houses. As soon as a 
 prostitute is pregnant, the circumstance must be communicated 
 to the police, in order that the latter may take measures to pre- 
 vent infanticide. During her pregnancy, the woman who keeps 
 such houses is bound to take care of her, but as soon as the child 
 is weaned it is separated from its mother. 
 
 The keeper of the house is not allowed to lodge any females 
 except prostitutes in his house; and the latter are forbidden, 
 either in the streets or at their windows, to speak to the passers- 
 by, or otherwise to excite attention. No visiter is allowed to 
 remain later than midnight, and after that hour no person is 
 admitted. The house-keeper is forbidden to admit any woman, 
 except his regular lodgers, into his house, even for the shortest 
 space of time. 
 
 Respecting syphilis, the following are the medical police 
 
 * Nouveau Dictionnaire de Police, par Elouin, Trebuchet, et Labat. (Article, 
 Mceurs.) 
 
CH. XX.] KINGDOM OF PRUSSIA. 337 
 
 regulations. When a prostitute is infected, the keeper of the 
 house must instantly announce the fact to the police, and must 
 follow its directions for the cure of the patient. The con- 
 cealment of the infection, either by the patient or by the house- 
 keeper, is severely punished. The inmates who refuse to submit 
 to, or who seek to evade, the regular examination of their surgeon, 
 or the superintendance of the police, are liable to be arrested and 
 confined in the House of Correction, whence they are removed to 
 workhouses, where they remain until they are capable of gaining 
 a respectable livelihood. 
 
 Persons, not residing in such houses, who know that they are 
 infected with syphilis, and who, nevertheless, do not refrain, are 
 liable to be punished. Every keeper of such houses is furnished 
 with a written description of the symptoms of syphilis, with 
 which, also, he is bound to make his lodgers acquainted. When 
 a visitor is infected by an inmate, the housekeeper is bound to 
 pay the expenses of his medical treatment. On the other hand, 
 if the inmate can prove that any particular person has been the 
 source of the evil, that person has to pay for her cure, and a fine 
 of fifty dollars besides. 
 
 The medical men throughout the country are particularly 
 enjoined, when a case of syphilis occurs, to try to discover its 
 origin, in order that persons of a debauched character, who are 
 continually propagating the contagion, may be cured and 
 punished. The police is to be made acquainted with every case 
 of syphilis, occurring in private families. 
 
 Servants who seduce the daughters or other relations of their 
 employers, to whom, on account of disparity of rank, they cannot 
 be married, are to be punished by from one to three years' impri- 
 sonment in a house of correction. Even in cases where there 
 is no disparity of rank, a confinement of from six months to a 
 year may be inflicted. A parent and child of opposite sexes 
 are forbidden to sleep together, if the latter be more than ten 
 years of age ; and children of different sexes, and of more than 
 ten years old, are not to sleep in the same bed*. 
 
 * Nicolai, Grundriss der Sanitats-Polizei, mit besonderer Beziehurg auf den 
 Preussischen Staat. Berlin, 1835. 
 
 7. 
 
338 
 
 KINGDOM OF PRUSSIA. 
 
 [SECT. II. 
 
 The proportion of violent deaths in Prussia is very nearly one 
 in 40 among the male deaths, but among the women only one 
 in 127. Small-pox caused one death in 122 deaths, during an 
 average of fifteen years. During six years one death in 500 per- 
 sons took place from sudden fits. The deaths from Asiatic cholera 
 were very numerous in Prussia, so many as 32,647 took place 
 in 1831, while, in the same year, 60,000 died of the infirmities 
 of old age. Females do not appear to marry, usually, much 
 before the age of twenty-five. About one-sixth of all the female 
 deaths, between the fourteenth and forty-fifth year, take place in 
 childbed. From 1829 to 1831, there was, on an average, one 
 born to 26 living, and one death in somewhat more than 31 *. 
 
 STATISTICS OF CRIME IN THE SEVEN PROVINCES OF OLD PRUSSIA. 
 
 FOR THE YEAR 1819- 
 
 Crimes against Persons. 
 
 Provinces. 
 
 1. Fomerania 
 
 2. Silesia - 
 
 3. Westphalia 
 
 4. Brandenburg 
 
 5. Saxony 
 
 6. Prussia 
 
 7. Posen 
 
 Crimes against Property. 
 
 Proportion of 
 Inhabitants to 
 
 Provinces. 
 
 one Criminal. 
 
 
 2218 
 
 1. Pomerania - 
 
 - 1636 
 
 2. Silesia - 
 
 1314 
 
 3. Posen 
 
 - 1157 
 
 4. Brandenburg 
 
 1130 
 
 5. Saxony 
 
 - 1044 
 
 C. Prussia - 
 
 743 
 
 7. Westphalia 
 
 FOR 1822. 
 
 Proportion of 
 Inhabitants to 
 one Criminal. 
 
 1042. 
 
 - 810 
 504 
 
 - 485 
 471 
 
 - 404 
 182 
 
 1170 
 768 
 710 
 C17 
 534! 
 458 
 440 
 
 * From the valuable " Statistical View of Births and Deaths in the Prussian 
 States," compiled by Hoffman, Director of the Statistical Office of Berlin, and 
 translated by Mr. Deverell in the " Transactions of the Statistical Society of 
 London," vol. i., part i., p. 121. A still more recent official document respecting 
 the births, marriages, and deaths in the Prussian dominions, during the year 1836, 
 has appeared in the " Statistical Journal" for November, 1837. The appearance 
 of a periodical work in London, solely devoted to the science of statistics, supplies a 
 long felt deficiency, and affords a good omen. 
 
 1. Pomerania 
 
 2634 
 
 1. Pomerania - 
 
 2. Saxony - 
 
 - 2574 
 
 2. Posen - 
 
 3. Brandenburg f 
 
 2134 
 
 3. Silesia 
 
 4. Silesia - 
 
 - 1777 
 
 4. Saxony - 
 
 5. Posen 
 
 1495 
 
 5. Brandenburg 
 
 C. Westphalia - 
 
 - 1479" 
 
 6. Prussia 
 
 7. Prussia 
 
 1242 
 
 7. Westphalia 
 
CH. XX.] 
 
 KINGDOM OF PRUSSIA. 
 
 339 
 
 FOR 1825. 
 
 Crimes against Persons. 
 
 Crimes against Property. 
 
 1. Pomerania 
 
 2. Silesia - 
 
 3. Brandenburg 
 
 4. Saxony 
 
 5. Westphalia 
 C. Prussia 
 
 7. Posen 
 
 Proportion of 
 Inhabitants to 
 one Criminal. 
 
 Provinces. 
 
 2749 
 
 1. Pomerania - 
 
 - 1795 
 
 2. Silesia - 
 
 1727 
 - 1648 
 
 3. Westphalia 
 4. Posen 
 
 1449 
 
 5. Prussia 
 
 - 1433 
 1340 
 
 6. Brandenburg - 
 7. Saxony 
 
 Proportion of 
 Inhabitants to 
 one Criminal. 
 
 1427 
 
 - 864 
 822 
 
 - 772 
 658 
 
 - 642 
 
 In the year 1833, there were, on an average, daily, 810 pri- 
 soners in the house of correction at Spandau, and 546 in that 
 at Brandenburg. At the end of the year there remained 1419 in 
 both, of whom 33 were condemned to imprisonment for life, and 
 375 for more than 10 years ; 695, almost the half, were recom- 
 mittals ; of these, 499 are from Berlin ; and there are 15 who 
 have suffered punishment in the house of correction from six to 
 nine times. 
 
 An analysis has been made of the state of education among the 
 prisoners confined in the province of Brandenburg. It appears 
 from this, that out of 100 prisoners, only 11 can neither read, 
 write, nor calculate ; 16 can only read and write, and 37 can 
 only read. 
 
 During 1835, 10,134 persons were arrested at Berlin, without 
 reckoning military or foreigners. The population is about 
 250,000, so that one in 25 of the inhabitants of that city, during 
 that year, passed a greater or less time in prison. Only 2962 
 women were in confinement, but among them were some for the 
 heaviest crimes, and two were sentenced to death for murder. 
 
 The smallest numbers of juvenile delinquencies has been 
 observed to occur in the least instructed and entirely agricultural 
 provinces of Pomerania and Posen ; and the largest numbers in 
 the best instructed, and also most industrious and manufacturing 
 provinces, those of Prussian Saxony and the Rhenish countries, 
 whose commercial and manufacturing districts surpass even the 
 metropolis of Prussia in this class of transgressors. Since the 
 
 z 2 
 
340 KINGDOM OF PRUSSIA- [SECT. II. 
 
 year 1820, to the honour of this country, twenty-eight institutions 
 for juvenile delinquents, or neglected children (none of them 
 larger than for sixty boys or girls), have been established, and 
 supported by voluntary subscriptions, in different parts of the 
 kingdom, under the especial protection of the Minister for Public 
 Instruction. Under this excellent system the indictments against 
 children of an age capable of having thoroughly participated in 
 their benefits has decreased; while the indictments against chil- 
 dren under that age has increased*. These schools furnish 
 religious and moral instruction, and accomplish the education of 
 the heart, while in most common schools the attainment of 
 writing and reading, and the like, are the points chiefly attended 
 to. This is the true reason why so many prisoners are found in 
 all countries who can read and write, who, in short, are com- 
 paratively what is called educated: their education has only 
 supplied them with accomplishments, but not with principles of 
 good conduct. Unless religious instruction goes hand in hand 
 with literary education, we only place in the hands of the indivi- 
 dual a powerful instrument of mischief to himself and to the 
 community. John Falk, who founded in 1813 a House of 
 Reform for juvenile offenders at Weimar, thus expressed himself 
 in his petition to the Chambers of the Grand Duchy: "The 
 acquirements mechanically imparted to rogues can serve only 
 as so many master-keys put into their hands to break into the 
 sanctuary of humanity." 
 
 An official report, lately published, of the high-court of justice 
 at Magdeburg, shows the importance of the " tribunal of common 
 arbitration" recently established in Prussia. Of 532 causes 
 brought before that tribunal, from May 1, 1834, to January 1, 
 1836, 432 were settled by amicable arrangement. But this 
 tribunal possesses a still greater advantage, inasmuch as personal 
 offences of little importance which are often both inconvenient 
 and ridiculous, when brought before higher tribunals, are, in this 
 manner, satisfactorily arranged. Another official report states, 
 
 * See " Remarks on the Relation between Education and Crime," by Francis 
 Lieber, and Dr. Julius, {Philadelphia, 1835,) p. 16. 
 
CH. XX.] KINGDOM OF PRUSSIA. 341 
 
 that, out of 6366 causes thus submitted, 4852 were thus settled, 
 and only 695 sent to higher courts. 
 
 There were no fewer than 127,564 civil actions in Prussia, 
 during the year 1826 alone, which afforded a proportion of one 
 suit at law to eighty inhabitants. In the year 1830, the criminal 
 actions brought before the tribunals of Prussia, amounted to 
 112,275, out of which number 71000 were cases of police. In 
 those provinces of Prussia in which a strict line of separation 
 exists between civil and criminal causes, the decisions of the courts 
 are far more speedy ; thus, in 1830, in the Rhenish provinces, 
 in which such a demarcation prevails, the courts dispatched 
 seven-eighths of the civil causes, seven-eighths of the correctional 
 processes, and all the criminal causes ; while, in the Eastern pro- 
 vinces, on the contrary, where the judicial bodies combine all 
 causes in the same court, only nine-tenths of the civil processes, 
 and two-thirds of the criminal causes, were decided*. 
 
 The policy of maintaining so large an army, and of enforcing 
 a military education on all her subjects, is the most remarkable 
 feature which Prussia at this moment presents to the observer, 
 and is a difficult problem, not capable of being summarily dis- 
 cussed. Under a king, however, of extreme moderation in expen- 
 diture, and under a most prudent succession of ministers, the diffi- 
 culties inseparable from this condition are for a time kept under. 
 
 Unfortunately, in proportion as this excessive military system 
 has developed itself, the number of individuals devoted to the 
 pursuits of industry has declined. Thus, in Silesia, on comparing 
 the number of artisans of the year 1831, with those which had 
 existed in 1828, it was found that, 
 
 The Bakers had diminished in number - - 257 
 
 Butchers - 212 
 
 Shoemakers - - - - - 153 
 
 Tailors 507 
 
 Carpenters - - - 87 
 
 Masons - 82 
 
 Weavers - - 1259 
 
 Small Shopkeepers^ - - - 215f 
 
 * See Schon,.Op. Cit. f Ibicl > P- 243 
 
342 KINGDOM OF PRUSSIA. [SECT. II. 
 
 Since the peace, Prussia has connected herself more closely 
 with Russia than with any other state, and her principal object 
 appears to have been to take the lead of the German confederacy. 
 Her new commercial system is an experiment, the results of which 
 are not as yet decided ; nor are political inquirers agreed either as 
 to the precise motives which induced its formation, or as to the 
 probable influence which it will have on the prosperity of the 
 various German states and of their neighbours. 
 
343 
 
 CHAPTER XXI. 
 THE KINGDOM OF BAVARIA. 
 
 The Royal Family. Circles and Population; Principal Towns. 
 Religion. Universities and Schools. Budget; Army. Form of 
 Government; Offices of Government and of the Crown. Statistics 
 of the Population. Produce. Cultivation. Manufactures. Military 
 Conscription. Vaccination. /Statistics of the General Hospital at 
 Munich for Nineteen Years. Number of Illegitimate Children. 
 Courts of Justice. 
 
 THE royal family of Bavaria are of the Catholic religion. The 
 present king is Lewis I., born August 25, 17^6, who succeeded 
 his father, Maximilian I., October 13, 1825, and who married, 
 October 12, 1810, Theresa (C. F. A.), princess of Saxe- 
 Altenburg, by whom he has eight children ; viz., Maximilian, the 
 crown-prince, born in 1811 ; Otho, king of Greece, born 1815; 
 Luitpold, and Adalbert ; and four daughters, of whom one, 
 Matilda, born 1813, is married to Lewis, grand duke of Hesse- 
 Darmstadt. The brothers and sisters of the king are, Augusta, 
 born 1788, now dowager duchess of Leuchtenberg and princess 
 of Eichstadt ; Caroline, born 1792, now the dowager empress of 
 Austria ; and Prince Charles, born 1795, a general of cavalry. 
 
 The following is a view of the circles of the kingdom of 
 Bavaria, and of their population : 
 
 
 German 
 Sq. Miles. 
 
 Population 
 in 1833. 
 
 Families. 
 
 Towns. 
 
 Market 
 Towns. 
 
 Villages. 
 
 288 
 197.30 
 194-70 
 171-75 
 143- 36 
 186- 43 
 155-70 
 140-os 
 
 595,363 
 432,068 
 432,172 
 516,435 
 552,028 
 547,003 
 568,337 
 543,984 
 
 124,494 
 88,659 
 97,996 
 117,242 
 
 1 25,4 54 
 123,154 
 120,829 
 111,468 
 
 16 
 12 
 28 
 23 
 42 
 37 
 44 
 28 
 
 34 
 46 
 26 
 
 47 
 
 55 
 
 72 
 
 55 
 16 
 
 2,006 
 2,048 
 3,160 
 1,778 
 2,004 
 2,271 
 1,188 
 665 
 
 
 
 
 5 Re/at 
 
 
 
 8 Rhino 
 
 Total 
 
 1,477-* 
 
 4,187,397 
 
 909,296 
 
 230 
 
 351 
 
 15,120 
 
 
344 
 
 KINGDOM OF BAVARIA. [SECT. II. 
 
 The principal towns are the following : Munich (95,000 in- 
 habitants), Nuremberg (41,000), Augsburg (35,000), Regens- 
 burg ( 4 26,500), Wiirzburg (24,000), Bamberg (20,800), Furth 
 (16,735), Anspach (16,735), Baireuth (13,985), Erlangen 
 (11,580), Passau (10,300). 
 
 With the exception of the Jews, and of about 5,000 French, 
 the inhabitants of Bavaria are all Germans. With respect to 
 religious distinctions, they are divided, according to a census 
 taken some years ago, into 2,880,383 Catholics, 1,094,633 Pro- 
 testants, 4427 members of various sects, and 57,574 Jews. 
 There are two Catholic archbishops, six Catholic bishops, 181 
 deacons, and 2756 parishes. There are 1215 Protestant pa- 
 rishes, and 79 deacons; also, 138 reformed congregations. 
 
 There are three Universities, viz., at Munich, Wurzburg, and 
 Erlangen. In 1836, there were at Munich 1329 students ; at 
 Erlangen, in 1834-5, 300 ; and at Wiirzburg, in 1834-5, 408. 
 
 In Bavaria, there are 24 gymnasiums, one lyceum, five semi- 
 naries for schoolmasters, 34 Latin schools, 31 local school-com- 
 missions, one institution for the deaf and dumb, one institution 
 for the blind, one ladies' school for the higher classes, and one 
 school for artists. In 1831, the whole country contained 5008 
 schools, in which there were 489,196 scholars, and 71 14 tutors 
 of various ranks. There is an academy of sciences at Munich, 
 which comprises 176 ordinary, 10 extraordinary, 50 honorary, 
 and 131 corresponding members. 
 
 The yearly expenditure of the Bavarian government, from 
 1831 to 1837, has been 28,000,836 florins. 
 
 The items are as follows : 
 
 Florins. 
 
 Interest, &c., of the Public Debt - - 8,100,008 
 
 Expenses of the Royal Family and Court - 3,188,800 
 
 Council of State - 73,000 
 
 Ministry 01 Justice .... 923,900 
 
 Ministry of the Interior .... 000,000 
 
 Ministry of Finance .... 772,000 
 
 The Church (Cultus) - 1,336,000 
 
 Education ..... 707,812 
 
 Medical Establishments - - 154,000 
 
 Benevolent objects .... 109,000 
 
CH. XXI.] KINGDOM OF BAVARIA. 345 
 
 Florins. 
 
 Police - - 414,000 
 
 Trading and Agricultural Establishments - 156,000 
 
 Certain Outlays of the Exchequer - 109,000 
 
 Roads, Bridges and Water-works - 1,232,000 
 
 Public Edifices - - 638,000 
 
 The Army - 7,451,500 
 
 The yearly revenue, during the same period, has been 
 28,185,139 florins, of which sum, 7,385,139 florins have been 
 derived from direct taxes, and 20,800,000 florins from indirect 
 taxes, state-establishments and domains. 
 
 At the commencement of the year 1830, the public debt 
 amounted to 132,814,753 florins, 38J kreutzers, but in the course 
 of the year 1830-31, it was lessened by 896,563 florins, 20 
 kreutzers. 
 
 According to the latest reports which have been laid before the 
 chambers, the army consists of one field-marshal, two generals of 
 infantry and cavalry, 15 general-lieutenants, 26 general-majors, 
 15 i?ihabers* of regiments, 37 colonels, 45 colonel-lieutenants, 
 73 majors, 204 captains of foot and horse of the first class, and 
 133 of the second, 229 first lieutenants, and 600 second lieute- 
 nants. The entire army consists of 57,061 men, (of whom 
 17,196 have always leave of absence,) and is divided as 
 
 follows : 
 
 Men. 
 Body-guard of Halberdiers - - - - 119 
 
 Two Garrison-companies and a Palace-guard - 407 
 
 One Body-regiment of Infantry of the line - - 2,651 
 
 Fifteen Infantry regiments of the line - - 35,169 
 
 Four Battalions of Chasseurs - 4,559 
 
 Two Cuirassier-regiments of the line - - 2,153 
 
 Six Regiments Light Horse - 6,585 
 
 Two Regiments of Artillery 4,866 
 
 One Battalion of Engineers ( technisches ) - - 330 
 
 One Company of Pontoniers ... 98 
 
 One Company of Workmen - - - - 144 
 
 The Bavarian contingent to the army of the confederacy, 
 amounts to 35,800 men. 
 
 The government is a constitutional monarchy, founded on the 
 
 * Proprietors ? 
 
346 KINGDOM OF BAVARIA. [SECT. II. 
 
 deed (constitutionsacte) of May 26, 1818. The king possesses 
 all the powers of the administration of the state, and exercises 
 them for the objects which he has specified in the constitutional 
 declaration ; he is, however, bound to obey the decrees of the 
 German confederacy, of which Bavaria forms an integral part. 
 
 The territories of the kingdom form a single, indivisible, in- 
 alienable whole, to which all fresh acquisitions belong, and a clear 
 definition exists, of that which is the property of the state, of that 
 which is alienable, and of that which is not. There is a chamber 
 of councillors (Reichsrathe), and a chamber of deputies, as 
 organ and representative of the nation. The act of constitution, 
 above-mentioned, fixes distinctly their rights and privileges. The 
 crown is hereditary (though to the exclusion of females) accord- 
 ing to the law of primogeniture and of relationship (agnatisch- 
 linearische Erbfolge) ; but on the death of the last male 
 descendant of the royal family, if there should be no near relation- 
 ship with a German house to make valid its claims, the crown 
 can pass to a female. See the Family Laws (Familien und 
 Haus Gesetze) of 1816. 
 
 The chamber of councillors consists of the princes of royal 
 blood, of the officers of the crown, of the archbishops, of the 
 heads of the mediatised families, of the heads of the Catholic 
 and Protestant Churches, of the hereditary councillors, and of the 
 councillors for life. There are the usual ministers of state, and 
 the minister for foreign affairs is also minister of the royal house- 
 hold. The grand dignitaries of the crown are, a grand master, 
 a grand chamberlain, a grand marshal, and a grand master of 
 the post. The supreme officers of court are, a grand master, a 
 grand chamberlain, a grand master of the ceremonies, a grand 
 equerry, and a captain general of the body-guard. 
 
 Between 1817 and 1828, there was an augmentation in the 
 population of Bavaria of 477j560, which was an annual increase 
 of about 43,414. In 1828, there were 140,079 births, and 
 108,523 deaths. No marriage can take place between humble 
 persons not possessing some capital, unless by previous permission 
 of the Institutions for the Poor, which are appointed by law in 
 each town and village. The directors who do not attend to the 
 
CH. XXL] KINGDOM OF BAVARIA. 347 
 
 decrees on this head, have to answer for the maintenance of the 
 new families, if they should not be able to support themselves. 
 So also the priests and other churchmen are responsible for the 
 support of such persons whom they have married without leave 
 from the authorities besides other fines imposed on the breach 
 of the regulations relative to marriage. In respect to rank and 
 occupation, the adult male population is divided as follows : 
 there are 25,931 nobles, clergymen and civil and military officers, 
 329,785 tradesmen, mechanics, &c., and 480,930 peasants and 
 day-labourers; the soldiers are enumerated above. 
 
 The thirteenth part of this country is uncultivated. The 
 people live principally on potatoes, flour and milk ; their favourite 
 beverage is beer, and their wine is that of the Main and Rhine. 
 On an average, Bavaria produces annually, 68,800 quintals of 
 hops, of which 52,800 are consumed in the country, and the rest 
 exported ; the value of this annual produce is from seven to eight 
 millions of florins. Of tobacco 30,000 quintals are grown 
 annually, on an average. The oils are very abundant, but not 
 fine ; principally, from the want of good mills. In this country, 
 there were in a recent year 1,895,687 head of horned cattle, 
 1,238,103 sheep, and 324,991 horses; there are great quantities of 
 pigs and poultry, but not many goats and asses. Honey and wax 
 are not produced in sufficient quantity for home-consumption. 
 
 With respect to cultivation in Bavaria, the following calculations 
 have been made : 9,793,266 acres (Tagwerke) are laid out in 
 ploughed land, 363,812 in gardens, vineries and dwelling-places, 
 2,792,160 in meadows, 6,444,846 in woods ; 507,247 are water, 
 and 2,232,771 are heaths and pasture land. 
 
 A polytechnic committee was founded at Munich in 1816, which 
 is composed of artisans, scholars and official men from all parts of 
 the kingdom; it exerts a very favourable influence on industry by 
 its lectures and publications. It has instituted an exhibition 
 of manufactures which has excited great activity amongst artisans 
 of every class. Similar committees have been established at 
 Augsburg, at Nuremberg, and in other towns. In Bavaria there 
 are not many large, but there are a great number of small manu- 
 factories, particularly of linen cloth. In some parts, a weaver's 
 
348 KINGDOM OF BAVARIA. [Sacx. II. 
 
 loom may be found in almost every peasant's cabin. In woollen- 
 cloths, the Bavarians cannot rival foreigners, because they want 
 good machines, and large manufactories; their wool, besides, is 
 of an inferior quality. Their cotton-goods are also not first-rate, 
 though this branch of industry is better understood than the 
 foregoing. The tanneries are flourishing, and far more skins are 
 exported than imported. The paper is inferior to the English, 
 Dutch or Swiss. A profitable straw-manufacture is carried on in 
 some parts. A great number of persons are employed in the 
 felling and transport of wood. The toys of Nuremberg and 
 Berchtesgaden are universally known. Bavarian beer is probably 
 the best of the European continent, and is exported to a consider- 
 able extent. There are fifty manufactories of tobacco in full 
 activity ; several of sugar from beet- root, and forty-five glass- 
 houses in a flourishing state. There are nine manufactories of 
 porcelain, of which the most celebrated is that of Nymphenburg; 
 and fourteen of delft-ware, which, however, is of an inferior 
 description. The seven salt-works of this kingdom produce 
 annually, on an average, about 645,000 quintals of salt, of which 
 70,000 quintals are exported; they yield a net profit to the govern- 
 ment of 2,217,375 florins annually. The quarries of lime, 
 gypsum, freestone, and clay, employ 7^00 persons. The coal- 
 mines yield 700,000 quintals annually. Sulphur is not produced 
 in sufficient quantity for home-consumption, nor is iron ; several 
 other metals, too, as mercury, copper, cobalt, and lead, are not 
 very abundant. Gold and silver are found in small quantities in 
 the sands of the Rhine, the Inn, the Danube and the Isar. The 
 manufactory at Amberg furnishes the army with the requisite 
 number of muskets. The goldsmiths, engravers and cutlers of 
 Bavaria compete with those of France and England. There are 
 chain-bridges of iron-wire at Nuremberg and Bamberg. 
 
 Every Bavarian who has arrived at the age of 21 is liable to 
 military conscription. During the first two years, he must hold 
 himself in readiness to join his regiment on the receipt of an order 
 so to do. Those exempt from conscription are the only sons of 
 parents who have lost two sons, and any son of parents who have 
 lost three children in the military service of the state. The time 
 
CH. XXI.] 
 
 KINGDOM OF BAVA11IA. 
 
 349 
 
 of service is six years. All soldiers who are not completely 
 mounted and equipped are allowed leave of absence. 
 
 Vaccination is performed at the expense of the state, and parents, 
 however reluctant they may be, are obliged to submit their 
 children to this operation. At Baireuth, Giesing, Schwabach, 
 Bamberg and Wurzburg, there are establishments for the recep- 
 tion of the insane. There are forty-one medicinal springs in 
 Bavaria. The following table shows the number of patients 
 treated, and the rate of mortality, in the Allgemeines Krankenhaus 
 (General Hospital) at Munich from its erection in 1813 to the 
 year 1831-2. After the year 1819-20, the patients of the mid- 
 wifery department are included, and throughout the table, the 
 patients remaining at the end of the year, are included in the 
 number of those received in the succeeding one. I insert it here 
 as one of the most complete ever published in any country. 
 
 
 Number of 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 
 
 Patients. 
 
 
 Died. 
 
 number 
 
 Rate of 
 
 Years. 
 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 -* 
 
 Mortality. 
 
 
 Men. 
 
 Women. 
 
 
 Men. 
 
 Women. 
 
 01 
 
 Deaths. 
 
 
 18Ji 
 
 990 
 
 626 
 
 1616 
 
 120 
 
 90 
 
 210 
 
 the 8th 
 
 18{! 
 
 961 
 
 547 
 
 1508 
 
 136 
 
 89 
 
 225 
 
 the 6th 
 
 18U 
 
 1506 
 
 790 
 
 2296 
 
 133 
 
 103 
 
 236 
 
 the 9th 
 
 18H 
 
 1945 
 
 1189 
 
 3134 
 
 199 
 
 150 
 
 349 
 
 the 9th 
 
 18H 
 
 1752 
 
 1195 
 
 2947 
 
 188 
 
 165 
 
 353 
 
 the 8th 
 
 18*| 
 
 2152 
 
 1580 
 
 3732 
 
 179 
 
 179 
 
 358 
 
 the 10th 
 
 18| 
 
 2110 
 
 1605 
 
 3715 
 
 178 
 
 117 
 
 295 
 
 the 12th 
 
 ,181? 
 
 2007 
 
 1554 
 
 3561 
 
 133 
 
 101 
 
 234 
 
 the 15th 
 
 18fi 
 
 2040 
 
 1836 
 
 3876 
 
 128 
 
 105 
 
 233 
 
 the 16th 
 
 18fl 
 
 1963 
 
 1872 
 
 3835 
 
 164 
 
 116 
 
 280 
 
 the 13th 
 
 18f| 
 
 2218 
 
 1941 
 
 4159 
 
 163 
 
 130 
 
 293 
 
 the 14th 
 
 1811 
 
 2376 
 
 1890 
 
 4266 
 
 167 
 
 128 
 
 295 
 
 the 14th 
 
 18H 
 
 2885 
 
 2207 
 
 5092 
 
 188 
 
 137 
 
 325 
 
 the 15th 
 
 181f 
 
 3730 
 
 2181 
 
 5920 
 
 202 
 
 145 
 
 347 
 
 the 17th 
 
 18f| 
 
 4135 
 
 2151 
 
 6286 
 
 211 
 
 107 
 
 318 
 
 the 19th 
 
 18ff 
 
 3825 
 
 25fJ4 
 
 6389 
 
 254 
 
 163 
 
 417 
 
 the 15th 
 
 18| 
 
 3240 
 
 2497 
 
 5737 
 
 241 
 
 125 
 
 366 
 
 the 16th 
 
 18|? 
 
 3432 
 
 2818 
 
 6250 
 
 228 
 
 157 
 
 385 
 
 the 16th 
 
 18H 
 
 2933 
 
 2775 
 
 5708 
 
 205 
 
 161 
 
 366 
 
 the 15th 
 
 
 46,209 
 
 33,818 
 
 80,027 
 
 3417 
 
 2468 
 
 5885 
 
 the 13ith 
 
 The excessive number of illegitimate children in Bavaria 
 attracted, in 1835, the attention of its Upper Chamber of Repre- 
 sentatives. According to Hoffman, the rate in the rural parts of 
 
350 KINGDOM OF BAVARIA. [SECT. II. 
 
 Bavaria exceeds that which is found even in the most dissolute 
 cities of Europe. In Munich, the number of children born out 
 of marriage, is nearly the same as that produced by wedlock. 
 The Upper Chamber wished the following points to be considered 
 preparatory to remedial measures: 1. the abolition of the action 
 at law against the father; 2. a provision for the children by the 
 establishment of institutions for their support, at the expense of 
 the state or of the circle ; and 3. the punishment of the mothers 
 in houses of correction or in the workhouses. But the Lower 
 Chamber declared that such plans were not reconcileable either 
 with humanity, justice, or morality ; that they would expose the 
 weaker sex, and often reduce an innocent woman to the extremities 
 of despair. This is not the place to enter into a discussion of this 
 most important subject. The total number of natural children 
 born in Munich, in 1823 was so many as 990, while the legitimate 
 births were only 1030. In 1834, there were 1291 natural children, 
 counterbalanced by only 1339 legitimate children. 
 
 In the circle of the Rhine, the French codes of civil procedure 
 and criminal instruction have been retained, and also the French 
 penal code. There are in Bavaria 18 tribunals of circles and 
 cities which are of the first instance, 205 provincial tribunals, 
 723 patrimonial courts of the second class, 312 of the first class, 
 and 54 seignorial courts. The civil tribunals of the second instance 
 are, 7 courts of appeal and 7 commercial courts of appeal. 
 Criminals condemned to death are decapitated by the sword ; the 
 guillotine is not used in Bavaria. 
 
351 
 
 CHAPTER XXII. 
 THE KINGDOM OF SAXONY. 
 
 The Ruling Family. Circles and Population; Principal Towns. 
 Races. Religion. Educational Institutions. Budget; Army. 
 Form of Government; Officers of Government and of the Court. 
 /Statistics of the Population; Births and Deaths; Number of 
 Medical Men ; Number of Deaf, Dumb, and Blind. Statistics of 
 Education. Statistics of the Married State. Suicides and Accidents. 
 Criminal Statistics. Salaries, Rent of Houses, and the like. 
 
 SAXONY, hitherto, appears to have derived more advantage from 
 the new commercial union than any other state of Germany. 
 The emancipation of the Jews, to a very limited extent, has 
 lately passed the chambers ; but this act does not admit them to 
 sit in the chambers, nor to fill high posts. 
 
 The royal family of Saxony are of the Catholic religion. The 
 present king is Frederic Augustus, who was born May 18, 17^7? 
 and succeeded his uncle, Anthony, June 6, 1836. He married, 
 firstly, Caroline, archduchess of Austria, who died in 1832, and, 
 secondly, Maria, princess of Bavaria. His father Maximilian, 
 who, on the death of the late king, renounced his pretensions to 
 the throne, is still alive, and has, besides Frederic Augustus, three 
 children by his first wife, who was a princess of Parma, and seven 
 by his second, Amelia Augusta, princess of Bavaria, whom he 
 married in 1822. Maximilian was born April 13, 1759. 
 
 The following is a view of the circles of the kingdom of 
 Saxony, and of their population : 
 
 
 Districts 
 (Amtshaupt- 
 mannschaften). 
 
 German 
 Square 
 Miles. 
 
 Towns. 
 
 Market 
 Towns. 
 
 Villages. 
 
 Inhabitants, 
 1835. 
 
 1. Dresden Circle 
 2. Leipsic 
 
 5 
 3 
 
 78-783 
 
 63 .139 
 
 32 
 38 
 
 
 998 
 1,001 
 
 411,864 
 361,251 
 
 3. Zwickau 
 4. Bautzen 
 
 5 
 2 
 
 84-^7 
 
 45-W7 
 
 58 
 13 
 
 
 873 
 629 
 
 549,811 
 257,444 
 
 
 15 
 
 271.676 
 
 141 
 
 57 
 
 3,198 
 
 1,580,370 
 
352 KINGDOM OF SAXONY. [SECT. II. 
 
 The number of noble families in Saxony is said to be about 
 eigbty, but this calculation probably includes only the higher class 
 of nobility. 
 
 The principal towns are, Dresden (64,399 inhabitants, not 
 including soldiers and strangers), Leipsic (43,189), Chemnitz 
 (19,572), Freiburg (11,545), Plauen (8,570), Bauzen (8,467), 
 Zittau (8,195), Meissen (7,525). Besides these, there are twelve 
 other towns, each containing more than 5000 inhabitants. 
 1,525,512 of the inhabitants are Germans; 13,423, Sclavonians 
 or Wends ; 850, Jews ; and 39, Greeks. 
 
 With respect to religion, 1,580,370, are Lutherans; 27,519, 
 Roman Catholics; 39, Greek Catholics; 1591, members of the 
 reformed church ; and 850, Jews*. 
 
 The following was the rate of increase among the various 
 religious denominations, during a period of about two years, from 
 1832 to 1834. Amongst the Lutherans, it was 37,017, or 24 per 
 thousand ; amongst the members of the reformed church, 230, or 
 165 per thousand; amongst the Catholics, 240, nearly nine per 
 thousand. The members of the Jewish persuasion had decreased, 
 during the same period, by 24, or 27 per thousand. 
 
 In Saxony, there are one consistory; 25 inspectories ; 616 
 Lutheran, and 31 Catholic parishes. 
 
 The principal establishments for public instruction are, the 
 university of Leipsic (at which, there were 1436 students in 
 1833) ; two land or prince's schools (these were founded at the 
 Reformation, and endowed with part of the church property, 
 which was then devoted to secular purposes) ; fifteen gymnasiums 
 and classical schools ; four seminaries for schoolmasters, a 
 school for miners, an institution for foresters, two military schools, 
 and an agricultural school. 
 
 The public expenditure for 1836, was 5,055,714 dollars, 15 
 groschen, and 8 pfennigs; the revenue amounted to 5,300,390 
 dollars, 13 groschen, and 7 pfennigs ; consequently, there was a 
 surplus of 244,675 dollars, 21 groschen, and 11 pfennigs. 
 
 In 1833, the Saxon prime minister, Von Lindenau, in bringing 
 the budget before the chambers at Dresden, estimated the public 
 
 * These last statements are drawn from the census of 1032. 
 
CH. XXII.] KINGDOM OF SAXONY. 353 
 
 income at 5,434,210 dollars (about 815,000/.), and the expendi- 
 ture at 5,130,528 dollars (about 769,800/.), leaving a surplus of 
 45,000/., or upwards of five per cent, on the amount of the 
 income, which would be applied to a reduction of the public debt. 
 It was observed by the minister, that "after subtracting the 
 amount of revenue derived from the crown lands, forests, &c., as 
 well as the local rates, neither of which formed part of the actual 
 burdens imposed by the state, the amount of the imposts actually 
 levied by it did not exceed four millions of dollars, which was 
 two dollars and a half (seven shillings and sixpence) for each 
 inhabitant, being less than in most other German states, and but 
 one-third of the sum contributed by every person in France, one- 
 fourth of that in Belgium, and one-eighth of that in England." 
 He further added, that " the value of the immovable property, 
 viz., lands and houses, in the kingdom of Saxony, was about 
 512,000,000 dollars (about 76,000,000/. sterling); in which 
 estimate, the value of house property was taken at 13,800,000/., 
 that of the seignorial estates, including their appendages, at 
 3,000,000/., and all other immovable property at 59,200,000/." 
 With reference to the comparison which the Saxon minister has 
 here made, it is to be remarked, that under the item of expendi- 
 ture, the United Kingdom, which is twenty times larger than 
 Saxony, and has a population sixteen times greater, paid away in 
 various shapes, a sum of 50,908,201/. in 1832 ; and France, 
 which is forty-six times larger, and has a population at least 
 thirty fold greater, expended, in the same year, a sum of 
 44,203,000/. The rate of public expenditure in these three 
 states, therefore, was ? as compared with their gross populations, in 
 Saxony (1,553,000 inhabitants), nine shillings and ten-pence per 
 head ; in France (33,000,000 inhabitants), twenty-six shillings 
 and three-pence ; and in the United Kingdom (24,100,000 
 inhabitants), within a fraction of forty-two shillings and three- 
 pence. 
 
 The standing army amounts to 12,193 men, and is divided as 
 follows : 
 
 Men. 
 
 The Guard - 370 
 
 Infantry of the line - - 7080 
 
 2 A 
 
354 KINGDOM OF SAXONY. [SECT. II. 
 
 Men. 
 Cavalry ....... 206G 
 
 Artillery - . . . . 1032 
 
 Chasseurs ...... 1454 
 
 Train ..... 191 
 
 The pay of a lieutenant-general is 5000 convention dollars 
 annually ; of a major-general, 3000 ; of a colonel, 2000 ; of a 
 major, 1200 to 1500; of a captain of the first class, 1000; of a 
 captain of the second class, 800 ; of a first lieutenant, 400 ; of a 
 second lieutenant, 240 ; of a private soldier, 24 dollars annually. 
 In the cavalry, the pay of all the ranks is somewhat more. 
 
 The contingent to the army of the confederacy is 12,000 men. 
 The expenses of the army amount to 32 per cent, on the whole 
 public expenditure*. 
 
 The government is a limited monarchy with two representative 
 chambers. Besides the national diet, the old Lusatian provincial 
 chambers continue to exercise their former functions. The two 
 chambers are equal in respect to their rights and powers. The 
 throne is hereditary, to the exclusion of females ; on the demise 
 of the last descendant of the present ruling family, it would pass 
 to the house of Saxe- Weimar. Should there be no prince entitled 
 to this succession, either by birth or alliance, the crown may be 
 inherited by a female. The king is of age when he has completed 
 his eighteenth year. 
 
 There are the usual ministers of state; the minister of justice 
 is also minister of the royal house. The state-council is com- 
 posed of the ministers, the presidents of the different circles, 
 councillors, and extraordinary members, and its president is a 
 prince of the royal family. 
 
 The authorities subordinate to the different ministers are, the 
 director of the archives of state, the president of the supreme tri- 
 bunal of appeal, the director of tolls and taxes, the captain 
 general of the mines, the director of the post, the director of the 
 bank, the presidents of the different circles, the general auditor 
 of the supreme tribunal of war, the president of the consistory, 
 the president of the Catholic consistory, and the president of the 
 apostolical vicariate. 
 
 * Schbn, Op. Cit., p. 243. 
 
CH. XXII.] KINGDOM OF SAXONY. 355 
 
 The chief officers of the court are, a grand marshal, a grand 
 chamberlain, a grand equerry, a grand huntsman of the court, a 
 marshal of the house, a chamberlain, a director-general of the 
 theatre and of music, and a grand cupbearer. 
 
 The limits of Saxony were reduced by the congress of Vienna 
 in 1814; it is now about 140 English miles long, and its greatest 
 breadth is about 75 English miles. The proportion of inhabitants 
 to an English square mile is about 319. The population appears 
 to increase at the rate of one per cent, annually ; and, according 
 to Hoffman, would double in about 69| years. 
 
 The number of cities and towns is 141, of which there were, in 
 a late year 
 
 Inhab. 
 4 with, and above 10,000 inhabitants in all 143,126 
 
 26 4,000 148,821 
 
 92 1,000 202,121 
 
 and 19 with less than 1,000 14,399 
 
 141 
 
 The number of villages, hamlets, &c., is 3501, of which there 
 were 
 
 152 with, and above 1000 inhabitants in all 251,686 
 
 2494 100 756,565 
 
 and 855 with less than 100 58,553 
 
 3501 
 
 The number of individuals in various detached farms, manu- 
 factories, and other buildings, was 4893. 
 
 The total number of habitations was 209,122; viz. 
 
 In the Towns 49,006j 
 
 Villages, &c 159,596V209,122 
 
 Detached Buildings 520J 
 
 Of the above houses, 5314 were uninhabited. 
 
 For the whole kingdom, the average proportion of the inhabi- 
 tants of towns to the rural population, was as 1000 to 2108 ; for 
 the different circles the proportions were : 
 
 Circle of Dresden, 1000 Inhabitants of Towns to 2034 of the rural population. 
 
 Leipsic, 1000 1582 
 
 Zwickau, 1000 1797 
 
 Bautzen, 1000 1603 
 
 2 A 2 
 
356 
 
 KINGDOM OF SAXONY. 
 
 [SECT. II. 
 
 In 1833, there were born 58,791 individuals, of whom 30,498 
 were males, and 28,293 females. In the same year, 42,185 
 persons died, of whom 21,782 were men, and 20,279 women. 
 
 With respect to age, the population is divided as follows : 
 There are 466,261 children under fourteen years of age (nearly 
 one-third of the whole) ; 848,981 persons, between fifteen and 
 sixty ; and 86,824 above sixty. There are in the whole kingdom 
 45,108 more women than men. Half the deaths that occur are 
 of persons under the age of fourteen years. The first three 
 months of the year are the most fatal ; the mortality decreases 
 after the end of March. In 1830, there were 167 deaths from 
 accidents, and one from hydrophobia. 
 
 Saxony contains 450 physicians, 585 surgeons, and 150 apothe- 
 caries. The number of infants not vaccinated is greater than the 
 number vaccinated. 
 
 The total number of the deaf and dumb, and of the blind, is, 
 by the latest estimate, 1010, and 324, respectively ; the exact 
 number of each, in the different circles, being as follows : 
 
 
 DE 
 
 Males. 
 
 \F AND DUMB. 
 Females. | Totals. 
 
 Malas. 
 
 BLIND. 
 Females. 
 
 Totals. 
 
 Circle of Dresden 
 Leipsic . . . . 
 
 155 
 144 
 17C 
 
 79 
 
 144 
 91 
 13G 
 84 
 
 299 
 235 
 312 
 163 
 
 1 
 
 58 
 37 
 60 
 21 
 
 50 
 28 
 50 
 20 
 
 108 
 65 
 110 
 41 
 
 
 Bautzen . . . 
 
 
 Totals 
 
 555 
 
 455 
 
 1010 
 
 176 
 
 148 
 
 324 
 
 Resident in Towns 
 Villages 
 
 Totals 
 
 179 
 375 
 
 121 
 334 
 
 300 
 
 709 
 
 78 
 98 
 
 57 
 91 
 
 135 
 189 
 
 554 
 
 455 1009 
 
 176 
 
 148 
 
 324 
 
 
 It is thus seen that the number of deaf and dumb, in propor- 
 tion to the population, was 1 in 1579 individuals (in 1832, it 
 was 1 in 1334) ; and, in like manner, that the number of the 
 blind (which in 1832 was 1 in 3675), was 1 in 4924 : showing in 
 both cases a considerable amelioration. 
 
 This country contains 1158 ecclesiastics, and 1912 elementary 
 
CH. XXII.] KINGDOM OF SAXONY. 357 
 
 teachers. A comparison of the whole number of persons receiving 
 education with the entire population, shows the average propor- 
 tion of the former to the latter to be about 1 in 6, or 178 in 1000 
 individuals. 
 
 The number of widowed persons was 90,136 in the year 
 1834. 
 
 A curious and striking result is exhibited by a comparison of 
 the number of widows and widowers. Of every 100 widowed 
 persons, there were, in the 
 
 Circle of Dresden . . 26 males to 7 4 females. 
 
 Leipsic ... 28 72 
 
 Zwickau . . 31 69 
 
 Bautzen ... 30 70 
 Whole country ... 29 7 1 
 
 The married state is amply illustrated by the documents 
 recently published by the Statistical Society at Dresden. The 
 total number of married persons in the kingdom of Saxony, in 
 the year 1834, was 277,812. Of these pairs, 85,751 lived in 
 towns, and 191,138 in villages. The married persons of all 
 denominations amounted to somewhat more than seven-twentieths, 
 or about one-third of the whole population. A man may not 
 marry before 21 years of age, if he is liable to serve in the army. 
 In Dresden, artisans are not allowed to marry until they become 
 masters in their trade. The number of married persons living 
 separate was extremely numerous, so many as 11,213, namely, 
 5451 males, and 5762 females. The proportion of divorced per- 
 sons is very large, in relation to the small population of Saxony ; 
 they were so many as 3798. The facility with which divorces 
 are procured on trifling pleas, such as incompatibility of temper, 
 is one of the least agreeable features in the domestic life of 
 Germany. 
 
 The number of prostitutes at Dresden, ranges between 500 
 and 600. At Leipsic, they amount, it is said, to 400. No houses 
 of ill-fame are tolerated either at Dresden or at Leipsic. 
 
 The proportion of illegitimate to legitimate births for the whole 
 country is, on the average afforded by the four years from 1831 
 to 1834, one in 6. 6 . 
 
358 
 
 KINGDOM OF SAXONY. 
 
 [SECT. II. 
 
 The number of deaths, occasioned by suicide and accidents, in 
 the years 1832 and 1833, was as follows : 
 
 
 * Males. 
 
 1832. 
 
 Females. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Males. 
 
 183 
 
 Females. 
 
 3. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Increase. 
 
 Suicides 
 
 55 
 
 10 
 
 65 
 
 87 
 
 25 
 
 112 
 
 47 
 
 Accidental deaths... 
 
 67 
 
 16 
 
 83 
 
 100 
 
 35 
 
 135 
 
 52 
 
 Total violent deaths 
 
 122 
 
 26 
 
 148 
 
 187 
 
 60 
 
 247 
 
 99 
 
 The number of gensdarmes, belonging to the police of Dres- 
 den, is 50. 
 
 On the 1st of January, 1831, there were in the prisons of this 
 kingdom, 7 persons accused of assassination, 10 of infanticide, 
 8 of homicide, 5 of poisoning, 1 of perjury, 6 of rape, 3 of 
 bigamy, 4 of adultery, 27 of incendiary attempts, 37 of robbery 
 and housebreaking, 7 f sacrilege, 407 f robbery without 
 aggravated circumstances, 13 of highway robbery, 6 of passing 
 bad money, 1 of fraudulent bankruptcy, and 124 of rioting. 
 
 Of the whole number of persons accused, 1329 (1017 males 
 and 312 females) had been before in custody ; and 2024 (1587 
 males and 437 females) were admitted to bail. 
 
 The greatest number of offences was committed by individuals 
 between the ages of 21 and 40 years ; and in regard to sex, the 
 proportion of male to female offenders was about two-thirds. 
 
 Males. Females. Totals. 
 
 Punished 2794 
 
 Acquitted 768 
 
 Died, escaped, or com-) 
 
 mitted suicide | 
 
 Remained in custody atl 
 ,r...j 
 
 the end of the year. 
 
 66 
 
 1938 
 
 1050 
 297 
 
 22 
 
 557 
 
 3844 or more than one -half. 
 1065 or about one-seventh. 
 
 2495 or one-third. 
 
 5566 
 
 1926 7492 
 
 The offences committed by the military, in 1832, amounted to 
 424, and the offenders to 549, of whom 17 were superior officers, 
 40 subalterns, and 492 privates. Of the whole number, 326 
 were punished, 83 acquitted, and the rest remained in custody at 
 the end of the year. 
 
CH. XXII.] KINGDOM OF SAXONY. 359 
 
 The number of military delinquents, confined for different 
 periods in the prison-house at Dresden, \vas 
 
 In 1831 45 
 
 In 1832 22 
 
 In 1833 26* 
 
 The salary of a cabinet minister in Saxony is 5000 thalers 
 annually. The minister for foreign affairs receives 3000 thalers, 
 besides for the expenses of hospitality. A judge receives 2000 
 thalers annually -f*. The deputies receive (I believe) three thalers 
 daily for their expenses. The wages of a man-servant are about 
 20 thalers annually: 25 are large wages. A female cook receives, 
 perhaps, 14 thalers annually; but the servants have a small 
 present made to them at certain festivals. 
 
 The rent of the first floor of one of the best mansions of Dres- 
 den is about 500 thalers annually, unfurnished. Such is the rent 
 which one of the chief foreign ministers pays. A first or second 
 floor of an excellent house may be had for 200 dollars annually, 
 and a sufficiently good one for a moderate family for 100 up to 
 150 thalers. 
 
 The total number of English who have spent more than one 
 year at Dresden, and who are at present residing there, is 150. 
 
 The number of passports annually delivered at Dresden, is, on 
 an average of six years, 3000. This number appears somewhat 
 small : probably, it only refers to new passports, and not to pass- 
 ports examined. 
 
 The Statistical Society of Dresden, in its last Annual Report, 
 of December, 1837, publishes the remarkable fact, that the mor- 
 tality of the whole kingdom fluctuates, in various places, between 
 1 in 19, and 1 in 65 annually. 
 
 * We are indebted for many of the above statements to an important document 
 published by the Statistical Society of Dresden, and translated in the " Proceedings 
 of the Statistical Society of London." 
 
 -f- A burgomaster receives 2200 thalers annually; a stadtrath receives from 1000 
 to 1800. 
 
360 
 
 CHAPTER XXIII. 
 THE KINGDOM OF HANOVER. 
 
 History of Hanover, from the earliest period to the present time. Gene- 
 alogy of the reigning Families of Hanover and Brunswick . Present 
 Royal Family. Statistical View of the Provinces of Hanover and of 
 their Population ; Births and Deaths ; Principal Towns. Religion; 
 Religious Institutions. Educational Institutions, Teachers, and 
 Scholars. Prisons. Budget. Army. Density of Population; 
 Relative Proportion of Civic Population. /Statistics of Cultivation, 
 and Proportion of Cultivated to Uncultivated Land. Division of 
 Landed Property. Exports and Imports. Ships. Number of 
 Tradesmen. Physical character of the Country. Products. Manu- 
 factures. Character of the Inhabitants. Administration of Justice. 
 Description of the Town of Hanover. The Town of Gottingen. 
 
 THE accession of the electors of Hanover to the throne of Eng- 
 land, in the person of George I., and the subsequent intimate con- 
 nexion of the two states, have induced me to devote a consider- 
 able space to the history of Hanover, and to an account of its 
 actual condition. The same motive has prompted me to enlarge 
 in the following chapter on the subject of Brunswick, which has 
 long been subject to the same family. 
 
 The early history of the provinces which constitute the present 
 kingdom of Hanover, is involved in an obscurity which no research 
 has, as yet been able to dispel. Drusus Germanicus who pene- 
 trated into the north of Germany, in order to revenge the 
 slaughter of the Roman army by Hermann, never made any 
 durable conquests in these regions. Their ancient inhabitants 
 were, doubtless, Celts and Germans ; and, at the beginning of 
 the Christian era, several tribes of the latter, such as the Cherus- 
 cians, Westphalians, and Thuringians, remained masters of the 
 territory, and formed together a duchy. The wild and inacessible 
 nature of the country occasioned these tribes to preserve longer 
 
CH. XXIII.] KINGDOM OF HANOVER. 361 
 
 than those in the south, the old German forms of government 
 and barbarian customs. 
 
 The earliest certain data which we possess respecting these 
 countries, are furnished by the wars of Charlemagne, who 
 destroyed the heathen fastnesses called, according to some, Bruns- 
 wyck, and, in Latin, Views Brunonis. The first of the Brunos 
 on record, who are looked upon as the ancestors of the present 
 house of Brunswick, was a Count Bruno, duke of Engern, the 
 friend of Wittekind the Saxon. A descendant of this chief 
 was Otho, duke of Thuringia and Saxony, who flourished about 
 the end of the ninth century, when he inherited the territories 
 comprising a considerable part of the present kingdom of Hanover, 
 and who, in 911, declined the imperial crown of Germany, on 
 account of his great age. His son Henry was chosen emperor of 
 Germany, and was surnamed the Fowler, and sometimes the 
 Town-builder. This prince, in whom all the manly virtues are 
 said to have been united, seems to have been much attached to his 
 hereditary dominions; he greatly improved the town of Brunswick, 
 and made it the imperial residence, a privilege which it continued 
 to enjoy under the three Othos, his successors, commonly called 
 the Saxon emperors. After the death of Otho III., great-grand- 
 son of Henry the Fowler, Brunswick fell to his cousin, Bruno II., 
 who began to reign in 1002, and to whom the city of Brunswick 
 owes the rudiments of its municipal institutions. His successors 
 were Ludolf, Egbert I., and Egbert II., the last of whom having 
 no issue, the emperor, Henry IV., was ambitious of inheriting his 
 possessions, and not having patience to await his natural decease, 
 had recourse to treachery, and murdered him at his hereditary 
 castle of Hohewort. But this crime did not obtain its object, for 
 the people of Brunswick, roused by it to indignation, drove the 
 emperor's hirelings out of their territory, proclaimed Gertrude, 
 Egbert's sister, their sovereign, bore her in triumph to her ances- 
 tral castle, and swore to obey and defend her. 
 
 About the year 1090, Gertrude married Henry the Fat, count 
 of Nordheim, whose territories were incorporated with hers. 
 Their daughter Richenza, married Lothario, count of Supplin- 
 burg, whose territories were also united to those of the house of 
 
362 KINGDOM OF HANOVEtt. [SfiCT. II. 
 
 Bruno. The only issue of this union was Gertrude, who espoused 
 a Guelph, duke of Bavaria, and margrave of Este, whose house 
 had been already celebrated for at least three centuries in Ger- 
 many and Italy. This union is the common origin of the two 
 lines of Brunswick- Wolfenbiittel and Brunswick-Luneburg. 
 
 The family of the Guelphs can be traced so far back as the 
 reign of Charlemagne. About the year 800, there was a Warin, 
 count of Altorf, in Suabia, whose -descendants, according to an 
 old legend, obtained the name of Guelph in the following manner. 
 Isenbrand, his son and successor, saw once an old woman who had 
 three children at a birth, and thinking this unnatural, he called 
 her an adultress. The old woman, in her anger at this insult, 
 prayed heaven that Irmentrant, wife of the count, might have as 
 many children at a birth, as there are months in the year. Her 
 prayer was answered, and Irmentrant was delivered of twelve 
 boys; but fearing the severity of her husband's character, she 
 commanded her servant to drown eleven of them. Whilst the 
 latter was proceeding to obey her mistress's orders, the count met 
 her, and asked her what was in the basket she was carrying. 
 The girl frightened, answered that they were " Guelphs," (young 
 dogs). But the count not being satisfied with the reply, took off* 
 the cloth from the basket, and judging that the children were his 
 own from their liveliness and strength, he preserved their lives, 
 educated them secretly, and when they were grown up, took them 
 all again to their mother. One of the twelve, Guelph the First 
 was the successor of Isenbrand. 
 
 The descendant of this family, who in 1127, married the 
 above-mentioned Gertrude, was Henry the Proud, who, in 1137, 
 was a competitor at Mainz for the imperial crown, with Conrad of 
 Hohenstauffen. The latter being successful, partly owing to the 
 fear generally entertained of the overweening power of Henry, 
 demanded of his rival that he should resign the sceptre of Saxony, 
 inasmuch as it was illegal for one head to bear two ducal crowns. 
 To decide the dispute, both parties had recourse to arms ; and 
 the war, which raged with the greatest fury for several years, was 
 not quite terminated, even by the death of Henry, who was 
 poisoned in 1140. 
 
CH. XXIII.] KINGDOM OF HANOVEIl. 363 
 
 The son and successor of this prince, was the famous Henry 
 the Lion, who was born 1129, and who, on coming of age in 1146, 
 found his title to his hereditary dominions keenly disputed by 
 his ambitious neighbours. However, he soon succeeded in driving 
 his rival, Albert the Bear, out of Saxony, and in discomfiting the 
 archbishop of Bremen. But in the south, he had to encounter a 
 more powerful rival in Conrad, the emperor, who opposed his 
 claim to Bavaria. It was in vain that he appealed for justice to 
 the diet at Frankfort, or strengthened his position by marrying 
 Clementina, daughter of the powerful duke of Zahringen, an 
 inveterate foe of the imperial family ; he was finally compelled to 
 take up arms. The war was prosecuted with various success, 
 until, in 1152, the Guelphs retaliated on their adversaries, and 
 poisoned the emperor, at the instigation of their ally, Roger of 
 Naples. 
 
 In the mean time, the youthful Henry had fought successfully 
 against the Vandals, and secured, by the success of his arms, the 
 throne of Denmark to Canute, the rival of Swene ; and when, in 
 1154, Barbarossa, who had succeeded Conrad, ceased to con- 
 test his right to Bavaria, he became more powerful than was 
 consistent with the stability of the imperial throne. His terri- 
 tories stretched from the Baltic to the Adriatic ; Westphalia and 
 Saxony all the country between the Rhine and the Elbe obeyed 
 him ; the greater part of Bavaria was his fief; and for the here- 
 ditary possessions of the Guelphs in Italy, his Italian vassals had 
 not only to do him homage, but to pay him 400 marks of silver. 
 
 In 1157, he accompanied Frederic Barbarossa on his Polish 
 expedition, when together they compelled King Boleslaw to 
 acknowledge the supremacy of the German emperor. Barbarossa 
 was also assisted by Henry in his Italian wars, and, as a recom- 
 pense, left him uncontrolled power in the north of Germany, 
 where he was continually engaged in extending his power, and 
 increasing his dominions. The lion which he erected in the centre 
 of his capital, Brunswick, was a fit emblem of his character and 
 projects. He made the Sclavonian rulers of Pomerania and 
 Mecklenburg his vassals ; and another Sclavonian prince, Niklot, 
 who took up arms against his ambition, and who was offended, also, 
 
364 KINGDOM OF HANOVER. [SECT. II. 
 
 by the zeal of the Saxon missionaries to convert him to Christianity, 
 he completely defeated in 1160. Still, however, his wars with 
 the Sclavonians did not cease, and in 1166, several of his other 
 enemies, viz., the archbishop of Bremen, the bishops of Hildes- 
 heim and Halberstadt, and the margraves of Thuringia and 
 Brandenburg, encouraged by the obstinacy of the barbarians in 
 thwarting his projects, declared war against him. The duke, 
 however, quickly defeated them, and the contest was finally ter- 
 minated by an imperial decree in his favour, issued at Bamberg, 
 in 1168. 
 
 About this time, Henry separated himself from his wife, 
 Clementina, on account of conscientious scruples, and married 
 Matilda, daughter of Henry II., of England. Shortly after- 
 wards he undertook an expedition to Palestine, whence, on fulfil- 
 ling his vow, he returned happily to Brunswick. 
 
 The period now approached when he was destined to meet in 
 arms his friend, relation, and sovereign, Barbarossa. The causes 
 of their rupture are variously given, but it is of little conse- 
 quence to seek to determine them rigorously, since through the 
 character of the two heroes, it could not have been finally 
 avoided. It had only been so long delayed, because the Italian 
 wars of Barbarossa, and the Sclavonian campaigns of the'Lion, 
 had hitherto kept their interests apart. Henry^s pretexts of com- 
 plaint were, that his uncle Guelph had been bribed to leave his 
 Suabian possessions to the emperor, and that the latter had 
 availed himself of a report of his death, which had been propa- 
 gated during his expedition to the East, to obtain possession of 
 his Saxon fortresses. 
 
 Nevertheless, he followed Barbarossa as his vassal, in his 
 fourth Italian expedition. They conquered Susa together, but 
 Alexandria, during a whole winter, withstood their assaults ; and 
 when an army of Lombards advanced to attack them, Henry 
 announced the treasonable project of deserting the emperor, if 
 the latter would not reward his services by an increase of terri- 
 tory. This Barbarossa refused, but embracing the duke's knees, 
 he prayed him, for the honour of the empire, to stand by him at 
 this critical juncture; but Henry was inexorable, and deserted. 
 
CH. XXIII.] KINGDOM OF HANOVER. 365 
 
 A few days afterwards the weakened army of the emperor was 
 completely routed by the Lombards at Legnano (May 29th, 
 1176). To answer for his treasonable desertion, the duke was 
 summoned before the imperial diets at Rudolstadt and Goslar, 
 and, on his non-appearance, was declared an outlaw. But whilst 
 a decree was issued, which divided his possessions amongst his 
 enemies, he was collecting an army to defend them. He defeated 
 the archbishop of Cologne, who claimed Westphalia, and took 
 the bishop of Halberstadt prisoner. Here, however, the tide of 
 fortune turned against him ; his subjects were terrified by the 
 decree of outlawry, and when the imperial army made its appear- 
 ance in the North, he was obliged to fly to Lubeck. The city of 
 Brunswick alone was true to him, and for some time baffled all 
 the besieging powers of the archbishop of Cologne. But all hope 
 of effectual resistance having finally vanished, he petitioned the 
 emperor for pardon in 1182 ; and could only obtain a promise, 
 that his allodial possessions, Brunswick and Luneburg, should 
 not be wrested from him, if he would atone for his fault by three 
 years" exile. He was obliged to conform to these hard conditions, 
 and went with all his family to the court of his father-in-law, 
 Henry II., of England. He returned, however, at the expiration 
 of two years, and lived in seclusion at Brunswick ; but Barbarossa 
 still refused to trust him, und demanded that he should either 
 follow him to Palestine, or return for three more years to 
 England. Henry chose the latter alternative ; but hearing, 
 shortly afterwards that it was the intention of his enemies no 
 longer to respect even his allodial possessions, he again made his 
 appearance in Germany. He quickly routed the Danes, who 
 marched to oppose him, and conquered Hamburg, and Itzehoe. 
 All the flourishing town of Bardwick, which refused him admis- 
 sion, he destroyed, excepting its cathedral, on the walls of which 
 he engraved the frightful image of an Avenging Lion, with the 
 inscription Vestigia Leonis, which remains to the present day. 
 But here the stadtholder of Holstein interrupted his victorious 
 career, and drove him, after a defeat, into the city of Brunswick, 
 which, in conjunction with the bishops of Hildesheim and 
 Halberstadt, Henry, son of Barbarossa, besieged, but without 
 
366 KINGDOM OF HANOVER. [SECT. II. 
 
 success. At last, the archbishops of Mainz and Cologne intervened; 
 a treaty was signed between the belligerent powers ; and Henry 
 promised to deliver up his sons as hostages. Nevertheless the 
 quarrel continued till the marriage of Henry, the duke's nephew, 
 with Agnes, niece of Barbarossa. This alliance effected a recon- 
 ciliation between the Guelphs and the Hohenstauffen. Henry the 
 Lion now took up his abode at his favourite city of Brunswick, 
 where he spent his old age in collecting and studying ancient 
 chronicles. He died in 1195, at the age of 66, and his hereditary 
 possessions were divided between his two sons, Otho and William. 
 
 Barbarossa did not live to return from his crusade ; he was 
 drowned in Cicilia, in 1190, and buried at Antioch. His son and 
 successor, Henry VI., after the reconciliation with Henry the 
 Lion, and the re-establishment of peace in Northern Germany, 
 marched southwards to the conquest of Naples, after having 
 effected which, and whilst on the eve of invading Greece, he died 
 suddenly at in Messina, 1197- 
 
 There were now two candidates for the imperial crown, Philip, 
 brother of the late emperor, and Otho of Brunswick, son of Henry 
 the Lion. The former was supported by all the south of 
 Germany, and by the numerous enemies of the Guelphs in the 
 North, and was crowned at Mlihlhausen, in 1198. Otho relied 
 for the support of his claim son his alliance with England and 
 Denmark, on the decision of the pope, which was favourable to 
 him, and on the assistance of Ottokar, king of Bohemia. A long 
 and bloody contest ensued, greatly to the disadvantage of Otho ; 
 it was terminated by the death of Philip, who was murdered by 
 Otho von Wittelsbach, at the castle of Babenburg, 1208. Otho 
 now betrothed himself to Beatrice, the daughter of his rival, and 
 fearful of the claims to the imperial throne of Frederic, son of 
 Henry VI. and Constance of Naples, who resided at Palermo, he 
 marched into Italy to enlist the pope on his side. He quarrelled, 
 however, with the pontiff, who excommunicated him, and com- 
 manded all the German princes to elect Frederic, emperor. The 
 latter entered Germany with only sixty followers, but such was 
 the enthusiasm with which he was received, that he was shortly 
 able to discomfit his opponent, who fled down the Rhine, and 
 
Cfl. XXIII.] KINGDOM OF HANOVER. 367 
 
 Frederic was crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle, in 1215. Otho died 
 without issue at Brunswick in 1218, and was succeeded in his 
 hereditary possessions by Henry, the count palatine, who dying 
 without male issue in 1227, tne succession devolved on the son of 
 William, the third son of Henry the Lion, who was born at 
 Winchester, and who had spent his early years in England. His 
 father had bequeathed to him the cities of Lauenburg and Lune- 
 burg, and the chronicles of the day usually call him, the prince 
 of Luneburg. In 1202, he married Helen of Denmark, by 
 whom he had one son, Otho ; he died, 1213, at the early age of 
 twenty-nine. Otho, his successor, who was only two years old at 
 his decease, was called all his life Otho the Child, partly because he 
 assumed the reins of government in his hereditary possessions of 
 Luneburg and Lauenburg at the early age of fourteen, and 
 partly on account of his short and childlike stature. At the 
 death of his uncle in 1227> he was engaged in a feud with the 
 emperor, who disputed his succession to the fiefs of the latter; the 
 young prince however, was successful and completely established 
 his right. Shortly afterwards, in conjunction with the king of 
 Denmark, he engaged in a war with Schwerin, Bremen, and 
 Lubeck, which was terminated by the battle of Bornhoved, where, 
 after a dreadful slaughter on both sides, the Dane and Guelph 
 were defeated ; the former lost an eye, and the latter was made 
 prisoner and confined at Rostock, the capital of Schwerin. Upon 
 hearing of this misfortune, the emperor determined to prosecute 
 his former designs against Brunswick, and despatched an army 
 for that purpose under the command of his son, the king of the 
 Romans ; but the fidelity of the Brunswickers rendered the 
 expedition perfectly futile. At the death of the count of Schwerin, 
 in 1228, Otho was liberated from confinement. On arriving at 
 Brunswick, he renewed and confirmed the charters of that city, 
 and greatly enlarged its privileges. In 1228, he married Matilda 
 of Brandenburg, and, in 1230, we find him assisting Henry III. 
 of England in a war against France. On his return to Germany, 
 he set about the reformation of the religious orders, the profligacy 
 of some of which was already notorious ; in a letter still extant, 
 dated March 15th, 1234, addressed to the abbot of Nordheim, 
 
368 KINGDOM OF HANOVER. [SECT. II. 
 
 he reproves their abuses, and particularly enjoins the separation of 
 the monks from the youthful nuns. 
 
 In 1235, in order to terminate the tedious disputes in which 
 he had been long- engaged with the emperor, he delivered up to 
 the latter his allodial possessions, and received them from him 
 again as fiefs. He was now proclaimed as Otho I. of Brunswick; 
 his right to a tenth of the produce of the mines at Goslar was ac- 
 knowledged, and he secured several privileges to his duchy. From 
 this time is to be dated the modern political existence of Bruns- 
 wick, inasmuch as it formed, hereafter, an integral part of the 
 German empire. He now pacified the towns which still mani- 
 fested any signs of the sedition that had formerly been fostered by 
 the emperor, and suppressed the banditti who infested the country. 
 In 1238, he joined the Teutonic order in combating the pagan 
 Prussians, who had invaded the north-east of Germany, and 
 destroyed the Christian churches ; they were finally defeated 
 at Balga, where the skill and courage of the duke of Brunswick 
 mainly contributed to the victory. Otho, after having been 
 involved in the quarrels of William, count of Holland, a pre- 
 tender to the crown of Germany, who had married his daughter 
 Elizabeth, died June 9th, 1252, in the fifty-first year of his age ; 
 he left four sons and five daughters. 
 
 Albert surnamed the Great, born 1236, succeeded his father as 
 duke of Brunswick ; the first measures of his reign were directed 
 against his refractory vassals ; he subdued the lords of Wolfen- 
 buttel and joined their territory to Brunswick ; several counts of 
 Everstein he hanged, and incorporated their possessions with the 
 principality of Gottingen. About the year {265, t hj s p r i nce 
 undertook an expedition to England, to assist Henry III. against 
 the rebel earl of Leicester ; he was present at the battle of 
 Evesham, where the latter was defeated and slain. On his return 
 to Germany, his brothers demanded of him a partition of their 
 father's heritage, founding their claims on the Roman code, which 
 did not acknowledge the right of primogeniture. Accordingly, 
 he was sooner or later, compelled to invest all his brothers with 
 different sovereignties : Otho was made bishop of Hildesheim ; 
 Conrad, archbishop of Verden; and John, duke of Luneburg 
 
CH. XXIII.] KINGDOM OF HANOVER. 369 
 
 and Celle; thus all that Albert retained for himself was Wolfen- 
 buttel, Calenberg, and Gottingen : the town of Brunswick 
 remained common property. 
 
 Albert the Great, after having conquered the Elbe provinces of 
 the count of Schwerin, and annexed Grubenhagen to his territories, 
 died in 1279. During his reign, the provinces under his dominion 
 became richer, more powerful and more civilized. Brunswick was 
 added to the Hanse-Towns ; commerce was encouraged, and the 
 arts successfully cultivated. The great vices of the German 
 middle ages, gluttony and gambling, were properly encountered 
 by restrictive laws. The power of the clergy was limited, and 
 the privileges of the monasteries curtailed. Many of the serfs 
 were emancipated, and much was done towards ameliorating the 
 condition of the rest. Numerous religious institutions were estab- 
 lished, religious exercises were promoted, and at the same time 
 that spirit of patriotism encouraged which is promptly intolerant 
 of foreign interference. Albert left behind him six sons, of 
 whom three entered into religious orders ; between the other three 
 his territories were divided ; Henry, the eldest, obtained Gruben- 
 hagen ; Albert, the second, Gottingen ; and William, the third, 
 Brunswick and Wolfenbiittel. These princes, however, as soon 
 as they reached man^s estate, commenced a war with each other 
 respecting the partition, which led to no other result than that of 
 filling them with mutual aversion and distrust. John, duke of 
 Luneburg and Celle, died in 1277> an d left an only son, Otho, 
 who succeeded to the throne. 
 
 Albert, the second son of Albert the Great, carried on the 
 succession of his family ; he married a princess of Mecklenburg, 
 by whom he had seven sons, and died in 1318. Two of his sons 
 became bishops of Halberstadt and Hildesheim ; two entered the 
 Teutonic order ; whilst the eldest and two youngest divided 
 amongst them their father's territories. About this time, the last 
 remnants of paganism, which had been obstinately, though 
 secretly, adhered to in some parts of the country, were abolished 
 in the dominions of the family of Brunswick. 
 
 During several centuries succeeding the period to which we are 
 now arrived, the history of the Hanoverian countries is reduced 
 
 2B 
 
370 KINGDOM OF HANOVER. [SECT. II. 
 
 to little else but a list of the births and deaths of petty princes, 
 a detail of perpetual divisions of territory, and an account of 
 miserable feuds. As to the sovereigns of the different lines, 
 and the dates of their decease : a description of the different 
 divisions and successions is so dry and intricate, that we should 
 not be able to render it intelligible in the brief space to which our 
 limits confine us. We must here content ourselves, therefore, 
 with only noticing the more illustrious descendants of the house 
 of Guelph. The first noted character to whom we are led, in 
 following the course of time, is Otho, who was prince of Gruben- 
 hagen in 1351. In his youth he had been a knight of the 
 Teutonic order, which he quitted to travel through France and 
 England. He subsequently entered into the service of the king 
 of Bohemia, and fought under that sovereign at the battle of 
 Cressy. We next find him at the head of the Guelphic army in 
 Italy, where he was renowned from the brilliancy of his success 
 against the Ghibellines. His courage was rewarded by the hand 
 of Joanna, queen of Naples; but this union had a tragical termi- 
 nation ; the count of Durazzo, who laid claim to the Neapolitan 
 succession, envious of the German intruder, excited a portion of 
 the people to take up arms in his cause. After several contests' 
 with various success, the royal pair were taken prisoners, the 
 queen strangled, and the prince of Grubenhagen confined 
 in the castle of Minorrano, whence, however, he escaped to 
 Avignon. He subsequently returned to Naples, where he died 
 in 1398. 
 
 In the year 1400, Frederick, duke of Brunswick, was chosen 
 emperor of Germany ; but before his coronation, he was murdered 
 by the count of Waldeck, at the instigation of the archbishop of 
 Mainz ; and such was the lawless spirit of those times, that this 
 atrocious deed was suffered to go unpunished. 
 
 The Reformation found several of its most zealous supporters 
 amongst the princes of the house of Brunswick : Ernest, seconad 
 son of Henry, duke of Luneburg, was the immediate disciple of 
 Luther, and two of his brothers also embraced the reformed faith. 
 But the other Guelphic princes, viz., Philip, duke of Gruben- 
 hagen, Henry, duke of Brunswick-Wolfenbuttel, and Erick, 
 
CH. XXIII.] KINGDOM OF HANOVER. 371 
 
 duke of Calenberg and Gottingen, were only excited by these 
 conversions to attach themselves more devotedly than before to 
 the Catholic church. They refused to belie the ancient Guelphic 
 devotion to Popish supremacy, and Henry, duke of Brunswick, 
 became one of the most determined adversaries of the Reforma- 
 tion. All these princes were present at the diet at Worms, where 
 Luther defended himself with memorable boldness before the 
 emperor; and it was Ernest of Brunswick, who, after one of his 
 most exhausting efforts of eloquence, ordered that a can of beer 
 should be brought to refresh him. The dukes of Luneburg 
 continued to support him in spite of the ban of the empire. 
 Indeed, resistance to the new doctrines seemed to favour their 
 propagation in the North ; never did they spread so rapidly as 
 when they were proscribed. Even the duke of Grubenhagen, and 
 Erick of Calenberg and Gottingen, were compelled, in the course 
 of time, to tolerate, and finally to profess them. The duke of 
 Brunswick- Wolfenbiittel alone resisted the tide of Protestantism, 
 and lived and died a submissive adherent to the Catholic creed. 
 This remarkable prince was at the head of the Catholic army, 
 which was raised in 1537 to oppose the Protestant princes; he 
 was several times defeated, and at last taken prisoner, with his son 
 Victor, at Hockelem. He remained in confinement till 1547, 
 when his adversaries received a terrible check at the battle of 
 Miihlberg. On his liberation he determined to prosecute the 
 religious war, but first marched against the predatory bands of 
 the count of Mansfeld, who had invaded his territories; these he 
 completely defeated, July 19, 1553, but lost in the combat two 
 of his sons, and Maurice of Saxony, his ally. In another victory 
 which he obtained shortly afterwards, his eldest son was also slain ; 
 one child was now all that remained to him Julius, who was low 
 of stature and deformed, and whom he suspected of attachment 
 to the Protestant cause. Still, though strongly indisposed, he 
 was constrained to make him his heir, since the emperor refused 
 to acknowledge Eitel, his favourite illegitimate son. In his old 
 age Henry^s disposition seemed to become more pacific ; he was, 
 in a great measure reconciled to his son, and ceased to manifest 
 violently his ancient antipathy to the Reformation. This prince 
 
 2 B 2 
 
372 KINGDOM OF HANOVER. [SECT. II. 
 
 died in 1568. The beautiful Eva von Trott was his mistress, 
 and by her he had seven illegitimate children. In order to keep 
 his relation to her secret, he caused it to be spread abroad that 
 she was dead, and attended a fictitious burial, in order to give 
 foundation to the report ; then, he removed her to the castle of 
 Stauffenburg, where she lived in the greatest seclusion. 
 
 Meanwhile, the dukes of Luneburg showed themselves zealous 
 Protestants, at home as well as in the camp. Luther's translation 
 of the Scriptures they caused to be distributed throughout their 
 dominions; and the Gospel was preached to their subjects in the 
 German language. The most celebrated of these, Ernest the 
 Confessor, duke of Celle, the common ancestor of the existing 
 branches of the Brunswick family, was particularly indefatigable 
 in promoting the spiritual and temporal welfare of his subjects. 
 He instituted schools for the young, corrected the superstitious 
 ceremonies of the church, and issued a code for the instruction of 
 the clergy. But his physical frame did not correspond to the 
 unwearied activity of his mind, and most aptly did his motto 
 Aliis inserviendo meipsum consumo express his untimely fate ; 
 for in his fortieth year he presented all the signs of old age. 
 He died in 1547. 
 
 Julius, who succeeded to the throne of Brunswick-Wolfen- 
 biittel, had been, on account of his predilection for the Protestant 
 cause, consigned by his father, at an early age, to the care of the 
 Catholic priests, who condemned him to perpetual imprisonment 
 as an incorrigible apostate ; he escaped from confinement, however, 
 and fled to Custrin, where he remained till he was recalled home 
 by his relenting parent. 
 
 Immediately on mounting the throne, he established the Pro- 
 testant religion, and with the assistance of the most celebrated 
 divines, composed the Corpus Doctrines Julii, which was in- 
 tended to serve, in future, as a constant rule of faith in the 
 dominions of Wolfenbiittel. 
 
 This sovereign founded and endowed free-schools in his prin- 
 cipal towns ; repaired the roads at his own expence ; rendered the 
 river Ocker navigable by deepening its bed; and worked to 
 great advantage the mines of the Harz. He died, May 3, 1589, 
 
CH. XXIII.] KINGDOM OF HANOVER. 373 
 
 and was succeeded by his son, Henry Julius, one of the most 
 learned men of his time. He was master of several languages, 
 deeply versed in the sciences, and was perpetual rector of his own 
 university of Helmstadt. The city of Brunswick, which had long 
 been received into the Hanseatic league, had several times pro- 
 fited by the weakness and divisions of the Guelphic princes, so 
 far as to establish a kind of independence; and its turbulent 
 citizens so insulted Henry Julius, that he was obliged to lay siege 
 to the place, which had nearly been brought to surrender, when 
 his army was surprised and dispersed by a nocturnal attack of 
 his adversaries. He, however, soon raised a second body of 
 troops, blockaded the town again, and inundated it, by divert- 
 ing the Ocker from its channel; still the town persevered in its 
 rebellion, and the duke was obliged to raise the seige. 
 
 The Brunswickers were now no longer contented to remain on 
 the defensive, and their mercenaries proceeded to ravage the terri- 
 tories of the duke; they even formed an ambuscade for the pur- 
 pose of taking him prisoner. They were now put under the ban 
 of the empire, the execution of which was intrusted to the duke, 
 who, however, so managed the matter as to arrange their differ- 
 ences without proceeding to extremities. This prince died July 
 20, 1613. 
 
 Henry Julius was succeeded by his son, Frederick Ulrick, who, 
 together with his brother Christian, bishop of Halberstadt, 
 figures in the history of the Thirty Years' War. The bishop 
 joined the celebrated count of Mansfeld, and took the field 
 against the Catholics ; in 1632, however, they separated, and 
 the former, whilst marching to Darmstadt, was overtaken, and 
 defeated, at Hoechst, near Frankfort, by the Catholic general, 
 Tilly. At Darmstadt, to which place he escaped with his cavalry, 
 he was rejoined by Mansfeld, and the two adventurers then 
 marched into the Netherlands, where they fought against the 
 Spaniards the battle of Fleurus, at which Christian lost an arm. 
 
 Shortly afterwards, he visited England, and quickly succeeded 
 in convincing James I. of the necessity of supporting the droop- 
 ing fortunes of the Protestant cause in Germany, and of assisting 
 the elector-palatine, its champion, who had married the Princess 
 
374 KINGDOM OF HANOVER. [SECT. II. 
 
 Elizabeth Stuart. A body of English troops was accordingly 
 sent over to the north of Germany, and Christian was made one of 
 its commanders. 
 
 By this time, the Catholic generals, Tilly and Wallenstein, had 
 invaded the Brunswick territories, and made themselves masters 
 of Odendorf and Calenberg. Mansfeld was defeated on the 
 Elbe, by Wallenstein, and died shortly afterwards, a wanderer 
 amongst the Bohemian mountains;" but, amidst these misfortunes, 
 Christian's constancy never wavered ; he swore never to lay down 
 his arms till the return of the elector-palatine to his former pos- 
 sessions ; he reconquered Gottingen, Nordheim, and Minden, but 
 his active career was arrested by a fever, which terminated in his 
 death, July 6, 1626, when he was little more than twenty-seven 
 years of age. 
 
 The Catholics were now everywhere successful until the appear- 
 ance of Gustavus Adolphus, whom the princes of Brunswick were 
 amongst the first to join, and to whom they faithfully adhered 
 through every variety of fortune. The battle of Lutzen decided 
 the war at length in their favour. 
 
 About this time, Augustus of Danneberg, grandson of Ernest 
 the Confessor, greatly distinguished himself; he was an ardent 
 lover and patron of science; he himself published several works 
 under the name of Gustavus Selenus ; and he founded the univer- 
 sity of Wolfenbuttel. He had travelled much in his youth, and 
 his maturer years he devoted to study. His son Anthony Ulrick, 
 duke of Wolfenbiittel, was also celebrated for his learning, and 
 is numbered amongst the bards of the Silesian school of poetry. 
 His novels, " Aramena," in five vols., and " Octavia," in six vols., 
 are interesting on account of the numerous anecdotes they contain 
 of contemporary courts. In his seventy-seventh year, this prince 
 deserted to the Catholic religion. His subjects did not reap those 
 advantages from his government which they had a right to expect 
 from his talents ; he had an unfortunate predilection for French 
 manners, and was inclined to splendid extravagance. 
 
 In 1658, Ernest Augustus, who was afterwards created elector 
 of Hanover, married Sophia, youngest daughter of the elector- 
 palatine and of the Princess Elizabeth Stuart ; this celebrated 
 
CH. XXIII.] KINGDOM OF HAXOVER. 375 
 
 woman was born at the Hague, in 1630, and was the favourite of 
 her widowed mother. Ernest Augustus enlarged and beautified 
 his capital, Hanover, and built the palace of Herrenhausen. 
 Unfortunately, from the mania which at that time prevailed for 
 imitating the French, the electoral court manifested a too decided 
 tendency to dissipation and extravagance; which, however, the 
 Princess Sophia was zealous in counteracting, and from her excel- 
 lent moral character and intellectual acquirements, she largely 
 succeeded. She did not, however, escape the sorrow which such 
 a state of society brings into the domestic circle. Her son, 
 George Louis, who had married his cousin of Celle, for political 
 purposes, devoted to her but little of his affection, and it was in 
 vain that the electress set the neglected wife an example of 
 patience and forbearance. Her brother-in-law, Philip, was the 
 confidant of her griefs, and one of his friends, Count Koenigs- 
 mark, who sometimes saw her in his society, boasted of possessing 
 a share of her affections. Whether he acted subsequently, as the 
 agent of Philip, or whether he was himself the lover of the 
 duchess, is not exactly known. Certain it is, that once, at least, 
 he was admitted to the chamber of the latter at a very unseasonable 
 hour: George Louis had been informed of the visit, and he posted 
 soldiers at the door, who destroyed the count on his leaving the 
 apartment of the princess. The latter was afterwards confined, for 
 the remainder of her life, at the castle of Dahlen, which she only 
 left, at rare intervals, to visit her parents at Celle. George Louis 
 succeeded to the throne in 1698. 
 
 In 1701, the British parliament declared, that the electress 
 Sophia, grand-daughter of James I., was heiress to the British 
 crown, and the earl of Macclesfield announced the passing of the 
 Act of Succession, to the princess, at Hanover. 
 
 In the war of the Spanish succession, the elector of Hanover 
 joined the English against the French, and his brother Maximilian 
 commanded Marlborough's cavalry at Blenheim. Shortly after- 
 wards, the elector himself was appointed general of the imperial 
 army, and at its head undertook a campaign against the French, 
 whom he surprised and defeated, at Offenbach, Sept. 24, 1707- 
 But to lead the old imperial army was a thankless office ; men of 
 
KINGDOM OF HANOVEH. [SECT. II. 
 
 different countries, fighting for a cause which did not interest 
 them personally, could not be brought to act zealously, or in 
 unison ; besides, the different states were slow in sending their 
 contingents, and negligent in furnishing [supplies. Accordingly, 
 the elector resigned the command, and returned to Hanover, 
 which he left four years afterwards, to ascend the British throne. 
 
 The last days of the electress Sophia were troubled by the 
 cabals at the court of Queen Antie, and by the aversion of the 
 latter, who declined a visit from her grandson (afterwards 
 George II.), and affected to reprove her ambition. This excel- 
 lent princess and admirable woman died June 8, 1714, a short 
 time only before the accession of her son, George Louis, to the 
 throne of Great Britain, which took place August 1, 1714. 
 
 George I. was far from neglecting the interests of the elec- 
 torate of Hanover ; on the contrary, it was a common accusation 
 against him in England that he had them too much at heart. In 
 1715, he concluded a treaty with Denmark, by virtue of which 
 the duchies of Bremen and Verden were definitively ceded to 
 Hanover, in consideration of a certain equivalent in money. In 
 the same year, in his electoral capacity, he declared war against 
 Sweden ; but the parties did not come to arms, and a treaty of 
 peace was concluded between them, 1720. This sovereign died 
 at Hanover in 1727 ; he left two children, George, who succeeded 
 him on the throne, and a daughter, married to Frederic William, 
 king of Prussia. 
 
 The accession of the house of Hanover to the throne of Great 
 Britain, was the commencement of a new and flourishing aera for 
 the electorate ; a plurality of courts was no longer necessary ; the 
 country was burdened by no private debts of the sovereign ; on 
 the contrary, the greater part of the revenue from the domains 
 was now devoted to the support of the army, and of the other 
 institutions of the country. Taxes were never imposed without 
 the consent of the states-general, which were composed of prelates, 
 of the equestrian order, of nobles, and of magistrates, who repre- 
 sented the towns. 
 
 George II. succeeded his father in 1727: no war disturbed the 
 first years of his reign, which were devoted in Hanover to im- 
 
CH. XXIII. ] KINGDOM OF HANOVER. 377 
 
 provements in the administration, and in the department of public 
 instruction. Several public schools sprung into existence, and in 
 1737, by the advice of his minister Munchausen, he founded the 
 university of Gottingen, the celebrity of which, during the last 
 fifty years of the eighteenth century, reflected no little splendour 
 on the government whose munificence had given it birth. 
 
 George II. took an active part in the first war which resulted 
 from the invasion of Silesia by Frederic the Great ; he espoused 
 the cause of Maria Theresa ; and by gaining the battle of Det- 
 tingen in 1743, contributed not a little to bring about a favour- 
 able termination of the contest, which, however, did not cease till 
 1748. In the next war which ensued, having been insulted by 
 Austria and France, he took part against those powers, and 
 entered into an alliance with the Prussian king. The duke of 
 Cumberland, known all over Europe as the hero of Culloden, was 
 sent to take the command of the Hanoverian forces ; but he 
 disappointed the hopes which were generally entertained of his 
 success: he was attacked at Hastenbeck, and from some unac- 
 countable precaution sounded a retreat before the battle was 
 decided; so that the French, under the marquis D'Estrees, 
 obtained an easy victory, and pursued him to take advantage of 
 it. He shortly afterwards signed the disgraceful convention of 
 Kloster Severn, by virtue of which, his soldiers laid down their 
 arms, and Hanover remained in the possession of Richelieu, who 
 had succeeded D'Estrees in the command of the French. Though 
 this convention was subject to the ratification of England, which 
 it, of course, did not receive, its immediate effects were tanta- 
 mount to a complete conquest of Hanover, which, with all 
 Westphalia, fell a prey to the avarice of Richelieu and the licen- 
 tiousness of his soldiers ; the former was called by his men, 
 Father Plunder, and they might very justly be denominated his 
 sons. The Pavilion d'Hanovre, which was erected on the Boule- 
 vards at Paris, received a part of the spoils, and served to com- 
 memorate the indignities of this worthless campaign. The 
 triumph of the French, however, was of very short duration ; 
 on the 5th of November, 17^7? ^ e j were completely defeated 
 by the Prussians at Rossbach ; and when Prince Ferdinand of 
 
378 KINGDOM OF HANOVER. [SECT. II. 
 
 Brunswick took the field against them in Hanover, they were 
 compelled to evacuate that country more precipitately than they 
 had entered it. After this the war was carried on with various 
 success; but the French never again obtained a permanent 
 footing in the electorate ; at length, the peace of Hubertsberg in 
 1763, restored tranquillity to Europe, without altering materially 
 the extent of territory of any of the belligerent powers. 
 
 George II. died before the termination of the war, October 
 25, 1760 ; but it was vigorously prosecuted by his grandson and 
 successor, George III. 
 
 During the thirty years which succeeded the Seven Years 1 
 War, Hanover, in common with the rest of Northern Germany, 
 was not tardy in availing herself of the peace which was undis- 
 turbed during the whole of that period. The trade from 
 England and America, through the Hanse Towns and the 
 electorate to the south of Germany, flourished unremittingly till 
 the time of the French war and blockade, when it attained a 
 height, which had never before been even anticipated. A consi- 
 derable portion of waste land was now brought under cultivation; 
 the population increased at a rapid rate ; and public instruction 
 kept pace with industry and opulence. 
 
 Hanover was in this flourishing condition on the breaking out 
 of the revolution in France; against which power its soldiers 
 bore arms in all the campaigns after 1793: they were paid by 
 England, and thus, a part of the burdens of war was removed 
 from the shoulders of the Hanoverians. In 1801, in consequence 
 of a misunderstanding between England and Prussia, the latter 
 invaded and occupied Hanover, which, however, she was quickly 
 compelled to restore to its legitimate government, though she 
 retained Hildesheim, Corvey, and Hoxter : Hanover was par- 
 tially indemnified by the acquisition of Osnaburg. On the 
 re-commencement of the war against France, Napoleon ordered 
 one of his generals, Mortier, to invade the electorate ; when after 
 a few skirmishes, the Hanoverian army retreated beyond the 
 Elbe, and its generals concluded the ignoble convention of 
 Artlenburg, July 5, 1803, by virtue of which they were to dis- 
 band their troops, and consign the electorate unconditionally to 
 
CH. XXIII.] KINGDOM OF HANOVER. 379 
 
 the discretion of the invaders. The court and ministers had 
 already fled ; and Mortier now appointed a commission for the 
 execution of his mandates. The imposts alone, during the first 
 half-year of the French government, amounted to four millions 
 and a half of dollars; and a regular system of exaction was 
 pursued both under Mortier, and his successor, Bernadotte, till, 
 in 1806, the country was ceded by the French to Prussia, which 
 promised to the Hanoverians " that protection and security for 
 which they now looked in vain to the family of Brunswick." 
 But this new arrangement was of very brief duration ; for when 
 the army of Prussia was completely defeated at Jena, October 
 14, 1806, it was deprived of Hanover, which was now divided 
 into two parts, one of which was commanded by a French 
 governor-general, and the other incorporated with the new king- 
 dom of Westphalia. To this latter it was afterwards entirely 
 annexed, in 1810 ; except that part lying North of the Elbe, 
 which was made into a department of the French empire. 
 
 Under Jerome, the king of Westphalia, 18,000 troops were 
 levied in Hanover, for the service of the French emperor ; 
 amongst whom were 3000 boys, between the ages of ten and 
 fourteen. From 1803 to 1808, the French added five millions to 
 the Hanoverian public debt. It is needless to say that the new 
 government was cordially detested by the people, who were 
 amongst the first to commence the great German liberation-war. 
 Early in 1813, volunteers assembled on the Lower Elbe, and 
 were indefatigable in attacking and harassing the French. On 
 September 30 of the same year, Jerome fled from Hanover, 
 which Bernadotte and the victorious allies entered on the 4th of 
 November. Adolphus, duke of Cambridge, was now proclaimed 
 governor-general of the electorate, which was soon afterwards 
 raised to the rank of a kingdom, and the former ministers were 
 re-instated in their respective offices. The greater part of the 
 seignorial courts of justice were not re-established, and the most 
 obnoxious of the taxes which had been imposed by the French, 
 were instantly abolished. 
 
 According to an edict of 1814, the deputies were no longer to 
 form provincial states-general, but were to be united into one 
 
380 KINGDOM OF HANOVER. [SECT. II. 
 
 body ; which was composed of ten deputies of the clergy, forty- 
 three of the nobility, twenty-nine of the towns, and three of the 
 holders of seignorial estates. Though the nobles thus formed 
 the majority of the representatives, their privileges were very 
 much curtailed ; they were no longer exempt from taxation, and 
 had now to serve in the army like other subjects of the state. 
 The representative chamber, above-mentioned, was only pro- 
 visional, and ceased to exist in 1819, when a new constitution was 
 issued under a patent of the Prince Regent, who, in the succeed- 
 ing year, ascended the thrones of Great Britain and Hanover, as 
 George IV. By virtue of this constitution, the old provincial 
 diets were again called into existence, and the general diet formed 
 two chambers. 
 
 In the years 1828 and 1829, the distress and discontent which 
 had for some time prevailed in some quarters in the kingdom of 
 Hanover, increased to such a pitch that a manifestation of some 
 sort appeared imminent. The popular complaints were of various 
 kinds, and had their rise chiefly in inevitable circumstances : the 
 commerce between the north and south of Germany to which 
 the war had given great importance, began to droop at the peace ; 
 prices became gradually low, and gain less easy ; the great temp- 
 tation to smuggle, which was furnished by Napoleon's fiscal 
 regulations, no longer existed ; moreover, the government of the 
 restoration furnished the agitators with pretexts for discontent, 
 in adhering to the ancient routine of administration. 
 
 Be this as it may, on the 8th of January, 1831, about half a 
 year after the accession of William IV., an insurrection broke out 
 at Gottingen of the citizens and students, in spite of the garrison 
 and of the academical senate. The rebel leaders issued a procla- 
 mation, enjoining their followers to remain armed in the cause 
 of peace and order ; a common-council was formed of citizens, to 
 deliberate on the present posture of affairs; but the peculiar 
 characteristic of this enterprise was, that it was intended to pro- 
 secute it without violent means. It was expected that the 
 government would submit to the revolution, and not combat it : 
 accordingly, the insurgents remained quite inactive, and whilst 
 they were in arms against the government, abounded in pro- 
 
CH. XXIII.] KINGDOM OF HANOVER, 381 
 
 testations of their loyalty and moderation. This mighty com- 
 motion had a very ludicrous termination : the rebels do not seem 
 to have wished to catch even a glimpse of their enemies; and 
 when, on the 16th of January, General Von Dem Busche entered 
 the town at the head of 8000 men, most of the ringleaders had 
 escaped, and on the following day tranquillity was fully re- 
 established. 
 
 On the 26th of September, 1833, a new constitution for the 
 kingdom of Hanover was ratified in London by King William IV. 
 Its principal provisions were as follows : the provincial diets 
 were again acknowledged ; the general diet was composed of two 
 chambers, of which the first consisted of the princes of the royal 
 family, of several mediatized princes and other noblemen, of pre- 
 lates, of two of the chief Protestant clergy, of hereditary members 
 named by the sovereign, of thirty-five deputies of the nobles, and 
 of four persons appointed by the king. The second chamber 
 consisted of three deputies of religious endowments, of whom two 
 were to be Protestant clergymen ; of three members appointed by 
 the sovereign, on account of the general monasterial fund ; of a 
 deputy of the university, Gottingen ; of two from the Protestant 
 consistories; of one from the cathedral chapter at Hildesheim; of 
 thirty-seven from different towns ; and of thirty-eight from the 
 peasants. 
 
 The deputies received, I believe, the sum of three dollars 
 daily for their maintenance ; they were entitled to this sum only 
 when they actually took their seats. The total amount of this 
 allowance to the deputies was so much as 60,000 dollars 
 annually. 
 
 As the crown of Hanover only devolves upon male heirs, it is 
 now no longer an appendage to the sovereign of Great Britain. 
 It is satisfactory, now that the connexion is dissolved, to recollect 
 that it has been an honourable one on both sides. The British 
 sovereigns, in whose number the late excellent and beloved vice- 
 roy, the duke of Cambridge, especially deserves to be included, 
 have ruled Hanover with a truly paternal spirit, not appro- 
 priating its revenue to their own gratification, not conferring its 
 posts upon foreigners ; while the Hanoverians have requited 
 
382 
 
 KINGDOM OF HANOVER. 
 
 [SECT. II. 
 
 them with a filial attachment, and have fought in their cause with 
 courage and zeal. 
 
 The ruling family of Hanover is of the Protestant religion. 
 The present king is Ernest Augustus, born June 5, 1771 > w ^ 
 succeeded to the throne in June, 1837; he married, May 29, 
 1815, Frederika, princess of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, the widow of 
 the prince of Solms, by whom he has one son, Prince George, 
 born May 27, 1819. 
 
 The following is a statistical view of the provinces of Hanover, 
 and of their population. 
 
 
 Area in 
 Geographical 
 Sq. Miles. 
 
 Population 
 in 1833. 
 
 Towns. 
 
 Market 
 Towns. 
 
 Villages. 
 
 Houses. 
 
 1. Hanover 
 2. Hildesheim.. 
 3. Luneburg .. 
 4 Stade 
 
 116. 40 
 8l. 59 
 203.92 
 
 125 41 
 
 320,180 
 352,196 
 303,114 
 241 142 
 
 11 
 20 
 12 
 
 4 
 
 28 
 14 
 26 
 23 
 
 882 
 587 
 1,685 
 1 049 
 
 43,217 
 49,373 
 39,126 
 38 731 
 
 5. Osnaburg 
 6 Aurich 
 
 104.^ 
 
 54. 3 
 
 263,624 
 153,671 
 
 11 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 7 
 
 382 
 345 
 
 40,101 
 25,776 
 
 7. Clausthal 
 
 9. 14 
 
 28,573 
 
 7 
 
 
 45 
 
 2,827 
 
 Total 
 
 695. 27 
 
 1,662,500 
 
 70 
 
 108 
 
 4,975 
 
 239,151 
 
 In 1835, there were 55,070 births, 37,752 deaths, and 13,088 
 marriages. 
 
 The principal towns are, Hanover (26,300 inhabitants), Hildes- 
 heim (13,800), Luneburg (12,500), Emden (12,000), Osnaburg 
 (11,800), Gottingen (10,909), Celle (10,300), Clausthal (8859), 
 Goslar (7164), Leer (6346), Hameln (5750), Norden (5600), 
 Stade (5500), Eimbeck (5100). 
 
 The inhabitants, with the exception of the Jews, are all Ger- 
 mans. With respect to religion, they are divided as follows : 
 1,342,850 are Lutherans, 210.000 are Catholics, 105,000 are of 
 the Reformed church, 1850 are Herrnhutes and Mennonites, and 
 12,300 are Jews. 
 
 There are 10 Lutheran general-superintendantships, 94 Luthe- 
 ran and Reformed inspectorships, 924 Lutheran and 114 Re- 
 formed congregations. There is 1 Catholic bishop, 143 Catholic 
 congregations, 3 Mennonite and 1 Herrnhutes places of worship, 
 and 9 Lutheran religious foundations for men, and 18 for women. 
 
CH. XXIII.] KINGDOM OF HANOVER. 383 
 
 The educational institutions are, the university of Gottingen, 
 at which there were 854 students in 1836; an academy for 
 noblemen, a pedagogium, 16 gymnasiums, 20 middle schools, 
 5 seminaries, 1 institution for the deaf and dumb, 1 school of 
 surgery, 2 veterinary schools, 6 schools of midwifery, and 3561 
 town and country schools. 
 
 At the end of 1826, there were 3426 teachers in the elementary 
 schools, of whom 3085 were Protestants, and 341 Catholics : the 
 number of children instructed was 214,524, who, in the different 
 provinces, were in the following relation to the teachers : 
 
 In Aurich, there were 20,159 scholars and 295 teachers. 
 
 Hildesheim . . 46,211 660 
 
 Osnaburg . . . 31,593 383 
 
 Hanover . . . 44,944 603 
 
 Luneburg . . . 39,478 827 
 
 Stade .... 32,139 638 
 
 There are on the whole 13 prisons and houses of correction of 
 different kinds. 
 
 The principal taxes in the kingdom of Hanover amount, 
 annually, to 5,361,609 dollars, of which 2,335,009 are furnished 
 by the royal chests, 3,006,600 by the land-chests. The revenue 
 from the domains is 1,194,640 dollars, from mines and salt-works 
 117,000 dollars, from the customs 569,800 dollars, from the post- 
 office 142,303 dollars, from the general chest 70,800 dollars, from 
 the general salary-chest 112,000 dollars, from the land-tax chest 
 and taxes 2,965,066 dollars; the immediate revenue from the 
 land-tax chest is 20,000 dollars, and of the crown-endowment 
 150,000 dollars. The collective expenditure in the principal 
 departments of the government amounts to 5,390,800 dollars 
 annually; of which 2,373,490 are furnished by the royal chest, 
 and 3,017,310 by the land-chests. The expenditure for the 
 cabinet-ministry is 90,950 dollars, for the German chancery in 
 London 14,490 dollars, for the land-drosteis 104,500 dollars, for 
 the bailiwicks 513,850 dollars, for the diet 76,400 dollars, for the 
 ministry of foreign affairs 70,000 dollars, for the ministry at war 
 1,657,950 dollars, for the ministry of justice 215,600 dollars, for 
 the ministry of public instruction and ecclesiastical affairs 97?650 
 
384 KINGDOM OF HANOVER [SECT. II. 
 
 dollars, for the ministry of the interior 651,000 dollars, for that 
 of commerce 41,300 dollars, for that of finance 208,000 dollars, 
 for the Passiv-etat 144,000 dollars, for pensions 144,000 dollars, 
 for expenses about to cease 198,000 dollars. 
 
 The contingent to the army of the confederacy is 13,054 men. 
 
 The composition of the army is as follows : 
 
 Men. Horses. 
 
 First military Staff . . . * . . . 15 
 
 Two companies of Pioneers and Pontonniers . . 198 
 
 Two horse companies and two foot battalions of) 
 
 \ 1368 275 
 
 Infantry, and one company of Workmen . . J 
 
 One regiment of Heavy Cavalry and three of > 
 Light Dragoons, twenty-four squadrons . . . J 
 Fourteen battalions of Infantry .... 15,580 
 
 Total 20,501 2719 
 
 The government has lately made a material alteration in the 
 institutions for military instruction, The general academy of 
 state, the engineer and artillery school, as also the cavalry school, 
 are to be combined in a military academy, which is to be erected 
 at Hanover, and which is destined for officers of all arms. 
 
 The average number of inhabitants to the square mile in the 
 kingdom of Hanover is 2365 ; but in the province of Luneburg 
 there are only two-thirds of that number, and in that of Stade 
 only four-fifths. The duchy of Aremberg Meppen, too, compre- 
 hending 36^ square miles, does not contain more than 48,816 
 inhabitants. These thinly populated districts form the largest 
 plain, and greater half of the kingdom. The district of East 
 Friesland contains 2905 inhabitants per square mile. Osnaburg 
 is very unequally populated, in some parts there not being more 
 than -jV of the average number of inhabitants, in others, 7300 
 per square mile; for the entire province the number is 2167- 
 The number for the province of Hanover, notwithstanding that 
 it contains the capital, is not higher than 2686. In the prin- 
 cipality of Hildesheim there are 4806 ; in that of Grubenhagen 
 4954 ; and in the neighbouring Harz only 2903 inhabitants per 
 square mile. 
 
 In the mining-districts, -^fa of the population live in towns ; 
 
CH. XXIII.] KINGDOM OF HANOVER. 385 
 
 in Hildesheim ; T W in Aurich ; -^ in Hanover ; -fo in 
 Luneburg; ^^ in Osnaburg, and only -^ in Stade. Thus 
 the inhabitants of towns do not amount to quite a sixth of the 
 entire mass. 
 
 The kingdom comprehends 14,589,813 Caleriberg morgens^ 
 or acres, of which 8,075,182 are laid out in arable land, 
 meadows, gardens, and woods, leaving 6,514,613 morgens for 
 commons, uncultivated heaths, moors, lakes, rivers, and roads. 
 
 The cultivated land, including the woods, is in the following 
 proportion to the whole territory, in the different provinces: in 
 Hanover it amounts to y 5 ^ ; in Hildesheim to -ffa ; in Lune- 
 burg to -j^j- ; in Stade to T 4 ^- ; in Osnaburg to -fifo ; in Aurich 
 to -j^j- ; and in the Harz to ^^T. 
 
 In this calculation, the commons, on which, during the summer, 
 641,823 cows are, in a great measure, kept, are not reckoned as 
 cultivated ground. 
 
 Of grass, arable, and garden-land, the proportion to each 
 inhabitant is, in the Harz, half a morgen ; in Hanover S T ^ 
 morgens; in Hildesheim 2^.; in Luneburg 4^f ; in Stade 
 4_^>_ ; j n Osnaburg 2^%- ; and in Aurich 4^% ; thus on an 
 average there are 3 T 6 2%- morgens of such land to each inhabitant, 
 and of cultivated and uncultivated nearly nine morgens. 
 
 Of the entire cultivated territory, including the woods, 63^ 
 per cent, belongs to farmers ; 6 T V per cent, to the possessors of 
 fiefs and allodial estates ; 1^ per cent, to churches and schools ; 
 17 T % per cent, to the crown ; 9 T ^- per cent, to exchequers and 
 parishes; and to the monasterial exchequer (Klosterkammer) 
 T ^ per cent. 
 
 There are in Hanover 265,269 landed proprietors, and about 
 
 nineteen times as many morgens of grass, garden, and arable land. 
 
 The exports are chiefly of corn and metals ; in 1790, 8837 
 
 cwt. of lead was exported; in 1832, 70,744 cwt. In 1832, were 
 
 also exported 9521 cwt. of bones, and 3657 of oil-cake. 
 
 The immensely increased importation of coffee is worthy of 
 notice. In 1732, 500 Ibs. only were sent from Bremen into 
 Hanover; and in 1832 as much as 870,000 Ibs. In 1834, were 
 imported 50,000 cwt. of coffee, 50,000 cwt. of raw sugar, 
 
 2 C 
 
386 KINGDOM OF HANOVER. [SECT. II. 
 
 47,167 cwt. of tobacco-leaves, and 11,736 cwt. of manufactured 
 goods. It has been calculated that Hanover annually imports 
 merchandise of the value of 8,000,000 of dollars. 
 
 The number of ships bearing the Hanoverian flag has increased 
 considerably of late years. On the coast of East Friesland, from 
 1825 to 1836, were built 165 vessels of from 20 to more than 
 100 lasts. In 1835 alone, 45 large vessels were built. The 
 province of Bremen with Hadeln had only two or three vessels 
 in 1793 ; but in 1834 it had 54 ships of from 20 to more than 
 100 lasts. In 1827, 35 Hanoverian ships of more than 20 lasts, 
 and 121 of less, entered the port of Hamburg; in 1835, 70 of 
 more, and 209 of less than 20 lasts. 
 
 The export-trade is principally carried on by sea, excepting 
 that in horses, oxen, some kinds of linen and salt. The coal- 
 mines produce about 2,500,000 cubic feet of coal annually. 
 
 In the In the In the 
 
 Cities. Towns. Country. 
 
 The number of wood-merchants in 1830, was 71 32... 298 
 
 Of shopkeepers - 2686 ... 1080 ... 4221 
 
 Of corn-dealers 29 ... 3 ... 13 
 
 Of dealers in linen 29 .. 25 ... 24 
 
 Of dealers in wool - 6... 3... 31 
 
 Of dealers in cattle 372... 403 ... 2564 
 
 In 1834, 111,119 pieces of linen, of the value of 775,326 
 dollars, were exported from Hanover by way of Bremen. 
 
 The number of factory-workmen, properly so called, does not 
 amount to more than 18,697; of whom, in 1824, 7026 were 
 cloth-weavers. 
 
 On the whole, those engaged in trade amount to -fy of the 
 inhabitants of towns, and -^ of those of the country; they consist 
 of 25,026 families residing in towns, and 66,677 residing in the 
 country *. 
 
 The Northern part of the kingdom of Hanover is divided into 
 the Geestland and the Marschland : the former is either sand, 
 covered with heath or furze, as in the principality of Luneburg, 
 &c., or low moor,; as in the duchy of Bremen. The marshy 
 
 * From Marcard's work, " Zur Beurtheilung des National Wohlstandes des 
 Handels und der Gewerbe im Konigreiche Hannover." Hannover, 1836. 
 
CH. XXIII.] KINGDOM OF HANOVER. 387 
 
 country lies in the direction of Hadeln, Kehdingen, &c. These 
 districts are only preserved artificially from the encroachments of 
 the sea. There are few hills in the North of Hanover ; but in 
 the South it is extremely mountainous. Many parts of Hanover 
 abound in oxen of an excellent description : in 1820, there were 
 in East Friesland alone 90,000 cows, and 50,000 oxen and steers. 
 The same province is celebrated for its fine breed of horses, of 
 which 5000 are exported annually to Italy. In the Harz, there 
 are 60,000 goats, and also wolves, foxes, badgers., and wild cats. 
 The villages contain 60,000 bee-hives, which, when the sweet- 
 broom is in flower, are removed to, and tended on the heaths. 
 There is plenty of corn, but of fruit, except in some places 
 cherries and apples, very little. 20,000 rix-dollars' worth of 
 bilberries are annually sent to Hamburg for the colouring of red 
 wine. In East Friesland 6000 men are continually employed in 
 digging and carrying turf. The chief mineral products of 
 Hanover are, pit-salt (329,055 cwt. annually), saltpetre, coal, 
 sulphur, marble, alabaster, iron, lead, copper, silver, gold (in very 
 small quantity), zinc, arsenic, and cobalt. 
 
 The kingdom of Hanover is not celebrated for its manu- 
 factures, of which the principal are of cloth, tobacco, soap, cotton 
 and iron-wares, at Hanover, and Minden ; of linen, at Lune- 
 burg, Bremen, &c. ; of sail-cloth, at Scharmbeck ; of rope-work, 
 at Markhausen ; of lace, at Liebenau, &c. ; of hats, at Minden, 
 Osnaburg, &c. ; and at various other places, of silks, leather, 
 gloves, parchment, paper, wax, sugar, and oil. It is calculated 
 that goods are annually manufactured in the kingdom of Hanover 
 to the value of 6,000,0 00 rix-dollars. 
 
 The Hanoverians ar e for the most part of Saxon origin. In 
 the North-Western p rovinces, however, there are Frieslanders ; 
 near Minden, some descendants of the Franks; Thuringians in 
 the county of Hohen stein, Vandals on the Middle Elbe, and a 
 few descendants of French refugees. They are, in general, 
 strong and well-bui^t, persevering and industrious. In many 
 parts there are peasants possessed of considerable property, who 
 display no small po rtion of pride, and who consider it discredit- 
 able to intermarry with families poorer than themselves. There 
 
 2 C 2 
 
388 KINGDOM OF HANOVER. [SECT. IL 
 
 are tracts of country in the North, bordering on the Ems and 
 Hase, where many of the inhabitants have never seen a town, 
 and are very boorish and uncommunicative : the peasant of 
 Southern Hanover is much better instructed and more sociable. 
 Marriages and christenings are occasions of great feasting 
 throughout the country. The Hanoverian agriculturists can 
 scarcely be divided into different classes, being most of them both 
 farmers and labourers : the richer amongst them indulge in very 
 few luxuries, except in the duchy of Bremen, and Hadeln, where 
 mahogany furniture is often found in their houses, and where 
 they sometimes travel drawn by four beautiful Holstein horses- 
 In these last-mentioned districts, the country-people are very 
 hospitable and generous ; they are also very tenacious of their 
 rights, and strict observers of ancient customs. Beer is their* 
 favourite beverage, but many have wine in their cellars. They 
 are fond of vegetables, but potatoes are more eaten in the towns 
 than in he country. The national dishes are smoked goose, beef 
 and raisins, and pork and dried fruit. 
 
 The administration of justice in the kingdom of Hanover is 
 vested in a supreme court of appeal, composed of a president, 
 two vice-presidents, and eighteen councillors, of whom, six are 
 nominated by the king, and the rest by the provinces ; in seven 
 chanceries of justice, and finally in bailiffs, magistrates and patri- 
 monial judges throughout the country, whe.ve it is combined with 
 the ordinary administration. 
 
 Mention of the existence of the town of Hanover is first made 
 in an edict of Henry the Lion, dated 1103; but the vases ancE 
 urns which have been found in and near the town, prove that its 
 site must have been inhabited at a much earlier period. The 
 first mention of its commercial importance is in 1303, when it 
 traded in cloth, skins, salt, butter, and herrings. 
 
 The richer Hanoverians appear to have viewed the Reforma- 
 tion with distrust: the first Protestant preacher was banished 
 the town; and a second would have shared tihe same fate, had not 
 a public disturbance taken place in his favout '. This occurred in 
 1532 ; but in 1536 we find the inhabitants running into extremes 
 on the side of the Reformers : death and eonfh ;cation of property 
 
CH. XXIII.] KINGDOM OF HANOVER. 389 
 
 were the punishment of those who deserted after having once 
 professed the Protestant doctrines; the Papists were punished 
 with rods, and the Catholic revenues applied to the repair of the 
 churches, and the support of the Lutheran ministry. Hanover 
 escaped the devastations which were so common in Germany 
 during the Thirty Years 1 War. Tilly appeared before its gates, 
 November 5th, 1625, and demanded admission, but did not 
 obtain it. During the reign of John Frederick the Catholic, who 
 ascended the throne 1641, and of his successors, Hanover made 
 great advances both in size and splendour; operas and plays 
 were first introduced ; masquerades became popular, and the 
 French and Italians, who were invited in considerable numbers to 
 court, encouraged gambling to a great extent. 
 
 Every person who possesses a house, or follows a trade, in 
 Hanover, is a citizen, and is eligible to civic offices, enjoys 
 common-right, and the right of sporting on certain estates. The 
 citizens are divided into guilds and companies, which choose the 
 burgomaster and syndicus, on whom it devolves to elect the other 
 members of the magistracy ; namely, six councillors, two came- 
 rarii, and a secretary. The magistracy has the town-police under 
 its control, but in its regulations respecting the latter, it is bound 
 to follow the directions of the government. There is a spiritual 
 magistracy, composed of the six preachers of the three churches, 
 of whom the eldest is president. These two magistracies decide 
 on minor matrimonial disputes, of which the more important are 
 referred to the royal consistorial court. 
 
 Respecting the provisions consumed here, we have no very 
 recent data. According to a report of 1742, when the number 
 of inhabitants was about half what it is at present, 2260 oxen 
 were slaughtered, 11,701 calves, 5548 pigs, 481 sucking pigs, 
 5690 sheep, and 1969 lambs. The principal manufactures of 
 Hanover are of gold and silver lace, leather, playing-cards, oil- 
 cloth, earthenware stoves, tobacco, dyes, and stockings ; but the 
 only important objects of commerce are leather, linen, and 
 worsted. The royal Berghandlung, for the produce of the Harz 
 mines, is in this town ; it has factors and correspondents in all 
 the principal cities of Northern Germany and Holland. The 
 
390 KINGDOM OF HANOVER. [SECT. II. 
 
 miners are bound to deliver all the produce of the mines, at a 
 certain price, at the warehouses of this commercial establishment. 
 
 There are common schools attached to each of the three 
 churches, to the support of the teachers of which, even should 
 they send their children elsewhere, the parishioners are bound to 
 contribute. In the highest class of the Lyceum, in which there 
 are eight teachers, the pupil pays eleven dollars annually; in the 
 lowest, five and a half. 
 
 For medical instruction, there is an anatomical college, founded 
 by the surgeons of the town, and a museum. The royal library 
 contains more than 90,000 volumes, chiefly on history and political 
 law ; it possesses all the books of Leibnitz, as well as a collection 
 of rare tracts which he made at Berlin. Other establishments for 
 the promotion of literature, science, and art, are, the library of 
 the royal chancery of justice, of the magistracy, of the different 
 churches, of the society of natural history, Gruner's mineral 
 cabinet, Reussman's museum, the government and town archives, 
 and the Walmoden gallery. 
 
 In 1804, a Bible Society was founded, of which the duke of 
 Cambridge was the zealous protector : its revenue for three years, 
 including a sum of 800/. from the British and Foreign Bible 
 Society, has amounted to 10,000 dollars, with which sum it has 
 distributed 11,000 copies of the Bible. The reading-rooms and 
 circulating libraries here have been under the superintendance of 
 a censor, since the time when the French propaganda awakened 
 greater vigilance. 
 
 For the relief of the poor and their children there are con- 
 siderable funds, and several institutions ; but those who avail 
 themselves of them, are obliged to make a public procession 
 through the town twice a year. There are several hospitals, and 
 a new one has lately been erected. One of the most remarkable 
 public buildings at Hanover, is the temple to the memory of 
 Leibnitz, consisting of a rotunda, of which the cupola is sup- 
 ported by twelve Ionic columns : in the centre is a colossal bust 
 of Leibnitz, in white marble. 
 
 The climate of Hanover is not particularly good: moist and 
 cloudy weather is far from uncommon ; the plains on the North, 
 
CH. XXIII.] KINGDOM OF HANOVEU. 391 
 
 West, and East sides of the town, give full play to the winds 
 from those quarters. The number of deaths is generally exceeded 
 by that of births ; but longevity is of rare occurrence. 
 
 The customs and way of life at Hanover, amongst the more 
 wealthy, appear to be inclining more than formerly to German 
 simplicity : French governesses are not so common ; the women 
 are growing more domesticated ; and the division of time is more 
 consistent with nature. Between the several classes of society 
 there was formerly little communication ; the first only admitted 
 those received at court ; the second, the lower nobility and higher 
 officials, and so on to a fifth ; but these rigorous distinctions are 
 now dying away, and Zimmermann would scarcely call the pre- 
 sent tone of Hanoverian society half Spanish and half German. 
 
 The principal popular amusements are sledge-racing in winter, 
 and, in summer, shooting at the bulPs eye. There is also a good 
 theatre. 
 
 Gottingen is the seat of the most distinguished Protestant 
 university of Germany, which has been ever nobly supported by 
 the government. It is situated in the principality of the same 
 name, on the New Leine, which is a canal of the river Leine : it 
 contains 1200 houses, and 11,050 inhabitants, soldiers and students 
 not included. It is celebrated for its university, to which are 
 attached an admirable library, a valuable collection of coins, a 
 museum, a collection of models, an observatory, a botanical 
 garden, an anatomical theatre and museum, a chemical labora- 
 tory, a lying-in hospital, a riding-school, and fencing-school ; with 
 which we may mention the admirable museums of Blumenbach 
 and Beermann. Gottingen has manufactories of linen and 
 woollen articles, tobacco, leather, and saddlery; and is noted for 
 its sausages. A grand jubilee was celebrated here in the autumn 
 of 1837, in commemoration of the lapse of a century since the 
 period of its first foundation, on which occasion a statue of 
 William IV. was exposed to the public view; a great concourse 
 of old students and learned men from all parts attended ; the 
 new king was present, and the whole ceremony passed off with 
 joy and solemnity. 
 
 The number of students at the university of Gottingen, in 
 
392 KINGDOM OF HANOVER. [SECT. II. 
 
 1837, was 901, amongst whom are three members of princely 
 families, besides several noble ones. Of this number 522 are 
 native Hanoverians, and 387 foreigners. They are thus divided 
 200 for theology, 362 for law, 224 for medicine, and 123 for 
 philosophy. Since the commencement of the second century of 
 the university, there has been an increase on the first half year 
 of 22. 
 
 We cannot conclude our chapter on Hanover, without advert- 
 ing to an event which is not as yet sufficiently developed to admit 
 of substantial comment, namely, the change in the constitution. 
 As far as we can at present perceive, King Ernest returns to the 
 Constitution of 1819, granted by George IV., and abandons the 
 one more recently granted by William IV. in 1833. 
 
393 
 
 CHAPTER XXIV. 
 
 THE DUCHY OF BRUNSWICK. 
 
 The History of Brunswick. The Ruling Family. Districts and 
 Population. Mediatized Possessions of the Duke. Principal Towns. 
 Religion. Religious Institutions. Educational Institutions. Budget. 
 Army. Form of Government. Physical character of the Country. 
 Products. Manufactures. Exports and Imports. 
 
 THE histories of Hanover and Brunswick are indissolubly con- 
 nected to a very late period. In the year 1690, however, we 
 find the territories of the present ducal family of Brunswick 
 finally separated from those of the house of Hanover, and under 
 the dominion of three princes ; viz., Rudolf Augustus, duke of 
 Brunswick; Anthony Ulrick, duke of Wolfenbiittel; and Ferdi- 
 nand Albert, duke of Bevern. These duchies were finally united 
 under Ferdinand Albert of Bevern, in 1735, who was succeeded, 
 the same year, by his son Charles, whose excellent administration 
 and admirable character secured him the lasting affection of his 
 subjects. The Brunswick hospitals are prominent monuments of 
 his benevolence; he was also the founder of the excellent school 
 called the Collegium Carolinum. This prince died in 1780, 
 and was succeeded by his son Charles William Ferdinand, whose 
 name is celebrated in the history of the early German war against 
 revolutionary France. This prince was one of the heroes of the 
 Seven Years' War, and his uncommon bravery at the battles of 
 Hastenbeck and Crefeld, gained him the applause and esteem of 
 Frederic the Great. 
 
 On ascending the throne, he prosecuted the improvements of 
 his father ; protected and encouraged the cultivation of the arts 
 and sciences, and was an active advocate of the education of his 
 people. Subsequently, he accepted the command of the imperial 
 
394 DUCHY OF BRUNSWICK. [SECT. II. 
 
 army against France, which he held until 1794, fighting with 
 various success, but always with the same zeal and intrepidity. 
 He now devoted himself exclusively to the welfare of his duchy 
 till the year 1806, when the fatal day of Jena found him at 
 his post, and when he received the wounds of which he died 
 shortly afterwards at Altona, November 10, 1806. 
 
 Leopold, the brother of this unfortunate prince, cannot be 
 passed over unnoticed, on account of his singular benevolence and 
 philanthropy. He was educated by two of the most extraordinary 
 men of his time, Jerusalem and Lessing, the latter of whom 
 accompanied him on his travels. After having for some time 
 borne arms in the Prussian service, he took up his abode at 
 Frankfort on the Oder, where he lived in the constant practice of 
 charity and benevolence. He was the father of the poor, whose 
 cottages he loved to visit ; at fires or inundations, he was always 
 the first to rescue those in danger, and combat the progress of 
 the calamity. He was drowned in attempting to save the lives of 
 some fellow-creatures. Several monuments at Frankfort transmit 
 to posterity a knowledge of the love and veneration with which 
 he was regarded by his grateful contemporaries. 
 
 William Ferdinand was succeeded by his youngest son, 
 Frederic William, who, however, did not enter upon the govern- 
 ment till the year 1813, as even before the death of his father the 
 duchy had been occupied by Napoleon, and was shortly after- 
 wards incorporated with the new kingdom of Westphalia. In 
 the mean time, he took an active part in all the wars against 
 France, and was made prisoner with Blucher's corps at Lubeck, 
 in 1806. On his liberation he retired to Bruchsal, where, in 
 1808, he lost his duchess, the Princess Elizabeth of Baden, by 
 whom he had two sons, Charles and William, the present dukes 
 of Brunswick. In 1809, he commenced the heroic career, to 
 which his name chiefly owes its glory : at the head of a gallant 
 body of soldiers, he commenced an unremitting war against his 
 adversaries, nothing daunted by their numerical superiority. He 
 forced his way through Westphalia, to the shores of the Baltic, 
 and then took ship for Spain, where he fought in the British 
 ranks till 1813 : then he returned to Brunswick covered with 
 
CH. XXIV.] DUCHY OF BRUNSWICK. 395 
 
 glory, but was quickly recalled to the field of action by Napo- 
 leon's return from Elba, in 1815; on the 16th of June of which 
 year, the hero fell at Quatre-Bras. 
 
 A regency was now appointed in the duchy of Brunswick, 
 which carried on the government till the majority of Duke 
 Charles, in 1823. One of the first acts of this prince, on his 
 accession to the throne, was to reproach his guardians with a 
 declaration that his minority had been unjustly prolonged ; he 
 then rendered himself very obnoxious to his subjects by various 
 arbitrary proceedings. In 1830 he visited France, and returned 
 to Brunswick, August 30 ; when, instead of taking measures to 
 allay the irritation which prevailed there, he recalled the soldiers 
 who had leave of absence, and placed cannon in the streets. 
 Shortly afterwards, the duke was besieged in his palace by the 
 populace, whom his hussars did not succeed in dispersing till 
 late at night. On the 7th of September another tumult took 
 place, and the duke, being in imminent danger, fled, accompanied 
 by a few soldiers. The mob now set fire to the palace, which, 
 with all that it contained, was entirely consumed. 
 
 The next day a national guard was formed, and a deputation 
 sent to Duke William, the younger brother, praving him to 
 accept the crown. He entered the town shortly afterwards, sur- 
 rounded by the authorities, and welcomed by the people. One of 
 his first acts was to dissolve the late ministry, and to convoke the 
 states-general, and having been acknowledged by the relatives of 
 his house, and empowered by the Diet at Frankfort to retain his 
 authority, he was proclaimed ruling duke of Brunswick, April 25, 
 1831* 
 
 The ruling family of Brunswick is of the Lutheran religion. 
 The present duke is William, born April 25, 1806, who, after 
 the flight of his brother Charles, ascended the throne September 
 28, 1830. 
 
 * These particulars relative to the revolution of Brunswick, are taken from the 
 Staats Lexikon of Rotteck and Welcker (article Braunschweig), but as this is a 
 recent piece of history, the actors still alive, and no variety of authorities exist to 
 be consulted, we have omitted several passages and phrases extremely severe. 
 
396 
 
 DUCHY OF BRUNSWICK. 
 
 [SECT. II. 
 
 The following is a view of the districts of the duchy and of 
 their population : 
 
 
 Area in Geog. 
 Sq. Miles. 
 
 Population 
 in 1833. 
 
 Towns. 
 
 Market 
 Towns. 
 
 Villages. 
 
 Houses. 
 
 1 Wolfenbtittel 
 
 21' 71 
 
 108 000 
 
 3 
 
 
 182 
 
 12 200 
 
 
 13.66 
 
 40 000 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 73 
 
 4 300 
 
 3 Harz 
 
 14 JM 
 
 41 000 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 78 
 
 4,650 
 
 4 Weser . 
 
 13.21 
 
 37 000 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 70 
 
 4,050 
 
 5 Blankenburg 
 
 g.04 
 
 20 000 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 64 
 
 2,500 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 70-97 
 
 246 000 
 
 12 
 
 15 
 
 467 
 
 27 700 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 'The population in 1832 amounted to 245,783, according to 
 the official returns ; and there were 41,609 families. About one- 
 third of the territory is covered with wood. 
 
 The present duke possesses, as mediatized territory, in Prussian 
 Silesia, the principality of Oels, which contains 37. 88 square miles, 
 and 90,000 inhabitants, eight towns, one market-town, and 337 
 villages : the revenue of this principality is 170,000 florins. 
 
 The principal towns are, Brunswick (35,340 inhabitants), Wol- 
 fenbuttel (8310), and Helmstedt (6273). With the exception of 
 the Jews, all the inhabitants are Germans : 242,700 are Luthe- 
 rans, 2500 Catholics, 100 Herrnhuters, and 1400 Jews. 
 
 There are seven Lutheran general superintendantships, 29 
 superintendantships : 238 parishes, and 398 churches and chapels: 
 three Catholic congregations, and one synagogue. 
 
 The educational institutions are, a lyceum, two pedagogiums, 
 six gymnasiums, 63 town and 369 village schools. 
 
 The direct taxes produce here, 1,264,894 dollars, the indirect 
 taxes, 1,108,624 dollars. The entire revenue is 3,056,082 dollars, 
 at which sum the expenditure for 1836 was fixed. The cost of 
 the army is 860,278 dollars ; 464,535 dollars go to paying off 
 the public debt. The revenues of monasteries and endowed 
 schools pay the expenses of the church and of public instruction. 
 
 The contingent to the army of the confederacy is 2096 
 men. The army consists of 1625 infantry, 299 horse, and 172 
 pioneers. 
 
 The form of government is monarchical and representative. 
 The diet is composed of two chambers, or sections, of which the 
 
CH. XXIV.] DUCHY OF BRUNSWICK. 397 
 
 higher consists of six prelates, and the proprietors of 78 seignorial 
 estates ; the lower, of six prelates, 19 deputies of towns, and 19 
 of the other landed proprietors. Females are excluded from the 
 succession, but only as long as a male representative of the ruling 
 family exists. 
 
 The Northern part of the duchy of Brunswick is an undu- 
 lating plain with very slight elevations ; the Southern districts are 
 composed of the mountains of the Harz. In the North, the soil 
 is extremely fertile, but in the South, the greater part of it is 
 sterile and stony. 
 
 The principal products are corn, beans, buck -wheat, turnip- 
 seed, poppies, potatoes, chicory (125,000 cwt.), tobacco (7000 
 cwt.), flax, a staple commodity (84,000 cwt.), hops, not for their 
 excellence (8000 cwt.), and wood. The duchy contains 87,000 
 oxen, 51,000 horses, 110 mules and asses, 259,000 sheep, 8300 
 goats, 47,000 pigs, a great quantity of poultry, and 10,500 bee- 
 hives. 
 
 The mineral kingdom in Brunswick* affords lime, plaster of 
 Paris, marble, alabaster, pipe-clay, jasper, chalcedony, granite 
 and porphyry, salt, saltpetre, coal, sulphur, asphaltus, iron 
 (62,000 cwt.), silver, copper, lead, quicksilver, arsenic, zinc, and 
 cobalt. 
 
 There are manufactures of woollen and linen goods, of paper, 
 leather, tobacco, chicory, soap, and mineral acids. 
 
 The principal exports are of worsted, linen, corn, linseed-oil, 
 chicory, leather goods, wood, hops, glass-paper, wool, tobacco, 
 soap, tallow, hemp, and flax. The imports are spices, East and 
 West Indian goods, raw material, fish, ornamental articles, butter, 
 cheese, cattle, and horses. 
 
398 
 
 CHAPTER XXV. 
 THE KINGDOM OF WURTEMBERG. 
 
 The Ruling Family. Circles and Population. Principal Towns. 
 Religion. Educational Institutions. Budget. Army. Form of 
 Government. Ministers and Officers of the Court. Births and 
 Deaths. Emigration. Premature Marriages. 
 
 A PRIOII of Schulstein, living at Prague, conceived the happy 
 idea of forming schools in which pupils should learn, inde- 
 pendently of other usual branches of study, the application of the 
 sciences to practical purposes, or arts. In the year 1777 a 
 Polytechnic School, or School of Arts, is said to have been first 
 founded at Prague. There is no want of schools in which lite- 
 rature is taught, but these schools of the arts are still compa- 
 ratively rare, and particularly in our own country. 
 
 The kingdom of Wurtemberg has the distinction of standing 
 at the head of all the countries of Europe in this respect ; and 
 it is on this account that we commence our sketch of its statistics 
 witli the display of a feature so honourable to the governors, and 
 so useful to the governed. In 1815, there were already in this 
 small kingdom so many as 260 schools of art or of industry, 
 which were frequented by 10,000 pupils ; and, in 1825, the 
 number of these institutions had increased to 324, and the pupils 
 amounted to 14,000. 
 
 The royal family of Wurtemberg is of the Lutheran religion. 
 The reigning prince is William I., born September 27, 1781, 
 who succeeded his father, Frederick I., October 30, 1816. He 
 has been married three times, firstly, to Charlotte Augusta, 
 princess of Bavaria, from whom he was separated in 1814, and 
 who is now dowager empress of Austria; secondly, to Catherina 
 Pawlowna, a Russian princess, who died January 9, 1819; 
 and, thirdly, to Pauline, princess of Wurtemberg. He has four 
 daughters and one son by his second wife ; the latter, Frederick, 
 the crown prince, was born March 6, 1823. The king has 
 
CH. XXV.] 
 
 KINGDOM OF WQRTEMBERG. 
 
 399 
 
 one brother, Paul, who is married to Charlotte, a princess of 
 Saxe-Altenburg, by whom he has two sons and two daughters. 
 The elder of the latter, Helena, born 1807, is married to the 
 grand-prince, Michael of Russia; and the younger, Pauline, 
 born 1810, to the duke of Nassau. The king has also three 
 uncles living, who have numerous descendants. 
 
 The following is a view of the circles and of their popu- 
 lation : 
 
 
 Area in Geog. 
 Sq. Miles. 
 
 Population 
 1833. 
 
 Towns. 
 
 Market 
 Towns. 
 
 Villages. 
 
 Hamlets, 
 Farm-houses, 
 and Odd 
 Houses. 
 
 61 .60 
 
 87 . 8 o 
 
 no- 80 
 
 100-20 
 
 439,978 
 424,933 
 367,446 
 355,691 
 
 37 
 37 
 
 28 
 30 
 
 57 
 42 
 51 
 71 
 
 300 
 429 
 427 
 302 
 
 691 
 1068 
 3868 
 2212 
 
 Black Forest 
 
 Danube 
 
 Jaxt 
 
 Total 
 
 360 - 40 
 
 1,588,048 
 
 132 
 
 221 
 
 1458 
 
 7839 
 
 
 The principal towns are, Stuttgart (35,000 inhabitants, includ- 
 ing soldiers and strangers), Ulm (12,139), Heilbronn (10,500), 
 Reutlingen (10,400), Tubingen (7227), Esslingen (6475), Hall 
 (6220), Ludwigsburg (6208), Rothenburg (6057), Gmund 
 (5822). 
 
 Altogether there are 132 towns; 1211 villages with livings, 
 and 462 other villages ; 125 hamlets with livings, and 2901 other 
 hamlets; 2644 farm-yards; 2177 odd houses; and 1888 parishes. 
 
 With the exception of the Jews, all the inhabitants are Ger- 
 mans. With respect to religion they are divided as follows : 
 1,087,413 are Protestants, 489,025 are Catholics, 10,766 Jews, 
 and 210 of other creeds. 
 
 There are in this country 6 general-superintendantships, 50 
 Lutheran inspectorships, 818 Lutheran parishes, 8 parishes of 
 the Reformed church, 1 Catholic general vicariate, 6 Catholic 
 monasteries, 645 Catholic parishes. The value of the Lutheran 
 church property is 27^ millions of florins. The revenue of this 
 church is 1,975,548 florins; the expenditure 1,421,624 florins. 
 
 The Wurtemberg university is that of Tubingen, at which, in 
 1836, there were 624 students. There are also 5 gymnasiums of 
 the first class, 2 lyceums, 59 Latin schools, 1 Catholic convic- 
 
400 KINGDOM OF WUllTEMBERG. [SECT. II. 
 
 tori urn, 5 Catholic classical schools, 5 lower Lutheran schools, 
 12 Real schools, 1400 Lutheran schools for the people (Volks- 
 schuleri)) 787 Catholic ditto, 1 agricultural institution, 7 schools 
 of art and drawing, 1 veterinary school, and 1 institution for the 
 deaf and d umb. 
 
 The yearly expenditure from 1836 to 1839 is fixed at 9,321,813 
 florins. 
 
 The following are the principal -items : 
 
 Florins. 
 
 Civil List of the King - - . 850,000 
 
 Interest, &c., of the National Debt - - 1,296,858 
 
 The Army - 1,902,848 
 
 The Church and Public Instruction ... 2,249,275 
 
 Administration of Justice .... 710,558 
 
 Administration of Finance - - 718,821 
 
 The revenue amounts to 9,321,813 florins, of which 3,995,068 
 florins are contributed by the royal domains, and 5,366,745 
 florins by direct and indirect taxation. 
 
 The public debt, in January, 1836, was 25,573,007 florins. 
 
 The standing army consists, in time of war, of 16,824 men, in 
 time of peace, of 4906 men, and is divided as follows : 
 
 394 
 . 36 
 96 
 . 200 
 
 The army thus composed forms 4 regiments of cavalry, a 
 squadron of chasseurs, a body-guard of cavalry ; 8 regiments 
 of infantry of the line, several garrison-companies, and a corps of 
 invalids ; 1 regiment of artillery (i. e. 1 battalion of horse, and 
 1 of foot, with a train), and a division of garrison-artillery. 
 
 The government is an hereditary limited monarchy, founded 
 on the constitution of September 25, 1819- The representatives, 
 who form two chambers, have a share in legislation, and in the 
 distribution of taxes, but the king is the only executive power. 
 According to the family-law (Hausgesetx) of January 1, 1808, 
 the crown is hereditary to the exclusion of females ; but should 
 no male representative exist, females are admitted to the suc- 
 cession. 
 
 Infantry 
 
 . 2928 
 
 Artillery 
 
 Cavalry 
 
 1024 
 
 Sappers 
 
 Horse-guards 
 
 . 132 
 
 Train 
 
 Chasseurs 
 
 96 
 
 Garrison 
 
CH. XXV.] KINGDOM OF WURTEMBERG. 401 
 
 The crown-prince is of age at eighteen, the other royal 
 princes and the princesses at twenty-one, and the remaining 
 members of the royal family at twenty-two. Appanages, jointures, 
 and dowries, can never consist of landed property, but must be 
 paid out of the treasury. 
 
 There are the usual ministers of foreign affairs, war, justice, 
 finance, and of home affairs, with ecclesiastical affairs, and public 
 instruction. 
 
 The privy-council is composed of some of the ministers, of 
 privy-councillors, and of state councillors. 
 
 The grand dignitaries of the crown are an hereditary grand 
 marshal of the kingdom, an hereditary grand master of the 
 kingdom, an hereditary grand chamberlain of the kingdom, and 
 a banneret of the kingdom. 
 
 The supreme council of the court is composed of a grand 
 master of the court, of a grand equerry, of a president of the 
 chamber of the court, and of a grand chamberlain. 
 
 During the space of fifteen years, the number of births in 
 the kingdom of Wurtemberg has surpassed that of deaths by 
 183,977. During the years 1812, 1813, and 1814, 17,840 
 couples were married ; 81,139 boys, and 77>H8 girls were born, 
 which is 27,046 boys, and 25,706 girls, on an average, annually. 
 
 During the same space of time, there were 8684 illegitimate 
 male births, and 8513 illegitimate female births, which give 
 together an annual average of 5732. There died in the above 
 years 71,789 males, and 68,114 females, in all 139,903 ; an 
 annual average of 23,930 men, and 22,705 women. From 1815 
 to 1829 inclusive, there were born 429,914 boys, and 406,417 
 girls ; on an average annually, 28,661 boys, and 27,094 girls ; 
 there were 1567 more boys than girls born on an average an- 
 nually. Of the 429,914 boys, 50,162 were illegitimate, and of 
 the girls 48,307, in all 98,469; on an average annually, 3344 
 boys and 3221 girls, in all 6565. 
 
 In the course of these same 15 years, there died 334,487 men, 
 and 317,867 women, in all 652,354 ; an annual average of 
 22,299 men and 21,191 women, in all 43,490 annually. 
 
 In the years 1813 and 1814, 746 strangers (315 men, and 431 
 
 2 D 
 
402 KINGDOM OF WURTEMBERG. [SECT. II. 
 
 women) settled in this kingdom, and 733 persons (214 men, and 
 519 women) emigrated. It is probable, that the greater part 
 both of the settlers and emigrants were servants. From 1815 to 
 1829 inclusive, 4218 men and 5637 women settled in the country, 
 altogether 9855. In the same years, 15,555 men and 15,868 
 women, altogether 31,423 persons emigrated. This great increase 
 of emigration is explained by the advantages which the United 
 States offer to poor, if industrious' settlers. 
 
 Thus during these fifteen years, though the births had ex- 
 ceeded the deaths by 183,977> tne actual increase of the popu- 
 lation was only 162,409. 
 
 Prostitutes are not supposed to exist in the eye of the law, and 
 no official superintendance of them exists. 
 
 No man is allowed to marry until his twenty-fifth year, on account 
 of his military duties, unless permission has been specially obtained 
 or purchased : at that age he must also obtain permission, which 
 is granted on proof that he and his wife will have together suffi- 
 cient means to maintain a family, or to establish themselves; 
 namely, in large towns, from 800 to 1000 florins, and in smaller 
 ones, from 400 to 500, and, in villages, 200 florins. They 
 must not be persons of disorderly or dissolute lives, drunkards, 
 or under suspicion of crime ; and they must not have received 
 any assistance from their parish within the last three years. 
 
403 
 
 CHAPTER XXVI. 
 THE GRAND DUCHY OF BADEN. 
 
 The Ruling Family. Circles and Population. Principal Towns. 
 Religion. Educational Institutions. Religious Institutions. Budget. 
 Army. Form of Government. Ministers of Government and 
 Officers of the Court. Criminal and Legal Statistics. Miscellanies. 
 
 THE ruling family of Baden is of the Protestant religion. The 
 present grand duke is Leopold, (C. F.) who was born August 29, 
 1790, and who succeeded his half-brother, Lewis, March 30, 
 1830. He was married, July 25, 1819, to his cousin, Sophia, 
 daughter of Gustavus IV., king of Sweden. They have six 
 children, four sons and two daughters ; Lewis, the heir-apparent, 
 was born August 15, 1824. The grand duke has two brothers, 
 Maximilian and William, both of whom are in the army, and a 
 sister, Amelia, married to the prince of Furstenberg; his half- 
 brother, Charles LewisJ who died in 1801, left a daughter, Caro- 
 line, who is now the dowager-queen of Bavaria, and a son 
 Charles, who was grand duke, and who was married to Stephanie, 
 Mad. de Beauharnois, the adopted daughter of Napoleon ; he died 
 December 8, 1818. The offspring of this marriage are, Louisa, 
 born June 5, 1811, married to the prince Gustavus Wasa, the 
 crown-prince of Sweden ; Josephine, married to Charles, prince 
 of Hohenzollern Sigmaringen; and Maria, born October 11, 1817- 
 The following is a view of the circles of the grand duchy of 
 Baden, and of their population: 
 
 
 y 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 m 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 |^ 
 
 'A 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 1 
 
 42 
 
 | 
 
 1 
 
 
 ti 
 
 
 fll 
 
 I 
 
 co- 
 
 1 
 
 | 
 
 1 
 
 'o 
 
 
 
 ( 
 
 3- a 
 
 
 31, 
 
 a 
 
 in 
 
 % 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 a 
 
 5 
 
 
 H 
 
 Seekreis - - - 
 Upper Rhine Kreis 
 Middle ditto - - 
 
 55 - 04 
 70- 14 
 
 91 .13 
 
 19 
 18 
 21 
 
 21 
 28 
 30 
 
 4 
 
 10 
 13 
 
 362 
 434 
 369 
 
 16,189 
 89,983 
 140,356 
 
 165,909 
 229,669 
 252,345 
 
 105 
 159 
 303 
 
 1,266 
 3,174 
 5,817 
 
 173,469 
 322,985 
 404,821 
 
 Lower ditto - - 
 
 63-23 
 
 20 
 
 27 
 
 14 
 
 320 
 
 135,002 
 
 162,407 
 
 847 
 
 9,166 
 
 307,422 
 
 Total - - 
 
 279 * 54 
 
 78 
 
 106J41 
 
 1485 
 
 377,530 
 
 810,330 
 
 1414 
 
 19,423 
 
 1,208,697 
 
 2 D 2 
 
404 GRAND DUCHY OF BADEN. [SECT. II. 
 
 The principal towns are, Carlsruhe, the capital (21,249 inhabi- 
 tants, Mannheim (20,584), Freiburg (12,206), Heidelberg 
 (11,811), Bruchsal (7137), Pforzheim (6259), Lahr (5599), 
 Rastadt (5516), and Constance (5220). 
 
 The inhabitants are all Germans, with the exception of the 
 Jews, and of 520 French. The numbers of the various religious 
 denominations are given in the foregoing table. 
 
 There are two universities, at Heidelberg and Freiburg ; at that 
 of Heidelberg, in the winter of 1834, there were 580 students ; 
 viz., 38 students of theology ; 238 of law ; 222 of medicine, sur- 
 gery, and pharmacy; 58 of political economy and mineralogy; 
 and 24 of philosophy and philology. At the university of 
 Freiburg, in 1834-5, there were 445 students. 
 
 In the Baden Protestant church, there are 28 dioceses, 28 
 deaneries, and 318 parishes. Of the Catholic church, there is 1 
 archbishop, cathedral-chapter, and episcopal ordinariat; there are 
 35 land-chapters, 35 deaneries, and 723 parishes. In this country, 
 there are 4 lyceums, 6 gymnasiums, 6 pedagogiums, 14 Latin 
 schools, 8 seminaries for females, 1 evangelical and 1 Catholic 
 seminary for schoolmasters, 1 institution for the deaf and dumb, 
 1 veterinary school, 1 polytechnical and 1 trade school, and a 
 military academy. 
 
 The net annual revenue of the grand duchy for the years 1835 
 and 1836, was 7,905,091 florins. 
 
 The public debt amounted, in 1831, to 13,263,390 florins. 
 In November, 1833, 1,602,042 florins, 30 kreutzers, paper- 
 money, which had been called in between June 1, 1832, and 
 May 31, 1833, were destroyed. 
 
 In 1833, the sum devoted to paying off the national debt 
 amounted to 889,869 florins; in 1834, to 892,038 florins. 
 
 The standing army contains 10,412 men, and is divided into 1 
 division, or 8 battalions of infantry, 8045 men, and 1 brigade of 
 cavalry, or 3 regiments of dragoons, 1518 men. The contingent 
 to the army of the confederation is 10,000 men. 
 
 The present form of government is an hereditary, constitutional 
 monarchy, established by the deed of August 22, 3831. There 
 are two chambers of representatives, to the first of which, no person 
 
CH. XXVI.] GliAND DUCHY OF BADEN. 405 
 
 is eligible, who is not twenty-five years of age, and to the second, 
 none who is not thirty years of age. All candidates must be of the 
 Christian religion. Candidates for a seat in the second chamber, 
 must prove that they are either in possession of a capital of 
 10,000 florins, or that they are in the receipt of an annual income 
 of 1500 florins. Every citizen, and every person filling a civil 
 office, has the right of voting for a member of the diet, who is 
 chosen for eight years. 
 
 Females are excluded from succession to the throne, so long as 
 there exists a male representative of the ruling family. 
 
 There are the usual ministers of state. Each circle has a 
 director, who resides in its chief town. There is a director of the 
 forests and mines, and another of the domains, a third of the taxes, 
 and a fourth of the supreme chamber of accounts. The post- 
 office is also under the superintendance of a director. Besides 
 these, there are directors of the Evangelical church-section, and 
 of the Catholic church-section. 
 
 The officers of the court are a grand master of the court, a 
 grand chamberlain, a grand marshal, a marshal of the court, an 
 intendant of the domains of the court, and an intendant of the 
 court-music and of the court-theatre. 
 
 The number of law-suits has of late years very much increased 
 in Baden. In 1814, there were 1674; in 1833, 2994. In 1833, 
 1131 trials were decided in the criminal courts, and sentence was 
 pronounced upon 1629 persons, of whom 673 were acquitted, and 
 956 declared guilty of the charges brought against them. Of 
 the latter, 7 were condemned to death, and all executed, with 
 the exception of one, who committed suicide ; but in 1830, all 
 those who were condemned to death, 8 in number, had their 
 sentences commuted to imprisonment. 206 of the persons con- 
 victed, were condemned to imprisonment ; 10 for more than 15 
 years, and 30 for less than a year ; the others for different inter- 
 mediate periods. 129 of the culprits were condemned to labour 
 at public works in a particular dress, and three to hard impri- 
 sonment. On the whole, 338 persons were punished by imprison- 
 ment or hard labour, and 611 by lighter inflictions. The propor- 
 tion of persons tried for criminal offences to the whole population, 
 
406 GRAND DUCHY OF BADEN. [SECT. II. 
 
 was that of 1 to 748; of those punished, ] to 1275. Of those 
 tried, 13'5 per cent, were females ; of those punished, 14 per cent. 
 
 In 1833, 5'7 per cent, of those tried, and 6*2 of those convicted, 
 were between 14 and 18 years of age ; 48 per cent, of the pri- 
 soners, and 50 per cent, of the convicts, were between 18 and 30 ; 
 23'28 per cent, of the prisoners, and 21'65 per cent, of the con- 
 victs, were between 30 and 40 ; 13 per cent, of the prisoners, and 
 11*82 per cent of the convicts, between 40 and 50; 6*50 per cent, 
 of the prisoners, and 6'25 per cent, of the convicts, between 50 
 and 60; and 2 per cent, of the former, and 2 of the latter, between 
 60 and 70. 
 
 Of the whole number of convicts in 1830, 35 per cent, were 
 Protestants, 63'5 per cent. Catholics, and 1-5 per cent. Jews. 
 Of the 1629 persons tried, 1056 were either bachelors or widowers, 
 986 had no trade or profession, 1178 were totally without, and 
 142 were possessed of property. 54 persons were moving in 
 respectable society ; and of these, 22 were convicted, and 6 con- 
 demned to imprisonment and hard labour. 15 persons were 
 tried for political offences. 
 
 In the year 1833, in the courts of the bailiwicks, 3055 persons 
 were tried, 639 acquitted, and 2416 convicted. Of the whole 
 number 333 were women, of whom 83 were acquitted, and 250 
 condemned. In the same year, there were 1050 offences com- 
 mitted, of which the perpetrators have not yet been discovered ; 
 of these, 162 were burglaries, 13 street-robberies, and 3 murders. 
 There were 67 suicides, besides 7 attempts at suicide, and 164 
 deaths from accident. 
 
 Prostitutes are not tolerated by the police in Baden, in any 
 places except Mannheim and Carlsruhe, the principal cities, and 
 also at Baden, the much-frequented mineral spring, during its 
 season. They are visited by an official surgeon once a week, and 
 the police is charged to maintain a vigilant superintendance over 
 them. 
 
 According to Schnabel, the population of this country increases 
 annually at the rate of 1 per cent. ; according to Stein, and his 
 editor Horschelmann, the increase is nearly l per cent, annually. 
 
407 
 
 CHAPTER XXVII. 
 THE ELECTOKATE OF HESSE-CASSEL. 
 
 The Ruling Family. Provinces and Population; Principal Towns. 
 Religion. Educational Institutions. Budget; Army. Form of 
 Government; Ministers and Officers of the Court. 
 
 THE ruling family of the electorate of Hesse is of the reformed 
 religion. The present prince elector and grand duke is William 
 II. 3 born July 28, 1777v married 1797> to Augusta, princess of 
 Prussia, who succeeded to the throne, February 27, 1821. His 
 children are, Caroline, born 1799 ; Frederic William, prince 
 elector, co-regent since October 1, 1831, born August 20, 1802, 
 united, in morganatic marriage, to the countess of Schaumburg ; 
 and Maria, married to the duke of Saxe-Meiningen. The 
 prince elector has two sisters, Maria Frederica, now dowager- 
 duchess of Anhalt-Bernburg, and Caroline, now dowager- 
 duchess of Saxe-Gotha. He has also two uncles, Charles, land- 
 grave, Danish field-marshal, and stadtholder of the provinces 
 of Sleswick and Holstein ; and Frederic, landgrave, a Hessian 
 general of infantry, both of whom have several descendants. 
 Among the offspring of the Landgrave Frederic, are two distin- 
 guished ladies the grand duchess of Cambridge, and the grand 
 duchess of Mecklenburg-Strelitz. 
 
 The following is a view of the provinces of the electorate, and 
 of their population. 
 
 
 Area in Geog. 
 Sq. Miles. 
 
 Population 
 in 1832. 
 
 Towns. 
 
 Market 
 Towns. 
 
 Villages. 
 
 Houses. 
 
 Lower Hesse 
 Upper Hesse 
 Fulda 
 
 98 .30 
 
 41-25 
 
 4J.85 
 
 325,765 
 113,837 
 128,584 
 
 34 
 16 
 5 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 7 
 
 519 
 206 
 198 
 
 48,196 
 15,562 
 17,063 
 
 
 27-50 
 
 109 G63 
 
 7 
 
 14 
 
 189 
 
 14 845 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 208' 90 
 
 677,849 
 
 62 
 
 33 
 
 1,112 
 
 95,666 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 The principal towns are, Cassel (29,931 inhabitants, not includ- 
 
408 ELECTORATE OF HESSE. [SECT. II. 
 
 ing soldiers), Hanau (14,834), Fulda (9764), Marburg (7512), 
 Hersfeld (6343). 
 
 With the exception of the Jews, and of 2700 persons of French 
 extraction, all the inhabitants are Germans. According to the 
 Weimar Almanack of 1837, 618,349 of the inhabitants are of 
 the evangelical confession, 103,000 are Catholics, 8300 Jews, 
 and 260 Mennonites; this sum considerably exceeds the whole 
 population above stated. 
 
 There are 1 general superintendantship, 4 superintendantships, 
 3 inspectorships, 41 classes, 291 Protestant parishes, of which 19 
 are French, 1 Catholic bishop, 63 Catholic parishes, and 18 
 synagogues. 
 
 The university at Marburg numbered, in 1833, 422 students. 
 There is 1 lyceum, 1 pedagogium, 6 gymnasiums, 1 episcopal 
 seminary, 3 seminaries for schoolmasters, 2 academies for drawing 
 and painting, 2 institutions for foresters, and 63 town-schools. 
 
 Dollars. Gro. 
 
 The Expenditure for the finance-Period of 1834-36, was 3,258,212 1C 
 The Revenue for the same period - 3,009,540 
 
 Deficit - - 188,072 1C 
 
 The public debt amounts to 1,900,000 florins. 
 
 The army is composed of 2 brigades of infantry, 2 regiments 
 of cavalry, 1 horse and 2 foot batteries of artillery, and 1 com- 
 pany of pioneers and workmen. The contingent to the army of 
 the confederation is 5679 men. 
 
 The government is monarchical and representative. The repre- 
 sentatives form only one chamber. The constitution was granted 
 January 5, 1831. The crown is hereditary, to the exclusion of 
 females ; the law (Hausgesetz) of March 4, 1817? regulates the 
 family affairs of the grand-ducal house. 
 
 The members of the state-ministry are the ministers of finance, 
 of war, of foreign affairs, of justice, and the interior, the director 
 of the grand state-chest (Hauptstaatskasse), and two ministerial 
 councillors. 
 
 The chief officers of court are a grand marshal of the court, 
 an intendant-general of the theatre, a grand huntsman and cham- 
 berlain, a marshal of the court and chamber, a grand equerry and 
 chamberlain, and a captain of the palace and chamberlain. 
 
409 
 
 CHAPTER XXVIII. 
 THE GRAND DUCHY OF HESSE-DARMSTADT. 
 
 Ruling Family. Provinces and Population. Cultivation. Division 
 of Wooded Property. Principal Towns. Religion. Educational 
 Institutions. Budget. Army. Form of Government. Ministers 
 and Officers of Court. 
 
 The ruling family of the grand duchy of Hesse is of the 
 Lutheran religion. The present grand duke is Lewis II., who 
 was born December 26, 1777? ar| d who succeeded his father, 
 Lewis I., April 6, 1830; he was married June 19, 1804, to 
 Wilhelmina, princess of Baden, who died in 1836. His children 
 are, Lewis, the heir-apparent, born June 9, 1806, married to 
 Matilda, princess of Bavaria; Charles, betrothed to the princess 
 Elizabeth, niece of the king of Prussia; and Alexander and Maria. 
 He has three brothers living, George, Frederic, and Emile. 
 
 The following is a view of the provinces of the grand duchy, 
 and of their population. 
 
 
 Area in 
 Geographical 
 Sq. Miles. 
 
 Population, 
 in 1832. 
 
 Towns. 
 
 Market 
 Towns. 
 
 Villages 
 and 
 Hamlets. 
 
 Houses. 
 
 Starkenburg 
 Rhine Hesse 
 Upper Hesse 
 
 M*> 
 
 27.18 
 
 91.15 
 
 256,745 
 189,986 
 271,642 
 
 22 
 10 
 34 
 
 24 
 12 
 13 
 
 382 
 168 
 510 
 
 32,493 
 26,929 
 44,666 
 
 Total 
 
 177' 30 
 
 718,373 
 
 66 
 
 49 
 
 1060 
 
 104 088 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 At the end of 1834., the entire population amounted to 
 760,694. 
 
 The following is a view of the country, with respect to its 
 cultivation, the calculation being made in morgens (acres), of 
 which there are 22,018 in a square mile. 
 
410 
 
 GRAND DUCHY OF HESSE. 
 
 [SECT. II. 
 
 
 Ploughed 
 Land. 
 
 Meadow. 
 
 Pasture. 
 
 Vinery. 
 
 Garden. 
 
 Wood. 
 
 Total of 
 Cultivated 
 Ground. 
 
 Starkenburg ... 
 Rhine Hesse... 
 Upper Hesse... 
 
 506,740 
 427,093 
 655,801 
 
 119,496 
 35,784 
 238,128 
 
 15,541 
 4,595 
 14,051 
 
 2,863 
 35,136 
 174 
 
 340 
 2,575 
 859 
 
 492,903 
 21,523 
 566,984 
 
 1,137,883 
 514,706 
 1,475,997 
 
 Total 
 
 1 589 634 
 
 381 408 
 
 34 187 
 
 38 173 
 
 3 774 
 
 1 081,410 
 
 3 128,586 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 >" 
 
 
 
 The farm-buildings, roads, and uncultivated ground occupy, in 
 the three provinces, 234,663*- morgens. 
 
 The following table shows how the woods of this country are 
 divided amongst the various classes : 
 
 Starkenburcj 
 
 Ducal 
 Property. 
 
 Noble, and 
 Patrimonial 
 
 Estates. 
 
 Private 
 Property. 
 
 Parish 
 Property. 
 
 119,514 
 215,849 
 
 71,045 
 151,852 
 
 70,900 
 24,111 
 
 95,011 
 
 231,444 
 176,172 
 
 407,616 
 
 
 Mortens 
 
 334,363 
 
 222,897 
 
 
 The principal towns are, Mainz, (31 ,000 inhabitants), Darm- 
 stadt (24,500), Worms (8000), Offenbach (8000), Giessen (7000). 
 
 The inhabitants are all Germans, with the exception of the 
 Jews, and of 2400 French. 
 
 With respect to religious differences, they are divided in the 
 three provinces as follows : 
 
 
 Protestants. 
 
 Catholics. 
 
 Mennonitcs. 
 
 Jews. 
 
 
 177 732 
 
 71 425 
 
 70 
 
 7 518 
 
 Rhine Hesse 
 
 87 695 
 
 93 764 
 
 871 
 
 7 329 
 
 
 251 260 
 
 12 699 
 
 354 
 
 7 327 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 516 687 
 
 m888 
 
 1 295 
 
 22 174 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 There are 3 superintendantships of the Protestant church, 41 
 deaneries, and 421 parishes. Of the Catholic church, there are 
 1 bishop, 17 deaneries, and 146 parishes. 
 
 There is 1 university at Giessen, which numbered in 1834-5, 
 292 students. There is an institution for foresters, a philological 
 seminary, an episcopal seminary, 7 gymnasiums, 2 seminaries for 
 
CH. XXVIII.] GRAND DUCHY OF HESSE. 411 
 
 schoolmasters, 4 mz/-schools, a military academy, and a school for 
 midwives. There are 16 schools of industry, and there is at 
 least one school in every parish. 
 
 During the three years 1833 1835, the annual revenue was 
 6,576,106 florins, including a sum of 166,648 florins from the 
 fund of reserve. 
 
 The expenditure was the same as the income; amongst its 
 items, the expense of the grand-ducal house and court was 762,877 
 florins, in which is included the civil list of the grand duke, 
 amounting to 581,000 florins ; the civil list of the heir-apparent 
 was 60,000 florins. 
 
 At the end of 1834, the public debt amounted to 11,564,377 
 florins, and according to the calculations of the minister of 
 finance, was to be reduced, at the end of 1835, to 10,235,845 
 florins. 
 
 The following table shows the strength and state of the army: 
 
 Time of Time of 
 War. Peace. 
 
 1. a. General Staff - 6 ... 6 
 b. Company of Sappers 90 ... 61 
 
 2. Cavalry. One Regiment of Light Horse - - 1328 ... 908 
 
 3. Artillery: 
 
 a. Staff .... 8 8 
 
 b. Horsemen - 67 5 7 
 
 c. Foot Artillery - - - 226 162 
 
 d. Drivers 339 121 
 
 4. Four Regiments of Infantry of the Line - - 7405 ... 4965 
 
 Total - - 9469 ... 6288 
 
 The contingent to the army of the confederation is 6195 men. 
 
 The government is a constitutional and hereditary monarchy, 
 founded on the charter of Dec. 17> 1820. Females are excluded 
 from the succession, so long as there is a male representative of 
 the ruling family whose claims are founded on relationship or 
 Erbverbriiderung. The representatives of the people form two 
 chambers. 
 
 The ministers are, a directing -minister (dirigirender minister), 
 a minister of foreign affairs, and of the grand-ducal house, a 
 
412 GRAND DUCHY OF HESSE. [SECT. II. 
 
 minister of the interior, and of justice, a minister of finance, and 
 a president of the war department. 
 
 The state-council is composed of two princes of the ruling 
 family, of several of the ministers, of state-councillors, and of 
 members who are elected for a year. 
 
 The chief officers of court are, a grand court-marshal, a grand 
 chamberlain, a grand equerry, a grand master of the court, and a 
 grand master of the ceremonies. 
 
413 
 
 CHAPTER XXIX. 
 THE LANDGRAVIATE OF HESSE-HOMBURG. 
 
 Ruling Family, Provinces and Population. Towns. Religion. 
 Private Property of the Landgrave. Budget. Army. Form 
 of Government. Minister. Officers of the Court. 
 
 THIS small state lies in the neighbourhood of Frankfort on the 
 Rhine, and has been latterly augmented in its domains through 
 the friendship of Austria. It is chiefly interesting to the 
 Englishman, as the residence of one of the most amiable of the 
 daughters of George III., who married the late landgrave, a 
 distinguished soldier. The present landgrave is Louis William 
 Frederic, born in 177> w h succeeded to the throne in 1829. 
 He married, in 1804, Augusta, princess of Nassau-Usingen, 
 from whom he was separated the succeeding year. He has no 
 children, but several brothers and sisters : his brother Frederic 
 Joseph, the late landgrave, was the husband of our Princess 
 Elizabeth. 
 
 The area of this state comprises 7' 84 German square miles, of 
 which 2- 25 are in the lordship of Homburg, and 5 <59 in the lordship 
 of Meisenheim. The population is 24,000 ; 8800 souls are in 
 Homburg, and 15,200 in Meisenheim. There are 3 towns, 1 
 market town, 31 villages, 27 hamlets, and 3270 houses. The 
 inhabitants are composed of 20,730 Germans, 1200 French and 
 Walloons, and 1050 Jews. In 1826, there were 14,000 members 
 of the reformed church, 6000 Lutherans, and 3000 Catholics. 
 The capital, Homburg, contains 3600 inhabitants ; the town of 
 Meisenheim, 2000. The landgrave is proprietor of the baili- 
 wicks of Winningen, Hotensleben, and Oebisfelde in Prussian 
 Saxony, and of some other private estates. 
 
 . The revenue is 180,000 florins, to which the Prussian baili- 
 wicks contribute 34,000. The public debt amounts to 450,000 
 
414 LANDGRAVIATE OF HESSE. [SECT. II. 
 
 florins* The contingent to the army of the confederacy is 200 
 men. 
 
 The government is a pure monarchy. The landgrave belongs 
 to the second principal line of the house of Hesse, by the family- 
 laws of which he is bound. In respect to the succession, the law 
 of primogeniture obtains. The ruling family is of the Lutheran 
 religion. 
 
 The only minister of importance is entitled director of the 
 government. 
 
 The chief officer of court is a grand equerry, who also per- 
 forms the functions of marshal. 
 
415 
 
 CHAPTER XXX. 
 
 THE DUCHY OF NASSAU. 
 
 Puling Family. Provinces and Population. Cultivation. Births and 
 Deaths in 1833. Principal Towns. Religion. Educational Insti- 
 tutions. Budget. Army. Form of Government. Ministers and 
 Officers of the Court. 
 
 THE ducal house of Nassau is of the Reformed church. The 
 present duke is William, born June 14, 1792 ; he succeeded to 
 the throne of Nassau- Weilburg in January, 1816, and to that of 
 Nassau-Usingen in March, of the same year. He married, firstly, 
 Louisa, princess of Saxe-Hildburghausen, who died in 1825, and, 
 secondly, Pauline, daughter of Prince Paul of Wurtemberg. 
 He has seven children, three sons, and four daughters. Adol- 
 phus, the crown-prince, was born July 24, 1817- 
 
 The duke has one brother, Frederic, who is in the Austrian 
 army, and three aunts, viz., Louisa, dowager princess of 
 Reuss-Greitz, Amelia, dowager princess of Anhalt-Bernburg- 
 Schaumburg, and Henrietta, widow of Duke Lewis of Wurtem- 
 berg. 
 
 The area of this duchy, not including the streams of all sizes, 
 is 82 i7 German square miles. 
 
 With respect to cultivation, the land is divided as follows : 
 6545 morgens (acres) are occupied by farm-yards ; ^4/^3 are gar- 
 dens ; 702,004 are ploughed land ; 196,120 are meadows ; 15,543 
 are vineries ; 1251 are ponds ; 7^6,377 are woods ; 106,981 are 
 triechsland and pasturage ; 40,247 are uncultivated, or are occu- 
 pied by roads, &c. 
 
 In 1833, there were 12,942 births, of which 6690 were males, 
 and 6252 females; 9063 persons died, i. e., 4557 males, and 
 4506 females. There were 3367 marriages. 
 
 The principal towns are, Wisbaden, which contains 9004 inha- 
 bitants, and Biberich, which contains 2859. The inhabitants are 
 
416 DUCHY OF NASSAU. [SECT. II. 
 
 all Germans, with the exception of the Jews, and of a few descen- 
 dants of French Protestants. With respect to religion, 190,387 
 of the inhabitants are Protestants, 167,800 Catholics, 184 Men- 
 nonites, and 6003 Jews. 
 
 There is one bishop of the Protestant church, 20 deaneries, 
 178 parishes, and one theological seminary (at Herborn). Of 
 the Catholic church, there are one bishop, and one episcopal com- 
 missariat, 15 deaneries, 133 parishes, and one theological seminary 
 (at Limburg). 
 
 There are three pedagogiums in Nassau, one gymnasium, one 
 seminary for schoolmasters, one institution for the deaf and dumb, 
 one agricultural school, two Real-schools, and one military 
 academy. There are 658 school-districts, in which there are 844 
 teachers. Mr. James, in his work on the educational institutions 
 of Germany, states that, in 1833, 66,535 scholars were instructed 
 in the schools of these districts, while about 500 youths were 
 educated in the higher government establishments, and a consi- 
 derable number in the private schools of Nassau, amongst which 
 are some of the best in Germany. This gives an average of about 
 one scholar to six of the population, 77 scholars to each teacher, 
 and 98 scholars to each school. 
 
 The annual revenue of the duchy is 1,810,000 florins. The 
 public debt amounts to 5,000,000 florins. The debt of the do- 
 mains, at the end of 1830, was 7>217jl54 florins. 
 
 The army consists of two regiments of infantry, one battalion 
 of artillery, half a company of pioneers, one battalion of reserve, 
 one garrison, and one drill company. 
 
 The contingent to the army of the confederacy is 3028 men. 
 
 The government is monarchical and constitutional. The 
 representatives are divided into two benches, the rights and pri- 
 vileges of which are established by the constitution of 1817- 
 The succession is hereditary, to the exclusion of females. 
 
 The ministry of state is composed of a minister of state, and of 
 three ministerial councillors. The council of state consists, at 
 present, of the grand huntsman, the ex-president of the supreme 
 court of appeal, the chief of the war department, the director- 
 general of the taxes, the vice-president of the chamber of accounts, 
 
CH. XXX.] 
 
 DUCHY OF NASSAU. 
 
 417 
 
 the president of the country government, the president and vice- 
 president of the supreme court of appeal. 
 
 The chief officers of court are, a grand huntsman, a grand 
 chamberlain, a grand equerry, and a marshal of the court. 
 
 The following is a view of the bailiwicks of the duchy, and of 
 their population : 
 
 
 Area in 
 Acres. 
 
 Population. 
 
 Towns. 
 
 Market 
 Towns. 
 
 Villages 
 
 Houses. 
 
 Braubacb. 
 
 47 f43 
 
 1 fl V^ 
 
 
 
 1 e 
 
 1 714 
 
 Diez 
 
 70 448 
 
 IQ 7Qn 
 
 
 
 SQ 
 
 lj/14 
 
 2201 
 
 .Dillenburf 
 
 no 9'-{K 
 
 1 *! 724 
 
 
 
 >A 
 
 2700 
 
 Eltville .*? 
 
 41 313 
 
 11 845 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 g 
 
 1 610 
 
 Hachenburo 1 
 
 71 881 
 
 11 003 
 
 1 
 
 
 53 
 
 1 782 
 
 Hadarnar 
 
 58 578 
 
 16 464 
 
 1 
 
 
 28 
 
 2 639 
 
 Herborn 
 
 98 436 
 
 14 593 
 
 2 
 
 
 40 
 
 2 570 
 
 Hochheim 
 
 48 372 
 
 12 141 
 
 I 
 
 j 
 
 15 
 
 2 111 
 
 Hochst 
 
 46 038 
 
 14 945 
 
 2 
 
 
 16 
 
 2 160 
 
 Idstein 
 
 92 400 
 
 16 072 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 29 
 
 2 698 
 
 Konio'stein 
 
 59 748 
 
 14 408 
 
 3 
 
 j 
 
 21 
 
 2 9 35 
 
 Langenschwalbach ... 
 Limburor ... 
 
 69,993 
 
 49 940 
 
 10,793 
 14 352 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 I 
 
 33 
 
 1,750 
 2 237 
 
 Marienberg 
 
 44 125 
 
 8 165 
 
 
 
 43 
 
 1 322 
 
 Montabaur 
 
 65 627 
 
 15 875 
 
 1 
 
 
 38 
 
 2 450 
 
 Nassau . . . 
 
 66 354 
 
 11 9 98 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 28 
 
 1 887 
 
 Nastatten 
 
 65 719 
 
 10 925 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 32 
 
 1 827 
 
 Reichelsheim 
 Rennerliod 
 
 4,921 
 57 338 
 
 1,327 
 13 404 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 34 
 
 241 
 2 171 
 
 Riidesheirn 
 
 57 435 
 
 12 137 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 10 
 
 1 663 
 
 Runkel 
 
 53 017 
 
 12 225 
 
 
 1 
 
 20 
 
 2 007 
 
 St. Goarshausen 
 Selters 
 
 54,787 
 73 537 
 
 10,711 
 14 8/6 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 2 
 
 23 
 
 50 
 
 1,918 
 2 475 
 
 Usin^en 
 
 125 515 
 
 19,938 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 47 
 
 3,327 
 
 \V^allmerod 
 
 59 527 
 
 13 271 
 
 
 2 
 
 63 
 
 2,247 
 
 Wehen 
 
 83 949 
 
 9 584 
 
 
 
 35 
 
 1 494 
 
 Weilburo- 
 
 94 428 
 
 16 725 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 36 
 
 2,769 
 
 Wiesbaden 
 
 55 727 
 
 19 246 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 12 
 
 2,338 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 1 812,541 
 
 370 374 
 
 31 
 
 36 
 
 816 
 
 58631 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2E 
 
418 
 
 CHAPTER XXXI. 
 THE GRAND DUCHY OF SAXE-WEIMAR-EISENACH. 
 
 Ruling Family. Provinces and Population. Principal Towns. Re- 
 ligion. Educational Institutions. Budget. Army. Form of 
 Government. Ministers. Diet. Officers of the Court. 
 
 THE grand-ducal house of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach is of the 
 Lutheran religion. The present grand duke is Charles Fre- 
 derick, born February 2, 1783, who succeeded his father, Charles 
 Augustus, June 14, 1828. He was married, August 3, 1804, to 
 Maria, a princess of the Russian imperial family. He has three 
 children, Maria, born 1808, married to Prince Charles of Prussia; 
 Augusta, born 1811, married to Prince William of Prussia ; and 
 Charles, the heir-apparent, born June 24, 1818. The duke has 
 one brother, Bernard, born May 30, 1792, a lieutenant-general 
 in the service of Holland, who was married in 1816 to Ida, prin- 
 cess of Saxe-Meiningen, by whom he has six children, four sons 
 and two daughters. 
 
 The following is a view of the provinces of this duchy, and 
 of their population : 
 
 
 Area in Geog. 
 Sq. Miles. 
 
 Population 
 1835. 
 
 Towns. 
 
 Market 
 Towns. 
 
 Villages. 
 
 Principality of \V~eirnar 
 
 45.93 
 
 163 317 
 
 25 
 
 4 
 
 486 
 
 a. Jena and Weimar Circle 
 b Neustadt 
 
 
 119,48 
 43 6G9 
 
 19 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 300 
 186 
 
 Principality of Eisenach 
 
 20-89 
 
 77,729 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 129| 
 
 Total 
 
 66 ' 2 
 
 241,046 
 
 33 
 
 12 
 
 615| 
 
 Of the entire population, 118,474 are males, and 122,572 
 females : 82,219 persons are married, 2945 live on alms, and 
 311 are deaf and dumb. There are 718 persons of more than 80 
 years of age. 
 
 The principal towns are, Weimar (11,000 inhabitants), Eisenach 
 (9270), and Jena (5792). 
 
 With the exception of the Jews, all the inhabitants are 
 
CH. XXXI. DUCHY OF SAXE-WEIMAR-EISENACH. 419 
 
 Germans. With respect to religion they are thus divided : 
 229,576 are Protestants, 9956 Catholics, and 1416 Jews. 
 
 There are 2 Protestant general-superintendantships, 24 dio- 
 ceses, and 294 parishes. There are 10 Catholic parishes and one 
 dean. 
 
 The university at Jena numbered 522 students in 1833. 
 There are 2 gymnasiums, 69 town-schools, 543 country-schools, 
 2 seminaries for schoolmasters, 2 drawing academies, 1 institution 
 for foresters, 1 school of art, 2 free trade-schools, and 2 schools 
 for midwives. 
 
 The yearly expenditure for the years 1836, 1837, and 1838 
 has been fixed at 637,636 dollars, 7 groschen, 1^ pfennigs. 
 The principal heads are as follows : 
 
 Dol. Gr. Pf. 
 
 Salaries of Officials - - - 103,899 18 0| 
 
 Costs of Administration - 30,550 17 1| 
 
 Extraordinary expenditure in extra-salaries and pensions, &c. 92,084 13 10| 
 Contributions to the church and schools - 41,830 19 10| 
 
 Establishments and institutions of general utility - 22,795 5 
 
 The Diet 3,400 
 
 The Army ...... 99,000 
 
 Laufender Etappen-Aufivand* - - - 1,000 
 
 ;" Interest, &c., of the Public Debt - 170,000 
 
 Tax-gathering ..... 33,741 7 3 
 
 The introduction and administration of the customs, and! 
 
 > JJ,5o4 15 1 
 brandy-tax .... - J 
 
 Agio-loss and extras ... - 34,300 
 
 For the Reserre-fund - G,000 
 
 The revenue amounts to 749,845 dollars, 1 groschen, and 
 7f pfennigs, but if we add to this, the revenue of the domains, 
 which amounts in round numbers to 680,000 dollars, the entire 
 revenue of the duchy is, 1,429,845 dollars, 1 groschen, and 
 7-f- pfennigs. 
 
 The principal items of the revenue are the following: 
 
 Dol. Gr. Pf. 
 
 Balance in hand (Kassen-vorrath) ... 110,000 
 
 Old land-tax - 162,094 12 C| 
 
 The Customs - 154,694 19 Gi 
 
 * Meaning unknown. 
 
 2 E 2 
 
420 DUCHY OF SAXE-WEIMAR-EISENACH. [SECT. II. 
 
 Dol. Gr. Pf. 
 
 Compound taxes 2,624 18 7 1 
 
 Tax on brandy ..... 79,367 21 3J 
 Produce of the salt-works, card-monopoly, malting-] 
 
 houses, tobacco-fields, and vineries -{ 
 
 Universal direct tax on land and incomes - - 151,034 5 2f 
 
 Agio-gain, and fines, rents, and etceteras - 3,629 611 
 
 The public debt amounts to 3,500,000 dollars ; the exchequer 
 (Kammer) debt to 1,000,000 dollars. 
 
 The army consists of 1 regiment of infantry, and 1 corps of 
 hussars. The contingent to the army of the confederacy is 
 2010 men. 
 
 The government is monarchical and constitutional ; the repre- 
 sentatives form only one chamber. The grand duke, who is the 
 head of the Ernestinian house of Saxony, has several rights in 
 common with its other princes, with whom, and the king of 
 Saxony, he is also united by a family contract (Hausverband). 
 Females are excluded from the succession, which is hereditary. 
 
 The ministry of state consists of the minister of justice, home 
 affairs, foreign affairs, police, ecclesiastical affairs, public instruc- 
 tion and war; of the minister of finance, of a privy-councillor, and 
 of two referendaries ; consequently, of only five persons. 
 
 The diet consists of 31 deputies, of whom, 1 is chosen by the 
 University of Jena, 1 by the mediatized nobles : the possessors of 
 seignorial estates choose 9 ; the towns 10 ; and the peasants 10. 
 
 The chief officers of court are, a grand chamberlain, 2 grand 
 equerries, a grand huntsman, a grand marshal, a grand cup- 
 bearer, and a grand mistress of the court of her imperial highness 
 the grand duchess. 
 
 This small state has acquired celebrity throughout the civilized 
 world, from the home which it afforded to the most eminent of 
 the German writers ; for this advantage it was indebted to the 
 wise liberality of the reigning family, who, in securing the pre- 
 sence of Herder, Goethe, and Schiller, conferred the most sub- 
 stantial benefits on their subjects, and in every sense, enriched 
 them. 
 
421 
 
 CHAPTER XXXII. 
 THE DUCHY OF SAXE-COBURG-GOTHA. 
 
 Ruling Family. Provinces and Population. Principal Towns. Edu- 
 cational Institutions. Budget. Form of Government. Ministers. 
 Administration of Justice. Officers of the Court. Sketch of the 
 recent History of this Duchy. Physical Character of the Country ; 
 Products ; Manufactures; Exports. The Town of Colurg. The 
 Town of Gotha. Fortunes of the Reigning Family. 
 
 COBURG is a country which has been as yet little visited by travel- 
 lers, because it does not lie in the course of the great roads ; but 
 the fine scenery, the unsophisticated and original old German tone 
 of manners, the economical mode of living, and the celebrity of its 
 reigning family, will probably gradually attract many strangers. 
 
 The ducal house of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha is of the Lutheran 
 religion. The reigning duke is Ernest, born January 2, 1784, 
 who succeeded to the throne, December 9, 1806. He was married, 
 first, to Louisa, princess of Saxe-Gotha, from whom he was 
 separated in 1826, and who died in 1832, and, secondly, in 1832, 
 to Maria, daughter of the late Duke Alexander of Wurtemberg. 
 He has two sons: Ernest, the heir apparent, born June 21, 1818; 
 and Albert, born the succeeding year. Of his two sisters, Julia, 
 married to Prince Constantine of Russia, from whom she was 
 divorced in 1820, is dead; the other is Victoria, duchess of 
 Kent, born August 17? 1786 : he has also two brothers, Ferdi- 
 nand, born 1785, and Leopold, king of the Belgians, born 1790. 
 The former has three sons and one daughter; the eldest son, 
 Ferdinand, is married to Donna Maria, queen of Portugal. 
 
 The following is a view of the provinces of the duchy and of 
 their population : 
 
 Principality of Coburg . 
 Principality of Gotha. . 
 
 Area in Geog. 
 Sq. Miles. 
 
 Population, 
 1832. 
 
 Towns. 
 
 Market 
 Towns. 
 
 Villages. 
 
 Houses. 
 
 9.50 
 28' 10 
 
 38,000 
 92,231 
 
 4 
 5 
 
 4 
 6 
 
 271 
 158 
 
 5,700 
 18,250 
 
 37. 60 
 
 130,231 
 
 9 
 
 101 
 
 429 
 
 23,950 
 
422 DUCHY OF SAXE-COBURG-GOTHA. [SECT. II. 
 
 According to the latest census, the entire population amounts 
 to 131,861. 
 
 The principal towns are, Gotha (13,006 inhabitants), and 
 Coburg (9067). With the exception of the Jews, all the 
 inhabitants are Germans, and all are Lutherans, except 2000 
 Catholics and 1000 Jews. 
 
 In this duchy, there are three gymnasiums and classical schools, 
 one academical gymnasium, two seminaries for schoolmasters, one 
 ladies 1 school (at Coburg), 35 town schools, and 300 village 
 schools. 
 
 The revenue is 1,100,000 florins. The public debt amounts 
 to 3,000,000 florins. The contingent to the army of the confe- 
 deracy is 1366 men. 
 
 The government is a constitutional monarchy : the represen- 
 tatives form one chamber only. Gotha, however, has still its 
 old diet (three classes in one chamber). The qualification to vote 
 for a deputy of the nobles is constituted by the possession of a 
 seignorial estate (Rittergut). For the deputies of towns, every 
 citizen is entitled to vote who has never been a bankrupt, and 
 who has not been punished for transgression of the laws. 
 
 In the villages, the householders form the constituency. The 
 deputies must be of the Christian religion, citizens of the state, 
 thirty years of age, and men of unblemished reputation. Those 
 of the towns and villages must have either an estate free from 
 incumbrances, worth 5000 florins, or an annual income of 400 
 florins. Officers of the government appointed for the purpose, 
 superintend the election of the knights and of the citizens ; in the 
 villages, the elections are superintended by the ordinary officials. 
 
 The ministry is composed of one minister of state, and of three 
 privy-councillors. 
 
 The highest court of j ustice is the supreme court of appeal ; 
 the lower courts are the colleges of justice at Coburg and Gotha ; 
 and finally, throughout the country, justice is administered by 
 bailiffs, magistrates, and patrimonial judges. 
 
 The chief officers of the court are, a first marshal of the court, 
 and a grand equerry. 
 
 The present duke of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, was formerly duke 
 
CH. XXXII.] DUCHY OF SAXE-COBURG-GOTHA. 423 
 
 of Saxe-Coburg and Saalfeld, but, in 1826, he ceded the latter, 
 and obtained the duchy of Gotha, with the exception of the 
 lordship of Kranichfeld. After this change of territory, one of 
 the first acts of his government was the creation of a privy-council, 
 consisting of the officers of government both in Coburg and 
 Gotha. A decree of October 30, 1828, established in each duchy 
 a separate college of justice, which takes cognizance of matri- 
 monial matters, formerly falling under the jurisdiction of the 
 consistorial court. Each duchy has its own system of internal 
 administration, taxation and excise. On the other hand, for 
 both Coburg and Gotha, there is only one high consistorial courfc 
 for ecclesiastical affairs and for public instruction, and only one 
 war-office. According to the new regulations, the fees which 
 were formerly claimed by the officials are now the property of the 
 state. In 1830, a journal was established for the more prompt 
 promulgation of laws and edicts. On the 1st of July, 1829, the 
 army was re-organized, so that the soldiers of both duchies (1366 
 in number) were made to form one infantry regiment of the line, 
 divided into two battalions. 
 
 The funds for the preservation and increase of the books, 
 pictures, and coins at Gotha, have been lately enlarged. The 
 government has particularly distinguished itself in encouraging 
 trade and commerce. Monopolies were abolished in Coburg, so 
 early as 1812; in Gotha, in 1829. Exhibitions of home products, 
 and trade schools, have been established ; and all impediments 
 to commerce have been removed. 
 
 The French revolution of 1830, produced a temporary sensa- 
 tion in Coburg and Gotha, which led to no important results. 
 But in the distant principality of Lichtenberg, which had been 
 ceded to the duke, by the congress of Vienna, in 1816, its effects 
 were such as not only to disquiet the inhabitants, but also to 
 weaken the moral force of the government. Awakened by these 
 circumstances to a sense of the difficulty of governing a separate 
 territory, inhabited by a restless population, the duke of Saxe- 
 Coburg-Gotha has since sold the principality of Lichtenberg to 
 the king of Prussia. 
 
 In this duchy, no preference is given to birth in electing 
 
424* DUCHY OF SAXE-COBUlUi-GOTHA. [SECT. II. 
 
 officers of state. Difference of religion does not affect the equal 
 enjoyment of political rights. Every citizen is bound to serve for 
 a certain period in the army, should he be chosen by lot, or to 
 find a substitute. No citizen can remain in arrest for the space 
 of twenty-four hours without being informed of the cause of his 
 apprehension. 
 
 The territories of the duke of Gotha lie in Thuringia ; they 
 are extremely fertile, well cultivated, and thickly populated. 
 Agriculture is their principal source of prosperity. The northern 
 districts are plains, intersected by chains of hills ; the south is 
 mountainous and woody. 
 
 The principal products are corn, potatoes, carrots, and other 
 vegetables, flax, poppies, aniseed, woad, and an immense quantity 
 of wood, which is the staple article. A few hops are grown ; 
 there is not much fruit, and the wine is only made for vinegar. 
 There are plenty of pigs and poultry, but the horses are of an 
 inferior breed. The country contains mines of iron, manganese, 
 coal and slate. There are numerous worsted-spinners and linen- 
 weavers, particularly in the hilly districts. There are also woollen 
 and cotton manufactories, but they are not very numerous. Other 
 articles of manufacture are, iron- ware, wire, copper goods, stock- 
 ings, tobacco, glue, leather, and soap. There are five paper-mills, 
 three porcelain, and three hardware manufactories. 
 
 The exports are corn, wood, wool, woad, manganese, pitch, 
 potash, bilberries, coriander-seeds, aniseed, butter, linen, iron 
 goods, sausages, and livers of geese. 
 
 Coburg, the capital of the principality of Coburg, and 
 formerly the residence of the duke, is situated in a delightful 
 country; it contains more than 800 houses, and about 9000 
 inhabitants. One of the most prominent public buildings is the 
 palace of Ehrenburg, in which the present duke has made 
 large improvements. It now contains a library, a cabinet of 
 natural history, of medals and prints, and an armoury. In the 
 neighbourhood of the town is the castle of Coburg, which con- 
 tains a workhouse, and a house of correction. In the town itself 
 is a gymnasium, supplied with a library, with specimens of 
 natural history, and medals. There are a senate house, an orphan 
 
CH. XXXIL] DUCHY OF SAXE-COBUIIG-GOTHA. 425 
 
 asylum, a casino, an armoury, and a government house, built in 
 an Italian style of architecture. Amongst the curiosities of the 
 place are Luther's room, which contains some beautiful wood- 
 work, and the alabaster monument of Duke John Frederic, in 
 the church of St. Maurice. The principal places of amusement 
 are the theatre, the casino, the redoute, and the musical club. 
 In the neighbourhood, are the beautiful old and new walks, the 
 ruins of the castles of Callenberg and Lauterburg, and the lovely 
 seat of the duke, the Rosenau. 
 
 Gotha, the capital of the duchy of Gotha, and also a residence 
 of the present duke, contains about 1300 houses, and 13,000 
 inhabitants. The palace of Friedenstein contains a very good 
 library, a collection of coins, a museum of natural history, a 
 Chinese cabinet, a picture gallery, and remarkable collections 
 made by the late duke, the whole forming a treasure of litera- 
 ture and art, such as few moderate towns can boast of. In 1824, 
 the museum which was given to the country by the late duke, 
 Frederic, was opened. The ducal libraries contain 150,000 
 volumes. The walls and fortifications of the town have been 
 changed into ornamental walks. Near the town is the observa- 
 tory on the Seeberg, 1189 feet above the level of the sea. In the 
 neighbourhood, too, is the palace of Friedreichsthal, containing 
 some valuable monuments of Italian art, and the Orangery and 
 Park, where the Dukes Ernest and Augustus are buried. 
 
 The chief places of amusement and public resort here, are the 
 theatre, ball-rooms, and public gardens. In the neighbourhood 
 of Gotha are, two ducal palaces, and the Moravian colony of 
 Neudietendorf. 
 
 The house of Saxe-Coburg is indisputably the most fortunate 
 of all the existing great families of Europe. No common lot has 
 attended them in our time, and they appear destined to fill a 
 remarkable place in modern history. The reigning duke has 
 succeeded to the inheritance of the duchy of Saxe-Gotha, which 
 he enjoys in addition to his original sovereignty of Coburg. 
 His brother, Leopold, was born under an extraordinary star ; 
 he first married the heiress to the British throne, and subse- 
 quently a daughter of the king of the French ; two ladies not 
 
426 DUCHY OF SAXE-COBURG-GOTHA. [SECT. II. 
 
 less amiable than elevated ; and, after declining the throne of 
 Greece, he has been chosen king of Belgium. One sister es- 
 poused the Archduke Constantine of Russia, and thus in the 
 ordinary course of events would have become empress of all the 
 Russias. The history of another sister, the duchess of Kent, is 
 too well known to require comment ; she is the mother of the 
 queen of England. Another brother has married one of the 
 greatest heiresses of the Austrian empire, the daughter of the 
 prince of Kohary, and occupies the high post of lieutenant field- 
 marshal, in the service of the emperor. Finally, a nephew of the 
 duchess of Kent is the reigning king of Portugal. An impar- 
 tial review of the progress of this distinguished family compels 
 us to add, that it does not owe its success to unworthy intrigue ; 
 its members bear their great estate with prudence, with good 
 sense, and with moderation ; and their domestic qualities form 
 an antidote to the venom which generally pursues a career of 
 success. 
 
427 
 
 CHAPTER XXXIII. 
 
 THE DUCHY OF SAXE-ALTENBURG. 
 
 Ruling Family. Provinces and Population, 
 gion. Educational Institutions. 
 Ministers and Officers of the Court. 
 
 Principal Towns. Hell- 
 Form of Government. 
 
 THE ducal house of Saxe-Altenburg is of the Lutheran religion. 
 The present duke, Joseph, born in 1789, succeeded his father 
 in 1834. He married, in 1817> Amelia, daughter of Duke Lewis 
 of Wurtemberg, by whom he has four daughters. He has two 
 sisters: Charlotte and Theresa, the former married to Duke Paul 
 of Wurtemberg ; the latter to the king of Bavaria : and three 
 brothers: George, married to Princess Maria of Mecklenburg- 
 Schwerin ; Frederick ; and Edward, married to a princess of 
 Hohenzollern- Sigmaringen . 
 
 The following is a view of the divisions of the duchy, and of 
 their population : 
 
 
 Area in 
 Geog. Sq. 
 Miles. 
 
 Population. 
 
 Towns. 
 
 Market 
 Towns. 
 
 Villages. 
 
 Houses. 
 
 1 . East-half of Altenburg. . . . 
 2. West-half of Altenburg... 
 
 
 
 72,629 
 41,048 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 23 ' 41 
 
 113,677 
 
 8 
 
 2 
 
 458 
 
 19,856 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 According to the latest census, the duchy contains 117,921 
 inhabitants. 
 
 The principal towns are, Altenburg (12,629 inhabitants), Ron- 
 neburg (4640), and Eisenberg (4605). 
 
 The inhabitants are all Germans, except 10,443 Vandals, who, 
 however, are now quite Germanized. There are 150 Catholics 
 in this state ; all the rest of the population is Lutheran. 
 
 There are a general superintendant, 6 special superintendants, 
 130 churches, and 79 filiale, or chapels of ease. 
 
428 DUCHY OF SAXE-ALTENBURG. [SECT. II. 
 
 There is a gymnasium, a lyceum, 8 town-schools, a girls 1 - 
 school ; an institution for the daughters of noble families, a semi- 
 nary for schoolmasters, a school for drawing, and one for trade 
 and art. 
 
 The revenue amounts to 682,560 florins, of which 370,800 
 florins are contributed by the taxes. The exchequer debt 
 amounts to 399,015 florins; the public debt to 1,440,000 florins. 
 The contingent to the army of the confederacy is 982 men. 
 
 The government is a monarchy, which is limited by a diet, 
 consisting of deputies of nobles, citizens, and peasants. 
 
 The ministers are, a president of the chamber of finance, a 
 president of the consistory, and a president of the government. 
 
 The chief officers of court are, a grand huntsman, a grand 
 marshal, and a grand equerry. 
 
429 
 
 CHAPTER XXXIV. 
 THE DUCHY OF SAXE-MEININGEN-HILDBURGHAUSEN. 
 
 Ruling Family. Provinces and Population. Principal Towns. Reli- 
 gion. Educational Institutions. Budget. Form of Government. 
 Diet. Administration. Historical Sketch of the Ducal line of 
 Saxe-Meiningen. Nature and Products of the Country. Town of 
 Meiningen. 
 
 MEININGEN is a sweet and secluded country of Germany, 
 standing almost in the centre of that land, and, like Coburg, only 
 little known to travellers through its distance from the great 
 capitals. To English families, who deem it necessary to seek a 
 foreign residence, or the means of a good education, remote from 
 the seductions of crowded cities, the principal town of this duchy 
 offers some advantages ; and there, also, they will find the unal- 
 loyed German character. 
 
 The following is a view of the provinces and population of the 
 duchy of Meiningen, as given in the Weimar Almanack, for 1836: 
 
 
 Area in 
 Geog. Sq. 
 Miles. 
 
 Population. 
 
 Towns. 
 
 Market 
 Towns. 
 
 Villages. 
 
 Houses. 
 
 Dukedom of Meiningen 
 
 21-52 
 
 77,560 
 
 n 
 
 11 
 
 179 
 
 11,710 
 
 a. Unterland with Rom-1 
 hild and Thamar...J 
 
 16-54 
 
 55,970 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 105 
 
 9,120 
 
 b. Oberland with parts) 
 
 4-98 
 
 21,590 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 74 
 
 2,590 
 
 Dukedom of Hildburghausen 
 
 9 .35 
 
 28,472 
 
 10 
 
 4 
 
 110 
 
 9,900 
 
 Principality of Saalfeld 
 County of Kamburg 
 
 g.13 
 
 2 .07 
 
 25,219 
 8,126 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 92 
 44 
 
 3,760 
 1,430 
 
 Lordship of Kranichfeld 
 
 85 
 
 2,687 
 
 i 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 495 
 
 Total 
 
 41-92 
 
 142,064 
 
 22| 
 
 17 
 
 431 
 
 27,295 
 
 The present duke of Meiningen, is Bernard (E. F.), who was 
 born December 17, 1800, and under his mother's guardianship, 
 succeeded his father, December 24, 1803, and assumed the 
 reins of government, December 17, 1821. He was married 
 March 23, 1825, to Maria (F. W. C-), princess of the electorate 
 of Hesse, by whom he has a son, George, born April 2, 1826. 
 
430 DUCHY OF SAXK-MEININGEN. [SECT. II. 
 
 Duke Bernard has two sisters: Adelaide, the queen-dowager of 
 England, who was born August 13th, 1793; and Ida, born June 
 25, 1794, who is married to Duke Bernard of Weimar. 
 
 The following are the principal towns : Meiningen, the capital, 
 containing 6000 inhabitants ; Saalfeld, containing 4500 ; Hild- 
 burghausen 3500 ; Posneck 3500 ; Sonneberg and Eisfeld, each 
 3000. 
 
 The inhabitants are all Germans, with the exception of 1030 
 Jews. With respect to religion, they are divided into 140,200 
 Lutherans, 450 Catholics, and 384 members of the Reformed 
 church, and 1030 Jews. 
 
 There are 3 gymnasiums and classical schools, a seminary for 
 schoolmasters, a school for foresters, 17 town schools, and 212 
 village schools. 
 
 The following is the budget of the duchy of Meiningen for the 
 year commencing April 1, 1835: 
 
 I. REVENUE. 
 
 A. From the Domains : Florins. 
 
 1. The Ducal Estates - 105,332 
 
 2. Dues and Duties 159,539 
 
 3. Administration of the Forests and Hunts 276,605 
 
 4. From different sources - 10,141 
 
 5. From Arrears 5,250 
 
 Florins 556,867 
 
 B. From Taxation, &c. : 
 
 1. Amount of Direct Taxes - 240,152 
 
 2. Amount of Indirect ditto 403,146 
 
 3. Regalien 8,280 
 
 4. From different sources 38,715 
 
 5. From Arrears - - 4,500 
 
 694,792 
 
 Fl. 1,251,659 
 
 II. EXPENDITURE. 
 
 Florins. 
 
 Expense of the Court - 183,000 
 
 Of the Diet - - - 9,335 
 
 Of the department of the Minister of the Interior 14,759 
 
 Of the College of Privy-Councillors 5,814 
 
 Of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs - - 9,307 
 
 Of the General Administration - - - 60,669 
 
CH. XXXIV.] 
 
 DUCHY OF SAXE-MEININGEN. 
 
 431 
 
 Florins. 
 
 Expense of Roads and Bridges 66,092 
 
 Of Medical Establishments - - 9,392 
 
 Of the Army - 57,425 
 
 Of the Corps of Chasseurs - - 14,605 
 
 Of the Administration of Justice - - 73,987 
 
 Of Ecclesiastical Affairs, and of Public Instruction 46,150 
 
 Of the Administration of Finance in General - 50,643 
 
 Of ditto in the Domains .... 44,141 
 
 Of ditto of the Revenues - - - 36,024 
 
 Of ditto of the Forests - - - 79,247 
 
 Of the Exchequer - - - 10,372 
 
 Of Buildings - - - - - 40,525 
 
 Of the School for Foresters - - 4,181 
 
 Of Prisons, &c. .... 10,000 
 
 The Education Chest - - - - * 1,800 
 
 Gratuities ------- 113,858 
 
 Interest and paying off of the Debt - 280,368 
 
 Administration of ditto - - 4,965 
 
 Reserve .... 25,000 
 
 Fl. 1,251,659 
 
 The national debt of the duchy of Meiningen amounts to 
 5,303,556 florins. The contingent to the army of the confe- 
 deracy is 1150 men. 
 
 The government is a constitutional monarchy ; the new funda- 
 mental law is dated August 23, 1829. The diet is composed of 
 24 members, 8 chosen from the class of seignorial land-owners 
 (Rittergutsbesitxer)) 8 from the class of citizens, and 8 from 
 that of peasants. It must be convoked once in three years, and 
 can be convoked only by the duke. During the recesses, the 
 functions of the diet are exercised by its marshal, two presidents, 
 and syndicus. A substitute for a deputy is always chosen with 
 the latter. All independent fathers of families are voters, such 
 at least, who are Christians, and who fulfil the duties of a 
 citizen. A candidate for the representation of a town, or of the 
 peasants, besides possessing the qualities of a voter, must pay 15 
 dollars in direct taxes, annually. The deputies of the landed 
 proprietors must be twenty-five years old. On the motion of any 
 deputy, the votes of the diet may be given secretly. 
 
 The government of the country consists of the duke, his 
 
432 DUCHY OF SAXK-MEININGEK. [SfiCT. II. 
 
 ministry, the diet, and the privy-council, consisting of four mem- 
 bers. By a decree, dated November 25, 1823, the administration 
 was divided into four departments : first, into that of the govern- 
 ment, properly so called, comprehending general policy, domestic 
 and foreign ; secondly, into that of the supreme court for the 
 administration of justice; the third department is that of the 
 consistorial court ; and the fourth, that of the exchequer. 
 
 The officers of the court are, "a grand chamberlain, a grand 
 huntsman, a vice-grand equerry, and a marshal of the court. 
 
 The founder of the ducal line of Saxe-Meiningen was Bernard, 
 third son of Ernest the Pious, duke of Gotha, at the division of 
 whose territories in 1680, he obtained Meiningen, the seventh 
 part, valued at 16,137 florins annually. This prince was twice 
 married, and had twelve children. His eldest son, Lewis, had 
 five children, but they left no male heir, and the succession 
 devolved upon Antony Ulrich, his youngest son, by a princess of 
 Brunswick-Wolfenbuttel, in 1746. Duke Anthony Ulrich had 
 eight children by a princess of Hesse-Philipsthal, and at his 
 death, in 1763, was succeeded by his eldest son, Augustus. This 
 prince dying without male issue in July 1782, was succeeded by 
 his next surviving brother, George Frederic Charles, who married 
 Louisa, princess of Hohenlohe-Langenburg. The offspring of this 
 marriage were, the present duke of Meiningen, Adelaide, queen- 
 dowager of England, and Ida, duchess of Weimar. Duke 
 George died in 1803, and left his duchess unrestricted regent of 
 his hereditary states, and sole guardian of their infant children. 
 The good sense, sound discretion, and firmness with which that 
 excellent lady ruled her people, and the strong and solid 
 religious principles in which she educated her children, are 
 sufficient proofs that the confidence of the duke had not been 
 misplaced. This estimable princess died April 30, 1837, in her 
 seventy-fourth year. 
 
 The original heritage of Duke Bernard in 1680, only compre- 
 hended ten square miles ; but it had been increased, by successive 
 acquisitions, to eighteen square miles, when a division of the 
 dukedom of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg was made in 1825. On this 
 occasion, the duke of Meiningen obtained the bailiwick of Rom- 
 
CH. XXXIV.] DUCHY OF SAXE-MEININGEN. 433 
 
 hild, several Coburg bailiwicks and towns, the duchy of Hild- 
 burghausen, Kamburg, Kranichfeld, and some other smaller 
 places. 
 
 At this period, there were five different constitutions in the 
 duchy of Meiningen. In Meiningen itself, the duke had granted 
 a new one in 1824, but both Hildburghausen and the Coburg 
 provinces had constitutions of their own. In the bailiwick 
 Kranichfeld, the constitution of Gotha, and in the bailiwick 
 Kamburg, that of Altenburg was in force. The system of admi- 
 nistration in these different provinces was equally distinct. In order 
 to obviate these discrepancies, and to place all his territories under 
 one form of government, the duke of Meiningen first appointed 
 a commission, and subsequently summoned the privy-councillor 
 Schmid, a professor at Jena, to his assistance. The plans and 
 whole system of the latter are contained in a series of edicts, and 
 in a new fundamental law of August 29, 1829. The constitution 
 of the higher offices of government presents nothing remarkable. 
 The privy council forms a kind of legislative committee, of which 
 foreigners of talent and distinction may also be members. The 
 great number of provincial judgeships have been abolished, or 
 united to those of the towns. The penal law is administered 
 by the ordinary judges, and the excise officers are their own 
 police. 
 
 The territory of Meiningen is composed of mountains and 
 valleys. In some parts where the Black Forest extends, and where 
 the Thuringian forest joins the Fichtelgebirge, it is extremely 
 rough and uncultivated. The growth of corn does not equal the 
 demand, and it is therefore imported from Bavaria. The chief 
 products of the country are potatoes, flax, tobacco, some hops 
 and turnip-seed, good fruit, and an immense quantity of wood, 
 which is a staple article. There are iron-mines, yielding 17,000 
 cwt. yearly, salt-works, and marble-pits. 
 
 The articles of manufacture are porcelain, glasses, colours, 
 potash, and slates. The principal exports are iron-ware, slates, 
 mill-stones, tobacco, salt, and wood. 
 
 The capital of this duchy is the town of Meiningen, which 
 contains 600 houses, and 6000 inhabitants. It boasts of three 
 
 2r 
 
434 DUCHY OF SAXE-MEININGEN. [&ECT. II. 
 
 palaces, a theatre, built in 1831, a senate-house, in which there 
 is a public library, a riding-school, a park, and an orangery. 
 There is also a library belonging to the duke, a museum of 
 natural history, a collection of coins, pictures, and prints ; also, 
 the Bentinck-Donop cabinet of antiquities. 
 
 The other public buildings are, the Casino or club-house, the 
 new gymnasium, and new hospital. There are beautiful walks 
 in the park, and in the whole neighbourhood ; the former is si 
 leagues in circumference. 
 
 The other principal towns in this state are, Saalfeld, remark- 
 able for its lyceum, mint, and manufactures, with a population of 
 about 4000; Sonnenberg, with 2400, famous for its cheap toys 
 and other fancy articles, very extensively exported; Poesneck, 
 with 3000 inhabitants, and a porcelain manufactory ; Dreis- 
 sigacker, noted for its forest-school; Liebenstein, and a few 
 others. 
 
 Meiningen is remarkable, in modern times, as the birth-place of 
 Adelaide, the queen- do wager of England, who is equally dear to 
 the countrymen whom she quitted in her youth, as to the subjects 
 among whom she has since become naturalized. In an age in 
 which a certain class of writers are so eager to sneer at royalty, it 
 is gratifying to hold forth the character of this illustrious woman, 
 against whom the genius of malice has never been able to propa- 
 gate a calumny. To more authentic and more popular voices 
 than my own, I shall intrust the record of her character. The 
 following is a brief extract from the " Conversations-Lexikon," a 
 work notoriously written on what is called the liberal side. 
 
 " From her childhood quiet and unostentatious, she spent the 
 greatest portion of her time in the cultivation of her mind ; but 
 in the circle of her family, she was always animated and cheerful. 
 Her aversion to vain show, and to the follies of the gay world, 
 increased as she grew older, and she manifested the most decided 
 opposition to the moral laxity and irreligion which at one time 
 were countenanced at several German courts. Together with her 
 mother, she was extremely active in establishing and superintend- 
 ing schools for the lower classes, and in alleviating the distresses 
 of the poor both in the capital and throughout the country. She 
 
CH. XXXIV.] DUCHY OF SAXE-MEININGEN. 435 
 
 was the soul of every institution which had the good of her fellow- 
 creatures for its object*." 
 
 A later tribute was delivered by the archbishop of Canterbury, 
 at a public meeting held soon after the death of William IV. 
 I am happy in having an opportunity of rescuing such impres- 
 sive words from a fugitive newspaper. 
 
 " It is not many days since I attended on his late Ma- 
 jesty during the few last hours of his life, and truly it was 
 an edifying sight to witness the patience with which he endured 
 sufferings the most oppressive ; his thankfulness to the Almighty 
 for any alleviations under the most painful disorders ; his sense 
 of each care paid him ; the absence of all expressions of im- 
 patience; his assiduity in the discharge of every public duty 
 to the utmost of his power; his attention to every paper 
 that was brought to him ; the serious state of his mind, and 
 his devotion to his religious duties preparatory to his departure 
 for that happy world to which he hoped that he had been 
 summoned. Three different times," said his Grace, "was I 
 called into his presence the day before his dissolution. He 
 received the sacrament first ; on my second summons I read the 
 church service to him, and the third time, it appeared that the 
 oppression under which he laboured prevented him from joining 
 outwardly in the service, though he appeared sensible of the conso- 
 lations which I read to him out of our religious service. For three 
 weeks prior to his dissolution, the queen had sat by his bedside, 
 performing for him every office which a sick man could require, 
 and depriving herself of all manner of rest and refection. She 
 underwent labours which I thought no ordinary woman could 
 endure. No language can do justice to her meekness, and to the 
 calmness of mind which she sought to maintain before the king, 
 while sorrow was preying on her heart. Such constancy of affec 
 tion was, I think, one of the most interesting spectacles that could 
 be presented to a mind desirous of being gratified with the sight 
 of human excellence. 1 ' 
 
 * See the article " Adelaide," in the " Conversations-Lexikon der Neuesten 
 Zeit und Literatur," vol. i. 
 
 2F2 
 
436 
 
 CHAPTER XXXV. 
 THE GRAND DUCHY OF MECKLENBURG-STRELITZ. 
 
 The Ruling Family. Provinces and Population. Principal Towns. 
 Births and Deaths in 1835. Educational Institutions. Budget. 
 Army. Form, of Government. Officers of Government, and of 
 the Court. Nature of the Country. Manufactures. Religion. 
 Public Instruction. Administration of Justice. 
 
 THE ruling family of Mecklenburg-Strelitz is of the Protes- 
 tant religion. The present grand duke is George, born August 
 12, 1779? who succeeded to the throne, Nov. 6, 1816, and was 
 married, in 1817? to Maria, daughter of the Landgrave Frederic 
 of Hesse-Cassel, by whom he has two sons and two daughters ; 
 Frederic, the heir-apparent, was born Oct. 17* 1819. The duke 
 has two sisters, Theresa, princess of Thurn and Taxis, and 
 Frederica, queen of Hanover; and one brother, Charles, a 
 general of infantry in the Prussian service. 
 
 The grand duchy comprises an area of 36. 13 square miles; 
 viz., of 29' 60 in the duchy of Strelitz, and 6 >5 in the principality 
 of Ratzeburg. The population at the end of 1835, was 85,257- 
 There are 9 towns, of which New Strelitz contains 5767 inhabi- 
 tants, New Brandenburg 6003, Friedland 4433, and Old Strelitz 
 3089 ; there are also 2 market-towns, 219 villages, (in 135 of 
 which, there are churches), 245 ducal estates and domains, and 
 65 allodial and feudal estates. In 1835, there were 1118 male, 
 and 1127 female births ; 850 deaths of males, and 762 of females ; 
 and 571 marriages, in the duchy of Strelitz. Of the births, 259 
 were illegitimate. In the principality of Ratzeburg, there were 
 544 births, of which, 63 were illegitimate; 388 deaths, and 105 
 marriages. 
 
 There are three classical, and 11 Real-schools, and one for 
 parish clerks, which is also a seminary for country-schoolmasters. 
 
 The revenue is 500,000 florins ; the public debt is joined to 
 that of Schwerin ; the amount of the exchequer-debt is not known. 
 
CH. XXXV.] MKCKLENBURG-STHKLITZ. 437 
 
 The army is composed of 7 42 men. who form a battalion of 
 infantry, and a commando of hussars; the contingent to the 
 army of the confederacy is 7^7 m ^n. 
 
 The government is monarchical, and exactly similar to that of 
 Schwerin, conjointly with the diet of which its representatives form 
 one chamber. The families of Schwerin and Strelitz are bound 
 by family-contracts of 1701 and 1755. 
 
 The officers of government are, a minister of state, a councillor, 
 and a secretary of state. 
 
 The officers of the court are, a grand master, a house-marshal, 
 and a marshal of the court. 
 
 The grand duchy of Mecklenburg- Strelitz is a level country, 
 with very few elevations ; it contains several lakes. Its prin- 
 cipal products are corn, pulse, flax, hemp, hops, fruit, potatoes, 
 turnips, tobacco, and wood; its animal products are horses, oxen, 
 sheep, swine, geese, game, and fish. 
 
 Its manufactures are not very numerous ; the most remarkable 
 are of linen, tobacco, and leather. 
 
 Almost all the inhabitants are Lutherans, and the 55 livings 
 are under the direction of 5 synods ; the number of clergymen is 
 66. The department of public instruction is under the direction 
 of the consistorial court. At the head of the department of 
 justice, is the supreme court of appeal; under it is the chancery 
 of justice; besides these, there are 8 town -magistrates, 4 bailiffs, 
 and the patrimonial courts. 
 
 At the close of the following chapter, several particulars will 
 occur, which apply equally to the inhabitants, and to the reigning 
 family, of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, and of Mecklenburg-Schwerin. 
 
438 
 
 CHAPTER XXXVI. 
 THE GRAND DUCHY OF MECKLENBURG-SCHWERIN. 
 
 The Ruling Family. Provinces and Population. Births and Deaths 
 in 1835. Principal Towns. Religion. Educational Institutions. 
 Budget. Army. Form of Government. Ministers. Officers of 
 the Court. Character of the Inhabitants of the two Duchies. Chro- 
 nology of the two Duchies. Historical Sketch of the Reigning Family 
 of the two Duchies. 
 
 THE ruling family of Mecklenburg-Schwerin is of the Protestant 
 religion. The present grand duke is Paul Frederic, who suc- 
 ceeded his grandfather, Frederic Francis ; he was born Sep- 
 tember 15, 1800, and he married, May 25, 1822, Alexandrina, 
 princess of Prussia, by whom he has two sons and one daughter. 
 The half-sister of the grand duke is Helena, born January 24, 
 1814, lately married to the duke of Orleans. 
 
 He has an uncle, Gustavus, who is cathedral- 4 capitular ' at 
 Magdeburg, and an aunt, Charlotte Frederica, married in 1784 
 to the Prince Christian Frederic of Denmark, from whom she 
 was separated in 1812. 
 
 The following is a view of the provinces of Mecklenburg- 
 Schwerin, and of their population : 
 
 
 Area in Geog. 
 Sq. Miles. 
 
 Population. 
 
 Towns. 
 
 Market 
 Towns. 
 
 Villages. 
 
 133- 88 
 
 76- 50 
 
 9 .80 
 g.M 
 
 50 
 
 248,640 
 140,482 
 32,298 
 15,419 
 18,243 
 
 18 
 18 
 3 
 1 
 
 8 
 2 
 
 1077 
 795 
 92 
 37 
 
 
 
 
 Town of Rostock 
 
 Total 
 
 223 <l ' 8 
 
 455,032 
 
 41 
 
 11 
 
 2001 
 
 
 In 1835, the entire population was 466,540: viz. 33,031 in the 
 principality of Schwerin ; 15,694 in the lordship of Wismar ; and 
 18,281 in the town of Rostock. 
 
 In 1835, there were 8719 male, and 8259 female births ; of 
 the whole of which, 2070 were illegitimate: there were 11,241 
 
CH. XXXVI.] MECKLENEURG-SCHWERIN. 439 
 
 deaths, (not including the still-born), of which 5834 were of 
 males, and 5407 of females. 1599 persons died at more than 
 seventy years of age : there were 3646 marriages ; and 10,564 
 children were confirmed. 
 
 The principal towns are, Rostock (18,281 inhabitants), 
 Schwerin (13,035), Wismar (10,090), Gustrow (8620), Parchim 
 (5690). 
 
 With the exception of the Jews, all the inhabitants are Ger- 
 mans. With respect to religion, 462,632 are Lutherans, 642 
 Catholics, 149 members of the Reformed church, and 3117 Jews. 
 
 There are 6 Lutheran dioceses, 32 superintendantships (Prci- 
 posituren), 319 parishes, 395 churches, and 2 Catholic parishes. 
 
 The educational institutions are, the university of Rostock, at 
 which there were 110 students in 1830, 5 gymnasiums, 41 prin- 
 cipal town-schools, a seminary for preachers, and one for school- 
 masters. 
 
 The revenue is 2,300,000 florins. The public debt amounts 
 to 9,500,000 florins. 
 
 The army is composed of 4 battalions of infantry, 1 of artil- 
 lery, and a regiment of light-horse. The contingent to the 
 army of the confederacy is 3580 men. 
 
 The form of government is monarchical and representative. 
 The diet, which is united to that of Strelitz, has important rights, 
 and is composed of the holders of seignorial estates, and of the 
 authorities of the 41 towns. The constitution is based on con- 
 tracts made in 1572, 1612, and 1675, between the sovereign and 
 the states. 
 
 The ministers of state are, a president of the privy-council, 
 two privy councillors, and a councillor of finance. 
 
 The chief officers of court are, a marshal, a marshal of the 
 house, and a grand-equerry. 
 
 The inhabitants of Mecklenburg are an able-bodied race, with 
 light hair and blue eyes ; generally thin during their youth, but 
 after thirty predisposed to corpulence. They are immoderate 
 eaters, and make (with the exception of the higher classes) five 
 meals a day. Hoffman assures us, that what a peasant devours 
 at the first of his two breakfasts, would serve most persons for one 
 
GRAND DUCHY OF [SECT. II. 
 
 whole dav, and a small eater for three. The country-people are 
 not fond of vegetables, soup, or beer; their favourite dishes are 
 solid meat, and thev are much addicted to spirits. The costume 
 in many parts is peculiar ; the women, wearing a gay head-dress ; 
 the men, broad-brimmed hats and gaiters. 
 
 The agricultural class in its different divisions, is more analo- 
 gous to that of England, than is the case in other parts of Ger- 
 many ; its richer members are called by the Baron von Werch, 
 " gentlemen farmers." The peasants generally, though now eman- 
 cipated, have more or less the character of serfs. The clergymen, 
 familiarly called pastors (Pastoren), are much more liberally 
 supported in Mecklenburg, than in Southern Germany: they are 
 most of them rich enough to keep a carriage of some kind, a 
 luxury, of which verv few clergymen of Wurtemberg or Baden 
 can boast. 
 
 The inhabitants are passionately addicted to gambling, and 
 are remarkable for making heavy bets on trifling occasions. It is 
 at cards that they chiefly stake their money; with dice they are 
 quite unacquainted. The country-people are very superstitious, 
 and their belief in witches and spirits is still, in a great measure, 
 unshaken. On May day, it is a common custom with them to 
 chalk three crosses on the doors of their stables and farm-yards, 
 to preserve the cattle from being bewitched. They attempt to 
 prophesy the nature of future events, from the form which molten 
 lead assumes when poured into water. On New Year's eve, they 
 look through the handle of an old key at the roof of the house, 
 where, if one of its inmates is to die during the succeeding year, 
 they believe they shall see a black coffin. At Easter, and in 
 many parts at Michaelmas, there are town and village horse- 
 races, where the victor is rewarded with a richly ornamented 
 crown, which he wears on the top of his hat : he is called the 
 king, and the second-best riders are also dignified with lofty 
 titles. The fairs, throughout the duchy, are the feasts of friends 
 and old acquaintances, who only see one another on such occa- 
 sions. The favourite amusements of the towns'-people are shooting 
 at a mark, (a diversion common throughout Germany,) and 
 skittles. A great occasion of popular rejoicing, is the driving 
 
CH. XXXVI.] MECKLKXBCBG-SCHWF.1UX. 441 
 
 out of the cattle from the farm-yards at spring-tide ; when the 
 young steers are allowed to fight, and sometimes to mortally 
 wound each other. In the autumn, dances in the open air are 
 very common, particularly at the rye-harvest. 
 
 Marriages are delayed by the conscription, which takes place 
 in the twenty-second year, and by military service for six years. 
 The parties must also have a dwelling, without which, a clergy- 
 man is not permitted to marry them. 
 
 CHRONOLOGY OP THE TWO DUCHIES OF MECKLENBURG. 
 
 Year. 
 970. Mistaw, prince of the Obotrites, converted to Christianity. 
 
 10] 5 1066. Reign of Godschalk. Christianity, which had been 
 abolished, re-established by force. Foundation of the bishop- 
 rics of Mecklenburg and Ratzeburg. 
 
 1066. Christianity again abolished. 
 
 1142. The county of Ratzeburg created, 
 
 1 1 66. The county of Schwerin created. 
 
 1161 1181. Propagation of Christianity by Pribislaw. Mecklenburg 
 falls under Danish supremacy. 
 
 1225. Mecklenburg becomes independent of Denmark, and is received 
 into the German empire. 
 
 1225. Division of territory, by the four lines of 3Iecklenburg, TVerle, 
 Rostock, and Richenberg. 
 
 1301. The lordship of Rostock becomes subject to the king of Den- 
 mark. 
 
 1304. Henry II., surnamed the Lion, becomes master of Schwerin and 
 Stargard. 
 
 1323. Henry receives Rostock from Denmark, as an hereditary fief. 
 
 1348. The emperor, Charles IV., makes the sovereigns of Mecklen- 
 burg, dukes. 
 
 1352. The lines of Stargard and Schwerin founded. 
 
 1418. The university of Rostock founded. 
 
 1523. The diets of the two Duchies definitively united. 
 
 1534. The Reformation adopted at Rostock. 
 
 1555. Protestantism universal in Mecklenburg. 
 
 1573. Treaty between the dukes and the town of Rostock. 
 
 1628. The dukes of Mecklenburg banished, and their territories given 
 to TTallenstein, as an hereditary fief. 
 
442 GRAND DUCHY OF [SECT. II. 
 
 Year. 
 
 1631. The return of the dukes to their former power and possessions. 
 
 1701. Treaty with Hamburg. The line of Strelitz founded. 
 
 1761. Marriage of the Princess Charlotte Sophia of Mecklenburg- 
 Strelitz to George III. 
 
 1788. Final treaty with the town of Rostock. 
 
 1793. Marriage of the Princess Louisa of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, to the 
 crown prince of Prussia. 
 
 1808. The duchy of Mecklenburg is received into the Rhenish confe- 
 deracy. 
 
 1815. Mecklenburg becomes a grand duchy. 
 
 1837. Marriage of the Princess Helena of Mecklenburg-Schwerin to 
 the duke of Orleans. 
 
 The family of Mecklenburg is, with the family of the Capets, 
 the most ancient reigning house of Europe. It is the only sove- 
 reign house of Sclavonian origin now in existence. It was a royal 
 house before it was princely, independent before it united itself 
 to the empire, and a member of the empire before it became 
 again independent in the bosom of the Germanic confeder- 
 ation. Its reigning princes have for a long time borne the titles 
 of dukes, and since 1815 have taken that of grand dukes. The 
 German genealogists make them descend from the Sclavonian 
 princes of the race Wende, or Wandalique, of the tribe of 
 Obotrites. According to them their origin may be traced back 
 Witzan, the chief of that tribe. 
 
 From Micislas down to the present day, this family reckons 
 twenty-eight generations. It has contracted alliances with nine- 
 teen sovereign states, and with twenty-three sovereign families, 
 of which fifteen still exist. It has received the blood of twenty 
 reigning houses through thirty-one princesses. Russia gave it a 
 niece of Peter the Great, and a daughter of Paul I. ; Sweden, a 
 daughter of Gustavus Vasa ; Denmar-k, a grand niece of Canute 
 the Great, king of England ; and Prussia, five princesses, among 
 whom is Alexandrina, wife of the reigning grand duke. Its 
 blood has been mingled with nine foreign sovereign houses, who 
 have intermarried with fourteen princesses of Mecklenburg. It 
 gave to Russia, the Regent Anne, mother of the Czar Ivan ; to 
 
CH. XXXVI.] MECKLENBURG-SCHWERIN. 443 
 
 England, Charlotte, the worthy queen of George III. ; to Den- 
 mark, Louisa, consort of Frederic IV. ; to Poland, Lintgarde, 
 consort of Przemislas II. ; to Prussia, Sophia Louisa, consort of 
 Frederic I. ; and Louisa, the late admirable consort of the reign- 
 ing king, Frederic William III. It gave a king to Sweden, 
 through Margaret, who made the treaty of Calmar, in 1397. In 
 fine, having become allied with eleven daughters or sisters of 
 kings, it has given seven queens or regents to Russia, England, 
 Denmark, Poland, and Prussia, and recently a wife to the heir- 
 apparent to the throne of France, in the princess Helena, who 
 promises by her highly cultivated and amiable character to 
 emulate the queens, whom Mecklenburg formerly gave to 
 England and Prussia. 
 
 The reigning duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, is son-in-law to 
 the present king of Prussia; nephew to William, king of Holland, 
 who married the Princess Wilhelmina, sister of the king of 
 Prussia, brother-in-law to the Emperor Nicholas of Russia, who 
 married Charlotte, the daughter of Frederic William III., and 
 his nephew by his mother, the daughter of Paul I. He is 
 also nephew to William, prince of Orange, heir to the throne 
 of the Netherlands, who married Anne, sister of the Emperor 
 Nicholas ; also nephew of the Archduke Anthony, palatine of 
 Hungary, uncle to the present emperor of Austria, who married 
 Alexandra, sister of the Grand Duchess Anne. Finally, he is 
 nephew to Charles Frederic, grand duke of Saxe-Weimar, who 
 married Mary, sister to the above-mentioned princesses. Such 
 are the family connexions of the reigning grand duke of Meck- 
 lenburg Schwerin. 
 
444 
 
 CHAPTER XXXVII. 
 THE DUKEDOMS OF ANHALT. 
 
 Ruling Families. Provinces and Population. Mediatized Possessions. 
 Principal Towns. Possessions in Russia of the Duke of Cot/ten. 
 Religion. Budget. Army. Form of Government. Ministers and 
 ters of Court. 
 
 THERE are three dukedoms of Anhalt ; viz., Anhalt-Dessau, 
 Anhalt-Beraburg, and Anhalt-Cothen. The ruling families of 
 all of them are of the Protestant religion. 
 
 The present duke of Anhalt-Dessau is Leopold, born October 
 1, 1794, who succeeded his grandfather, Leopold, in 1817- He 
 married, in 1818, Frederica, daughter of Prince Lewis of 
 Prussia, by whom he has two children, Frederica, and Frederic, 
 the heir apparent, born April 29, 1831. 
 
 The reigning duke of Anhalt-Bernburg is Alexander Charles, 
 born 1805, who succeeded his father Alexius, in 1834 ; in whch 
 year, he married Frederica, princess of Sleswick-Holstein-Son- 
 derburg-Gliicksburg. His sister Louisa is married to Prince 
 William of Prussia. 
 
 The present duke of Anhalt-Cothen is Henry, born 177& 5 wno 
 succeeded to the throne, in 1830 ; he married, in 1819, Augusta, 
 princess of Reuss-Kostritz. 
 
 The following is a view of the divisions of Anhalt, and of their 
 population : 
 
 
 Area in 
 Gco. Sq. 
 
 Population. 
 
 Towns. 
 
 Market 
 
 Villages. 
 
 Houses. 
 
 
 Miles. 
 
 in 1830-31. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Anhalt-Dessau ... 
 
 17 
 
 57,629 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 101 
 
 8,293 
 
 Anhalt-Bernburg 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Upper Duchy... | 
 Lower Duchy... ! 
 
 16 
 
 19,917 
 23,408 
 
 5 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 12 
 
 48 
 
 } 6,547 
 
 Anhalt-Cothen... 
 
 15 
 
 36,000 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 98 
 
 6,000 
 
 Total 
 
 48 
 
 136,954 
 
 17 
 
 7 
 
 259 
 
 20,840 
 
 The mediatized possessions of the duke of Anhalt-Dessau, 
 which are all alienable except the bailiwick of Walternienburg, 
 comprehend 9 square miles, and contain 43 villages, 1600 houses 
 
CH. XXXVII.] DUKEDOMS OF ANHALT. 445 
 
 and 12,000 inhabitants. The principality of Pless, in Silesia, is a 
 possession of the second son of the house of Cothen, and belongs 
 now to Prince Lewis, brother of the reigning duke. It compre- 
 hends 19 square miles, and contains 2 towns, 2 market-towns, 
 91 villages, and about 43,000 inhabitants. The possessions in 
 the south of Russia amount to about 10 square miles, and are 
 now permanently united to the duchy of Cothen, by the will of 
 the last grand duke. 
 
 The principal towns are, Dessau (10,611 inhabitants), Zerbst 
 (8949), Cothen (6035), Bernburg (5995). The inhabitants are 
 all Protestants, with the exception of 1050 Catholics, and 2000 
 Jews. 
 
 In Dessau, there are 21 Lutheran parishes, 32 of the Reformed 
 church, and 2 Catholic; in Bernburg, 42 of the evangelical 
 church ; in Cothen, 28 of the reformed, 19 Lutheran, and 1 
 Catholic. In Dessau, there are 2 gymnasiums, in Bernburg 1, 
 
 and in Cothen 1. 
 
 Florins. Florins. 
 
 In Dessau, the Revenue is 710,000 the Public Debt 1,000,000 
 
 Bernburg 450,000 600,000 
 
 Cothen (including domains \ 
 
 J 
 
 Total 1,560,000 3,200,000 
 
 The contingent of Dessau to the army of the confederacy is 
 529 men ; of Bernburg, 3?0 ; and of Cothen, 325. 
 
 The form of government is monarchical, but the right of tax- 
 ation is shared by the old diet of the duchy. The succession is 
 hereditary, to the exclusion of females. The diet (Landschaft) 
 is composed of two committees ; the first contains four land- 
 councillors for Bernburg, Cothen, Dessau, and Zerbst, and the 
 burgomasters of those towns ; the second consists of twelve pos- 
 sessors of seignorial estates, and of deputies of the four above- 
 mentioned towns, eight in number. The ministers are, in Dessau, 
 a president of the government, and a director of the exchequer. 
 In Bernburg, they are the same, and there is also a privy-council. 
 In Cothen, they are also the same. 
 
 The chief officers in the courts of Anhalt are, a marshal of the 
 court, a master of the hunt, and a captain of the castle. 
 
 and other private property f 400,000 1,600,000 
 
 of the duke) . 
 
446 
 
 CHAPTER XXXVIII. 
 THE PRINCIPALITY OF WALDECK. 
 
 The Ruling Family. Districts and Population. Towns. Religion. 
 Budget. Form of Government. Officers of Government, and of the 
 Court. 
 
 THE ruling family of Waldeck is of the Protestant religion 
 The present prince is George, born Sept. 20, 1789, who succeeded 
 to the throne, Sept. 9, 1813, and who was married, June 26, 1823, 
 to Emma, princess of Anhalt-Bernburg-Schaumburg. He has 
 four children: George, the heir-apparent, was born January 13, 
 1831. This prince has one sister, Ida, princess of Schaumburg- 
 Lippe, and two brothers, Charles, who is in the Bavarian army, 
 and Hermann, who is in the Austrian army. 
 
 The territory of Waldeck comprehends 21 >66 square miles, and 
 is divided into six districts ; the population is 56,000. The 
 principal towns are, Corbach (2200 inhabitants), and Arolsen, 
 the residence of the prince (above 2000). The principality of 
 Pyrmont, which forms part of the possessions of the prince of 
 Waldeck, contains 6000 inhabitants. There are in the whole 
 territory, 14 towns, 105 villages, and 12,000 nouses. With the 
 exception of 600 members of the Reformed church, 800 Catholics, 
 and 500 Jews, all the inhabitants are Lutherans. 
 
 The revenue is 480,000 florins. The public debt amounts to 
 1,400,000 florins. The contingent to the army of the confederacy, 
 is 518 men. 
 
 The government is a constitutional monarchy ; the constitution 
 is of ancient date, but was renewed in 1816 ; the representatives 
 form a single chamber. Waldeck was formerly a fief of the 
 electorate of Hesse ; Pyrmont, of Prussia. The law of primoge- 
 niture was introduced, 1698. The family of Waldeck-Bergheim 
 holds its possessions under the supremacy of Waldeck, but in 
 
CH. XXXVIII.] PRINCIPALITY OF WALDECK. 447 
 
 respect to the possession of Limpurg, is numbered amongst the 
 mediatized families of Wurtemberg. 
 
 The officers of government are, a president of the government, 
 a president of the chamber, a director of the tribunal of the 
 court, and a privy councillor. 
 
 The officers of the court are, a marshal, and a grand-equerry. 
 
 The agreeable bathing-place, Pyrmont, is the most remarkable 
 town in this state. It presents an excellent specimen of the 
 German Spas; less affected, perhaps, by caprice and fashion, 
 than most others. 
 
448 
 
 CHAPTER XXXIX. 
 THE PRINCIPALITY OF HOHENZOLLERN-SIGMARINGEN. 
 
 The Ruling Family. Area. Population. Towns. Religion. Private 
 property of the Prince. Budget. Army. Form of Government. 
 Ministers. 
 
 THE ruling family of Hohenzollern -Sigmaringen is of the 
 Catholic religion. The present prince is Charles Anthony, born 
 1785, who succeeded his father, Anthony, in 1831, and married, 
 in 1808, Antoinette Murat, niece of Murat, king of Naples. He 
 has three daughters and one son ; the latter, Charles, the heir- 
 apparent, was born in 1811, and married, in 1834, Josephine, 
 princess of Baden. 
 
 The area of this state is 18- 25 square miles. The population 
 is 42,420. There are 4 towns, 7 market-towns, 70 villages and 
 hamlets, 8 castles, and 7-107 houses. With the exception of 100 
 Jews, all the inhabitants are Catholics. The capital, Sigmaringen, 
 has a population of 1400. Besides this principality, the monas- 
 teries of Beuren and Holzheim in Bavaria, and the lordships of 
 Boxmeer, Dixmuiden, Berg, Gendringen, Elten, Wisch, Fanner- 
 den and Muhlingen in the Netherlands and Belgium, are also 
 possessions of the prince of Sigmaringen. 
 
 The revenue is 300,000 florins, to which the mediatized posses- 
 sions contribute at least one -fourth. 
 
 The contingent to the army of the confederacy is 370 men. 
 
 The government is monarchical and representative. The diet 
 is composed of 17 members. 
 
 The ministers are, a president of the government, and a coun- 
 cillor of finance. 
 
449 
 
 CHAPTER XL. 
 THE PRINCIPALITY OF HOHENZOLLERN-HECHINGEN. 
 
 The Ruling Family. Area; Population; Towns. Budget; Army. 
 Form of Government ; Ministers. 
 
 THE family of Hohenzollern is the parent tree of the present Prus- 
 sian dynasty. The most remote known ancestor of this race was 
 Thassilo, count of Zollern, who died about 800. His descendant 
 in the eighth generation had two sons, Frederic and Conrad ; the 
 latter became margrave of Nuremberg in 1200, and his grand- 
 nephew Frederic, was made, in 1277? a prince ; from this last 
 personage, the royal house of Prussia is descended. 
 
 The ruling family of Hohenzollern-Hechingen is of the 
 Catholic religion. The present prince is Frederic, born July 
 22, 1776? wno succeeded to the throne in 1810, and who married, 
 in 1800, Paulina, princess of Courland-Sagan. They have one 
 son, Frederic, the heir-apparent, born 1801, married 1826, to 
 Eugenia, princess of Leuchtenberg. The prince has three half- 
 sisters : viz, Louisa, baroness von der Burg ; Maximiliana, coun- 
 tess of Lodron ; and Josephine, countess of Festetics-Tolna. He 
 has also an uncle, Francis, who is an Austrian general field- 
 marshal. 
 
 This principality comprehends 6^ German square miles. The 
 population is 21,000, who are all Germans and Catholics. There 
 are four towns, one of which, Hechingen, the capital, contains 
 2800 inhabitants ; 25 villages, and 2420 houses. Not far from 
 Hechingen the traveller discerns the ancient castle of Hohen- 
 zollern, the cradle of the ruling family of Prussia : its lofty site 
 commands a wide range of scenery. 
 
 The revenue amounts to 130,000 florins. The contingent to 
 the army of the confederacy is 145 men. 
 
 The government is monarchical, and representative. Twelve 
 deputies form the representation, of whom 2 are chosen by the 
 
 2 G 
 
450 HOHENZOLLERN-HECHINGEN. [SECT. II. 
 
 the town of Hechingen, and 10 by the country-parishes. The 
 succession to the throne, in both Hohenzollerns, is regulated by 
 the contract of 1575, and by the Familien Institut, of 1821, 
 which was guaranteed by the king of Prussia, as the head of 
 the house. The law of succession excludes females, till the 
 last male representative of the house, in either of the three lines, 
 is deceased. 
 
 The ministers are, a president of the government, a privy- 
 councillor, and a director of the exchequer. 
 
 This is a mountainous region ; forests darken and variegate 
 its heights, while its valleys are fertile, and produce a sufficient 
 supply of corn for the consumption of the inhabitants. 
 
451 
 
 CHAPTER XLI. 
 THE PRINCIPALITY OF SCHWARZBURG-SONDERSHAUSEN. 
 
 The Ruling Family. Districts and Population; Towns. Religion. 
 Budget ; Army. Form of Government; Officers of Government, 
 and of the Court. 
 
 THE ruling family of Schwarzburg-Sondershausen is of the 
 Lutheran religion. The reigning prince is Gunther, born Sep- 
 tember 24, 1801, who succeeded to the crown, on the resignation 
 of his father, 1835 ; and who married, first, Maria, princess of 
 Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt, who died in 1833 ; and, secondly, 
 Matilda, princess of Hohenlohe-Oehringen. He has three chil- 
 dren by his first wife, Elizabeth, Gunther, and Leopold. 
 
 The territory of this state comprehends 16* 90 German square 
 miles, and is divided into 7 bailiwicks. The population is 
 54,080. The capital, Sondershausen, contains 3600 inhabitants; 
 and Arnstadt, 4842. There are 7 market-towns, 83 villages, 
 and 8600 houses. The inhabitants are all Lutherans, with the 
 exception of 200 Catholics. 
 
 The revenue is 400,000 florins, and the public debt amounts 
 to the same sum. In 1833, the direct taxes were 75,123 dollars; 
 but in the succeeding year they were diminished to 48,891 
 dollars. 
 
 The contingent to the army of the confederacy is 451 men. 
 
 The government is monarchical, and there has existed a diet 
 since December 28, 1830. 
 
 The officers of government are, a chancellor and president of 
 the consistory, a president of the chamber of finance, and a 
 councillor of the cabinet. 
 
 The chief officers of court are, a grand huntsman, a grand 
 equerry, and a captain of the castle. 
 
452 
 
 CHAPTER XLII. 
 THE PRINCIPALITY OF SCHWARZBURG-RUDOLSTADT. 
 
 The Ruling Family. Districts and Population; Towns. Religion. 
 Budget; Army. Form of Government; Officers of Government, 
 and of the Court. 
 
 THE ruling house of Sch warzburg-R udolstadt is of the Lutheran 
 religion. The present prince is Gtinther, born November 6, 
 1793, who succeeded to the crown, under the guardianship of his 
 mother, in 180y and who assumed the reins of government in 
 1814. He married, in 1816, Augusta, princess of Anhalt-Dessau, 
 and has two children, of whom the eldest, Giinther, the heir- 
 apparent, was born in 1821. He has a sister, Thecla, born in 
 1795, princess of Schonburg-Waldenburg; and a brother, Albert, 
 married to a princess of Solms-Braunfels. 
 
 This state contains 19' 10 German square miles, and is divided 
 into 11 bailiwicks. The entire population is 64,239. There 
 are, 7 towns, 1 market-town, 155 villages, 8 castles, and 10,281 
 houses. The town of Rudolstadt contains 4000 inhabitants; 
 Frankenhausen, 3900. All the inhabitants are Lutherans, with 
 the exception of 150 Catholics and 167 Jews. 
 
 The revenue is 325,000 florins : the public debt (not including 
 the exchequer debt) amounted, in 1826, to 269,805 florins. 
 
 The contingent to the army of the confederacy is 539 men. 
 
 The government is a constitutional monarchy ; a diet has 
 existed since 1816. The prince of Rudolstadt has private pro- 
 perty in Holstein. 
 
 The officers of government are, a chancellor of the government 
 and president of the consistory, and a vice-chancellor. There is 
 a privy council composed of the above officials, of the grand 
 equerry, and a privy councillor. 
 
 The officers of court are, a captain of the castle, a marshal, 
 and a grand equerry. 
 
453 
 
 CHAPTER XLIII. 
 THE PRINCIPALITY OF LIECHTENSTEIN. 
 
 The Ruling Family. Area. Mediatized Possessions of the Prince. 
 Towns. Budget; Army. Form of Government ; Officers of Govern- 
 ment. 
 
 THIS opulent and distinguished family is descended from Azo IV., 
 of Este, who died in 1037- The principality is situated a few 
 leagues south of the lake of Constance, on the banks of the Rhine : 
 is an agreeable district, containing fine forests, and rearing a con- 
 siderable number of horned-cattle. The prince maintains a guard 
 of honour and a company of grenadiers. 
 
 The house of Liechtenstein is of the Catholic religion. The 
 present prince is Aloys, born in 1796, who succeeded his father, 
 John, in 1836. He married, in 1831, the Countess Francisca de 
 Paula von Kinsky, by whom he has a daughter, Maria, born in 
 1834. He has six brothers, five of whom are in the Austrian 
 service ; and four sisters. 
 
 The territory of Liechtenstein comprehends 2 t45 German 
 square miles; but the mediatized principalities and lordships 
 belonging to the prince of Liechtenstein, include 104 German 
 square miles : they are situated in Austria, Moravia, Silesia, 
 Bohemia, Hungary, and Styria. 
 
 In Liechtenstein, there are 5800 inhabitants, who are all 
 Catholics. The principal town is Vaduz, which contains 697 
 inhabitants. There are 9 villages, 5 castles, and 1207 houses. 
 The mediatized possessions contain 24 towns, 35 market-towns, 
 756 villages, 46 castles, and about 600,000 inhabitants. 
 
 The revenue of the prince is more than 1,200,000 florins, of 
 which the inhabitants of Liechtenstein pay 5000 florins, and the 
 domains 17,000 florins. 
 
 The contingent to the army of the confederacy is 55 men. 
 
 The government is monarchical, and has been constitutional 
 since 1818 : the representatives form one chamber. 
 
PRINCIPALITY OF LIECHTENSTEIN. [SECT. II. 
 
 The officers of government for the principality are, a court- 
 councillor, and a chief bailiff (Obervogt) at Vaduz. 
 
 Mr. Cooper, the American traveller, is pleased to be extremely 
 facetious at the expense of the territory of Liechtenstein. " I 
 turned to the maps and guide-books with a good deal of curiosity, 
 in order to ascertain if, after having reaped the honour of dis- 
 covering a mountain, it was now to be my good fortune to dis- 
 cover a country ! Everybody knows where San Marino is to be 
 found ; and as for Monaco, I have actually been in it ; but, by 
 no process of study, or by no inquiry, could I ascertain where 
 this Liechtenstein is. If I asked a German and he pretended to 
 know, the next of his countrymen to whom I put the question, 
 was certain to change the site to another quarter of the empire. 
 After all, I was obliged to abandon the point, and, to this hour, 
 I am as ignorant as ever where Liechtenstein is*." 
 
 But as Mr. Cooper points his heavy artillery even more 
 broadly against his own countrymen, than upon foreigners, the 
 Liechtensteins will not be much discomposed, and their name 
 and domain will probably survive even the works of Cooper. 
 
 It will be perceived that this family is in possession of very 
 large mediatized property, of far more importance and extent 
 than that of which they enjoy the sovereignty. 
 
 * " Excursions in Switzerland," vol. ii. p. 8991. 
 
455 
 
 CHAPTER XLIV. 
 
 THE DUCHY OF HOLSTEIN. 
 
 The Ruling Family. Districts and Population ; Towns. Religion. 
 Budget; Army. Form of Government. 
 
 HOLSTEIN, a part of the kingdom of Denmark, is briefly noticed 
 here, as it entitles the king to a seat in the German diet. 
 
 The ducal family is of the Lutheran religion. The present 
 duke is King Frederic IV., born in 1768, who was made co-regent 
 in 1784, and who succeeded his father, March 13, 1808. He 
 married, July 31, 1790? Maria, princess of Hesse-Cassel. He 
 has two daughters, Caroline, born in 1793, married, 1829, to her 
 cousin, Prince Ferdinand ; and Wilhelmina, born in 1808, mar- 
 ried, 1828, to her second cousin, Prince Frederic. 
 
 The area of the duchy is 172' 55 square miles, of which 19 f05 
 form the province of Lauenburg. The population, in 1828, was 
 410,385; namely, 374,745 in Holstein, and 35,640 in Lauen- 
 burg. There are, 17 towns, 23 market-towns, 163 villages with 
 livings, 443 small villages and hamlets, 52,500 houses. The 
 inhabitants are all Germans and Lutherans, with the exception of 
 500 members of the Reformed church, 900 Catholics, 400 Men- 
 nonites, and 3000 Jews. The capital, Gluckstadt, contains 5,200 
 inhabitants, Altona 26,000, Kiel 11,791, and Rendsburg 7700. 
 
 The revenue is 2,400,000 florins, of which Holstein contributes 
 2,120,000 florins, and Lauenburg 280,000 florins. 
 
 The contingent to the army of the confederacy is 3,900 men. 
 The government is monarchical, with a diet since 1834. 
 Kiel, the university of Holstein, is placed in an agreeable 
 country, and maintains an active communication with Copenhagen 
 by steam-boats. The library contains 100,000 volumes. In 
 the winter of 1829 30, there were 152 students in theology, 
 105 in law, 57 in medicine, and 19 in other studies. The pro- 
 fessors who enjoy the greatest note are, Twesten, in theology, and 
 I. Olshausen, who has been engaged in publishing the original of 
 the " Zendavesta." 
 
456 
 
 CHAPTER XLY. 
 THE PRINCIPALITIES OF REUSS. 
 
 The Ruling Families. Divisions and Population ; Principal Towns. 
 Budget; Army. Form of Government ; Ministers and Officers of 
 the Courts. 
 
 ALL the princes of Reuss are of the Protestant religion. The 
 heads of the different families are as follows: 1. Henry XX., 
 prince of Reuss-Greitz, born 1794, succeeded to the throne 1836, 
 married, 1834, to Sophia, princess of Lowenstein-Wertheim- 
 Rosenberg ; 2. Henry LXIL, prince of Reuss-Schleiz, born 
 1785, succeeded his father 1818; 3. Henry LXIV., prince of 
 Reuss-Schleiz-Kostritz, born 1787, succeeded his father 1814; 
 4. Henry LXXII., born 1797 prince of Reuss-Lobenstein and 
 Ebersdorf, succeeded his father 1822. The family of Greitz is 
 the elder line ; all the others are members of the younger, or 
 Schleiz. 
 
 The following is a view of the divisions of Reuss, and of their 
 population : 
 
 
 Area in Gcog. 
 q. Miles. 
 
 Population 
 in If!. ,. 1 }. 
 
 Towns. 
 
 Market 
 Towns. 
 
 Villages. 
 
 Houses. 
 
 I. Reuss (elder line) .. 
 II. Reuss (younger line) 
 Reuss-Sclileiz .. .. 
 
 (J.84 
 
 g.io 
 
 23,365 
 17,385 
 
 2 
 
 9 
 
 1 
 
 75 
 
 56 
 
 3,850 
 2 780 
 
 Reuss-Lobenstein ) 
 and Ebersdorf J'" 
 (jl prji 
 
 7-75 
 y.13 
 
 15,223 
 23 402 
 
 2 
 2 
 
 2 
 3 
 
 43 
 
 88 
 
 2,950 
 3 700 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 27-94 
 
 79,375 
 
 8 
 
 7 
 
 262 
 
 13,280 
 
 In 1835, the lordship of Droyssig, in the Weissenfels circle of 
 the Prussian dukedom of Saxony, fell to the prince of Loben- 
 stein-Ebersdorf, who took possession of it, June 9, 1835. It 
 consists of 24 villages. 
 
 The principal towns of Reuss are, Gera (9050 inhabitants), 
 and Greitz (6300). The population is entirely German, with 
 
CH. XLV.] 1>K 1NCIPAL ITIKS OF KEUSS. 457 
 
 the exception of 300 Jews ; besides whom, and 400 Herrnhuters, 
 all the inhabitants are Lutherans. 
 
 The revenue of Greitz is 140,000 florins ; of Schleiz 200,000 
 florins ; of Lobenstein 210,000 ; and of Kostritz 60,000. 
 
 The contingent to the army of the confederacy is, 206 men 
 for the elder line, and 538 for the younger. 
 
 The government is monarchical and constitutional. The diet 
 consists of three deputies of the nobles, and four of the towns, for 
 Greitz ; of three of the nobles, and three of the towns, for 
 Schleiz ; of the same, for Lobenstein and Ebersdorf ; and for 
 Gera, of six deputies of the nobles, and two of the town, Gera. 
 
 There is one minister at Greitz, who has the titles of president 
 of the princess cabinet, of the government, the exchequer, the 
 consistory, and the department of taxation. At Schleiz, and at 
 Ebersdorf, the cabinet consists of three individuals. 
 
 At Reuss-Greitz, there is a marshal of the court ; at Schleiz, 
 a marshal of the house ; at Lobenstein and Ebersdorf, a marshal 
 of the house, an equerry, and a court-cavalier. 
 
 Gera is the chief place of the principalities of Reuss; it is a 
 handsome town, containing 11,000 inhabitants, and carrying on 
 active manufactures and trade. In the neighbourhood is the 
 magnificent valley of the Elster. The agreeable baths of Ronne- 
 burg are in the vicinity. The waters are ferruginous, and are 
 used both internally and externally. 
 
458 
 
 CHAPTER XLYI. 
 THE GRAND DUCHY OF OLDENBURG. 
 
 The Ruling Family. Provinces and Population ; Births and Deaths 
 in 1833. Religion; Educational Institutions. Army. Form of 
 Government ; Ministers and Officers of the Court. 
 
 The grand-ducal house of Oldenburg is of the Lutheran religion. 
 The present grand duke is Augustus, born in 1783, who succeeded 
 to the throne in 1829. He has been three times married; first, 
 to Adelaide, princess of Anhalt-Bernburg-Schaumburg, who died 
 1820; secondly, to Ida, the sister of his late wife, who died 
 1828; and, thirdly, to Cecilia, daughter of Gustavus Adol- 
 phus IV., formerly king of Sweden. He has two daughters by 
 his first wife, of whom Amelia is queen of Greece ; one son, Peter, 
 the heir-apparent, by his second ; and one by his third. 
 
 The following is a view of the provinces of Oldenburg, and of 
 their population : 
 
 
 Area in Geog. 
 fcjq. Miles. 
 
 Population. 
 
 Towns. 
 
 Market 
 Towns. 
 
 Villages. 
 
 Houses. 
 
 1. Oldenburg with Knip-1 
 
 99.20 
 
 * 207,300 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 050 
 
 34,416 
 
 2 Lubeck or Eutin 
 
 8 
 
 j- 18 G92 
 
 l 
 
 1 
 
 82 
 
 3 250 
 
 3 Birkenfeld 
 
 g.80 
 
 24 515 
 
 l 
 
 1 
 
 86 
 
 4 28^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 116 
 
 250,507 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 818 
 
 41,949 
 
 In the duchy of Oldenburg itself, there were 7052 births in 
 1833 ; of these 3646 were male, and 3406 female ; there were 
 only 4852 deaths. 
 
 The mass of the population are Lutherans, but there are 
 70,880 Catholics, and 2314 members of the Reformed church. 
 
 With the exception of 980 Jews, all the inhabitants are 
 Germans. 
 
 * According to the census of 1833. 
 -f- According to the census of 1828. 
 
CH. XLVI.] GRAND DUCHY OF OLDENBURG. 459 
 
 There is a Lutheran general superindantship, 3 superinten- 
 dantships, and 101 parishes. There is a superintendant of the 
 Reformed church, and 4 parishes. The Catholics have a general 
 deanery, and 37 parishes. 
 
 There are 2 gymnasiums, 4 classical schools, a normal school, 
 2 high-town schools, a seminary for schoolmasters, and a military 
 academy. 
 
 The revenue is 1,500,000 florins : there is no public debt. 
 
 The army consists of 2 regiments of infantry, li batteries of 
 artillery, and a corps of land-dragoons. ^ 
 
 The contingent to the army of the confederacy is 2177 men. 
 
 The government is monarchical, without representatives. The 
 law of primogeniture regulates the succession, from which, how- 
 ever, females are excluded. 
 
 There are two cabinet-ministers, and two privy-councillors of 
 the cabinet. 
 
 The chief officers of court are, a grand equerry, a grand 
 chamberlain, a marshal, an equerry, and a vice-grand-master. 
 
 The general aspect of this country is low, sandy, and marshy; 
 and it is intersected with canals and dikes, which are necessary to 
 drain off' the water, and to protect it against inundation. Al- 
 though agriculture is the chief pursuit of the inhabitants, it is 
 said not to raise corn enough for its domestic wants. Oldenburg, 
 the capital, is a well-built city, with 6600 inhabitants ; it has a 
 fine cathedral and a new palace; in its vicinity have been found 
 colossal masses of stone, and other relics of the ancient inhabitants 
 of the North. 
 
 The reigning family is one of the oldest in Europe ; the first 
 count of Oldenburg built the city of that name in 1155, and his 
 posterity have swayed the sceptre of Denmark. 
 
460 
 
 CHAPTER XLVII. 
 THE GRAND DUCHY OF LUXEMBURG. 
 
 The Ruling Family. Area and Population. Races. Religion. Towns. 
 Budget. Army. Form of Government. 
 
 BY the treaty of Vienna, this duchy was made over to the king 
 of Holland, in 1815 ; a stipulation being exacted at the same 
 time, that he should give up all claims on the dominions of 
 Nassau. The treaty of 1831, which has not yet been finally 
 settled, alienated this duchy from Belgium, and it is still in the 
 hands of the king of Holland, but its strong fortress is garrisoned 
 by Prussian soldiers. 
 
 It is divided into three circles, which are again subdivided into 
 25 cantons, and 314 communal ties. 
 
 The area of Luxemburg is 108 <6 German square miles. The 
 population in 1835, was 315,000, who are Walloons, for the most 
 part, there being only 19,370 Germans, and who, with the excep- 
 tion of 450 Jews, are all Catholics. There are 1 6 towns, 6 market- 
 towns, 314 congregations, 809 villages and hamlets, and 48,710 
 houses. The capital, which, since 1814, has been one of the 
 fortresses of the German confederacy, contained, in 1821, 11,430 
 inhabitants, not including the garrison. 
 
 The revenue amounts to 1,800,000 florins. The contingent 
 to the army of the confederacy is 2556 men. 
 
 The government is monarchical and representative. 
 
 Agriculture is not here in an advanced state, and it is neces- 
 sary to import some supply of food annually. The breed of 
 horses is good and considerable, and the sheep are numerous. 
 Some employment is afforded to the inhabitants by the iron mines, 
 which are said to produce about 10,000 tons of the metal 
 annually. The manufactures are chiefly weaving, linen-spinning, 
 and paper-making. 
 
CH. XLVII.] GRAND DUCHY OF LUXEMBURG. 4)61 
 
 This duchy is chiefly remarkable from the character of its 
 fortress, which is reputed one of the most important in Europe, 
 both from its situation, and from its artificial strength. It has 
 occupied pubMc attention recently, in consequence of the negoti- 
 ations following the separation of Belgium from Holland. 
 
 Some imprudent manifestations lately made by a portion of 
 the inhabitants, have given offence to the Prussian government ; 
 and, as is generally the case in such matters, the individuals 
 will, probably, injure themselves alone, without at all affecting 
 the issue of the great question in which they are interested, 
 otherwise than by rendering it more unpalatable and remote. 
 
462 
 
 CHAPTER XLVIII. 
 
 PRINCIPALITY OF LIPPE. 
 
 The Ruling Family. Districts; Population; Toicns. Religion. Budget; 
 Army. Form of Government ; Officers of Government, and of the 
 Court. 
 
 THE ruling family of Lippe is of the Protestant religion. The 
 present prince is Leopold, born 1796, who, under the guardian- 
 ship of his mother, succeeded to his father, April 4, 1802. He 
 married, 1820, Emilia, princess of Schwarzburg-Sondershausen, 
 born April 28, 1800, by whom he has eight children ; Leopold, 
 the heir-apparent, was 1821. This prince has one brother, 
 Frederic, who was born in 1797> and who is now an officer of the 
 Austrian army. 
 
 The territory of Lippe comprises 20 >so square miles, and is 
 divided into 12 bailiwicks. The population, in 1828, was 76,718. 
 There are 6 towns*, 6 market-towns, 44 churches, and 12,218 
 houses. The capital, Detmold, contains 2400 inhabitants. The 
 inhabitants, with the exception of 5100 Lutherans, and 1COO 
 Catholics, are all members of the Reformed church. 
 
 The revenue is 490,000 florins; the public debt, 700,000 
 florins. 
 
 The contingent to the army of the confederacy is 690 men. 
 
 The government is monarchical and representative ; the con- 
 stitution was granted, 1819. The diet consists of seven deputies 
 of the nobles, seven of the towns, and seven of the villages, forms 
 one chamber, and deliberates on legislation and taxation. 
 
 The chief officers of government are, a president of the govern- 
 ment and exchequer, a director of the chancery of justice and 
 criminal tribunal, and a director of the consistory. 
 
 The chief officers of court are, a marshal, and a captain of the 
 castle. 
 
 * 65 towns. So described by Hassel and Ritter. The remaining half of one of 
 these towns is probably situated in a neighbouring principality. 
 
463 
 
 CHAPTER XLIX. 
 PRINCIPALITY OF SCHAUENBURG-LIPPE. 
 
 The Ruling Family. Districts and Population. Towns. Religion. 
 Budget. Army. Form of Government. Ministers. 
 
 THE ruling house of Schauenburg-Lippe is of the Protestant 
 religion. The present prince is George William, born in 1784, 
 who, under the guardianship of his mother, succeeded to the 
 crown in 1787- In 1816, he married Ida, princess of Waldeck, 
 by whom he has five children ; Adolphus, the heir-apparent, was 
 born in 1817- He has two sisters, one of whom, Wilhelmina, is 
 married to the count of Munster. 
 
 The territory of this principality comprises 9' 75 square miles, 
 and is divided into six bailiwicks. The population is 26,000 ; 
 the capital, Btickeburg, contains 4227 inhabitants. There are 2 
 towns, 3 market-towns, 99 villages, and 4250 houses. The inha- 
 bitants are all Lutherans, with the exception of 3600 members 
 of the Reformed church, and about 100 Catholics. 
 
 The revenue is 215,000 florins, which is principally furnished 
 by the domains. 
 
 The contingent to the army of the confederacy is 240 men. 
 
 The government is monarchical and representative. 
 
 The ministers are, a director of the government and of the 
 chancery of justice, a director of the exchequer, and a director 
 of the consistory. 
 
 The name of this state is variously described by different 
 authorities. Schnabel and Malchus call it Schauenburg; Hitter 
 denominates it Schaumburg or Sauenburg*; and Hassel also 
 entitles it Schaumburg. 
 
 * In his complete and most useful " Geographisch Statistiches Lexikon," (Leip- 
 zig, 1836). Dr. Benjamin Ritter, the author, must not be confounded with a very 
 distinguished geographer and philosopher, Charles Ritter. 
 
464 
 
 CHAPTER L. 
 
 THE COUNTSHIP OF BENTINCK. 
 A Half-Sovereignty. The Ruling Family. Population. 
 
 THIS is one of the smallest states in Europe, and was only acknow- 
 ledged as such by the Diet in 1826*. It is designated by Balbi 
 as the " Seigneury of Kniphausen." It adjoins the duchy of 
 Oldenburg, and has some possessions in that country, as well 
 as in Brabant, Guelderland, and Overyssel. The capital of this 
 state is called Kniphausen, and is said to be a handsome residence, 
 with about fifty inhabitants*!*. 
 
 Bentinck is a ^//"-sovereignty : the count is bound to do 
 homage for his territory to the duke of Oldenburg. The present 
 count is Gustavus, born in 1809, who, as his elder brother Wil- 
 liam had resigned his pretensions to the crown, succeeded his 
 father, October 22, 1835. William, the elder brother, is now, 
 we believe, an American citizen, and an agriculturist in the county 
 of Warren, in Missouri : another brother, Frederic, is an officer 
 in the Hanoverian army. 
 
 The territory of Bentinck consists of the lordship of Varel, 
 comprehending 2- 20 German square miles, and containing 6000 
 inhabitants ; and of the lordship of Kniphausen, comprehending 
 4-- German square miles, and containing 3100 inhabitants. 
 
 * The republic of San Marino, in Italy, is the smallest state in Europe. It 
 covers an area of one and a half German miles, and contains 7000 inhabitants. 
 An amusing picture of it has been given by the late historian, Dr. Gillies, in 
 Seward's " Anecdotes," vol. ii. p. 247. 
 
 f Balbi, Abrege, de Geographic, p. 201. 
 
465 
 
 CHAPTER LI. 
 THE FREE TOWNS. 
 
 FRANKFORT : Territory and Population ; Religion ; Form, of Govern- 
 ment ; Revenue; Army. LUBECK: Territory and Population; 
 Religion; Towns; Form of Government; Army; Revenue. 
 BREMEN : Territory and Population ; Births and Deaths in 1833; 
 Form of Government; Army; Budget. HAMBURG: Territory 
 and Population ; Religion; Towns; Form of Government ; Army; 
 Revenue. 
 
 FRANKFORT. 
 
 FRANKFORT has been a free town of the German empire since 
 1154, and its rights and privileges were confirmed at the peace 
 of Westphalia. In 1815, it became, by virtue of a declaration 
 of the Congress of Vienna, one of the free towns of the German 
 confederacy, and was chosen for the seat of the Diet. 
 
 Its territory comprises 4- 33 German square miles, and contains 
 54,000 inhabitants, 1 town, 2 market-towns, 5^ villages, and 
 4700 houses, (which, in 1832, were insured for 42,684,450 
 florins). The town itself contains 45,000 inhabitants, not includ- 
 ing strangers : the greater part are Lutherans ; of the Reformed 
 church there are 2000 ; of Catholics, 6000 ; and of Jews, 5200. 
 In 1833, there were 1062 births and 1230 deaths. 
 
 The form of government is democratic; according to the 
 constitution of May, 1816, the highest power is vested in the 
 body of Christian inhabitants. The legislative chamber consists 
 of 20 senators, 29 members of the permanent committee of 
 citizens, and 45 members, chosen from the Christian community. 
 The senate, which is the executive, consists of 42 members, who 
 are divided into three benches; namely, 14 sheriffs (Schoffe), 
 14 young senators, and 14 others (Rathsver wand ten). The two 
 burgomasters are chosen from the whole body of the senate ; the 
 elder from the first bench, and the younger from the second. 
 
 2 H 
 
466 THE FREE TOWNS. [SECT. II. 
 
 The permanent committee of 51, consists of citizens who must 
 be Christians of an authorized denomination, and of at least six 
 lawyers. 
 
 The revenue is 760,000 florins. 
 
 The contingent to the army of the confederacy, 475 men. 
 
 In Frankfort, as in some other German cities, are public burial- 
 grounds, provided with houses in which every arrangement is 
 made, in order to assist in the restoration to life, if any spark 
 should still remain in the body. At Frankfort, the fingers of 
 the corpse (which lies a certain time in the coffin previously to 
 interment in a chamber appointed for the purpose,) are placed in 
 the handle of a bell-rope, attached to an alarm-clock, which last 
 hangs in the room of an attendant who is placed to watch. When 
 a citizen dies, his family give notice to the authorities : they 
 remove the body very soon to the building within the cemetery, 
 where it is well attended throughout, and every means afforded 
 of aiding resuscitation. 
 
 LUBECK. 
 
 THE ancient town of Lubeck has been independent since 1226. 
 In 1241, it became a part of, and, indeed, the capital of the Hanse 
 confederacy. Since 1815, it has been received into the number 
 of the free towns of the German confederacy. It is the seat of 
 the supreme court of appeal for the free towns. 
 
 Its territory comprises 6f German square miles, and is inhabited 
 by 46,503 Germans, who are all Lutherans, with the exception 
 of 300 members of the Reformed church, 400 Catholics, and 400 
 Jews. There are 2 towns, 68 villages and hamlets, and 6437 
 houses. In the capital, there are 25,000 inhabitants ; in Trave- 
 munde, 1100; and in the part of Bergedorf, which belongs to 
 Lubeck, 5803. 
 
 The government is democratical, and is in the hands of the 
 senate and the citizens generally : its form was established by the 
 compact (Biirgerrecess) 1669. The senate is the supreme admi- 
 nistrative and executive power ; it is composed of 20 members, 
 namely, 4 burgomasters and 16 councillors; the two syndici and 
 
CH. LI.] THE FREE TOWNS. 467 
 
 the procurator have no voice. There are twelve colleges of 
 citizens. 
 
 The contingent to the army of the confederacy is 406 men. 
 The revenue of Lubeck is 400,000 florins ; and the public 
 debt, 3,000,000 florins. 
 
 If the answers supplied to the Poor Law Commissioners are 
 correct, the mortality at Lubeck is only 1 in 56, the births are 
 1 in 53^, and the marriages 1 in 177. The deaths under the age 
 of one year are reported as only 1 in 7. These statements, 
 however, as Mr. Senior remarks, do not appear to rest on 
 enumeration. 
 
 Before a man is allowed to marry, he must prove that he is in 
 regular employ, which will enable him to maintain a wife; and 
 he must also become a burgher, and equip himself in the uniform 
 of the burgher guard, which, together, may cost him nearly four 
 pounds sterling. 
 
 As an illustration of the difficult subject of the diet of public 
 institutions, I shall give here the allowance at the Poor and 
 Workhouse, for every individual daily : 1^ Ib. of coarse rye 
 bread, 2-J- Ib. of vegetables or porridge, according to the season, 
 and sometimes rice ; 1 bottle of weak beer ; and monthly, also, 
 1 Ib. of meat, and Ib. of butter, lard, or fat, to cook the food 
 with. 
 
 BREMEN, 
 
 Is benefited by the commerce of the Weser, at the mouth of 
 which river it is situated. The number of vessels which entered 
 this port in 1829.-, was 881, of which 110 were from Great 
 Britain, and 321 from North Germany*. 
 
 Bremen became independent so early as the reign of Otho I., 
 but the town was long claimed by the archbishops of Bremen and 
 dukes of Brunswick, and was first universally recognised as inde- 
 pendent, in 1731. Its territory, which, in 1827, was somewhat 
 enlarged, comprises 3 <2 German square miles, and contains 52,000 
 inhabitants, of whom 35,000 are Lutherans, 15,000 members of 
 the Reformed church, and 1500 Catholics. There is 1 town, 1 
 
 * See Murray's valuable " Eneycloptedia of Geography," p. 705. 
 
 2 H 2 
 
468 THE FREE TOWNS. [SECT. II. 
 
 market-town, and 58 villages and hamlets. The town itself con- 
 tains 40,000 inhabitants. In 1833, there were 1347 births, 
 1094 deaths, and 392 marriages. 
 
 The form of government is democratic. The legislative power 
 is vested in the convention of citizens (Biirgerconvent), the exe- 
 cutive in a senate, which consists of four burgomasters, 2 syndici, 
 and 25 councillors. 
 
 A body of 485 men is the contingent to the army of the con- 
 federacy. 
 
 Dollars. Gr. 
 
 The Revenue is - - 569,770 59 
 
 The Expenditure is - 593,039 18 
 
 Deficit - - - 23,268 31 
 
 The debts amount to about 3,000,000 florins. 
 
 Education for the poor is provided gratuitously ; and the poor 
 are compelled to send their children to school, on pain of forfeit- 
 ing all claim to parochial relief, or by other mode of punishment. 
 There is a Poorhouse ; among the inmates about 220 destitute 
 able-bodied individuals were recently maintained, and were obliged 
 to work for the benefit of the institution. 
 
 HAMBURG, 
 
 Is said to have been founded by Charlemagne. It forms a 
 central point of communication between the northern and middle 
 states of Europe. In the thirteenth century, it entered into a 
 treaty with Lubeck, which laid the foundation of the famous 
 Hanseatic League. It continued to increase in prosperity, until 
 the fatal epoch of 1807? when the French army entered it, and 
 Napoleon seized, in his usual fashion, on the public property. 
 Attempting, in 1813, to throw off' the hateful yoke, the good 
 Hamburghers suffered new calamities the traces of which are 
 still imprinted on their fortunes and recollections. 
 
 This is the most cosmopolitan city in the world; the one in 
 which foreigners of all nations feel most at home, and the one in 
 which they are most likely to be understood. Although the 
 greatest commercial city in Germany, it has no air of ostentation; 
 
CH. LI.] THE FIIEE TOWNS. 469 
 
 a general tone of simplicity prevails on the surface. The climate 
 is not very favourable, but the surrounding country is beautiful, 
 and its peasants retain many a picturesque relic of the ancient 
 costume. 
 
 Hamburg entered into the Hanse confederacy in 1241 ; its 
 celebrated maritime law was established, 1262; and in 1815, it 
 was declared one of the German free towns. Its territory, includ- 
 ing its share of Bergedorf, comprises 7' 10 German square miles, 
 and contains 150,000 inhabitants, 134,840 of whom are Lutherans, 
 4050 of the Reformed church, 3060 Catholics, 550 Mennonites, 
 and 7500 Jews. The town of Hamburg itself contains 122,000 
 inhabitants. There are in the territory, 2 towns, 2 market-towns, 
 18 churches, 50 villages and hamlets, and 12,651 houses. 
 
 The form of government is democratic; the supreme power, 
 according to the act of 1712, and other compacts, is divided 
 between councillors and citizens. The council consists of 36 
 members, of whom 4 burgomasters, and 24 councillors, are in 
 senatu, and have a seat and vote; the other members are 4 
 syndici, 1 prothonotary, 1 archivarius, and 2 secretaries, who only 
 possess a votum consultivum, and who are de senatu. 
 
 The contingent to the army of the confederacy, is 1298 men. 
 It has, moreover, a regular army of 1050 men, 185 horsemen, 
 and a civic militia. The revenue is 1,500,000 florins; the public 
 debt 13,500,000. 
 
 In 1832, about 25,000/. was distributed in weekly relief among 
 registered poor, amounting, on an average, to 2900 individuals, 
 or heads of families. Half of the adult paupers appear to have 
 been foreigners. The want of a workhouse is lamented by some. 
 The number of persons buried in the same year at the expense of 
 the Institution for the Poor, was 459, or nearly one-tenth of the 
 average number of deaths. The poor are extremely numerous, 
 their dwellings are very generally in cellars; but the city abounds 
 in excellent institutions for the relief of suffering, among which, 
 the General Hospital deserves particular observation, and is 
 usually considered by the medical men of Germany as one of the 
 best, if not the best, of all their institutions for the sick. 
 
470 CONCLUSION. [SECT. II. 
 
 IN the above notices, as well as generally throughout a work 
 so varied in its scope, we have probably committed some uninten- 
 tional inaccuracies, which the candid, and the best-informed, will 
 be the first to pardon ; such errors we shall gladly correct, if 
 another opportunity should present itself. More particularly we 
 beg to apologize to any individual, of whose name a careless, or 
 improper use may have been made ; as well as to any members 
 of a government, whose measures we may have misinterpreted. 
 This latter deference will appear ludicrous to some persons, who 
 seem to think that kings and ministers are necessarily void of all 
 feeling or conscience, and that the delicacy which is due to the 
 lowest individual, is thrown away upon the highest. Having 
 uniformly sought to state the truth, without any voluntary 
 admixture of party bias, our picture of Germany is painted with 
 various colours ; in some places warmly glowing, and in others 
 deepening into shade; but on the whole, presenting a cheerful 
 prospect. All political partisans will be offended with a book 
 which upholds no exclusive doctrine, and which endeavours to 
 render equal justice to all; but I only seek for the judgment of 
 those who will allow to others, as well as to themselves, that free- 
 dom of opinion which is often most loudlv demanded by those 
 who are the least disposed to concede it. 
 
471 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 No. I. 
 
 Comparative View of the Proportion of Taxes paid yearly by each 
 individual, taking the average of the various States of Germany, 
 and for the sake of illustration, of the other States of Europe. 
 
 Florins in 
 Convention Money. 
 
 In Great Britain, the inhabitant pays yearly - - 18 
 
 France - - 11| 
 
 Holland 10 
 
 Belgium -- - - - - - -10 
 
 Hamburg -.-*..-. 9 T 7 2 
 
 Frankfort 9 T 2 5 
 
 Lubeck 7H 
 
 Bremen --7? 
 
 Spain --------- 5| 
 
 Prussia -------- - 65 
 
 Saxony and Hesse - 5^ 
 
 Bavaria and Hesse-Darmstadt - - - 4| 
 
 Sardinia __-.-.-- 4| 
 Denmark and Saxe Weimar ----- 4 T 7 2 
 
 Baden 4| 
 
 Brunswick, Hese- Horn burg, and San Marino - - 4| 
 Anlialt-Cothen, and Anhalt-Bernburg - - - 3| 
 
 Austria and Portugal ----- 3 
 
 Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, and Saxe-Coburg-Gotha 3| 
 Tuscany, Reuss, and Lippe-Schaumburg 3^ 
 
 Hanover and Wurtemberg - 3 T 6 5 
 
 Nassau and Lucca ------ 3^ 
 
 Oldenburg and Waldeck - - - - - * 3| 
 
 Sweden and Norway, and Lippe-Detmold - - 3 T X 5 
 Saxe-Meiningen ------.3 
 
 Russia, Hohenzollern-Hechingen, and Lichtenstein - 2| 
 Modena, Parma, and Cracow ----- 2| 
 
 Roman States, and the two Schwarzburgs 2^ 
 
 Turkey, and Mecklenburg-Strelitz - 2 T 1 2 
 
 Anhalt-Dessau ------- 2 
 
 Mecklenburg-Schwerin - - - - - -1 
 
 Switzerland 1 
 
 I am indebted for this Table, to the excellent " General Statistik," 
 of Schnabel, vol. ii. p. 210 (1833). By an error of the press he has 
 twice represented Mecklenburg-Schwerin. 
 
472 APPENDIX. 
 
 No. II. 
 
 Comparative View of the Proportion of the Military to the whole 
 Population in the various States of Germany, and in the other 
 States of Europe. 
 
 In Denmark, the soldier is 
 Sweden - 
 Wurtemberg - 
 Poland - 
 Prussia 
 Bavaria 
 Russia - 
 Austria - 
 France 
 
 England * 
 
 Kingdom of the two Sicilies 
 Tuscany - 
 Roman States - 
 
 in 50 of the whole. 
 
 53 
 
 59 
 
 60 
 
 68 
 
 69 
 
 70 
 
 100 
 
 110 
 
 140 (overrated.) 
 
 200 
 
 400 
 
 500 
 
 For the above table, we must refer to the authority of Schnabel, in 
 his " General Statistik," vol. ii. p. 257- 
 
 No. III. 
 
 Comparative Rate of Agricultural Wages in Germany, and in other 
 States of Europe. 
 
 Kreutzers*. 
 
 In East Prussia, the day-labourer earns about - - 14 
 
 Mecklenburg - - from 18 to 21 
 
 About Magdeburg (iu 1830) - 22 
 
 Rhine Country - - 24 
 
 Labourer in the Rhine vineyards - - 36 
 
 Holstein -2126 
 
 Mark of Brandenburg 26 
 
 Black Forest - -3040 
 
 France - 3542 
 
 Canton of Berne, and of the Valais - ,-41 49 
 
 England - 48 60 
 
 * For the purpose of comparison the kreutzer, may be calculated as a half- 
 penny. The above table is from Rau's " Lehrbuch der Politischen Oekonomie," 
 vol. i. p. 194 (1833). 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 473 
 
 No. IV. 
 
 Comparative Table of the Proportion of Legitimate to Illegitimate 
 Births, in various Countries and Cities of Germany, and of other 
 European States. Most of the authorities are derived from the 
 Foreign Returns made to the Poor Law Commission, printed 
 in 1834, and digested by Mr. Senior. 
 
 Countries. 
 
 In Belgium, there are 
 Courland, in Russia - 
 England - 
 Sweden - 
 
 North Holland 
 Norway - 
 
 France - - - 
 
 Prussia .... 
 
 Wales 
 
 Austria ..-;.. 
 
 Denmark - 
 
 Mecklenburg - - - - 
 
 Bohemia - 
 
 Saxony - 
 
 Wiirtemberg 
 Azores - 
 
 Hesse-Damstadt (according to Schon) 
 
 Cities. 
 
 Gottenburg - 
 
 Manchester (according to Roberton) 
 Bremen ... 
 
 Ostend 
 Havre - 
 Nantes - 
 
 Berlin (according to Casper) 
 Brussels - 
 Frankfort - 
 
 Dantzic _ . - - 
 
 Lubeck ... 
 
 Copenhagen, (in 1822) 
 Towns of Courland 
 Marseilles - 
 
 Hamburg ... 
 
 Madrid (Benoiston de Chateauneuf ) - 
 Paris 
 
 Lisbon (according to Balbi) - 
 Munich (in 1823 and 1834) 
 
 21 
 20 
 19 
 16 
 15 
 14 
 13 
 13 
 12 
 
 9 
 
 9 T Vo 1 o 
 
 9 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 7i 1 o 
 
 7 
 
 4 
 
 to 
 
 about. 
 
 about. 
 
 1 about. 
 
 about. 
 
 about. 
 
 about, 
 about. 
 
 1 1 about. 
 
474 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 NO. Y. 
 
 I am indebted to the comprehensive and candid " Statistique de 
 la Grande Bretagne et de 1'Irlande," by Mr. Moreau de Jonnes, for 
 the following Table, which shows the number of Scholars attending 
 Schools in the principal European Stages, and their proportion to the 
 entire population : but I cannot vouch for the correctness of the several 
 data on which his results are founded, and least of all respecting 
 England. 
 
 
 
 Number of 
 
 Countries. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Scholars. Inhabitants. 
 
 England 
 
 1833 - - 
 
 2,957,921 - - 
 
 to 5 
 
 The United Kingdom 
 
 1833 - - 
 
 4,035,013 - - 
 
 6 
 
 Switzerland, Canton de Vaud 
 
 1828 - - 
 
 25,590 - - 
 
 6 
 
 Baden 
 
 1825 - - 
 
 150,000 - - 
 
 , . n 
 
 
 1 ft9^ 
 
 RAO i ^9 
 
 7 
 
 Wurtemberg - 
 
 1 1 > - * ~ 
 
 1827 - - 
 
 OvOj 1 / ^ ~ " 
 
 193,185 - - 
 
 i 
 
 8 
 
 Ireland 
 
 1833 - - 
 
 857,692 - - 
 
 9 
 
 The Low Countries - 
 
 1826 - - 
 
 640,897 - - 
 
 10 
 
 Scotland - 
 
 1833 - - 
 
 220,000 - - 
 
 10 
 
 Prussia 
 
 1825 - - 
 
 1,278,000 - - 
 
 10 
 
 
 1812 - - 
 
 190,000 - - 
 
 10 
 
 
 Holland .--. 
 
 1835 - - 
 
 304,559 - - 
 
 8 
 
 Switzerland, Canton of Appenzell - 
 
 1827 - - 
 
 3,502 - - 
 
 10 
 
 Moravia 
 
 1822 - - 
 
 150,000 - - 
 
 13 
 
 Bohemia 
 
 1811 - - 
 
 284,720 - - 113 
 
 Austria Proper - - - - 
 
 1820 - - 
 
 154,000 - - 115 
 
 Empire of Austria 
 
 1822 - - 
 
 2,021,900 - - 116 
 
 France 
 
 1834 - - 
 
 1,907,000 - - 1 17 
 
 Denmark 
 
 1825 - - 
 
 61,000 - - 130 
 
 Kingdom of Naples - 
 
 1818 - - 
 
 74,513 - - 145 
 
 Kingdom of Poland - 
 
 1823 - - 
 
 34,523 - - 1 100 
 
 Portugal 
 
 1819 - - 
 
 39,000 - - 1 109 
 
 Hungary - 
 
 1835 - - 
 
 28,903 - - 1350 
 
 Spain - 
 
 1803 
 
 29,900 - - 1350 
 
 Empire of Russia - 
 
 1828 - - 
 
 67,500 - - 1794 
 
APPENDIX. 475 
 
 NOTE on p. 78. 
 
 THE first paragraph, and the notes in this chapter, proceed in no 
 degree from Baron A. W. von Schlegel. 
 
 NOTE on p. 173. The Supranaturalists in Germany. 
 
 THE account given in the text of the Supranaturalists, is not entirely 
 correct. The Supranaturalists in Germany correspond, in a certain 
 degree, to the term Orthodox in England ; and the above description 
 of their tenets does not apply by any means to the mass of individuals 
 who constitute that party. Some of them may entertain peculiar 
 notions as to original sin ; but it ought not to have been so broadly 
 affirmed, that the Supranaturalists deny so essential a doctrine. 
 Dr. Hengstenberg, of the university of Berlin, is one of the ablest 
 representatives of this party, and is the editor of a weekly journal, 
 called the " Evangelische Kirchen Zeitung," which may, perhaps, be 
 considered as a recognised interpreter or organ of these opinions. 
 Dr. Neander, also an eminent professor at Berlin, is another dis- 
 tinguished writer of nearly the same views, espousing similar doc- 
 trines, but expounding them in a more subdued form, and in a milder 
 tone. 
 
 NOTE on p. 182. The Pietists. 
 
 THE Pietists formerly bore to the Lutheran church the same relation 
 which the so-called Evangelical portion of the Church of England bears 
 to the general community of that church. They placed a greater 
 stress upon certain tenets than did the old orthodox body: their 
 influence appears to have been at first beneficial, so long as Spener 
 and Franke survived ; but they soon degenerated. 
 
 THE END. 
 
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 including the Culture of Vines in Pots. By JOHN TOWERS, C.M.H.S. Second 
 Edition, Enlarged and Improved. One large Volume, Octavo, 13s. 
 
 MOST of the works on gardening which have come under my observation, are not only expensive, but appear 
 to have been written almost exclusively for the affluent ; for those who possess, or can afford to possess, all 
 the luxuries of the garden. We read of the management of hot-houses, green-houses, forcing-houses ; of 
 nursery-grounds, shrubberies, and other concomitants of ornamental gardening. Now, although it is 
 acknowledged that many useful ideas may be gathered from these works, still it is obvious that they arc 
 chiefly written-for those whose rank in life enables them to employ a chief gardener and assistants, qualified 
 for the performance of the many operations required in the various departments of large gardens. As I profess 
 to have a very different object in view, I address this book to those, who, without aiming to become pro- 
 fessional gardeners, wish, nevertheless, to acquire so much of the art of Gardening as shall enable them to 
 conduct its more common and essential operations with facility and precision. 
 
 MUSICAL HISTORY, BIOGRAPHY, AND CRITICISM; being 
 
 a General Survey of Music from the earliest Period to the Present Time. By 
 GEORGE HOGARTH. A new and enlarged edition, in Two Volumes. 10s. 6d. 
 
 LECTURES on ASTRONOMY, delivered at KING'S COLLEGE, 
 
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 *MECHANICS APPLIED TO THE ARTS. By PROFESSOR 
 
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 With numerous Engravings. 6s. 6d. 
 
 A MANUAL OF CHEMISTRY, by W. T. BRANDE, F.R.S., 
 Prof. Chem. R.I., and of Her Majesty's Mint. 30*. 
 
 ALTHOUGH Three Editions of the Manual of Chemistry have already appeared, the present may be con- 
 sidered as a new work. It has been almost wholly re-written; everything new and important in the Science, 
 both in English and Foreign Works, has been embodied; and it abounds in references to Authorities. 
 
 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF CHEMICAL 
 
 PHILOSOPHY : being a preparatory View of the Forces which concur to the 
 Production of Chemical Phenomena. By J. FREDERIC DANIELL, F.R.S., 
 
 Professor of Chemistry in King's College, London ; and Lecturer on Chemistry 
 and Geology in the Hon. East India Company's Military Seminary at Addiscombe; 
 and Author of Meteorological Essays. 16s. 
 
FROM THE PRESS OF JOHN W. PARKER. 9 
 
 * A FAMILIAR HISTORY of BIRDS; their Nature, Habits, and 
 
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 BRITISH SONG BIRDS; Popular Descriptions and Anecdotes of 
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 * POPULAR PHYSIOLOGY; familiar Explanations of interesting 
 
 Facts connected with the Structure and Functions of Animals, and particularly of 
 Man. By PERCEVAL B. LORD, M.B. Many Engravings. 7*. 6W. 
 
 To trace the finger of God in the works of creation, to consider " the wonders that He doeth amongst the 
 children of men," has ever been a source of the purest and noblest gratification, that moral gratification 
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 Infinite Goodness, that intellectual satisfaction which attends upon our being allowed, even imperfectly, to 
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 THE DOCTRINE OF LIMITS, with its Applications; namely, 
 The First Three Sections of Newton Conic SectionsThe ^Differential Calculus. 
 By the Rev. WILLIAM WHEWELL, B.D., &c. 9s. 
 
 THE MECHANICAL EUCLID. By the Rev. WILLIAM 
 
 WHEWELL, B.D., Fellow and Tutor of Trin. Coll., Cambridge. 5s. 6d. 
 
 AN ELEMENTARY TREATISE on the DIFFERENTIAL and 
 INTEGRAL CALCULUS. By the Rev. T. G. HALL, M.A., Professor of Ma- 
 thematics, King's College, London. 125. Qd. 
 
 LECTURES upon TRIGONOMETRY, and the APPLICATION 
 of ALGEBRA to GEOMETRY. Second Edition, corrected. *js. Qd. 
 
 DYNAMICS, or a TREATISE on MOTION; to which is added, a 
 SHORT TREATISE on ATTRACTIONS. By SAMUEL EARNSHAW, M.A., 
 
 of St. John's College, Cambridge. Octavo, with many Cuts. 14s. 
 
 THE MAGAZINE OF POPULAR SCIENCE; complete in Four 
 large Volumes, Octavo. 2 15s. 
 
 THIS work furnishes the general reader with popular and connected views of the actual progress and condition 
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 developed in original communications and discussions, abounding in the freshest facts, the most recent 
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 Research, at home and abroad, has been able to furnish. 
 
 The Sciences of ASTRONOMY, CHEMISTRY, and GEOLOGY, are comprehensively, but popularly, treated in a 
 eeries of papers, forming regular and complete Courses on those several Subjects. 
 
10 FROM THE PRESS OF JOHN W. PARKER. 
 
 THE STUDENT'S MANUAL OF NATURAL PHILOSOPHY; 
 
 comprising Descriptions, Popular and Practical, of the most important Philosophical 
 Instruments, their History, Nature and Uses ; with complete elucidations of the 
 Sciences to which they respectively appertain. Dedicated, by permission, to the 
 Lord Bishop of Salisbury. By CHARLES TOMLINSON. 10s. Gd. 
 
 IN this work certain prominent subjects have been selected with which it behoves everyone to be acquainted: 
 such, for example, as relate to what may be called our HOUSEHOLD INSTRUMENTS, namely, the Thermometer, 
 the Barometer, and Vernier ; the Hydrometer, the Hygrometer ; the Tuning-Fork, Musical Glasses and Music 
 generally ; the Compass ; the Prism, the Telescope, and the Sun -Dial. These subjects, and those in immediate 
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 * READINGS in SCIENCE; familiar EXPLANATIONS of Appear- 
 ances and Principles in NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. With many Engravings. 5s. 
 
 *EASY LESSONS IN MECHANICS: with Familiar Illustrations of 
 the Practical Application of Mechanical Principles. 3s. 
 
 THE HOUSE I LIVE IN; or Popular Illustrations of the Structure 
 and Functions of the Human Body. Edited by T. C. GIRTIN. 2s. Gd. 
 
 ' ' I am fearfully and wonderfully made ! " 
 
 * MINERALS AND METALS ; their Natural History and Uses in 
 
 the Arts : with Accounts of Mines and Mining. Engravings, 2s. 6d. 
 
 FAMILIAR as we are, from our earliest years, with the various articles manufactured from the Metals, for 
 purposes of use and comfort, the nature and properties of the metals themselves, and the means by which 
 they are obtained, are comparatively little known. 
 
 * OUTLINES of ASTRONOMY. By the Rev. T. G. HALL, M.A., 
 
 Professor of Mathematics, King's College, London. With Cuts. lOd. 
 
 * The ELEMENTS of BOTANY. With many Engravings. NEW 
 EDITION, Enlarged and Improved. 2s. 
 
 THE principles of this beautiful and important science are explained in a clear and simple manner, so as to 
 render the acquisition of them comparatively easy, and the examples, when possible, are selected from our 
 own wild flowers, or from those cultivated in all gardens or fields. 
 
 THE ELEMENTS of POLITICAL ECONOMY, abridged from 
 
 the Principles of Political Economy by Professor WAYLAND, D.D. 2s. fid. 
 
 * MANUAL of INSTRUCTION in VOCAL MUSIC, chiefly with 
 a View to PSALMODY. By JOHN TURNER, Esq 4* 
 
FROM THE PRESS OF JOHN W. PARKER. 1 1 
 
 THE MERCHANT AND THE FRIAR; TRUTHS and FICTIONS 
 of the MIDDLE AGES. By SIR FRANCIS PALGRAVE, K.H., Keeper of the 
 Records of the Treasury'of Her Majesty's Exchequer. 8s. 
 
 LETTERS of EMINENT PERSONS; selected and illustrated, 
 
 and with an Introduction, Critical and Anecdotical, by R. A. WILLMOTT, Trinity 
 Coll. Camb. Author of the Lives of British Sacred Poets. 7s. 6d. 
 
 LIGHT IN DARKNESS; or, THE RECORDS OF A VILLAGE 
 
 RECTORY. 3s. 6d. 
 
 THE VILLAGE. I THE", GOOD AUNT. I THE VILLAGE APOTHECARY. 
 
 THE RETIRED TRADESMAN. | THE VILLAGE SCHOOLMASTER. | THE DESERTED WIFE. 
 THE FAMILY AT THE HALL ; OR, PRIDE AND POVERTY. 
 
 READINGS in NATURAL THEOLOGY; or, the Testimony of 
 Nature to the Being, Perfections, and Government of God. By the Rev. H. 
 FERGUS. 45. 
 
 * READINGS in ENGLISH PROSE LITERATURE; containing 
 choice Specimens of the Works of the best English Writers, from LORD BACON 
 to the Present Time. With Biographical Sketches of the Writers, and ESSAYS on 
 the PROGRESS of ENGLISH LITERATURE. 4s. 6d. 
 
 THIS volume is intended to furnish the general reader with some valuable specimens of English prose compo- 
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 A MANUAL of Poetry, comprising the gems of the standard English Poets. Care has been taken to select 
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 add, that scrupulous attention has been paid to the moral character of the extracts. 
 
 UNIVERSAL MYTHOLOGY ; an Account of the most important 
 Mythological Systems, their Origin and Connexion. By the Rev. HENRY 
 CHRISTMAS, St. John's Coll., Camb. 7*. 
 
 THE Mythology of Greece and Rome has hitherto been studied almost exclusively, though neither the most 
 important, nor the most interesting. The systems of the East and of the North, of Egypt and of China, 
 would have illustrated the Greek and Roman fables, have cleared up their difficulties, and explained their 
 allegories. * * * * This object has been attempted in the present work. 
 
12 FROM THE PRESS OF JOHN W. PARKER. 
 
 THE CAMBRIDGE PORTFOLIO ; a Periodical Work comprising 
 
 Papers illustrative of the principal features in the Scholastic and Social System of 
 the University ; Notices of the most Eminent Characters it has produced ; Gleanings 
 from the Manuscripts in the several Libraries ; and Contributions in Original Lite- 
 rature by contemporary Members. It also contains descriptive accounts of the 
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 by numerous Etchings, executed by LEWIS, INCE, G. COOKE, and other eminent 
 Artists. In Parts, at 5s. each. 
 
 DISSERTATIONS ON THE EUMENIDES OF ^SCHYLUS, 
 
 with the Greek Text, and Critical Remarks. From the German of MULLER. 9s. Gd. 
 
 THE FROGS OF ARISTOPHANES, with ENGLISH NOTES, 
 
 for the Use of Schools and Students. By the Rev. H. P. COOKESLEY. 7*. 
 
 THE AULULARIA of PLAUTUS, with Notes by JAMES 
 
 IIILDYARD, M.A., Fellow of Corpus Christi College, Cambridge. 7*. 6d. 
 
 SCHLEIERMACHER'S INTRODUCTIONS TO THE 
 
 DIALOGUES of PLATO ; translated from the German, by WILLIAM DOB- 
 SON, M.A., Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge. ]2s. Gd. 
 
 ADRIAN, a TALE of ITALY, in Three Cantos; with the STAR OF 
 DESTINY, and other Poems. By HENRY COOK, Esq. 7,. 6d. 
 
 THE BRITISH MONTHS, a Poem, in Twelve Parts. By 
 RICHARD MANT, D.D., Lord Bishop of Down and Connor. 2 Vols., 9s. 
 
 THE STORY of CONSTANTINE; a Poem. By the Rev. 
 THOMAS E. HANKINSON, M.A., of Corpus Christi, Cambridge. Is. Gd. Also 
 by the same Author, the following SEATONIAN PRIZE POEMS : 
 
 ETHIOPIA STRETCHING FORTH HER HAND. Is. 6d. 
 JACOB, Is. ISHMAEL, Is. PAUL AT PHILIPPI, 2s. 
 
 THE SATIRES and EPISTLES of HORACE, interpreted by 
 DAYID HUNTER, Esq., M.A. 4*. GJ. 
 
FROM THE PRESS OF JOHN W. PARKER. 13 
 
 THE PHILOSOPHY OF LIVING; by HERBERT MAYO, 
 
 F.R.S., Senior Surgeon of the Middlesex Hospital. 8s. 6d. 
 
 SUMMARY OP THE CONTENTS. 
 
 DIVERSITIES OF CONSTI- 
 TUTION ; Temperament ; 
 Habit ; Diathesis. 
 
 OF DIGESTION: Adap- 
 tation of Diet to different 
 
 Constitutions and Ages ; 
 on the Social Relations of 
 Food. 
 Of EXERCISE ; Exercise 
 
 of Boys; on the Physical Of SLEEP. 
 
 Education of Girls; Spi- 
 nal Curvature ; Exercise 
 proper for Adults; for 
 the Aged 
 
 Of BATHING. 
 Of CLOTHING. 
 Of AIR and CLIMATE. 
 HEALTH of MIND ; Self- 
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 and DISEASE, by the Author of the preceding work. 65. Gd. 
 
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 THE YOUNG LADY'S FRIEND; a MANUAL of PRACTI- 
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 A DAILY PRAYER BOOK, for FAMILIES and SCHOOLS; arranged 
 
 from the Services of the United Church of England and Ireland, after the Form 
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 of Attleborough, Norfolk. 1*. Gd. 
 
 A MANUAL OF FAMILY PRAYER ; comprising Three Weekly 
 
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 SACRED MINSTRELSY; a COLLECTION of the FINEST 
 
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14 FROM THE PRESS OF JOHN W. PARKER. 
 
 THE ROMAN CATHOLIC DOCTRINE of the EUCHARIST. 
 
 The Scriptural Argument considered. By THOMAS TURTON, D.D., Regius 
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 TRADITION UNVEILED: a candid Inquiry into the Tendency 
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 The CONNEXION of NATURAL and DIVINE TRUTH ; or, the 
 
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 of Geometry in the University of Oxford. Vs. 
 
 NATURAL THEOLOGY considered chiefly with reference to LORD 
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 CUDWORTH ON FREEWILL ; Edited from the Original MS., and 
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 &nd deaths, and the perversion or exaggeration of their opinions. 
 
FROM THE PRESS OF JOHN W. PARKER. 
 
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