m __,;v- ' . W^-.^-j! u. s. "SNAP SHOTS" An Independent, National, and Memorial Encyclopedia. (Alphabetically Arranged for Ready Reference.) A GAZETTEER OF NATIONAL INDUSTRIES. Products, Agriculture, Manufactures, Wealth, Religious Denominations, etc. Great Inventions and Inventors, according to the 1890 census. NATIONAL AND STATE POLITICS, PARTIES, AND STATESMEN. Interesting Reminiscences, Anecdotes, Songs, Fun, Witticisms and Slang of Famous Campaigns. THE STUMP, TORCH-LIGHT PROCESSIONS, PARADES. BRASS BANDS IN POLITICS. Chronicle outline of American History from 986 to 1892, with a FULL AND AUTHENTIC DESCRIPTION OF THE WORLD'S COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION. Facts about Presidents and Biographical Stories, Anecdotes, and Remi- niscences of the Presidential and Vice-Presidential Nominees of the Republican and Democratic Parties and their Wives and Families. By OLIVER McKEE. Illustrated with many photo-chromatic color plates, and over 200 Engravings and Portraits by the BEST AMERICAN ARTISTS. Copyrighted by A. M. Thayer & Co. , Boston, Mass. PUBLISHERS' PREFACE. THE design of this book is to collect and group in a convenient arrangement those facts regarding the political history, the insti- tutions, the government, and the industries of the United States, which every thoughtful citizen may reasonably be expected to desire to have knowledge of. While the first aim has been to lay most stress upon the origin of political institutions, parties, laws, public questions, etc., it was felt that this purpose would not be adequately realized without giving an outline sketch of the indus- tries and commerce of the country, so nearly related nowadays are legislation and the national material development. For this reason, descriptions are given of the States and Territories, with their industrial statistics compiled from the census of 1890, and with their more prominent characteristics defined. The encyclopaedic arrangement has been supplemented by an exhaustive system of cross-references, by which it is hoped that the seeker after information may obtain what he desires to know in the shortest possible time. All of the important, sub-divisions of chapters are indexed in alphabetical order, and in each case are referred to the caption under which they naturally would be found. For instance, anything of a military character will be found under the head of the United States Army ; subjects in any way connected with the Post-Office Department under that head, and anything relating to ships or shipping under Shipbuilding. To make the reference even more convenient, sub-heads of mam heads, or, in oilier words, the essential facts in each chapter are outlined by captions to be found in close conjunction with the 2030042 PREFACE. main caption itself. A glance at each caption, therefore, will show all that the chapter contains. It is impossible in a work of this kind that some errors, involv- ing questions of fact, should not be made. If any reader finds such errors, the publishers will be gratified if he will point them out, in order that in later editions they may be corrected. Several works of a kindred nature have been drawn upon for some of the material in the book, a fact which the author desires to publicly acknowledge. The more important of these books are Johnston's " American Politics," Townsend's " U. S. Facts," the " Dictionary of American Politics," and John Fiske's " Civil Gov- ernment," all of which are especially valuable to any student of United States history and institutions. Abolition, Abolitionists. (See Political Parties.) Accidental President, The. (See Presidents of the United States.) Accidents, Railroad. (See Railroads and Bridges.) Administration Should Be Conducted behind Glass Doors. (See Sayings of Famous Americans.) Admission of States into the Union. The dates on which the thirteen original States ratified the Constitution, and those on which the rest have been admitted into the Union are as follows : 1. Delaware,-Dec. 7, 1787; -2:'>. 2. Pennsylvania, Dec. 12, 1787; -4. 3. New Jersey, Dec. 18, 1787; 25. 4. Georgia, Jan. 2, 1788; 26. 5. Connecticut, Jan. 9, 1788; 27. 6. Massachusetts, Feb. 7, 1788; 28. 7. Maryland, April 28, 1788; 29. 8. South Carolina, May 23, 1788; 30. 9. New Hampshire, June 21, 1788; 31. 10. Virginia, June 26, 1788; 32. 11. New York, July 26, 1788; 33. 12. North Carolina, Nov. 21, 1789; 34. 13. Rhode Island, May 29, 1790; 35. 14. Vermont, March 4, 1791 ; 36. 15. Kentucky, June 1, 1792; 37. 16. Tennessee, June 1, 1796; 38. 17. Ohio, Nov. 29, 1802; 39. 18. Louisiana, April 30, 1812; . 40. 19. Indiana, Dec. 11, 1816; 41. 20. Mississippi, Dec. 10, 1817; 42. 21. Illinois, Dec. 3, 1818; 43. 22. Alabama, Dec. 14, 1819; 44. Maine, March 15, 1820; Missouri, Aug. 10, 1821 ; Arkansas, June 15, 1836; Michigan, Jan. 26, 1837; Florida, March 3, 1845; Texas, Dec. 29, 1845; Iowa, Dec. 28, 1846; Wisconsin, May 29, 1848; California, Sept. 9, 1850; Minnesota, May 11, 1858; Oregon, Feb. 14, 1859; Kansas, Jan. 29, 1861; West Virginia, June 19, 1863; Nevada, Oct. 31, 1864; Nebraska, March 1, 1867; Colorado, Aug. 1, 1876; No. Dakota, Nov. 3, 1889; So. Dakota, Nov. 3, 1889; Montana, Nov. 8, 1889; Washington, Nov. 11, 1889; Llalio, July3, 1890; Wyoming, July 11, 1890. Agricultural Wheel. (See Political Parties.) Agriculture. Corn, Hay, Oats, Wool, Wheat, Barley, Rye, Tobacco, Farm Animals, Cotton, Sugar. 34 AGRICULTURE. When Capt. John Smith landed in America in 1607, he found the Indians growing Corn. He thus describes the process : " They make a hole in the earth with a stick, and into it they put four grains of wheat (i. e. maize) and two of beans. These holes they make four feet from one another. Their women and children do continually keep it with weeding, and when it is grown middle high, they hill it about like a hop yard. In May also among their corn they plant pompeons." What the English explorer thus described was the Beginning of Agriculture in America. The one great need of the early colonists was live-stock. A few cows were brought over to Vir- ginia in 1607, and by 1620 the number was 500. In 1639, the number was 30,- 000. The First Cattle were im- ported in 1623, and seven later 100 arrived, vious to however, had been years cows Pre- this, cattle intro- duced into the Spanish settle- ments in Central America by the Spanish, and here were raised the progenitors of the modern Texas steers, and many domestic stocks also sprang from the Spanish importations. Although in remote times The Horse inhabited Ameiica, the species was extinct by the time the colo- nists arrived ; the ancestors of the modern American Horse were imported by the Spanish, the Dutch, and the English. Wheat was imported, and was sown in an island in Buzzard's Bay by Gosnold in 1602. It was first sown in Virginia in 1611. It remained the staple crop until 1648, when it was surpassed by Tobacco. In 1622, Virginia raised 60,000 pounds of tobacco. The industry grew to such proportions that between 1622 and 1644 the crop aggregated 40,000,000 pounds. Of the colonies, New Jersey was the most productive. Potatoes came from South America. By 1725, all the cereals were grown in abundance, the staple food product being the native Indian Corn, which was eaten either as hominy, hasty pudding, pone bread, or succotash (a mixture of corn and beans) and was to be found on every table between Maine and Georgia. The first attempt at Cotton Production was in AGRICULTURE. 35 South Carolina, in 1733, with seed imported from Smyrna, but after that seed was imported from the West Indies. Cotton was used extensively in making clothing for the negroes. Another difficulty the colonists contended with was the lack of suitable tools to work with. In 1017, Ploughs were introduced, rude affairs of wood, heavy, big, and requiring a strong team to pull them. The other farming implements were the spade, the sickle, the wooden fork, the hoe, and later the harrow. The plough was so useful STEAM PLOUGH. an implement that Thomas Jefferson thought it worth his while to try to have it improved, and he succeeded in doing so. To his efforts is due the introduction of the first hillside plough. Reaping Machines were experimented with, both in this country and in England, about 1800. The years from 1800 to 1830 saw large imports of blooded cattle and sheep, which were used to excellent advantage for breeding purposes. About 1810 sheep were very scarce, and therefore wool was at a premium ; as high as $100 a pound in 1810, and in 1812, $250 a pound being asked for the finest quality. Rams were worth $1,000 each. The period from 1833 to 1860 was one of progress. Drain- age came into prominence, the first real attempt at irrigation being that of the Mormons, at Salt Lake City. Improvement of farm buildings and in farm implements was noticeable. Farmers came to realize the value of economy in the use of manures. The cereal acreage increased with the opening of the Pacific railroads. Agriculture took a great stride forward with the invention of the McCormick Reaper, in 1834, although its advantages were not at once appreciated. From 1860 agriculture has moved 36 AGRICULTUKK. steadily forward. The enactment of the homestead law, the work of Agricultural Colleges, the improvement in agricultural imple- ments, the organization of the Grange, and the establishment by the government of the Department of Agriculture, these have all operated to make agriculture a science which is to-day better understood and enjoys a higher state of perfection in the United States than in any land under the sun. Drainage, irrigation, the use of fertilizers, intelligent construction of farm buildings, not to mention the invention of machinery for sowing and harvesting, have made possible the raising of immense crops, and have led to the opening up and expansion of agricultural industries which heretofore had been conducted only on a small scale. Among these are the butter, cheese, and milk industries, which yield products worth millions of dollars yearly. Of Milk, the United States now raises upwards of 60,000,000 gallons annually, of Butter, the product is upwards of 770,000,- 000 pounds, and of Cheese the product is 30,000,000 pounds. Another immense industry allied with agriculture is the raising of Poultry, Avhich exceeds 70,000,000 fowls in a year; the pro- duction of Eggs is over 5,000,000,000. The entire agricultural product is worth over $4,000,000,000 in 5,000,000, 10,000,000. duct was a year. The farms number over the farmers and farm laborers over "Wheat. In 1890, the wheat pro- 399,262,000 bushels, with an acre- age of 36,087,154 acres. The product was valued at $334,- 773,678. The Dakotas led with 40,411,000 bushels, Minnesota being second with 38,356,000 bushels. In wheat production the United States leads all the nations of the earth, France being second with 325,000,000 bushels, India third, with 235,000,000, and Austria-Hungary fourth with 217,000,000. Corn In 1890, the yield of corn was 1,489,970,000 bushels, from 71,970,763 acres; the product was valued at $754,433,451. Iowa led with 232,439,000 bushels. Oats, Rye, and Barley Of rye in 1890, the yield was 28,415,000 bushels ; of barley, 63,884,000 ; of oats, 523,621,000. TOBACCO CULTURE. AGRICULTURE. 37 The total area growing cereals was 146,281,000 acres. The value of the product was 1,320,255,398. Hay Of hay in. 1888, the product was 46,643,094 tons, valued at $408,499,565. (For Exports of Cereals see Exports and Imports.) Potatoes. The potato crop aggregated 202,365,000 bushels, valued at 81,413,589 ; the acreage for potatoes was 2,533, 2$o. "Wool. The product of wool in 1890 was 276,000,000 pounds, which was an average yield; imported, 105,431,281 pounds; domestic wool exported, 231,042 pounds ; foreign wool exported, 3,288,467 pounds; retained for home consumption, 366,911,772 pounds. Sugar. The sugar producers in the applications for licenses announced their prospective production as follows (year ending June 30, 1891) : Cane sugar, 447,157,709 pounds; beet sugar, 7,971,777 pounds; sorghum sugar, 57,132,044 pounds; total, 512,261,530 pounds. This abnormally large production is due to the granting of bounties to sugar manufacturers under the act of HARVESTING THE RYE CROP. Oct. 1, 1890, the entrance free of duty of beet sugar machinery, and to other favoring circumstances. The consumption of sugar per capita in 1891 was 62 pounds, as against 77.8 pounds per capita in England. Cotton. In 1891, the cotton crop aggregated 8,655,518 bales, the largest ever grown. The exports of cotton in 1890-91 were 5,750,443 bales, for home consumption, 2,642,912 bales. Tobacco. The production of tobacco in 1888 (Secretary of Agriculture's Report) was 565,795,000 pounds, valued at $43,- 666,665. Kentucky grew the largest crop, 283,306,000 pounds, valued at 821,247,971. The production of the other chief to- bacco-growing States was, in pounds, as follows : Connecticut, 9,603,000; Illinois, 2,947,000; Indiana, 16,153,000 ; Maryland, 14,017,000; Massachusetts, 3,893,000 ; Missouri, 13,109,000; New 38 ALABAMA. York, 6,488,000; North Carolina, 25,755,000; Ohio, 35,195,000 ; Pennsylvania, 24,180,000; Tennessee, 45,641,000; Virginia, 64,034; West Virginia, 4,496,000 ; Wisconsin, 12,846,000. ' The tobacco crop in 1890 aggregated over 600,000,000 pounds. Farm Animals in the United States. The Department of Agriculture reported the following farm animals in the United States in 1891 : Horses, 14,056,750, value, $941,823,222 ; mules, 2,296,532, value, $178,847,370; milch cows, 16,019,591, value, $346,397,900 ; oxen and other cattle, 36,875,648, value, 544,- 127,908; sheep, 43,431,136, value, $108,397,447 ; swine, 50,625,- 106, value, $210,193,923. Total value of farm animals, $2,:52i),- 787,770. In the number of sheep in 1891, Texas led the States, having 4,990,272; Ohio was second, having 3,712,310; New Mexico third with 3,123,663; Oregon fourth with 2,431,759; Michigan fifth with 2,263,249 ; Montana sixth with 2,089,337 ; and Utah seventh with 2,055,900. In 1888, South America had 99,928,607 sheep ; Australasia, 86,245,520 ; Russia in Europe, 46,724,736; British India, 30,453,724 ; Great Britain and Ireland, 29,401,750 ; South Africa, 23,746,179 ; France, 22,688,230 ; Germany, 19,189,715 ; Spain, 16,939,288 ; total in foreign lands, 423,907,744. Agriculture, Department Of. (See Federal Government.) Alabama. The State was founded at Mobile, by the French, in 1702. A hundred and fifty years before that the Spaniards entered the region in search of gold. At this time they were attacked by the natives and fought with them a bloody battle. Alabama did not unite with the thirteen colonies in their conflict with England. The Spaniards retained their power at Mobile until it was broken by Gen- eral Wilkinson's army from New Orleans in 1813. In 1817 Congress GREAT SEAL OF ALABAMA. organized the territory, and two years later it became a State with about 127,000 inhabitants, besides the Indians. Cahaba became the capital in 1820; Tuskaloosa, in 1826 ; Montgomery, in 1847. The Indians since then have been removed to the Indian Terri- tory. Agriculture in Alabama employs 400,000 persons on 140,000 farms, with $80,000,000 worth of land and buildings, and $25,000,- 000 in live stock, the yearly products being valued at $57,000,000. ALABAMA. 39 The largest crop is of Cotton, which averages 700,000 bales ; of tobacco, the average is 450,000 Ibs. ; of rice, 810,000 Ibs. ; of cereals, 40,000,000 bushels ; of hay, 52,000 tons. In cotton pro- duction, Alabama is the Fourth State. The development of the mineral regions has of late years be- come an important industry. There are extensive coal-fields and iron-beds, and iron-manufacturing has attained immense propor- tions. Within fifteen years the Output of Pig-iron has increased MONTGOMEBY, ALA., SHOWING STATE CAPITOL. so that the State now ranks next to Pennsylvania an.d Ohio- There are 52 blast-furnaces in operation, producing, in 1889> 890,432 tons of pig-iron. A fine quality of steel is also produced, the product being very large. The coal yield has risen to 340,- 000 tons. Alabama is also noted for its mineral springs, and has numerous health resorts. The State supports a University at Tuskaloosa in which military training is a prominent feature. There is also an agri- cultural and mechanical college, at Auburn, a Methodist Episco- pal church college, Howard College for Baptists, Spring Hill College (Catholic), and other sectarian institutions and a medical college. There are 35 academies, with 6,000 students, including 9 colleges for women. There are four Normal Schools for Colored Students, for which the State makes yearly appro- priations. The population of Alabama in 1880 was 1,262,505, in 1890, 1,513,017, of whom 662,185 were white, and 681,431 colored. The net public debt was $11,992,619. There were in 1890 3,313 miles of railroads, and 1,933 post-offices, and in 1892 there were 40 ALABAMA. 180 newspapers. Mt. Vernon Barracks, a United States garri- son, is situated 28 miles north of Mobile. Mobile, the chief city, with a population in 1890 of 31,076, is a vast cotton exporting centre. Birmingham (population, 26,178) has extensive rolling mills, and many factories producing a variety of manufactures. It has the largest iron manufacturing business of any city outside of Pennsylvania. Montgomery (population, 21,883) is a manufacturing and cotton centre. The Governor of Alabama is Thomas G. Jones (Democrat), whose term expires Dec. 1, 1892. The State is Democratic. Alabama Claims. The fact that in English ports during the Civil War Confed e r a t e cruisers were allowed to be * built, and that Confede rate vessels were allowed to coal and arm there while at the same time neutrality was strictly en- forced against United States ships, led to the display of much bitterness toward the English government on the part of the Federal government. Chief among the cruisers which were built or equipped in England were the Florida, the Georgia, the Shenandoah, and the Alabama; the last-named because of her especially destructive career gave her name to the claims which arose from the depredations of all such vessels on the commerce of the United States. As a result of Great Britain's action in these matters, the United States Claimed Damages from her for " direct losses in the capture and destruction of a large number of vessels, with their cargoes, and in the heavy national expenditures in the pur- suit of the cruisers ; and indirect injury in the transfer of a large part of the American commercial marine to the British flag, in the enhanced payment of insurance, in the prolongation of the war, and in the addition of a large sum to the cost of the war and the suppression of the Rebellion." The dispute between the two governments stood unsettled until after the war. In 1866, this government offered to submit the dispute to arbitration ; England MUSCLE SHOALS AND CANALS, ALABAMA. ALASKA. 41 objected, and proposed instead a joint commission to settle this and other disputes. The Commission met and signed the Treaty of Washington, in 1871, the result of which was an Arbitration Commission, which met at Geneva, Switzerland, and on Sept. 14, 1872, awarded to the United States damages amounting to $15,500,000, which was paid. (See Geneva Award.) Albany Regency. (See Political Parties.) Alaska. Navigators sailing under the Russian flag in 1741, were the first to land on the shores of Alaska. In 1799, the Emperor Paul of Russia granted a charter to the Russian- American Company, who conquered the country as far as Sitka, penetrated to California, and opened trade with China and the Spanish colonies. Priests of the Greek church, acting with the Russian government, Christianized thousands of the natives. Following the advice of Seward and Sumner, in 1867 this government bought Alaska from Russia for $7,200,000 in gold. The Climate of southern Alaska is moderated by the influence of the ocean. The mean temperature of Sitka is 54 degrees in summer and 31 degrees in winter. The government consists of a governor, a district judge, and a district attorney, besides a collector of customs, several commissioners, and a marshal. Education is under the direction of the United States Commis- sioner of Education. There are eighteen day schools supported by the government. The Fisheries of Alaska are of enormous value ; upwards of fifty American vessels come to the fishing grounds annually, getting $1,500,000 a year in ivory, bone, and oil. The yearly yield of furs has reached 100,000 fur seals, 5,000,000 otters, 10,000,000 beavers, 12,000,000 foxes, and 20,000,000 martens. The value of Fur-Seal skins shipped from Alaska and sold in the London markets since the Territory came into the possession of the United States is given as nearly $33,000,000, and of other furs as $16,000,000. With regard to the fisheries, the value of the product of the salmon canneries alone from 1884 to 1890 is reported at nearly $7,000,000, and of salmon salted at $500,000. In 1890 over 3,000,000 salmon were taken at Karluk, where the largest cannery in the world is situated, and no fewer than 200,- 000 cases of salmon were canned at this place last year, 1,100 fishermen and packers being employed therein. The Herring fishery at Killisnoo jdelds annually over 150,000 gallons of oil and nearly 1,000 tons of fertilizing material, and the value of the cod- fish catch in Alaskan waters since 1868 is stated to be fully $3,000,- 000. The whale fisheries of the Arctic Ocean in 1890 yielded 42 AXIEN AND SEDITION LAWS. 226,402 pounds of whalebone, worth from $2.50 to $3.50 per pound ; 3,980 pounds of ivory, worth 50 cents per pound, and 14,567 barrels of oil, worth from 30 to 60 cents per gallon. The total value of the precious metals exported from Alaska up to the present time approaches $4,000,000, the annual production of gold dust and bullion being now $700,000. The United States Government has received in income from the Seal Islands more than it paid for the Territory. The Capital of Alaska is Sitka, which had a population in 1890 of 1,188. Metlakahtla, on Annette Island, is the home of 1,000 semi-civilized Indians from British Columbia. The popu- lation of the Territory in 1880 was 33,426, of whom 430 were white; in 1890 the population was 30,329, of whom 4,419 were white. The area of Alaska is 531,000 square miles ; there are 320 towns and villages, 50 government and mission schools, and four newspapers. The governor of Alaska is Lyman E. Knapp (Rep>), whose term expires January 9, 1893. Alexander, the Coppersmith. (See Nicknames of Famous Americans.) Alien and Sedition Laws. When the trouble between the United States and France arose in 1797, the Federalists attempted to strengthen themselves by the enactment of certain laws which were very unpopular with the people. ( See X. Y. Z. Mis- sion.) The Alien Law authorized the President to order such aliens as he regarded as dangerous, to quit the country, and to fine and imprison such as refused. The law also lengthened the period of residence necessary for naturalization to fourteen years. The Sedition Law punished with fine and imprisonment all persons who combined or conspired to oppose the government, or who produced or circulated any false, scandalous, or malicious writing against the government, or the President, or Congress. This law was the result of the attacks made upon the government's policy in its attitude toward France. Intense feeling against the Federalists was engendered by these laws, and in 1 798, Kentucky and Virginia legislatures adopted resolutions, in effect that by these laws the Constitution had been violated, that the laws were Unconstitutional, that the Federal government had overstepped the boundary of its delegated authority, that the laws abridged liberty of speech and 'of the press, and that in such a case of abuse of power, the States should interpose. The Kentucky resolutions even went so far as to declare that "Nullification " in this extremity was the "rightful remedy," AMENDMENTS TO THE CONSTITUTION. 43 but did not use the word in the application of its later relation to the doctrine of State rights. Alien Contract Labor. (See Immigration, Restriction of.) Alieil Land Owners. (See Public Lands and Land Grants.) Alitinde Joe. (See Nicknames of Famous Americans.) Allegiance. The doctrine of allegiance is that every citizen of the United States owes paramount allegiance to the national government. All Quiet Along the Potoill iC. (See Sayings of Famous Americans.) All We Ask Is To Be Let Alone. (See Sayings of Famous Americans.) Amendments to the Constitution. There have been fifteen in all, the first ten of which were adopted in 1789, and were intended to guarantee freedom of religion, speech, person, and property. The eleventh was adopted in 1794, and secured States against suits in United States Courts, thus enabling, since then, many States to repudiate their debts. The twelfth, adopted in 1803, shaped the manner of electing Presidents as it is to-day. The thirteenth, adopted in 1864, was proposed for the purpose of making emancipation universal in the nation, and prohibiting slavery forever. The fourteenth amendment, adopted in 1865, injected into the Constitution the principle of the Civil Rights Bill, which gave citizenship to 4,000,000 freed men. All the Confederate States except Tennessee at once refused to ratify it, but afterwards ratified it as the condition of re-admission into the Union. The fifteenth amendment, adopted in 1869, supple- mented the fourteenth, guaranteeing the right of suffrage, with- out regard to race, color, or previous condition of servitude. American Caesar, The. (See Presidents of the United States.) American Carrying Trade. (See Shipbuilding.) American Cato. (See Nicknames of Famous Americans.) American Chatham. (See Nicknames of Famous Americans.) American FabillS. (See Presidents of the United States.) American FJag. (See Flags of the United States.) American Knights. (See Political Parties.) American Louis Phillipe. (See Presidents of the United States.) Americans Must Light the Lamps of Industry and Econ- omy. (See Sayings of Famous Americans.) 44 ARIZONA. American Party. (See Political Parties.) Ancestry, etc., of Presidents. (See Presidents of the United States.). Ancient Mariner of the Wabash. (See Nicknames of Fa- mous Americans.) Another County Heard From. (See Slang of Politics.) Anti-Federalists. (See Political Parties.) Anti-Masonic Party. (See Political Parties.) Anti-Monopoly Party. (See Political Parties.) Anti-Nebraska Party. (See Political Parties.) Anti-Poverty Society. (See Political Parties.) Anti-Slavery Party. (See Political Parties.) Arbor Day. (See .Forestry.) Area of the United States, and of States. (See Popula- tion and Area.) Aristocrats. (See Political Parties.) Arizona. Arizona was part of the Mexican cession and the Gadsden purchase. It was settled in 1685, by the Spainards. It was annexed to the United States in 1848. It is remarkable for vast plateaus, 3,000 to 7,000 feet high, for deep canons and arid plains. The Colorado River, which separates Arizona from California, is a mighty stream having a channel 1,100 miles long, and passing through a series of deep chasms, with walls of mar- ble and granite from 1,000 to 6,500 feet high. The State has many Natural Wonders, and is a favorite resort of those who are in search of the wild and picturesque in nature. The Chief Resources are mineral. The output of her mines has exceeded $80,000,000 ; the output of silver has been over $5,000,000 yearly. The silver mines of Tombstone have produced $33,000,000 in the metal, since 1878. There are rich copper deposits, the exports having reached $4,000,000 in a year. The agriculture of Arizona is conducted by means of artificial irrigation. The fruit product includes oranges, lemons, peaches, limes, figs, olives, and dates. The Population in 1880 was 40,440 ; in 1890, it was 59,691. The territorial debt was $769,000 ; the value of assessed property was $26,000,000. Phoenix, the capital, is situated in an oasis made by irrigation. There were in 1890, 1,097 miles of railroads, and the school attendance was 4,702. There were 26 newspapers. The chief cities are Tucson, with 5,095 inhabitants ; Phoenix, with 4,000 ; and Tombstone, with 2,000. The Governor of the Territory is John N. Irwin, whose term expires September 1, 1894. ARKANSAS. 45 GREAT SEAL OK ARKANSAS. Arkansas. The region was first visited by white men belong- ing to De Soto's expedition in 1541. Frenchmen established the first settlement at Arkansas Post, 1686. It was part of the Louisiana Pur- chase and was admitted as a State- in 1830. Eastern Arkansas is flat, while the western part is an elevated plain. The Arkansas River, rising in the Rockies, flows through Colo- rado and Kansas, and thence south- east through the Indian Territory and Arkansas, to its junction with the Mississippi at Napoleon. It has a course within the State of five hundred miles. The Red, St. Francis, White and Ouachita rivers are all large streams and of much service in commerce. The Mississippi, here of great width, washes the eastern boundary of Arkansas, and gives it an addi- tional water frontage of nearly four hundred miles. Steam boa ting is carried on on all the rivers, the navigable length of which is over 3,200 miles. Agriculture is the chief industry, there being upwards of 100,000 larms, producing 500,000 bales of cotton, 800,000 bushels of sweet potatoes, 1,200,000 pounds of tobacco, 40,000,000 bushels of corn, 1,800,000 bushels of wheat, and 4,500,000 bushels of oats. Sorghum, molasses, and fruit are also produced* The live stock is worth over $20,000,000, including 700,000 cattle, 27 5,000 sheep, 1,500,- 000 swine, and 300,000 horses and mules. The Timber Lands cover nearly 30,000 square miles, yielding yellow-pine, p>plar. walnut, cypress, oaks, hickory, cherry, etc., the product being worth $20,000,000 in a year. The minerals have not yet been developed, but are found in great variety. The output of coal is about 300,000 tons in a year. Building stones, zinc, marbles, manganese, some copper, and other minerals are found. The most notable feature of the State are the Hot Springs, which lie in a gorge in the mountains two hours' ride from Little Rock. The Arkansas Industrial University at Little Rock provides for beneficiary students of both sexes, having several hundred scholars. Manual and military training is an important branch of the curriculum. There are upwards of a dozen other higher educational institutions. The appropriations for schools aggre- gate $1,016,000, the average daily attendance being 148,714. The population of Arkansas in 1880 was 802,525, of whom 210,666 were colored ; in 1890, the population was 1,125,385. 46 ABMY OF THE UNITED STATES. The real property was valued (1888) at $78,000,000. The personal property at $48,000,000 ; the manufactures were valued .at $7,000,000, the farm lands (12,061,000 acres) were valued at $74,240,000, their products at $45,000,000; there were in 1890, 2,195 miles of railroad and in 1892, 198 newspapers. Little Rock, the chief city and the capital, has a business- like appearance, broad streets well paved, several fine buildings, and has a trade aggregating $25,000,000 in a year. The State House, Little Rock University, the United States Court House, the Post-Office and Custom House, and the Arsenal are the more notable buildings. The population in 1890 was 22, 43(1. Fort Smith (population 11,291) is the second city. It is on the Upper Arkansas, and 'is a railroad centre. Pine Bluff is a shipping centre on the Arkansas River, with a population of 9,952. The Governor of Arkansas is James P. Eagle (Democrat). His term expires Jan. 15, 1893. The State is Democratic. Arm-iii-Arni Convention. (See Political Parties.) Army, the United States. Departments, Soldiers' Homes, Organization, Grand Army, West Point Academy, U. S. A. Commanders, National Cemeteries, Salaries, Militia. The headquarters of the United States annv are at Washington, D. C. The President of the' United States is Commander-in-Chief. The rank of General, which is the highest possible rank, was bestowed upon General Grant after he haft been Lieutenant-General. Lieut.-Gen. Philip H. Sheridan was also made a general, but the title expired on the death of Sheridan in 1888. The officer commanding the armv in 1892 0$ is Maj.-Gen. John M. Schofield, head- quarters at Washington, D. C. There are by law two other major-generals, Oliver O. Howard, commanding the Department of the East, headquarters at Governor's Island, in New York Harbor, and Nelson A. Miles, com- manding the Department of the Missouri, headquarters at Chicago, 111. There are six brigadier-generals, as follows: THE GARRISON FLAG. Thomas II. Ruger, Department of Califor- nia ; Wesley Merritt, Department of Dakota ; David S. Stanley, Department of Texas ; John R, Brooke, Depart- ment of the Platte ; A. McD. McCook, Department of Arizona ; A. V. Kautz, Department of the Columbia. ARMY OF THE UNITED STATES. 47 The other principal officers are : Adjutant-General, Brigadier-General, John C. Kelton. Quartermaster-General, Richard N". Baehelder. Paymaster-General, Commissary-General, Surgeon-General, Chief Signal Officer, Chief of Engineers, Inspector-General, William Smith. Beekman Du Barry. C. Sutherland. Adolphus W. Greely. Thomas L. Casey. Jos. C. Breckinridge. Acting Judge Advocate-General, Colonel, Guido X. Lieber. Salaries. The salaries of army officers are as follows : Pay During First 5 Years Maximum of Service. Pay. Lieutenant-General $11,000 $15,400 Major-General 7,500 10,500 Brigadier-General " . . . . 5,500 7,700 Colonel 3,500 4,500 Lieutenant-Colonel 3,000 4,000 Major 2,500 3,500 Captain, mounted 2,000 2,800 Captain, not mounted 1,800 2,520 First Lieutenant, mounted 1,600 2,240 First Lieutenant, not mounted 1,500 2,100 Second Lieutenant 1,400 1,960 t The pay is graded, according to years of active service, being increased at the rate of ten per cent, for every five years of service until after twenty years' service the maximum is reached ; in the case of colonels and lieutenant-colonels the maximum is fixed somewhat lower. Officers are allowed mileage at the rate of eight cents a mile for every mile travelled under orders. The pay of the men is graded from $18 a month and rations, for the first two years, to $'21 a month and rations after twenty years' service. The retired list of the army is limited to four hundred officers, four of whom are major-generals, and thirty-four are brigadier-generals. Organization of the Army. The army of the United States, in 1890, consisted of the following forces, in officers and men : Officers. Enlisted Men. Aggregate. Ten cavalry regiments 432 6,050 6,482 Five artillery regiments .... 282 3,675 3,957 Twenty-five infantry regiments . 877 12,125 13,002 Engineer Battalion, recruiting par- ties, ordnance department, hos- pital service, Indian scouts, West Point, Signal detachment, and general service 579 3,370 3,949 Total 2,170 25,220 27,390 48 ARMY OF THE UNITED STATES. The United States are divided into eight military departments, as follows : Department of the East: New England States, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Vir- ginia, West Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, Kentucky, Tennessee, Ohio, and the District of Columbia. Department of the Mis- souri : Michigan, Wisconsin, Indiana, Illinois, Missouri, Kan- sas, Arkansas, Indian and Oklahoma Territories. Department of California : California (excepting that portion south of the 35th parallel) and Nevada. Department of Dakota : Min- nesota, South Dakota (excepting so much as lies south of the 44th parallel), North Dakota, Montana, and the post of Fort Yellow- stone, Wyo. Department of Texas : State of Texas. De- partment of the Platte : Iowa, Nebraska, Colorado, and Wyoming (excepting the post of Fort Yellowstone, Wyo.), Army. No.. I. No. 2. No. 3. .No. 4. , ~iiii'f^'*S-S3Si \ No. 5. ||! : > 4 * $ - 1 '! No. 7. No. 8. Mo. 9. SHOULDER STRAPS OF UNITED STATES ARMY. No. 1. General of the Army. No. 2. Lieutenant-General. No. 3. Major-General. No. 4. Brigadier-General. No. 5. Colonel. No. C. Lieutenant-Colonel (silver leaf) and Major (gold leaf). No. 7. Captain. No. 8. First Lieutenant.. No. 9. Second Lieutenant. Utah, part of Idaho, and so much of South Dakota as lies south of the 44th parallel. Department of Arizona : Arizona and New Mexico, and California south of the 35th parallel. De- partment of the Columbia : Oregon, Washington, Idaho, and Alaska, excepting so much of Idaho as is embraced in the Department of the Platte. West Point Military Academy. The United States Mili- tary Academy at West Point (New York) has graduated 3,500 ARMY OP THE UNITED STATES. 49 officers for the array. Post-graduate schools for officers are in operation at Fort Monroe, Virginia (for artillery), and at Fort Leaven worth, Kansas (for cavalry and infantry). Up to the year 1861, West Point had graduated 1,966 officers, of whom 1,249 were then living. Three fourths of these fought in the armies of the Union, including 162 from the insurgent South (nearly half of the Southern graduates). West Point was chosen by Washington for the site of a National Military School, which opened in 1812. Every Congressional district is entitled to send here one youth, physically perfect, and well grounded in elementary studies. Cadets receive $540 a year for four years, with a discipline and instruction unequalled elsewhere in America for exaction and thoroughness. The graduates enter upon the rank and pay of second lieutenants of the regular army, and are sent to the frontiers. There are three hundred cadets, in a battalion of four companies, uniformed in gray ; and they pass two months of each year in camp, and ten months in barracks. Commanders of the United States Army. (1775 to 1892.) The commanders (under the President as Commander-in- Chief) of the United States Army from the Revolution to the NEW YORK HARBOR. FORT WADSWORTH ON STATEN ISLAND. present time have been as follows : Major-General George Washington, June 15, 1775, to Decem- ber 23, 1783; Major-General Henry Knox, December 23, 1783, to June 2, 1784, disbanded ; Lieutenant-Colonel Josiah Harmer (General-in-chief by brevet, July 31, 1787), June 3, 1784, to March 4, 1791 ; Major-General Arthur St. Clair, March 4, 1791, to March 5, 1792; Major-General Anthony Wayne, March 5, 1792, to December 15, 1796; Major-General James Wilkinson, December 15, 1796, to July 2, 1798 ; Lieutenant-General George Washington, July 3, 1798, to March 3, 1799 ; General George Washington, March 3, 1799, to December 14, 1799 ; Major-General Alexander Hamilton, December 15, 1799, to June 15, 1800 ; Brigadier-General James Wilkinson, June 15, 1800, to January 27, 1812 ; Major-General Henry Dearborn, January 27, 1812, to June 15, 1815 ; Major-General Jacob Brown, June 15, 50 ARMY OF THE UNITED STATES. to February 24, 1828 ; Major-General Alexander Macomb, May 28, 1828, to June 25, 1841 ; Major-General Winfield Scott, (Brevet Lieutenant-General), July 5, 1841, to November C, 18G1 ; Major-General George Brinton McClellan, November 1, 1861, to March 11, 1862 ; Major-General Henry Wager Halleck, July 28, 1862; to March 12,1864; Lieutenant-General Ulysses Simpson Grant, March 12, 1864, to July 25, 1866; General Ulysses Simpson Grant, July 25, 1866, to March 4, 1869; General Wil- liam Tecumseh Sherman, March 5, 1869, to November 1, 1883 ; Lieutenant-General Philip Henry Sheridan, November 1, 1883, FOKT GARLAND, COLORADO. to June 1, 1888; General Philip Henry Sheridan, June 1, 1888, to August 5, 1888 ; Major-General John McAllister Schofield, August 14, 1888, to Soldiers' Homes The Civil War left thousands of regular army and volunteer soldiers disabled for work on account of injuries received or disease contracted. To provide for the sustenance of these men the government maintains the United States Home for regular army soldiers, and the National Home for AKMV OF THE UNITED STATES. 51 disabled volunteer soldiers, the latter having seven branches. The benefits of the former are open to all regular army men who have served twenty years, or to any who have been disabled or in- capacitated for further service while in the line of duty. The inmates are fed well, and comfortably clothed, and receive medical attendance when needed. Over 1,200 men are now in- mates of the Home. The National Home for Disabled Volunteer Soldiers is located at Washington, D. C., and is open to the disabled volunteer soldiers and sailors of the United States, whether of the Mexican or the Civil Wars. Clothing, sustenance, religious instruction, and amusements are provided by the government. Admission to the Home is not open to pensioners who receive $16 a month or more. Only sojdiers or sailors who have been honorably discharged or who are disabled from service are luutCoifftitl. THE MILITARY SERVICE OF THE UNITED STATES. admitted. There are branches of the Home at Dayton, O., Mil- waukee, Wis., Togus, Me., Hampton, Va., Leaven worth, Kan., Santa Monica, Cal., and Marion, Ind. The total average number of inmates in the National Homes is 17,528; the average age of inmates is 57 years ; the average cost of maintenance per man is $139.50. Besides the National Homes, there are Homes sup- ported by eighteen States. ' The States supporting such Homes are California, Connecticut, Illinois, Iowa, Kansas, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, Nebraska, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, Ohio, Pennsvlvania, Rhode Island, South Dakota, 52 ARMY OF THE UNITED STATES. Vermont, and Wisconsin. The total number of inmates supported by the State Homes is 5,292. National Cemeteries. The nation's dead number 300,000 men, whose graves are in seventy-nine National Cemeteries, many of which are in the South. Among the principal ones in the North are Cypress Hills, Brooklyn, N. Y., with 3,786 dead; Finn's Point, N. J., which contains the remains of 2,644 unknown dead; Gettysburg, Pa., with its 1,967 known and 1,608 unknown dead; Mound City, 111., with 2,505 known and 2,721 un- known graves; Philadelphia, with 1,909 dead, and Woodlawn, Elmira, N. Y., with its 3,090 dead. In the South, near the scenes of terrible conflicts, are located the largest depositories of the nation's heroic dead : Arlington, Va., 16,264, of whom 4,349 are unknown ; Beaufort, S. C, 9,241, of whom 4,493 are unknown ; Chalmette, La., 12,511, of whom 5,674 are unknown; Chattanooga, Tenn., 12,902, of whom 4,963 are unknown ; Fredericksburg, Va., 15,257, of whom 12,770 are unknown; Jefferson Barracks, Mo., 11,490, of whom 2,906 are unknown ; Little Rock, Ark., 5,602, of whom 2,337 are unknown; City Point, Va., 5,122, of whom 1,374 are unknown ; Marietta, Ga., 10,151, of whom 2,963 are unknown; Memphis, Tenn., 13,997, of whom 8,817 are unknown ; Nashville, Tenn., 16,526, of whom 4,701 are unknown; Poplar Grove, Va., 6,199, of whom 4,001 are unknown ; Richmond, Va., 6,542, of whom 5,700 are unknown ; Salisbury, N. C., 12,126, of whom 12,032 are unknown ; Stone River, Tenn., 5,602, of whom 288 are unknown ; Vicksburg, Miss., 16,600, of whom 12,704 are unknown ; Antietam, Va., 4,671, of whom 1,818 are unknown ; Winchester, Va., 4,559, of whom 2,365 are unknown. T w o cemeteries are mainly devoted to the brave men who perished in the loathsome prisons of the same name Andersonville, . ' Ga., which contains 13,714 graves, and Salisbury, with its 12,126 dead, of whom 12,032 are unknown. Militia of the United States. The Fathers of the Con- stitution were quick to appreciate the importance to the protection of the government of a well-organized militia. In the early years of the Republic, when there was no standing army, naturally more anxiety was felt on this subject than now, yet if the population ARMT OF THE UNITED STATES. 53 of the country and its military resources have since then enor mously increased, steam transportation and other changes have as obviously augmented the facilities for bringing here an invad- ing army. Washington, in his message of 1790, laid down the rule that "a free people ought not only to be Armed, but Disciplined," while his succeeding message declared the militia to be " an object of primary importance, whether viewed in ref- erence to the national security, to the satisfaction of the commu- nity, or to the preservation of order." In his message of 1794 he declared that " the devising and establishing of a well-regulated militia would be a genuine source of legislative honor, and a perfect title to public gratitude." Jefferson, in his inaugural address, declared a well-disciplined militia to be " our best Reliance in Peace and for the first moments of war till regulars may relieve them." Madison in his first message declared the militia to be " the great Bulwark of Our Security and re- source of our power." Both Monroe and John Quincy Adams in their messages to Congress emphasized the importance to the country of the militia. Jackson took the view FORT pICKENs PEOTACOLA . that the great body of a patriotic people was ample protection in case of war, and pointed out weaknesses in the militia system. While the Con- stitution provided for the establishment of the militia, with the President as commander-in-chief, there was for some time a con- troversy as to exactly what authority the government possessed over it. Being organized under State laws, there was some ques- tion whether the militia was subject to the same regulations, while enlisted in the army of the Union, as were the regular troops. It was also questioned whether the President could delegate his authority as commander-in-chief to the commanding officer of the army. However, these questions settled themselves when once the militia took up arms for the Union, its members, officers, and men, quickly submitting to the discipline governing the regular troops. The Militia to-day enjoys a high proficiency, and while to a certain extent, the organization is attractive to young men by reason of its opportunities for social pleasures, yet it takes the place of a standing army very satisfactorily. The perform- 54 ARMY OF THE UNITED STATES. ances of the militia during the Civil War, especially in the ex- cellent material it developed in the way of officers, is convincing proof of its value. The tendency of the government is to encour- age the militia to become more perfect, and also to make the knowledge of military tactics a part of the educational system in the schools and colleges. The War Department has upwards of fifty officers stationed at institutions of learning, for the purpose of giving instruction in the military science. By the records of the War Department, it appears that in October 1, 1891, there were enlisted in the militia of the States and Territories 101,981 men, of whom 92,203 were in the infantry, 4,554 in the cavalry, and 5,224 in the artillery, besides 9,311 commissioned officers. The State of New York leads with 12,957 men, Pennsylvania is second with 7,747, Ohio third with 4,736, South Carolina fourth with 4,704, Massachusetts fifth with 4,615, New Jersey sixth with 3,989, California seventh with 3,954, Illinois eighth with 3,722, and Georgia ninth with 3,656. All the States and Territories except Utah have a militia organization. The Grand Army of the Republic. To Illinois belongs the credit of organizing the first Grand Army post. This oc- curred in 1866, at Decatur. The movement grew rapidly, and to-day there are posts in all the States. Auxiliary posts for the sons and the wives of veterans have been organized also, and have a large membership. The total enrolment of the Grand Army of the Republic on June 30, 1891, was 398,270 men. The posts of each State and Territory are organized into a depart- ment, and the departments are officered by a commander-in-chief, and a national council of administration consisting of one mem- ber from each State and Territory. The Objects of the organization were outlined as follows, when the national organization was perfected at Indianapolis, Ind., Nov. 20, 1866 : 1, To preserve and strengthen those kind and fraternal feelings which bind together the soldiers, sailors, and marines who united to suppress the late Rebellion, and to perpetuate the history and memory of the dead. 2, To maintain true allegiance to the United States of America, based upon a paramount respect for and fidelity to the national Constitution and laws, to discountenance whatever tends to weaken loyalty, incites to insurrection, treason, and rebellion, or in any manner impairs the efficiency and permanency of our free institutions, and to encourage the spreaxi of universal liberty, equal rights, and justice to all men. Finally the organization aims to help the widows and orphans of soldiers or sailors who lost their lives in the service, and to assist such former comrades-in-arms as need help and protection. At the Indianapolis meeting, Gen. Stephen ARMY OF THE UNITED STATES. 55 A. Hurlbut, of Illinois, was chosen as commander-in-chlef, and Dr. Stephenson, who organized the first post, was chosen as adjutant-general. Eligible as members of the Grand Army of the Republic are all soldiers and sailors of the United States Army, Navy, and Marine Corps between April 1'J, 1861, and April 9, 1865, who were honorably discharged, and the members of such State regiments as were called into service. In 1869, when it was asserted that the G. A. R. was apolitical organization, a decree was issued at the annual encampment against the use of the organization by the members for partisan purposes. The National Encampments and Commanders-in-Chief have been as follows: 1866 Indianapolis, Stephen A. lliuibut, LIBBT PRISON. 111.; 1868 Philadelphia, John A. Logan, 111.; 1869 Cincin- nati, John A. Logan, 111. ; 1870 Washington, John A. Logan, 111.; 1871 Boston, A. E. Burnside, R. I.; 1872 Cleveland, A. E. Burnside, R. I.; 1873 New Haven, Charles Devens, Jr., Mass.; 1874 Harrisburg, Chas. Devens, Jr., Mass.; 1875 Chicago, John F. Hartranft, Pa.; 1876 Philadelphia, John F. Hartranft, Pa.; 1877 Providence, J. C. Robinson, N. Y.; 1878 Springfield, Mass., J. C. Robinson, N. Y.; 1879 - Albany, William Earnshaw, O.; 1880 Dayton, O., Louis Wagner, Pa.; 1881 Indianapolis, George S. Merrill, Mass.; 56 ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION. 1882 Baltimore, Paul Van Der Voort, Neb.; 1883 Denver, Robert B. Beath, Pa.; 1884 Minneapolis, John S. Kuntz, O.; 1885 Portland, Me., S. S. Burdette, Wash.; 188G San Fran- cisco, Lucius Fairchild, Wis.; 1887 St. Louis, John P. Rae, Minn.; 1888 Columbus, O., William Warner, Mo.; 1889- Milwaukee, Wis., Russell A. Alger, Mich.; 1890 Boston, Mass., Wheelock G. Veazey, Vt.; 1891 Detroit, Mich., John Palmer, New York. The notable feature of the annual encampment of the G. A. R. is a parade, participated in by upwards of 35,000 Union veterans from all the States, many of them aged men, marching with their tattered battleflags, to the old familiar martial airs. Such a spectacle never fails to inflame with the spirit of patriotism the workaday population of the city in which the encampment is held. The day is a general holiday, business being practically suspended. Great crowds of people from the surrounding country come to witness the spectacle. Articles Of Confederation. The name given to the docu- ment which united the colonies in 1776, and under which they were governed until the Constitution was adopted. These articles were weakly constructed and inadequate, and gave the government no power to enforce its own commands, and not even to raise revenue. The debt, principal, and interest, fell into arrears, the soldiers of the Revolution remained unpaid, and Congress could not even induce the States to give it power to retaliate on nations bent on ruining our trade. The attendance of members in Congress grew smaller and smaller, and it required an especial appeal to have the quorum necessary for the ratifica- tion of the treaty of peace with Great Britain. The weakness of these articles led to the framing of the Constitution. Assay Offices. (See Coinage, Free Coinage, etc.) Associated Press. (See Newspapers.) Associated Youth. (See Political Parties.) Asylum for the Oppressed of Every Nation. (See Sayings of Famous Americans.) Atlas Of America, The. (See Presidents of the United States.) Australian Ballot. (See Ballot Reform.) Ballot Reform. In the past four years a new system of vot- ing at elections has been introduced, and has so much to recom- mend it in the interest of honest elections that over two thirds of the State legislatures have adopted it with several modifications. The aim of the system, which is known as the Australian BALLOT REFORM. 57 System, is to protect the voter from "influence" either of employer, party boss, or " heeler," and to secure absolute secrecy. This is provided for by all the new laws through the mechanical arrangements of booths, guard-rails, etc., similar to those in use in England and Australia. There are two methods of grouping the names on the tickets and both have been tried. The first of these is the English, or more properly the original Australian style of alphabetical arrangement of the names of the candidates under the title of the office, This is used by the following States : California, Kentucky, Massachusetts, Minnesota, Montana, Ne- TOTINa THE AUSTRALIAN BALLOT. braska, New Hampshire, Oregon, Rhode Island, Tennessee, Ver- mont, Washington, and Wyoming. The second is known as the Belgian System, and consists of grouping all nominations and offices by parties. It is used in Missouri, Ohio, Wisconsin, Delaware, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Maine, Maryland, and Oklahoma Territory. The Australian ballot was first used in a State election in Massachusetts in 1888; in a city election in Louisville, Ky., in the same year. In Xew York State, the Saxton bill, which embodied the principles of the imported system, passed the legislature in 1888, but was vetoed by Governor Hill on the ground of uncon- st nationality. In 1890, a new bill which was a compromise became a law. The Practical Operation of the Australian Ballot, as it was adopted in Massachusetts, is as follows : The voter enters and 58 BALLOT REFORM. gives his name and residence to the ballot clerk, who on finding the voter's name on the check list admits him within the rail and hands him a ballot. He goes alone to one of the voting shelves and thei-e unfolds his ballot. He marks a cross x in the square at the right of the name of each person for whom he wishes to vote. No other method of marking, such as erasing names, will answer. Thus, if he wished to vote for John Bowles for Governor, he would mark his ballot in this way : GOVERNOR Vote for ONE. JOHN BOWLES, of Taunton Prohibition. | X THOMAS E. MEANS, of Boston . . Democratic. | ELIJAH SMITH, of Pittsfield . Republican. | If he wishes to vote for a person Avhose name is not on the ballot, he writes, or inserts by a sticker, the name in the blank line at the end of the list of candidates for the office, and marks a cross x in the square at the right of it. Thus, if he wished to vote for George T. Morton, of Chelsea, for Governor, he would pre- pare his ballot in this way : GOVERNOR Vote for ONE. JOHN BOWLES, of Taunton . Prohibition. | . THOMAS E. MEANS, of Boston . . Democratic. 1 ELIJAH SMITH, of Pittsfield . Republican. 1 George T. Morton, of Chelsea 1 X Leaving the voting shelf, the voter folds his ballot, and drops it folded into the ballot-box. As he does so he gives his name and residence to the officer in charge. The business of voting is thus entirely secret. The voter is not allowed to remain within the railing more than ten minutes, nor more than five if other voters are waiting their turn to vote. Nor is the voter allowed to take away with him a soiled ballot, nor one that is perfect. Those who cannot read, or who are blind, are assisted in marking their ballots by the officer in charge. Belgian System of Balloting. By this system, the names of all candidates and of the officers are printed by groups, thus : Democratic. Republican. Prohibition. People's. O O O O For Governor. For Governor. For Governor. For Governor. c; William Smith, m Thomas Jones, c; John Brown. ^ Henry Robinson. The voter of a straight ticket marks a cross in the circle at the head of his ticket. The voter who " scratches " marks the squares opposite the names of all the candidates on the tickets. BANK OF THE UNITED STATES. 59 Bachelor President. (See Presidents.) Bandanna. (See Slang of Politics.) Bank of the United States, The. (For Banks, National and Savings, See National Banks.) The project for the estab- lishment of such a bank was a hobby with Alexander Ham- ilton. It met with great opposition from Jefferson, Madison, and other Federalists, on the ground that it was not only unconstitu- tional, but unnecessary. Hamilton contended that being a sovereign power, the United States had power to Charter a Corporation, but this contention his opponents denied. The bill incorporating the bank was passed in 1791, and was signed by Washington. The bank was to continue for twenty years, with a capital of $10,000,000, of which $2,000,000 was to be subscribed by the government. The government was to receive a loan of $'2,000,000 repayable in yearly instalments of $200,000. The Bank failed to secure a renewal of its charter, and in 1811, it went out of existence. A Second Bank of the United States was incorporated in 1816, under nearly the same conditions as the first. Its capital stock was $85,000,000, payable one fifth in cash and four fifths in government stock. It was to have the custody of public funds, and five of the twenty-five directors were to be appointed by the government. Mismanagement brought the bank into a precarious position, and the new bank president was obliged, as a matter of necessity, largely to curtail loans. There was a suspicion that the bank had some connection with politics, and a prejudice against it was enkindled in the public mind. President Jackson, who never approved of the bank, in 1832 removed the government deposits to State banks, which were thence nicknamed " Pet Banks." Ultimately the' bank became a private institution. Barley, Production of. (See Agriculture.) Bar'l, To Tap The. ' (See Slang of Politics.) Barnburners. (See Political Parties.) Bee in His Bonnet. (See Slang of Politics.) Beer, Production of. (See Liquors and Tobacco.) Belgian System of Voting. (See Ballot Reform.) Big Knife. (See Presidents of the United States.) Billion Congress. (See Slang of Politics.) Bimetallism. (See Coinage, etc.) Black Eagle. (See Nicknames of Famous Americans.) Black Friday. (See Panics, Financial.) When, on Sep- tember 24, 1869, " Jim " Fisk and Jay Gould succeeded in corner- 60 BLACK FRIDAY. ing the gold market, gold sold at New York as high as 162^-, having been quoted the evening before at 143^. The plan of the speculators was to force the price to 180. A panic seized the stock market, all lines of business were affected, many houses went under, the Gold Board suspended business, and a most disastrous condition of affairs was threatened. The Secretary of the Treasury came to the rescue and put an end to the panic by offering to sell $4,000,000 of gold to the, highest bidder, and to redeem government bonds to the same amount. This having occurred on a Friday, the day has since been known as Black Friday. Black Republican. (See Political Parties.) Elaine and Business. (See Slang of Politics.) Bland Dollar Profits. (Coinage, Free Coinage, etc.) Bleeding Kansas. (See Slang of Politics.) Blocks Of Five. (See Slang of Politics.) Bloody Chasm, To Bridge the. (See Slang of Politics.) Bloody Shirt, To Wave the. (See Slang of Politics.) Bluebacks. Confederate currency, so called by reason of its appearance, to distinguish it from greenbacks. Bine Jeans Williams. (See Nicknames of Famous Ameri- cans.) Blue Light Federalists. (See Political Parties.) Blue Noses. An American nickname for Nova Scotians, whose noses are popularly supposed to be blue, owing to the cold climate. Bolter. (See Slang of Politics.) Boodle. (See Slang of Politics.) . Boom. Boomer. (See Slang of Politics.) BOSS. (See Slang of Politics.) Boston Tea Party, The. The name given to the Boston men who in 1773 seized three English ships, arrived in Boston harbor, and threw overboard their cargoes of tea. Boy Mayor. (See Nicknames of Famous Americans.) Boys, The. (See Slang of Politics.) Brahmin Caste. This was a name frequently applied to New England aristocrats. When Charles Sumner espoused the cause of the negro, it was said that he did so in the face of the opposition of the " Brahmin caste of New England," who would punish him with social ostracism. Bridges, Railroad. (See Railroads and Bridges.) CALIFORNIA. 61 British Party. (See Political Parties.) Brother Jonathan. This is a general nickname for Ameri- cans. It originated with General Washington, whose secretary and friend, Gov. Jonathan Trumbull, of Connecticut, gave the commander- in-chief much sound advice. When in doubt, Washington sometimes would say, " We must consult Brother Jonathan." The phrase has since become proverbial. Buckwheat, Production of. (See Agriculture.) Buck Tails. (See Political Parties.) Burial Places of Presidents. (See Presidents of the U. S.) Burn This Letter. (See Sayings of Famous Americans.) Butter, Production of. (See Agriculture.) Cabinet, The. (See Federal Government.) Caesarism. (See Slang of Politics.) Calico Charley. (See Nicknames of Famous Americans.) Caesar had his Brutus, Charles I. His Cromwell, and George III. May Profit by their Example. If That Be Treason, Make the Most of It. (See Sayings of Famous Americans.) California. The State was acquired by conquest from the Mexicans, in 1848. It was founded by the Spaniards in 1769, the first settlement being at San Diego; it was admitted to the Union in 1840. The Discovery of Gold on January 24, 1848, led to an im- mense immigration from all parts of the world. It is estimated that during 1849 100,000 men entered the country from the East. From 1850 to 1853, $65,000,000 of gold each year was taken. At that time the State was inhabited by GREAT SEAL OF CALIFORNIA. thousands of adventurers, and gambling, speculation, crime, and murder, were carried on with impunity. So barbarous was the civilization of that period that a Vigilance Committee was organized for the protection of life and the execution of the laws. California remained true to the Union, and gave seven regiments in 1861 for its support. The total Output of Gold since 1849 has been $1,300,000,- 000 ; it is the chief gold-producing State of the country. Tht 62 CALIFORNIA. quick-silver product has exceeded $70,000,000. There are thirty-six large furnaces in active operation. Copper, lead, and some iron are produced. Borax, antimony, petroleum, coal, tin, nickel, granite, sandstone, marble, and onyx, are produced in abundant quantity. The wheat product is 30,000,000 bushels, of barley 16,000,000. California is one of the foremost wool-producing States, having 4,000,000 sheep, giving 35,000,000 pounds of fine fleeces in a year. The Fruit Industry has attained mammoth proportions; there are 20,000,000 fruit trees in the State ; of oranges, lemons, limes, peaches, and other deciduous fruits, the crop has reached 300,000,000 pounds annually. Prunes, pears, figs, apricots, plums, olives, and nectarines are grown in large quantities and STATE CAPITOL, SACRAMENTO, CAL. varieties. The canning industry has become a most extensive one, fruits of all kinds being canned and shipped to all parts of the world. There are several beet-sugar factories. Side by side with the fruit industry there has grown up an extensive business in the production of native wines. The sum of $87,000,000 is invested in California vineyards. The yearly product of wine is about 15,000,000 gallons, with 1,000,- 000 of native brandy. The vines for the cultivation of vineyards CALIFORNIA. 63 were imported from Europe and Oriental countries. There are 185,000 acres planted with young vines, producing 300,000 tons of grapes yearly. The State abounds in mineral springs, which are much frequented by invalids. It is celebrated for its natural wonders, the chief of which is the picturesque Yosemite Valley, which is 3,950 feet above sea-level, and is hemmed in by perpen- dicular cliffs ; it covers 36,011 acres, and was granted by Congress to California for a State park. The Yosemite Falls descend 2,600 feet, 1,50<) in a vertical direction. The Big Trees of California are the loftiest trees in America, many of them being over 300 feet in height, and from 50 to 100 feet in circumference. The population of California in 1870, was 560,247 ; in 1880, it was 864,694 ; in 1890, it was 1,204,002. The real property in 1888 was valued at $816,000,000; the M "- fe^JL^ -^*f- -~~~ .^-^- CITY HALL, SAN FRANCISCO. personal property at $186,000,000. The manufactures amounted to $116,227,973. The acreage of farm lands in 1380 was 16,593,742, valued at $262,051,282. The school population in 1890 was 221,756. There were in 1890, 4,356 miles of railroad, and in 1892, 508 newspapers. The Educational System of California is one of its proudest possessions. Among its more influential institutions are the University of California, at Berkeley, and the Leland Stanford, Junior, University, at Palo Alto, endowed by Senator Stanford in memory of his son, besides a dozen or more sectarian institutions. The Lick Observatory, famous for its astronomical achievements, is at Mount Hamilton. Many of the California cities and towns .support excellent libraries. San Francisco, the chief city, has a noble harbor; the bay, which has seventy miles of navigable length, and a width of three to five miles, is entered through the Golden Gate, the narrows 64 CALIFORNIA. where the sea runs in between points of land. The city has many fine business buildings, some of them rivalling those of New York. Among the public buildings are the California Acad- emy of Sciences endowed by James Lick, the United States Mint, the $4,500,000 City Hall, and the Public Libraries. The monu- ments, the churches, the far-famed sandlots of Denis Kearney, the Golden Gate Park, covering 1,013 acres, and extending to the ocean, and the wharves with their immense ships are other feat- ures of the metropolis of the Pacific. The second city is Los Angeles, and is noted as a sanitarium. It has beautiful gardens, VIEW OF SACRAMENTO. and hotels, and villas. The population in 1890 was 50,394. Sacramento, the capital (population in 1890, 26,272), has large railroad shops and factories. Oakland is third in population, having 48,540 inhabitants. The Governor of California is II. IT. Markham (Republican), whose term expires Jan. 4, 1895. The State is Republican. Campaign Expenses. (See National Committee.) Campaign of Education. (See Slang of Politics.) Campaign Songs. (See Torchlight Processions.) The campaign songs of the great political parties, in almost every instance, have reflected the political conditions of the times. It would not be difficult to trace the course of political events of the past fifty years solely by means of these songs, which have been marked not only by witty thrusts at the political foibles of the opposing candidates, but have expressed very intelligently the V CAMPAIGN SONGS. 65 issues upon which campaigns have been waged. For instance the popular idea of the military glory of Andrew Jackson can easily be imagined from the following verse of a song which was sung in the campaign of 1828, entitled "The Hunters of Kentucky " : >^ You've heard, I s'pose, of Orleans, It's famed for youth and beauty, There're girls of every hue, it seems, MONTGOMERY STREET, SAN FBANCISCO. From snowy white to sooty. Now Packenham had made his brags, If he that day was lucky, He'd have those girls and cotton bags, In spite of Old Kentucky. 66 CAMPAIGN SONGS. But Jackson, he was wide awake, And was not scared at trifles, For well he knew Kentucky's boys, With their death-dealing rifles. He led them down to cypress swamp, The ground was low and mucky, There stood John Bull in martial pomp, And here stood old Kentucky. Chorus. " Oh! Kentucky, the hunters of Kentucky!" The historians tell us that the " Hunters of Kentucky " were so overpowered with the greatness of their fellow-citizen, that when he was inaugurated they came to Washington, many of them in native costume, together with Kentucky backwoodsmen and Indian fighters, and inyaded the President's reception-room, where they were most effusive in their demonstrations over " Old Hickory." The Whig campaign of 1840 Avas as remarkable for the unusual variety and spirit of its songs as for its log cabins, bear skins, hard cider, and other frontier institutions dear to the honest yeoman's heart. Songs in praise of Tippecanoe were marked by a fervor like those of the clans of Scotland sung in glorifi- cation of their chiefs. They were marked also by a playful familiarity, there being in them many allusions to " Old Tip's " agricultural and military career, his achievements in either fiYld of effort finding a sympathetic spot in all good Whig hearts. Here is the first verse of a song which is full of the " Log Cabin and Hard Cider " spirit. THE HURRAH SONG. Old Tip's the boy to swing the flail, Hurrah ! Hurrah ! Hurrah ! And make the locos all turn pale, Hurrah! hurrah! hurrah! He'll give them all a tarnal switching, When he begins to " Clare de Kitchen," Hurrah, hurrah, hurrah, hurrah, hurrah, hurrah! Yankee Doodle Harrison, It rather seems that humbug schemes, Can never more cajole us ; There's such a run for Harrison, That nothing can control us. The western world the flag's unfurled, No faction can divide her; And all the rest will sign the Test, " Log Cabin and Hard Cider." The Martial Spirit was manifested in the song "The Hero of the Thames," sung to the air, " ' Tis my delight," of which two verses are given : CAMPAIGN SONGS. Let Loco focos rail and rant, At currency and banks ; We're sick of all their empty cant, We spurn them from our ranks. We do not. mind their silly talk, Nor heed their idle claims, We'll make the whole banditti walk, With our Hero of the Thames. The Hero of the Thames, my boys, The Hero of the Thames. When British foes assailed our land, And hovered on our coast, Pray where did little Mattie stand ? Why, snu;j; behind a post. A post and place were all his thought (At the spoils alone he aims), While Harrison our battles fought, And conquered on the Thames! The Hero of the Thames, my boys, The Hero of the Thames! President Martin \ r an Buren's adoption of Andrew Jackson's political creed, and his aristocratic tendencies were ridiculed in the " Song of the Working Man," to the air of "Yankee Doodle," thus : - That Matty loves the workingman, Xo workingman can doubt, sirs; For well doth he pursue the plan That Turns the workers Out, sirs. . He turns them out of Whig employ, He turns them out of bread, sirs, And Middle men doth he annoy, By striking business dead, sirs. For Matty is a Democrat, Sing, Yankee Doodle dandy, With spoons of gold, and English coach, And servants always handy. This is a verse from a stirring campaign song which was sung in New England, entitled " All For Harrison," to the tune, "All's Well " : - From stern Xew England's granite hills, A cheering shout the welkin fills; Valley and glen prolong the cry And hark to echo's deep reply, " For Harrison!" "For Harrison!" " For Harrison!" " For Brave Old Harrison." They come the hardy sons of toil They leave the workshop and the soil ; 68 CAMPAIGN SONGS. From ancient fort and battle plain, They shout his name again. " What goes there, stranger ? Quickly tell the word." " OLD TIP !" " Hurrah !" All's well all's well, " The North," " The East." All All's Well. The songs of the Fremont (Republican) campaign of 1856 exemplified the popular admiration of the "Pathfinder's" achievements in the far West. One of them was in retort to what Webster had said of the North, owing to her apparent backward- ness on the slavery issue. Half in sorrow, half in contempt, " the great expounder" had exclaimed, " The North! I have" heard about it. But where is the North ? " This called forth a song to the tune of the " Star Spangled Banner," the first verse of which ran thus : She is found. A " Pathfinder" discovered the North, Nigh frozen to death on the bleak Rocky Mountains. Her guardians to perish had driven her iorth, But Fremont conveyed her to Oregon's fountains; In his breast she was warmed, And he bore her unharmed. Back again to the home which her absence alarmed. She's of age, and her guardians can no more enslave The free North, protected by Fremont the brave! Another song of the Fremont campaign sung to the tune of the Marseillaise, had the following ringing couplet at the end of each verse : Free Speech, Free Press, Free Soil, Free Man, Fre-mont and Victory ! Millard Fillmore, the Know-Nothing candidate, suffered many hard knocks at the hands of the Fremont song writers because as President (having succeeded Zachary 'Taylor, who died in office), he had signed the Fugitive Slave Law. Fillmore was thus satirized in a song entitled " Grim Truth in Mas- querade." There lives a man in Buffalo, His name is Millard Fillmore, Who thinks the Union's fallen so low It ought to take one pill more To purge away the "prejudice " Which true men have for Freedom A canting, pompous wretch he is, Who'll cheat you if you heed him. CAMPAIGN SONGS. 69 70 CAMPAIGN SONGS. Oh, Mill Fillmore, not another pill more! In our mouth, The quacking South, Ne'er shall put a pill more. It was only natural that the influence upon the Republicans of the prospective successful termination of the Civil War should be reflected in the songs of the second Lincoln Campaign, in 1864. A noticeable difference between these songs and those of the Fremont campaign is found, the 1864 songs breathing forth in every line the spirit of Freedom all but attained. The songs have less of humor and more of a whole-souled outpouring of the national patriotism. " Freedom," " Victory," " The Foe," etc., are words which it is not difficult to see furnished inspiration to the song-writers, as symbolizing what was nearest to the heart of the people. The songs were as a rule eulogistic of Lincoln, but here is a verse which reflects the exultation of the North at the subjugation of the Confederacy : Lincoln came to Washington To view the situation, And found the world all upside clown, A rumpus in the nation. He heard Secessia laugh in scorn, And call him but a noodle; " Laugh on ! " he cried, " as sure's you're born, I still am Yankee Doodle." Chorus. "Yankee Doodle." The war at an end, the campaign song- writers told its story in verse, and the Grant Campaign of 1868 was remarkable for the variety of its stirring, rallying songs in which in nearly every instance Grant's praises were extravagantly sung. There were songs of thanksgiving, songs of derision, songs of rejoicing, besides a number of effective recitations. This song was sung to the tune " Bruce's Address " : Men who toiled, and fought, and bled, When the land with strife was red, By that blood for freedom shed, Come and vote for Grant. Rouse ye, freemen of the land, Swell the shout from strand to strand, He who led shall lead our band, Come and vote for Grant. Woman paling in the strife Mother daughter sister wife, Prayed unto the God of Life For the hero Grant. CAMPAIGN SONGS. 71 Blessings on him who hath won Name and fame, like Washington, Liberty's beloved son Is the hero Grant. This was the first verse of a song which was sung to the tune of " Auld Lang Syne " : - Should brave Ulysses be forgot, Who worked so long and well, On fields where lires of death were hot, . And brave men fought and fell ? He bore our country's banner on, Through scenes of direful strife, And helped to strike the blows that saved Our nation's precious life. The popular dislike of Andrew Johnson did not fail of ex- pression. " Just Before Election " was the title of a song, to the tune " Just Before the Battle," the first two verses of which were as follows : Just before election, Andy, We are thinking most of you; While we get our ballots ready But be sure they're not for you. No, dear Andy, you'll not get them, But you'll get what you deserve, Oh, yes, you'll get leave of absence As you " swing around the curve." Chorus. You have swung around the circle, That you ought to Swing is True, And, oh, you tried to veto Congress But I guess we'll veto you. We have often heard the story Of the rogues of long ago, Of the miller and the weaver And the jolly tailor, too. While the miller watched the hopper, And the weaver stole the yarn, The little tailor took the broadcloth, To keep the three rogues warm. Chorus. Grant's weakness for cigars was worked into a song, which ran thus : - At Donelson the rebel horde Had gathered in their might, Determined there with fire anil sword, To make a dreadful fight; But gallant Foote, with his command, Went " in " by water route, While Grant besieged upon the land, Ana smoked the rebels "out." 72 CANALS. Chorus. Where volleyed thunder loudest pealed, Along the front of war, The Gen'ral calmly viewed the field A-smoking his cigar. In the New York Tribune for October 22,1868, Miles O'Reilly, the poet, had a song entitled " The Presidency," as follows : So, boys! a final bumper, While we all in chorus chant, " For next President we nominate Our own Ulysses Grant!" And if asked what State he hails from This our sole reply shall be, " From near Appomattox Court House, With its famous apple tree!" For 'twas there to our Ulysses That Lee gave up the fight Now, boys, " To Grant for President, And God defend the right !" In recent years, campaign songs seem to have lost their attractiveness for the voters. Songs are written and are sung at the large rallies, but do not become popular. Two causes are accountable for this, the making of issues which do not evoke popular enthusiasm or touch the voter's patriotism, and again, the funny man of the metropolitan newspaper. The newspaper wit furnishes every morning a quantity of clever hits, puns, verses, jingles, etc., which are palatable enough to satiate the popular liking for campaign humor. Canals, Inter-Oceanic, The Nicaragua and the Panama. - Various projects have been elaborated from time to time for the building of a canal connecting the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. The Lake Nicaragua scheme originated in 1550 with Antonio Galvano, but nothing in the way of progress was accomplished until the present century. In 1872-3, 1876-7, and 1885 expedi- tions for the exploration and location of routes were dispatched to Nicaragua by the United States Government. Some of these surveys occupied a period of many j^ears, and up to 1872-3 eight different routes were examined. The deliberate and final determination of the government in favor of the Nicaragua route dates from 1876. Private individuals, incorporated as companies, secured concessions from the Nicaragua government, and this government negotiated a treaty with Nicaragua for the construc- tion of the canal, but in neither case was anything accomplished. In 1889, a company of New York capitalists, known as the Maritime Canal Company, was incorporated by Congress. Their force of engineers and laborers has been at work over two years, and is making good progress. CANALS. 73 The Route of the Canal is one hundred and sixty-nine miles long, but the canal proper is only twenty-nine miles long. It begins at Grey town, on the eastern side, follows the course of the San Juan River above Ochoa through Lake Nicaragua, a distance of one hundred and twenty-nine miles, and thence to the harbor of Brito, the Pacific terminus. The surface of the lake, one hundred and ten feet above the sea, is the summit level. At the eastern end of the lake the San Juan River will be backed up and kept at the lake level by a dam for a distance of sixty-four miles, thus forming an extension of the lake which will have a width of one DBEDGIXG AT PAJJASIA. thousand feet and a depth of from twenty- eight to one hundred and thirty feet. The estimated cost of the canal is $64,000,000 ; the canal, it is expected, will be ready for business in 1902. Panama Canal. The Panama Canal project is in a distress- ing financial condition at the present time. The company was organized in March, 1880, having obtained from the Columbian government a concession which provided for the construction and opening of the canal by March 3, 1892. After the company had sunk $266,000,000, it went into bankruptcy. The length of the projected canal is forty-five and a half miles, and the amount of work accomplished was from one fifth to one third of the whole. The Columbian government would have taken possession of the enterprise under the terms of the concession in March 1892, but an extension of the concession for ten years was granted, provid- 74 CESSIONS OF TERRITORY BY CONQUEST OR PURCHASE. ing a new company shall have been organized by February 28, 1898, with sufficient means to pursue the work in a " serious and regular manner." The original plans for a tide-level canal have been altered so as to provide locks and cheapen the construction. The estimates of the cost of completion range between $100,000,- 000 and $200,000,000. The property is kept in order by a per- manent staff at an expense of $60,000 a month. Capital of the United States, The. New York was the first national capital. When a change was talked of, the South- erners objected to Philadelphia because it was an abolition cen- tre. It was agreed to make Philadelphia the capital for ten years, and then a district ceded by Maryland to the Federal gov- ernment. This district, since called the District of Columbia, consists of ten square miles lying on both sides of the Potomac, with Washington as the principal city. In 1800, the capital was removed from Philadelphia to Washington. (For Federal Build- ings see District of Columbia.) Carpet Baggers. (See Political Parties.) Cattle Raising. (See Stock Raising.) Centennial Exposition. (See World's Fairs, under World's Columbian Exposition.) Centre Of Population. (See Population and Area.) Cessions of Territory by Conquest or Purchase. The first acquisition of territory was that won by the conquest of Great Britain in the Revolutionary War, and ceded to the col- onies, by the Treaty of Paris, in 1782, viz., the territory east of the Mississippi, with the right of free navigation of the great lakes and the Mississippi, and with practically equal rights on the Newfoundland fishing grounds. The area of the territory ceded was 827,844 square miles. On payment to France of $15,000,000, the Province of Louisiana was purchased in 1803, according to the terms of a convention signed at Paris, James Monroe, and Robert R. Liv- ingston, our minister, both acting for this government. The pur- chased territory extended from the gulf as far north as the Canadian line, and northwest as far as the present States Montana, Idaho, Oregon, and Washington, one half of Wyoming and Colorado, a total area of 1,171,931 square miles. By this acquisition the area of the United States was more than doubled, and there was great rejoicing. On February 22, 1819, Spain ceded Florida to the United States for $6,500,000. This purchase included 59,268 square miles. Texas having declared her independence of Mexico, CIPHER DESPATCHES. 75 this government, as early as 1827, tried to obtain the country by purchase, Calhoun and Clay, as Secretaries of State, offering $1,000,000 and $5,000,000. It was not until 1845 that Texas (375,239 square miles) was received into the Union, the pur- chase money being paid in bonds for $10,000,000, which were used in liquidation of her debt, as indemnity for relinquishing her claim to New Mexico. The sum of $15,000,000 and the assumption of $3,250,000 of debts due from Mexico to United States citizens was the price paid to Mexico in 1848 for 545,783 square miles of territory known as New Mexico and Upper California. The title to certain portions of Arizona and New Mexico being still in doubt, this government acquired themjby purchase from Mexico in 1853 ; the price paid was $10,000,000. The area acquired was 45,535 square miles. By a treaty of March 30, 1867, ratified by the Senate, June 20, of the same year, Russia ceded to the United States what is now the Territory of Alaska. The price paid was $7,200,000, and the area of the country was 577,390 square miles. Cereals, Production of. (See Agriculture.) Cheap Coats Make Cheap Men. (See Sayings of Famous Americans.) Chet. (See Presidents of the United States.) Cigars, Production of. (See Liquors and Tobacco.) Cigarettes, Production of. (See Liquors and Tobacco.) CincinnatllS of the West. (See Presidents of the United States.) Cipher Despatches. After the decision of the Electoral Commission was made known in 1 877, it was discovered that cipher despatches, supposed to have been sent by parties in clese relations with Samuel J. Tilde n, the defeated candidate, to members of the Board of Canvassers of Florida, which was one of the doubtful States, regarding a. bargain for the purchase of the electoral vote of that State. In this election, the change of one electoral vote would have changed the result. A commit'tee of Congress inves- tigated the charges of attempted corruption, and exonerated Tilden, but intimated that at least one member of the Canvassing Board was purchasable. The minority members of the committee, all of them Republicans, expressed their belief in Tilden's guilt, as borne out by the evidence. Tilden replied in a public letter denying emphatically any connection or knowledge of the alleged attempted corruption. Cities, Growth of Population of. (See Population and 76 CIVIL SERVICE REFORM. Area.) Government of. (See States, Cities, etc., Government of.) Civil Rights Bill. This bill involved the status of the negro as a citizen. It came before Congress in 1866. In effect it declared that all persons born in the United States were citizens, and should enjoy the rights of the citizen. It excepted Indians. The withholding of such rights was made by the bill a misde- meanor, for the Federal courts to punish. In the event of failure to obey the law, the President was empowered to cause it to be obeyed, if necessary, using the army or the navy in enforcing the act. President Johnson vetoed the act, March 27th, and early in April it was passed over the veto. Senator Sumner's amend- ment to prevent discrimination against negroes by common car- riers, inn-keepers, theatre-managers, etc., was proposed as an amendment to the Amnesty Act of 1872, but it was voted down by the Democrats. After two more attempts at passage, in March, 1875, the bill became a law. In October, 1883, the Supreme Court declared as much of the act of 1875 as related to its operation in the States to be unconstitutional, leaving its opera- tion unhampered in the District of Columbia and the Territories. Civil Service Reform. The officials and clerks -over 120,000 in all- by whom the administration of government is carried on, constitute the Civil Service. About 5,000 of these are appointed by the President alone or with the consent of the Senate; about 15,000 under what are known as the "Civil Service Rules," but the great body of officeholders are appointed by heads of departments. Those employed in the civil service have always been theoretically entitled to serve " during good bejiavior," but practically, until within a few years, their positions have depended upon the theory that " to the victors belong the spoils." Jackson was the first President to put the theory into practice, and to inaugurate the system of Removals and Appointments for political reasons. Jackson maintained that every citizen had an equal right to public office ; he advocated " rotation in office," which involved frequent changes; and his removals numbered far more than those of all previous Presidents together. These doctrines have been defended on the ground that a long tenure of office creates a bureaucracy of officeholders, who forget that they are servants of the public, and who are apt to acquire a habit of doing business in an old-fashioned way. In 1883 Congress passed a law for the improvement of the civil service of the United States. This act provides for the ap- pointment by the President of three commissioners to have general CIVIL SERVICE REFORM. 77 charge of filling the vacancies in the civil service department, and stipulates that the fitness of all applicants for all subordinate positions in the departments at Washington, and in all custom houses and post-offices having as many as fifty officeholders, shall be tested by examinations, and the positions assigned with ref- erence to the capacity, education, health, and character of the applicants, regardless of political preferences. According to this, no absolute appointment to office can be made until the applicant has proven his or her ability to fill the position satisfactorily by six months' service ; no person habitually using intoxicating beverages to excess shall be appointed to, or retained in, any office; no recommendation which may be given by any senator or member of the House of Representatives, except as to charac- ter and residence, shall be considered by the examiners; men and women shall receive the same pay for the same work. The general competitive examinations for Admission to the Service are limited to the following subjects : 1. Orthog- raphy, penmanship, and copying- 2. Arithmetic fundamental rules, fractions, and percentage. 3. Interest, discount, and the elements of book-keeping and of accounts. 4. Elements of the English language, letter writing, and the proper construction of sentences. 5. Elements of the geography, history, and govern- ment of the United States. A standing of sixty-five per cent, in the first three branches is necessary to qualify. There is a board of examiners in each of the principal cities of the country, and ex- aminations are held at. regular intervals. Following are a few questions chosen at random from the civil service Examination Papers: Write without abbreviation the names of fifteen seaports of the Union. Name four of the principal tributaries of the Mississippi River. Which States are peninsular, and upon what waters are they situated ? Name seven of the leading agricultural products of the United States, and state in what section of the country each is most ex- tensively cultivated. Correct any errors you find in the following sentences . The boy done it, and he is as restless here as he will be if he was with you. He had did it and spoke of doing it before we come here. Write a letter to Senator Jackson answering in full his letter of September 7 to the Secretary of the Treasury in which he asks : " How must my nephew proceed to obtain a clerkship in the Treasury Department, under the civil-service law, and what are the requisite qualifications of a good clerk ? " 78 COINAGE. The government sold an old vessel for $160,000, payable two fifths in eight months and the residue in seventeen months from the sale. What was the present cash value of the vessel, the current rate of interest on money being five per cent. ? A merchant imported from Bremen 82 pieces of linen of 82 yards each, on which he paid for the duties, at 24 per cent., $122.38, and other charges to the amount of $40.96. What was the invoice value per yard, and the cost per yard after duties and charges were paid ? A owned of a ship and sold J of his share to B, who sold | of what he bought to C, who sold f of what he bought to D. What part of the whole vessel did D buy ? The government sold 8,000 old muskets at 22^- per cent, of their cost. The purchaser becoming insolvent paid only 13 per cent, of the price he agreed to pay ; that is, he paid $900. What did each musket cost the government? Add 7f, j? of 6|, 8, 6.^ divided by 8', and reduce to lowest terms. Civil War Statistics. (See Wars of the United States.) Clean Sweep. (See Slang of Politics.) Coal, Production of. (See Mining.) Coins of the Colonial Period. (See Coinage, Free Coinage, etc.) Coins of the United States. (See Coinage, Free Coinage, etc.) Coinage, Free Coinage. Coinage Acts. Coins of the U. S. Trade Dollars. Mints. Free Coinage. Colonial Coinage. In God We Trust. Currency. Money Slang. Bimetallism. Dollar Sign. The controversy of the present day regarding the free coinage of silver has an intimate connection with the first legislation passed by Congress, affecting the coinage of silver. Tn the Act of April 2, 1792, an act "establishing a mint and regulating the coins of the United States," there was a clause which established the Silver Dollar as the standard as follows : " Dollars or units each to be of the value of a Spanish milled dollar as the same is now current^ and to contain three hundred and seventy-one grains and four sixteenth parts of a grain of pure or four hundred and sixteen grains of standard silver." The act also provided for half dollars, quarter dollars, dimes, and half COINAGE. 79 dimes, each to contain, respectively, one half, one fourth, one tenth, and one twentieth of the pure silver contained in the dollar. The coinage of cents and half cents of copper was also provided for. In this first coinage act the words " dollar or unit " are applied equally to dollars of gold and the dollar of silver that is, " dollar " is the name of the unit of money, and the gold eagle was to be of the value of ten dol- lars, or units. The coin which represented ex- actly the unit was the silver dollar, and the act provided that it should be of the value of the Spanish milled dollar, as that piece was then current. The assay of a num- ber of Spanish dollars, then in common use, show r ed them to contain 371^ grains of pure silver, or 416 grains of standard silver. The same act fixed the relative or proportional value of Gold to Silver as 15 to 1. This ratio was not exactly in accordance with the ratio which then prevailed in European countries. Silver was slightly over-valued and gold a little under-valued. The result was that the metallic money of the United States, during this period, consisted mostly of silrer coins and largely of foreign coins. But $11,908,890 of gold altogether was coined from 1793 to 1834, and this was generally soon exported. The production of gold for the same period in the United States is given at $14,000,000. The Act of June 28, 1834, changed weight and fineness of the gold dollar, making it 258 grains of .899225 of fineness, or 232 grains of pure gold. The Act of January 18, 1837, established .900 as the standard fineness of both gold and silver. It left the weight of the gold dollar unaltered (thus slightly increasing its value) and reduced the weight of the silver dollar to 412 grains, leaving its value unchanged. The Ratio of Gold to Silver thus became as 15.98 to 1. The ratio in Europe was 15.5 to 1. The effect of this change in ratio was the Depletion of the UNITED STATES MINT, PHILADELPHIA. 80 COINAGE. Country of its silver currency, for the reason that full-weight silver coins were worth for export a little more than three per cent, more than gold coins ; and as the subsidiary coins contained proportionally the same weight of pure silver contained in the dollar piece, it was as profitable to export these coins as the dollar piece. Congress put a check to the exportation of frac- tional silver by Act of February 21, 1853, which reduced the weight of the half dollar from 20Gf grains to 192 grains of stan- dard silver dollar, and the smaller silver coins in proportion. At the International Monetary Conference held at Paris in 1867, Samuel B. Ruggles represented the United States, and favored a " common unit of money," which should be gold. As chairman of the Senate Finance Committee, in 1868, Senator Sherman intro- duced a bill for the establishment of an exclusively gold standard, but the bill was not passed. By the Act of 1873, the coinage of Silver Trade Dollars of 420 grains was authorized. These coins were not intended for circulation as dollars, but for convenience in transportation ; nevertheless they did circulate, and when silver declined the coinage of bullion into trade dollars was carried on at great profit to the owners of the bullion. The coinage of trade dollars of 420 grains was suspended by the Bland-Allison Act of 1878, which provided for the coinage of silver dollars of the weight of 41 2 grains of standard dollar, at the rate of at least two millions, and not exceeding four millions a month. President Hayes vetoed- this bill, but it was passed over the veto and became a law. The advocates of the free coinage of silver have made power- ful efforts to secure the passage of a bill removing the restrictions imposed upon the Secretary of the Treasury by the Act of 1878, in the amount of bullion he may accept for coinage into silver dollars. In the Fifty-First Congress, there was a pro- tracted struggle over the free coinage question. The House passed a bill authorizing the purchase of bullion amounting to $4,500,000 a month ; this bill went to the Senate, where it was amended, and was then reported back to the House, where it failed to pass. Finally, another bill, authorizing the purchase monthly of 4,500,000 Ounces of Bullion, at the market price thereof, not exceeding one dollar for 371^ grains of pure silver, to be paid for in treasury notes, was passed. The bill repealed the section of the Bland- Allison Act, which authorized coinage of bullion purchased into trade dollars of not less than $2,000,000, and not exceeding $1,000,000 a month. Free Coinage. Free coinage is the acceptance by the Secretary of the Treasury of all bullion offered to him for coinage COINAGE. 81 into money, gold or silver. At the present time there is free coinage of gold. The advocates of the free coinage of silver are principally from the West, where the production of silver is a great industry. By the Act of 1890, the Secretary of the Treasury is empowered to buy only 4,500,000 ounces of silver bullion a month ; THE MINT AT NEW ORLEANS. the efforts of the free coinage men are to secure a law which allows the unlimited coinage of all silver bullion offered at the mints. The Opponents of Free Coinage insist that such a law would lead to the coinage of more money than the business of the country requires, which would result either in the depreciation of the value of silver dollars at home, or their export to foreign countries. The latter result is more to be feared, because of the' reduced bullion value of silver, which is worth less now than at any time in the history of coinage. In 1873, the bullion value of a silver dollar was $1.004; in 1883, it was $0.858; in 1890, it 82 COINS. was $0.809, and in 1892, about the same value. The danger of unlimited coinage of silver dollars is the accumulation of a large amount of money in the Treasury, which would return there because the history of silver money in dol- lars shows that the people do not like them, and that they would find their way out of the channels of trade into the coffers of the United States Treasury. It might result that the government would be compelled to redeem national banknotes and legal tender notes in the depreciated silver dollars in the treasury, which would cause serious lost to all branches of trade, and might bring about many business failures. Were the bullion value of silver dollars equal to their face value, there would be no objec- tion to the free coinage of silver bullion. The ratio of gold to silver is now about 20 to 21 to 1 . The total Value of the Gold Coined in the United States from 1793 to June 30, 1891, was .$1,460,486,253.47 ; of the silver coined in the same period, $602,574,324.80. Total, $2,063,060,578.27. On July 1, 1891, the gold bullion in the treasurv amounted to $61,442,802; the silver bullion to $38,- 769,772 ; the gold coin in the treasury, in the banks, and in general circulation amounted to $585,140,050 ; of silver dol- lars, to $405,659,268 ; of subsidiary or frac- tional coin, $77,848,700. Total, $1,168,- 860,592. Coins of the United States. The gold coins at present consist of the double eagle (twenty dollars), the eagle (ten dol- lars), the half eagle (five dollars), the quarter eagle (two and one half dollars), and the one-dollar piece. The coinage of I the three-dollar piece was discontinued by [act of the Fifty-First Congress. The silver coins are the standard dollar, the halt' dollar, the quarter dollar, and the dime. The base metal coins are five, three, two, GOLD COINS. REVERSE. ancl one cent pieces. The gold coins and COINS. 83 the standard silver dollar are legal tender to an unlimited amount ; the half dollars, quarter dol- lars, and dimes to the maximum amount of ten dollars, and the base metal coins to the maximum amount of twenty-five cents in anyone payment. Mints. Congress established mints at Phil- adelphia in 1791, at Charlotte, N. C., Dahlonega, N. C., and New Orleans, La., in 1831. The first two were suspended in 1861. The Char- lotte Mint was made an assay office in 1873. The New Orleans mint was suspended from 1861 to 1879, when it was reopened. A mint was established at Carson City, Xev., in 1865, but coinage was suspended, and it be- came an assay office in 1885. There is a mint also at San Francisco, and an assay office at Denver. A Bureau of the Mint was established in 1873, having control of all the mints and assay offices which had previously been in charge of the mint at Philadelphia. Assay offices are in oper- ation, also, at Boise City, Helena, New York, and St. Louis. Currency. Currency is any form of money, whether it is coin or paper. The term is, however, more often applied to paper money. Paper currency consists of legal tender notes, national banknotes, gold certificates, and silver certificates. For the redemption of legal tender notes, the Secretary of the Treasury is required to keep in the treasury $100,000,000 as a reserve. There were outstanding on July 1, 1891, $346,681,016 of the old issue of these notes, and $50,228,417 of the notes of the Act of July 14, 1890. Of gold certificates there were outstand- ing on the same date, $152,486,429; of silver certificates, $314,715,185; of na- tional banknotes, $167,927,974 ; of cur- rency certificates, $23,780,000. Total, $1,055,819,021. The Legal Tender Notes are in de- nominations of one, two, five, ten, twenty, SILVER. COINS. REVERSE. 84 COINS. tjr, one hundred, five hundred, one thousand, five thousand, and ten thousand dollars. The national banknotes are issued by na- tional banks, and are guaranteed by the govern- ment, the banks being required to deposit United States bonds to secure their payment. The Gold and Silver Certificates are issued against the deposits of gold and silver coin, and may be ex- changed for coin. These certificates are conven- ient for use in business, and are preferable to coin because of its great bulk. Fiat Money. The theory of fiat money is that the government stamp fixes a value upon a coin, with the " dollar," for instance, as the ideal unit. In other words, the theory is that the gov- ernment may make a dollar simply by stamping it with the inscription : " This is one dollar by act of Congress." Coins of The Colonial Period. The colo- nists resorted to all sorts of expedients for securing a medium of exchange. Wampum, which was the Indian name for the shells used in various shapes as money by the aborigines, was strung together like beads. For a time Cotton Cloth was a me- dium for trade with the Indians, and later Animal Pelts. Corn and bullets of a certain size passed for money in New England, and it was not until 1652 that the coinage of metals into money was begun. This was at Boston, where a mint was es- tablished and turned out coins of the value of 12, 6, and 3 pence. They were rude affairs, having on one side the letters N. E., and on the other the value stamped XII., VI., III., as the case might be. The first was known as the " New England Shilling," and was followed by the " Pine Tree," the "Willow Tree," and the " Oak Tree." In 1645, Virginia passed an act for coinage, but it knever went into effect. Maryland was more enter- [prising, and in 1659 placed in circulation small coins which were coined in England. John Higley, of Connecticut, made some copper coins in 1737, for private circulation, which bore the encourag- ing legend, " I am Good Copper." Connecti- cut, in 1785, authorized the coinage of 10,000 of copper cents, which were known as the Connecticut Cents. SILVER AND NICKEL COINS. REVERSE. COINS. 85 In 1722, Great Britain issued for circulation in the colonies metal coins valued at two pence, one pence, and a halfpence. The first authorized copper coinage was that of Vermont, which State gave to Reuben Harmon the right to coin copper money for two years. His mint was at Rupert, and he coined the Vermont cent of 1785. The next year, 1786, Massachusetts established a mint for the coinage of gold, silver, and copper, and authorized the coinage into cents and half cents of $60,000. The mint was in charge of Captain Joshua Wetherbee. The Cent was known as the Massa- chusetts cent of 1787. This coin had on one side the figure of an Indian, bow and arrow in hand, and the words Common Wealth, and one star; on the other an eagle, rising out of a shield, marked " cent," the year of issue, and the word Massachusetts surround- ing the eagle. New Jersey coined money from June 1, 1786, and her coins were the first to bear the legend " E Pluribus Unum." (See Seal of the United States.) Early United States Coinage. Robert Morris, to whom the Continental Congress of 1781 intrusted the matter of coinage, proposed a copper coin of five units, and another copper coin of eight units, the unit to equal ^ grain of silver, an equivalent of y^^ of a Spanish (silver) dollar. Nothing came of Morris' efforts, but in 1784 Jefferson made a report in favor of the Spanish, Dollar the unit, and on July 6, 1785, Congress resolved : " That the money unit of the United States of America be one dollar ; that the smallest coin be of copper, of which two hundred shall pass for one dollar ; that the several pieces shall increase in a decimal ratio." Congress, August 8, 1786, provided for the issue of four coins, viz. : a gold piece of 110 value, a silver dollar, a dime or tenth of a dollar silver, and a v hundredth of a dollar in copper. An ordinance for the estab- lishment of the Mint of the United States of America was passed Oct. 16, 1786. XICKEL A - VD COPPER COtXS. REVERSE. The United States Mint was not established and in operation until 1792, when, with David Rittenhouse as director, the government coinage began. The mint was at Phila- 86 COINS. delphia and is there to-day. The first coinage was in October of that year, and was of silver half dimes. Dollar Sign, The. This originated probably from the character f , which was written as a sign for eight reals, or a piece of eight reals, which was equivalent to a Spanish dollar. Weight of a Million Dollars in Coin. The weight of a million gold dollars is 1.9 tons; of a million silver dollars (stand- ard) 29f tons; of a million dollars in 10 cent pieces, 29^ tons; of a million dollars in five-cent nickel pieces, 11 tons ; of a million dollars in ordinary bronze cents, 342f tons ; of a million dollars in old copper cents, 1,885| tons. These weights in each instance in short tons ('2,000 pounds). In God We Trust. This was used first on the two-cent cop- THE 1804 DOLLAK. per of 1864. It was used also on the $20, $10, and $5 gold pieces of 1866, and on the silver dollar, half dollar, and five-cent nickel of the same issue. It was invented by Director of the Mint James Pollock. Bland Dollar Profile. It was for some time unknown, and by many it is not known now who is the lady whose profile is stamped on the Bland silver dollar. Her name was Miss Anna W. Williams, of Philadelphia, whom the designer of the dollar chose as having a model female head. On many of the early coins of the United States, the head of Martha Washington was stamped, but General Washington expressed his disapproval, and the portrait was altered. Money Slang. Characteristic of the country is the slang the people have invented to designate the "coin of the realm:" Almighty dollars, American balm, ante's, balsam, banknotes, bills, bits, bluebacks, blunt, bobs, boodle, brads, brass, cans, car- fares, cart-wheels, cash, cases, cents, century's ($100 bills), cer- tificates, change, checks, chicken-feed (small change), chink, COINS. 87 chips, circlets, circulating medium, coach- wheels, coin, collateral, coppers, counter-ringers, currency, daces, daddy-dollars, darby, dibs, dimes, dollars, doots, dooteramus, dots, dough, ducats, dust, eagle-bird, essential (of the), fat, fat plunks, filthy lucre, financial circles (dollars), tips, fivers, flipper-ups, funds, gelter, gold, greed, greenbacks, halves, hard cash, hardscales, hardstuff, hoggs, honey, jacks, jinglers, legal-tender, leveys, levels, loaves and fishes, lowre, lucre, mint relics, money, mopus, mopusses, moss, muck, necessary (of the), Neds, needful, new-lights, nickels, notes, ochre, ones's, open sesame, paper dollars, pennies, pewter, picayunes, pile, plasters, plates, plungers, plunkers, plunks, pocket- weights, poney, posh, postals, purse-convicts, quarters, quids, rags, ready, ready-come-down-John, redge, reds, ringers, rocks, round dollars (silver), round moons (dollars), salt, sand, scrip, sharp-shins, shekels, shiners, shines, shinplasters, shot, sicers, silver, sinews-of- war, sinkers, slats, slugs, soap, sparklers, specie, spelter, spondu- lix, spoons, sprats, stamps, stuff, sugar, swag, sweeteners, sye- bucks, tenners, tens, threswins, thrums, tin, two-bits, Uncle Sam's I. O. U.'s, Vs, ways and means, wealth, wheels, wherewithal, wind, X's, yellow's: E Pluribus Unum. "Many in one." This phrase was brought into public use for the first time in the report to Congress by Franklin, Adams, and Jefferson, regarding the "Great Seal of the United States." (which see.) Bi-metallisrru The intent of bi-metallism is to bring about an agreement between the values of gold and silver at a ratio of 15|- to 1, in order that the fluctuations in their relative value may cease, and both metals may be always available as money to the full amount in circulation. If different countries adopt a double standard, with different ratios, the gold or the silver of every country witt leave it to go to a country in which either is more valuable, and thus the two metals will be separated. If one country alone adopt a double standard, its gold or silver will be exportei according as the market value of silver is lower or higher than the value fixed by the government ratio. This country is monometallic, notwithstanding the fact that there is silver in circulation. Colonization. (See Slang of Politics.) Colorado. The State was settled at Conejos, in 1840, by Mexi- cans. It was admitted to the Union in 1876. Lieutenant Pike> U. S. A., was the first American who entered Colorado, and Pike's Peak perpetuates his memory. The State is celebrated for its high mountains. Gray's Peak is 13,341 feet high, Long's Peak is 14,271 feet high, and Pike's Peak is 14,147 feet high. There 88 COLORADO. are more than twenty other mountain peaks exceeding 13,000 feet. There are many beautiful parks walled in by lofty mountain ranges; picturesque lakes, and wild river canons, with flashing cascades and other natural beauties. The mountain scenery is most impressive. There < is a diversity in the climate. The region on the Atlantic slope of the Rockies has cool nights, without dew, even when the temperature is ninety degrees during the day. The foot-hills have hot summers with cool GREAT SEAL OF COLORADO. nights. Changes in temperature are sudden, but the dryness of the air has a mitigating influence. Artificial irrigation has been introduced, and there are now over 3,000,000 acres under profitable cultiva- tion. For irrigation purposes over $10,000,000 has been spent. The Farm Products include 2,800,000 bushels of wheat, 2,000,000 of oats, 2,500,000 of corn, 3,000,000 of potatoes, 350,000 tons of hay. The leading farm product is a clover called alfalfa, which is fed to the live-stock, and makes the best of beef-pro- . ducing foods. The crop in 1889 was 3,000,000 tons. Colorado has the finest grazing lands outside of Texas. The number of cattle exceeds 6,000,000. The sheep in 189,0 numbered over 1,800,000. Sheep-raising and cattle-raising utilize a large capital. Colorado is the Second Silver-Producing State, and yields four times as much silver as gold. Leadville produces over $12,000,000 a year, chiefly in silver. The total bullion production of Colorado has exceeded $300,000,000 ; of lead, the product has been nearly $50,000,000; of copper, $6,000,000. There are 40,000 square miles of coal fields, and fifty mines em- ploying 5,400 men. The present output is 2,360,000 tons. There are twenty-five petroleum Avells, producing 140,000 barrels of illuminating oil, and 160,000 barrels of lubricating oil. The population in 1870 was 39,864 ; in 1880, 194,327 ; in 1890, 410,975. The value of real and personal property in 1888 was $130,000,000. The manufactures in 1880 yielded $14,260,159. The acreage of farm lands, in 1880, was 126,585, valued at $25,- 109,223. The school and college attendance was 85,824. There were 4,176 miles of railroad in 1890, and in 1892 there were 276 newspapers. The educational institutions are the University of Colorado at Boulder, the State School of Mines at Golden, the Agricultural College at Fort Collins, and the Normal School at Greeley, besides which there are several sectarian institutions. COLORADO. 89 The chief city is Denver, whose population in 1890 was 106,670. It has a number of expensive buildings, among which are the State Capitol, the High School, Opera House, and several hotels. Pueblo, the second city, has a population of 28,128. It is a busy manufacturing city, with steel-works, nail factories, rolling mills, and foundries. Leadville, the third city, with a population of 11,159, is in the heart of the mining camps, and is situated over 10,000 feet above the sea. John L. Routt FIRST AND LAST STATE CAPITOLS, DENVER, COLORADO. (Rep.), is Governor of Colorado. His term expires Jan. 10, 1893. The State is Republican. Colossus of Independence. (See Presidents of the United States.) Columbian Party. (See Political Parties.) Columbus Celebrations. (See World's Columbian Expo- sition.) Connecticut. Connecticut was one of the thirteen original States of the Union ; it was settled at Windsor, in 1633, by Massachusetts men. There were two capitals, Hartford and New Haven, up to 1873, and then Hartford was made the capital. 90 CONNECTICUT. GREAT SEAL OF CONNECTICUT. The population in 1380 was 622,700; in 1890 it was 740,258. The State has real property valued at $244,000,000 ; personal property valued at $105,000,000. It is a Great Manufacturing State, the manufactures, which employ 160,- 000,000 persons, aggregating $186,- 000,000. The savings bank deposits in 1890 aggregated $112,000,000. There are three colleges in the State, 1,650 public schools, 135,000 school children, and 207 newspapers. The largest city is New Haven, having 86,045 inhabitants. It is the seat of Yale University, and the leading manufactures are arms, clocks, machinery, etc. The city has many venerable elms, hence is known as the " City of Elms." Hartford, the capital, has a population of 53,230 ; the State Capitol, which is one of the handsomest in the country, has a beautiful situation near the railroad. Hartford is the centre of the Life and Fire Insurance business of the country, and of its size is the wealthiest city in the country. The insurance risks aggregate a billion of dollars. Bridgeport, population 48,856, is a thriving, growing city, which is celebrated for its diversity of manufactures, and for having been the site of the winter quarters of Barnum's circus. P. T. Barnum was mayor of the city, and its benefactor. Its chief manufactures are cartridges, sewing- machines, machinery, and carpets. Waterbury, population 28,- 646, is the centre of the brass industry, and is known therefore as the Brass City. Meriden, Ansonia, Willimantic are other busy manufacturing cities of this prosperous little State. The national institutions are Forts Hale and Wooster, nngarrisoned, near New Haven ; Fort Trumbull, commanding New London harbor and the Navy Yard at New London, on the Thames, a beautiful river which flows into Long Island Sound. Connecticut has one thousand miles of railroads. Morgan G. Bulkeley (Rep.) is Governor of Connecticut. His term expires Jan. 5, 1803. The State is doubtful in national elections, though it now has a Republican governor. Cleveland carried the State both in 1884 and 1888. Commanders of United States Army. (See Army, United States.) Commerce of the Great Lakes. (See Ship-Building.) COXTRABAXD OF WAR. 91 STATE CAPITOL AT HARTFORD. Condition, A, Not a Theory. (See Sayings of Famous Americans.) Congress. (See Federal Government.) Constructiouists, Strict and Loose. The dominant parties of the country have held very generally throughout their history opposite views regarding the construction which may be put upon the Constitution. The view of the Federals, the National Re- publicans, the Whigs, and the Republicans has been along the line of a liberal construction of the document, while the Anti- Federalists, the Democratic-Re- publicans, and the Democrats have adhered in their principles to the strict letter of the Consti- tution. The one party has thus been styled Loose Construction- ists, the other Strict construc- tionists. This division, which is the very essence of the differ- ences between the two great political parties (see Republican and Democratic parties), had its origin in what has been called the "Elastic Clause "of the Constitution, Article I., Section VIII., Clause 18, which empowers Congress to make all laws necessary for executing the various powers defined, and for executing all other powers of government, etc. Under this clause Alexander Hamilton assumed the right to put through his favorite measures, while Jefferson opposed him. The strict constructionists have at various times fought against all legislation founded upon a loose construction of the Constitution, such as the tax on spirits, the United States Bank, the navy, internal improvements, the pro- tective tariff, and Federal interference with slavery outside the States, and in later times, emancipation and reconstruction. It has always been a debatable question whether loose construction has not after all been justified by the course of public events, yet on the other hand, there inevitably arises the question whether loose construction does not imply a dangerous assumption of power, which may eventually be prostituted to the political ad- vancement of one man or set of men. Contraband of War. This is the name applied to all arti- cles carried by. neutrals for the assistance of an enemy in carrying on war. Such articles are liable to seizure and to confiscation. In 1861, Gen. Benjamin F. Butler applied the term to negro 92 CONVICTS AND slaves who entered the Union lands. These slaves were fugi- tives from their owners, who made demands on General Butler for their recovery, but he refused to give them up on the ground that they were contraband of war. What to do with the negro was a delicate problem with the Union leaders, and General But- ler's ingenious solution has been credited with clearing the way for the Emancipation Proclamation. Convicts and Paupers. By the bulletin of the United States Census of 1890, it appeared that the number of Convicts in the penitentiaries of the United States was 45,233, of whom 30,546 were white and 14,087 colored; of the total number 23,094 were native-born and 7,267 foreign-born. The number of Prisoners in the county jails was 19,538, of whom 13,916 were white, and 5,557 were ' colored ; of the total number 9,684 were native-born and 3,765 foreign-born. The total number of in- mates of Juvenile Reformatories was 14,846, of whom 1,943 were colored; of the total number 11,078 were native and 1,405 foreign-born. The number of Paupers in the alms-houses of the United States, in 1890, was 73,045, of whom 6,467 were colored ; of the total 36,656 were native-born, and 27,648 were foreign-born. The number of paupers in the United States was small compared with the number estimated to be in the alms- houses of foreign countries. In 1890 it appeared that there were in England and Wales 787,545 paupers; in Ireland, 107,774; in Russia, 350,000 ; in Germany, 320,000 ; in France and Austria, 290,000 each ; in Italy, 270,000. Cooley. This word was applied to Chinese laborers of the poorer class, and in some parts of the far West it is still widely used. It obtained a wide circulation during the discussion of the Chinese Exclusion Bill. Copyright, International. The International Copyright Act, which was passed by the Fifty-First Congress and approved by President Harrison, applies to books, etc., published after July 1, 1891. To acquire the benefit of international copyright, English authors will have to publish simultaneously that is, on the same day on both sides of the Atlantic. They will have to publish here to secure American copyright and in England to secure English copyright. The book must be printed from type set up in this country or plates made from such type, and it must be bound here. In the case of a book, map, dramatic or musical composition, photograph, chromo, or lithograph, the two copies required to.be deposited in the library of Congress shall be printed from type set within the United States or from plates made therefrom, and from engrav- COURTS. 93 ings, cuts, negatives, and drawings on stone executed within the United States. The importation of copyrighted books etc., printed abroad, is prohibited, except in the case of persons purchasing for use and not for sale, who import, subject to the duty thereon, not more than two copies of a book at one time, and except in the case of newspapers and magazines not containing in whole or in part matter copyrighted under the provisions of the act unauthor- ized by the author. In case of books in foreign languages, of which only trans- lations in English are copyrighted, the prohibition of im- portation applies only to the transla- tion, and the impor- tation of books in the original lan- guage is permitted. Corn, Produc- tion of. (See Ag- riculture.) Cotton, Produc- tion of. (See Ag- riculture.) Counties, Gov- ernment of. (See States, Cities, etc., Government of.) Con nty Democ- racy. (See Politi- iliiStyjiiiiifilliflllli;!! Parties.) THE SHIELD OF LIBERTY. C U TtS. (For United States Supreme, Circuit, and other Courts, see Federal Govern- ment. For State Courts, see States, Cities, etc., Government of.) Covenant with Death, and an Agreement with Hell. (See Sayings of Famous Americans.) 94 CREDIT MOBILIER. Crackers. The " poor white trash " of the South. They are sometimes so called, from the usual article of food among these people, Indian-corn cracked or ground into a coarse meal. They are also called " mean whites." Cradle of Liberty. A name for Faneuil Hall, in Boston, where many meetings in behalf of the Revolutionary cause were held. Credit Mobilier. The most famous scandal of a financial character this country has known is designated by this name. Oakes Ames, member of Congress from Massachusetts, and Oliver Ames, his brother, were incorporators of the Credit Mobilier of America, which, through the Ameses, contracted to build, in 1867, 637 miles of road for the Union Pacific Railroad for $47,000,000. At the time Credit Mobilier shares were quoted at 200 ; in February, 1868, they were quoted at 300 . or 400. Oakes Arnes placed some of the stock with Congressmen, " where," as he said, "it will do most good for us." An investi- gation, ordered on motion of Speaker Blaine, was instituted in 1 873, the result of which was the recommendation by the investi- gation committee of the expulsion of Congressman Ames for attempt to bribe members of the House by sales of stock below its value, and of James Brooks, of New York, for having received such stock, knowing that it was intended to influence his vote in legislation affecting the Union Pacific Railroad, of which he was a government director. The exposure created a profound sen- sation. James A. Garfield, it was shown, had received some of the stock, the dividends on which amounted to $329. In the Presidential campaign of 1880, when he was the Republican candidate, *' 329 " was a campaign cry used against him by his opponents. Both Ames and Brooks died within three months after the exposure. Currency. (See Coinage, Free Coinage, etc.) Custom Houses. (See Tariffs of the United States.) Czar; (See Nicknames of Famous Americans.) Dairy Products. i\r structure which is also shared by the Interior Department. The building cost $2,700,000, and has 191 rooms. Opposite the Patent Office is the Post-Office Department with six hun- dred clerks. The Department of Agriculture has a fine building in the Kenaissance style, and employs here four hundred persons. The other important Federal buildings are the White House, occupied by the President and family^* beautifully situated near the Potomac, with many fine old trees and spacious lawns, the United States Coast Survey, the Bureau of Printing and En- graving, employing 1,200 persons, the Government Printing Office and Bindery, the National Museum, containing extensive collections of a miscellaneous character, all of American origin, the Army Medical Museum, the Smithsonian Institution, es- tablished by endowment of James Smithson, an English scientist, and devoted to scientific research and the diffusion of knowl- edge, the Pension Office, the Naval Observatory at George- town Heights, the Congressional Library (in course of construction at a cost of $6,500,000), the Government Botanical Garden, the Corcoran Art Gallery, founded by W. W. Corcoran, and containing America's most perfect collection of paintings ; besides these, other government possessions at Washington are the Navy Yard, with its foundry for making armament, the Congres- sional Cemetery, the United States Arsenal, the Marine Barracks, the Washington Monument, costing $1,200,000, a white shaft 555 feet high and 592 fejet at the base, the National Soldiers' Home and the National Cemetery. The Monuments and Statues in the city besides those in the Capitol are many in number, the more notable being monu- ments to Lafayette, Gartield, and to the sailors killed in naval service, and a large group entitled Emancipation, which repre- sents Lincoln holding the Emancipation Proclamation- over a negro whose, shackles are broken. There are statues of Lincoln, Gen- eral Jackson, Washington (two), General McPherson, General Thomas, Chief Justice Marshall, Admiral Dupont, Admiral EDUCATION. 99 Farragut, Benjamin Franklin, General Rawlins, Martin Luther, and Professor Henry. Dixie. (See Songs of the Nation.) Dollar Sign, The. (See Coinage, Coins, etc.) Don't Fire Till You See the Whites of Their Eyes. (See Sayings of Famous Americans.) Don't Give lip the Ship. (See Sayings of Famous Ameri- cans.) Dough Faces. (See Political Parties.) Dred Scott Case. This was the case of Dred Scott, a negro, who in 1848, brought suit to test the question of his freedom. He got a verdict in his favor, but the Supreme Court of Missouri reversed it on the appeal. On being sofd to a resident of New York, Scott sued his owner in a United States Court. The case reached the United States Supreme Court, where in 1857, Chief Justice Taney gave tlje decision, which was against the negro. The Court held that the Constitution did not regard the negro slave as a citizen, but as a thing, and furthermore, that for over a century, the negro possessed no " rights which the white man was bound to respect." The Court also held that Congress had no more power to prohibit the carrying of slaves into any State or Territory than it had to prohibit the carrying of horses or other property. This decision, especially its severe phraseology, created great excitement, and was for. a time suppressed on account of the public agitation of the slavery question on the eve of the presidential election. Drys. (See Slang of Politics.) Dudes and Pharisees. (See Slang of Politics.) Dumb Prophet. (See Presidents of tlw United States.) E Pluribus Ununi. (See Seals of the United States.) Education. Public Schools. Colleges. . Private Schools. Manual Training. Indian Schools. The Puritan settlers of Massachusetts, as well as the Dutch colonists of New York, had free schools for the education of the young. The record of the General Court of Massachusetts con- tains the ordinance of 1647, as follows: "Now, that learning may not be buried in the graves of our fathers, every township in this jurisdiction, after the Lord hath increased them to 50 house- holders, shall then forthwith appoint one within their town to teach ail such children as shall resort to him to write and read." 100 EDUCATION. From that day to this, the Free-School System has been cherished as one of the bulwarks of the national welfare. The theory of the government is that, since the people are the rulers, every young person ought at least to be well enough educated to make an intelligent citizen, that is, to be able to know what he votes for. He ought at least to be able to read, or he might not be sure that he used the ballot which he intended. To this end were the public schools established, attendance at which or at other schools is, in most of the Slates, compulsory. One of the first principles of the common school system is that they shall be Non -Sectarian (although under the early theocratic govern- ment in New England, the common schools were under the super- vision of the church), and that teachers shall be prohibited from urging religious opinions upon the scholars. On the other hand, many Private Schools arc maintained by QUADRANGLE AT HARVARD COLLEGE. the various religious denominations, both for younger and more advanced scholars, besides colleges for the education of young men as ministers to preach the different ere eds. All the towns and cities of the country maintain common schools, whose expenses are met by direct taxation, while most of the cities and many of the States support institutions in the interest of higher education, in which the tuition is free. The United States Government has never interfered with the States in their scheme of education, nor has the United States Government ever established a national institu- tion of learning, although a project for the establishment of such an institution has within a few years been put forward. A National Bureau of Education, however, has been established, but its duties are chiefly in the line of the collection EDUCATION* 101 of statistical information regarding the schools and colleges of the country. By the returns of the Bureau for 1890, it appeared that the number of pupils enrolled in the common schools of the United States was 12,697,196, and that there Avas an average daily attendance of 8,144,938. The average length of a school term was 134-^ days. To maintain this system of common schools the sum of $140,277,484 was expended, of which $91,- 683,338 was for the school superintendents and teachers. The average expense per capita of population was $2.24. The per capita expense was smallest in South Carolina, where it was $0.41 ; it was largest in California, where it was $4.29. The Largest Percentage Enrolled of population was in UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN, ANN ARBOR, MICH. Kansas, where it was 27.98. The smallest percentage of popula- tion enrolled was in Wyoming, where it was 11.62. The average population -enrolled was 20.27. The number of colleges of liberal arts and universities in 1890 was 415, and the number of students in -the several departments of these institutions was 118,581. The number of professors and instructors was 7,918. The permanent productive funds of these institutions was $74,- 070,415, the value of their grounds and buildings was $64,259,- o44, the value of their scientilic apparatus was $8,635,385. There" was paid by the students for instruction $3,764,984, an average of $31.75. The total income, including that from tuition, State or municipal aid, and from productive funds, was $10,801,918 ; the total benefactions was $6,006,474. Manual Training. - The introduction of manual training into the scheme of education in the United States, marks a long step forward. The idea of a high school of manual training 102 EDUCATION. originated in Boston in 1877. It was the conception of Prof. John D. Runkle, then president of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Prof. Runkle caught the idea of a manual training school of a higher grade from certain school exhibits made by some of the European nations in the Centennial Exhibition in Philadelphia in 1876, which greatly interested him at the time. Two years later, viz., in 1879, the St. Louis manual training school connected with the Washington University of that city was established. Since that time schools of a like character have been established in Baltimore, Philadelphia, Cleveland, Toledo, and other cities, while the public high schools of many other places (between forty and fifty in all) have taken on manual training as a new branch of study. Meanwhile, endowed or private schools, planned on the St. Louis model, have been multi- plied, the most conspicuous example being the Chicago manual training school. The Plan of the Schools is to devote two fifths of the time of the students to shop work, to drawing one fifth, and the other two fifths to appropriate studies. Practical instruction in wood- working, wood-turning, blacksmithing, iron-working, the use of tools, mechanical drawing, etc., is given to boys of from thir- teen to eighteen years. The schools are supplied with the latest machinery and are officered by competent instructors. The manual training idea is growing, and in a few years all the large cities and towns will have adopted it, for the reason that it fur- nishes what the public school does not, practical education. Indian Schools. The policy of the government in trying to. accomplish the civilization of the next generation of Indians, an object in gaining which they are assisted by many religious bodies, is apparent from the increase both in the number of the schools and of the students in attendance. All the government reservations have Indian schools. Government Schools are situated at Carlisle, Pa., Chemawa, Ore., Ft. Stevenson, N. D., Chilocco, Ind. T., Genoa, Neb., Lawrence, Ivans., xAibuquerque, N. M., Grand Junction, Col., Santa Fe, N. M., Carson, Nov., Pierre, S. D., and Fort Mohave, Ariz. The enrollment in 1801 varied from 778 at Carlisle, Pa., to 81 at Pierre, S. D. The total enrollment in 1891 was 11,449 ; in 1887 it was 9,962. The average attendance was 8,399; in 1887, it was 7,172. In the maintenance of these schools the government spends annually upwards of $400,000. Many Indian schools are conducted also under the auspices of the Presbyterians, Roman Catholics, Congre- gationalists, Episcopalians, Friends, Mennonites, Unitarians, Luth- erans, and Methodists, besides others at Martinsburg, Pa., Alaska, Middletown, Cal., Hampton, Ya., and Lincoln, Neb. For all of 104 ELECTORAL COMMISSION. these the government makes appropriations, aggregating in 1892 $604,240. This is the only instance where a Sectarian Insti- tution receives government support. While this course is con- trary to the letter and spirit of the Constitution, it is held that the churches are accomplishing with the Indian what the gov- ernment would not be able to accomplish so well, and for this reason, they should be allowed to continue their good work. How- ever, there are many who believe the government should assume absolutely the education of the Indians, and should train them in government schools with the specific end of fitting them for citi- zenship. Eggs, Production Of. (See Agriculture.) Elastic Clause in Constitution. This is the eighteenth clause in Article I., Section 8, which in outlining the powers granted to Congress concludes as follows : " To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers vested by this Consti- tution in the government of the United States, or in an}- depart- ment or officer thereof." It was in the interpretation of this clause that the differences between the Federalists and the Anti- Federalists had their origin, and irt general it may be said that the application of this clause marks the dividing line between the opposing principles of the Republican and Democratic parties. (See Constructionist, Strict and Loose.) Electoral College. (See How the President Is Elected.) Electoral Commission, The. (See Republican Party.) In 1876, there being a dispute over the presidential election, the Electoral Commission was created by Congress to pass upon the returns. The dispute arose over the electoral votes of Florida, Louisiana, Oregon, and South Carolina. The members of the Commission were (Democrats in Italic, Republicans in Roman) : Senators George F. Edmunds, Vermont ; Oliver P. Morton, Indiana ; Frederick T. Frelinghuysen, New Jersey ; Thomas F. Bayard, Delaware ; AUen G. Thurman, Ohio (the latter having become ill, Francis Kernan, New York, was substituted). Rep- resentatives Henry B. Payne, Ohio ; Eppa Hunton, Virginia ; Josiah G. Abbott, Massachusetts ; James A. Garfield, Ohio ; George F. Hoar, Massachusetts; Supreme Court Nathan Clifford, President of the Commission ; William Strong, Samuel F. Miller, Stephen J. Field. All of these members were designated by Congress. The fifth Supreme Court judge was Joseph P. Bradley, a Republican, who was selected by the commission. There were eight Republicans and seven Democrats on the Commission, and the vote on all the EMANCIPATION PROCLAMATION. 105 disputed questions was a strictly party one, and was decided in every case in favor of the Republicans. The Argument of the Republican counsel was in effect that the Commission did not have power to go behind returns which appeared to have been made in due form, and that it was em- powered to canvass only electoral votes, not popular votes. The House refused to accept the report of the Commission, on a party vote, and the Senate accepted it, also on a party vote. On a concurrent vote, Hayes was declared elected, and was duly in- stalled in office. The Forty-Ninth Congress, in Cleveland's administration, passed the Electoral Count Act, which permits Congress to go behind the returns only when a State cannot settle its own disputes over elections. Electoral Count Act. (See Electoral Commission.) Emancipation Proclamation. President Lincoln issued a proclamation to the States in rebellion on Sept. 22, 1862, declar- ing that he would free their slaves unless they returned to their allegiance by Jan. 1, 1863. True to his word, on Jan. 1, 1863, he issued the Emancipation Proclamation ; it offered to receive the freedmen into the Federal service, and warned them to abstain from violence and disorder. Lincoln said in the Proclamation that his act was prompted by " military necessity." The full text of the Proclamation is as follows : THE EMANCIPATION PROCLAMATION. BY THE PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. A PROCLAMATION. WHEREAS, on the twenty-second day of September, in the year of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and sixty-two, a proclamation was issued by the President of the United States, containing, among other things, the following, to wit: " That on the first day of January, in the year of our Lord one thou- sand eight hundred and sixty-three, all persons held as slaves within any State or designated part of a State, the people whereof shall then be in rebellion against the United States, shall be then, thenceforward, and forever free ; and the Executive Government of the United States, includ- ing the military and naval authority thereof, will recognize and maintain the freedom of such persons, and will do no act or acts to repress such persons, or any of them, in any efforts they may make for their actual freedom. "That the Executive will, on the first day of January aforesaid, by proclamation, designate the States and parts of States, if any, in which the people thereof, respectively, shall then be in rebellion against the United States; and the fact that any State, or the people thereof, shall on that day be in good faith, represented in the Congress of the United States, by members chosen thereto at elections wherein a majority of the qualified voters of such State shall have participated, shall, in the absence of strong countervailing testimony, be deemed conclusive evi- 106 KMBARGO ACT. donee that such State, and the people thereof, ape not then in rebellion against the United States." Now, therefore, 1, Abraham Lincoln, President of the United States, by virtue of the power in me vested as Commander-in-Chief of the Army and Navy of the United States in time of actual armed rebellion against the authority and government of the United States, and as a fit and neces- sary war measure for suppressing said rebellion, do, on this first day of January, in the year of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and sixty- three, and in accordance with my purpose so to do, publicly proclaimed for the full period of one hundred days from the day of first above-men- tioned, order and designate, as the States and parts of States wherein the people thereof, respectively, are this day in rebellion against the United States, the following, to wit: Arkansas, Texas. Louisiana (except the parishes of St. Bernard, 'Placquemines, Jefferson, St. John, St' Charles, St. James, Ascension, Assumption, Terre Bonne, Lafourche, Ste. Marie, St. Martin and Orleans, including the city of New Orleans), Mississippi, Alabama, F'lorida, Georgia, South Carolina, North Carolina, and Virginia (except the forty-eight counties designated as West Vir- ginia, and also the counties of Berkley, Accomac, Northampton, Eliza- beth City, York, Princess Anne, and Norfolk, including the cities of Norfolk and Portsmouth), and which excepted parts are, for the present, left precisely as if this proclamation were not issued. And by virtue of the power and for the purpose aforesaid, I do order and declare that all persons held as slaves within said designated States and parts of States are, and henceforward shall be f ree ; and that the Executive Government of the United States, including the military and naval authorities thereof, will recognize and maintain the freedom of said persons. And I hereby enjoin upon the people so declared to be free, to abstain from all violence, unless in necessary self-defence; and I recommend to them that, in all cases when allowed, they labor faithfully for reason- able wages. And I further declare and make known that such persons, of suitable condition, will be received into the armed service of the United States, to garrison forts, positions, stations, and other places, and to man ves- sels of all sorts in said service. And upon this act, sincerely believed to be an act of justice, warranted by the Constitution, upon military necessity, I invoke the considerate judgment of mankind and the gracious favor of Almighty God. In witness whereof I have hereunto set myname and caused the seal of the United States to be affixed. Done at the City of Washington, this first day of January, in / , the year of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and sixty- < L.S. > three, and of the Independence of the United States of America ' v ' the eighty-seventh. By the President: ABKAHAM LINCOLN. WILLIAM H. SEWARD, Secretary of State. The total number of slaves thus emancipated was 3,895,172. Embargo Act. An embargo is the detention of the vessels of a nation in port, and is promulgated by the government as a measure of precaution and protection, as well as of retaliation. In June, 1807, the British frigate Leopard took four seamen from the United States frigate Chesapeake. The orders in council of the EXPORTS AND IMPORTS. 107 British government to the English navy had been to search all neutral vessels for French goods. The United States at the time was a neutral country. President Jefferson, by proclamation, warned all British armed vessels not to enter American ports. When Congress met in October, the President advised a bill which was passed, prohibiting all American vessels from all foreign trade, and foreign vessels from carrying cargoes from the United States. This was called the Embargo Bill, and operated disastrously to the commerce of the country. The Federalists opposed it on the ground that it would injure this country rather than England, ana would enhance the commercial disaster which England's attacks on American commerce had already begun. Intense op- position to the Embargo was manifested in New England, where the foreign trade was extensive. On account of it, John Quiuey Adams resigned as Senator from Massachusetts. Jefferson was then informed that New England would no longer enforce the Embargo Act, and that there was talk in that section of with- drawing from the Union. Accordingly, Jefferson secured the passage of the Non-Intercourse Act (which see^, by which the Embargo was repealed. The new act related only to commerce with England and France, and was not so broad in its construction as the Embargo Act, yet it retained the essence of it, so far as the measure related to England. Enemies in War, in Peace Friends. (See Sayings of Famous Americans.) England a Den of Pirates, France a Den of Thieves. (See Sayings of Famous Americans.) Entangling Alliances. (See Sayings of Famous Ameri- cans.) Equal Rights Party. (See Political Parties.) Era of Good Feeling. Used to mark the period from 1817 to 1823, when party feeling was at a low ebb. The Federals were inactive, many of them openly sympathizing with the ad- ministration. So apathetic were the Federals that Monroe, in the election of 1821, received all the electoral votes but one. Executive Department. (See Federal Government.) Executive Session. (See Federal Government.) Expenses Of the White House. (See Presidents of the United States.) Exports and Imports. The extraordinary transportation facilities of this country, more than any other one thing, have built up the export trade. The wheat and corn and wheat flour, 108 EXPORTS AND IMPORTS. the beef and hog products of the great Northwest and West reach the exporting point by way of the Great Lakes, the Erie Canal, and the Hudson River, which form a continuous water-way from the producing centre to the metropolis. A large part of the cotton and tobacco of the South is exported by way of the Southern ports, but for all other staples, New York is the place of export. The Chief Exports, and the value thereof, including gold and silver, for the year ending June 30, 1891, were: 50,768,213 55,131,948 11,344,304 924,312 1,474.727 38,562 2,907,358,795 135,207 8,736,080 1,816,057 633,344,851 3,072,022 91,415,095 618,404,454 66,366,003 507,229,428 1,179,565,831 82,217,778 20,773,884 1,904,072 12,243,021 4,495,475 108,228,620 249,232,605 32,93T.,(>M; 1,820,470 17,652,C87 51,420,272 54,705,616 4,343,081 4,901,120 6,545,354 1,580,164 3,796,495 4,594,531 7,260,893 4,614,597 290,712,898 13,604,857 1,136,107 4,996,621 1,504,740 476,897 1,957,896 3,236,705 2,327,474 1,575,444 28,909,614 13,278,847 1,326,389 3,523,473 7,452,094 1,281,783 5,876,452 46,150,282 4,302,936 1,299,169 3,714,649 5,088,315 84,908,698 8,114,154 1,042,524 9,863,780 1,575,039 925,860 1,887,431 4,668,140 768,306 6,138,746 21,033,759 4,186,713 1,335,975 26,263,014 26,435,006 Books, Maps, Engravings, and other Printed Matter bush, bush, .bbls. Wheat Wheat Flour All other .ton? ..tons . tons ..Ibs. Fish .bbls . Iba. Instruments for Scientific purposes .bbls. Oil Cake, Oil Cake Meal ..Ibs. galls, galls, galls. Oils, Vegetable Paraftine, Paraffine Wax ..Ibs. Provisions, Beef Products ..Ibs. , Hog Products ..Ibs ,, Oleomargarine ..Ibs. , Other Meat Products Seeds : Clover ..ibs. Spirits proof sail?, galls, galls. ..Ibs. ,, Turpentine Sugar, Molasses, Syrup ,, Refined Tobacco, Unmanufactured ..Ibs ,, Manufactures of Vegetables Wood, and Manufactures of All Other Articles * Total Exports, Domestic Merchandise $872,270,283 Specie : Gold $84,939,551 98,973.265 Silver Total Domestic Exports . . . SI 0-ifi 18.T(Wa The total exports of agricultural, mining, forest products, and manufactures, were as follows: Agriculture, $642,800,703; EXPORTS AVT> IMPORTS. 109 mining, $22,058,664; forest, $28,715,713; manufactures, $168,- 781,255. The exports of Domestic Merchandise alone were in 1890, $845,293,828; in 1889,1730,282,609; in 1888,1683,862,104; in 1887, $703,022,923. In 1875, the aggregate was $499,284,100. Great Britain and Ireland took in 1891, $441,599,807 of our ex- ports; Germany, $91,684,981 ; France, $59,826,739. The other foreign countries took our merchandise as follows: Argentine Republic $2,718,075 Australasia, British 12,891,679 Belgium 26,694,150 Brazil 14,049,273 British East Indies 4,399,544 British West Indies 9,546,058 Canada, Dominion of 36,052,613 Central American States 6,579,916 Chile 3,133,991 China 8,700,308 Colombia 3,108,989 Cuba ll,!i29,G05 Denmark 3,306,357 Hawaiian Islands 4,935,911 Haiti ...: $5,589,178 Hong Kong 4,743,498 Italy 15,927,274 Japan 4,800,650 Mexico 14,199,080 Netherlands 23,816,814 Peru 1,396,207 Portugal 4,986,909 Russia and Possessions 7,925,092 Spain 14,607,893 Sweden and Norway 4,939,572 Uruguay 1,032,937 Venezuela 4,716,047 Now that the restrictions against American Hogs in Ger- many and France have been removed, the export business in hog products will be increased largely. The export trade with South American countries is increasing in volume, thanks to favorable reciprocity treaties recently negotiated. (See Reciprocity.) The Import Trade of the United States for the year ending June 30, 1891, including merchandise and Specie imported, aggre- gated $899,408,210. The imports and the value thereof were as follows : Animals Art Works Books, Maps, etc Bristles .................................................. IDS. Breadstuff's ........................ Chemicals, Drugs, Dyes, and Medicines Chicks and Watches Coal, Bituminous ...................................... tons Coffee ... ................................................ Ibs. Cotton, Manufactures of Earthenware and China Fancy Articles ......... Fi h Flax, Hemp, Jute, etc., and Manufactures of ............... Fruits and Nuts .............................................. Furs and Manufactures of ................................... (ilass and Glu-sware ____ ..................................... Hats and Bo incts ............................................ Hides and Skins ........................................... Hops .................................................... Ibs. India Rubber and Manufactures of ........................ Iron and Steel and Manufactures of ....................... Jewelry, and Manufactures of Gold and Silver ............. Lead and Manufactures of .................................. Leather and Manufactures of ............................... Liquors, Spirituous and Malt ..................... .......... Molasses ............................................... galte. Musical Instruments ......................................... Paints and Colors ............................................ Paper and Manufactures .................................... 1,404,8:<2 1,055,009 519,528,432 4,019,603 20,604,463 4,945,365 2,410,36& 4,227,403 1,357,938 4,484,445 47,317,031 2,2S4,SM)6 3,588,273 96,123,777 29,712,024 8,381,388 7,326,473 5,044.628 30,005,100 25,983,136 8,364,312 2,222,600 27,930,759 1,797,406 18,375,449 55,974,531 1,363,892 2,560,886 12,683,303 3,975,438 2,659,172 1,444,755 1,439,127 3,031,454 110 FEDERAL GOVERNMENT. $5,018,248 Precious Stones, and Imitations of, not set, including 13,271,002 Salt ' . . . Ibs. 511,586,163 928,88!) 3,266,230 37,880,143 19,077,3Ct; Siilrar . Iks- 3,483,477,222 105,728,21(i Tea Ibs. 83,453,339 13,8'_'8,'.1!I3 Tin Ibs. 3'J,787,622 7,977,545 16,763,141 10,007, OW > 19,888,186 59,291,4.72 105,145,273 Total Merchandise 844,916,196 $18,232,567 , Silver 36,259,447 Total Tmnorts... S899.408.210 The imports of domestic merchandise alone were in 1890 $789,310,409; in 1889, $745,131,65-2 ; in 1888, $723,957,114 ; in 1887, $692,319,768 ; in 1875, the aggregate was $533,005,436. Exterritoriality. This is a privilege accorded to diplomatic agents under the law of nations, by which they are allowed to live under the laws of their own country while accredited to a foreign nation. Their persons, families, estates, and servants are inviolable except in an extreme case, such as a heinous crime. In the case of ordinary crimes, the expectation is that the home government will at once recall the offender, and punish him. F. F. V.'s. An abbreviation of "First Families of Virginia," used as referring to the Southern aristocrats, and sometimes, improperly, to those of the North. Farm Animals in the United States. (See Agriculture.) Farmers' Alliance. (See Political Parties.) Farmer's Dick. (See Nicknames of Famous Americans.) Father Abraham. (See Presidents of the United States.) Father of His Country. (See Presidents of the United States.) Father of the Constitution. (See Presidents of the United States.) Federal Government, The, Its Officers and Departments. The President, The Cabinet, State Department, Treasury Department, War Department, Justice, Post-Office Department, Circuit Courts, etc. Navy Department. Presidential Succession. Senate. House of Representatives. Speaker. Judiciary. Supreme Court, FEDERAL GOVERNMENT. Ill By the Constitution, the administration of government in the United States is vested in three departments, the Executive, the Legislative, and the Judicial. Executive, The. The Executive Department is charged with the execution of the laws, and the President is at its head. The President must be a natural born citizen, or a citizen at the adoption of the Constitution. He must be at least thirty-five years of age, and fourteen years a resident of the country. He is Commander-in-Chief of the army and navy, and of the' militia when in actual service ; he has power of reprieve and of pardon for offences against the United -States ; to niake treaties, to appoint ambassadors, ministers, consuls, etc., and judges of the Supreme Court, and all other United States officers, but always with the consent and approval of the Senate. He must give to Congress from time to time information of the state of the Union, and recommend such measures as he deems best ; he may convene both Houses on extraordinary occasions, and may adjourn them at such times. He must see that the laws are faithfully executed. His appointments are subject to Senate approval by a majority vote ; his treaty-making by a majority vote. The salary of the President is now $50,000 a year. In the event of the President's Inability, by death or other- wise, to perform his duties, the office devolves upon the Vice- President. In case of inability on the part of both President and Vice-President, by Act of Congress of January 19, 1886, the Executive office falls to the Cabinet officers in the following order, provided the officer on whom it devolves has been con- firmed by the Senate, and is by birth and otherwise qualified to hold the office : The Secretaries of State, of the Treasury, of War, the Attorney-General, the Postmaster-General, the Secre- taries of the Navy, of the Interior.. The officer thus selected serves out the unexpired term. The President, Vice-President, and the Cabinet are as follows : Benjamin Harrison, of Indiana, President; salary, 50,000. Levi P. Morton, of New York, Vice-President; sal- ary, $8,000. The Cabinet. - James G. Elaine, of Maine, Secretary of State; Charles Foster, of Ohio, Secretary of the Treasury; Stephen B. Elkins, of West Virginia, Secretary of War ; John Wftnamaker, of Pennsylvania, Postmaster- General ; William H. H. Miller, of Indiana, Attorney- General ; Benjamin F. Tracy, of New York, Secretary of the Navy ; John W. Noble, of Missouri, Secretary of the Interior; Jeremiah M. Rusk, of Wisconsin, Secretary of Agriculture ; salary, $8,000 each. 112 FEDERAL GOVERNMENT. State Department. This department was created by Act of Congress July 27, 1789. Its principal officer is the Secretary of State, who is a Cabinet officer. His business has to do with the correspondence, commissions or instructions to or with public ministers and consuls of the United States, or to negotiations with public ministers from foreign states, or princes, or to memo- rials, or other applications from foreign public ministers or other foreigners, to such other matters respecting foreign affairs as the President should assign to the department, the business thereof to be conducted in such manner as the President should from time to time order ; the receipt and publication of the laws passed by Congress, and to affix the seal of the United States to civil communications. He is the custodian of the Seal of the United States. He is the custodian of the treaties made with foreign states and of the laws of the United States ; grants and issues passports ; publishes the laws and resolutions of Congress, amend- ments to the Constitution, and proclamations declaring the admis- sion of new States into the Union. The Subordinate Depart- ments under his supervision are the Diplomatic Bureau, the Consular Bureau, the Indexes and Archives, and the Bureau of Ac- counts. There are three Assistant S e c r e t a r ies of State, as follows : Assistant Secre- t a r y , W. F. Wharton, Massa- chusetts, $4,500 ; Second Assistant Secretary, A. A. Adee, District of Columbia, $3,500; Third Assistant Secretary, William M. Grinnell, New York, $3,500. Treasury De- partment. (See Coinage, National Banks, Tariffs, Government Finances, etc.) This was one of the three original executive departments of the gov- ernment, having been established on September 2, 1789. Its head is the Secretary of the Treasury, who is a member of the Cabinet. FEDERAL GOVERNMENT 114 FEDERAL GOVERNMENT. This official has charge of the fiscal system of the government, of the national banks, of the currency and coinage, of customs and internal revenues, of the light-house and life-saving systems, of the merchant marine, the coast and inland surveys, the marine hospitals, and the inspection of steam vessels. The principal officers of the department are as follows : Assistant Secretary, A. B. Nettleton, $4,500 ; Assistant /Sec- retary, Oliver L. Spaulding, $4,500 ; Assistant /Secretary, L. Crounse, Nebraska, $4,500; Director of Mint, Edward O. Leech, District of Columbia, $4,500 ; /Superintendent of Life- Savin;/ Service, S. I. Kimball, $4,000 ; Chairman of Lighthouse Hoard, Commissioner J. A. Greer, $5,000 ; /Supervisor Surgeon- General, Walter Wyman, Missouri, $4,000 ; Chairman of Bureau of Engraving, M. "W. Meredith, Illinois, $4,500 ; Supervising Ar- chitect, W. J. Edbrooke, $4,500 ; Superintendent of United States Coast Survey, T. C. Mendenhall, $6,000 ; Commissioner of Navigation, William W. Bates, $3,600 ; First Comptroller, A. C. Matthews, Illinois, $5,000 ; Second Comptroller, B. F. Gilke- son, Pennsylvania, $5,000 ; Comptroller of Customs, Samuel V. Holliday, Pennsylvania, $4,000 ; First Auditor, Geo. P. Fisher, Delaware, $3,600 ; Second Auditor, J. N. Patterson, New Hampshire, $3,600 ; Third Auditor, W. H. Hart, Indiana, $8,600 ; Fourth Auditor, John R. Lynch, Mississippi, $3,600 ; Fifth Auditor, L. W. Habercomb, District of Columbia, $3,600 ; Sixth Auditor, Thos. B. Coulter, Ohio, $3,600 ; Treasurer of United States, E. H. Nebeker, Indiana, $6,000 ; Assistant Treas- urer, J. W. Whelpley, New York, $3,600 ; Register of Treasury, W. S. Roseorans, California, $4,000 ; Comptroller of Currency, Ed. S. Lacey, Michigan, $5,000 ; Commissioner of Internal Revenue, John W. Mason, $6,000 ; Solicitor of Internal Revenue, Alphonso Hart, $4,500 ; Solicitor of Treasury, W. P. Hepburn, Iowa, $4,500 ; Chief of Secret Service, A. L. Drummond, $3,500. War Department. (See Army, The United States.) This department was created by Act of Congress, August 7, 1789. The principal officer is the Secretary of War, who is a Cabinet officer. To him are intrusted all affairs relating to the military commissions ; the land forces of the United States ; the stores for the maintenance of the army both in peace and war. He is required to provide for the maintenance and course of study at the West Point Military Academy; to supervise the National Cemeteries, etc. The offices and administration of the Adjutant- General, the Inspector-General, the Quartermaster-General, the Commissary-General, the Paymaster-General, the Surgeon-Gen- eral, the Chief of Engineers of the Army, the Chief of Ordnance, FEDERAL GOVERNMENT. 115 the Bureau of Military Justice, are under his supervision. The principal officers and their departments are as follows : Assistant /Secretary, Lewis A. Grant, Minnesota, $4,500 ; Ad- jutant- General, John C. Kelton, Pennsylvania ; Inspector- General, Joseph C. Breckin ridge, Kentucky; Quartermaster- General, Richard N. Batchelder, New Hampshire ; Commissary- General, Beekman Du Barry, New Jersey ; Surgeon- General, Charles Sutherland, Pennsylvania ; Paymaster- General, William Smith, Vermont; Chief of Engineers, Thomas L. Casey, Rhode Island; Chief of Ordnance, Daniel W. Flagler, Pennsylvania; Acting Judge- Advocate- General, Guido N. Lieber, New York ; Chief Signal Officer, Adolphus W. Greely, Louisiana ; Architect of the Capitol, Edward Clark, Pennsylvania, $4,500 ; Superintendent of Census, Robert P. Porter, New York, $6,000. Justice. This department was established by Act of Con- gress, June 22, 1820. Its principal officer is the Attorney- General, who is a Cabinet officer. He is required to give advice and opinions upon questions of law, when required by the Presi- dent, and also when required by the head of any executive department as to the questions of law arising upon the adminis- tration of his department ; to conduct and argue suits and writs of error and appeals in the Supreme Court, and suits in the Court of Claims in which the United States Government is interested, and also in any of the United States Courts when deemed necessary. His subordinate officers are as follows : Solicitor- General, William Howard Taft, Ohio, $7,000 ; Assistant Attorneys- General, John B. Cotton, Maine, William A. Maury, District of Columbia, $5,000 each. Post-Office Department. This department of the govern- ment was established on May 8, 1794. (See Post-Office System, The.) It is in charge of the Postmaster- General, who is a Cabinet officer. He superintends the transmission of the mails; the manufacture of postage stamps and postal cards ; the appoint- ment of postmasters whose salaries are $1,000 and under; the establishment of post-offices ; the issue of money orders and postal notes, etc. The subordinate officers are as follows : First Assistant Postmaster- General, Smith A. Whitfield, Ohio, $4,000 ; Second Assistant Postmaster- General, J. Lowrie Bell, Pennsylvania, $4,000 ; Third Assistant Postmaster- General, Abraham D. Hazen, Pennsylvania, $4,000 ; Fourth Assistant Postmaster- General, E. G. Rathbone, Ohio, $4,000 ; Assistant Attorney- General, James N. Tyner, Indiana, $4,000 ; Superin- tendent of Foreign Mails, N. M. Brooks, Virginia, $3,000 ; Superintendent of Money Order System, Charles F. Macdonald, Massachusetts, $3,500 ; General Superintendent of Hallway Mail 116 FEDERAL GOVERNMENT. Service, James E. White, Illinois, $3,500 ; Superintendent of Dead Letter Office, David P. Leibhardt, Indiana, $2,250 ; Chief Post- Office Inspector, M. D. Wheeler, New York, $3,000. Navy Department. (See Navy, The United States.) Until April, 1798, the duties of this department were fulfilled by the War Department. Its principal officer is the Secretary of the Navy, who is a Cabinet officer. He has charge of the equip- ment and construction of naval vessels; their manning and arma- ment, both in times of peace and war ; of the contracts for naval stores and supplies ; of the navy yards and docks; of the ordnance department; of the construction and repairs department; of the observance of the navigation laws, and of the disbursement of the appropriations for rivers and harbors. The subordinate offi- cers are as follows : Assistant Secretary, ' James Russell Soley, Massachusetts, $4,500 ; Bureau of Yards and Docks, Norman H. Farquhar, Pennsylvania, $5,000 ; Bureau of Navigation, Francis M. Ram- say, District of Columbia, $5,000 ; Bureau of Ordnance, William M. Folger, Ohio, $5,000 ; Bureau of Provisions and Clothing, Edwin Stewart, New York, $5,000 ; Bureau of Medicine and Surgery, J. Mills Browne, New Hampshire, $5,000 5 Bureau of Construction and Repair, Theodore D. Wilson, New York, $5,000 ; Bureau of Equipment and Recruiting, George Dewey, Vermont, $5,000 ; Bureau of Steam Engineering, George W. Melville, New York, $5,000 ; Judge- Advocate- General, Win. B. Remey, United States Marine Corps, Iowa ? $4,000 ; President Naval Retiring Board, Com. U. P. McCann, $5,000. Interior. (See Public Lands, Pension Office, Patent Office, etc.) This department was created by Act of Congress, March 3, 1849. Its principal officer is the Secretary of the Interior, who is a Cabinet officer. To him is intrusted the supervision of public business relating to the public lands, including mines, the Indians, pension and bounty lands, patents for inventions, custody and distri- bution of public documents, educa- tion, railroads, the public surveys, the census, when di- rected by law, Gov- ernment Hospital for the Insane, Co- lumbia Asylum for .1 T\ 3 INTERIOR DEPARTMENT. PATENT OFFICE. the Deal and Dumb, and certain powers and duties in relation to the Territories FEDERAL GOVERNMENT. 117 of the United States ; exclusive control of Yellowstone Park. The General Land Office, the Patent Office, the Pension Office, the Census Office, the Bureau of Education, Office of Commis- sioner of Railroads, the Geological Survey, the Auditor of Rail- road Accounts, the Inter-State Commerce Commission, the Bureau of Labor, the Architect of the Capitol, and the officers of the District of Columbia are under his charge. The principal subordinate officers are : First Assistant Secretary, George Chandler, Kansas, $4,500 ; Assistant Secretary, Cyrus Bussey, New York, $4,000 ; Com- missioner of Land Office, T. H. Carter, Montana, $4,000 ; Com- missioner of Pensions, Green B. Raum, Illinois, $5,000 ; Com- missioner of Indian Affairs, T. J. Morgan, Rhode Island, $4,000 ; Commissioner of Patents, William E. Simonds, Connecticut, $5,000 ; Commissioner of Education^ . T. Harris, Massachusetts, $3,000 ; Commissioner of Railroads, H. A. Taylor, Wisconsin, $4,500 ; Commissioner of Labor, C. D. Wright, Massachusetts, $5,000 ; Superintendent of Census, Robert P. Porter, New York, $6,000 ; Director of Geological Survey, John W. Powell, Illinois, $6,000. Agriculture. (See Signal Service.) This Department was established by Act of Congress, February 11, 1889. Its princi- pal officer is the Secretary of Agriculture. His duties include the collection and diffusion of useful information on subjects connected with agriculture by books and correspondence, or by practical and scientific experiments, the collection of statistics, new and valuable seeds and plants, the cultivation and propa- gation of the same, and their distribution among agriculturists. The subordinate offices and bureaus are the Statistician, the Bot- anist, the Chemist, the Microscopist, the Propagating and Seed Division, the Bureau of Animal Industry, the Forestry and Orni- thological Division, and the Office of Experiment. These officers are as follows . Assistant Secretary, Edwin Willets, Michigan, $4,500 ; Chief of Weather Bureau, M. W. Harrington, Michigan ; Statistician, J. R. Dodge, Ohio, $2,500 ; Chief of Forestry, B. E. Fernow, New York, $2,000 ; Entomolo- gist, C. V. Riley, Missouri, $2,500 ; Chemist, Harvey W. Wiley, Indiana, $2,500 ; Ornithologist, C. H. Merriam, New York, $2,- 500 ; Botanist, George Vasey, Illinois, $2,500 ; Pomologist, H. E. Van Deman, Kansas, $2,500 ; Microscopist, Thomas Taylor, Massa- chusetts, $2,500. In July, 1891, the Signal Service was trans- ferred from the War Department to the Department of Agriculture. Legislative, The. By the Constitution the legislative power shall be vested in a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House of Representatives. The Senate IIP FEDERAL GOVERNMENT. consists of two members from each State, irrespective of the population. They are elected for six years, and the salary is $5,000 a year, with mileage, and $125 for stationery and news- papers. The candidate must be at least thirty years of age, nine years a citizen, and an inhabitant of the State he desires to rep- resent. The Senate confirms the appointments by the President, ratifies all treaties, tries all impeachments, and passes or rejects such legislation as may come up from the lower House. The Vice-President is the Presiding Officer. The Senate does not resolve itself into a committee of the whole, as does the House, but the practice is to move that a subject be considered " as in a committee of the whole." The Senate frequently sits in Execu- tive Session, that is, in secret session, when the confirma- tion of the President's nominations, or the ratification of treaties is discussed. It often happens that full reports of the proceed- ings of the Senate in executive session are published in the news- papers. The punishment for revealing the proceedings is expulsion, but the rule is practically a dead letter. It is commonly understood that the newspaper correspondents receive their re- ports of the debates from those members of the Senate who are opposed to secret sessions. The lower house of Congress is the House of Representatives, which consists of Representatives or Congressmen from all the States, their number being depen- dent upon the population. The Constitution provides that the number of Congressmen shall not exceed one to each thirty thousand inhabitants, but that each State shall have at least one Congressman. In the Fifty-First Congress, an act was passed for the re-apportionment of the Congressional districts, by which the House of Representatives, after March 3, 1893, will consist of three hundred and fifty-six members. The act also provided for a redistricting of the States, so that the several districts may be composed of contiguous territory, and contain as nearly as possible an equal number of inhabitants. Members of tb>e House are elected for two years; the salary is $5,000 a year, besides mileage at the rate of twenty cents a mile, and $125 a year for stationery and newspapers. A member must be at least twenty-five years of age, and seven years a citizen ; he must, moreover, at the time of his election be an inhabitant of the State from which he is chosen. The House of Representatives chooses its Speaker and other officers. The power of the Speaker is enormous. He appoints all committees, and the method of the House in transacting its business renders it more or less sub- servient to him. In the Fifty-First Congress, the Speaker, Thomas B. Reed, of Maine, instituted a method of conducting the business which was beyond all precedent, and which precipitated ' FEDERAL GOVERNMENT. 119 a bitter strife between him and the Democratic minority. Previously a quorum had been recognized as consisting of a majority of the members. Members of a minority faction who desired to obstruct legislation witli which they did not sympathize could do so by not answering to their names when the vote was taken. The Speaker, professedly in order to facilitate the public business, ruled that the actual presence of a member required that he should vote, and he ordered the votes of all members who were present, but who declined to vote, to be counted in the affirmative. The ruling was pronounced by the minority to be revolutionary, and Reed was called a " usurper," a " Czar," etc., x and during this Congress he was familiarly spoken of as " Czar " Reed. A distinctive Feature of the House is that all bills for the raising of revenue must originate with it ; but the Senate may pro- pose or concur with amendments as on other bills. The Senate and the House concurrently have power to lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts, and excises ; to pay the debts and provide for the common defence and general welfare of the country ; to borrow money on the nation's credit; to regulate commerce among the States and with other nations ; to coin money and fix the standard of weights and measures ; to declare war ; to provide and main- tain an army and a navy; to make laws affecting naturalization and bankruptcy ; to establish post-offices ; to encourage science and the arts by favorable laws; to define and punish piracies and felonies on the high seas ; to constitute tribunals inferior to the Su- preme Court, and to provide for various other legislation. Every public bill and all measures relating to religion, trade, revenue, ojc the grant of public money, must be considered in Committee of the Whole before being considered by the House. This prac- tice is resorted to in order to insure freedom of debate in im- portant measures. Judiciary, The. By the Constitution, the judicial power of the United States shall be vested in one Supreme Court, and in such inferior courts as may be designated by Congress. There are now eighteen Circuit Courts and seventy-five District Courts, be- sides the Court of Claims. The Supreme Court judges, nine in number, are appointed for life. The Judicial Power extends to all cases, in law and equity, arising under the Constitution, the laws of the United States, and treaties made, or which shall be made under their authority ; to all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls ; to all cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction ; to controversies to which the United States shall be a party ; to controversies between two or more States ; between a State and citizens of another State ; between citizens 120 FEDERAL GOVERNMENT. of different States ; between citizens of the same State claiming lands under grants of different States, and between a State, or the citizens thereof, and foreign states, citizens, or subjects. In all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls, and those in which a State is a party, the Supreme Court has original jurisdiction. In all the other cases before mentioned, the Supreme Court has appellate jurisdiction, both as to law and fact, with such exceptions and under such regulations as Congress may make. The Trial of All Crimes, except in cases of im- peachment, is by jury ; and such trial must be held in the State where the said crimes have been committed ; but when not com- mitted within any State, the trial is at such place or places as the Congress may by law have directed. The limits of the jurisdictions of the Circuit and District Courts, and the appellate jurisdiction of the latter over the former, are provided by law. The Circuit Court has jurisdiction of patent suits, and the District Court of admiralty cases. The Court of Claims has jurisdiction of claims against the United States. The Justices of the Supreme Court, besides sitting in that Court, are each assigned to one of the circuits, being then known as Circuit Justices. There is also a separate Circuit Judge for each circuit, and a District Judge for each district. Circuit Courts may be held by the Circuit Justice, by the Circuit Judge, or by the District Judge sitting alone, or by any two of these sitting to- gether. The Supreme Court is made up as follows : Chief Jus- tice^ Melville W. Fuller, Illinois, appointed in 1888; Associate Justices : Stephen J. Field, California (1863), * Joseph P. Bradley, New Jersey (1870) ; John M. Harlan, Kentucky (1877) ; Horace Gray, Massachusetts (1881) ; Samuel Blatchford, New York (1882); Lucius Q. C. Lamar, Mississippi (1888); David J. Brewer, Kansas (1889) ; Henry B. Brown, Michigan (1891). -Retired Justice, William Strong, Pennsylvania, $10,000 a year. Salary of the Chief- Justice, $10,500 ; of each Justice, $10,000. The Circuit Judges are : Le Baron B. Colt, Rhode Island ; William J. Wallace, New York ; E. Henry Lacombe, Ne"w York ; Marcus W. Acheson, Pennsylvania ; Hugh L. Bond, Maryland ; Don A. Pardee, Louisiana ; Howell E. Jackson, Tennessee ; Walter Q. Gresham, Indiana ; Henry C. Caldwell, Arkansas. Salary, $6,000. What is known as the Supreme Court Relief Bill (which see), provided for the appointment by the President in each circuit of one new judge, each one of whom, with the present judge of the circuit to which the new judge is ap- pointed and a justice of the Supreme Court, will constitute a Circuit Court of Appeals for certain cases. The ap- * Died Jan. 22, 1892. FINANCES OF THE GOVKRNMENT. 121 pointments were : First Circuit, William L. Putnam, Maine ; Second, Nathaniel Shipman, Connecticut ; Third, George M. Dallas, Pennsylvania ; Fourth, Nathan Goff, Jr., West Virginia ; Sixth, William H. Taft, Ohio; Seventh, William A. Woods, Indiana. The salaries are $6,000 each. The United States Court of Claims consists of Chief Justice, William A. Richardson, Massachusetts ; Associate Judges, Chas. C. Nott, New York; Lawrence Weldon, Illinois; John Davis, District of Columbia. Salary $4,500. Federal Party. (See Political Parties.) Fiat Money. (See Coinage, Free Coinage, etc.) Fifty-Four-Forty-or-Figllt. The campaign cry in 1844, when the location of the Northwestern boundary was in dispute. By a treaty with Russia, the boundary, it was claimed, should extend to 54 40'; but a compromise resulted in the extension of the boundary on the 49th parallel to Puget Sound. The phrase was sometimes written Phiphty-phour-phorty-or-phight. Fighting Joe. (See Nicknames of Famous Americans.) Filibusters. The word is of Spanish origin, and in that language meant " pirates. " Popularly, filibustering is the obstruction of legislative action by the minority. Originally the filibusters were adventui-ous spirits who organized expeditions in this country for conquest of West Indian and Central American peoples. Several of these expeditions were started but none accomplished anything. Finances, Government. National Debt. Surplus. Government Bonds. Money in Circulation. Receipts and Expenses. The financier of the United States Government is the Secretary of the Treasury. (See Federal Government.) This official is chosen from among the most expert financiers in the country, and it is a tribute to the public honor that although the Treasury Department since its establishment has disbursed over 7,000,000,000, there has been no defalcation of any consequence. The finances of the Treasury have to do with the manipulation of the national debt, the care of the surplus, and of the receipts and expenditures, besides the coinage of moneys. The national debt derived its existence from the War of the Revolution, at the end of which the debt was $75,463,470.52. Alexander Hamilton then made his famous report on the payment .of the national debt, recommending, first, that the foreign debt should be paid in full ; second, that the domestic debt should be paid at par ; third, that 122 FINANCES Off THE GOVERNMENT. the State debts acquired by reason of the war should be paid by the Federal government. This report precipitated a bitter contest between the Federals and the Anti-Federals, but by supe- rior political management, Hamilton secured the adoption by Congress of his report. The Debt of the Government from time to time consists chiefly of bonds and gold or silver cer- tificates redeemable in coin. The bonded' debt has paid interest varying from eight per cent, in 1799 to 1811, six per cent, in 1811 to 1823, five per cent, in 1823 to 1835, six per cent, in 1835 to 1855, five per cent, in 1855 to 1876, four per cent, in 1876 to 1888 and since then it has been as low as three and one half, three, and two and one half per cent. Whenever the Surplus is large enough to warrant the Secretary of the Treasury in pur- chasing bonds, thereby to reduce the debt, he is empowered to do so. Between 1852 and 1857, over $50,000,000 of the debt was purchased in this way in the open market, the bonds bein<.-; worth at the time about $125, so that a premium aggregating upwards of $8,000,000 was paid. Owing to the enormous expenses of the government in the War of the Rebellion, the national debt in 1866 ran up to $2,773,236,173, the highest point in its history. However, the immense internal revenue of the government at that time, amounting in 1866 to $309,226,813.42 (more than twice as large as that in 1891), aided in paying off the debt ; a large amount of bonds, at six per cent., maturing in fifteen years, were also issued. Since then, the surplus has been large enough to permit of a gradual reduction year by year of the war debt, so that it was wiped out long ago. The following table shows the amount of the National Debt in each year since 1865. 18C5 $2,680,647,869.74 1866 2,773,236,173.69 1867 2,678,126,103.87 1868 2,611,687,851.19 1869 2,588,452,213.94 1870 2,480,672,427.81 1871 2,353,211,332.32 1872 2,253,251,328.78 1873 2,234,482,993.20 1874 $2,251,690,408.43 1875 2,232,284,531.95 1876 2,180,395,067.15 1877 2,205,301,392.10 1878 2,256,205,892.C3 1879 2,349,567,232 04 1880 2,128,791,054.03 1881 2,077,389,253.58 1882 1,920,088,678.03 18R3 1,892,547,412.07 1884 1,838,904,607.57 1885 1,872,340,557.14 iSSti 1,783,438,697.78 18S7 1,004,401,536.38 1888 1,080,917,700.23 1SS9 1,617,372,419.53 1890 1,549,2!)0,12C.48 1891 1,540,961,095.01 Government Bonds sometimes are issued subject to the redemption by the government at its pleasure. But generally bonds are not redeemable until a certain time fixed for their maturity. They arc sold in large amount to banking institutions, while thousands of private individuals are more content in hold- ing government securities than any others. It sometimes happens that the government does not find itself able to redeem bonds at their maturity. In case Congress fails to provide for this emer- gency, the Secretary is forced to make the best possible terms FINANCES OF THE GOVERNMENT. 123 WASHINGTON SCENES IN 1861. 1. Pennsylvania Avenue, looking toward the Capitol. 2. War Department. 3. Navy Department. 124 FINANCES OF THE GOVKR.VttEXT. with the bondholders. This Secretary Windom had to do in 1881, when over $650,000,000 in five and six per cents matured. There not being money enough at his command to meet this enormous obligation, the Secretary offered to extend the bonds of such as might desire it, at three and one half per cent., redeem- able at the pleasure of the government. This he did in a general circular to the bondholders. Over $460,000,000 of these bonds w fix- thus redeemed. In 1891, Secretary Foster was forced to make ,1 somewhat similar offer to holders of government bonds, which was accepted. The outstanding Interest Bearing Debt on Dec. 1, 1891, was as follows : Funded loan of 1891, $25,364,500 ; funded loan of 1907, $559,573,650 ; refunding certificates, $88,- 720 ; total, $585,026,870. These, together with a non-interest bearing debt of $387,433,346.35, the debt on which interest has ceased since maturity, $5,279,770.26, and the outstanding Treasury notes secured by cash in the Treasury, $569,221,709, made an aggregate debt of $1,546,961,695.61. The cash was $139,126,- 917.96. The debt per capita of population in 1867 was $69.26; in 1880, it was $38.27 ; in 1891, it was $12.30. The Surplus nowadays averages over $125,000,000. In Cleveland's administration, an Act of Congress was passed giving the Secretary of the Treasury permanent authority to purchase bonds whenever the surplus is large enough to warrant it. The withdrawal of so considerable an amount of money from the channels of business would be a severe hardship were it not that under the national banking laws government funds may be depos- ited in national banks, and thus be utilized in trade, if secured by deposits in the United States Treasury of government bonds. The amount of such government moneys in national banks was in September, 1886, $52,199,000; in July, 1891, it \vas $107,- 056,532. Money in Circulation. The money of the United States, in the Treasmy, and in circulation, was, on July 1, 1860, $435,407- 252, circulation per capita (31,443,321 population) $13.85. In 1870, the amount in circulation was $675,212,794, circulation per capita (population 39,555,000), $18.10 ; in 1891, the amount in circulation was $1,500,067,555, circulation per capita (population 63,975,000), $23.45. The interest per capita on the interest- bearing debt was forty-four cents. The Receipts of the United States Government in the fiscal year 1891 were $392,612,447, of which $219,522,205 was from customs ; $145,686,249 from internal revenue ; $4,029- 535 from sales of public lands, and $23,374,457 from other sources. The Expenses of the United States Government for FIRST THINGS. 125 the fiscal year 1891, were 1365,733,905, of which $10,401,221 was for premiums on loans and purchases of bonds ; $48,720,065 for the War Department ; $26,113,896 for the Navy Department; $8,527,469 for Indians' maintenance ; $124,415,951 for pensions; for interest on public debt, $37,547,135. Excess of receipts over expenditures, $26,638,542. Fire Alarm Foraker. (See Nicknames of Famous Ameri- cans.) Fire Eater. (See Slang of Politics.) Fire Losses, Causes of Fires, etc. (See Great Fires.) Fires, Forest. (See Forestry.) Fires, Great. (See Great Fires.) First Gentleman of the Land. (See Presidents of the United States.) First in War, First in Peace, First in the Hearts of His Countrymen. (See Sayings of Famous Americans.) First Things in America. The following is a catalogue of the first use, make, existence, etc., of various articles, or insti- tutions, or products, etc., in the United States : Sleeping-car used upon the Cumberland Valley Railroad of Pennsylvania from 1836 to 1848 ; Benjamin Franklin used lightning rods, 1752 ; insurance office in Boston, 1724 ; American library, founded at Harvard College, Cambridge, 1638 ; cotton raised in Virginia, in 1621 ; Atlantic cable operated, 1858 ; steamer crossed the Atlantic, 1819 ; sugai'-cane cultivated near New Orleans, 1751; sugar-mill, 1758; telegraph in operation between Wash- ington and Baltimore, May 27, 1844 ; college [Harvard] estab- lished in 1638 ; introduction of homoeopathy, 1825 ; permanent English settlement, at Jamestown, Va., 1607 ; newspaper at Boston, 1690 ; National bank established in 1816 ; Pennsylvania estab- lished a hospital in 1751 ; discovery of gold in California in 1848; illumination with gas at Boston, 1822; theatre at Williamsburg, Va., 1752 ; theological seminary established at Greenville, Pa., Nov. 1, 1805; public schools established in the New England States about 1642; slavery at Jamestown, Va., in 1620 ; postage stamps in the United States in 1847 ; sub- scription library at Philadelphia, 1731 ; life insurance at Phila- delphia, 1812 ; discovery of United States land, April 2, 1512, by De Leon, who discovered Florida ; agricultural exhibition in 1810, at Georgetown, D. C. ; axes and edged tools in 1826, first manu- factured at Hartford, Conn. ; bank established at Philadelphia, Dec. 31, 1781, incorporated by Congress as "the President, Directors, and Company of the Bank of North America " ; savings 126 FLAGS OF THE UNITED STATES. bank, " the Savings Fund Society of Philadelphia," opened Dec. 2, 1816; ["the Bank for Savings" in New York was founded Nov. 25, 1816, but did not go into business until July 3, 1819 ;] book printed in 1640, the Bay Psalms Book at Cambridge, Mass.; spelling book in 1783, the American Spelling Book, by Noah Webster ; geography in 1789, published by Jedediah Morse; book written in America in 1607, "Relation of such occurrences as might have happened in Virginia," etc., composed in 1607, by Capt. John I. True, published in London, 1608 ; child born Aug. 18, 1587, at Roanoke Island, the granddaughter of White, the governor, and baptized on the following Sabbath by the name of Virginia (Dare); first church, erected in 1632, in Boston, Mass.; steamboat on the Hudson in 1807; sawmakers' anvil in America, 1819; percussion arms used in the United States Army in 1830 ; glass factory in the United States in 1780 ; complete sewing-machine patented by Elias Howe, Jr., in 1846; temperance society organized in Saratoga County, N. Y., in March, 1808. For the first manufacture in America of vessels, bricks, saw- mills, glass, tinware, cotton-mill, carding machine, cotton yarn, sew- ing thread, finished cloth, nails, tacks, hats, boots, and shoes, combs, iron works, cannon balls, cordage, wall-paper, ploughs, beer, wine, brandy, linen cloth, woollen cloth, paper, salt, see Manufactures. Flags of the- United States. Stars on the Flag, Presidential Flag, Garrison Flag, Revenue Flag, Union Jack, First American Flag. The star-spangled banner dates from June 14, 1775, when by resolution of Congress the flag of the United States was offi- cially described as containing "thirteen ******** ,. - , j , ,P ,1 ,, i ******* stripes, alternate red and white ; that the ******* Union be thirteen stars, white, in a blue ******* field, representing a new constellation." Two more stripes were added, one each for Vermont and Kentucky, but on April 4, 1818, the number of stripes was fixed at thirteen. It was en- acted that one star should be added for each new State admitted. From 1876, when Colorado was admitted, to 1889, when the new Northwestern States were admitted to the Union, the flag had thirty-eight stars. The admission of these States added four more stars, making forty-two in all. Idaho and Wyoming have since been admitted, making forty-four States, and requiring forty-four stars in the flag. This number has been in the flag since July 4, 1891. The Revised. Statutes provide the addition of a star to FLORIDA. 127 the flag shall take effect on the fourth day of July succeeding the admission of a State. The Garrison Flag of the army is thirty-six by twenty feet, having thirteen red and white stripes equal in breadth. The Union is one third the length of the flag, and extends to the lower edge of the fourth red stripe counting from the top. There are also a storm flag, twenty by ten, and a recruiting flag, nine feet nine inches by four feet four inches. The Revenue Flag originally consisted of sixteen perpendicular stripes, red and white, the Union of the ensign bearing the arms of the United States in dark blue on a white field. The sixteen stripes repre- sented the number of States in the Union at the time, and no change has since been made. In 1871, thirteen blue stars in a white field were substituted for the eagle in the Union of the pennant. The pennant has a Union containing thirteen white stars, on a blue field, one quarter the length, the remaining three fourths having a red and white stripe. By tha " Union Jack " is meant the Union of the American flag. The Presidential Flag, the idea of which originated with President Arthur, consists of a blue ground with the arms of the United States in the centre. It was used for the first time in 1883 by President Arthur. The first strictly American flag was hoisted over the Capitol at Washington, February '24, 1866, all flags previously having been manufactured from English bunting. The flag was twenty-one feet by twelve feet, and was the gift of Gen. Benj. F. Butler. Florida. Florida was the first region in North America colonized by Europeans. It was dis- covered and explored in 1513 by Ponce de Leon, who made a settle- ment at St. Augustine in 1565. In 1861, Florida promptly joined the Secession States and seized such national property as was unprotected. The coast of Florida has hundreds of islands, among them the famous Florida Keys, where grow mangrove, palmetto, pine, sweet-bay, and other trees, and where cocoanuts, hemp, OKEAT SEAL OF FLORIDA. and Dapples are raised in large quantities, with but little cultivation. There have been planted on or near the Keys since 1880, 600,- 000 cocoanut trees, the culture of cocoanuts and pineapples, dates, lemons, etc., here and at other points on the coast being a profit- 128 FLORIDA. able industry. The sponge fishery of Florida employs four hun- dred vessels and sailboats, one thousand fishermen, and yields $1,000,000 worth of sponges every year. Mullet, redsnapper, pompano, kingfish, sheephead, green turtles, Spanish mackerel, and many other kinds of fish are caught in large quantities, and shipped to the North. At Key West are upwards of one hun- dred and twenty-five factories, which make over 125,000,000 cigars yearly. Florida is noted for its Rivers and Lakes. The St. John's River is nearly four hundred miles long ; the Indian River is a salt water lagoon 165 miles long and from one to six miles wide, and is famous for its oranges and pineapples. Other rivers are the St. Mark's, the Apalachicola, the Suwanee, and the Withla- coochee. The Everglades, which is a vast, luxuriant swamp covering 7,500 square miles, abounds in fish, and has many islands with hundreds of acres of cypresses and pines, palmettoes and magno- lias. The lakes of Florida, of which there are twelve hundred, are remarkable for the clearness of their water. The Lumber In- dustry is a most important one, the woods produced in the State finding a ready market. There are over 20,000,000 acres covered with Avoods, among which are pitch-pine in great abundance, pine, oak, sweet-gum, royal palm, bay-laurel, magnolia, cedar, beech, mahogany, satin-wood, iignum-vitse, green ebony, man- grove, cork-tree, and olive in all two hundred species of trees. Live-oak, for shipbuilding, is a large product of the northeast ; and western Florida finds profit in tar, resin, and pitch, and distilling turpentine. Lumbering yields $20,000,000 a year. The Cotton crop is valued at $4,000,000; that of tobacco at nearly $700,000 ; that of oranges at $2,000,000 (2,250,000 boxes). On account of its equable climate Florida has long been a favorite resort for invalids, especially for those suffering from lung and throat troubles, overwork, nervous prostration, and dyspepsia. The population in 1880 was 269,493 ; in 1890, 390,435. The value of assessed property was $77,000,000. There were 3,300,000 acres of farm lands, valued at $20,000,000. In 1890 there were 2,470 miles of railroad, and 122 newspapers. Jacksonville is noted as a winter resort and as a centre of a large fruit-packing business, and some manufacturing. It is situated fifteen miles from the ocean on the St. John's River. The population in 1890 was 17,160. It has an extensive ship- ping trade.i Key West is sixty miles from the mainland. It was settled in 1818 by Connecticut fishermen. It has a fine harbor, well fortified, a naval station, and steamship lines to New York, Galveston, New Orleans, and Havana. It is the ninth port of FORESTKY. 129 entry in the United States. Many of its inhabitants are Spaniards and the buildings have a foreign look. Fensacola is an old Spanish colony, with a population of 11,- 751. It has a large export trade in lumber and fish, and has a harbor of two hundred square miles. The capital is Tallahassee, which is an old-fashioned city, famous for its flowers. Fernan- dina, a seaport, and an exporting centre, and Palatka, ninety-six miles up the St. John's River, are other of the more populous cities. Frank P. Fleming (Democrat) is Governor of Florida. His term expires Jan. 3, 1893. The State is Democratic. Force Bill. The term Democrats in the Fifty- First Congress used with reference to the Elections Bill, which proposed to give the United States Government control over the national elections. The suggestion of " force " arose from the probability that armed government soldiers would be present at the polls in Southern States, to guarantee to the negroes their right to vote. The name " Force Bill " was first applied to a bill passed by Congress to compel South Carolina to yield to the collection of the duties, under the Tariff Acts of 1828 and 1832, which the Calhoun Nullifiers had pronounced null and void. (See Tariffs of the United States.) Foreign Mail Service. (See Post-Office System.) Foresters, Ancient Order of. (See Secret Societies.) Forestry. Forest Area. Lumber Industry. Forest Fires. Forestry Commissions. Tree Planting. Arbor Day. The forest area of the United States, now estimated at 480,000,000 acres, was originally evenly distributed through- out the country. The forest area included in farms is about 185,000,000 acres. The northern part of the country, years ago, was well wooded, the most valuable lumber tree, the white pine, being especially luxuriant. The process of destruction however, which has for many years been carried on, has practi- cally stripped this section of its valuable forest growths. Lunx bering is still carried on, but the yield is not nearly as large. Large sections of the South are still heavily timbered, but it is only a question of time before it, too, will be denuded, so fast has the cutting been done. The West is remarkable for a scarcity of forests, although there has been extensive Planting of Trees in late years in many of the States this side of the Rock- ies. In the Pacific coast division, the mountains are covered with rich growths of fine trees, but here, too, the woodman's axe has been diligently at work, until even in this primeval region, the 130 FORESTRY. trees will soon be gone. The Puget Sound region is now the centre of a vast lumbering interest. In California, the pine and red-wood are in great demand for export. Parts of Arizona and New Mexico have virgin growths of line trees which have not yet been attacked, chiefly because of their inaccessibility. Generally speaking, the forests of New England, New York, Pennsylvania, Michigan, Minnesota, and Wisconsin are practically destroyed, those of the Northwest will be gone ere long, so that the South- ern States in the next twenty years will be called upon to supply the larger part of the lumber used in manufacturing, domestic life, and railroading. The present annual Consumption of Lumber is approxi- mately 20,000,000,000 cubic feet, over 2,500,000,000 cubic feet of which is required in manufacturing. A very large part is used for fuel and other domestic purposes. Railroads use over $10,- 000,000 worth of lumber for railroad ties, and over $5,000,000 worth for fuel. For fuel purposes the steamboats of the country use about 12,000,000 worth. Baskets, wood-pulp, handles, fence- posts, etc., are some of the minor forms in which lumber is used in large amount. The total value of the forest crop of the coun- try is something over $600,000,000, of which $49,181,233 were exported in 1890, chiefly unmanufactured. A serious cause of the destruction of forests is Forest Fires, which, by the census of 1880, destroyed $25,462,250 of forest lands, burning 10,274,089 acres. In Pennsylvania, Tennessee, and Wyoming alone, $12,000,000 of forest lands were destroyed. Another cause of loss is the habit many farmers have of turning cattle, sheep, and horses into the woods. They devour seedling trees, bai'k their trunks, and otherwise destroy their vigor. The lumber interests are centred in Maine, northern New York, Michigan, Illinois, Minnesota, Wisconsin, Indiana, Pennsylvania, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Washington, southern Alabama, southern Mississippi, southeastern Texas, northern California, western Oregon, and the prolific Puget Sound region. Michigan is the first State in production, the Puget Sound region being second. Over $250,000,000 capital is invested in lumbering, employing 200,000 hamb. The number of lumber- ing establishments is over 30,000. The attention of the government was several years ago called to the Denudation of the Forests. Congress made an inves- tigation, forestry associations sprang into existence, and a concerted attempt was made to save some of the forest lands. Yellowstone Park was set aside as a National Park, arid in New York the Adirondack Park Association strives to secure for the State of New York a compact State Park in the Adirondacks. FORESTRY. 131 For the preservation of the forests, the State of New York instituted a Forest Commission, in 1885, with extensive powers. The State of California has also created a Forest Commission, COURT HOUSE AT ATLANTA, GA. and Colorado, North Dakota, and New Hampshire have Forest Commissions. Ohio has a Forestry Bureau. A national organization known as the American Forestry Association, composed of delegates from all the States, meets annually. To encourage forest-planting on the prairies, the United States Government has made tree-planting, under certain 132 FUGITIVE SLATE LAW. regulations, the consideration for the acquisition of public lands. (See Public Lands.) The individual States have striven to encourage tree-planting by appointing a certain day in the j^ear, to be known as Arbor Day, for the voluntary planting of trees by the people, and latterly the interest has been widened by inducing the pupils of the public schools to take part in the observance. The following States and Territories have since then, by legis- lative enactment or otherwise, established an annual Arbor Day: Alabama, California, Colorado, Connecticut, Florida, Georgia, Idaho, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky, Maine, Mary- land, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, Montana, Missouri, Nebraska, Nevada, New Hampshirej New Jersey, New Mexico, New York, North Dakota, Ohio, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South Dakota, Tennessee, Texas, Vermont, West Virginia, Wisconsin, Wyoming 37 in all. (See Legal Holi- days.) Free Coinage. (See Coinage, Free Coinage.) Free Masonry. (See Secret Societies.) Free Soil* Free Speech, Free Men, and Fremont. A campaign cry of the Fremont Republicans in 1856. (See Cam- paign Songs.) Free Soilers. (See Political Parties.) French Spoliation Claims. During the war between France and England in 1794, the French seized many cargoes of American vessels trading with England. The owners of the property seized demanded damages. This government asked France to pay, but she replied that our treaty of 1778 with her had been broken by us, maintaining that the United States should have assisted her in her war against England instead of remaining neutral. For this reason she refused to pay the damages asked, unless this government should compensate her for loss occasioned by our alleged violation of the treaty of 1778. The property owners now turned to the United States Government, and de- manded the damages from it, taking the ground that the govern- ment could not cancel a public debt at the expense of a number of private citizens. Since 1800, one bill after another, providing for the payment of these claims, amounting with interest to $1,304,095.37 has been introduced in Congress. Twice an ap- propriation passed, but in each case the bill was vetoed. The Fifty-First Congress passed the bill, and President Harrison signed it. Fugitive Slave Law, The. This was part of Henry Clay's GEORGIA. 133 Omnibus Bill (which see), in which it was inserted as a means of placating the Southerners in the matter of the admission of Cali- fornia as a free State in 1850. The law encouraged the surrender of fugitive slaves, and commanded the people to aid in their arrest. Those who obstructed an arrest, or who aided slaves to escape from custody, were liable to fine and imprisonment. United States marshals refusing to execute writs were punishable by a fine, and the fee of a commissioner capturing a slave was ten dollars if the prisoner was shown to be a slave, but only five dollars if he was shown to be free. Inhumanities were practised upon the blacks, and there were regularly organized parties of whites engaged in kidnapping them. The public indignation became so strong that some of the Northern legislatures passed Personal Liberty laws, for the protection of free negroes. Both Democratic and Whig platforms of 1852 endorsed the law, but it remained in effect, with its undiminished cruelties, until repealed by the Republican Congress in 1863. Fuss and Feathers. (See Nicknames of Famous Americans.) G. 0. P. (See Slang of Politics.) Garrisonians. (See Political Pai-ties.) Geneva Award. Five arbitrators, Charles Francis Adams, representing the United States, Lord Chief-Justice Cockburn, representing Great Britain ; Count Sclopis, representing Italy ; Jacques Staempfli, representing the Swiss Confederation ; and Baron Itajuba, representing Brazil, met at Geneva, Switzerland, on December 15, 1871, as a tribunal to settle by arbitration the dispute between this government and Great Britain, growing out of the Alabama claims. J. C. Bancroft Davis and Lord Tenterden were agents for the United States and Great Britain, respectively. William M. Evarts and Caleb Gushing were present to deliver the arguments in behalf of this government. The tribunal awarded $15,500,000 in gold as indemnity to the United States, only one dissenting vote, that of the English represen- tative, being cast. (See Alabama Claims.) Georgia. Georgia was settled at Savannah by the English in 1733, as a place where insolvent debtors and others who had been unfortunate might find a refuge. It was one of the thirteen original States. The State joined the Confederacy, although there was a widespread sentiment against it. Since the war a steady development has been made. The staple crop is Cotton, in the production of which Georgia ranks third among the States ; its crop of cotton has reached nearly 1,000,000 bales in a year. Corn, wheat, oats, tobacco, sorghum, clover, peanuts, and sweet 184 GERRYMANDER. potatoes are grown in large quantities. There is a large business in fruit and in truck farming. One of the leading industries is Lumbering, over 200,000,000 feet of lumber and timber, valued at $7,000,000, being shipped annually. More than $3,000,000 worth of tar, pitch, turpentine, and resin have been shipped in a single year. Coal-min- ing, marble-quarrying, and gold-min- ing are carried on, with a large invested capital. The State has one million cattle, worth $12,500,000; 400,000 sheep, worth $800,000 ; 144,- 000 mules, worth over $13,000,000, and 106,000 horses, worth $8,736,000. There are thirty-two woollen mills, GREAT SEAL OF GEOKGIA. ,,f , . . ' several flour mills, and cotton mills in seven cities. The production of cotton goods aggregates $25,- 000,000 yearly. The total manufactures aggregate $37,000,000. The farm products are worth $112,000,000 yearly. The Population of Georgia in 1880 was 1,542,180; in 1890, it was 1,833,353 ; the real property was valued at $192,000,000 ; the personal property at $165,000,000. The school attendance was 226,000, and there were 8,000 school buildings. There were 4,532 miles of railroad, and, in 1892, 291 newspapers. Savannah, on the Savannah River, is a beautiful old city whose streets are lined with camellias and oleanders, which grow as trees, and whose sidewalks are overhung with orange and banana trees, myrtles and magnolias. Jt is a great shipping centre for the contiguous States ; steamship lines run to Florida, Baltimore, Philadelphia, New York, and Boston. The exports exceed $70- 000,000 a year. The population in 1890 was 43,189. Atlanta, which is 1,067 feet above the sea, is a beautiful modern city and a great railway centre. The population in 1890 was 65,533. Augusta, which is the third city, has a population of 33,300. It has eight cotton mills, running 200,000 spindles, which are operated by water power canals, which cost $3,000,000. The Governor of Georgia is W. J. Northern (Democrat), whose term expires Nov. 2, 1892. The State is Democratic. Gerrymander. Gerrymandering is the studied arrangement of electoral districts by which one party may have advantage over another. It has been practiced in nearly all of the important States, by both Democrats and Republicans. There is in Iowa a " Monkey Wrench " district, in Pennsylvania a " Dumb-bell " " GIVE 'EM JESSIE.' 135 district, in New York a " Horse-shoe " district, and in Mississippi a " Shoe-string " district, the appellations referring to the shape of the districts as seen on the map. Gerrymandering takes its name from Elbridge Gerry, Governor of Massachusetts in 1814, and from " Salamander." Governor Gerry signed a bill readjusting certain districts, one of which was so odd in shape as to suggest its likeness to a salamander. The editor of the Boston Centinel, Benjamin Russell, is credited with having given birth to the word. 44 Give 'em Jessie." This was a campaign cry in the Presidential canvass of 1856. Jessie, the daughter of Thomas II. Benton, of Mis- souri, had run away with and married General Fremont, the Republican can- didate, in their youth, and when Fremont was nominated, the memory of the ro- mantic event caught the popular sym- pathy, which is always eager at elec- tion time to seize upon some personal allusion or attribute of a candidate and use it in a political connection. Give Me Liberty, or Give Me Death. (See Sayings of Famous Americans.) Gladstone Of the West. (See Nicknames of Famous Americans.) God ill the Constitution. (See Religious Denominations.) God Reigns, and the Government at Washington Still Lives. (See Sayings of Famous Americans.) Gold, Production Of. (See Mining.) Good Enough Morgan. (See Morgan.) Good Templars, Independent Order of. (See Secret Societies.) Good War and a Bad Peace. (See 'Sayings of Famous Americans.) Goose and Gridiron. Nicknames for the American Eagle and the United States Flag. STATE CAPITOL AT ATLANTA. 13G GUN-BOAT SYSTEM. Grandfather's Hat. (See Presidents of the United States.) Grangers. (See Political Parties.) Great Fires. The most destructive fire on this continent was that which broke out in Chicago on October 8, 1871, and burned for two days. It burned over 2,000 acres, and consumed property valued at $195,000,000. In New York, in 1835, over five hundred buildings and $20,- 000,000 worth of property were destroyed; in the same city on September 6, 1839, $10,000,000 worth of property was des- troyed. In Pittsburg, April 10, 1845, one thousand buildings were burned ; loss, $6,000,000. In St. Louis, May 4, 1851, a large portion of the city was burned; loss, $11,000,000. In Portland, Me., July 4,1866, the city was almost entirely destroyed; loss, $15,000,000. On July 14, 1874, another great fire in Chicago destroyed $4,000,000 worth of property. In Boston, Mass., No- vember 9, 1872, nearly four hundred and fifty buildings were des- troyed; loss, over $73,000,000. On Thanksgiving Day, 1889, a fire in the business part of Boston destroyed nearly $5,000,000 worth of property. Fire Loss Since 1875. The aggregate property loss by fire in 1891 was $131,260,400 ; in 1890, $108,993,792 ; in 1889, $123,- 046,833. The aggregate insurance loss in the same years was $77,140,200, $65,015,465, $73,679,465, respectively. The total loss since 1875, inclusive, has been $1,615,818,739 ; total insurance loss, $911,070,548. Causes of Fires. The principal reported causes of fires? and the number of fires from each cause in 1890, were as follows : Incendiarism, 2,106 ; defective flues, 1,239; sparks (not loco- motive), 203 ; matches, 691 ; explosions of lamps and lanterns, 697 ; stoves, 525 ; lightning, 625 ; spontaneous combustion, 286 ; forest and prairie fires, 89 ; lamp and lantern accidents, 243 ; locomotive sparks, 203 ; cigar stubs and tobacco pipes, 223 ; fric- tion in machinery, 112; gas-jets, 269; engines and boilers, stationary, 124; furnaces, 134; firecrackers, 77 ; ashes and hot coals, 128. There were 9,494 fires classified as " not reported," and 2,602 as unknown. Lives Lost by Fire. In the six years ending 1888, the number of human lives lost in fires in this country was 2,975 ; of horses, 15,405 ; of cattle, 8,840 ; of other animals, 31,119. Gun-Boat System. Jefferson was unwilling to increase the expenses of his administration, and therefore objected to the construction of a navy when the English, in 1805-6, were attack- ing American vessels. He recommended instead, and Congress adopted a plan for the building of a number o small and inex- HARTFOKD CONVENTION. 137 pensive gun-boats. The Federalists laughed at this exhibition of Jeffersonian simplicity, and the " gun-boat system " became an object of their ridicule. Half Breeds. (See Political Parties.) Hail Columbia. (See Songs of America.) Hard Cider Campaign and Hard Cider Candidate. Used in the Harrison campaign of 1840. It was said of the candidate that he once lived in a log cabin, and had only hard cider to drink. Instead of having the effect intended, the allu- sion, with many of the voters, was entirely favorable to the can- didate. (See Campaign Songs.) Hard Shells. (See Political Parties.) Hartford Convention. This memorable gathering of repre- sentatives of the New England States occurred at Hartford, Conn., December 15, 1814. Twenty-six delegates were present, their avowed purpose being to bring about a revision of the Constitution. Their purpose having become known, they were bitterly denounced as traitors to the government, and in some quarters as conspirators in the service of England. They were accused of being in favor of dismembering the Union, and of upholding the Doctrine of State Rights. They disavowed any intention to dissolve the Union at that time ; such dissolu- tion, they declared, must " be the work of peaceable times and deliberate consent." Among the grievances recited were the " easy admission of naturalized foreigners to places of trust, honor, and profit," and the easy formation of new Western States; they desired the defence of every State to be entrusted to the State itself, and declared it to be " as much the duty of the State authori- ties to watch over the rights reserved, as of the United States to exercise the powers which are delegated" The Convention met but once, and nothing was heard of its contemplated reforms. (See Secession.) Headsman Clarkson. (See Nicknames of Famous Ameri- cans.) He Fears God, Hates the Devil, and Votes the Straight Democratic Ticket. (See Sayings of Famous Americans.) He Smote the Rock of the National Resources, and Abundant Streams of Revenue Gushed Forth. He Touched the Dead Corpse of Public Credit, and it Sprang Upon its Feet. (See Sayings of Famous Americans.) Hero Of Appomattox. (See Presidents of the United States.) Hero of New Orleans. (See Presidents of the United States.) 138 HOW THE PRESIDENT IS ELECTED. Hero Of Tippecanoe. (See Presidents of the United States.) Hickory Broom, The. Andrew Jackson, " Old Hickory," turned out of office all office-holders of the opposite party, and became thereby the father of the " spoils system." It was said that he swept the departments clean ; hence the " Hickory Broom." High-Minded Federalists. (See Political Parties.) Homestead Act. (See Public Lands and Land Grants.) Honest John. (See Nicknames of Famous Americans.) Honest Old Abe. (See Presidents of the United States.) Horizontal Bill. (See Nicknames of Famous Americans.) How the President Is Elected. Primaries, Electoral College, District Delegates, Presidential Conventions, National Conventions, Reapportionment. The first thing necessary to a Presidential election is candidates. In the early years of the Republic, candidates were chosen in a caucus of the Congressmen of either party. Such a caucus was unnecessary in the case of Washington's nomination, for the reason that there was no opposition to him. John Adams and Jefferson, likewise, were nominated, as it were, by general party consent. The Congressional Caucus was held secretly in 1800, to nominate candidates for President and Vice-President . In 1824, the "era of good feeling" (which see), the legislatures of the States, in the case of Adams and Clay, made the nominations. Jackson was nominated by a county convention in Tennessee, and by local conventions in several other States. W. H. Craw- ford, who was also a candidate, revived the Congressional caucus. (See Scrub Race for the Presidency.) In 1832, the First National Conventions, which had come to be regarded as the only proper method of nomination, were held and put tickets in the field. From that day, the two great parties and most of the smaller ones have chosen their candidates in national conventions. The make-up of the national convention carries us back to the country towns and the wards of cities. In these, at stated times, specified by district committees of the districts in which the towns or wards are located, the voters of both parties meet, separately, in " Primaries," or caucuses which are conventions of the voters in a ward or a township. Those in attendance vote for delegates from the township or ward to the district convention. HOW THE PRESIDENT IS ELECTED. 139 140 HOW THE PRESIDENT IS ELECTED. By this is meant, the convention of the Congressional district. The number of delegates is as a rule apportioned to the popula- tion, so that one town or ward may send more delegates than another. The party " bosses" usually have the " ticket" already chosen. In some cities, the Australian system of balloting for delegates is used. The delegates from all the towns or wards to the district convention having been chosen, they assemble, on a given date, in the district convention, and there choose two men who shall be Delegates to the national convention, and two alternates who shall act as delegates in the event of the delegates being prevented from serving. Each State has, therefore, twice as many delegates in the national convention as it has Congress- men ; besides, it sends to the national convention four delegates at large, who are chosen by the State convention called for the purpose. The delegates having assembled in the national convention, which is held in such city as may be determined by vote of the national committee, a Platform of Principles, as drawn up by the committee on resolutions, is read and approved. The nominating speeches are made, and the balloting begins. In Republican conventions a majority of the votes cast is necessary to a choice ; in Democratic conventions, two thirds of the votes are necessary to a choice. The nominations made, the convention adjourns, and the campaign begins in earnest. (See National Committee.) The balloting in the Republican and Democratic conventions of 1876, 1880, 1884, and 1888 resulted as follows: National Conventions. In the Democratic convention of 1876, the candidate was nominated on the second ballot. On the first ballot, Tilden, New York, had 403, on the second, 508. Necessary to a choice, 492. Total vote, 738. Hendricks, Indiana, had 133 on first ballot, and 85 on second; Hancock, Pennsylvania, 77 on the first ballot, 60 on the second; Allen, Ohio, 56 on the first, and 54 on the second; Bayard, Delaware, Parker, New Jersey, and Broadhead, Missouri, scattering votes. In the Republican National convention of 1876, the total vote on the decisive ballot, the seventh, was 756 ; necessary to a choice, 379. Blaine, Maine, had on the seven ballots, respectively, 291, 298, 293, 292, 287, 308, 351; Morton, Indiana, had 125, 111, 113, 108, 95, 85, , respectively ; Bristow, Kentucky, had 113, 114,. 121, 126, 114, 111,21, respectively; Conkling, "New York, had 96, 93, 90, 84, 82, 81, , respectively ; Hayes, Ohio, had 65,64, 67, 68, 102, 113, 384, respectively, and was nominated; Hartranft, Pennsylvania, and Jewell, Connecticut, had scattering votes. In the Democratic convention of 1880, the total vote on the HOW THE PRESIDENT IS ELECTED. 141 second and decisive ballot was 738 ; necessary to a choice 492. Hancock, Pennsylvania, had on the two ballots 171, 320, respec- tively; Bayard, Delaware, 153, 113, respectively ; Payne, Ohio, Thurman, Ohio, Field, California, Morrison, Illinois, Hendricks, Indiana, and Tilden, New York, had scattering votes. Han- cock was after the second ballot nominated by acclamation. In the Republican Convention of 1880, the total vote on the thirty-sixth and decisive ballot was 755 ; necessary to a choice 378. Grant, Illinois, had on the first ballot 304, on the thirty-first ballot, 308, and thereon to the thirty-sixth, 309, 309, 312, 313, 306, respectively ; Elaine, Maine, on the same ballots had 284 276, 270, 275, 275, 257, 42 ; Sherman, Ohio, had 93, 118, 117, 110, 107, 99, 3 ; Garfield, Ohio, had on the first ballot none, and on the thirty-first, thirty-second, and thirty-third ballots, one, 17 on the thirty-fourth, 50 on the thirty-fifth, and 399 on the thirty- sixth, and was nominated. In the Democratic Convention of 1884, the total vote on the second and decisive ballot was 820 ; necessary to a choice, 547. Cleveland, New York, had on the first ballot 392, and on the second ballot, 683, and was nominated. His nearest opponents were Bayard, Delaware, who had on the first ballot 170, and on the second, 81^, Thurman, Ohio, who had on the first ballot 88, and Randall, Pennsylvania, who had on the first ballot 78. In the Republican Convention of 1884, the total vote on the fourth and decisive ballot was 813 ; necessary to a choice, 407. Elaine, Maine, had on the four ballots 334, 349, 375, and 541 respectively, and was nominated ; Arthur, New York, 278, 276, 274, and 207 respectively ; Edmunds, Vermont, Logan, Illinois, and Sherman, Ohio, had scattering votes. In the Democratic Convention of 1888, Cleveland, New York, was nominated by acclamation. In the Republican Convention of 1888, the total vote on the eighth and decisive ballot was 830 ; necessary to a choice 416. Harrison, Indiana, had on the eight ballots 80, 91, 94, 217, 213, 231, 278, 544, respectively, and was nominated; Sherman, Ohio, had 229, 249,244,235,224,244, 231, 118, respectively; Alger, Michigan, had 84, 116, 122, 135, 142, 137, 120, 100, respectively ; Gresham, Indiana, had 111, 108, 123, 98, 87, 91, 91, 59, respec- tively. The work of the national conventions done, the next step is the choosing of Presidential Electors, who constitute the Elec- toral College. The Electoral College was an expedient adopted by the framers of the Constitution which it was calculated would make the election of the President the duty of representative men from each State, men who could be trusted to make a 142 HOW THE PRESIDENT IS ELECTED. selection which would be in the highest interest of the nation. It was expected that on election day the people would vote not for Presidential candidates but for electors, but while this was a pretty theory, the practice has ever since been far different. The electors are simply the representatives of the candidates, and in no instance has an elector cast his ballot in opposition to the candidate of the party. Under the Constitution each State may appoint its electors as the legislature sees fit ; originally they were chosen by the legislatures, but nowadays, they are nomi- nated by the party conventions of the States and voted for by the people. Each State is entitled to as many electors as it has Representatives and Senators. A plurality .of the votes is suffi- cient to elect, but it happens sometimes that one elector may be chosen who has different party affiliations from those of the other electors. For instance, in 1880, California elected five Hancock electors and one Garfield elector. By the Act of 1792, the electors in each State were required to assemble on the First Wednesday in December follow- ing their election at a place designated by the legislature. By Act of Feb. 3, 1887, the first Monday in January is fixed for their assembling. Previously, the governor of the State must deliver to each elector three certified lists of the names of the electors. Having voted for President and Vice- President, each elector makes out three certificates of his vote, attaching to each certificate a copy of the certified list of the electors' names deliv- ered by the governor. One copy goes by messenger to the President of the United States Senate at Washington before the first Wednesday in January; another copy is sent to him through the mails ; the third is deposited with the United States judge for the district in which the electors have met. If neither of the first two copies reach their destination by the first Wednesday in January, a special messenger is sent to the judge to obtain the third. This interval of a month was decided upon in order to allow for the slowness in getting the returns in, due to poor trav- elling facilities. Messengers who carry the electoral votes are allowed twenty-five cents a mile, and are subject to a fine of one thousand dollars if they are found guilty of neglect of duty. By the Second Wednesday in February, Congress is required to be in session, when the votes are unsealed by the President of the Senate, in the presence of both Houses of Con- gress, and counted. The pel-son having the highest number shall be the President. By the Reapportionment Act, passed by the Fifty-First Congress, the Electoral College now consists of 442 electors, or forty-one more than up to 1891. The successful candidate for HUB OF THE UNIVERSE. 143 President must, therefore, have 223 electoral votes. The admis- sion of Idaho, Montana, North Dakota, South Dakota, and Wyoming Territories into the Union, and the reapportionment of Congressional districts in eighteen of the States, both of which have occurred since the last national election, account for this increase. By the new arrangement, Massachusetts gained one vote, New Jersey one, Pennsylvania two votes, Arkansas one, California one, Colorado one, Georgia one, Illinois two, Kansas one, Michigan one, Minnesota two, Missouri one, Nebraska three, Oregon one, Texas two, and Wisconsin one, twenty-one in all. The new States are together entitled to twenty. Each State now votes in the Electoral College as follows: Alabam.a, 11; Arkansas, 8 ; California, 9 ; Colorado, 4 ; Connecticut, 6 ; Dela- ware, 3 ; Florida, 4; Georgia, 13 ; Idaho, 3 ; Illinois, 24 ; Indiana, 15; Iowa, 13; Kansas, 10; Kentucky, 13; Louisiana, 8; Maine, 6; Maryland, 8; Massachusetts, 15; Michigan, 14; Minnesota, 9; Mississippi, 9; Missouri, 17; Montana, 3; Nebraska, 84. Nevada, 3; New Hampshire, 4; New Jersey, 10; New York, 36; North Carolina, 11 ; North Dakota, 3; Ohio, 23 ; Oregon, 4; Pennsylvania, 32 ; Rhode Island, 4 ; South Carolina, 9 ; South Dakota, 4; Tennessee, 12; Texas, 15 ; Vermont, 4; Virginia, 12; Washington, 4 ; West Virginia, 6 ; Wisconsin, 12 ; Wyoming, 3; total, 442 ; necessary to choice, 223. Hub of the Universe. Referring to Boston as being the centre of advanced thought and political progress. It was first used by Dr. Oliver Wendell Holmes, who said that "Boston State House is the hub of the solar system. You couldn't pry that out of a Boston man if you had the tire of all creation straightened out for a crow-bar." Hunkers. (See Political Parties.) I Am Content. (See Sayings of Famous Americans.) I Am a Democrat. (See Sayings of Famous Americans.) I Have Killed Seventeen Roman Pro-Consuls. (See Say- ings of Famous Americans.) I Propose to Fight It Out on This Line if It Takes All Summer. (See Sayings of Famous Americans.) I Still Live. (See Sayings of Famous Americans.) I Was Born an American, I Live an American, I Shall Die ail American. (See Sayings of Famous Americans.) Idaho. Idaho was settled at Fort Hall, in 1834. It was first entered by white men of Lewis and Clark's exploring party, in 1856 ; it remained a -Territory until 1892, when it was admitted as a State. 144 ID ABO. The chief industry is Mining, and the State contains some of the richest veins in America ; it has produced over $160,000,000 in the precious metals. It produces, also, copper, iron, mica, coal, marble, limestone, sandstone, and salt. Irrigation is necessary in the southern counties, but not in the northern ones. The State produces over 1,500,000 bushels of wheat, and 1,300,000 bushels of oats ; also barley, hay, flax, rye, alfalfa, sorghum, and wild fruits in great abundance. As a Grazing Country, it has fine facilities, which are used for 600,000 horses and cattle and 350,000 sheep. It has several BEFOKE THE PIONEER. beautiful lakes, the chief of which are Lake Pen d'Oreilles, which is thirty miles long, and three to fifteen miles wide, having numer- ous islands, and is encircled by lofty mountains with snowy peaks. Cffiur d'Alene Lake is twenty-five miles long, one to four miles wide, with a depth of 180 feet, and has clear, greenish water, which is stocked with millions of game fish. The Shoshone Falls, in the Snake River, descend over a semi-circular cliff, 225 high, in a mighty stream 950 wide. The population of Idaho, in 1880, was 32,610 ; in 1890, 84,- 305. The taxable property was valued at $36,000,000; the manufactures were worth $1,200,000 ; the farm land was valued at $2,800,000. There were in 1890, 844 miles of railroad, 10,333 school children, and 38 newspapers. There are in the State 42 Mormon churches, with 237 priests and 6,000 members. There are several reservations for Indians. The chief cities are Boise City, population 4,000 ; Pocatello, population 2,500 ; and Hailey, population 2,000. The Governor of Idaho is Norman B. Willey (Republican), whose term expires January 1, 1893. The history of the State shows it to be Republican. If Anyone Attempts to Haul Down the American Flag, ILLINOIS. 145 Shoot Him on the Spot. (See Sayings of Famous Ameri- cans.) Illinois. Illinois was settled at Kaskaskia in 1720, by the French; it was admitted as a State in 1818. The Mormons entered the State in 1840, and erected a temple at Xauvoo, on the Mississippi River. The Mormon chiefs, Joseph and Hiram Smith, were imprisoned at Carthage and put to death by a mob ; the rest of the band were forced to leave the State and went farther West. Illinois received a large part of the immigra- tion to the West, and her development since 1850 has been truly wonderful. The Farm Products have reached GREAT SEAL OF ILLINOIS. & -,~ A , , 2/0,000,000 in a single year (grain, $145,000,000 ; live-stock, $50,000,000 ; dairy products, $27,000,- 000; hay and potatoes, $26,000,000). The farm property is valued at above 61,000,000,000. As a producer of wheat and corn, Illinois holds high rank among the States. For many years- the wheat crop averaged 30,000,000 bushels, but owing to the small prices of Avheat the industry has fallen away. The State raises large crops of oats, grass-seed, flax-seed, broom-corn, honey, and bees- wax ; the fruit industry is an important one, peaches, strawberries, apples, and several kinds of berries and grapes being produced in abundant quantity. Illinois has more than One Million Horses, including many thoroughbreds, which are valued at $75,000,000. In the number of its horses it is the first State in the Union. It has 1,205,000 cattle, valued at $50,000,000, of which 700,000 are milch cows. The milk produced aggregates 100,000,000 gallons, for city con- sumption alone ; from the rest there are made 25,000,000 pounds of butter and 7,000,000 pounds of cheese. The wool product has reached 6,000,000 pounds in a year. There are valuable Coal Fields in three fourths of the State, producing bituminous, block, and cannel coal. There are 800 mines, 30,000 miners, and the coal product amounts to 11,500,- 000 tons a year. The output of pig-iron in 1889 was 674,506 tons. Lead, zinc, salt, limestone, sandstone, and marble are other products of the Garden State. Illinois has numerous educational institutions, the public school and State educational property being valued at $27,000,000. The Chicago University has been endowed by J. D. Rockefeller 146 ILLINOIS. with over $2,500,000; there are twenty-four colleges, and the public school attendance is 538,310. The population in 1870 was 2,539,891; in 1880 it was 3,077,871; in 1890 it was 3,818,536. The real property was valued at $576,000,000 ; the personal property at $221,000,000. The manufactures aggregated in 1890 $415,000,000. The acreage of farm lands was 32,500,000, valued at $1,010,000,000. There were 1,714 newspapers in 1892, and in 1890, 10,213 miles of railroad. Chicago, the chief city, is situated at the southern extremity of Lake Michi- gan, and is the foremost ship- ping centre of the Great Lakes, and is second only to New York. Here the cereals of the N orthwest, landed by rail in her mammoth grain elevators, are transferred to propell e r s , barges, and schooners, and carried through Lakes H u r o n and Erie to Buf- falo, thence to New York by rail or by the Erie Canal. In the number of its entrances and clearances Chicago outranks New York. Her en- trances and clearances in 1890 were 21,054, with a tonnage of 10,288,688 ; New York's entrances and clearances numbered 15,283 ; those of the entire Atlantic seaboard were 37,756. Situated as Chicago is at the centre of the most extensive sys- tem of railroads in the world, bringing to her grain elevators and storehouses the almost inexhaustible products of the rich western and northwestern country, with an easy route to the domestic and foreign markets, and with facilities for Manufacturing which are almost as good as those of New York, it is not surprising that her trade and commerce have so developed that she stands to-day second in wealth and population of the American cities. Her total trade for 1890 aggregated $1,440,000,000. There are twenty-eight foundries, eighty machinery and boiler works, COURT-HOUSE AND POST-OFFICE, CHICAGO. ILLINOIS. 147 seventy iron, tin, and slate roofing works, six rolling mills, several manufactories of agricultural implements, carriages, furniture, clothing, leathei', liquors, tobacco, etc. The manufactories num- ber over three thousand, and their annual output aggregates $550,000,000. The Union Stock Yards received in 1891, 8,848,- 500 hogs, 1,202,824 sheep, 3,303,669 cattle (an average of 10,500 a day), 205,010 calves, and 95,959 horses. The products of the packing houses in canned, cured, and dressed meats, and pork aggregated 2,000,000,000 pounds. The Grain Receipts were 232,000,000 bushels. The exports of fresh beef aggregated 200,000,000 pounds. The building of ships in Chicago has become an important industry. The million-dollar building in Chicago is no longer uncommon. The Court- Ho use and City Hall, of French Renais- sance architecture, built of marble and granite, with s t a t u ar y, cost $4,000,000. The Post-Office and Custom House, in the Venetian Ro- manesque style, cost $6,000,000. The fine business buildings are not as numerous as, but are no less costly than those of New York. The new Masonic temple cost $3,- 000,000; the W. C. T. U. temple, $1,000,000; the Chamber of Commerce, $3,000,000, while the churches and many of the private residences are most magnificent. Among the features of the city are the Board of Trade, the system of parks surrounding the city covering upwards of eight hundred acres, and constructed at a cost of $10,000,000, the Libby Prison, transferred from its original site at Richmond, Va., the beautiful Auditorium Build- ing, with its spacious Opera House and tall tower overlooking the lake, and the beautiful Michigan Avenue drive. (For Exposition Buildings see World's Columbian Exposition.) CHAMBER OF COMMERCE, CHICAGO. 148 IMPEACHMENT OF ANDKEW JOHNSON. The Population of Chicago in 1890 was 1,099,850. Peoria, the second city, had 41,024 inhabitants in 1890, has a fine county court house, several large elevators, and important manufactures. It is a large grain shipping centre. Springfield is the capital, and the site of the Lincoln monument. (See Burial Places of Presi- dents.) The population in 1890 was 24,963. Joseph W. Fifer (Rep.) is Governor of Illinois. His term expires January 4, 1893. The State is Republican Immigration, Restriction of . The new Immigration Act passed by the Fifty-First Congress was amendatory to the existing law. Besides Chinese laborers, it excludes from admission into the United States all idiots, insane persons, paupers, or persons likely to become a public charge, persons suffering from a loathsome disease or a dangerous contagious disease, persons who have been convicted of a felony or other infamous crime or mis- demeanor involving moral turpitude, polygamists, and also any person whose ticket or passage is paid for with the money of another, or who is assisted by others to come, unless it is affirma- tively and satisfactorily shown on special inquiry that such person does not belong to one of the foregoing excluded classes, or to the class of contract laborers. Persons living in the United States may assist friends or relatives who are not of the excluded classes. Persons convicted of a political offence are not to be excluded from immigration. To induce immigration by advertisements of any kind in foreign countries is prohibited except when done by States or State Immigration bureaus. A fine of one thousand dollars or an imprisonment of not more than one year is prescribed for bring- ing or aiding in bringing into this country any alien excluded by law. (For Statistics of Immigration see Population and Area.) Impeachment of Andrew Johnson. In August, 1867, President Johnson notified Secretary of War Stanton that his resignation was requested, in consequence of " public considera- tions of a high character." On Stanton's refusal to resign, the President suspended him, General Grant being appointed Secre- tary of War ad interim. The Senate declined to agree to Stan- ton's removal. Grant then declined to serve, and Stanton took pos- session again. The President again removed Stanton, who notified the House of Representatives, which body, on February 24, 1868, resolved that the President be impeached for high crimes and misdemeanors. The Senate, sitting as a Court of Impeachment, tried the case, Chief Justice Chase presiding. The Articles of Impeachment charged that the President, in violation of the Tenure of Office Act (this was a new law which INDIANA. 149 provided that civil officers should hold office until their successors should qualify, and giving the Senate final powers of removal, instead of the President), had removed Stanton and appointed Thomas ; that he had been guilty of intimidation of the former and of an attempt to seize unlaAvfully the property and money of the War Department; that he had declared that the Thirty-Ninth Congress was not a legally constituted body, and that he had failed to properly execute its acts. The counsel for the President argued that the removal of Stanton and the appointment of Thomas did not come within the provisions of the Tenure of Office Act, but were legal according to the laws of 1789 and 1795, which were the only controlling ones in this case ; that he was not guilty of the other charges, except those in regard to his declarations concerning Congress, and that as to those he was protected by the rights of freedom of opinion and freedom of speech. Votes on two of the articles were taken ; the result was thirty-five for conviction, and nineteen for acquittal, thus lacking one vote of the two thirds necessary for conviction. Chief Justice Chase ordered a Verdict of Acquittal, and Johnson served out his full term. Stanton resigned in regular form July 27, 1868. Impending Crisis. A stereotyped phrase used by cam- paign orators to designate a particularly dangerous condition of affairs. It was used first by H. R. Helper, a North Carolinian, who published a book in 1868, entitled "The Impending Crisis of the South." Imports. (See Exports and Imports.) In God We Trust. (See Coinage, Free Coinage, etc.) Indian Population. (See Population and Area.) Indian Schools. (See Education.) Indiana. Indiana was first visited by La Salle in 1669. It was settled at Vincennes, in 1702, by the French ; it was admitted to the Union in 1816. More than one third of its surface is still covered with forests, and the Lumber Product is above $16,000,000 yearly. The valley drained by the Wabash River is a rich region for corn and wheat. The corn crop sometimes amounts to 130,000,000 bushels, valued at over $30,000,000 . The acreage for wheat is 30,000,000 ; the crop exceeds 40,000,000 bushels, valued at $30,000,000. Large crops of oats, rye, barley, sorghum, tobacco, etc., are produced, and the hay crop has reached 2,900,000 tons, valued at $35,000,000. Fruit is an extensive industry, yielding peaches and apples in large quantities. The farm products in 1880 were worth $308,- 000,000, of which dairy products form a large part. 150 INDIAN TERRITORY. There are over seven thousand square miles of bituminous coal. Natural gas is found in several coun- ties, issuing from four hundred wells. The manufactures of Indiana number over eight thousand, employing over seventv thousand persons, and a cap- ital of "$65,000,000. The population in 1880 was 1,987,- 301 ; in 1890, 2,192,404. The State debt in 1890 was $3,661,723 ; the real property was valued at $567,000,- 000 ; the personal property $227,000,- 000. GREAT SEAL OF INDIANA. The Manufactures yearly amount to $148,000,000; there are 21,000,000 acres of farm land, valued at $635,000,000. There are ten thousand public schools, w r ith a daily attendance of 409,- 000. There are 6,046 miles of railroad and 698 newspapers. The leading educational institutions are Pardue University at Lafayette, Indiana University at Bloomington, the University of Notre Dame at South Bend, Wabash College at Crawfordsville, and there are many other institutions including several Normal schools. Indianapolis is the capital and chief city, having a popu- lation in 1890 of 105,436. It is a large railroad and manufactur- ing centre, producing $28,000,000 in a year. Flour-milling, meat-packing, and grain are the chief industries. It has a magnificent court-house, and is the site of the United States Arsenal. A fine Soldiers' Monument is an attractive feature. Evansville, on the Ohio River, is a coal, lumber, tobacco, and grain shipping point, and has four hundred factories, employing over ten thousand people. Fort Wayne, the third city, has a popula- tion of 35,593 and is a railway and manufacturing centre. The Governor of Indiana is Ira J. Chase (Republican), whose term expires January 12, 1893. Politically the State is a doubt- ful one. Garfield carried it in 1880, and Cleveland in 1884. Harrison carried the State in 1884. Indian Territory. The unorganized territory of the United States, which extends from latitude 33 35' to 37 north, and longitude 94 20' to 103 west, forms the Indian Territory. It was part of the Louisiana purchase, and has been from time to time cut down to form States and Territories. Except in the west, which is an arid plain, rivers are plentiful. These are the Arkansas, and its tributaries the Verdigris, Neosho, Illinois, INDIAK TERRITORY. 151 from the north, and the Canadian, Cimarron, Black Bear, Little Arkansas, Poteau, and North Fork from the west ; there is also the Red River on the southern boundary. Of the 41,000,000 acres in the Territory, nearly 26,000,000 have been surveyed and set apart as Reservations for the Indians. These have been gathered from all parts of the country from Oregon to Florida in pursuance of the general plan of congre- gating all the Indians in one territory, to be theirs forever. The United States Government holds the right of eminent INDIANA STATE CAPITOL AT INDIANAPOLIS. domain over the lands of the five tribes, the Indians being fee- simple owners, but not sovereign, though enjoying to some degree the powers of self-government. The United States Indian Agency for the five tribes is located at Muscogee, and has jurisdiction over all persons, whether Indian or white, residing in the Indian country. Forty-three Indian policemen are attached to the agency. These officers are engaged in the suppression of crime, the prevention of the intro- duction of whiskey, and serving orders issued by the agent. Each of the civilized tribes is governed by a Principal Chief and a Second Chief, elected for from two to four years, an annual legislature of two houses, elected for from two to four years, and a judiciary system. There are over 400,000 acres under cultivation, which produce 152 INTERNAL REVENUE. large amounts of corn, wheat, and oats, 60,000 bales of cotton, besides vegetables and hay. The Indians have over 750,000 head of live stock. Among the other products are lumber, woollen blankets, shawls, willow-baskets, rice, and maple sugar. The population of Indian Territory in 1890 was 186,390 Indians, 107,987 white persons, and 52,065 Indians not belonging to the five tribes. There were 880 miles of railroads, and eleven news- papers. Innocuous Desuetude. (See Slang of Politics.) Ins and Outs. (See Slang of Politics.) Insanity. The number of insane persons treated in 1889 at the public and private asylums for the insane was 97,535. The average cost per head in the public asylums was $161. The number of public asylums was 125, of private asylums, 38, of which 25 were in the North Atlantic States. Interior Department. (See Federal Government.) Internal Revenue. The internal revenue of the government nowadays is derived from tobacco, distilled spirits, fermented liquors, bank circulation, and oleomargarine. In the early days of the government taxes were levied on various articles of human utility and luxury, including wines and liquors, snuff, sugar, auction sales, paper, and parchment, and as late as 1814, on iron, candles, umbrellas, beer, boots and hats, gold and silver, watches, household furniture, etc. The enforcement of the tax on spirits, in 1791, led to the Whiskey Insurrection in Western Penn- sylvania, where whiskey was manufactured. The insurrection was put down with the loss of only two lives. The imposition of this form of direct taxation was the conception of Alexander Hamilton, who proposed it as a means of meeting the expenses of the government. It was valuable also in time of war, or threatened war, and the tax was especially heavy after the war with England in 1812-13. These taxes, however, were abolished in 1818, and were not re-imposed until 1861, when the govern- ment levied direct taxes in order to raise funds for maintaining the war. On July 1, 1862, an exhaustive Internal Revenue Act was passed, levying taxes on all sorts and kinds of articles, on trades, incomes, sales, manufactures, legacies, etc. More than twenty-five acts on the same subject were passed within the next six years. The revenues were very large, but the people made no objection. Since that period reductions in the number of articles taxed were regularly made until, in 1872, only tobacco, distilled spirits, fermented liquors, and bank circulation remained ; in 1886 oleomargarine was added. Up to 1800, the Receipts from internal revenue averaged INVENTIONS. 153 $500,000 a year. In the fourth year of the Civil War, the revenue was $'209,464,215 ; in 1866, $309,226,813. The revenue has diminished steadily since that time, but since 1888 it has increased above the average of the preceding years. In 1891, the revenue was $145,686,249, of which $111,901,094 was for distilled spirits and fermented liquors, and $32,796,271 was for tobacco. The total internal revenue receipts from 1789 to 1891 have been $4,111,760,798. The tax on oleomargarine is about $800,000 a year. The State paying the heaviest tax on liquors is Illinois, which in 1891 paid $33,049,373 ; Kentucky is second, paying in 1891, $15,252,118. Inter-State Commerce Act, The. The purpose of this act was to establish some sort of control over the railroads of the country, by which unjust and unreasonable charges and unjust discrimination should be prevented, to establish a schedule of regular rates for freight and passengers, and in other ways to bring about better service of the public, and to put an end to railroad wars, causing interruptions to business and inconvenience to the public. Penalties shall be exacted for " pooling," for com- binations to prevent continuous carriage, for making one rate to one person and another rate for the same distance to another, or for discriminating in favor of particular localities. Some criticism was made of the act on the ground that it tended toward govern- mental control, but the law has been in operation since February, 1887, and gives general satisfaction. The Commission consists of five members, who receive a salary of $7,000 a year. The Fifty- First Congress amended the act creating the Commission, giving it authority to request United States District Attorneys to prose- cute all persons violating its provisions. In the Name of the Great Jehovah and the Continental Congress. (See Sayings of Famous Americans.) Inventions, Great American. Telegraph. Sewing Machine. Telephone. Cotton-gin. Phonograph. The American inventions of a distinctly American origin, which more than any others have contributed to the convenience of humanity, are the telegraph, the telephone, the sewing-machine, the cotton-gin, and the phonograph. Telegraph, The. In the days before the telegraph, com- munication between distant points was carried on by means of signals. The Romans burnt fires of different substances, each one representing a word or words. The American Indians talked 154 INVENTIONS. with one another in much the same way, having signal stations at chosen points through the country. In the 17t.li and 18th centuries, several systems of telegraphic signals were discussed, some of which were put in operation. A Frenchman by the name of Chappe, in 1792, constructed a post with a bar capable of being inclined at any angle, and with the aid of ropes, and an abbreviated alphabet, a code of signals was operated. This and the other methods experimented with depended upon the eye, could only be used for short distances, and never in foul weather. In the 18th and the early years of the 19th century, experiments with the electric current were carried on in Europe and in this country, but it remained for an American inventor to conceive and operate the First Efficient Machine for utilizing the current. It has always been a matter of controversy as to when, where, INVENTIONS. 155 and by whom the electric current was utilized first for telegraphic communication. There is evidence that Alfred Vail, operating at Speedwell, N. J., on January 6, 1838, sent to his father, by the dot and dash code, a message thus: "A patient waiter is no loser." On May 6, 1844, the Whig National Convention assem- bled at Baltimore. Between Annapolis and Washington, on that day, Prof. S. F. B. Morse, and his assistant, Alfred Vail, had a circuit, which was part of the circuit which a few days later was operated between Baltimore and Washington. , In Washington there was much curiosity regarding the ticket nominated at Baltimore. A train which arrived at Annapolis had on board several of the delegates, from whom Vail, who was at work at this point,learned that the ticket nominated was Clay and Frelinghuysen. This information he telegraphed to Washington as follows: " The ticket is Clay and Frelinghuysen." This message was received by Professor Morse in the presence of several members of Con- gress. Later in the same month, the line between Washington and Baltimore was opened. The instrument used was that of Professor Morse's invention. Before sending the first message over the wire, lie asked Miss Annie Ellsworth to suggest the proper message for so important an experiment. She gave the message, " What Hath God Wrought?" From this small beginning there has grown a world-compassing system of telegraph communication, which is one of the marvel- lous achievements of the nineteenth century. The practical monopoly of the business is in the hands of the Western Union Telegraph Company, although there are several independent companies which do considerable business. All of them are owned by private individuals. (See Newspapers.) The number of Messages annually transmitted by the Western Union Company has increased from 5,879,282 in 1867 to 59,148,343 in 1891 ; the number of offices receiving and send- ing messages, from 2,565 to 20,098 ; the number of miles of wire operated, from 85,291 to 715,591 ; the number of miles of poles and cables, from 46,270 to 187,981 ; the receipts, from $6.568,925.36 to $23,034,326.59 ; the expenses from $3,944,005.63 to $16,428,741.84; the profits, from $2,624,919.73 to $6,605,584.- ,75. Exclusive of the private leased wires, the Western Union Company, in 1891, transmitted 524,502,952 words. The average toll per message in 1868 was, in cents, 104.7 ; in 1891 it was 32.5. The average cost per message to the company in 1868 was 63.4 ; in 1891 it was 23.2. Tolls to Foreign Lands. The first Atlantic Cable was laid in 1857, from Valentia Bay, Ireland, to Heart's Content, New- foundland. In telegrams to foreign lands, the length of a word 156 INVENTIONS. is limited to ten letters. To England, France, Germany, Ireland, and Scotland, the rate is twenty-five cents a word (from New York); to Russia in Europe, forty-three cents; to Spain, thirty- nine cents ; to Italy, thirty-four cents ; to Sweden, thirty-nine cents ; to Norway, thirty-five cents. To Melbourne, the rate is $2.54 a word; to New South Wales, $2.58; to New Zealand, $2.82 ; to Canton, $2.09 ; to Hong Kong $1.99 ; to Victoria (Australia) $2.54; to Rio de Janeiro, $1.89; to Lima (Peru), $1.72; to Argentine Republic, $1.82. The most expensive rate is that to Demerara, which is $3.15 a word. Telephone, The. The principle of the telephone, that sounds may be conveyed to a distance by a distended wire, was demonstrated by Robert Hook in 1667, but no practical applica- tion was made of the discovery until 1821, when Professor Wheatstone exhibited his " Enchanted Lyre," in which the sounds of a music box were conveyed from a cellar to upper rooms. The first true discoverer of the speaking telephone, how- ever, was Johann Philipp Reis, a German scientist and professor in the institute of Friedrichsdorf. April 25, 1861, Reis exhibited his telephone at Frankfort. This contained all the essential features of the modern telephone, but as its commercial value was not at all comprehended, little attention was paid to it. Reis, 'after trying in vain to arouse the interest of scientists in his discovery, died in 1874, without having reaped any advantage from it. Meanwhile, the idea was being worked into more prac- tical shape by other persons, Professor Elisha Gray, Professor A. G. Bell, Professor Dolbear, of Tufts College, near Boston, Mass., and later by Mr. Edison. Professor Gray's successful experiments considerably antedated those of the others, but Pro- fessor Bell was the first to perfect his patent. February 12, 1877, Bell's articulating telephone was tested by experiments at Boston and Salem, Mass., and was found to convey sounds distinctly from one place to the other, a distance of eighteen miles. This telephone was exhibited widely in this country and in Europe during that year, and telephone companies were established to bring it into general use. Edison's carbon " loud speaking " tele- phone was brought out in 1878. The Examiner of Patents at Washington on July 21, 1883, decided that Professor Bell was the first inventor, because he was the first to complete his inven- tion and secure a full patent. A long litigation ensued, the chief opponent of the Bell patent being Drawbaugh, who claimed priority of invention. In 1891, after many years of controversy, the United States Supreme Court decided in favor of Bell. The number of Telephone Exchanges in 1891, was 774, with 467 branch offices; miles of wire on poles, 171,498; on IXVENTIONS. 157 buildings, 13,445; underground, 54,690; submarine, 779 ; total, 240,412. The total number of circuits was 240,412 ; total sub- scribers, 202,931; total instruments in use, 483,790; average number of connections in a day, 1,438,294; in a year over 450,- 000,000. The average number of calls daily from subscribers was 7.10. The amount received in rentals in 1890 was $2,913,369. The Bell companies represent $80,000,000 of capital. Phonograph, The. The phonograph was invented by Mr. Edison in 1877, and brought before the public early in the fol- lowing year. The inventor believed that the numerous practical applications of this machine would commend it very largely to general use. This has not thus far proved to be the case, not because the instrument itself is lacking, for added experiment only proves its more remarkable possibilities, but probably because the invention is so wholly new and strange, so at variance with anything pre- viously known and under- stood, that men have not yet been able to comprehend its application to every-day affairs. It is growing in use, however, and many business men whose time is precious use the machine instead of a stenog- rapher in the dictation of their letters. They talk into the phonograph as fast as they like. The stenographer takes the dic- tation from the phonograph to the note-book, and then tran- scribes it. Although expert stenographers can " take " upwards of sixty to seventy words a minute, they cannot compete with the phonograph. The Operation of the phonograph depends upon the principle that sound is produced by vibrations of the air. In the phonograph the sound of the spoken words is re- ceived on a metal plate, turning on a cyclinder, upon whose surface is a spiral groove having hundreds of fine teeth. The vibrations of the metal plate are registered on a piece of tin foil in contact with the spiral groove, and are thence carried to a resonator which causes the vibrations to be easily communicated to the ear. The person using the phonograph, therefore, hears the registered vibrations of the words of the speaker. Sewing-Machine, The. Foreign experimenters with EDISON SPEAKING PHONOGRAPH. 158 INVENTIONS. sewing-mahines met with results similar to those of foreign experimenters in telegraphy, they produced nothing that was practical. Various Americans tried to perfect such a machine, among them, the Rev. John Adams Hunt, of Monkton, Vt., in 1818, and in 1832, Walter Hunt, in New York City. In 1846, Elias Howe, of Cambridge, Mass., maie a machine, which had many defects, but which had what all others lacked the ability to do practical work. Howe embodied the good features of the early machines in his, and patented his invention ; besides, he THE FIRST SEWING-MACHINE AND ITS INVENTOR, ELIAS HOWE. bought up other patents, using them to perfect his machine, and thereby laid the foundation of a large fortune. Other pioneers in the improvement of sewing-machines were John Bradshaw, of Lowell (1848), Allen B. Wilson, of Pittsfield, Mass". '(1850), and William O. Grover, of Boston (1851), all of whom contributed valuable ideas. Isaac M. Singer about this time controlled several patents, from which he made the first machine that proved satisfactory to manufacturers. Singer be- came immensely rich. IOWA. 159 Cotton Gin. The invention of the cotton gin by Eli Whitney in 17 93 'revolutionized the cotton production and cotton manufacturing industries of the world. It not only made cotton production more profitable, because more cheap, but it made possible extensive crops, and thereby gave the manufacturer more raw material. The invention led to the rapid development of improved cotton spinning and weaving machines. Previously, lint cotton had been separated from the seed by " roller gins," which was a slow and an expensive process. The new gin sepa- rated the lint from the seed not only more quickly and cheaply, but at the same time it increased the quantity of lint. The pods in which cotton grows burst open when ripe, and are about as large as an apple. The pods hold the cotton wool so firmly that it cannot be picked easily. The seeds, too, if taken out by hand, are so entangled in the cotton that it used to take a man a day to produce a pound of clean cotton. Whitney's machine cleaned three hundred pounds of cotton as quickly as a man by hand could clean one pound. Iowa. This State originally belonged to Louisiana, at the time it was bought from France. The first white settlers were people from New England, who founded the vil- lage of Dubuque in 1833. Iowa is noted for its prairies, which are ex- tremely fertile. More than half the inhabitants are farmers, who produce more than $365,000,000 of various crops yearly. The Corn Crop has exceeded 322,000,000 bushels in a year; the wheat crop, 37,000,000 ; oats, 80,- 000,000; rye, 2,000,000; barley, 5,- 000,000; potatoes, 20,000,000. This is the first corn producing State, its achievements in this cereal having been commemorated in the great Corn Palace at Sioux City, an immense structure which is built yearly entirely of corn. The corn canning industry produces 7,000,000 cans of corn yearly. The product of hay, in a year, has exceeded 7,000,000 tons, worth $33,500,000. The State raises over 4,000,000 head of swine, worth $28,- 000,000, and in this industry ranks first. It has 1,200,000 milch cows, and 2,100,000 other cattle, thousands of them blooded stock, the whole valued at $80,000,000. In the Raising of Horses it stands third, having over 1,000,- GREAT SEAL OF IOWA. 160 IOWA. 000 head, worth over $7,000,000. The sheep industry has fallen away in recent years to 270,000 head. It is the second State in the production of butter, and the fourth in cheese. There are four hundred Coal Mines, and 20,000 square miles of bituminous 3,500,000 to 4,000,000 stone, limestone, ter's clay are tares of Iowa year ; it s a w - coal deposits. The output is from tons a year. Lead, zinc, iron, sand- marble, lime, gypsum, and pot- also produced. The manufac- are worth $70,000,000 a has extensive flour mills, mills, meat-packing es- tablishments, and va- rious other manu- facturing indus- tries. The Popula- tion in 1880 was 1,624,615; in 1890, 1,- 911,896. The real prop- erty was valued at $361,- 000,000 ; the .personal prop- 'erty at $140,000,000. The acreage of farm lands was $25,055,163, valued at $567,- 430,227 ; the farm products were worth $136,103,473. In 1890 there were 8,365 miles of rail- road ; the school attendance was 304,856; the newspapers in 1892 numbered 878. The capital of Iowa, Des Moines, is a leading railroad and manufactur- ing centre. Among its products are wire fences, carriages, pork, cotton and woollen goods. The population in 1890 was 50,093. Sioux City is a great packing centre ; the value of its yearly VZEW OF COUNCIL BLUFFS, IOWA, product is $30,000,000. The popula- tion in 1890 was 37,806. The third city is Dubuque, situated on the Mississippi River on a plateau. It is the terminus for five railroads, does a business aggregating $40,000,000 a year and is a grain, lumber, and meat-packing centre; the population in 1890 was 30,311. Horace Boies (Democratic) is Governor of Iowa. His term expires January 1, 1894. The State is Republican. JOHX BROWNS RAID. 161 Irrepressible Conflict. William H. Seward, of New York, in a speech in 1858 spoke of the conflict between freedom and slavery as " an irrepressible conflict between opposing and endur- ing forces." Jack the Giant Killer. (See Nicknames of Famous Ameri- cans.) Jefferson Simplicity. (See Slang of Politics.) Jingoism. (See Slang of Politics.) John Brown's Raid. In 1859, John Brown, who had pre- viously been an active participant and leader in the Civil War in Kansas growing out of the proposition to make that State a Free State, arrived in Maryland, near Harper's Ferry. With a num- ber of companions, he began the smuggling of men and arms into a house which he hired, his purpose be- ing the organization of an expedition to seize the national arsenal at the ferry, where there were 100,000 stand of arms, and with them to arm and free the JOHN BROWN'S FORT. negroes of the round ing country, whom he expected would rally around him. He would then take to the mountain's, whence he hoped to put into operation a plan for the wholesale freeing of slaves, de- fending his force at any hazard. On the evening of October 17, with twenty-two men, he seized the arsenal, cut the telegraph wires, stopped passenger trains, and took sixty prisoners. The negroes did not rally to his side as he had expected they would, and he was soon surrounded by troops of the State militia, who outnumbered him many times. Brown made a stout resistance, but finally was captured, being wounded severely. On his trial, ho was found guilty, and condemned to death, and was hanged on December 2. The incident made a national sensation, and helped to inflame the already bitter feeling between the North and the South. In Kansas, John Brown had distinguished him- self for his defence of Ossawatomie against an armed force many times as large as his own ; the Governor of Missouri, where he freed many slaves, offered a reward of three thousand dollars for his arrest. Brown belonged to no political party ; if he had any political creed, it was the freedom of the slave. 162 KANSAS. Johnnies, The, and Johnny Eeb. The names used by Union soldiers during the Rebellion when speaking of the Confederates. Judge Lynch. Derived from John Lynch, a North Carolin- ian who, failing to secure protection from the authorities, took the law into his own hands ; hence, lynch law, which is the punish- ment of criminals by other than legal authorities. The number of lynchings reported in 1891 was 195, distributed among the States as follows : Alabama, twenty-six ; Arkansas, twelve ; California, one ; Colorado, two ; Florida, ten ; Georgia, twelve ; Illinois, one ; Indiana, three ; Kentucky, eleven ; Louisi- ana, twenty-nine ; Maryland, one ; Michigan, two ; Mississippi, twenty-three ; Missouri, two ; Montana, five ; Nebraska, two ; North Carolina, two; Ohio, one ; Oregon, one; South Carolina, one ; South Dakota, three ; Tennessee, thirteen ; Texas, sixteen ; Virginia, five ; West Virginia, two ; Wisconsin, one ; Washington, three; Wyoming, one ; Indian Territory, two. There were 121 negroes, sixty-nine whites, two Indians, two Chinese, and one Mexican. Six of the 175 were women. These figures are taken from a compilation in the Chicago Tribune. Judiciary, The. (See Federal Government.) Junket. (See Slang of Politics.) Kansas. Kansas was part of the Louisiana purchase ; it was settled at Fort Leaven worth in 1840. It was part of Missouri Territory until 1821, and then remained unorganized until in 1854 the Territory of Kansas was erected, including part of what is now the State of Colorado. The attempt to make Kansas a Slave-State resulted in a Civil War, lasting sev- eral years; towns were sacked, hun- dreds of men were killed in battle or assassinated, and " Bleeding Kansas " attracted the attention of the world. GREAT SEAL OF KANSAS. It was admitted to the Union in 1861. It is an important Agricultural State, raising extensive crops of corn, wheat, oats, potatoes, hay, rye, tobacco, buckwheat, and sorghum. Lately the raising of beets for sugar has become an important industry. Forty million acres of Kansas soil are in grass, supporting an enormous number of domestic animals, including 750,000 horses, bred up with fine Clydesdale, and Percheron, Norman and Kentucky stallions; 100,000 mules, highly valued in farming operations; 800,000 milch-cows, improved by admixtures of Hereford and KANSAS-NEBRASKA BILL. 163 Galloway, Holstein and Jersey stock ; and 2,000,000 other cattle. The Live Stock of Kansas is valued at $150,000,000. There are great stock yards and packing houses at Kansas City, Kan., across the river from Kansas Citv, Mo. During 1890, 1,472,229 cattle, 76,568 calves, 2,865,171 hogs, 535,869 sheep, and 37,11 s horses and mules, in 108,100 curs, were received at these stock yards, and of these animals over 3,000,000 were slaughtered, 1,600,000 sold to shippers, and 320,000 sold to feeders. The zinc and lead mines of the State yield in a year $800,000. The population in 1870 was 364,999; in 1880, 996,096; in 1890, 1,427,096. The real property was valued at $244,000,000 ; personal property at $109,000,000. The manufactures aggregated $30,790,000 ; the farm products were valued at $52,000,000 ; the farm lands at $255,000,000. The daily school attendance was 244,697. There are 8,866 miles of railroad in 1890, and in 1892, 765 newspapers. The leading educational institutions are the University of Kan- sas, at Lawrence, the State Normal School, at Emporia, and the Agricultural College at Manhattan, besides which there are numerous smaller institutions. The United States institutions in Kansas are Fort Leavenworth, the headquarters of the De- partment of the Missouri, the United States Infantry and Cavalry School, and the United States Military Prison, both at the same place, and the Soldiers' Home near by, besides Fort Riley. Kansas City, the first city, is separated from Kansas City, Mo., by the Mississippi River. On the Kansas side the popula- tion is 38,316. Topeka, the second city and the capital (popula- tion 31,007), is a railway and supply centre. Wichita (population 23,853) is the third city. Leavenworth has a population of 19,768, and is a busy manufacturing and shipping point. The Governor of Kansas is Lyman U. Humphrey (Republican), whose terni'expires Jan. 9, 1893. The State is Republican. Kansas-Nebraska Bill. The Thirty-Third Congress opened December 5, 1853. On December 14, a bill was introduced into the Senate to establish a Territorial government for Nebraska, which was referred to the Committee on Territories, of which Stephen A. Douglas was chairman. Mr. Douglas promptly reported the bill on the following day with certain amendments. The true intent of the amendments, as to whether they had annulled former compromises or not, was not understood by the Senate ; and a special report was made to the Senate on January 4, 1854, further amending the original bill in such language as could leave no doubt that its construction meant the supersed- ure of the Missouri Compromise (which see). 164 KAXSAS-XKBRASKA BILL. The late Compromise of 1850 had rested on it as a basis by which other contingent issues had been settled ; and this sudden blow aimed at the foundation of the compromise fabric created a sensation deep and wide throughout the North, Mr. Douglas defended the billon the ground that in 1848 a bill brought before Congress for the extension of the Missouri Com- promise line to the Pacific ocean had been defeated, and that this defeat had made it necessary to effect the Compromise of 1850 to supersede it. He further stated that the object of the bill was to leave the settlement of the slavery question to the inhabitants of the Territory. This was the principle of what was termed " Squatter^Sovereignty " (which see). In reply to Mr. Douglas, Salmon P. Chase denied that the KANSAS STATE CAPITOLS, FIRST AND LAST. Compromise of 1850 had superseded the Missouri Compromise, and to substantiate his premise, quoted the language of Mr. Atchison, Senator from Missouri, who on that occasion, had declared that " though a grave error, the Missouri Compromise could not be repealed." The debate began early in December, 1853, and terminated with its passage May 125, 1854, modified to include Kansas, and clearly superseding the Missouri Compromise. Up to this time the Whigs had held intact their organization ; but the Southern Whigs had largely deserted them in the contest over this bill. The Free Soilers (see Political Parties) were an acknowledged power in the North, not to be despised; and the problem now was to find a political nucleus around which to gather in opposition to the Democratic party, by whose quasi KANSAS-XEBRASKA BILL. 165 IQQ KENTUCKY. alliance the South had managed to divide the political forces of the North and conquer them in detail. This condition of affairs led to the birth of the Republican party. (See Political Parties.) Kentucky. Kentucky was settled at Harrodsburg in 1774, bj Virginians. It was originally a part of Virginia; in 1790 it became a separate Territory. At the time of the secession movement, although a large slave-holding State, the State did not secede. Of her citi/ens, over 90,000 fought under the Stars and Stripes, and 40,000 under the Stars and Bars. Kentucky has large rivers, famous mineral springs, and it grows extensive crops of hemp, tobacco, corn, and wheat. GREAT SEAL OF KENTUCKY. It produces annually about 280,- 000,000 pounds of Tobacco, which represents nearly two thirds of the American crop. The taxes to the government since 1862, from its manufacture of chewing and smoking tobacco, cigars and cigarettes amounted to $840,- 000,000. Louisville is the largest tobacco market in the world. The State is celebrated for the Blue Grass Region, which covers 10,000 square miles, has a very rich black soil and great landscape beauty. The population in 1880 was 1,648,690; in 1890, 1,855,436.' The State debt was $1,449,000,000. It had 1^,746 miles of railroad, in 1892, 319,000 school children and 280 newspapers. Louisville, the chief city, with a population in 1890 of 161,- 005, is on the Ohio River, and has an extensive railroad and steamboat navigation.' Her manufactures aggregate $60,000,000 in a year. The Custom House, the Baptist Theological Seminary, the Court House, the City Hall, the Cave-Hill Cemetery, and the public institutions are among the prominent features of the city. Covington, the second city (population 37,375), is opposite Cin- cinnati, and has large factories. Frankfort, the capital (population 9,000), is the site of the grave of Daniel Boone. Lexington (population 22,355) is the metropolis of the Blue Grass country, has large live-stock and commercial interests. Kentucky Univer- sity and the State Agricultural College are situated here. John Young Brown (Democrat) is Governor of Kentucky. His term expires January 1, 1896. The State is Democratic. Kicker. (See Slang of Politics.) Kid-Glove Politicians. (See Slang of Politics.) LEGAL HOLIDAYS IX THE UNITED STATES. 167 Kindergarten Politics. (See Slang of Politics.) King Cotton. This allusion to the importance of cotton originated a short time previous to the Civil War. The South claimed that the North would not go to war with the South for the reason that it could not get along without the South's cotton ; " cotton was king," so asserted the Southerners. The saying gave rise to various rhymes. King Martin the First. (See Presidents of the United States.) Knifing. (See Slang of Politics.) Knights of Honor. (See Secret Societies.) Knights Templars. (See Secret Societies.) Know Nothings. (See Political Parties.; Ku Klux Klail. (See Political Parties.) Land Grants, Railroad. (See Railroads and Bridges.) Landslide. (See Slang of Politics.) Last Cocked Hat. (See Presidents of the United States.) Law Partner Miller. (See Nicknames of Famous Americans.) Legal Holidays in the United States. Not all of the States have the same legal holidays. Six recognized legal holi- days are set apart in all the States, but many States have special holidays in commemoration of some event of particular interest to its people. Following is a list of the holidays celebrated in the States and Territories : January 1. NEW YEAR'S DAY: In all the States except Delaware, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, and Rhode Island. January 8. ANNIVERSARY OF THE BATTLE OF NEW ORLEANS : In Louisiana. January 19. LEE'S BIRTHDAY : In Georgia and Virginia, February 12. LINCOLN'S BIRTH- DAY: In Illinois. February 22. WASHINGTON'S BIHTHDAY: In all the States ex- cept Arkansas, Delaware, Iowa, Mississippi, and Vermont. March 1, 1892. M ARDI-GRAS : in Alabama and Louisiana. March 2. ANNIVERSARY OF TEXAN INDEPENDENCE : in Texas. March 4. FIREMEN'S ANNIVER- SARY : In New Orleans, La. April 6, 1892. STATE ELECTION DAY : In Rhode Island. April 15, 1892. GOOD FRIDAY: In Alabama, Louisiana, Maryland, Pennsylvania, and Tennessee. April 21. ANNIVERSARY OF THE BATTLE OF SAN JACINTO: In Texas. April 26. MEMORIAL DAY: In Alabama and Georgia. May 10. MEMORIAL DAY: In North Carolina. May 20. ANNIVERSARY OF THE SIGNING OF THE MECKLENBURG DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE : In North Carolina. May 30. DECORATION DAY: In Arizona, California, Colorado, Con- necticut, Iowa, Illinois, Indiana, Kansas, Maine, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, Montana, Nebraska, Nevada, New Hamp- shire, New Jersey, New York, North Dakota, Ohio, Oklahoma, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode 168 LIFE-SAVING STATIONS. Island, Tennessee, Utah, Vermont, Wisconsin, Washington, and Wy- oming. June 3. JEFFEKSON DAVIS'S BIRTHDAY: In Florida. June 17. BUNKER HILL DAY. In Boston and suburbs. July 4. INDEPENDENCE DAY: In all the States. July 24. PIONEERS' DAY: In Utah. September 5, 1892. LABOR DAY: In Colorado, Connecticut, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Maine, Massachusetts, Montana, Nebraska, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, Ohio, Pennsylvania, South Dakota, and Washington. October 31. ADMISSION IN THE UNION DAY: Nevada. November .GENERAL ELECTION DAY: In Arizona, California, Florida, Idaho, Indiana, Kansas, Maryland, Missouri, Montana, Nevada, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, North Dakota, Ohio, Oregon, South Carolina, South Dakota, Tennessee, Texas, Washington, Wisconsin,and Wyom- ing. In the States which hold elections in November, 1892, elec- tion day falls on the 8th instant. November 24, 1892. THANKS- GIVING DAY: Is observed in all the States, though in some it is not a statutory holiday. December 25. CHRISTMAS DAY: In all the States, and in South Carolina the two succeeding days in addition. Sundays and Fast Days (when- ever appointed) are legal holidays in nearly all the States. ARBOR DAY is a legal holiday in Idaho, Kansas, Rhode Island, and Wyoming, the day being set by the Governor in Nebraska, April 22; California, September 9; and Colorado on the third Friday in April. In New Mexico there are no legal holidays established by stat- ute, and in Delaware no State holidays. Every' Saturday after 12 o'clock noon is a legal holiday in New York and New Jersey, and from June 15 to September 15 in Pennsyl- vania. June 1, 1865, was appointed by President Johnson a " day of humiliation and mourning " on ac- count of Lincoln's assassination. September 26, 1881, when Garfleld was buried, was appointed by President Arthur to be observed throughout the Union as " a day of humiliation and mourning." Legislative, The. (See Federal Government.) Let No Guilty Man Escape. (See Sayings of Famous Americans.) Liberal Republican. (See Political Parties.) Liberty and Union, Now and Forever, One and Insepar- able. (See Sayings of Famous Americans.) Liberty Party. (See Political Parties.) Life-Saving Service, The. One of the most valuable and energetic branches of the government is the Life-Saving Service, whose members patrol the coasts of both oceans and of the Great Lakes, and keep watchful lookout for vessels in distress, and for the protection of property. One of the features of this service has been the introduction of life-saving appliances, for use in carrying passengers ashore from vessels which are wrecked or going to pieces. Among these are guns for hurling a line from the shore to the ship in distress, a "breeches-buoy," an ingenious LIGHT-HOUSES. 169 contrivance for hauling a man ashore on a line, and a life-car, swung on a line from the ship to the shore, in which two persons may be accommodated. The crews are trained in the mysteries of launching a life-boat when the breakers are running high, of righting the boat in case it is capsized, of rescuing drowning per- sons, and of resuscitating them when they are brought ashore, as many are, insensible. The stations are provided with medical stores and provisions for use in case of emergency. The records of the service show many heroic deeds performed in the effort to save human life, or to rescue valuable ships from disaster. In 1891 there were 238 Life-Saving Stations, of which 178 were on the Atlantic Coast, forty- eight on the Great Lakes, eleven on the Pacific Coast, and one on the Ohio River near Louisville, Ky. The system was introduced in 1871, and in that time there had been 5,783 disasters in which the Life- Saving Ser vice rendered aid. The value of the property of these vessels aggregated $96,000,000; the value of the prop- erty saved aggre- gated $7 1,000,000 ; the value of the property lost ag- gregated $24,000,- 000 ; the number of people on the vessels which thus came to disaster was 49,530, of whom 592 were lost. The cost of maintaining this valuable service, r i j POBTSMOUTH. N. H. LIGHT-HOUSE. which is a depai t- ment of the Treasury Department, is about $1,000,000 a year. Light-Houses. The light-houses of the country are under the supervision of the Light- House Board, which is a subordinate 170 LIQUORS AXD TOBACCO. department of the United States Treasury. Its officers are engineers of the navy and its chairman is always a commodore. The Light-House Board has charge not only of the light-houses and beacons, but also of the fog signals, buoys, light-ships, etc., in the harbors or along the coast. In 1891 there were 1,167 light- houses and beacons, thirty-two light-ships, seven lighted buoys, 186 fog signals operated by clockwork, ninety-two by steam or hot air, fifty-nine whistling buoys, seventy-nine bell buoys, and four thousand other buoys of various kinds. On the rivers of the West there were 1,368 post-lights. Liquors and Tobacco, Consumption of. Malt Liquors. Cigars. Spirits. Cigarettes. Consumption Per Capita. The statisticians of the United States Census Bureau publish a tabulation showing the consumption in the United States of distilled spirits, wines, and malt liquors and the consumption thereof per capita of population. By the report for 1890 it ap- peared that the total consumption of distilled spirits, wines, and malt liquors in the United States was 971,272,770 gallons, of which 855,992,335 were malt Jiquors, 27,650,870 wines, and 87,- 829,562 distilled spirits. This consumption was far greater than that of any previous year since the statistics have been computed, and the consumption almost doubled in the ten years ending 1890. The tabulation further showed that the consumption of all wines and liquors (including malt), per capita of population, was 15.49 gallons, of which 13.65 was malt liquors, 1.40 distilled spirits, and .44 wines. It appeared from this tabulation that the consumption of Malt Liquors per Capita of population has steadily increased since 1840, when it was only 1.36 gallons; in 1860 it was 3.22 ; in 1870 it was 5.30 ; in 1880 it was 8.26. On the other hand, it appears that the consumption of Distilled Spirits per Capita of population has decreased since 1840, when it was 2.52 gallons, whereas in 1890 it was only 1.40 gallons. The consumption of wines per capita of population has shown a very steady average of .45 gallons since the statistics have been computed. The total Production of Beer in the United States for the year ending April 30, 1891, was 30,021,079 barrels, an increase over the preceding year of 3,200,126 barrels. The State which produced the largest amount of beer was New York, which pro- duced 9,088,109 barrels ; Pennsylvania was second with 3,118,- 248 barrels; Ohio was third with 2,636,668; Illinois was LOUISIANA. 171 fourth with 2,608,916 ; Wisconsin was fifth, with 2,403,640. The city which sold the largest amount of beer in 1891 was New York, which sold 4,448,315 barrels ; Chicago was second, with 2,034,696 bar-rels; Milwaukee was third, with 1,877,157 barrels; St. Louis was fourth, with 1,824,950 barrels; Philadelphia was fifth, Brooklyn sixth, and Cincinnati seventh. The world's pro- duction of beer is estimated at 4,485,273,549 gallons, and the consumption per capita of population in all the countries of the world is 41.59 gallons, being heaviest in Bavaria, where it is 263.40 gallons. In the consumption per capita of population the United States stands ninth, Great Britain, Belgium, Germany, Wittenberg, Denmark, Baden, Alsace-Lorraine having pre- ceded it. The materials used for the production of distilled spirits in the year ending June 30, 1891, were 2,951,547 bushels of malt, 18,671,536 of corn, 4,579,868 of rye, 2,610,918 of molasses, 96,166 of wheat, 28,389 of maltfeed, 14,637 of oats, 662 of barley, and 4,836 of other materials ; total, 26,347,641 bushels. The internal revenue taxes collected for the wines and liquors amounted to $107,691,504. (See Internal Revenue.) Cigars, Tobacco, and Cigarettes. In the year ending Dec. 31, 1890, there were manufactured in this country 4,228,- 528,258 cigars, an increase over the preceding year of 441,298,- 805 ; of cigarettes there were manufactured 2,505,167,610, an in- crease over the preceding year of 91,817,799; the number of pounds of tobacco was 91,746,311, an increase of 8,232,349. The internal revenue taxes on cigars and tobacco in 1891 was $703- 709. Little David. (See Nicknames of Famous Americans.) Little Giant. (See Nicknames of Famous Americans.) Little Mac. (See Nicknames of Famous Americans.) Little Magician. (See Presidents of the United States.) Little More Grape, Captain Bragg. (See Sayings of Famous Americans.) Little Tan. (See Presidents of the United States.) Lives Lost by Fire. (See Great Fires.) LOCO FOCOS. (See Political Parties.) Log Rolling. (See Slang of Politics.) Long Tom. (See Presidents of the United States.) Louisiana. The State was settled at Biloxi, in 1699, by the French. Napoleon I., at one time, thought of sending a French army to Louisiana to establish a New France. Being unable to defend the District, and fearing its seizure by England, he sold it 172 LOUISIANA. to the United States for $12,000,000. (See Cessions of Terri- tory.) Louisiana promptly seceded from the Union in 1861. Its coast is covered by a huge marsh, extending inland thirty miles, parts of which, in recent years, have been drained and improved. One half of the State is covered with yellow pines, and the cypress and the oak grow abundantly in the swamps. The State has 3,872 miles of inland navigation, the lowlands being protected from inundation by 1,150 miles of levees. Only about one tenth of her soil is under culti- vation; the agricultural products GREAT SEAL OF LOUISIANA. * worth $50,000,000^ year. The Rice industry is carried on on fif- teen hundred plantations, employing 50,000 persons, the crop varying from 60,000,000 to 120,000,000 pounds a year. The raising of Sugar utilizes $90,000,000 in land and buildings, and yields $'25,000,000 a year. The crop of 1890 was over 330,000 hogsheads of sugar and 500,000 barrels of molasses. This large crop was due to the bounty of one and three fourths to two cents a pound, granted by the government under the McKinley Tariff Act of 1890. The sugar industry employs half the popula- tion of the State. The State produces also corn (15,000,000 bushels), oats, and sweet potatoes, besides figs, bananas, peaches, plums, and other fruits, early vegetables, and tobacco. The Cotton crop yields 550,000 bales. The cotton-seed oil business requires 180,000 tons of seed yearly. The population of Louisiana in 1880 was 939,946; in 1890, 1,116,828; the net State debt was $12,513,214; the real property was valued at .|149,000,0,/00 ; the personal property at $64,000,000. The acre- age of farm lands was 8,273,506, valued at $58,989,117 ; the farm products were valued at $42,883,522; the school attendance averaged 90,551. The railroad mileage in 1890 was 1,758, and in 1-892 there were 173 newspapers. The only large city of Louisiana is New Orleans, which had a population in 1890 of 241,995. With the exception of Liver- pool, it is the largest cotton market in the world, receiving annu- ally 2,000,000 bales. It is an important centre for railways and steamships. The export trade in sugar, rice, and cotton is of mammoth proportions. A large trade in fruits with Central and South America, in wool with Texas and Mexico, and in hides, lumber, and iron is carried on. The city has many quaint and MAINE. 173 picturesque features, of which the Cathedral St. Louis, the French Market, the Spanish Fort, the Creole quarter, and the old French houses are the more notable. The Mississippi River here empties into the Gulf, flowing in a mighty sea, through the Northeast, South, Southwest, and other passes, its tide being discolored with the fine aluminous clay, gathered in its windings through broad and turbid alluvial low- lands. This noble river has a length of 4,38.2 miles, and with its tributaries drains 2,455,000 square miles. At the Gulf, the delta of the river covers 14,000 square miles, in a maze of creeks, bayous, and swamps. The jetties, at the mouth of the river, cost $5,000,000 to build; they afford a per- manent channel, thirty feet deep. Baton Rouge, the capital, is a sleepy old town on the Mississippi River above New Orleans ; the popula- tion in 1890 was 10,397. Shreveport, in Northern Louisiana, is on the Red River, and is a great ship- ping centre for cotton ; its population in 1890 was 11,- 492. The Qovernor of Louisiana is Francis T. Nicholls (Democrat), whose term expires May 16, 1892. The State is Democratic. Lowildes-CalllOim Bill. (See Tariffs of the United States ) LyncllillgS. (See Judge Lynch.) McKinley Tariff Bill. (See Tariffs of the United States.) Mad Anthony. (See Nicknames of Famous Americans.) Magnetic Mail. (See Nicknames of Famous Americans.) Maine. Maine was settled at Pemaquid in 1630 by the Eng- lish ; it was originally a part of Massachusetts, but was separated from it in 1820, when it was admitted to the Union as a separate State. It was a patriotic supporter of the Union in the Civil War, and raised seventy thousand troops. It is noted for its beautiful Lakes, its Mountains, and its diversified Scenery. It has 1,568 lakes and ponds, the chief of which are Moosehead, thirty-eight by twelve miles long, and 1,023 feet above the sea ; Sebago, fourteen by eleven miles, and EXCHANGE, NEW ORLEANS. 174 MAINE. GREAT SEAL OF MAIXE. four hundred feet deep; the Rangeley Lakes, 1,511 feet above the sea, and covering eighty square miles ; Chesuncook, twenty by two miles in area; and the Schood- ics, near the Eastern boundary. Maine has live large rivers, and over five thousand streams, thus giving it more water-power than any other part of the world of the same size. It has immense Areas of Woods, 20,- 000 square miles in all, abounding in huge white pines, yellow pines, Nor- way and pitch pines, elms, spruce, maples, hemlocks, beeches, button- woods, oak, poplars, cedars, birches, basswoods, ashes, and firs. Out of this vast forest 400,000,000 feet of lumber are made yearly. The State produces, also, red, gray, and black granite, and other kinds of granite which are in demand for public buildings. The annual production of granite blocks for street paving is 100,- 000,000 a year. Freestone, slate, lime, marble, and in small quantities, gold, silver, copper, lead, tin, and manganese are pro- duced. Some rare minerals abound. Of the total area of 19,000,000 acres, only 3,500,000 are im- proved. There are 65,000 farms, valued at $11,000,000. There is a large Maritime Trade. The State has 2,500 vessels, aggregating 500,000 tons. There are forty shipyards, employing two thousand men in the building of ships for the rjver and ocean trade. The cutting of ice in winter for exportation, the fisheries, and the canneries are important industries. There are several large paper mills and numerous shoe factories. The population in 180 was 648,936 ; in 1890, 661,086. The net State debt was $3,408,229. The real and personal property was valued at $266,000,000 ; the manufactures aggregated $79,- 825,393; the farm land values aggregated $102,357,615, the acreage being 6,552,578 ; the school attendance was 98,641 ; the railroad mileage was 1,338; the newspapers in 1892 numbered 175. It is estimated that 100,000 visitors go to Maine every summer ; ma)iy of them are sportsmen, in pursuit of deer, caribou, moose, and the game fish of the great lake country. Portland is beautifully situated on a peninsula, and has a fine harbor. Its shipping amounts to 100,000 tons a year, and its trade with Canada amounts to $50,000,000 a year. The popula- tion of Portland in 1890 was 36,425. Bangor, on the Penobscot, is one of the greatest lumber marts in the world ; the population in 1890 was 19,103. Lewiston, which is the third city, has MANUFACTURES. 175 several cotton mills; its population in 1890 was 21,701. The capital of Maine is Augusta, a handsome city on the Kennebec, with fine water-power facilities. Here is situated a national arsenal, with several thousand stand of arms and many cannon. The Governor of Maine is Edwin C. Burleigh (Republican). His term expires January 4, 1893. The State is Republican. Malice Toward None, and Charity For All. (See Sayings of Famous Americans.) Mail From Maine. (See Nicknames of Famous Americans.) Man of Destiny. (See Presidents of the United States.) Man of the Town Meeting. (See Nicknames of Famous Americans.) Manual Training. (See Education.) Manufactures. Early Manufactures. Capital. Value of Products. Employees. Wages. Establishments. Probably the earliest manufacturing in this country was of glass, at Jamestown, Va., in 1609. In the year 1614, the keel of the " Onrest " was laid, this being among the earliest recorded attempts at ship building. In 1629, bricks, which up to this time had come from across the seas, were made at a kiln at Salem, Mass., one year after the date of its settlement. Gov- ernor Stuyvesant, of New York, is said to have introduced the art. In 1633, Saw Mills were put in operation at New York. Tinware was manufactured at Berlin, Conn., in 1770, and in 1780, the first well-established glass factory was started at Temple, N. H. In the early part of the eighteenth century, Spinning Schools were established in Boston, but it was not till 1787 that the first cotton mill was established at Beverly, Mass. The year previous had seen the operation of a machine for carding, roving, and spinning cotton. In 1783, a cotton-yarn mill was started at North Providence, R. I., by Samuel Slater. Cotton sewing thread was first manufactured at Pawtucket, R. I., in 1794. The First Mill in the world combining the requisites for producing a finished cloth from the raw material was established at Wal- tham, Mass. Jacob Perkins invented and erected at Newbury- port, Mass., in the year 1790, a machine which had a capacity for cutting and heading ten thousand nails per day, but it 'was not until 1815 that the smaller nail, a tack, could be manufactured by machinery. Such a contrivance was erected at Bridgewater, 176 MANUFACTURES. with a capacity of 150,000,000 tacks per year, or about 500,000 per day. Virginia has the honor of first manufacturing hats, which were made there in 1622 ; in order to encourage this industry, the Colonial Government in 1675 forbade the importation of hats from European countries. The census of 1810 reports the returns from this branch of industry to have been $4,323,744. Silk was first manufactured in the South, near Charleston, S. C., in 1755. Lynn, Mass., now the largest shoe manufacturing centre in the world, began to make shoes in 1635. A machine for pegging, the first invention of any great importance to this industry, was the conception of Elias Howe. Combs were made of iron up to the time when the invention of vulcanite revolutionized the art of making them. In 1759, at West Newbury, Mass., a factory for the production of iron combs was first set in motion. The colonial hand-made cards for carding wool and cotton, itself a most valuable and important industry, was ruined in the year 1777 by the invention of a machine which produced these cards at the rate of three hundred per minute, and in 1784 this machine was further assisted by another which had a capacity for cutting and bending the teeth at the rate of 86,000 per hour. At Jamestown, Va., in 1620, laborers at the Iron Works were massacred by Indians, and work here was not again resumed until 1712. Cannon balls were made in Massachusetts as early as 1664, and a small pot, holding about a quart, is said to have been the first piece of casting attempted on this side of the Atlantic. The iron for this was " run in " at Lynn, Mass., in a furnace established at that place in 1663. In the year 1750 the Colonies possessed three iron mills and one furnace. Although the manufacture of Cordage was commenced in Boston and Charlestown as early as 1631, Maryland and Vir- ginia in 1794 had more factories for its production than any two of the other colonies. The first machine for making cordage was built in 1626 at New York upon the present site of Trinity Church. Another, a windmill, erected in 1633 at Watertown, Mass., was afterwards removed to Copp's Hill, Boston. The manufac- ture of wall-paper began in 1765, and in 1789 a mill for its pro- duction at Philadelphia was able to turn out sixteen thousand pieces per month, this amount being considered a fair quantity. It was not, however, till 1824 that the imitation of French designs was begun. The manufacture of Agricultural Implements was not begun until a comparatively recent date, and Thomas Jefferson was among the first to supply a pattern for a plough ; he worked MANUFACTURES. 177 out by a mathematical calculation the true surface of the mold board. In 1793 several of these ploughs were manufactured from his design and were used upon his estates. The manufacture of beer was first undertaken by W outer Van T wilier, his brewery having been erected in New York in 1633. Wine was manufac- tured first in 1622 in Virginia by a man who visited that colony for this specific purpose, and Governor's Island, Boston Harbor, was granted in 1634 to Governor Winthrop, who wished to utilize it as a vineyard. The distillation of brandy was begun in 1640. In this year the first linen cloth was made in Massachu- IRON MANUFACTURING IN PENNSYLVANIA. setts and one year later a bounty was awarded by the colony to encourage its manufacture. In 1644 the first systematic attempt at the production of Woollen Cloths was begun at Rowley, Mass., and the United Company of Philadelphia, which owned a spinning jenny im- ported from England, was organized in 1804. The first Paper Mill of which we have any account was erected at Roxborough, Pa., in 1693, on a stream since called Paper Mill Run, which empties into the Wissahickon, by William Rittinghuysen, who emigrated from Holland. Rittinghuysen 178 MANUFACTURING STATISTICS. and William Bradford were the proprietors in the manufacture of paper, made from linen rags, the product of flax grown in the vicinity, which had been manufactured into wearing apparel. This was fifty years after the art of printing was discovered and five or six years after the Crown ordered mills to be established in England. Benjamin Franklin was from first to last interested in the erection of eighteen different paper mills, of which in 1787 there were sixty-three in operation in America. Salt was manu- factured first, it is said, in Jamestown, Va., in the year 1620, and at Syracuse, N. Y., in 1787. In 1880, the Statistics of Manufactures were as fol- lows : Establishments Steam engines, horse power Water wheels . . . 253,852 2,185,458 ) . 1,225,379 J ' Employees, male, above sixteen years 2,019,035 ) ,. females, above fifteen years 531,639) ''' Capital '. $2,790,272,606 Wages 947,953,795 Value of material 3,396,823,549 products 5,369,579,191 The annual product of flouring and grist mills was $500,000,- 000 ; of slaughter-houses, $300,000,000 ; of iron and steel works, $300,000,000; of woollens, $270,000,000; of lumber, $230,000,000; of foundry products, cotton goods, men's clothing, and boots and shoes, about $200,- 000,000 each. Two thirds of the manufac- ^ tures are in New England and New York, New Jersey and Pennsyl- A DYNAMO. vania. The re- turns of manu- facturing in 1890 have not yet been complied, but unofficial fig- ures show a large growth, both in the number of establishments, and in the product. The following table shows the rate of increase of manufactur- ing in 1870 over that of 1860, and of 1880 over 1870. MAKYLAND. 179 1860-1870. 1870-1880. Establishments 80 per cent. 7 per cent. Employees 33 ,, ,, 33 , Capital 100 64 , Wages paid more than double, 52 . Value of material 37 , ,, products 2J4 times greater, 13 , The first State in manufacturing is New York ; the second is Pennsylvania. The United States, in the volume of* its manufactures, leads all the nations. By Mulhall's estimate, in 1888 the United States produced manufactures valued at $7,215,000,000 ; Great Britain's were valued at $4,100,000,000, Germany's at $2,915,000,000, France's at $2,425,000,000, Russia's at $1,815,000,000. Martling Men. (See Political Parties.) Martyr President. (See Presidents of the United States.) Maryland. Maryland was one of the thirteen original States. It was named after Henrietta Maria, wife of Charles I. of England.. It refused to join the Confederacy, although a Slave State. Chesapeake Bay, which is the largest American inlet, runs inland two hundred miles ; its oyster beds have a great value, and the Cultivation of oysters, having a product of 15,- 000,000 bushels a year, is a leading industry employing many men. Terrapin, seabass, white perch, her- ring, mackerel, weakfish, and shad abound in these waters. The Farm Products include 16,000,000 bushels of corn, 6,000,000 bushels of wheat, 28,000,000 pounds of tobacco, besides oats, potatoes, and hay, the whole valued at $40,000,000 a year. Peaches, melons, strawberries, and other choice fruits, grow in the fertile lowlands. The output of coal is 2,500,000 tons a year. The production of iron varies from 20,000 to 60,000 tons a year ; there are twenty- two blast furnaces. Zinc, iron, copper, marble, limestone, sand- stone, and slate are found, besides lime, epsom salts, mica, and granite. The manufactures employ 75,000 persons, and aggre- gate $100,000,000. The population of Maryland in 1880 was 934,943 ; in 1890, 1,042,390 ; the net State debt was $2,724,123 ; the real and personal property was valued at $486,000,000 ; the acreage of farm lands was 5,185,221, valued at $165,503,341 ; the railroad mileage was 1,231 in 1890 ; the school attendance aver- GREAT SEAL OF MARYLAND. 180 MASSACHUSETTS. aged 99,220 ; there were 200 newspapers. Baltimore, the metropolis of Maryland, is the fourth maritime city ; besides the immense coastwise fleet, the arrivals and departures of foreign vessels number 3,000 annually. Steamship lines run to eight foreign ports and to all the important American ports. The city is noted for its beautiful buildings, cemeteries, and parks. Here is located the Peabody Institute, endowed by George Pea- body; it has a library of 100,000 volumes free to the public, and an art gallery containing many rare art treasures. The Institute gives free lectures by specialists, and instruction in music to 250 scholars. There are many handsome monuments in the city. It is the seat of Johns Hopkins University, endowed by its founder with $3,000,000, mainly for the higher education of college graduates. It has fifty-five instructors and four hundred students. The Baltimore Free Library, founded in 1882, issues nearly 500,000 books annually to the citizens. The population of Baltimore in 1890 was 434,439. The Governor of Maryland is Frank Brown (Democrat), whose term expires January 8, 1896. The State is Democratic. Mason and Dixon's Line. This was a boundary line, defined by popular usage, which separated the free and the slave territory. The phrase was used first by John Randolph, of Vir- ginia, at the time of the discussion of the Missouri Compromise. Originally, it was the parallel of latitude 39 degrees, 43 minutes, 26.3 seconds, separating Pennsylvania from Maryland. Finally, it was the parallel 36 degrees, 30 minutes, and east of that, the course of the Ohio River to the Mississippi. Mason and Slidell. Mas.on and Slidell were Southerners, who, on Nov. 7, 1861, while on board an English passenger steamer, the Trent, were seized by Captain Wilkes, commanding the United States vessel, San Jacinto, and landed at Boston, and imprisoned. The Southerners were supposed to be rebel emissa- ries to England and France. The North supported Wilkes, but England demanded reparation, and actually began preparations for hostilities. The controversy involved the question ef the right of search of a neutral vessel, which, when exercised by Great Britain, had been a leading cause for the War of 1812. Charles Sumner and Secretary Seward maintained that Captain Wilkes had no authority for his conduct, and this government sent an apology to England, releasing at the same time both prisoners. Massachusetts. Massachusetts was settled for the first time permanently at Plymouth, in 1620, by Englishmen. The Massa- chusetts Bay Colony settled at Salem, in 1628, but in 1630 the capital was removed to Shawmut, which was afterwards named MASSACHUSETTS. 181 GREAT SEAL OF MASSACHUSETTS. Boston. Another colony settled at Nantucket and Martha's Vineyard, and still other colonies settled in the following years at several points within easy distance of Boston. In 1643, a confederation of Massachusetts, Plymouth, Con- necticut, and New Haven was formed for defence against the In- dians and the Dutch, and continued more than forty years. In 1691 Massachusetts, Plymouth, and Maine were united under one government called the " Province of Massachu- setts Bay and New England." The part played by Massachusetts in the Revolutionary War is too well known to require description here. Since then the State has had an in- timate relation with the history of the country in all its phases. It is a foremost State in Manufactures, Fisheries, and Commerce of all kinds. It is estimated that $500,000,000 is invested in manufacturing alone, the value of the product being s <>7n, 000,000. There are 24,000 firms and corporations, paying $150,000 in wages to 420,000 operatives. The manufactures are most diversified, including iron and steel wire^ boots and shoes, watches, silverware, electric motors, and electrical apparatus, cotton and woollen goods, shovels, agricultural implements, car- pets, furniture, carriages, cars, rubber goods, confectionery, paper, cordage, machinery, hardware, cutlery, and many other articles for use in every-day life. It has many powerful financial institu- tions, some of which have played an important part in the development of the West. Its natives have always been noted for their pioneer spirit, and thousands of her sons have settled in the West and grown up with the country. There are granite quarries at several points ; marble, some iron, and lead are produced. The Fisheries engage the attention of 100,000 people, employing one thousand vessels and twenty thousand men. The catch, which is principally in the waters of Newfoundland, Labrador, and George's Bank, includes cod, hali- but, mackerel, haddock, and bluefish, and is very valuable. Many Massachusetts vessels are in the coasting trade. The tonnage is 526,200. The farm products are valued at $48,000,- 000 annually, of which $13,000,000 is in dairy articles, and $5,- 000,000 in market gardening, which latterly has become a large and profitable industry. Although a small percentage of its population are agriculturists, the farm valuation is $216,000,000. MASSACHUSETTS. Massachusetts is the leading Educational State. The public school system was originated by one of her sons, and there are many institutions of higher learning, including several colleges. There are five normal schools, a normal art school, 7,147 public schools, 241 high schools, and 511 academies and private schools; the total number of pupils of all ages, in 1890, was 429,671. The population of Massachusetts in 1890 was 2,238,94. The real property was valued at $1,600,137,807 ; the personal property THE LONGFELLOW HOUSE AT CAMBRIDGE. at $553,996,819. They were twenty-eight cities having a popu- lation of over 12,000. They were 569 public libraries, with 3,569,085 volumes; there Avere 179 savings banks having deposits of $372,476,568. There were 2,093 miles of railroad, and 655 periodicals and newspapers. Boston, the capital, is situated at the head of Massachusetts Bay, and is surrounded by the most beautiful suburbs in the MASSACHUSETTS. 183 country. It has numerous historic buildings, including the Old State House, Old South Church, Faneuil Hall, King's Chapel, Christ Church, and several other buildings interesting by their connection with the Revolution and early colonial history. It has numerous buildings of fine Architectural Beauty, the more prominent of which are the State House, Trinity Church, the New Old South Church, and the Museum of Fine Arts, Many of its suburbs, besides being noted for their beauty, inter- est the visitor by reason of their historical associations. In Cambridge is Harvard University, founded in 1636 by John Harvard, the oldest institution of learning in the country, having fine college buildings and grounds, and upwards of twenty- six hundred students. It has also an Annex, for the collegiate education of women, having 130 students. Boston Common, situated in the heart of the city, has been public property since 1634, and comprises forty-eight acres of well-kept lawns and play- grounds, and has many old trees. The Public Garden, close to the Common, is re- markable for its horticultural display and for its statues of eminent men. Franklin Park, four miles from the city proper, consists of five hundred acres of beautiful lands cape. The national institutions include a Sub-Treasury, a quaint old Custom House, the Navy Yard CHAMBER OF COMMERCE AT BOSTON. at Charlestown, the Arsenal at Watcrtown, and the harbor forts, Winthrop and Warren. The Bunker Hill Monument is in Charlestown. The Public Library is free to the public, and issues annually one million books for home reading, and 700,000 periodicals. The Young Men's Christian Union has a well-planned building and five thousand members. The Museum of Fine Arts contains the works of many famous masters, and among the museums of the country ranks first. The population of Boston in 1890 was 448,477. The second city in size is Worcester, which is a manufactur- ing and railway centre; the population in 1890 was 84,655. The third city is Lowell, whose population in 1890 was 77,696. Its mammoth cotton mills and their products are famous the world over. It is estimated that they produce 145,000 miles of cotton cloth annually, and employ one million spindles. The other great manufacturing cities are Lawrence, Fall River, Lynn, 184 MAYFLOWER ARISTOCRACY. New Bedford, Fitchburg, Taunton, and Haverhill. Springfield (44,179 inhabitants) is a beautiful city on the Connecticut River, with fine public buildings and a large United States Armory. The Governor of Massachusetts is William E. Russell (Democrat). His term expires Jan. 4, 1893. The State in national elections has always been Republican. Massa Linkum. (See Presidents of the United States.) Mayflower Aristocracy. In Massachusetts especially this phrase is frequently heard. It describes the social influence and importance of the descendants of the Pilgrims who landed from the Mayflower at Ply- mouth in 1620. The pas- sengers on the Mayflower were as follows : Isaac Aller- ton, Jno. Alden, Jno. Allerton, William Bradford, William Brewster, John Billington, Peter Brown, Richard Brit- terage, John Carver, Francis Cook, James Chilton, John Crackston, Richard Clarke, Edward Dotey, Francis Eaton, Thomas English, Samuel Fuller, John Rowland, Stephen Hopkins, Edward Leister, Christopher Martin, William Mullins, Edmund Margeson, Degony Priest, Thomas Rog- ers, John Rigdale, Edward Fuller, Moses Fletcher, John Goodman, Richard Gardiner, George Soule, Captain Miles Stand- ish, Edward Tilly, John Tilly, Thomas Tinker, John Turner, Edward Winslow, William White, Richard Warren, Thomas Williams, Gilbert Winslow. Servants as follows : Carter, Cooper, Ely, Holbeck, Hooke, Langmore, Latham, Minter, More, Power, Sampson, Story, Thompson, Trevore, Wilder. Me Too. (See Nicknames of Famous Americans.) Mending Fences. (See Slang of Politics.) Michigan. The State was settled at Detroit, by the French, in 1670. It was admitted as a State in 1837 ; it consists of two peninsulas, which, in parts, border on Lakes Huron, St. Clair, Erie, Michigan, and Superior. Its extraordinary Water Facili- OLD ELM ON BOSTON COMMON. MICHIGAN. 185 ties allow it to carry on more shipping than any other Western State ; it has a fleet of four hundred steamboats, with a tonnage of 140,000. Its fresh water fisheries are valued at $1,500,000, employing seventeen hundred men and produ- cing annually 25,000,000 pounds of whitefish, salmon, sturgeon, herring, and other lakefish. The State is .noted for its rivers, ponds, lakes, and streams, most of which are utilized in the lumbering industry, which is the leading industry of the State. A large proportion of the lumber used in the East is Mich- GREAT SEAL OF MICHIGAN. ig an lumber, the production in the Saginaw Valley alone being over 1,000,000,000 feet of lumber in a year. There are in operation one thousand saw mills, having an invested capital of nearly $50,000,000 and a yearly output of $60,000,000. The lumber produced consists of cord-wood, cedar, hemlock, pine, and many other woods. The St. Mary's Ship Canal, connecting Lake Superior and Lake Huron, has the largest lock in the world ; it was built of granite, in 1881 at a cost of $1,000,000. It is 575 feet long, and eighty feet wide, with a lift of twenty feet. It is large enough to float two large lake steamers; over 10,600 vessels with 9,041,213 tons of cargo valued at $102,214,949, or one eighth of the entire commerce of the United States, passed through the canal in 1890. The tonnage on this canal is greater than that on the Suez Canal, and includes yearly 165,000,000 feet of lumber, 25,000,000 bushels of wheat, 2,500,000 tons of iron ore, and large quantities of coal. Michigan is first in the production of Iron Ore, the output of which is one fifth of the entire American production. The yearly output at present is 8,500,000 tons, worth $40,000,000. In the Lake Superior district are the most profitable Copper Mines in the world, which have produced over $200,000,000 worth of the finest copper. There are several gold mines in operation, and this region has also, silver, agate, freestone, marble, limestone, granite, and other valuable deposits. Salt is produced to the extent of over 4,000,000 barrels a year ; the production of coal is ' about 70,000 tons a year. Michigan produces of wheat, 27,000,000 bushels a year ; of corn 21,000,000 ; of oats, 27,000,000 ; of potatoes, 10,000,000. The fruit industry produces apples, peaches, cherries, plums, Igg MINING. strawberries, and grapes. The product of wool is 12,000,000 pounds yearly. The total manufactures of Michigan are nine thousand in number, with a yearly product of $150,000,000. The Population of Michigan in 1830 was 1,636,937 ; in 1890, it was 2,093,889 ; the real property was valued at $7ir,()00,000 ; the personal property at $140,000,000 ; the acreage of farm lands was 13,869,221, valued at $499,103,181 ; the farm products were valued at $91,000,000 a year ; the school attendance was 279,900 ; there were 690 newspapers in 1892, and in 1890 7,242 miles of railroad. Detroit, which is situated on the Detroit River at the outlet of the Upper Great Lakes, has an immense maritime and railway traffic. It has a water front nine miles long ; and more tonnage passes it than any other point on the globe. The tonnage passing Detroit River during 1889 amounted to 36,203,606 tons; nearly 10,000,000 tons more than the entries and clearances of all the seaports in the United States ; and nearly 3,000,000 tons more than the combined foreign and coastwise shipping of Liver- pool and Lpndon. The city has many fine public buildings and large factories. It has a fine hospital, a Museum of Arts, a Public Library containing one hundred thousand volumes, a beautiful Soldiers' Monument which cost $60,000, and a seven hundred acre park. On the river-bank is the United States Marine Hospital, and near the city is Fort Wayne, which is occupied by the United States troops. The population in 1890 was 205,876. The second city of Michigan is Grand Rapids, where an extensive furniture manufacturing industry is carried on. The population in 1890 was 60,278. Lansing, which is the capital, has some manufac- turing and is the site of several State institutions. The other important cities are Bay City (27,839 inhabitants), Muskegon (22,702), and Jackson (20,798). The Governor of Michigan is Edwin B. Winans (Democrat), whose term expires January 1, 1893. The State is Republican. Milk, Production Of. (See Agriculture.) Mill Boy Of the Slashes. (See Nicknames of Famous Americans.) Mills Tariff. (See Tariffs of the United States.) Mining. Gold. Copper. Silver. Petroleum. Goal. Building Stone. Early Mining. The phenomenal mineral production of the United States is MINING. 187 188 MINING. one of its chief sources of wealth. Nearly every State and Territory produces minerals in some form or another. Although handicapped by the lack of suitable tools, the people of the last century began to dig up the earth in search of the hidden riches. Iron was produced in Pennsylvania as early as 1688, when it is recorded that William Penn operated a blast furnace on the Delaware River. In 1715, iron ores were discovered in Virginia. Not long after Connecticut mined iron and copper ores, and many of the weapons used by the patriots in the Revolu- tionary War " were made therefrom. The Copper from the Granby, Conn., copper mines was used in coining the copper cents of 1737, the first copper cents used in this country. Quar- ries producing stone which was utilized for grave-stones were operated in Vermont as early as 1785. Gold was discovered in both Georgia and North Carolina about 1830, and was pro- duced in such large amounts that the United States Government established mints at Dahlonega, Ga., and Charlotte, N. C. in 1861. Between 1837 and 1861, over $6,- 000,000 of gold was minted at the Dahlo- nega mint. Mich igan had Salt Quarries in operation i n 1838, and copper, in the pro- duction of which it has grown so that it leads the entire world, was mined first in 1845. The coal and iron mines of Penn- sylvania have yielded extensive outputs for' over fifty years. Coal was mined in the States as early as 1781, by the Lehigh Mining Company. The Discovery of Gold in California in 1848 led to an immense immigration, and prospectors roamed through the contig- uous country with the result that the rich deposits of precious metals in other States were opened up. Gold was discovered in Idaho and in Montana in 1852, Silver in Nevada in 1858, silver in MARBLE QUARRYING IN VERMONT. MINING STATISTICS. 189 Colorado in the same year, gold in Wyoming in 1867, while in South Carolina gold was found in sixty places several years prior to the war. Arizona began to yield up its silver treasure in 187*. Since 1793, Twenty-nine States and Territories have produced gold in large or small amount. These are : Alabama, Alaska, Arizona, California, Colorado, Georgia, Idaho, Indiana, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, Montana, Nebraska, Nevada, New Hampshire, New Mexico, North Carolina, Oregon, Pennsylvania, South Carolina, South Dakota, Tennessee, Texas, Utah, Vermont, Virginia, Washington, and Wyoming. The Total Gold Production of the United States since its discovery, including 1891, is 11,870,345,000; of silver, $1,072,- 721,565 ; total, 2,943,066,565. Of the gold produced in five hundred years in all countries, up to 1880, the United States produced 19.7 per cent. (Mulh all's estimate) ; of the silver 6 per cent. Spanish America produced 21.5 per cent, of the gold. California is the first State in gold production ; Nevada the first in silver production. In 1890, the gold production was valued at $32,845,000; the silver production at $70,464,000. In 1891, the gold product was valued at $33,175,000 ; the silver product (coining value) at $75,416,565. The latter was the largest production on record in this country. The production of silver has steadily increased, while that of gold has decreased. The largest amount of gold produced in one year in this country was $65,000,000, in 1853. In 1889-90, the Coal Product aggregated $141,229,515 short tons; the valuation before shipment was $160,226,000. The average value of all grades of anthracite before shipment was *1.58 a ton ; of bituminous ninety-nine cents. The chief coal- producing States (1890) and their outputs in tons are as follows: Alabama, 3,378,484; Colorado, 2,360,536; Illinois, 12,104,272; Indiana, 2,845,057 ; Indian Territory, 732,832; Iowa, 4,061,704; Kansas, 2,230,763; Kentucky, 2,399,755; Maryland, 2,939,715; Missouri, 2,567,823 ; Montana, 363,301 ; New Mexico, 486,983 ; Ohio, 9,976,787; Pennsylvania, anthracite, 45,544,970; bitu- minous, 36,174,089 ; Tennessee, 1,925,689; Virginia, anthracite, 2,817 ; bituminou^, 865,786 ; Washington, 993,724 ; West Virginia, 6,231,880 ; Wyoming, 1,388,947. The total coal out- putin 1890 was about 175,000^000 tons. The output of all the minerals is increasing except that of gold. Granite is produced in twenty-four States and Territories; Sandstone in thirty five-States ; Limestone in thirty-five States; Petroleum is produced chietiv in Pennsylvania and New York (21,486,483 barrels), Ohio (12,471,965 barrels), West 190 MINNESOTA. Virginia (358,269 barrels), Colorado (316,476 barrels) ; Iron Ores, Michigan first (5,865,169 tons) ; Alabama second (1,570,- 319 tons) ; Pennsylvania third (1,560,334 tons) ; New York fourth (1,247,537 tons) ; Copper, Michigan first (87,455,675 tons) ; Arizona (31,586,185 tons) ; New Mexico (3,686,137 tons), Colorado (1,170,053 tons) ; Slate in twelve States, Pennsyl- vania being first, followed by Vermont, Maine, New York, Maryland, and Virginia. All the Quicksilver except a small quantity from Oregon comes from California. The Mineral Product, including the metals, pig-iron ($151,200,410), silver ($70,464,645), gold ($32,845,000), copper, ($30,848,797), lead ($14,266,703), and zinc ($6,266,407), be- sides quicksilver, nickel, aluminium, antimony, and platinum, was worth in 1891,1307,334,207. The Non-Metallic Minerals, chief of which are coal, bituminous ($110,420,801) and anthracite ($61,445,683), building stones, including granite, marble, sand- stone, etc., ($54,000,000), lime ($28,000,000), petroleum ($35,- 000,000), natural gas, ($20,000,000), cement, ($6,000,000), salt, ($4,707,869), phosphate rock ($3,213,795), and mineral waters ($2,338,140), besides thirty-four other non-metallic minerals, were worth in 1891, $334,959,893. Total value of all minerals in 1891, $642,294,100. Minnesota. The State was settled at Fort Snelling, in 1819, by Americans, although French fur traders, and afterwards missionary priests, entered the country as early as 1659. One part of Minnesota be- longed to the province of Louisiana, which was bought from France by the United States in 1803. It was ad- mitted to the Union in 1857. Lieu- tenant Pike, of the United States Army, visited the region in 1805 to expel British traders. The State de- veloped in the same phenomenal way GREAT SEAL OF MINNESOTA, that has characteri/ed the growth and progress of other great Western States. Prairies occupy the centre and south of the State, while the northern part is covered by an extensive belt of pine forests. The Mississippi Valley occupies two thirds of the State, the mighty Mississippi River deriving its source from the great cen- tral plateau of Minnesota, in Lake Itasca, 1,575 feet above tide- water. Near there also rises the Red River of the North, in Elbow Lake, which empties into Hudson Bay ; the beginnings of MINNESOTA. 191 the Great Lakes are also here. There are over fifteen hundred miles of navigable waters in the State, and there are ten thou- sand lakes situated in .1 wild and beautiful country much fre- quented by sportsmen. Near Fort Snelling are the Falls of Minnehaha, immortal- ized by Longfellow ; there are several other falls and picturesque cascades. The immense area and the fertility of farming country have enabled Minnesota to become one of the great grain-producing States. The production of Wheat has exceeded 45,000,000 bushels a year ; that of Oats, 48,000,- 000 ; that of Corn, 22,000,- 000. Only twenty per cent, of the available farm lands are under cultivation, and there are still vast areas open for cultivation. It is a fore- most lumbering State ; 472,- 000,000 feet of sawed lumber, and 180,000,- 000 shingles have been pro- duced in a year. There are extensive iron mines. The State also produces fine building stone, including limestone, whitestone, dolomite, and brownstone, besides gray, white, and red granite, which are much sought after for public buildings. The manufactures of Minnesota in 1890 aggregated $76,065,- 198; the acreage of farm lands was 13,403,019; valued at $193,- 724,260; the farm products were worth $49,468,951; the real property was worth $382,000,000 ; the personal property was worth $87,000,000. The school attendance was 111,641. In 1891 there were 5,666 miles of railroad, and in 1892 there were 476 newspapers. The population in 1880 was 780,773; in 1890, it was 1,301,826. 192 . MISSISSIPPI. The chief cit3 r is St. Paul, which is situated at the head of navigation on the Mississippi, is the capital, and had a population in 1890 of 133,150. Minneapolis had a population in 1890 of 164,738. These cities are within a few miles of each other, and both have fine churches, schools, public buildings, and dwelling houses. St. Paul is a centre of an immense railway traffic, and it is a great manufacturing centre, the yearly product amounting to over $50,000,000 a year. It is the centre of the wholesale and jobbing trade of the Northwest. It has large meat-packing establishments and extensive breweries and distil- leries. Minneapolis has lumber mills producing over 340,000,000 feet of lumber yearly. It is the largest flour centre in the world, having over twenty mills, with a combined capacity of nearly 40,000 barrels a day. The output of flour has exceeded 7,000,- 000 barrels in a year. Minneapolis has a Court House and City Hall erected at a cost of $2,500,000, a fireproof Public Library, and an Art Museum. The third city of Minnesota is Duluth, which had a popula- tion of 33,115 in 1890; it is situated at the extreme western point of the Great Lakes. It has a wonderful system of harbors which are reached by a ship canal, fifteen hundred feet long and three hundred feet wide. It is the centre of a great shipping trade eastward through the Great Lakes ; it has immense grain elevators, and the most improved machinery for loading wheat on to steamers. The capacity of its elevators is 21,000,000 bushels of wheat, and the arrivals and shipments in a year aggregate 30,000,000 bushels. More than 2,000 vessels, bringing 1,500,000 tons of coal, and carrying away over 3,500,000 barrels of flour, enter and leave the port in a year. The Governor of Minnesota is William R. Merriam (Republican), whose term expires January 2, 1893. The State is Republican. Mints. (See Coinage, Coins, etc.) Mississippi. The State was settled at Fort Rosalie, by the French, in 1716 ; the greater part of it was ceded by France to England, by the Treaty of Paris, in 1763, and belonged at the time to the Province of Illinois. It was a rampant secession State, and during the war was a centre of active hostilities from 1861 to the surrender of Vicksburg, July 4, 1863. The Missis- sippi River skirts the western frontier, its chief tributary from the State being the Yazoo River, 264 miles long, and navigable throughout. The Steamboats carry 50,000 bales of cotton annually from the surrounding country, and transport shipments aggregating MISSISSIPPI. 193 GKEAT SEAL OF MISSISSIPPI. $3,500,000. The Tallahatchie, the Yalobusha, Tchula Lake, the Big Black River, the Pearl River, the Tombigbee River, the Noxubee, the Pascagoula River are all navigable and are plied by steamboats in the cotton trade. The chief industry is Cotton, the product of which is now over 1,000,- 000 bales a year. Mississippi is the second cotton State. The crop is produced one third by white men and two thirds by negroes. Cotton seed is produced to the amount of 28,000,- 000 bushels a year ; the corn crop averages 25,000,000 bushels. Oats, rice, potatoes, wheat are also produced, and along the Gulf coast, figs, oranges, grapes, strawberries, melons, and other fruits. The State has 200,000 sheep, over 400,000 cattle, 1,600,000 hogs, 100,000 mules, and as many horses. It has a rich Forest Growth covering three fifths of its area, including oak, cedar, black wal- nut, cotton-wood, yellow-pine, poplar, and other trees. It is esti- mated that the pine woods are alone worth $200,000,000. On the Gulf coast are numerous summer resorts. The population in 1880 was 1,131,597 ; in 1890, it was 1,289,- 600, of whom 747,720 were colored ; the net State debt was $3,246,183. The real property was valued at $87,000,000 ; the personal property at $35,000,000 ; the manufactures aggregated $7,495,802; the acreage of farm lands was 15,883,251, valued at $92,844,915; the farm products were valued at $63,701,844 ; the school attendance was 193,1 19; there were in 1890, 2,- 332 miles of rail- road, and in 1892 there were 163 newspapers. V i c k s burg, situated on the Mississippi, is in the midst of a picturesque country. There are large foundries and machine shops, and sixty thousand bales of cotton are received in a year. There is a national cemetery con- taining the graves of over sixteen thousand Union soldiers who 194 MISSOURI. died on Mississippi soil. The population of Vicksburg in 1890 was 13,373. The capital of Mississippi is Jackson, situated on the Pearl River, in a prolific cotton and corn country. The second city of the State is Brookhaven, with a population in 1890 of 12,572 ; Natchez is on the Mississippi, situated on a bluff two hundred feet high and had a population in 1890 of 10,101. The Governor of Mississippi is John M. Stone (Democratic). His term expires January 1, 1896. The State is Democratic. Missouri. The State was settled at St. Genevieve by the French in 1755 ; it was a part of the Louisiana Purchase. The Territory of Missouri, founded in 1812, extended as far north as western Minnesota and Dakota, and included most of Kansas, Colorado, and Wyom- ing ; it was admitted to the Union as a State in 1821, under the famous Missouri Compromise Act, which per- mitted slavery in the State, but ex- cluded it from the rest of the Louisi- ana Purchase. The State remained true to the Union at the secession period, and raised many regiments for GREAT SEAL OF MISSOURI. the war. It saw some active fighting on her soil. By her own act, Missouri freed her slaves, numbering 114,000, and worth $40,000,000. The Mississippi River flows along its eastern boundary, and the Missouri River for many miles on the western. The commerce on the Mississippi, the Missouri, the Platte, La Grange, Osage, the Fabius, the Salt, and other tributary rivers, aggregates many millions a year. In Farm Products the State ranks third ; it raises of corn 219,000,000. bushels yearly ; of oats, 36,000,000 ; of wheat, 2(),- 000,000 ; of potatoes, 6,000,000 ; of tobacco, 13,000,000 pounds ; of cotton, 20,000 bales, besides rye; barley, sorghum, hemp, grasses, apples, and pears, plums and cherries, figs and nectar- ines, grapes, and peaches, strawberries and apricots. In the pro- duction of wines Missouri ranks second to California. There are 2,200,000 cattle in the State, 1,300,000 sheep, 3,200,000 hogs, and 950,000 mules and horses. There is a large business in native furs, which are made from the skins of animals killed chiefly within the confines of the State. The Coal mined in the State amounts to 2,500,000 tons a year. Beds of bituminous and cannel coal have a total area of 25,000 square miles, being a continuation of the coal-fields of Iowa. MISSOURI. 195 There are valuable deposits of iron ore, the working of which gives employment to thousands of men, and keeps more than twenty blast-furnaces in operation. Lead is especially abundant, the output having exceeded 60,000,000 pounds in a year. Zinc yields about 1 '2,000 tons annually, and in this industry Missouri is the first State. There are also quarries of sandstone of differ- ent kinds, of marble, of lime and cement, of slate, and of lime- stone. In manufacturing, flour is a leading industry. The acreage of tobacco lands is upwards of 15,000, with an average crop of 13,- 000,000 pounds, valued at $1 ,050,000. The State has ten thousand acres under cultivation for the raising of grapes for wines ; the value of the wine produced in 1889 and of the vineyards was $4,605,000. The Population in 1880 was 2,168,380; in 1890 it was 2,677,080. The net State debt was $8,439,749.20; the real property was valued at $550,- 000,000, the personal property at $289,000,000. The acreage of farm lands was 28,177,990, valued at $375,000,000. The farm products were valued at $95,000,000. The school at- - tendance was 376,000, the number of miles of railroads was 6,004, and in 1892 there were 849 newspapers. St. Louis has a fine situation on the Mississippi, in the heart of an immense river navigation, which makes her the most im- portant trade centre of the Southwest. The city covers forty thousand acres and has a river front of nearly twenty miles. There are twenty-two railroads converging at St. Louis. There is a fine bridge designed by James B. Eads, built at the cost of 810,000,000. (See Railroads and Bridges.) The clearing house business is over $1 ,000,000,000 a year. Fifteen million tons of freight are received yearly. The flour mills of the city produce 2,000,000 barrels of flour annually. The exports of hog products amount to over 300,000,000 pounds ; over 2,000,000 head of live stock are received. The towing of freight trains to New Orleans, a distance of 1,240 miles, on huge boats constructed for the purpose, disposes of over 500,000 tons of freight a year. The Fleet of Steamboats, leaving St. Louis for the lower Missis- sippi, numbers almost 1,000 ; those for the upper Mississippi number 800 ; for the Missouri River, 175 ; for the Illinois, 125 ; for the Cumberland and Tennessee, 150. St. Louis is the fourth MERCA>TILE LIBRARY, ST. LOCIS, MO. 196 MISSOURI COMPROMISE. manufacturing city. It is the centre of an immense brewing business; other manufactures are stoves, shoes, and tobacco. The population of St. Louis was '451,770 in 1890. The second city of Missouri is Kansas City, whose popula- tion in 1890 was 132,716 ; it is an important financial centre of the West; the chief industry is in meat-packing, in which it ranks first among the American cities. The third city of Missouri is St. Joseph, situated on the Missouri, in the western part of the State ; it has stockyards covering over four hundred acres and a wholesale and jobbing trade of $150,000,000 a year ; the popula- tion in 1890 was 52,324. David 11. Francis (Democrat) is Governor of Missouri. His term expires January 9, 1893. The State is Democratic. Missouri Compromise. This is the name given to the political act which resulted in the admission of Missouri as a State. When, in 1818, Missouri applied for admission, a bill providing for her admission, but prohibiting slavery within her confines, was passed by the House, but was defeated in the Senate. The Senate, in 1820, passed a bill providing for the ad- mission of Maine, and containing a ridr which permitted Missouri to organize, but the House rejected both bill and rider. After a pro- tracted wrangle, a compromise was agreed to, by which Missouri was admitted, but slavery was to be pro- hibited in the rest of the Louisiana Purchase north of thirty-six degrees thirty minutes north latitude. In- asmuch as this restricted territory included the greater part of the region north and west of Mis- souri, the compromise was more or less of a victory for the Anti- Slaveryites. The so-called Compromise of 1850, which was really precipitated by the Compromise of 1820, was carried through by Henry Clay as part of his famous Omnibus Bill (which see), and provided for the abolition of the slave trade, but not of slavery. This bill having become law, the slavery advo- cates, when in 1854 the Kansas-Nebraska Bill was introduced, in their arguments for the permission of slavery in Nebraska, de- clared that the Compromise of 1820 was to all intents and pur- poses repealed, and made void by the Compromise of 1850, and 1 GLOBE-DEMOCRAT " BUILDING, ST. LOUIS, MO. MONTANA. 197 a bitter struggle was the result, the upshot of which was a very clear drawing of the lines between North and South on the ques- tion of slavery extension. (See Kansas- Nebraska Bill.) Money in Circulation. (See Finances, Government.) Money Order System. (See Post-Office System.) Money Slang. (See Coinage, Coins, etc.) Monkey Wrench District. (See Gerrymander.) Monroe Doctrine. It was enunciated by President Monroe, in his annual message, in 18*23 as follows : " That we should consider any attempt on the part [of the allied powers], to extend their system to any part of this hemisphere as dangerous to our peace and safety ; " and, " that we could not view any interposi- tion for the purpose of oppressing [governments on this side of the Atlantic whose independence we had acknowledged] or con- trolling in any manner their destinies by any European power, in any other light than as a manifestation of unfriendly disposition towards the United States." This principle has always been recognized by the foreign powers. Montana. The State was settled at Fort Union, in 1829, by fur traders. The Lewis and Clarke expedition penetrated the country early in the century and crossed into Idaho, grants began to The immi- come to Mon- tana in 1861, attracted by the discoveries of gold. Mining Camps sprang up in great pro- fusion, giving birth to what has become the foremost industry of the State. It is estimated that over $400,000,000 of gold, silver, copper, and lead have been mined in Montana, and that one third of the entire pro- duct of those metals in the United States comes from Mon- tana. During the first ten years after the discovery of gold, $130,000,000 were taken out; in 1888, over $4,000,000 in gold, $19,000,000 in silver, $13,000,000 in copper, and $1,000,000 in lead were produced. The area of Montana includes 30,000,000 acres of farm lands, nearly 40,000,000 of grazing lands, and 26,000,000 of forests and mountains. Pine, cedar, black ash, and yellow pine, aided by GREAT SEAL OF MONTANA (BEFORE IT WAS ADMITTED AS A STATE). 198 MONTANA. the exceptional water-powers of the State, are brought to the mills. The eastern part of the State consists of rolling plains, the western part of elevated mountain ranges. The State is watered by several large rivers. The Missouri, which rises in the State, flows for 1,300 miles within its confines ; the other rivers are the Jefferson, Madison, Sun, Teton, Marias, Gallatin, and the Columbia, which flows northwest and empties into the Pacific ocean, also derives its source in Montana. On the Missouri River are numerous falls, the chief of which is the Great Falls, which descend 450 feet in fifteen miles, with one fall of eighty-seven feet in a vertical direc- tion. Part of the Yellowstone National Park is in Montana, and the Yellowstone River traverses its entire length. The State abounds in natural scenery and the mineral springs are noted among the health resorts of the Northwest. The wild animals of Montana include the deer, elk, beaver, moose, mountain-sheep, goats, bears, mountain-lions, wild-cats, and wolves. Before the advent of the white man millions of buffaloes roamed the western plain, but in 1884 the last great herd were exterminated. The Agricultural resources of the State have reached a high development. The product of wool is 10,000,000 pounds a year from 2,089,000 sheep, and there are 800,000 head of cattle. The plains of Montana afford an excellent feeding ground for steers from Texas and New Mexico, which are kept on the ranges for two years and then sold for beef. Coal-beds underlie 60,000 square miles and the output is 360,000 tons ; iron ore, granite, sandstone, zinc, and other minerals have been found, some of them in large amount. The defences of Montana are Fort Assini- boine, Fort Keogh, Fort Custer, Fort Shaw, Fort Maginnis, and Fort Missoula. The Indian Agencies are the Flathead, Fort Peck, and there are several Indian reservations. The population of Montana in 1880 was 39,159; in 1890, 131,769. The assessed property in 1888 was $67,430,000; the manufacturers were worth $2,000,000 a year ; the acreage of farm lands was 405,683 valued at $3,234,- 504 ; the farm products were worth over $2,000,000 a year ; the daily school attendance was 8,600. There are 2,181* miles of railroad, and in 1892 there were six newspapers. The metropolis of the State is Helena, which is also the capi- tal ; it is a substantial and prosperous city and stands 4,250 feet above the sea in a dry and exhilarating atmosphere. The popu- lation in 1890 was 13,834. There is a Board of Trade and a Citizens' Committee, organized in the interest of the city ; and there are public libraries, a fire department, waterworks, sewer- MONUMENTS AND STATUES. 199 age, and rapid transit facilities. The United States Assay Office is here. The second city of Montana is Butte, with a population in 1890 of 10,723 ; it is a wide-awake mining camp, the seat of several large gold, silver, and copper mines, having an output of over $'20,000,000. The third city is Anaconda, where is worked the largest smelter in the world ; the population is about 5,000. Joseph K. Toole (Democrat) is Governor of Montana. His term expires Jan. 2, 1893. National elections show that Montana is generally Democratic. It was admitted as a State on Nov. 8, 1889. Monuments and Statues. (See also Burial Places of Presi- dents under Presidents of the United States.) Washington Monument. Bunker Hill Monument. Statue of Liberty. Monuments of Cities. The monuments and statues in the I nited States tell the story of a nation. Presidents, statesmen, soldiers, naval commanders, jurists, philanthropists, inventors, and last but not least, the thousands who died for the flag, have been remembered by a grateful people in memorials of enduring bronze and stone. The lessons of valor, of patriotism, of duty, of great deeds nobly and chivalrously performed, have been thus symbolized that succeeding generations may profit by the example. Not only the nation, but States and cities have erected memorials in honor of distinguished dead. Besides these there are many monuments commemorative of important events. The highest, and therefore the most notable monument in the United States, is the Washington Monument at Washington, D. C. No structure in the world, excepting the Eiffel Tower at Paris, is higher. The latter is 989 feet in height ; the Washing- ton Monument is over 555 feet in height. The corner-stone was laid on July 4, 1848. Robert E. Winthrop, then Speaker of the House, delivered the oration. Work progressed steadily for about six years, until the funds for the construction of the monu- ment were exhausted. At that time the monume*ht was about 175 feet high. From 1854 until 1879 nothing to speak of was done on the building. In the year last named Congress voted an appropriation of $200,000 to complete the work. From that time work progressed at a rapid rate until December 6, 1884, when the shining aluminum apex was set at 555 feet 5 inches from the foundation and the work was declared finished. The foundation is 146 feet square; the number of marble stones used above the 130-foot level, 9,163 ; total weight of stone used, 81,120 tons. The total cost was $1,200,000. 200 MONUMENTS AND STATUES. The Lafayette Monument, also at Washington, shows a colossal bronze statue of Lafayette, in Continental uniform ; bronze statues of Kocharabeau and Duportail, De Grasse and D'Estaing, soldiers of the French army and fleet which aided in establishing the Republic, are around the marble base. Story's statue of Chief Justice John Marshall stands on the east of the capitol, and was unveiled in 1884. Among Washington's other statues are those of Admiral Dupont, Admiral Farragut, Benja- STATUE OF -WASHINGTON AT BOSTON. min Franklin, General Rawlins, Professor Henry, and President Garfield. There is also a large bronze statue of Martin Luther, erected by the Lutherans of America. At the foot of Capitol Hill is the Naval Monument, or Monu- ment of Peace. This structure is of Carrara marble, and was made in Rome, and was paid for mostly by subscriptions from the Navy. MONUMENTS AXD STATUES. 201 There is a bronze group east of the Capitol representing Emancipation, with Abraham Lincoln holding the proclama- tion over a negro whose shackles are broken. The entire work was paid for by ex-slaves. In front of the District Court House is another statue of Lincoln. Among the equestrian statues are those of General Jackson, Lieutenant-General Scott, General Washington, Gen. Nathaniel Greene, General McPherson, and Gen. George II. Thomas. Another notable piece of commemorative masonry is the immense pedestal and statue in New York Harbor. This, the gift of M. Bartholdi to the United States, represents " Liberty Enlightening the World." A giant figure of the Goddess of Liberty, holding aloft the torch of liberty, rests upon a pedes- tal 91 feet in height, and 52 feet 10 inches at the base. The mammoth electric light held in the hand of the giantess is 305 feet above tide-water. The height of the figure is 152|- feet. Forty persons can find 'standing-room within the mighty head, which is 14^- feet in diameter. A six-foot man standing on the lower lip could hardly reach the eyes. The index finger is 8 feet in length, and the nose 3f feet. The Colossus of Rhodes was a pigmy compared with this nineteenth century .Avonder. Eight years were occupied in the construction of this gigantic brazen image. Its weight is 440,000 pounds, of which 146,000 pounds are copper, the remainder iron and steel. The major part of the iron and steel was used in constructing the skeleton framework for the inside. The Bunker Hill Monument, at Charlestown, Mass., is 221 feet in height, and built of granite. It stands on a hill in the centre of a park, and from its apex, which is reached by a stairway inside, commands an exquisite view of Boston'js picturesque suburban country. Near the base is a fine bronze statue of Colonel Prescott, who commanded the patriots at the battle against the British in 1775. Boston's other notable memorials are statues of Franklin, Josiah Quincy, William Lloyd Garrison, Lincoln, Sumner, Everett, Lief Ericsson, the Norse explorer, Webster, John Harvard (at Cambridge), a fine Soldiers' and Sailors' Monument on the Common, and a monument to Crispus Attucks, a negro, the first man killed in the War of the Revolu- tion. At Concord, Mass., is a statue of the Minute Man. Monumental City is a title most aptly applied to Baltimore because of its many handsome monuments. The Washington Monument was begun in 1816 and finished in 1830. The column is of Maryland marble, 180 feet high, and is crowned by a statue of our first President. Battle Monument is of marble, and is in the form of a small Egyptian temple, supporting a colossal fasces ; 202 MONUMENTS AND STATUES. on this is a statue representing the city of Baltimore. This monument was erected to commemorate the Baltimoreans who were killed while defending their city against the British in 1814. In Baltimore, also, is the Odd Fellows (or Wildey) Monument; the memorial to James L. Ridgley, Grand Secretary of the I. O. O. F. from 1840 to 1881, and the McDonogh Statue. The BUNKER HILL MONUMENT, AT CHARLESTOVVN, MASS. Erected to commemorate the Battle of Bunker Hill, June 17, 1775. city received, in 1890, a bronze statue of George Peabody, by W. W. Story. There is a statue of Chief Justice Taney at Mount Vernon Place, also a group of bronzes, among which are " Baryes," " War," Peace," " Order," and Force," and " Mili- tary Courage," by P. Dubois. Baltimore also has a monument to Edgar Allen Poe. The State erected at Annapolis, Rinehart's MONUMENTS AND STATUES. 203 colossal sitting bronze statue of Roger B. Taney, Chief Justice of the United States from 1836 to 1846 ; in 1886, Congress placed here a statue of Baron de Kalb, who was mortally wounded at the Battle of Camden, while commanding the Maryland line. At Antietam are the monuments (of granite) to General Reno, and the colossal statue to the soldier dead, in the National Cemetery. Virginia's Memorials include the Monument to Unknown Dead, at Arlington, a large, square mausoleum-like structure, with inscriptions on the side ; the Yorktown Monument, which has a square base which tapers to a tall spiral column ; the Washing- ton Monument, at Richmond, which has a round flat base sur- mounted by square pillars, with a bronze figure of Washington on a large charger at the top, and the Robert E. Lee Monument, at Richmond, which represents General Lee on horseback at the top of the large granite pedestal, with six erect bronze figures of Virginia's statesmen standing on an intermediate base. New York City's Statues include those of Horace Greeley, at the entrance of the Tribune Building, Lafayette, Lincoln, Hamilton, Shakespeare, Burns, Fitz-Greene Halleck, Mazzini, Schiller, Humboldt, General Bolivar, Columbus, William E. Dodge, Farragut, Franklin, Garibaldi, Nathan Hale, the patriot spy (to be erected this year by the Sons of the Revolution), Irving, the Martyr's Monument, in Trinity Churchyard, in memory of Americans who died in British prison ships in the Revolutionary War, Thomas Moore, S. F. B. Morse, inventor of the telegraph, Sir Walter Scott, Washington (two), and Webster. The Obe- lisk (Cleopatra's Needle), in Central Park, seventy feet in height, weighing two hundred tons, and brought from Egypt by the United States Government in 1877, and the statue of a soldier, erected by the Seventh Regiment to commemorate its dead in the Civil War, are others of New York's interesting collection. At Tarrytown is a statue to Major Andre, the British spy ; it was erected by Cyrus W. Field. Philadelphia's fine parks contain several notable memorials, the principal ones being monuments to Washington, Lincoln, General Meade, Morton McMichael, Franklin, Columbus, the Penn Treaty Monument, etc. The Soldiers' National Cemetery at Gettysburg is the site of numerous memorials of the brave soldiers who fell in the memorable Battle of Gettysburg, July 1, 2, and 3, 1863. Eighteen States are here represented by the graves of their dead. The National Monument, erected at government expense, is of gray granite, crowned by a colossal marble statue of the Genius of Liberty, and surrounded by marble statues of War, History, Peace, and Plenty It was dedicated by President Lincoln the year after the battle. Scores 204 MONUMENTS AND STATUES. of other monuments commemorating the bravery of the sons of the Keystone State in the Rebellion, are situated in the centres of population. The Battle Monument at Bennmgton, commemorating the Battle of Bennington, is built of magnesian limestone. The structure is 301 feet high and is in the form of an obelisk. It CLEOPATRA'S NEEDLE AT CENTRAL PARK, NEW VORK. has stairs inside and windows at the top. At Bennington is also the Catamount Monument, the figure of a catamount with jaws open, poising as if for a spring. At Boone, Ky., is a monument to Daniel Boone, the famous Kentucky hunter and warrior ; at Chalmette, La., the Battle Monument, erected in memory of Confederate dead; at Spartansburg, S. C., the Cowpens Monu- ment, in commemoration of the Battle of the Cowpens, in the MOREY LETTER. 205 War of the Revolution ; at Fort Ouster, Mont., a monument to General Custer ; at Chicago, 111., a monument to Stephen A. Doug- lass ; at Williamstown, Mass., a monument commemorating the origin, at that place, of the foreign missions movement ; on the boundary line between California and what was originally Mexi- can territory, the Mexican Boundary Monument; at Plymouth, Mass., a handsome monument commemorating the landing there of the Pilgrim Forefathers ; at Watertown, Mass., the Norum- bega Tower, to indicate the spot where the Norumbegas are supposed to have erected a fortress five centuries before Colum- bus ; at Fort Riley, Kansas, the Ogden Monument, locating what is supposed to be the centre of the Union ; at Duxbury, Mass., a monument to Miles Standish ; at Schuylerville, N. Y., the Saratoga Battle Monument ; at San Francisco, the Star Spangled Banner Monument ; at Sacramento, Cal., a statue representing Columbus before Isabella, and another of Marshall, who dis- covered the first gold in California. Morey Letter, The. In the latter part of the Presidential campaign of 1880 there was published a letter purporting to have been Avritten by the Republican candidate, James A. Garfield, to H. L. Mofey, of Lynn, Mass. In this letter, the signer ex- pressed his opposition to the abrogation of the Treaty with China, a subject at the time which was causing much discussion on account of the "Chinese cheap labor" agitation on the Pacific coast. The sentiment of the country was in favor of the exclusion of the laborers of the Flowery Kingdom. The writer also expressed sympathy with capital in its strife with labor. Garfield at once pronounced the letter a forgery. The hand- writing, however, was very like his, and the Democratic managers circulated the letter far and Made. An investigation revealed the fact that there was no such person as H. L. Morey in Lynn, and a man who had sworn to the authenticity of the letter was convicted of forgery and sentenced to eight years' imprisonment. Morgan. " A good enough Morgan " is a phrase which origi- nated in 1826 from the political strife in New York State, in which the Masons sought to gain the political power. Morgan was a prominent Mason who disappeared, and was supposed to have been murdered by the opposition. A dead body supposed to be his was referred to by Thurlow Weed as "a good enough Morgan until after the election." Morrill Tariff. (See Tariffs of the United States.) Mortality in the United States. In the year 1890 the total number of deaths in the United States, as computed by the Census Bureau, was 872,944, of which 596,055 were of native- 206 MOTTOES OF STATES AND TERRITORIES. born persons, 140,875 of foreign-born persons, and 114,313 of colored persons. The total number of deaths of children under five years of age was 264,784, of which 41,911 were of colored children. Of the total number of deaths, by far the largest pro- portion was from consumption, which was the cause of death of 101,645 persons; pneumonia was the cause of death of 76,291 persons ; diarrhoeal diseases, of 74,576 ; diphtheria and croup, of 41,536. These .were the four chief causes of death. Mottoes of States and Territories. Nicknames of States. Nicknames of People of States. Nicknames of Cities. It has been customary with the founders of a State or Terri- tory to choose a motto either in English, or Latin, or French, or Italian, or Spanish, expressive of its destiny, the character of its people, or the principles of its political faith. These mottoes are stamped upon the great seals of the several States and Territories. Much ingenuity in their invention has been exercised. The States and Territories which have omitted to choose a motto are Alaska, Indiana, Indian Territory, Mississippi, New Hampshire, New Jersey, North Carolina, Texas, and Utah. The mottoes of the others, with their translations, are as follows : Alabama Arizona Arkansas California Colorado Connecticut Delaware District of Columbia Florida Georgia Idaho Illinois Iowa Kansas Kentucky . Louisiana . Maine Maryland. . Massachusetts. Michigan Minnesota. Missouri . . . Montana . Here we rest Sitat Deus Mercy, justice. Regnatpopuli Eurek; Nil sine nuinine Qui transtulit sustinet Liberty and Independence. Justitia omnibus In God is our trust. AVisdom, justice, moderation. Salve National Union, State Sover- eignty. Our liberties we prize and our rights we will maintain. Ad astra per aspera United we stand, divided we fall. Union, justice, and confidence. Dirigo Fatti maschii, parole feniine. . [Also " Crescite et mnltipli- cainini." Ense petit placidam sub liber- tate quietem Si quaeris peninsulam amse- nam circumspice L'etoile du nord Salus populi supremalex esto. United we stand, divided we fall. Oro y plata Founded by God. The people rule. I have found it. Nothing without God. He who transplanted, sustains Justice to all. Hail. To the stars through all diffi- culties. I direct. Deeds are manly, words wo- manly. Increase and multiply. With the sword she seeks quiet peace under liberty. If thpu seekest a beautiful peninsula, behold it. The Star of the North. The welfare of the people is the supreme law. Gold and silver. MOTTOES OF STATES AND TERRITORIES. 207 Nevada New Mexico Crescit eundo It increases by going New York Excelsior Higher, more elevated North Carolina None North Dakota. . . Ohio separable now and forever. Iinperium in iiuperio Oregon Alis volat propriis She flies with her own wings Pennsylvania Rhode Island dence. Hope South Carolina Ani 1 1 iis opibusque parati 1 1 : 1 1 1 1 spiro spero Spes ces ; ready to give life and property. While I breathe, I hope Hope South Dakota Under God the people rule Tennessee ... Agriculture, Commerce. Vermont Freedom and unity Virginia Sic semper tyrannis Ever so to tyrants Perseverando Washington Al-Ki West Virginia Obverse: Montani semper Mountaineers are always free- liberi men. Wisconsin Reverse: Libertas et fldelitas.. Forward Liberty and fidelity. Wyoming Cedant arma togae Let arms yield to the gown Nicknames of the States. Most suggestive is the con- trast between the inspiring and dignified character of State mottoes, and the playful and sometimes derisive nicknames of the States and their inhabitants. These nicknames multiply year by year, the old ones giving place in popular usage to the later ones. The following is a list corrected up to date: Alabama, Cotton State; Arizona, Sunset Land, Apache State ; Arkansas, Bear State (owing to its many bears in early times) ; California, Land of Gold, Golden State, El Dorado, Eureka State; Col- orado, Centennial State (because admitted in 1876), Silver State, Buffalo Plains State (now extinct); Connecticut, Land of Steady Habits, Freestone State, Nutmeg State (because pack pedlers from Connecticut used to sell wooden nutmegs as genuine articles) ; Delaware, Blue Hen State (because Captain Cald- well insisted that no good game cock came from other than a blue hen), Uncle Sam's Pocket Handkerchief ; Florida, Everglade State, Flowery State, Peninsular State; Georgia, Empire State of the South; Idaho, Gem of the Mountains ; Illinois, Prairie State, Sucker State (originating from an old miner's comparison of the miners, who deserted the Galena mines, with suckers) ; Indiana, Hoosier State (a corruption of " husher," meaning an Indian fighter who could " hush one to sleep"); Iowa, Hawk- eye State (Hawk-eye was the popular name of an Indian Chief whose tribal name was Black Hawk) ; Kansas, Garden of the West (on account of its productiveness), Sunflower State (on account of its abundant sunflowers) ; Kentucky, Blue-Grass State, Corn -Cracker State (because the poor whites use cracked 20S MOTTOES OB 1 STATES AND TERRITORIES. corn as an article of food), Dark and Bloody Ground, and River of Blood (on account of its battles with the savages); Lpuisianaj Pelican State, Creole State; Maine, Pine-Tree State, Old Dirigo (on account of its motto), Timber State, Lumber State; Maryland, Monumental State (on account of its numerous monuments), Old Line State (an allusion to Mason and Dixon's line), Cockade State ; Massachusetts, Old Colony, Bay State, Old Bay State ; Michigan, Wolverine State '(on account of its wolves), Lake State (it is bounded by four of the Great Lakes) ; Minnesota, North Star State (from its motto), Gopher State (because it is " honey combed " with animals inhabiting its soil. Gopher is a corruption of French Gaitfre, honey-combed), Lake State (it has thousands of interior lakes), Peninsula State; Mississippi, Eagle State, Border Eagle State, Bayou State ; Missouri, Puke State (owing to the vast exodus to the Galena lead mines in 1827), Iron-Moun- tain State, Bullion State, Pennsylvania of the West; Mon- tana, Bonanza State (on account of its mining wealth), Stubtoe State; Nebraska, Antelope State, Black-water State (from the color of the water of its sti-eams) ; Nevada, Silver State, Sage-Brush State, Battle-born State (because admitted during the Civil War) ; New Hampshire, Granite State, Switzerland of America; New Jersey, Garden State (.owing to its truck- gardens), Blue State, New Spain (because Joseph, King of Spain and brother of Napoleon Bonaparte, settled in it after Napoleon's downfall, having secured a special act from the legis- lature allowing him to hold property in the State) ; New Mexico, Sunshine State; New York, Empire State, Excel- sior State ; North Carolina, old North State, Turpentine State (turpentine is a chief production) ; North Dakota, Sioux State, Land of the Dakotas, Flickertail; Ohio, Buck- Eye State (from the buck-eye trees) ; Oklahoma, Boomer's Paradise; Oregon, Web Foot (because of the humid cli- mate which is specially adapted to animals having webfeet), Beaver State, Sunset State, Pacific State; Pennsylvania, Keystone State (because its representative was the thirteenth voter in favor of signing the Declaration of Independence and thereby placed the key-stone in the arch of liberty), Iron and Oil State; Rhode Island, Little Khody, Plantation State; South Carolina, Palmetto State (a palmetto tree is on the State Arms); South Dakota, Swiagecat; Tennessee, Volunteer State (because it sent many volunteers to the War of 1812), Hog and Hominy State, Lions' Den State, Mother of Southwestern Statesmen (having given three Presidents) ; Texas, Lone Star State (the flag had one star before the State MOTTOKS OF STATES A^D TERKlf ORtES. f>09 was admitted) ; Utah, Mormon State, Inter-Mountain Territory, Desert (so called by the Mormons) ; Vermont, Green Moun- tain State; Virginia, Mother of Presidents, Old Dominion, Mother of States (because of its once extensive domain out of which several States were made); Washing- ton, Evergreen State, Chi- nook; West Virginia, Panhandle State, Switzer- land of America, Mountain State; Wisconsin, Badger State (from a badger on its coat of arms), Copper State ; Wyoming, Equality State (because women have equal suffrage with men). Nicknames of the People of States. The nicknames of the people of States are the inventions, as :, rule, of the inhabitants of c ontiguous States, . and for this reason are not always complimentary. They are even more graphic than the nicknames of the States. They are as follows : Ala- bama, Lizards (the streams of Alabama are full of them) ; Arkansas (an allusion to the bowie-knife which in pioneer days all self-respect- ing citizens carried on their persons) ; California, Gold Hunters; Colorado, Hovers (because the early settlers used to move from place to place prospecting), Pike's Peakers (after Colorado's celebrated mountain peak) ; BARTHOLDI'S STATUE OF LIBERTY, NEW Connecticut, Nutmeggers; YOKK J ^^ a ( ^^ sma!m Delaware, Blue Hen's Chickens (derived from the nickname of Colonel Caldwell's regi- ment of troops in the Revolution. See Nicknames of States) ; 210 MOTTOES OF STATES AND TERRITORIES. Dakota, Squatters (on account of the early immigrants, who "squatted" on the land waiting for the "boom"); Florida, Fly-up-the-Creeks (an allusion to the native river-birds) ; Georgia, Buzzards (there is a State law making it a mis- demeanor to destroy the buzzard, which is regarded as of value in the purification of the atmosphere) ; Idaho, Fortune Hunters (because it was settled by people who regarded it as an El Dorado) ; Illinois, Suckers (applied in consequence of an allusion to the people of a certain section who were like suckers in that they go " up river in spring, spawn, and come down again in the fall"); Indiana, Hoosiers; Iowa, Hawk-eyes; Kansas, Jayhawkers (the Jayhawkers were a sort of free-boot- ers. The name was first used by a local Irishman, who said the jayhawker is a native bird in the Emerald Isle, which preys upon other birds) ; Kentucky, Corn Crackers (see Nicknames of States); Louisiana, Creoles; Maine, Foxes (the woods of Maine abound with foxes, and the trapping of them is carried on by the woodsmen) ; Maryland, Clam Hunters (allusion to a thriving native industry) ; Massachusetts, Bean Eaters (no well-regulated family in the State fails to eat baked beans on Saturday night or Sunday morning) ; Michigan, Wolverines (from the abundance of wolves in her forests); Minnesota, Gophers (see Nicknames of States) ; Mississippi, Tadpoles (the State was once part of the French domain of Louisiana, whose inhabitants were known as Crapauds (frogs). The transition from frogs to tadpoles was an easy one) ; Missouri, Pukes (see Nicknames of States) ; Nebraska, Bug-Eaters (so called from the night-prowling bat) ; Nevada, Sage Hens (so called from a native bird which feeds on the sage-bushes) ; New Hampshire, Granite Boys; New Jersey, Clam Catchers (a considerable part of the coast population derives a living catch- ing clams), and Jersey Blues (from the famous blue laws of the State ; New Mexico, Spanish Indians (from the native In- dians who spoke Spanish, which they acquired from the Spanish missionaries who invaded the region in the sixteenth century, and established their churches in the midst of the savages, thousands of whom were converted to Christianity) ; New York, Knicker- bockers (the word was the invention of Washington Irving, his nom de plume, in a series of papers regarding life in New York, being Diedrich Knickerbocker) ; North Carolina, Tar Heelers (a playful allusion to the tar industry of the State ; the clothing of those engaged in it was habitually smeared with the tar, and when they went into battle, it was said that they would stick) ; Ohio, Buck-Eyes (see Nicknames of States) ; Oregon, Hard Cases (because of the rowdy element among its first settlers), MOTTOES OF STATES AXD TERRITORIES. 211 also Web-Feet (see Pennanites (that is, also Leather Heads dustry which em- Carolina, Sand- population living in the fact that many backwoods, where Butternuts (from the Civil War) ; Nicknames of States) ; Pennsylvania, followers of William Penn), (on account of the leather in- ploys many persons) ; South Killers (because of the large the hills), also Weasels (from of the inhabitants live in the weasels abound) ; Tennessee, the clothing worn by its troops in Texas, Beef -Heads (an allusion OLD STATE HOUSE, BOSTON. to the cattle industry of the State); Utah, Polygamists; Ver- mont, Green Mountain Boys; Virginia, Beadles (the early 212 MULLIGAN LETTERS. colonial courts had beadles); West Virginia, Pan-handlers (owing to the peculiar shape of the State) ; Wisconsin, Badgers (see Nicknames of States). Nicknames of Cities. The nicknames of cities in the United States are no less original than are those of the people of States. They are so characteristic that no explanation is needed. Albany, Edinburgh of America ; Allegheny, Twin City ; At- lanta, Gate City of the South; Baltimore, Monumental City; Bangor, Lumber City; Boston, The Hub, Modern Athens, City of Notions; Brooklyn, City of Homes, Churches ; Buffalo, Queen Gty of the Lakes; Burlington, Iowa, Orchard City; Charleston, City of the Earthquake, Palmetto City ; Chicago, Garden City, Prairie City, Windy City; Cincinnati, Queen of the West, and Porkopolis ; Cleveland, Forest City ; Denver, City of the Plains; Detroit, City of the Straits; Hartford, In- surance City; Harrisburg, Pivotal City; Indianapolis, Rail- road City; Keokuk, Gate City; Lafayette, Star City; Leavenworth, Cottonwood City; Louisville, Falls City; Lowell, City of Spindles ; Milwaukee, Cream City, City of Beer and Bricks; Minneapolis, City of Flour and Sawdust; Nashville, Rock City; New Haven, Elm City; New Or- leans, Crescent City; New York, Empire City, Gotham, and Metropolis of America; Philadelphia, City of Brotherly Love, City of Penn, Quaker City, and Centennial City ; Pittsburgh, Iron City and Smoky City ; Portland, Me., Forest City and Hill City; Providence, Ro'ger Williams' City ; Raleigh, Oak City; Richmond, Cockade City, and Modern Rome ; Rochester, Aqueduct City and Flour City; Sacramento, Miner's Pocket- book; Salt Lake City, Mormon City; San Francisco, Golden Gate, and Frisco; St. Louis, Mound City ; St. Paul, Gem City and North Star City ; Savannah, Forest City of the South; Vicksburg, Key City; Washington, City of Mag- nificent Distances and Federal City ; Waterbury, Brass City. Mugwump. This oft-quoted word is of Indian origin, and was used in Connecticut to designate a great man, a chief, or duke. It is found in Eliot's Indian Bible, as Mukquomp, and in the gospel of Matthew, and also in Genesis. It was first used in recent years by the Indianapolis Sentinel, in 1872. In the presidential campaign of 1884, the New York Sun applied the word to those Republicans who refused to vote for James G. Blaine. Mulligan Letters, The. The correspondence between Warren Fisher, of Boston, and James G. Blaine, which played so prominent a part in the Cleveland-Blaine campaign in 1884, was NATIONAL BANKS. 213 known as the Mulligan letters because they were first described by James Mulligan before an Investigating Committee of Congress in 1876. Mulligan was Fisher's private secretary. In his testi- mony before the committee he charged Mr. Elaine with having stolen the letters from him under a promise to return them after having been allowed to read them, in order, as he said, to refresh his memory regarding them. *' Burn this letter," " I do not feel that I shall prove a deadhead in this enterprise," and " An anchor to windward " all occur in this correspondence. (See Sayings of Famous Americans.) Mlircheson Letter. (See Sackville Incident.) My Country, 'Tis Of Thee. (See Songs of the Nation.) Napoleon Of Protection. (See Nicknames of Famous Americans.) Natick Cobbler. (See Nicknames of Famous Americans.) Nationalists. (See Political Parties.) National Bank Act. (See National Banks.) National Banks. National Bank Act. Savings Banks. Organization. Deposits. The national banks originated out of the financial embarrass- ment which confronted the government in its effort to carry on the Civil War. In order to raise the revenue necessary for the maintenance of the Army and Navy, the establishment of national banks was suggested. These banks were to be organized to issue banknotes, secured by United States bonds deposited with the Secretary of the Treasury. The proposition was outlined by the Secretaiy of the Treasury, Salmon P. Chase, in a report to Con- gress in 1861. He argued that by this system the government could easily obtain loans, that there would be established a uni- form currency, and that there would be a community of interests between the government and the financial institutions of the country. It was not until February, 1863, that the National Bank Act, having been passed by Congress, was signed by the President. This act provided for the organization of national banks, by at least five persons for each bank. All the capital stock was to be paid up in full. The circulation should not ex- ceed ninety per cent, of the market value of the government bonds deposited in the Treasury, and should not exceed ninety per cent, of the par value. The circulation of the banks was to be guaranteed by the Secretary of the Treasury, and first liens on the assets of the banks were vested in the government, to 214 NATIONAL BANKS. cover any possible deficit which the bonds deposited might not make good. By the terms of the act, the circulation was limited to $300,000,000, but in 1875 all restrictions on circulation were abolished. Banks could not organize with a Capital Stock of less than $50,000 in towns having less than six thousand inhabitants. In towns of more inhabitants, the minimum of capital was placed at $100,000, and in cities of fifty thousand inhabitants the mini- mum was put at $200,000 capital. State banks were allowed to be converted into national banks, but only a few banks were so converted until 1865, when the act was passed which placed the tax of ten per cent, on notes of State banks or of individuals which were used as circulation or paid out by them. In July, 1864, there were 467 national banks ; a year later there were 1,294. The national banks are under control of National Bank Ex- aminers who are supposed to exercise over them a strict supervision and to make thorough examination of the banks at intervals. The national banks are taxed one per cent, on their circulation, and one half of one per cent, on their deposits, besides having to pay a State tax. They are restricted from making loans on real estate, or on their own notes, or on their own stock, or on legal tender notes, or to any one person or concern to the extent of more than one tenth of their capital stock. In 1891, there Were 3,577 national banks, with a total capital of $660,108,261, a surplus of $222,766,668, dividends paid in that year of $50,795,011, and total net earnings of $75,763,614. The number of banks had steadily increased year by year; in 1875 the number was 2,047. On November 1, 1891, the banks held $346,681,016 in legal tender notes, $15,282,625 of fractional currency, and $172,184,558 of notes of other national banks, in- cluding gold notes. Saving Banks. The first savings bank in this country was the Philadelphia Savings Fund Society, which opened for the reception of deposits in 1816. By the last report issued by the Comptroller of the United States Treasury, 1889-90, it appeared that there were 921 savings banks, holding deposits to the NATIONAL PARK BANK, NEW YORK. NATIONAL COMMITTEE. 215 amount of $1,524,844,506, deposited by 4,258,623 persons. The average deposit was $358.04. The State having the largest deposits was New York, which is the most populous State, and which had 8550,066,657, and 1,420,097 depositors. Massachu- setts, which is sixth in population, was second in the amount of its deposits, having $332,723,688 and 1,029,694 depositors. Con- necticut, the twenty-ninth State in population, was third in the amount of its deposits, having $110,370,962 and 294,896 deposi- tors. The largest average to each depositor was in California, where the average was $787.74. California was fourth in the amount of its deposits, having $98,442,007. Both in the number of their depositors and in the amount of deposits, the savings banks of the United States lead those of any other country, proving that the Americans are the thriftiest people in the world. Great Britain has deposits of $536,000,000 and 3,715,000 deposi- tors; France, $559,000,000 deposits and 4,150,000 depositors; Austria, $613,000,000 deposits and 1,850,000 depositors, etc. National Cemeteries. (See Army United States.) National Committee, The. The National Committee of a great political party takes charge of the candidate as soon as he has been nominated, and from that time until the returns from all the States are received, his movements are subject to its control. It is generally the case that the candidate's nomi- nation has been anticipated, so that the committee is able to map out beforehand the plan of the campaign, determining both what the policy of the campaign will be, but also in what States the aggressive work must be done. One of the first duties of the commit- tee is the publication of a campaign life of the candidate, which must have an individuality which will appeal to the imagination of the voter. The voter likes nothing so well as to read the intimate personal history of the candidate from childhood up. To this end the candidate himself, and his relatives and friends, give to the biographer all information which will picture the candidate in every phase of his private and public career (not excepting the members of his family), in a favorable light before the public mind. PACIFIC BANK, SAN FRANCISCO. 216 NATIONAL COMMITTEE. This Personal Element of presidential campaigns is one of the results of democracy, and while in some respects it may not be pleasing to the nominee, it is nevertheless productive of a bond of human sympathy between the ruler and the ruled, which in a Republic is inseparable from its perpetuity. The mapping out of a campaign by the committee requires qualities of leadership, which while differing from those of a general of an army, are not less rare. Upon the Chairman of the Committee devolves the heavy work of the campaign. As a rule he gives to it his entire time during the six months of the canvass. He has at his beck and call a number of lieutenants ready at a moment's notice for special service. He keeps posted upon the strength and weak- ness of his own and the rival party, not only in the doubtful States themselves but in each of their cities and important towns ; he knows their leading industries, how they are affected by the tariff or other legislation, and the attitude of their business men toward this or that bill in Congress ; he is familiar, also, with the strife of factions in States and cities, and knows the leaders thereof, and one of his chief aims is to unite them in the com- mon cause before election day ; he consults often with the editors of the party organs, and frequently furnishes them with political news and editorial inspiration ; he originates schemes for attacking the enemy, and having at his command a large staff of writers and clerks, he can print and distribute, at a day's notice, thousands of copies of a campaign document; the Publi- cation office of the National Committee issues in the course of a campaign, political matter aggregating several million copies, covering a variety of subjects for distribution in all the States. Such work as this is all done, as it were, behind the scene ; the public sees only the result. Besides, the chairman makes dates for the candidate to speak, and works up through lieutenants in various parts of the country, public interest in his coming ; he raises funds for the expenses of the campaign, which are neces- sarily heavy ; he selects campaign speakers, instructing them re- garding the issues they shall lay most stress upon, and those upon which they must touch lightly upon ; he must, moreover, seize any political straw there may chance to be in the air affecting the enemy's intentions and turn it to their disadvantage. The chairman is elected by the members of the Committee from the States, there being one member from each State, who is elected usually by the delegate to the National Convention. The Members from the States are selected from the standpoint of their political power, their acquaintance with the politics of their States, and their political sagacity. Generally NATIONAL COMMITTEE. 217 speaking, each member of the Committee from a State is respon- sible for his State on election day. The Expenses of conducting a presidential campaign aggre- gate at least a million dollars. This money is spent both for legitimate and illegitimate purposes. The equipment of political clubs in their parades, the hiring of public halls, brass bands, and of special cars for the candidate, printing, clerk-hire, grand stands, telegrams, campaign banners and flags, fireworks, deco- rations, " missionary " work by emissaries sent out on one errand or another these are the chief items of a legitimate expense which aggregates a large sum. There is also popularly supposed to be a large fund reserved for use on election day, in the purchase of votes The actual extent of this practice is probably exag- gerated, although it cannot be questioned that it exists in all the doubtful States. " Soap," applied in large quantities in a doubt- ful State, has always been regarded as an important factor in carrying the election. (See " Political Slang.") The money of the National Committee is raised either by voluntaiy or solicited subscription. Leaders of a party who are wealthy are expected, as a matter of course, to subscribe large sums, and also manu- facturers and others whose industries are benefited by legisla- tion originating with the party's leaders. It not infrequently happens that this money is solicited on the eve of the election, " for getting out the vote," but when this is the case, the sus- picion of intended corruption is always aroused. One of the advantages claimed for the Australian Ballot was that it pre- vented corruption and intimidation at the polls. Under the old system of voting, the venal voter received his vote from, and deposited it in plain sight of the vote purchaser, whereas under the new system, he receives his ballot only from an official source, and marks it unobserved. In the one case, the corruptionist sees the " goods," so to speak, which he is paying for ; in the other, he has no means of knowing whether " the goods are delivered." The members of the Republican National Committee, headquarters at New York City, are : Chairman, James S. Clarkson; Treasurer, William G. Barbour; Secretary, J. S. Fassett; Mem- bers: Alabama, William Youngblood ; Arizona, George Christ; Arkansas, Powell Clayton ; California, M. II. DeYoung; Colorado, W. A. Hamill ; Connecticut, S. Fessenden ; Delaware, D. J. Layton ; District Columbia, P. H. Carson ; Florida, John K. Russell ; Georgia, F. F. Putney ; Idaho, George L. Shoup ; Illinois, W. J. Campbell ; Indiana, John C. New ; Iowa, J. S. Clarkson; Kansas, Cyrus Leland, Jr. ; Kentucky, William O. Bradley ; Louisiana, P B. S. Pinchback ; Maine, J. M. Haynes ; Maryland, James A. Gary; Massachusetts, Henry S. Hyde ; Michigan, John 218 NATIONAL COMMITTEB. P. Sanborn ; Minnesota, Robert G. Evans ; Mississippi, James Hill ; Missouri, Chauncey I. Filley ; Montana, Charles 8. Warren ; Nebraska, W. M. Robinson ; Nevada, E. Williams ; New Hamp- shire, Person C. Cheney; New Jersey, G. A. Hobart ; New Mexico, W. L. Ryerson ; New York, J. S. Fassett ; North Caro- lina, W. P. Canady ; North Dakota, II. C. Hansbrough ; Ohio, A. L. Conger; Oklahoma, D. T. Flynn ; Oregon, Jonathan Bourne, Jr. ; Pennsylvania, M. S. Quay ; Rhode Island, Thomas W. Chace; South Carolina, E. M. Bray ton ; South Dakota, A. C. Mellette ; Tennessee, W. W. Murray; Texas, N. W. Cuney ; Utah, J. R. McBride; Vermont, G. W. Hooker; Virginia, James D. Brady; Washington, T. II. Cavanaugh ; West Virginia, N. B. Scott; Wisconsin, Henry C. Paine; Wyoming, J. M. Carey. The Democratic National Committee with headquarters also at New York City are : Chairman, Calvin S. Brice ; Treas- urer, Charles J. Canda; Secretary, S. P. Sheerin. Members : Ala- bama, H. D. Clayton, Jr. ; Arizona, J. C. Herndon ; Arkansas, S. P. Hughes; California, M. F. Tarpey; Colorado, Chas. S. Thomas; Connecticut, Carlos French; Delaware, John H. Rodney ; District of Columbia, William Dickson ; Florida, Samuel Pasco; Georgia, John H. Estill; Idaho, John W. Jones; Illinois, E. M. Phelps; Indiana, S. P. Sheerin; Iowa, J. J. Richardson; Kansas, C. W. Blair ; Kentucky, Henry Watterson ; Louisiana, James Jeffries ; Maine, Arthur Sewall ; Maryland, A. P. Gorman ; Massachusetts, Chas. D. Lewis; Michigan, O. M. Barnes; Minnesota, Michael Doran ; Mississippi, C. A. Johnston ; Missouri, John G. Prather ; Montana, A. H. Mitchell; Nebraska, James E. Boyd ; Nevada, R. P. Keating; New Hampshire, A. W. Sulloway; New Jersey, Miles Ross: New Mexico, Neill B. Field; New York, W. F. Sheehan ; North Carolina, M. W. Ransom ; North Dakota, W. R. Purcell ; Ohio, Calvin S. Brice ; Oregon, A. Noltner ; Penn- sylvania, Wm. F. Harrity ; Rhode Island, Samuel R. Honey ; South Carolina, John C. Haskell; South Dakota, Wm. R. Steele ; Tennessee, R. F. Looney; Texas, O. T. Holt; Utah, Wm. F. Ferry; Vermont, Hiram Atkins; Virginia, John S. Barbour ; Washington, J. A. Kuhn ; West Virginia, Johnson M. Camden ; Wisconsin, John L. Mitchell; Wyoming, W. L. Kuykendall. National Prohibition Executive Committee. Chair- man, Samuel Dickie, Albion, Mich.; Secretary, John Lloyd Thomas, 32 East 14th St., New York City; Vice-chairman, A. A. Stevens, Tyrone, Penn.; Treasurer, S. D. Hastings, Madison, Wis. ; J. B. Hobbs, Chicago ; Samuel W. Small, Atlanta ; A. J. Wolfenbarger, Lincoln, Neb.; W. D. Wardwell, 75 New St., New'York. National Convention. (See How the President is Elected.) NAVY OP THE UNITED STATES. 219 National Democrat. (See Political Parties.) National Prohibitionists. (See Political Parties.) National Republican. (See Political Parties.) Native American. (See Political Parties.) Naturalization. The renunciation by a foreigner of a former nationality and his entrance into a similar relation towards the United States as a body politic. The candidate must declare on oath his intention to become a citizen, two years at least after which and after five years of residence he may get his papers as a citizen in full of the United States. The laws of the States admit a man to citizenship in the State in from six months to one year; the laws of cities admit a man to citizenship in from ten to thirty days. Naval Academy at Annapolis. (See Navy, United States./ Naval Militia. (See Navy, United States.) Navigation on the Great Lakes. (See Ship-Building.) Navigation, Steam, Stream. (See Ship-Building.) Navy Department. (See Federal Government.) Navy, Great Britain's. (See Navy, United States.) Navy, New. (See Navy, United States.) Navy Pay Table. (See Navy, United States.) Navy, The United States. Rear-Admirals. New Navy. Commodores. Old Navy. Salaries. Naval Academy. Navy Yards. Naval Militia. Great Britain's Navy. There is at the present time no officer possessing the title of admiral, which is the highest possible rank, nor is the title of vice-admiral held by an officer. There are at present six Rear- Admirals, and two commodores acting as rear-admirals. They are Lewis A. Kimberly, President of Board of Inspection and Survey, West Newton, Mass. ; Bancroft Gherardi, Commanding North Atlantic Station, Flag Ship Philadelphia; George E. Belk- nap, Commanding Asiatic Station, Flag Ship Marion; David B. Harmony, Commanding Asiatic Station, Flag Ship Lancaster ; A. E. B. Benham, waiting orders, Brooklyn, N. Y. ; John Irwin, Commandant Navy Yard, Mare Island, Cal. ; and Acting Rear- Admirals John G. Walker, Commanding South Atlantic Station, Flag Ship Chicago, and George Brown, Commanding Pacific Station, Flag Ship San Francisco. There are thirty-three rear- 220 NAVY OF THE UNITED STATES. admirals on the retired list. The salary of a rear-admiral is $6,000 at sea, $5,000 on shore duty, and $4,000 on leave or waiting orders. The Commodores are James A. Greer, Chairman of Light- House Board, Washington, D. C. ; Aaron W. Weaver, Comman- dant at Navy Yard, Norfolk, Va. ; Wm. P. McCann, President of Examining and Retiring Boards, Washington, D. C. ; James H. Gillis, waiting orders, Nutley, N. J. ; Francis M. Ramsay, Chief of Bureau of Navigation, Washington, D. C. ; Joseph S. Skerrett, Commandant at Navy Yard, Washington, D. C. ; Joseph Fyffe, SHOULDER STRAPS OF OFFICERS OF UNITED STATES NAVY. No. 6. 1. Admiral. 2. Vice-Admiral. 3. Rear-Admiral . 4. Commodore. 5. Captain. 6. Commander ( silver leaf). 7. Lieutenant - Comman- der (gold leaf). 8. Lieutenant. Commandant at Naval Station, New London, Conn.; Oscar F. Stanton, Governor of Naval Home, Philadelphia. TJje salary of a commodore is $5,000 at sea, $4,000 on shore duty, and $3,000 on leave or waiting orders. There are nine commodores on the retired list. The Salaries of officers other than admirals and commodores are as follows : At Sea. On Shore Duty. On Leave, or Waiting Orders. Captain $4,500 3 500 2 800 Commander 3,500 3,000 2,300 Lieutenant-Commander, flrst four years Thereafter . ". 2,800 3,000 2,400 2 600 2,000 2 200 Lieutenant, first four years 2,400 2000 1 600 Thereafter 2,600 2 200 1,800 Lieutenant, Junior Grade, first four years . Thereafter 1,800 2 000 1,500 1 "00 1,200 1,400 Knsign, first four years 1,200 1,000 800 Thereafter .... 1,400 1 200 1,000 Ensign Junior Grade 1 000 800 600 NAVY OF THE UNITED STATES. 221 The navy proper has eight thousand men. The pay of seamen is $258 per annum ; of ordinary 'seamen $210 per annum. The United States Marine Corps consists of a force of two thousand men. Colonel Charles I lay ward is commandant. The location of Navy Yards is as follows : Brooklyn Navy Yard, Brooklyn, N. Y. ; Charlestown Navy Yard, Boston, Mass. ; Gosport Navy Yard, near Norfolk, Va. ; Kittery Navy Yard, opposite Portsmouth, N. II. ; League Island Navy Yard, seven miles below Philadelphia, Pa. ; Mare Island Navy Yard, near San Francisco, Cal. ; New London Naval Sta- tion, New London, Conn. ; Pensacola Navy Yard, Pensacola, Fla. ; Washington City Navy Yard, Washington, D. C. ; Norfolk Navy Yard, Norfolk, Va. There are naval stations at New London, Conn., Port Royal, S. C., and Key West, Fla., and a tor.pedo station and naval war college at Newport, R. I. New Navy, The. In the administration of President Cleveland the initial steps were taken in the construction of a THE SQUADRON OF EVOLUTION. fleet of armored cruisers and battle-ships, upon the most approved models. The naval architects of the country, and the builders of steel and iron vessels have since then achieved won- ders in the designing and building of a practically new navy for the United States. Meanwhile the government engineers of ordnance have been diligently at work experimenting with new steel armor plates and with new large-sized guns as fast as they have been cast. Adopting the plan of foreign nations, the government has placed in operation a steel armor plant of its own, and has conducted numerous tests of both its own steel plates and of those produced in the foundries of the country. Since Secretary of the Navy Whitney awarded the contracts for the construction of the new navy, sixteen vessels, including nine cruisers, four gunboats, two torpedo boats, and one despatch boat have been placed in commission. These are the protected cruisers Chicago, 4,500 (the figures represent displacement)^ 222 NAVY OF THE UNITED STATES. Boston, 3,189, Atlanta, 3,189, Dolphin, 1,485, Newark, 4,083, Charleston, 3,730, Baltimore, 4,600, San Francisco, 4,083, and Philadelphia, 4,324; the gunboats Yorktown, 1,700, Concord, 1,700, Bennington, 1,700, and Petrel, 890 ; the torpedo-boats, Stiletto, 31, the Gushing, 116, the despatch-boat Dolphin, 1,485, and the dynamite cruiser Vesuvius, 3,795. The latter has three fifteen inch dyna- mite guns, and three rapid-fire guns, and has a tested speed of 21.5 knots. The torpedo-boat Stiletto has a speed of eighteen knots ; her companion torpedo-boat, the Gushing, a speed of 22.5 knots. The cruisers have a speed of 15.6 to 20.7 knots, and from twelve to twenty-nine guns each, including rapid-fire breech-loaders, breech-loading rifles, Gatlings, and guns of small calibre. Besides these vessels there are in process of building the double- turreted monitor Miantonomah, 3,815, the first armored battle- ship to fly the flag, with four ten-inch breech-loading rifles which are second to none in the world, and ten other rapid-fire guns ; four other double-turreted steel monitors, two of them mates of the Miantonomah, the Puritan, 6,060, Amphitrite, 3,815, Monadnock, 3,815, and Terror, 3,815, with armaments equally formidable ; the battle-ship Texas, 6,300, with two twelve-inch guns, six six-inch breech-loading rapid-fire guns, and eight other rapid-fire guns; the armored cruiser Maine, 6,648, with four ten-inch guns, six six-inch breech- loading rapid-fire guns, and eight other rapid-fire guns; the coast-line battle-ship Oregon, 10,298, with four thirteen -inch, eight eight- 'inch, four six-inch rapid-fire, breech-loading guns, and twenty-eight rapid-fire and machine guns ; her mates, the Indiana, 10,298, and the Massachusetts, 10,298, each to cost $4,000,000 ; the protected cruiser Cincinnati, 3,893, with ten four inch breech- loading rapid-fire guns, two rapid-fire six-pounders, two rapid-fire three-pounders, and four machine guns ; her mate, the Raleigh j the Monterey, 4,000, for coast defence, with two twelve-inch, two ten-inch breech-loading rapid-fire guns, six six-pounders, four three-pounders, two rapid-fire, and two machine guns ; the NAVY OF THE UNITED STATES. 223 New York, 8,150, armored cruiser, with six eight-inch and twelve four-inch breech-loading rapid-fire guns, eight six-inch rapid-fire guns, four one-pounders, and four machine guns. Still other war vessels, protected cruisers Nos. 6, 9, 10, 11, and 13, the steel practice vessel, the harbor defence ram, and the gunboats Nos. 5 and 6, are under way. Upwards of Fifty Mil- lion Dollars will have been expended upon the new navy by the time the vessels already contracted for have been completed. In addition to these vessels, there are also to be included in the list the iron vessels, Ajax, Comanche, Canonicus, Cats- kill, Jason, Lehigh, Mahopac, Manhattan, Montauk, Nahant, Nantucket, Passaic, Wyandotte, which are all vessels of the old navy, but fitted, so far as is possible without entire rebuilding, with modern armament. Their speed is not above six knots. Finally, the United States Navy has fifty-nine iron and wooden sailing and steam vessels, of which thirty are in commission. Great Britain's Navy. A comparison of the navy of the United States with that of Great Britain is most suggestive. Great Britain unquestionably possesses the most powerful navy in the world ; in fact with the vessels now in process of construc- tion, she could probably defeat any two navies that could be matched against her. The Vessels of the British navy may be tabulated as follows : ARMORED. Battle-ships, first class 41 Battle-ships, second class 12 Coast defence vessels 10 Armored cruisers 12 Torpedo ram 1 TOTAL 76 UN ARMORED. ( Protected 10 ) Ist-class cruisers < Partially protected 1 10 ( Unprotected ) ( Protected 35 ) 2d-class cruisers j Partially protected 4 > 49 ( Unprotected 10 ) (Protected 19) 3d-class cruisers j Partially protected 20 1 51 ( Unprotected 12 ) Gunboats ' 53 Torpedo cruisers 33 Sloops of war 26 Torpedo boats* 206 Miscellaneous craft 5 TOTAL 433 GRAND TOTAL 509 The Naval Academy at Annapolis, Md., fits picked young men, by a six years' course of study, to be officers in the Line 224 NEBBASKA. and Engineer Corps of the Navy, and in the Marine Corps. It was founded in 1845, by George Bancroft, then Secretary of the Navy, and transferred to Newport, R. I., during the Seces- sion War. Here stand the Midshipmen's Quarters, Officers' Quarters, Gunnery Building, Observatory, Hospital, Department of Steam Engineering, and Gymnasium. The library contains 18,000 'volumes, and many trophies and flags, and portraits of Farragut, Porter, Perry, Decatur, Preble, and other naval chief- tains. The Academy grounds are adorned with fine old trees, monuments to heroes of the American fleets, and trophy cannon. There are fifty-seven instructors and 280 naval cadets, each Con- gressional district being entitled to send one youth, physically and mentally sound, who must bind himself to serve eight years (including the time at the Academy) in the United States Navy. Each naval cadet receives $500 a year. Naval Militia. In Boston, in 1889, a movement was started for the organization of a naval militia, whose members should occupy the same relation to the United States Navy as that of the State militia to the United States Army. It was argued that in the event of a foreign war, there w r ere few Amei'ican sailors who understood the working of batteries on warships, or who would be in other respects available for service on board a man-of-war. The result of this movement was an organization of young men, of Boston and the suburban towns, into a naval militia under competent officers. They were encouraged by Secretary Tracy's approval of the plan, and finally at the Secre- tary's instigation, Congress, in 1891, appropriated $25,000 to purchase arms for the militia, to be expended under direction of the Secretary of the Navy. This fund is not distributed directly to the States, but is used, under supervision of the Bureau of Ordnance, to fill requisitions from governors for arms and equip- ment. California had mustered in 371 men, New York, 342, Massachusetts, 238, North Carolina, 101, Rhode Island, 54, and Texas, 43; total, 1,149. The men are drilled in summer on board men-of-war furnished by the government, an'd sham battles, generally on the islands in the several harbors, are fought. Thorough instruction in all the duties of a sailor is given. Nebraska. The State was settled at Bellevue, in 1810, by Americans ; it was part of the Louisiana Purchase, and was ad- mitted to the Union in 1867. It is a region of unbroken prairies and rich valleys, watered by noble rivers, including the Missouri, which forms the eastern boundary for five hundred miles, the Platte, Elkhorn, Loup, Republican, Niobrara, and numerous Other rivers. The " Bad Lands " of Dakota, famous for their NEBRASKA. 225 GREAT SEAL OF NEBRASKA. monstrous weird-shaped rocks and desolate canons, extend into northern Nebraska. The Farm Products of Nebraska, which is essentially an agricultural State, exceed $16,000,- 000 a year ; there are 65,000 farms of an average value of $10 an acre. The annual product of cereals in 1889 was 270,000,000 bushels. The beet-sugar industry, encouraged by the bounty of the government of t\vo cents a pound, is attaining extensive proportions. The Livestock of the State are valued at $81,000,000 and number 4,700,000 head. The stock-farms are among the best in the country. The manufactures of Nebraska, in 1890, were over $20,000,000. The United States forts are Fort Omaha, Fort Sidney, Fort Niobrara, Fort Robinson, and the headquarters of the Department of the Platte is at Omaha. There are several reservations and agencies for Indian tribes in the State, and schools for the education of Indian youths. The Population of Nebraska in 1880 was 452,402 ; in 1890, it was 1,056,193. The real property was valued at $96,000,000 ; the per- sonal property at $64,- 000,000 ; the farm lands included 9, 9 4 4 , 8 2 6 acres, valued at $105,- 932,541 ; the farm pro- ducts were worth $7,- 708,914 ; the school attendance was 159,692. There were, in 1890, 5,295 miles of railroad, and in 1892, 610 news- papers. The largest city is Omaha, which is situated on a plateau above the Missouri River with a population in 1890 of 140,000 and having a trade of $75,000,000 a year. It has many fine pub- lic buildings, nearly 100 chui-ches, 100 miles of railway, and beautiful avenues. It is the centre for pork and beef-packing. The second city is Lincoln, which is the capital, and the chief railroad centre, having a population in 1890 of 55,154. It has THE " BEE " BUILDING AT OMAHA. 226 NEVADA. large stockyards and grain elevators. The third city is Beatrice, the centre of a quarrying industry, with a population in 1890 of 13,836. The Governor of Nebraska is James M. Thayer (Re- publican). His term expires January 5, 1893. The State is Republican. Negro Population. (See Population and Area.) Nevada. The first white men in Nevada were trappers, who visited the region in 1825. Several explorers penetrated the country in the succeeding year, and Fremont pitched his tents there in 18435 and explored the country. The first settlement was at Genoa in 1851 by Americans. The Discovery of Silver, in 1858, led to a large immigration. By 1862, 50,000 men from all parts of the country, and of all conditions in life, came to the State in search of fortune. The State was admitted to the Union in 1861. It has the richest GBEAT SEAL OF NEVADA. silver mines in the Union and there is mined a large amount of gold. The total output of silver and gold has been over $560,000,000. The mines were worked with great profit until 1875, when they became less productive ; the average product of the State is now about $10,000,000 a year. It has never been an extensive agri- cultural State, but the farming industry is being developed by the introduction of irrigation. The State has 500,000 sheep and 400,000 cattle. There are hundreds of mineral springs of all kinds. In Nevada are many wild and deep Canons, the chief of which is El Dorado, which is twelve miles long and from 200 to 600 feet deep, at the bottom of which the Colorado River flows in a mighty stream half a mile wide. The Great Basin, which is supposed to have once been a sea with an area of several hun- dred thousand of miles, and which at some unknown period was drained off, leaving an immense plateau 4,500 feet above tide- water, is one of the wonderful phenomena of the State. The country abounds in wild animals, and the lakes contain thousands of game fish. The population of Nevada in 1880 was 62,266; in 1890 it was 45,761. It was admitted to the Union in 1861. The real property in 1888 was valued at $10,790,670 ; the personal prop- erty at $20,003,121 ; the manufactures aggregated $1,323,000 ; NEW HAMPSHIRE. 227 the acreage of the farm lands was 530,862, valued at $5,408,325 the average school attendance was 5,149. In 1890 there 'were 924 miles of railroad, and twenty -five newspapers. Virginia City, which had a population of 9,000 in 1890, is the site of a great gold and silver mining industry. The sec- ond city is Reno, with 5,000 population, where there are flour- mills, saw-mills, and reduction works. The third city is Carson City, the capital, which had a population in 1890 of 4,200. The cities of the State are situated from 6,000 to 10,000 feet above sea level. The governor of Nevada A MINING CAMP IN NEVADA. is R. K. Colcord (Republican), whose term expires Jan. 7, 1895. The State is Republican. New Hampshire. The State was settled at Dover in 1623 by Englishmen. The early inhabitants suffered greatly from attacks by Indians. In the early wars of the colonies, New Hampshire played a patriotic part, and to the War of the Rebel- lion gave over eighteen thousand of her sons. It was one of the original thirteen States. The State is remarkable for its Natural Beauty, its mountains having the most picturesque scenery of any east of the Rocky Mountains. The White Mountain region, situated in the northern middle part of the State, has 1,300 square miles covered with forest growth. This region still maintains its primeval wildness and is noted for its attraction to summer tourists. Mt. Washington, 228 NEW HAMPSHIRE. which is 6,293 feet high, has an outlook extending over four States, and its summit is reached by a carnage road ascending its entire slope, and a railway mounting 3,73(1 feet. There are seven peaks exceeding five thousand feet in height, twenty-two exceeding four thousand feet, and many more of about the same elevation. The White Mountain Notch, a defile cut through the mountains for a dis- tance of several miles, is traversed by railroad trains bound for Canada and the West. In the Franconia Notch is a famous profile, a stone face carved by nature in the mountain rock 1,200 feet above the highway. It is one of GREAT SEAL OF NEW HAMPSHIRE, the great natural wonders of the world. The lakes of New Hampshire are famous for their beautiful surroundings ; the chief of these is Lake Winnepesaukee, which has an area of seventy-two square miles and 274 islands. The Connecticut River flows the entire length of the State, from its source on the Canadian frontier. The other rivers are the Pemi- gewasset, Winnepesaukee, Merrimac, Piscataqua, Upper and Lower Ammonoosuc, Androscoggin, Contoocook, Saco, and Sun- cook, all mountain streams with rapid current and abounding in fish. The lumbering business is carried on in the northern sec- tion, and produces 40,000,000 feet of logs in a year. The Manufacturing cities are Manchester (population 44,126), Nashua (population 19,311), Dover (population 12,790), Laconia, and Suncook, all of which have extensive plants, and employ a capital of over $50,000,000 yearly, paying wages of $15,000,000. The manufactures include cotton goods, cloths, carriages, paper, and sheeting. The State produces the famous Concord granite, some gold, tin, lead, zinc, copper, iron, graphite, mica, salt, lime, and soapstone. It supports several important educational institutions, including colleges and preparatory schools. The population in 1880 was 346,991 ; in 1890, 376,530. The real property in 1890 was valued at $117,000,000; the personal property at $130,000,000; the farm lands aggregated 3,721,173 acres, valued at $75,834,389 ; the farm products were valued at $13,474,380 ; the school attendance was 43,484 ; there were in 1890 1,445 miles of railroad, and in 1892 152 newspapers. Concord, the capital, with a population of 17,004, is a beau- tiful city, with fine old trees shading its spacious streets. A NEW JERSEY. 229 statue of New Hampshire's proudest son, Daniel Webster, is here, and also the site of St. Paul's preparatory school. Hiram H. Tuttle (Republican) is Governor of New Hampshire. His term expires Jan. 4, 1893. The State is Republican. New Jersey. The State was settled at Bergen in 1627 by Dutchmen. The first European explorer was Henry Hudson. It was one of the thirteen original States. It has 120 miles of sea-shore and several mountain ranges, the highest of which is less than 2,000 feet. In the northern part, rising perpendicularly from the shores of the Hudson River, are the Palisades, tall precipices extending as far as Laden- town, in New York. The Manufactures of the State employ over $100,000,000 capital and yield a product of $250,000,000 a GREAT SEAL OF NEW JERSEY. J^Y, with wages to 230,000 opera- tives aggregating $50,000,000. The leading manufactures are oil, glass, sewing-machines, hats, to- bacco and cigars, gas apparatus, terra cotta, brick, steam-boilers, thread, and soap. There, are 30,000 farms worth $265,000,000 and covering 2,929,773 acres. The production of hay is 600,000 tons, worth $707,500,000; of grain, 10,000,000 bushels, worth $5,000,000 ; of wheat, 2,000,000 bushels ; of oats and potatoes, 3,500,000 bushels. The State is famous for its Peach Orchards and produces yearly over 2,000,000 baskets of the fruit. The cranberry in- dustry has produced 234,000 bushels in a year. The minerals include salt, cement, lime, limestone, granite, zinc, and clay. There are three colleges and a State Normal School. The population in 1880 was 1,131,116; in 1890, 1,141,072. The real and personal property is valued at $621,000,000. The manufactures yearly are $254,375,236, employing 126,038 oper- atives; the average school attendance is 135,187. There were in 1890 2,846 miles of railroad, and 323 newspapers. The chief cities are Newark, with a population in 1890 of 181,830; Jersey City, with a population of 163,003; and Pater- son, with a population of 78,347, all prosperous manufacturing cities. Leon Abbett (Democrat) is Governor of New Jersey. His term expires January 16, 1893. The State is Democratic. New Mexico. The Territory was settled at San Gabriel in 1598 by Spaniards. Previously Spanish explorers crossed Texas 230 NEW MEXICO. and penetrated the region in 1536, and about 1550 the Francis- can priests founded missions among the savages and exhorted them to Christianity. The early history of New Mexico tells of the establishment by these missionaries of upwards of forty churches with 36,000 communicants from the savage tribes. It was part of Mexico at the time it was ceded by Mexico to the .1.---- -,. VIEW OF TRENTON, N. J., AND STATE CAPITOL. United States in 1848, and the eastern part of it belonged to Texas in 1850. It was organized as a Territory when Texas entered the Union in 1850. The trade between Missouri and the New Mexico country, which began early in the century and was carried on over the famous Sante Fe Trail, by means of pack animals, prairie schooners, and caravans, still has about it an un- usual romantic interest. These adventurous traders were fre- quently attacked by Indians, and the journey of eight hundred miles, lasting over two months, was full of danger. The Territory has several high mountain ranges, the highest peaks being twelve thousand to fourteen thousand feet above sea level. The plateaus, NEW MEXICO. 231 fully fourteen million acres of which are in the mountains, are used for grazing purposes. The mighty Rio Grande flows through the heart of the Territory in deep canons and valleys, enriching the contiguous country. The Colorado, Gila, Zuni, San Francisco, and Canadian are the rivers which water tributary valleys of great fertility, and where roam immense herds of sheep and cattle. The cattle number over one million. The sheep number over two million, and produce eight million pounds of wool a year. The fruits of New Mexico are grapes, peaches, pears, apricots, melons, and quinces. Grain, wheat, barley, and other cereals, besides vegetables in variety, are produced in abundance. In Mining New Mexico has a growing industry. Gold, silver, lead, zinc, iron, and copper are all produced, the silver product being the most valu- able. Copper yields 3,700,000 tons in a year. The output of bullion, in 1889, including silver and gold, was over $8,- 000,000. A large proportion of the population are Mex- icans, and the de- scendants of the Pueblo race still oc- cupy many of the ancient towns and villages. They have their own village governments and are famous for the fine blankets which they sell to tourists. There are several tribes of Indians in the Territory. The ruins of the ancient cities of the Zunis are of absorbing interest to travellers. The population of New Mexico in 1880 was 119,565 ; in 1890, 153,593. The taxable property in 1889 was $47,000,000; the manufactures amounted to $1,300,000 ; the farm lands numbered 631,131 acres, valued at $5,500,000; the farm products were worth $2,000,000; the school attendance was 12,300. There were in 1890 1,324 miles of railroad, and the newspapers num- bered thirty-nine. ON THE SANTA F TRAIL. 232 NEW YORK. The chief city, Santa Fe, is situated 7,000 feet above the sea in the heart of the mountains. The city is attractive by reason of its quaint adobe houses and narrow streets. The ancient palace, which has for two centuries been the seat of government, is the principal point of interest. The second city is Albuquerque, which is a railroad centre, and carries on a valu- able trade with the surrounding country ; it has a population of 7,000. The third city is Las Vegas with a population of 6,000. L. Bradford Prince (Republican) is Governor of New Mexico Territory. His term expires April 17, 1893. The governor is appointed by the President. New York. The State was settled at New York City in 1623 by the Dutch under the command of Henry Hudson, who landed on the coast at New York while on an exploring expedition in the service of the East India Com- pany. The State has always been intimately associated with the history of the country, and the scenes of some of the most famous battles of the early colonial wars and of the Revolutionary War are within its confines. Her statesmen had much to do with the prosecution of the Civil War, and in shaping the attitude of the government toward the South. The State has extraordinary Fa- cilities for Commerce ; it borders on Lakes Ontario and Erie, and has many large canals which are used in the transportation of her products, besides many noble rivers and streams. The important rivers are the Hudson, the "Rhine of America," the Oswego, Genesee, Alleghany, Delaware, Saginaw, and Mo- hawk ; while the great St. Lawrence River, which receives the outflow of the great lakes, flows for a hundred miles along her northern boundary. The State has also numerous large lakes ; of which the more important are Lake Champlain, Otsego, Onon- daga, Oneida, Skaneateles, Cayuga, Seneca, Canandaigua, Keuka, Chautauqua, Cattaraugus, besides several hundred lakes in the picturesque Adirondack region. This magnificent mountain and forest region is a wilderness extending to the Canadian line, and has a large number of lofty mountain peaks, the highest of which are from 4,500 to 5,400 feet in height. The other chief mountain ranges are the Catskills, whose beautiful glens and romantic traditions have been immortalized by Irving, the Shawangunk, the Delaware mountains, and the Helderbergs. GREAT SEAL OF NEW YORK. NEAV YOKK. 233 Another of the State's natural beauties is the world-famous Niagara Falls, which fall into the St. Lawrence River, a per- pendicular length of 154 feet, and 2,000 feet wide ; another fall is 160 feet high and 111 feet wide. Millions of tons of water pour in a resistless torrent into the river every hour. While New York is the first State in manufactures, it is also the Second State in agricultural products, of which it yields annually $178,000,000 worth. It produces more hay than any other State, and more potatoes, while its fruit industry is one of the most valuable of any State. It produces 30,000,000 bushels of potatoes, 5,000,000 tons of hay, 35,000,000 bushels of oats, 20,- 000,000 bushels of grain, 9,000,000 of wheat, 7,000,000 of barley, 3,000,000 of rye, and 6,500,000 pounds of tobacco ; it produces in large quantities buckwheat and hops. The total value of its Manufactures is over $1,000,000,000 a year, employing 600,000 persons whose yearly wages are over 8200,000,000. The manufactures include practically everything needed for human life and luxury. Being the Empire State, it is also the financial and speculative centre of the Union. Its financial institutions are the most substan- tial and powerful in the country, and have international connec- tions. Its educational institutions have a high standing of ex- cellence, including eighteen universities for the higher education of young men, many normal schools, nearly three hundred acade- mies, thirty Indian schools, six colleges for women, including the foremost American college for women. Its libraries, its churches, its charitable institutions, its prisons and reformatories are among the best in the country. At West Point, on the Hudson River, is the United States Military Academy. (See Army, the United States.) Other United States institutions are the Navy Yard, at Brooklyn, which is the largest naval station of the government ; the arsenal at Watervliet, the forts in New York Harbor, protecting the city, Wadsworth, Tompkins, Hamilton, Lafayette, Columbus, Gibson, NIAGARA FALLS. 234 NEW YORK. and Wood ; on the Great Lakes, Fort Ontario and Fort Niagara, besides several barracks for United States troops. The Canals of New York are among its most famous public works. The Erie Canal, begun in 1817 and completed in 1825, traverses the State from Buffalo to Albany, and by way of it thousands of vessels carry millions of tons of freight from the Great Lakes to the Hudson River, and thence to the sea. The total length of the canal is 364 miles; it is seven feet deep, and over seventy to eighty feet wide. It cost $50,000,000 to build, and since 1882 has been free to the public. The other canals are the Delaware and Hudson, Chenango, Champlain, the Black River, Chemung, Cayuga, the Crooked Lake, the Genesee Valley, and the Oneida Lake, the total cost of all the canals having been $100,000,000. The annual canal tonnage is over 5,000,000 tons. The Bridges of the State include some of the most notable en- gineering triumphs of the country. (See Railroads and Bridges.) The population of New York in 1880 was 5,082,871 ; in 1890 it was 5,997,853 ; the real property was valued at over $3,000,000,000 ; the personal property at $336,000,000 ; the acreage of farm lands was 23,780,754, valued at $1,056,176,171; the daily school attendance was 637,487. In 1890 there were 67,660 miles of railroad, and in 1892 there were 1,958 newspapers. The city of New York is the greatest manufacturing and commercial centre on this continent. The imports and the ex- ports include two thirds of the whole import and export business of the country. It has 11,000 factories producing annually nearly $500,000,000 worth of goods, and employing over 200,000 per- sons. The volume of its clearing house operations has exceeded $50,000,000,000 in one year. Its Stock Exchange is the cen- tre of the financial and speculative interests of the country. Among its public buildings are the Produce, Stock, and Cotton Exchanges, the prisons and asylums for the insane on Black- well's, Randall's, and Ward's Islands, the City Hall, the Custom House, the Sub-Treasury, the United States Assay Office, and the Metropolitan Museum of Art, while its churches and cathedrals, its hospitals (over sixty in number), its colleges and schools, club- houses and private residences, hotels, theatres, and newspaper offices are the most costly, and in many instances the finest archi- tecturally of any city in the country. There are twenty-two parks, the most beautiful of which is Central Park, which covers 862 acres, of which 185 are in lakes and reservoirs, and 400 in forests, wherein over 500,000 trees and shrubs have been planted. This magnificent public breathing place has nine miles of roads, five miles of bridle paths, NEW YORK. 235 the and twenty-eight of walks. Its Zoological Gardens and Egyptian Obelisk are among the more interesting features. The Elevated Railroads of New York, carrying 525,000 passengers daily, are no less wonderful in construction than they are convenient in the every-day life of the people. The great Croton Aqueduct, the Bartholdi Statue in New York Harbor, the immense docks, and the ships and ocean steamers are other nota- ble features of the Metropolis. The city is fifteen miles long, and had in 1892 a population approximating 1,700,000 people. (See Population and Area.) The second city in size is Brooklyn, situated opposite New CITY HALL AT ITEW YOKK. York on the East River; here thousands of people who do business in New York have their homes. It has a fine water front lined with huge docks. In manufactures it stands fourth of the American cities, its annual products being valued at $180,000,000 a year. The Prospect Park, covering over six hundred acres, the Greenwood Cemetery, and the ele- vated railroads are among its more attractive points of interest 236 NEW YOKK. The population of Brooklyn in 1890 was 806,343. The Navy Yard is situated here, and the government keeps constantly em- ployed a large force of men and engineer in the construction of vessels for the new navy. The Brooklyn Bridge (see Rail- roads and Bridges) connects the two cities, and there is a cable road running across the bridge at a height of 135 feet, which carries in the course of a year millions of passengeis. The third city is Buffalo, situated on Lake Erie and having a population in 1890 of 255,664 ; it is an important manufacturing centre, its chief industries being iron and steel manufacturing, with an annual product of $55,000,000, brewing, leather,- oil refineries, and flour, having yearly products of $45,000,000. It is the centre of twenty railroads, and from it run regularly five steamship lines with a fleet of sixty lai'ge steamers destined for the ports of the Great Lakes. Buffalo receives in a year up- wards of 90,000,000 bushels of corn, while its shipments of coal, lumber, livestock, etc., aggregate many mil- lions. It has a fine Music Hall, a costly Library, and a City and County Hall which cost to build $1,350,- 000. The fourth city is Rochester, with a population in 1890 of 133,896. Albany, Syracuse, Troy, Bing- hamton, are all important centres for manufacturing. There are upwards of twent}'-four other important cities in this wonder- ful State. The Governor of New York is Roswell P. Flower (Democrat), whose term expires Jan. 1, 1896. The State was carried by Tilden (Democrat) in 1876, and by Garfield (Repub- lican) in 1880. Cleveland (Democrat) carried the State in 1884, and Harrison (Republican) in 1888. Newspapers. The evolution of the American newspaper has been even more wonderful, if possible, than that of the American railroad, or steamboat, or the agricultural resources of the coun- try. Its achievements have been not only along the line of more perfect mechanical and typographical construction, but also in the gathering and dissemination of the happenings of the world. Two agencies have contributed, the one no more than the other probably, to the accomplishment of this result, the modern print- ing-press, and the telegraph. No machinery invented surpasses PRODUCE EXCHANGE AT NEW YORK. NEWSPAPERS. 237 the Web Perfecting Press in the intricate simplicity of its mechanism ; a hundred parts of iron and steel fashioned together in an upright mass, each mutually dependent upon the others, taking the paper from a roll of indefinite length, printing it on both sides at one and the same instant, cutting the sheets to their correct size, folding them three times and depositing them ready for the news-stand as fast as a man can pick them out. This is done by the mightiest presses at the rate of 90,000 four-page papers in an hour, or twenty-five a second. That is to say, from a roll of white paper, a four-page printed paper may be made in one twenty-fifth of a second ! Six, eight, ten, or twelve pages are printed, cut, and folded at the same rate of speed. Such a press as this occupies a year to build, and costs upwards of $40,000. This remarkable rapidity in printing is made possi- ble by the use of stereo- type plates of metal. Ordinary Type would not stand the strain of such rapid execution.^?/ So the metal plate, which *Jf%r^~ by the stereotyping pro- ' -= cess receives on its sui face a perfect impression^ of each piece of type as<* set by the printer, is made, turned to cylindri- cal form, and locked firm and fast in the press, where in common with its fellows, one for each page of the paper, it revolves beneath an overhanging roll of white paper faster than the eye can fol- low it. The Telegraph in journalism brings the ends of the earth within speaking distance of t) j editor. The larger part of the messages transmitted by tho telegraph companies are what is called " press matter." If sent at night, that is, after 6 p. M., it costs the newspaper one half cent a word for an average of three hundred miles. It is not an uncommon thing for a metropolitan newspaper to receive in a night from thirty thousand to forty thousands words by telegraph. All the large papers control Special Wires, used only by themselves, connecting the edi- torial sanctum with correspondents in the large cities. New- York, Chicago, Boston, Philadelphia, St. Louis, and papers in other large centres have bureaus in Washington, where one or THE NEWSPAPER PHOTOGRAPHER. 238 NEWSPAPERS. more correspondents are maintained the year round, with special wires for their despatches. New York being the fountain head of the foreign and the larger part of the important domestic news, all well-equipped newspapers in outside cities are connected with it by special wires. Thus an event happening in New York at midnight is published in Chicago in next morning's paper. Another agency in the collection and dissemination of telegraph news is the Associated Press. This corporation controls or owns wires connecting New York, its headquarters, with every town or city of consequence in the United States and Can- ada. Its foreign service is especially good, and nine important -, papers in ten depend upon it for their i foreign news. The leading New York newspaper proprietors control it. Its franchise, that is, the right to publish its news, is very valuable. While a large part of its news is original with its own staff members, most of it comes from newspapers receiving its service ; by the terms of the contract the Associated Press is entitled to any news a member may have on its proofs, that is, not yet printed, which may be telegraphed to and published simultaneously in another city. The Associated Pi-ess originated from. the competition of Boston news- papers, about 1845, in the receipt of foreign news. Representatives of one of them intercepted an inbound European steamer in Boston harbor, and on re- ceiving from the passengers the latest English papers, released Carrier Pig- eons which carried the newspapers to the editorial office in Boston, where columns of European news were " scis- sored out" and published hours in ad- vance of the rival paper. The New York papers soon entered into competition with each other in the same way, even to the extent of sending to Boston a complete printing outfit, as the New York Herald did, to set up foreign news on the return trip. It was not many years before combinations were made between the papers, the ultimate outcome of which was the organization of the Associated Press. The First American Newspaper was published at Boston on September 25, 1690. The printer was Richard Pierce and THE " WORLD " BITILDIXG AT NEW YORK. NEWSPAPERS. 239 the publisher Benjamin Harris. It was a monthly publication, but did not live long, being suppressed. It was headed " Pub- lick Occurrences, Both Foreign and Domestick." The only copy in existence is in the State Paper Office at London. The Boston "News Letter" was published first on April 24, 1704, by James Campbell, and continued to be published until 177(5. The third newspaper was the " Boston Gazette," the first issue of which appeared on December 21, 1719. The next day in Philadelphia, William Brodhead bought out the " American Weekly Mercuric." Benjamin Franklin's brother, James Franklin, printed and published the " New England Cour- ant," a weekly, in August, 1721. It engaged in a violent con- troversy with Rev. Increase Mather, who exercised a censorship over its columns. This proving irksome to the editor, he discon- tinued its publication in his own name, and published it under that of Benjamin Franklin, who now be- came the editor. In 1776, there were thirty-seven newspapers in the country, four in Boston, four in New York, four in Connecticut, one in New Hampshire, two in Rhode Island, six in Massachusetts outside of Boston, six in Pennsylvania, two each in Maryland, Virginia, and North Carolina, three in South Caro- lina, and one in Georgia. With the progress in the art of printing and in the construction of presses, the possibilities of large edi- tions have been multiplied year by year, at a constantly diminishing -1-1 cost of production, so that nowa- days every town of 1,500 inhabitants has its own newspaper, while twenty large cities each support from six to fifteen daily. In 1891, there were 1,791 daily publi- cations, 14,000 weekly ,4J,625 monthly, 327 semi-monthly, 238 semi- weekly, 180 quarterly, 90 bi-weekly, 76 bi-monthly, 76 tri-weekly, total, 19,373. The number of newspapers published in the world is estimated at 47,000 ; of these over 19,000 are published in the United States and Canada, 7,000 in Great Britain, 6,000 in Ger- many, 4,300 in France, 2,000 in Japan, 800 in Russia. Half of them are printed in English. Nicknames of Famous Americans. (For nicknames of Presidents, see Presidents of the United States.) A characteristic FRANCISCO "CHRONICLE" BUILDING. 240 NICKNAMES OF FAMOUS AMERICANS. trait of the American people is their habit of applying nicknames to their leaders. The homelier, that is to say, the nearer to the level of the common people a nickname is, the greater its political advantage to the man who receives it, for it cannot be questioned that nicknames of a certain kind are a positive help to a candidate for office. Political managers recognize this, and try to invent a catching sobriquet for their nominee. It is a suggestive fact that most of the great men of the nation have had nicknames of an endearing nature. The right kind of a nickname is quite as effi- cacious in winning votes as the average party platform. In the following category are given some of the more common sobri- quets of famous Americans : Alexander the Coppersmith. The first coinage of cop- per money, half cents, one cent, and two-cent pieces, was not liked by the people. They had been coined under Alexander Hamilton's Secretaryship of the Treasury, in 1793 ; hence the nickname was applied to Hamilton. Aliunde Joe. In the Electoral Commission of 1877, appointed to decide the Presidential election, there was a tie, and it devolved upon Justice Joseph P. Bradley, of the United States Supreme Court, to cast the de- ciding vote. He cast it in favor of the Republican candidate, Hayes. His fellow-Republican commissioners took the ground that it was not possible to consider evidence aliunde, that is, foreign to the certificates. As the le- gality of this position depended upon the vote of Justice Bradley, his legal brethren dubbed him "Aliunde Joe." The Latin word was a favorite with the Justice, and he used it frequently in writing his opinions. As relat- ing to the decision of the Commission, it was a legal expression of the principle that the Commission could not " go behind the re- turns." (See Electoral Commission.) American Cato A nickname for Sam Adams. American Chatham. A name given to Patrick Henry because of his oratorical abilities, which were regarded in America as equal to those of Lord Chatham, the English statesman. Henrv was also called the " Colossus of debate." Ancient Mariner of the W abash. Robert W. Thomp- THE "EVENING POSl" BUILDING AT NEW YORK. NICKNAMES OF FAMOUS AMERICANS. 241 son, who was Secretary of the Navy under President Hayes, was thus playfully styled by the political wags, because he lived in West Virginia, an inland State. Black^Eagle The "grand old Black Eagle of Illinois" such was the characterization of Gen. John A. Logan by an orator who had nominated him for President in the Republican National Convention of 1884. He was also called " Black Jack." Blue Jeans Williams. Governor James D. Williams, of Indiana, wore clothing made of blue jeans, a popular article of wearing apparel among the farmers in Southern Indiana. This part of the State is frequently spoken of as the " Blue Jeans " District, and a play which portrays the every-day life of the people there has been produced with great succoss. It is called " Blue Jeans." Boy Mayor. Governor William E. Russell, of Massachu- setts, was elected mayor of Cambridge, Mass., when he was but twenty-nine years old. This fact, together with his youthful appearance, gave birth to the appellation. His political enemies sometimes speak of him as " Billy the Kid," and as " Willie." Calico Charley. Secretary of the Treasury Charles Fos- ter, in his young manhood conducted a dry-goods business, and among his intimates was known as " Calico Charley." Czar. Owing to his attitude in the Fifty- First Congress on the quorum question (see Hou-*e of Representatives under Fed- eral Government), Speaker Thomas B. Reed was called Czar by the Democrats, and generally by the Democratic press. The name was first applied to him by Congressman Breckenridge of Kentucky. Defender of the Constitution. This characterization was made of Daniel Webster at the time of his speech in reply to Hayne in the Senate. Webster was also called the " Great Expounder," of the Constitution. His friends familiarly spoke of him as " Black Dan." Farmer's Dick. Richard J. Oglesby, of Illinois, was thus familiarly called by his admirers on account of his popularity with the farmers. Fighting Joe. Gen. Joseph Hooker, on account of his well-known qualities as a fighting commander, was thus styled. Fire Alarm Foraker. A nickname applied by the New York /Sun to ex-Governor Foraker, of Ohio, who used to talk often, but more especially alarmingly of the political conditions at the South. Fuss and Feathers. A suggestive nickname for Gen. Winfield Scott, used by his enemies. 242 NICKNAMES OF FAMOUS AMERICANS. Gentleman George. A name for the late George H. Pendleton, of Ohio, who was noted for his polished manners and elegant attire. Gladstone of the West. Gen. John W. Palmer, of Illi- nois, is sometimes spoken of by this appellation by the Democrats of his State. Like the great English leader, General Palmer is an old man, but the resemblance ends there. Headsman Clarkson. James R. Clarkson, the Chairman of the Republican National Committee, from the fact that he favored wholesale removals of Democrats from office, and declared the Civil Service laws a failure, was dubbed by the Democratic press " Headsman " Clarkson, the allusion being derived from the notion that when removals are made, official heads are cut off, and fall into a capacious basket, after the manner of a guillotine. Honest John. A popular name in Ohio for Senator John Sherman. Horizontal Bill. A nickname of ex-Congressman William R. Morrison, derived from his tariff bill introduced in the Forty- Eighth Congress, which was known as the Horizontal Bill, because it provided for reductions in duties affecting practically every import, a horizontal reduction, as it were. Jack the Giant- Killer. A nickname applied to John Randolph, of Virginia, because in debate he compared himself to David and his opponent to Goliath. Law Partner Miller. Attorney-General W. H. Miller, who was a law partner at Indianapolis of President Benjamin Harrison. The latter used to speak of him as " Partner Mil- ler." Little David. This was .a nickname of John Randolph of Virginia, applied to him for the reason that once in a debate he compared himself to David and his opponent to Goliath. Little Giant. Stephen A. Douglas, who was small in stature but a giant in intellect. Little Mac. This nickname originated with the soldiers serving under Gen. George B. McClellan, and was applied by them to their leader, whom they held in high esteem. Mad Anthony. Gen. Anthony Wayne was so called be- cause of a sudden impetuosity and reckless bravery in battle. Man of the Town Meeting Prof. James K. Hosmer, in his biography of Samuel Adams, happily describes the Revolution- ary patriot as the man of the town meeting," a designation which has been quite generally adopted by other writers since then. Me Too. This term was applied to Thomas C. Platt, in 1881, in a political cartoon. Piatt and Roscoe Conkling were NICKNAMES OF FAMOUS AMERICANS. 243 Senators from New York, and when President Garfield made his own choice of Federal officers of the State, in violation of what had always been recognized as Senatorial courtesy, both Sena- tors resigned. This action compassed their political death, and one of the comic papers printed a cartoon representing a large tombstone, with Conkling's name inscribed on it. Alongside was a much smaller stone, inscribed as follows : " Me too. T. Platt." Mill Boy of the Slashes In his youth Henry Clay worked in a mill at a place called "the Slashes." The nickname was applied to him when her an for the Presidency. Another name for Clay was the il Great Commoner." Napoleon of Protection. The New York Sun made this a popular name for Congressman William McKinley, of Ohio, on account of his having fathered the most comprehensive protective tariff bill in the history of the country. Natick Cobbler, The. A nickname, especially in Massa- chusetts, of Henry Wilson, Vice-President .of the United States, 1872-1876. In his youth he learned the trade of a shoemaker at Natick, Mass. Noblest Roman of Them All. This -was a popular appellation applied to Allan G. Thurman, of Ohio, and was espe- cially quoted during the campaign in 1888, when he was the can- didate for Vice-President on the Democratic ticket. " Old Roman " was another of his nicknames. Old Bullion. Thomas H. Benton, of Missouri, at the time of the discussion of the renewal of the charter for the United States Bank, was a prominent advocate of a gold and silver standard for the currency, and his opponents used to call him " Old Bullion " in consequence. Old Saddle-Bags. The nickname applied to Joseph E. McDonald, of Indiana. Ossawattomie Brown. This was a nickname of John Brown, bestowed upon him because of his having lived at Ossa- wattomie during the insurrection in Kansas, growing out of the abolition troubles. (See John Brown's Raid.) Our Own Evarts. The characterization of Senator Wil- liam M. Evarts, of New York, originating with the opposition press. Pathfinder. Gen. John C. Fremont, by reason of his achievements in exploring the Far West, was in the Presidential campaign of 1856 called The Pathfinder." (See Campaign Songs.) Peacock Senator. A derisive name for the late Senator Roscoe Conkling, of New York, which arose in the celebrated contest between him and Senator Blaine, in the United States 244 NICKNAMES OF FAMOUS AMERICANS. Senate, during which Blaine made a speech in which he com- pared the Senator to a peacock. Plumed Knight. In nominating James G. Blaine for the Presidency at the Republican National Convention in 1876, Col. Robert J. Ingersoll said of Mr. Blaine : " Like an armed warrior, like a plumed knight, James G. Blaine marched down the halls of the American Congress and threw his shining lance full and fair against the brazen forehead of every defamer of this country and maligner of its honor." At once the name of " Plumed Knight " was applied to Mr. Blaine, and has ever since clung to him. In the 1884 campaign, plumed knight clubs were formed, and wore plumes in their hats as they marched in the campaign parades. (See Torchlight Processions.) The " Man from Maine," (a favorite alliteration), the " Uncrowned King" (on account of the popular idea that he was the power behind the throne in the Harrison administration), and the " Magnetic Man " (owing to his winning personality), are other nicknames of Mr. Blaine. As Secretary of State, he also wore the title of " Premier." In the Blaine-Cleveland campaign of 1884, he was called the " Tattooed Man." One of the illustrated weeklies of New York printed a cartoon representing Mr. Blaine as Phryne, before the Athenian judges, and tattooed with the names of the political scandals with which his name had been connected. By some it was thought that in this cartoon the liberty of the press had been transcended, but as the campaign was noteworthy for the bitter personalities which crept into it, the cartoon had no other than a temporary effect. During the campaign, Mr. Blaine was sometimes derisively spoken of as the tattooed candidate, but since then the appellation has been dropped, having run its course. Poker Charley. Senator Charles B. Farwell, of Illinois, was frequently called " Poker Charley " from the fact that he was supposed to be an adept at poker. The Senator, however, disclaimed any knowledge of the game, and denied the right to wear the title. The man who originated the term was called by the Senator a " miserable skeezicks." Pre- Adamite. This name was given by the New York Sun to Senator George F. Hoar, of Massachusetts. The Boston Globe has frequently playfully referred to the Senator as " Gran'ther Hoar," and as "Uncle George." He has also been called the " Moon-Faced Senator from Wor- cester." Rise-Up-William-Allen. This was a familiar name in Ohio for Governor William Allen, about 1874-76. The Demo- cratic party being in need of a candidate for governor, one of the NICKNAMES OP FAMOUS AMERICANS. 245 . . GRANT. "?. -V MILJTAKY HEROES OF THE REBELLION. 246 NICKNAMES OF FAMOUS AMERICANS. newspapers published an editorial which ended with the exhorta- tion, Rise up, William Allen," the object being to call him from private life to take up the party cause. He was sometimes called the " Old Roman," and was the first to wear that proud title. He was the uncle of Allan G. Thurman, and after Allen's death, Thurman succeed to the title. Seven Mule Barnum. The late William A. Barnum, of Connecticut, as chairman of the Democratic National Committee, in 1876, is said to have sent a despatch, in cipher, in which he used the words " seven mules," each mule, it is understood, having represented $1,000. Sitting Bull. The late Senator Oliver P. Morton, of Indiana, was thus styled by his enemies on account of the fact that he used to sit during his term as Senator, being unable to rise because of paralysis. This did not, however, interfere with his making gallant fight against the Democrats. In one of the campaigns in Indiana, the Democrats nominated for Governor against Mr. Morton the famous " Blue Jeans Williams," and one of their campaign songs ran thus : In Hoosierdom they placed a pair of pants in nomination, But, Ah, the truth, though late revealed, A precious lesson teaches. They may find a golden calf concealed, Within those blue-jeans breeches. The Republicans quickly retorted with the following verse : A golden calf and homespun blue Perhaps would be a blessing; But better far the Sitting Bull Than any kind of dressing. Slippery Sam. This was applied to the late Samuel J. Tilden by his enemies, on account of his political craftiness. They also called him " Old Usufruct." When he was nominated in 1876, as the Democratic candidate for President, he wrote in his letter of acceptance the word " usufruct," in a political signifi- cation. Thomas Nast, the cartoonist of Harper's Weekly at that time, drew a cartoon caricaturing Tilden and used " usufruct" as a text. The cartoon immensely amused the Republicans, who there- upon called Tilden "Old Usufruct." "Sage of Gramercy Park" and "Sage of Greystone " were other more dignified names for Tilden. Sockless Jerry. Congressman Jeremiah Simpson, of Kan- sas. He was elected on the Farmers' Alliance ticket, and the first reports from Kansas were that he did not wear socks, a fic- tion which he has since publicly contradicted. NICKNAMES OF FAMOUS AMERICANS. 247 St. Jerome. Ex-Senator Edmunds, of Vermont, was thus styled "by the press on account of his supposed resemblance to the pictures of St. Jerome. Sunset Cox. The late Congressman Samuel S. Cox was thus styled in consequence of having written a picturesque description of a sunset, while he was a journalist, in early life. Sycamore of the Wabash, Tall. A nickname for Sen- ator Daniel W. Voorhees, of Indiana. Superb, The. This was a derisive name applied during the war to General W. S. Hancock. It ^ was resurrected during Hancock's candidature in 1880, and the Repub- licans caricatured it by representing /j>\ Hancock with his plume dropping. BOARD OF TRADE, CHICAGO. Uncle Jerry. This is a familiar name for Secretary of Agriculture, Jeremiah Rusk. ^Watchdog of the Treasury Congressman William T. Holman, of Indiana, on account of his persistent opposition to the extravagant appropriation of the public money. Wood-Pulp Miller. This name was applied by the Demo- 248 NORTH CAROLINA. cratic press of New York to Senator Warner Miller, who is an extensive manufacturer of paper made from wood pulp. Young Hickory. In the spring of 1892, some of Senator David B. Hill's admirers nicknamed him " Young Hickory," in consequence of the similarity of his views on the " spoils sys- tem " with those of Andrew Jackson. The nickname arose from the Senator's having said something to the effect that there was still some old hickory in the Democratic party. He has also been called the " Bachelor Governor." Nicknames of People of States. (See Mottoes of States and Territories.) Nicknames of the States. (See Mottoes of States and Ter- ritories.) Noblest Roman of Them All. (See Nicknames of Famous Americans.) Non-Intercourse. This is a name given to the suspension of trade relations with a nation. In 1809 this government passed a Non-Intercourse Act as a substitute for the Embargo Act (which see). The act prohibited commerce with England and France and prohibited their vessels or goods from entrance into the United States. Non-intercourse is a weapon of the govern- ment which is used by way of retaliation for wrongs done by a foreign country. Non-Interference. A name applied to the doctrine of Calhoun, that Congress had no right to interfere with slavery in the States and Territories. North Carolina. The State was settled at Roanoke Island in 1585 by the English, and it was one of the thirteen original States. It was the last of the Southern States to join the Confederacy, and did not do so until Lincoln demanded of her a force of troops for the Union army. She sent out more troops in the cause of the Confederacy and lost more than any other Southern State. North Carolina was an important fighting ground throughout the war. The rich Mineral Resources of the State are in process of promising development. Among them are gold, of which the State has produced over $20,000,000 worth, copper, coal, zinc in large quantities, mica, GREAT SEAL OF NOKTU CARO- LINA. NORTH DAKOTA. 249 marble, granite, soapstone, and sandstone, while its phosphate beds are very extensive and are valuable as fertilizers. It raises in a year 400,000 bales of Cotton, 35,000,000 pounds of Tobacco, 6,000,000 pounds of rice, 35,000,000 bushels of corn, 5,000,000 of wheat, oats, and sweet potatoes, besides a large crop of peanuts. The grape-growing industry is an important one, and the native grapes make excellent wine. The Fisheries of the State produce 100,000 bushels of fish yearly; the oyster catch reaches 170,000,000 bushels a year. The mountains of North Carolina are in the middle and western part. The Blue Ridge, part of the Allegheny, and the great Smoke Range are the important ranges. In the latter are twenty-three peaks over 6,000 feet high. The State has upwards of sixty peaks 5,000 to 6,500 feet in height. In the western part of the State is the famous " Land of the Sky" where there is beautiful mountain scenery. The region is attractive as a summer resort for Southerners, and as a winter resort for Northerners. The population of North Carolina in 1880 was 1,399,750; in 1890 it was 1,617,340; the net State debt was $7,538,567 ; the real property was valued at $122,000,- 000; the personal property at $81,000,000; the manufactures aggregated $20,084,237 ; the acreage of farm lands was 22,639,- 614, valued at $135,793,602; the farm products were worth $51,729,611; the school attendance was 208,657 ; there were in 18'JO 3,000 miles of railroad, and in 1892, 205 newspapers. The chief city is Wilmington, situated on Cape Fair, and having a large commerce. The city is connected by steamship lines with New York, Baltimore, and Philadelphia. The popu- lation in 1890 was 20,008. The second city is Raleigh, which is the capital, and is situated in the heart of the State on an eleva- tion. The population in 1890 was 12,798. Charlotte, the third city, with a population of 11,555, is also in the interior. Ashe- ville, the fourth city, with a population of 10,433, is situated in a mountainous country in the West. Durham, in the interior, is a small town, and one of the largest tobacco manufacturing places in the world. The Governor of North Carolina is Thomas M. Holt (Republican), whose term expires January 1, 1893. The State is Democratic. North Dakota. The State was a part of the Louisiana Purchase. It was settled at Pembina by French Canadians in 1780. It is a great wheat-producing country and has some of the largest farms in the world. It is watered by the Missouri and several other large rivers. Its Red River valley is famous for the fertility of its soil, and the larger part of it is under cultivation. 250 NORTHWEST CONSPIRACY. In the production of Wheat, Dakota (North and South) is first of all the States ; it raises upwards of 55,000,000 bushels an- nually. There are flour mills in the State which ship direct to London. There are 400,000 sheep in the State. The planting of groves and orchards has been carried on through a large part of the State, and in North Dakota and South Dakota upwards of 50,000,- 000 trees have been planted in recent years. The Population of North Dakota in 1890 was 182,719. The assessed value of property in 1889 was $67,- GBEAT SEAL OF NOB DAKOTA. 000,000 ; there are 1,485 public schools, 36,000 school children, 2,100 miles of railroad, and 125 newspapers. There are over 25,000 Indians in North and South Dakota, most of them Sioux. North Dakota was admitted to the Union as a State in November, 1889. Fargo is the chief city, and had a population in 1890 of 8,000. It is the leading commercial centre of the State, and has impor- tant manufacturing industries. The second city is Grand Forks, situated on the Red River, and is the centre of the flour and lum- ber industry. The population in 1890 was 6,500. The third city and the capital is Bismarck, situated on the Missouri River, which has a fine steamboat commerce ; it had a population in 1 890 of 4,000. The railway shops of several important railroads are here, and the Northern Pacific Railroad has constructed a bridge across the river made of steel, at a cost of $1,000,000. The Governor of North Dakota is Andrew H. Burke (Republican), whose term ex- pires Jan. 3, 1893. Northwest Conspiracy. During the Civil War a plot was conceived by Southern sympathizers at the North, who com- bined for the purpose of inciting an insurrection in the North, which it was expected would operate to the advantage of the South. The headquarters of this conspiracy, which was called the Northwest Conspiracy, was in Illinois; in 1864 its leaders were exposed and arrested. Nullification, and Nullification Ordinance. The expo- nents of the doctrine of Nullification were Calhoun and Hayne, the former maintaining that the right to nullify resided in the people of a State, the latter that it resided in the legislature. The doctrine first took definite form after the tariffs of 1828 and 1832 went into effect. Both tariffs were obnoxious to the OHIO. 251 South, where there was no manufacturing. (See Tariffs of the United States.) South Carolina was the hotbed of the nullification sentiment, and on November 24, 1832, a State convention passed the famous Nullification Ordinance, which declared the United States Tariff " null, void, and no law, nor binding upon on this State, its officers, or citizens," forbade the payment of duty under the tariff, made it contempt of the State Court to appeal to the United States Supreme Court, caused jurors and State officers to swear support to the Ordinance, and added that if the government used force against her, she would secede from the Union. President Jackson promptly declared nullification (" dis- union by armed force ") to be treason, sent General Scott to Charleston, and a naval force to its harbor, with instructions to aid the collector in the collection of duties. The nullifiers, at this show of determination by the government, withdrew from their position, and the following year a State convention repealed the ordinance. 0. K. This is a common abbreviation for " all right." It is supposed to have originated with Andrew Jackson, who puzzled his secretary by endorsing these letters on official papers. It is said that the hero of New Orleans declared that the letters stood for " all correct." However, this story is probably a gross exag- geration. Oats, Production of. (See Agriculture.) Occupations of the People of the United States. (See Population and Area.) Ocean Disasters. (See Ship Building.; Ocean Steamers. (See Ship Building.) Odd Fellows. (See Secret Societies.) Offensive Partisans. (See Slang of Politics.) Office of President is Essentially Executive in Its Nature. (See Sayings of Famous Americans.) Ohio. The territory now included in the State of Ohio was first explored by La Salle in 1679. It was settled by New Eng- landers at Marietta in 1788, and many of the inhabitants are of New England ancestry. The Ohio is the principal river, and has a course of 430 miles on the southern and eastern border. It flows through a lovely valley, with wooded hills rising to a height of 500 to 600 feet, and is one of the most beautiful of American streams. The Muskingum, Scioto, Hockhocking, Mahoning, and Great and Little Miami are the next in importance, and all flow south into 252 OHIO. CHEAT SEAL OF OHIO. the Ohio. On the north there are smaller streams which drain into Lake Erie. In point of Population and Wealth Ohio is the fourth State of the Union. Agriculture is the chief industry, although in manufactures and mining the State holds a high rank. The soil is very fertile, and has been produc- tive of large harvests ever since the land was tilled. There are upwards of 10,000,000 acres of land under cultivation, the chief product of which is corn, of which Ohio raises 100,000,000 bushels a year. The Wheat crop averages 35,000,000 bushels, the oat crop 35,000,000, potatoes 12,000,000, tobacco 35,- 000,000 pounds, hay 3,000,000 tons. The whole agricultural product is worth upwards of $100,000,000 a year. There are 500,000 acres of orchards, yielding 30,000,000 bushels of apples, 1,500,000 of peaches, and 250,000 of pears. Large quantities of strawberries and grapes are also produced. The acreage in bearing vines in 1890 was 28,087. There are 10,000 square miles of coal-fields, yielding in 1889 9,976,787 tons, Ohio being third among the coal-producing States. The Iron and Steel business is worth $35,000,000 a year, producing about 250,000 tons, and employing 100 furnaces and 20,000 men. As a wool-producing State Ohio is second only to Texas ; it has 4,000,000 sheep. Salt to the amount of 400,000 bushels, fire-clay to the amount of 500,000 tons, lime of 600,000 tons, are also produced. Limestone, sandstone, building-stone, and various other stones are produced in abundance. The oil- wells of Ohio produce upwards of 5,000,000 barrels a year. The Natural Gas wells are famous the country over. The State expends $11,000,000 a year on Education for up- wards of 780,000 school children, with 2,500 teachers. It has 37 universities, colleges, and professional schools, having 11,000 stu- dents. The population of Ohio in 1880 was 3,198,062; in 1890, 3,672,316; the net State debt was $7,014,767 ; the real property was valued at $1,185,000,000; the personal property at $500,000,- 000 ; the manufactures were worth $348,305,000; the farm lands covered 24,529,226 acres, valued at $1,127,497,353; the farm products were worth $156,771,152. The railroads, in 1890, had a mileage of 7,911, and there were 1,139 newspapers. The chief city is Cincinnatij which is situated at a fine loca- OHIO. 253 tion on the Ohio River ; it has numerous fine buildings, including the great Exposition Building and Music Hall, the Chamber of Commerce, and several costly public buildings. There are beau- tiful parks, noble bridges, and charming suburbs. The manu- factures of Cincinnati produce yearly more than $200,000,000 worth of goods, and employ 100,000 operatives. The population in 1890 was 296,908. The second city is Cleveland, which is situated on Lake Erie, and has a fine harbor and breakwater and substantial piers. It is an importing centre for lumber and iron ore, and an export- ing centre for coal. It has over four hundred manufactories. The iron and steel manufacturing business of the city produces $35,000,000 annually. There are extensive ship-yards and im- mense oil- works. It is a most important centre for steamboats and railways. The profusion of trees and the handsome parks of the city have entitled it to be called "The Forest City." It has numerous fine statues and some of the finest residence streets in the world, the more famous of which is Euclid Avenue. Lake- view Cemetery is one of the most beautiful in the country. The population of Cleveland in 1890 was 261,353. Columbus, the capital, is the third city and is an important manufacturing centre ; it has wide streets and extensive parks, and three colleges are located here. The population in 1890 was 88,150. The other important cities of Ohio are Toledo, which is a great railway and shipping point, having a population of 81,434. Dayton, on the Big Miami, is also a busy manufacturing centre, with a population of 61,000. Sandusky, on Lake Erie, has a 254 OKLAHOMA. large shipping trade, and does the largest business in fresh- water fish in the country, aggregating $1,500,000 a year. The Gov- ernor of Ohio is William McKinley (Republican), whose term expires January 8, 1894. The State is Republican. Oklahoma. Oklahoma was originally part of the Indian Territory, but the government purchased a section of the unused lands in the Territory, part of which was known as Oklahoma and covered 2,000,000 acres. In 1889 the President proclaimed the greater part of this Territory open for settlement; the Boomers crowded in by thousands, pre-empted the lands, and built the city of Guthne in less than a day. In April, 1892, another large section was similarly opened to the settlers. The greater part of Oklahoma is still inhabited by In- dians, who receive regular supplies of money, cloth- ing, and provisions from the government, and are under the immediate su- pervision of Indian agents and the troops of the United States forts. The chief inhabited places are Guthne, with a population of 7,000, Okla- homa City with a popula- tion of 2,500, and Kingfisher and Norman with a population of 1,000 each. The population of the Territory in 1890 was 61,- 701, of whom 5,689 were Indians. Abraham J. Seay (Republi- can) is Governor of Oklahoma Territory. His term expires May 15, 1894. The governor is appointed by the President. Oklahoma Boomers. This was the name given to the men who settled in the Oklahoma lands in Indian Territory in 1889. The name was of local origin, but it passed into common use. (See Oklahoma.) The boomers waited for months on the boundary line, and when, at a word from the government land agent, the Territory was declared open to settlers, a mad rush for the best lands took place. Old Buck. (See Presidents of the United States.) Old Buena Vista. (See Presidents of the United States.) Old Bullion. (See Nicknames of Famous Americans.) Old Hickory. (See Presidents of the United States.) Old Man Eloquent* (See Presidents of the United States.) AN OKLAHOMA BOOMER'S CABIN. OMNIBUS BILL. 255 Old Public Functionary. (See Presidents of the United States.) Old Rough and Ready. (See Presidents of the United States.) Old Saddle-Bags. (See Nicknames of Famous Americans.) Old Three Stars. (See Presidents of the United States.) Old Tip. (See Presidents of the United States.) Old Usufruct. (See Nicknames of Famous Americans.) Omnibus Bill. The hand of Henry Clay was instrumental in shaping this bill, which actually formed the basis of the con- test over the Kansas-Nebraska bill (which see) in 1854, a contest in which the defeat of the Whigs and the drawing of the lines between North and South gave birth to the Republican party. California applied for admission as a State on February 13, 1850. The issue was whether the territory acquired from Mexico should be organized on the plan of the Wilmot proviso (which proposed to exclude slavery from territory to be purchased of Mexico), or the Missouri compromise; or whether the doctrine of " Squatter Sovereignty" (which see) should prevail in it, which was to open the territory for settlement, and let the settlers determine among themselves whether the States in it should ultimately be free or slave States. The South, openly acknowledged that the annexation of Texas was a Southern measure, adopted for the express purpose of add- ing slave territory to the South. Calhoun contended that the Constitution was the supreme law of the land ; and, inasmuch as it recognized slavery, any settler should be permitted to take his slaves to such Territory, and be protected in holding them. Daniel Webster replied that "the Constitution did not bind Territories till they had been created into States," and, while it provided the forms by which this could be done, " was inopera- tive as to the exercise of power over the Territory." " It could not exercise its functions even over a State without acts of Con- gress to enforce it." The bills on the calendar were : A bill for the admission of California as a free State ; a bill for the organi- zation of Utah and New Mexico as Territories, subject to become either free or slave States ; a bill to abolish slavery in the Dis- trict of Columbia, and a stringent Fugitive Slave Bill, besides some others of less importance. Henry Clay undertook the task of embodying them all, except the one for the abolition of slavery in the District of Columbia, into one " Omnibus Bill," and passing them through both houses at a single balloting. Jefferson Davis proposed the extension of the, Missouri 256 OREGON. compromise line to the Pacific. Mr. Seward proposed the Wilmot proviso (which see) to cover the territory in question. Cali- fornia became a State September 9, 1850, and was admitted with- out slavery. New Mexico and Utah were organized as Territo- ries without the Wilmot proviso, and the Fugitive-Slave Bill was passed. The South settled into an ill -concealed tranquility, and the North acquiesced with equal grace, except the Anti-Slavery party, who were more dissatisfied than ever with the Fugitive Slave Law, which required any private citizen, if called upon, to assist in the capture and rendition of slaves, on penalty of fine and imprisonment. On the Fence. (See Slang of Politics.) On to Richmond. (See Sayings of Famous Americans.) One Man Power. (See Slang of Politics.) Only Good Indian is a Dead Indian. (See Sayings of Famous Americans.) Oregon. The State was settled at Astoria in 1811 by Ameri- cans. There has always been some question as to whether this domain was included in the Louisiana Purchase ; at all events, it ultimately became a part of the United States, and was admitted to the Union as a State in 1859. The Cascade Mountains, which cross the State from north to south, dividing Oregon into two unequal parts, known as Eastern and Western Oregon, range from four thousand to ten thousand feet in height, reaching the region of perpetual snow. The GKEAT SEAL OF OREGON. principal peaks are Mt. Hood, 11,225 feet; Mt. Jefferson, 10,200 feet; the Three Sisters and Diamond Peak, each 9,420 feet; and Mt. McLaughlin, 11,000 feet. The principal harbors are at the mouths of the Columbia and Rogue Rivers. There are many other rivers, most of them navigable. The Columbia rises in the Rocky Mountains, and is navigable for ships one hundred and fifteen miles from the sea, and for steamers one hundred and sixty-five miles. It is a rapid stream, and receives nearly all the rivers of Oregon. -The Columbia is thirteen hundred miles in length. Its numerous cascades, canons, narrows, and rapids enhance the beauty of the scenery. One of the most important industries of Oregon is the Colum- OREGOX. 257 bia River Salmon Fisheries, which yield upwards of 450,000 cases of fish, including fresh fish, annually. The river is stocked from the government hatchery, which now puts 5,000,000 young salmon into the river each year. The chief agricultural product is wheat, of which fifteen million bushels have been produced in a year ; the product of oats is about six million bushels, and hops, corn, flax, rye, barley, and buckwheat, are raised in large quantities. Fruit trees have been extensively planted in the last six years. Cattle-raising is one of the most important industries and the State has over five hundred thousand head, the equable climate being especially adapted to the fattening of cattle. There are on the ranges 2,500,000 V sheep, yielding six- teen million pounds of wool in a year. The Lumber- ing interests are very extensive, there being over twenty-five thou- sand square miles of woodland, including pine, red fir, red and white cedar, hem- lock, oak, maple, cotton- wood, and ash. The mills are all in prosperous condition and are kept busy nearly all the time. Gold and silver, in comparatively small amounts, are produced, also coal, iron ore, nickel, manga- nese, lime, granite, marble, sandstone, and clay. The chief city is Portland, on the Willamette River, which has a fine location for an extensive shipping trade. The export business to China, Japan, and South America has in a single year amounted to 5,000,000 bushels of wheat and 500,000 bar- rels of flour, besides large quantities of lumber. The manufac- tures amount to $28,000,000 a year and the total volume of busi- ness to $130,000,000. The exports are about $12,000,000 a year. Steamship lines run to Japan, British Columbia, Alaska, and San FYancisco, and there are several lines of coast steamers. Sailing vessels leave Portland for China, South America, New York, and all parts of the United Kingdom. Part of the city is 1,000 feet above the sea level. Among its prominent buildings VIEW OF PORTLAND, OREGON. 258 PAN ELECTBIC SCANDAL. are the Industrial Exposition buildings, three large hotels, an Opera House which cost $700,000, the Masonic Temple, and the schools, colleges, and churches. The population of Portland in 1890 was 46,385 ; East Portland in 1890 had 10,532. Another important business centre is Astoria, which is sit- uated on the Columbia River; it had a population in 1890 of 8,090. Sylvester Pennoyer (Democrat) is governor of Oregon. His term expires January 13, 1895. The State is Republican. Ossawatomie Brown. (See Nicknames of Famous Ameri- cans.) Our Own Evarts. (See Nicknames of Famous Americans.) Pacific Railroads. (See Railroads and Bridges.) Pair Off. (See Slang of Politics.) Pan Electric Scandal. In the administration of President Cleveland the Pan Electric Company brought suit in the United States Supreme Court on behalf of the United States Government, for the annul- ment of the Bell telephone patents, the Pan Electric Company claiming patents which would be valuable if the Bell telephone patents en c-. to ec -i 4- : C-CO' CJICn^-ICSC^jCCOdCiCO-^lOO' OC'l w i-4CnOOOOOOCOCO)-*h-*CSOOCO* OQOCyttOCOtO7 CD- O5 O!Ul-. K1CDO5- ;. . . . >f^ tcto- t~* h-^^oo- oo- co- - W OCO- O -1r-O' OJICbS- CO- Op Mi t- l- ^ ^ ^ i- Cn 1-* to >- H* O CO 1C >** 00 wl S . w ~_t 14 _: -- ^ co co t^ 4* ci i en -i en ec ^ t c i c 4^ ~i. \ ~ i : -"t \z v i- e."' r. c v; 10 * ic To to o ~j rf^ to ** >-* c XM o oij *. 5# '. o> ot' jn^o ; I"" 1 *co I ^71 oo I'co co rf*lo iT-* . ^O^F* c^ a ^i -i : co - . oo to en to co to ^i co co en to - c x o c t - 1 - totoocO' 4- ~ t c r: CO K *. 05 ; _f 05 ; Jj3 ; CCi^ijCJOl' CO^; CO!- 1 *.' (-"jw^-" ; w ^ 5"^^ t iJ* i5S' toSoi"^ ' 7 * -' o co co en Co w C3 CO 00 IO * H- 5 to CO C5 CO CO -1 tO -I CO -1 C" O C^ tO t- i . JClif'O- COCntOCCrf-CntOC/'Ciii-'O- IO = -S ^| E i ? tTgi : 233* -4 coa l%%: ': g: ggSi i i II: |: ? > to ^P 1 " a 8 OsoJI-iiSooScocc * 05 93 5? -: POPULATION AND AREA. had an area of one hundred square miles, but thirty square inilc , were ceded to Virginia in 1846. The following table shows the land and water area of i!i - States and Territories, their length and breadth, and thc-ir capitals. STATES AND TERRITORIES. Gross Area in Square Miles. Extreme Breadth, Miles. Extreme Length, Miles. Capital. 52,250 577,31)0 113,020 53,&0 158,300 103,925 4,900 2,050 370 58,680 59,475 84,800 56,650 36,350 31,400 56,025 82,080 40,400 48,720 33,040 12,210 8,315 58,915 83,365 46,810 69,415 146,080 77,510 110,700 9,305 7,815 122,580 49,170 52,250 70,795 41,OGO 39,030 96,030 45,215 1,250 30,570 77,650 42,050 265,780 84,970 9,565 42,450 69,180 24,780 56,040 97,890 200 800 335 275 375 3!)0 90 35 9 400 250 305 205 160 210 300 400 350 ?80 205 200 190 310 350 180 300 580 415 315 90 70 350 320 520 360 230 365 375 300 " 35 235 380 430 760 275 90 425 ' 340 200 290 365 330 1,100 390 240 740 270 ^75 110 10 460 315 490 380 265 210 210 200 175 275 235 120 110 400 400 340 280 315 205 485 185 160 390 310 200 210 205 210 290 180 50 215 245 120 620 345 155 205 230 225 300 275 Montgomery. Sitka. Phoenix. Little Rock. Sacramento. Denver. Hartford. Dover. Washington. Tallahassee. Atlanta. Boisti City. Springfield. Indianapolis. Arizona Territory California Colorado Connecticut Delaware District of Columbia... Florida Georgia Idaho Illinois Indiana Indian Territory Iowa Des Moines. Topeka. Frankfort. Baton Rouge. Augusta. Annapolis. Boston. Lansing. St. Paul. Jackson. Jefferson City. Helena. Lincoln. Carson City. Concord. Trenton. Santa Fe. Albany. Kaleigh. Bismarck. Columbus. Guthrie. Salem. Harrisburg. Newport and Prov. Columbia. Pierre. Nashville. Austin. Salt Lake City. Montpelier. Richmond. Olympia. Charleston. Madison. Cheyenne. Kansas . Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Montana Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire New Jersey New Mexico Territory . . New York North Carolina North Dakota Ohio Oklahoma Territory Oregon Pennsylvania Rhode Island South Carol ina South Dakota Tennessee Texas Utah Territory Vermont Virginia Washington West Virginia Wisconsin Wyoming Total 3,602,990 2,720 1,000 The Population of the United States, according to the census of 1890, is 62,622,250. In 1880, it was 50,155,783 ; in 1870, 38,558,371; in 1860,31,443,321; in 1850,23,191,876; in POPULATION AXD AREA. 295 1840, 17,069,453; in 1830, 12,866,020; in 1820, 9,633,822; in 1810, 7,239,881; in 1800, 5,308,483; in 1790, 3,929,214 ; in 1780, 2,945,000; in 1770, 2,312,000. The population of Alaska, which is not included above, is 30,329. (For population of States and Territories see each State and Territory.) The Most Populous State is New York, which has a popu- lation of 5,997,853 by the United States census of 1890, although NATIONAL ACA'DEMY OF DESIGN, NEW YORK. the enumeration completed in March, 1892, by the State authori- ties made the population 6,479,730. The Least Populous State is Wyoming, which has a popu- lation of 60,705. The Most Populous City in the United States is New York. The government census of 1890 made the population 1,515,301 ; the municipal enumeration some months later made it 1,710,715. The Centre of Population is at a point twenty milei of Columbus, Ind. It moves steadily westward at an average rate of fifty miles in ten years. In 1800 it was situated at a 296 POPULATION AND AREA. point eighteen miles west of Baltimore, Md. Centre of popula- tion as defined in the Statistical Atlas of 1874, "is the point at which equilibrium would be reached were the country taken as a plane surface, itself without weight, but capable of sustaining weight and loaded with its inhabitants, in number and position as they are found at the period under consideration, each individual being assumed to be of the same gravity as every other and con-' sequently to exert pressure on the pivotal point directly propor- tioned to his distance therefrom." In short, it is the centre of gravity of the population of the country. The Negro Population of the South (16 States) is 6,944,915; the white population is 15,493,323. The white popu- lation of the South in 1850 was 6,222,418, the negro population 3,442,238; in 1860 the white population was 8,097,462, the negro population 4,215,614; in 1870 the figures were 9,466,353 white, 4,538,883 negro; in 1880, 12,578,253 white, 6,099,253 negro. These figures show that the colored element increased during the decade at the rate of 13.8 per cent. The white population of these States in 1890 numbered 15,493,323, and in 1880, 12,578,- 253. It increased during the decade at the rate of 23.1 per cent., or nearly twice as rapidly as the colored element. Indian Population. By the census of 1890, the Indians in the United States, exclusive of Alaska, numbered 249,273, distributed among the States and Territories as follows: Arizona, 16,740; California, 15,283; Colorado, 1,034; Connecticut, 24; Florida, 215; Georgia, 2; Idaho, 3,909; Illinois, 1 ; Indiana, 71; Indian Territory, 8,708; Five Civilized Tribes, 66,289; Iowa, 397 ; Kansas, 1,437; Louisiana, 132; Maine, 140; Massachusetts, 145 ; Michigan, 6,991 ; Minnesota, 7,065 ; Mississippi, 1,404 ; Missouri, 14 ; Montana, 10,573 ; Nebraska, 3,864; Nevada, 4,956 ; New Mexico, 20,521 ; Pueblos, 8,278; New York, 28; Six Na- tions, 5,304; North Carolina, 231; Cherokees, 2,885; North Dakota, 7,952; Oklahoma, 5,689; Oregon, 4,282; South Dakota, 19,845 ; Tennessee, 10; Texas, 258; Utah, 2,489; Washington, 10,837 ; Wisconsin, 8,896; Wyoming, 1,806; War Department Apaches, Mt. Vernon barracks, 38 i ; Indians in prison, 184 ; total, 249,273. Of these, the Five Civilized Tribes number 68,371, among whom there are: Cherokees, 29,599; Chickasaws, 7,182; Choc- taws, 14,397 ; Creeks, 14,632 ; Seminoles, 2,561. Other Indians are the Pueblos of New Mexico, who number 8,278 ; the Six Na- tions, Saint Regis, and other Indians of New York, 5,304 ; the Eastern Cherokees of North Carolina, 2,885 ; Indians taxed or taxable, and self-sustaining citizens, counted in the general census (98 per cent, not on reservations), 32,567 ; Indians under control POPULATION AND AREA. 297 of the War Department, prisoners of war (Apaches at Mount Vernon barracks), 384 ; Indians in State or Territorial prisons, 184. The Cities Having 100,000 Inhabitants, or over, num- ber twenty-eight. They are as follows: New York, N. Y., CHINESE QUARTER AT SAN FRANCISCO. 1,515,301 ; Chicago, 111., 1,099,850; Philadelphia, Pa., 1,046,964; Brooklyn, N. Y., 806,343; St. Louis, Mo., 451,770; Boston, Mass., 448,477; Baltimore, Md., 434,439; San Francisco, Cal., 298,997; Cincinnati, Ohio, 296,908; Cleveland, Ohio, 261,353; 298 POPULATION AND AREA. Buffalo, N. Y., 255,064 ; New Orleans, La., 242,039 ; Pittsburg, Pa., 238,617; Washington, D. C., 230,392; Detroit, Mich., 205,876 ; Milwaukee, Wis., 204,468 ; Newark, N. J., 181,830 ; Minneapolis, Minn., 164,738 ; Jersey City, N. J., 163,003 ; Louis- ville, Ky., 161,129; Omaha, Neb., 140,452; Rochester, N. Y., 133,896; St. Paul, Minn., 133,156 ; Kansas City, Mo., 132,716; Providence, R. L, 132,146; Denver, Colo., 106,713; Indianap- olis, Ind., 105,436 ; Allegheny, Pa., 105,287. There are 393 cities in the United States each having a population of 8,000 or over. Immigration. The immigration into the United States from the close of the Revolutionary War has numbered approxi- mately 15,567,000 persons. Of these Germany sent 4,504,128 ; Ireland, 3,481,074 ; England, 2,430,380 ; Norway and Sweden, 925,031; Austria-Hungary, 434,438; Italy, 388,558; France, 366,346 ; Russia and Poland, 324,892 ; Scotland, 323,823 ; China, 290,655; Switzerland, 171,269 ; Denmark, 142,517. Of the immigrants arrived during the last decade, 3,205,911, or 61.10 per cent, were males, 2,040,702, or 38.90 per cent., females, and 1,121,499, or 21.4 per cent, under 15 years ; 51 per cent., or 334,229, from Ireland were males; 49 per cent., or 321,253, females. From Germany, 836,290, or 57.6 per cent., were males, and 616,680, or 42.4 per cent, females. From England, Sweden, Norway, and Scotland, 61 per cent, were males. From Hungary, 94,243, or 73.8 per cent, were males, and 33,438, or 26.2 per cent., females. From Italy, 243,923, or 79.4 per cent, were males and 63,386, or 20.6 per cent., females. Of the immigration of the ten years ending 1890, the Profes- sional Class, which embraces musicians, teachers, clergymen, artists, lawyers, physicians, etc., constituted .056 per cent. The Skilled Occupations, embracing blacksmiths, carpenters, coopers, iron-workers, machinists, printers, gardeners, dress- makers, miners, tailors, etc., represented 10.30 per cent. The class " miscellaneous occupations " constituted 39.63 per cent., and includes laborers, farmers, servants, and merchants. 47.34 per cent, of all had no occupations. Of this total of 2,600,061 ap- parently without occupation, 1,767,284 were females and 537,007 were under fifteen years. Occupations* The occupations of the people of this coun- try were listed in the United States census of 1880 under four general titles : 1st Professional and personal service. Males. , 2,712,943 Females 1,361,295 4,074,238 2d Trade and transportation. Males i 1,750,892 Females 59,364 1,810,256 POST-OFFICE SYSTEM. 3d Agriculture. Males 7,075,983 Females 594,510 299 7,670,493 1th Manufacturing Mechanic arts and mining. Males 3,205,124 Females 631,988 3,837,112 Total 17,392,099 Growth of Cities. It is a common saying that" God made the country and man made the town." Statistics of the Ameri- can cities prove that this is true, in this country, at least. In 1790 the population of the United States was almost entirely a rural one. There were no large cities. Philadelphia, the largest city, had 42,000 inhabitants ; New York had 38,000 ; Boston had 18,000 ; Baltimore, 13,000. The entire population of the country was 3,589,063. The aggregate population in 1890 of the four cities named exceeds this by many thousands. In 1790, the per- centage of people in the cities was about 3 in 1 00 ; the other 97 lived on the farms, or in the towns, which averaged 500 to 1,500 inhabitants. This percentage remained about the same during the fifty years subsequent to 1790. Between 1840 and 1850, the cities began to be more populous. Manufacturing, encouraged by inventions and the protective tariff, drew thousands from the farms to the cities, and by 1850, when there were 44 cities, the percentage of people in cities to those in the country had increased to 12.5. Following is a table showing the increase since 1850 : Date. Population of United States. Cities. Population of Cities. Percentage of Urban Population. 1850 23,19i,87G 85 2,897,586 12.5 1860 31,443,321 141 5,072,256 16.1 1870 38,558,371 226 8,071,875 20.9 1880 50,155,783 286 11,318,597 22.5 1890 62,622,250 443 18,235,670 29.1 Post-Office Department. (See Federal Government.) Post-Office System, The. (See Post-Office Department, under Federal Government.) Post-Riders. Railway Mail Service. Early Postal Rates. Ocean Mail Service. Money-Order System. Dead Letter Office. Receipts and Expenses. Postal Telegraph. Statistics. The first mention of a central office for the reception and dis- tribution of letters is found in the records of the General Court of Massachusetts 1639, as follows : " It is ordered that notice be 300 POST-OFFICK SYSTEM. A COLONIAL POST-OFFICE. given that Richard Fairbanks his house in Boston is the place appointed for all letters which are brought from beyond the seas, or are to be sent thither to be left with him, and he is to take care that they are to be delivered or sent according to the direction. And he is allowed for every letter a penny, and must answer all miscarriages through his own neglect in this" kind." This arrange- ment, however, was not satisfactory, and another was soon after put in operation. Virginia had a Local Mail Service in 1657, and in 1672 a post-route was opened between New York and Boston, trips being made once a month, and thirty years later, every two weeks. There was also a route extending from Piscataqua, or Portsmouth, N. H., to Philadelphia via New York, and another from Philadelphia to Williamsburg, Va., and thence to Charleston, S. C., but both of these were uncertain in the delivery of letters, which depended both upon the condition of the weather and upon the peace of the country. In 1692, Parliament placed the mail service in the colonies in charge of a crown officer known as the Deputy Postmaster- General for America. In 1710, the central office was estab- lished at New York. Still the service was mismanaged, and did not yield the revenue which it was Parliament's first object to secure. Benjamin Franklin, who had been comptroller lor the Post- master-General, was upon the latter' s death, in 1753, appointed to the office by Parliament. With characteristic energy, he im- proved the service greatly, instituting a penny-post in Phila- delphia to deliver letters at residences, and a tri- weekly mail between Philadelphia and New York. At this time and previously, letters were carried by Post- Ride rs, who rode on horseback over a given territory, collecting letters either from the senders in person, or from boxes placed along the route. This primitive method was in vogue until the latter half of the eigh- teenth century. In 1756, Franklin sent the mail from Philadelphia to New York by Stage-coach, a plan which soon after came into general use. Packages were also sent in the same way. Although Franklin had increased the revenue so that Great Britain made a profit from the mail service in the colonies, he was removed on account of his politics, but by the Continental Congress was reappointed. By 1789, Wiscasset, Maine, and Georgia were connected by post-routes. From 1789 to 1799, the Rate for carrying a single letter more POST-OFFICE SYSTEM. 3QJ than 30 and under 60 miles was eight cents, from 60 to 100 miles, ten cents, from 100 to 150 miles, twelve and one half cents, from 150 to 200, fifteen cents, and so on. For carrying a double- weight letter, the rate was twice as much. From 1789 to 1816, the rates remained practically the same, excepting that the dis tance a single letter was carried for eight cents was increased. In 1794 the Post-Office Department was created. From 1816 to 1845, the single rate for 30 miles was six cents, for longer dis- tances the rate was proportionately higher. The revenue during this period was about equal to the expenditure. In 1845 the rate was reduced to the unit of 300 miles for five cents; over 300 miles the rate was ten cents. The drop-letter system was now introduced, the rate being two cents for a single letter. In 1851 the rate for 300 miles was reduced to three cents. In 1861, mer- chandise was admitted to the mails. From 1851 to 1863, the expense of the department exceeded the income. In the latter year, the rate for a single letter was three cents for any dis- tance within the United States. Postal Cards were introduced in 1879, and letter postage was reduced to three cents for each half ounce. In 1883, the rate was still further reduced to two cents for each half ounce, and finally March 3, 1885, to two cents an ounce, which is the rate to-day. There is, and nearly always has been, a Deficit in the Post-Office Department, due to its extraordinary facilities, which are maintained at great expense in the transmission and delivery of the mails. The Number of Post-Offices in 1800, was 903; in 1820, 4,500; in 1840, 13,468; in 1860, 28,498; in 1880, 42,989; in 1890,62,401; in 1891,64,329. The Post-Office Department in the fiscal year 1891, handled about 3,800,000,000 pieces of postal matter. The Receipts were $65,931,786 ; the Expenditures $71,662,463; of the latter, $14,527,000 were for salaries of post- masters, and $36,805,621 for transportation of the mails. For transportation of mails in 1865, the expenditure was $6,246,884. The whole number of post-offices in 1891 was 64,329, of which 2,942 were Presidential offices. The number of miles of postal routes was 439,027. In the extent and perfection of its postal system, the United States leads all the nations of the world. The department handles in a year more postal matter than GLreat Britain, France, and Germany combined. Great Britain transmits in a year about 1,500,000,000 pieces, Germany about 1,200,000,000, and France about 700,000,000, Austria- Hungary a-bout 600,000,000. Money-Orders and Postal Notes. The system of send- ing money by mail is known as the Money-Order System, and 302 POST-OFFICE SYSTEM. is a separate department of the Postmaster-General's admin- istration. It was created in 1871, and now does an enormous business. Domestic Money-Orders are issued by money- order post-offices, of which there are about 9,000, for any amount up to $100, at the following rates : For sums not exceeding $5, five cents ; for $5 to $10, eight cents ; for $10 to $15, ten cents; for $15 to $30, fifteen cents; for $30 to $40, twenty cents ; for $40 to $50, twenty-five cents; for $50 to $60, thirty cents; for $60 to $70, thirty-five cents; for $70 to $80, forty cents ; for $80 to $100, forty-five cents. When more than $100 is required, additional orders must be obtained, but not more than three orders will be issued in one day to the same payee, payable at the same office. There are now in operation Postal Conventions for the ex- change of money-orders between the United States and the following countries, viz: Switz- ' v^lfr'-^"- v erland, Great Britain and Ireland, Ger- many, France, Italy, Canada, and New- foundland, Jamaica, New K South. Wales, Victoria, New a THE FAST MAIL TRAIN. Zealand, Queensland, the Cape Colony, the Windward Islands, the Leeward Islands, Belgium, Portugal, Tas- -^ mania, Hawaii, Sweden, Norway, Japan, Denmark, and the Netherlands. The rates of commission or fees charged for the issue of all international money-orders are as follows: For sums not exceeding $10, ten cents; over $10 and not exceeding $20, twenty cents; over $20 and not exceeding $30, thirty cents ; over $30 and not exceeding $40, forty cents ; over $40 and not exceeding $50, fifty cents. The system of Postal Notes was created March 3, 1883. inese notes will be issued for sums less than $5, for a fee of three POST-OFFICE SYSTEM. 303 cents, and are payable to any person presenting them, either at the office designated on the note, or at the office of issue, within three months of date of issue. Railway and Steamship Mail Service. The chief agency in the transmission of the mails is the railroads. Part of them are carried by steamboats, and by messengers, as for instance, from one railroad station to another in a city, or from a railroad station to a steamboat. In back-country districts, where the railroad does not reach a town, post-routes run from the rail- road to the town, and such mails are carried by private individ- uals under yearly contracts. Such routes are known as Star Routes, and are numerous in the far West, where in some in- stances they extend for one hundred and one hundred and fifty miles, usually by stage-coach. The Railway Mail Service is in charge of a General Superintendent, who makes contracts with railroad companies, and sees that they are faithfully per- formed. The railroads furnish separate cars for carrying the mails, which are always run with the fast through trains. Over a few roads, as for instance, from Chicago to New York, there has been run a Fast Mail train, composed exclusively of mail-cars, and having the right of Avay over all other trains, thereby enabling it to make quick connections. Mail-cars are manned by separate crews, who assort the mail en route, frequently working all night, and who deposit it in mail-bags which are transferred to mail wagons in waiting at the point of destination. Quick and accurate work is necessary, as for instance, where the mail-bags must be carried across a city to a train scheduled to leave in half an hour. Mails between San Francisco and New York have been carried in five days, but the service was so expensive that it was discontinued. The average time is now inside of six days. What is called the New York and Chicago Fast Mail is the most important of the fast mail trains now running. It is made up generally of five mail cars, one baggage-car, one express-car and one passenger car. The mail cars are built of the most enduring material, and are provided with the best of run- ning gear. Each car contains pouches of mail destined for partic- ular States and the same men assort it each trip. Each clerk assorts the mail of particular States. The first car carries all the letters and is known as the letter car. The four other cars' carry the newspaper, periodical, and package mail, which is so much more bulky than the letter mail that four cars are required to transport it. The Run to Chicago is divided into three sections : New York to Syracuse, Syracuse to Cleveland,and Cleveland to Chicago. 304 POST-OFFICE SYSTEM. The crews begin work at New York at 4 r. M , and arrive at Syracuse, if on time, at 5.35 A. M. Here they remain until the same evening at 8.40, arriving the next morning at New York at six o'clock. So exacting are their duties that the clerks on this train after making three trips, lay off six days, their salaries, which are from nine hundred to thirteen hundred dollars per annum, continuing meanwhile. At Syracuse, a new crew takes possession, who are in turn relieved at Cleveland by a third crew, who work until Elkhardt, Ind., is reached, where a Chicago crew comes on board and takes possession during the rest of the trip. The letter car, on leaving New York, is manned by six men, and a chief clerk ; the other cars, by four men. Mail is brought on board at all points where the train stops, and at other points by an ingenkms contrivance called a " crane," which is an up- right frame from which is suspended, at the proper height, the mail-pouch, which a rod from the letter car catches in passing; and is swung with its burden inside. The Railway Mail Service employs six thousand men. The Foreign Mail Service is also in charge of a Superin- tendent, who makes contracts for the government with the transatlantic steamship lines. Within a year some of the com- panies have set apart a room on their ships where mail clerks assort the mails from America destined for foreign countries, thereby saving a day or more in time. The clerks return on the next steamer to the United States, and assort the European mails for American cities. Forty-four steamships between Europe and the United States are authorized to carry the foreign mails. Dead Letter Office, The. Letters or packages which are misdirected, or whose addresses are wanting, or are illegible, or directed to persons who are no longer living, are in every case returned to the senders if it can be ascertained who they are. If not, the letters and packages are advertised, kept a certain time, and then destroyed if not claimed. "Dead" letters and packages are received at the Post-Office Department at Washington at the rate of 20,000 a day. Of this number 5 per cent, contain money, which if not claimed, reverts to the United States Treasury. The Amount of Money found in "dead" letters averages $10,000 a year. Some of the "dead" letters and packages are preserved merely as Curiosities. There is a large skull in the collection, which was addressed to Prof. S. D. Gross, Philadelphia, and by him refused on account of the excessive postage due. An interesting article on exhibition is a sheet compiled by the Postmaster at Boston showing one hundred variations in spelling the word " Chicopee," as received at the Boston Post-Office. POST-OFFICE SYSTEM. 305 One letter is addressed : " Miss Kate , a girl about 16 years old, some gold in one of her front upper teeth, who sud- denly left her boarding house on Cherry Street, Philadelphia, about September, 1885." Another is addressed : "To the oldest Son of the Biggest Proprietor of the largest store in Crescent Mills, Plumao county, Cal." Another postmarked in North Carolina, is addressed : " P. M., please to inquire of a collard gentleman by name of Mack Henry, Hiliiaijd, N. Y." Several years ago a letter reached the office addressed to " Jesus Christ in Heaven." This was accompanied by a juvenile request for a new dress, in which the writer might more neatly appear in her Sabbath -school class. A purse was quickly made up by the clerks for the impecunious little girl. The Property Division of the dead-letter office handles all the merchandise that finds its way to Washington, and a motley collection it is. Glass cases covering three sides of a large room are filled with curious articles sent through the mails. Among them is a package from Germany which contained several large and ugly-looking snakes, one a large rattlesnake with four rattles, centipedes and horned toads, all of which were received alive, being sent in a perforated box. Another instance of the Abuse of the Mails, is the sending of a loaded revolver to a young lady in Springfield, 111., and from there to Havana, 111., whence it was returned to Washington. Postal Subsidy. (See Shipbuilding.) Postal Telegraph, The. As proposed by Postmaster- General Wanamaker, this system has for its purpose the estab- lishment in the Post-Office Department of a Bureau for the deposit, transmission, and delivery of postal telegrams through the postal service. All post-offices where the free-delivery ser- vice now exists, and the offices of the telegraph companies with which contracts would be made, would be postal telegraph stations. In addition, the Postmaster -General would be empowered to designate from time to time other post-offices and postal telegraph offices, and to contract with one or more telegraph companies now in existence, or that may become incorporated for a period of ten years, for the transmission of postal telegrams on condi- tions and at rates of tolls set forth in the bill. Postal telegrams are to be sent in the order of filing, except that government telegrams take precedence. As with the mails, no liability is to attach to the Post-Office Department oil account of delays or errors. Postal Notes. (See Post-Office System.) Postal Subsidy Act. (See Shipbuilding.) 306 PRESIDENTS OF THE UNITED STATES. Postal Telegraph. (See Ship-building.) Practical Politics. (See Slang of Politics.) Pre-Adamite. (See Nicknames of Famous Americans.) President de facto. (See Presidents of the United States.) Presidential Electors. (See How the President is Elected.) Presidential Flag. (See Flags of the United States.) Presidents of * the United States. Sobriquets. Burial Places. Ancestry. Professions. Title of President. Religious Convictions. Presidential Term. There have been twenty-three Presidents. It should be specified that in the subjoined list, the early Republicans, so-called, were really Democrat- Republicans (see Political Parties), and they are connected by direct lineage with the Democrats of the present time. Name. Politics. Residence. Inaugurated. ri m S it < Year. Age. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 10 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 George Washington John Adams Federalist Federalist Republican. . . Virginia 1789- 1797 1801 1809 1817 1825 1829 1837 1841 1841 1845 1849 1850 1853 1857 18C1 1865 18C9 1877 1881 1881 1885 1889 57 62 58 58 59 58 62 55 68 51 50 65 50 49 66 52 57 47 54 49 51 48 55 1799 1826 1826 1836 1831 1848 1845 1862 1841 1862 1849 1850 1874 1809 1868 1805 1875 1885 1881 1886 67 91 83 85 73 1 78 80 08 72 54 66 74 65 77 50 67 63 49 56 Massachusetts Thomas Jefferson Republican Republican Republican*... Democrat Democrat Whig Democrat Democrat Whig Virginia James Monroe Virginia Massachusetts Tennessee *John Quincy Adams Andrew Jackson Martin Van Buren William H. Harrison John Tyler James K. Polk New York Ohio Virginia Zachary Taylor Louisiana Millard Fillimore "Whig Franklin Pierce Democrat Democrat Republican Republican Republican. . . . Republican . . . New Hampshire . . . Pennsylvania James Buchanan Abraham Lincoln Andrew Johnson Ulysses S, Grant Rutherford B. Hayes . . . James A. Garfleld Chester A. Arthur Grover Cleveland Dist. of Columbia. Ohio Republican Republican Democrat Republican Ohio , . . . . New York .... Benjamin Harrison Indiana Sobriquets of the Presidents The national weakness for nicknames has always inflicted itself upon the President of the United States. As a rule they have originated with the common people, and have been characterized by an easy familiarity pos- sible only under a " government of the people, for the people, *John Quincy Adams was, properly speaking, a National-Republican : his sympathies were distinctly Federalistic. PRESIDENTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 307 & ^ Q* AUTOGRAPHS OF THE PRESIDENTS. (SEE PAGE 313.) 308 PRESIDENTS OF THE UNITED STATES. and by the people." Frequently, however, nicknames have been applied to the chief executive by political enemies, and in such cases, have differed from the nicknames applied by the people in that they have been sarcastic, and sometimes expressive of scorn. Washington has always been familiarly spoken of as the "Father of His Country "; the origin of the name is not known, but its significance is apparent. He was also called the " American Fabius," from the fact that his system of military warfare was similar to that of the Roman General Fabius, who used to harass the enemy by a system of marches and counter- marches and surprises, a practice which charactcrizc'd the cam- paigns of Washington. He was also called the " Cincinnatus of the West," from the fact that while he was in retirement on .his farm at Mt. Vernon, in 1797, he was called upon to take com- mand of the army at a time when it looked as if the United States would go to war with France. Some of his opponents sarcastically spoke of him as the "Step-Father of His Country." He was also spoken of as the " Atlas of Amer- ica," because he had to carry the new world on his shoulders. The " Deliverer of America," the " Saviour of His Country," were other nicknames for Washington. John Adams was called the " Colossus of Indepen- dence," from the fact of his intimate connection with the adoption of the Declaration of Independence. Thomas Jefferson has frequently been referred to as the " Sage of Monticello," from the fact that he lived at Monti- cello, his country seat, alter he retired to private life, but managed to keep in touch with politics. As he was very tall and slender, the political wags used to speak of him playfully as " Long Tom." President Madison was called the " Father of the Consti- tution," from the fact that he offered a resolution in a Virginia legislature which resulted in the convention of 1787, and led the way to the adoption of the Constitution of the United States. President Monroe was sometimes spoken of as " Last Cocked Hat," because he used to wear a cocked hat, a precious relic of the Revolutionary period. John Quincy Adams, while in Congress, earned such a reputa- tion for oratory, and so interested the members by his speeches that they dubbed him " Old Man Eloquent." Andrew Jackson is well known even to this day as " Old Hickory." One of his soldiers once made the remark that the General was tough, and afterwards it was remarked that he was tough as hickory; hence he was called "Hickory." As time went on his admirers affectionately spoke of him as " Old CD (Z PRESIDENTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 309 Hickory," and that became his nickname. The Creek Indians spoke of him as " Big Knife," and " Sharp Knife," and in consequence of his victory over the British at New Orleans, he has been spoken of as the " Hero of New Orleans." President Martin Van Buren acquired a reputation for political shrewdness and trickery, a fact which resulted in those who knew his methods well calling him the " Little Magician." He was also styled the "Wizard of Kinderkook," that having been his birthplace. He was also called " Little Van," " King Martin the First," and " Mattie." President William Henry Harrison was dubbed " Tippe- canoe," from the fact that he fought a battle at the junction of the Tippecanoe and Wabash Rivers, in 1811. In the Hard-Cider campaign Harrison Avas affectionately spoken of as the " Hero of Tippecanoe." " Old Tip," was another name for him. Harrison was also referred to as the " Washington of the West," because in the War of 1812 he pursued the British into Canada, and was as active in this war against the British as Washington had been in the Revolution. President John Tyler's political opponents called him the "Accidental President," because by the death of Harrison, shortly after his inauguration, Tyler, who was Vice-President, succeeded to the Presidency. James K. Polk, having been born in the same State as Andrew Jackson, who was "Old Hickory," was dubbed "Young Hickory," there being not only a relation between their birth- places, but also a resemblance in their political creeds. President Zachary Taylor was dubbed "Old Rough and Ready " on account of his fighting qualities as displayed during the Mexican War. He was also spoken of as " Old Buena Vista," from the incident at the battle of Buena Vista in which he uttered the famous phrase " A Little More Grape, Captain Bragg." Another famous name for him was "Old Zach." President Millard Fillmore was a man of aristocratic ten- dencies, old school courtesy, and polished manners, a fact which gave rise to the appellation, the " American Louis Philippe." It is also said that in physique he was not unlike the French King. Franklin Pierce was called "Purse" for short, that being the pronunciation of the family name in New England. President James Buchanan was the " Old Public Func- tionary." The name originated from his own allusion to him- self in a message to Congress in 1859. He was also called the " Bachelor President," and "Old Buck." Abraham Lincoln was "Abe," Old Abe," " Honest Old 310 PRESIDENTS OF THE UNITED STATES. Abe, "the "Sectional President," which he was called by the Southerners. " Uncle Abe " was applied to him by the negroes after the Emancipation Proclamation. " Massa Linkum " was also of negro origin. " Father Abraham " originated in the famous war song, " We Are Coming, Father Abraham, Three Hundred Thousand Strong," and the "Fail Splitter " from the fact that in his early life he had split rails. The " Martyr President" is another name for him, heard to this day. President Andrew Johnson was called "Sir Veto" on account of his having vetoed so many bills. "Andy" was a familiar abbreviation of his name. Ulvsses S. Grant is more popularly known as the " Hero of Appomattox," while among his soldiers, during the war, he was familiarly spoken of as " Old Three Stars," from his rank of lieutenant-general as indicated by the stars. When he was brought forward for the third time as President, his enemies called him the " American Caesar." In consequence of his having refused General Buckner at Fort Donelson, in 1862, no terms other than " unconditional and immediate surrender," the phrase " Unconditional Surrender " was sometimes applied to him. The opposition press, by way of ridicule, altered this phrase variously into "Union Safeguard," "Unprece- dented Strategist," "Uniformed Soldier," "Unques- tionably Skilled," "United States," "Uncle Sam," etc., his own initials being U.S. The "Butcher from Ga- lena " was an epithet applied to General Grant by Charles O'Connor, of New York, in the latter's letter accepting the nomi- nation of the Democratic party in 1872. The allusion was to the large number of soldiers who were killed in Grant's campaign. President Rutherford B. Hayes was frequently styled by the Democratic press the "President de Facto," on account of the fact that it was claimed that Samuel J. Tilden, his oppo- nent for the Presidency, had been counted out, and was actually President de Jure. President Garfield was called the " Martyr President, "from the fact that he was assassinated, the "Teacher President," because as a young man he had been a teacher, and, later, a college president. The " Canal Boy " was another name applied to him while a candidate for President. Among his intimate friends, President Chester A. Arthur was known as Chet," and " Our Chet," an abbreviation of his Christian name. On account of his polished manners and his elegant dress, he was sometimes called the " First Gentleman of the Land." President Cleveland has been variously nicknamed " Grover," PRESIDENTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 313 AUTOGRAPHS OF THE PRESIDENTS. (SEE PAGE 307.) 314 PRESIDENTS OF THE UNITED STATES. " Our Grover," " Old Grover," and he was called the " Man of Destiny," on account of his remarkable rise to political power. The " Stuffed Prophet," the "Claimant," the "Dumb Prophet," and the "Pretender," are appel- lations which were often applied to him, after he retired to private life, by the New York $uti. During the 1884 campaign the Republicans derided him as the "Buffalo Hangman," because as sheriff in that city, he once had charge of the execu- tion of a murderer. They also contemptuously referred to him as the " Buffalo Sheriff." President Benjamin Harrison has been spoken of frequently as "Grandfather's Hat," as" Ben," and as " B. Harri- son." This nickname of " Grandfather's Hat " arose from the fact that the cartoonists represented him as wearing a hat as large as himself and labelled " Grandfather's Hat." Baby McKee'3 Grandfather" is another of his nicknames. Professions, Education, and Ancestry. Of the twenty- three Presidents of the United States, John Adams, T. Jefferson, Madison, John Quincy Adams, Jackson, Van Buren, Tyler, Polk, Fillmore, Pierce, Buchanan, Lincoln, Hayes, Garfield, Arthur, Cleveland, and Benjamin Harrison were Lawyers at the time of their election. Monroe had no regular profession, but gave his time to Politics. William II. Harrison, Taylor, and Grant were Soldiers ; Andrew Jackson was an Ex-Soldier and Politi- cian. John Adams and J. Q. Adams were graduates of Harvard College ; Madison was a graduate of Princeton ; Jefferson and Tyler were graduates of William and Mary's College, and Monroe once studied there. Washington, Taylor, Fillmore, and Cleveland attended the Common School. Jackson, Lin- coln, and Johnson were Self-Taught. Polk graduated at the University of North Carolina ; William A. Harrison attended Hampden-Sydney College ; Pierce was a grad- uate of Bowdoin College ; Buchanan of Dickinson Col- lege ; Grant of West Point Military Academy ; Hayes of Kenyon College ; Garfield of Williams College ; Arthur of Union College ; Benjamin Harrison of Miami College. Washington, the Adamses, Madison, Harrison, Tyler, Taylor, Fillmore, Pierce, Lincoln, Johnson, Garfield, and Cleve- land were of English ancestors ; Monroe, Grant, and Hayes of Scotch ancestors; Jackson, Polk, Buchanan, and Arthur of Scotch-Irish, ancestors, and Van Buren of Dutch ances- tors. Washington, Jefferson, Madison, Monroe, Taylor, were sons of Planters; John Adams, Jackson, Van Buren, Polk, Fill- PRESIDENTS OP THE UNITED STATES. 81 5 more, Pierce, Lincoln, Garfield, and Benjamin Harrison were sons of Farmers. J. Q. Adams' father was a Lawyer ; William H. Harrison's, a Statesman ; Tyler's, a Jurist ; Buchanan's and Hayes', Merchants ; Johnson's, a Sexton ; .Arthur's and Cleveland's, Clergymen. Burial Places. Washington is buried at Mount Ver- non, on the Potomac River, about sixteen miles from Washing- ton. The inner tomb is made of freestone, which has a stone panel bearing the inscription : " I am the resurrection and the life ; he that believeth in me, though he were dead, yet shall he live." The outside structure is twelve feet high, entered by an iron gateway beneath a Gothic arch, over which is a marble slab on which is inscribed, " Within this enclosure rests the remains of General George Washington." There is an ante-chamber where are two marble sarcophagi. Washington's has a sculptured lid on which is carved an American shield suspended from the American flag. The flag hangs in festoons and over it rests an eagle, with wide open wings, perched upon the shield; cut in the marble is the name " Washington." The remains of Martha Washington lie in the other sarcophagus, which is made of marble and -is eight feet high. President John Adams is buried at Quincy, Mass., beneath the portico of the Unitarian Church. The tomb is in the cellar, and is built in behind huge blocks of rough granite ; the door is a marble slab with massive clasp, padlock, and hinges. In the church proper is the memorial tablet to John Adams and his wife, on the top of which is a life-sized bust of the President ; the tablet is inscribed with an elaborate eulogy of his services as a citizen and a public servant. Thomas Jefferson is buried at Monticello, Va., in the family cemetery. There is a granite obelisk, built of three pieces of rough granite, designed from a drawing made by Jefferson. The inscription on the pedestal is as follows : Here lies buried THOMAS JEFFERSON, Author of the Declaration of American Independence, Of the Statute of Virginia For religious freedom, And father of the University of Virginia. On the northern side of the base stone is inscribed: Born April 2, 1743, O. S. Died July 4, 1826. Mrs. Jefferson is buried close by. 316 PRESIDENTS OP THE UNITED STATES. James Madison is buried at Montpelier, Va. The lot is entered by an iron gate with the name "MADISON." The monument is a plain but graceful obelisk built of seven pieces of stone. The total height is twenty feet six inches. The inscrip- tion is without allusion to his public services. His wife, Dolly Payne, is buried in the same lot. The monument was erected twenty-two years after Madison's death, by private subscrip- tion. James Monroe lay buried in New York city, in the Second Avenue Cemetery, until 1858, when the body was removed to Richmond, Va., and deposited in Hollywood Cemetery, in a lot which was bought by Governor Wise in behalf of the State for the purpose of utilizing it as the burial place of Virginia's Presidents. The vault is made of brick and granite and is five feet under ground, being covered by a block of Virginia marble on which rests the sarcophagus, a granite block shaped like a coffin. On the sarcophagus was a metal plate on which was inscribed, "James Monroe, Governor of Virginia, 1799 to 1802. 1811. President of the U. S., 1817 to 1825." This plate was stolen and never recovered. The monument is enclosed by an elaborate framework of iron, which has the appearance. of a Gothic temple. Mrs. Monroe lies buried at Oak Hall, Va., with other members of her family. John Quincy Adams is buried at Quincy, Mass., in the same vault with his brother beneath the portico of the First Unitarian Church. There is also a tablet to his memory on the wall of the church to the right of the pulpit, on the top of which is a bust of the statesman. The inscription on the tablet is elaborate and eulogistic of the services the deceased rendered to the nation. His wife, Louise Catherine, is buried by his side. Andrew Jackson is buried at the Hermitage, eleven miles from Nashville, Tenn., on the Cumberland River. The remains lie within a structure about fifteen feet high, surmounted by a dome and supported by eight Doric columns ; the interior has a vaulted ceiling in white. At the base of the structure is a pyramid of white marble resting on a square base beneath which is the vault. There is nothing on the General's tomb indicating that he was President. The inscription is simply "General Andrew Jackson, Born March 15,1707, Died June 8, 1845." The inscription on the tomb of his wife, which was written by General Jackson himself, speaks of her as the wife of President Jackson. The remains of President Martin Van Buren lie in Reformed Church Cemetery at Kinderkook, N. Y. The shaft is made of plain granite rising from the block four feet square, resting on PRESIDENTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 817 a pedestal. The height of the monument is fifteen feet. The inscription is very plain. President William H. Harrison lies buried in a field over- looking the Ohio River at North Bend, O. The remains were originally buried at Washington. The vault is built of brick and extends five feet beneath the surface, the upper part of it being two feet above the surface. The vault is opened by an iron door and the descent is made on wooden steps. Remark- able to relate, there is no inscription on the tomb although there is a wide marble slab on the lintel of the door, apparently placed there that the name of the distinguished dead might be thereon inscribed. The Ohio Legislature has several times rejected bills to erect a suitable monument. President Tyler is buried at Hollywood Cemetery, Richmont, Va., in the President's section near the grave of President Monroe. There is neither monument nor stone to mark the grave, although thirty years ago the Virginia Legisla- ture passed resolutions for the erection of a suitable monument. James K. Polk is buried in Nashville, Term., in the front yard of an old mansion on Union Street, corner of Vine. The monu- ment is twelve feet square and about twelve feet high, and is built of limestone; it stands in the centre of a square, enclosed by an iron railing. In the centre of the monument is a square stone block about five feet high, on three sides of which is engraved an inscription eulogistic of the dead. President Taylor lies buried in the Ta3^1or Cemetery, Louis- ville, Ky. The monument is a handsome granite shaft, on the top of which is a marble statue of President Taylor, bareheaded, and in full uniform. The monument was erected by the State, and is thirty-seven feet in height. The inscription is simple and brief; on the base are the initials " Z. T.," and on one of the panels of the shaft are the last words of the President: " I have endeavored to do my duty, I am ready to die; my only regret is for the friends I leave behind me." On the middle section is a bronze profile of the General; on the, west side of the shaft are the American eagle and coat of arms in relief; on the other side is a list of the battles in which the General fought : Fort Harri- son, Black Hawk, Okeechobee, Palo Alto, Resaca de la Palma, Monterey, and Buena Vista. The remains of Millard Fillmore are buried at Forest Lawn Cemetery, near Buffalo, N. Y., and the obelisk is a polished red granite twenty-two feet high. On the base is carved in large letters " FILLMORE." The inscription is very simple and there is nothing to indicate that the deceased was President of the United States. 318 PRESIDENTS OF THE UNITED STATES. Franklin Pierce is buried at Concord, N. H., in the Minot Cemetery. The monument is of Italian marble and is graceful in shape and construction ; at the base is carved the word " PIERCE." The inscription is very simple and no mention is made of the fact that the deceased was President of the United States. President James Buchanan lies buried at Lancaster, Pa., in Woodward Hill Cemetery. The vault consists of large lime- stone flags upon which rests a block of New Hampshire granite seven feet long, three feet seven inches wide and a foot thick. The monument is in the Roman style ; a single block of Italian marble, having on one side the name " BUCHANAN," on the other side an inscription which states that the deceased was the fifteenth President of the United States. The remains of Abraham Lincoln are buried at Springfield, 111., in Oak Ridge Cemetery. The structure is made of Quincy granite, and is 119x72 feet; there is a main platform, which is approached by four staircases from either corner, the platform itself being 72 feet square, and forming the base of the shaft and pedestal, which support the statuary, and in themselves occupy a space of 54 feet square. From the centre of the base rises the shaft, twelve feet square at the base, and eight feet square at the top, to a height of 98 feet from the platform, with a winding staircase inside ; the total height is 120 feet. On the pedestal are heroic bronze groups representing the Navy and the three departments of the Army of the United States; there are shields of polished granite inscribed with the names of the States, which encircle the square between the bronze groups ; on the Southern side of the shaft rests a pedestal on which stands a bronze statue of Lincoln in a double-breasted Prince Albert coat, holding in his left hand a scroll marked " Proclamation," and in his right hand a pen. The right hand rests upon the American flag, at the bottom of which is a laurel wreath. In the base of the mon- ument are two chambers, one of which is a memorial hall, where relics of Lincoln are exhibited. In the other chamber were origi- nally placed the remains of Lincoln. The sarcophagus where the remains are now interred has on one end the name "LINCOLN," encircled by a wreath of oak leaves and acorns; beneath this, in a semi- circle, is the sentiment :" With malice toward none, with charity for all." The monument was dedicated Oct. 15, 1874, President Grant and the Cabinet being present. The monument cost $250,000, which was raised by public subscription. Andrew Johnson's remains are buried near Greenville, Tenn., under a monument beneath which rest also the remains of his wife. Both lie in an arch from the roof of which rises the PRESIDENTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 319 monument, first the base, then the plinth, which is a large block of marble, with inscription appropriate to each of the deceased. Accompanying that of the President is the line, " His faith in the people never wavered." Above is carved an open Bible, seven- teen by eleven inches, on the pages of which rest a hand, as it were the hand of the President taking the oath. Above the Bible, hung from the upper moulding, is a carved scroll of the Constitution, inscribed in raised letters, " Constitution of the United States." There now rises a shaft of marble thirteen feet high, at the top of which is an American flag, overspreading the shaft for a distance of six feet, and surmounted by an eagle with outstretched wings. The monument, as is observed from an inscription over the graves, was the tribute of the President's children. The remains of President Grant lie in the tomb in Riverside Park in a picturesque spot overlooking the Hudson River, near 120th Street, New York City. They were there placed on August 8, 1885, under the escort of the grandest military and civic display ever seen on this continent. The vault is built of red and black brick, with a semi-circular roof surmounted in front by a capstone. Two solid oak doors, with bronze hinges, lock, and knob, open into the tomb, where another door of open iron work meets the view. The remains of the President are in a steel case made of the finest Bessemer steel, with an oval top, and air-tight, water-tight, and burglar-proof. The steel case rests on a marble pedestal supported by a stone base on the floor of the vault, which is a few feet lower than the entrance. Inside of the steel case is a second casket, of cedar, copper-lined, which contains the remains. The outside case has a solid gold plate, with the name IT. S. Grant. The steel case as built had a door at one end to admit the casket. When it was finally closed, bolts of steel were welded along its side. President Garfield lies buried at Lake View Cemetery, Cleve- land, O. The Martyr President has the most elaborate memo- rial erected over the remains of any American public man, although its cost was not as great as that of the monument to Lincoln. It is a huge tower, 148 feet high and 50 feet in diame- ter, at the base of which is a smaller structure, 45 feet high and 20 feet square, through which the tower is entered. The exterior of the monument is constructed of Ohio sandstone. The tower has a conical roof, with twelve niches for statues allegorical of the months of the year. Beneath is a rim of shields, each with a coat of arms of the States. The smaller structure has four win- dows and the door, above which and extending on the sides are panels with terra cotta reliefs representative of the career of the 320 PRESIDENTS OF THE UNITED STATES. deceased as teacher, soldier, statesman, President, and lying in state. Another figure shows him a boy at the country school, still another as chief of staff at Chickamauga, another as making a public speech in the open air, another as taking the oath as President, and so on. The memorial temple is the chamber in- side the tower. At the doorway is an allegorical figure of War, seated, and a figure of Peace, with an olive branch. Beneath this is the inscription : Erected by a grateful country In memory of JAMES ABRAM GARFIELD, 20th President of the United States of America, Scholar, Soldier, Statesman, Patriot; Born 19th Nov., 1831; Dec'd A. D. Sept. 19th, 1881. In the centre, rising from a pedestal, is a striking heroic figure of Garfield represented as addressing Congress. The statue, which is of marble, is encircled by eight large granite columns, surmounted by a dome. On the frieze is an allegorical represen- tation of the funeral procession, the figures being Columbia, Law, Justice, Concord, groups of States, Literature, War, and Labor. In the roof of the dome are winged figures of North, South, East, and West. The remains of the President rest beneath the statue, and are reached by a spiral stairway. The temple is lighted by windows between which are panels representing the thirteen States. The contributions for the 1 erection of this beautiful memorial temple amounted to $134,755. The remains of President Arthur lie in the family plot in Rural Cemetery, at Albany, N. Y. The sarcophagus is of stone, a single block of granite, eight by four by three feet, with- out ornamentation, but highly polished. It rests on a pedestal also of granite. On the base is a bronze tablet inscribed with : CHESTER AI.AN ARTHUR, Twenty-first President of the United States. Born October 5, 1830. Died, November 18, 1886. Also on the base is the name, in raised letters, " Arthur." Standing at the foot of the monument and leaning against it is a beautiful bronze figure of Sorrow, of heroic size, with folded wings, and in the act of placing a palm-leaf on the tomb. The monument cost eleven thousand dollars, and was contributed by the President's friends. The remains of his wife, Ellen Lewis Herndon, are in a sarcophagus close by. Religious Convictions. Washington, Madison, Monroe, W. H. Harrison, Tyler, Taylor, Arthur were Episcopalians. PRESIDENTS OP THE UNITED STATES. 321 G.E.NEBAI, GEOBGE WASHINGTON. 322 PRESIDENTS OF THE UNITED STATES. " An atheist in religion, and a fanatic in politics " this was said of Thomas Jefferson by the Federalists when he was elected to the Presidency in 1800. Many of them actually felt that the country would go to ruin under Jefferson's administration. As to Jefferson's atheism, that has ever been a matter involving grave doubt. Whatever his religious views may have been prior to his death, there is no doubt but that he died a believer in an Almighty God. John Adams, John Quincy Adams, Fillmore, were Unitarians; Jackson, Polk, Buchanan, Lincoln, Johnson, Cleveland, Benjamin Harrison, were Presbyterians, although Lincoln, Johnson, and Polk were not communicants. Polk on his death-bed re- ceived the rite of baptism from a Methodist clergyman. Grant and Hayes were Methodists ; Van Buren attended the Dutch Reformed Church. Pierce was a Trinitarian Congre- gationalist, and Garfield a member of the Church of Dis ciples. Expenses of the White House. Besides the salary of $50,000, the government allows the President a fund, usually about $75,000, for the expenses of the White House, the main- tenance of the grounds, repairs, etc., and for the hiring of assist- ants, clerical and otherwise. The latter are : Private Secretary, $3,250 ; Assistant Private Secretary, $2,250 ; Stenographer, $1,800; Five Messengers, $1,200 each; Steward, $ ; Two Doorkeepers, $1,200 each ; Two Ushers, $1,200, $1,400 ; Night Usher, $1,200 ; Watchman, $900 ; and a few other minor clerks and telegraph operators. The rest of the appropriation goes for care and furnishing of the White House, fuel, the greenhouse, the stable, gas, etc. Mrs. Harrison secured an additional appro- priation from tlie Fifty- First Congress for improving the drainage of the Executive Mansion, the building of additions to the house, etc. Presidential Term. The length of time the President should serve was not decided upon without a good deal of discus- sion. Some Congressmen favored seven years, others twelve, fifteen, "during good behavior," while Rufus King advocated " twenty years, the medium life of princes." Finally, a " grand committee," consisting of one member from each State, reported in favor of limiting the term to four years. Title of the President. The title "President of the United States " originated in deference to Washington's desire not to arouse public criticism by conferring upon the Executive any title which might savor of monarchy. A committee of Con- S'ess had reported in favor of addressing the President as " His ighncss, the President of the United States of America, and PUBLIC LANDS AND LAND GRANTS. 323 Protector of their Liberty." The inauguration was delayed in order that this important question might be settled. Finally, a committee of Congress reported that " it is not proper to annex any style or title other than expressed in the Constitution." Press, History and Statistics of the. (See Newspapers.) Primary Elections. (See How the President Is Elected.) Progressive Labor Party. (See Political Parties.) Prohibition National Committee. (See National Com- mittee.) Public Lands and Land Grants. Grants of government land are made to all States on their admission, to the extent of five per cent, of the entire area within the States. The govern- ment has made it a rule to make extensive grants to railroad cor- porations as an inducement to build. The first grant of land for a railroad was to the State of Illinois, in 1850, of 2,500,000 acres, which was used for the construction of the Illinois Central Rail- road. To encourage the building of the Trans -Continental Rail- roads, upwards of 25,000,000 acres were granted. Later, the Northern Pacific and the Atlantic Pacific Railroads received over 40,000,000 acres each. In recent years, public sentiment has dis- approved of these wholesale gifts of land to private individuals, and by Act of Congress, a considerable portion of the grants have been recovered, chiefly for failure to live up to the terms of the grants. In 1891, the government owned 994,000,000 acres of public lands which had at that time been surveyed. Besides this lai-ge area, there were upwards of 800,000,000 acres unsurveyed, but not suitable for domestic life. The public lands, undisposed of and Open to Settlement, are divided into two classes, one class being held at $1.25 per acre as the minimum price, the other at $2.50 per acre ; being the alternate sections reserved by the United States in land grants to railroads, etc. Such tracts are sold on application to the regis- ters and receivers of the district land offices upon conditions of actual residence and improvement under the pre-emption laws. Widows, heads of families, or single persons over twenty-one years of age, if citizens of the United States, or aliens who have declared their intention to become citizens, have the Right of Pre-emption to the maximum quantity of 160 acres each on becoming settlers and complying with the regulations. Under the Homestead laws a citizen, or an alien having declared his intention to become a citizen, has the right to 160 acres of either the $1.25 or $2.50 class after actual residence and cultivation for five years. Under the Timber Culture law a citizen, or one 324 PUBLIC LANDS AND LAND OWNERS. who has declared his intention to become such, if the head of a family, or a single person over twenty-one years, may acquire title to 160 acres on cultivating ten acres of trees thereon for eight years. By the' act of August 30, 1890, no person can acquire under all the land laws an aggregate area of more than 320 acres of the public lands. In the year ending June 30, 1891, the number of acres entered under the Homestead Act, and the Timber Act, was 5,040,393 (homestead), and 969,006 (timber). Alien Land Owners. The holdings of lands in the United States by foreign corporations, companies, and individuals aggregate upwards of 25,000,000 acres. Most of these lands are west of the Mississippi, and nearly all of the foreign owners are Englishmen, who use the land for cattle-raising purposes. The more prominent of these alien land-owners, and the amount of their holdings, in acres, are : An English syndicate, No. 3, in Texas, 3,000,000 ; the Holland Land Co., New Mexico, 4,500,- 000 ; Sir Edw. Reid and a syndicate, Florida, 2,000,000 ; Eng- lish Syndicate in Mississippi, 1,800,000; Marquis of Tweedale, 1,750,000 ; Phillips, Marshall & Co., London, 1,300,000 ; German- American syndicate, London, 750,000 ; Bryan H. Evans, of Lon- don, 700,000; Duke of Sutherland, 425,000; British Land Company in Kansas, 320,000 ; Wm. Wharley, M. P., Peterboro, Eng., 310,000; Missouri Land Co., Edinburgh, Scotland, 300,000 ; Robert Tennent, of London, 230,000 ; Dundee Land Co., Scot- land, 247,000 ; Lord Dunmore, 120,000 ; Benjamin Neugas, Liverpool, 100,000 ; Lord Houghton, in Florida, 60,000 ; Lord Dunraven, in Colorado, 60,000; English Land Company, in Florida, 50,000 ; English Land Company, in Arkansas, 50,000 ; Albert Peel, M. P., Leicestershire, Eng., 10,000; Sir J. L. Kay, Yorkshire, Eng., 5,000 ; Alexander Grant, of London, in Kansas, 35,000; English syndicate, Wisconsin, 110,000; M. Ellerhauser, of Halifax, in W. Va., 600,000 ; a Scotch syndicate in Florida, 500,000; A. Boysen, Danish consul in Milwaukee, 50,000 ; Mis- souri Land Company, of Edinburgh, 165,000. To these Syndicate Holdings should be added the follow- ing : The Arkansas Valley Company in Colorado, a foreign cor- poi'ation, whose inclosures embrace upward of 1,000,000 acres ; the Prairie Cattle Company (Scotch), in Colorado, upwards of 1,000,000 ; H. H. Metcalf, River Bend, Colorado, 200,000 ; John W. Powers, Colorado, 200,000 ; McDaniel & Davis, Colorado, 75,000 ; Routchler & Lamb, Colorado, 40,000 ; J. W. Frank, Colorado, 40,000 ; Garnett & Langford, Colorado, 30,000 ; E. C. Tane, Colorado, 50,000; Leivesy Brothers, Colorado, 150,000; Vrooman & McFife, Colorado, 50,000 ; Beatty Brothers, Colo- EAILBOADS AND BRIDGES. 325 rado, 40,000 ; Chick, Brown & Co., Colorado, 30,000; Reynolds Cattle Company, Colorado, 50,000 ; several other holdings in Colorado, embracing from 10,000 to 30,000 ; Coe & Carter, Nebraska, fifty miles of fence ; J. W. Wilson, Nebraska, forty miles ; J. W. Boster, twenty miles; William Humphrey, Nevada, thirty miles ; Nelson & Son, Nevada, twenty-two miles ; Kennebec Ranch, Nebraska, from 20,000 to 50,000 acres. Public Schools. (See Education.) Pull. (See Slang of Politics.) Purse. (See Presidents of the United States.) Put None but Americans on Guard To-night. (See Say- ings of Famous Americans.) Quids. (See Political .Parties.) Rag Baby. A derisive name for the Greenback idea. Rag currency was paper money. Railroading. (See Slang of Politics.) Railroad Mileage. (See Railroads and Bridges.) Railroads and Bridges. Early Building. Accidents. Pacific Railroads. Earnings. Speed. Mileage. Railroad Bridges. Street Railways. The first railroad constructed in America was projected by Gridley Bryant, civil engineer, in 1825, and completed the fol- lowing year, from the granite quarries at Quincy, Mass., to the Neponset River ; including branches, it was four miles long. The first cost was $50,000. It had a five-foot gauge ; the* sleepers were made of stone, and the rails of wood. Bryant invented the portable derrick, the turn-table, the switch, and built the first eight-wheeled car ever used. Four years later, Ross Winans of Baltimore, experimenting with a view of designing a carriage capable of rounding the short curves of roads then under con- struction, produced the eight- wheeled carriage which is still in use in this country and Europe. The second railroad in America was opened in May, 1827, from the Mauch Chunk (Pa.) mines to the Lehigh River; it was thirteen miles in length, including branches. The first Stephen - son locomotive in this country was one imported by the Dela- ware and Hudson Canal Company in 1829. The First Rail- way Company incorporated is now known as the Baltimore & Ohio; the legislature of Maryland, in March, 1827, granted a charter; the capital stock was $500,000, and both Maryland 326 RAILROADS AXD BKIDGE8. "and the city of Baltimore were authorized to buy the stock. It was intended to use not steam but horses on the road, relays of which were kept at points along the route. The road was gradually extended from its original terminus, Frederick, Md., across the Blue Ridge and Alleghany Mountains as far as Cin- cinnati. The first American locomotive was builtin Baltimore, by Peter Cooper, of New York, in 1830, and was run from Baltimore to Ellicott's Mills. It attained to a speed of eigh- teen miles an hour. From this time the number of railroads rapidly multi- plied In fact, by 1837, the total mile- a g e was greater than that of any other country. The variation in the gauge of different connecting roads led to much inconvenience, but ultimately a uniform gauge of 4 feet 8 inches was adopted. An incentive of the utmost im- portance for the building of rail- roads has been the policy of the government of making grants of public lands to railroad corpo- rations, especially in the North- western, Western, and Southern States. Pacific Railroads The project of connecting the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans by rail was discussed from all points of view between 1846 to 1849. In the latter year, Senator Thomas H. Benton, of Missouri, introduced a bill for the building of such a road, but it was not until 1862 and 1864, surveys meanwhile having been completed, that the plan took definite shape. Acts of Congress then provided for Subsidies in six per cent, bonds, at the rate of $16,000 a mile, $48,000 a mile, $32,000 a mile, and 16,000 a mile, according to the difficulty of building. Land Grants, aggregating 25,000,000 acres, were also made to the com- RAILROADS AND BRIDGES. 327 pany. The government took a first lien on the road, but released it when it appeared that the subsidy was not sufficient to pay the expense of construction. The company, therefore, issued their own bonds, secured by mortgage on the property. Work was begun in 1863, from the Missouri River, and from California; in the former case by the Union Pacific Company, in the latter by the Central Pacific Company. On May 12, 1869, the road was Opened for Business, and its construction in so short a time was a signal triumph of engineering skill and American pluck. The cost of the Union Pacific Road was 8112,259,360 or $108,- 778 a mile; the liabilities at the time of completion were $113,110 a mile. The number of miles of track laid was 1,029 ; the Central Pacific laid from California 881 miles. The cost of the latter, including branches, was $114,358 a mile. The roads and sub- divisions of roads which were built by government money under the plan outlined above were the Central Pacific, Kansas Pacific, Union Pacific, Central Branch of Union Pacific, Western Pacific, and Sioux City, and Pacific. The total Mileage of Railroads operated in 1889 was 166,- 817 ; side tracks and sidings, 42,242. There were 151,722 miles of steel rails, 51,063 miles of iron rails, 31,062 engines; 26,511 passenger cars, 1,137,627 freight cars. The Passengers car- ried numbered 492,430,865 ; the passenger mileage was 11,905,- 726,015 ; tons of freight moved numbered 619,137,237 ; the freight mileage was 68,604,012,396. The Earnings from passengers were $259,640,807 ; from freight, $666,530,653 ; the total earn- ings were $992,856,856 ; expenses were $376,402,967 ; net earn- ings, $318,125,339; surplus, $30,526,520. The Capital Stock of railroads in 1890 was $4,640,239,578 ; the bonded debt was $4,828,365,771. The total liabilities were $9,931,453,146; total assets, $10,205,493,050; excess of assets, $274,039,904. The Dividends paid in 1890 were $83,863,632 ; interest, $229,101,- 144. The gross earnings in 1890 (Poor's Manual for 1890) were $1,097,847,428; net earnings, $343,921,318. The railroad Employees in all branches of the service in 1890 numbered 749,301. The Greatest Mileage in any State is that of Illinois, 10,213 miles; Kansas is second with 8,806 miles; Texas third with 8,613 miles. The smallest mileage is that of Rhode Island, 212 miles. The new tracks laid in 1891 were 4,168 miles. (For railroad mileage of States and Terri- tories see each State and Territory.) Speed. A maintained speed of forty miles an hour is no longer uncommon 011 any one of half a dozen of the great railroad systems. For several years the Pennsylvania Railroad has run express trains between New York & Washington, 225.3 miles, in 828 BAILROADS AND BRIDGES. five hours, an average of 48.6 miles an hour. This road in 1891 ran a special between New York and Washington in 4 hours, 11 minutes, an average exclusive of the stops of 56f miles an hour. The year before a train carrying a theatrical troupe made the run in 4 hours, 18 minutes, and back again in the same time. The Fastest Run across the Continent was that of the Jar- rett and Palmer special theatrical train, which in June, 1886, ran from Jersey City to Oakland, California, in 3 days, 11 hours, 30 minutes and 16 seconds. The distance was 3,301 miles; average 91.23 miles an hour. On November 14, 1889, a new regular fast mail train left the Grand Central Depot in New York at 9 P. M., and reached San Francisco in 4 days, 12 hours, 45 minutes. In October, 1891, John W. Mackay and Miss Virginia Fair crossed the continent in a special car attached to regular trains in 4 days, 12 hours, 28 minutes. On October 29, 1891, James L. Flood performed the same journey in 4 days, 12 hours, 15 minutes. A MODERN LOCOMOTIVE. The New York Central road recently inaugurated a fast service between New York and Buffalo, 440 miles, its Empire State Express making the run in 425 minutes and 14 seconds ; average 61.56 miles an hour. In England, the fastest train is the Flying Scotchman, London to Edinburgh, 400 miles, which it makes in 7 hours, 52 seconds, an average speed of 50.9 miles an hour. So high a rate of speed has been made practically safe by the adoption of several ingenious appliances, as well as by the main- tenance of strict discipline by the employees. The automatic air- brake, the interlocking system of signals and switches, and the "block" system of signals, all play important parts in swift rail- way travelling. The telegraph, which runs into the train-de- spatcher's office at the central station, is also an invaluable assistant. Railroad Accidents. Railroad accidents are due to a RAILROADS AND BRIDGES. 329 variety of causes, the most frequent being obstructions (unfore- seen ) ; defects of the roads, such as a broken frog, or caving of the embankment ; defects of equipment ; negligence on the part of the employees, although this is a less frequent cause of accident than either of the others, in spite of popular opinion to the con- trary. The fact that the number of accidents and the number of casualties are increasing has resulted in an effort to determine the Causes, and some interesting statistics have been obtained. From 1880 to 1890 inclusive, the number of accidents was 16,280, an average of 1,480 each year, or four a day. The number of people killed in the same time was 5,241 ; the injured numbered 19,779. These figures are exclusive of deaths due to walking on the tracks, or while crossing them. The number of accidents in 1890 was larger than that in any year since the record has been kept; the total was 2,146; killed, 806; injured, 2,812. Acci- dents due to defects in the road numbered in 1890, 167 ; to defects of equipment, 158; to obstructions, 194; to negligence of employees, 108 ; unaccounted for, 377. Of the 'collisions, 495 were rear collisions ; 323 due to " butting " ; 222 in crossing other roads and to miscellaneous causes. Street Railways, Statistics of. The census of 1890 showed that in December, 1889, 476 cities and towns possessed street transit facilities in one form or another. The latest figures show that Philadelphia has 510 miles of single track; Chicago, 452 ; New York, 289 ; Brooklyn, 285 ; Boston, 283 ; St. Louis, 275 ; Baltimore, 207 ; San Francisco, 205; Cleveland, 192; Cin- cinnati, 180; Pittsburg, 168; Kansas City, 141 ; New Orleans, 139; Louisville, 132; Buffalo, 110; Minneapolis, 101; Los Angeles, 99 ; Detroit, 94 ; Birmingham, Ala., 92 ; St. Paul, 90 ; Washington, 85. New York carried in 1890, 405,000,000 passen- gers, Chicago 206,000,000, and Boston (1891) 119,000,000. The Total Mileage for the country last reported was 11,030 ; animal power, 5,443 ; electricity, 3,009 ; motors, 1,918 ; cable, 660. The horses employed number 88,114; mules, 12,002; cars, 36,517; motors, 200. The rapid adoption of Electricity for rapid transit has diminished the number of horses employed, which three years ago was over 110,000. It is estimated that by the end of 1892 there will be in operation upwards of 4,000 miles of electric railways. The First Street Railway was operated in November, 1832, between the City Hall aad Fourteenth Street. It was known and has continued to be known as the Fourth Ave- nue line. Bridges, Railroad. The bridges of the United States are mechanically the most perfect of any in the world. The more remarkable of them are here briefly described : Over the Sus- 330 RAILROADS AND BRIDGES. quehanna River at Havre de Grace, Md., is a wooden bridge 23,271 feet long, which has twelve spans, each resting on a granite pier. It was built at a time when wooden bridges were the rule. The Suspension Bridge at Niagara was built by Koebling. Its span is 821 feet, the deflection, 59 feet ; there are 14,560 wires in the cables, capable of sustaining 12,000 tons. The railway tracks are 245 feet above the river. It was completed in 1855, and cost $400,000. The Suspension Bridge over the Ohio at Cincinnati, also, was built by Roebling. It is 2,220 feet over all, has a span of 1,057 feet, and is 103 feet above low water. The two cables which support it are 124; inches in d iameter. Another won- derful achieve- ment of Roeb- 1 i n g is the Brooklyn Bridge, con- necting New York and Brooklyn. I t rests on two granite anchor- ages. The span between the an- chorages is 1 ,- 595 feet ; the length over all is 3,475 feet ; the height above the river is 135 feet; it is built of iron, the width of the frame being 85 feet, which is suspended from four cables, each 16 inches in diameter, composed of galvanized steel wire, with a strength of 160,000 pounds per square inch of section. The height of the stone piers is 272 feet above high tide. The strength of the main span is 5,000 tons. The bridge cost $15,000,000. The First Railway Suspension Bridge was built in 1852 over the Kentucky River at Frankfort ; the span was 600 feet. It was replaced by a truss bridge. An Iron Tubular Bridge over the St. Law- rence at Montreal, on the Grand Trunk Railroad, is unique of its kind. The length of the tube is 6,600 feet, and is approached A. VESTIBULE CAB. RAILROADS AXD BRIDGES. 331 by embankments, the Montreal end being 1,200 feet, the south- ern 800 feet, which, with the abutments, make a total length of 9,084 feet. The tubes were built in place, on false works, erected in the rapids. In the winter the base of these works rested in the ice of the river. The Quincy, 111., Bridge, over the Mississippi, is at the point of crossing 3,250 feet long. There are 17 snans, the piers being of solid masonry, sunk 50 feet deep. The Omaha Bridge, over the Missouri, is 2,800 feet in length, with 11 spans of 250 feet each, resting on iron cylinders, 8 feet, 8 inches in diameter, and sunk 70 feet below low water. At Dubuque, Iowa, Hannibal, Mo., at Kansas City, Mo., and at St. Joseph, Mo., are four other notable bridges spanning the Mississippi. At Louisville, Ky., over the Ohio River, is one of the longest iron bridges in the United States. It consists of 27- spans, 24 over the river, having a total length of 5,280 feet, just one mile. At its lowest point it is 90 feet above low water. At Memphis, Tenn., the Mississippi River is spanned by the third largest canti- lever bridge in the world, which was completed in May, 1892. It is three quarters of a mile long, has five spans, the largest of Avhich is 794 feet ; the bridge cost $3,000,000. 3EXTKAL DEPOT AT NEW YORK - At St. Louis, Mo., over the Mississippi, is a Most Remark- able Structure, of which James B. Eads was the engineer. There are three spans, the centre one being 515 feet, the two side ones 497 feet each. The spans are held by an interlacing of iron ribs from pier to pier. The roadway is 34 feet wide ; there are foot- walks on either side, each 8 feet wide. Trains run be- neath the roadway through a passage 18 feet high. The bridge cost $10,000,000, The Poughkeepsie Bridge is If miles long, and is supported on four pyramidal steel towers 100 feet high, which rest upon timber caissons 60 x 100 feet and 100 feet high. There are three cantilevers, with connecting spans. Trains from the Pennsylvania coal-fields enter New England direct over this bridge. The International Bridge from Black Rock, near Buffalo, to Fort Erie in Canada, cost $1,500,000. A bridge which crosses the Niagara River, and used mainly 332 BE- APPORTIONMENT. for freight trains is 1,967$ feet long, with two draws of 160 feet each. The Cantilever Bridge near Niagara Falls is one of the highest achievements of mechanical skill in the country. It rests on lofty towers of steel, which stand on either shore, and has double railroad tracks used by the heaviest trains. The length is 910 feet; total weight, 3,000 tons; cost $222,000. North of the St. Louis Bridge, on the Mississippi, is the Merchants' Bridge, 2,420 feet long, built in 1889-90 at a cost of $6,000,000. The Arthur Kill Bridge, crossing from New Jersey to Staten Island, has the largest draw in the world (500 feet). The Washington Bridge, in New York City, has two arches of Bessemer steel, each 508 feet high, supported by granite abutments. The High Bridge, over the Harlem River, in New York, is built of granite ; it is 1,450 feet long and 114 feet high, and carries the Croton Aqueduct in New York on 14 huge piers. The Rush Street Bridge in Chicago, built in 1884, at a cost of $132,000, has the largest general traffic draw-bridge in the world. It accommodates four teams abreast, and the foot passages are seven feet wide. Rail Splitter. (See Presidents of the United States.) Railway Mail Service. (See Post-Office System.) Rainbow Chasers. (See Slang of Politics.) Re-apportionment. By the new act re- apportion ing the Congressional Districts, the House of Representatives, after March 3, 1893, shall consist of 356 members, as follows : Ala- bama, 9 ; Arkansas, 6 ; California, 7 ; Colorado, 2 ; Connecticut, 4 ; Delaware, 1 ; Florida, 2 ; Georgia, 11 ; Idaho, 1 ; Illinois, 22 ; Indiana, 13 ; Iowa, 11 ; Kansas, 8 ; Kentucky, 11 ; Louisiana, 6 ; Maine, 4; Maryland, 6 ; Massachusetts, 13; Michigan, 12; Minnesota, 7; Mississippi, 7; Missouri, 15; Montana, 1; Ne- braska, 6 ; Nevada, 1 ; New Hampshire, 2 ; New Jersey, 8 ; New York, 34 ; North Carolina, 9 ; North Dakota, 1 ; Ohio, 21 ; Oregon, 2 ; Pennsylvania, 30 ; Rhode Island, 2 ; South Carolina, 7 j South Dakota, 2; Tennessee, 10; Texas, 13; Vermont, 2 ; Virginia, 10 ; Washington, 2 ; West Virginia, 4 ; Wisconsin, 10 ; Wyoming, 1. Receipts and Expenditures, Government. (See Finances, Government.) Reciprocity. This is the name of an arrangement between two countries by which each grants the other certain commercial privileges. It usually affects the imports from one country to the other ; under reciprocity one nation may agree to reduce or abol- BECIPKOCITY. 333 ish the duties on a certain class of merchandise imported from the other country, in return for similar concessions affecting its own goods in the other country. Within the past five years reci- procity has been put forward as a means of expanding our foreign trade, and already several reciprocity treaties, favorable to this country, have been negotiated. It is customary to provide that, should either of the parties to the treaty grant more favorable conditions to a third nation, such privileges should inure also to the benefit of the other party to the treaty ; such an agreement is called the " most favored nation " clause of the treaty. - During the administration of President Harrison, Reciprocity Treaties were entered into between the United States and Brazil ; with Spain, for Cuba and Porto Rico ; with Salvador in Central America ; with Great Britain for Jamaica, Barbadoes, the Leeward and Windward Islands (except Grenada and Trinidad), and British Guiana, the schedule with Jamaica containing 63 kinds of articles admitted free, and 12 upon reduced duties, that with the other colonies containing 58 articles admitted free, and 16 upon reduced duties. A treaty has also been entered into with Santo Domingo, and treaties with South American countries are in process of negotiation. In the McKinley ^Tariff Act of 1890, a reciprocity section was incorporated, and went into effect with the bill itself. The act provides for the Free Entrance of sugar, coffee, molasses, tea, and hides, but the reciprocity section authorizes the President to cause these articles to be taxed, each to a specified amount, in case it shall be determined that the exporting country imposes a tariff on American imports into it. That is, if the exchange is an unequal one, the President can make the exchange a fair one. Reconstruction. The status of the rebellious States towards the Federal Government after the Civil War involved many 534 RECONSTRUCTION. delicate questions. These States were practically _ conquered territory, but the Constitution contained no provision for the reception of a State which had left the Union of its own free will. Their admission to their former position among the States would have given them virtual control over the negroes, who were now demanding that their freedom be secured to them in fact as well as in name. There was great divergence in the views of statesmen and people alike. Sumner's theory was that the rebellious States having seceded, slavery was thereby abolished, and Congress should proceed to protect the inhabitants. President Johnson's Policy was to punish individuals, not THE NIAGARA CANTILEVER BRIDGE. (SEE RAILROADS AND BRIDGES.) States ; he took the position that a State could not be punished for treason by Congress. His policy was to reinstall the rebel- lious States to their previous full powers. By proclamation he declared all Southern ports, except four, open to commerce, pro- claimed amnesty and pardon to all rebels, except in fourteen in- stances, restored the writ of habeas corpus in the Northern States, and appointed provisional governors for the seceded States, with the view of reorganizing them into permanent governments. At first the Republicans, at that time having a majority in both Houses, supported the President, but a bitter RELIGIOUS DENOMINATIONS. 335 strife between the Chief Executive and Congress soon began. Congress passed a supplementary Freedmen's Bill which aimed at further protection of the blacks, but the President vetoed it. The Civil Rights Bill (which see), which declared the negroes citizens with the rights or citizenship, was vetoed by the President, but was passed over the veto. The Fourteenth Amendment, also for the protection of the negro, was adopted, but President Johnson disapproved it. Congress also passed the Tenure of Office Act (which see), which took away much of the President's power of removal from office; Congress deprived the President of command of the army by providing that his orders should be given only through the General, and made Grant irremovable. Johnson vetoed the bill admitting Nebraska as a State, but Congress passed it over the veto. Finally the bill to provide efficient governments for the rebel- lious States was passed, was vetoed by Johnson, and was passed over the veto on March 2, 1867. This bill divided the States into Military Districts, commanded by a brigadier-general, whose duty was to protect all citizens in their rights. The bill provided that the military governors in each State should super- vise an election for the choosing of delegates to a constitu- tional convention, having for its purpose the formation of a State government. When new legislatures had been elected in these States, and had ratified the Fourteenth Amendment, the States would be re-admitted to the Union. The military governors were appointed and reconstruction proceeded. The Consti- tutions thus adopted abolished slavery, repudiated the debts incurred during the Civil War, renounced the right of secession and agreed to pass no laws abridging the liberty of any class of citizens. By March 30, 1870, all the rebellious States were re-admitted except Georgia, which was re-admitted in July of the same year. Red Men, Improved Order of. (See Secret Societies.) Religious Convictions of Presidents. (See Presidents of the United States.) Religious Denominations. Membership. God in the Constitution. Property. Sunday Schools. Freedom of religious thought has ever been inseparable from the idea of the Republic. There have been from time to time combinations of men who have sought to have a " God in the Constitution" clause put into that immortal document. But no recognition of any religious denomination or creed ever has 336 RELIGIOUS DENOMINATIONS. CHURCH OF SAU MIGUEL AT SANTA FE, N. M. been made by the Federal Government. (See Indian Schools, under Education.) The first amendment to the Constitution de- clares that " Congress shall make no law respecting an establish- ment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof." The only government act in which the word God is found is that creating the copper two-cent piece of 1864, which bore the in- scription, In God We Trust." (See Coinage.) In 1874 there was a Religious Movement which sought to have the word inserted in the Constitution, on which the House Committee of Judiciary reported adversely on the broad ground that this question was carefully considered by the fram- ers of the instrument; that it was rightly de- cided that the Republic was to be the home of the oppressed of all nations, whether Christian or Pagan, and that in view of the mischief of a union of Church and State seen in other nations, it was thought inex- pedient to put anything into the Constitution which might be construed as the recognition or support of any religion, creed, or doctrine. The Fathers of the Constitution seem to have recognized and to have taken counsel of the fact that it was the desire to find a place in which they might have " freedom to worship God " as they saw fit that drove the Puritans out of England. From that day to this, the Spirit of Toleration has pre- vailed, a fact which unquestionably explains the variety of reli- gious beliefs and creeds enumerated by the Census Bureau. By the Bureau's report (incomplete), there were in 1890 over 100 religious denominations in the United States, having upwards of 22,000,000 communicants, owning property valued at $250,000,- 000, and 45,595 churches. The Roman Catholic Church was first in the number of communicants, 6,250,045 ; the value of its property was &118,- 381,516, although it had but 10,221 churches. The' Methodist (not reported by the Census) had 54,711 churches, and 4,980,- 240 communicants, (according to the Methodist Year Book), the Baptists 48,371 churches, and 4,292,291 communicants (Baptist Year Book ) ; the Episcopalians 5,281 churches, and 478,531 communicants (Episcopal Year Book) ; Congregation- alists, 4,689 churches, and 491,985 communicants (Congrega- RELIGIOUS DENOMINATIONS. 337 tional Year Book) ; Presbyterians (Year Book) had 15,619 churches, and 1,229,012 communicants. The Lutherans by the census had 8,427 churches, valued at $34,2 18,234, and 1,199,514 communicants. These were the leading denominations. The Miscellaneous church bodies included -one Greek church, four Schwenkfeldian, six American, 324 Spiritualist, 40 Theosophical Societies (695 members and $600 in church prop- erty), fourteen Russian Orthodox, 550 Mennonite, thirty-one Communistic, of whom fifteen were Shaker, and four Ethical societies. The numerical strength of the English-speaking reli- gious denominations is estimated (an English estimate) as follows : Episcopalians, 23,000,000 ; Methodists, of all descriptions 16,960,000; Roman Catholics, 15,200,000; Presbyterians of all descriptions, 11,100,000; Baptists of all descriptions, 8,600,000 ; Congregation alists, 5,500,000 ^ Free Thinkers, 3,500,000 ; Luth- erans, etc., 1,750,000 ; Unitarians, 1,250,000 ; Minor Religious Sects, 4,000,000. Sunday Schools. According to the latest estimates, the number of scholars attending Sunday schools in the United States was in 1890, 8,649,131 ; the number of teachers and officers was 1,151,340. New York was first with 979,415 scholars; Pennsylvania second, with 964,599 ; Ohio third, with 620,107 ; Illinois fourth, with 582,756 ; Indiana fifth, with 374,185 ; Iowa, sixth, with 319,128; Georgia seventh, with 301,612; Virginia eighth, with 283,336 ; Michigan ninth, with 277,200 ; Tennessee tenth, with 274,560. The Number of Sunday Schools reported is 108,939 ; the total number of teachers and scholars, 9,800,582. These statistics of Sunday schools do not include the schools of Hebrews, Roman Catholics, and non-Evangelical Christian churches. The number of scholars in Roman Catholic Sunday schools in the United States is estimated by clerics at 700,000. The number of scholars in the Sunday schools of the leading nations of Europe are : England and Wales, 6,350,266 ; Scotland, 711,188; Ireland, 338,231; Austria, 4,831; Belgium, 2,542 ; Denmark, 37,000 ; Finland, 8,800 ; France, 53,110 ; Germany, 431,221 ; Holland, 157,676 ; Italy, 13,410 ; Norway, 27,190. (See Y. M. C. A.) Republican National Committee. (See National Committee.) Republican Party. (See Political Parties.) Revenue Flag. (See Flags of the Nation.) Revenue Marine. (See Tariffs of the United States.) Rider. (See Slang of Politics.) Rise Up William Allen. (See Nicknames of Famous Americans.) 338 ERODE ISLAND. Rhode Island. Rhode Island was one of the thirteen original States, and in area is the smallest in the Union. Jt was settled in 1636, at Providence, by Roger Williams, who had been ban- ished from Salem on account of his religious convictions. The State was originally occupied by the Narragan- sett Indians, a few of whom, now half- breeds, remain on the Indian lands which the State has preserved in Charlestown for them, and where their ancestors lie buried. The State has been more or less prominent in the history of the country, and in both the GREAT SEAL OF RHODE ISLAND. Revolutionary and the Civil War she furnished large forces of men to the Union. Out of a population of one hundred and seventy-five thousand, over twenty-three thousand men went to serve their flag in the Rebellion. Narragansett Bay, which runs from the sea thirty miles in- land, affords extensive harbors for shipping, and is famous for its summer resorts. The Narragansett Bay fisheries are valuable for their oysters, lobsters, clams, and various sea-fish, and employ upwards of 1,200 vessels and $600,000 in capital. The agri- culture of the State produces annually $8,000,000, the farm-lands and buildings being valued at upwards of $30,000,000. The Manufactures are the chief source of wealth. The annual product aggregates over $100,000,000, the capital in- vested being $75,000,000. There are over twenty-six plants, employing upwards of seventy thousand persons, of whom a large proportion are women. In cotton, woollen, worsted, and other textiles, Rhode Island leads the Union. The population of Rhode Island in 1880 was 276,531 ; in 1890 it was 345,506 ; the real property was valued at $240,000,000, and the personal property at $85,000,000. There were 212 miles of railroads and 66 newspapers. The national institutions are a Torpedo School on Goat Island, where experiments in torpedoes and other projectiles are made, and where officers of the navy are instructed in their use. Guarding Newport Harbor is Fort Adams, one of the important fortresses of the United States. Owing to the danger to ships on this coast, many lighthouses are located in the vicinity. There is a training school on board the United States vessel for naval apprentices, where several hundred American youths are taught the principles of seamanship. Providence, the chief city, which had a population in 1890 SACKVILLE IXCIDENT. 339 of 132,146, is situated at the head of Narragansett Bay, and is a prosperous manufacturing, financial, railroad, and steamboat cen- tre. Its cotton mills, woollen mills, worsted mills, jewelry, and silverware factories are among the most important in the country. It is the site of Brown University, and of several fine public buildings, including the Public Library, the Athenaeum, and the Rhode Island Historical Society. The second city in population is Pawtucket, also a busy manu- facturing centre. Woonsocket has great cotton-manufacturing interests, and a population of 20,830. Newport is an old town which preserves its colonial atmosphere to this day ; it is famous as a watering place for the fashionable people of the great cities ; the population in 1890 was 19,455. The Governor of Rhode Island is D. Russell Brown (Republican), whose term expires May 25, 1893. The State is Republican. Royal Arcanum. (See Secret Societies.) Rotation ill Office. (See Civil Service Reform.) Rum, Romanism, and Rebellion. (See Sayings of Famous Americans.) Rye, Production of. (See Agriculture.) Sackville Incident. In the heat of the Presidential canvass of 1888, there found its way to the public view a letter written by Lord Sackville- West, Minister from the Court of St. James to the United States, to a person by the name of Murcheson, resident in Lower California. In this letter, written in reply to one to him from Murcheson, a professed native- Englishman, but now an American citizen, in which Murcheson asked the minister to advise him whom to vote for, Lord Sackville made use of lan- guage which was distasteful to the Cleveland administration. The writing of such a letter was a diplomatic blunder, and at once made the minister, in the eyes of this government, Non Persona Grata. President Cleveland accordingly demanded his passports, and Sackville left the country in disgrace. It is a principle of the comity of nations that no minister to a foreign court shall meddle with the politics of that country ; to do so renders him obnoxious. There was for some time great public curiosity to know more about Murcheson. It appeared on inquiry that no person of that name was known in the town where the letter to Lord Sackville was mailed, and by some it was believed that the Murcheson letter was a trick of the Repub- licans, conceived in the possibility of discrediting the Cleveland administration. Sage of Monticello, The. (See Presidents of the United States.) 340 SAYINGS OF FAMOUS AMERICANS. Salary Grab. This was the name given to a bill which was hurried through the Forty-Second Congress, on the last day of its session, March 3, 1873. It passed the House and Senate and received President Grant's signature, all in the same day. The bill raised the salary of the President from $25,000 to $50,000, and the salaries of Congressmen to $5,000. The fact that the provisions of the bill applied to the salaries of the members for the current session aroused vigorous criticism. Salt River. (See Slang of Politics.) Savior of His Country. (See Presidents of the United States.) Sayings of Famous Americans. The more notable of the sayings of American statesmen are included in the following category : A Covenant With Death, and an Agreement With Hell. This has always been regarded as having been said by the Garrisonians of the Constitution, which the more radical of them declared permitted slavery. The phrase is said to have originated with William Lloyd Garrison himself, although there is a good deal of doubt upon the point. (See Abolition and Abolitionists.) Administration Should be Conducted behind Glass Doors. This utterance originated with President Cleveland in defining' his views regarding the publicity that should surround the acts of public servants. A Pedestal for This Colossal Heresy. The Calhoun Nullifiers in 1832 sought to show that nullification would have been justified by Jefferson were he alive. James Madison made vigorous protest against the use of Jefferson's name " as a ped- estal for this colossal heresy." All Men Are Created Equal. The second paragraph of the Declaration of Independence begins : " We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal," etc. All Quiet Along the Potomac. When General McClel- lan took command of the Army of the Potomac in 1861, a vig- orous campaign was expected. The country waited anxiously for a forward movement, but the cry came inevitably back, "All quiet along the Potomac." The phrase "masterly inac- tivity" was coined at this time, and referred to McClellan's policy. All We Ask Is To Be Let Alone. This phrase was in the message of Jefferson Davis to the Confederate Congress in 1861. It had reference to the attitude of the North toward the South. SAYINGS OF FAMOUS AMERICANS. 341 TRINITY CHURCH, NEW YORK. 342 SAYINGS OF FAMOUS AMERICANS. Americans, The, Must Light the Lamps of Industry and Economy. This sentiment is commonly attributed to Benjamin Franklin, as having been written in a letter from Lon- don in 1765, immediately after the passage of the Stamp Act. The phrase is graphic enough to be Franklin's, but it has been distorted from its original construction, which was not nearly so expressive. What Franklin really wrote was : " Let us make as good a night of it as we can. We may still light candles. Fru- gality and industry will go a great way towards indemnifying us." The quotation is from a letter to Charles Thomson, of Philadel- phia. An Anchor to the Windward. One of the famous expressions of James G. Blaine in the Mulligan letters (which see). Asylum of the Oppressed of Every Nation. This well-known phrase originated in the Democratic National plat- form of 1856. Burn This Letter. A Democratic campaign cry in the Cleveland-Blaine canvass of 1884. Among the Mulligan letters, containing alleged incriminating evidence against Mr. Blaine, was one which had ended with the phrase quoted. (See Mulligan Letters.) Caesar Had His Brutus, Charles I. His Cromwell, and George III. May Profit by Their Examples. If That Be Treason, Make the Most of It. In the midst of his speech denying the right of the king to tax the colonies in 1765, Patrick Henry vented his indignation in a burst of impas- sioned eloquence, as quoted. He had spoken the words, " and George III.," when he was interrupted with cries of " Treason ! " He quickly added, defiantly : " If that be treason, make the most of it." Cheap Coats Make Cheap Men. An aphorism of President Harrison, who used it in connection with a defence of the McKinley Tariff Bill in 1891. The Democratic opponents of that measure having asserted that a reduction in tariff duties would make the price of coats, for instance, cheaper for the working- man, the President, replying to this argument, used the phrase quoted. The implication is that a good article is rarely the cheapest article, and that only cheap men will buy a cheap thing. Don't Fire Till You See the Whites of Their Eyes. The command of Colonel Prescott to his troops at the Battle of Bunker Hill. Don't Give Up the Ship. The words used by Captain Lawrence, of the United States frigate Chesapeake, as he was being carried below, mortally wounded, during the engagement between SAYINGS OF FAMOUS AMERICANS. 343 that vessel and the British frigate Shannon in the War of 1812. Enemies in War, in Peace, Friends. Thomas Jeffer- son wrote these words in the Declaration of Independence, referring to the attitude to be maintained by the United States towards Great Britain. England a Den of Pirates and France a Den of Thieves. The English attacks on American shipping in 1807 (see Embargo Act), and France's determination to capture every neutral vessel which should submit to being searched, called forth, from Jefferson, in a private letter, the declaration that " England seemed to have become a den of pirates and France a den of thieves." Entangling Alliances. This is another of Jefferson's happy phrases. It is found in his inaugural address, in a passage in which he speaks of the principles which guided the founders of the Union. He says : " Peace, commerce, and honest friendship with all nations, entangling alliances with none." First in War, First in Peace, and First in the Hearts of His Countrymen. From the resolutions passed by the House of Representatives on the death of Washington. The resolutions were written by Henry Lee, of Virginia. Give Me Liberty, or Give Me Death. Patrick Henry, in a speech in the Virginia Convention, in March, 1775, favoring a resolution " that the colony be immediately put in a state of defence," concluded as follows : " Is life so dear, or peace so sweet, as to be purchased at the price of chains and slavery? Forbid it, Almighty God ! I know not what course others may take, but as for me, give me liberty, or give me deatli !" God Reigns, and the Government at Washington Still Lives. This inspiring utterance was delivered by James A. Garfield, on April 15, 1865, the day of President Lincoln's death. In Wall Street, New York, an angry mob had gathered, and demanded vengeance for Lincoln's assassination. . Trouble was in sight, when a man stepped forth, and motioning the crowd to silence, spoke as follows in a clear and far-reaching voice: "Fellow-citizens, Clouds and darkness are around about him. His pavilion is dark waters and thick clouds of the skies. Justice and judgment are the establishment of his throne. Mercy and truth shall go before his face. God reigns, and the government at Washington still lives." Quickly the mob dis- persed at the bidding of Garh'eld, their passions subdued by his commanding tones. Government of the People, by the People, and for the People, is part of the closing sentence of Lincoln's speech 344 SAYINGS OF FAMOUS AMERICANS. at Gettysburg, on the occasion of the dedication of the National Soldiers' Monument. That part of the speech in which the now famous utterance occurs is as follows : " It is rather for us to be here dedicated to the great task remaining before us that from these honored dead we take increased devotion to the cause for which they here gave the last full measure of devo* ; on that we here highly resolve that the dead shall not have died in vain ; that the nation, under God, shall have a new birth of freedom ; and that the government of the people, by the people, and for the people, shall not perish from the earth." He Fears God, Hates the Devil, and Votes the Straight Democratic Ticket. This saying, which originated with " Horizontal Bill " Morrison, is often quoted by politicians at Washington. It refers to Rev. William H. Milburn, the blind chaplain of the House of Representatives, in nominating whom in the Democratic caucus Congressman William R. Morrison used the phrase quoted. It evidently pleased the Democrats, for Mr. Milburn was elected and has acted as chaplain ever since. He Smote the Rock of the National Resources and Abundant Streams of Revenue Gushed Forth. Said of Alexander Hamilton by Daniel Webster, in a speech on Alexander Hamilton's famous report on the Public Debt, in 1790. (See Finances, Government.) He Touched the Dead Corpse of Public Credit and It Sprung Upon Its Feet. This was said by Daniel Web- stei of Alexander Hamilton in a speech. (See previous para- graph.) I Am a Democrat. Governor David B. Hill, of New York, in a speech at Brooklyn, in 1890, at a Democratic love- feast on the anniversary of Jefferson's birthday, gave utterance to this sentiment, which evoked the greatest enthusiasm. Al- though it was not a new statement of his political doctrine, yet it was suggestive of great meaning, and struck a sympathetic chord. The manner in which it was uttered, and the peculiar political conditions at the time contributed to its effect. I Am a Republican, Who Carried His Sovereignty Under His Own Hat Originally uttered by A. W. Campbell, of West Virginia, in the Republican national convention of 1880. It was quoted by George William Curtis, on June 4, 1884, at the Republican national convention in Chicago. Curtis led the Republican opposition to Blaine, and in his speech said : " A Republican and a free man I came to this convention, and by the grace of God a Republican and a free man will I go out of it." " I carry my sovereignty under my hat," became the watchword of the Independents. SAYINGS OF FAMOUS AMERICANS. 345 FRANKLIN'S RULES OF SUCCESS. 346 SAYINGS OF FAMOUS AMERICANS. I Do Not Feel That I Shall Prove a Deadhead in the Enterprise. This sentence was in the celebrated Mulli- gan letters, which passed between James G. Blaine and Warren Fisher. (See Mulligan Letters.) I Have Killed Seventeen Roman Pro-Consuls William Henry Harrison's inaugural address was read by Daniel Webster before its delivery. Many points of style did not please Webster, but he took especial ground against Harrison's lavish use of allusions to Roman history. Webster edited the speech, and cut out much of its ancient historical matter, and when, on returning home, the lady of the house at which lie stopped remarked that he looked worn out, and asked if anything had happened, Webster replied, " You would think that some- thing had happened if you knew what I have done. I have killed seventeen Roman pro-consuls." I Propose to Fight It Out on This Line, if It Takes All Summer. This sentence was in a despatch of General Grant to the Secretary of War after the Battle of Spottsylvania, May, 1864. I Still Live. The last words of Daniel Webster. I Was Born an American, I Live an American, I Shall Die an American. This sentence is from a speech of Daniel Webster, delivered July 17, 1850. If Anyone Attempts to Haul Down the American Flag, Shoot Him on the Spot. In December, 1860, when New Orleans was in possession of the secessionists, Secretary of War John A. Dix issued an order to the captain of a revenue cutter at that port to bring his vessel to New York. The captain refused to obey the order, whereupon Dix wired an order placing the officer under arrest, closing his despatch with the now famous utterance quoted above. In the Name of the Great Jehovah and the Conti- nental Congress. When in May, 1775, Ethan Allen surprised Fort Ticonderoga, then in the hands of the British, he demanded the surrender of the garrison and port. When the commanding officer asked by whose authority, Allen replied : " In the name of the Great Jehovah and the Continental Congress." Let No Guilty Man Escape. These words were attrib- uted to General Grant, and were said to have been his official endorsement on the papers setting forth the criminal conduct of the Whisky Ring (which see). Liberty and Union Now and Forever, One and In- separable. The concluding words of Daniel Webster's second speech in reply to Hayne. Little More Grape, Captain Bragg During the battle SAYINGS OF FAMOUS AMERICANS. 847 of Buena Vista, in 1847, it appeared to General Taylor that the enemy could not withstand the discharge of grape from Captain Bragg's battery, and shouted : " A little more grape, Captain Bragg." The enemy were disastrously defeated, and the phrase has lived from that day. No Terms Other than an Unconditional Surrender. When, in February, 1862, General Grant, commanding Union forces before Fort Donelson in Tennessee, had cut off all chance of the enemy's escape, he received from General Buckner, who commanded the rebel forces, an inquiry as to what terms of sur- render would be allowed. Grant replied as above, and added: " I propose to move immediately upon your works." General Buckner surrendered. Office of President Is Essentially Executive in Its Nature. Grover Cleveland in his letter accepting the nomina- tion of the Democratic party in 1884, used the phrase, which has since passed into common use : " The office of President is essen- tially executive in its nature." On to Richmond. As editor -of the New York Tribune during the Civil War, Horace Greeley gave birth to this war cry, which was taken up by those who advocated an immediate forward movement on the Confederate capital. Only Good Indian is a Dead Indian, The. This say- ing lias always been credited to the late Gen. George Crooke, the Indian fighter, but lie made strong denial of having uttered it. Whatever the origin of the phrase, it has passed into common use, and represents the doctrine of those who oppose the red man's civilization. Pernicious Activity. Among the words and phrases con- tributed to the vocabulary of politics by Grover Cleveland, none were so widely discussed as "pernicious activity." They are found in a letter to the heads of departments, in which he said " office-holders are neither disfranchised nor forbidden the exer- cise of political privileges ; but their privileges are not enlarged, nor is their duty to party increased to pernicious activity by office- holding." Public Office Is a Public Trust. A famous utterance of Grover Cleveland. It became the battle-cry of the Independents. Put None but Americans on Guard To-night. This occurs in an order by General Washington on the eve of a battle in the Revolutionary War. Rum, Romanism, and Rebellion The Rev. Dr. Burch- ard used this phrase in a speech at the Fifth Avenue Hotel in New York, a few days before the Presidential election of 1884. Mr. Blaine was receiving a delegation of ministers, of whom Rev. 348 SAYINGS OF FAMOUS AMERICANS. Dr. Burchard was the spokesman. In the course of his remarks he referred to the Democratic party as the party of "Rum, Romanism and Rebellion." Some criticism of Elaine was made next day for not rebuking the speaker, but Blaine said that he was not listening, his thoughts at the time being on the subject of his own speech. The Democrats made the most of the insult to their party. It has never been questioned that many votes, especially of Catholics, were turned away from Mr. Blaine. Cleveland's majority over Blaine in New York was only 1,047, so that 524 votes lost to Cleveland would have turned the State in Elaine's favor, and elected him. Sink or Swim, Live or Die, Survive or Perish, I Give My Hand and My Heart to This Vote Supposed to have been uttered by John Adams in a speech in Congress in 1776, before voting in favor of the Declaration of Independence. Suicide is Confession. Original with Daniel Webster in his famous speech in prosecution of the White murder case in 1830 at Salem, Mass. One of the prisoners, Richard Cronin- shield, had committed suicide in jail, a fact which Webster seized upon to coin a phrase which became immortal. Surplus is Easier to Handle Than a Deficit. This phrase, originating with D'Israeli, was used by the Republicans in the Harrison-Cleveland campaign of 1888, as a reply to Democratic attacks on the accumulation of the surplus by reason of high tariff duties. It is said that Col. Fred Grant used the phrase first in this connection. Tariff is a Local Issuer In the midst of the Presidential canvass of 1880, Gen. Winfield S. Hancock, the Democratic candidate, said in a newspaper interview that the tariff question was a local issue. The statement, which went uncontradicted by its author, was eagerly seized upon by the opposition press, and used to the party's disadvantage. Tariff is a Tax. This became a campaign cry of the Tariff Reformers, when in the campaign of 1888 it was reiterated many times in speeches by Allen G. Thurman, the Democratic candidate for Vice-President. Tell Them to Obey the Laws and Support the Con- stitution. This was the dying message to his son of Stephen A. Douglass, and was meant for the members of the Northern wing of the Democratic party, which had supported him for Presi- dent in 1860. There Never was a Good War or a Bad Peace A maxim of Benjamin Franklin. This is the Last of Earth; I am Content. These were the dying words of John Quincy Adams. SAYINGS OF FAMOUS AMERICANS. 349 Thomas Jefferson Still Survives. These were the last words of John Adams. As a matter of fact, the statement was not true, Jefferson having passed away a few hours before, but the dying man did not know it. Union Must Be Preserved. This phrase originated with Andrew Jackson, who, when asked for a sentiment at a dinner in celebration of Jefferson's birthday, in 1830, responded with, " Our Federal Union ; it must be preserved." The sentiment was especially appropriate, the excitement over nullification being very fierce at the time. Very Hungry, and Very Thirsty. In a speech at the Democratic national convention, of 1884, George William Curtis, the Mugwump leader, characterized the Democrats in their atti- tude toward the offices, as being " very hungry and very thirsty." This fact, however, he argued, should not deter the patriotic Republican voter from joining the Democratic party. War to the Knife and the Knife to the Hilt Attrib- uted to the Republicans by the Anti-War Democrats during the Civil War. We Are Confronted with a Condition, not a Theory. This was in President Cleveland's famous message on the tariff, sent to Congress in 1887, in which he advocated wholesale reforms in the system of protective duties. The message caused a profound sensation because it was so unexpected, and it is be- lieved to have contributed greatly to his defeat at the Presidential election the following year. We Have Met the Enemy and They Are Ours. This was the wording of a message sent by Commodore Perry to President Harrison on Sept. 10, 1813, after he had encountered the British fleet on Lake Erie, and defeated them against great odds. We Love Him for the Enemies He Has Made. - This is a paraphrase of a line from Shakespeare, and was applied by Governor Bragg, of Wisconsin, to Grover Cleveland, in nominat- ing the latter for the Presidency in 1884. The enemies referred to were the minority members of the New York delegation, who tried hard to break the unit rule, and thereby bring about Cleve- land's defeat. We Must All Hang Together. When the signers of the Declaration of Independence had affixed their names to the docu- ment, someone remarked: "Now we must all hang together." " Yes," said Franklin, " or we shall all hang separately." Corpu- lent Benjamin Harrison, of Virginia, said to slender Elbridge Gerry, of Massachusetts : " I shall have the advantage of you ; for my neck, probably, will be broken at the first drop, whereas you may have to dangle for half an hour." 350 SCRUB RACE FOR THE PRESIDENCY. What a Glorious Morning Is This I The utterance of Samuel Adams the da}' of the Battle of Lexington, when, by the act of the British in firing upon the Americans, all hope of con- ciliation was past. With Malice Toward None, and Charity for All. Originated with Lincoln, in his address on the occasion of his second inauguration. You Can Fool Some of the People All the Time, and You Can Fool All the People Some of the Time, But You Can't Fool All the People All the Time. An apho- rism popularly credited to Abraham Lincoln. Scholar in Politics. A derisive name for the civil-service reformers and other political purists. Those who have been thus designated are men of the stamp of the late James Russell Lowell and George William Curtis, both scholars, and, from the politician's point of view, not politicians. The advent of the scholar in politics was contemporaneous with that of the mug- wump. Scrub Race for the Presidency. During the "era of good feeling" (which see) the Presidential election created no popular excitement. Candidates had been nominated by the caucuses of Congressmen, but in 1820, there had been opposition to the re-election of President Monroe, so the caucuses were omitted. In 1824, William H. Crawford, of Georgia, tried to revive the caucus system of nominations, but only a small part of the whole body of Congressmen obeyed the call. Crawford himself was nominated by the Republican caucus, but this didn't help him to any extent. There being no recognized parties, the election was none other than a personal contest between Henry Clay, Crawford, J. Q. Adams, and Andrew Jackson. Calhoun, then Secretary of War, was supported for the Vice-Presidency by all four candidates for President. The House decided the election, there having been chosen no majority of electors, and Jackson won. Calhoun was chosen as Vice-President. The contest was humorously spoken of as " a scrub race for the Presidency." (See How the President is Elected.) Seal of the United States, The Great. It was only after several sketches of seals had been submitted for its approval that Congress in 1782 accepted and formally adopted " The Great Seal of the United States of America." The seal in use now is not the same as that first adopted, but it bears, in its general features, a close resemblance. Congress appointed a committee, on the same day that the Declaration of Independence was signed, to devise a Great Seal for the United States. The committee SEAL OF THE UNITED STATES. 351 GREAT SEAL OF THE UNITED STATES. consisted of Benjamin Franklin, John Adams, and Thomas Jef- ferson. Two months afterwards they reported in favor of a seal which should have on one side the arms of the United States, together with various engravings emblematic of England, Scot- land, Ireland, France, Germany, Holland, and Belgium. Encircling the,()00. Sectional President. (See Presidents of the United States.) Seven Mule Bamum. (See Nicknames of Famous Ameri- cans.) Seventh Of March Speech. This refers to an extraordinary speech by Daniel Webster in the Senate on March 7, 1850, in the debate growing out of the Clay resolutions regarding the Compro- mise of 1850. In his speech Webster antagonized the abolitionists by his utterances in opposition to the restriction of slavery, his pre- vious views on which had placed him squarely against the South. It was charged that his sudden change of opinion was influenced by his desire to secure the nomination for President. Sharp Knife. (See Presidents of the United States.) Shinplasters. During the Avar, private individuals not being able to secure small change, they issued private notes of ten, twenty-five, and fifty cents denomination, and circulated them in their business. The notes were called shinplasters, because they had no value outside of particular localities, except possibly as plasters for broken shins. The small notes issued by the gov- ernment in after years from this source derived the name of shinplasters. Ship-Building. Packets and Clippers. Ocean Disasters. Steamboats. Great Lake Navigation. Ocean Steamships. . American Carrying Trade. Subsidies. The first ship built in this country -was the Virginia, which was built in 1607, at the mouth of the Kennebec River, in Maine, a State which has always been noted for its ships. The vessel was built by colonists who used it in returning home, having become discouraged with their new life. The second ship built was the Onrest, which was constructed at New York, in 1615-16. New England early in her career took the lead in ships, and many of her people were engaged in shipping. Her vessels, 358 SHIP-BUILDING. however, were practically annihilated by the British fleets in the Revolutionary War, and when the war was over an era of ship- building was inaugurated which attained large proportions, and was famous for the perfection of its vessels, and especially for their speed. The Early American Ship-Builders aimed to construct their vessels as nearly as possible upon the lines of a fish ; their success in this direction led to the imitation of their models by many foreign designers. Packets were run between New York and English ports as early as 1815. They had two decks, and were swift and substantially made. The first three-decker was the Guy Mannering, which was built at New York in 1849, and quickly set the fashion for packet ships which were built there- after. The success of the packet ships induced the English gov- ernment to subsidize the Cunard line, which in 1840 sent out a steamship, the Britannia, and has continued the service ever since. (See Steam Navigation.) The tendency in ship-building was now towards larger and larger ships. The packet was followed by the clipper ship, about 1840 to 1850, built low in the water, with a sharp bow, fine water-lines, and tall masts which carried an immense spread of canvas. The immigration to California, in 1848 and on, led to a great boom in the clipper-built ships, and about this time the American Carrying Trade was at the height of its prosperity. Between 1856 and 1860, the value of imported and exported cargoes car- ried in American vessels averaged $475,000,000 a year. With the outbreak of the Civil War, this trade fell away to $200,000,-' 000 ani under, and remains at about that figure to-day. The percentage of trade carried in American vessels in 1856 was 75. 2; in 1891, the percentage was 11.94. There was a large increase in the coastwise trade from 1860 and on, -which led to the build- ing of schooners, now the recognized type of coastwise ships. One of the largest schooners ever built was the Governor Ames, which was built in 1888 in Maine; her keel is 265 feet long, the length over all is 265; beam 50 feet, depth 20 feet, tonnage 1,800. She has 460 tons of Virginia white oak in her framework ; her planking is six inches thick, and 7 inches at the gunwales. She has four masts and is employed in trade with South Ameri- can ports. Mississippi River Navigation took a great spurt with the advent of steam navigation (which see), although several sailing vessels had made the voyage from New Orleans to Louisville, Kentucky, in from sixteen to twenty days. Iron ships were built after 1838, in which year the Codorus, an iron ship, was built for the Susquehanua River trade. These hulls were crude in shape, SHIP-BUILDING. 359 360 SHIP-BUILDING. and the effort to fashion them on the lines of wooden hulls was not at first successful. Steam Navigation. The first successful attempt at steam navigation was Robert Fulton's steamboat Clermont, which in 1807 made the trip from New York to Albany, 148 miles, at the rate of five miles an hour, and returned at the same speed. Previously several Englishmen and Americans had experiments I with steam as a means of propulsion. In 1784 and 1786, James Ramsey, o Chester, Pa., drove a boat on the Potomac four miles an hour by a water jet forced out at the stern. John Fitch about the same time tried to propel a steamer on the Delaware River by means of paddles turned by cranks. Fulton's Steam- boat, however, was a complete success, and it revolutionized the river and ocean navigation of the world. The Clermont was 138 feet in length, 18 feet beam, 7 feet in depth, and 160 tons bur- den. The engine had a steam cylinder 24 inches in diameter and a stroke of 4 feet. Not long after, Col. John Stevens, of New Jersey, who had been experimenting with steam about Ful- ton's time, made the voyage in a steam side- wheeler, called the Phoenix, from New York to the Delaware River. This was the First Ocean Voyage by a steam vessel. The next ocean voy- age by a stenn vessel was more daring. It was that of the Savannah, Capt. Moses Rogers, which sailing from Savannah, Gra., on May 24, 1819, made the voyage to Liverpool, arriving there on June 20, having used both steam and sails. The same ship made the trip from St. Petersburg to New York direct in 26 days. The First Transatlantic Line of steamships was the Cunard line, which on July 4, 1840, sent from Liverpool the steamship Brittania, 1,350 tons, and thereafter sent steamers reg- ularly. The first transatlantic screw steamer was the Massachu- setts, Capt. R. B. Forbes, who also introduced steam vessels into the China trade. The largest steam vessel ever constructed was the Great Eastern, which was 680 feet long, 83 feet beam, 58 feet deep, 28 feet draught, and 2,400 tons burden ; she had four paddles, four screw engines, and had a speed of 16 statute miles an hour. Ocean Steamships What is called the transatlantic fleet of steamships consists of 106 vessels, sailing regularly to and from New York and European ports. Some of them sail to and from Boston. The European destination of 31 of these steamships is Liverpool; of 19, Glasgow; of 17, Hamburg, via Southampton; of 11, Antwerp; of 9, Boulogne and Rotterdam; of 10, Bremen, via Southampton ; of 6, Havre ; of 3, Bordeaux. Nearly all of these steamships are owned abroad. Not all of these vessels carry first-class passengers, but all of them carry valuable cargoes SHIP-BUILDING. 361 of merchandise. There are many more steamers which are smaller and less speedy ; in fact, there are upwards of 35 lines between the eastern seaboard of the United States and European ports. There were in 1891 416 steamships sailing from Ameri- can ports to foreign ports. Their tonnage was 517,394, their value was $42,000,000, and the value of their merchandise was $1,402,500,000. Great Britain, in the same year, had 6,403 steam vessels, with tonnage of 8,235,854 ; their value was $550,000,000, and the value of their merchandise was $3,476,500,000. Ger- man} 7 had 741 steam vessels, with tonnage of 928,911 ; their value was $63,500,000, and that of their merchandise was $1,624,000,- 000. France had 526 steam vessels, whose tonnage was 809,598 ; their value was $48,500,000, and their merchandise was valued at $1,471,000,000. The United States thus stood fourth among the nations of the world. The centre of the United States Ocean Carrying Trade is New York, where steamers leave not only for the ports on the regular transatlantic routes designated above, but also for Amsterdam, Antigua, the Azores, Barbadoes, Barcelona, Bermuda, Bristol, Eng., Buenos Ayres, Cardenas, Colon, Copenhagen, Deme- rara, Dominica, Genoa, and Gibraltar,Gonaives,Grcytown, Guadeloupe, Halifax, Havana, ^ rlying jlb . 2> jih . 3> foro 9t stay . Hong; Koiio; Jamaica, Leg;- sail; 4, fore course; 5, fore topsail; 6, fore i T *! T J TIT i topgallant sail ; 7, fore royal ; 8, fore skysail ; IlOrn, Leitll, London, Malaga, 9,^ royal studding-sail; lO, fore topgallant Marseilles MartinimiP Matin studding-sail; 11, fore topmast studding- CS,^VJ mque,lU 1- gail . 12( fe main course; 13, main topsail; 14, zas, MeSSina, Naples, New- main topgallant sail; 15, main royal; 1C. main .1 -pi -n n -r> skysail; 17, main royal studding-sail; 18, Castle, l^ng., J^aia, Jrernam- m ^ in topgallant studding-sail; 19, main top- biico, Port Janeiro de Cuba," Shanghai/ St. Crofx, spanker ' St. Domingo City, St. Johns, N. F., Porto liico, and St. Kitts. Besides these lines, most of which carry only freight, there are many others running to the ports on the eastern coast of the United States, and one to San Francisco (the Pacific Mail S. S. Co.), via the Isthmus of Panama. From Philadelphia and Balti- more two lines of steamers, chiefly freighters, run to foreign ports. The Pacific Mail Steamship Company was^ organized in 1847, at the time of the colonization of the Pacific States, when it despatched one of its first vessels, the California, from 362 SHIP-BUILDING. New York, in 1848, to San Francisco by way of Cape Horn. This extraordinary performance, in those early days of steam navigation, enabled the company to inaugurate a steamship service between Panama and San Francisco. The route thus opened was from New York to Colon (Aspinwall), and thence across the Isthmus to Panama, where the steamer was in waiting to run up the Mexican coast to California. The transpacific route was commenced in 1867, s^on after the opening of the Pacific Railroad, and is now worked in conjunction with an English line, the Oriental & Occidental. The only steamship company which carries passengers between the United States and South American ports, and which flies the stars and stripes at the ship's head, i? one from New York to Rio de Janeiro, which stops at St. Thomas, Barbadoes, Para, Maranham, Pernambuco, Bahia, and Rio de Janeiro. The largest of the Fleet of Transatlantic Steamers have'a gross tonnage of 12,000. These are the Fftrst Bismarck and the Nortnannia, New York to Hamburg. The City of Paris and the City of New York, New York to Liverpool, have a gross tonnage of 10,499 ; the Augusta, Victoria, and the Columbia, New York to Hamburg, have a gross tonnage of 10,000 ; the Teutonic and the Majestic, New York to Liverpool, have a gross tonnage of 9,685 and 9,861 respectively. The latter have the greatest length, 582 feet ; their breadth is 57-J- feet, and their depth is 39 feet. The modern steamship nowadays is divided into upwards of twenty water-tight compartments separated by bulkheads, which encircle the hull of the ship, as it were, by an outer shell. In the bow is a collision bulkhead to save the ship in the event of her running " bow on " against any obstacle. The effect of this system of bulkhead-protected compartments is to isolate every part of the ship, so that the sea, when once it breaks through, may be prevented from flooding the entire vessel. All first-class steamers have also twin screws, each worked by a separate engine. If one screw becomes disabled, the steamer is propelled by the other. Ocean Disasters In the forty years ending 1880, 144 ocean steamers were lost at sea ; not all of these, however, were passenger steamers. Among the more famous losses were the City of Glasgow, in 1854, which was never heard of, having 480 persons on board; the steamship Arctic, which collided in 1854 with the steamer Vesta in a fog off Cape Race, and sunk with 562 souls on board; the steamer Pacific, lost in 1856, with 186 persons; the Austria in 1858, which was burned at sea, with a loss of 471 lives; the City of Boston, lost at sea in 1870, with 200 persons on board; the Atlantic, lost in 1873 with 560 SHIP-BUtLDING. 363 souls ; tho Schiller, a year or two later, with 200 persons ; "the Deutschland, with 150 persons ; the Pomerania, with 50 lives ; the Cimbria, with 84 lives ; and the Yille du Havre, with 230 persons. This is the last of the calamities suffered by ocean steamships in the transatlantic service, although many have since then been sunk, without loss of life. Ice and icebergs are most dangerous obstacles to ocean navigation, although fog is generally more dangerous to life. Between 1882 and 1890, the records of the Ilydrographic office show that 36 steamers were injured more or less by ice in the North Atlantic Ocean. Speed of Ocean Steamships. The construction of powerful machinery in recent years has made it possible for *fO3^^3f5.SW l!B ? ap ~~i-Jiuai/ A FULL UIGGED SHIP. steamships to make the run from Sandy Hook to Queenstown,^ 2,800 miles, inside of six days. The Teutonic holds the record, having made the distance, in August, 1891, in five days, six hours, and thirty-one minutes. The City of Paris is second with a record of five days, nineteen hours, and eighteen minutes, in August, 1889. Navigation on the Great Lakes. A most important and lucrative source of the shipping commerce of the United States is that of the Great Lakes. This magnificent highway is the 364 SHIP-BUILDING. greatest inland water route of the world, its flotilla of vessels and barges transporting annually millions of tons of the products of the richly productive country in which it is situated. The cereals, the beef, the lumber, the copper, the salt, the iron ore, the flour and the coal, of the great Northwest, these are the important products which find a natural and easy outlet to the marts of trade in the East and in Europe. The Cargo Ton- nage of the Great Lak^s since 1880 has nearly doubled. In 1890, it amounted to over 30,299,000 tons, chiefly in grain and mill pro- ducts, lumber, coal, and iron ore, and was valued at $350,000,000. This is greater than the cargo tonnage of New York by over 100 per cent., and greater by 25 per cent, than the tonnage of all the seaports in the United States, surpassing the tonnage of London and Liverpool com- bined, by over 3,000,000 tons. CIHRIN ELEVATORS If ZflKET By the census of 1890, the vessels "^smppnq, cHicnqo. I engaged in carrying this enor- mous cargo numbered 2,784, of which 307 were propellers carry- ing both passengers and freight, 433 propellers carrying freight only, 939 schooners, and 301 barges ; all others 804, a total ship tonnage of 924,472. The lake ports ranked as follows in the number of vessels engaged in the lake traffic: Chicago, 339; Port Huron, 293 ; Detroit, 275 ; Milwaukee, 259 ; Grand Haven, 225 ; Cleveland, 219 ; Buffalo, 204; all other parts, 870. The Cost Per Ton per mile of carrying freight through the 800 miles of the lake system was in 1889 but one and one half mills. H a ^ the same cargo been carried by railroad it would have cost over $140,000,000 ; by the lakes the cost was only $23,000,000. An SHIP-BUILDING. 365 interesting feature of the lake traffic is the introduction of the "whaleback" steamer, so-called on account of its rounded deck. The deck is free from the masts and rigging ordinarily found on ocean steamships. The " whaleback " is designed especially for carrying grain. Within a year, the experiment has been tried successfully of carrying grain in whalebacks direct to European ports, via the St. Lawrence River, the mouth of which is over 1,200 miles from Chicago. American Carrying Trade. The immense export and import trade between this country and the nations of the earth, is carried on, excepting 11.94 per cent, of it, in vessels owned and manned by foreigners. What is called the decline in the carry- ing trade has recently become a subject of serious consideration by the statesmen of the nation, and the restoration of American shipping to its pristine glory will henceforth be their earnest en. deavor. To this end, the Fifty-first Con- gress passed the Postal Subsidy Bill, which empowers the Postmaster-Gen- eral to make contracts with American own- ers of American-built and American manned steamships for carry- ing the mails between the United States and foreign ports (Canada excluded). The ves- sels are to be con- structed after the latest and most ap- proved types, divided into four classes as follows : First class, iron or steel 20-knot vessels of not less than 8,000 tons. (The American-English mails are to be carried on this class entirely.) Second class, iron or steel 14-knot vessels of not less than 2,500 tons ; fourth class, iron, steel, or wooden 12-knot vessels of not less than 1,500 tons. Vessels of the first, second, and third classes are to be constructed with particular reference to prompt and economical conversion into auxiliary naval cruisers on plans approved by the Secretary of the Navy, strong enough to carry six-inch rifles and of the highest known maritime rating. The compensation to be paid is as follows: First-class, $4 "per mile ; second class, $2 per mile by the shortest DKY-DOCKED. 366 SIGNAL SERVICE OF TIIE UNITED STATES. practicable route for each outward voyage ; third class, $1 per mile; fourth class, 66| cents per mile for the number of miles required by the Post-Office Department to be traveled on each outward voyage. In May, 1892, a bill which permits foreign-built vessels to receive an American registry upon application of their owners, became a law and under it the City of Paris and the City of New York were so registered. Hereafter they will fly the American flag instead of the English flag, and will receive the subsidy provided by the Postal Subsidy Act. It was by the subsidy system that England built up her ex- tensive system of ocean steamships, many of which have made their profits solely from the American carrying trade. While this country has made marvellous strides forward in the develop- ment of its natural resources, that of its shipping has been neglected. Capital has been put into almost anything but ships, but the past three years show signs of a revivification of the ship- building industry. The number of vessels built in the United States in 1888 was 1,014, of which 430 were steamers; in 1889, the number was 1,077, of which 440 were steam ; in 1890, 1,051, of which 410 were steam ; in 1891, 1,384, of which 488 were steam. The Tonnage of our merchant navy in 1891 was 4,684,759, a steady but small increase since 1870. Great Britain's merchant tonnage in 1891 was 11,928,624. Germany's was 1,678,446, and Norway, the fourth in rank, was 1,665,477. The number of United States vessels in the foreign trade in 1891 was 1,516 ; in -the coastwise trade, 20,829. Shoe-String District. (See Gerrymander.) Signal Service, The United States. Weather Conditions. Rainfall. Cold Waves. Crop Bulletin Frosts and Floods. Storm Signals. This department of the United States service was established by the Act of Congress of February 9, 1870, and its care and supervision placed in the hands of Brig.-Gen. Albert J. Meyer, the chief signal officer of the United States Army. Hence the name Signal Service by which this department has been known until recently. It was strictly military in its organization. On account of the peculiar value to agriculture of its weather indications, the service was on July 1, 1891, transferred to the Department of Agriculture. Its Duties, as set forth in the act establishing the service, were " to take and record meteorological observations, and to report, and give notice, by electric tele- SIGNAL SERVICE OF THE UNITED STATES. 367 graph, of the approach and the force of storms, for the benefit of commerce and agriculture." The elements of its observations are: Temperature and pressure of the air; the percentage of moisture or relative humidity ; the temperature of the dewpoint ; direction, force, and velocity of the wind ; kinds and amount of clouds ; amount of precipitation rain or melted snow in inches and hundredths ; character of the sky, and the state of the weather. In addition to these a record of all Special Phenomena, such as aurorae, halos, thunderstorms, tornadoes, waterspouts, earthquakes, etc. These data are telegraphed to Washington the central station at stated times, and from there transmitted in the same manner to offices located at the commercial centres of the entire country, from which the information is disseminated through the daily papers, by the public display of bulletins and other methods. Thus far the labors of this service were chiefly in the interest of agriculture. The next step was the display of Storm Signals at stations on the seaboard, the Gulf, and the Great Lakes, by means of large flags by day and colored lights by night. At first, twenty such stations were established ; now a chain of them ex- tends from the Rio Grande, Gulf of Mexico, to Eastport, Me., throughout the great lakes and along the Pacific coast, all in the interest of commerce. There is a department for the study of Cold Waves, of the approach of which warnings can be given from twelve to thirty-six hours ahead for the benefit of growers and shippers of fruits and other perishable goods ; and also fore- casts or daily weather from thirty-six to forty hours in advance. The vast territory of the United States has been divided into districts, and, by making a special study of each, the " Forecasts " are made more definite and exact for each of them, thus more effectually promoting the interests of the farmers therein. In the cotton belt a special system of Rainfall and Temperature obser- vations has been adopted for the benefit of the planter and dealer. So in the great strawberry-growing region of New Jersey and adjacent territory, foreknowledge of weather and temperature is of the highest importance, and is watched as closely by dealers elsewhere as by the Jersey culturists. The Flood-Warnings of the great valleys of the Mississippi and tributaries have been of incalculable value. The Flags adopted by the Signal Service are five in number, and the forms and dimensions are indicated below : Number 1, white flag, six feet square, indicates clear or fair weather. Number 2, blue flag, six feet square, indicates rain or snow. Number 3, white and^blue flag, six feet square, indicates 368 SIGNAL SERVICE OF THE UNITED STATES. local rains or showers. Number 4, black triangular flag, four feet at the base and six feet in length, always refers to tempera- ture ; when placed above numbers 1, 2, or 3, it indicates warmer weather; when placed below numbers 1, 2, or 3 it indicates colder weather ; when not displayed, the indications are that the temperature will remain stationary, or that the change in temper- ature will not vary more than four degrees from the temperature of the same hour of the preceding day. Number 5, white flag, six feet square, with black square in centre, indicates the approach [ \iftfjfe ^^ma/up. WMMffed., F^WMycVotv WBi&iQ.t:K temp e r a t u r e . This signal is usually ordered at least twenty- four hours in ad- vance of the cold wave. When Number 5 is displayed, Number 4 is always omitted. When displayed on poles the signals should be arranged to read downward ; when displayed from horizontal supports a small streamer should be attached to indicate the point from which the signals are to be read. INTERPRETATION OF DISPLAYS. No. 1, alone, fair weather, stationary temperature. No. 2, alone, rain or snow, stationary temperature. No. 3, alone, local rain, stationary temperature. No. 1, with No. 4 above it, fair weather, warmer. No. 1, with No. 4 below it, fair weather, colder. No. 2, with No. 4 above it, warmer weather, rain or snow. No. 2, with No. 4 below it, colder weather, rain or snow. No. 3, with No. 4 above it, warmer weather with local rains. No. 3, with No. 4 below it, colder weather with local rains. No. 1, with No. 5 above it, fair weather, cold wave. No. 2, with No. 5 above it, wet weather, cold wave. Another important service rendered by the Bureau is the issuing at intervals of bulletins regarding the outlook for the crops in the great crop-belts. Having experienced observers in the immediate vicinity, its information is generally authentic and is of much value to the business interests of the country. The Signal Service also issues a series of Storm, Caution- ary, and Wind Signals, which are chiefly for the informa- tion of steamship companies, masters of sailing vessels, and man- SIGNAL SERVICE OP THE UNITED STATES. 369 ners in general. The flags and the signals they are intended to carry are as follows: The square flags indicate the character of the storm, whether moderate or severe. A yellow flag with a white centre indicates that the winds expected will not be so severe, but well-found, sea- worthy vessels can meet them without danger. A red flag with a black centre indicates that the storm is expected to be of marked vio- lence. The pennants displayed with the flags indicate the direction of the wind : red, easterly (from northeast to south) ; white, westerly (from southwest to north). The pennant above the flag indicates that the wind is expected to blow from the northerly quadrant ; below, from the southerly quad- rant. By night a red light will indicate easterly winds, and a white light above a red light westerly winds. The " Information Signal " consists of a yellow pennant of the same dimensions as the red and the white pennants (direction signals), and when dis- played indicates that the local observer has received information from the central office of a storm covering a limited area, dangerous only for vessels about to sail to certain points. The signal will serve as a notifica- tion to shipmasters to apply for information to the local ob- server. Silver Greys. (See Political Parties.) Silver, Production of. (See Mining.) Single Tax Party. (See Political Parties.) Sir Veto. (See Presidents of the United States.) Sitting Bull. (See Nicknames of Famous Americans.) Slang of Politics. The vocabulary of American politics contains a motley collection of curious words and phrases, many of which, while they are vulgar, yet are most expressive. As a rule, they have originated with professional politicians and the news- papers. Some of the more expressive, besides other words and phrases of a political origin which have passed into common use, are grouped below : Another County Heard From. When a State or Na- tional election is in doubt, it frequently happens- that the votes of 370 SLANG OF POLITICS. countieg are necessary to establish the result. The phrase wa heard first in the campaign of 1876, when returns arrived from some of the doubtful States very slowly. Bandanna. AJlen G. Thurman, Democratic candidate for Vice -President in 1888, made use of a red bandanna handker- chief. In the campaign the bandanna became a badge of Democracy. Bar'l, To Tap the. A phrase applied to rich candidates for office who are popularly believed to be possessed of a " barrel " of money for campaign use. Bee in His Bonnet. A popular expression to indicate a man's desire to secure public office, but usually applied to would- be candidates for President. Billion Congress. Applied to the Fifty- First Congress because of its appropriations, which in the rough aggregated a billion dollars. Elaine and Business. A battle-cry of the adherents of Secretary Elaine, when in 1891 it appeared that he might again stand for the Presidency ; it was hoped that he would, if nom- inated, make a campaign on the issues of reciprocity and the extension of foreign trade generally. Bleeding Kansas. An epithet of ridicule for Kansas, originating from the bloody strife over the Kansas-Nebraska bill in 1854. Since then, orators in Congress have used the phrase frequently. Blocks of Five. In the Harrison-Cleveland campaign of 1888, it was brought to light that the Republican National Com- mittee, through its treasurer, Col. W. W. Dudley, gave instruc- tions to secure the " floater " vote in Indiana in " blocks of five " men at a time. The campaign in that State was fought so fiercely that every. cross-roads was officered by " strikers " of both parties, each instructed to see that a certain designated number of men should vote. Bloody Chasm, To Bridge the An oratorical expres- sion intended to convey the idea of wiping out the animosities growing out of the Civil War. Bloody Shirt, To Wave the. Certain Republican ora- tors, in Congress and out of it, habitually favored a rigorous policy of reconstruction in order to whip into line the rebellious States, in the years immediately following the Civil War. Gov- ernor Morton, of Indiana, is credited with having originated the phrase. Nowadays, whenever an orator is especially severe toward the South, the Democrats taunt him with " waving the bloody shirt," which in later years has come to be regarded in the light of a dead issue. SLANG OF POLITICS. 371 Bolter. A bolter is a man who refuses to support the can- didate or the policy of a party. Under such circumstances, he bolts the party. This does not mean necessarily that he will not return when his disaffection has been mollified. * Boodle. Among politicians this means money for political use, generally for purposes of corruption. The arrest of the so- called " boodle " aldermen in New York, who were accused of having sold public franchises for money, gave the word a promi- nent position in the vocabulary of American slang. Boom, Boomer. A boom is a well-organized movement, political or otherwise. Politicians have "booms," and so do towns, cities, commercial enterprises, etc. The "boom" prom- ises great success cr prosperity, and a " boomer " is an active agent in helping on the "boom." "Elaine boomers" were men who saw that the Plumed Knight's political welfare was not lost sight of, and who "boomed" him on every possible occasion. Boss. In politics a boss is the party or faction leader. He holds indisputable power ; any who refuse to yield to him, or who question his autonomy, are subject to political death. In the large cities the boss wields tremendous influence by virtue of the large patronage in the way of offices at his disposal. Rarely is he himself found in office, but he is the power behind the throne. Frequently the important officials of a great city are merely his henchmen, put in office for his personal profit. The chief of Tammany Hall, in New York, always receives the title of Boss. The more famous Bosses have been Boss Tweed and Boss Kelly ; Richard Croker, who is the inspiring genius of Tammany at the present time, wears the title to-day. Ward bosses are politicians who wield an influence which is confined to one ward of a city. This they are sometimes spoken of as " carrying in their vest pocket." Boys, The. "Heelers," or the hangers-on of a candidate who expect him to do the right thing in the way of entertain- ment after election, in return for services in his behalf on election day. They are so numerous, and so efficient in the peculiar sort of work they have to do that no discreet politician will do other- wise than keep himself " solid with the boys." Ceesarism. Used in the "boom" fora third term for ex- President Grant. It implied the notion that the supporters of Grant wanted to make a Cresar of him, that is, a despot. Campaign of Education. This phrase arose from the determination of the Democracy after the defeat of Cleveland on the tariff issue in 1888, which it was claimed was due to the popular ignorance of the principles and operation of the tariff system, to so educate the voters that the cause of tariff reform 372 SLANG OP POLITICS. would ultimately be victorious. They announced their intention to begin a "campaign of education." Glean Sweep. This refers either to an overwhelming vic- tory by a party* or to the wholesale discharge from office of gov- ernment employees. Colonization. It has been charged repeatedly in New York City that the Democratic managers, principally those of Tammany, have increased their majorities in the down-town wards by " colonizing" these wards, a short time before election, with voters imported from the outside, and paid to vote the Democratic ticket. The practice is known as colonization. Count Out, To. When a candidate has actually received a majority of the votes in an election, but in counting the votes, enough of them are thrown out for one reason or another, the candidate is said to have been counted out. Dark Horse. A dark horse is a candidate who in the early ballots at political conventions shows little strength, but who ultimately gets the nomination. Garfield was a dark horse, and so was Benjamin Harrison. Democratic Rooster. The rooster has been an emblem of Democratic success since 1842. At that time a man by the name of Chapman was editor of the Indianapolis Sentinel, a Demo- cratic sheet. The result of a local election being in doubt, the editor of a rival organ accused Chapman of " crowing " before he was justified in it, and in a headline in his paper one morning, used the expression, " Crow, Chapman, Crow ! " In his next issue, the election having resulted in victory for the Democrats, Chapman used the headline, " We Crow," accompanied by the picture of a rooster in the act of crowing. Drys. The name given to those who vote to prohibit the sale of liquor, in town, cities, or State elections. The word was first extensively used in Georgia. (See Wets.) Dudes and Pharisees. Synonymous with Mugwumps, and applied to the Republicans, commonly aristocrats, who "bolted" Elaine in 1884. " Pharisees " indicates that spirit actu- ating them in their principles to which the Republican and part of the Democratic press referred to as a " holier than thou " spirit. The phrase sometimes is " dudes, Pharisees, and hypocrites." Fire- Eater. A bitter partisan, usually a Southerner, but used by either party of members of the other. Floaters. This is a political designation for doubtful, often disreputable voters who offer their votes to the highest bidder. In New York and other doubtful States, the " floater " vote re- ceives careful attention from the managers of the campaign, who SLANG OP POLITICS. 374 SLANG OF POLITICS. appreciate the fact that several hundred " floater " votes may win the day. G. O. P. Initials for "Grand Old Party," used by Repub- lican orators, but afterwards ridiculed by the Democrats, and seldom heard now except in derision. Innocuous Desuetude. A phrase used by President Cleve- land in J886, in a message to Congress regarding removals from office. The words referred to certain laws which were no longer observed. The novelty of the words far more than their appli- cation gave the phrase a wide currency. Ins and Outs. A slang political term for office-holders and their would-be successors. Jeffersonian Simplicity. Hatred of all display in gov- ernmental conduct. Jefferson rode to the Capitol on horseback, abolished Presidential levees, preferred to be addressed as Mis- ter, and refused to wear knee-breeches and silver buckles. "Jefferson Simplicity " is a favorite phrase with Democrats, as being expressive of superior political instincts. A Jeffersonian Democrat is a man who regards Jefferson's democracy as ideal. Jingoism. A word to designate a policy of national bluster. It was used with reference to Secretary Elaine's South American policy. Junket. When politicians make a journey, or otherwise entertain themselves at the public expense, they are said to go on a " j unket." The word carries with it the suggestion of cham- pagne and cigars, parlor cars and hacks, and other indispensables of politicians when serving the people. Kicker. In politics, a kicker is a bolter, or one who while remiining loyal is yet only passively so. Kid Glove Politicians. The "better element" of politi- cal leadership, usually men of wealth and social position who enter the political arena from motives of patriotism and with the purpose of purifying a supposedly corrupt government. The Mugwumps have often been called kid-glove politicians," but a kid-glove politician is not always a Mugwump. Kindergarten Politics. A phrase used by " machine " or professional politicians in speaking of the political methods of inexperienced leaders. It implies a certain superiority on the part of the " machine " men, due to their longer and more intimate connection with the conduct of campaigns, and a derisive con- tempt for the efforts of the novitiates, who usually follow their own intuitions, irrespective of what has been done before. Knifing. This is a form of political treachery. A politician who knifes the candidate of his party does it by marshalling his men on the eve of the election, and instructing them to pass SLANG OF POLITICS. 375 along the word to vote for the opposing candidate. The knifing does not appear to have been done until the votes are counted, and an unexpected falling-off from one candidate and an equally large gain by the other are found. The charge has always been made that Tammany knifed Cleveland in 1888. Log Rolling. This is the term for the combination of legislators who have not sufficient strength to carry their measure through unaided, and who combine with another set of men who are harassed by a like predicament. The phrase is taken from the cutting of timber. Mending Fences. This term refers to a politician's manoeu- vres in his own interest. When Congressmen are absent from Washington, it frequently turns out that they are at home " mending fences." The phrase originated with the brother-in-law of Senator Sherman, who was at work repairing some fences on his farm. At the time the Senator was a prominent candidate for the Presidential nomination. To a reporter who asked if he might see the Senator, the reply was made by the Senator's brother-in-law, that he was about the farm " mending fences." The phrase was uttered in perfect innocence of any political significance, but when it got into print it became a by- word of politics. Nepotism, A word applied to the appointments to office under the government of relatives of the family of President Benjamin Harrison, the number of which was so large as to call forth the criticisms of the Democratic press. Offensive Partisans. This phrase and also "offensive partisanship" have come into common use since the first was coined by Postmaster-General Vilas, in a letter regarding the re- moval of postmasters for political reasons. On the Fence. In its political signification it means neu- trality toward opposing parties or principles. When a politician is afraid to commit himself on a political question he sits " on the fence." One Man Power. This is a phrase indicating the almost imperial authority of a public officer. It developed in the early days of the Union, when there was a jealousy of the power vested in governors, mayors, and other public officials. Pair Off. -- When two members of a legislative body agree to refrain from voting, the}*- are said to pair off. Pasters. These are narrow slips of paper having the printed names of candidates other than the regular nominees, which are distributed by politicians so that voters may rearrange their bal- lots, if necessary. Peanut Politics. Any political act which is apparently of 376 SLANG OF POLITICS. trivial importance, and is done purely for polities' sake, is char- acterized as peanut politics. Pipe-Laying. In political parlance this means the procur- ing of votes fraudulently, or by any other illegal means. It is said to have originated in New York City about 1848, when the Croton water-pipes were being laid. Practical Politics. Practical politics includes the inside workings of party managements, not only those which are legiti- mate, but more especially those which are corrupt. Pull. The man with a pull, in politics, is he who by some means, not always manifested, has special influence with the gov- ernment, or who has influence of another kind which brings Lim prominently before the public. Railroading. When a bill is hurried through a legislative assembly, it is said to have been railroaded through. The impli- cation is that corrupt methods have been used. Rainbow-Chafeers. This phrase was applied first by the New York Sun, and afterwards by other newspapers, in the Presidential campaign of 1884, to Chairman Calvin S. Brice, of the Democratic National Committee, and to other prominent Democrats who sought to carry the country for Cleveland on the tariff issue. Rider. A rider is a provision attached to a legislative bill, which has no bearing upon the bill itself. By itself, the lill would stand no chance of passage, but as thus amended it is in- separable from the rider, in the voting both bill and rider are passed. As a rule, the rider is attached to an appropriation bill. Salt River. When a candidate for public office has been defeated his opponents playfully say that he has gone up Salt River. Salt River is a narrow, crooked stream in Kentucky, and was once a favorite stronghold for river pirates. "Whenever anything was lost or stolen, the saying was, that it had been rowed up Salt River. Slate. When politicians make up the slate, the meaning is that they have drawn up the list of party nominations, prelimi- nary to presenting them to the nominating convention. Smelling Committee. This is political slang for an investigation committee. When there is a suspicion abroad of the existence of corruption, and an investigation committee is appointed, the politicians suspected speak of the committee as a I' smelling" committee. The Democratic party in Massachusetts, in 1886, appointed a smelling committee to find out and make report regarding the Republican office-holders who had been kept in office by a Democratic Federal officer, although in this instance SLANti OB 1 POLITICS. 377 the only offence was a violation of the doctrine that " to the victors belong the spoils." Snap Convention. Snap is a word which in a certain sense means that which is sudden and unexpected, and in a degree unwarrantable. It implies the notion of superficially, and somewhat of conspiracy. The Democratic convention in New York State in the early part of 1892, was called a "snap" convention, because it did not represent the party at large, and was called unexpectedly by a ring having in view the political advancement of Senator David B. Hill. Soap. In the campaign of 1880, the Republican managers used the word "soap," meaning money, in their telegraphic despatches. It was brought out at a dinner in New York, in celebration of the Republican victory, that " soap " had carried the election in the doubtful State of Indiana. Sore- head. A sore-head is a politician who has become dis- gruntled because his party has failed to recognize his services, and who resolves thenceforth to use his influence against it. Soup. The phrase " in the soup " is believed to have orig- inated with a New York newspaper reporter, who in writing up a base-ball game, spoke of the defeated nine as having fallen into the soup. Since then it has become part of the slang of the street, and in a political sense it means that a candidate has met with ignoble defeat. Spellbinder. In the campaign of 1888, some of the Repub- lican orators, in telling of their oratorical triumphs, habitually used the word " spellbound." A political wag playfully referred to the orators as " spellbinders." The word was taken up by the press and had a wide circulation. Spoils System. The phrase " to the victor belong the spoils of the enemy," originated with Senator William L. Marcy, of New York, in a speech in the United States Senate, in 1881. The doctrine was accepted by the Democrats and put into prac- tice first by Andrew Jackson, and later by the Republicans. Star-Eyed Goddess. Usually written " Star- Eyed God- dess of Reform," a striking phrase original with Editor Henry Watterson, of Louisville, Kentucky, who made use of it in a Democratic editorial. The opposition press since then has play- fully dubbed him the " Star-Eyed Goddess." Striker. A striker in politics is a man who makes his living by seeking corruptly to influence legislation. He is generally in the employ of private individuals who are interested in the legis- lation under consideration. The striker holds himself ready to do the dirty work necessary to secure the passage of a bill. In another sense, a striker is a " heeler." 378 SLANG OF POLITICS. Stump Speaker., A stump speaker is an orator who engages with a political committee to make speeches in a given territory, in which he is spoken of as having taken the stump, or of "being on the stump." In rural localities, orators make their speeches from the most convenient places, and more often than not in olden times, the place chosen was the stump of a tree. Swinging Round the Circle. In 1866 Andrew Johnson made a trip to Chicago, accompanied by a" large party. He made stops at all the large cities, and delivered speeches of a political nature. Hence the phrase. Since then other Presidents have swung round the circle, the most notable instance being Presi- dent Harrison's tour of the country in 1891, when he started from Washington, visited the South, and thence travelled through the Southern belt of States to California, whence he travelled up the Pacific coast to Oregon and Washington, and thence eastward. Trading. In politics trading is of frequent occurrence. Sometimes by a trade the weaker candidate is able to secure a majority of the votes ; but he does so by holding out certain promises to the people with whom he makes the trade, which usually concern the patronage of the offices. There are in every party professional traders, men who possess some small following which they will sell out to the opposing party or candidate for a consideration, which is sometimes money, but more often appoint- ment to office. Tidal Wave. In a political sense, a tidal wave is a " clean sweep," a Waterloo. As a rule, it refers to the nation at large rather than to the States. If, for any reason, one party carries an unprecedentedly large number of States, it is spoken of as a tidal wave. Voting in the Air William M. Evarts, of New York, used the phrase in refere^oe to those who intended to vote for St. John, the Prohibitionist candidate, in 1884. Wets. This word originated in the anti-liquor campaign in Georgia; it is used in contradistinction to "Drys." Whitewash. When an investigation committee makes a non-committal report on charges of wrongdoing where there is reason to believe the charges are well founded, the charges are said to be " whitewashed." Wire Puller. The wire puller lays deep and well -conceived plans for securing political advancement. He does this unsus- pected, and at the right moment cornes to the front betraying wonderful strength. Slate. (See Slang of Politics.) Slippery Sam. (See Nicknames of Famous Americans.) SONGS OF THE NATIO^f. 379 Smelling Committee. (See Slang of Politics.) Snap Convention. (See Slang of Politics.) Soap. (See Slang of Politics.) Sobriquets Of Presidents. (See Presidents of the United States.) SockleSS Jerry. (See Nicknames of Famous Americans.) Softs. (See Barn-Burners, under Political Parties.) Soldiers' Homes. (See Army, United States.) Songs of the Nation. Star Spangled Banner. Hail Columbia. My Country, 'tis of Thee. Dixie. It is not easy to say which of the national songs most reflects the national spirit. The " Star Spangled Banner," " Hail Colum- bia," and " My Country, 'tis of Thee," all breathe forth liberty and patriotism. Possibly the most stirring, the most suggestive of the martial spirit, the spirit which leads men to battle for their flag, is "The Star Spangled Banner." It was written by Francis Barton Key during the light between the British and the Ameri- cans at Fort McHenry, Baltimore, Md., in the war of 1812. Under a flag of truce, Key had gone on board the British flag- ship to solicit the release of a prisoner, when the attack of the fort was begun. He was therefore an eye-witness of all that took place in the battle, and this he has admirably described, in thrill- ing words, in the song, as follows : - THE STAR SPANGLED BANNER. Oh! say, can you see by the dawn's early light, What so proudly we hailed at the twilight's last gleaming; Whose broad stripes and bright stars through the perilous fight, O'er the ramparts we watch'd, were so gallantly streaming; And the rockets' red glare, the bombs bursting in air, Gave proof through the night that our flag was still there. Oh, say, does the star spangled banner still wave, O'er the land of the free, and the home of the brave? On the shore dimly seen through the mists of the deep, Where the foe's haughty host in dread silence reposes, What is that which the breeze, o'er the towering steep, As it fitfully blows, half conceals, half discloses? Now it catches the gleam of the morning's first beam, In full glory reflected now shines in the stream. 'Tis the star spangled banner, oh! long may it wave O'er the land of the free and the home of the brave. And where is that band who so vauntingly swore That the havoc of war and the battle's confusion, 380 ONGS OF THE NATION. A home and a country shall leave us no more ? Their blood has washed out their foul footsteps' pollution; No refuge can save the hireling and slave, From the terror of flight or the gloom of the grave. And the star spangled banner in triumph shall wave, O'er the land of the free and the home of the brave. Oh I thus be it ever when freemen shall stand Between their lov'd home and the war's desolation; Blest with victory and peace, may the heaven-rescued land Praise the power that has made and preserved us a nation. Then conquer we must when our cause it is just, And this be our motto, "In God is our trust"; And the star spangled banner in triumph shall wave O'er the land of the free and the home of the brave. Yankee Doodle. The oldest of the songs of America is Yankee Doodle. This ever popular air was written, with origi- nal words, by an English officer in the War of the Revolution. The volunteer soldiers who were recruited in 1775 to defend Ticonderoga were of so motley an appearance, and their Aveapons of so primitive a character, that the officer caricatured them in a song which he entitled Yankee Doodle. He dedicated the song to the recruits, who took the joke in excellent good part. The air hit the fancy of all lovers of simple songs, and in the Conti- nental Army it was adopted as a camp-fire song. The tune, by some, is said to be of ancient origin. The original version of " Yankee Doodle " is given as follows : YANKEE DOODLE. Father and I went down to camp Along with Captain Goodwin, Where we see the men and boys As thick as hasty puddin'. There was Captain Washington Upon a slapping stallion, A-giving orders to his men I guess there was a million. And then the feathers on his hat, They looked so tarnal fine, I wanted pockily to get To give to my Jemime. And then they had a swampin' gun As large as log of maple, On a deuced little cart A load for father's cattle. And every time they fired it off It took a horn of powder, It made a noise like father's gun Only a nation louder. SONGS OF THE NATION. 381 CHEISTOPHER COLUMBUS. 382 SONGS OF THE NATION. I went as near to it myself As Jacob's underpinning And father went as near again I thought the deuce was in him. And there I see a little keg, Its heads were made of leather They knock'd upon't with little sticks, To call the folks together. And there they'd fife away like fun, And play on cornstalk fiddles, And some had ribbons as red as blood All wound around their middles. The troopers, too, would gallop up, And fire right in our faces; It scared me almost half to death To see them run such races. Old Uncle Sam came there to change Some pancakes and some onions, For 'lasses cakes to carry home To give his wife and young ones. But I can't tell you half I see, They keep up such a smother; So I took my hat off made a bow, And scampered home to mother. My Country, 'tis of Thee. The national hymn, " Amer- ica," was composed in 1832 by Rev. S. F. Smith, of Newton, Mass., in response to the request of Lowell Mason, Esq., who had charge of the musical programme of the Fourth of July exercises at Park Street Church, Boston, at which the hymn was sung. Mr. Mason asked Mr. Smith, who was a successful writer of hymns, for an original hymn suitable to the day. The words are as follows : AMERICA. My country, 'tis of thee, Sweet laud of liberty, Of thee I sing; Land where my fathers died, Land of the pilgrims' pride, From every mountain side Let freedom ring. My native country, thee, Land of the noble, free, Thy name I love; I love thy rocks and rills, Thy woods and templed hills, My heart with rapture thrills, Like that above. SONGS OF THE NATION. 383 Let music swell the breeze, And ring from all the trees Sweet Freedom's song; Let mortal tongues awake, Let all that breathe partake, Let rocks their silence break, The sound prolong. Our fathers' God, to Thee, Author of liberty, To Thee we sing; Long may our land be bright With freedom's holy light; Protect us by Thy might, Great God, our King. Hail Columbia. The words of Hail Columbia were written by Judge Joseph Hopkinson, son of Francis H. Hopkinson, who was one of those who signed the Declaration of Independence. Hopkinson wrote the words to the tune of the President's March, as a favor to a young actor in Philadelphia, in 1798, on the occa- sion of his benefit, when the President's march was played by the orchestra of the theatre. The inspiration of the song- writer was derived from the war spirit prevailing in consequence of the threatened trouble with France. The President's March was the composition of a German by the name of Fayles, and was first played in a theatre in New York which Washington attended in 1789. Dixie. The popular song of the South during the war was " Dixie." Dixie was a rich slave-owner, his estate being known as " Dixie's land," and the song is believed to have been a melody sung by the negroes on his plantation. In a book of army songs, now out of print, published in the South during the Civil War, is the following version of the original Dixie : THE OKIGINAL DIXIE. I wish I was in the land of cotton Old times dar are not forgotten. Look away! Look away! Look away! In Dixie's land, where I was born in, Early on one frosty mornin'. Look away! Look away! Look away! CHORUS. Den I wish I was in Dixie, Hooray, hooray! In Dixie, and I took my stand To lib and die in Dixie, Away, away, away down South in Dixie. Old missis marry Will d' Weaber; William was a gay deceaber. Look away, &c. 384 SONS OF THE REVOLUTION. But when lie put his arm around 'er, He smile as fierce as a forty-pounder. Look away, &c. CHOBUS. His face was sharp as a butcher's clcaber, But den dat didn't seem to greab 'er. Look away, &c. Old missis acted de foolish part, And died for a man that broke her heart. Look away, &c. CHORUS. Now here's a health to the next old missus, And all the gals that want to kiss us. Look away, &c. But if you want to drive away sorrow, Come and hear dis song to-morrow. Look away, &c. CHORUS. Bar's buckwheat cake and ingen batter, Make you fat or a little fatter. Look away, &c. Den hoe it down and scratch your grabble, To Dixie's land I'm bound to trabble. Look away, &c. CHORUS. Sons Of the Revolution. The object of this society is to unite all those who are descendants of an ancestor who as a soldier, sailor, or civil official, helped to establish the indepen- dence of the United States of America. In its constitution, its objects are defined as follows : " To keep alive among ourselves and our descendants the patriotic spirit of the men who, in mili- tary, naval, or civil service, by their acts or counsel, achieved American independence ; to collect and secure for preservation the manuscript rolls, records, and other documents relating to the War of the Revolution, and to promote intercourse and good feeling among its members now and hereafter." The organization was established in New York City in 1875. There are similar societies in Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, New Jersey, Georgia, District of Columbia, and Iowa. The total membership is about 2,000. Another organization, the Sons of the American Revolution, was organized in New York in 1889, for the same purpose as the first. Other States with societies of this name are New Jersey, Connecticut, Maryland, Vermont, Massachusetts, Ohio, Kentucky, Tennessee, Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, Virginia, and the District of Columbia, but many of them contain as yet only enough members for or- ganization. A California society of descendants of Revolutionary SOUTH CAROLINA. patriots, entitled " Sons of Revolutionary Sires," organized July 4, 1876, having reorganized and changed its name in 1889, has been admitted to membership. Daughters of the American Revolution. This society includes the female descendants of Revolutionary patriots. It is organized in ten States and has a membership of 1,000. Mrs. Benjamin Harrison is President. There is also a society known as " Daughters of the American Revolution" in New York. Sons of Veterans. This is an organization whose member- ship the past ten years has assumed remarkable proportions. It is estimated that about 100,000 men belong to it. All of them are sons, or lineal descendants, eighteen years of age.and over, of honorably discharged soldiers, sailors, and marines, who served in the War of the Rebellion. The Sons of Veterans are distinct from the Grand Army of the Republic, but their well-drilled battalions frequently march, unifoi'med, in the Grand Army parades. There is a national organization with 2,500 S. of V. camps. Sore-Head. (See Slang of Politics.) Soup. (See Slang of Politics.) South Carolina. The State was settled at Beaufort in 1668 by Englishmen. It has always been an important factor in the history of American politics, espe- cially up to the time of the Civil War. This was the State which took the most advanced ground on the seces- sion question, and it was in Charleston Harbor that Fort Sumter, occupied at the time by the United States troops, was fired upon by Confederate batteries on April 12, 1861, and thereby precipitated the Civil War. South Carolina gave 60,000 of her sons to the Confederate cause, of GREAT SEAL OP SOUTH CAROLINA. Whom 12,000 died in SCrvlcC. For 100 miles from the ocean the country is flat, and then the uplands begin. The lowlands pro- duce oranges, figs, grapes, and olives. The uplands produce rice, tobacco, cotton, and all the cereals. Agriculture is the chief industry, the farm products being valued at $45,000,000 a year. The acreage of farm lands is 14,000,000, valued at $75,000,000. In cotton, the State produces upwards of 700,000 bales. The State is celebrated for its Rice, of which it produces up- wards of 75,000,000 pounds a year ; it raises 20,000,000 bushels 386 SOUTH CAROLINA. of corn, and 4,000,000 of oats. The lumber industry employs 6,000 men. Some gold, besides silver, lead, copper, iron ore in large amounts, granite, marble, magnesia, mica, kaolin, and large outputs of phosphate are other resources of the State. It pro- duces over 30 per cent, of the American production of turpen- tine. About 70 per cent, of the population is colored, and all but 9 per cent, of the colored population works on the farms. The population of South Carolina in 1880 was 995,557; in 1890 it was 11,511,- 491, of whom 692,503 were colored and 458,454 white. The net State debt was $6,473,476; the real property was valued at about $90,000,000, the personal prop- erty at $60,000,000. The manufactures aggregated $16,738,- 000 ; the farm lands numbered 13,500,000 acres ; the total school attendance was 136,358. There were in 1890, 2,193 miles of railroad, and in 1892, 126 news- papers. The chief city is Charleston, which has a fine situation on the coast, and carries on a large commerce with the coast cities of the North ; its exports are now mainly of cotton, naval-stores, phosphate, and rice, and aggregate $20,000,000 a year. The city suffered from a serious earthquake August 31, 1886, which destroyed $5,000- 000 in property and resulted in many deaths. The public build- ings in Charleston are the Custom House, Charleston College, and South Carolina Military Academy, which is supported by the State. The population in 1$90 was 54,955. The second city is Columbia, which is the capital and an important railway centre ; the population in 1890 was 15,333. SECESSION HALL, CHARLESTON, S. 0. SOUTH DAKOTA. 38T GREAT SEAL OF SOUTH DAKOTA. The South Carolina University, a State institution, is hero. Greenville, which is the third city, had a population in 181)0 ol 8,607, and is the site of Furman University, founded in 18f>l by the Baptists. The governor of South Carolina is Ben R. Till- man (Democrat). His terra expires December 8, 1892. The State is Democratic. South Dakota. Both Dakotas were part of the Louisiana Purchase in 1803; the first' settlement was at Sioux Falls, in 1857, by people from Iowa. The Indians being troublesome, the United States Government established garri- sons in the country, and waged a campaign against the Indians, which resulted in the shedding of blood. The greater part of South Dakota is a high, undulating plain, penetrated by hundreds of rivers and streams, and having a large number of lakes. The Missouri River crosses the State from the northwest to the southeast, and is navigable throughout, having as tributaries the Yellowstone, Little Missouri, White, Big Cheyenne, and Niobrara Rivers. The Big Sioux forms part of the southeastern boundary ; the valleys are very fertile, being covered with a dark alluvial loam, making an ideal soil for the raising of cereals. The Development of the State, which has been going on chiefly during the last fifteen years, has been phenomenal. Agri- culture is the leading industry, and there are 50,000 farms which are valued at $70,000,000. The wheat crop exceeds 17,000,000 bushels a year, the oat crop, 12,000,000, the barley crop, 17,000,- 000, and the potato and flax crops aggregate 2,500,000 each. Hay and grasses are produced in great abundance. The State has upwards of 400,000 cattle, 300,000 swine, 150,000 sheep, 200,000 horses, including a large blooded stock. The Black Hills of South Dakota cover over 3,000 square miles, and attain an elevation of 9,700 feet. The gold mines of this region have been very productive, the output having reached $50,000,000 worth of gold and silver. Tin is found in the Black Hills in large quantities. The Black Hills also have saline springs, mica, copper ore, petroleum, some natural gas, and some other minerals, besides white, red, and other sandstones, granite, marble, limestone, and various other strata. Jasper in various shades is found and quarried in the southeastern part of the State. ggg SOVEBJEIGNTY UNDER HIS HAT. The United States Military Posts are : Fort Bennett, Fort Sully, Fort Randall, and Fort Meade, all of which maintain garrisons constantly. There are upwards of 20,000 Sioux Indians on the reservations of South Dakota under the care of Indian agents, the Indian police, and the clergy. There are six Reservations : Pine-Ridge, Rosebud, Yankton, Cheyenne River, Crow Creek, and Sisseton. The work of civilizing these Indians goes steadily on. At Pierre there is an Indian industrial school which is maintained by the government, where the chil- dren of the savages are instructed in the useful arts. The progressive spirit of the people of Dakota is a marked characteristic. There is a large university at Vermillion, an Agricultural College at Brookings, a School of Mines at Rapid City, close to the mineral regions of the Black Hills, and five sectarian colleges, besides several other seminaries supported by churches of various denominations. The population of South Dakota, in 1880, was 98,268 ; in 1890, 328,808. The value of assessed property ^was $97,314,000. There are 2,848 miles of railroads and 275 newspapers. The chief city is Sioux Falls, which had a population in 1890 of 10,177; it is situated on the Big Sioux River in the south- east corner of the State. The river has a fall near the city of ninetv feet, affording water power for large factories and other in- dustries. The quarrying industry of Sioux Falls is an important one. The second city in population is Aberdeen, which has 6,500 in- habitants. The third city is Watertown, which has 5,000 inhabi- tants and has many public buildings and factories. The mining centre of the Black Hills is Deadwood, which has a popula- tion of 3,500. A. C. Mellette (Republican), is Governor of South Dakota. His term of office expires January 1, 1893. During its career as a Territory, South Dakota was Republican. Sovereignty Under His Hat. (See Sayings of Famous Americans.) Speaker, The. (See House c Representatives Under Federal Government.) Specie Payments. (See Panics, Financial.) Speed of Ocean Steamships. (See Ship-Building.) Speed, Railroads. (See Railroads and Bridges.) Spellbinder. (See Slang of Politics.) Spoils of the Enemy, To the Victor Belong. (See Slang of Politics.) Squatter Sovereignty. The doctrine that the people of the States and Territories should be allowed to settle the slavery STANDARD TIME. 389 question for themselves and among themselves. It originated in the discussion of the Wilmot Proviso (which see). " Squatter Sovereignty " is the derisive name applied by John C. Calhoun to the doctrine of "Popular Sovereignty" (which see). St. Jerome. (See Nicknames of Famous Americans.) Stalwarts* (See Political Parties.) Standard Time. Time Divisions. Time Balls. Time of Noon. Time Signals. What is known as the "new standard time" was adopted by agreement by all the principal railroads of the United States at 12 o'clock, noon, on November 18, 1883. The system divides the continent into five longitudinal belts, and fixes a meridian of time for each belt. These meridians are fifteen degrees of longitude, corresponding to one hour of time, apart. Eastern Maine, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia use the 60th meridian; the Canadas, New England, the Middle States, Vir- ginia, and the Carolinas use the 75th meridian, which is that of Philadelphia ; the States of the Mississippi Valley, Alabama, Georgia, and Florida, and westward, including Texas, Kansas, and the larger part of Nebraska and Dakota, use the 90th meridian, which is that of New Orleans. The Territories to the western border of Arizona and Montana go by the time of the 105th meridian, . which is that of Denver ; and the Pacific States employ the 120th meridian. The Time Divisions are known as inter-colonial time, eastern time, central time, mountain time, and Pacific time. A traveller passing from one time belt to another will find his watch an hour too fast or too slow, accord- ing to the direction in which he is going. All points in any time division using the time of the meridian must set their time-pieces faster or slower than the time indicated by the sun, according as their position is east or west of the line. This change of system reduced the time standards used by the railroads from fifty-three to five. At 12 noon in New York City (eastern time), the time at Chicago (central time) is 11 o'clock A. M. ; at Denver (moun- tain time), 10 o'clock A. M. ; and at San Francisco (Pacific time), 9 o'clock A. M. Standard time is 16 minutes slower at Boston than true local time, 3 minutes slower at New York, 8 minutes faster at Washington, 19 minutes faster at Charleston, 28 minutes slower at Detroit, 18 minutes faster at Kansas City, 10 minutes slower at Chicago, 1 minute faster at St. Louis, 28 minutes faster at Salt Lake City, and 10 minutes faster at San 390 STATES, CITIES, COUNTIES, AND TOWNS. Francisco. Since the general adoption of standard time, the Time of Noon by the 75th meridian has been sent out from the naval observatory at Washington. A few minutes before noon the transmitter clock is compared with the standard clock on a chronograph, and the amount of its error determined. It is then set exactly right by gently touching the pendulum with the fin- ger, making the clock gain or lose, as is necessary, by acceler- ating or retarding the pendulum. At 11.56. 45 A. M. the transmit- ter is switched in and the signals are transmitted to all parts of the country, being heard in every telegraph office through which they pass. After a number of preliminary signals, a second apart from one another, the noon signal is given on the instant of noon, and lasting about a full second. Thus, every day at noon, the clocks in the government offices are set at accurate time, Tijme-Balls are dropped at Boston, Newport, Wood's lloll, Mass., New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, Fort Monroe, Savannah, and New Orleans ; the numerous offices of the West- ern Union are furnished correct time, and many thousands of miles of railways are given the signal over their lines. Every day the Western Union Telegraph Company suspends its private business for the time used in transmitting the signals, and allows the Washington observatory the free use of its great facilities. During those four minutes no private messages can be trans- mitted. Star-Eyed Goddess. (See Slang of Politics.) Stars and Bars. The name for the flag of the Confederacy. It had a blue Union, with as many white stars as there were States in the Confederacy, and a field of three bars, the centre one white, the others red. Star Spangled Banner. (See Songs of the Nation.) States, Cities, Counties, and Towns, Government of. State Officers. County Officers. Town Officers. Functions. Shire-Mote. School Committee. Salaries. County Courts. Town Meetings. The highest officer of a State is the Governor. The other im- portant officers are the Lieutenant-Governor, whose function, as a rule, is merely nominal, the office being created to prevent an interregnum in the event of the Governor's demise ; the Secre- tary of State, who keeps the records of corporations, and copies of 'all public documents, including the State papers, the public Acts, the petitions of the people, etc., all of whjch are required to be kept " on file," otherwise they become null ; the Comp- troller, or Auditor, who sees that the accounts of the State *,' STATES, CITIES, COUNTIES, AND TOWNS. 391 Treasurer are honestly and faithfully kept, and who audits and makes annual report of the same to the legislature, and who issues warrants, without which the Treasurer cannot pay out money; the State Treasurer, who receives the moneys due for taxes, and the incomes from various sources, and who pays out money when authorized to do so by the legislature ; the Attor- ney-General, who gives to the Governor, the Senate, or the House, whenever requested, his opinion of the constitutionality of laws, and who defends or brings suit in the State Courts on behalf of the State. These are officers which all States have in common, but in many States there are other officers, frequently elected by the people, such as the Superintendent of Public Works, the State Engineer and Surveyor, the Superintendent of Insurance, or Insurance Commissioner, the Superintendents of, or Commissioners of Public Instruction, of Agriculture, of Mines, of Immigration, of Banks, of State Prisons and Reformatories, the State Assessors, the Railroad Commissioners, etc., besides com- missioners of canals, charities, insane asylums, and other State institutions. However, the last-named category of officials is, in most States, subject to the appointing power of the Governor. The Duties of the Governor are both required and dis- cretionary. He writes annually to the legislature a message which conforms to the same general lines as that of the Presi- dent of the United States to Congress ; he is commander-in- chief of the State militia, and as such can assist the sheriff of a county, the mayor of a city, or the President of the United States in putting down a riot ; he appoints subordinate State officers, but \dth the approval, generally, of the legislature, or of the governor's council ; he grants or refuses requisitions upon him of the governors of other States for the extradition of crim- inals who may be within the State ; he has, in most States, the power of pardon and of commuting sentence. In Massachusetts and in two other States, the governor's appointments are subject to the approval of what is called the Governor's Council, whose members are chosen one for each of several specified dis- tricts, and whose combined power in some instances is equal to that of the governor himself, nearly all his acts being subject to their approval. Finally, the governor's most important and considerable power is that of Vetoing the acts of the legislature, a power which all governors possess except those of Rhode Island, Ohio, Delaware, and North Carolina. In thirteen States, the veto power of the governor extends to particular items in a bill for the appropriation of money, while he approves of the rest of the bill. The Discretionary and in a sense the Obligatory Duties 392 STATES, CITIES, COUNTIES, AND TOWNS. of the governor are attendance at State affairs and other public occasions, the dedication of hospitals, State institutions, etc., the holding of receptions at intervals at the Executive Mansion, or the State Capitol, to which the members of the legislature and their wives and the citizens generally shall be invited, the extending of the courtesies of the State to distinguished visitors from other States, and in many other ways to lend the dignity of his official presence in behalf of the citizens. The Salary of the Governor in most States is $5,000 ; in New York and Pennsylvania it is $10,000; in Massachusetts, after 1892, and in Ohio it is $8,000 ; in California and Illinois it is $6,000 ; in Delaware, Maine, New Hampshire, and Michigan the salary is but $2,000, which is the smallest salary paid in any of the States or Territories. In twenty-three States and Territories, the Term of office of the Governor is four years, in others it is three or two years, and in Massachusetts and Rhode Island it is but one year. The Legislative Branch of State governments c< insists of the Senate and the House of Representatives. NYith them rest the regulation of the suffrage of the people, their education, the laws of marriage and divorce, the legal relations of parent and child, husband and wife, and guardian and ward the laws of bankruptcy, partnership, debt, insurance, the use u >ossession of property, the laws of corporations, of contracts, principal and agent, and the laws relating to crime and misdemeanor. The legislature appropriates money for public enterprises such as the building of canals, bridges, and other public works; it grants charters to corporations, including railroad companies and in- vestment companies. The more clearly to separate the powers of States from those of the Federal government, the States are debarred from making agreements with one another, or with foreign powers, from engaging in war, except in case of self- defence, from maintaining a military or naval force without the consent of Congress, from issuing money, or bills of credit, from conferring titles of nobility, etc. In most of the States, members of the legislature are chosen on the basis of population, but in one State, Connecticut, two members are chosen from each town or city, a system which gives the rural members combined more power than those from the city. As a rule the Term of office of the Representatives is two years ; in twenty-eight States and Territories, however, the Senators are chosen every four years. In Massachusetts and Rhode Island, they are chosen, like the members of the lower house, every year. The Salary of members is either by the year, or per diem. The average pay per diem is $5.00, exclusive STATES, CITIES, COUNTIES, AND TOWNS. 393 of mileage. In Pennsylvania, the pay of both Senators and Representatives is 81,500 a year. In all the States the Judicial Function is vested in the Supreme Court or the Court of Appeals. As a rule, the mem- bers of the Supreme Court are chosen by vote of the people at an election, which may or may not be at the same time as that of the election of State officers. In other States, however, judges are appointed by the governor, with the advice and con- sent of the council, or of the legislature. This plan is followed in order that the appointment of the judiciary may be divorced from politics, and that judges of high personal character and legal acumen may be had. When Supreme Court judges are appointed by the governor, the appointment is for life. Cities, Government of. The executive branch of the government of cities consists of the Mayor and his assistants, who are heads of departments, Street Commissioners, Fire Com- missioners, Police Commissioners, Overseers of the Poor, the Board of Health, Superintendent of Parks, Water Commissioners, Assessors, etc. Besides, there is the City Treasurer, the City or Corporation Counsel, the Comptroller, the Auditor, the Regis- trar, the Tax Collector. The legislative department consists usu- ally of a Board of Aldermen, but in many cities there is another body called a Common Council. Their power is delegated usu- ally to committees, such as committees on public buildings, or streets, or sidewalks, or almshouses, and all legislation depends upon the report of these committees. There are many Minor City Officers appointed, some by the mayor, some by the alder- men, such as superintendents of sewers, street lights, bridges, ferries, printing, inspectors of milk and provisions, sealers of weights and measures, pound-keepers, boiler and building inspec- tors, besides constables, election officers, and various deputies. There is always a School Committee, or Board of Education, whose members are elected by the people, but in some cities they are appointed by the Board of Aldermen. Justices of the peace are many in number, and receive their authority, as a rule, from the city. In cities, the judiciary is most often elected by the people ; in Massachusetts cities, however, the judiciary of both municipal and county courts is appointed by the governor. The Veto Power is vested in the mayor, but may be over-ridden and his appointments may be rejected by the aldermen. The city of ' Brooklyn, N. Y., a few years ago, revolutionized the administration of its government, and now has, besides the mayor, a Board of Aldermen (the so-called Board of Super- visors having been abolished), and two other elective officers, the Comptroller and the Auditor. The mayor appoints, inde- 394 STATES, CITIES, COUNTIES, AND TOWNS. pendent of the aldermen, the heads of departments, who are individuals and not boards. The aim was to rid the government .of a Superfluity of Officers whose chief duty consisted merely in drawing a good salary, and also to divorce the gov- ernment from politics. Counties, Government of. The system of dividing States into counties has an intimate relation with the shire-mote of primitive times in England. The Shire- Mote was a legis- lative body and court of justice for the people of the clans. Each clan lived separately, and had its own laws and customs. As time went on, its civic organization took the name of shire and had certain specified limits of territory under a distinct local government. When, in 1635, the English Colonists in Massachu- setts, through their General Court, other- wise kiLown as the legislature, designated four towns where courts should be convened at regular inter- vals, it was not long before these towns be- came the cen- tres of shires, and were called Shire Towns. The towns, how- ever, main- tained their own individual existence, managed their own affairs, and elected their own officers, the shire or county being formed merely for convenience in the settlement of legal disputes, or the punishment of crime. The militia of each town formed a com- pany, and the companies of the shire formed a regiment. The County was organized as a judicial district, with a court com- posed of justices of the peace appointed by the governor, and a county courthouse in the shire town. From this beginning the system of counties in the United States had its origin. In Virginia, on the other hand, the counties were made up of Parishes. The plantations being so far apart, and the planters themselves being aristocratic and unwilling to mingle with those CUSTOM HOOSE, BOSTON. STATES, CITIES, COUNTIES, AND TOWN8. 395 who were not planters, the town system did not flourish. The planters imported the English parish, whose officers were church- wardens, a clerk and the vestry, which was the chief legislative power of the parish, and consisted of twelve men. There were no town-meetings. The Vestry ultimately filled vacancies in their number, levied taxes, looked after the poor, and otherwise assumed power. The minister of the parish presided at the vestry meetings, and was paid for his ministerial functions gener- ally in tobacco, the amount of which was fixed by the vestry at about 16,000 pounds. The common people, therefore, had no voice in the parish government. The chief County Officers were the justices of the peace, who were appointed by the governor, and constituted the county court, sitting in judicial cases. The sheriff executed their judgments, acted as tax gatherer and county treasurer, and was presiding officer at elections. He was usually one of the county court. The Military were in command of a county lieutenant, who wore the title of colonel. In general, it may be said that in Virginia the county governed the towns, and in New England the towns governed themselves. In South Carolina, the parish system was also in vogue, but after awhile the State was set off into districts, whose officers were at first chosen by the governor, but ultimately by the peo- ple themselves. In Maryland, old English Usages, such as lords of the manor, bailiffs, and seneschals, and courts baron and leet, prevailed at first. Afterwards, the Hundred, a designation of an administrative district borrowed from early England, repre- sented the divisions of the people. Finally counties were set apart. In Delaware, which also adopted the hundred as the unit of an administrative body, the system prevails to-day, but with certain modifications of a modern nature. Early New York had local self-government by towns, and in Pennsylvania the county was the unit of representation in the legislature, the peo- i pie choosing the sheriff, the county commissioners, the treasurer, and the coroners. These are the chief officers of counties in the several States to-day. The Sheriff attends all county courts, maintains the peace, has charge of the prison and its inmates, and makes arrests. He has several deputies, and in cases of emer- gency he is empowered to call upon the people or the governor for assistance. The County Commissioners have charge of the roads, the levying and apportioning of taxes, and the county institutions and buildings. The Treasurer receives and dis- burses the county moneys. The Coroner represents the govern- ment in cases of unnatural death, and makes inquests ns he sees fit. There are other officers, the Register of Deeds, whose 396 STATES, CITIES, COUNTIES, AND TOWNS. books show to whom all the lands in the county belong and whenever any land changes hands, and the County Clerk, who keeps the records of the courts. Especially in the Southern' and some of the Western States, where there is no real town government, the county officers have charge of the business which in Eastern towns is managed by the selectmen. The judiciary of the county consists of a Superior Court, a Probate Court, and a Court of Insolvency, the officers of which in most States are chosen by the people ; in others they are appointed by the governor. Towns, Government of. The chief officers of a town are the Selectmen, who call town meetings, levy taxes, lay out high- ways, grant liquor licenses, have charge of the poor-house, and in general conduct the town business. They are elected by the people. There is a Town Clerk who keeps the records of town-meetings, records the marriages, births, and deaths, and issues marriage certificates. The Town Treasurer receives and disburses the town moneys. The Constable, or constables, summon jurors, serve writs, make arrests, and in some cases act as tax-collectors. The justice of the peace sits in petty cases ; other cases are referred to the county court. In some towns there are overseers of the poor, tax assessors, surveyors of .high- ways and bridges, and sealers of weights and measures. Then there is the School Committee, an important body, having the care of the schools of a township. They appoint the teachers, choose the text-books, and are required to make a tour of inspec- tion of the schools at regular intervals. In many towns of the country, women are permitted to vote for members of the school committee. (See Ballot Reform.) Taxes are of two kinds, that on personal property, which includes bonds and stocks, furniture, pictures, and household furnishings of all kinds, besides cash and in some (if over $2,000) from employment or from profits in business. The other kind of taxis that on real- estate, whether in lands or buildings. Churches, graveyards, charitable ^institutions, etc., are exempt. In some States, the poll-tax is levied, irrespective of the other taxes, and is collected of all males over twenty-one years of age. Each town pays a tax to the county, and its pro-rata share of the county tax to the State. State Department. (See Federal Government.) Statue of Liberty. (See Monuments and Statues.) Steamships, Transatlantic. (See Ship-Building.) Step-Father of His Country. (See Presidents of the United States.) / STOCK-RAISING. 397 StO(3fe-Raisillg. Side by side with the agricultural develop- ment of the West, there has grown up an immense industry in the trans- Mississippi States, in the raising and slaughtering of cattle for beef. What may be called the cattle-raising belt extends from Montana to Southern Texas, and from the Mississippi Valley to the Pacific. On the prairies of this vast region, and on many of the upland plateaus, millions of cattle, sheep, and swine roam at will, foraging for themselves, and requiring for their care a minimum of effort. By fortunate climatic conditions the south- ern half of this area may be utilized to advantage for breeding purposes, and the northern half for feeding and fattening. Ex- perience has shown that steers bred to their full development in the warmer climate of the South, when sent to Wyoming, for in- CATTLE HEEDS IN WYOMING. stance, will put on from 200 to 300 pounds of flesh, while 100 cows which in Wyoming give 65 calves, in Texas will give calves. The cattle interests are guarded by what are called Stock Associations, which are organizations of the cattle raisers in the several districts. Under their supervision, the "round- ups" are held. These are the periodical gatherings of all the cattle of a district when the cattle for beef are chosen, and when the owner brands his calves. The calves belonging to a cattle- man are determined by observing the brand of the cows the 398 SUB-TBEASUKIES. calves follow. In order to guard against the sale by on^. cattle raiser of the cattle of another, Stock Association inspectors are appointed to watch the cattle markets. Most of the cattle com- panies are incorporated, and the invested capital aggregates many millions, a large portion of it being English capital. Texas, Cali- fornia, Indian Territory, New Mexico, Colorado, Kansas, Wyo- ming, Nebraska, the Dakotas, and Montana are the chief cattle- raising districts, each having from 1,000,000 to 3,000,000 cattle on the ranges. Sheep and swine are also raised in these States, Texas and California leading with over 4,000,000 each. Cattle Receipts. The chief receiving-centres for cattle are Chicago, St. Louis, Kansas City, and Omaha ; in each of these cities are extensive stock-yards and meat-packing establishments. The receipts of cattle in 1890, at Chicago, were 3,484,280 ; at St. Louis, 639,014; at Kansas City, 1,472,229; at Omaha, 606,699. Of sheep, in 1890, the receipts at Chicago were 2,182- 667 ; at St. Louis, 358,506 ; at Kansas City, 535,869 ; at Omaha, 156,186. Of swine, in 1890, the receipts at Chicago were 7,663,828 ; at St. Louis, 1,359,789 ; at Kansas City, 2,865,171 ; at Omaha, 1,673,314. The receipts of cattle at these principal points have increased 70 per cent, in five years ending 1890. The export trade in American beef and hog products has devel- oped into a most profitable industry (see Exports and Imports) ; the exports of beef products in the year ending June 30, 1891, were $35,088,315, of hog products, $84,908,698. Storm Signals, etc. (See Signal Service.) Street Railways. (See Railroads and Bridges.) Striker. (See Slang of Politics.) Stuffed Prophet. (See Presidents of the United States.) Stump Speaker. (See Slang of Politics.) Sub-Treasuries. The sub-treasury system was established in order to give the United States exclusive control of its moneys. When the Bank of the United States (which see) failed to secure a renewal of its charter, the sub-treasury idea was brought for- ward. The act creating them went into effect July 4, 1840, and provided for sub-treasuries at New York, Boston, Charleston, and St. Louis, and made the Philadelphia and the New Orleans mints places of deposit. The act was repealed in 1841, but a new law substantially the same as the old one was passed, and went into effect in 1846. While under this system the government is its own banker, yet it is allowed to place money on deposit in the national banks, the latter giving security in the shape of govern- ment bonds. (See Finances, Government.) TAKIFF FOB REVENUE ONLY. 399 The Farmers' Alliance (which see) leaders have evolved a sys- tem of sub-treasuries far more elaborate than anything the government ever contemplated. They favor the establishment of sub- treasuries in each county of each State when demanded by one hundred or more citizens, where grain, corn, or tobacco may be deposited at will, the depositors to receive therefor Treasury notes up to eighty per cent, of the market price of their deposits. The holders of such notes shall pay one per cent, interest on them to the government. This plan, it is asserted, will give^ the farmer a cash market for his crops, and save him from the evils of the existing capitalistic system under which he suffers. Sub-Treasury Scheme. (See Farmers' Alliance.) Sugar, Production Of. (See Agriculture.) Suicide Is Confession. (See Sayings of Famous Ameri- cans.) Sunday-School Enrollment. (See Religious Denomina- tions.) Sunset Cox. (See Nicknames of Famous Americans.) Superb, The. (See Nicknames of Famous Americans.) Supreme Court Relief. This is the name of the bill passed by the Fifty -First Congress, for the relief of the Supreme Court. It provides for the appointment in each circuit of an additional circuit judge, and creates in each circuit a circuit court of appeals to consist of three judges, of whom two shall constitute a quorum. This court shall have final jurisdiction in some classes of cases on which appeals are now allowed to the United States Supreme court. (See Federal Government, under Supreme Court.) Surplus Easier to Handle Than a Deficit. (See Sayings of Famous Americans.) Surplus, The. (See Finances, Government.) Swinging Round the Circle. (See Slang of Politics.) Sycamore of the Wabash, Tall. (See Nicknames of Famous Americans.) Tammany. (See Political Parties.) Tariff for Revenue Only. The campaign cry of the tariff reformers, who while believing in a tariff do not believe in it as a protection to domestic industries. They believe in deriving by revenue from the tariff enough to pay the expenses of the govern- ment economically administered. Tariff is a Local Issue. (See Sayings of Famous Ameri- cans.) 400 TARIFFS OF THE UNITED STATES. Tariff is a Tax. (See Sayings of Famous Americans.) Tariffs of the United States. Tariff of 1789. Compromise Tariff. War Tariff. Tariff of 1812. Tariff of 1846. Mills Tariff. Tariff of 1857. McKinley Tariff. Morrill Tariff. Lowndes-Calhoun Tariff. Tariff of Abominations. Custom Houses. Article 1, Section 8, of the Constitution gives Congress the right to levy duties on imports as a means of raising money to pay the debts of the nation and to provide for the common de- fence and general welfare. In 1789, Congress passed a tariff bill of which Alexander Hamilton was the author, and Washington approved it July 4 of that year. Its preamble defined one of its objects to be the " encouragement and protection of manufactures." This first law imposed ^pecific duties on forty-seven articles and ad valorem rates of 7) 10, 12, and 15 per cent, on four com- modities or small groups. The unenumerated goods were com- pelled to pay 5 per cent. In 1790 and in 1792, duties were raised on unenumerated articles to 7 per cent, and on other articles 5 to 10 per cent. In 1794, 1797, 1800, and 1804 there was more modification of the tariff, the average percentage being from 8 to 10 per cent, ad valorem. During the War of 1812, as a Means of Deriving Revenue, all customs duties were doubled. Another reason for increasing the duties was the demand of the manufacturing industries now coming into prominence, for more protection. This is known as the " Tariff of 1812." Amendments to it were adopted on February 25, and again on July 29, 1813. On February 15, 1816, the additional duties imposed by the Act of 1812 were repealed, and additional duties of 42 per cent., to take effect on July 1, were substituted, but the law did not go into operation. From 1812 to 1816 the average rate on all im- ports was 32.73 per cent., the range being from 6.84 per cent, in 1815 to 69.03 in 1813. The next great tariff measure is known as the Lowndes- Calhoun bill. It was approved April 27, 1816, took effect the following July, and may be said to be the first of the protective tariffs. It was regarded as a Southern measure, from the fact that the South at the time favored protection, while the North did not. The ad valorem duties under it ranged from 7 to 33 per cent. The unenumerated goods paid 15 per cent., the manufactures of iron aud other metals generally 15 per cent., the majority of TARIFFS OF THE UNITED STATES. 401 402 TAEIFPS OP THE UNITED STATES. woollen goods 25 per cent., cotton goods 25 per cent., "with clauses establishing rainimums,' that is, in reckoning duties, 23 cents per square yard was to be deemed the minimum cost of cotton cloth; unbleached and uncolored yarn, 60 cents, and bleached or colored yarn, 75 cents per pound. These rates became practically prohibitory on the cheaper goods. The law wa-i amended April 20, 1818, and again on March 3, 1819. From 1817 to 1820 the average rate on imports was 26.52 per cent.; from, 1821 to 1824,35.02 per cent.; and from 1821 to 1824, on dutiable goods only, 36.88 per cent. This general increase of duties was due to the necessity of providing for the interest on the heavy debt incurred by the second war with England. The Clay Tariff followed in 1824. The vote in the House was close 107 to 102, and the bill had a majority in the Senate of only four. It was advocated by the central and western sections of the country, and opposed by the South and New England. Iron, wool, hemp and sugar were protected ; the average rate of duties was 37 per cent. It was in the debates on this bill that it was first seriously asserted that Congress had no constitutional power to pass a tariff for protective purposes only. This tariff remained in force almost unchanged until 1842. The " Tariff of Abominations," so called by the South- erners because it apparently operated against the South, was ap- proved May 19, 1828. It was adopted at the instigation of New England, whose manufactures, especially of woollens, now were growing. The vote was 105 to 74 in the House, and in the Sen- ate 26 to 21. The South and other sections cried for lower duties, the result of which was the Tariff of 1828, and the Modi- fying Tariff of 1832, the latter reducing the duty on iron and increasing the duty on woollens. The latter was apparently of suoh great benefit to New England and other sections that the South felt it was the victim of discrimination. Southern leaders had previously threatened Nullification and Secession if the Tariff of 1828 was not repealed, and in November, 1832, a State con- vention at Columbia, S. C., formally declared the Tariffs of 1828 and 1832 " Null, Void, and No Law, nor binding on South Carolina, her officers and citizens," made any appeal to the United States Supreme Court a punishable offence, exacted an oath of obedience to this ordinance, and warned the country that any attempts at force would be followed by South Carolina's secession from the Union. This was the Ordinance of Nulli- fication as propounded for the first time. (See Nullification.) The result was Henry Clay's Compromise Tariff of 1833, TARIFFS OF THE tTNlTED STATES. 403 which made gradual reductions in the duties to continue until 1842, after which there should be a uniform duty of 20 per cent. From 1834 to 1842, the average duty on imports was 19.25 per cent., and on dutiable goods, at the home valuation, 34.73 per cent. This tariff so diminished the revenue, actually causing a deficit, and was generally so unsatisfactory that a new tariff, a distinctly protective measure, was passed by the Whigs, and went into effect in 1842. New England and the Middle States gave it strong support. The South was earnest in opposition, and the West was a tie. The average rate on all imports under it was 2G.92 per cent., and on dutiable articles 33.47 per cent. The Tariff of 1846, known as the Polk- Walker Tariff, laid down the principle of a tariff for revenue only, and not for pro- tection. This act. passed the House, 114 to 95, and the Senate by the vote of the presiding officer, and became a law. The East opposed it, and the South and West favored it. It swept away specific and compound duties and divided all dutiable mer- chandise into eight classes, which introduced greater simplicity into the whole system of customs regulations. The average duty on all imports was, from 1847 to 1857, 23.20 per cent, and on dutiable articles 26.22 per cent. It remained in effect until 1861, meantime having increased the revenue largely. The Tariff of 1857 reduced the duties to an average rate of 15.66, and on dutiable goods to 20.12 per cent. The Morrill Tariff of 1861 was avowedly protective, although the revenue derived from it was needed by the government. The duties in some cases were actually prohibitive. This tariff was frequently changed during the war, for purposes of revenue. At one time the number of rates was over two thousand. From 1861 to 1869 every year produced some enlargement. In 1870 there was some modification of rates, generally in the line of reduction. Tea and coffee, taxed since 1861, were then put on the free list, and the duties on sugar, cotton, and woollen goods, wool, iron, paper, glass, and leather were lowered about 10 per cent. The free list was somewhat enlarged, but the reduction was rescinded in the Act of March 3, 1875. The duty on quinine was abolished on July 1, 1879. The average duty on all imports, from 1862 to 1883, was 34.16 per cent, and on dutiable articles 42.74 per cent. The revenue reformers and free-traders pronounced this tariff a " War Tariff," and for upwards of fifteen years earnest efforts have been made for a wholesale reduction of the duties. The argument has been that the system of high tariffs caused an immense surplus to be accumulated in the Treasury which at times distressed business, and it was claimed put a premium on government extravagance in the way of appropriations. 404 TARIFFS OF THE UNITED STATES. The result of this agitation was that in 1882 Congress ap- pointed a Tariff Commission to take testimony on the subject of protective tariff duties throughout the country. Afterwards a conference committee, composed of Senators and Represen- tatives, reported a bill which became a law March 3, 1883. It made numerous reductions, but clung to the Principle of Protection as a stimulus to commercial prosperity. Party lines have thus been drawn as between the high protective tariff and the tariff for revenue only, although the Republican claim is that the enemies of protection are free-traders at heart. In 1888, the Mills Tariff Bill passed the House. It removed the duty on wool, and made other reductions which it was es- timated would reduce the customs revenue 150,000,000 a year. The Senate passed a substitute bill, repealing the tobacco duty and reducing that on sugar 50 per cent., involving an estimated reduction in customs revenue of $65,000,000 annually. The House declared the substitute bill unconstitutional, and in the wrangle both bills were put aside. In 1890, the McKinley Tariff Bill became a law. It placed duties on several thousand articles, but enlarged the free list, admitting sugar free, and gave a bounty to native sugar growers. An important feature was its reciprocity section (which see). The Republican claim is that the average rate of duty is 41 per cent. Custom Houses and Customs Duties. By a system of indirect taxation, the United States Government raises annually a large revenue from the collection of customs duties levied on goods imported from foreign countries. Generally speaking, there are two kinds of duty, specific and ad valorem. A specific duty is the levying of a specific amount which is fixed by law. An ad valorem duty is one which is based on the value of imports in the exporting country, which must be ascertained. There are many thousands of articles imported upon which duties are levied. The income from duties since 1789 to and including 1891 have been $0,751,086,380. The total amount is now over $7,000,000,000. The income from this source in 1891 was $219,522,205. In round numbers the Income from Customs Duties is over $200,000,000 annually. Custom Houses for the collection of duties are situated at all ports of entry, both on the seacoast and the Great Lakes, as well as on the northern and southern frontiers. The chief officer of Custom Houses is the Collector, who is responsible to the government for the faithful collection of customs on all dutiable articles entering ports in his jurisdiction. In the cities there are also several deputy col- lectors, besides appraisers, gangers, weighers, etc. Revenue Marine, The. At all the important ports of TENNESSEE. 405 entry, where there is considerable business in the collection of im- port duties, there are one or more revenue cutters whose duty, as imposed by act of Congress, is to aid in the collection of import and tonnage duties, and to suppress smuggling. The revenue cutter's service was inaugurated in 1790, and it is therefore one of the oldest departments of the United States Government. The service is part of the administration of the Treasury Depart- ment, but its immediate supervision is in the hands of subordinate officers who constitute the bureau known as the Revenue Marine Division. The Fleet of Revenue Cutters in 1891 consisted of thirty-six vessels ; all of which, except two, are propelled by steam. Sixteen of these vessels are on the Atlantic and Gulf coasts, four are on Northern lakes, and four are on the Pacific coast. Besides these, there are twenty-four steamers which be- long to the cruising fleet, and patrol specified districts; ten steamers are devoted exclusively to the collection of import duties. All of the steamers carry from one to four guns, and their crews, usually eight officers and thirty to thirty-five men, carry small arms for use in case of emergency. Besides their duties in the collection of customs duties, revenue cutters assist vessels in distress, guard property of wrecked vessels, enforce the quarantine regulations and the laws governing the merchant marine, the laws with regard to the license, enrollment, and regis- try of merchant vessels, and various other duties in the interest of public and private business, and the safety and welfare of human lives. Tariff of Abominations. (See Tariffs of the United States.) Teacher President. (See Presidents of the United States.) Telegraph, The. (See Inventions, Great American.) Telephone, The. (See Inventions, Great American.) Tell Them to Obey the Laws and Support the Constitu- tion. (See Savings of Famous Americans.) Tennessee.- The State was settled at Fort London in 17G5, by people from North Carolina. The Appalachian Mountains are 011 its eastern boundary, while the Mississippi River forms the western boundary, and* with the Tennessee and Cumberland Rivers drains about three fourths of the State. There are several other rivers affording valuable water power. The fertile Valleys of the Mississippi and the Tennessee Rivers yield every variety of product and feed vast herds -of animals/ The Cumberland plateau, a thousand feet above the Tennessee River, is rich in coal and limestone. The Tennessee 406 TENNESSEE. Mountains in the eastern part, from 5,600 to 6,600 feet in height, are covered with forests of pine, hemlock, chestnut, and black walnut. The river commerce of the State exceeds $5,000,000 a year in lumber, livestock, ore, grain, and merchandise. Tennessee stands next to Kentucky and Virginia in the raising of Tobacco, the average crop being from 25,000,000 to 35,000,- 000 pounds a year. The cereals in- clude 70,000,000 bushels of corn, 9,000,000 of wheat, 7,000,000 of oats, 2,500,000 of potatoes, and 300,000 tons of hay. As many as 350,000 bales of Cotton have been produced in a year. Peanuts and berries in large quantities, besides apples, peaches, and plums are raised. There are over 3,000,000 head of livestock. In the production of spirits, Tennessee is the leading State, a million gallons having GREAT SEAL OF TENNESSEE. been produced j n a vear . The Iron industry has been developed in the State so that to-day the output of pig-iron amounts to over 500,000 tons a year. Of coal the State produced in 1889,1,925,689 tons; it also produces marble, limestone, fire-clay, all the granites, petro- leum, magnesia, and there are numerous mineral springs. The State has always been celebrated for the breeding of thorough- bred horses, having some of the finest stock-farms in the country. There are several universities, the best known of which is Fisk University at Nashville, which was founded in 1866 for the edu- cation of the colored race, and Vanderbilt University, at the same place, which is conducted by the Methodist Episcopal Church. The United States Government is building a national arsenal at Columbia; and at Chattanooga, Fort Donelson, Knoxville, Shiloh, Memphis, Nashville, and Stone's River are National Ceme- teries (see National Cemeteries), where are interred the remains of upwards of 50,000 Union soldiers. The population of Tennessee in 1880 was 1,542,359; in 1890, 1,763,723, of whom 1,332,971 were white, and 434,300 colored. The net State debt was $14,938,000 ; the real property was valued at $211,000,000, the personal property at $61,000,000 ; the manu- factures were worth $37,074,886 ; the farm lands included 20,- 666,000 acres, valued at $206,749,837 ; the farm products were worth $70,076,311. There were in 1890 2,751 miles of railroad and 262 newspapers. The chief city is Nashville, which, by the census of 1890, had a population of 76,168. There are several institutions for TENUKE OF OFFICE ACT. 407 the education of colored students here. It is the largest flour milling city in the South, and the first city in the country in the manufacture of lumber. There is a capital of $90,000,000 in its incorporated companies. It has a number of fine public build- ings, over sixty churches, and is an important railway centre. The second city is Memphis, which had a population in 1890 of 64,495 ; it is situated en the Mississippi River on a bluff, and is the centre for a large railway and steamboat business. It does a large wholesale and cotton exporting business, and is the site of several cotton-seed oil mills. It is the centre of a great lum- bering district in which there are 1,000 lumber mills. The third city is Chatta- nooga, which had a population in 1890 of '22,100; it is one of the rising cities of the South, being the centre of a large iron and coal region. The manufactures of Tennessee i n - elude 23 cotton mills, employing 100,000 s p i n - dies, and using 33,000 bales of cotton a year ; 20 woollen mills, which use over 2,000,000 pounds of cotton, and 13 iron and steel manufactories, employing 5,000 men. The Governor of Ten- nessee is John P. Buchanan (Democrat). His term of office ex- pires Jan. 15, 1 893. The State is Democratic. Tenure of Office Act. The act which was known by this name came into existence in 1867, at the time of the contest between President Johnson and Congress over the subject of removals from office. Congress sought to limit the President's power, and passed a law which Johnson vetoed, but which was passed over the veto, providing that no officer subject to confir- mation by the Senate should be removed without the consent of that body, but during a recess of the Senate, the President might remove such officer and appoint a successor till the end of the next session of the Senate. There were about thirty-five hundred officers subject to the provisions of these acts, which gave a power to the Senate that was not contemplated in the formation of the government, and increased its power of rewarding political services. What thus became known as the " courtesy of the COTTON PACKET ON THE MISSISSIPPI. CHEAT SEAL OF TEXAS. 408 KXAS - Senate " was merely a polite phrase which expressed the power of patronage vested in the Senate, and which allotted to the Senators from each State the control of the Federal offices in it. The Tenure of Office Act was repealed in 1887. (For Presiden- tial Term see Presidents of the United States.) Texas. The original settlers of Texas were Spaniards who established a mission at San Antonio, in 1690. Texas was admitted to the United States in 1845. It fought for and secured its independence of Mex- ico, and in 1837 it was acknowledged as a republic by France and by the United States in 1839. It maintained its national existence for ten years, and then joined the United States. The development of the State since then has been no less wonderful than that of California. The immigration has been larger in Texas, and more capital has been invested here than in any other one State west of the Mississippi. It is in area the Largest State in the Union, being four times as large as New England, six times as large as New York State, and seven times as large as Ohio. The Rio Grande River forms the western boundary, and the other chief rivers are the Brazos, the Colorado, the Guadalupe, and the San Antonio. East- ern Texas produces iron, timber, sugar, tobacco, and fruits, and has valuable stock-farms. There is a vast area of Farm Lands in the centre of the State, while northern Texas is especially rich in cotton and wheat. Western Texas is the region of immense Cattle- Ranges. The Pan Handle is a great plateau covering 27,000 square miles in the southwestern part of the State, where the State sells land to the settlers. The Staked Plains are a portion of the Pan Handle region, and afford pasture to large herds of cattle. The Agricultural Products of Texas have an almost end- less variety. Of Cotton, in the production of which Texas is the first State, it has produced more than 1,200,000 bales a year, and the product is worth $50,000,000 a year. The product of Cotton-Seed is over 500,000 tons a year; of wheat 5,000,000 bushels, of corn 25,000,000 bushels, of oats 15,000,000 bushels. There are over 8,000,000 acres of Texas lands under cultivation, cut up into . 40,000 farms, producing yearly about $80,000,000 TEXAS. 409 worth of hay. Sugar-cane, grapes, peaches, and bananas are produced in large quantities. There are sugar-plantations of the Brazos River which produce yearly over 10,000,000 pounds of sugar. It is estimated that Texas has above 3,000,000 cattle ; the sales for a single year average from 1,200,000 head to 1,500,000 head. Of sheep, in 1891, Texas had 4,990,000, more than any other State. Of wool, the product amounts to '25,000,000 pounds a year, valued at $7,000,000. The manufactures of Texas num- ber over 3,000, and employ 18,000 persons. The manufactur- ing product is upwards of $40,000,000 worth of goods. The United States Army has headquarters in San An- tonio, where there is also an arsenal which covers twenty acres. In this Department of the Army there are ten military posts, having upwards of two thousand soldiers, covering the Mexican and Indian Territory frontiers. The forts are Fort Clarke, Fort Hancock, Fort Concho, Camp Peiia Colorado, Fort Ringgold, Fort Mclntosh, Fort Bliss, Fort Brown, and Fort Elliott. The State supports a School Fund in bonds and lands estimated at $100,000,000. There are eleven colleges and higher institutions of learning in the State, having 3,254 students. All the public schools are open to white and black children alike, and there is one normal school for colored students which is supported by the State. The population of Texas in 1880 was 1,591,749 ; in 1890 it was 2,235,523 ; the white population is about 75 per cent, of the whole. The real property was valued at $348,000,000 ; the per- sonal property at $214,000,000. The acreage of farm lands was 36,303,454, valued at $170,468,886 ; in 1890 there were 8,613 miles of railroads and 542 newspapers. The chief city of Texas is Galveston, situated on the Gulf of Mexico ; it has a beach extending over thirty miles. It is the third cotton-exporting point in the United States, exporting 700,000 bales a year. Steamships run to the Northern ports carrying cotton, cotton-seed, wool, lumber, and hides. The population of Galveston in 1890 was 29,084. Dallas is the first city in point of population, and is situated in the prairie region of northern Texas, of which it is the com- mercial and railway centre, being surrounded by a rich and productive agricultural region. It has a general trade of $25,000,000 a year, 120 factories, and sells more agricultural im- plements than any city of the South. The population in 1890 was 38,067. San Antonio, the second city in population, is the foremost wool market of Texas, handling in a year, sometimes, 15,000,000 410 THEATRES. pounds. There is a large business here in horses and mules, and large quantities of hops and grain pass through here bound for Mexico. Houston is the centre for a dozen railways which transport the products of a fertile and prosperous contiguous country. It has immense machine shops, car works, cotton-seed oil mills, and had a population in 1890 of 27,551. In 1890 it re- ceived $20,000,000 of the cotton crop of the State, loading the crop onto vessels for export, besides 3,000,000 gallons of cotton- oil, 12,000,000 pounds of sugar, and 1,000,000 gallons of syrup. It also did a large business in lumber and shingles. Austin is the capital, and in 1890 had 14,476 inhabitants. The State capital building here is a magnificent structure, the largest capitol in the A TEXAS CATTLE RANCH. country. It has a dome 311 feet high, supporting a statue of the Goddess of Liberty. The cost to"build was $3,500,000. The Governor of Texas is James S. Hogg (Democrat). His term ex- pires Jan. 9, 1893. The State is Democratic. Theatres. The first theatre in America was at Williams- burg, Va., opened on Sept. 5, 1772. Others were opened after- wards at Annapolis, Md., at New York (1753), Albany (1769), Baltimore (1773), Charleston, S. C. (1774), and Boston (1792). The growth of large cities, which up to 1840 had not been THIRD TERM. 411 marked, fed to the building of theatres, in consequence of the demand for evening entertainment. While in the United States there are no theatres or public buildings capable of seating as many people as several in Europe, a tendency is apparent toward the construction of places of public entertainment of immense seating capacities. The two latest examples are the Auditorium Building at Chicago, which seats 10,000 people, and the Madison Square Garden at New York, whose seating capacity is 8,443. Other large theatres in this country, with their seating capacities, are Music Hall, at Cincinnati (4,824), Mechanics Hall, at Boston (3,500), Washington Hall, at Paterson, N. J. (3,000), Boston Theatre, at Boston (2,972), Academy of Music, at Philadelphia (2,865), Music Hall, at Boston (2,585), Academy of Music, at New York (2,526), Cooper Union, at New York (2,500), Acad- emy of Music, at Brooklyn, N. Y. (2,450), Opera House, at New Haven, Conn. (2,500), Mobile Theatre, at Mobile, Ala. (2,500), Chestnut Street Theatre, at Philadelphia (2,380), etc. There are upwards of 75 other theatres in the large cities capable of seating 1,500 and over. Third Term. The Stalwart faction of the Republican party in 1 880 went to the Republican National Convention 300 strong, in favor of the nomination of ex-President Grant for President. Grant had already been President two terms, 1869 to 1877. There was a widely prevailing prejudice against the third term idea ; Washington had declined a third term, and the opponents of one-man power raised a loud hue and cry, which was not with- out effect. Yet the Grant faction developed remarkable strength, and at the convention (see Presidential Conventions Under How the President Is Elected) voted as one man. They were under the leadership of Roscoe Conkling. The contest in the conven- tion was a memorable one, and it was not until over thirty-six ballots had been cast that it appeared that Grant was defeated. The winner was James A. Garfield, who had been a dark horse. In commemoration of their noble stand for Grant, medals were presented to the delegates. They are sometimes spoken of as the Grant 306," or as the Stalwart 306. Thomas Jefferson Still Survives. (See Sayings of Famous Americans.) Tidal Wave. (See Slang of Politics.) Timber Culture Laws. (See Public Lands and Land Grants.) Time Balls, Time of Noon, Time Divisions, etc. (Sec Standard Time.) 412 TORCHLIGHT PROCESSIONS. Tippecanoe. (See Presidents of the United States.) Title of the President. (See Presidents of the United States.) Tobacco, Production of. (See Agriculture.) Torchlight Processions. Wide Awakes. Plumed Knights. Caps, Capes, and Torches. Bandannas. Flags. Transparencies. Great Parades. .There is no record of the first political parade. Ever since the formation of the Union, parades have been held in the large cities during the canvass. These demonstra- tions by the voters of loyalty to their candidate did not assume extensive proportions until the Log Cabin and Hard Cider campaign of 1840, when the temper of the Whig voters, in- duced by the pronounced personal element upon which the campaign was fought and won, was in keeping with the spirit which prompts men to attest in public their devotion to a man or a principle. In this animated contest for the Presidency, the Whigs paraded, and repro- duced on transparencies, held aloft in the pro- cession, such familiar party catchwords as " Fifty-Four-Forty or Fight" (which see), " Free Trade and Sailor's Rights," etc. From this time until 1860, bonfires and window illuminations of houses constituted the principal street shows, and -although torches were used little or no attempt was made toward uniform- ing the marching clubs. In I860 the Republicans formed marching clubs called " Wide-Awakes," and adopted a uniform consisting of a cape and cap of enamelled cloth. Since that campaign the ingenuity of American clothiers has been taxed to the utmost to provide new designs for uniforms at a moderate price. In the processions of 1860 the "Wide Awakes " largely monopolized the uniforms the opposing parties contenting themselves generally with the ordinary citi- zen's dress, and the use of transparencies and torches ; the Bell- Everett battalions carrying with them an immense bell mounted on a truck. In 1864, General McClellan being the Democratic candidate, the uniforms began to assume a military A TOKCH-UEAREK. TORCHLIGHT PROCESSIONS. 413 character, although the Cap, Cape, and Torch was still the favorite. By the use of colored enamelled cloths, a pleasing effect was produced in this campaign. The recollections of former tramps through the muddy highways brought forward the " leggings " now very generally used. In ] 868 the uniforms were largely military ; the Zouave style, from its extremely showy character, its natty cap and white or colored leggings, was largely used and added greatly to the attractive appearance of the great processions. The campaign of 1872, the Greeley campaign, being comparatively spiritless, showed very few new designs in uniforms, but in 1876, when the Democrats were on their mettle, the cam- paign uniforms were distinguished for their variety and elaborate- ness. Caps and capes still held the popular fancy where economy was the principal motive, but Blouses, Zouave Jackets and Trousers, and Continental Suits, and many other expensive and unique designs were worn. The " Sinclair Cadets " of Portsmouth, N. H., for example, adopted a long Spanish cloak of dark cloth lined with white, sombrero hats and long leggings of enamel. Torches were mounted on guns, and the changes in styles and designs were almost numberless. The campaign of 1880 brought out few new features, but in 1884 the Plumed Knight uniforms had the call. They were made of silvered and gilt enamels, and had an extremely impres- sive, character. Helmets were made of nickeled metal, the aim evidently being to catch and reflect the light of the torches. The spectacular effect was excellent. In 1888 the Bandanna was made a special feature by the Democrats, the Republicans adopting the American flag, and these articles were combined into a thousand and one devices for street parades. Coats had a bandanna or a flag collar ; canes were made which con- cealed one or the other ; hat-bands, badges, and a thousand other articles were used to display the party colors. Badges from the common penny article for Young America to elaborate gold plated and enameled jewels are very generally worn during every political campaign. In 1888 the " flag or the bandanna" in a button or small badge was worn literally by millions. In recent years Fireworks have almost entirely taken the place of the bonfires of former days as a means of illumination. In 1840 balls of cotton tied tightly and soaked with alcohol were tossed from hand to hand, fireworks as known to-day being rather expensive. To-day every grand procession marches with wagons loaded with pyrotechnics and the streets blaze and glow with colored fires. Another feature of political campaigns which has long been in vogue is Flag-Raising. As soon as the nominating conventions complete their labors, 414 TORCHLIGHT 1'HOCKSSIONS. flag-raising begins and the display of bunting becomes a marked feature of the streets in all the cities and towns. What with the cheap cotton flags costing a few cents to the huge banners with portraits and mottoes costing large sums, the display is almost universal, nearly every club and headquarters and many newspapers displaying the Star-Spangled Banner with their can- didates' names attached. Another and a more beautiful method of showing party fealty is in Illuminations, which are generally made with paper lanterns, sometimes of the most elaborate and costly materials. Up to 1860 these lanterns were almost entirely imported from Paris, Germany, or Japan, but since then American ingenuity and labor-saving machinery have revolutionized the prices so that lanterns that in 1860 were considered cheap at twenty-five cents apiece can now be bought at five cents. Torches are, of course, a necessity in an evening parade, but apart from the Flambeaus, with their sudden and immense columns and flashes of flame (caused by lycopodium powder), and the colored glass lanterns occasionally used, torches have been pretty much alike in all the campaigns. Plundreds of patterns are produced, but as all cats are black in a dark room, so all torches are alike when viewed in a procession. The diversity in marching illuminations is chiefly in transparencies, in which the variety in si/e, shape, color, and mottoes is absolutely boundless. Notable Parades. The largest political parades have been those in Presidential campaigns in New York City, a few days before the election. Both parties have a parade of their voters, within a night or two of each other. The Saturday night before the election is usually chosen by one or the other party, the choice depending upon which of them first applies for per- mission of the city authorities. Large sums of money are sup- plied by the campaign committees, for equipping the clubs with uniforms, torches, banners, transparencies, etc., and for fitting illuminations along the line of march. When the uniforms are attractively gotten up, the spectacle is a grand one. The line of march almost invariably is up or down New York's aristocratic street, Fifth Avenue, and thence into Broadway. It is customary to inscribe the banners and transparencies with mottoes expressive of the issues of the campaign, and the ingenuity and wit of the campaign managers are at such times put severely to the test in devising effective catch-words and phrases. On Thursday night, November 2, 1876, the Democratic voters of New York and vicinity paraded to the number of twenty-five thousand or more. Among the mottoes on transparencies were the following : TOKCHLIGHT PROCESSIONS. 415 " Grand Old Tammany : the Democratic Fortress." "Equal rights for Foreign-Born and Native-Born Citizens." " Reform is necessary to put a stop to the profligate waste of public hands." Tilden and Reform." " Reform is necessary in the civil service." " Grantism means poor people made poorer." " No Bayonet Rule." " We demand that our custom- house taxation shall be for revenue only." "We demand a rigorous frugality in every department of the government." " Reform is necessary to establish a sound currency." " The Democratic Party stands now as it always has stood, for the Freedom of Cuba." (Cuba at the time was trying to secure its UNION SQUARE, NEW YORK. independence.) " Tammany welcomes the brave Cubans." " Let every son and friend of Cuba vote next Tuesday for Tilden and Hendricks." " No Sectional Hate, no Sectarian Strife." " Repub- licans as a diseased and corrupt party are hurled from Power." " Tilden, Hendricks, and Reform." " Democracy, the last refuge of personal and political rights, will give us back the' ancient purity of government." " Let us have a clean sweep." " Ballots Not Bayonets." " Our Union Forever." " Victory! " " We will save the Nation." " Fifty thousand majority for Tilden." " In Unity is Strength." " No Thieves in Office." " No more Whiskey Rings." " Let no guilty man escape U. S. G," 416 TORCIILKiHT PROCESSIONS. " Reform in the Civil Service." Pictures of Tilden bore the titles, Our Uncle Samuel " and the " Noblest Roman of Them All." On Saturday night of the same week the Republicans paraded, led by columns of " Boys in Blue," numbering 9,000, accompanied by other local organizations which swelled the total to 20,000 men. The only emblem displayed was the " Ship of State," a small vessel with sails set, drawn upon a wagon. The Republicans on the night of October 11, 1880, held one of the largest parades New York had ever seen. Between forty and fifty thousand men were in line. Grant was on the review- ing stand in Madison Square. Beneath Grant's portrait on a transparency, "Our Guest" was inscribed, and "Our Next President " on a transparency illuminating the face of Garfield. One of the banners bore this inscription: " Irish- American Republican Association of American Citizens : We know our rights and dare to maintain them " ; on the reverse side was " No Free Trade." Other mottoes were : " No man can afford to be lukewarm." "Push Things. U. S. G. " "Welcome, Grant." " Welcome to the Nation's Hero." " We vote as our Fathers fought." " It is a cold day when Democratic boasting can scare us." " Garfield born of the people, educated in adversity the President of the People." On Thursday afternoon, October 30, 1884, the Republican Business Men of New York paraded on Broadway, marching from the Battery to Madison Square, a distance of nearly four miles. This and the parade of the Democratic business men a day or two later were the most impressive political demonstra- tions New York had ever witnessed. The bitter personal char- acter of the campaign, and the peculiar political conditions of the time, had aroused the keenest excitement. In this parade of the Republican business men, of whom there were 25,000, there was no music, nor even the beat of drums, the absence of which made the spectacle all the more imposing. The solid phalanxes of bankers, brokers, merchants, lawyers, tradesmen, clerks, and students, marched with arms locked, in the midst of a drizzling rain, occupying five hours in passing the grand stand at Madison Square. The various branches of the commercial life of the metropolis marched together. All of them kept time to the watchwords, shouted with emphasis clear and strong, "Blaine- Blaine James G. Elaine." Ohio in the October election having gone Republican, another cry was, " O-O-O-hi-O." An- other was, " As-we-shout-so-we-vote." An original feature of the parade was the singing by the paraders of " Glory, Glory, Hallelujah," and the songs of the Columbia College students, to the tune of " Balm of Gilead," as follows : TORCHLIGHT PROCESSIONS. 417 " Here's to James G. Elaine, He won' t go down, He's a bully boy from Maine, He won't go down, down, down." Another cry was " No-No-No-Free-Trade." On Saturday night, November 1, 1884, nearly fifty thousand Republicans paraded in the metropolis, keeping step to the cry "Elaine, Elaine, Elaine James G. Elaine," or to Elaine Elaine, Elaine Hurrah, hurrah, hurrah ! " At times this was changed to " Hurrah Hurrah for James G. Elaine. He is free from any stain, James G. Elaine." The Irish- American Elaine men carried a transparency inscribed as follows: " Skools and eddication is the cuss of the Demokracy." Other mottoes were these: No Free Trade." Protect Home FEDERAL CAPITOL IN 1861, RICHMOND, VA. Industries." " Preserve Home Industries." " Three Times Three for Ohio." "Now for New York." "Push Things." "We legislate for the People of the United States ; not for the whole world James A. Garfield." " The Republican Party : the log- book of this voyage cannot be too often read." " No Free Trade; we know what is." " 329 x Mulligan Letters = Zero." " Look at what $1.00 will buy in the United States an (^England." " A vote for Cleveland is a vote to enslave the laboring man." " Tell John Bull he can't make American laws." " We want American, not English legislation." " No Free 418 TREASON. Ships." " No One Dollar a day." " Grover, you will be left." " The British Lion cannot arrest the flight of the American Bird." " Destruction to American Industries is England's oppor- tunity." " Protection is Prosperity. Free Trade is Beggary." " We have broken the brass collar of Party Slavery Forever." "For Union and Justice: Rifles and Leaden Bullets in 1864. Torches and Republican Ballots in 1884." " Our Friends the enemy Push them, Boys." "Blaine and Victory." "Dinna ye hear the slogan, Jimmy Blaine and Johnny Logan ! " " Down with Free Trade." " Labor is King." " Protection For Ameri- can Citizens." " We vote as we fought." " Our Friends, the Enemy : We propose to move at once upon their works." Forty thousand Republicans paraded in New York on November 3, 1888. On the banners, flags, and transparencies were dis- played such mottoes as these : " Give us a President in favor of American Shipping." " We want the American flag to be seen in every foreign port." " Protection to American Shipping." " Amer- ican Ships and American Wages." " Protection Harrison and Morton." " Home Rule for Ireland." " Take the tax off tobacco." " Down with direct taxes." " Hurra for cent post- age." From time to time those in line sang a song the refrain of which was " Good-bye, my Grover, Good bye " or kept time to the couplet : " Grover, Grover, take a rest; Your goose is cooked by Sackville West." Towns, Government of. (See States, Cities, etc., Govern- ment of.) Trading. (See Slang of Politics.) Treason. Under the Constitution, Article 3, Section 3, treason against the United States shall consist only in levying war against them, or in adhering to their enemies, giving them aid and comfort. No person shall be convicted of treason unless on the testimony of two witnesses to the same overt act, or on confession in open court. The Congress shall have power to de- clare the punishment of treason, but no attainder of treason shall work corruption of blood or forfeiture, except during the life of the person attained. Treasury Department. (See Federal Government.) Tree Planting. (See Forestry.) Twist the British Lion's Tail, To. This is a favorite way of expressing the tendency of some orators usually Irish or friends of Ireland, of abusing Great Britain. Frequently "this abuse is for political effect upon the Irish vote. The late " Riche- UNCLE SAM. 419 lieu" Robinson was celebrated when in Congress for his speeches of this character, although he was a native-born Irish- man, and believed everything that he said of Great Britain's ill- treatment of his native land. Uncle Abe. (See Presidents of the United States.) Uncle Jerry. (See Nicknames of Famous Americans.) Uncle Sam. (See Presidents of the United States.) Uncle Sam. Elbert Anderson, a New York contractor, in 1812, visited Troy, N. Y., and bought a quantity of provisions. The government inspector, Samuel Wilson, was known in the neighborhood as "Uncle Sam." Anderson's goods were labelled " E. A. U. S." The latter abbreviation was quickly translated into " Uncle Sam," as a bit of facetiousness at Wilson's expense. In that way Uncle Sam came to be synonymous with Brother Jonathan, both being typical of the imaginary personage who is inseparably connected with the destinies of the country. Unconditional Surrender. (See Presidents of the United States.) Uncrowned King. (See Nicknames of Famous Americans.) Underground Railroad. This was the name of an organ- ized system of aiding fugitive slaves to Canada, where they would be safe. Those who were prominently engaged in secret- ing the fugitives did so at great personal risk, and arrest and im- prisonment was of frequent occurrence. The president of the " railroad " was Levi Coffin, who it is estimated aided in the escape of over twenty-five hundred slaves. Uniformed Soldier. (See Presidents of the United States.) Union Jack. (See Flags of the United States.) Union Labor Party. (See Political Parties.) Union Must be Preserved. (See Sayings of Famous Amer- icans.) Union Safeguard. (See Presidents of the United States.) Unit Rule. It is the practice of Democratic National Con- ventions to determine the vote of a State delegation by the vote of a majority of the delegation. This practice is known as the unit rule. When the majority of the New York delegation at the Democratic National Convention of 1884 voted in favor of Cleveland's nomination, the minority made a vigorous attempt to break the unit rule, but the leadership of Daniel Manning pre- vented this result, and Cleveland's nomination was assured. United Labor Party. (See Political Parties.) 420 UTAH. United States Army. (See Army, The United States.) United States Mints. (See Coinage, etc.) United States Navy. (See Navy, The United States.) United Workmen, Ancient Order of. (See Secret Societies.) Unprecedented Strategist. (See Presidents of the United States.) Unquestionably Skilled. (See Presidents of the United States.) Utah. The first persons to visit that section of the United States now known as Utah Territory were a party of Spaniards under Captain Cardenas in 1540. In 1847 a permanent settle- ment was established by Brigham Young and a small party of pioneers, who preceded a religious sect, the Mormons, who had been expelled from Illinois. These located at Salt Lake City. Year after year brought new acquisitions of religious enthusiasts, and finally a large and powerful community arose. In 1850, Utah, originally a portion of the Mexican concession of 1848, was organized as a Territory, containing 84,970 square miles, and bounded by Wyoming, Colorado, Arizona, Nevada, and Idaho. The average height of this Territory is 6,100 feet above the level of the sea, while over five thousand square miles lie four thousand feet higher. It is traversed from North to South by the Wasatch Mountains, and a portion of the Territory forms a part of the Great American Desert. Great Salt Lake, which is within its borders, once covered an area of 42,000 square miles, varying from 1,700 square miles in 1849 to 2,360 square miles in 1870, since which time it has dimin- ished. In 1880 the population of the Territory was 143,963 ; in 1890, it was 207,905. Owing to the polygamous habits of many of the people these have been disfranchised, and Utah's admit- tance to the Union as a State has been refused on account of the Mormon belief, which is that the laws of Church transcend the laws of State. Farming, Stock-raising, and Mining, are the chief in- dustries. The first engages 3,000,000 acres of arable lands watered by 1,000 miles of canals. The beautiful green valleys of the Mormon farmers have resulted from the outlay of much labor and money. Irrigation, which was first experimented with by these farmers, is rapidly turning barren lands into vineyards and adding to the area now under cultivation. This already yields about 6,000,000 bushels of grain, as many of fruit, and 5,000,000 tons of VERMONT. 421 hay. Wine, almonds, and raisins are here produced, and fields of cotton whiten the valleys. Live stock has increased from 500,000 head in 1876 to 3,000,000 at the time of the last census. Between 1871 and 1891 Utah produced about $100,000,000 in silver, about $40,000,000 in lead, and $10,000,000 in gold and copper, and was next to Colorado and Montana in the production of lead, yielding yearly more than 24,000 tons. Many other minerals are also mined. Education, after the commissioner of public schools was made an appointee of the Supreme Court, has been maintained by the Mormons. The University of Deseret, a high and nor- mal school at . Salt Lake City, is a Territorial institution, dating from 1850, and has fourteen teachers and 830 students. The Brigham Young College, founded at Logan, in 1878, is a Mor- mon institution with 260 students. Ogden also has a large military academy. The national institutions are Fort Logan, near Salt Lake City, and Fort Duchesne. Four million acres of land are apportioned to the Ute Indians, in reservations called the Uintah and Uncompahgre Reservations, while the Shoshones in the north and Pintes in the south rove at will in those parts. The three largest cities are Salt Lake City, Ogden, and Provo, with a population respectively, according to the census of 1890, of 45,840, 14,889, and about 5,200. The manufactures employ only about 3,600 hands, yielding a product of $9,000,000, the larger portion of which comes from Salt Lake City. The three principal smelters, which are a few miles south of this city, represent a value of $400,000. The Governor of Utah Territory is Arthur L. Thomas (Republican), whose term of office expires December 30, 1893. Vermont. The country was first visited by Champlain in the year 1609, but the earliest white settlements within the present limits of Vermont were made about 1724- 25 near Brattleboro, where a fort was erected by Massachusetts emi- grants. The French built a fort in 1731, near the southern extremity of Lake Champlain, but soon aban- doned it. About 1760, one hundred and thirty-eight settlements were made under grants from the gov- ernor of New Hampshire. New York also claimed the region, and a GREAT SEAL OF VERMONT. war resu it e d which became famous by reason of the exploits of Ethan Allen's "Green Mountain 422 VERMONT. Boys." The Green Mountains intersect the State from north to south, and contain a number of peaks from 3,000 to 4,500 feet high. A second range, of inferior height, branches off at Killington Peak and trends northeast. There are also some detached peaks, of which Mount Ascutney, 3,320 feet high, is the most conspic- uous. Lake Champlain extends for 105 miles along the western border, and receives many small rivers and creeks. The entire territory east of the mountains is drained by the. Connecticut River and its numerous tributaries, the Connecticut separating Vermont from New Hampshire. The Connecticut is the only navigable river. Lake Champlain, 120 miles in length, and from forty rods to fifteen miles in width, has a depth of from fifty to nearly three hundred feet, and is navigable through- out by the largest vessels. The Vermont Marble Quarries yield three quarters of the product of the country. The (State produces also granite, slate, liin?, some copper ore, and manganese. Farm values have not increased since the war, but the soil is fertile, yielding large crops of hay. The dairy products of the State are very valuable, aggregating 25,000,000 pounds in a year. The product of maple sugar is over $1,200,000 in a year. The chief manufactures are scales, organs, farm implements, paper and machinery, and aggregate $31,350,000 in a year. The population of Vermont in 1880 was 332,286 ; in 1890, it was 332,205, a loss of 81. The real property was valued at $111,000,000, the personal property at $50,000,000. The farm land acreage was 4,882,588, valued at $109,346,010, yielding products worth $22,082,656. The school attendance was 46,081, the railroad mileage was 1,012, and the number of newspapers was 81. Burlington, the capital and the chief city, has a fine situation overlooking Lake Champlain. Here is located the University of Vermont. In 1890 the population was 14,500. Rutland, the second city, is a prosperous business and railroad centre. Its population in 1890 was 11,760. St. Albans is the third city (population 7,771), and Brattleboro is the fourth city (population 6,869). At Bennington is located a fine monument commemora- ting the Battle of Bennington, in 1777. The monument is of dolomite, in the form of an obelisk, 301 feet high, and the top is reached by means of a stairway on the inside. Carroll S. Page (Rep.) is Governor of Vermont. His term expires October 3, 1892. The State is Republican. Very Hungry and Very Thirsty. (See Sayings of Famous Americans.) VIRGINIA. 423 "Veto Power. The veto is the weapon lodged by the Consti- tution with the President, as a means of preventing the enact- ment of laws passed by Congress, but which he does not approve. The same power by the constitutions of States and of cities is vested in governors and in mayors. To override the Executive veto, Congress must in both houses do so by a two thirds vote, and in most of the States a two thirds vote of both houses of the legislature is necessary. In other States, a simple majority or a three fifths vote is necessary, while Ohio, Delaware, Rhode Island, and North Carolina, deny the governor the power of veto. In vetoing a bill, the President returns it to the house in which it originated, accompanied by a statement of his objections. Failure to return a bill within ten days (Sundays excepted) is equivalent to signing it. The same limit applies to most of the States. Virginia. Virginia is honored in having within her limits the First Permanent Settlement by the English in America. This was effected at Jamestown, in 1607. From 1609 there were con- stant accessions to the colony, although troubles with the Indians and misgovernment hindered the prosperity of the settlement. In 1624 the London company was dis- solved and Virginia became directly subject to the ci'own. The Shenan- doah, Alleghany, and Cumberland Mountains extend along the West Virginia border from Harper's Ferry to the Tennessee line. The six great topographical divisions are known as the Tidewater, Middle, Piedmont, Blue Ridge, Valley, and Appalachian sections, all of which extend across the State from northeast to south west, and have a general trend corresponding to that of the Atlantic coast and the Appalachian range. More than three fourths of Virginia is drained by the Potomac, Rappahannock, Rapidan, York, Elizabeth, James, and their tributaries, all of which find their way at last to the Atlantic. The chief industry is Agriculture, and the staple product is leaf -tobacco, for which the State has a wide fame. There are over 127,000 acres growing tobacco, the yield in 1888 being 64,034,- 000 pounds, valued at $3,842,000. Peanuts is another important industry, yielding $2,500,000 in a year. Truck-farming is carried on with great success, early fruits and vegetables of all kinds being raised in large quantities for the northern market. The GREAT SEAL OF VIRGINIA. 424 VIRGINIA. State has 4,100 acres in bearing vines and produces 461,000 gallons of wine in a year. Lumbering employs thousands of men, and keeps many saw- mills in operation. Large areas are covered with valuable forests of pine, oak, hickory, walnut, buttonwood, and various hard woods. The forests of the Dismal Swamp produce enormous quantities of pine and cypress. The oystering industry in the Chesapeake Bay employs upwards of 14,000 men, .5,800 boats and canoes, and yields 7,000,000 bushels of the bivalve in a year. The catch of other sea-fish is very large. The production of Pig Iron in Virginia rose from 30,000 tons in 1880 to 292,779 tons in 1890, employing 82 blast furnaces, besides 40,000 tons of rolled iron. Iron is made here at from $11 to $13 a ton. In this industry Virginia is the fourth State. Gold, lead, large quantities of manganese, gypsum, salt, zinc, granite, slate, and other minerals are found. The State is fa- BICHMOXD, VA., IX 1861. mous for its winter and summer resorts, both seashore and moun- tain. The United States institutions are the Navy Yard and Naval Hospital at Portsmouth near Norfolk, the National Cemeteries (See Army, United States), and Fort Monroe, covering 80 acres, with granite walls 35 feet high, which is used as a place of arms and rendezvous for the Southern and Middle States. The chief institutions of learning are the Washington and Lee University, at Lexington, Roanoke College, at Salem, the Uni- versity of Virginia, at Charlottesville, the William and Mary College, at Williamsburg, besides several normal schools for whites, the schools at Hampton and Petersburg for colored students, the Military Institute at Lexington, which is maintained by the State, WALKING DELEGATE, 425 and the Virginia Agricultural College at Blacksburg. The attendance is 198,120. The population of Virginia in 1880 was 1,512,565 ; in 1890, it was 1,655,980, of whom 640,867 were colored. The net State debt was $31,525,535 ; the real property was valued at $261,000,000 ; the personal property at $118,- 000,000. The manufactures aggregated $51,810,000; the farm lands numbered 19,910,700 acres, valued at $216,028,107, pro- ducing $45,726,221. The mileage of railroads in 1890 was 3,160, and the number of newspapers in 1892 was 262. Of the historic buildings, places, and physical wonders, the more interesting are the Court House at Fairfax, George Washington's home and burial place (see Presidents), at Mount Vernon, Jefferson's home at Monticello, the Soldier's Cemetery at Arlington, opposite Washington, D. C., with its 16,292 graves; the Natural Bridge, the Luray Caverns, the Yorktown Monument, the old Lee mansion at Arlington, the Randolph mansion, on Malvern Hill, Christ Church at Alexandria, where Washington worshipped, and the battlefields of Bull Run, and the scenes of other famous battles of the Civil War. The chief city is Richmond, the capital (population in 1890, 81,388), where the tobacco manufacturing industry centres. The Washington monument, the Lee monument, the old St. John's Church, and the Hollywood Cemetery, are among its more attrac- tive-sights. Norfolk (population in 1890, 34,871) is a shipping and railroad centre ; Petersburg (population, 22,680) and Lynchburg (population, 19,789) are leading manufacturing and business centres. Philip W. McKinney (Dem.) is Governor of Virginia. His term of office expires January 31, 1893. The State is Democratic. Virginius, Capture of The. While sailing under the American flag, arid supposed to have on board arms and men, in aid of the insurgents in Cuba, the steamer Virginius, on October 31, 1873, was seized by a Spanish vessel, and a number of her officers and passengers were put to death. This government, upon an investigation, demanded of Spain the surrender of the prisoners and of the vessel, and reparation for the insult to the American flag. The vessel and the prisoners were surrendered, Spain made satisfactory apology, and an inquiry revealed the fact that the vessel was not entitled to sail under the American flag. Voting in the Air. (See Slang of Politics.) Walking Delegate. The walking delegate is a representa- tive of trades unions, whose duty is to circulate among laboring men, and report to headquarters any grievance they may have, or to interview the employer in their interest. He makes himself 426 WARS OF THE UNITED STATES. variously useful, and as he does a good deal of walking from place to place, he has earned the title of walking delegate. At first, employers met him on an equal footing, but it was not long before they refused to recognize him, preferring to deal with tin- men themselves. In not a few instances, walking delegates have- been arrested for threatening employers with a strike unless their demands were complied with. War Democrats. (See Political Parties.) War Department. (See Federal Government.) War Tariff. (See Tariffs of the United States.) War to the Knife. (See Sayings of Famous Americans.) Wars Of the United States. The following table enumer- ates the wars this government has waged with foreign nations, with rebellious States, and with Indian tribes, and gives also the number of regular troops and of volunteers, including the militia. WAK8 OF THE O. S. BEGAN ENDED REGU- LARS. MILITIA & VOLUN- TEERS TOTAL War of the Revolution Apr. 19, 1775 Apr. 11, 1783 130,711 58,750 105,300 Additional (estimate) 309,791 8,983 4,593 3,330 * 910 ffl,T81 i.o.->.o4i; Northwestern Indian (Gen. St. Clair) Sept. 10, 1790 JUJy '., 1798 Aug. 3. IT'.C, Sept. 30, 1800 June 4, 1805 Nov. 11, 1811 Aug. !), isu Feb, 17, 1815 June 28, 1815 Oct. 21, 1818 Sept. 31, 1832 1837 Sept. 31,1837 Aug. 14, 1843 1839 July 4, 1848 1861 1854 1858 Mav 11, 186o 1862 June, 1873 1876 Oct., 1877 1879 1890 War with France War with Tripoli June 10, 1801 Sept. 11,1811 Aug. 13, 1813 June 19, 1812 May, 1815 Nov. 20, 1817 Apr. 21, 1831 183(5 May 5, 1836 Dec. 23, 1835 1838 Apr. 24, 1846 1849 1854 1856 Apr. 21, 1861 1862 1872 June 25, 1876 1877 IST'.I 1890 Tecumseh Indian (Gen. Harri- son) 250 600 33,424 660 13,181 471.C22 Creek Indian War of 1812 with Great Britian " Algerine " Seminole Indian 1.000 1,339 6,911 6,1*8 9,494 12,483 29,963 1/.IKI 73,776 1,061 503 2,687 7.H11 6,4S5 9,494 13,418 41.1-"-' l.:.ni> 101 ,2S2 1,001 MI:; 2,687 2.772.40S Cherokee Disturbance or Re- moval Creek Indian Disturbance Florida Indian ; '.<;;:, 11,169 Aroostook Disturbance War with Mexico 27^606 Apache, Navajo, and Utah Comanche Indian Seminole Indian . . Civil War Sioux Indian Modoc Indian Sioux Indian N z Percti Indian 1 're Indian Sioux Indian The Number of Troops enlisted in the Confederate cause has never been authentically determined. The number has been variously estimated, but it probably approximated 600,000. The Number of Casualties in the volunteer and regular armies of the United States, during the Avar of 1861-65, was reported by the Provost Marshal General in 1866 : Killed in bat- tle, 61,362; died of wounds, 34,727; died of disease, 183,287; WASHINGTON^ 427 total died, 279,376; total deserted, 199,105. Number of soldiers in the Confederate service who died of wounds or disease (par- tial statement), 133,821. Deserted (partial statement), 104,428. dumber of United States troops captured during the war, 212,- 608 ; Confederate troops captured, 476,169. Number of United States troops paroled on the field, 16,431 ; Confederate troops paroled on the field, 248,599. Number of United States troops who died while prisoners, 29,725 ; Confederate troops who died while prisoners, 26,774. Washington of the West. (See Presidents of the United States.) Washington. The first settlement was at Turnwater, in 1845 by Boston traders. It was ad- mitted as a State in 1889. The Cas- cade Mountains traverse it north and south from British Columbia to Oregon, and divide it into two unequal portions, the eastern sedition containing about 50,000 and the western nearly 20,000 square miles. The highest peak is Mount Rainier or Tacoma, 14,- 500 feet, and tiiere are several others almost as high. The picturesque Columbia River enters the State from the north, trav- erses its whole breadth and with its tributaries drains nearly its whole area. The Snake, Walla Walla, Spokane, Colville, and Clarke's Fork are its principal affluents. The State has a coast line on the Pacific of about 180 miles which furnishes many ex- cellent harbors. The Industries are lumbering, fisheries, and agriculture. The lumber industry yields over 1,200,000,000 feet, employing 5,000 men, and several hundred sawmills, many of which export to Australia. The forests contain red firs, cedar, pines, hemlock, and many other woods. The Fisheries include salmon, halibut, ovsters, sturgeon, herring, and various other food fish. Agricul- ture yields 15,0<00,000 bushels of wheat, besides large quantities of corn, hops, and vegetables. Stock Raising has assumed extensive proportions, and irri- gating canals extend hundreds of miles. Coal is produced to the amount of over 1,000,000 tons in a year. Iron ore, granite, lead, gold, silver, copper, sandstone, and other minerals are found. The population in 1880 was 75,115; in 1890 it was 349,390. The manufactures are worth over $3,250,134 ; the farm land GREAT SEAL OF "WASHINGTON. 428 WAYWARD SISTERS. acreage is over $1,409,000, valued at over $13,844,000, yielding over $4,212,000 in a year. The daily school attendance is over 29,247. In 1890 there were 1,783 miles of railroad, and in 1892 there were 194 newspapers. Seattle, the capital, has a fine situation on Puget Sound, with a magnificent harbor. It is an extensive export, manufacturing, and commercial centre. Its population in 1880 was 4,000; in 1890, it was 42,837. It has a fine opera house, excellent hotels, a beautiful Chamber of Commerce, and substantial business build- ings. Tacoma, the second city (population 30,000), is at the head of Puget Sound navigation, and an important railroad and ship- ping centre. Ships leave the wharves here direct for Australia, China, and Japan. Spokane Falls, the third city (population 19,922), is the centre of an agricultural and mining region. The Governor of Washington is Elisha P. Ferry (Republican), whose term expires January 4, 1893. The State is Republican. Washington Monument. (See Monuments and Statues.) Watchdog of the Treasury. (See Nicknames of Famous Americans.) Wayward Sisters. Gen. Winfield Scott, in a letter to William II. Seward, in 1861, used the phrase " wayward sisters " in speak- ing of the slave States which had seceded. The allusion was that it would be better to allow them to go in peace rather than* to precipitate a civil war. Weather Indications. (See Signal Service.) We Have Met the Enemy, and They Are Ours. (See Say- ings of Famous Americans.) Weight Of Coins. (See Coinage, Free Coinage, etc.) We love Him for the Enemies He Has Made. (See Say- ings of Famous Americans.) We Must All Hang Together. (See Sayings of Famous Americans.) West Point Military Academy. (See Army, United States.) West Virginia. The State was settled at Phillipi, in 1704, by Americans. It was formed into a State in 1863, and was composed of the northern and western counties of Virginia. West Virginia is extremely hilly. The Alleghany range on its eastern boundary contains several large peaks, and west of this range and running parallel with it, at an average distance of thirty miles, are a series of mountains scarcely inferior in height, which enclose many fertile valleys. WEST VIRGINIA. 429 GREAT SEAL OF WEST VIRGINIA The Scenery of the mountain regions is very fine, and forms a special attraction for tourists. The White Sulphur Springs region is annually visited by thousands of people. The Po- tomac forms part of the eastern boundary. The I>ig Sandy, Great and Little Kanawha, Guayandotte and Monongahela are all navigable. The slack water navigation of the Kanawha and Monongahela is of much service to the commerce of the State, and by means of the Ohio the southern and southwestern cities can be reached. Agriculture produces yearly about 16,000,000 bushels of corn, 8,000,000 of wheat, and 3,000,000 of oats ; and employs nearly two thirds of the people. The chief rural vocation is the raising of horses, cattle, and sheep. The Pan-Handle counties have large flocks of she"ep, favored by the limestone soil, abundant water, and genial climate. There are 1,600,000 head of livestock. The tobacco industry yields 5,000,000 pounds in a year, valued at $400,000. Lumbering and Coal Mining are extensive industries; in coal-production, West Virginia stands fourth among the States, having an annual output of 6,500,000 tons, chiefly bitum- inous. In petroleum production the State stands third, averaging 360,000 barrels in a year. Natural gas, iron-ore, salt, sandstone, limestone, marble, copper are also produced. The population in 1880 was 618,457; in 1890, it wa$ 762,794. The real property was valued at 8119,000,000, the personal prop- erty at $60,000,000. The manufactures produce in a year over $22,860,000. The farm lands cover 10,225,000 acres, valued at $133,147,115, yielding $19,360,049. The daily school atten- dance is 121,700. In 1890 there were 1,327 miles of railroads, and in 1892 there were 152 newspapers. Wheeling, the chief city, is a thriving manufacturing centre, admirably situated on the Ohio River. The population in 1890 was 35,013. The second city is Huntingdon (population 10,- 108). Parkersburg is the third city (population 8,408), and the shipping point of the petroleum region. Charleston (popula- tion 6,734) is the capital, and has many salt springs. The Gov- ernor of West Virginia is William II. Ohley (Democrat). Ills term of office expires March 4, 1893. The State is Democratic. Wets. (See Slang of Politics.) 430 WILMOT PROVISO. What A Glorious Morning Is This! (See Sayings of Famous Americans.) What Hath God Wrought. (See Telegraph, The.) Wheat, Production Of. (See Agriculture.) WhigS. (See Political Parties.) Whiskey Ring, The. During the first administration of President Grant, a conspiracy was brought to light which incriini nated a large number of Federal officials. Investigation shown 1 that a large amount of whiskey, which had been represented as stored, had actually been shipped to various parts of the country, with the connivance of collectors, gangers, and other officials. The purpose of the conspirators was to defraud the government of the taxes on the liquor. Many high Federal officials were implicated, and the scandal created a profound sensation. The result was the indictment of over two hundred persons, and the confiscation of $3,500,000 worth of whiskey, on May 10, 1875. Whitewash. (See Slang of Politics.) Widows of Presidents and Federal Officers on Pension List. (See Pension Office.) Widows of Revolutionary Soldiers on Pension List. (See Pension Office.) Wilmot Proviso. (See Omnibus Bill.) So called from the fact that it t was introduced by Congressman David Wilmot, of Pennsylvania. On August 8, 1846, President Polk requested of Congress an appropriation of money with which to make a treaty with Mexico, by purchasing such of her territory as this govern- ment might want, and thus to settle the war then being carried on. The bill appropriating the money, $2,000,000, brought up the slavery question, Wilmot, who acted upon the advice of Northern Democrats, offering a proviso that " neither slavery nor involuntary servitude shall ever exist in any part of said territory, (to be purchased), except for crime, whereof the party shall first be convicted." The Whigs and Northern Democrats favored the proviso, and it passed the House, but arrived in the Senate too late to be acted upon. In the next Congress, Wilmot introduced his proviso again, but he failed in two attempts to put it through. In the discussion, the doctrine of " Squatter Sovereignty w was enunciated, which was in effect that the people of a State or Territory should settle the question of .slavery themselves. Wire-Puller. (See Slang of Politics.) Wisconsin. The country was settled at La Pointe, in 1005, by Frenchmen who built a mission there. The discovery in this WISCONSIN. 431 GREAT SEAL OF WISCONSIN. region of prehistoric implements, and of earthworks in the shape of mounds, have led ethnologists to believe that at some early age the country was inhabited by an unknown tribe who are supposed to have been what experts call " Mound- Build- ers." Wisconsin became a State in 1847, and its development since then has been rapid. Its general character is that of a large plain. The plain is from six hundred to fifteen hundred feet above the level of the sea. The Mississippi, Fox, and Wisconsin Rivers have a considerable descent while passing through or along the boundary of the State, thus fur- nishing valuable water power. Be- sides the great lakes - Superior on the north and Michigan on the east - there are numerous bodies of water in the central and northern parts of the State. These lakes are from five to thirty miles in extent, with high picturesque banks, and as a rule, deep water. From these many rivers take their rise, a number having beautiful cascades or rapids, and flowing through narrow, rocky gorges, or " dells," the scenery of which has become famous. Wisconsin has an endless variety of beautiful scenery. The four lakes which surround Madison ; the Dells, near Kil- bourn City; the weird beauty of Devil's Lake, which in the mystery of its origin rivals Lake Tahoe ; and the calm peace which reigns at Geneva Lake, all possess attractions for summer tourists. The Wisconsin Forests are the most valuable of its resources, the annual output of lumber aggregating over 1,500,000,000 feet, besides an enormous quantity of laths and shingles. Pine, oak, birch, basswood, poplar, spruce here grow in the utmost pro- fusion. The Farms, according to the latest estimates, are worth $100,- 000,000, yielding 40,000,000 bushels of oats, almost as many of corn, 20,000,000 of wheat, 12,000,000 of barley, 11,000,000 of potatoes, besides immense crops of hay and apples. Of tobacco, the yield is over 20,000,000 pounds. Fruit, flax, and wild rice yield large harvests. The Live- Stock Is valued at $75,000,000, including over a mil- lion cattle, 890,000 sheep, 400,000 horses, and 750,000 swine. The dairy industry yields 35,000,000 pounds of butter and 30,000,- 000 of cheese. In Iron ores, Wisconsin is the sixth State, 432 WOMAN' SUFFRAGE. yielding in a year over 800,000 tons. Other valuable minenil products are quicklime, sandstone, lead, zinc, bricks, limestone, pipestone, arid cement. The Manufactures are most diversified, aggregating in a year upwards of $140,000,000. The mineral springs of the State are numerous, and are patronized by thousands. The chief educational institutions are Racine College at Racine, the University of Wisconsin at Madison, Beloit College at Beloit, besides five State Normal Schools, and many sectarian institutions. The population of Wisconsin in 1880 was 1,315,- 497; in 1890 it was 1,686,880. The real property was valued at $455,000,000, the personal property at $125,000,000. The farm lands cover over 16,000,000 acres, valued at $400,000,000. The daily school attendance is 200,457. In 1890, there were 5,583 miles of railroad, and in 1892 there were 529 newspapers. Milwaukee, the chief city, had a population in 1890 of 204,468. It is situated on Lake Michigan, having a fine harbor which is protected by a large breakwater. There are large grain elevators where grain is loaded onto vessels bound for the East. Steamers have left this harbor loaded with grain and mill pro- ducts direct to England. There is an immense Shipping Trade. In entrances and clearances it follows closely upon Chicago, the number last year exceeding twenty thousand. It is the centre of an immense beer- brewing business. La Crosse, the second city (population, 25,090), is a prosperous manufacturing city, situated on the Mississippi. Oshkosh, the third city, another manufacturing centre (population, 22,836), is situated on Lake Winnebago. Madison, the capital (population, 13,426), is in the centre of beautiful lake country, and has several fine public buildings. The Chautauquan assemblies are annually held here. The Governor of Wisconsin is George W. 1'eek (Democrat), whose term expires January 2, 1893. The State is Republican. Wizard of Kinderkook. (See Presidents of the United States.) Woman Suffrage. Woman suffrage is credited with having begun in France in 1790, but it took no definite form. New Jer- sey in 1793 imposed certain restrictions on voters, and included both sexes. The act was repealed fourteen years later. The first woman's rights convention was held at Seneca Falls, N. Y., in 1848. The demand for suffrage was based on the ground that many women are tax-payers, that all are interested in good government, and that it is unjust for women of intelligence to be CD C WOMEN'S CHKISTIAN TEMPERANCE UNION. 433 deprived of a vote while ignorant men have a voice in the gov- ernment. They assert that their influence will have a purifyin^ effect on politics. Practically the same arguments are made to- day. The first National Convention was held at Worcester, Mass., in 1850. The proposition to admit women to suffrage has for many years been submitted to the successive State and national conventions, and in some sections of the country the public sentiment in its favor has assumed great strength. In 1870 the Republican State Convention of Massachusetts admitted Lucy Stone and Mary A. Livermore as delegates. The Repub- lican National Conventions of 1872 and 1876 resolved that " the honest demands " of this " class of citizens for additional rio-hts . . . should be treated with respectful consideration." The Prohibition party, in its platform of 1872, had a woman suffrage plank, and the Greenback national platform of 1884 favored the submission of a woman suffrage amendment to the people. The woman suffragists, organized as the Equal Rights Party (which see) in 1884, nominated Belva A. Lockwood for the Presidency. She had 2,500 votes. The right to vote for School Committees, etc., has been granted to women in Ari- zona, Colorado, Delaware, Idaho, Illinois, Indiana, Kansas, Ken- tucky, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, Nebraska, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, North Dakota, Oklahoma, Oregon, South Dakota, Texas, Vermont, Washington, and Wis- consin. In Kansas women have equal suffrage with men in municipal elections. In Wyoming they have voted for State and municipal officers since 1870. In Montana the Constitution guar- antees women a vote on local taxation. In New York, women vote at school elections (3,000 voted in Binghamton in 1890), at waterworks elections, and on questions of paving, grading, drain- age, street lighting, and other local improvements ; 47 women voted at the State election in 1887, and were not punished. In Pennsylvania they vote on local improvements (paving, etc.), by signing or refusing to sign petitions therefor. In 1889, a joint committee of Congress reported in favor of amending the United States Constitution to relieve the women of the whole country (about 13,000,000) from all disfranchisement. Congress did not act upon these reports. Twenty-nine States and Territories, in all, have given women some form of suffrage. Women's Christian Temperance Union, The. Unques- tionably the most powerful agency at work in the cause of temperance is the Women's Christian Temperance Union. The object of the Union is thus defined : To unify throughout the world the work of women in temperance and social reform and to circulate a petition addressed to all the governments of the 434 WOMEN'S CHRISTIAN TEMPERANCE UNION. world for the overthrow of the alcohol and opium trades. Methods : Preventive, Educational, Evangelistic, Social, and Legal. Time of Prayer : Noontide. Badge : A Knot of White Ribbon. Watchwords: Agitate! Organize! The Union has been actively at work under its present organi- zation since 1874, and its aims are accomplished by the more modern methods of temperance agitation, which are along the line of education. The Union has a newspaper, which is published in Chicago, and has a wide circulation. It is published by a stock company, which also conducts the other publishing business of the Union, which is very extensive, over 125,000,000 pages having been published in 1891. In order to impress the coming generation with the evils of the drink habit, the Union a few years ago sought to have the study of what is called scientific temper- ance introduced as a study in the common schools. Thirty-four States, through the efforts of the Union, have adopted laws requiring in the public schools the study of Scientific Tem- perance. Laws have also been secured forbidding the sale of tobacco to minors, and the members of the Union in all parts of the world are collecting a monster petition against legalizing the sale of alcoholics and opium, which will be presented to the rulers of the civilized nations as soon as two million names have been secured. The Headquarters of the Union in this country are in Chi- cago, where there is in course of erection the Woman's Temperance Temple, which will cost over one million dollars. The Woman's National Temperance Hospital is also in Chicago. Connected with the Publication House is a Lecture Bureau which sends speakers to all parts of the country. The Union has interna- tional connections, already having auxiliary unions at work in thirty-three different nationalities. In this country there are 10,000 local unions, having a membership and following of nearly 500,000. A notable feature of the organization is that it is con- ducted entirely by women. Besides its work in the temperance cause, the Union has accomplished great reforms in the manage- ment of Industrial Homes for girls, and many of these homes have been established solely through its efforts. Laws for the better protection of women and girls, refuges for abandoned women, and legislation raising the age of consent have all been secured through a department for the promotion of social purity, which is under the supervision of the President, Frances E. Wil- lard. The officers of the National Organization are : President, Frances E. Willard, Evanston, 111. ; Corresponding Secretary, Caroline B. Buell, Chicago; Recording Secretary, Mary A. Woodbridge, Ravenna, Ohio ; Treasurer, Esther Pugh, Chicago. WORLD'S COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION. 435 Wood-Pulp Miller. (See Nicknames of Famous Americans.) Wool, Production of. (See Agriculture.) World's Columbian Exposition, The. State Exhibits. Foreign Exhibits. Buildings. Columbus Celebrations. Previous Expositions. World's Congress Auxiliary. In 1887, the proposition to celebrate the four hundredth anniversary of the discovery of America by an International Exposition of arts, industries, and manufactures, and of the prod- ucts of the soil, mine, and sea was put forth. In 1889, the lead- ing cities of the East, besides Chicago, St. Louis, and Cincinnati, of the West, competed with one another for the site of the Exposi- tion. The contest was reduced to Chicago and New York, and Chicago won. The act providing for the holding of the Exposi- tion was approved on April 25, 1890. It authorized the ap- pointment of commissioners who should organize the Exposi- tion, and when these preliminaries were completed, the President was required to make a public proclamation of the fact and officially invite " all the nations of the earth " to participate in the Exposition. This proclamation was issued December 24, 1890. The following States and Territories made Appropria- tions toward expenses at the fair in the amounts named : Arizona, $30,000; California, $300,000; Colorado, $100,000; Delaware, $10,000 ; Idaho, $20,000; Illinois, $800,000; Indiana, $75,000 ; Iowa, $50,000 ; Maine, $40,000 ; Massachusetts, $75,- 000 ; Michigan, $100,000; Minnesota, $50,000; Missouri, $150,- 000; Montana, $50,000; Nebraska, $50,000; New Hampshire, $25,000; New Jersey, $20,000; New Mexico, $25,000 ; North Carolina, $25,000 ; North Dakota, $25,000 ; Ohio, $100,000 ; Pennsylvania, $300,000 ; Rhode Island, $25,000 ; Vermont, $20,000 ; Washington, $100,000 ; West Virginia, $40,000 ; Wis- consin, $65,000 ; Wyoming, $30,000 ; total, $2,700,000. In other States'" upwards of a million dollars was subscribed by individuals Practically all of the civilized nations of the world will be repre- sented by exhibits. Jackson Park, the site of the Exposition, is in the south- eastern part of the city of Chicago. The section set apart for the site of the Exposition covered 666 acres, overlooking Lake Michigan, with a park front a mile and a half long. The money spent in grading and filling this site, which originally was a half marsh and half prairie, was $450,400 ; in landscape gardening $323,490 ; in viaducts and bridges, $125,000; in piers, $70,000; in waterway improvements, $225,000 J in railways (to the park) 436 WORLD'S COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION. 1500,000 ; steam plant, $800,000 ; electricity, $500,000 ; statuary on buildings, $100,000; vases, lamps, ami posts, $50,000 ; sew- erage, water supply, etc., $800,000. The Income of the Exposi- tion from all sources is estimated at $23,000,000, including $5,628,000 stock-subscriptions, $5,000,000 Chicago city bonds, gate receipts (estimated), $10,000,000 ; concessions, $1,500,000 ; salvage, $1,000,000 ; interest, $27,000. This was supplemented by a bill introduced in Congress for the appropriation of $5,- 000,000 by the government. The plans for the Dedication of the Exposition buildings, were decided upon as follows : On October 12, 1892, a national salute, and, in the early part of the forenoon, the troops, both of the regular army and the national guard, assembled under the command of Gen. Nelson A. Miles, U. S. A., and reviewed by the President of the United States at 1 1 A. M. Immediately after the review, the ceremonies proper in the great manufacturers' building, a march by the orchestra, composed especially for the occasion by John K. Payne ; 2, a prayer by Bishop Charles II. Fowler, D. D., LL. D., of California ; 3, presentation by the chief of construction, Mr. Burnham, of the master artists of the Exposition and their completed work ; 4, report by the director- general of the Exposition, Col. George R. Davis ; 5, presentation of the buildings to the president of the national commission by the president of the local directory ; 6, vocal chorus, " The Heavens Are Telling," Haydn ; 7, presentation of the buildings to the President of the United States by the president of the national commission ; 8, march and chorus from " The Ruins of Athens," Beethoven ; 9, dedication of the buildings by the Presi- dent of the United States; 10, hallelujah chorus from "The Messiah," Handel; 11, dedicatory oration, by Hon. W. C. P. Breckinridge of Kentucky; 12, dedicatory ode, words by Miss Harriet Monroe, music by Professor Chadwick; 13, " The Star Spangled Banner " and " America," with grand chorus and full orchestral accompaniment ; 14, national salute. In the evening a magnificent display of fireworks, and the grand allegoric parade, the " Procession of the Centuries." On October 13, receptions, military manoeuvres, and a grand dress parade of all the troops, with more pyrotechnics and a repetition of the allegoric " Pro- cession of the Centuries." A grand Civic and Industrial Display, including illustrations of the leading events in the life of Columbus, and the history of the country. A dedication ball in the evening. The Exposition Buildings, for the construction of which $6,740,000 was appropriated, were designed to cover an area under roof of 150 acres, equal to the area under roof of the Paris (1889), WOBLD'S COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION. 437 the Philadelphia (1876), and the Vienna (1873) Expositions com- bined. This area of 150 acres is exclusive of the State and for- eign buildings. The Administration Building is pronounced the gem and crown of the Exposition palaces. It is located at the west end of the great court in the southern part of the site, looking eastward, and at its rear are the transportation facilities and depots. The most conspicuous object on the grounds is the gilded dome of this lofty building. This imposing edifice cost about $450,000. It .covers an area of 260 feet square, and con- sists of four pavilions 84 feet square, one at each of the four angles of the square and connected by a great central octagonal dome 120 feet in diameter and 220 feet in height. The general design is in the style of the French Renaissance. All the depart- ments and most of the subordinate departments have exhibits. One of the unique exhibits is that of the Navy Department, a feature of which is a full sized model 348 feet long of one of the new coast-line battleships, built by the Cramps at Philadelphia. This Imitation Battleship of 1893 is erected on piling on the Lake front in the northeast portion of Jackson Park. It is sur- rounded by water, and has the appearance of being moored to a wharf. The structure will have all the fittings that belong to the actual ship, such as guns, turrets, torpedo tubes, torpedo nets and booms, with boats, anchors, chain cables, davits, awnings, deck fittings, etc., etc., together with all appliances for working the same. Officers, seamen, mechanics, and marines are detailed by the navy department during the Exposition, and the discipline and mode of life on our naval vessels are completely shown. The Transportation Building is exquisitely refined and simple in architectural treatment, although it is very rich and elaborate in detail. In style it savors much of the Romanesque. The main building measures 960 x 250 feet, and cost $300,000. The transportation exhibits naturally include everything of what- soever name or sort, devoted to the purpose of transportation, and range from a baby carriage to a mogul engine, from a cash conveyor to a balloon or carrier pigeon. Machinery Hall has been pronounced by many architects second only to the Administration Building in architectural beauty. The building is spanned by three arched trusses and the interior presents the appearance of three railroad train-houses, side by side, surrounded on all of the four sides by a gallery fifty feet wide. The trusses are built separately, so that they can be taken down and sold for use as railroad train-houses. In each of the long naves there is an elevated travelling-crane running from end to end of the building for the purpose of moving machinery. These platforms are "built so that visitors may view the operation of the machinery from them. 438 WORLD'S COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION. Facing the great lagoon in the northwestern part of the park is the superb Woman's Building, designed by a woman, Miss Hayden, of Boston. The structure is 200 by 400 feet, and cost $120,000. Italian Renaissance is the style selected. The main grouping consists of a centre pavilion, flanked at each end with corner pavilions, connected in the first story by open arcades in the curtains, forming a shady promenade the whole length of the structure. The first story is raised about ten feet from the ground line, and a wide staircase leads to the centre pavilion. This pavilion, forming the main triple-arched entrance, with an open colonnade in the second story, is finished with a low and beautifully proportioned pediment, enriched with a highly elabo- rate bas-relief. Here are located the Hanging Gardens, and also the committee-rooms of the Board of Lady Managers. The building for Manufactures and Liberal Arts is the largest exposition building ever erected or contemplated. It is 1,G7 feet long by 787 feet wide, its greatest dimension being north and south. It covers an area of 30 acres. It is rectangu- lar in form, its central hall being surrounded by a nave and two galleries. The cost of the building is $1,500,000. The feature of the building is the great central hall. It has a clear space of 1,280 feet by 380 feet. Its roof rises to a height of 245 feet at the apex, and the 380 feet space is covered by a single arched span, without a supporting column. The height from the floor to the centre of the arch is 201 feet, clear, and the height of the lantern above the arch is 44 feet. Twenty-two steel arches support the centre of the roof. Each arch weighs 125 tons, and more than 5,000 tons of steel enter into the construction of the hall. Only by comparison with existing structures can any adequate idea be formed of the size of this building. It is three times as large as St. Peter's Cathedral in Rome, and the largest church in Chicago can be placed within the vestibule of St. Peter's. Its central hall, which occupies but one third of its area, will comfortably seat 50,000 people. The building is in the Corinthian style of architecture and is severely classic. The Hall of Mines and Mining is 350 by 700 feet. Its architecture is the early Italian Renaissance, the exterior presenting a massive though graceful appearance. The principal fronts display enormous arched entrances, richly embellished with sculptural decorations, emblematic of mining and its allied indus- tries. Marbles of different hues are used as facings, being also a part of the mining exhibit. The main fronts are 65 feet high and the main entrances 90 feet high. The roof is of steel cantilever trusses supported by steel columns 65 feet apart longitudinally and 115 feet and 57 feet 6 inches wide transversely, making clear WORLD'S COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION. 439 space in the centre of the building 630 feet long and 115 feet wide, and on each side a space of 57 feet 6 inches by 630 feet, leaving the central space encumbered by only sixteen supporting posts. It is said that the cantilever system as applied to roofs was never before used on so large a scale. The cost of this building is $260,000, and it covers an area of 5.6 acres. Grecian-Ionic in style, the Fine Arts Building is a pure type of the most refined classic architecture. It cost over $500,- 000. The building is oblong, and is 500 by 320 feet, intersected north, east, south, and west by a great nave and transept 100 feet wide and 70 feet high, at the intersection of which is a great dome 60 feet in diameter. The building is 125 feet to the top of the dome, which is surmounted by a colossal statue of the type of famous figures of Winged Victory. The transept has a clear space through the centre of 60 feet, being lighted entirely from above. On either side are galleries 20 feet wide and 24 feet above the floor. The Collections of sculpture are displayed on the main floor of the nave and transept, and on the walls both of the ground floor and of the galleries are ample areas for dis- playing the paintings and sculptured panels in relief. The corners made by the crossing of the nave and transept are filled with small picture galleries. Around the entire building are galleries 40 feet wide, forming a continuous promenade around the classic structure. The main building is entered by four Great Portals, richly ornamented with architectural sculpture and approached by broad flights of steps. The walls of the loggia of the colonnades are highly decorated with mural paintings, illustrating the history and progress of the arts. The frieze of the exterior walls and the pediments of the principal entrances are ornamented with sculptures and portraits in bas-relief of the masters of ancient art. The general tone of color is light gray stone. The Horticultural Building is 1,000 feet long, with an ex- treme width of 250 feet, and costs $200,000. The plan is a central pavilion with two end pavilions, each connected with the central one by front and rear curtains, forming two interior courts, each 88 by 270 feet. These courts are beautifully decorated in color and planted with ornamental shrubs and flowers. The centre pavilion is roofed by a crystal dome 187 feet in diameter and 113 feet high, under which are exhibited the tallest palms, bamboos, and tree ferns. It was designed to contain not only a complete exhibit of dairy products, but also a dairy school, in connection with which will be conducted a series of tests for de- termining the relative merits of different breeds of dairy cattle as milk and butter producers. 440 WORLD'S COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION. The Dairy School, it is believed, will he most instructive and valuable to agriculturists. The school will include a contest be- tween both herds and individuals of the chief breeds of dairy cattle, with a view of ascertaining the respective merits of each in milk-giving and butter-producing. Each herd will be charged each day with the food consumed, accurately weighed, and will be credited with the milk and butter produced. Spectators will be able to obtain an excellent view of the processes in all their stages. The Tests and all details of management will be under rules prepared by a committee composed of one member from each of the dairy cattle associations in the United States, three from the Columbian Dairy Association, three from the agricultural colleges and United States experimental stations, and one from the manufacturers of dairy utensils. The results of this test and of the exhibition, which will be made of the latest and most ad- vanced scientific methods known in connection with the feeding and care of cattle, the treatment of milk, and the production of butter and cheese, cannot fail to be of great and lasting benefit to the dairy interests of this country. One of the most artistic of the Exposition palaces is the Fisheries Building, which embraces a large central structure with two smaller polygonal buildings connected with it on either end by arcades. It cost $200,000. The extreme length of the building is 1,100 feet and the width 200 feet. In the central portion is the general fisheries exhibit. In one of the polygonal buildings is the angling exhibit and in the other the aquaria. The exterior of the building is Spanish-Romanesque, which con- trasts agreeably in appearance with that of the other buildings. The glass fronts of the aquaria are in length about 575 feet and have 3,000 square feet of surface. They make a panorama never before seen in any exhibition and rival the great perma- nent aquariums of the world, not only in size, but in all other respects. The total Water Capacity of the aquaria, exclusive of reservoirs, is 18,725 cubic feet, or 140,000 gallons. This weighs 1,192,425 pounds, or almost 600 tons. In the entire salt- water circulation, including reservoirs, there are about 80,000 gallons. The supply of sea water was secured by evaporating the necessary quantity at the Woods IIoll station of the United States fish commission to about one fifth its bulk, thus reducing both quantity and weight for transportation about 80 per cent. The fresh water required to restore it to its proper density was supplied from Lake Michigan. In transporting the marine fishes to Chicago from the coast there was an addition of probably o,000 gallons of pure sea water to the supply on each trip. The Fish Exhibit is a wonderful one, and not the least i WORLD'S COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION. 441 esting portion of it is the aquarial or live fish display. This is approached through one of the arcades from the main building. In the centre of the polygonal building is a rotunda 60 feet ir, diameter, in the middle of which is a basin or pool twenty-six feet wide, from which rises a towering mass of rocks covered with moss and lichens. From clefts and crevices in the rocks crystal streams of water gush and drop to the masses of reeds, rushes, and ornamental semi-aquatic plants in the basin below. In this pool gorgeous gold fishes, golden ides, golden trench, and other lishes disport. From the rotunda one side of the larger series of aquaria may be viewed. These are ten in number, and have a capacity of 7,000 to 27,000 gallons of water each. The Forestry Building is, in appearance, perhaps the most novel of all the Exposition structures. Its dimensions are 200 by 500 feet, and the cost was $200,000. To a remarkable degree its architecture is of the rustic order. On all four sides of the build- ing is a veranda, supporting the roof of which is a colonnade consisting of a series of columns composed of three tree trunks each 25 feet in length, one of them from 16 to 20 inches in diam- eter and the others smaller. All of these trunks are left in their natural state with bark iindisturbed. They are contributed by the different States and Territories of the Union and by foreign countries, each furnishing specimens of its most characteristic trees. The sides of the building are constructed of slabs with the bark removed. The window frames are treated in the sajne rustic manner as is the rest of the building. The main entrance is elaborately finished in different kinds of wood, the material and workmanship being contributed by the wood-workers of the world. The other entrances are finished artistically to represent the woods of different countries and regions. The roof is thatched, not with straw, as was erroneously stated some time ago, but with tanbark and other barks. The interior of the building is finished in various woods in a way to show their beautiful graining, susceptibility to polish, etc. The visitor can make no mistake as to the kinds of tree trunks which form the colonnade, for he will see upon each one a tablet upon which are inscribed the common and scientific name, the State or country from which the trunk was contributed, and other pertinent infor- mation, such as the approximate quantity of such timber in the region whence it came. Surmounting the cornice of the veranda and extending, all around the building are numerous flagstaffs, bearing the colors, coats-of-arms, etc., of the nations and States represented in the exhibits inside. The Forestry Building contains a most varied exhibition of Forest Products in general the most complete which could 442 WORLD'S COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION. be gathered together. It contains logs and sections of trees, worked lumber in the form of shingles, flooring, casing, etc. There are shown here rare woods and barks, mosses, galls, wood pulp, wooden ware, rattan, rosins, gums, vegetable ivory, etc. The Electrical Building, the seat of perhaps the most novel and brilliant exhibit in the exposition, is based upon a nave 115 feet wide and 114 feet high, crossed in the middle by a transept of similar dimensions. The building is an attractive one, with many towers, and spires, and masts for display of banners and electric lights at night. In the design of this building it was proposed by the architects to so devise the details and general outlines that they might be capable of providing an electrical illumination by night on a scale hitherto unknown, the flagstaffs, open porticoes, and towers being especially arranged with this in view. The building cost $375,000. One of the magnificent structures raised for the Exposition is the Agricultural Building. The style of architecture is classic Renaissance. The building is five hundred by eight hun- dred feet, its longest dimensions being east and west. The north line of the building is almost on a line with the pier extending into the lake, on which heroic columns, emblematic of the thirteen original States, are raised. A lagoon stretches out along this entire front of the building. The east front looks out into a harbor which affords refuge for numerous pleasure craft. The entire west exposure of the building faces a branch of the lagoon that extends along the north side. With these picturesque sur- roundings as an inspiration, the architects have brought out designs that have been pronounced all but faultless. For a single story building the design is bold and heroic. The general cornice line is sixty-five feet above grade. On either side of the main entrance are mammoth Corinthian Pillars fifty feet high and five feet in diameter. On each corner and from the centre of the building pavilions are reared, the centre ,000, and the various States contributed $234,000 for exhibits. World's Congress Auxiliary. (See World's Columbian Exposition.) World's Fairs. (See World's Columbian Exposition.) Wyoming. The first settlements within its limits were made in 1834, at Fort Laramie, by Americans. There was considerable immigration during the construction of the Union Pacific Railroad, and the Territorial organization was completed on May 10, 1869. Wyoming was admitted into the Union, July 10, 1890. The main chain of the Rockies extends across the State, forming what is known as " The Divide." A large part of the State is 10,000 feet above sea level. Some of it is 14,000 feet, and no part of it is less than 6,000 feet above sea level. The rivers are the Big Horn, Tongue, Powder, Green, Little Missouri, North Platte, Medicine Bow, Laramie, and Sweetwater. The most interesting of the natural features of Wyoming, and those which have most attracted the attention of travellers, are found in the extreme northwest corner of the Territory, in the section known as the Yellowstone National Park. This wonderful park has a length of sixty-five miles north and south by fifty-five miles in width, and an area of 3,575 square miles. No part of it is less than 6,000 feet above the sea, and the snow- covered mountains that hem in the valleys on every side rise to a height of 12,000 feet. It is a land of wonders, with its grand canons and geysers, its beautiful lakes an drivers, with cataracts, cascades, and rapids of unsurpassed beauty, and mountains towering far above the deep and rugged valleys through which the rapid streams flow. 446 x - Y - z - MISSION. Wyoming lias 5,000 milt's of canals for irrigation purposes, 'milt at a cost of $10,000,001). Grazing is the chief industry, there being on its ranges upwards of a million cattle and as many sheep. The raising of horses is also a leading business. The live-stock interests of W yorning have upwards of $75,000,000 of capital invested. Gold and silver mining is carried on with excellent results. There are extensive coal-h'elds, yielding 1,500,- 000 tons in a year, and employing 3,000 men. The United States Garrisons are Fort Russell, Fort McKmney, Fort Washakie. The State has 1,100 Hhoslione Indians and 900 Arapahoes, on reservations. The population of Wyoming in 1880 was 20,798 ; in 1890, it was <>0,70f>. The assessed property was valued at $31,500,000; the manufactures aggregated 898,494 in a year ; the acreage of farm lands was 124,433, valued at $835,895, yielding products worth $372,391. The school attendance was 3|750 ; the number of miles of rail- roads in 1890 was 1,000 ; the newspapers numbered 35. Cheyenne, the chief city and the capital, with a population in 1890 of 11,090, is a centre for railroads and supplies. It lias all the attributes of an eastern city. The second city is Laramie, (population in 1890 6,407), which is also a bustling place, having many industries, good schools, and many churches. Rock Springs, the third city, with 3,317 inhabitants, is the coal-mining centre. The Governor of Wyoming is Ames W. Barber (Republican). His term expires January 2, 1893. The State is Republican. X. Y. Z. Mission. An interesting incident, and one which redounded to the credit of the United States, is connected with these initials. France having given valuable aid to the colonies iu the Revolutionary War, requested a like favor for herself in her war with Great Britain in 1789. Washington, however, persisted in maintaining the United States in an attitude of neu- trality, whereat France was greatly angered. In 1797, C. C. Pinckney was sent as Minister to France ; about the same time, the French Directory announced that they would receive no more American ministers. Pinckney was ordered to quit the country. President Adams at once called an Extra Session of Con- gress, before which he made an address in which he said that he was about to send three commissioners to France in the hope of making peace. The French navy at the time were attacking Amer- ican merchant vessels, and the navy. (See French Spoliations Claims.) The envoys, some months later, reported that they had been received by Talleyrand after having been kept waiting, that in other respects they had been discourteously treated, and, more- over, that a bribe to the Directory and a loan to the French government were the price of a peaceable arrangement with the YANKEE. 447 United States. In their report, the envoys indicated the names of the persons who had tried to bribe them as X. Y. and Z. The result of this new insult was the enkindling of a War Spirit in the country, taking advantage of which the Federal administration passed a number of acts to make the nation ready for hostilities, among which were the ordering of a provisional army, with Washington as Commander-in-Chief, the increasing of the navy, and its establishment as a separate department, the negotiation of a new loan, and the imposition of a direct tax. France, however, the next year disavowed any authority of the persons designated as X. Y. Z. to act for the Directory, and hastened to smooth over the disagreement, which was quickly accomplished. Howe v e r , the vast power assumed by the Federalists in the con- duct of this affair with France alarmed the public mind, and brought about an undercurrent of public sentiment, antagonistic to the centralization of great power in the government, which ultimately led to the downfall of the Federalists. A chief instrumentality in arousing the people were the two acts forced through by the Federalists, known as the Alien and the Sedi- tion Laws (which see). Yankee. The lexicographers have differed each with the" other regarding the derivation of this word. The most widely accepted explanation of its origin is that it came from the corrupt pronunciation by the Indians of the word English or French Anglais. The Dutch settlers along the Hudson first applied the word to the New England people, and to this day in its more general application it refers to the inhabitants of the six New England States. Englishmen, and other foreigners, however, use the term as referring to the entire body of Americans ; and in the South, it is quite coTiimon to speak of all Northerners as Yankees. As distinguished from "New Englander," it is not nearly so complimentary a term; in fact, Yankee is to some people suggestive of that kind of shrewdness which is synony- mous with trickery. Yankee Doodle. (See Songs of the Nation.) PHILADELPHIA Y. M. C. A. BUILDING. 448 YOUNG MEN'S CHRISTIAN ASSOCIATION. Young Hickory- (See Nicknames of Famous Americans.) Young Hickory. (See Presidents of the United States.) Young Men's Christian Association. The founder of this widespread religious movement was George Williams, a clerk in a London dry-goods house, who, in 1844, organized in that city the first association. The first society on this continent was organized in 1851 at Montreal ; the second was organized soon after at Boston. There are to-day 1,385 associations. The aggre- gate membership in America is 225,500 ; there are 231 Y. M. C. A. buildings valued at $9,946,085. The various organizations own 649 libraries, containing upwards of 450,000 volumes. There are 1,186 secretaries and assistants, and the current expenses of associations in 1891 aggregated $2,032,127. The total number of associations in the world is 4,151. The officers of the Inter- national Committee are Chairman, Cephas Brainerd ; Treasurer, Benjamin C. Wetmore ; General Secretary, Richard C. Morse ; Board of Trustees: Chairman, J. N. Harris, New London, Ct. ; Treasurer, John S. Bussing, New York City. Headquarters, No. 40 East Twenty-Third Street, New York City. BIOGRAPHICAL STORY OF THE Career, with Anecdotes, Reminiscences, and an Account of the Family Life of BENJAHIN HARRISON The Republican Presidential Nominee AND WHITELAW REID The Republican Vice-Presidential Nominee. 449 or r i BENJAMIN HARRISON. 462 BENJAMIN HARRISON'S CAREER. Statesmen are actors on the stage of national achievement. It is given to them to practice, if they choose, certain arts and stratagems which, however transparent they may be to the initiated, keep them in the public mind. Yet to this level of personal seeking, not even the most bitter opponent of Benjamin Harrison can accuse him of stooping. He never has played to the galleries. He never has courted notoriety for its own sake. In all his public career, his demeanor has been as unassuming, as dignified, and as unselfish as that which has characterized him in his private life. It is for this reason, together with the fact that his nomination in 1888 was due rather to his political availability than to his ad- mitted statesmanship, that in the public estimation he is a conservative, level-headed, high-minded, and safe Chief Executive, but lacking the qualifications of leadership. Thus the average citizen has come to regard him as the possessor of fair administrative ability, without especial brilliancy of mind or conduct. But the popular judgment of a man is more often than not an unfounded one. The greatest man not always deserves to wear the title. The glittering crown on the head of the people's idol not always is a golden one, but may be alloyed with the base metal of mediocrity. For- tunately the student of history rarely judges statesmen from the point of view of what is called their personal popularity, but rather from that of personal worth, public service, and de- votion- to principle. So it happens that the study of the career of Benjamin Harrison reveals many unexpected traits of character. We are struck with his versatility. Whether 453 454 BENJAMIN HARRISON'S CAREER. we regard him in the light of his military achievements, of his legal attainments, of his statesmanship, or of his oratory, we find him well equipped, and in either capacity acquitting himself with honor. Versatility is rarely a characteristic of our Presidents nowadays. As a rule they are men whose ability lies in but one direction, who, if they happen to be lawyers, know next to nothing of the science of war, and if they happen to be soldiers, are ignorant of the great formative legal principles of the Constitution. President Harrison has shown himself to be more than a lawyer, more than a soldier. As head of the most energetic administration since the war, he has commanded the approval often of his opponents. Long ago they ceased to recognize in him the fortunate grandson of a famous grandfather, but have learned to admire him be- cause of his broad-minded statesmanship, and to fear him be- cause of his political sagacity. The Harrison family came to America from England, where it was prominent at the time of Oliver Cromwell. The head of the family was a Major-General Harrison, one of Cromwell's trusted followers and fighters. In the zenith of Cromwell's power it became the duty of this Harrison to participate in the trial of Charles I., and afterwards to sign the death warrant of the King. He subsequently paid for this with his life, being hanged Oct. 13, 1660. Pepys in his diary says : "I went out to Charing Cross to see Major- General Harrison hanged, drawn, and quartered, which was done there, he looking as cheerful as any man could in his position. He was presently cut down, and his head and heart shown to the people, at which there was great shouting of joy. It was said that he said he was sure to come shortly to the right hand of Christ to judge them that had judged him, and that his wife do expect his coming again." His descendants emigrated to America, and the next of the family that appears in history is Benjamin Harrison, of Virginia, great-grandfather of the subject of this sketch and after whom BENJAMIN HARRISON'S CAKEKR. 455 he was named. Benjamin Harrison was a member of the Continental Congress during the years 1774, 1775, and 1776. He was a member of the committee which prepared the memorial to the King and Parliament on the stamp tax, and while he opposed Patrick Henry's inflammatory utterances on that question, yet he was none the less loyal to the idea of independence. He was the brother-in-law of Peyton Randolph, the first President of the American Congress. When Randolph died the Southern members united upon Harrison to succeed him ; but the latter, to secure harmony between the North and the South, withdrew his claims in favor of John Hancock, of Massachusetts. Harrison was one of the signers of the Declaration of Independence and Chair- man of the Committee which reported the Declaration to the Continental Congress, was three times elected Governor of Virginia, and was a member of the convention that ratified the Constitution. He died in 1791. The youngest of his three sons was William Henry Harrison, who was graduated at Hampden Sidney College. He was engaged in the study of medicine when, the Indian war having broken out, he entered the military service with the commission of ensign in the First Infantry. He made a good soldier, and was promoted several times. His career as a commander in the War of 1812, especially his exploits at the Battle of Tippecanoe, gave him a national reputation. He was appointed Secretary of the Northwest Territory under General St. Clair, but resigned and was chosen delegate to Congress. During the session Congress created the Terri- tory of Indiana, including what are now the States of Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and Wisconsin, and he was chosen its Governor. His administration of this office was of lasting importance to the development of the West and the North- west. General Harrison, besides having been elected to Congress, was United States Senator from Ohio and Minister to Colombia. He was brought into the field as the Whig 456 BENJAMIN HARRISON'S CAREER. candidate for President in 1839. His opponent was Martin Van Buren, Democrat, whom he defeated easily, receiving two hundred and thirty-four electoral votes to Van Buren's sixty. He died within one month after his inauguration as President. His son, John Scott Harrison, the father of Benjamin Harrison, was born at Vincennes, Ind., in 1804. He lived all his life on a farm in Southern Ohio. He served twice as County Clerk, and was a member of Congress from 18ft2 to 1856. He died about twelve years ago. Benjamin Harrison was born at North Bend, Hamilton County, O., on August 20, 1833, in the house of his grand- father. The Harrisons, from the first Bonj.imin Harrison, had been farmers, and were accustomed to the hard work of farm-life. One of the songs of the Log-Cabin and Hard-Cider Campaign refers to General William Henry Harrison's facility with the flail. The present candidate never had reason to regret his boyhood experience on the Harrison farm at North Bend. His first schooling was at the log school-house near his home, but when fourteen years old, he was sent to Gary's Academy, near Cincinnati, where he prepared for college. At the age of sixteen, he entered Miami University, at Oxford, Ohio, and in June, 1852, he graduated fourth in a class of six- teen. After leaving the university, young Harrison studied law in Judge Bellamy Storer's office in Cincinnati, where he re- mained for two years. He was already in love with Miss Carrie L. Scott, the daughter of the Rev. J. W. Scott, the principal of the girls' seminary at Oxford, Ohio, and they were married when Harrison was nineteen and Miss Scott eighteen. The couple went to housekeeping in a one-story house at Indianapolis, where the young lawyer threw out his shingle and awaited clients. Their means were limited, and Mrs. Harrison performed the household duties without the help of a servant. Her husband sawed the wood, brought the water, and anticipated practice and success. Of that early experience BKN.IAMIX HARBISON'S CAREER. 457 he said to a friend a few years since, " They were close times, I tell you. A five-dollar bill was an event. There was one good friend through it all Robert Browning, the druggist. I shall always recollect him with gratitude. He believed in me. When things were particularly tight, I could go into his store and borrow five dollars from his drawer. A ticket in its place was all that was required. Such friends make life worth living." Browning saw elements of success in young Harrison. He expected that he would succeed ; and he did. To General Wallace, Harrison's life-long friend, and for some years his law-partner, we are indebted for a pen-portrait of the young Indiana lawyer at an interesting point in his career. General Wallace says : " He was small in stature, of slender physique, and what might be called a blonde. His eyes were gray, tinged with blue, his hair light, reminding one of what in ancient days along the Wabash was more truly than poetically described as a ' tow head.' He was plainly dressed, and, in that respect, gave tokens of indifference to the canons of fashion. He was modest in manner, even diffident ; but he had a pleasant voice and look, and did not lack for words to express himself. At first one wondered that a young man apparently so lacking in assertion should presume to entrust himself so far from home. But it was noticed that everything he undertook to do he did with re- markable sincerity and ability, and he was soon winning suits at the bar. I believe it was one of his early peculiari- ties not to take a case he didn't believe in." Another biographer speaks of him thus : " His face was not an imposing figure at that time. A little slender fellow, with a smooth face, a big, tow-white head, no neck to speak of, and only the rather incredible fact that he had a wife saved him from being mistaken for a school-boy. He was poor, too, and for a long time lived in three rooms in a little old house, still standing in Vermont Street, near Alabama." 458 BENJAMIN HARRISON'S DARKER. His law-practice the first year at Indianapolis did not yield enough to support him, and lie was compelled to draw upon his small capital of eight hundred dollars, the proceeds of a lot of land in Cincinnati, which was bequeathed to him by a deceased aunt, Mrs. General Findlay, of that city. At this time he occupied a desk in the office of John H. Rea, Clerk of the United States District Court, being too poor to hire an office of his own. It was here that an opportunity to dis- play his ability presented itself, when one day the Prosecuting Attorney, Major Jonathan W. Gordon, invited him to assist in the trial, then attracting wide attention, of the " Point Lookout " burglary case. He was called upon to make the leading argument for the prosecution, Governor Wallace, one of the leading members of the Indiana bar, being pitted against him. During the afternoon, when the witnesses were being examined, he eagerly noted every point, writing down with great fulness" notes of everything which he thought could be used with advantage in his maiden argument of the evening. Evening came. The court-house was packed. The court-room was lighted with tallow candles. In the feeble light of the court-room Harrison observed, greatly to his dis- gust, that the pencil that he had employed to write with during the day was so hard that his notes were perfectly illegible. This greatly embarrassed him. At the outset of his speech he made one attempt to use some of the fragments of his papers ; but finding that they interfered with the free expression of his thought, in his despair he threw the notes boldly to one side. With the memory of his wife and baby at home he confronted the jury, grimly determined not to make a failure. The loss of his notes probably saved him. His memory retained enough of the details of the case, with- out being fretted with the superfluous parts of it. He made such an effective plea to the jury that, when he had com- pleted, Governor Wallace went up to him and patted him upon the shoulder, giving him warm words of encourage- BENJAMIN HARRISON'S CAREER. 459 ment and approval. He invited him to form a business partnership with his son, who was then about to establish himself in the practice of law in Indianapolis. The two young men worked along together, making a bare living, until 1860, when Wallace became a candidate for Clerk of the Circuit Court and Harrison a candidate for the Reporter- ship of the Supreme Court, the salary of which was twenty- five hundred dollars a year. His professional reputation was further enhanced by his prosecution of a negro charged with attempting wholesale murder by putting poison in the coffee at a hotel. Harrison knew nothing of poisons, but calling on a young doctor napaed Parvin, who has since become famous, spent a night in study, and the next day went into court and gained a conviction. His legal abilities were of so pronounced a character that in middle age he was regarded as one of the ablest of the lawyers of Indiana. A legislative investigation, in which he secured employment through the Democratic Governor, won him new honors. The ability he displayed elicited the highest praise of lawyers and laymen. He soon acquired the reputation of consummate skill in the preparation of cases. He became an expert examiner of witnesses and dis- cussed legal questions in written briefs or oral arguments with convincing strength, and became one of the leaders of his profession as an advocate. " In a case at law," said one of his legal brethren, " he brings a moral force to bear upon any crooked work or con- cealment that is as powerful as any skill in handling it. His scorn and sarcasm has an 'ugly honesty' in its expression that will skin or scalp the victim, according to the degree of his culpability. In speaking he has a high, shrill voice, un- pleasant to the ear for the first few moments, but a great clearness of enunciation soon absorbs the sense in the subject. His manner is very earnest and at any proper point sweeps 460 BEX.TAMIX HARRISON'S CAREER. on like a cavalry charge. He has an aggressive streak in his nature, as his square, firm jaw and the ' clench ' with which he shuts his mouth indicate. He ha:> abundant pluck in the use of it, and with an aroused conscience is no respecter of persons." That a man of his attainments and fame should become a leader in politics was inevitable. In the first years of his life at Indianapolis he had gained a local reputation as a political speaker. Being by inheritance a Whig, it was only natural that his sympathies should be with the Republican party, when in 1856 it was formed with Fremont as its candi- date for the Presidency. It is related of him that when the news came that General Fremont had been nominated, he was at work in his office. A crowd of exultant men rushed in and asked him to make a ratification speech. He declined, saying that he could not speak without preparation. The crowd persisted, but he continued to refuse until a number of men picked him up on their shoulders, carried him outside, put him on a dry-goods box, and told him to say something to the people who were there assembled. Thus, entirely without preparation, he made a speech which won the wildest applause from his hearers and added greatly to his reputation as an orator. In the Lincoln campaign of 1860, he took the stump in favor of the Republican candidate. He had himself been nominated for the office of Reporter of the Supreme Court, and he made a spirited canvass, a feature of which was a joint debate at Rockville, where he broke lances with Thomas A. Hendricks, the leader of the Indiana Democracy, and worsted him in an oratorical encounter which has been a tradition among loyal Republicans ever since. Hendricks, then running for Governor, and Daniel "W. Voorhees were announced to speak the same evening as Harrison. The Democrats challenged the young Republican orator to a joint meeting, and taunted him with the fear of defeat. Harrison CAROLINE SCOTT HARRISON. 461 BENJAMIN HARRISON'S CAREER. 463 accepted the challenge with this remark : " Hendricks is the head of the Democratic ticket while I am the tail of the Republican ticket. He is an experienced public debater, while I am on my first trip. But if we can't get along with- out showing the white feather, just tell them we will consent to a joint meeting." The audience seemed to pity Harrison when he arose to speak, but their sympathy was wasted, for the young orator immediately proved himself more than a match for the Democratic leader. His powers of sarcasm and epithet, which are a marked characteristic of his oratory on occasion, he used to excellent advantage against Hen- dricks. He had the advantage of speaking after Hendricks, and at once assailed the record of the Democratic party, among other things charging that " every Democrat in Indiana had but a few years ago conceded the truth of a proposition they now deny." Voorhees was on his feet in an instant with a denial. Harrison stopped for a moment and said with quick -repartee : " I beg your pardon, fellow-citizens, I should have said every Democrat except Mr. Voorhees. - He was then a Whig." A roar of applause greeted this bright sally of Harrison, and to him were conceded the honors of the even- ing. So severe was his figurative chastisement of Hendricks that the latter said afterwards that he never would agree to a similar political discussion and give Harrison the advantage of an uninterrupted closing argument. By 1862, when Lincoln called for 500,000 troops, Harri- son had reached a point in his career when it seemed that he would make a name for himself in civil life. He had an income from his office of $2,500 a year, a house which he had half paid for, and two young children. But Lincoln's call for troops in July of that year he construed in the light of a personal appeal. The Rebellion was assuming dangerous proportions. Indiana had not done her share in the way of enlistments and Governor Morton was in despair. It hap- pened that Harrison, with William Wallace, called on the 464 BENJAMIN HAKKISON'S CAKEKU. Governor with reference to the appointment of g, lieutenant from northern Indiana. " After getting through with this business," Harrison him- self said, " Governor Morton invited me into an inner room. He there spoke of the call for troops and of no response being made thereto. The Governor seemed quite dis- couraged at the apathy of the people, and, pointing over towards the Gallup Block, where men were dressing stone, remarked that men were interested in their own business more than in the safety of the nation. I said right there : " ' Governor, if I can be of service to my country I am ready to go.' "He said: 'You can; you can raise a regiment in this district.' He went on to say : " * You have a good office, and it would be too much to ask you to give it up ; but you get up the regiment and we can find someone else to take it to the field.' "I said: 'No ; if I make a recruiting speech and ask any man to enlist, I propose to go with him and stay as long as he does, if I live so long.' "'Well,' said the Governor, 'you can command the regi- ment.' " I said : ' I don't know that I shall want to. I have no military experience ; we can see about that.' ' Harrison acted quickly. He went straight to a hat store and bought a military cap. Then he hired a fifer and a drummer, whom he stationed in front of his law office, from the windows of which he soon threw out a Union flag. His office was thus turned into a recruiting station for the United States army. He did these things without consulting his wife. The fifer piped such shrill blasts of patriotism, and the drum rattled such a stirring accompaniment that the town was soon alive with excitement. Harrison's example was speedily followed by many others. The patriotism of BENJAMIN HARRISON'S CAREER. 465 Indianapolis was aroused. Her citizens rallied to the Union cause. Within a brief time Company A of the Seventieth Indiana Regiment was raised by Harrison, and in a few weeks a full regiment was organized. He was elected Colo- nel of this regiment. Within thirty days from the time that " Ben " Harrison closed his law books and donned a military cap he was at the head of a full regiment of troops at Bowl- ing Green, Ky., to assist in the repulse of Gen. Kirby Smith, who had been threatening southern Indiana with guerilla raids. This regiment, which was assigned to the first brigade of the third division of the 29th Army Corps, under Colonel Harrison became one of the best drilled and most thoroughly disciplined regiments of the army, although at the time of its enlistment its membership was composed of the most unprom- ising raw material. The regiment served in Kentucky and Tennessee until January, 1864, when it moved east to join Sherman in the campaign of Atlanta. At Resaca, on May 15, 1864, he achieved his first triumph in the field. Here he led the charging column, and captured the rebel lines and guns. At Peach-Tree Creek he won the approval of Fighting Joe Hooker. While waiting with his men in re- serve, Harrison saw a detachment of Hood's forces coming towards him. The crest of a hill was between them. Har- rison saw instantly that it would not do to wait and receive this attack at the foot of the hill. Without an order he as- sumed the responsibility of charging his reserves up the hill to meet the rebels half way. " Our colonel was right with us, too," says Moses McLain, who was wounded in that charge. " He came right up behind us when we captured the four guns there the only guns, I believe, that were taken in the Atlanta campaign. We had to withstand a murderous cross-fire, and as the gunners discharged their pieces we fell to the ground and allowed the shot to pass over us. Then we rushed up, scaled the works, and took possession of the guns." 466 BENJAMIN HARRISON'S TAREEB. This was done with so much impetuosity and courage that the rebels were sharply repulsed. It was for this that Gen. Joe Hooker roared out to Harrison, after it was over : " By G , sir, I will have you made brigadier-general for this." Hooker was as good as his word. In a letter to the Secre- tary of War, he commended Colonel Harrison's bravery and his soldierly qualities in the following manner : HEADQUARTERS NORTHERN DEPARTMENT, CINNCINATI, O., Oct. 31, 1864. The Hon. E. M. Stanton, Secretary of War: I de- sire to call the attention of the department to the claims of Col. Benjamin Harrison of the Seventieth Indiana Volunteers for promotion to the rank of Brigadier-General Volunteers. Colonel Harrison first joined me in command of a brigade of Ward's division in Lookout Valley preparatory to entering upon what is called the Campaign of Atlanta. My attention was first attracted to this young officer by the superior excellence of his brigade in discipline and instruction, the result of his labor, skill, and devotion. With more foresight than I have witnessed in any officer of liis experience, he seemed to act upon the principle that success depended upon the thorough preparation in discipline and esprit of his command for conflict more than on any influence that could be exerted, in the field itself, and when the collision came his command vindicated his wisdom as much as his valor. In all the achievements of the Twentieth Corps in that campaign, Colonel Harrison bore a conspicuous part. At Resaca and Peach- Tree Creek the conduct of himself and command was especially distinguished. Colonel Harrison is an officer of superior abilities, and of great professional and personal worth. It gives me great pleasure to. commend him favorably to the honorable secretary with the assurance that his preferment will be a just recognition of his services and martial accomplishments. Respectfully your obedient servant, JOSEPH HOOKER, Major- General Commanding. During the absence of General Harrison in the field, the Democratic Supreme Court declared the office of Supreme Court Reporter vacant, and another person was elected to the position. From the time he left Indiana with his regiment, until the fall of 1864, after the capture of Atlanta, General Harrison had taken no leave of absence, but having been nominated by the State convention of that year for the office BENJAMIN HARRISON'S CAREER. 467 from which he had been ousted, he took a thirty-days' leave of absence, and under orders from the War Department re- ported to Governor Morton for duty. During this thirty- days' leave, he again made a brilliant canvass of the State and was elected for another term. After the campaign was over, during the winter of 18 64-' 65, he was ordered to rejoin Sherman at Savannah. With his wife and two children, accompanied by an orderly, he set out for Savannah by the way of New York. Upon the road he was stricken down with scarlet-fever and was forced to get off the train in the snows of midwinter at Narrowsburg, a country station on the New York and Erie Railroad. Fortunately the orderly who was with him was an experienced hospital nurse. The doctor who attended him had to come seventeen miles over the snow. The man who had escaped death from every variety of rebel bullet had a hard struggle in the snowbanks of frigid New York. Finally the hospital nurse himself was attacked by the fever, and the children also were taken down. But the pluck of Mi's. Harrison and her untiring care enabled them all to subdue the fever. Harrison lost all the hair off his head and several coats of cuticle. But he rallied rapidly when once he began to recover, and finally reached Sherman in time to participate in the closing incidents of the war. He was with him at the surrender of Johnston, was in Washing- ton with his regiment at the grand review, and did not return home until the war was over. He received the brevet of Brigadier-General of Volunteers on January 23, 1865. General Harrison, in 1868, declined a re-election as Reporter of the Supreme Court in order to resume the practice of his profession. He was associated in the practice of law with the firms of Porter, Harrison & Fishback, and Harrison, Hines & Miller Mr. Miller being the present Attorney- General of the United States. Almost from his r first appear- ance in the State he was taken into the councils of the party and the local politicians. He made many political speeches, 468 BENJAMIN HARBISON'S CAREER. assisted in the management of the State Committee, and gradually grew in political power until in 1876, Godlove S. Orth having declined the Republican nomination for Governor, Harrison was substituted by the State Committee while absent from the State. ' He accepted the nomination as a public duty, but the then natural majority of the Demo- cratic party, strengthened by the candidacy of the most popular Democratic leader in the State, the famous " Blue Jeans " Williams, could not be overcome. This campaign greatly extended General Harrison's acquaintance and repu- tation among the people. He made a gallant fight and spoke many times. He polled nearly two thousand more votes than the general average of his ticket. From this time he was the recognized leader of the Indiana Republicans. In 1880 he was chairman of the Indiana dele- gation to the Republican National Convention, where he threw the vote of Indiana in favor of James A. Gar field. The year previous President Hayes appointed him a member of the Mississippi River Commission. When in 1880, largely as a result of his management of the campaign, the Indiana legislature was Republican, he was pushed to the front in the canvass for United States Senator, to succeed Joseph E. McDonald. Efforts were made to create divisions in favor of others, but the voice of the party was practically unani- mous for the man who had fought the party battles so many years, and had been a conspicuous figure in every campaign since 1856. His nomination was plainly foreshadowed be- fore the legislature convened, and before the caucus met all other names were withdrawn. His election gave the greatest satisfaction to Republicans throughout the State. During his term of six years General Harrison, while not a frequent speaker, established his reputation as - a thinking and enlightened member and a finished and ready debater. He was a member of the Foreign Relations Committee, the Committee on Military Affairs, the Committee on Indian BENJAMIN HARBISON'S CAREER. 469 Affairs, and Chairman of the Committee on Territories. He did not force himself forward as a speaker, but when he did speak he commanded attention. He was a warm friend of the soldier. One day in July, 1882, the Senate heard him at his best. His colleague, Senator Voorhees, in discussing a revenue-reduction bill, ridiculed the Republicans for taking the tax off perfumery and cosmetics. Harrison had waited for just this speech. When Voorhees finished, Harrison stepped into the arena in front of the Speaker's desk and, approaching the Democratic side, he went on without notes to belabor his colleague most vigorously and unmercifully for nearly an hour. Voorhees never again sought occasion to provoke Senator Harrison to answer. Senator Harrison's principal speeches were made upon Civil Service, the Blair Educational Bill, the Mississippi River scheme of improvements, the Immigration Bill, and against the alien ownership of public lands. Upon Chinese immi- gration he argued for a faithful regard of treaty obligations in enforcing exclusion. His service on the Mississippi River Commission prepared him to discuss familiarly all proposi- tions brought forward for the improvement of its navigation. While he favored the general purpose of the Civil Service law then under consideration, and afterwards voted for it, he contended for the perfect freedom of the government employee to contribute for political purposes. His senatorial term expired March 4, 1887, and the legis- lature to choose his successor was to be elected in the fall of 1886. The history of that campaign is still fairly fresh in the public mind. It was in a large degree General Harri- son's campaign. Though others were good seconds and able assistants he was foremost in the fight. The Republicans carried the State and came within a hair's breadth of carrying the legislature, though the apportionment had been gerry- mandered so as to give the Democrats at least forty-six majority on joint ballot. Failing of re-election, with the 470 BENJAMIN HARRISON'S OAREEB. expiration of his senatorial term, General Harrison returned to the practice of his profession. In 1888 he was nominated for the Presidency by the Republican National Convention, on the eighth ballot. The first ballot resulted : Alger, 84 ; Sherman, 220 ; Gresham, 114; Depew, 90; Harrison, 79; Allison, 72; Third bal- lot: Alger, 122; Sherman, 214; Gresham, 123; Depew, 9; Harrison, 88. Depew withdrew after this ballot. New York then flopped over with 50 votes for Harrison. On the fifth ballot the result was : Sherman, 224 ; Alger, 87 ; Harrison, 142; Allison, 213; Elaine, 99. California made a break on the seventh ballot. Allison withdrew on the eighth ballot and Iowa went over to Harrison. Wisconsin gave him 22 votes and the result was : Harrison, 554 ; Sherman, 118; Alger, 100 ; Gresham, 59 ; Elaine, 5 ; McKinley, 5. General Harrison remained at Indianapolis during the entire campaign. Delegation after delegation from all parts of the Union called on him. To every delegation he made a speech, and these short orations were, and have continued to be, the wonder of Democrats and Republicans alike. He never said anything that might be used against him, and day after day he outlined, the principles of his party briefly, yet eloquently and with an understanding that marked him as a thoroughly equipped statesman. He was elected in the following November, - carrying every Northern State except New Jersey and Connecticut, and receiving 223 electoral votes to 168 for G rover Cleveland. Harrison's nomination in 1888 was by those who did not know him regarded as the logical outcome of a situation in which the Republicans found themselves compelled to take a favorite son of a doubtful State which they expected him to carry with him. He was practically unknown, as statesmen should be known, to the majority of Republican voters. The cartoonists represented him as a man who wore his grand- father's hat, and that grandfather the ninth President of the SIAJ. "WILLIAM MCKINLEY. \ BENJAMIN HARRISON'S CAREER. 473 United States. One of the many replies to the requests for information about Benjamin Harrison which his devoted In- diana friends had to make was this most complimentary one 'from ex-Congressman Benjamin Butterworth: " You ask me what I know about Ben Harrison. I know- all about him. I do not think there is a flaw in him, and I do not speak as a Republican, but as a citizen as one who knows the moral and mental make-up of Ben Harrison. His speeches surprise a great many on account of their grasp of many subjects concerning which he speaks, and the thor- oughly practical views he entertains on all subjects which are of interest to the American people. I am not a bit sur- prised, for I know the man. I should have been very greatly disappointed if he did not develop the strong characteristics which crop out in all his speeches. In his manner of thought and expression he reminds me more of Lineoln than of any can- didate we ever had. He doesn't know how to bo a trimmer, but speaks from a thorough conviction of duty and an inspi- ration which springs from adherence to the right. He is as kind as a mother, and as courageous as any man I ever knew. He would not conscientiously offend the humblest or meanest of creatures, and he would not hesitate to tackle the most powerful, it is said, if dvity required it. I cannot help but feel that in his nomination we arc getting around once more into the same atmosphere that surrounded Abraham Lincoln." The doubts in the public mind of Harrison's ability, how- ever, have been dispelled by the masterly manner in which he has inspired and directed the policy of his administration. Whatever errors he may have made, it cannot be denied that his administration has been an eventful one, the most active, in fact, since the war. During it General Harrison has maintained himself with a wise conservatism and a patriotic devotion to the national welfare which have caused him to rise high in the public estimation. The unknown Hoosier lawyer has exhibited a breadth of view and a ready grasp in 474 BENJAMIN IIAKKISON'S CAKEEK. the discussion of national questions which were unsuspected at the time of his nomination in 188H. Especially happy has he been in his speeches, in the making of which it is univer- sally admitted lie is easily the most fluent of the Presidents since Lincoln. His orator}' is characterized by a natural grace and ease of expression, without any suggestion of studied effort. Here are a few of his sayings taken at ran- dom from a volume of Ms speeches delivered during his present term of office : When hopes go out of the heart and life becomes so hard tliat it is no longer sweet, men are not safe neighbors and they are not good citizens. If I were to select a watchword that I would have every young man write above his door and on his heart it would be that good word, " Fidelity ." I pity the man who wants a coat so cheap that the man or woman who produces the cloth or shapes it into a garment shall starve in the process. If no ill happens to you tint I do not wish ami all the good comes to you that I do wish in your behalf, your lives will be full of pleasantness and peace. I believe that our legislation should be as broad as our territory, should not be for classes, but should be always in the interest of all our people. The captain who gives to the sea his cargo of goods that he may give safety and deliverance to his imperilled fellow-men, has fame ; he who lands the cargo has only wages. I hope that nrrro v sentiment that regards the authority of the United States or its officers as alien or strange, has once and for- ever been extinguished in this land of ours. President Harrison is not a " sociable '" man, so-called. In fact, he carries himself with a certain reserve which when first encountered acts as a barrier to the social relation. But this wears off on acquaintance and his reticence gives way to geniality. Still, his intimacies are few and far between. He has neither " cronies " nor vices to while away the hours with ; in fact, he has been far too busy a man since March, 1889, to give himself much leisure. He loves hard work and is a diligent student. He keeps in close touch with the BENJAMIN HABBISON'S CABEER. 47f trend of politics in all parts of the country and the natural aptitude for political organization which marked his career in Indiana has been frequently displayed during his term as President, but especially at the Minneapolis Convention, where his forces maintained an unbroken line of battle during seven days of desperate fighting, being marshalled under his personal direction. He is domestic in his habits and thoroughly devoted to his handsome, delicate-featured, black-eyed wife, who began with him a struggle for a place and a home in the then Far West when he was in his twentieth year. WHITELAW REID'S CAREER. When Horace Greeley dropped his editorial pen and took the stump in his own campaign for the Presidency in 1872, the management of the New York Tribune fell to his assist- ant, Whitelaw Reid, then in his 39th year. Greeley's politi- cal ruin was followed by a business crisTs* in his newspaper. Only a young man like Reid, able, ambitious, and self- reliant, could restore the magnificent property which Greeley's mistaken policy had landed on the verge of bankruptcy. Reid had been in New York City only three years, having come from Ohio. Although a comparative stranger in the metropolis, he succeeded in interesting men of capital in the Tribune, and was thereby enabled to place the property on a sound financial footing. At that period the New York Times was the organ of the Republican party, but the Tribune, under Reid's editorship, rapidly gained the favor of the Republican leaders and finally became the party mouth- piece. The paper since then lias been an able and powerful advocate of Republican doctrine ; it has been skilfully edited, has been persistent in its devotion to its principles and has, more than any other newspaper, contributed to Republican success. President Hayes offered Editor Reid the appoint- ment of Minister to Germany, and President Garfield made him a similar offer, both of which he refused. Three years ago he accepted from President Harrison the post of Minister to France. He was extremely popular at the French capital and fulfilled his duties in a creditable manner. He succeeded in negotiating for the entrance of the American hog into France, and on his return to this country a short time ago, 476 WHITJ&LiAW REID. 477 WHITELAW REin's CAREER. 479 after having resigned his post, he brought with him the draft of a treaty of extradition with France. His nomination as the Republican candidate for Vice-President was accomplished at the instance of the New York delegation, who argued that he would strengthen Harrison in the most important doubtful State. For many years it has been customary with the Republican party to nominate for the Vice-Presidency a resident of New York, except when the candidate for Presi- dent happened to be from an Eastern State. Mr. Reid is of Scotch descent. He is Ohio born, but two generations before his ancestors came over from Scotland into the wilderness beyond the Alleghanies and carved out places for themselves in the great West. Robert Charlton Reid was his father, and Marian Whitelaw Ronalds his mother. His paternal grandfather was a Covenanter. He had a large area of land on the Ohio River, but gave up its possession rather than retain it conditioned upon his operating a ferry every day in the week, including Sundays. The sturdy old Scot went up into Greene County, O., founded the town of Xenia, and it was there that Whitelaw was born on Oct. 27, 1837. The lad's uncle, the Rev. Hugh McMillan, was principal of the Xenia Academy and a trustee of Miami University. He took pains to give Whitelaw some private tutoring to test his mind, and was rewarded in finding that the lad had good grit and the acquisitive faculty. He placed him at the age of fifteen years in the sophomore class at Miami, where, in 1856, the youth was graduated first in his class. He had been well drilled in the classics and never neglected this part of his training. He has always been and is to-day a littera- teur at one end of the newspaper office and the shrewdest of Scotch financiers at the other. At once on leaving his alma mater Reid started in as a bread-winner. He took the posi- tion of principal of a graded school at South Charleston, O., and for a year served for a small salary. 480 WHITEI.AW UEID'S CAREER. He has ever been noted for his inflexibility of mind. He held strong convictions from his youth, and thus was en- dowed the first qualification of successful editorship, some- thing to say. He bought the Xenia News and became its editor. The Republican party had just been formed. In the Fremont campaign he had taken the stump and became identi- fied with the Republican leaders of the State. With the News he pitched in vigorously against the South. He said what he had to say with a vigor and variety that made his utterances quoted from the start. He met many public men and never lost a chance to talk with them on the issues of the day. He formed acquaintances and made friends. In 1860 he supported Lincoln for President, although he was the personal friend of Salmon P. Chase, the News being the first Western newspaper outside of Illinois to do -so, and its influence caused the election of a Lincoln dele- gate to the Republican Convention from the Xenia district. The following winter he represented the Cincinnati Times at Columbus, as legislative correspondent. He next connected himself with the staff of the Cincinnati G-azette and the Cleveland Herald, and afterward became city editor of the G-azette. At the outbreak of the war he was sent to the front as the Avar correspondent of the G-azette, being recog- nized at the time as one of the best newspaper writers of the West. Reid was assigned to duty as volunteer aid-de-camp, with the rank of captain. He wrote over the signature of " Agate." His letters from the field were accurate, intelli- gent, and graphic ; consequently they were widely read and aided him to fame. He went through the first and second Virginia campaigns, and also the Tennessee campaign, and was present at Fort Donelson, and later at Pittsburg Land- ing. To witness the last battle Reid left a sick-bed against the doctors' orders, saw the great fight from beginning to end, and then sent a wonderful piece of pen-picturing, ten WH1TELAW REID'S CAREER. 481 columns long, descriptive of the battle. This letter wis ap- plauded as an example of extraordinary reporting, and * Agate " received numerous complimentary notices, besides an increase in salary. In 1862, Reid acquired an interest in the Commercial- Grazette, and lived in Washington as correspondent. He was appointed Librarian of the House of Representatives in 1863, and served three years. In Washington he made many ac- quaintances, Horace Greeley among them. Reid's Xenia paper had been modelled after the ITew York Tribune of Greeley, and he had read everything the great agitator had written. The pair became fast friends. Reid was an indus- trious worker, and while a political writer of vigor, never lost his knack as a reporter. He went to Gettysburg when that fight was on and gave a fine description of the battle. The war over, Mr. Reid accompanied Mr. Chase on a tour of the South, and collected his letters in a book published in 1806 under the title of " After the War, a Southern Tour." This had a wide sale, and is a good example of his style. Later, he tried cotton-planting, having received financial support, but as a cotton planter he was a failure. He was not long idle, and the next two years he gave to the writing of a book entitled, " Ohio in the War," which was the first of the State histories of the Civil War, and was used as a model for many others. Reid then returned to the Gazette as leader writer, but later became editor. He left his sanctum in order to go to Washington to write up the impeachment trial of President Johnson, which he did with characteristic cleverness. Greeley now invited him to New York to fill a place on the Tribune staff, but Reid declined. The next year he accepted a similar offer and he has been with the paper ever since. Reid became Greeley's confidant ; by the la\v of opposites they got along admirably, the impulsive, erratic genius of the older man affording striking contrast to the calm, tactful, patient temperament of the younger. In 482 WHITELAW REID'S CAKEKR. 1869, Reid succeeded John Russell Young as managing editor of the Tribune. Then came the Greeley campaign of 1872, followed by the death of Mr. Greeley and the ascen- sion of Mr. Reid to the control of the Tribune. In 1878, he was elected by the legislature of New York to be a regent for life of the university. Besides the works above men- tioned and. his contributions to periodical literature he has written " Schools of Journalism," " The Scholar in Politics," " Some Newspaper Tendencies " and " Town Hall Sugges- tions." He is a member of the Union League Club, of the Ohio Society, and many other organizations, and was for years President of the Lotos Club. He is a lover of horses and frequently enjoys a morning canter on his favorite Menlo in Central Park. In 1881 Mr. Reid married Miss Elizabeth Mills, daughter of D. O. Mills, the California millionaire, who had made the metropolis his home. They met at "Millbrae," the Califor- nia country-seat of the Mills family. Two children have been born to them, Ogden Mills Reid and Jeanie Reid. In New York Mr. Reid has his home in the palace which Henry Villard erected on Madison avenue at a cost of about $1,000,000. It is one of the regal residences of the metropolis. In the heart of Westchester County Mr. Reid owns a castle with a domain of eight hundred acres about it. The place is called Ophir . Farm, and is one of the finest country places in America. In Paris his now ample fortune enabled him to entertain in a fashion befitting the representative of a great nation. In April, 1892, he returned from his post and laid down public office to renew his chosen duty as a journalist. The honors paid him on his return to America, including the dinners by the Chamber of Commerce of New York, the Lotos Club, the Ohio Society, and others, are still fresh in the public mind. On his departure from Paris, a notable fare- well dinner was given in his honor. Among the tributes to WHITELAW REID'S CAREER. 483 the distinguished American was this one from M. de Blowitz, the correspondent of the London Times : I cannot miss this opportunity of testifying to the great success of Mr. Reid's mission. He has smoothed down difficulties and has gained esteem by which his country has profited. He has been hospitable and has made all his guests at home, seconded by Mrs. Reid. His efforts have led, first, to agreeable relations be- tween the government and himself, and next to improve relations between the two governments. Mr. Reid, who was good enough to call journalists his confreres, has proved that the intelligence of a journalist adapts itself with special flexibility and promptitude to all the positions intrusted to him. Knowing on his arrival but a few words of French he speedily familiarized himself with the language so as to discuss with French statesmen the economic questions at issue. As humorously remarked by one of the speakers last night, he has been able in spite of the fierce opposition of the breeders of petit cochon national, to effect the introduction of American pork, and only this morning he signed an extradition treaty which will make America a less agreeable place of sojourn for French swindlers. His mission, in short, has been summed up thus by one of those who have watched his work : " Mr. Whitelaw Reid, to the great advantage of his own country and the great satisfac- tion of France, has combined the useful with the ornamental, in- ducing France to make concessions which would have been refused to 'a man less gracious and persuasive. He has added to the cleverness of the Americana the urbanity of the French." DEPEW NOMINATES HARRISON. The speech of Chauncey M. Depew, of New York, in seconding the nomination of President Harrison, was as follows s Mu. PRESIDENT AND GENTLEMEN OF THE CONVENTION : It is the peculiarity of Republican National Conventions that each one of them has a distinct and interesting history. We are here to meet conditions and solve problems which make this gathering not only no exception to the rule, but substantially a new depar- ture. That there should be strong convictions and their earnest expression as to preferences and policies, is character! stic of the right of individual judgment which is the fundamental principle of Republicanism. There have been occasions when the result was so sure that the delegates could freely indulge in the charm- ing privilege of favoritism and of friendship. But the situation which now confronts us demands the exercise of dispassionate judgment and our best thought and experience. We cannot venture on uncertain ground or encounter obstacles placed in the pathway of success by ourselves. The Democratic party is now divided, but the hope of the possession of power once more will make it in the final battle more aggressive, determined, and unscrupulous than ever. It starts with fifteen States secure without an effort, by processes which are a travesty upon popular government, and if continued long enough will paralyze institutions founded upon popular suffrage. It has to win four more States in a fair fight, States which, in the vocabulary of politics, are denominated doubtful. The Republican party must appeal to the conscience and the judgment of the individual voter in every State in the Union. This is in accordance with the principles upon which it was founded and the objects for which it contends. It has accepted this issue before and fought it out with an extraordinary con- tinuance of success. The conditions of Republican victory from 1860 to 1880 were created by Abraham Lincoln and Ulysses S. Grant. They were 484 CHAUNCEY M. DEFEW. 485 DEPEW NOMINATES HARRISON. 487 that the saved republic should be run by its saviors. They were the emancipation of the slaves, the reconstruction of the St:u.-s, the reception of those who had fought to destroy the republic back into the fold without penalties or punishments, and to an equal share with those who had fought and saved the nation in the solemn obligations and inestimable privileges of American citizenship. They were the embodiment into the Constitution of the principles for which 2,000,000 of men had fought and half a million had died. They were the restoration of public credit, the resumption of specie payments, and the prosperous condition of solvent business. For twenty-five years there were names with which to conjure, and events fresh in the public mind which were eloquent with popular enthusiasm. It needed little else than a recital of the glorious story of its heroes and a statement of the achievements of the Republican party to retain the confidence of the people. But from the desire for change which is characteristic of free governments, there came a reversal, there came a check to the progress of the Republican party and four years of Democratic administration. These four years largely relegated to the realms of history past issues, and brought us face to face with what Democracy, its .professions and its practices mean to-day. The great names which adorned the roll of Republican statesmen and soldiers are still potent and popular. The great measures of the Republican party are still the best of the history of the century. The unequalled and unexampled story of Republicanism in its promises and in its achievements stands unique in the record of the parties in governments which are free. But we live in practical times, facing practical issues which af- fect the business, the wages, the labor, and the prosperity of to-day. The campaign will be won or lost not upon the bad record of James Polk, or of Franklin Pierce, or of James Bu- chanan ; not upon the good record of Lincoln, or of Grant, or of Arthur, or of Hayes, or of Garfield. It will be won or lost upon the policy, foreign and domestic, the industrial measures and the administrative acts of the administration of Benjamin Harrison. Whoever receives the nomination of this convention will run upon the judgment of the people as to whether they have been more prosperous and happy, whether the country has been in a better condition at home and stood more honorably abroad under these last four years of Harrison and Republican administration than during the preceding four years of Cleveland and Demo- cratic government. Not since Thomas Jefferson has any administration been called upon to face and solve so many or such difficult problems as 488 DEPEW iNOMINATKS IIAKIUSOX. those which have been exigent in our conditions. No adminis- tration since the organization of the government has met difficul- ties better or more to the satisfaction of the American people. Chili has been taught that, no matter how small the antagonist, no community can with safety insult the flag or muni or American sailors. Germany and England have learned in Samoa that the United States has become one of the powers of the world, and no matter how mighty the adversary, at every sacrifice American honor will be maintained. The Behring Sea question, which was the insurmountable obstacle in the diplomacy of Cleveland and of Bayard, has been settled upon a basis which sustains the American position until arbitration shall have determined our right. The dollar of the country has been placed and kept in the standard of commercial nations, and a coin has been agreed upon with foreign governments, which, by making bimetallism the policy of all nations, may successfully solve all our financial prob- lems. The tariff, tinkered with and trifled with to the se :i.us disturbance of trade and disaster to business since the days of Washington, has been courageously embodied into a code a code which has preserved the principle of the protection of American industries. To it has been added a beneficent policy, supplemented by beneficent t "oatiea and wise diplomacy, which has opened to our farmers and manufacturers the markets of other countries. The navy has been builded upon lines which will protect American citizens, and American interests, and the American flag all over the world. The public debt has been re- duced. The maturing bonds have been paid off. The public credit has been maintained. The burdens of taxation have been lightened. Two hundred millions of currency have been added to the people's money without disturbance of the exchanges. Unexampled prosperity has crowned wise laws and their wise administration. The main question which divides us is, To whom does the credit of all this belong ? Orators may stand upon this platform more able and more eloquent than I, who will paint in more brilliant colors, but they cannot put in more earnest thought the affection and admiration of Republicans for our dis- tinguished Secretary of State. I yield to no Republican, no matter from which State he hails, in admiration and respect for John Sherman, for Governor McKinley, for Thomas B. Reed, for Iowa's great son, for the favorites of Illinois, Wisconsin, and Michigan ; but when I am told that the credit for the brilliant diplomacy of this administration belongs exclusively to the Sec- retary of State ; for the administration of its finances to the Sec- retary of the Treasury ; for the construction of its ships to the DEPEW XOMIXATES HARRISON". 489 Secretary of the Navy; for the introduction of American pork in Europe to the Secretary of Agriculture ; for the settlement, so far as it is settled, of the currency question to Senator John Sherman; for the formulation of the tariff laws to Governor McKinhy ; for the removal of the restrictions placed by foreign nations upon the introduction of American pork to our Ministers at Paris and Berlin, I am. tempted to seriously inquire who, during the last four years, has been President of the United States, anyhow? Ca3sar, when he wrote those commentaries which were the history of the conquests of Europe under his leadership, modestly took the position of ./Eneas when he said : " They are the narra- tive of events, the whole of which I saw, and the part of which I was." General Thomas, as the rock of Chickamauga, occupies a place in our history with Leonidas among the Greeks, except that he succeeded where Leonidas failed. The fight of Joe Hooker above the clouds -was the poetry of battle. The resistless rush of Sheridan and his steed down the valley of Shenandoah is the epic of our Civil War. The march of Sherman from Atlanta to the sea is the supreme triumph of gallantry and strategy. It detracts nothing from the splendor of the fame or the merits of t'.ie deeds of his lieutenants, to say that, having selected them with mar- vellous sagacity and discretion, Grant still remained the supreme commander of the national army. All the proposed acts of any administration, before they are formulated are passed upon in Cabinet council, and the measures and suggestions of the ablest secretaries would have failed with a lesser President. But for the great good of the country and the benefit of the Repub- lican party they have succeeded because of the suggestive mind, the indomitable courage, the intelligent appreciation of situations, and the grand magnanimity of Benjamin Harrison. It is an undisputed fact that during the few months when both the Secretary of State and the Secretary of the Treasury were ill, the President personally assumed the duties of the State and the Treasury Departments, and both with equal success. The Secretary of State in accepting his portfolio under President Garfield, wrote : " Your administration must be made brilliantly successful and strong in the confidence and pride of the people, not at all diverting its energies for re-election, and yetcompelling that result by the logic of events and by the imperious necess of the situation." Garfield fell before the bullet of the assassin and Mr. 1 retired to private life. General Harrison invited him to take up that unfinished diplomatic career where its threads had been so tragu-allv broken. He entered the Cabinet. He 490 DEPEW NOMINATES HARRISON. resumed his work, and has won a higher place in our history. The prophecy he made for Garfield has been superbly fulfilled by President Harrison. In the language of Mr. Blaine, " the President has compelled a re-election by the logic of events and the imperious necessities of the situation." The man who is nominated here to-day to win must carry a cer- tain well-known number of the doubtful States. Patrick Henry in the convention which started rolling the ball of the indepen- dence of the colonies from Great Britain said : " I have but one lamp by which my feet are guided, and that is the lamp of expe- rience. I know of no way of judging of the future but by the past." New York was carried in 1880 by General Garfield, and in every important election since that time we have done our best. We have put forward our ablest, our most popular, our most briliiaht leaders for Governor and State officers, to suffer constant defeat. The only light which illumines with the suns of hope the dark record of those twelve years, is the fact that in 1888 the State of New York was triumphantly carried by President Harrison. He carried it then as a gallant soldier, a wise senator, and a statesman who inspired confidence by his public utterances in daily speech from the commencement of the canvass to its close. He still has all these claims, and in addition an adminis- tration beyond criticism and rich with the elements of popularity with which to carry New York again. Ancestry helps in the Old World and handicaps in the New. There is but one distinguished example of a son first overcoming the limitations imposed by the pre-eminent fame of his father, and then rising above it, and that was when the younger Pitt be- came greater than Chatham. With an ancestor a signer of the Declaration of Independence, and another who saved the North- west from savagery and gave it to civilization and empire, and who also was President of the United States, a poor and unknown lawyer of Indiana has risen by his unaided efforts to such dis- tinction as lawyer, orator, soldier, statesman, and President, that he reflects more credit on his ancestors than they have devolved upon him, and presents in American history the parallel of the younger Pitt. By the grand record of a wise and popular ad- ministration, by the strength gained in frequent contact with the people in wonderfully versatile and felicitous speech, by the claims of a pure life in public, and in the simplicity of a typical American home, I nominate Benjamin Harrison. THE REPUBLICAN PLATFORM. The representatives of the Republicans of the United States, assembled in general convention on the shores of the Mississippi River, the everlasting bond of an indestructible republic, whose most glorious chapter of history is the record of the Republican party, congratulate their countrymen on the majestic march of the nation under the banners inscribed with the principles of our platform of 1888, vindicated by victory at the polls and prosperity in our fields, workshops, and mines, and make the following declaration of princi- ples : We reaffirm the American doctrine of protection. We call attention to its growth abroad. We maintain that the prosperous condition of our country is largely due to the wise revenue legislation of the Republican Congress. We believe that all articles which cannot be produced in the United States, except luxuries, should be admitted free of duty, and that on all imports coming into competition with the products of American labor there should be levied duties equal to the difference between wages abroad and at home. We assert that the prices of manufactured articles of general consumption have been reduced under the operations of the tariff act of 1890. We denounce the efforts of the Democratic majority of the House of Representatives to destroy our tariff laws piece- meal, as is manifested by their attacks upon wool, lead, and lead ores, the chief products of a number of States, and we ask the people for their judgment thereon. 491 492 THE KKPl'HMCAX PI.ATFOJIM. We point to the success of the Republican policy of reciprocity, under which our export trade: has vastly increased, and new and enlarged markets have been opened for the products of our farms and workshops. We remind the people of the bitter opposition of the Democratic party to this practical business measure, and claim that, executed by a Republican administration, our present laws will eventually give us control of the trade of the world. The American people, from tradition and interest, favor bi-metallism, and the Republican parly demands the use of both gold and silver as standard money, with such restrictions and under such provisions, to be determined by legislation, as will secure the maintenance of the parity of values of the two metals, so that the purchasing and debt-paying power of the dollar, whether of silver, gold, or paper, shall be at all times equal. The interests of the producers of the country, its farmers and its workingmen, demand that every dollar, paper or coin, issued by the government, shall b3 as good as any other. We commend the wise and patriotic step.> already taken by our government to secure an international conference, to adopt such measure ; as will insure a parity of value between gold and silver for use as money throughout the world. We demand that every citizen of the United States shall be allowed to ca.it one free and unrestricted ballot in all public elections, and that such ballot shall be counted and returned as cast; that such laws shall he enacted and en- forced as will secure to every citizen, be he rich or poor, native or foreign born, white or black, this sovereign right guaranteed by the Constitution. The free and honest popular ballot, the just and equal representation of all the people, as Avell as their just and equal protection under the laws, are tho foundation of our Republican institutions, and the party will never relax its THE REPUBLICAN PLATFORM. 493 efforts until the integrity of the ballot and the purity of elections shall be fully guaranteed and protected in every State. We denounce the continued inhuman outrages perpetrated on American citizens for political reasons in certain Southern States in the Union. We favor the extension of our foreign commerce, the restoration of our mercantile marine by home-built ships, and the creation of. a navy for the protection of our national interests and the honor of our flag; the maintenance of the most friendly relations with all foreign powers ; entangling alliances with none, and the protection of the rights of our fishermen. We reaffirm our approval of the Monroe doctrine, and believe in the achievement of the manifest destiny of the Republic in its broadest sense. We favor the enactment of more stringent laws and regu- lations for the restriction of criminal, pauper, and contract immigration. We favor efficient legislation by Congress to protect the life and limbs of employees of transportation companies en- gaged in carrying on interstate commerce, and recommend legislation by the respective' States that will protect employees engaged in State commerce, in mining, and manufacturing. The Republican party has always been the champion of the oppressed, and recognizes the dignity of manhood, irre- spective of faith, color, or nationality ; it sympathizes with the cause of Home Rule in Ireland, and protests against the persecution of the Jews in Russia. The ultimate reliance of free popular government is the intelligence of the people and the .maintenance of freedom among men. We, therefore, declare anew our devotion to liberty of thought and conscience, of speech and press, and approve all agencies and instrumentalities which contribute to the education of the children of the laud ; but, while insisting 494 THE REPUBLICAN PLATFORM. upon the fullest measure of religious liberty, we are opposed to any union of Church and State. We reaffirm our opposition, declared in the Republican platform of 1888, to all combinations of capital, organized in trusts or otherwise, to control arbitrarily the condition of trade among our citizens. We heartily endorse the action already taken upon this subject, and ask for such further legislation as may be required to remedy any defects in ex- isting laws, and to render their enforcement more complete and effective. We approve the policy of extending to towns, villages, and rural communities the advantages of the free delivery service now enjoyed by the larger cities of the country, and reaffirm the declaration contained in the Republican platform of 1888, pledging the reduction of letter postage to one cent at the earliest possible moment consistent with the maintenance of the post-office department and the highest class of postal service. We commend the spirit and evidence of reform in the civil service, and the wise and consistent enforcement by the Republican party of the laws regulating the same. The construction of the Nicaragua Canal is of the highest importance to the American people, both as a measure of national defence and to build up and maintain American com- merce, and it should be controlled by the United States Government. We favor the admission of the remaining Territories at the earliest practicable date, having due regard to the interests of the people of the Territories and of the United States. All the Federal officers appointed for the Territories should be selected from bona fide residents thereof, and the right of self-government should be accorded as far as practicable. We favor cession, subject to the homestead laws, of the arid public lands to the States and Territories in which they lie, under such Congressional restrictions as to disposition, THE REPUBLICAN PLATFORM. 495 reclamation, and occupancy by settlers, as will secure the maximum benefits to the people. The World's Columbian Exposition is a great national undertaking, and Congress should promptly enact such reasonable legislation in aid thereof as will insure a discharge of the expense and obligations incident thereto, and the attainment of results commensurate with the dignity and progress of the nation. In temperance we sympathize with all wise and legitimate efforts to lessen and prevent the evils of intemperance and promote morality. Ever mindful of the services and sacrifices of men who saved the life of the Union, we pledge anew to the veteran soldiers of the republic a watchful care and recognition of their just claims upon a grateful people. We commend the able, patriotic, and thoroughly American administration of President Harrison. Under it the country has enjoyed remarkable prosperity, and the dignity and honor of the nation, at home and abroad, have been faithfully main- tained, and we offer the record of pledges kept as a guarantee of faithful performance in the future. THE VOTE BY STATES. President Harrison was nominated on the first ballot. The vote by States was as follows : Whole number of votes cast 904 1-3 Necessary to a choice , 453 Benjamin Harrison received 535 1-6 James G. Blaine received 182 l-(i William McKinley 182 Kobert T. Lincoln 1 Thomas 13. Reed 4 The f : dlowing is the official vote by States : STATES. HAKKISON. BLAINE. MCKIM.I.V Alabama l.~> . . 7 Arkansas 15 . . 1 California 8 9 1 Colorado 8 Connecticut 4 . . 8 Delaware . . . . , 4 1 1 Florida 8 Georgia 26 Illinois 34 14 Idaho 6 Indiana 30 Iowa 20 5 1 Kansas 11 . . 9 Kentucky 22 1 Louisiana 8 Maine 12 Maryland 14 . . 2 Massachusetts 18 1 11 Michigan 7 19 Minnesota 8 9 1 Missouri 28 4 2 Mississippi 13 1-2 41-2 Montana 5 1 Nebraska 15 . . 1 Nevada 6 New Hampshire New Jersey 18 New York 27 35 10 North Carolina 17 2-3 22-3 1 North Dakota . . ' 2 4 496 THE VOTE KY STATES. 497 STATES. HARRISON. ELAINE. MCKINLEY. Ohio 1 . ; 45 Oregon 1 7 Pennsylvania 19 3 42 Rhode Island 5 i i South Carolina 13 3 South Dakota 8 Tennessee 17 4 3 Texas 22 6 Vermont 8 Virginia 9 13 2 Washington 1 6 1 West Virginia 12 Wisconsin 19 2 3 Wyoming 4 2 Arizona 1 1 District of Columbia 2 New Mexico 6 Oklahoma 2 Utah 2 Alaska 2 Indian Territory 1 1 Total 535 1-6 182 1-6 182 Ex-Speaker Reed received 4 votes, 1 from New Hampshire, 1 from Rhode Island, and 2 from Texas, and Robert T. Lin- coln 1 vote from New Hampshire. There were 2J votes absent. BIOGRAPHICAL STORY OP THE Career, with Anecdotes, Reminiscences, and the Family Life of The Democratic Presidential Nominee AND ADLAI E. STEVENSON The Democratic Vice-Presidential Nominee. GBOVK1! CLKVKLAND. 500 CAREER OF GROVER CLEVELAND. The political rise of Grover Cleveland has no parallel in history. Mayor of an inland city on January 1, 1882 ; Gov- ernor of the greatest State in the Union on January 1, 1883 ; President of the United States on March 4, 1885, he reached the highest position of national eminence, and displayed well-developed qualities of leadership in a shorter period of time than most public men occupy in finding an entrance to the arena of political action. Such a career would have been impossible in any other country of the earth. In it we find epitomized the possibilities for the indi- vidual in a government by the people. It would not far overshoot the mark if it were said that any man who has been elected to preside as Mayor over any American city of more than 200,000 inhabitants, and who has performed his duties wisely and faithfully, is a good enough public adminis- trator to make a Governor of a State, and that any man who has made a fitting Governor of a large and important State is generally pretty good Presidential timber. Cleveland as President conducted his office in accordance with the same principles which were the inspiring motives of his adminis- tration as Governor, and as Governor he was simply perform- ing the duties of Mayor for a larger community. In neither office was he what is commonly known as brilliant. He was earnest, painstaking, faithful, and at the same time cour- ageous ; bound to do what he felt to be his duty, and always susceptible to what he believed was the public interest. The high estimation with which his public services were regarded by his party was attested by the handsome compliment it Ml 502 CAREER OF GROVER CLEVELAND. paid him in renom mating him for the Presidential office, not- withstanding his defeat of 1888. The original ancestor of the Cleveland .family, in this country, was Moses Cleveland, who in 1635 emigrated from Ipswich, England, to Massachusetts, and settled near Woburn where he died in 1701. His grandson, Aaron Cleveland, was graduated at Harvard College, and later was ordained as a minister of the Episcopal Church. One of his charges was in Philadelphia, where he met and was on terms of intimacy with Benjamin Franklin. He died in Franklin's house in 1757. Another Cleveland, Timothy, a member of the branch of the family which settled in Connecticut, fought with the patriots at Bunker Hill, and was a lieutenant in the Continental Army during the War of the Revolution. Of the Rev. Aaron Cleveland's sons, the second, named after the father, settled at Norwich, Connecticut, and rose to political prominence in the State, being a member of the legislature, and an ardent advocate of the abolition of slavery. In middle life he entered the ministry, being identified with a Congregational church in Vermont, and after that in New Haven, Conn., where he died in 1815. The second Aaron Cleveland had thirteen children, the second of whom, William, set up as a silversmith and watchmaker in Norwich, Conn. The vicissitudes of business carried him to Worthing- ton, Mass., thence to Salem, and finally back to Norwich, Conn., where he was prominent in the Congregational church. William's son, Richard Falley Cleveland, was the father of Grover Cleveland. Richard was born in 1805, at Norwich, and was educated at Yale College. His father desired the son to enter the ministry, but the years immediately suc- ceeding his graduation, he spent as tutor in a private school in Baltimore, Md. In this city, he met Anne Neale, daughter of a prosperous law-book publisher of Irish extraction, and a famous beauty, whom he married as soon as he assumed the duties of his first pastorate. This was the Congregational CAREER OF GROVEB CLEVELAND. 503 church at Windham, Conn., where he lived until failing health compelled him to seek a home in the South. Returning to the North at the end of a year, he took a church in Cald- well, N. J., where on March 18, 1837, a son named Stephen Grover, in honor of the minister the father had succeeded, was born. There were three other children, Anne, William Neale, and Mary, all older than Grover, and after him, Cecil, Frederick, Margaret, Susan, and Rose. When Grover was three years old, his father accepted a call at Fayetteville, N. Y., at $600 a year. Here Grover went to the district school, where he did not especially distinguish himself. In fact, there was nothing in his school-boy career to mark him as superior to his fellows. At this time, Richard Cleveland's means being limited, he determined that it would be well to give Grover some practical business experience, which he did by finding him a position as a clerk in a Fayetteville store at |50 a year. A biographer says of this period of Grover Cleveland's career: "There is unimpeachable testimony that whatever the boy's hand was given to do, he did with all his heart, and that he left behind him the reputation for bravery, fidelity, and candor that has outlived all these years." The family removed to Clinton, N. J., the seat of Hamilton Col- lege, when Grover was eleven years of age, the intention being to place Grover in the college, William being already there. Richard Cleveland's salary was now $1,000 a year, larger than it had ever been, and he was encouraged to hope that he would be able to give his sons as thorough an educa- tion as his own had been. At Clinton, Grover resumed his preparation for college, but was compelled to give it up in his sixteenth year, when his father, who had been called to Holland Patent, near Utica, N. Y., died there a month after his arrival. This event made a complete change in the situation and prospects of the family. The father's income had barely sufficed for the support and education of his children. It became appar- 504 CAREER OF GROVER CLEVELAND. ent that such of them as were old enough would have to take care of themselves and help to take care of the others. Although the gaining of a college education had been the dearest wish of his life, Grover cheerfully gave it up and went to work. His oldest brother, William, was at this time a teacher in the Institute for the Blind in the city of New York. He procured for Grover the place of clerk and assistant teacher. William had recently graduated from Hamilton College, and under his tuition Grover devoted all his leisure tune to the study of Latin and English literature. At the end of a year's engagement he returned to his mother's house, where, between the times of seeking more lucrative employment he still continued his studies. He searched for work in Syra- cuse and Utica, but without success, and finally made up Ins mind to go West. On his way he stopped in Buffalo to visit his uncle, Lewis F. Allen, a stock-breeder. He made the journey thither Avith twenty-five dollars in his pocket, the amount of a loan from a deacon in his father's church, for which he gave a note, dated May, 1858, to repay the sum on demand. His ultimate destination was Cleveland, O., but his uncle induced him to remain in Buffalo, and placed him at work compiling a " herd-book " containing the pedigrees of full-blooded short-horn cattle. For this work he received sixty dollars ; the book was accurately compiled and became a standard work, and is such to-day. Grover's uncle now endeavored to find him a place in a law-office, where the lad might realize his ambition to become a lawyer. After refusals from several other firms, Rogers, Bowen & Rogers gave Grover a place as office boy. He at once set to work with the dogged perseverance and unflag- ging industry which have characterized his whole career, to master the rudiments of the law and to make himself useful. Although living with his uncle two miles out of town he was always the .first to arrive in the morning and the last to go CAREER OF GttOVER CLEVELAND. 505 at night. His industry was appreciated, and in a few months he received a salary of four dollars a week. This was in- creased from time to time, and after his admission to the bar in May, 1859, he was made managing clerk at $600 a year. In 1861 this had been increased to $1,000 a year, and then, at the age of twenty-five, he left the office to become assist- ant district-attorney of Erie County. Those who knew Grover Cleveland at this period of his life have said that ho won success by his industry, courage, and honesty. He was thorough in all he undertook, and, once his convictions were formed upon what he believed to be reliable data, nothing could change them. On any question he was studying, he was reticent until he had familiarized himself with all its bearings, then ho made conclusions from which it was impossible to swerve him. He adopted a rule to complete every day's work so that it would not have to be done again, and the late hours kept by the President at his desk in the Executive Mansion bear testimony to the habit he contracted in his young manhood. His appointment as assistant district-attorney came to him without any solicitation on his part. He was reluctant to accept it, because the salary was only six hundred dollars a year. Having accepted it at the earnest advice of friends, he entered .upon his new work with all the energy and zeal of youth. The district-attorney lived twenty-five miles out of town, and therefore most of the work devolved upon the assistant. He was in attendance at every one of the twelve grand juries which met during each of the three years of his term in office, and presented in full the large majority of the cases. Nearly all the indictments during that period were drawn by him, and more than half the cases he tried in court. On more than one occasion he conducted four cases before a jury, won a favorable verdict in each, and sat down at eight o'clock in the evening to make preparations for the next day, not rising from his desk until three o'clock in the morning. 506 CAREER OF GROVER CLEVELAND. Eight o'clock found him again at the office for the day's con- test with some of the best criminal practitioners in the country. During his term of office, he was drafted into the military service of the United States. Two of his brothers, Cecil and Frederick, were already at the front. His brother William at Southampton, Long Island, had a family to provide for. Grover was supporting his mother and two sisters on his salary of six hundred dollars. At the advice of friends, therefore, he determined to find a substitute, and did so, the bounty money being borrowed from the district-attorney. In 1865, at the age of twenty-nine, he was nominated for district attorney by the Democrats, but was beaten by his intimate personal friend, Lyman K. Bass, with whom he afterwards formed a law partnership in 1866. Mr. Cleveland formed a partnership with the late mayor of Buffalo, Isaac V. Van- derpoel, which lasted till 1869, when he joined the firm of Laning, Cleveland & Folsom. In 1867, the late William Dorslieimer, then United States District Attorney for the Buffalo district, offered Mr. Cleveland the position of assist- ant, which he declined. In 1870, his friends suggested his name as candidate for the office of sheriff, and, without any effort on his part, he received the unanimous vote of the Demo- cratic party, and was elected for three yeai-s. The office of sheriff is the most important executive office in the county, under the system in the State of New York. The duties of this position were filled by Mr. Cleveland with the same at- tention and business-like fidelity that he had always shown in such positions as he had held, either in public or private life. In this, the first important executive position which he had filled, he did justice to himself and to those whose con- fidence he had secured, and by whom he was selected. He had for the first time in many years sufficient leisure for self- improvement, and the income of the office was large enough to permit him to save* some money. His position in Buffalo CAREER OF GROVER CLEVELAND. 507 politics was now assured, and there was no man in the local Democracy who was more highly esteemed. At the expiration of his term as sheriff, with Lyman K. Bass and Wilson S. Bissell, the law firm of Bass, Cleveland & Bissell was formed, and was one of the strongest in Western New York. Judge George W. Clinton said of him at this time : " In his jury addresses he never fired over the heads of the jury in rhetorical eloquence. He addressed himself to them directly,' as an honest, sensible man speaking to his fellows, and he won his verdicts by his close and full argu- ment and his thorough knowledge of all the evidence in the case. He was strictly honorable, and never endeavored to take petty advantages of the opposing counsel or of the jury. At the time he became mayor, he can truthfully be said to have been eminent at the bar of Erie County." In 1881 the Reform movement in Buffalo was organized, with the view of purging the city of the corrupt influences by which its municipal administration was surrounded. Party lines were to a certain extent disorganized. The city had been badly ruled by a combination of Republican managers, its revenues were stolen or wasted, and no mayor had been found, for many years, who possessed the courage and ability to attack the existing abuses. The Democratic leaders turned to Lawyer Cleveland as the man to win the election. He was nominated by acclamation, and in his speech of acceptance pledged himself if elected to conduct the office of mayor in the interest of the people of Buffalo. After an exciting canvass, he was elected by a majority of 3,530, while on the same day the Republican State ticket had carried the city by a majority of over 1,600. During the short time that he remained in office, being raised to the governorship before the expiration of his term as mayor, he saved the city more than $1,000,000 by preventing the consummation of corrupt schemes and bargains by the city council. 508 CAREER OF GROVER CLEVELAND. He displayed indomitable pluck and grit, a thorough knowledge of the law, a clear perception of the needs and rights of the city, and of the best way to secure them, and a sincere determination to place the public interests above the claims of party. He showed how easily a man who i; thoroughly honest and thoroughly earnest can gain victory over corrupt combinations. In September, 1882, the Republicans of New York nom- inated Charles J. Folger, Secretary of the Treasury, for Gov- ernor. The influences which brought about his nomination led to the revolt of several influential Republican news- papers, and many of the Republican voters announced their intention not to vote for him. The Democrats nominated Mayor Cleveland to oppose Folger; Cleveland's letter of acceptance, written in his characteristic, vigorous style, called forth hearty commendation, and a campaign was inaugurated which was notable for the listlessness of the Republicans, and the desertion of thousands of them to rally to the cause of the Democracy. Cleveland achieved a wonderful triumph at the polls, his majority being 192,854. The traits of tireless industry, unostentatious dignity, thoroughness and simplicity noted in Grover Cleveland's early career were observable during his stay in Albany. On the day before his inauguration as Governor he came from Buffalo with his law partner, Mr. Bissell, went to the Executive Mansion and spent the night. The next day the city was excited with the approaching ceremonies. The streets were crowded, but there was no military parade and no procession. Mr. Cleveland would not allow it. He walked from the Executive Mansion, accompanied by Mr. Biosell, to the Capitol, a mile distant, making one of the throng that was going that way. He entered the building unrecognized, went to the executive chamber, where he was met by Governor Cornell. The moment the inaugural cere- MRS. FRANCES CLEVELAND. 509 CAREER OF G ROVER CLEVELAND. 511 mony was over he passed into the large reception room, which had been set apart for his use, ordered that the doors should be open to admit everybody, and when the handshak- ing was over he went immediately to work. Never was an important public event so completely stripped of fuss and feathers, and never was a more radical change effected in the official regime of the executive department. His first message to the legislature was a disappointment. He intimated that a newly elected Executive could hardlj- be expected " to present a complete exhibit of State affairs/ The opposition newspapers throughout the State made fun of the message without stint, but the truth was that Mr. Cleveland did not know much about the details of the Gov- ernor's office and he did not hesitate to say that he did not. He would not pretend to a knowledge which he did not possess. But shortly after his inauguration he began to send vetoes to the legislature, which called down upon him a storm of criticism, and drew sharply the line between the friends and the opponents of the policy in government which he had announced while Mayor of Buffalo. As Governor, he displayed the same fearless devotion to principle which had characterized his administration as Mayor of Buffalo. His numerous vetoes earned him the title of " \ r eto Governor." He worked harder than any of his subordinates, and systematized the office work thoroughly. His attention was directed to the subject of pardons, the decision upon which had heretofore been in the hands of a pardon clerk, and he at once assumed the responsibility of the examination and decision upon all pardons himself. He was especially anxious to give proper attention to all that related to the amelioration of the condition of laboring men, and through the fearless use of his veto power he prevented the enactment into statutes of several measures which would have been injurious to this class. Under his administration a State Civil Service Reform bill and a bill prohibiting politi- 512 CAREER OF OROVER CLEVELAND. cal assessments became laws. A bureau of labor statistics was also established with his approval, and with results of great advantage to the State. Many of his acts excited adverse comment, and antagonized the politicians, but the great body of the people expressed their approval of his course. No one questioned his earnestness, and his mistakes were of the head rather than of the heart. Being Governor of a pivotal State by an overwhelming majority, he became a presidential possibility from the mo- ment of his election. In 1884, the first name prominently mentioned for the Democratic nomination for President was Samuel J. Tilden. He having declined, the leaders of the New York Democracy put Governor Cleveland forward. This was in the eighteenth month of his term as Governor. There were at the time mutterings of discontent among cer- tain classes of Republicans due to the prospective nomination by that party of James G. Elaine. The conditions, therefore, were admirably fitted for the nomination of such a candidate by the Democrats as would in both his personal and political charactc? commend himself to his party and to those Repub- licans who were about to "bolt" the nomination of Elaine. Such a candidate was found in Governor Cleveland. Led by Daniel Manning, who afterwards was Secretary of the Treas- ury under President Cleveland, the New York delegation to the Democratic National Convention cast 72 votes for Cleve- land and thereby made his nomination certain. Cleveland was nominated on the second ballot, receiving 683 votes. Thomas F. Bayard, of Delaware, receiving Sl votes, and Thomas A. Hendricks, of Indiana, receiving 45J votes. The campaign which followed will ever be memorable for the personal abuse of both candidates, which characterized it. It was a bitterly fought contest from start to finish, and re- sulted in the election of Cleveland. The decisive votes were those of New York State, which he carried by the narrow plurality of 1,047 in a total vote, aggregating about one CAREER OF GROVER CLEVELAND. 513 million. He received 219 electoral votes to 182 for Mr. Elaine, and a plurality of the popular vote of 69,806. The support which Cleveland received from the Mugwumps, to- gether with the effect of Dr. Burchard's famous alliteration, undoubtedly increased his strength. The independent support of Cleveland was due princi- pally to the belief that as President he would set himself above the politicians of his party and conduct his office in accordance Avith the principles of civil service reform. Soon after his election but before his inauguration the National Civil Service Reform League addressed to him a letter requesting an explicit statement regarding his views on the civil service. In his reply he expressed himself against the removal solely on partisan grounds of a certain class of office- holders, but in favor of the removal of those who had proved themselves " offensive partisans and unscrupulous manipula- tors of local party management." The month after his inauguration he gratified the reformers but antagonized the politicians by reappointing the Republican Postmaster ai New York, Henry G. Pearson. This act was another proof of his ability to withstand the pressure of partisanship, and of his courage in the face of certain condemnation and loss of political advantage. What with the demands upon him for the " spoils of office," and his pledges to observe the letter and spirit of the civil service law, President Cleveland fre- quently experienced embarrassments which would have been intolerable to a less patient man. Many times he antagonized his Mugwump admirers, but no less often than he did the machine politicians. His manifest desire to do what he thought was right, however, strengthened him quite as much as his failure to satisfy the politicians weak- ened him. The Republican Senate tried to make political capital out of his appointments and removals by demanding the papers upon which removals and appointments were made. But 514 CAREER OF GBOVER CLEVELAND. in this their efforts were wasted, and his appointments were confirmed. His annual messages to Congress were always characterized by a vigorous discussion of public questions, in which he fearlessly expressed his own opinions, sometimes to the great dissatisfaction of the party leaders. His exer- cise of the veto power as Governor was carried to equal, if not greater length, as President. Bills involving the pay- ment of private claims and bills appropriating money for public buildings, many of them met with his disapproval. The Dependent Pension Bill, permitting a pension to soldiers and sailors who served in the Civil War " upon the ground of service and present disability alone, and in the entire absence of any injuries received by the casualties or incidents of such service," was vetoed by President Cleveland, " as an avowed departure from the principle thus far adhered to respecting Union soldiers, that the bounty of the Government in the way of pensions is generously bestowed when granted to those who, in their military service and in the line of military duty have, to a greater or less extent, been disabled." In his message he called attention to the alleged disregard of truth and good faith, stimulated by pension agents, in submitting claims for pensions. Many private pension claims submitted for his signature were vetoed, and he thus laid himself open to the charge of being unfriendly to the soldier, an accusa- tion which his friends have always stoutly denied. Another incident of his administration was that which grew out of his order to Adjutant-General Drum to return to th& ex-Confederates the battle-flags, then in a dilapidated con- dition in the Ordnance Museum, which the Union armies had captured. This order aroused the members of the Grand Army of the Republic, whose leaders attacked the President with such fierceness that he revoked the order. He was at the time contemplating a tour of the South which should in- clude St. Louis, Mo., during the Grand Army Encampment, but it was declared that he would be publicly insulted if CAREER OP GROVER CLEVELAND. 515 he did so. This purpose of the offended Union veterans was rebuked V by General Sherman, and the President visited St. Louis without indignity either to him or his high station. * The third annual message of President- Cleveland, submit- ted to Congress in December, 1887, seven months before the Democratic National Convention of 1888, was known as the Tariff Message, for the reason that in it he made direct ap- peal to the country in behalf of a radical reduction in tariff duties, in order to prevent the accumulation of a large surplus in the Treasury. The phraseology of the message was so GRAY GABLES. pointed, and the sentiments it expressed were so clearly in the nature of a challenge to the Republican party to make tin issue on the protection basis, that Democrats piid Republi- cans alike were startled. Many of Cleveland's own friends criticised his audacity in thus forcing an issue of his own choosing. The message, too, forced the Democratic party to renominate him, which was done by acclamation at the Con- vention at St. Louis, in July, 1888. In the election which followed in November, there was but one issue, the tariff. Benjamin Harrison, the Republican candidate, was elected, carrying New York and Indiana. 516 CAREER OF GROVEK CLEVELAND. The marriage of President Cleveland to Miss Frances Folsom, was a notable event in the administration. It took place on June 2, 1886, in the Blue Room of the White Housfc. The bride was then in her twenty-second year, having been born on July 21, 1864. Her father was Oscar Folsom, Cleveland's former law-partner and intimate friend. At Mr. Folsom's death in 1875, Mr. Cleveland became her guardian. She was well educated, had the social instinct, and was beautiful withal, and was admirably fitted to become the mistress of the White House. The receptions of the bride and groom lent an atmosphere of gaiety to the White House life which it never had before, so that the Cleveland administration was distinguished quite as much for its social festivity as for its other features. Upon the inauguration of Harrison, the Clevelands left Washington to live in New York City, where the ex-President entered upon the prac- tice of the law. One child, baby Ruth, has been born to Mrs. Cleveland, the date of the birth being October 3, 1891. ADLAI E. STEVENSON. 518 ADLAI E. STEVENSON'S CAREER. The Democratic candidate for Vice-President, Gen. Adlai Ewing Stevenson, of Bloomington, 111., is another of the Kentuckians by birth who, as citizens of Illinois, have been named for national political honors. He was born in Christiansen County, Ky., near the county seat of Hopkinsville. He was the eldest son of Mr. and Mrs. J. T. Stevenson. The family originally came from Mecklenburg, N. C. He began to attend school at the age of five years, his uncle, Dr. T. F. Worrell, who died in Bloomington a few years since, being the instructor. Young Stevenson was fond of history and always showed great interest in politics. A great reader and a hard student, he rapidly went to the front among his schoolfellows. At the age of sixteen he came with the family to Bloomington, where they resided on South Albert Street. He immediately entered the Illinois Wesleyan University at that place, which was then in its infancy. When twenty-one years old he went to Danville, Ky., and entered Center College, then pre- sided over by the Rev. Lewis W. Green. In 1857 he was called home to Bloomington because of the death of his father. He soon began the reading of law with the firm of Williams & Packard, later the firm of Williams & Burr. He was admitted to the bar in 1858. He did not practise in Bloomington at first, but went to Metamora, Woodford County, where he remained for ten years, having been twice elected prosecuting attorney, and master in Chancery of the Circuit Court for four years. While at Danville pursuing his studies, he met Miss 519 520 ADLAI E. STEVENSON'S CAREER. Letitia Green, daughter of the Rev. Lewis W. Green, Presi- dent of the college at which he was a student. The courtship was at the home of Mrs. Scott, a sister of Miss Green, who lived in Chenoa, 111., and there the marriage ceremony took place in December, 1866, the officiating clergyman being the Rev. Dr. Craig, now of the McCormick Seminary in Chicago. The couple afterwards made a trip through Kentucky, visit- ing the places where they were known, being welcomed with a characteristic warmth, the memory of which is still fresh in the minds of the people of that section. Four children, all of whom are living, have been born to them : Louis Green Stevenson, aged twenty-four years ; Mary E. Stevenson, aged nineteen years ; Julia Scott Stevenson, aged eighteen years ; Letitia Ewing Stevenson, aged sixteen years. General Stevenson's partnership with his cousin, James S. Ewing, which still exists, began in 1868. The young men had been fast friends from boyhood, and were at school and college together. An incident of the boyhood in Blooming- ton, is related as follows : " When Stevenson and Jim Ewing first came here they had a potato patch just out of town. They were poor, and relied on the potato crop to bring them in spending money. One day they brought a load of potatoes to town, and while passing a livery stable the liveryman began to guy them. This incensed the boys, and they decided he couldn't have them. After they had sold their potatoes, they found a thumper who was loafing about the corner and asked him if he wanted a job. They told him they wanted him to thrash a man. The thumper asked them how much they would pay, and they said they would give him all they had realized on the potatoes. He accepted the job and they told him to get in the wagon and lie down. Then they drove back past the livery stable. The livery man was still standing in the doorway, and young Stevenson asked if he had changed his mind about them. The livery man said he hadn't. Then the boys threw the linej ADLAI E. STEVENSON'S CAREER. 521 over the dash-board and made a rush for the 'soothless in- sulter.' Before tlie first blow was dealt, the thumper, who had been concealed in the wagon, leaped over the wheels and tackled the livery man, who was laid up for repairs in con- sequence for several days. Adlai told me that was the first time and last time he had ever spent any money for a fight." General Stevenson's ability as prosecuting attorney of Woodford County brought him into prominence before the people, and in 1864 he was named as the Democratic Presi- dential elector for that district. In the campaign of General McClellan as the nominee of his party for the Presidency he canvassed the entire State, speaking in every county. In 1874 he was elected to Congress in the Bloomington district, which then included Tazewell County, and which had been up to that time a large Republican majority. He defeated Gen. John McNulta, one of the best political debaters in Illinois, after a most exciting and bitter canvass. In this campaign Mr. Stevenson won the appellation of " The Great Strad- dler " for the ease and success with which he rode two horses at once Democracy and Greenbackism. He made a close and energetic campaign, and his election was a genuine sur- prise, especially to the Republicans. In 1876 he was defeated by the Hon. Diedrich C. Smith, of Pekin, soon after which the district was changed by putting Tazewell County into the district with Sangamon, and outlining the present Fourteenth District. He was again nominated in 1878, and was elected. He was a delegate to the National Democratic Convention in 1884, and in 1877 President Hayes appointed him a member of the Board to inspect the Military Academy at West Point. His military title was not won in the field of wars, but is a relic of his service of the United States Government as First Assistant Postmaster-General in the Cleveland adminis- tration. At this time he was styled the "axeman" of the administration, because he decapitated thousands of Republi- can post-masters and appointed Democrats in their places. 522 ADLAI K. STEVENSON'S CARKKB. Since his return from Washington in 1889, General Stev- enson has not taken an active part in the business of his law firm, but lias devoted his time largely to the, interests of the World's Fair. This has called him to nearly every State in the South and several times to Mexico. Two years ago he was elected President of the Inter-State Building and Loan Association and holds that office at present, the headquarters being Bloomington. He has for many years been a stock- holder of the M.cLean County Coal Company, whose mines are in Bloomington, and is its president. The, company has always employed non-union laboring men, and under the management of Mix Matthew T. Scott some years ago dis- putes with the miners were frequent and strikes not uncom- mon. General Stevenson has had nothing to do with the active management of the mines which are controlled by the Scott estate. He is also a stockholder and director of the People's Bank of Bloomington. General Stevenson's personality has won him hosts of friends, and in Bloomington his political opponents were quite as delighted with his nomination as were those who have been affiliated with him. On his arrival from Chicago, on the evening of the day of his nomination, Bloomington welcomed him in a manner which proved that he is one of her favorite citizens. A procession, in which the citizens joined, irrespective of party, escorted the General to the Soldiers' Monument, where, standing on a gun-carriage, lie listened to a speech of welcome and of eulogy delivered by his twice- defeated Republican opponent, General McNulta. Replying General Stevenson said: " MR. MAYOR, GEN. McNuLTA, AND MY TOWNSFOLK, NEIGH- BORS, AND FRIENDS : I have no word with which to express the deep gratitude of my heart for the generous welcome you have given me. The memory of it will perish only with my life. To have such a greeting from the people among whom I have lived for more than a third of a century, in a home which I esteem even more than the great honor that the Democrats of this great ADLAI E. STEVENSON'S CAREER. 523 and glorious nation have conferred on me, is an 'honor of which any citizen might well be proud. This has been my home from early boyhood. All that makes up life, the joys, the sorrows, have been here, and I have been proud of it. I have loved it, but I never have loved this beautiful city and its noble people as I do at this moment. Words cannot express my gratitude, my love; I can only say I thank you from the bottom of my heart. "You cannot expect an extended speech. I am worn out with the exacting labors of the Convention. I have riot had the time nor the energy to collect my thoughts for a speech. I feel that I cannot say what I want to say to you ; that I cordially respond to the wish of General McNulta that the political contest upon which we now enter shall be one of intelligent discussion and not of personal vilification ; that it shall be a fight for the great principles of Democracy and for the great reform for which Democracy stands, differ as we may as to the principles and methods of government. We all desire the best interests of our common country. " Should my candidacy be successful, I dan hardly hope at the close of my term of office to be welcomed to my home as I have been welcomed to-day. Should I be doomed to defeat, I shall have the satisfaction of knowing that it was not caused by the personal hostility of my countrymen, and that the few remaining years of my life will be spent in the most beautiful city and among the most generous people upon this earth. Again, my neighbors, my friends, I thank you." A Bloomington man who has made a study of Mr. Steven- son's peculiarities, says : " When Stevenson is not telling a funny story he always has a key-ring full of keys on his thumb. He has a way of throwing one key at a time over his thumb with his first finger. When he is in that attitude you can always bet he is thinking up some new story or plotting a joke on somebody. When he was First Assistant Postmaster-General he always went through that motion before he fired some Republican out of the post-office. " Stevenson is one of the best after-dinner talkers in the West. He is full of what is known as the Kentucky suavity. But as an orator I do not regard him as a howling success. He forgets some of his Kentucky polish when he gets on the stump. As he warms up to his subject, he takes off his cuffs, then his necktie, then his shirt collar, and if the weather is very warm he pulls off his coat, and he thrashes around like a young hurricane. His voice on an occasion of this sort becomes husky, ar.d he gets red in the face and looks as if he was going to have an attack of apoplexy. 524 ADLAI E. STEVENSON S CAREER. "He has had* remarkable success at the bar in criminal cases. In any case where he appears for a woman he is effective. One of the most brilliant speeches he ever made was in a case of this sort. In his office, at a street corner, or at the club, he is one of the best story tellers I ever heard, but when he gets on the stump his fund of humor seems to run out. " He is a member of the Presbyterian church, doesn't drink much, never swears, and never tells a salacious anecdote. One of the most prominent traits in his character is his devotion to his family. There is not that man living who ever heard of his neglecting the slightest wants of his household." Of this filial trait in the General, Mrs. Stevenson herself says: " Before I knew him I had almost learned to love him on ac- count of his devotion to his mother. It may seem strange that any son should receive special credit for being so obedient and dutiful to his mother, but in the case of Mr. Stevenson his devo- tion always seemed more marked than in anvone of whom I ever heard." Another observer of General Stevenson's career says : "Much of Stevenson's popularity is due to his gallantry to women. He wins them and they become his advocates. It the women of this country had the right of suffrage, Stevenson would be elected Vice-President by an overwhelming majority." WIM.IAM C. WHITNEY, 526 NOMINATION OF CLEVELAND. Grover Cleveland was placed in nomination by Leon Abbett, Governor of his native State of New Jersey, in the following speech : MR. CHAIRMAN AND GENTLEMEN OP THE CONVENTION : In placing a name before this Convention, I speak for the united Democracy of the State of New Jersey, whose loyalty to Demo- cratic principles, faithful service to the party, and whose contri- butions to its success entitle it to the consideration of the Democracy of the country. Its electoral vote has always been cast in support of Democratic principles and Democratic candi- dates. In voicing the unanimous wish of the delegation of New Jersey, I present as their candidate for the suffrage of this con- vention the name of a distinguished Democratic statesman born upon its soil, for whom in two presidential contests the State of New Jersey has given its electoral vote. The supreme consider- ation in the mind of the Democracy of New Jersey is the success of the Democratic party and its principles. We have been in the past, and will be in the future, ready to sacrifice all personal preferences to the clear expression of the will of the Democratic party. It is because that this name will awaken throughout our own State the enthusiasm of the Democracy and insure success ; it is because he represents the great Democratic princi- ples and policy upon which this entire convention is a unit; it is because we believe that, with him as a candidate, the Democracy of the Union will sweep the country and establish its principles throughout the length and breadth of the land, that we offer to the convention as a nominee the choice of the Democracy of New Jersey Grover Cleveland. If any doubt existed in the minds of the Democracy of New Jersey of his ability to lead the great Democratic hosts to victory, they would not present his name to-day ; with them the success of the party and the establishment of its principles are beyond their love of admiration for any man. We feel certain that every Democratic State, though its pref- 527 528 NOMINATION OP CLEVELAND. erence may l>e for some other distinguished Democrat, will give its warm, enthusiastic and earnest support to the nominee of this Convention. The man whom we present will rally to his party thousands of independent voters, whose choice is determined by their personal conviction that the candidate will represent prin- ciples dear to them, and whose public life and policy gives assurance that, if chosen by the people, they will secure an honest, pure, and conservative administration, and the great interests of the country will be encouraged and protected. The time will come when other distinguished Democrats who have been mentioned in connection with this nomination will re- ceive that consideration to which the great services they have rendered their party entitle them. But we stand to-day in the presence of the fact that the majority of the Democratic masses throughout the country, rank and file, the millions of its voters, demand the nomination of Grover Cleveland. The sentiment is so strong and overpowering that it has attracted and controlled the actions of delegates who would otherwise present the name of some distinguished leader of their own State, with whom they feel victory would be assured, and in whom the entire country would feel confidence. But the people have spoken, and favorite sons and leaders are standing aside in deference to their will. Shall we listen to the voice of the Democracy of the Union ? Shall we place on our banners the name of the man of their choice, the man in whom they believe ; or shall we for any consideration of policy or expediency, hesitate to obey their will ? I have sublime faith in the expression of the people when it is clear and distinct. When the question before them is one that has excited discussion and debate ; when it appeals to their interests and their feelings; when it calls for the exercise of their judgment, and when they say we want this man, and we can elect him, we, their representatives, must not disobey or disap- point them. It is incumbent upon us to obey their wishes and concur in their judgment. Then, having given them the candi- date of their choice, they will give us their best, their most ener- getic efforts to secure success. We confidently rely upon the loyal and successful work of the Democratic leaders who have advocated other candidates. We know that in the great State across the river from New Jersey, now controlled by the Democracy, there is no Democrat who will shirk the duty of making an effort to secure the success of the candidate of this convention, notwithstanding his judgment may differ from that of the majority. The Democracy of New York and their great leaders, whose efforts and splendid general- NOMINATION. OF CLEVELAND. 529 ship have given to us a Democratic senator and governor, will always be true to the great party they represent ; they will not waver in the coming canvass, nor will they rest until they have achieved success. Their grand victories of the past, their natural and honorable ambition, their unquestioned Democracy, will make them arise and fight as never before, and with those that they represent and lead, they will marshal the great independent vote, and we will again secure Democratic victory in New York. The grand Democrats, under whose leadership the people 4>f New York are now governed, will give to the cause the great weight of organization. The thundering echoes of this Convention announcing the nomination of Grover Cleveland will not have died out over the hills and through the valleys of this land before you will hear and see all our leaders rallying to the support of our candidate. They will begin their efforts for organization and success, and continue their work until victory crowns their efforts. All Demo- crats will fight for victory, and they will succeed, because the principles of the party enunciated here are for the best interests of the country at large, and because the people of this land have unquestioning faith that Grover Cleveland will give the country a pure, honest, and stable government, and an administration in which the great business interests of the country and the agricul- tural and laboring interests of the masses will receive proper and due consideration. The question has been asked why it is that the masses of the party demand the nomination of Grover Cleveland. Why is it that this man who has no offices to distribute, no wealth to com- mand, should have secured the spontaneous support of the great body of Democracy? Why is it that, with all that has been urged against him, the people still cry : " Give us Cleveland " ? Why is it that, although he has pronounced in clear, earnest, and able language his views upon questions upon which some of his party may differ with him, he is still near and dear to the masses ? It is because he has crystallized into a living issue the great prin- ciple upon which this battle is to be fought out at the coming election. If he did not create tariff reform, he has made it a presidential issue ; he vitalized it and presented it to our party as the issue for which we could fight and continue to battle until upon it victory is now assured. There are few men in his position who would have had the courage to boldly make the issue of tariff reform and present it clearly and forcibly as he did in his great message of 1887. I believe that his policy then was to force a national issue which would appeal to the judgment of the people. 530 NOMINATION OF CLEVELAND. We must honor a man who is honest enough and hold enough, under such circumstances, to proclaim that the success of the party upon principle is better than evasion or shirking of the true national issues for temporary success. When victory is obtained upon principle it forms the solid foundation of party success in the future. It is no longer the question of a battle to be won on the mistakes of our foes, but it is a victory to be accomplished by a charge along the whole line under the banner of principle. There is another reason why the people demand his nomina- tion. They feel that the tariff reform views of President Cleve- land and the principles laid down in his great message, whatever its temporary effect may have been, gave us a living and vital issue to fight, which has made the great victories since 1888 possible. It consolidated in one solid phalanx the Democracy of the nation. In every State of this Union that policy has been placed in Democratic platforms, and our battles have been fought upon it, and this great body of representative Democrats has seen its good results. Every man in this convention recognizes this as the policy of the party. In Massachusetts it gave us a Russell ; in Iowa it gave us a Boies ; in Wisconsin it gave us a Peck for Governor and Vilas for secretary. In Michigan it gave us Wy- mans for Governor and gave us a Democratic legislature, and will give us eight votes for President. In Ohio, in 1889, it gave us James Campbell for Governor, and in 1891 to defeat him it required the entire wealth and power of the Republican party. In Pennsylvania it gave us Robert E. Pattison. In Connecticut it gave us a Democratic Governor, who was kept out of office by the infamous conduct of the Republican party. In New Hampshire it gave us a legislature, of which we were defrauded. In Illinois it gave us a Palmer for senator, and in Nebraska it gave us Boyd for Governor. In the great Southern States it has continued in power the Democratic party. In New Jersey the power of the Democracy has been strengthened, and the legislature and executive are now both Democrat. In the great State of New York it has given us the great David B. Hill for senator, and Roswell P. Flower for Governor. With all these glorious achievements, it is the wisest and best policy to nominate again the man whose policy made these successes possible. The people believe that these victories, which gave us a Democratic House of Representatives in 1890 and Democratic governors and senators in Republican and doubt- ful States, are due to the courage and wisdom of Grover Cleveland. And so believing, they recognize him as their great leader. NOMINATION OF CLEVELAND. 631 In presenting this name to the Convention, there is no reflec- tion upon any of the masterful leaders of the party. The vic- tories which have been obtained are not alone the heritage of those States; they belong to the whole party. I feel that every Democratic State, and that every individual Democrat, has reason to rejoice and be proud and applaud these splendid successes. The candidacy of Grover Cleveland is not a reflection upon others; it is not antagonistic to any great Democratic leader. He comes before this Convention, not as the candidate of any one State. He is the choice of the great majority of Demo- cratic voters. The Democracy of New Jersey presents to this Convention, in this the people's year, their nominee, the nominee of the people, the plain, blunt, honest citizen, the idol of the Democratic masses Grover Cleveland. THE DEMOCRATIC PLATFORM. Section 1. The representatives of the Democratic party of the United States, in national convention assembled, do reaffirm their allegiance to the principles of the party as formulated by Jefferson and exemplified by the long and illustrious line of his successors in Democratic leadership, from Madison to Cleveland ; we believe the public welfare demands that these principles be applied to the conduct of the Federal Government through the power of the party that advocates them ; and we solemnly declare that the need of a return to those fundamental principles of a free popular . government, based on home rule and individual liberty, was never more urgent than now, when the tendency to centralize all power at the federal capital has become a menace to the reserved rights of the States that strikes at the very roots of our government under the Constitution as framed by the fathers of the republic. Sec. 2. We warn the people of our common country, jealous for the preservation of their free institutions, that the policy of federal control of elections, to which the Republi- can party has committed itself, is fraught with the gravest dangers, scarcely less momentous than would result from a revolution, practically establishing monarchy on ^he ruins of the republic. It strikes at the North as well as the South, and injures the colored citizen even more than the white ; it means a horde of deputy marshals at every polling place, armed with federal power, returning boards appointed and controlled by federal authority, the outrage of the electoral rights of the people in the several States, the subjugation of 532 THE DEMOCRATIC PLATFORM. 533 the colored people to the control of the party in power and the reviving of race antagonisms, now happily abated, of the utmost peril to the safety and happiness of all, a measure deliberately and justly described by a leading Republican senator as " the most infamous bill that ever crossed the threshold of the Senate." Such a policy, if sanctioned by law, would mean the dominance of a self-perpetuating oligarchy of office-holders, and the party first intrusted with its machinery could be dis- lodged from power only by an appeal to the reserved rights of the people to resist opposition, which is inherent in all self- governing communities. Two years ago this revolutionary policy was emphatically condemned by the people at the polls ; but, in contempt of that verdict, the Republican party has defiantly declared in its latest authoritative utter- ance that its success in the coming elections will mean the enactment of the force bill and the usurpation of despotic control over elections in all the. States. Believing that the preservation of republican government in the United States is dependent upon the defeat of this policy of legalized force and fraud, we invite the support of all citizens who desire to see the Constitution maintained in its integrity, with the laws pursuant thereto, which have given our country a hundred years of unexampled prosperity ; and we pledge the Democratic party, if it be intrusted with power, not only to the defeat of the force bill, but also to relentless opposition to the Republican policy of profligate expenditure which, in the short space of two years, has squandered an enormous surplus and emptied an overflowing treasury, after piling new burdens of taxation upon the already overtaxed labor of the country. Sec. 3. We denounce Republican protection as a fraud, a robbery of the great majority of American people for the benefit of the few. We declare it to be a fundamental principle of the Democratic party that the Federal Government 534 THE DEMOCRATIC PLATFOBM. has no constitutional power to enforce and collect tariff duties except for the purpose of revenue only, and demand that the collection of such taxes shall be linafe&l to the necessities of the government, and honestly and economically administered. We denounce the McKinley tariff law enacted by the Fifty-First Congress as the culminating atrocity of class legis- lation ; we indorse the efforts made by the Democrats of the present Congress to modify its most oppressive features in the direction of free raw materials and cheaper manufactured goods that enter into general consumption ; and we promise its repeal as one of the beneficent results that will follow the action of the people in entrusting power to the Democratic party. Since the McKinley tariff went into operation there have been ten reductions of the wages of laboring men to one increase. We deny that there ha's been any increase of prosperity to the country since that tariff went into operation, and we point to the dulness and distress, the wage reductions and strikes in the iron trade as the best possible evidence that no such prosperity has resulted from the McKinley act. We call the attention of thoughtful Americans to the fact that, after thirty years of restrictive taxes against the im- portation of foreign wealth in exchange for our agricultural surplus, the homes and farms of the country have become burdened with a real estate mortgage debt of over $2,500,- 000,000, exclusive of all other forms of indebtedness ; that in one of the chief agricultural States of the West there appears a real estate mortgage debt averaging one hundred and fifty-three dollars per capita of the total population, and that similar conditions and tendencies are shown to exist in the other agricultural exporting States. We denounce a policy which fosters no industry so much as it does that of the sheriff. Sec. 4. Trade interchange on the basis of reciprocal advan- THE DEMOCRATIC PLATFORM. 535 tages to the countries participating is a time-honored doctrine of the Democratic faith, but we denounce the sham reciprocity which juggles with the people's desire for enlarged foreign markets and freer exchanges by pretending to establish closer trade relations for a country whose articles of export are almost exclusively agricultural products with other countries that are also agricultural, while erecting a custom house bar- rier of prohibitive tariff taxes against the richest countries of the world that stand ready to take our entire surplus of products and to exchange therefor commodities which are necessaries and comforts of life among our own people. Sec. 5. We recognize in the trusts and combinations, which are designed to enable capital to secure more than its just share of the joint product of capital and labor, a natural con- sequence of the prohibitive taxes which prevent the free competition which is the life of honest trade, but we believe their worst evils can be abated by law, and we demand -the rigid enforcement of the laws made to prevent and control them, together with such further legislation in restraint of their uses as experience may show to be necessary. Sec. 6. The Republican party, while professing a policy of reserving the public land for small holdings by actual settlers, has given away the people's heritage till now a few railroads and non-resident 'alrens, individual and corporate, possess a larger area than that of all our farms between the two seas. The last Democratic administration reversed the improvident and unwise policy of the Republican party touching the pub- lic domain, and reclaimed from corporations and syndicates, alien and domestic, and restored to the people nearly 100,- 000,000 acres of valuable land, to be sacredly held as home- steads for our citizens, and we pledge ourselves to continue this policy until ever/ acre of land so unlawfully held shall be reclaimed and restored to the people. Sec. 7. We denounce the Republican legislation known as the Sherman act of 1890 as a cowardly makeshift, fraught 536 THE DEMOCRATIC PLATFORM. with possibilities of danger in the future which should make all of its supporters, as well as its author, anxious for its speedy repeal. We hold to the use of both gold and silver as the standard money of the country, and to the coinage of both gold and silver without discriminating against either metal or charge for mintage, but the dollar unit of coinage of both metals must be of equal intrinsic and exchangeable value, or be adjusted through international agreement, or by such safeguards of legislation as shall insure the maintenance of the parity of the metals and the equal power of every dollar at all times in the markets and in the payment of debts ; and we demand that all paper currency shall be kept at par with and redeemable in such coin. We insist upon this policy as especially necessary for the protection of the farmers and laboring classes, the first and most defenceless victims of unstable money and a fluctuating currency. Sec. 8. We recommend that the prohibitory 10 per cent. tax on State bank issues be repealed. Sec. 9. Public office is a public trust. We reaffirm the declaration of the Democratic national convention of 1876 for the reform of the civil service, and we call for the honest enforcement of all laws regulating the same. The nomina- tion of a President, as in the recent Republican convention, by delegations composed largely of his appointees, holding office at his pleasure, is a scandalous satire upon free popular institutions, and a startling illustration of the methods by which a President may gratify his ambition. We denounce a policy under which federal office-holders usurp control of party conventions in the States, and we pledge the Democratic party to the reform of these and all other abuses which threaten individual liberty and local self-government. Sec. 10. The Democratic party is the only party that has ever given the country a foreign policy consistent and vigo- rous, compelling respect abroad and inspiring confidence at home. While avoiding entangling alliances, it has aimed to THE DEMOCRATIC PLATFORM. 537 cultivate friendly relations with other nations, and especially with our neighbors on the American continent whose destiny is closely linked with our own, and we view with alarm the tendency to a policy of irritation and bluster, which is liable at any time to confront us with the alternative of humiliation or war. We favor the maintenance of a navy strong enough for all purposes of national defence, and to properly maintain the honor and dignity of the country abroad. Sec. 11. This country has always been the refuge of the oppressed from every land, exiles for conscience sake, and in the spirit of the founders of our government we condemn the oppression practised by the Russian government upon its Lutheran and Jewish subjects, and we call upon our national government, in the interest of justice and humanity, by all just and proper means, to use its prompt and best efforts to bring about a cessation of these cruel persecutions in the dominions of the v Czar, and to secure to the oppressed equal rights. We tender our profound and earnest sympathy to those lovers of freedom who are struggling for home rule and the great cause of local self-government in Ireland. Sec. 12. We heartily approve all legitimate efforts to pre- vent the United States from being used as the dumping ground for the known criminals and professional paupers of Europe, and we demand the rigid enforcement of the law against Chinese immigration or the importation of foreign workmen under contract to degrade American labor and lessen the wages, but we condemn and denounce any and all attempts to restrict the immigration of the industrious and worthy of foreign lands. Sec. 13. This Convention hereby renews the expression of appreciation of the patriotism of the soldiers and sailors of the Union in the war for its preservation, and we favor just and liberal pensions for all disabled Union soldiers, their widows and dependents, but we demand that the work of the 538 THE DEMOCRATIC PLATFORM. pension office shall be done industriously, impartially, and honestly. We denounce the present administration of that office as incompetent, corrupt, disgraceful, and dishonest. Sec. 14. The Federal Government should care for and im- prove the Mississippi River and other great waterways of the republic, so as to secure for the interior States easy and cheap transportation to the tide water. When any waterway of the republic is of sufficient impor- tance to demand the aid of the government, such aid should be extended by a definite plan of continuous work until per- manent improvement is secured. Sec. 15. For purposes of national defence and the promo- tion of commerce between the States', we recognize the early construction of the Nicaragua Canal, and its protection against foreign control, as of great importance to the United States. Sec. 16. Recognizing the World's Columbian Exposition as a national undertaking of vast importance, in which the general government has invited the co-operation of all the powers of the world, and appreciating the acceptance by many of such powers of the invitation extended, and the broadest liberal efforts being made by them to contribute to the grandeur of the undertaking, we are of the opinion that Congress should make such necessary financial provision as shall be requisite to the maintenance of the national honor and public faith. Sec. 17. Popular education being the only safe basis of popular suffrage, we recommend to the several States most liberal appropriations for the public schools. Free .common schools are the nursery of good government, and they have always received the fostering care of the Democratic party, which favors every means of increasing intelligence. Freedom of education being an essential of civil and religious liberty, as well as a necessity for the development of intelligence, must not be interfered with under any pretext whatever. We are opposed to State interference with parental rights and THE DEMOCRATIC PLATFORM. 539 rights of conscience in the education of children, as an in- fringement of the Democratic doctrine that the largest indi- vidual liberty consistent with the rights of others ensures the highest type of American citizenship and the best government. Sec. 18. We approve the action of the present Honse of Representatives in passing bills for the admission into the Union as States of the Territories of New Mexico and Arizona, and we favor the early admission of all Territories having necessary population and resources to admit them to statehood, and while they remain Territories we hold that the officials appointed to administer the government of any Terri- tory, together with the District of Columbia and Alaska, should be bona fide residents of the Territory or district in which their duties are to be performed. The Democratic party believes in home rule and the control of their own affairs by the people of the vicinage. Sec. 19. We favor legislation by Congress and State legis- latures to protect the lives and limbs of railway employees and those of other hazardous transportation companies, and denounce the inactivity of the Republican party, and particu- larly the Republican Senate, for causing the defeat of meas- ures beneficial and protective to this class of wage-workers. Sec. 20. We are in favor of the enactment by the States of laws for abolishing the notorious sweating system, for abolishing contract convict labor, and for prohibiting the em- ployment in factories of children under fifteen years of age. Sec. 21. We are opposed to all sumptuary laws as an inter- ference with the individual rights of the citizen. Sec. 22. Upon this statement of principles and policies the Democratic party asks the intelligent judgment of the Ameri- can people. It asks a change of administration and a change of party, in order that there may be a change of system and a change of methods, thus assuring the maintenance unim- paired of institutions under which the Republic has grown great and powerful. THE VOTE BY STATES. Cleveland's triumph in the convention was largely due to the admirable generalship of William C. Whitney, who was Secretary of the Navy under the Cleveland administration. The nomination was accomplished on the first ballot, the States voting as follows : STATE. CLEVELAND. HILL. BOIES. Alabama 14 1 2 Arkansas 10 California 18 Colorado 3 5 Connecticut 12 Delaware 6 Florida 5 Georgia 17 5 Idaho G Illinois 48 Indiana 30 Iowa 26 Kansas 20 Kentucky 18 Louisiana 3 1 11 Maine 9 1 Maryland 6 Massachusetts 24 4 1 Michigan 28 Minnesota 18 Mississippi 8 3 3 Missouri 34 Montana . . Nebraska !> Nevada 4 New Hampshire 8 New Jersey 20 New York 11 North Carolina 31-3.. 1 North Dakota 6 Ohio 14 6 16 Oregon 8 Pennsylvania 64 Rhode Island 8 South Carolina ...i 1 3 14 South Dakota 7 . . 1 Tennessee 24 Texas 23 1 6 Vermont . . 8 Virginia 12 11 640 THE VOTE BY STATES. 541 STATE. Washington 8 West Virginia 7 Wisconsin 24 Wyoming 3 Alaska 2 Arizona 5 District of ( olunil i i 3 New Mexico 4 Oklahoma 2 Utah 2 Indian Territory 2 CLEVELAND. HILL. BOIES. Totals . . . . .'*. . . 010 1-3 112 103 SCATTERING. Alabama Morrison, 4 ; Campbell, 2. , Florida Car- lisle, 3. Georgia Gorman, 4. Kentucky Carlisle, 6. Louisiana Gorman, 1. Maine Gorman, 1 ; Whitney, 1. Maryland Gorman, 91-2. Massachusetts Russell, 1. Mississippi Gorman, 4. Nebraska Gorman,!. Nevada - Gorman, 2. North Carolina Stevenson, 16 2-3 ; Morri- son, 1. Ohio Carlisle, 5 ; Gorman, 5. Virginia Gorman, 1. West Virginia Gorman, 3 ; Pattison, 1. Wyoming Gorman, 3. Totals Gorman, 36 1-2; Stevenson, 16 2-3; Morrison, 5 ; Carlisle, 15 ; Campbell, 2 ; Pattison, 1 ; Whit- ney, 1 ; Russell, 1. THE WHITE HOUSE CHILDREN. A curious phase of national politics is the public curiosity which has been manifested in the children of the Harrison family, and the more recent, and if possible, more intense interest which the birth of " Baby Ruth " Cleveland has aroused. The children of no royal family have been regarded with more ardent admiration, although neither of them have been seen to any extent outside their respective home circles. In a certain sense, this display of the public interest, with its consequent exaltation of the youthful persons concerned, has a salutary effect upon the mind of young America. It impresses the thinking boy and girl with the cardinal feature of the republican form of government, viz., that the people choose their rulers from among themselves, and that the boy or girl, who by the fortunes of politics goes to live at the White House, may be more fortunate, but in the eye of the law is no better than the child of the humblest citizen. Children in America are democrats first and last. Far more than their elders, they have a common feeling one towards another ; all boys and girls, to a certain age, are brothers and sisters, recognizing in their mutual contact neither the accidents of birth nor the artificial barrier of social position. It therefore happens that the boy in the White House is, in imagination, the playmate of every other boy in the land. In a monarchy this would be impossible, for there the breach between the children of the royal family and those of the people makes itself felt in a multitude of ways. Never until the Harrison administration has so much been made of the child occupants of the Executive Mansion. In 642 BENJAMIN HARRISON McKEE. 543 THE "WHITE HOUSE CHILDREN. 545 fact, rarely has it happened that young children have been members of the Presidential household. Washington, who had no children of his own, adopted the two youngest children of his foster son, Colonel Custis, Eleanor Parke Custis and George Washington Custis, and both were present at the time of his inauguration as President, being respec- tively eleven and nine years of age at that time. There was no White House in those days, and the nation's firs President lived in New York City, where the youngsters were important members of the social circle which Washington drew about him. President John Adams had Susanna,the three- year-old .daughter of his deceased son Charles, at the White House during part of his administration. Jefferson's daugh- ters Martha and Mary, " Patsey " and " Polly," as they were familiarly styled, were both married during his occupancy of the White House. The former married Thomas Mann Randolph, and by him had a child, James Madison Randolph, who was born at the White House in the winter of 1805-6, and was the first child born in that historic dwelling. In February, 1829, when the administration of John Quincy Adams was within a month of its ending, the White House was the scene of a christening which was a good deal of a social event. The infant was the baby girl of the President's son John, by the latter' s wife, born Miss Mary Hellen, and was christened Mary Louisa in the presence of the Cabinet officers, the Justices of the Supreme Court, the Diplomatic Corps, and other notables at the Capitol. Mary Louisa became one of the family circle, and was much beloved by the President, of whom it is related that he penned some verses in honor of the baby, a couplet of which declared that he was ever ready to " Clap the hands, and laugh, and sing To catch that heaven, an infant's smile." This administration baby was the possessor of a doll known 546 THE WHITE HOUSE CHILDREN. as " Sally," which achieved a national reputation as the " White House Doll." Mary Louisa's tenure of office, how- ever, was cut short by the inauguration in March, 1829, of President Andrew Jackson, whose eight years' occupancy of the White House was significant, from the present point of view, in that it was the birthplace of three of the four children of Major Andrew Jackson Donelson, who was Mrs. Jackson's nephew, and with his wife, went to live at the White House upon the General's inauguration. A biogra- pher says : " There was such frolicking there as has never been known before or since ; the common desire was to create sunshine for the President, for his public life was most stormy and trying." Between the intervals of his exploitation of the doctrine that to the " victors belong the spoils," the hero of New Orleans found exceeding delight in darting into the bath-room while the Donelson children were bathing "and sprinkle them with water, pretending to whip them with a wash-cloth, and would laugh and chuckle when any of them were quick enough to return the splashing." Lincoln's children were favorites both with the men who were associated with him during the crucial period of the nation's life, and with the people generally. Robert Todd, the elder, is now the present Minister at the Court of St. James. William's death at a tender age at the White House called forth the nation's sympathy, and prayers were uttered in behalf of the grieving parents. The third son was Thomas, known as " Tad," an abbreviation of Tadpole, an affectionate name given to him by his father. A favorite picture of Lincoln represents him seated with " Tad " on his knee reading an open book. The young man who, for the best part of four years, has lived at the White House, has been more prominently in the public mind than any other of the " administration " young- sters. In many respects he has been the subject of more adulation than has his grandparent. Although he is but five THE WHITE HOUSE CHILDREN. 547 years old, his picture has been published more often than that even of the President, while columns of narrative set- ting forth his attributes, mental, moral, and physical, have been provided in response to the widespread demand for knowl- edge regarding him. Yet there is no evidence that Benja- min Harrison McKee's head has been turned by all this greatness thrust upon him ; on the contrary he has carried himself with a becoming dignity and a modesty of demeanor befitting his exalted position as the First Boy in the Land. LiKe all inveterate office-holders, he shakes hands after a sort of automatic fashion due to the obligatory nature of his duties ; the Harrisons never are demonstrative in their show of feel- ing, anyway. " Baby " McKee is not an exception to the rule. However, he has found himself confronted with a condition, the theory of which he feels he long ago deserved to have outlived, but which he seems to be powerless to over- come, viz., the national disgrace he suffers in being called "Baby" McKee. It is declared to be a fact that whenever any visitor at the White House asks him ever so sweetly " Is this Baby McKee ? " or, " How do you do, Baby McKee ? " the grandson of the President invariably replies, " I'm not Baby McKee ! I'm Benjamin Harrison McKee ! " In accordance with his wishes, the doorkeepers about the White House are careful to speak to and of him as Benjamin, and never as Ben or Benny. He readily comes forward when his- presence is requested by visitors, but always .with a grave reservation, born of his habitual appearance before strangers. He is absolutely fearless in their presence, being perfectly composed, in this respect following the habit of his grandfather in receiving a crowd of people. But this is not the sole point of similarity between the grandparent and his grandchild. Observation of the picture of Benjamin Harrison McKee shows that the boy has the President's breadth and height of forehead, eyes of the same color, and a similar facial contour ; in fact, he could not more 548 THE WHITE HOUSE CHILDREN. closely resemble the President if he was the President's own son. Benjamin Harrison McKee is the son of James R. McKee, formerly of Indianapolis, who married President Harrison's daughter. Mi's. McKee said recently : "The name 'Baby' McKee belongs to Benjamin,, although you may see from the picture that he is older. My little girl was born just two weeks after my father was nominated, so during that summer she was too small to be much in company. As Benjamin was constantly in the yard and about the house where the strangers who called saw him, the title ' Baby ' McKee was given him by the people who flocked to see ray father." Benjamin's German nurse has taught him the language of the Fatherland so well that he uses it quite as fluently as the mother tongue. He is an expert rider on the velocipede, and an adept at carpentry after a rude juvenile fashion. He takes most delight, but not less than the President himself, in playing with his distinguished grandparent, whom he leads in many a boisterous romp through the Executive Mansion. The majesty of Benjamin's greatness has dimmed the lustre which otherwise might attach itself to his fair young sister, Mary Lodge McKee, who Is three and a half years old. The world hears very little of this member of the White House family, but she has a sweet disposition and wins many friends. " Baby Ruth " Cleveland achieved instantaneous fame on October 3, 1891, when she was born at her father's home in New York City. The rejoicing which accompanied this notable event was widespread and heartfelt, and congratula- tions came thick and fast to the overjoyed father. A re- markable fact in connection with Baby Ruth's birth was the unanimity with which it was said that she would help re- elect her father to the Presidenc} r . She at once rose to the dignity of a political force, and it was felt that she would make an excellent rival for political honors against the juvenile candidate of the Republicans. If there was any MRS. CLEVELAND AND BABY BUTH. 549 THE WHITE HOUSE CHILDREN. 551 advantage to the Harrison administration iu the person of Master Benjamin Harrison McKee, it was argued that it would be more than offset by the winning personality of " Baby Ruth," who, all the accounts agreed, was as beautiful as her beautiful mother. At all events, Candidate Cleve- land measurably rose in the public estimation. The cartoon- ists, the newspaper funny men, the song writers, and the poets, who previously had utilized Baby McKee as a source of inspiration, now warned that young man he must look after his laurels, and they forthwith devoted a large part of their printed pleasantries to the infant daughter of the Democratic ex-President. The accounts of little Ruth have been rather meagre, but those who care for details may be interested in the following : " Half of her face is strikingly like his (her father's) large forehead, heavy brows, small eyes, strong nose, and large facial angle. There is remarkable width of the face from temple to temple. In the lower face the mother's likeness is seen. Mrs. Cleveland has a very pretty mouth and as lovely a chin as nature ever modeled in a human face. Miss Cleveland has the same pretty mouth, the same lovely chin, the same smooth curve of the cheeks, and the same laughing dimple, heightened in charm by the faultless delicacy of infantile beauty. Her bright little eyes are gray-blue, and she has quite a shock of long hair, black as jet and fine as corn-tassels. Oddly enough, she is not a dimpled baby ; nobody could call her roly-poly. An authority on babies would take her to be a boy. She is strong and muscular, has a large frame, superb respiration, good appetite, perfect digestion, and the promise of developing into a large woman. Although a ten-pounder, she is a magnificent specimen of humanity, well- formed, beautifully hinged, and perfectly able to support her own weight. Her head doesn't lop over when she is raised up ; she doesn't give one the impression that she will go to pieces at the bath. She takes to water like a web-foot and shows a decided taste for white castile soap and velvet sponges." SKETCH OF GEN. JOHN BIDWELL. John Bidwell was born on the fifth day of August, 1819, in Chautauqua County, New York. His father, Abraham Bidwell, was a native of Connecticut, and his mother, whose maiden name was Clarissa Griggs, was a native of Massachu- setts. The candidate of the Prohibitionists is, therefore, of Yankee origin, and his career shows that he has inherited in a marked degree the peculiar tact and shrewdness, the energy and industry for which New Englanders are noted. His grandfather fought in the War of 1812, and was an indus- trious and successful farmer, who reared a large family of children. The candidate's mother was noted for her many amiable and estimable qualities. The boy received a limited education ; but he was a hard student and had a natural apti- tude for books. During his roving life in the far West he passed much of his time in self-improvement, a fact which accounts for his creditable literary abilities. His youthful life was an unsettled one. When ten years of age, his father moved to Erie, Penn., and, two years later, to Ashtabula County, Ohio, and, in 1835, to Darke County, Ohio ; the next year, at the age of seventeen years, feeling the necessity of further schooling, the son returned to Ashtabula County, where, in the Kingsville Academy, he studied less than two years, and ended his scholastic education. In 1838 he returned home, spent one winter, and left, at the age of nine- teen, to seek his fortune in the West, single-handed, and without means. He went to Iowa, then into Missouri, and up the Missouri River to the extreme western boundary of the State. These 552 SKETCH OF GEN. JOHN BID WELL. 553 travels occupied several months. Spending nearly two years in Missouri, he formed a wide acquaintance, and in the spring of 1841 he aided in organizing the first party to cross the Rocky Mountains direct to California. He enlisted in defence of California against the insurrection of the native chiefs, Castro and Alvarado, in.the revolt of 1844 and 1845, and acted as aide-de-camp to General Sutter till the war ended by the expulsion of the Mexican Governor Michel to- rena. In 1846 General Fremont began the war which gave California to the United States. On3 of Fremont's first acts after the war was thought to be closed was to appoint young Bidwell, then twenty-seven years old, magistrate of San Luis Rey District. In 1849, at the age of thirty, he was chosen a member of the first Constitutional Convention of California at Monterey, then the capital, but circumstances prevented his attendance. The same year he was elected to the senate of the first legis- lature of California. In 1850 he was appointed one of the commissioners, by Governor Burnett, to convey to Washing- ton City the block of gold-bearing quartz, as California's con- tribution to the Washington monument. In 1855 he was again a candidate for the State senate. In 1860 he was a delegate to the national Democratic Presidential C/onvention at Charleston, S. C., and that year ws a Union or Douglas Democrat. In 1863 he was appointed by Governor, and now U. S. Senator, Leland Stanford to command the Fifth Brigade, California Militia, serving till the close of the Civil War. In 1864 he was a delegate to the Baltimore Convention, which re-nominated President Lincoln for the Presidency. In the same year he was nominated and elected to the Thirty-Ninth Congress. Two years later, he was tendered a re-nomination, but declined. In 1875 he was nominated for Governor of California on the Anti-monopoly or Non-partisan State ticket, polling 30,000 votes. April 4, 1888, he was chosen to pre- 554 SKETCH OF OKX. JOMX MDWELL. side at the State Prohibition Convention, and was made can- didate for Governor in 1890, polling nearly double the regular Prohibition vote that year. He received 10,868 votes to 5,761 for General FLsk. In 1888 he said: " I am a Prohibitionist, a native American, and anti-Chinese in the sense of wholesome restriction of all foreign immigration, and an anti-monopolist in the truest sense of the term." Chico Vicino, the tract opened up to settlement adjoining General Bid-well's private estate, has a prohibitory clause against the manufacture and sale of all intoxicants, which is made a condition precedent to all conveyances or certificates of sale of land therein. General Bidwcll is popularly known as " the father of Chico." He is closely identified with its leading enterprises, and is a munificent benefactor, having donated to the city of Chico lands "for its beautiful public parks, lots for religious and educational purposes, $13,500 to the Presbyterian church of which he is a member, land for the station of the State Forestry Commission, the site for the State Normal School at Chico, etc. The Normal school i.-> in close proximity to General Bidwell's beautiful villa and residence the Rancho Chico a magnificent estate which contains all varieties of trees and shrubs, interwoven with clear streams and forty-five miles of drives and walks, which are always open to the public. After his defeat for Governor he became interested in the drink problem. At that time his ranch had many pro- ductive vineyards, and his wine cellars contained a varied assortment of native wines. He caused all his cellars to be turned out, and his vines to be destroyed, and from that time he was an ardent worker in the cause of prohibition. General Bidwell was married in 1868 to Annie, elder daughter of the late Joseph E. C. Kennedy, a prominent resident of Washington, D. C., and member of a cultured Maryland family. She has strongly seconded her husband's public and philanthropic benefactions, and especially his SKETCH OP GKX. JOHX BIDWBLL. 555 efforts to protect, enlarge, and educate the Indians living at the Ranchiera on Rancho Chico, the school being under her direct supervision. The general has built a chapel for them, and Mrs. Bidwell herself conducts the Sunday services. She is a noble Christian woman. General Bidwell is a man of untiring enterprise, with a large heart and a powerful mind ; a man of wide reading, high culture and refined taste, and withal a strong, true man. He is six feet three inches in height, with splendid physique, commanding and dignified in appearance, and has the attri- butes of one born to be a leader of men. One of his admirers said of him: "Put him beside Cleve- land and he would tower eighteen inches above him ; put him beside the Republican nominee and he would hide him, hat and all." In the Cincinnati Convention of the Prohibitionist party, he was nominated for President by Ex-Gov. John P. St. John, who said that General Bidwell was one of the pioneers of California, a man who has always been in sympathy with the people of the country, a man who has labored with his hands and earned money by the sweat of his brow, a man loyal to the principles of this party. He has served two terms in Congress. He voted for the Pacific railroad bill, because he would not have represented his constituents properly if he hadn't ; he voted to take the tax off wine and brandy, and God bless him for that. After the roll of States had been called the Convention proceeded to a ballot, with the following result : Whole number of votes, 974. Necessary for a choice, 487. John Bidwell, of California, had 590. Gideon T. Stewart, of Ohio, had 179. W. Jennings Demorest, of New York, had 139. H. Clay Bascom, of New York, had 3. General Bidwell was declared the nominee of the Convention for President. J. B. Cranfill, of Texas, nominated by the Prohibitionists for Vice-President, is about forty-five years old. He was a candi- 556 SKETCH OF GEN. JOHN IJIDWELL. date before the Convention of the party in 1888, but was defeated. He is editor of the Advance, of Prohibition and Reform, and also of the Baptist Standard, all of which are published in Texas. The figures on the first ballot for Vice President were : Levering, 380; Cranfill, 386; Satterlee, 26; Carskadon, 21. Enough changes were made before the figures were announced, however, to give Cranfill 416 votes, nine more than enough to win. THE PROHIBITIONIST PLATFORM. The Prohibition party, in national convention assembled, acknowledging Almighty God a.s the source of all true gov- ernment, and His law as the standard to which all human enactments must conform to secure the blessings of peace and prosperity, presents the following declaration of princi- ples : 1. The liquor traffic is a foe to civilization, the arch-enemy of popular government and a public nuisance. It is the cita- del of the forces that corrupt politics, promote poverty and crime, degrade the nation's home life, thwart the will of the people, and deliver our country into the hands of rapacious class interests. All laws that, under the guise of regulation, legalize and protect this traffic, or make the government share in its ill-gotten gains, are "vicious in principle, and powerless as a remedy." We declare anew for the entire suppression of the manufacture, sale, importation, exporta- tion, and transportation of alcoholic liquors as a beverage by Federal and State legislation, and the full powers of the gov- ernment should be exerted to secure this result. Any party that fails to recognize the dominant nature of this issue in American politics is undeserving of the support of the people. 2. No citizen should be denied the right to vote on account of sex, and equal labor should receive equal wages, without regard to sex. 3. The money of the country should consist of gold, silver, and paper, and should be issued by the general government only, and in sufficient quantities to meet the demands of business and give full opportunity for the employment of 558 THK PROHIBITIONIST PLATFORM. labor. To this end an increase in the volume of money is demanded, and no individual or corporation should be allowed to make any profit^ through its issue. It should be made a legal tender for the payment of all debts, public and private. Its volume should be fixed at a definite sum per capita, and made to increase with our increase in population. 4. We favor the free and unlimited coinage of silver and gold. 5. Tariff should be levied only as a defence against foreign governments which levy tariff upon or bar out our products from their markets, revenue being incidental. The residue of means necessary to an economical administration of the government should be raised by levying a burden on what the people possess, instead of upon what we consume. 6. Railroads, telegraph, and other public corporations should be controlled by the government in the interest of the people, and no higher charges allowed than necessary to give fair interest on the capital actually invested. 7. Foreign immigration has become a burden upon indus- try, one of the factors in depressing wages and causing dis- content, therefore our immigration laws should be revised and strictly enforced. The time of residence for naturalization should be extended, and no naturalized person should be allowed to vote until one vear after he becomes a citizen. 8. Non-resident aliens should not be allowed to acquire land in this country, and we favor the limitation of individual and corporate ownership of land. All unearned grants of land to railroad companies or other corporations should be reclaimed. 9. Years of inaction and treachery on the part of the Republican and Democratic parties have resulted in the present reign of mob law, and we demand that every citizen be protected the right of trial by constitutional tribunals. 10. All men should be protected by law in their right to one day's rest in seven. THK PROHIBITIONIST PLATFORM. 559 11. Arbitration is the wisest and most economical and humane method of settling national differences. 12. Speculation in margins, the cornering of grain, money, and products, and the formation of pools, trusts, and combinations for the arbitrary advancement of prices, should be suppressed. 13. We pledge that the Prohibition party, if elected to power, will ever grant just pensions to disabled veterans of the Union army and navy, their widows and orphans. 14. We stand unequivocally for the American public school and opposed to any appropriation of public moneys for sectarian schools. We declare that only by united support of such common schools, taught in the English language, can we hope to become and remain a homogeneous and harmonious people. 15. We arraign the Republican and Democratic parties as false to the standards reared by their founders ; as faith- less to the principles of the illustrious leaders of the past, to whom they do homage with the lips ; as recreant to the " higher law," which is as inflexible in political affairs as in personal life, and as no longer embodying the aspirations of the American people, or inviting the confidence of enlightened progressive patriotism. Their protest against the admission of " moral issues" into politics is a confession of their own moral degeneracy. The declaration of an eminent authority that municipal misrule is "the one conspicuous failure of American politics " follows as a natural consequence of such degeneracy, and is true alike of cities under Republican and Democratic control. Each accuses the other of extravagance in congressional appropriations, and both are alike guilty; each protests when out of power against the infraction of the civil service laws, and each when in power violates those laws in letter and spirit ; each professes fealty to the interests of the toiling masses, but both covertly truckle to the money power in their administration of public affairs. Even the tariff 560 THE PROHIBITIONIST PLATFORM. issue, as represented in the Democratic Mills bill and the Republican McKinley bill, is no longer treated by them as an issue upon great and divergent principles of government, but is a mere catering to different sectional and class interests. The attempt in many States to wrest the Australian ballot system from its true purpose, and to so deform it as to render it extremely difficult for new parties to exercise the rights of suffrage, is an outrage upon popular government. The com- petition of both the parties for the vote of the slums and their assiduous courting of the liquor power and subserviency to the money power has resulted in placing those powers in the position of practical arbiters of the destinies of the nation. We renew our protest against these perilous tendencies, and invite all citizens to join us in the upbuilding of a party that has shown in five national campaigns that it prefers temporary defeat to an abandonment of the claims of justice, sobriety, personal rights, and the protection of American homes. GEN. JAMES B. WEAVER. James B. Weaver, the candidate of the People's party, was born in Dayton, O., June 12, 1833. He was graduated at the law school of Ohio University, Cincinnati, in 1854. In April, 1861, he enlisted as a private in the Second Iowa Infantry, was elected a lieutenant, rose to be major Oct. 3, 1861, and after the senior field-officers had fallen at Corinth was commissioned colonel Oct. 12, 1862. He was brevetted brigadier-general March 13, 1865, for gallantry in action. After the war he resumed legal practice, was elected dis- trict-attorney of the second judicial district of Iowa in 1866, and was appointed assessor of internal revenue for the fifth district of the State in 1867, serving six years. He became editor of the Iowa Tribune, published at Des Moines, and was elected to Congress, taking his seat March 18, 1879. In June, 1880, he was nominated for the Presidency by the convention of the National Greenback-Labor party, and in the November election he received 307,740 votes. He was returned to Congress after an interval of two terms by the vote of the Greenback-Labor and Democratic parties, taking his seat Dec. 7, 1885, and in 1886 was re-elected. 561 THE PEOPLE'S PARTY PLATFORM. Assembled upon the 116th anniversary of the Declaration of Independence, the People's Party of America, in their first national convention, invoking upon their action the blessing of Almighty God, put forth, in the name and on behalf of the people of this country, the following preamble and dele- gation of principles : The conditions which surround us best justify our co-opera- tion ; we meet in the midst of a nation brought to the verge of moral, political, and material ruin. Corruption dominates the ballot box, the legislatures, the congress, and touches even the ermine of the bench. The people are demoralized ; most of the States have been compelled to isolate the voters at the polling places to prevent universal intimidation or bribery. The newspapers are largely subsidized or muzzled, public opinion silenced, business prostrated, our homes covered with mortgages, labor impoverished, and the land concentrat- ing in the hands of the capitalists. The urban workmen are denied the right of organization for self-protection ; imported pauperized labor beats down their wages ; a hireling standing army, unrecognized by our laws, is established to shoot them down, and they are rapidly degenerating into European con- ditions. The fruits of the toil of millions are boldly stolen to build up colossal fortunes for a few, unprecedented in the history of mankind, and the possessors of these, in turn, despise the republic and endanger liberty. We declare that this republic can only endure as a free government while built upon the love of the whole people for each other and for the nation ; that it cannot be pinned 62 THB PEOPLE'S PARTY PLATFORM. 563 together by bayonets ; that the Civil War is over, and that every passion and resentment which grew out of it must die with it, and that we must be in fact, as we are in name, one united brotherhood of free men. Silver, which has been accepted as coin since the dawn of history, has been demonetized to add to the purchasing power of gold, by decreasing the value of all forms of property as well as human labor, and the supply of currency is purposely abridged to fatten usurpers, bankrupt enterprise, and enslave industry. A vast conspiracy against mankind has been organized on two continents, and it is rapidly taking posses- sion of the world. If not met and overthrown at once, it forebodes terrible social convulsions, the destruction of civili- zation, or the establishment of an absolute despotism. Our country finds itself confronted by conditions for which there is no precedent in the history of our world ; our annual agricultural productions amount to billions of dollars in value, which must within a few weeks or months be exchanged for billions of dollars of commodities consumed in their production ; the existing currency supply is wholly inadequate to make this exchange ; the results are falling prices, the formation of combines and rings, the impoverish- ment of the producing class. We pledge ourselves that if given power we will labor to correct those evils by wise and reasonable legislation, in accordance with the terms of our platform. We believe that the powers of government in other words of the people should be expanded (as in the case of the postal service) as rapidly and as far as the good sense of an intelligent people and the teachings of expe- rience shall justify, to the end that oppression, injustice, and poverty shall eventually cease in the land. Assembled on the anniversary of the birthday of the nation, and filled with the spirit of the grand general and chief who established our independence, we seek to restore the government of the republic to the hands of the " plain 564 THE PEOPLE'S PARTY PLATFORM. / people," with which class it originated. We assert our pur- poses to be identical with the purposes of the national con- stitution, to form a more perfect union and establish justice, insure domestic tranquility, provide for the common defence, promote the general welfare and secure the blessings of lib- erty for ourselves and our posterity. We declare, therefore, that the union of the labor forces of the United States this day consummated shall be permanent and perpetual ; may its spirit enter into all hearts for the sal- vation of the republic and the uplifting of mankind. Wealth belongs to him who creates it ; every dollar taken from industry without an equivalent is robbery. " If any will not work neither shall he eat." We believe that the time has come when the railroad cor- porations will either own the people or the people must own the railroads, and should the government enter upon the work of owning and managing all railroads, we should favor an amendment to the constitution by which all persons engaged in the government service shall be placed under a civil service regulation of the most rigid character, so as to prevent the increase of the power of the national adminis- tration by the use of such additional government employees. We demand free and unlimited coinage of silver and gold at the present legal ratio of 16 to 1. We demand that the amount of circulation medium be speedily increased to not less than $50 per capita. We demand a graduated income tax. We believe that the money of the country shpuld be kept as much as possible in the hands of the people, and hence we demand that all State and national revenues shall be limited to the necessary expenses of the government economically and honestly administered. We demand that people's savings banks be established by the government for the safe deposit of the earnings of the people and to facilitate exchange. THE PEOPLE'S PARTY PLATFORM. 565 Transportation being a means of exchange and a public necessity, the government should own and operate the rail- roads in the interest of the people. The telegraph, telephone, like the post-office system, being a necessity for the transmission of news, should be owned and operated by the government in the interests of the people. The land, including all the natural sources of wealth, is the heritage of the people and should not be monopolized for speculative purposes, and alien ownership of land should be prohibited. All land now held by railroads and old corpora- tions in excess of their actual needs, and all lands now owned by aliens should be reclaimed by the government and held for actual settlers only. A supplement to the platform was adopted, demanding a free ballot and a fair count without federal intervention ; favoring a graduated income tax and fair and liberal pen- sions ; demanding further restriction of undesirable immigra- tion ; expressing sympathy with the eight-hour movement ; demanding abolition of the Pinkerton detective system ; favoring a single term for Presidents, and election of senators by the direct vote of the people ; and opposing subsidies. On the roll-call of States for presentation of candidates for President, Gen. J. B. Weaver, Senator Kyle, General Field, of Virginia, ex-Senator Van Wick, of Nebraska, Mann Page, of Virginia, and Ignatius Donnelly were placed in nomina- tion. Virginia withdrew her candidates. The first ballot resulted: Weaver, 995 ; Kyle, 265 ; Norton. 1 ; Page, 1 ; Stanford, 1. Gen. J. G. Field, of Virginia, was nominated for Vice- President. 8 "BUTLER'S BOOK. 55 The Autobiography and Personal Reminiscences of Major-General BENJAMIN F. BUTLER, The Great General, Lawyer, Politician, and Student. No American has had a more interesting career, from child- hood to old age, than Benjamin F. Butler. No autobiography could be more interesting than the large volume in which this most unique character among all our public men has" told the story of his long, turbulent, triumphant life. It is a vivid picture of more than two generations of American life. It has lots of humor, and a fair proportion of pathos and heroism. It would be hard to imagine an autobiography con- taining more of the element of popular interest. The story of General Butler's life falls into four divisions, as follows : Childhood and Education. The War. Politics. The Law. If Benjamin F. Butler had lived in the day when brains and iron nerves could win a throne, he would have been an emperor. As it is, he has hewn his way to immortal fame. It will be a long time before another man like him is seen, and longer still before there will be another such autobiography to study. A graphic description and vivid portrayal of his life his pri- vate, legal, political, and military career. One royal octavo volume of 1,1 6O pages, 15O original engravings, portraits, and maps. The typical American autobiography. The greatest book of personal history and reminiscences ever published. A great book at a popular price, accessible to the poor man. Four styles of binding from $3.75 to $6.5O. Universal Interest and Unparalleled Sale. Three Editions Sold In One Month. The Verdict o* the People on " Butler's Book" is expressed in VOX POPULI, VOX DEI. Sixty pages neatly bound, containing upwards of 150 fac-simile repro- ductions of personal letters from the most distinguished politicians, gen- erals, judges, clergymen, and extracts from the greatest newspapers of the country. A gem of art. An album of autographs and treasure of current literature. Sent gratis postpaid on application. Agents wanted. The Story of Government. An attraction such as the Story of Government ha* never before been offered to the great book-loving American people. It is an entirely new conception, yet something which the public and political scholars have long felt to be necessary. The rudiments of evolution and government traced from animals to savage and wandering tribes, upwards through the successive stages of barbarism and civilization. Narratives of all the forms of government under which the human race has lived in the past and as they exist at present. Law and Order Among all Forms of Animate Oreation. Animals to Man. Family to Federation. Savagery to Civilization. Ignorance to Enlightenment. Despotism to Self-Government. Government Ancng Animals. The Dog Democracy of Constantinople. The Queen Bee's Monarchy. The Republic of the Ants. The Royalty of the Roaches. The Caucus of the Crows, etc. Curions Forms of Government Among Men. The Mysterious Gypsy Monarchy. The ThiBves' Aristocracy. Sovereignty among Secret Societies. The Modern Amazons of Dahomey, etc. Masonic, ordrm and the Tainmany Powci' of Keve York, about which so much is spoken anil nothing known. Assassination- Societies. The Camorra and Mafia. Monarchies. An Absolute Monarchy (Persia). A Scholastic Empire with Figurehead Emperor (China,). A Country of Mismanagement and Atrocities (India). A Semi- Constitutional Monarchy (Germany), etc. A Constitutional Monarchy evolved from a Feudal Kingdom (England). Church Governments. Theocracy or Priestly Government among the Ancient, Early, and Christian Churches Spiritual Authority and Government of the Present Church, etc. Women in Governments. Her influence on the destiny of man. Cleopatra Maria Teresa Catherine of Russia Louise of Prussia Isabella Jean D'Arc, etc. Woman Suffrage. Rise of woman as a political factor. Self Governments Triba> Governments ; American Indians, Paternal Socialism ; The Incas of Peru. The Simple Republic, Switzerland. A Military Republic, France. A Dictatorial Republic, Mexico. The Republic of the United States, as a Nation and as a Sister- hood of States, the Model Government of the Ages. A detailed description of our National and State Government* Departments and Institutions. Officers a.nd their functions f etc. A Treasury of Knowledge Previously Unpublished. Taught in no Text-Rooks. Unknown in Universities. Eevealing an Unexplored Field of Political Economy. So simple that a child will understand and a philosopher enjoy. An Epoch-Making Rook Indispensable to Every Progressive Man or Woman. Its field is the world, and its audience humanity. Magnificent royal octavo, between 8OO and 9OO pages, illustrated with nearly 3OO engravings. Price within the reach of the millions, $3. SO to .>'J..7O. Agents wanted. BY REV. WILLIAM M. THAYER. The latest and greatest work of a renowned author. Author of Marvels of the New West," " White House and Log Cabin Series," " Bobbin Boy," and forty other standard works, of which millions of copies in translations have been sold. An Encyclopedia of character traits. Religious, historic, bio- graphic, philosophic, and anecdotal. Incidents and anecdotes of self-made men and women, illus- trated by character traits that will be easily remembered, enabling one to become familiar with the lives of all great men and women of the time. It recounts their successes and failures, and shows the possibilities afforded in our country and century to every en- ergetic, aspiring person. A COMPANION FOR LIFE. How to establish a character, a reputation, and accumulate wealth. 2OO Photogravures; All Works of Art. From original designs engraved expressly for this work. A magnificent full-page engraving illustrates the subject of each chapter. Vivid in art and eloquent in words. The rarest book of the times. Royal Octavo, (JUO pages. Elaborately bound, at popular prices, $2.75 to $3.75. Entirely new. A great compliment to author and publisher of a popular subscription book. Geo. Williams, Esq., the merchant prince of England and founder of the Y. M. C. A. of the world, purchased five hundred and fifty copies of Mr. Thayer's latest and greatest work, "Oracle of the Age," and presented same as a gift to each of his five hundred and fifty clerks. Agents wanted. The Romances of a Continent. Glimpses of unwritten lifstory of ancient America. History Reverted. How Guacanagari Discovered Columbus. The Marvellous Tra- dition of an Indian Cacique, and Curiosities of Art and Literature, hitherto acces- sible only in museums and archives of European and South American Governments set forth in popular form. Was Columbus a, Pirate ? The Prophesy. The Holy Virgin appears to Columbus in a dream, and thenceforth he devotes his life to this divinely revealed mission. The Voyage of Discovery. Columbus sailing for the Indies. The most heroic and adventurous quest the world has ever known. Told by the Boy who Sailed with Columbus. A page of Queen Isabella's Court, from a Spanish manuscript preserved 350 years in a monastery. A romantic and fascinating revelation of history. The Future of America. Revealed in Columbus' death dream. Legends and Myths of Prehistoric Inhabitants. Ancient Religions, Science, and Forms of Gov- ernment. Musty manuscripts recently discovered. Earlier Discoveries. St. Brendan, the Catholic Missionary, discovers the earthly paradise, America, in the seventh century. Strange Origin of the Madoc Tribe. An ancient Prince of Wales in the ninth century sails to an unknown land, joins the natives, and becomes their chief. The Kaga of Eric the Red. Voyages of the Norsemen transmitted in medieval legend. The 'Pre-Columbian Age. The age of pirates and banditti. Conquest, plunder, and lawlessness. European conditions that necessitated the search for new lands. New ideas struggling for expression. The advance of art, science, and inventions, pre- paring the way for a new world. The Story of Religion and Revolutions. An afje of superstition and fanatic zeal. Conquering new lands for the spread of Christianity. The Crusades. The infidel Moors and the victory of Christianity. The Church. Subjecting governments. Monastic life. The Inquisition, etc. The Stories of Science. The ignorance of the Dark Ages. Alchemists; Their vain experimenting for gold. Astrologers Forecasting Fate, Scientific Laws and Discov- eries from the Revolutions of the Stars. Speculations of the Foundation of the Earth. The Short "Way to the Indies. Geography, Mathematics, and Sciences to meet the demands of expanding Commerce and Exjbloration. Superstition of the 14th and 15th Centuries. Superstitions of the Seas, Land, Heaven, and Hell. The World Flat, Danger of Sailing off the Edge. Distant Seas Believed to be Boiling Caldrons, Strange Seas the whirlpools and Gates to Hell. Ship-Devouring Monsters, Mermaids, and Decoying Mariners, etc. Story of Navigation. The Raft and Canoe. The Ships of Mythology. The Phoeni- cian and Venetian Galleys and Merchant Ships. Pirates, their Life, Ships, and Ex- lorations. Spanish Caravels, Columbus' Ships. Commerce and Conquest on the ea. The Compass Extending the Range of Trade. The Spirit of Adventure and Exploration. The Greed for Gold. Horrible cruelties to extort secrets of hidden treasures. The Fountain of Youth. The Intfian tales of a land of gold to the West. Traditions of Pre-historic America. The Fabled Continent of Atlantis. Dragon Roch of Alton, III. An Indian Superstition of the Mississippi. The Lost City of Venezuela. More tragic than the burial of Pompeii. Extinct Races and Civilizations, their religious and superstitious customs, arts, and forms of government. Peru, the Incus, and Pizarro. Mexico, the Aztecs, and lUontezumas. Cliff and Cave Dwellers and Mound Builders. The Indians and Esqirimaus, their Life, Religions, Customs, Habits, Governments, Wars, etc. Splendid Architecture of Yucatan and Central America. Four Great Theories of the Origin of the American Indians. Red men indig- enous to the soil. Descendants of the lost tribes of Israel journeying eastward from Palestine and crossing Behring Straits into America. Fusang records a migration of Mongols, who became a race of rulers, the Aztecs. Europeans crossed from Africa and South America by the ancient continent of Atlantis. This wealth of unpublished lore forms a striking contrast to the dry record and innumerable lives of Columbus and accounts of the discovery with which the coun- try is surfeited. It throws a flood of light on American history which has previously been involved in total darkness. Out of traditions, and exhumed relics, and hiero- glyphic records, is evolved a new history of the Western World. The outcome of centuries of research and study, and the work of years of authorship and painstak- ing arrangement. A rare American historical book. It will meet the universal demand for enlightenment on subjects that have hitherto been enveloped in the obscurity of unrecorded antiquity. What the People want they will Buy. iMrge size quarto folio, nearly 9OO pages, profusely illustrated with 4OO engravings. Popular Prices, $3.5O to $4.5O. Canvassing Prospectus ready .July IS. Hook ready for delivery in August. Descriptive circulars sent on application. Agents wanted. World's Columbian Exposition Illustrated THE ONLY RECOGNIZED AUTHENTIC and established organ ex- clusively devoted to the Interests of the World's Columbian Exposition of 1893. THE EXECUTION OF THE WORK IB indorsed by the NATIONAL COMMISSION and the leading officials of the Exposition. IT IS RECOMMENDED BY THE PRESS, the clergy, and the lead ing thinkers of the six continents. It was established February, 1891. It circu- lates in every civilized land. ITS OBJECT IS TO GIVE A complete historical record of the Columbian Exposition. It contains 32 pages, 11x16. It gives the official proceedings and it contains PHOTOGRAPHIC illustrations, made on copper plate, printed on enameled paper, of all the EXHIBITS, BUILDINGS, GROUNDS and attractions of the great Fair. As a work of art containing the most useful information, i' is INVALUABLE to all who wish to keep up with the times and learn of the great INTERNATIONAL ENTERPRISE. REGULAR SUBSCRIPTION PRICE, 12 issues, $3.00. EACH SUBSCRIBER at these rates receives free World's Fair Album, containing Exposition Buildings, lithographed in the richest colors. SPECIAL TERMS-FROM FEBRUARY, 1891, beginning with Vol. I, No. 1, to January, 1894, the entire issues, 60 numbers, five volumes, $12.00. See below. OR FROM MARCH, 1892, beginning with Vol. II, No. 1, to January, 1894, 48 numbers, $10.00. WITH BIRD'S-EYE VIEW FREE. THE FACT THAT THE PUBl (CATION will be published semi-monthly, and finally weekly, during the six months of the Fair, explains how the subscriber will get the large number of copies stated above. It will be noticed by above prices the great advantage and saving there is in subscribing for the ENTIRE ISSUES. SPECIAL GREAT OFFER Until further notice, to each person subscribing for the entire issues and sending us $13.00 we will bind the first 12 numbers free, in rich English cloth, stamped in gold and black. This makes the first Bound Volume. It contains a complete index to its 400 illustrations and 400 leading articles. Price alone, $5.00. THIS IS THE RICHEST, MOST interesting and valuable work ever PUB- LISHED AND WILL BE HANDED DOWN TO GENERATIONS TO COME as the only AUTHENTIC ILLUSTRATED HISTORICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA of the World's Columbian Exposition. SEND FOR OUR AUTHENTIC BIRD'S-EYE VIEW, 28x44 inches, litho- graphed in the richest colors, giving one Grand Panoramic View of the Whole Co- lumbian Exposition. It is the grandest work ever produced. Ready for framing, $1.00. Mounted on solid Oak Rollers ready to hang up, $1.25, postage prepaid. Send 25c. for SAMPLE COPY of the paper. Plainly address all communications to , , 159 and 161 Adams Street, Corner La Saile, Adjoining Headquarters World's Columbian Exposition. AGENTS WANTED. CHICAGO, ILL., U. S. A. Story of the Union in Rhyme, ILLUSTRATED. A Poetic History of the United States Complete and Connected. It is a story of discovery beginning with the Norsemen, and all the succeeding great events, written up to the present year, 1892. told in the pleasing music of verse