ft 
 
 iinii 
 
 NEW WORLD SCIENCE SERIES 
 
' '. I ??F? A RY. AC U-*W *!.*.. .^-^ 
 
From the collection of the 
 
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 Prejinger 
 v Jjibrary 
 
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 San Francisco, California 
 2006 
 
GARDENING 
 
 AN ELEMENTARY SCHOOL TEXT 
 
 TREATING OF THE SCIENCE AND ART 
 OF VEGETABLE GROWING 
 
NEW-WORLD SCIENCE SERIES 
 
 Edited by John W. Ritchie 
 
 SCIENCE FOR BEGINNERS 
 
 By Delos Fall 
 TREES, STARS, AND BIRDS 
 
 By Edwin Lincoln Moselcy 
 COMMON SCIENCE 
 
 By Carleton W. Washburne 
 GARDENING 
 
 By A. B. Stout 
 HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY 
 
 By John W. Ritchie 
 SANITATION AND PHYSIOLOGY 
 
 By John W. Ritchie 
 LABORATORY MANUAL FOR USE WITH 
 "HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY" 
 
 By Carl Hartman 
 
 EXERCISE AND REVIEW BOOK IN BIOLOGY 
 
 By /. G. Blaisdell 
 PERSONAL HYGIENE AND HOME NURSING 
 
 By Louisa C. Lippitt 
 SCIENCE OF PLANT LIFE 
 
 By Edgar Nelson Transeau 
 
 ZOOLOGY 
 
 By T.D.A. Cocker ell 
 EXPERIMENTAL ORGANIC CHEMISTRY 
 
 By Augustus P. West 
 
NEW-WORLD SCIENCE SERIES 
 
 Edited by John W. Ritchie ' 
 
 GARDENING 
 
 AN ELEMENTARY SCHOOL TEXT 
 
 TREATING OF THE SCIENCE AND ART 
 
 OF VEGETABLE GROWING 
 
 By A. B. Stout, Ph.D. 
 
 Director of the Laboratories 
 Nera York Botanical Garden 
 
 ILLUSTRATED 
 
 WITH PHOTOGRAPHS AND DIAGRAMS 
 
 AND WITH PEN DRAWINGS BY 
 
 MARY E. EATON AND OTHERS 
 
 Tonkers-on-Hudson^ New York 
 
 WORLD BOOK COMPANY 
 
 1922 
 
WORLD BOOK COMPANY 
 
 
 
 THE HOUSE OF APPLIED KNOWLEDGE 
 Established, 1905, by Caspar W. Hodgson 
 
 YONKERS-ON-HUDSON, NEW YORK 
 2126 PRAIRIE AVENUE, CHICAGO 
 
 Publishers and editor offer Gardening to 
 the schools with every confidence in its 
 sincerity and practicability. They believe 
 it to be that rare product in the publish- 
 ing world, a text in a subject that holds a 
 secondary place in the schools, worked out 
 with the same skill and attention to details 
 that are given to the making of texts in 
 subjects having a major place in the curric- 
 ulum. World Book Company shares the 
 author's conviction that gardening should 
 be taught in our schools. Its hearty accord- 
 ance -with a pedagogy that combines know- 
 ing and doing in an almost perfect way might 
 easily havf .been forecast from the motto, 
 'Th* application of the world's knowledge 
 tb the- world's needs." Alike to the friends 
 of school gardening and to those who do 
 not yet realize the educational richness of the 
 garden field, this volume is commended 
 
 LIBRARY-AGRICULTURE DCfT 
 
 NWSS: SG-I 
 
 Copyright, 1922, by World Book Company 
 
 Copyright in Great Britain 
 
 All rights reserved 
 
 PRINTED IN U.S.A. 
 
PREFACE 
 
 THE author is one of those who firmly believe that 
 the teaching of gardening in every school would yield 
 very rich returns educationally. The author believes, 
 further, that the best instruction in the subject must 
 include both classroom work and practice in the actual 
 growing of plants. An intellectual basis for the work 
 that will lift it to a plane above a mere manual appren- 
 ticeship and an opportunity for the practical applica- 
 tion of knowledge gained are alike necessary. 
 
 It is with the earnest wish to serve both teacher and 
 pupil and with the hope of further extending good 
 teaching of gardening that this text has been prepared. 
 The aim has been to make it as easy as possible for the 
 teacher to present theory and practice together, and 
 by making the practical directions very full and con- 
 crete to make it possible for the teacher to devote his 
 time more to the wider aspects of the work. It is hoped 
 that such a t&t will not only save the time of teachers 
 but will also serve as a guide to those of less experience 
 in their work. 
 
 The first part of the book deals chiefly with the most 
 important facts and principles of growth and repro- 
 duction in garden plants. The deliberate aim is to give- 
 the pupil an appreciation of the plant as a living thing 
 and an understanding of how it lives. The later chap- 
 ters deal chiefly with the various garden crops and the 
 practical work of growing them. 
 
 The writer has been a home gardener all his life, and 
 in his experimental work in plant breeding he has had 
 occasion to grow many thousands of plants. Further- 
 more, he has been a teacher in elementary school, high 
 
 v 
 
 504676 
 
vi Preface 
 
 school, normal school, and university; and for nearly 
 three years at the New York Botanical Garden he taught 
 gardening to classes of convalescent soldiers and sailors, 
 many of whom were receiving their first instruction in 
 the subject. Naturally, the present volume has been 
 colored by personal experience. Some of the chapters 
 consist in large part of material presented to the classes 
 of soldiers and sailors. Yet in adapting the work to 
 younger beginners, countless changes in matter and 
 method of presentation have been made in the author's 
 own material, and the views of other teachers of gar- 
 dening and the subject matter presented by them have 
 been carefully considered. It is hoped that the book 
 will prove useful to teachers and pupils, and that the 
 needs of different sections of the country have been 
 adequately met. 
 
ACKNOWLED GMENTS 
 
 FOR help most generously given during the preparation 
 of this volume the author is under obligation to many per- 
 sons. In the list of those who have read most of the galley 
 proofs and from whom many helpful criticisms and addi- 
 tional statements of fact were received are W. E. Larson, 
 Principal of the County Training School of Algoma, Wis- 
 consin, previously for several years Inspector of Rural 
 Schools for the State of Wisconsin; J. L. Randall, now in 
 charge of gardening in the Fitchburg, Massachusetts, Nor- 
 mal School, formerly Director United States School Garden 
 Army; W. R. Beattie, Extension Horticulturist, United 
 States Department of Agriculture; Hugh Findlay, of the 
 Department of Agriculture and Horticulture, Columbia 
 University, New York City; and Kenneth Boynton, for- 
 merly Supervisor of the Garden School for Convalescent 
 Soldiers and Sailors, now acting Head Gardener in the New 
 York Botanical Garden. The chapter on "Insects in the 
 Garden" was read by F. H. Chittenden, and the chapter 
 on "Diseases of Garden Plants" by W. W. Gilbert, both 
 of the United States Department of Agriculture and both 
 of whom contributed suggestions and ideas of the greatest 
 value. Many of the uncredited photographs which so 
 splendidly illustrate the processes of gardening were secured 
 from W. C. McCollom, Islip, New York. 
 
 To all the persons named above, to all those who have 
 contributed illustrations as acknowledged, and to various 
 other persons not mentioned who have answered letters of 
 inquiry or whose writings have been consulted, the writer 
 wishes to express deep appreciation. 
 
 It has indeed been a pleasure to write this little book. 
 
 A. B. STOUT 
 NEW YORK BOTANICAL GARDEN 
 
 vii 
 
GARDEN LORE 
 
 To plow, to flant, and to hoe may not be the chief end 
 of man, but it was the first great work that was given him 
 to do ; and that he might keep it in mind for all time, he 
 had a pledge that the seed-time should never fail. 
 
 OLD FARMER'S ALMANAC 
 
 There's something wonderfully soothing in having your 
 fingers in Mother Earth. It seems to take the restlessness 
 out of one. FRANCES DUNCAN 
 
 The man who has planted a garden feels that he has done 
 something for the good of the world. 
 
 CHARLES DUDLEY WARNER 
 
 The ground must touch a man before he can amount to 
 much. ABRAHAM LINCOLN 
 
 To own a bit of ground; to scratch it with a hoe; to 
 plant seeds, and watch their renewal of life, this is the 
 commonest delight of the race, the most satisfactory thing 
 a man can do. CHARLES DUDLEY WARNER 
 
 A good garden saves the butcher's bill, and keeps down 
 the doctor's bill, too. OLD FARMER'S ALMANAC 
 
 Boy or girl, you need to feel plowed ground under your 
 feet; you need the contact with growing things in the ground; 
 you need to handle a hoe, [and] gather the garden vege- 
 tables. . . . You need to take part in the digging and 
 weeding and planting. . . . You need to smell [the soil], 
 to feel it, to work in it. DALLAS LORE SHARP 
 
 To smell a turf of fresh earth is wholesome for the body. 
 
 THOMAS FULLER 
 ix 
 
x Garden Lore 
 
 Watching things grow, things that his own hands have 
 planted, is one of the chief joys of the householder. 
 
 JAMES G. NEEDHAM 
 
 Behold this compost ! behold it well /'.'..;. // gives such 
 divine materials to men, and accepts such leavings from 
 them at the last. WALT WHITMAN 
 
 A soil, to be fertile, must above all things be light and 
 pliable, and this condition we seek to bring about by the 
 operation of plowing. VIRGIL 
 
 // you keep square with the work, you feel greater pride 
 and satisfaction in it, and everything goes smoother. 
 
 OLD FARMER'S ALMANAC 
 
 Head work in the garden is worth quite as much as hand 
 work. OLD FARMER'S ALMANAC 
 
 In planning garden operations for the year remember 
 that rotation, clean tillage, and selected varieties will do 
 much to help you in your fight against both insects and 
 plant diseases. Such measures wisely taken bring other 
 advantages. OLD FARMER'S ALMANAC 
 
 Farmer Wideawake will have the plans for his crops all 
 made before spring opens, so as to be ready to plow and 
 plant each crop as soon as the proper season arrives. 
 
 OLD FARMER'S ALMANAC 
 
 Acquaint yourself with an intelligent system of crop 
 rotation Use your brains Then ivhen you are certain 
 and your program is ready, DIG IN HARD. 
 
 OLD FARMER'S ALMANAC 
 
 Not only does succession planting utilize limited areas 
 most intensively; it is sound economics from every point 
 of view. OLD FARMER'S ALMANAC 
 
Garden Lore xi 
 
 Fall plowing now demands our attention. With minor 
 exceptions all the land which is to be put under cultivation 
 next year should be plowed before freezing. It is not nec- 
 essary nor desirable to turn the furrows smooth and flat 
 as in spring plowing. If the land is left quite rough, the 
 action of the frost during the winter will be more effective 
 in breaking up the soil and reducing it to a fine powder. 
 
 OLD FARMER'S ALMANAC 
 
 It should not be forgotten that all the heavier soils are 
 improved by fall plowing, which should be pushed when- 
 ever opportunity offers. OLD FARMER'S ALMANAC 
 
 'Tis the farmer's care that makes the field bear. 
 
 OLD PROVERB 
 
 Perfect tilth, no less than suitable enrichment, is essen- 
 tial for bumper crops. OLD FARMER'S ALMANAC 
 
 Nature will always find some mischief to do in idle land. 
 Give her the opportunity and you shall repent in another 
 season when you find redoubled labor essential to keep the 
 garden clear of noxious growths. OLD FARMER'S ALMANAC 
 
 In the garden more grows than the gardener sows. 
 
 OLD PROVERB 
 
 The rich garden soil from which you have taken an early 
 crop will bear weeds if you do not put it to use for produc- 
 tion of something better. OLD FARMER'S ALMANAC 
 
 A weed, as it grows from an inch to afoot high, increases 
 a thousand-fold in bulk or weight, and exhausts the soil in 
 proportion. OLD FARMER'S ALMANAC 
 
xii Garden Lore 
 
 Cultivate! A hard crust over the surface of the ground 
 is almost as fatal to the growth of annual plants as would 
 be a coat of paint to the growth of a pig. 
 
 OLD FARMER'S ALMANAC 
 
 // a good crop is to be obtained, it must be well fed and 
 well cared for, and the work must be done at the right time. 
 
 OLD FARMER'S ALMANAC 
 
 Land for roots needs to be worked deep and fine. 
 
 OLD FARMER'S ALMANAC 
 
 Cauliflower for fall and winter use may be set after your 
 earliest peas. OLD FARMER'S ALMANAC 
 
 Cucumbers and melons can be grown in the spent hotbed 
 in summer, and the little plot made to do double duty. 
 
 OLD FARMER'S ALMANAC 
 
 The gardener no sooner gets the mastery of the destruc- 
 tive insects, than there comes another plague called fungi, 
 which, if not hindered or destroyed, will greatly injure the 
 crops of the garden. OLD FARMER'S ALMANAC 
 
 Now that bugs and blights abound, be up and at them; 
 but be sure to identify your enemy before you begin your 
 fight. OLD FARMER'S ALMANAC 
 
 The warfare of the insect tribes upon the vegetable king- 
 dom is a continuous performance at which the gardener 
 cannot afford to be an idle spectator. 
 
 OLD FARMER'S ALMANAC 
 
 He who would have a good garden must visit it daily, 
 that he may discover and destroy the insect enemies before 
 they do any essential injury. OLD FARMER'S ALMANAC 
 
Garden Lore xiii 
 
 The race between man and the creeping things of the 
 earth is said to be very equal. As soon as man is master 
 of one, a new one appears, more persistent in its destruc- 
 tive work and more difficult to conquer than any that has 
 preceded it; consequently man has to seek new and more 
 effective poisonous compounds that will kill these enemies, 
 
 and not injure the vegetation upon which they feed. 
 
 OLD FARMER'S ALMANAC 
 
 The gardener must watch diligently lest he get outgen- 
 eraled by the bugs, worms, and creeping things of the earth, 
 which are ready to devour nearly every plant that grows. 
 
 OLD FARMER'S ALMANAC 
 
 Snug up and get things in order for a long winter. 
 
 OLD FARMER'S ALMANAC 
 
 Now that the harvest is past, it is time to prepare for 
 winter. Secure the vegetables in the cellar before freezing 
 weather comes. OLD FARMER'S ALMANAC 
 
 Observe these hints and you will find it easy to keep win- 
 ter vegetables in good condition: Keep onions cold, dry, 
 and well ventilated. Hang cabbages by the stump in a cool 
 cellar not too dry. Bury turnips, carrots, parsnips, and 
 beets in moist, fine soil in a dry, cool cellar. 
 
 OLD FARMER'S ALMANAC 
 
 We have drawn from the land all that our industry com- 
 pelled it to yield, and our crops in store and the book of 
 receipts will tell us the story of the year's work. 
 
 OLD FARMER'S ALMANAC 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 CHAPTER PAGE 
 
 1. OBJECTIVES AND METHODS i 
 
 2. REASONS FOR LEARNING GARDENING . . .14 
 
 3. How PLANTS LIVE 24 
 
 4. How PLANTS GROW 36 
 
 5. THE FOOD OF PLANTS ...... 46 
 
 6. THE SOIL OF THE GARDEN . . . 55 
 
 7. WATER AND THE PLANT . . > 75 
 
 8. PLANNING THE GARDEN . . . * . . .90 
 
 9. TOOLS FOR THE GARDEN ...... 103 
 
 10. SEEDS FOR THE GARDEN . . . . . .112 
 
 11. THE TIME FOR PLANTING . . . . . .146 
 
 12. How TO GROW PLANTS FROM SEEDS . . .165 
 
 13. THE CARE OF GROWING CROPS . . . . .199 
 
 14. ROOT CROPS AND How TO GROW THEM . . .211 
 
 15. CROPS GROWN FOR THEIR LEAVES . . . .225 
 
 1 6. GARDEN CROPS GROWN FOR THEIR FRUITS . .258 
 
 17. GARDEN PLANTS GROWN FOR THEIR STEMS . .277 
 
 18. DISEASES OF PLANTS 286 
 
 19. INSECTS IN THE GARDEN . ..." . -311 
 
 20. HOME STORAGE OF VEGETABLES .... 339 
 
 APPENDIX: TABLES OF PLANTING DATES . . . 348 
 INDEX 351 
 
 XV 
 
<IG. i. "To hear or read, and then to do, 
 That is the perfect school." 
 
GARDENING 
 
 CHAPTER ONE 
 
 OBJECTIVES AND METHODS l 
 
 A school garden worth the name is not a teacher's gar- 
 den, or a philanthropist's garden, but a garden worked out 
 in thought and act by happy, purposeful children. 
 
 DORA WILLIAMS 
 
 PROBABLY the first systematic elementary instruction 
 in gardening in the United States was given at Roxbury, 
 Massachusetts, in the year 1891 in the school conducted 
 by Mr. H. L. Clapp. Eleven years later (1902) Mrs. 
 Henry Parsons started the first children's " school farm " 
 in New York City in connection with the Park Depart- 
 ment. Since then, gardening in one form or another 
 has become a part of the education and training of chil- 
 dren in many cities. Recently, under the stimulus of 
 the war-time necessity for increased food production, 
 various national, state, city, and other agencies through- 
 out the United States joined in efforts to provide instruc- 
 tion in gardening, especially in connection with the 
 schools. According to records collected by the United 
 States Bureau of Education from 2258 towns and cities, 
 at the close of 1919 there were 2,500,000 pupils enrolled 
 in the garden work. 
 
 In some states the instruction is more or less organized 
 for the entire state, and in at least one state, New Hamp- 
 shire, there has been adopted a definite plan for teaching 
 gardening to all children in the elementary schools of 
 
 1 This opening chapter is intended for teachers and school officials 
 and is not for study by pupils. 
 
 i 
 
Gardening 
 
 .W rv. Henry Parsons 
 
 FIG. 2. School gardens were started in New York City in 1002, in connec- 
 tion with the Park Department. This photograph was made in 1906, on the 
 site of the first "school farm." 
 
 the entire state. The teaching of gardening has be- 
 come widely recognized as an important part of the 
 educational work of the public schools ; the aims in 
 teaching it and the best methods to be employed are 
 now rather clearly denned. 
 
 There seems to be general agreement that the primary 
 purpose of school instruction in gardening is educational. 
 But the instruction in the school aims also to encourage 
 the making of home vegetable gardens whose chief func- 
 tion is that of food production. Obviously, it is through 
 the combination of school and home activities that the 
 educational values of gardening and its uses to the home 
 are to be realized. 
 
 Experience in the teaching of gardening seems to indi- 
 cate clearly that the most successful teaching of the sub- 
 
Objectives and Methods 3 
 
 ject is that which combines classroom and textbook insinua- 
 tion with actual practice in the work of gardening. In gen- 
 eral, the relation between the classroom and the out- 
 door work is quite clear. Classroom and textbook 
 instruction deals primarily with principles ; it presents 
 the laws of plant growth and the fundamental relations 
 between plants and their environment in such a way 
 that their essential needs are understood. In all lines 
 of human effort, those individuals who understand the 
 reasons for what they are doing excel in practical work ; 
 thus, to obtain the best gardens we must give the pupils 
 an understanding of plant life. Secondarily, the class- 
 room and textbook instruction deals with the special 
 needs of the various vegetables and the special methods 
 of planting and caring for them in such detail that 
 with but little additional direction in the garden itself 
 the beginner can grow these successfully. 
 
 In the actual outdoor work the pupil learns the art of 
 gardening. Mechanical skill in the use of tools is ac- 
 quired through their use. Acquaintance with plants is 
 gained from contact with them. The best methods of 
 caring for crops are learned by experience. Yet (for the 
 beginner especially) there is constantly the application 
 of principles learned in the classroom and judgment of 
 the methods employed according to the results attained. 
 The art of gardening becomes an intelligent application 
 of principles to methods, with eventually the discovery 
 of the most suitable methods. 
 
 When both the principles and the practice of garden- 
 ing are taught, the subject has great educational and 
 utilitarian values, and it has taken its place in school 
 
4 Gardening 
 
 curricula because experience has shown that the pupils 
 absorb these values. It is closely related to the pupil's 
 present life, so that he understands the significance of 
 what he learns and does ; and it correlates as few studies 
 do with the various subjects of school interest. Much of 
 the ordinary work in nature study can be taught in 
 gardening in a manner which gives additional interest 
 and purpose to the work. The daily experiences afford 
 excellent subject matter for language exercises, and there 
 is opportunity for the application of problems in arith- 
 metic and for practice in honest business methods. 
 The history of garden vegetables involves knowledge 
 regarding geography, climate, and the climatic needs of 
 the various vegetables. Gardening also teaches much 
 regarding the principles of breeding and improving 
 plants and may afford practice in such breeding. 
 
 In the larger schools, training in canning and drying 
 garden produce and in the construction and use of the 
 special storage rooms and cellars can be given with the 
 cooperation of teachers in domestic science and in manual 
 training. In most cases, however, teachers and parents 
 must lead in these activities. 
 
 Naturally, the simpler aspects of gardening are best 
 learned in the lower grades. As pupils advance in age, 
 more is learned. The vista of knowledge is ever widen- 
 ing. There are constantly new discoveries to be made. 
 There are constantly the exercise of judgment and the 
 practical application of knowledge suited to stimulate 
 and tax the child's growing mental powers. 
 
 Thus the pupil can follow the subject progressively 
 through the grades without undertaking work too cliffi- 
 
Objectives and Methods 
 
 States Relations Service 
 FIG. 3. An individual plot garden with paths between the plots. 
 
 cult for him in the earlier years and .without repetition 
 in the higher grades of the simpler facts with which he is 
 already familiar. In agricultural sections especially, 
 the teaching of gardening naturally and progressively 
 leads to the more advanced teaching of agriculture. 
 This flexibility and exhaustlessness of the subject is 
 another reason why the teaching of gardening has been 
 so successful in the schools. 
 
 The organization of the practice work in gardening 
 has received much attention. Several types of gardens 
 have been successfully developed in meeting the various 
 conditions existing in different communities. 
 
 The school garden or school farm of individual plots is 
 one in which each pupil of the school or of certain grade 
 
6 Gardening 
 
 Van Evrie Kilpalrick 
 
 FIG. 4. An individual plot garden without paths. The rows of vegetables 
 run uninterruptedly across the field and the corners of the plots are marked only 
 by stakes. 
 
 or grades has a garden plot, usually of small area. The 
 pupil cares for his own plot, but the work of planting, 
 caring for, and harvesting the crops is all done under the 
 direction of a teacher and supervisor. 
 
 Formerly, in school-garden work very generally, indi- 
 vidual plots were assigned to the pupils, and especially 
 in Los Angeles and New York City this plan is still 
 followed with marked success. This method stimu- 
 lates individual effort, and it provides individual plots 
 for children who have no opportunity for home gar- 
 dens. ." But in most places it has been replaced by the 
 community grade garden and the school-directed home 
 garden. 
 
 The community school or grade garden is one in which 
 all the children of the grade or the school jointly partici- 
 pate in the work of preparing the soil, planting, and 
 caring for the entire garden plot. The purpose of the 
 
Objectives and Methods 7 
 
 garden is chiefly educational, and a large part of the in- 
 struction and training is accomplished by the time 
 school closes in June. Some four or five pupils of the 
 grade who have shown special interest and diligence are 
 selected to care for the garden through the summer, 
 but always under proper supervision. These pupils 
 share in the crops that mature within this period. The 
 time required of a child for the care of a grade garden 
 during vacation is usually not more than two half days a 
 week. 
 
 The community garden serves excellently for group 
 instruction at the school. It provides practical training 
 for the children who can have no home garden; more- 
 over, the united efforts of the community insure a con- 
 tinuous care of the plot, which is not always possible 
 when the individual-plot method is followed. A fur- 
 
 States Relations Service 
 
 FIG. 5. A school-supervised home garden. These gardens are especially suc- 
 cessful in suburban communities and in smaller cities and towns; yet in the 
 crowded city of New York space was found for more than 80,000 of them in 
 1917. 
 
Gardening 
 
 \nrtli Dakota Auric. Eipt. Sta. 
 
 FIG. 6. The best place of all for a garden is on the farm. Here land is abun- 
 dant, so the rows should be planted wide for horse-cultivation. The photo- 
 graph shows a model farm garden of one third of an acre in North Dakota. 
 
 ther advantage of the community garden is that it gives 
 the pupil training in cooperative effort practice in 
 that " team work " which is so essential in a democracy. 
 
 The school-supervised home garden is made at the home 
 of the child under the supervision of a teacher ; and for 
 successful participation in the care of the home garden 
 a pupil is given a certain amount of school credit. The 
 garden is visited at intervals during the growing season 
 by a supervisor who gives advice and instruction and 
 judges the activity and interest. of the pupil. Certain 
 records are kept by the pupil, and these are correlated 
 with the work done in the school. 
 
 School supervision of home gardens is undoubtedly 
 one of the best means of combining school and home 
 activities. It aims to promote and improve the home 
 
Objectives and Methods 
 
 North Dakota Ag-ric. Expt. Sla, 
 FIG. 7. The same garden shown in Figure 6, later in the season. 
 
 garden whenever there is opportunity for one at the 
 home of a pupil in the fourth grade or above. That 
 many home gardens are possible even in large cities 
 is shown by the fact that a school garden survey of New 
 York City in 1917 disclosed a total of 83,898 children 
 having their own home gardens. 
 
 But home gardens are especially successful in smaller 
 cities and towns and in suburban districts of large cities, 
 because here the conditions are often ideal for gardens of 
 this kind. The size of the plot is frequently ample for 
 the family needs, a well-drained site with rich soil can 
 often be selected, and manure for enriching the soil is 
 usually obtainable. 
 
 In the more sparsely settled rural districts especially, 
 the opportunity for educational, vocational, and moral 
 training through gardening is far from being utilized at 
 present. Here, however, special supervisors and teachers 
 
io Gardening 
 
 must consume so much time in travel that the instruc- 
 tion becomes costly. Perhaps in the country the work 
 in gardening should become a part of the more general 
 boys' and girls' club work, with the same teacher 
 for both the gardening and the other work. Certainly, 
 under the stimulus of competent supervision and 
 guidance and with proper credit in the school course, 
 home gardening in the country can be made to yield 
 at least as rich results as it now yields in towns and 
 cities. 
 
 The demonstration or observation garden is chiefly for 
 educational purposes. It supplements the school, grade, 
 and home gardens, and serves to instruct the entire com- 
 munity, young and old alike. At the present time the 
 most common observation garden is one that demon- 
 strates a model home garden. 
 
 But an observation garden may serve other purposes. 
 Plants not usually seen in the region may be grown, and 
 new crops or new varieties of standard crops may 
 be tested to determine if they are suited to local culture. 
 A school can maintain hotbeds and "cold frames, 
 thus demonstrating their construction and uses and 
 at the same time supplying seedlings of such crops as 
 cabbage and tomato for transplanting to the home gar- 
 dens. 
 
 The observation garden can be used also for seed pro- 
 duction, for demonstrations in plant breeding, and 
 for practical instruction in agriculture and in the grow- 
 ing of plants of value in floriculture, horticulture, and 
 forestry. As instruction in gardening becomes more 
 general, demonstration gardens will undoubtedly be- 
 
Objectives and Methods 
 
 ii 
 
 FIG. 8. A school demonstration garden. The pupil is shown the various 
 operations of planting and cultivating his crops in this garden. Then he is able 
 to use this knowledge in caring for his garden at home. 
 
 come an important factor in the work. They cannot, 
 however, take the place of the school and home gardens, 
 which must necessarily be the basis of the instruction 
 and training. 
 
 The principal crops grown in school gardens are quite 
 the same throughout the entire United States. The 
 detailed plans for both classroom and practice work, 
 therefore, will vary chiefly according to climate. In the 
 more northern states, where the growing season is shorter 
 and the outdoor work begins late, the garden work must 
 be followed through the summer to be most effec- 
 tive. In the more southern states the long growing sea- 
 son allows many crops to reach full maturity before the 
 
12 
 
 Gardening 
 
 Itainnond H". Smtt 
 
 FIG. 9. The garden of the fifth and sixth grades in the Emerson School, New- 
 ton, Massachusetts. The children of one or more grades work together in the 
 care of a common garden. 
 
 summer vacation begins ; also many autumn crops can 
 be planted after school again opens. 
 
 One of the best plans for organizing the grade gardens 
 of a city in the northern states that has come to the atten- 
 tion of the writer is that employed at Newton, Massachu- 
 setts. Here grade gardens are maintained for the fourth, 
 fifth, and seventh grades. In the garden for a fourth 
 grade, radishes, lettuce, beets, Swiss chard, carrots, 
 beans, and late squash are raised. These are all readily 
 grown from seed sown in the garden. Radishes and 
 lettuce yield crops before the close of school in June. 
 Beans, beets, and Swiss chard give returns during the 
 summer to the pupils who care for the garden through 
 vacation time. Work in the same garden is continued 
 by the class in the following autumn, when the squash 
 
Objectives and Methods 13 
 
 crop is maturing and the beets, carrots, and Swiss chard 
 are still producing. In the following spring squash 
 is not planted, but corn, tomatoes, and kohl-rabi are 
 added to the other vegetables grown. In the seventh 
 grade potatoes also are planted. 
 
 The classroom work at Newton begins about March i . 
 The supervisor visits each grade about once in three 
 weeks to give special instruction to the pupils and to out- 
 line the work of the grade teacher. In addition, all 
 children of the fourth grade and above are encouraged 
 to have home gardens. 
 
 Many other cities and towns have carefully worked 
 out and put into operation progressive courses in 
 gardening, but space does not allow even a brief discus- 
 sion of them here. 
 
 The success which is attained in the teaching of gar- 
 dening in any school depends on the efficiency of the 
 organization and the coordination of classroom instruc- 
 tion with the actual practice in gardening. For com- 
 plete success, especially in the northern states, a super- 
 vision that follows the garden through the entire summer 
 vacation is absolutely essential. The quality of the 
 instruction and supervision is dependent on the train- 
 ing, interest, and enthusiasm of the supervisors and 
 teachers in charge. When it is well taught, the subject 
 is one that naturally appeals to the child's needs for 
 mental and physical training and to his normal desire to 
 obtain immediate returns for expended effort. 
 
CHAPTER TWO 
 
 REASONS FOR LEARNING GARDENING 
 
 I'd ruther kindo git the swing 
 O' what was needed, first, I jing ! 
 Afore I swet at anything ! 
 
 JAMES WHITCOMB RILEY 
 
 THE idea expressed by the poet in the above lines is 
 a good one. It is always well to find out why we are 
 doing anything before we spend time and effort on it. 
 Here are some of the reasons for learning gardening. 
 
 Gardening is educative. The chief reason for learn- 
 ing gardening is that it gives us a store of useful and inter- 
 esting knowledge we would be likely to get in no 
 other way. Through his work the gardener learns 
 about insects, soils, and weather. He works with liv- 
 ing plants and comes to understand how they live and 
 grow. Thus he learns to know nature and nature's laws, 
 and how the workings of these laws affect his own life. 
 
 FIG. 10. Gardening is educative. Through his work the gardener learns many 
 facts about plants, insects, soils, and weather. 
 
 14 
 
Reasons for Learning Gardening 15 
 
 FIG. xi. Gardening allows children to share in the family work. By carry- 
 ing his share of the burden a child gains in self-respect and has a position of 
 more dignity in the family circle. 
 
 Gardening allows children to share in the family work. 
 
 It is wrong to accept something for nothing when we 
 can pay. Through garden work children can give to 
 their parents something for what they have received 
 and are receiving from them. Excepting spading, gar- 
 den work is light, and the average child of ten can do 
 most of it. By taking up this work a child gains the 
 respect of the older members of the family, and his ideas 
 and wishes are more carefully considered in the family 
 circle than they would be if he were not helping to carry 
 the family load. 
 
 Another great advantage of gardening for many 
 children is that it allows them to work with their parents 
 or other older persons. Many parents play with their 
 children but do not find time to discuss serious matters 
 with them. Working with an older person in a garden 
 
i6 
 
 Gardening 
 
 gives a child an opportu- 
 nity to talk over many 
 important problems, and 
 to learn much about the 
 work in hand and also 
 about the larger affairs 
 of life. 
 
 Gardening gives an 
 appreciation of property 
 rights. We own our 
 gardens. We know the 
 thought and labor we 
 have put into them and 
 that without our labor 
 they never would have 
 existed. We know that 
 what we have thus 
 created by our own 
 
 FIG. 12. Another great advantage in gar- pffo-fj, Kplnnox to lie; 
 
 dening is that it allows children to work ( as 
 
 with older persons. This gives an oppor- and through an Under- 
 tunity for talking over many important ,. r 
 
 problems not connected with garden work. Standing Ol OUr Own 
 
 property rights we are 
 led to understand the property rights of others. 
 
 Gardening leads to industry and an understanding of 
 the importance of labor. By working in the garden we 
 establish habits of industry, and through the garden 
 we come to appreciate the value of labor and the im- 
 portance of industry. When we care for a garden 
 properly, it thrives and repays us in good harvests. 
 When we spend only a little effort on it, the harvest 
 is correspondingly scant. Thus we come to realize 
 
Reasons for Learning Gardening 
 
 that men can have only 
 that which they produce 
 by their labor ; that by 
 labor we can create 
 something for ourselves 
 without taking it from 
 any one else. 
 
 Gardening gives prac- 
 tical business experi- 
 ence. Gardening often 
 affords business experi- 
 ence through the sale 
 of garden produce in the 
 market or to neighbors. 
 Such experience enables 
 a young person to learn 
 how to deal with others 
 and gives him a training 
 
 , , i i r i ' FIG. 13. Gardening gives an appreciation 
 
 and a knowledge of busi- of pr0 perty rights. Even a young gar- 
 ness methods that are d . en , er , J" 10 ^ that ^ fruits of ^ labor 
 
 rightfully belong to him. 
 
 of the highest value in 
 
 almost any profession or walk of life. 
 
 Gardening gives healthful exercise. Gardening gives 
 healthful outdoor exercise, which is especially beneficial 
 to school children and to those who in later life work 
 indoors. This exercise is varied, bringing into use many 
 different muscles, which rests the nervous system in- 
 stead of tiring it as fine and close work does. 
 
 For those inclined to be nervous, gardening is an 
 especially valuable form of exercise. Because it is 
 a light outdoor occupation, the work itself is soothing 
 
i8 
 
 Gardening 
 
 U. N. D. A. 
 
 FIG. 14. Gardening helps to fix habits of industry. It is for the good of all 
 that idle hands and idle land should be employed in this way. 
 
 f. L. Miller 
 
 FIG. 15. Through gardening we come to an understanding of the importance 
 of labor. No gardener produces a crop like this without understanding that 
 careful, persevering effort lies back of everything worth while. This splendid 
 garden is a "Cook County School-Home Project" at Harvey, Illinois. 
 
Reasons for Learning Gardening 
 
 to tired nerves, and the 
 feeling of ownership and 
 the interest in watching 
 the plants grow gives 
 us satisfaction and peace 
 of mind. Such a mental 
 condition gives content- 
 ment of mind and sta- 
 bility of character, and 
 helps to make good 
 neighbors and good citi- 
 zens. 
 
 Gardening improves 
 the family diet. Fresh 
 vegetables are necessary 
 to the health. They 
 supply bulk in the diet ; 
 they furnish calcium, 
 iron, and other minerals n 
 
 riG. 10. Gardening gives practical busi- 
 
 that are Often lacking ness training. This young gardener is 
 i*n nrVipr fnnHd qnrl frnrn P re P arin S her tomatoes for market so care- 
 
 )ds , and om fully that there will be no complaints frora 
 them we get substances her customers. 
 called vitamins that are 
 
 absolutely necessary for health. Scurvy is due to the lack 
 of a vitamin found in abundance in tomatoes, turnips, 
 cabbage, and other fresh vegetables. The vitamins that 
 make milk and butter so necessary in the diet are collected 
 by the cow from the grass, and the same vitamins are 
 found in all green vegetables. Recent experiments with 
 animals make it seem probable that the chief reason 
 for tooth decay is a lack of vitamins in the diets of 
 
20 
 
 Gardening 
 
 U. S. Bureau of Education 
 
 FIG. 17. Gardening gives healthful exercise. Such exercise is especially bene- 
 ficial to school children, who must spend much of the day indoors. This garden 
 is in Los Angeles. 
 
 children. If these are furnished in insufficient amounts, 
 the teeth are soft and the enamel covering is defective. 
 
 It will always be cheaper for many families to raise 
 their own vegetables. Often idle land and idle hands 
 can be used to grow them. There is no expense for 
 hauling and shipping, and buying and selling, when 
 vegetables come direct from the garden to the table. 
 In this way all loss in shipping is avoided also, and often 
 the vegetables are in much better condition for use. 
 Experience shows that those families that have their 
 own gardens use vegetables freely. Many other families 
 suffer in health for lack of fresh vegetables. It is es- 
 pecially important that those who are not able to buy 
 vegetables in abundance should raise them for them- 
 selves. 
 
Reasons for Learning Gardening 
 
 21 
 
 Knowledge of gardening an aid in earning a living. 
 
 The gardener is able to raise for himself and his family 
 vegetables that it would cost money to buy in the 
 market. Also, through the sale of surplus vegetables, 
 a garden often increases the money income of the 
 family, thus making it possible to provide more comforts 
 for the family or to save more of the income for future 
 use. 
 
 Furthermore, more people make a living by growing 
 plants than in any other way, and to millions of persons 
 a knowledge of gardening is a direct aid in making a 
 
 FIGS. 18 and IQ. Gardening improves the family diet. In fresh vegetables 
 there are vitamins and minerals that are often lacking in other foods. 
 
22 
 
 Gardening 
 
 FIG. 20. A knowledge of gardening is often an aid in earning a living. More 
 families make a living by growing plants than in any other way, and hundreds 
 of thousands of other families help out their incomes by cultivating home gar- 
 dens. These boys and girls are receiving a training that is more likely to prove 
 useful than any other practical work that could be given them. 
 
 living. Market gardeners, fruit growers, and farmers 
 are all engaged in raising plants and selling their products, 
 and these industries will always be important. What 
 a person learns as a child in gardening will be very useful 
 indeed if his life work is in any way connected with the 
 growing of plants. 
 
 Thus we see that we are likely to be well repaid for 
 any time we spend in learning gardening. And this is 
 the more true because much of the garden work can be 
 done in time that would not otherwise be spent in a 
 profitable way. 
 
 Questions 
 
 Name some reasons for learning gardening. Why is the 
 exercise obtained in gardening especially valuable? What 
 substances necessary for a healthful diet are furnished abundantly 
 
Reasons for Learning Gardening 23 
 
 by fresh vegetables ? Why is it often better to raise fresh vegetables 
 than to buy them ? 
 
 Name persons in your neighborhood who either make a living 
 by growing plants and selling the produce or increase the family 
 income in this way. Is the number of persons who make a living 
 by growing plants large as compared with the number in other 
 important occupations ? 
 
 Things to Do and Observe 
 
 1. To determine whether gardening is profitable. Determine 
 whether or not a garden pays by keeping an exact account of 
 everything done- or money spent, and of everything harvested 
 from your garden throughout the entire garden season. Keep 
 this record in some permanent form (perhaps the diary form will 
 be easiest). At the end of the season put down in one column 
 just what the garden cost in actual expenditures for labor, tools, 
 seed, fertilizers, and other materials, and include also an estimate 
 of the value of your own labor. In another column set down the 
 market value of all produce obtained, whether used by the family, 
 sold or given away, or allowed to go to waste. Compare the two 
 totals. 
 
 After balancing the money account decide whether the edu- 
 cation and training you have received through caring for the 
 garden is of any particular value to you. 
 
 2. To find out whether families without gardens use -vegetables 
 freely. A wealthy farmer in a farmers' meeting argued that it 
 was cheaper for him to buy strawberries for his family than to 
 raise them, but when questioned about it, he admitted he had 
 bought none the past year. Find out, if you can do so, whether 
 families who buy their vegetables use them as freely as those who 
 have gardens. 
 
CHAPTER THREE 
 
 HOW PLANTS LIVE 
 
 One who raises plants gets pleasure out of his craft in 
 proportion as he knows what they are doing in root and 
 branch or in flower and fruit, at every turn of the season. 
 
 JAMES G. NEEDHAM 
 
 A PLANT has its needs, such as food, water, air, sun- 
 light, and protection from its enemies ; and if these 
 needs are not supplied, it will grow poorly or may even 
 die. If a garden plant stands in poor soil, or is much 
 shaded, it grows only slowly. If it remains wilted con- 
 tinuously for several days and nights because of lack of 
 water, it is almost sure to die. And when plants are not 
 protected against insects and disease, many of them are 
 injured or destroyed. Like the gardener himself, the 
 cabbages, beets, carrots, and other plants which he 
 grows are alive, and to be healthy and vigorous, they 
 must have the things that they need for living and 
 growing. 
 
 The work of the gardener. The task of the gardener 
 is to supply the needs of his plants to give them the 
 best possible conditions for growth. The gardener, 
 therefore, enriches the soil so that it will supply an 
 abundance of food materials. He cultivates among his 
 plants so that the water will be retained in the soil. He 
 thins the seedlings in the rows and destroys the weeds, 
 so that each plant will be able to secure sufficient food 
 materials, water, light, and space to develop fully. If 
 necessary, he also sprays his plants to protect them 
 from insects and disease. And he does all this work in 
 order to give his plants better conditions for life and 
 growth. 
 
 24 
 
How Plants Live 
 
 FIG. 21. A gardener is a caretaker of plants one who watches over them 
 and sees that their needs are supplied, so that they will flourish and yield 
 him an abundant crop. 
 
26 
 
 Gardening 
 
 FIG. 22. "Weeds and bugs claim much of the attention of the gardener; but 
 if he be master of his business, he will destroy the former as soon as they germi- 
 nate, and the latter during the earliest stages of their growth." Old Farmer's 
 Almanac 
 
 A gardener is, therefore, a caretaker of plants one 
 who watches over them and sees that their needs are 
 supplied, so that they will flourish and yield him an 
 abundant crop. 
 
 Learning to be a gardener. One may learn much 
 about how to grow plants by growing them. By observ- 
 ing how our garden plants develop under different 
 conditions, we may judge what is best for them. It 
 was thus that our ancestors learned to raise plants, for 
 gardening is indeed an old art. In fact, many of our 
 important food crops were cultivated before the days 
 of written history. Man learned how to grow plants 
 long before he knew much about how plants grow. 
 
 But within the last hundred years plants have been 
 carefully studied in order to find (i) how they obtain 
 food materials from the soil, (2) what sorts of food 
 
How Plants Live 27 
 
 materials they need, (3) what they take out of the air, 
 what they give off into the air, and how they do this, 
 (4) what advantage they have in being green, (5) how 
 they may be protected from their enemies, and (6) how 
 they may be grown to yield especially early crops or 
 crops of unusually fine quality. 
 
 This knowledge of how plants live and grow has now 
 become a science, and an understanding of this science 
 is of the greatest help to the gardener in his work. For 
 knowing how plants live makes it more interesting to 
 work with them, and the scientific gardener can care 
 for his crops far more intelligently and supply their 
 needs far better than one who does not understand the 
 reasons for what he does. In the following para- 
 graphs, therefore, we shall explain how a plant lives. 
 
 The parts of a plant. Let us examine some garden 
 plant, such as a bean or a corn plant. We notice that 
 it is composed of a stem and leaves which grow upward 
 into the air, and of roots that are in the soil. 
 
 Now let us look at a young radish about ready for 
 table use. At first glance its leaves appear to grow 
 directly from the roots. But careful examination shows 
 that there is really a short stem between the leaves and 
 the main root; and when the plant shoots up into 
 flower, we see that it has the same parts as the bean 
 and corn and other plants that we grow in our gardens. 
 Much as garden plants differ in form and appearance, 
 they are all alike in having (i) leaves that are exposed 
 to the air and sunshine, (2) roots that burrow in the earth 
 and darkness, and (3) a stem connecting the roots with 
 the leaves. 
 
28 
 
 Gardening 
 
 FIG. 23. Young seedlings of beet and bean plants, showing how extensive is 
 the root system even in very young plants. The roots of the plant in the center 
 are 8 inches long, almost three times the length of the parts above ground. 
 
 The root system. Suppose we try to get out of the 
 ground all the roots belonging to a plant. We may 
 loosen the earth with a trowel or a spading fork and with 
 our hands break away the soil and sort out the roots. 
 Because the roots are so delicate and so interwoven in 
 the soil, many of the smaller ones are broken in spite of 
 the greatest care. But we readily find that there are 
 great numbers of roots, that they are very finely divided, 
 and that they go deeply and spread widely in the earth. 
 
 As a matter of fact, the root system of a plant often 
 
How Plants Live 29 
 
 has a greater spread than the parts which reach out 
 into the air. A small plant of the garden radish with 
 leaves scarcely 2 inches long may have roots that go 
 down to a depth of 6 inches. The roots of the corn 
 plant have been traced to a depth of 6 feet 9 inches, 
 and to a spread of 7 feet 3 inches side wise from the plant, 
 and the roots of an old alfalfa plant have been found 
 at a depth of 12 feet 6 inches in the. soil. Studies have 
 been made which show that the roots of a wheat plant, 
 if placed end to end, would extend to a distance of 500 
 to 600 yards; and it is said that the roots of a large 
 pumpkin plant thus placed would extend to a distance 
 of 15 miles. 
 
 The work of the roots. Of what use is this great net- 
 work of roots to the plant? The roots anchor the plant 
 in place, and they take in from the soil the water and the 
 minerals that the plant must have for its life and growth. 
 One of the chief reasons why plants must not be crowded 
 in planting is that they require much room underground 
 for their roots to develop, so that they can obtain the 
 supplies of water and minerals that the plant needs. 
 
 The work of the leaves. Every important organ or 
 part of a plant or animal has a use. What do the leaves 
 do for the plant? 
 
 (1) The principal work of the leaves is to make food for 
 the plant. In the cells of the leaves there is a green 
 coloring matter called chlorophyll, and through the action 
 of this, sugar is built up when the sunlight falls on the 
 leaves. This process will be discussed more fully in a 
 later chapter (page 47) . 
 
 (2) The leaves help the plant also in securing a sufficient 
 
3O Gardening 
 
 supply of the minerals that it needs. These minerals are 
 dissolved in only small amounts in the soil water, and to 
 get enough of them a plant must take in large quantities 
 of water. The greater part of this is given off by the 
 leaves into the air in the form of water vapor. This 
 evaporation of water from the leaves is called transpira- 
 tion. 
 
 The advantage of transpiration to the plant is that 
 it allows large amounts of water containing weak solu- 
 tions of minerals to be taken in by the roots, and when 
 the water is evaporated the minerals are left in the plant. 
 The minerals in water remain in a kettle when the water 
 is boiled away; similarly, the minerals remain in the 
 leaves when the water is given off into the air. 
 
 But in dry weather, transpiration is at times a disad- 
 vantage to a plant. Sometimes the roots do not absorb 
 water as fast as it evaporates from the leaves, and so 
 the plant wilts. One of the chief tasks of the gardener 
 is to provide enough water for the needs of his plants ; 
 for in hot, dry weather plants are often injured because 
 the water is lost too rapidly from the leaves. 
 
 The stem and its work. The stem supports the leaves 
 so that they will be distributed widely in the air .and can 
 receive much sunlight. It also carries the sap between 
 the roots and the leaves. The water and minerals that 
 are taken in by the roots as raw materials pass upward 
 through the stems to the leaves, where they are manu- 
 factured into food for the plant. This food is then 
 carried downward through the stem to the roots or to 
 any growing and working part of the plant. By hold- 
 ing up great numbers of leaves to the light, the stem 
 
How Plants Live 
 
 The energy of the sunlight, 
 oxygen for respiration, and car- 
 bon dioxid for photosynthesis 
 are received by the leaves. 
 
 Water vapor, oxygen from pho- 
 tosynthesis, and carbon dioxid 
 from respiration are given off 
 by the leaves. 
 
 The stem transports ma- 
 terials between the leaves 
 and the roots. Water and 
 raw food materials pass up 
 to the leaves, and food 
 passes down from the 
 leaves to the roots. 
 
 Oxygen, water, and raw food ma- 
 terials that are dissolved in the 
 soil water are taken in by the 
 
 roots. 
 
 Carbon dioxid is given off by the 
 roots. Probably substances that 
 help to dissolve raw food mate- 
 rials in the soil are also given off. 
 
 FIG. 24. Diagram illustrating the work of the different parts of a plant. 
 
32 Gardening 
 
 makes it possible for a plant to manufacture much food, 
 and the stem has in it " vessels " or bundles of long, 
 slender tubes that allow water and food materials to be 
 distributed throughout the plant. 
 
 The plant as a whole. Thus we see that the roots, 
 stem, and leaves all work together to promote the life of 
 the plant as a whole. The roots anchor the plant and 
 supply water and minerals ; the leaves manufacture 
 sugar ; and the stem makes it possible for the plant to 
 display many leaves to the light and for water and food 
 to be carried where they are needed in the plant. Thus 
 roots, leaves, and stem each have a work to do, and the 
 work of each is necessary for the life of the plant as a 
 whole. 
 
 Respiration in plants. All the living parts of a plant 
 breathe or respire. Like animals, plants take in oxygen 
 and use it in breaking down their foods. In this way 
 they obtain the heat and energy that they use in main- 
 taining their lives and in growing ; and like an animal, 
 a plant gives out carbon dioxid as a waste product 
 when it respires. 
 
 Respiration is one of the most important life processes, 
 for it releases the energy that keeps a plant or an animal 
 alive. It may be compared to the burning of wood in a 
 stove or of coal in the fire box of an engine. Fuel is 
 consumed or combined with oxygen, and a gas (carbon 
 dioxid) is given off to the air. Heat and energy to do 
 work result from the chemical change. A plant does not 
 consume as much food as an animal that is actively mov- 
 ing about and doing work with its muscles. But a man 
 cannot live without taking in oxygen and burning food 
 
How Plants Live 33 
 
 in his body, even though he lie entirely motionless ; and in 
 like manner a plant must respire to keep up its life. 
 
 Supplying the needs of plants. From our studies thus 
 far we see that four of the great needs of a plant are air, 
 light, water, and mineral salts. Most garden work is 
 done in order that these four needs of the plant may be 
 met so that it will live and make the best growth. In 
 later chapters we shall learn in some detail how gar- 
 deners make conditions favorable for the growth of their 
 plants. 
 
 Questions 
 
 Name some of the principal needs of plants. State a few of the 
 gardener's tasks in caring properly for his plants. How did our 
 ancestors learn to grow plants? What advantages does our 
 modern knowledge give us in caring for plants ? 
 
 Name the parts of a typical garden plant. Tell how far the 
 root systems of certain plants extend. Does a plant have any 
 prominent parts, such as roots or leaves, that are not useful to the 
 plant ? What is the function (work) of the roots ? Of the leaves ? 
 Of the stem? 
 
 What is respiration? What do plants obtain through respira- 
 tion? What waste product is given off when a plant or an- 
 imal respires ? To meet what needs of plants is most garden work 
 done? 
 
 Things to Do and Observe 
 
 i. To note the extent of the root system of a young plant. Select 
 a young plant about four inches tall. A beet, tomato, cabbage, 
 or bean growing in the garden or in a pot or flat will do. Try to 
 get all of the roots out of the soil. Note the great number of 
 rootlets and how fine the smallest of them are. Compare the 
 spread of the roots with the spread of the parts above the ground. 
 What does this show about the work of roots ? About the room 
 that plants need ? 
 
34 
 
 Gardening 
 
 2. To show that a leaf gives off water. Draw the stem of a 
 healthy young leaf (cabbage or geranium Will do) through a hole 
 in a square of cardboard. Seal about the stem of the leaf with 
 
 FlGS. 25, 26, and 27. Experiments to show that leaves give off water. 
 
 paraffin heated only to the melting point (too hot paraffin will 
 kill the stem of the leaf and spoil the experiment). Then arrange 
 the experiment as in Figure 25, making sure that the upper drink- 
 ing glass fits snugly to the cardboard. 
 
 Arrange two other glasses in the same manner but make no 
 hole in the cardboard and omit the leaf. Set both pairs of glasses 
 in the sunlight for several hours. 
 
 Where does the water come from that collects in the glass 
 inclosing the leaf? What happens to a leaf if it is not supplied 
 with water? 
 
 The second pair of glasses is used as a "check" or "control" 
 in the experiment. Why is it advisable to have a check in experi- 
 mental work ? 
 
 That a plant gives off water can be shown also in the manner 
 indicated in Figures 26 and 27. When the experiment is carried 
 out as suggested in Figure 26, the twig is left attached to the tree. 
 When done as indicated in Figure 27, the leaves should be placed 
 in the sun. 
 
 Transpiration may be demonstrated also by turning a large glass 
 vessel over a potted plant, after the pot has been wrapped in sheet 
 
How Plants Live 35 
 
 rubber or oilcloth fitted closely about the stem to prevent evapo- 
 ration from the soil. The amount of water evaporated by a 
 potted plant in a day can be determined by wrapping the pot as 
 described above, weighing the pot and plant, and re weighing at 
 the end of 24 hours. 
 
 3. To show that plants respire. Soak 50 seeds of the garden 
 pea in water for 24 hours. Then place them in a drinking glass 
 with strips of wet blotting paper intermingled. As soon as the 
 roots protrude, the young plants are ready for use. Secure two 
 wide-mouth bottles of one-half-pint size with corks to fit tightly, 
 and two small vials or wide-mouth bottles that can be placed within 
 the larger bottles. Buy some limewater or make it. 1 Place 25 
 germinating seeds in one bottle, together with wet pieces of 
 blotting paper; then place an open vial or small bottle nearly 
 filled with limewater among the seeds. Cork securely. Prepare 
 the other bottle in the same way but omit the seeds ; this is the 
 "check" by which we can measure the action in the first bottle. 
 Place the two bottles side by side in a warm room. 
 
 Observe frequently for a period of 48 hours. Note that the 
 surface of the limewater in the vial containing the seeds becomes 
 coated with a white layer, and that this does not appear in the 
 other vial. This white material is lime carbonate, formed by 
 the chemical union of lime dissolved in the water and carbon 
 dioxid in the air of the larger bottle. Where does the carbon 
 dioxid come from? Why is it that no carbonate forms on the 
 limewater in the check bottle ? 
 
 Now remove the cork from the bottle with the seeds and insert 
 the burning end of a splinter of wood. Why does the flame 
 immediately go out ? Test the air in the other bottle in the same 
 way. Why does the flame continue to burn? What do the 
 growing pea plants remove from the air, and what do they give 
 off into the air? 
 
 1 Crush a large lump of unslaked lime. Pour enough of this pul- 
 verized lime into a bottle to fill it about one-third full. Then add 
 twice as much water as lime. Cork the bottle and shake vigorously. 
 Set aside for 24 hours ; then pour off the clear water, being careful not 
 to disturb the lime at the bottom. Filter this water through a fine 
 cloth or filter paper, and keep it in a tightly corked bottle. 
 
CHAPTER FOUR 
 
 HOW PLANTS GROW 
 
 The wonder of growth ! There is more mystery in the 
 way one bean vine climbs its pole than in all the detective 
 stories ever printed. 
 
 NEVIN WOODSIDE 
 
 WITHIN a seed is a little plantlet. When the seed 
 germinates, this tiny plant breaks out of its case, sends 
 its root down into the earth, and pushes its stem and 
 leaves up to the air. Day by day it becomes larger, its 
 stem gets longer and thicker, new leaves appear, and 
 finally flowers and fruits are produced. 
 
 Or a bud on the tuber of a plant like the Irish potato 
 or Jerusalem artichoke, or on the root of a sweet potato 
 may produce a new plant. At first the bud is very 
 small, but it increases in size until a full-grown plant 
 is formed. 
 
 What happens inside a plant when it grows? How 
 
 FIG. 28. "Tall oaks from little acorns grow." Other plants also have small 
 beginnings, all our garden plants coming from either tiny plantlets in seeds or 
 from buds on stems and roots. The illustration shows early stages in the growth 
 of the pea, Irish potato, and sweet potato. 
 
 36 
 
How Plants Grow 
 
 37 
 
 are the new parts formed? Where in a plant is 
 growth most actively going on? To answer these ques- 
 
 FIG. 20. Diagrammatic representation of a group of plant cells. Above is 
 a cell with the wall cut and a part of it lifted to show the contents. Below are 
 cells cut crosswise and lengthwise. All plants and animals are built up of these 
 cell units ; but, of course, many kinds of cells are very different from the box- 
 like structures here shown. 
 
 tions it is necessary to explain the structure of a plant. 
 The cells of a plant. If a thin section or piece of a 
 plant is examined under a microscope, it is seen to be 
 made of tiny units that are called cells. Each cell, like 
 a loaf of bread, has length, breadth, and thickness. The 
 outer part of the cell is a wall, and if the cell is living, 
 within the wall is a soft, living material that appears 
 somewhat like white of egg. In a full-grown plant cell 
 the most active part of its substance is found chiefly 
 in a layer just within and completely lining the wall, 
 in strands of this material that extend from the lining 
 layer to a rounded body called the nucleus, and in the 
 
38 Gardening 
 
 nucleus itself. Within the living cell there is much 
 watery material known as the cell sap. 
 
 FIG. 30. Part of a section cut lengthwise through the tip of an onion root, as 
 seen through a microscope. The entire root tip is composed of cells which are 
 shown in different stages of division in the lettered series. It is through the 
 multiplication of the cells and the increase in size of the older ones that growth 
 takes place. 
 
 All the parts of a plant are composed of cells. The 
 roots, stems, and leaves are each built up of a multi- 
 
How Plants Grow 39 
 
 tudc of these little units. The food is made within 
 the cells, and oxygen is used within the cells. It is the 
 cells that need water, and it is the cells that are alive and 
 grow. 
 
 How a plant grows. Plants grow in two ways : the 
 cells multiply, and they increase in size. 
 
 When a cell divides, the nucleus first separates into 
 two parts. Then a wall or partition grows across the cell. 
 Thus two cells are formed where there was but one 
 before. In the tips of growing stems and roots, where the 
 growth is active, the cells are dividing very rapidly, 
 and this multiplication of cells causes growth in these 
 parts. 
 
 In older parts of the plant, growth is largely due to 
 the increase in the size of the cells. This enlargement of 
 the cells is caused chiefly by the taking in of water, 
 which collects within the cell. After a warm rain in 
 early summer, the young corn plants take in water and 
 the cells expand so rapidly that sometimes the amount of 
 growth in a single night is noticeable. In the older re- 
 gions of the root or stem a cell often has a volume one 
 thousand times as great as the volume of one of the young 
 .cells in the growing tips. As the cell enlarges, its wall 
 stretches, and new materials are formed in it, so it in- 
 creases in size with the rest of the cell. 
 
 How new parts are formed. If we could see the plant 
 at the very beginning of its life, we would find that it 
 consists of. just one cell within the young seed. This cell 
 divides and multiplies and soon develops into the embryo 
 or tiny plantlet which we find within a seed. The root 
 which pushes out when the seed germinates is formed 
 
4O Gardening 
 
 by a group of cells multiplying and enlarging very 
 rapidly. Other cells build the stem in the same way. A 
 branch of the stem or root is formed by a number of 
 cells multiplying and growing out to make the branch; 
 leaves, flowers, and all other parts arise from groups of 
 cells that divide rapidly and push out beyond the cells 
 about them. In this way new parts are formed. They 
 are built from parts that already exist by the multipli- 
 cation and enlargement of groups of cells. 
 
 Regions of growth in a plant. Growth causes stems 
 and roots to increase in thickness, and there is very rapid 
 growth in the ends of branches which causes them to 
 increase in length. Young leaves and other parts that 
 are just being formed are also places where rapid growth 
 is taking place. 
 
 Stages in the life of a plant. A garden plant like a 
 radish, a carrot, or a bean does not continue to grow 
 indefinitely. It goes through the stages of its develop- 
 ment, completes its life, and then dies. From the point 
 of view of the gardener the life of a garden plant like a 
 carrot consists of (i) a seed stage, (2) a nursling stage, 
 (3) a building stage or stage of rapid growth, and (4) a 
 stage of storing food and maturing seed. 
 
 In the seed stage the little plant is almost completely 
 inactive or dormant. We say it is in the " resting con- 
 dition." It respires very slightly. It does not grow. 
 
 In the nursling stage the plant begins to grow. At 
 first it lives entirely on the food stored in the seed. But 
 in small seeds like that of the carrot the supply of food is 
 scant and the little plant must soon depend on the food 
 it manufactures for itself. In the nursling stage a seed- 
 
FIG. 31. Three stages in the life of the carrot. On the left is the nursling 
 stage, in the center the building stage, and on the right the stage when the seeds 
 are matured. In the nursling stage the plant requires especial care. 
 
 41 
 
42 Gardening 
 
 ling is tender, its roots are few and near the surface of 
 the soil, and it is easily killed by heat, cold, drought, 
 or other unfavorable conditions. At this time, therefore, 
 it needs favorable conditions, and the gardener must 
 provide these as fully as possible. His methods of 
 growing seedlings, and of transplanting for certain 
 crops (which will be discussed later), aim to nurse the 
 plantlets carefully during the critical seedling stage of 
 their lives. 
 
 In the growing or building stage the plant manufac- 
 tures its own food from the raw food materials gathered 
 from the soil and air. It now builds up the food which 
 it makes into living matter and thus grows rapidly. 
 The gardener is concerned with providing for his plants 
 at this time an abundant and continuous supply of water 
 and of the minerals that they draw from the soil, so that 
 the cells will have an abundance of food for growth and 
 the plants will reach their full size. 
 
 In the fourth stage, growth becomes slower and food is 
 stored away for the future use of the plant itself or for its off- 
 spring. In the radish it is stored in the root and used 
 later in the same season for producing the rapid growth 
 of the flowering stem and for the development of seeds. 
 In the carrot, beet, and parsnip the food is stored in the 
 roots until the following season, when the flowering 
 stem and seeds are developed. In the potato, food for 
 the young plantlets that arise from the buds is stored 
 in the tuber, and in the sweet potato in the fleshy roots. 
 In the onion stores of food are found in the leaves that 
 form the bulb, and in lettuce and cabbage in the clus- 
 ters of leaves that make up the heads. In some plants, 
 
How Plants Grow 
 
 43 
 
 FIG. 32. When a garden flourishes like this one, we know that the gardener 
 has supplied the needs of his plants before they began to suffer. 
 
 like the squash, the food is found in the fruit ; in peas, 
 beans, and corn most of the food is stored in the 
 seeds. 
 
 Importance of continuous care of plants. The growth 
 and storage of food by a plant in its later life is but the 
 accumulated result of the conditions under which it lived 
 in its earlier life. Much depends on giving the young 
 seedlings a good start, when they are, so to speak, getting 
 ready to grow up. In this stage they are establishing 
 the root system that must be developed before the top 
 can be enlarged, and if the young plants become stunted 
 and dwarfed it is difficult to get them to start rapid 
 growth again. Every care also should be taken to keep 
 plants growing continuously during the stage of most 
 
44 Gardening 
 
 rapid development, for unfavorable conditions often 
 force them to flower and fruit before they reach full 
 size. 
 
 The good gardener knows that injury once done to his 
 crops can seldom be repaired by any amount of later care ; 
 so he supplies the needs of his plants before they suffer. 
 He prepares the ground properly and plants his seed 
 carefully, so that the seeds may germinate and start 
 vigorous growth at once. He cultivates the young 
 seedlings before the soil becomes compact and weeds 
 appear, so that they may come to the period of rapid 
 growth quickly and in good condition. When rainfall 
 is scant, he waters his garden before the soil becomes dry. 
 He thins his seedlings before they crowd each other, and 
 he pulls weeds before they overshadow and damage his 
 plants. 
 
 All this he does because by experience he has learned 
 that the growth his plants make and the amount and 
 quality of food that they yield depend on the care they 
 receive from day to day. 
 
 Questions 
 
 Describe a plant cell. In what two ways do plants grow? 
 Explain how new parts are formed. In what parts of a plant 
 is growth most rapid? What are the four stages in the life of 
 garden plants? How does the storage stage of the carrot differ 
 from that of the tomato? Compare the fruiting stages of these 
 two plants. 
 
 Why do plants need special care during the seedling stage? 
 Why should the gardener try to supply the needs of his plants 
 before they begin to suffer ? Name some of the things a gardener 
 does to make conditions favorable for his plants. 
 
How Plants Grow 45 
 
 Things to Do and Observe 
 
 1. To study the structure of a stem. Examine with the aid 
 of a hand lens a freshly cut cross-section of a tree at least 6 inches 
 in diameter. Note the pith in the center. It is composed of 
 thin-walled empty cells. In some woods like the oak, ash, or 
 hickory the openings made by cutting across the larger wood cells 
 may be seen. Between the outer edge of the wood and the 
 inner bark is a zone of living cells. These are smaller than the 
 older woody cells, their walls are thin, they are filled with living 
 material, and it is by the growth and division of these cells that 
 the tree increases in diameter. 
 
 Garden plants have fewer woody cells than a tree or shrub, but 
 their general structure is the same. Examine the stem of a cab- 
 bage, noting the pith and the ring of wood. 
 
 2. To examine living cells. If a low-power microscope is 
 available, the teacher or pupil may strip off the outer layer of 
 cells from one of the inner leaves of a fresh onion bulb, or make 
 thin cross-sections of fleshy leaves and stems of plants (for example, 
 cabbage) and mount them for examination. The leaves of 
 many mosses consist of a single layer of cells, and these may be 
 seen by examining the entire leaf with a microscope or even a good 
 hand lens. In this way one can observe the cell walls, see that the 
 living cells contain much transparent material, and that in the 
 green cells the coloring matter is in rounded masses or bodies. 
 Possibly the rounded but almost colorless body called the nucleus, 
 shown in Figures 29 and 30, may also be seen. A little 
 iodine run under the cover glass will stain the cell contents 
 and often make the nucleus visible. 
 
 3. To observe the region of most active growth. With India ink, 
 mark off into half-inch spaces a foot of the end of a growing vine. 
 Then in a day or two note how much each space elongates. In 
 this way you can easily determine the region of most active growth 
 in the stem. 
 
CHAPTER FIVE 
 
 THE FOOD OF PLANTS 
 
 There's magic done in plants. 
 O'er simple elements of earth and air, 
 A sun-beam wand is passed 
 And food is there ! 
 
 NEVIN WOODSIDE 
 
 WE live and grow on the food we eat, but a corn 
 plant lives and grows without eating. It sends its roots 
 out into the soil, spreads its leaves to the light and air, 
 and week by week increases in size. Finally the ear ap- 
 pears with the kernels swollen with a rich store of food. 
 The plant has lived, reached its full size, and at the end 
 of life has a surplus of food on hand. 
 
 In our garden and field crops we find sugar, starch, oils, 
 and the other foods that we live on, and these are not in 
 the soil or air. Where do plants get them? What do 
 plants use for food? Only in comparatively recent years 
 have scientists been able to answer these questions. 
 
 The food of plants. In your study of physiology 
 you learn that man and the lower animals use for food 
 proteins, fats, and starch and sugar. Plants use these 
 same foods. 1 The difference between the nourishment 
 of a green plant and the nourishment of an animal is 
 that the green plant makes its own foods from water, carbon 
 dioxid, and minerals, while an animal cannot do this 
 but must have its food already prepared for it. 
 
 1 Sometimes carbon dioxid, water, and the various minerals used by 
 a plant are called "plant foods." Sometimes these are called the "raw 
 materials used in the making of food," or simply "food materials," and 
 the term "food" is used to mean the sugars, starches, fats, and proteins 
 that are built up from these substances. In this text the word is used 
 (as it is in animal physiology) to mean the complex, built-up substances 
 actually used in the nourishment and growth of the living matter of the 
 cells. 
 
 46 
 
The Food of Plants 
 
 47 
 
 The green plants can, 
 therefore, build their 
 sugar, fats, and proteins 
 from substances which 
 they take from the soil 
 and air. They can build 
 vitamins also, which it is 
 believed an animal can- 
 not do. So the green 
 plants build out of sim- 
 ple materials all the 
 complex foods used by 
 the living matter of both 
 plant and animal cells. 1 
 Plants can live without 
 animals, but every ani- 
 mal is dependent on 
 plants for the food that 
 keeps it alive. 
 
 The manufacture of 
 sugar. The first com- 
 
 FiG. 33. Without eating, the corn plant 
 has lived, reached its full size, and at the 
 
 plete step in the manu- end of its life has a sur P lus of food which 
 
 it has stored in the ear. 
 
 facture of food by the 
 
 plant is the making of sugar. When light falls on 
 the chlorophyll, carbon dioxid and water are combined 
 within the cells to make sugar. This process is called 
 photosynthesis (Greek, photos, meaning light, and syn- 
 thesis, meaning a putting together). Photosynthesis 
 
 1 Plants also build wood, cork, gums, waxes, and all the various other 
 substances (excepting minerals) found in them. 
 
Gardening 
 
 -*? <---''$ -Upper epidermis 
 
 . 
 duchng tissue i 
 
 Bundle sheath^ 
 
 Bundle sheath^ Guard cell 
 
 Lower 
 epidermis 
 
 FIG. 34. Section of a leaf, very highly magnified. 
 
 goes on in all green parts of the plant, but takes place 
 especially in the leaves. 
 
 Leaves as sugar-making organs. As the term photo- 
 synthesis indicates, the energy used in building up sugar 
 is furnished by the light. Without light, plants cannot 
 do this work ; and when we examine a plant, we note at 
 once that the broad, thin blades of the leaves and the 
 way they are arranged on the plant enables them to 
 catch large amounts of light. This makes it possible 
 for the manufacture of sugar to be carried on rapidly by 
 the plant. 
 
 But it is only when we examine the internal structure 
 of a leaf that we understand how well fitted it is for 
 
The Food of Plants 49 
 
 carrying on its work. The sugar is made in the cells 
 within the leaf. Most of these are loosely arranged ; 
 they touch each other on some sides so that there are 
 air spaces between them. Thus part of each cell lies 
 against other cells, and part is exposed to the air within 
 the leaf. 
 
 On the outside of a leaf there is a very thin covering 
 called the epidermis. This is composed of a layer of thin, 
 flat cells closely joined together. The outside walls of 
 these cells are thickened and usually covered with a 
 wax-like material which does not allow water and air to 
 pass readily through it. This covering protects the softer 
 and more tender cells within. But on the lower side of 
 the leaf of a garden plant (and in some plants on the 
 upper side of leaves also) the epidermis has many tiny 
 openings through which air and water vapor can pass. 
 
 Thus the inner portion of the leaf is in communica- 
 tion with the outside air through the openings in the 
 epidermis. The oxygen that the cells need for respira- 
 tion and the carbon dioxid needed for food-making 
 enter the leaf through the little openings in the epidermis, 
 and the excess of water brought up from the roots passes 
 out into the air as vapor. The veins of the leaf are com- 
 posed of vessels which connect with those in the stem. 
 They bring the water and dissolved minerals from the 
 roots to the leaf and carry away to other parts of the 
 plant food that the leaves have made. 
 
 How starch is made. Starch is only a changed form 
 of sugar, a form that does not dissolve in water and is 
 suitable for storage within the plant. In nearly all 
 garden plants the sugar is changed to starch before it 
 
50 Gardening 
 
 becomes very abundant in the cells. Some of it is stored 
 as starch within the leaf. But the sugar is also con- 
 ducted to other parts of the plant to be used by them 
 immediately for food or for storage. The tuber of the 
 potato is an enlarged part of the stem where large 
 amounts of starch are stored. The starch that has been 
 stored in a plant can be again changed to sugar and 
 transported to the parts where active growth is taking 
 place or where seeds are being formed. 
 
 But while most plants change their sugar to starch for 
 storage, a few plants do not do this at least not until 
 the sugar has become very abundant in them. From 
 two plants, sugar cane and the sugar beet, the world's 
 supply of sugar is obtained. Onions and sweet corn 
 are rich in sugar, and wrinkled peas contain more sugar 
 than smooth peas. 
 
 The manufacture of fats and proteins. From sugar, 
 plants make oils, in which form many plants store a 
 part of their food. From the olive, coconut, flaxseed, 
 cotton seed, peanut, corn, and castor bean, oils are ob- 
 tained which are used for many purposes by man. 
 
 The fats are present in larger or smaller amounts in 
 all living plant cells. They are for the most part formed 
 in the cells where they are found, and are not to any great 
 extent transported from one part of the plant to another. 
 They contain the same chemical elements as sugar and 
 are believed to be formed from sugar. 
 
 Proteins are made by combining chemically nitrogen, 
 sulfur, and sometimes phosphorus with the elements of 
 the sugar. Minerals supplying these are obtained from 
 the soil. Without an abundant supply of the minerals 
 
The Food of Plants 
 
 that are needed for 
 building proteins, rapid 
 growth in a plant is not 
 possible. 
 
 The proteins can be 
 made in any living part 
 of the plant ; but the 
 materials of which they 
 are built are most abun- 
 dant in the leaves, and 
 they are manufactured 
 in larger amounts in the 
 leaves than in other 
 parts. From the leaves 
 they may be carried to 
 other parts of the plants 
 for storage or for the 
 immediate use of the 
 cells in those parts. 
 
 Materials necessary 
 for life and manufacture 
 of food in green plants. 
 Ten chemical elements are necessary for the life and 
 growth of a green plant. 1 Of these elements, oxygen, 
 carbon, and hydrogen are used in largest amounts. 
 
 The oxygen used in respiration is secured chiefly from 
 the air; that used for building purposes comes from 
 water and carbon dioxid. The carbon is obtained in 
 the carbon dioxid taken in from the air. The hydro- 
 
 FIG. 35. The gardeners are appropriating 
 the food that the plants have made for 
 themselves. 
 
 1 These ten elements are carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, sulfur, 
 ohosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, and iron. 
 
52 Gardening 
 
 gen comes from the water which the roots absorb from 
 the soil. The other seven elements are secured by the 
 plant from various mineral compounds which it takes 
 from the soil. 
 
 The minerals most often lacking in the soil are those 
 that furnish nitrogen, potassium, sulfur, and phosphorus. 
 These are often supplied in manures or other fertilizers 
 (page 66). When the gardener enriches the soil, he is 
 providing raw materials needed in some of the many 
 building operations going on in the plant. 
 
 Garden plants are builders and storers of food. A 
 weed, as a rule, uses its food for growth as fast as it makes 
 it, and in its small seeds it leaves no considerable store of 
 food that can be used by man. But a radish, cabbage, or 
 bean plant makes food faster than it uses it and collects 
 a surplus either for its own future use or for the use of 
 its offspring. These stores of food we take for ourselves, 
 and we have selected for cultivation in our gardens the 
 plants that will lay up for us food in largest amounts. 
 
 The successful gardener gives his plants favorable con- 
 ditions for food manufacture and provides them with 
 abundant supplies of the raw materials tkat they must 
 have for the work. 
 
 Questions 
 
 How does a green plant get its food? What classes of foods 
 do plants build ? What raw materials are used in making them ? 
 Why cannot animals live without plants ? 
 
 What is photosynthesis? In what part of the plant does 
 photosynthesis go on ? When does it go on ? Describe the struc- 
 ture of a leaf. What is the function of the epidermis? How 
 do gases enter and leave the leaf? How do water and minerals 
 get into the leaf ? 
 
The Food of Plants 53 
 
 How is the surplus sugar that is made by most plants stored? 
 Can it be moved from one part of the plant to another? From 
 what do plants make fats? Name some plants from which fats 
 are obtained. From What are proteins manufactured? Where 
 in the plant are fats and proteins manufactured? 
 
 What minerals needed by plants are most often lacking in the 
 soil ? How does the gardener supply these to his plants ? Name 
 one difference between garden plants and weeds. 
 
 Things to Do and Observe 
 
 1. To examine the structure of leaves. Peel off strips of both the 
 upper and lower epidermis of leaves and examine them under the 
 low power of the microscope. The colorless epidermal cells and 
 the "stomata" surrounded by the green " guard cells" can be 
 seen. Make thin cross-sections of leaves (most easily made from 
 such fleshy leaves as the cabbage) and examine them. Perma- 
 nently prepared sections may be bought from botanical supply 
 houses. 
 
 2. To show that starch is formed only in the green parts of a leaf. 
 Expose a plant having white-margined leaves (variegated geranium 
 is excellent) to sunlight for several hours. Then remove a leaf 
 and make a tracing of it, showing the green and the white areas. 
 Place the leaf in a dish with enough alcohol to cover it. Heat 
 gently on a stove or over an alcohol lamp or gas flame, taking care 
 not to boil the alcohol so strongly that it will catch fire. The 
 green coloring matter is thus removed and the entire leaf becomes 
 almost colorless. 
 
 Obtain some iodine solution from a drug store. Add a little 
 of this to thin starch paste and note the blue color of the starch. 
 This is the iodine test for starch. Dip the decolorized leaf in 
 water to which iodine has been added. The part of the leaf that 
 contains starch will turn dark in color. Is starch found in the 
 green or in the white area? 
 
 Test cut surfaces of a potato, turnip, radish, bean seed, or other 
 vegetables for starch. Do not use too much of the iodine, or the 
 blue of the starch may be somewhat hidden by the brown color of 
 the excess iodine. 
 
 3. To show that sunlight is necessary for the accumulation of 
 starch in green leaves. Expose a potted plant (for example, a 
 
54 Gardening 
 
 geranium) to sunlight during the day, remove a leaf (a), attach 
 a label with string, and immediately place it in a bottle of alcohol. 
 Place the plant in complete darkness for 24 hours. Then remove 
 another leaf (b), attach a label, and place in the alcohol. Now, 
 cut smoothly two disks from a cork stopper and carefully pin 
 these on opposite sides of a leaf (c) so that they fit snugly and 
 exclude the sunlight from the covered area. Expose the plant to 
 direct sunlight for several hours. Remove leaf c and also another 
 leaf (d) that has been left untouched. Test all four leaves with 
 iodine for starch. 
 
 Is starch present in a ? Was starch present in the leaves when 
 the plant was placed in darkness ? What became of the starch 
 formerly in the leaves during the time the plant was in darkness ? 
 Was starch formed in c and d? Was it formed in the shaded 
 area of c? What does each leaf show concerning the influence 
 of light upon the accumulation of starch in green parts of a plant ? 
 
 The above experiments can be worked with plants outdoors 
 by selecting b very early in the morning and the other leaves after 
 they have been exposed to sunshine. 
 
CHAPTER SIX 
 
 THE SOIL OF THE GARDEN 
 
 Every clod feels a stir of might, 
 An instinct that reaches and towers, 
 And, groping blindly above it for light, 
 Climbs to a soul in grass and flowers. 
 
 JAMES RUSSELL LOWELL 
 
 THE roots of garden plants live in the soil. The 
 fineness or coarseness of the soil, its looseness or compact- 
 ness, its temperature, the food materials and the water 
 present all these influence the life and activity of the 
 roots. Sometimes, an excess of substances like acids 
 or alkalies is present ; and the activities of animals 
 and plants which live within the soil may benefit or harm 
 the plant. The gardener can, in a large degree, control 
 the conditions of the soil, and much of his success de- 
 pends on his making them suitable to the needs of the 
 plants that he grows. 
 
 In all his efforts to handle and improve the soil 
 for the growing of his crops, the gardener needs to have 
 in mind three points relating to the condition of the 
 soil: 
 
 (1) The size and arrangement of soil particles, which 
 we may refer to as the soil's physical condition. 
 
 (2) The richness in the various food materials which 
 plants obtain from it. 
 
 (3) The amount and kind of water present in the 
 soil and the soil's ability to hold water and supply it to 
 the plant. 1 
 
 While these conditions are closely interrelated, they 
 may be considered quite separately. 
 
 55 
 
56 Gardening 
 
 THE PHYSICAL CONDITION OF SOIL 
 
 How soils are formed. Soils are formed from the 
 rock of the earth's crust mixed with the decayed remains 
 of plants and animals. Through the action of air, 
 water, and changes in temperature, the surface rock 
 in the course of time crumbles into particles which form 
 the rocky or mineral parts of the soil. Therefore soil 
 may be said to be composed largely of rocks that have 
 fallen into pieces. With a hammer one may pound 
 rock into powder, thus reducing it to small particles 
 like those which make up the soil. 
 
 The organic substances in the soil are formed by decay 
 of plants and animals that die and fall to the ground. 
 Organic matter that is well decayed so that it is black 
 in color and in fine particles is called humus. The dif- 
 ferences in soils are due both to the different kinds of 
 rocks from which they were formed and to the amount 
 of organic matter in them. 
 
 The breaking up of solid rock and of plant and animal 
 remains into fine particles meets the first need of living 
 plants, for it gives them a place to grow. It allows the 
 roots to find their way in among the soil particles, thus 
 making it possible for them to anchor the plant and to 
 secure a supply of water and raw food materials. 
 
 Size of soil particles. The size of the rock particles 
 in the soil may range from large bowlders to minute frag- 
 ments of dust. The number of individual particles 
 in a spoonful of ordinary garden soil is so great as to be 
 almost inconceivable. It is estimated that in an ounce 
 of coarse sand there are about one hundred billion 
 
The Soil of the Garden 
 
 57 
 
 International Harvester Co. 
 
 FIG. 36. Soil that was not cultivated at the proper time and consequently be- 
 came "baked" by the hot sun. The good gardener never allows his soil to get 
 into this condition. 
 
 particles. In an ounce of the finest clay there are more 
 than five times as many. 
 
 The size of the particles of organic matter in soil 
 varies with the stage of decay. Leaf mold (formed from 
 decaying leaves) and peat (accumulations of plant re- 
 mains, usually in swamps where decay is very slow) 
 contain many somewhat coarse fragments of leaves and 
 twigs. Well-decayed humus is exceedingly fine, and it 
 dissolves or becomes somewhat jelly-like when soaked in 
 water. 
 
 Soil particles are usually grouped together. If they 
 are separate and free to move about one another, the 
 soil is loose. But it is seldom, except in the coarsest 
 sand, that the individual particles are entirely separate. 
 In most soils they stick together in groups, forming 
 granules of various sizes. When the granules are large^ 
 
58 Gardening 
 
 the soil is coarse grained and not in good physical condi- 
 tion for the growth of plants. When the granules are of 
 rather small size, the soil has a crumb structure favorable 
 to the growth of roots. 
 
 Soils like sand, that are composed chiefly of coarse 
 particles, are loose. Soils like clay, that are made up 
 chiefly of fine particles, often become hard and compact. 
 
 Importance of physical condition of the soil. In a 
 loose soil the roots easily make their way, and the root 
 
 FIGS. 37 and 38. Spading by the trench method. The gardener scrapes the 
 manure from the unspaded ground into the trench. Then he turns another 
 strip, throwing it forward, and thus completely covers the manure to a depth of 
 several inches. Weeds and grass may be covered in the same way. 
 
The Soil of the Garden 59 
 
 hairs are able to push in among the soil granules and 
 particles. But a hard, compact soil may be as difficult 
 for the tiny roots to penetrate as solid rock. In such a 
 compact soil, moreover, there are no spaces (or only small 
 places) between the soil particles for air, and air is neces- 
 sary for the roots as well as for the other parts of the 
 plant (pages 32 and 51). 
 
 Land that has not been in cultivation recently is often 
 hard and compact. This is especially true of the soils 
 of backyard plots, vacant lots that have been much 
 trampled over, and areas that have been poorly drained. 
 The particles are pressed together, and the air spaces are 
 squeezed out. No gardener would think of planting 
 seed in such a soil without first preparing it by tillage. 
 
 But even a well- tilled soil tends to become compact 
 from one season to another. It is constantly settling 
 and becoming more solid. If one tramples much about 
 the garden, the soil will become more compact, as may 
 readily be noted from the condition in the paths. 
 
 Keeping the soil in good condition. Plowing and spad- 
 ing are the chief means of getting and keeping the soil in 
 good condition. When possible, large gardens should be 
 plowed, but most smaller gardens must be spaded. The 
 best tool for this work is a four-tined spading fork. 
 
 In spading, most good gardeners follow the trench or 
 furrow method. The soil is dug to a depth of at least 
 6 inches, turned over, and thrown forward, leaving a 
 trench into which the next strip of soil is thrown. 
 Manure, sods, leaves, and other coarse vegetable mate- 
 rials can be placed in the trench and well covered with 
 earth; but it is best to spade the coarser materials 
 
60 Gardening 
 
 under only in autumn. Special pains should be taken 
 to pulverize thoroughly all the soil to the depth spaded. 
 If it turns over in large lumps, these should be broken 
 up by hammer-like blows of the fork or with the rake. 
 It pays to do this work well. 
 
 Plowing or spading in autumn, as well as in spring, 
 is advisable for all soils that tend to be compact or to be 
 lumpy. The soil is left in the rough, with no attempt to 
 take or level it down to a smooth surface. The action 
 of the frost on the exposed lumps gives a finer crumb 
 structure. 
 
 The gardener can also improve the physical condition 
 of soils by the addition of certain materials. Heavy 
 clay soils are benefited by addition of coarse vegetable 
 matter, as poorly rotted manure, leaves, and grass clip- 
 pings. It is well to add these in autumn so that the till- 
 age in the following spring will mix them well with the 
 soil. The addition of sand or lime will also make com- 
 pact and lumpy soils more finely granular. Sandy 
 soils tend to be so loose that they dry out too readily ; 
 this condition is improved by the addition of well-rotted 
 humus and manure. 
 
 Careful treatment required for clay soil. Clay soils 
 tend to become compact and to break up into coarse 
 granules or clods when tilled. If such a soil is too dry 
 when spaded, it is lumpy. If it is too wet, it will be 
 made lumpy. No soil should be spaded except when it is 
 dry enough to crumble readily when rolled in the hands. 
 An easy way to test this is to squeeze a small handful of 
 the soil into the form of a ball, quite as one makes a 
 snowball (Fig. 39). If it sticks together in a ball and 
 
The Soil of the Garden 
 
 61 
 
 FIG. 39. The clay soil is easily made into a ball, while the loam falls apart. 
 This shows that the loam is in good condition for working, and that the clay is 
 too wet. 
 
 leaves the imprint of the hand upon it, then it is too wet 
 for working. But if, on being released, it crumbles 
 and falls apart, it is in suitable condition for working. 
 By spading at the right time and in the right manner 
 the physical condition of clay soils can be much improved. 
 
 The best garden soil. The best soil for the garden 
 from the standpoint of its physical condition is a mixture 
 of (i) the remains of plants (humus), (2) sand of various 
 sizes, and (3) silt or clay, with no one of these in excess. 
 
 Such soil is called loam. It tends to remain year 
 after year with the particles arranged loosely in fine 
 granules. It is easily kept in this condition by tillage. 
 Its physical condition enables the fine fibrous roots of 
 plants to penetrate it easily. But repeated tillage, the 
 addition of lime if it is needed, and supplying humus in 
 manure and compost (page 65) will in a few years 
 do much to improve the physical condition of any 
 soil. 
 
62 Gardening 
 
 FIG. 40. Spreading manure over the garden. The coarse lumps should be 
 broken up and the material spread evenly. Many gardeners prefer putting the 
 manure into the trench direct and spading it under, instead of scattering it over 
 the surface of the soil. 
 
 SOIL FERTILITY 
 
 The soil is more than a place for the roots of plants to 
 grow. It supplies water and raw food materials on 
 which the plant lives. // is itself raw food material 
 for plants, as plants actually take into themselves certain 
 compounds contained in the soil and change these mate- 
 rials into substances which build the plants up. A rich 
 soil is one that supplies in large amounts the materials 
 that the plant needs. Of these, aside from water, the 
 ones that are most often lacking in sufficient amounts 
 are nitrogen, potassium, phosphorus, and lime. 
 
 The food materials are constantly being removed 
 from a cultivated soil in the crops harvested, and are 
 also being lost in the drainage water. Therefore it is 
 often necessary to furnish new supplies of these materials 
 to keep a soil from becoming poorer and less productive. 
 They may be added to the soil as manures, compost, 
 
The Soil of the Garden 63 
 
 or commercial fertilizers ; and it is often advisable that 
 these should be liberally supplied. 
 
 Manures. The best fertilizers for gardens are manures. 
 A ton of the usual quality of stable manure that has not 
 been exposed to the weather contains 8.3 pounds of po- 
 tassium (or 10 pounds of potash), 10 pounds of nitrogen, 
 and 3 pounds of phosphorus (or 5 pounds of phosphoric 
 acid), which have a combined value of about $3.00. 
 Besides supplying these foods, manure improves the 
 physical condition of soil by the humus which it contains. 
 A ton of manure will cover about 4 square rods of area. 
 As stable manure is deficient in phosphorus, it is advis- 
 able to add about 2- pounds of acid phosphate to this area. 
 
 Coarse manure may be applied in autumn and plowed 
 or spaded under, but there will be some loss of its sub- 
 stances in the soil water. Well-rotted manures and rich, 
 readily soluble manures, like poultry manure, should be 
 supplied at the time of spading in spring. These may 
 be plowed or spaded in, or a part may be spread on the 
 surface after the spading is done, and raked into the up- 
 permost layers of the soil. 
 
 Poultry manure can often be secured by the gardener. 
 It is the richest in nitrogen of all farm manures ; but 
 this nitrogen is easily lost by decomposition, particularly 
 during warm weather, or if the manure is subject to 
 leaching. To conserve its materials and use them to 
 the best advantage, the following rules should be ob- 
 served : 
 
 The poultry manure should be dried quickly and 
 kept so until used. Wood ashes should never be mixed 
 with manures, and especially with poultry manure, as they 
 
6 4 
 
 Gardening 
 
 cause chemical changes 
 which lead to the loss of 
 nitrogen. This will also 
 occur if lime is used to 
 " sweeten " the drop- 
 ping boards under the 
 roost. Dry dirt, sand, 
 peat, land plaster, or 
 sifted coal ashes should 
 be used instead. These 
 absorb liquids and help 
 to dry the manure. 
 
 The dropping boards 
 should be cleaned fre- 
 quently and the accumu- 
 lated manure spread out 
 in a dry place, or stored 
 in boxes or barrels and 
 kept away from rain 
 until the soil is plowed 
 or spaded in spring. 
 
 As poultry manure 
 is relatively much 
 richer in nitrogen than 
 
 in phosphorus or potash, it is good practice to add 
 to every 10 pounds of the fresh manure 4 pounds of acid 
 phosphate and 2 pounds of kainite (a mineral con- 
 taining about 12 per cent potash) together with coal 
 ashes, dry muck, or other absorbents. These may be 
 spread on the dropping boards, and the resulting mixture 
 stored dry until used. 
 
 FIG. 41. Refuse from the garden should 
 be made into compost to enrich the soil. 
 In the photograph above, which was taken 
 in the autumn, lime is being spread over 
 the garden to kill insects and to " sweeten " 
 the soil for the next season. 
 
The Soil of the Garden 
 
 Poultry manure is so 
 rich that it ivill injure 
 plants if applied thickly. 
 The hard, rounded balls 
 should be broken up 
 and pulverized. This 
 may be done by spread- 
 ing out the dry mixed, 
 product on a board 
 platform or a walk and 
 breaking up the lumps 
 with strokes of the back 
 of a spade. As a rule 
 the manure should be 
 spaded into the soil just 
 before planting of seed. 
 
 Compost. Well-rotted 
 vegetable matter is 
 called compost. It may 
 be made from manure 
 which is placed in flat- 
 topped piles so as to 
 absorb much rainfall 
 and hasten rotting. If 
 
 FIG. 42. A Long Island picture showing 
 how the soil is "trenched" and humus 
 added. Two" trenches are dug about 3 
 feet apart and then filled with manure and 
 soil in alternate layers. Then another set 
 of two trenches is dug, the first one be- 
 tween the two shown in the picture, and 
 the second just beyond the last trench 
 filled. This process is repeated until the 
 necessary, Water Can be whole garden has been covered. The soil 
 j j i 4. 1 4.1, is improved in three ways by this method : 
 
 added to keep the mass first> humus is added . second) the soil from 
 
 moist If it is fre- below is brought to the surface ; and third, 
 
 the soil is made deeper, giving the roots 
 
 quently forked over and more space for growth. 
 
 kept moist, it will rot 
 
 rapidly without " burning." Layers of sod, dry soil, or 
 
 peat may be added to absorb the liquid materials. 
 
66 Gardening 
 
 Compost may be made also from the vegetable wastes 
 of the kitchen that decay readily, from weeds, grass 
 clippings from the lawn, leaves in autumn, and other 
 vegetable matter of any kind. These should all be 
 saved and composted either with manure or separately. 
 Good compost is very valuable in forcing and growing 
 transplanted seedlings in flats in greenhouses, hotbeds, 
 and cold frames, as well as for enriching the soil of the 
 garden. 1 Every garden should have a compost pile. 
 Care should be taken not to add to compost diseased or 
 insect-infested plants, for this may facilitate the spread 
 of fungous diseases or insect pests. 
 
 Commercial fertilizers. A commercial fertilizer fur- 
 nishes for the use o^plants nitrogen, phosphorus, and 
 potassium. Nitrogen is usually obtained in sodium 
 nitrate, ammonium sulfate, and in " tankage " (the 
 refuse of slaughterhouses). Phosphorus is usually ob- 
 tained from tankage and from acid phosphate, which 
 is made by treating rock containing phosphates with 
 sulfuric acid. Potassium is obtained mostly from potas- 
 sium sulfate and potassium chlorid, both of which are 
 mined from the earth. 
 
 A fertilizer that supplies all of the three elements, 
 nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, is called a " com- 
 plete " or " general " fertilizer ; one that supplies only 
 one or two of these is called an " incomplete " or " spe- 
 cial " fertilizer. 
 
 A good general fertilizer for garden crops should 
 contain in a form that plants can use, by guaranteed 
 
 1 Compost should not be used for seed beds or in seed pans, as it is 
 too rich for young seedlings. 
 
The Soil of the Garden 67 
 
 analysis, about 4 per cent nitrogen, 8 per cent phos- 
 phoric acid, and 10 per cent potash. Such a fertilizer 
 may be applied at the rate of about 3 to 5 pounds to 
 every 100 square feet of area. 
 
 The following mixture, in accbrdance with the propor- 
 tions just given, has been recommended 1 as best for 
 general garden crops : 
 
 Sodium nitrate 125 lb., yielding 20 Ib. nitrogen 
 
 Ammonium sulfate .... 100 lb., yielding 20 lb. nitrogen 
 
 Tankage 600 lb., yielding 40 lb. nitrogen and 
 
 54 lb. phosphoric acid 
 
 Acid phosphate 775 lb., yielding 109 lb. phosphoric acid 
 
 Potassium sulfate or potas- 
 sium chlorid 400 lb., yielding 200 lb. potash 
 
 2000 lb. (total weight) 
 
 This mixture is used at the rate of about 1000 pounds 
 to an acre, or about i\ pounds to 100 square feet of 
 area ; but on small home gardens as many as 5 pounds 
 to 100 square feet of area may profitably be used. 
 
 Such a fertilizer may be bought with the different 
 substances mixed together, or the gardener may buy 
 the materials separately and mix them for himself. 
 One pound of sodium nitrate, i pound of potassium 
 sulfate, and 3 pounds of acid phosphate, mixed thor- 
 oughly, will make up an amount sufficient for use on an 
 area of 100 square feet. By cooperative buying the 
 members of a garden class or club can often save money 
 on the fertilizer that they use. 
 
 Many soils are deficient in phosphorus. As manure 
 is also deficient in this element, acid phosphate should 
 
 1 Van Slyke, Fertilizers and Crops. 
 
68 Gardening 
 
 be added when manure is used on such a soil. Wood 
 ashes are rich in potassium, and whenever they are 
 available they may be applied directly to the soil at the 
 rate of 10 pounds to every 100 square feet. They should 
 be previously stored in such a manner that leaching is 
 prevented. 
 
 Soils vary greatly in character, even in different parts 
 of the same garden. It is often advisable to obtain from 
 the state experiment station or from the county agri- 
 cultural supervisor special information regarding the 
 particular needs of a soil, especially if one must depend 
 upon commercial fertilizers. 
 
 Lime for acid soils. Most garden crops will not grow 
 well in an acid soil. In humid regions, especially, soils 
 tend to become acid. Lime and other substances that 
 keep the soil " sweet " are lost in the drainage water, 
 and the addition of humus and the decay of vegetable 
 matter also increase soil acidity. 
 
 The acids in the soil can be changed by the use of 
 lime. Finely pulverized limestone or air-slaked or 
 water-slaked (hydrated) lime are best for sweetening 
 soils. Never use quicklime unless it has been slaked, 
 as it is strongly caustic and will " burn up " the humus 
 in the soil. Do not spread lime in the row at the time 
 seed is sown, as excess of lime in contact with roots is 
 injurious. 
 
 Water-slaked or hydrated lime is widely used in making 
 plaster mortar and can usually be bought in small quan- 
 tities. From 5 to 10 pounds of ground limestone, or half 
 as much of hydrated lime, may be spread on an area of 
 100 square feet. Clay soils require more lime than 
 
The Soil of the Garden 
 
 69 
 
 FIG. 43. Lime should be applied when no wind is blowing. Even a miid 
 breeze will carry much of the lime away and prevent an even distribution over 
 the surface. 
 
 sandy soils. Lime should not be plowed or spaded under, 
 either in autumn or in spring, but should be scattered 
 over the surface and thoroughly raked in shortly be- 
 fore planting. One application every three years should 
 be sufficient. 
 
 Other benefits of lime. Small amounts of the prin- 
 cipal elements in lime (calcium and magnesium) are used 
 by plants in building up their bodies, and these elements 
 combine with decayed organic material to form nitrates, 
 which the plants take in and use as the source of their 
 nitrogen. Lime in soils also leads to chemical changes 
 which make it easier for plants to secure the potassium 
 and phosphorus in rock particles. Lime improves the 
 physical condition of the heavy clay soils by making 
 
Gardening 
 
 them finely granular. 
 It tends to break up 
 compact, coarsely lumpy 
 soils. Finally, lime in 
 soil increases the activ- 
 ity of certain bacteria 
 which cause organic 
 matter to decay and 
 break down into plant 
 foods. 
 
 Thus lime, both di- 
 rectly and indirectly, 
 benefits garden plants in 
 many ways, and its 
 moderate application 
 will improve most gar- 
 den soils. 
 
 A rich soil needed 
 for the garden. Often 
 the home vegetable gar- 
 den is small and the 
 main aim is to produce 
 as much food as possible 
 from it. A very fertile soil is necessary for this kind 
 of intensive gardening; for it is a well-known fact 
 that many soils that will produce fair field crops will 
 yield only meager crops of certain vegetables. This is 
 largely because most garden crops are heavy feeders, 
 requiring especially large amounts of nitrogen and 
 potassium. To yield abundantly they must grow on a 
 soil that supplies them plentifully with these materials. 
 
 FIG. 44. Effect of lime on the growth of 
 roots. These Swiss chard plants were 
 planted at the same time and each had 
 the same growing conditions, except that 
 lime was added to the acid soil in which 
 the plant at the left was grown. 
 
The Soil of the Garden 71 
 
 The excellent qualities of garden vegetables also de- 
 pend upon a rapid growth that can take place only in 
 a rich soil. Unless thus grown, salad plants like lettuce, 
 Swiss chard, and celery will be of poor quality ; root 
 crops like radishes, turnips, and beets will be small, 
 woody, and of poor flavor ; and the quality of other 
 crops likewise will be poor. 
 
 Proper tillage, good drainage, the repeated addition of 
 humus, manures, and other fertilizers, and the applica- 
 tion of lime will in a few years improve almost any soil 
 until it will produce excellent vegetables in abundance. 
 And to have a garden that really pays, we must do 
 this ; for gardening is more expensive for a given area 
 in cost of seed and in labor than is agriculture. 
 
 Questions 
 
 How are soils formed? What is humus? About how many 
 particles are there in an ounce of coarse sand? in an ounce of 
 fine clay ? What are soil granules ? What size are the granules in 
 a soil that is favorable for the growth of plants ? What kind of 
 soil is likely to become compact? 
 
 Why is it important that a soil be loose? How may soil be 
 kept in good condition? What soils require most careful treat- 
 ment? Why? How can we determine if a soil is dry enough 
 for working? What is the best kind of soil for a garden? In 
 what sense is soil itself raw food for plants? What substances 
 needed by plants are most often lacking in soils? 
 
 In what ways do manures improve soils? Why must special 
 care be taken when poultry manure is used ? What is compost ? 
 How is it made? 
 
 What are commercial fertilizers ? How do they benefit crops ? 
 How does lime improve soils? When and how should it be 
 applied? Why is an especially rich soil needed in a garden? 
 
72 Gardening 
 
 Things to Do and Observe 
 
 1. To observe how soil is made. Search inroad cuts, along river 
 banks, and other places where rock is exposed. Note that in 
 some of these places the compact rocks are crumbling into the 
 small particles that make soil. 
 
 2. To observe the formation of humus. Examine the surface 
 soil in a forest, or if this cannot be done, examine a compost heap. 
 Note that this soil contains parts of plants in various stages of 
 decay. Observe also its color and texture. What is the color of 
 soils that lack humus? 
 
 3. To observe soil particles and granules. Crush and examine, 
 first with the eye and then with a hand lens, dry, finely pulverized 
 samples of various soils (clay, humus, sand, and loam). In 
 which are the particles or granules largest ? smallest ? Compare 
 as to uniformity in the size of the granules. 
 
 4. To show the effect of working soils when they are too wet. 
 Secure some dry, finely powdered clay or soil in which clay pre- 
 dominates, and two large shallow dishes or pans. Place one 
 quart of the clay in the first dish, flood with water and stir, leaving 
 the clay in irregular, sticky masses. 
 
 Place the same amount of clay soil in the second dish, add the 
 same amount of water as was added to the first dish, but do not 
 stir. 
 
 Allow the soil in the two dishes to become quite dry. Note that 
 the soil that was stirred is in hard lumps which do not readily 
 break up into granules. Is the soil in the second dish more 
 easily cultivated? 
 
 This experiment shows how particles of clay soil may become 
 grouped into large lumps if worked before the excess of water 
 has dried out. Why is a soil of coarse lumps unsuited for plant- 
 ing seeds and growing crops? What should the gardener do to 
 such a soil? 
 
 Repeat the above experiment, using first sand and then loam. 
 Are these soils more easily cultivated when wet than is a clay soil ? 
 
 5. To determine when a garden soil is dry enough for cultivation. 
 Fill a flat two-thirds full of clay soil, another with the same amount 
 of sand, and a third with loam. Flood each to the top of the flat 
 with water. Allow the excess of water to drain off through the 
 cracks in the bottom of the flat. Test each soil, as described 
 
The Soil of the Garden 73 
 
 on page 60, to determine if it is ready for tillage. Repeat the 
 test at intervals of a few hours. Which becomes ready for tillage 
 first? which last? Make similar tests in the garden before 
 beginning the work of spading or of surface tillage after a rain. 
 
 6. To test soils for acidity. Obtain a few strips of blue litmus 
 paper. Dig up some of the soil to be tested and place it in a pan. 
 Then insert three or four pieces of the litmus paper in the soil, 
 making sure that the soil particles are pressed firmly against the 
 paper. Examine one of the strips at intervals of several minutes, 
 or until one of them has turned red. The red color shows the 
 presence of acid. If at the end of half an hour the litmus paper 
 shows no change of color, the soil is free from acids. 
 
 7. To solve a few of the gardener's problems in supplying com- 
 mercial fertilizer to the soil. Work on the following exercises 
 until you are sure that you could solve similar problems in your 
 own garden. 
 
 A . A garden plot is 40 feet wide and 50 feet long. How many 
 pounds of general commercial fertilizer will the gardener need if 
 he desires to supply 5 pounds of the fertilizer to every 100 square 
 feet of the garden ? 
 
 B. If a gardener wishes to make 100 pounds of the fertilizer 
 mentioned on page 67 , how many pounds of each of the ingredients 
 should be purchased? (The quantities given on the page just 
 referred to will make 2000 pounds of fertilizer.) What part of 
 2000 is 100? Therefore, what part of the total amount of each 
 ingredient given for the 2000 pounds is needed for 100 pounds? 
 
 C. A gardener can obtain only (i) sodium nitrate, (2) acid 
 phosphate, and (3) potassium sulfate. He wishes to purchase 
 enough of each to make 100 pounds of a mixed fertilizer yielding 
 3^ per cent nitrogen, 8 per cent phosphoric acid, and 10 per cent 
 potash. Find the amount of each ingredient needed, as follows : 
 
 (1) There should be enough sodium nitrate in the 100 pounds 
 to yield 3^ pounds of nitrogen. Sodium nitrate is 15 per cent 
 nitrogen; one pound has rtnr pounds of nitrogen; therefore, 
 it will require as many pounds of sodium nitrate as rtnr is con- 
 tained in 3^. What is this amount ? 
 
 (2) Calculate the number of pounds of phosphoric acid required. 
 (Acid phosphate is about 14 per cent phosphoric acid.) How 
 many pounds of the acid phosphate are therefore needed to sup- 
 ply the amount of phosphoric acid required ? 
 
74 Gardening 
 
 (3) A pound of potassium sulfate is 54 per cent potash. How 
 many pounds of potassium sulfate are needed to supply the potash 
 required ? 
 
 (4) Add the three amounts (or the amounts nearest the next 
 even number for any that are not even). If the total is less than 
 100 pounds, the difference indicates the amount of dry sand or 
 earth that is to be included in the mixture. 
 
 D. Is it possible to make a mixture of sodium nitrate, acid 
 phosphate, and potassium sulfate that will contain 8 per cent 
 nitrogen, 10 per cent phosphoric acid, and 15 per cent potash? 
 (Work out this problem, basing your calculation on the facts 
 learned in the previous problems. Determine the amount neces- 
 sary for each ingredient.) 
 
CHAPTER SEVEN 
 
 WATER AND THE PLANT 
 
 The thirsty Earth soaks up the rain, 
 And drinks and gaps for drink again ; 
 The plants suck in the Earth, and are 
 With constant drinking fresh and fair. 
 
 ABRAHAM COWLEY 
 
 WATER forms a large part of a living plant. Lettuce 
 and various root crops, for example, are nine-tenths 
 water. The living matter of the cells is bathed in it, 
 and the whole structure of a plant, from the finest 
 rootlets to the most delicate tissues in the leaves, is 
 more or less filled with it. For good growth, garden 
 plants require large amounts of water, and the gardener 
 is interested in knowing how this may be provided for 
 them. 
 
 How water is used by a plant. All the various mineral 
 substances needed by the plant can be taken in only 
 when they are dissolved in water. They are all obtained 
 from the water that is in the soil. Furthermore, every- 
 thing that is moved about inside the plant is carried 
 in water; only minerals and foods that are dissolved 
 in water can pass from one part of the plant to 
 another. 
 
 Great quantities of water are evaporated (transpired) 
 from the leaves of plants. For every pound of dry 
 material in a mature plant, 500 pounds of water have 
 passed through that plant during its life. An acre of 
 thrifty vegetables in a single season uses 1000 tons of 
 water, which is equal to about 9 inches of rainfall over 
 the acre. A large sunflower in a single day of mid- 
 summer transpires more than a pint of water. 
 
 75 
 
Gardening 
 
 These facts explain 
 why plants quickly suf- 
 fer if they are not pro- 
 vided with a continuous 
 and abundant supply of 
 water. 
 
 How roots are 
 adapted for work of 
 collecting water. The 
 roots are the water- 
 gathering organs of the 
 plant. To gain an idea 
 of how well these organs 
 are adapted to their 
 work, germinate some 
 radish seeds on moist 
 blotting paper and ex- 
 amine the roots of the 
 seedlings as they grow. 
 
 The young growing 
 roots are very small, 
 brittle, and tender, and 
 they quickly dry out 
 
 A mustard seedling soon after h exposed tc the air. 
 Note the deh- 
 
 FIG. 45- 
 
 germinating on a blotter. 
 
 cate root hairs. 
 
 At first there is only a 
 primary or first root, 
 
 which ends in a blunt point. It grows rapidly in length, 
 
 and side branches soon develop which are quite like the 
 
 tip of the older root. 
 
 Thus rootlet after rootlet appears until there is a 
 
 much-branched system with many growing ends. As 
 
Water and the Plant 
 
 77 
 
 long as the plant lives 
 and is active, the root 
 system continues to 
 branch and send out a 
 mass of young rootlets. 
 When their limit of depth 
 and breadth is reached, 
 branches continue to fill 
 in the space between 
 with a network of the 
 fine roots. 
 
 A short distance be- 
 hind the tip of a rootlet 
 there is a growth some- 
 what resembling cotton 
 fibers. If we look at this 
 with a reading glass or 
 a simple pocket mag- 
 nifying glass, we find 
 that this is composed of 
 delicate hair-like out- 
 growths from the root 
 itself. Each of these 
 root hairs is a slender 
 tube that has grown out - drain off the water from them - 
 from the side of a cell. It is a rod-shaped structure, 
 closed like a finger of a glove at its outer end, and by 
 its growth it thrusts itself in among the soil particles 
 and absorbs water and mineral compounds in solution. 
 In this way the absorbing surface of the rootlet is enor- 
 mously greater than if no root hairs were developed. 
 
 FIG. 46. Young radish seedling with soil 
 clinging to root hairs. The root hairs 
 penetrate among the soil particles and 
 
Gardening 
 
 Root hairs live for 
 only two or three days. 
 They die away on the 
 older parts of the root- 
 let, and new ones are all 
 the time developing just 
 back of the growing 
 root tips. This habit 
 makes it necessary for 
 the rootlets to keep on 
 growing if the plant is 
 to be supplied with 
 water. 
 
 What happens when 
 a plant wilts. When a 
 plant has plenty of 
 water, the cells are well 
 filled and rounded out, 
 so that they press 
 tightly against one an- 
 other and the whole 
 plant stands up firm and 
 strong. If the plant 
 lacks water, the cells are 
 
 only partly filled and the leaves and other parts of the 
 plant wilt and droop. In this condition, to a great 
 extent, growth and the manufacture of food stop ; and if 
 a garden plant remains wilted continuously for two or 
 three days and nights, it generally dies. 
 
 It does not take a plant long to wilt if it is pulled and 
 left in the open air. It wilts just as quickly while stand- 
 
 FiG. 47. A seedling carelessly pulled wilts 
 much faster than one carefully dug up. 
 The plant at the left wilted rapidly be- 
 cause many of its roots were broken off 
 and those remaining were unprotected by 
 soil particles. The seedling at the right 
 was carefully lifted from the soil at the 
 same time ; it will remain unwilled much 
 longer than the other one. 
 
Water and the Plant 79 
 
 ing in the garden if a continuous supply of water does 
 not flow into it through the roots. When insects (such 
 as the squash borer) burrow into stems and cut off and 
 eat out the vessels that carry water upward, the plant 
 soon wilts and may die (page 330). The clubroot disease 
 of cabbage (page 289) often interferes with the work of 
 the roots to such an extent that the infested plant wilts 
 during the day and seldom grows up to be a good plant. 
 The cucumber wilt is caused by a bacterium that enters 
 the vessels and by its growth interferes with the ascent 
 of water, which soon causes the plants to wilt and die. 
 Such injuries as these make evident to us how necessary 
 is the supply of water to all parts of the plant. To re- 
 place that which is lost to the air there must be a cor- 
 responding intake through the roots from the soil. 
 
 Knowing these facts, it is easy to understand why in 
 transplanting seedlings the young plants must not be 
 allowed to become dry ; why they need protection from 
 the sun and air until they get a new root system estab- 
 lished ; why in cultivating and weeding care should 
 be used not to damage the roots of crops ; why cer- 
 tain diseases and insect pests must be combated ; 
 and why it is so important for the soil of the garden to 
 have in it sufficient water for the growing crops. 
 
 Capillary water in the soil. As the water from rain or 
 snow or irrigation sinks through the upper layers of the 
 soil, some of it sticks to the soil particles and is held over 
 and between them as a thin film on their surfaces. This 
 water is called capillary water. A good soil holds large 
 amounts of capillary water in this way, and as the root 
 hairs push in among the granules they come in contact 
 
8o Gardening 
 
 with these films and are able to draw water from them 
 for the use of the plant. 
 
 Free water in the soil. In a soil that is poorly drained, 
 the water not only forms a coating over the granules, but 
 it may also fill the spaces between them. This water 
 which fills the spaces between the soil particles and 
 granules is called free w ater. It can be drained off. It 
 is not held in the soil, but is free ; and like the water 
 in a pond or lake, it will flow to a lower level if it 
 has the opportunity. The roots of garden plants cannot 
 live in a soil that continually retains free water, because 
 the water shuts out the air from between the soil granules. 
 There is not enough air present in such a soil to keep 
 the roots alive, and if a garden site is undrained so that 
 the level of the free water is near the surface, the plants 
 will have only a few shallow roots. These will be able 
 to supply only small amounts of water, and in times of 
 heat and drought the plants will suffer. 
 
 Wet soils are cold. Water absorbs more heat in be- 
 coming warm than does soil or air. Hence a soil that is 
 saturated with water remains cold longer than a soil con- 
 taining much air (especially in spring). If the excess of 
 water is removed by drainage, its place is taken by air 
 which may be warmer and which at any rate becomes 
 heated more quickly. 
 
 Soils that are naturally " warm " or " early " are those 
 which hold almost no free water in the upper layers. 
 They are usually well-drained soils or soils of loose 
 texture, like a sandy loam. " Cold " or " late " soils are 
 those that retain much water. They are usually fine- 
 grained, like clay, or are poorly drained or poorly tilled. 
 
Water and the Plant 
 
 81 
 
 FIG. 48. On the surface of the stone is a thin film of capillary water ; at the 
 bottom is a drop of free water. 
 
 Draining a garden. On the farm a well-drained plot 
 can usually be selected for the garden. Cities and 
 villages are usually so well drained that simple ditching 
 about the garden or perhaps across it is all that is needed 
 to carry off the excess water from the soil. But in low- 
 lying land it is sometimes necessary to plant the crops 
 on narrow ridges with open ditches between, in which the 
 free water is exposed to the air for rapid evaporation. 
 Loosening a soil by deep spading and by adding vege- 
 table matter improves the drainage of fine, compact soils. 
 
 When the water can be led to a lower level, tiling, or 
 underground drainage, is an excellent means of drain- 
 ing a " wet " garden. For literature on such a special 
 
82 Gardening 
 
 method of treatment one should write to the agricultural 
 college of his state. 
 
 It is well to lay out a garden that is inclined to be 
 wet in beds rather than in rows for level culture (page 
 
 93)- 
 
 How to tell if a soil is poorly drained. To determine 
 whether a plot is too wet for garden purposes, sink a 
 hole in the earth with a spade. If free water runs 
 into the hole and stands within 18 inches of the surface, 
 the soil is poorly drained. In such a soil, water will 
 often stand close to the surface or even on the surface 
 after heavy rains. In early spring this condition may 
 do no damage except to delay planting, but if with ordi- 
 nary rainfall the soil is watersoaked in midsummer, 
 drainage is necessary. The roots of garden crops need 
 to go down deeply into the soil, but they cannot thrive 
 below the level of the free water, which may happen to 
 be near the surface. 
 
 In draining a garden, it should be borne in mind that a 
 ditch will remove the free water only when it leads to 
 lower levels, and also that it will remove water only to 
 the level of the bottom of the ditch. 
 
 Increasing capillary water in the soil. By tillage and 
 by adding vegetable matter, the gardener can greatly in- 
 crease the power of the soil to furnish water to the grow- 
 ing crops. A coarse-grained and lumpy soil does not 
 hold much water. It dries out quickly after a rain, and 
 capillary water does not rise into it from lower levels in 
 abundance or with uniformity because of the large and 
 irregular air spaces between the lumps. Good tillage 
 makes such soils more finely granular, so that they can 
 
Water and the Plant 
 
 FIG. 49. 
 
 Draining a garden site 
 
 soil, garden plants cannot grow in it. 
 
 States Relations Service 
 Unless the free water is removed from the 
 
84 Gardening 
 
 take in more of the water that falls and hold more of it 
 as capillary water. 
 
 In a fine-grained, compact soil the air spaces between 
 the particles and granules are small. In wet weather 
 these small spaces are readily filled with free water, which 
 is then difficult to drain away. Another deficiency of a 
 compact soil is that much of the water that falls on it 
 runs off without sinking in and being held as capillary 
 water. Plowing and spading break up and loosen com- 
 pact soils, increasing the air spaces between the granules 
 and making it easier for water to enter and move to lower 
 levels. 
 
 Spading under manure and vegetable matter makes a 
 soil looser. Such materials also add to the water-holding 
 power of the soil, for the pieces of decaying plant material 
 hold water like little sponges and give it up to the roots 
 when needed. 
 
 Sandy soils hold less water than clay soils. Therefore, 
 well-rotted manure often greatly improves them. Lime 
 loosens a heavy clay soil and makes it more granular, 
 thus irnproving it for garden use. 
 
 Movement of water in the soil. The roots of vig- 
 orously growing plants quickly absorb most of the cap- 
 illary water that is on the soil particles which they touch. 
 But more water creeps to these particles from the sur- 
 rounding soil or from lower levels. The movement of 
 this water through the soil is quite like that of oil rising 
 through the wick of a burning lamp. Having the soil in 
 good physical condition makes it possible for the water to 
 move easily through it and thus to come within reach of 
 the plant's roots. 
 
Water and the Plant 85 
 
 A fine, loose condition of the soil also allows the 
 roots to penetrate more deeply and to spread more 
 widely, thus increasing the water supply available to 
 the plant. 
 
 Conserving the soil moisture. Water evaporates from 
 the surface of a soil into the air. Then more water 
 rises from below, through capillary action, and this also 
 is lost to the air. Thus in time the soil becomes dried 
 out, and plants often suffer because the water they need 
 has evaporated into the air. 
 
 If a mulch of fine manure, straw, or leaves is placed 
 over the soil, the evaporation from the surface is checked, 
 and the soil moisture is conserved; celery, eggplant, 
 Chinese cabbage, endive, and lettuce are benefited by 
 such mulches, especially in dry periods or when grown on 
 dry, sandy soils. 
 
 A mulch may also be made of a layer of loose surface 
 soil. If the top inch of soil is raked loose and fine, it 
 quickly dries out, and because its connection with the 
 soil below is somewhat broken, the water does not 
 readily rise into it by capillary action. This loose sur- 
 face soil, therefore, acts as a covering for the lower soil, 
 keeping the moisture that is in it from being lost to the 
 air. Frequent shallow cultivation of growing crops is 
 very essential to maintain a surface mulch. 
 
 Watering the garden. Crops use large amounts of 
 water, and even under the best methods of culture the 
 natural supply may be insufficient for their needs. It is 
 then often advisable to supply water by irrigation. This 
 subject will be discussed in the chapter on " The Care of 
 Growing Crops " (page 207). 
 
86 Gardening 
 
 Effects of the gardener's work on the supply of soil 
 water. From what we have now learned, it will be under- 
 stood that garden plants can use only the capillary water 
 of the soil ; that free water about roots is harmful to them ; 
 and that to fit a soil for garden purposes, the free water 
 must be drained off and the soil made to hold as much 
 capillary water as possible. 
 
 Nearly everything the gardener does to the soil affects 
 the water supply in it. Drainage has for its direct aim 
 the removal of free water, which makes it possible for the 
 roots of crops to penetrate deeply. The addition of 
 lime, manure, and compost causes the free water to drain 
 off more quickly and increases the amount of capillary 
 water held in the soil. Plowing and spading also increase 
 the power of the soil to hold capillary water, and one of 
 the reasons for the cultivation of growing crops is to 
 retain the water in the soil for the use of the plants. 
 
 The gardener, therefore, in large measure controls the 
 supply of water in the soil. He removes the excess that 
 is harmful ; he increases the power of the soil to hold 
 water in suitable form for his plants ; he saves or con- 
 serves the water present in the soil ; and he supplies 
 water when it is needed. By a study of the soil and of 
 the water in it, he can do the things that regulate the 
 water supply to the needs of his crops. 
 
 Questions 
 
 About what proportion of the entire living plant is composed 
 of water ? What are some of the uses of water to a green plant ? 
 Give some facts that explain why plants need an abundant and 
 a continuous supply of water. 
 
Water and the Plant 
 
 FIG. 50. Seedlings germinating in earthen saucer. 
 
 Explain how the roots of a plant develop. How are roots 
 adapted to the work of getting water from soil? What happens 
 when a plant wilts ? 
 
 Why must a newly transplanted plant have special care? 
 W T hat is capillary water? free water? Do plants grow best 
 in a soil containing free water or only capillary water? Why? 
 Why do wet soils remain cold longer than a soil that is not so wet ? 
 
 How can you determine if a soil is poorly drained ? How can a 
 gardener increase the water-holding power of a soil? Describe 
 the movement of water in soils. How can the gardener conserve 
 soil moisture? 
 
 Things to Do and Observe 
 
 i . To observe root hairs. Germinate seeds of cabbage or radish 
 on blotters placed between saucers, keeping the blotters moist 
 with capillary water (Fig. 50). (Petri dishes are better than 
 saucers if the school has them.) With a hand lens examine the 
 
88 
 
 Gardening 
 
 root hairs that form, noting their number and size. On what 
 part of the root are they actively growing? On what part are 
 
 FIG. 51. Experiment to show the power of different soils to hold capillary 
 
 water. 
 
 they dying? Describe a root hair. How do these root hairs 
 increase the total amount of root surface? How does this affect 
 the power of the plant to absorb water? 
 
 2. To show the upward movement of capillary water in soil. 
 Tie a piece of thin cotton cloth securely over the large end of a 
 lamp chimney. Fill with dry garden soil. Place in a shallow 
 dish containing a pint of water and leave thus until the following 
 day. How high does the free water rise? How high does the 
 capillary water rise ? How can it be kept from evaporating from 
 the surface of the soil ? 
 
 Now carefully lift the chimney with contents, allowing the free 
 water, if there is any, to drain back into the dish. Measure 
 the amount of water left in the dish. How much water has moved 
 up into the soil as capillary water ? 
 
 During dry weather is there an upward movement of water 
 from the deeper parts of the soil ? 
 
 3. To compare the power of different soils to hold capillary water. 
 Tie thin cotton cloth over the small end of four lamp chimneys. 
 Fill one with sand, one with clay, one with humus, and one with 
 loam (all dry and finely powdered). Arrange as shown in Figure 
 
Water and the Plant 89 
 
 51. Pour gently and slowly a pint of water into the top of each 
 chimney. The water that drips through is free water ; that which 
 is kept has become capillary water. Compare as to time when 
 water begins to drip, length of time the dripping continues, and 
 amount of water retained. 
 
 How does the addition of humus affect the water-holding 
 power of sandy soils? How does sand improve a clay soil? 
 
CHAPTER EIGHT 
 
 PLANNING THE GARDEN 
 
 Let us sit down by the crackling fire and lay out plans 
 for the year. 
 
 Old Farmer's Almanac 
 
 THE arrangement of every home vegetable garden 
 should be worked out according to a plan made several 
 weeks in advance of the earliest planting dates. This 
 will allow time for buying seed before planting time. 
 The plan should show the kinds of crops to be grown, the 
 relative location of each, and the space to be given to 
 each kind. 
 
 Such points as the size of the garden plot, the kind of 
 soil, the drainage, the exposure to sunlight, how the 
 garden is to be cultivated, the local climatic conditions, 
 the particular needs of the crops to be grown, the family 
 tastes and preferences for vegetables, and whether the 
 family will be away during the summer, are all matters 
 to be considered in planning the garden. It will help 
 greatly in deciding what crops should be grown and how 
 much of each it is best to plant, if a definite plan of the 
 garden is made. 
 
 Making the plan. In drawing a plan it is best to draw 
 to a scale. This means that the garden itself is first 
 measured and then the plan of it is drawn so that each 
 inch on the plan represents a certain number of feet 
 in the garden. If the garden is small the plan may be 
 drawn on a scale of 2 feet to the inch ; for the moderate- 
 sized garden it is better to use a scale of 4 feet to the 
 inch ; and for the very large garden a scale of 8 feet to 
 the inch may be necessary. In this way, by using the 
 divisions on an ordinary ruler ( such as ^ inch, inch, 
 
 90 
 
Planning the Garden 
 
 i Corn, (late} 
 
 , 
 
 3 
 i 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 i 
 j 
 
 2 Corn, (medium} 
 
 3 Corn (medium} 
 
 f Corn (early } 
 
 5 Corn (early} 
 
 6 Tomatoes 
 
 7 Tomatoes 
 
 il 
 4 ?r 
 
 t:^ 
 
 ^ ^ 
 
 | 
 
 |1 
 
 & Tomatoes 
 
 9 Celery 
 
 i o Cauliflower (early} followed by pe -tsai 
 
 11 Peas\ ( beets (transplanted} 
 
 12 Peas f U cwe 1 : y \beets (transplanted} 
 
 13 Peas beets (transplanted } 
 
 14 Peas) {beets (transplanted} 
 
 15 3eets (from seed } 
 
 is Beets (from seed } 
 
 17 Carrots 
 
 18 Carrots 
 
 19 Cauliflower (early}} r v ji [kale 
 
 20 Cabbage (early} ) \kale. 
 
 11 Buskbeans } XJfc me J .(&**%**** 
 
 T> 11 \JOLLOUDZ a. vy \ 
 22 jDUsh beans ) {Seas 
 
 23 Lettuce | Clewed ^y f ^ e 
 
 24 Lettuce J [ cabbaqe (laie} 
 
 25 3eets (ea rly }., tra nspla n ted / -^//^^ e J fa \beans 
 
 26 Sects (early } , transplanted] \ beans 
 
 27 Swiss chard 
 
 28 Carrots (early} -followed by celery 
 
 ii 
 
 29 Onions (front seed} 
 
 30 Onions (from sets} followed by 'kale 
 
 
 
 FIG. 52. Plan of a home garden. The ground is kept occupied during 
 entire season. 
 
 the 
 
Gardening 
 
 FIG. 53. A photograph of the garden the plan of which is shown in Figure 52. 
 With only two seasons' experience the owner has one of the most successful 
 gardens in his community. 
 
 or inch) to represent a foot, the plan may be easily 
 drawn and distances on any part of it may be deter- 
 mined at once by merely laying the ruler on the por- 
 tion to be measured. 
 
 Several plans may have to be drawn before the most 
 satisfactory arrangement is found. The final plan should 
 be drawn on heavy cardboard and kept for ready refer- 
 ence. It should show exactly how many rows and how 
 many feet of rows of each variety are to be planted. 
 With such a plan one can determine the amount of seed 
 required for each variety. 
 
 A few general directions regarding the making of a 
 garden plan may be given. Tall growing plants, like 
 corn, pole beans, peas on brush or wire, tomatoes trained 
 
Planning the Garden 93 
 
 to stakes, and Jerusalem artichoke should be placed 
 so that they will shade the smaller plants as little as 
 possible. Along a fence or at the north or west side of 
 a garden is a good location for tall plants. They may 
 also be used to good advantage as screens in front of a 
 chicken yard or about a compost pile (Fig. 160). Peren- 
 nials like rhubarb, asparagus, and strawberries should be 
 grouped at an end of the garden where they least interfere 
 with the work of tillage. 
 
 The vegetables that are planted first in spring may be 
 grouped together and the work of spading and planting 
 be done at intervals as later plantings are made. 
 
 Planting in rows. Most gardens should be laid out in 
 rows which run the entire length or width of the garden 
 or to necessary paths. If a horse is used in cultivating 
 the garden, the rows should run the long way and be 
 spaced about 2^- to 3 feet apart. When a wheel hoe is 
 used, a width of 12 to 36 inches, according to the crop, 
 is convenient. In small gardens, where the work is all 
 done by hand, the rows may be much closer for many of 
 the smaller growing crops ; thus more plants can be 
 grown on a given area. Radishes, for example, may be 
 spaced in rows 6 inches apart, and carrots as close as 8 
 or 10 inches apart. A distance of 18 inches is very suit- 
 able for many crops under hand cultivation. 
 
 Planting in beds. When the garden plot is of very 
 small size and the work is all done by hand, the garden 
 may often be laid out in beds to good advantage, as 
 shown in Figure 55. The narrow paths between the beds 
 enable children to walk freely about without injury to 
 the plants. The work of tillage and weeding can be done 
 
94 
 
 Gardening 
 
 1 ^ 
 
 Com /W/y) ^c7*raj fl 
 
 le 
 
 artichoke -^ 
 
 V ^J-^ "f ^ OTn ^ ost 
 
 
 f, 
 
 
 r/J, 9f>d rdC 1LS 
 
 
 {sOWt 
 
 
 C/Z, <f/U. ru LU3 
 
 
 Corn 
 
 
 K 
 
 
 Corn. (rH.ediu.rn) 
 
 
 * f 
 
 
 Corn 
 
 
 1" i 
 
 
 Corn 
 
 
 3" 1 
 
 
 Corn flate} tree 
 
 
 Youny te.f.'*^ 
 a&ble. 6ree "^ 
 i 5 
 
 < 
 
 Pole beans f 
 
 
 | , ^ 
 
 
 Pole leans J (Xextuekv 
 
 
 , U . . lettuce () ". . ".P 
 .-.,. * V 
 
 
 +- -wonder) 
 Pole c>ean<s { 
 
 
 \ 
 
 * * 'a.net* tovnaloes C") * ' 
 
 * 
 
 StuA. lima, peans 
 
 
 Kohlrabi. fMooHdly {%%%"" 
 
 
 iSu.tnm.er squash :J^e(i)2eataHdspivia 
 
 ch 
 
 Pe-tsai, followed. %y celery 
 
 -I 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Cnrrpfa 
 
 
 ~&, - 'j*~ 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 f^&TMn.'lrJJS 
 
 
 
 
 
 p 
 
 3 fc Cabl>a<re date! and 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 endive bcituecn rvtvs 
 
 >P 
 
 C / '/* 
 
 I 
 
 c",,..-,.,. -i -,^7 
 
 2 
 
 iJuLstjJ 
 
 t 
 
 
 
 
 
 Lettuce ' eay plant 
 
 F^ 
 
 farslev Leetes 
 
 1 
 
 ft-ttai -followed h> e-tsa i 
 
 
 Onions (setslfollowed by celery 
 
 
 Lettuce 'pe-tsai 
 
 
 Mangels fainter food Jvr chickens) 
 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 r 
 
 Sirttwlyerty 
 
 
 Tomatoes () vj 
 
 i 
 
 bed 
 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 H; 
 
 
 
 D J. ^ 
 
 
 
 
 0M& - 
 
 
 f lowers 
 
 
 Mmael kerte ^ 
 
 f. 
 
 
 
 V 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 1 ^Ritsh beans, followed PV celerv * 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 1 planted between -rotas 
 
 
 
 
 
 j 
 
 
 
 - -CaVba.jes(severa.l kinds) 
 
 
 
 
 
 Scale 6 "" j" "* To"* "" if*" 3 
 
 FIG. 54. Plan of author's garden. 
 
 offeet 
 
Planning the Garden 95 
 
 from the paths, for all parts of the bed are within easy 
 reach. Walking in the beds among the plants is thus 
 avoided ; therefore the soil is not compacted by tram- 
 pling and it remains much more uniformly loose. When 
 the seeds are planted, one should use a board to walk on. 
 
 At planting time the beds should be level with the 
 paths or only slightly rounded above. Walking in the 
 paths soon makes them lower than the beds, and then 
 water will run through them. If the garden is poorly 
 drained, the paths may be arranged to lead to a shallow 
 ditch, dug along one side of the garden so as to lead to 
 lower levels. Excess water is thus carried away after 
 each rain. The garden shown in Figure 55 was laid out 
 in beds chiefly because it needed the drainage that the 
 paths gave. 
 
 Special points to plan for. In planning a vegetable 
 garden, one should have especially the three following 
 aims in mind : 
 
 (1) To grow different sorts of vegetables which give 
 pleasing variety and a continued and adequate supply 
 of vegetables for the table. 
 
 (2) To avoid overplanting of any one crop at one time. 
 
 (3) To keep the soil fully occupied and busy in pro- 
 ducing crops. 
 
 What is meant by these three aims and how the 
 gardener may plan for them will now be discussed briefly. 
 
 Planting for variety. The home gardener grows at 
 least several kinds of vegetables. Such standard vege- 
 tables as corn, beans, cabbage, and tomatoes are all 
 quite different in the food products that they yield, 
 in their appeal to the taste, in their uses, and in the time 
 
96 Gardening 
 
 of the season when they are ready for the table. By 
 increasing the number of kinds of vegetables grown, 
 greater variety is obtained. Fortunately the number 
 of different vegetables that can readily be grown is 
 large and affords a wide variety of vegetable foods. 
 
 Avoiding overplanting. Probably the mistake most 
 often made by the inexperienced gardener is the planting 
 of too much of one variety at one time. If this is done 
 the entire product is likely to "be ready for table use at 
 about the same time, and there may be more than can 
 be used, especially if the product is perishable. This 
 results in waste of food, waste of space in the garden, 
 and waste of labor. 
 
 To avoid overplanting, either (i) plant less of any one 
 variety at a time, and make successive plantings of it on 
 different dates ; or (2) plant seed of several varieties 
 which mature at different times. Seed of a single early 
 variety of corn, for example, may be planted at intervals 
 of two weeks ; or the seeds of early, medium, and late 
 varieties may all be planted at about the same time in 
 spring. 
 
 The later plantings of a vegetable sometimes fail 
 because the summer weather may be unfavorable for 
 the proper growth of the young plants. In a hot, dry 
 summer, late plantings of corn are likely to become 
 dwarfed and yield poorly developed ears. As a rule, 
 successive plantings are most successful on a rich soil 
 that is well supplied with water. 
 
 The planting of different varieties of the same vege- 
 table is one of the best ways of obtaining successive 
 crops. It is a good plan to grow a few plants of the 
 
Planning the Garden 
 
 97 
 
 DITCH 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 t 
 | 
 
 "3 
 
 
 
 s; 
 
 
 
 
 XXX 
 
 XXX 
 
 Cabbaqe 
 
 XXX 
 XXX 
 
 ^ 
 
 -NXOOXOOX 
 
 Head, lettuce, 
 o X o o X o 
 and tomatoes 
 X o o X o o X 
 
 1 
 
 t 
 
 *Q 
 
 1 
 
 ooxooXooXooXooXooXooXooXooXooXoo 
 
 Tfead lettuce ( ) 
 
 XooXooxoXoox ooXooXooXooXooXooX 
 
 a< tomatoes (x) 
 
 ooxooxo oxooxo 0x00X00X00X00x00X00 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Parsnips 
 
 
 Salsify 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Swiss 
 
 x x x 
 
 < x x x 
 
 1 
 x'lx x 
 
 4 
 
 XXX 
 
 XXX 
 
 
 Parsley 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 chard. 
 
 
 
 E 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Beets 
 
 $ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 Carrots 
 
 
 
 
 
 Onions 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 XXX 
 
 New Zealand 
 XXX 
 Spinach 
 XXX 
 
 
 
 
 Pe-teai, 
 
 
 Radish, 
 
 
 Spring and 
 
 
 followed T?y 
 pepper 
 
 
 autumn,. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Scale 
 
 jf feet 
 
 FIG. 55. Plan of a small home vegetable garden arranged for planting in beds. 
 The paths between the beds slope down to a ditch at one side, thus insuring 
 perfect drainage. 
 
 very earliest varieties of such crops as peas, beans, 
 carrots, radishes, corn, and tomatoes, even though these 
 are not the best in yield or in flavor. They will furnish 
 food in advance of the main crop, at a time when any 
 " new " vegetable is especially relished and when the 
 market prices are high. 
 
 In the northern planting zones, as a rule, long-season 
 crops (like corn and tomatoes) are not suited to successive 
 plantings. For such vegetables, the planting of several 
 varieties is the best way to provide variety and avoid 
 overplanting. In the southern sections, successive 
 plantings may be made of the long-season crops. The 
 
Gardening 
 
 early and late varieties 
 of certain crops, cab- 
 bage for example, are 
 best planted at different 
 dates. 
 
 The seed catalogues 
 list " novelties " for 
 early and late planting ; 
 but care should be taken 
 in selecting such vege- 
 tables, especially the 
 early kinds. It is al- 
 ways best to buy seed 
 of standard varieties 
 from reliable firms, for 
 the main crop. 
 
 Keeping the soil oc- 
 cupied. In small gar- 
 dens, vegetables should 
 be kept growing in 
 every bit of the space 
 throughout the garden 
 
 season. As soon as the yearly crops are removed, 
 others should take their places. This may be accom- 
 plished either by companion cropping or by succession 
 cropping. 
 
 Early vegetables may be placed together with slower- 
 growing and later-maturing plants, either in the same 
 row or in alternate rows. This is called companion 
 cropping. The early crop is removed before the late crop 
 has reached such a size that it needs all the ground. 
 
 FIG. 56. Successive plantings of corn. 
 By repeated plantings it is often possible 
 to have a supply of a vegetable through a 
 long season. 
 
Planning the Garden 
 
 99 
 
 Lettuce may thus be 
 grown with tomato 
 plants, as shown in Fig- 
 ures 54 and 55. Both 
 the lettuce and tomato 
 plants may be trans- 
 planted to the garden 
 at about the same time, 
 or the lettuce may be 
 planted earlier. The 
 heads of lettuce are 
 gathered about the time 
 that the tomato plants 
 are overshadowing them. 
 Lettuce may thus be 
 grown with peppers and 
 eggplants. Lettuce ma- 
 turing in 5 weeks may 
 be grown with cabbage 
 that matures in 10 weeks. 
 (See Figure 58.) Rad- 
 ishes and carrots may be ex Pf nse than , if the 
 
 each separately. 
 
 sown in alternate rows 
 
 6 inches apart; then when the radishes are removed 
 
 the rows of carrots are left 12 inches apart. 
 
 Many of the short-period vegetables, and especially 
 the early cool-season crops, mature and are removed 
 from the garden in time to grow another crop. This 
 second crop is called a succession or follow crop. Some 
 of the short-period crops are : radishes, lettuce, peas, 
 early cabbages, spinach, turnips, beets, early carrots, 
 
 FIG. 57. A follow crop (carrots) planted 
 after lettuce has been removed. Two crops 
 are obtained from the same garden space 
 and they are secured with less labor and 
 were prepared for 
 
TOO 
 
 Gardening 
 
 
 . 
 
 I'urdiie University Agrlc. Exit. sin. 
 
 FIG. 58. Lettuce and cabbage grown as companion crop. The lettuce will 
 soon be cut, making room for the cabbages. 
 
 early potatoes, and even early corn, early beans, and 
 onions from sets. Some of the vegetables that may be 
 planted as follow crops are : beets, carrots, late cabbages, 
 spinach, celery, pe-tsai, chicory, and endive. 
 
 Often the follow crop may be started somewhat before 
 the earlier crop is removed, by planting between the rows. 
 Sweet corn may be planted between rows of peas; 
 pe-tsai, late cabbages, kale, or endive may be set out 
 between rows of early sweet corn about the time the 
 latter is maturing ; and celery may be planted between 
 rows of beans, as shown in Figure 54. 
 
 As the gardener gains in experience in growing the 
 various garden vegetables, he learns their habits of 
 growth, the length of time required for each to mature, 
 and the space which each needs under the conditions 
 which his garden affords. In the small vegetable garden 
 
Planning the Garden , IQI 
 
 where space is limited, many schemes of companion and 
 follow cropping can be worked out which will greatly in- 
 crease the total production. 
 
 A little study of the best ways of grouping vegetables 
 for companion and succession crops, as suggested in the 
 paragraphs above, will help the gardener so to plan that 
 overplanting will be avoided. He will then have a 
 pleasing variety of foods, and the soil will be kept busy 
 through the whole growing season. Notes regarding 
 these points and suggestions for improving the garden 
 should be recorded as they come to mind during the 
 growing of crops. Perhaps the notes may be kept on 
 the back of the cardboard on which the plan was drawn. 
 These will aid greatly in making plans for following 
 seasons. 
 
 Planning school gardens. What has been said con- 
 cerning the planning of home gardens and school directed 
 home gardens applies equally to school gardens, especially 
 to demonstration gardens (page 10) and community or 
 grade gardens (page 6). In most school gardens fewer 
 vegetables are grown than in a home garden, and the 
 planning is therefore somewhat simpler. 
 
 When the individual plot system with paths between 
 the plots is used, the whole area is laid out like a checker- 
 board into plots of uniform size with straight paths run- 
 ning entirely across the area (Figs. 2 and 3). Stakes 
 are placed at the corners of the plots and the paths and 
 plots are kept in line throughout the season. The plots 
 are as a rule all planted alike with the rows running the 
 same way and with the different kinds of vegetables in 
 the same relative positions. All this gives uniformity of 
 
192 Gardening 
 
 t '*;V 
 
 appearance and makes for order and neatness. When 
 
 the paths are omitted (Fig. 4), the rows of vegetables 
 run without interruption straight across the entire gar- 
 den, and stakes are' used to indicate the corners of the 
 individual plots. 
 
 Questions 
 
 Study the plans given in Figures 52 and 54. What is the scale 
 to which these are drawn ? How large were the gardens ? What 
 crops were grown and how many feet (in rows) were planted to 
 each? 
 
 When is it best to plant in rows and when in beds ? In planning 
 a vegetable garden, what special points should the gardener have 
 in mind ? What are the usual methods of planting to provide for 
 variety? What crops are most likely to be overplanted? How 
 can overplanting be avoided ? What are companion crops ? 
 Name some and explain why they can be thus grown. What are 
 follow crops? Name some crops that may be thus planted. 
 
 Things to Do and Observe 
 
 1. To draw a garden plan. Measure the garden plot and draw 
 an outline of it to a scale (4 feet to i inch is a good scale, unless 
 the garden is unusually large) . Make a list of the crops you wish 
 to grow. If there are to be any perennials, decide where they are 
 to be planted ; also decide where the tall-growing crops will stand. 
 Determine how many rows can be allowed for each crop, and then 
 complete the plan by drawing the lines for each row. The rows 
 of companion and follow crops may be indicated by dotted lines 
 and the other rows by solid lines. 
 
 2. To observe the arrangement of other gardens. When visiting 
 other gardens in your neighborhood, note the general plan of 
 arrangement of each garden. Try to determine the good fea- 
 tures and the bad features of each plan, and then try to discover 
 how the arrangement might be improved. Note especially 
 whether each gardener is utilizing his garden space as efficiently 
 and economically as possible. 
 
CHAPTER NINE 
 
 TOOLS FOR THE GARDEN 
 
 When putting away the tools for winter, lay aside those 
 which need repairs so that they will not be forgotten. 
 
 Old Farmer's Almanac 
 
 IN buying the first tools for gardening work, it is best 
 to select the kinds most commonly in use. Buy only 
 those that are strongly made and of good material. Poor 
 tools break easily and wear out quickly, and are there- 
 fore a source of discouragement. Most hardware stores 
 carry well-made sets of the most important garden tools ; 
 especially sets consisting of a hoe, a spade, and a rake. 
 These may be had in small sizes suitable for women and 
 children. Many of the " combination " tools (two or 
 more tools attached to one handle) are poorly made and 
 are so clumsy to use that they are not to be recom- 
 mended. 
 
 Tools for spading. For the work of spading, a fork 
 with four or five flat tines is the best tool. It should be 
 strongly made, and the tines should be of good steel to 
 stand the strain of the work. Even then, care must be 
 used not to break or bend the tines, especially if the 
 ground is stony. An ordinary square or round-pointed 
 spade may be used when sod is to be spaded under ; 
 it may also be used for any spading work, but it is 
 harder to force into the soil than a fork, and it does not 
 break up the earth so finely. 
 
 The rake. After the spading fork, an iron or steel rake 
 with numerous fine teeth is the most necessary tool in 
 the garden. It is used for making the soil fine after 
 spading and also for cultivating the growing crops. The 
 rake is the best tool for making a good surface mulch on 
 
 103 
 
IO4 
 
 Gardening 
 
 FIG. 59. For a small garden a spading fork, hoe, and rake are all the tools that 
 are necessary. For a large garden, a wheelbarrow and some additional tools 
 are needed. Note the heavy cord for laying out the rows. 
 
 the soil (page 85). A child's steel rake, about 6 inches 
 wide, with short, fine teeth, is very useful in covering 
 seeds and in cultivating when crops are growing in rows 
 too close together for the use of the larger garden rake. 
 The smaller rake makes a fine and shallow surface 
 mulch. 
 
 Tools and accessories for planting. In laying out the 
 garden for planting, stakes and a line are almost neces- 
 sary. A hatchet for sharpening and driving stakes is 
 convenient. A trowel is useful in lifting and resetting 
 plants, in making shallow trenches for seed, and in cover- 
 
Tools for the Garden 
 
 105 
 
 ing seeds after they are 
 sown. A dibble is used 
 in transplanting plants, 
 especially into flats ; but 
 a planting peg, equally 
 effective, may easily be 
 made from a y-inch 
 piece of a broom handle. 
 Whittle one end to a 
 tapering but blunt point, 
 and round off the other 
 end to fit into the hol- 
 low of the hand. Pegs 
 of smaller size (Fig. no) 
 may be made for trans- 
 planting very small seed- 
 lings. 
 
 For laying out and 
 planting in straight rows 
 of even distance apart, 
 a rule or measuring stick 
 and a line and stakes 
 are needed. An old 
 clothesline or a heavy 
 cord long enough to reach across the garden will do. 
 If the garden is laid out in beds, the line should be 
 stretched at each side of the bed and the rows planted 
 at right angles to these. Using a planting board about 
 8 feet long and i foot wide not only keeps the bed 
 from being trampled but also makes it easier to get the 
 rows straight and properly spaced. 
 
 FIG. 60. A wheel hoe is very useful in a 
 large garden. With it the plants can be 
 cultivated much more rapidly than with a 
 hand hoe or rake. 
 
io6 
 
 Gardening 
 
 A basket should be 
 used for carrying and 
 keeping in order seed 
 packages, notebook or 
 record with garden plan, 
 and such small tools as 
 trowel and peg. 
 
 Tools for cultivating. 
 In cultivating the crops 
 grown in a small-sized 
 garden, a rake is the 
 most valuable tool. Its 
 repeated use to maintain 
 a surface mulch will pre- 
 vent weeds from start- 
 ing and keep the garden 
 in good condition. Gar- 
 den hoes are useful for 
 cutting off and killing 
 weeds that have started 
 to grow, in keeping paths 
 clean, and in making 
 
 furrows preparatory to seed planting or irrigation. A 
 sharp-pointed hoe of triangular shape, often called the 
 " Warren hoe," is excellent for working in compact 
 ground. A hoe of this kind is especially useful in work- 
 ing among strawberries and other plants that grow in 
 beds or matted rows. The square hoe is probably the 
 one most generally used. 
 
 Various sorts of hand weeders and long-handled 
 cultivators, such as the " Norcross " or the " Pull Easy " 
 
 FIG. 61. When the day's work is finished, 
 the tools should be gathered up and put 
 away. 
 
Tools for the Garden 
 
 107 
 
 FIG. 62. If the soil sticks to the tools they should be washed before they are 
 put away. They must be wiped dry after washing, so that they will not rust. 
 
 adjustable cultivator, are used by many gardeners. 
 Several types of wheel hoes, with cultivator and rake 
 attachments, may be bought. These are especially 
 useful in cultivating large gardens by hand. The various 
 attachments are easily and quickly changed as desired, 
 and the implement is light and easy to use. The 
 machine covers ground rapidly and does efficient work. 
 The single- wheel type, such as is shown in Figure 60, is 
 most commonly used. Except in heavy soils, a boy or 
 girl of fifteen can easily operate this tool. 
 
 Care of tools. When not in actual use, all tools should 
 be kept clean and free from moisture and stored in a 
 dry place. In the home each tool should have a 
 definite place. In school gardening each set of tools 
 
io8 
 
 Gardening 
 
 FIG. 63. Right and wrong ways of using the spading fork. Study the posi- 
 tions of the hands and feet of the man on the right, and practice until you are 
 sure you can spade correctly. 
 
 should be numbered and each child should be allotted 
 a number and be held responsible for the tools corre- 
 sponding to his number. Rust should never be allowed 
 to form on any tool. If it does, it should be removed 
 by vigorous use of sandpaper. 
 
 Perhaps the best place to hang tools is against a 
 wall inside a building. When they are put away for 
 the winter, a coat of heavy oil or oil paint should be 
 applied to the unprotected metal surfaces to prevent 
 rusting. A coating of melted paraffin or of vaseline will 
 
Tools for the Garden 
 
 IOQ 
 
 protect them if no oil or 
 paint is at hand. 
 
 Right and wrong ways 
 of using tools. It will 
 pay the beginner, and 
 often also the more ex- 
 perienced gardener, to 
 make some study regard- 
 ing the easiest way of 
 using tools. It is not 
 easy to describe on paper 
 the best methods. In 
 hoeing, raking, spading, 
 carrying water, carry- 
 ing flats, and using the 
 wheel hoe, one should 
 aim to keep the body 
 well balanced and in 
 graceful position so that 
 the tools may be used 
 without undue strain. A 
 few illustrations will per- 
 haps show what is meant. 
 
 In Figure 63 the student to the left is forcing a spading 
 fork into the ground with the fork pressing against the 
 instep and heel. This position might strain and injure 
 the foot, since it is not intended to carry weight at this 
 point. The hand grasping the end of the handle has the 
 palm downward. The student is pushing against the 
 spade with his body. In lifting the soil, he must step 
 to one side or be put to undue strain in lifting the forkful 
 
 U. S.D. A. 
 
 FIG. 64. The proper way to leave tools in 
 the garden, when not in use. Make it a 
 habit to stick the fork in the ground and 
 to turn the rake and hoe down when they 
 are not in use. 
 
no ' Gardening 
 
 of earth out and away from the body, and the position 
 of the left hand does not allow him to turn the fork and 
 soil over with ease. 
 
 The student at the right is using the ball of the foot 
 to force the spade into the ground. He stands in a posi- 
 tion to swing the left hand down to the side quite 
 naturally and thus lift the earth and turn it over with the 
 hands separated at each side of the body, giving excellent 
 leverage, perfect balance of the body, and an easy, swing- 
 ing motion. His task will not be unduly tiresome, and 
 his work will be effective. 
 
 The art of correctly using garden tools can be acquired 
 only by practice, but a practical demonstration by 
 an expert will greatly aid the beginner in getting 
 started right. Some gardeners can use a hoe or rake 
 all day without becoming very tired. Watch such 
 gardeners and learn to handle your tools in the right 
 way. 
 
 When such tools as the hoe and rake are laid down in 
 the garden, the cutting edge or teeth should be turned 
 downward. If they are left with edge or teeth upward, 
 children may step or fall upon them and be seriously 
 injured. 
 
 Questions 
 
 Why is it best to buy only well-made tools for garden work? 
 What are the two most necessary garden tools ? What other tools 
 and accessories are useful in the home or school garden? What 
 tools are used for cultivation, and how are they used ? How should 
 tools be cared for? Why is it important to learn the right ways 
 of using tools ? 
 
Tools for the Garden in 
 
 Things to Do and Observe 
 
 1. To become familiar with garden tools. Examine the garden 
 tools displayed in store windows and those owned by your friends. 
 Look for advertisements of them in seed catalogues and in garden 
 and agricultural magazines. Be sure to buy tools suited to your 
 size and age, and to the work you wish to do with them. 
 
 2. To learn to use garden tools. Make a special effort to learn 
 the easiest and most effective ways of using the various tools. 
 Practice the right methods as explained and illustrated in this 
 chapter. Observe teachers, older students, and experienced 
 gardeners who are using tools. 
 
 3. To learn how to care for tools. Observe the effect of poor 
 care of tools. Find how gardeners store their tools when not in 
 use. Practice taking good care of your own tools. 
 
CHAPTER TEN 
 
 SEEDS FOR THE GARDEN 
 
 In France, we are told, they have the finest vegetables in 
 the world, and this is so because they practice the most care- 
 ful seed selection. And strange to say, in France the chil- 
 dren are taught to select and prepare the seeds for the 
 garden. 
 
 ARTHUR D. CROMWELL 
 
 IF a row of radish seeds is planted in the garden some 
 of them will produce good roots earlier than others, while 
 there will be some poor plants which do not produce 
 fleshy roots at all. There are often noticeable differences 
 in the size, shape, and quality of beets grown from the 
 seed of a single packet. Some lettuce plants produce 
 good heads, while others shoot up flower stalks without 
 ever forming a head. Seedlings grown from a packet 
 
 .7. T. Rosa, Jr., Univ. of Mo. 
 
 FIG. 65. Seedlings of tomato, all grown from the same packet of seed, 
 showing difference in vigor. Select for transplanting only the largest and 
 best plants, for those that are wtak in the seedling stage may be weak during 
 their entire lives. 
 
 112 
 
Seeds for the Garden 
 
 of tomato seed often differ greatly in natural vigor; 
 some are weak, others are strong and vigorous in 
 growth (Fig. 65). Squash plants of the same variety 
 
 Richard Wellington 
 
 FIG. 66. Best fruits of different plants of Hubbard squash from commercial 
 seed, all grown under the same conditions. The bottom row shows the best 
 type of fruit. The upper three rows are especially undesirable because of 
 their small size and thin flesh. From which ones would you select seed? 
 
ii4 Gardening 
 
 often yield fruits that differ very much in size, shape, 
 and quantity and quality of flesh (Fig. 66). 
 
 Seeds from good plants are more likely to produce other 
 good plants than are seeds from poor plants. It is im- 
 portant, therefore, for the gardener to have good seeds 
 that have come from the kind of plants that he wishes to 
 raise. 
 
 Both parents of a plant important. Selecting seed 
 from good mother plants is an old practice. In this way 
 man has long attempted to improve the plants which he 
 has cultivated. In more recent times attention has been 
 paid also to securing a good plant for the father or pollen 
 parent of the young plant in the seed. Our knowledge 
 of what a seed is and of how it is formed shows why this 
 is necessary. 
 
 What a seed is. A seed contains a small plant with 
 very small leaves, stem, and root. This tiny plant is 
 called the embryo. Food is usually stored either around 
 the embryo or in its first leaves. The embryo, together 
 with the food, is inclosed in a tough coat which forms the 
 outside of the seed. 
 
 How a seed is produced. To learn how a seed is 
 produced, examine the flowers of the garden bean (al- 
 though almost any flower may be studied instead). 
 Notice that the bean flower has four different kinds of 
 parts, as follows : 
 
 (1) At the outsidf there are five green leaf -like parts, 
 which cover the rest of the flower in the bud stage. 
 These are called sepals. 
 
 (2) Next are five somewhat leaf-like but white or 
 colored parts called the petals. These are of different 
 
Seeds for the Garden 115 
 
 shapes and the lower two are rolled together, appearing 
 like one. In the flowers of many kinds of plants the 
 petals are all alike. 
 
 (3) Inclosed within the two lower petals are ten 
 slender, rod-shaped stalks bearing at their summits sao 
 
 FIG. 67. Parts of a bean flower : a, the flower complete ; b, parts of the corolla ; 
 c, pistil ; d , pistil enlarged, with ovary wall cut away showing ovules ; e, cluster 
 of stamens ; /, single stamen. All are natural size except d and /, which are en- 
 larged 2\ times. 
 
 like structures. These are called stamens, and the sacs 
 are called anthers. 
 
 (4) In the very center of the flower is a single rod- 
 shaped organ, called a pistil, more or less coiled toward 
 the end. 
 
 In a few days after a flower of the bean opens, you will 
 observe that all the parts about the pistil wither and fall 
 away. In most of the flowers the pistil remains and 
 grows into a pod containing the seeds. . 
 
 The anthers and the ovules. If the two lower petals 
 of a fully opened flower of the bean are separated and 
 the stamens examined, it will be seen that the anthers 
 have split open and are shedding a 'fine, dust-like powder. 
 
n6 
 
 Gardening 
 
 This is the pollen, and under 
 the microscope it is seen to 
 be made up of very small 
 rounded bodies which are 
 called pollen grains or micro- 
 spores. The anthers are, 
 therefore, sacs that contain 
 minute spores. 
 
 The enlarged base of the 
 pistil is called the ovary. If 
 this is slit open and examined, 
 small rounded bodies, much 
 smaller than the anthers, will 
 be found in it. These are the 
 ovules. At first each ovule 
 contains a single spore and is 
 thus a spore sac like the 
 anther. The spore, however, 
 is not released but remains 
 within the ovule, and from it 
 there develops a cell called the egg cell. In some flow- 
 ers the ovules are so small that they are hard to see, 
 but in the young fruits the ovules which are becoming 
 seeds are easily seen with the naked eye. 
 
 Pollination. In nearly all plants the pistils will 
 wither and drop off unless pollen from the same kind of 
 plant or from. closely related plants is placed on the 
 end of each pistil ; that is, on the stigma. 
 
 In some garden plants like corn, cucumber, and 
 squash, the anthers with their pollen and the pistils 
 with their ovules are in separate flowers, and the pollen 
 
 FIG. 68. The pistil of a bean 
 flower at the stage when fertil- 
 ization occurs; magnified about 
 5 times. A portion of the outer 
 wall of the ovary is cut away to 
 show the ovules in place. On the 
 stigma and on the brush of hairs 
 near the stigma are several pollen 
 grains, and a black line shows the 
 course of a pollen tube through 
 the pistil to the first ovule. 
 
Seeds for the Garden 
 
 117 
 
 must be carried by the wind or 
 by insects from the flowers with 
 only stamens to the flowers with 
 only pistils. 
 
 In other garden plants (bean, 
 pea, salsify, and tomato are good 
 examples) the stamens and pis- 
 tils are both present in each 
 flower. But even in these the 
 wind and the insects very often 
 carry pollen from one flower to 
 the pistils of another. 
 
 The carrying of pollen from 
 the stamens to the pistils is 
 called pollination. If the pollen 
 which reaches *a pistil is from 
 the same flower or another 
 flower of the same plant, it is 
 
 self-pollination. If it is from a different plant, it is cross- 
 pollination. 
 
 Fertilization. After the pollen grains have been 
 placed on the stigma, a tiny, thread-like tube sprouts out 
 from each pollen grain. These tubes grow downward, 
 making their way among the cells of the pistil, until they 
 reach the sac-like structures (ovules) . The pollen tube 
 enters the ovule through a tiny opening that is present 
 in its wall and continues growing until it reaches the 
 egg. There it bursts open at the tip, and a little cell 
 called the sperm cell, which was within the tube, unites 
 with the egg cell. This uniting of a sperm and an egg 
 cell is called fertilization. 
 
 FIG. 6g. a is a pollen grain, and 
 b and c show pollen tubes which 
 have developed from grains ger- 
 minated on sugar-agar. The 
 nucleus of the vegetative cell 
 of the pollen tube is shown near 
 the end of the longer tube ; the 
 two male nuclei are shown far- 
 ther back in the same tube. 
 The grains are here shown 220 
 times natural size. 
 
n8 Gardening 
 
 The pollen grain must reach the pistil when both 
 are in the right condition or the pollen will not grow ; 
 
 FIG. 70. Stages of growth in the 
 fruit (pods) of the bean. 
 
 the ovules will not be fertilized, and no 
 fruit or seed will be produced. A pol- 
 len tube fertilizes only one ovule, and so ' 
 at least as many different tubes must 
 grow down through the pistil as there 
 are seeds which develop later. 
 
 During fertilization the egg cell and a 
 sperm cell combine and make one cell. 
 
 This new cell begins to grow and 
 divide, and this growth is kept up until the embryo is 
 formed. Meanwhile, the ovule develops into the seed, 
 and the pistil enlarges to become the seed pod. 
 
 Importance of the pollen parent. The little plants in 
 the seeds borne by a bean plant all have the same mother. 
 But the embryos in two seeds that lie side by side in 
 the same pod may have different plants for pollen 
 parents. If good and poor plants are allowed to bloom 
 together, some of the seeds on even the best plants may 
 
Seeds for the Garden 119 
 
 have pollen parents that are quite worthless. Because 
 of this fact it is important in seed growing to make sure 
 that both parents are good plants. 
 
 How new varieties are developed under cultivation. 
 Occasionally plants that are different from the others 
 appear in a crop, giving for example such differences as 
 are shown in the illustration on page 127. Sometimes 
 the difference is due to a natural variation. The new 
 kind of plant simply appears ; no one knows the cause 
 of the change in it. Such plants are called sports, or 
 mutants. 
 
 In other cases new plant forms appear because pollen 
 from one kind of plant reaches the pistil and leads to 
 the fertilization of an egg cell of a different kind ; then 
 when the seed grows, it produces a plant that may be 
 different from either of its parents. Such plants are 
 called hybrids. Gardeners and plant breeders often 
 cross plants to combine the good qualities of both parents 
 in one plant and to cause to appear new qualities that 
 neither parents have. 
 
 New varieties are developed from the seeds of these 
 new kinds of plants. All the different kinds of corn are 
 supposed to have come from one ancestor (which 
 may have been a hybrid). Possibly many of the 
 varieties were produced by saving seeds from plants 
 that were different from their parents. In the same 
 way all the different kinds of kidney beans, musk- 
 melons, and tomatoes have been developed by selecting 
 seed from plants that differed from their sister plants. 
 
 The various members of the cabbage group illustrate 
 well how gardeners have developed from a common stock 
 
I2O 
 
 Gardening 
 
 
 
 - 
 
 FIG. 71. The two kinds of flowers of a corn plant. At the left is the "tassel," 
 which bears the staminate flowers. At the right is the cluster of female 
 flowers that forms the immature ear. Each thread of this "silk" is a part 
 of a pistil, the portion outside of the husk being stigma. The pollen tubes 
 reach the ovules (which develop into the kernels) by growing down through 
 the silk. 
 
 plants that differ markedly from one another. The wild 
 cabbage, now growing on the chalk cliffs of England and 
 elsewhere, is believed to be the ancestor of all the culti- 
 vated members of this group. It is a rather scrawny plant 
 with comparatively few leaves, but under cultivation in 
 various climates there have been developed from it : 
 
 (1) kohl-rabi with its few leaves and thick, fleshy 
 stem; 
 
 (2) kale, with many but separated leaves ; 
 
 (3) cabbage, with the great bud on the top of the 
 stem developed as a compact head of leaves ; 
 
Seeds for the Garden 121 
 
 FIG. 72. The two kinds of flowers borne on a summer squash plant; a, pis- 
 tillate flower, complete ; b, pistillate flower with calyx and corolla removed to 
 show the pistil ; c, staminate flower, complete ; d, staminate flower with calyx 
 and corolla removed to show the cluster of stamens. 
 
 (4) Brussels sprouts, in which the buds on the sides of 
 the stem develop as small heads ; and 
 
 (5) cauliflower, in which the first flowering branches 
 are thickened and fleshy. 
 
 Selection of seed has given us all these different types 
 of the cabbage group, and further selection has also 
 developed many varieties of each of these different types. 
 Thus there are now many kinds of cabbages, differing 
 in size and shape of the head, in color, and in the length 
 of time required for growth. 
 
 Crossing the white scallop pumpkin with the crook- 
 neck pumpkin (usually called summer squash) gives in 
 the second generation many types of fruit, varying in 
 
122 Gardening 
 
 " 
 
 A"eu> Jersey Ex pi. stn. 
 
 FIG. 73. Three new varieties oi squashes produced by crossing a white scallop 
 summer squash (P, at the left side of picture) with a warty, yellow-colored sum- 
 mer crookneck (P, at right side). The photograph shows three new varieties 
 that have been produced. The upper row shows a type of short-necked "jug" 
 fruit of medium size with a smooth, cream-colored surface. The middle row 
 shows a longer-necked type of "jug" fruit, somewhat like the crookneck in shape, 
 but green-striped and not warty. In the lower row the fruits are very thin- 
 fleshed, nearly spherical, cream-colored, and not warty. After the first crossing, 
 the plants were selected and self-bred for five generations, after which some of 
 the new kinds would breed true enough to make new varieties. 
 
 shape, size, color, and quality of flesh. Selection and 
 breeding of these hybrids will develop new varieties 
 (Fig. 73). 
 
 New varieties are usually first described in the seed 
 catalogues as " novelties." In the course of time 
 novelties may become standard varieties, or they may be 
 discarded because they prove unworthy of cultivation. 
 
 How the plant breeder works. In cross-breeding 
 plants, the breeder needs to know for a certainty what 
 the parents are. He, therefore, first selects the two 
 plants that he wishes to cross. Then he applies the 
 pollen from one of them to the pistil of one or more 
 flowers on the other. To prevent self-pollination or 
 stray cross-pollination he may remove the stamens from 
 the flower that is to be pollinated, cover it with a paper 
 bag, or carry out such other measures as* may be neces- 
 
Seeds for the Garden 123 
 
 New Jersey Expt. Sta. 
 
 FIG. 74. Result of crossing summer squashes with the field pumpkin. The 
 large cream-colored, pear-shaped fruits in the center of the upper row and 
 the somewhat flattened white or yellow-colored fruits in the bottom row 
 are offspring of a cross between the white scallop and the field pumpkin. 
 The large, elongated, warty fruits in the center row were obtained from 
 among the offspring of a warty "jug" fruit (itself a hybrid) crossed with the 
 field pumpkin. 
 
 sary. What he does depends on the kind of flowers 
 borne by the plants. 
 
 The plants that grow from the seeds produced in this 
 way are hybrids, or cross-breeds. In some cases (for 
 example, in peas and corn) the cross-bred seeds them- 
 selves may show that they are hybrids, but for the study 
 of characters like the shape of leaves and the size and 
 color of the fruit, the hybrid plants within the seeds 
 must be grown to maturity. 
 
 Usually the first generation of hybrids between two 
 stocks that are not themselves hybrids are all very much 
 alike. They may resemble one parent in one way and 
 the other parent in another way. In general appearance 
 they often seem to be a blend of the two parents. 
 
 When the plant breeder saves seed from some of these 
 first-generation hybrid plants, and raises the second 
 hybrid generation, this generation of plants usually 
 shows wide variations. Among these the plant breeder 
 
124 Gardening 
 
 looks for new and valuable 
 kinds. In some respects the 
 plants may be like one or the 
 other of the original parents, 
 but there are often forms 
 
 FIG. 75. Showing how a tomato ji^ are Hiffprpnt in <;nmp 
 flower is prepared for hand pollina- 
 tion, a, the stage before shedding features from either parent 
 
 of pollen when anthers are removed : , 1-1 v i 
 
 b, flower with stamens removed; and Which When Selected 
 
 pistil fully developed and ready for may y i e ^ new and Valuable 
 artificial pollination. 
 
 varieties that will breed true. 
 
 In his work the plant breeder self-pollinates the 
 flowers, if possible, of the individuals of the hybrid gen- 
 erations. But in some plants the pollen will not ferti- 
 lize the ovules on the same plant, or the pollen and pistils 
 mature at different times, so that cross-pollination must 
 be practiced. In studying hybrids, one can obtain a 
 clearer idea of their resemblances to the original parents 
 if attention is given to only one character at a time. 
 The exact way in which a plant breeder goes about his 
 work can be better understood from a study of the 
 cross-breeding of a particular plant, like corn or the 
 tomato. 
 
 Cross-breeding corn. Plants of two varieties of corn 
 may readily be crossed, provided they bloom at the same 
 time. Let us suppose that rows of the variety of white 
 corn known as " S to well's Evergreen " are planted alter- 
 nately with rows of the black variety called " Black 
 Mexican." The tassels on the plants of the Evergreen 
 can be removed as soon as they appear and before they 
 shed any pollen. The wind will then carry pollen from 
 the Black Mexican to the pistils of the Evergreen, and 
 
Seeds for the Garden 125 
 
 the seeds in the ears of all the Evergreen corn will be 
 black. Or the cross can be made by removing the tassels 
 of the Black Mexican and allowing the pollen from the 
 Evergreen to fall on the pistils of the Mexican. 
 
 Another way is to do the crossing by hand. Stalks 
 bearing two ears may be selected. One ear is used for 
 crossing and the other as a " check " to compare with the 
 hybrids produced. Each ear is properly " bagged," 
 and as the pistils and pollen mature, the bags are 
 removed, the pollinations made, and the bags replaced. 
 The exact method of doing all this is best learned by 
 experiment (page 143). 
 
 When the plants (first-generation hybrids) are grown 
 from these seeds, self-pollinations of these may be made. 
 Later generations may be grown from both white and 
 black kernels to determine which breed true. As a rule, 
 it is necessary to cross-pollinate in breeding corn, because 
 the pollen produced by the tassel usually matures before 
 the silk on the same plant is ready to receive it. Self- 
 pollination is easier in the tomato, and in the different 
 varieties of pumpkins, which include the summer 
 squashes. 
 
 FIG. 76. An ear of a white variety of sweet corn that grew near a row of Black 
 Mexican corn. Can you explain why some of the grains are white and some are 
 black? 
 
126 
 
 Gardening 
 
 Cross-breeding toma- 
 toes. Any two varieties 
 of tomatoes may be 
 crossed. If they are 
 planted together in 
 spring, they are certain 
 to have some flowers 
 opening at the same 
 time. For experimental 
 purposes it is well to 
 select two varieties with 
 marked differences, as, 
 for example, a yellow 
 pear-shaped variety and 
 a red variety of ordinary 
 shape. 
 
 As the stamens and 
 pistils are both found in 
 the same flower, it is 
 
 been bagged to protect them from other nCCCSSary, if One is to be 
 pollen. . . . . 
 
 certain of the parentage, 
 
 to remove the stamens from the flowers that are to be 
 pollinated (see Fig. 75). 
 
 Cross-breeding pumpkins. The patty pan, the sum- 
 mer crookneck, and the pumpkin may all be crossed, 
 yielding interesting results as to shape, color, and size 
 of fruits in the second hybrid generation. The stamens 
 and pistils are in separate flowers on the same plant. 
 The pistillate flowers may be recognized in the bud by 
 the enlarged part (ovary) which will later become the 
 fruit. 
 
 FIG. 77. A cluster of tomato flowers have 
 
Seeds for the Garden 
 
 127 
 
 FIG. 78. Two squashes grown from the same 
 packet of seed purchased for summer crook- 
 neck. Both have the characteristic color of 
 the crookneck, but the one on the left is en- 
 tirely distinct from the crookneck in shape. 
 A variation such as this may be the result 
 of crossing or of sporting and may give rise 
 to new varieties. 
 
 To prevent pollina- 
 tion by insects, the 
 pistillate flowers are 
 bagged shortly before 
 they open. As the 
 stems of squash flowers 
 are tender and brittle, 
 special care must be 
 used to prevent injury 
 to them. 
 
 Keeping varieties 
 true to kind. After 
 valuable kinds of 
 plants have been pro- 
 duced, the seedsman 
 still has the problem of keeping them true to type. 
 Even the best varieties of vegetables produce some 
 worthless plants and plants not like the parent 
 stock ; also many varieties of garden plants cross- 
 fertilize easily. Therefore the well-known and stand- 
 ard varieties must be kept true to kind in seed 
 breeding by preventing accidental cross-pollination 
 between varieties and by discarding, either as seed 
 or pollen parents, the plants that are not true to the 
 variety. 
 
 The different varieties of the same species nearly 
 always cross readily. If grown close together, they 
 may bloom at the same time, and insects or the wind are 
 likely to bring about cross-pollination. Different kinds 
 of beets, of radishes, of corn, and of many other plants 
 may be grown at a distance from each other, or the seed 
 
128 
 
 Gardening 
 
 FIG. 79. A portion of the seed trial grounds of a large seed company. Each 
 row is numbered, and a careful record is kept of the growth and yield of the 
 plants. Reliable seed firms spend much money in keeping up the quality of the 
 seeds they sell. 
 
 will often be of mixed parentage. When this is the case, 
 they may not be true to varieties. 
 
 Most standard varieties are already highly bred and 
 are the result of repeated selection ; they appear to have 
 reached their limits as far as the development of desirable 
 qualities is concerned. Variation in such highly bred 
 varieties most often gives rise to poorer plants. The 
 seed breeder watches carefully and pulls up such poor 
 plants (or " rogues/' as he calls them), so that they 
 cannot become the parents of his later crops. 
 
 Seed growing an important industry. The best 
 seedsmen maintain extensive fields for growing seeds of 
 plants of standard varieties. They also have large 
 growing plots for testing the seeds of other growers and 
 for experimenting in the production of new varieties. 
 Special and often expensive apparatus is used for collect- 
 
Seeds for the Garden 129 
 
 ing and cleaning seeds. For many varieties the best seed 
 is produced only in certain localities where the climatic 
 conditions are especially favorable. The average gar- 
 dener has neither the time, the experience, nor the facilities 
 for the successful seed growing of most garden crops. 
 Because of these facts, he can buy good seeds of most 
 crops cheaper than he can raise them. 
 
 Buying seed. The first rule in buying seeds is to 
 buy those produced by a reliable firm. The best seed firms 
 take great pains to prevent mixing of different varieties 
 during growth and seed production. They have trial 
 grounds for testing the purity and the quality of seeds 
 before the supply is sold in the market. This makes sure, 
 to a high degree, that the seeds sold in packages will be 
 true to the name on the package. The gardener can- 
 not afford to plant poor seed, even if it is offered as a 
 gift. 
 
 The second rule in buying seeds is to buy only named 
 varieties. The gardener does not grow simply sweet corn. 
 He grows Golden Bantam, Country Gentleman, or some 
 other variety, and he selects these for such qualities as 
 earliness or lateness, size, yield, color, or sweetness. 
 The ordinary seed catalogue affords a choice of several 
 varieties of most garden vegetables. There may be 
 listed as many as 10 varieties of carrots, 25 of cabbages, 
 30 of sweet corn, 35 of lettuce, and 45 of tomatoes. 
 The gardener must decide what variety or varieties he 
 will grow. Naturally, he hopes to select those that 
 will give the best results in his garden. 
 
 The descriptions in the seed catalogues give much 
 valuable information regarding the general characteristics 
 
Gardening 
 
 of the varieties listed. For example, the pole and bush 
 varieties of beans, the summer and winter radishes, and 
 the early and late varieties of the garden peas are prop- 
 erly listed and briefly described. One soon learns from 
 the seed catalogues alone, if there is no other source of 
 information, that there are wide differences between the 
 various sorts of the same vegetable. A study of the 
 descriptions in catalogues will help the beginner, before he 
 grows his crops, to judge the merits of different varieties. 
 
 Van Ernie Kilpatrick 
 
 FIG. 80. Seeds put up especially for New York City school children. The 
 Board of Education contracts with a seed firm for sets of seeds suitable for plant- 
 ing a small garden. 
 
Seeds for the Garden 131 
 
 The advice of experienced home gardeners will often be 
 of special value. 
 
 The beginner in gardening should choose standard 
 varieties. These will usually give the most successful 
 crops. They are standard varieties because by long 
 trial they have been known to give the best crops. If 
 the gardener fails in growing standard sorts, he may be 
 sure that the fault lies in cultural conditions, especially 
 if his neighbors succeed with the same varieties. 
 
 As the gardener gains in experience, others besides 
 the standard varieties may be tried with results that may 
 give pleasure as well as profit. Sometimes new varieties 
 are found to be far better than the older varieties in 
 one or more desirable qualities. 
 
 Amount of seed needed. Before ordering seeds, the 
 amount of each kind needed should be rather carefully 
 estimated. A single packet of small seeds, such as 
 lettuce, tomato, radish, or cabbage, is sufficient for a 
 small garden. It is well to become familiar with the 
 amount necessary to sow a given area. An ounce of 
 beet seed, for example, will sow a row of about 25 feet. 
 Of the larger seeds, such as bean and corn, a half pint 
 is needed for a row of 50 feet. With a good plan of the 
 garden, one can determine very accurately the quantity 
 of seed needed. No more than this amount should be 
 ordered. 
 
 Seeds can be bought cheaper in bulk than in small 
 packets. In a half pound of corn, costing about 25 
 cents, there are more than three times as many seeds 
 as there are in a lo-cent packet. Any group of persons 
 (a garden club, a school, a class, a troop of Boy Scouts) 
 
132 Gardening 
 
 who are engaged in gardening will find it to their advan- 
 tage to order in bulk and then divide the seed into 
 packets themselves. 
 
 How to produce seeds in the home garden. Good 
 seed of several of the crops grown in the home vegetable 
 garden may be raised by the gardener himself. In grow- 
 ing these seeds, he needs to pay attention to the same 
 matters that the commercial seedsman does. He should 
 aim first to select parents which are true to the variety ; 
 next, to prevent cross-pollination between varieties ; 
 and finally, to collect and care for the seed prop- 
 erly. 
 
 The successful selection of seed and the judgment of 
 parents is least difficult in those plants whose fruits or 
 seeds are used as food. Melons, corn, tomatoes, and 
 beans are in this class. These plants make complete, 
 or almost complete, development as ordinarily grown 
 in the garden. With a little study the best plants may 
 be selected for seed parents. The largest and earliest 
 fruits from best-yielding plants may be saved for their 
 seeds. To insure a good pollen parent for corn, it is an 
 excellent plan to cut out those stalks that bear no ears, 
 and break off, before the pollen is shed, the tassels of the 
 plants that have small ears. 
 
 In selection for those plants like the salad plants and 
 the root crops, attention is given especially to the edible 
 parts leaves, stems, or roots rather than to the 
 fruits or the seeds. The annuals of this group, especially 
 lettuce and radishes, tend to produce some poor plants 
 which " run to seed " early. These should be pulled 
 up before they blossom. If a few of the earliest of the 
 
Seeds for the Garden 133 
 
 best plants are left standing for seed, both parents will be 
 good. 
 
 The biennials (plants that blossom in the second year 
 from seed and then die) require more attention than the 
 annuals. In the more northern parts of the United 
 States, to secure seed of the beet, carrot, cabbage, and 
 turnip, the roots must be carefully stored over winter 
 where they will not be frozen, and replanted the following 
 spring. This treatment may be difficult for the average 
 gardener, because he may not have a proper storage 
 place. Plants of salsify and of parsnips, however, can 
 be left in the ground over winter, and in the spring some 
 of the plants with the best roots may be transplanted 
 to a convenient place and left to mature their seeds. 
 
 Seed of crosses do not breed true, and if varieties of 
 the same plant grow near each other and bloom at 
 the same time, they usually cross. This is especially 
 true of corn, beets, various members of the cab- 
 bage tribe, cucumbers, melons, tomatoes, and lettuce. 
 Thus, cabbage will cross with kohl-rabi ; any two sorts 
 of cucumbers may cross ; and all sorts of muskmelons 
 can hybridize. But cucumbers will not cross with 
 muskmelons, as is commonly believed. If only one 
 variety of a given vegetable sort is grown in a garden, 
 there is, of course, no chance for crossing with other 
 varieties unless another garden is near by. 
 
 Early and late varieties that bloom at different times 
 have no opportunity to cross. The first ears of an early 
 corn, like Golden Bantam or Malcolm, are not usually 
 crossed with late varieties growing in the same gar- 
 den. In a few of the garden crops, peas and beans 
 
134 
 
 Gardening 
 
 for example, the flowers 
 are so constructed that 
 self-pollination is very 
 general ; so there is lit- 
 tle chance for crossing, 
 and any seed collected 
 is likely to be of single 
 parentage. 
 
 Collection of seed. 
 The best methods of 
 collecting seeds depend 
 chiefly on the nature of 
 the fruit and how the 
 seeds are shed from it. 
 In all cases the aim is 
 to secure fully ripened 
 seeds and to collect them 
 before they are shed 
 broadcast. 
 
 The fleshy fruits of 
 the pumpkin, squash, 
 cucumber, and tomato, selected from plants of good 
 quality, should be allowed to ripen fully. They may 
 then be cut open and the seed removed, washed, and 
 spread out on paper or cloth to dry. 
 
 The best radish plants should be pulled when the 
 majority of the pods are fully ripe. The best bean 
 plants should be pulled when the pods are about to shed 
 their seeds. In both cases, the whole plant should 
 then be laid in a dry place for a while before the 
 seeds are removed. 
 
 States Relations Service 
 FIG. 81. A tomato plant marked for seed. 
 
Seeds for the Garden 135 
 
 Seeds of lettuce are small and shell quickly. The 
 easiest way to collect these seeds is to wait until a 
 large number of the heads are ready to shed their seeds, 
 then pull the plants and insert the top portion in paper 
 bags. Hang them, with the heads down, in a dry place 
 until the seeds have dropped into the bag. 
 
 The heads on a plant of salsify ripen and shed seeds at 
 different times, and so the seeds must be collected by 
 hand from each as they ripen. In some localities seeds 
 of the New Zealand spinach ripen and fall to the ground, 
 where they may be very easily collected. Ears of corn 
 selected for seed should be allowed to ripen fully on the 
 plant; then after they are pulled the husks should be 
 stripped back and the ears hung up in a dry place. 
 
 The ten plants listed above are those from which seed 
 can most readily be obtained in the ordinary home 
 garden. 
 
 Storage of seeds. To keep seeds properly from year 
 to year, or until the next planting time, they must be 
 kept dry and protected from mice and insects. The 
 larger seeds may be kept in cloth or paper bags, but the 
 smaller seeds should be placed in envelopes and each 
 envelope plainly labeled with the name of the variety and 
 the date of collection or purchase. A tin bread box is 
 excellent for the storage of seed ; mice cannot get into it, 
 and the ventilator holes allow the air to circulate and 
 keep the seeds dry. Tin cans with close-fitting covers are 
 just as good, but two or three small holes should be 
 made in the cover to give ventilation. Do not store 
 the seed box in the cellar. A dry garret is a better 
 place. 
 
136 Gardening 
 
 Fumigation for insects. Seeds of corn, peas, and beans 
 are especially likely to be destroyed by insects (larvae of 
 moths and weevils), and sometimes the eggs of these are 
 laid on or even in seeds about the time they are har- 
 vested. It is well, therefore, to gather these seeds as 
 soon as mature and fumigate immediately upon storing 
 them. Also examine the contents of seed boxes occa- 
 sionally and, if insects are present, fumigate again with 
 carbon bisulnd. 
 
 To fumigate, paste paper over the perforated areas of 
 the box and place an open dish containing two table- 
 spoonfuls of liquid carbon bisulnd within the box and 
 on top of the seed ; then immediately fasten the cover 
 on tightly. 
 
 Caution! Carbon bisulnd is highly inflammable. Its 
 gas readily catches fire if flame of any kind is near. It 
 also affects human beings quite like chloroform. Do 
 not breathe in the fumes ; do not take light or flame into 
 the room when fumigation is in progress. It is best to 
 place the box in the open, but the gas forms poorly if the 
 temperature is below 50 F. All fumigation should be 
 done by mature persons who understand fully what care 
 must be taken. 
 
 Seed treatment before planting. In a later chapter 
 we shall learn of certain plant diseases that are caused 
 by bacteria or by fungi. These bacteria and the spores 
 of the fungi, in some cases even the strands of fungi, 
 may be present on or in seeds, ready to grow and feed 
 upon the young plants when they germinate. This 
 condition may be indicated, especially in large seeds like 
 those of the bean, by the presence of blotches or dark- 
 
Seeds for the Garden 137 
 
 colored sunken or shriveled areas. Seeds showing such 
 infection should never be planted. 
 
 It has been found that the proper use of hot water, 
 formaldehyde, and the deadly poison, corrosive sub- 
 limate, will often destroy the organisms that are present 
 on or in the seeds. Thus the farmer has learned how to 
 treat the seeds of oats for the smut disease. In much the 
 same way seeds of beans, corn, onions, cucumbers, and 
 beets can be treated for various diseases. 
 
 Seed treatment must be done carefully. In the first 
 place there is danger of injuring the seeds ; then different 
 kinds of diseases require different kinds of treatment; 
 also, we must remember that some of the chemicals 
 used for this work are deadly poisonous to man. Seed 
 treatment is not to be attempted by children unless 
 under the constant supervision of a fully competent 
 person. 
 
 Viability of seeds. When the tiny plant or embryo in 
 the seed begins to grow, we say it " germinates." A 
 seed in which the embryo is alive, so that the seed will 
 germinate, is called " viable." Whether a seed will 
 germinate depends upon (i) the maturity of the seed 
 when collected, (2) the conditions of storage, (3) the age 
 of the seed, and (4) the kind of seed. 
 
 If seeds are ripe when collected and if they are properly 
 cared for, the length of time that those of the principal 
 garden crops will remain viable is as follows : 
 
 2 years sweet corn, onion, parsnip, and salsify. 
 
 3 years bean, parsley, and pea. 
 
 4 years carrot, mustard, pepper, and tomato. 
 
 5 years cabbage, cauliflower, kale, kohl-rabi, lettuce, 
 
138 Gardening 
 
 FIG. 82. A germination test of corn and beans. The seed planted in the left 
 half of the box is good ; that planted in the right half is poor. 
 
 muskmelon, watermelon, okra, radish, pumpkin, squash, 
 spinach, and turnip. 
 
 Up to 10 years cucumber and endive. 
 
 Seeds of parsnip, parsley, and celery are always rather 
 poor in viability, and only 60 to 75 per cent of the seed 
 will germinate. 
 
 As a rule not every seed in a given lot will germinate, 
 but at least 70 per cent should do so if the seed is in good 
 condition. Beans, peas, corn, radishes, and tomatoes 
 often germinate 95 per cent or more. If less than 70 
 per cent germinates, some of the plants that do appear 
 are likely to be weak. 
 
 Test for germination. One cannot tell for certain 
 from the appearance of seeds whether they will germinate 
 or not. It is therefore a good plan to test the viability of 
 seeds, especially if they are known to be more than one 
 
Seeds for the Garden 139 
 
 year old. Do this several weeks in advance of the 
 planting dates, so that there will be time to secure a 
 new supply if necessary. 
 
 There are several simple methods of testing for ger- 
 mination. One plan is to count out a number of seeds 
 and plant them in garden soil in a seed box, a flat, or a 
 pan. Place this seed pan in a warm room, in a green- 
 house, or in a hotbed. Keep the soil properly moist. 
 The number of seeds that germinate will indicate how 
 viable the seeds are. 
 
 Another simple method is the blotter test. A blotter 
 is laid on an ordinary plate, seeds are placed on the 
 blotter, and the whole is covered with an inverted plate 
 and kept in a warm room. If the blotter is saturated 
 with water daily, the seeds will receive sufficient moisture 
 for germination. The proportion of embryos that start 
 to grow may readily be observed. 
 
 Thus we learn that when we plant seeds we are placing 
 in the earth little plants which we hope to grow to maturity 
 for the food they afford. The care which is given in prepar- 
 ing the soil, planting the seed, and rearing the plants deter- 
 mines to a large extent what the quantity and special 
 quality of the food will be. But the kind of plant and 
 the kind of food it will produce is already determined 
 through its parentage and ancestry. 
 
 We cannot afford to plant poor seed. We can avoid 
 many of the risks regarding quality of seed. We can 
 buy seed of pure varieties or strains from reliable firms, 
 or we can control and select the parentage when pro- 
 
140 Gardening 
 
 ducing seed in our own gardens. We can properly store 
 and care for seeds to maintain their natural viability, 
 and we can test samples of seeds to determine if the 
 little plants in them are alive. 
 
 Questions 
 
 Why is it important for a gardener to plant good seed ? What 
 advance has recently been made in selecting seed parents ? De- 
 scribe the structure of a seed. Name the four different parts 
 that you have found in the flower of the bean. What do the 
 anthers contain? Where are the ovules found? What do they 
 become when they mature? What is pollination? Why is it 
 necessary? How is it accomplished? What is self-pollination? 
 cross-pollination? Describe what happens in fertilization. From 
 what does the embryo grow ? Why is it important for a seed to 
 have a good pollen parent? 
 
 What is a hybrid ? How are new varieties of plants obtained ? 
 Name a group of vegetables that illustrates the development of a 
 number of varieties from one ancestor. Name the members of 
 this group. What is meant by keeping varieties true to kind? 
 How is this done in seed breeding? Describe briefly the general 
 methods used by the plant breeder in cross-breeding. What can 
 you say of the characteristics of the first generation of hybrids? 
 of the second generation of hybrids? State briefly how corn is 
 cross-bred; tomatoes; pumpkins. 
 
 Why should seed be bought of a reliable firm? Why should 
 only named varieties be bought? How may the gardener deter- 
 mine how much seed to order? 
 
 From what garden vegetables is seed for planting most easily 
 obtained? Explain some of the things that must be done to 
 insure good seed from corn or from annuals like radish or lettuce. 
 How may seed be obtained from biennial crops, like parsnip and 
 salsify ? Under what conditions are different varieties of the same 
 vegetable apt to cross ? What garden crops readily cross ? Would 
 the pollen of corn lead to fertilization if placed on the pistil of a 
 pumpkin or tomato ? 
 
 How should seeds be stored in the home? How can insects 
 
Seeds for the Garden 141 
 
 in seeds be killed? Why are seeds sometimes treated with hot 
 water or formaldehyde before planting ? When is a seed "viable " ? 
 Name two methods of testing the viability of seeds. 
 
 Things to Do and Observe 
 
 1 . To study the parts of flowers. Examine flowers of the different 
 garden plants. Learn to recognize the parts. Which have sta- 
 mens and pistils present in the same flower ? Which have them 
 in different flowers? Do flowers having only stamens produce 
 fruit ? 
 
 2. To study pollination. Watch the insect visitors to flowers. 
 What are they seeking? How do they cause pollination? Ob- 
 serve how the pollen of corn is distributed. 
 
 3. To observe the germination of pollen. The pollen of some 
 plants will germinate on a drop of sugar solution. Add i heaping 
 teaspoonful of cane sugar to 10 teaspoonfuls of water. When 
 the sugar is all dissolved, place a drop of the solution on a clean 
 glass slide. Scatter pollen from a freshly opened anther on 
 the drop. To prevent drop from drying, lay slide across 
 top of a small dish containing water and then invert and place a 
 larger dish so that it incloses both slide and small dish. 
 
 Pollen of the paper white narcissus, which may be grown during 
 winter, and of the sweet pea or Easter lily, which may be had 
 at florists', germinate well in this solution. Pollen of the apple 
 may be used in spring, and that of the tomato and beans during 
 summer. 
 
 The pollen of many plants germinates poorly if at all on sugar 
 solutions unless agar is added to make a jelly. l Place \ teaspoon- 
 ful of powdered agar (weighing about i gram) and 2\ teaspoonfuls 
 of table sugar (weighing about 10 grams) in 20 teaspoonfuls of 
 water (weighing about 100 grams). Heat to gentle boiling until 
 agar and sugar are dissolved. When cool, the mixture is like 
 jelly. To use, gently heat until mixture becomes liquid and then 
 place a drop on a glass slide. The drop soon cools and becomes 
 
 1 Agar-agar may be obtained from any of the many houses which 
 deal in scientific apparatus and supplies; of these Eimer and Amend 
 of New York City may be mentioned. 
 
142 Gardening 
 
 solid; then the pollen may be scattered over it. Keep in moist 
 air as directed above. The pollen of corn, which does not ger- 
 minate on sugar and water, germinates readily on the agar-sugar- 
 water mixture. 
 
 If the pollen is in good condition, it often germinates in an 
 hour; and the tubes may grow until they are ten times as long 
 as the pollen grains are wide. Examine the germinating pollen 
 under a compound microscope and note the delicate, slender, 
 tube-like plant with its almost colorless granular living material 
 that grows from the pollen grain. 
 
 4. To observe the location of the ovules. Split a few pistils of peas, 
 beans, squashes, or cucumbers after the corolla has withered and 
 fallen and the fruits have begun to develop. Find the ovules, 
 that are developing into seeds. 
 
 5. To learn varieties of garden vegetables. Observe closely the 
 individual plants of the various garden crops and learn to judge 
 those that are best and truest to type. In this way learn to 
 distinguish the varieties of each crop. 
 
 6. To learn to recognize the seeds of garden vegetables. Make a 
 collection of the seeds of garden vegetables, keeping each kind 
 separate in wide-mouth bottles of suitable sizes. Square, screw- 
 top glass jars of one-half-ounce and one-ounce sizes (to be obtained 
 at most drug stores) are excellent for such a collection. Note the 
 characteristics of each kind and how it differs from the others. 
 
 Also collect, study, and learn to recognize the seeds of common 
 weeds. 
 
 7. To test the viability of seeds. Make the two tests for viabil- 
 ity mentioned in this chapter, using as many different kinds of 
 seeds as possible. Record the results in your garden notebook. 
 
 8. To demonstrate that pollination is necessary for fruit and seed 
 production. Select at least four corn plants having ears from 
 which the pistils ("silks ") are not quite ready to protrude. Invert 
 over each ear a paper bag (two-pound size), and fit the open end 
 around the ear at a point slightly above the middle ; then tie the 
 bag in place with ordinary twine. The end of the ear is thus 
 completely inclosed within the bag, and no pollen can reach the 
 pistils. 
 
 Leave the bags undisturbed on half the number of ears until 
 there is no chance that pollination can occur (this will be about 
 10 days from the date of bagging). Examine the other ears from 
 
Seeds for the Garden 143 
 
 day to day, carefully replacing bags. When the pistils are pro- 
 truding in abundance, sprinkle pollen over their ends by shaking 
 it from a cluster of staminate flowers (tassels). This operation 
 should be repeated each day for several days, as the pistils do 
 not all mature at the same time. After about 10 days examine 
 again, and if the ends of the pistils are dry and shriveled, the 
 bags may be removed and each ear tagged or otherwise marked 
 for future identification. 
 
 Allow all plants to mature fully. Which ears bear seeds? 
 Which do not? 
 
 9. To learn how to cross-breed corn. Select a stalk of a white 
 or yellow sweet corn (StowelPs Evergreen will do) bearing two 
 ears, and another of Black Mexican also having two ears. (If 
 stalks bearing two ears are not found, select two stalks of each 
 variety.) "Bag" each ear at the proper time as directed above 
 in 8. Pollinate one ear on each stalk with pollen of the other 
 variety, and the other ear with pollen of the plant itself or from 
 another plant of the same variety. Tag the ears. 
 
 Which parent do the hybrid seeds resemble in color ? Can you 
 identify hybrid kernels of this cross when borne by the white 
 seed parent? by the black seed parent? Is black or white a 
 dominating character in this cross? 
 
 Plant some of these cross-bred seeds from both parents. When 
 the plants flower, bag some of the ears and make self-pollinations 
 as directed in 8. Count the black seeds and the white seeds on 
 each ear. Which are more numerous? What is the ratio? 
 Do all ears give the same ratio ? Are there any kernels intermediate 
 in color between black or white, or are there other colors? 
 
 10. To learn how to cross-breed tomatoes. Select a cluster of 
 tomato flowers in which two or three of the blossoms are freshly 
 opened ; that is, when the flowers are open but the yellow petals 
 are not expanded or the stamens cracked open (a of Figure 75). 
 First, remove all the stamens with a pair of slender-pointed, 
 curved forceps; to do this, take hold of each stamen near its 
 apex, pull outward with a gentle twist and break the anther from 
 its stem. As the pistils are not yet ready for pollination, they 
 must be left for a while ; during this time they should be guarded 
 from stray pollination. 
 
 After removing all the stamens of the several flowers, inclose the 
 entire flowering branch in a paper bag of about two-pound size. 
 
144 Gardening 
 
 Wrap a small handful of cotton about the stem where the mouth 
 of the bag is to be tied, and then tie the bag to the stem (Fig. 77). 
 
 In about 2 days the flowers thus prepared may be pollinated. 
 From the plant that has been selected for the pollen parent remove 
 a flower having fully expanded petals and anthers that are shedding 
 pollen. Hold this flower by its stem and shake pollen directly 
 from the stamens on to the ends of the pistils to be pollinated. 
 Tag each flower cluster, rebag, and leave for about 5 days, or 
 until it is certain that fertilization has been accomplished. Then 
 remove the bags, allow the fruits to become fully ripe, and collect 
 the seeds. 
 
 Note whether the fruits that come from the cross-pollinated 
 flowers on the original parents are like the other fruits on the 
 plant in color, size, and shape. If, for example, pollen of a yellow- 
 fruited parent is used on pistils of a red-fruited parent, are the 
 fruits red or yellow? How does this compare with crosses of 
 black corn on white ? 
 
 Grow first-generation hybrid plants from these seeds and self- 
 pollinate some of these for seed for a second hybrid generation. 
 Are the fruits of the first hybrid generation alike as to shape, 
 color, and size ? Which parent do they resemble ? 
 
 Grow a number of the second-generation hybrid plants. Are the 
 fruits of the various plants similar or very different in color, size, 
 and shape? How many are like the immediate parent (first 
 hybrid generation)? Do any resemble the grandparents? Are 
 any of the fruits new in respect to color? to size? to shape? 
 Do any characters of the original parents disappear in the first- 
 generation hybrids and reappear in certain of the second-genera- 
 tion hybrids ? Do the plants differ from each other in respect to 
 such characters as size, vigor of growth, shape and color of 
 leaves, amount of fruit produced, and earliness of ripening fruit ? 
 
 ii. To learn how to cross-breed pumpkins. Select a pistillate 
 flower that is nearly ready to open. Place a stick firmly in the 
 soil in an upright position beside this flower. Invert a bag over 
 the flower and tie it about the stem of the flower, protecting the 
 flower and stem with a small handful of cotton at the place where 
 the tie is made. Tie the bag to the stick also so that its weight 
 will be supported. Another way to keep insects from entering 
 the flower is to tie the ends of the flower with soft twine or strong 
 yarn. This prevents the flower from opening. As bees are likely 
 
Seeds for the Garden 145 
 
 to carry pollen from one male flower to another, it is advisable 
 also to bag or tie unopened male flowers from which the pollen is 
 to be used later in crossing. 
 
 In from 24 to 48 hours, depending on development, the stam- 
 inate flowers whose anthers are open and shedding pollen may be 
 picked. Remove the bags from the pistillate flowers to be crossed, 
 and dust the expanded stigmas with some of this pollen. Then 
 rebag and leave for a period of 4 or 5 days. Tag or otherwise 
 mark the cross-pollinated flowers and allow the fruits to mature. 
 
 Grow the first and second hybrid generations, and study the 
 fruits which are produced. 
 
CHAPTER ELEVEN 
 
 THE TIME FOR PLANTING 
 
 Planting time ! Time to get a spade and tear up the turf 
 somewhere : to clear a space and stir the soil and set in 
 it the roots of some lusty plant-foundlings, in hopes of 
 seeing what they will do when summer comes. 
 
 JAMES G. NEEDHAM 
 
 RADISHES are planted as soon as the soil can be worked 
 in spring. Lima beans are not put into the ground until 
 at least a month later. The seeds of these crops are 
 planted directly in the garden, but cabbages and toma- 
 toes are grown from plants started indoors or under glass 
 and later transplanted to the open ground. 
 
 These different practices are followed because through 
 long experience gardeners have learned that plants differ 
 in their temperature needs and in their growing periods. 
 Some kinds of seeds, germinate in cool soil. Others rot 
 unless the soil is warm. Some plants grow best in cool 
 weather. Some thrive only when the heat of summer 
 comes. Some crops grow quickly. Others develop 
 slowly, and it is necessary to start the seedlings early 
 to permit them to mature before the heat of summer or 
 the frosts of autumn check their growth. 
 
 The right time for planting a garden crop depends, 
 therefore, not only on the climate and weather of the 
 locality, but also on the heat and light needs of the crop 
 and the length of its growing period. It is well for the 
 gardener first to understand the temperature require- 
 ments of the various garden crops, and how long it takes 
 each one to mature. Then he can with profit study the 
 climate of his region. In this way he can find out much 
 that will prove of value in determining the right plant- 
 
 146 
 
The Time for Planting 
 
 147 
 
 Purdue Agric. Expt. Sta. 
 
 FIG. 83. A group of home-made plant forcers. One is placed over each plant 
 or hill of plants. It has a frame of wood and a glass top. Each plant forcer is 
 thus a miniature greenhouse or cold frame that can be removed as soon as warm 
 weather arrives. In the illustration the forcers are being used on rhubarb. 
 
 ing dates for the vegetables he wishes to grow in his 
 own garden. 
 
 TEMPERATURE REQUIREMENTS AND GROWING PERIODS 
 OF DIFFERENT GARDEN CROPS 
 
 Garden crops may be divided into cool-season and 
 warm-season crops. The seeds of cool-season crops ger- 
 minate in the cool soil of early spring, and their seedlings 
 are not much if at all injured by moderate frosts. 
 The growing plants of this class thrive during cool 
 weather, and most of them mature during the cool 
 weather of either spring or fall. In the more south- 
 ern states many of these crops are " fall and winter " 
 crops, growing and maturing from September to 
 May. 
 
148 Gardening 
 
 On the other hand, the seeds of many warm-season 
 crops rot in cool soil ; the seedlings are injured by cool 
 weather and are usually killed by frost. The plants 
 grow very slowly, except in hot weather, and they are 
 killed by the first autumn frosts. The more quickly 
 maturing of these crops are grown from seed planted in 
 the garden ; but in the northern part of the United States 
 the season is too short to allow those with a long growing 
 period to be raised entirely outdoors. The seedlings 
 of such crops are, therefore, started indoors or under 
 glass, and when the soil and air became warm, the plants 
 are transferred to the open ground. In the more south- 
 ern states the warm-season crops yield harvests from 
 May to October. 
 
 Quick-growing cool-season crops. Leaf lettuce, spring 
 radishes, spinach, turnips, and peas are short-period cool- 
 season crops. The seeds are planted in the garden as 
 soon as the soil can be worked in the spring, and the crops 
 mature before hot weather arrives. Onions from sets also 
 are grown in this way. As the seedlings endure frost, 
 first plantings of these crops can be made from ten days to 
 two weeks before the latest killing frost of the locality. 
 
 Crops of these vegetables may be grown in the autumn 
 also, by planting them late in summer. The varieties 
 that are best for autumn are often different from those 
 that are best for spring planting. During late summer 
 the conditions are rather unfavorable to the seedlings, 
 and properly starting the autumn crops requires more 
 skill than does the spring planting. Success with such 
 crops depends in large measure on careful nurture of the 
 young seedlings. 
 
The Time for Planting 149 
 
 Forced cool-season crops. Many varieties of head 
 lettuce, pe-tsai, and spring varieties of cabbage, 
 kohl-rabi, cauliflower, and celery mature properly only 
 in cool weather. But they require so long a period for 
 growth that if seed is sown in the open garden, hot 
 weather arrives before the crop is grown. The gardener 
 meets this condition by starting seedlings indoors or in 
 cold frames or hotbeds so that he may have sturdy seed- 
 lings 5 or 6 weeks old ready for transplanting into the 
 garden about the date of the latest frosts, or if especially 
 " hardened," even before that time. 
 
 All these crops will thrive in localities where the 
 summers are cool, and in such places crops can often 
 be grown during summer. Local conditions of soil and 
 climate may also favor cool-season crops. A clay soil 
 is often a " cool soil." A soil poorly drained in spring 
 may be cool and well supplied with water in summer. 
 A northern slope sometimes gives a good location for cool- 
 season crops. 
 
 The late crops of these vegetables are usually grown 
 from varieties especially suited to autumn conditions. 
 But these usually require a longer period of cool weather 
 than is available in autumn, at least in the northern 
 states, where killing frosts may occur early in September. 
 
 In the North the autumn crops of these vegetables are 
 most successfully grown as follows : 
 
 The seed is sown in outdoor seed beds or in cold frames 
 in mid spring, after the cold frames have been emptied of 
 the plants grown for early plantings. Here they can be 
 well supplied with water and given the partial shade 
 that is necessary. The plants are then transplanted to 
 
North Dakota Agrlc. Expt. Sta. 
 
 FIG. 84. Cabbage seedlings, photographed just after a spring snowstorm. 
 The cabbage is typical of a group of hardy plants that may be forced indoors 
 and transplanted to the garden early in the season. In the South these hardy 
 plants grow outdoors all winter. 
 
 the garden in time for them to become established before 
 the hot weather of summer arrives. The plants grow 
 slowly during the summer, but make rapid growth when 
 the cool weather of early autumn approaches. Celery 
 and cabbage will stand considerable hot weather if 
 abundantly supplied with water. 
 
 In the more southern of the planting zones and in a 
 considerable portion of the Pacific coast region, the mild 
 winter weather makes it possible to grow cool-season 
 vegetables as fall and winter crops. 
 
 The principal vegetables that can be thus grown are : 
 cabbages, cauliflowers, lettuce, onions, garlic, leeks, peas, 
 radishes, turnips, rutabagas, mustard, spinach, beets, and 
 carrots. The perennial onions and asparagus are of 
 course grown over winter here quite as in the colder zones. 
 
The Time for Planting 151 
 
 South of a line drawn through northern Alabama, and 
 turning farther north along the Atlantic coast, freezing 
 temperatures occur only during December and January. 
 In this region such vegetables as turnips, rutabagas, 
 and cabbages mature in autumn from seed sown in 
 August and September. Seed of hardy plants like 
 radishes and smooth peas is sown in the open in Decem- 
 ber, the seed lying dormant in the ground, or the seedlings 
 growing slowly during the period when frosts occur 
 and then developing rapidly in early spring. In the 
 sections with cooler winters, as in the North, the seed 
 is sown as early in spring as it is possible to work the 
 soil. 
 
 Throughout the South, especially where freezing 
 temperatures occur during winter, cold frames are 
 valuable for rearing seedlings of such cool-season crops 
 as cabbages, lettuce, onions from seed, and beets. Seeds 
 are sown in October and November directly in the soil 
 within cold frames. Later, in January or February 
 (according to the locality and the vegetable grown), the 
 seedlings thus grown are planted in the garden and pro- 
 duce crops in March and April. Inexperienced gardeners 
 in southern states often make their plantings of cool- 
 season vegetables in March and April, which is the season 
 when these crops should be ready for the table. 
 
 Cool-season crops that endure summer heat and light. 
 Vegetables belonging to a second group of cool-season crops 
 have longer growth periods and demand cool weather dur- 
 ing their early life, but they continue to thrive or even 
 mature during the hot weather. Beets, Swiss chard, 
 carrots, parsnips, salsify, onions from seed, New Zealand 
 
152 Gardening 
 
 spinach, kale, collard, and Irish potatoes are of this 
 class. 
 
 Early varieties of some of these vegetables mature 
 during summer, while other varieties mature later. 
 Swiss chard and New Zealand spinach continue to 
 yield leaves for use as greens throughout the summer. 
 In general, the seeds for these crops may be planted about 
 the dates of the last killing frost in spring. The very 
 early varieties of beets, onions, carrots, and Irish potatoes 
 may be planted somewhat earlier. 
 
 Perennial vegetables maturing crops in cool weather. 
 The standard garden crops of this class are rhubarb, 
 asparagus, and certain types of perennial onions whose 
 edible parts are used for food only during the cool weather 
 of early spring. These plants continue to live and grow 
 throughout the growing season, and they are left in the 
 ground over winter. 
 
 Warm-season crops of short growing periods. Many 
 warm-season crops grow quickly enough to mature 
 from seed planted directly in the garden. Of these crops, 
 sweet corn and snap beans may be sown about the date 
 of the latest killing frost. Okra, cucumbers, melons, 
 squashes, and lima beans are planted about two or three 
 weeks later, or after the soil is thoroughly warmed. 
 
 The gardener is often anxious to plant these crops 
 early, but such plantings may be injured by cool weather 
 or even " nipped " by late frosts. Hence it is a good 
 plan to make successive plantings. If the first plantings 
 are killed, the space can be given to some other crop. 
 Planting both early and late varieties of these vegetables 
 is advisable. Extra early crops can be secured by trans- 
 
The Time for Planting 153 
 
 planting seedlings raised in cold frames or hotbeds, pro- 
 vided they are grown in berry boxes or dirt bands so 
 that they can be set in the ground without injury to the 
 root system (page 190). 
 
 Warm-season crops of long growing periods. These 
 are slow-growing vegetables, and in many of our northern 
 states, if seeds are sown in the ground, the plants do not 
 mature crops before the autumn frosts. The vegetables 
 of this group, which should be grown from forced plants, 
 are peppers, tomatoes, eggplants, and sweet potatoes. 
 To grow good plants, suitable for transplanting, requires 
 from 8 to 10 weeks, except the sweet potato, which re- 
 quires only about 5 weeks. Transplanting to the field 
 is done after all danger of frost is past. 
 
 Spring and summer crops in the South. The planting 
 of warm-season vegetables in the South is regulated 
 according to temperature quite as in the North, except 
 that the planting is done at an earlier calendar date and 
 the growing season is longer. Some of the warm-season 
 vegetables like bush beans do not thrive during the 
 Southern summer, and should begin to mature early. 
 The pole beans, however, do well during the summer. 
 Kentucky Wonder and Southern Prolific are good summer 
 varieties. 
 
 When seeds of the long-period warm-season vegetables 
 (okra, peppers, and especially tomatoes) are sown in 
 cool soil, even in the South, they usually fail to germi- 
 nate ; and if one waits until the ground is warm enough 
 to plant out of doors before sowing such seed, the crop 
 matures late. The early crops of these vegetables are 
 secured by growing the plants under protection in hot- 
 
154 
 
 Presaue Isle, Me. 
 
 Grand Forks, N.D. 
 Burlington, VI. 
 Billings, Montana . 
 Omaha, Nebraska. 
 Boston, Mass. 
 Pueblo, Colorado 
 Washington,,!). C. 
 WichitZ,Ka.n. 
 St. Louis, Mo. 
 Norfolk, Virginia. 
 Macon, Georgia. 
 Memphis, Tenn. 
 Montqomery.Ala. 
 Columbia., S.C. 
 Dallas, Texas 
 Charleston. S.C. 
 Jacksonville, Fla. 
 College Stationjex. 
 
 Tampa. Florida. \ 
 Galveston, Texas j 
 
 Key West, Florida, \ 
 
 Gardening 
 
 1OO GROWING DAYS 
 
 
 
 
 
 125 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 16O 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 190 
 
 
 . 
 
 
 ,. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 22O 
 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2-4O 
 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 26O 
 
 
 . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 350 
 
 
 
 
 , 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 365 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr May Jun. Jul. Aug. Sep. Oct Nov Dec. 
 
 FIG. 85 Chart showing average length of growing season and when the season 
 begins and ends in various localities in the United States. Such a chart for 
 a locality, together with a table of planting dates for different vegetables (pages 
 348 and 349) are a great aid to the gardener in deciding what crops to grow 
 and when to plant them. 
 
 beds and cold frames and transplanting to the garden 
 when danger of frost is over. This may be in February 
 or later, according to the locality. 
 
 CLIMATE AND WEATHER 
 
 Except in the more southern parts of the United States 
 the actual work of getting the soil ready for planting can 
 be done only when the ground has thawed and dried out 
 after the winter's freezing. As spring advances, the 
 heat received from the sun during the day remains in 
 the earth longer at night, and finally the soil is warm 
 enough throughout the night to serve as the home of 
 the roots of young plants. About this time, and seldom 
 before, the soil becomes dry enough for spading. 
 
The Time for Planting 
 
 155 
 
 radish - early 
 
 beans -bush. 
 
 peas 
 
 lettuce. 
 
 beets 
 
 cucumber 
 
 sweet com 
 
 bush squash, 
 
 onion from, sets 
 
 car rocs 
 
 lima beans 
 
 tomatoes 
 
 melons 
 
 pepper 
 
 ey^ plant 
 
 vine -squash 
 
 onion (dry) from seed 
 
 sweet potato 
 
 parsnip and 'salsify 
 
 Days:0 30 60 90 120 150 180 
 
 FIG. 86. Chart showing growing period of some common garden crops. The 
 solid line shows the shortest period in which early varieties of the crop can be 
 grown. The dotted line shows the additional time required to bring later varie- 
 ties into condition for use. 
 
 It is usually safe to begin planting the crops that stand 
 cool weather as soon as the soil is in condition to be 
 worked. In many parts of the southern states planting may 
 begin in January or February ; in the more northern states 
 the same crops cannot be planted until April or later. 
 
 The growing season. The actual growing season of 
 most vegetables extends from the date of the last killing 
 frost in the spring to the first killing frost in the autumn. 
 In the extreme southern part of the mainland of Florida 
 only half the winters bring killing frosts. As far north 
 as Tallahassee, Florida, and Austin, Texas, and also in a 
 narrow strip along the coast of California as far north as 
 San Francisco, the length of the growing season is 9 
 months or longer. In the extreme northern part of the 
 
156 
 
 Gardening 
 
The Time for Planting 157 
 
 United States it is less than 4 months. Over a consid- 
 erable area of the Rocky Mountain region and west- 
 ward, the growing season for garden plants is not more 
 than 90 days. 
 
 Planting zones. Although certain cool-season crops 
 can be planted in spring before the last frost, warm- 
 season crops should not be planted until after frost. It is 
 therefore very convenient, in planning for the spring 
 planting of both seeds and young seedlings, to know 
 about when the latest killing frost may be expected. One 
 cannot tell in advance exactly on what calendar date 
 this will occur, as it varies from year to year. But the 
 beginner in gardening will be helped very much by the 
 maps, prepared by the United States Department of 
 Agriculture, which show the planting zones, based on 
 the occurrence of frost. 
 
 In making these maps, lines are drawn through the 
 points where the average date of the last killing frost in 
 the spring occurs on the ist and the i5th of each month. 
 Thus the line for killing frost in midwinter crosses central 
 Florida and the extreme southern part of Louisiana. In 
 a narrow belt below this line killing frosts are likely to 
 occur each year, and below that they are likely to occur 
 only once in several years. Killing frosts usually occur 
 at points on or about this line about February 15. 
 
 Two weeks later (March i) localities much farther 
 north experience their latest frost. Each two weeks 
 sees the frost line move farther north (as shown on the 
 map, Fig. 88) until about June i, when the last killing 
 frosts in the United States occur in the extreme north- 
 ern parts of North Dakota and Minnesota. 
 
Gardening 
 
The Time for Planting 
 
 159 
 
 I 
 
 I! 
 II 
 
160 Gardening 
 
 The eight lines drawn mark off into zones that part of 
 the United States east of the Rocky Mountains. In 
 each of these zones the range of planting dates in spring 
 averages about the same. The earliest dates for plant- 
 ing the various vegetables in these zones are given in the 
 table on pages 348 and 349. There are, of course, local 
 conditions, such as elevation, drainage, and the slope 
 of the land, not indicated on a map of this kind, which 
 change somewhat the planting dates as given. Each 
 gardener must find out for himself the more exact 
 planting dates for his own locality and his own gar- 
 den. 
 
 The western part of the United States is broken by 
 mountains and streams, which cause so much irregularity 
 in the frost dates that it is not possible to mark out this 
 area into definite planting zones. 
 
 The killing frosts of autumn. The first severe frost 
 in autumn kills most garden plants. Tomatoes, corn, 
 beans, peppers, and eggplants are killed or badly in- 
 jured ; beets, carrots, cabbages, lettuce, turnips, pe-tsai, 
 celery, endive, and kale are not severely injured and may 
 be left in the garden until just before the ground is frozen. 
 Parsnips and salsify can be left in the ground over winter, 
 but even these more hardy plants practically cease 
 growth with the coming of severe frosts. 
 
 In planning for late or autumn crops, and especially 
 for the succession crops, the gardener should know (i) 
 how long a period is required by the particular crop to 
 mature, and (2) when the first killing frosts are to be 
 expected. This is especially important in the northern 
 states, where frosts come earliest. 
 
The Time for Planting 
 
 161 
 
 The average dates 
 of first frosts in au- 
 tumn are shown on the 
 map on page 159. In 
 making this map effort 
 was made to leave the 
 zones the same as in 
 Fig. 88, but the boun- 
 dary lines do not coin- 
 cide, because different 
 localities having the 
 latest killing spring 
 frosts at the same 
 time do not always 
 have the first killing 
 frosts of autumn at 
 the same time. The 
 map, however, aids one 
 in judging the proba- 
 ble date when the first 
 autumn frost will kill 
 garden crops. 
 
 A chart for latest 
 plantings. Knowing 
 the date when killing 
 frosts may be expected 
 and the number of 
 days required for a vegetable to mature, one can de- 
 cide when the latest plantings should be made, or 
 whether the entire growing season is too short for a 
 crop to reach maturity. This information has been ar- 
 
 FIG. 90. Low-growing garden crops may 
 be protected from an early autumn frost 
 by the method shown above. Peach bas- 
 kets or light boxes are inverted at inter- 
 vals along the row, and boards laid on them. 
 Then burlap bags, old mattings or carpets, 
 or any other coverings are spread over the 
 boards. Sometimes the season for vegeta- 
 bles like beans, tomatoes, peppers, and egg- 
 plant can be prolonged for weeks by pro- 
 tecting the plants on the one night of the 
 frost. 
 
1 62 Gardening 
 
 ranged in a form useful for ready reference in the chart 
 on page 350. 
 
 Practical use of these maps and charts. Judging the 
 probable date of the latest frost in spring helps the gar- 
 dener to determine when to prepare hotbeds and cold 
 frames and when to sow seeds for plants that are to be 
 transplanted to the garden. 
 
 Knowing the temperature needs of the various crops 
 and the probable or average date of latest frost helps the 
 gardener to judge when to plant seeds or transplant 
 seedlings in the open ground during spring. 
 
 Knowing also the probable date of the first frosts in 
 autumn and the length of time the crops require for 
 maturity will enable the gardener to plant for late or 
 follow crops at the best time. 
 
 Local records of frost dates. The gardener should 
 keep an accurate record of the frost dates the earliest 
 in autumn and the latest in spring from year to year. 
 Such a record can easily be kept at the public school 
 of the locality in connection with garden work, or with 
 studies of physical geography or elementary science. 
 
 Reliable local records give an opportunity to correct 
 the general maps, which cannot show local conditions. 
 
 The longer such records are kept, the more valuable 
 they become for judging the average or probable dates 
 of frost. In connection with these records, it will be 
 helpful to keep notes regarding varieties planted, plant- 
 ing dates, date when first of crop is gathered, quantity 
 and quality of yield, and special treatment given in 
 respect to culture or fertilizers. Such data will help the 
 gardener later, in planning for the next year's garden, in 
 
The Time for Planting 163 
 
 selecting varieties best suited to local conditions, in 
 planting these varieties at the most suitable time, and in 
 caring for them so that they will produce the best crops. 
 
 Questions 
 
 On what two factors does the right planting time for a garden 
 crop depend ? Into what two great classes may crops be divided 
 according to their heat requirements? Why are some cool- 
 season crops grown from seed planted directly in the garden and 
 others by the transplanting method ? Name some crops grown in 
 each of these ways. What conditions other than a cool climate 
 may favor the growth of cool-season crops? What perennial 
 garden vegetables mature in the spring? 
 
 What crops mature best in warm weather? Which of these 
 are grown directly from seed planted in the garden ? Which have 
 to be started under glass ? 
 
 What is meant by the "growing season"? What is meant 
 by a "planting zone"? In what planting zone do you live? 
 What crops listed in the chart on page 155 can reach full maturity 
 in your garden? In your region, when should winter cabbage, 
 requiring 120 days for maturity, be planted? curled endive, re- 
 quiring 90 days for maturity ? How can peppers and eggplants 
 be grown successfully in a locality having an outdoor growing 
 period of 90 days ? Why can parsnip and salsify be grown from 
 seed in localities where the growing season is 100 days or less? 
 How will this crop compare with that growing where there are 125 
 days in the actual growing season ? 
 
 Things to Do and Observe 
 
 i. To make a table of planting dates. Make your own locality 
 tables of earliest and latest planting dates, similar to those on 
 pages 348-350. Visit successful gardeners and see if your table 
 agrees with their judgment as to best planting dates. Do people 
 usually make mistakes by planting the various garden crops too 
 early or too late? 
 
 Record the dates of the last killing frost in spring and the first 
 killing frost in autumn, as they occur in your locality. Compare 
 
164 Gardening 
 
 these with the averages on your map. Write to the United States 
 Weather Bureau and get the record of frost dates at the observa- 
 tion station nearest your home. 
 
 2. To learn to determine planting time by the advancement of 
 vegetation. The Indians ha<} no Weather Bureau records, but 
 they judged of the proper time for planting by the advancement of 
 the vegetation. "When the oak leaves are as big as a mouse's 
 ear, then plant corn," is the rule they gave the New England 
 settlers. Observe the early flowers and shrubs that are in bloom 
 and the buds and leaves on different kinds of trees as each vege- 
 table is planted. A record of these observations will be most 
 helpful in judging the variation in planting dates required by the 
 differences in seasons. 
 
CHAPTER TWELVE 
 
 HOW TO GROW PLANTS FROM SEEDS 
 
 The sturdy seedling with arched body comes 
 Shouldering its way and sjiedding tjie earth crumbs. 
 
 ROBERT FROST 
 
 WHEN a live seed is planted under proper condi- 
 tions, it germinates. The tiny plant within it breaks out 
 of the seed coat, thrusts its roots out into the soil, and 
 pushes its stem and leaves up toward the light and 
 air. 
 
 To awaken the young plant in the seed to active growth 
 certain conditions must be supplied. And the time 
 when the little plant is leaving its old home in the seed 
 and establishing itself under new conditions is the 
 most critical period of its whole life. To get his crops 
 properly started, therefore, the gardener must under- 
 stand when and how to plant his seed and how to care 
 for the seedlings during their early life. 
 
 What seeds need for germination. When seeds are 
 planted, they lie with the soil particles all about them. 
 Everything they obtain comes through the soil, and if 
 they are to germinate and grow, the soil must be in 
 condition to supply their needs. 
 
 First water soaks into the seed and gives the living 
 cells of the embryo the moisture required for growth. 
 Water also softens and weakens the seed coat, which 
 permits the growing embryo to break out more easily. 
 Without water, seeds will not germinate, for, as we know, 
 dry seeds may be kept for years. And if the supply 
 of moisture fails after germination is started, the little 
 plant dies. When the embryo has once begun growth, it 
 is not able to stop and become dormant again as it was 
 
i66 
 
 Gardening 
 
 in the seed. A continual supply of water is therefore 
 necessary. 
 
 With the very beginning of growth, the embryo needs 
 
 iSurfcuie of soil 
 
 FIG. 91. The germination of corn, bean, and squash. In the corn (a) the 
 little plant pushes out both stem and root and grows upward, leaving the seed 
 in the ground. In the bean (b) the root grows out and turns downward, and 
 then the part just above the root grows into an arch and pushes upward, dragging 
 the seed with it. After this the seed coat is burst open and the first two seed- 
 ling leaves (cotyledons) are freed. In the squash (c) the seed coat is caught 
 against a small "peg" just above the root and held, while growth forces the 
 cotyledons upward and pulls them out of the old coat. 
 
 an additional and constant supply of oxygen for respira- 
 tion. This comes from the air that is held in the spaces 
 in the soil. But if water completely fills the spaces be- 
 tween the particles of soil in which seeds are planted, the 
 seeds will decay because of lack of air, just as they do if 
 left in a dish with water covering them. Hence seeds 
 germinate best when the soil about them is moist with 
 capillary water but has no free water in it. 
 
 A certain amount of warmth is necessary to start 
 growth in a seed. The amount required is greater for 
 seeds of warm-season vegetables than for those of 
 cool-season plants. In fact, the best temperatures for 
 
How to Grow Plants from Seeds 167 
 
 germinating the seeds of various garden crops differ very 
 widely. 
 
 Seeds of a cool-season crop, like mustard and cabbage, 
 will often germinate well at temperatures as low as 32 
 to 38 F. ; but the best temperature for their germina- 
 tion is about 60 to 80. On the other hand, seed of 
 melons will usually not germinate at all if the tempera- 
 ture is below 55 ; the best temperature for their germi- 
 nation is somewhere between 90 and 100. 
 
 Germination is most rapid at the more favorable 
 temperatures. Thus muskmelons require 12 days to 
 germinate with a soil temperature of 60, but will germi- 
 nate in 48 hours with a soil temperature of 88. This 
 shows clearly why nothing is to be gained by planting 
 seeds of the warm-season crops while the soil is yet cold. 
 If the soil temperature is too low, germination will not 
 take place at all and the seed may decay. 
 
 It is an interesting fact that many seeds will germi- 
 nate well at somewhat lower temperatures than is most 
 favorable for the later growth and development of the 
 plant. The garden mustard germinates at only a little 
 above the freezing point ; but by the time the seedlings 
 have become established, spring is more advanced, the 
 air and the soil are warmer, and the temperatures and 
 hours of sunlight are more nearly those required for 
 vigorous growth. The natural conditions prevailing in 
 spring and in summer are hence quite normal for the 
 changing needs of the plant. 
 
 The differences between the best temperatures for 
 germination and for growth are least for warm-season 
 crops. The seeds of melons germinate best at 90, which 
 
i68 
 
 Gardening 
 
 is about the tempera- 
 ture most favorable 
 for vigorous growth of 
 the plant. 
 
 Preparing the ground 
 for planting. Before 
 planting, the ground 
 (which has already been 
 well spaded or plowed 
 and perhaps raked) 
 should be raked to 
 break up or remove 
 lumps and to secure a 
 surface layer of fine 
 soil. It is usually best 
 to plant a well-drained 
 and well-tilled garden 
 soon after spading, be- 
 fore the top layer be- 
 comes dried out. But 
 if a garden soil is poorly 
 drained and cold, it 
 
 may be spaded and left without raking, both in au- 
 tumn and in spring. For a time this will make the 
 soil cold because of the evaporation of water from 
 it ; but after the free water is gone, it will quickly be- 
 come warm. Before planting, however, the surface 
 should be well raked. The lumps will break up more 
 easily and a better supply of moisture will be held in 
 the ground if this is done as soon after a rain as the 
 soil will work properly. The surface mulch will check 
 
 !FiG. 92. Making ready for planting. 
 The surface of the soil should be raked 
 fine before marking out the rows. 
 
How to Grow Plants from Seeds 
 
 169 
 
 evaporation and help to keep the soil both warm and 
 moist. 
 
 How to lay out and plant a row of seed. The seeds of 
 most garden vegetables are planted in shallow trenches 
 which make rows across the garden. In order to get 
 the row straight it is a good plan to make the furrow 
 along a tightly stretched line. 
 
 First drive a stake firmly at each end of a row. Then 
 stretch the line between the stakes so that it lies on the 
 ground. To make sure that the line is straight, lift it 
 near the center to a height of a few inches and allow it to 
 
 FIGS. 93 and 94. Laying out the rows. The furrow at the left is for fine seeds. 
 The furrow at the right is for coarse seeds or onion sets. 
 
FIGS. 95 and 96. Planting. Only an expert can sow fine seeds successfully 
 from the packet as this person is doing. It is better for the beginner to put the 
 seed in a cup and take out a few at a time between his finger and thumb. Note 
 the even spacing of the onion sets. 
 
 snap down. It will then be straight if it has been 
 stretched taut. 
 
 Then make a furrow by drawing the edge of a square 
 hoe along against the line and pulling the dirt to the side 
 away from the line. In this way it is easy to make 
 quickly a straight furrow of a depth suited to the needs 
 of the seed to be planted. 
 
 In planting small seeds like those of radishes, lettuce, 
 onions, carrots, or beets, the seeds should first be poured 
 from the packet into a shallow dish or a saucer. Then a 
 
How to Grow Plants from Seeds 171 
 
 FIGS. 97 and 98. Making and planting a double-row furrow. This method is 
 often practiced on very rich soils, particularly when space is limited. One ad- 
 vantage of the double row is that it gives increased yields for a given amount of 
 space ; another is that the plants in the double row support one another better 
 than in the single row. 
 
 few seeds may be taken at a time between the forefinger 
 and the thumb and scattered at proper distances along 
 the bottom of the trench. If even an experienced gar- 
 dener tries to sow directly from the packet he usually 
 spills the seed sooner or later. 
 
 Spacing the rows. Proper spacing of rows is necessary 
 to give the plants the room which they need for matur- 
 ing. The best spacing suitable to the particular crops 
 to be planted, to the sort of cultivation employed, and to 
 
172 Gardening 
 
 other conditions of the garden should be determined in 
 advance of planting at the time when the garden plan is 
 made (see Chapter 8). Suggestions as to the proper 
 spacing of rows and of plants in the row will be given in 
 the directions for the culture of the various crops. 
 
 Depth of planting. If seeds are planted too deep, they 
 may die and rot because they are too wet and too cold 
 and do not have enough air. If they are planted' too 
 shallow, there is danger that they will dry out or be 
 washed out by heavy rains. 
 
 Different kinds of seeds have different germination 
 needs and must be .planted at different depths. Corn, 
 peas, and beans should be planted 2 or 3 inches deep ; 
 seeds of beets, cucumbers, squashes, and melons about 
 i inch deep; and small seeds like those of carrots, 
 radishes, lettuce, and parsnips only about \ inch. The 
 seedlings from the smaller seeds are not so strong as those 
 of larger seeds and hence are not able to push their stems 
 and first leaves ,up through so much soil. But one 
 cannot follow exactly any " rule of thumb " in planting. 
 Under the discussion of the various crops later, sugges- 
 tions as to planting will be given. However, it is well 
 to remember that, generally speaking, seeds should be 
 planted deeper in a loose, warm soil than in a cold, heavy 
 soil; and later in the season when the ground is warm 
 they should be planted somewhat deeper than in early spring. 
 Peas might well be planted 3 inches deep in light, sandy 
 soil, but not more than i inch deep in heavy soils. 
 
 Covering seeds. After sowing, the seeds should be 
 covered with soil, and usually this soil should be firmed 
 about the seeds. Firming brings the soil particles close 
 
How to Grow Plants from Seeds 
 
 173 
 
 against the seeds, so that 
 the soil water can pass 
 into them and the first 
 roots of the little plants 
 can readily come into 
 contact with the soil. 
 It also increases the 
 amount of water in a 
 given volume of the soil 
 by pressing the soil parti- 
 cles closer together, thus 
 reducing the air space. 
 
 A sandy soil or a dry, 
 loose soil should be 
 firmed by walking slowly 
 along the row of planted 
 and covered seeds, tread- 
 ing the soil with the ball 
 of the foot but not with 
 the heel . A loam should 
 be firmed in the same 
 way when it is dry. If 
 
 a soil is moist, light strokes with the back of the hoe 
 will press it down sufficiently under most circumstances. 
 When very dry, a clay soil may thus be firmed with 
 the hoe ; but firming down a moist clay soil in any 
 manner will make it too compact. 
 
 After the firming, fine dust from between the rows 
 should be lightly raked over the planted row. This 
 leaves' a thin layer of dust mulch over the compacted or 
 firmed soil. 
 
 FIG. 99. Covering the seeds. Fine soil 
 should be drawn carefully and evenly over 
 the row. 
 
Gardening 
 
 Proper firming of the 
 soil is especially im- 
 portant in summer plant- 
 ing. Without it the 
 seeds may lie in the 
 loose, dry soil and fail 
 to germinate. Or the 
 little seedlings may die 
 after germination starts, 
 because the tiny rootlets 
 may find their way into 
 air pockets among the 
 lumps of loose soil in- 
 stead of getting into 
 contact with soil parti- 
 cles that will furnish 
 the water that the plants 
 must have. 
 
 Watering at planting 
 time. Watering imme- 
 diately after planting 
 seeds is not advisable. 
 It compacts the surface 
 layer of soil ; then, when 
 this dries, it cracks and 
 gives out moisture very rapidly. If the ground is dry, 
 soak the area to be planted some 24 hours before plant- 
 ing. Then, after planting, rake up a surface mulch. To 
 hold the moisture in the soil it is often advisable to 
 shade carrots and Chinese cabbage that are planted 
 in hot weather until the young plants begin to appear. 
 
 * 
 
 , -. J5 / 
 
 FIG. 100. Watering the bottom of the 
 furrow before planting the seed. In dry 
 weather this is often done where the soil 
 is sandy or loose, but with clay soils care 
 must be used to prevent puddling. 
 
How to Grow Plants from Seeds 175 
 
 REARING SEEDLINGS FOR TRANSPLANTING 
 
 Many vegetables can be brought to maturity earlier 
 by starting the plants indoors. The seeds are planted in 
 boxes or flats or even in cans that are filled with earth, 
 and the growing seedlings are kept in warm rooms or in 
 hotbeds. Literally, these boxes are small gardens in 
 which crops are grown until it is warm enough to plant 
 them out of doors. As soon as the weather permits, the 
 seedlings are transplanted to the garden; and because 
 they are already of considerable size and have roots and 
 leaves developed, they mature sooner than the same 
 crops would if the seed were sown in the garden. 
 
 In this way cool-season crops like cabbage, pe-tsai, and 
 lettuce may be brought to maturity before the hot 
 weather of summer arrives. Long-period warm-season 
 crops like tomatoes, eggplants, peppers, and sweet po- 
 tatoes can thus be had earlier in the season and may 
 also be matured where the outdoor season is shorter than 
 the plant requires for full growth. 
 
 One can often buy plants, ready for transplanting, of 
 such crops as cabbages, tomatoes, eggplants, and pep- 
 pers ; but often these plants are poorly grown and the 
 name of the variety is uncertain. The gardener will 
 find it to be an advantage if he can grow his own seed- 
 lings for transplanting, unless he can buy good plants 
 from a reliable source. 
 
 Making flats. Flats are shallow boxes or trays, about 
 3 inches in depth, in which seedlings are grown. They 
 are most easily made by sawing off the bottom part of 
 boxes of suitable sizes. Or they can be made from 
 
176 
 
 Gardening 
 
 boards cut to the right 
 form and nailed together. 
 A few holes, \ inch in 
 diameter, should be 
 bored in the bottom to 
 allow good drainage. 
 
 It is well to make 
 flats of such sizes that 
 they will fit into avail- 
 able hotbeds and cold 
 frames without loss of 
 space. Six flats, 20X14 
 inches, conveniently fill 
 a single sash 6X3 feet 
 in area. Smaller flats, 
 however, are easier for 
 children to handle. 
 
 The seed may be germinated in small earthen pans 
 or in small boxes (cigar boxes will do), filled with 
 ordinary garden loam mixed with sand, and the seedlings 
 "picked" out, after germination, into the larger flats 
 containing richer soil. 
 
 Soil for the flats. A good soil for the seed flat is made 
 by mixing sand with the ordinary garden loam. If 
 a rich soil containing decaying manure and compost is 
 used, it is likely to force the young plants too rapidly 
 and lead to development of " damping-off " diseases. 
 
 For filling flats to which seedlings are to be trans- 
 planted, a good soil can be made from equal parts of sand, 
 good garden soil, and well-rotted manure or compost. 
 Sift the sand and soil through a fine sieve (galvanized 
 
 States Relations Service 
 FIG. 101. The easiest way to make a flat. 
 
How to Grow Plants from Seeds 
 
 177 
 
 wire screening of J-inch mesh can be used in making the 
 soil sieve), but put the manure through a still coarser one 
 (| -inch mesh) . The sieves can easily be made by nailing 
 screening to wooden frames of convenient size. 
 Thoroughly mix the sifted materials, and if dry, sprinkle 
 with water until moist. 
 
 Such a soil is high in fertility, and it will remain 
 loose for some time under repeated waterings. If sand 
 is lacking, the drainage is likely to be poor ; if there is too 
 much manure, the plants are likely to grow too rapidly and 
 become " soft" and subject to " damping-off " diseases. 
 
 FIG. 102. A gardener's equipment for preparing the soil for flats and 
 pots. The earth is piled upon the bench in readiness for sifting. The soil 
 sieves have meshes of different sizes. 
 
Gardening 
 
 FIG. 103. A professional gardener planting seed in a flat. The flats are con- 
 veniently supported on a board laid between the greenhouse benches, the rows 
 are laid out by a wooden strip of proper width, and the soil is firmed with the 
 tool resting against the left side of the flat. 
 
 Cover the drainage holes in the bottom of the flat with 
 pieces of coal, small stones, or broken earthenware. 
 Then fill the flat with the prepared soil, level off even 
 with the top, and firm the soil by pressure with a piece 
 of board. The flat is now ready for the planting of the 
 seed or for the work of transplanting. 
 
 Planting the seeds in the flat. Seeds may be scattered, 
 or they may be sown in rows in the flat. If they are 
 planted in rows, make furrows about 2 inches apart and 
 about | inch deep ; this is deep enough for the small 
 
How to Grow Plants from Seeds 179 
 
 seeds of the vegetables usually thus grown. Scatter 
 seeds about i to J inch apart in the row and cover them 
 by sifting on more soil. If the seeds are scattered broad- 
 cast in the flat, -J- inch of soil should be sifted over the 
 seeds after they are sown. 
 
 Place labels at the ends of the rows, or if all rows are 
 of one kind, at the middle of one side. Record the 
 name of the variety and the date of the planting on each 
 label. 
 
 The first waterings should be made gently with a fine 
 spray. It is a good plan to lay a cloth (a coarse gunny 
 sack will do) over the flat and sprinkle water over it, 
 allowing the water to trickle through into the soil. 
 After the seeds have been planted, the flats are ready to 
 be placed where the seeds and seedlings ill obtain 
 warmth and sunshine. Water must be supplied daily as 
 needed. 
 
 Growing seedlings in window boxes. Seedlings of 
 vegetables like cabbages, tomatoes, and peppers can 
 be grown in flats in the home. As a rule, the plants 
 should have all the light a south window will give. Turn 
 the flats from day to day so that all sides may have an 
 opportunity to face the light. Extremes of heat and cold 
 injure the plants ; the room should not become too 
 hot by day or too cold at night. If the room approaches 
 freezing temperatures during the night, the flats should 
 be removed from the window to a warmer place. During 
 the night the flats may be covered with newspapers or 
 with a blanket. 
 
 An easy way to do this is to set the flats on the seats 
 of two chairs that face each other closely and then place 
 
i8o 
 
 Gardening 
 
 a blanket over the backs so that it reaches to the floor 
 all around. A well-lighted basement in which the fur- 
 nace is located is often warm enough for growing seed- 
 lings. 
 
 Since water gives off its heat slowly, watering with 
 lukewarm water at bedtime helps to keep the soil warm 
 at night, provided evaporation is checked. But be- 
 cause of the cooling effect of the evaporation of water, 
 it is well, unless the plants are covered at night, to 
 water in the forenoon so that the top layers of soil are 
 rather dry at night. 
 
 The hotbed. A hotbed is simple in its construction 
 and is not necessarily expensive. It consists of a glass- 
 covered frame, which is placed over a bed of decaying 
 manure. The frame and glass keep out the cold air and 
 keep in the warmth ; the decaying manure supplies heat ; 
 the glass allows the sunlight to enter during the day. 
 
 The frame may be made of boards ij or 2 inches thick 
 
 Glass 
 
 Plan of 
 
 S-'-B 7^>-^ -=t^ > :' ' > / ^1fc- d ^y$^a^^^^~a: 
 
 FIG. 104. Diagram showing the details in the construction of a hotbed. 
 
How to Grow Plants from Seeds 
 
 181 
 
 and is usually of the shape shown in the accompanying 
 diagrams. The top is fitted with glass sash, which is 
 
 FIG. 105. Diagram showing the completed frame of a hotbed. 
 
 given a sloping surface to shed the rain. The standard 
 size for the sash is 3 X 6 feet ; so a frame 6X6 feet will 
 be covered by two sash. A hotbed of this size is large 
 enough to supply plants for the small home garden, but 
 the size and shape of the frame may be made to suit any 
 sash that may be at hand. The sash of the storm windows 
 may be used as a covering, as the hotbed is not started 
 until the most severe weather of winter is past. 
 
 The hotbed should be located on a well-drained spot. 
 Its sloping surface should be fully exposed to the south. 
 On the north it should be protected by a fence, a hedge, 
 a wall, or a building. It should be near a supply of 
 water and within the vicinity of a building or basement 
 in which the work of seed sowing and transplanting from 
 flat to flat can be done very easily. 
 
 Making the hotbed. To make a pit hotbed, dig a pit 
 about 20 inches deep and of the exact size and shape 
 of the frame to be used. Then drive a post at least 6 
 inches in diameter at each corner, so that all the tops 
 are on a level about 6 inches below the surface of the 
 ground. 
 
1 82 Gardening 
 
 FIG. 106. The first step in preparing the hotbed. Throwing in and trampling 
 down the manure. 
 
 The frame is then placed in the pit, with the corners 
 resting on these posts, and a nail driven through the 
 frame into the post at each corner. This arrangement 
 holds the frame firmly in place and keeps it from settling. 
 
 Next, pack fresh horse manure firmly into the pit to 
 a depth of about 16 inches. The manure should be 
 about two-thirds straw and should not have been exposed 
 to the weather. It is best for use when about 10 days old 
 and after it has been kept in a pile and forked over two 
 or three times. None but horse or mule manure is 
 satisfactory. Place the manure in the pit in thin layers, 
 trample each layer until it is compact, and be sure that 
 the corners are well filled and that the surface is level. 
 
 If seedlings are to be grown in flats, from 4 to 6 inches 
 of sand is then placed on the manure. If seeds are to 
 be sown directly in the bed itself (this is not recom- 
 mended) , good garden soil is used instead of sand. This 
 brings the level of the material within the frame up to 
 the level of the ground outside. Above this the front of 
 
How to Grow Plants from Seeds 183 
 
 FIG. 107. Adding the soil and raking it smooth. 
 
 the frame rises 8 inches and the back 14 inches. Earth 
 or manure should be banked about the frame to its upper 
 edge. 
 
 The pit is finally well sprinkled with water and the 
 sash put in place. The decay of the manure gives rather 
 violent heating within a few days, but after about 10 
 days the temperature lowers ; the frame may then be 
 ventilated and flats containing seeds placed within. 
 Under no circumstances should seeds be planted or flats 
 with seeds be placed within the hotbed during the period 
 of violent heating. The temperature may be determined 
 by the use of a hotbed or a dairy thermometer. Thrust 
 the bulb end into the manure. The temperature will 
 often rise to 110 F. or higher ; when it drops to 80 or 
 85, and not before, it is safe to place seeds in flats 
 within the frame. 
 
 Surface hotbeds are made by placing the frame on 
 a bed of manure which is placed upon the surface of the 
 ground. No pit is dug. The frame is constructed as for 
 
1 84 
 
 Gardening 
 
 FIG. 108. Planting the seeds and marking the rows. Here the seeds are be- 
 ing planted directly in the soil of the hotbed, but usually it is better to plant 
 them in flats and set the flats in the hotbed. 
 
 a pit hotbed. Manure is packed in the frame, and sand 
 added as in the pit hotbed. If kept well banked, the 
 surface hotbed is very satisfactory. 
 
 Management of the hotbed. To use a hotbed success- 
 fully, the amount of moisture and the temperature within 
 it must be properly regulated. Water should always be 
 applied in a fine spray from a sprinkling can or a hose. 
 The soil in the flats should never become dry, but too 
 much water is to be avoided. On cool, cloudy days very 
 little or even no water is needed. On bright, sunny days 
 the flats should be watered in the early forenoon and the 
 bed ventilated (unless the air outside is very cold) so 
 that the leaves of the plants will become dry before night. 
 
 Ventilation also is needed to regulate the temperature. 
 On warm, sunshiny days the hotbeds may become too 
 warm in the middle of the day. To reduce the warmth, 
 raise one edge of the sash on the side away from the wind 
 and place under it a block of wood or a brick to hold 
 
How to Grow Plants from Seeds 185 
 
 the sash at the height desired. If the weather suddenly 
 becomes cold or cloudy, the sash should be shut down. 
 
 In extremely cold weather, and especially at night, 
 the sash may be covered with straw, blankets, old carpet, 
 or the matting which is made for this use. As spring 
 advances, the sash may be raised higher and for longer 
 periods during the day, until finally they may be re- 
 moved, to be replaced only on cool nights. 
 
 At the time seedlings burst from the soil they may be 
 somewhat " burned " by midday sunshine. This may be 
 prevented by spreading a single sheet of newspaper over 
 them during the middle of the day for a day or two. 
 Freshly transplanted seedlings should thus be shaded. 
 Plants standing in the middle of the frame will receive 
 more light than those at the edge ; so it is a good plan 
 to shift and turn the flats from time to time. Usually 
 the growing plants are given all the sunlight that is 
 available. 
 
 After it is properly started, only a few minutes are 
 required each day to care for the hotbed ; but daily 
 attention and management, according to changing 
 weather, is absolutely necessary for the best results. 
 
 Construction and use of a cold frame. A cold frame 
 consists of a frame with a sash or cloth covering. It is 
 usually placed directly on the ground. No artificial heat 
 is supplied as in the hotbed, but the frame affords pro- 
 tection from the cold air of the outside. The covering of 
 sash or cloth helps to retain over night the heat received 
 from the sun during the day. 
 
 Cold frames are especially useful for hardening seed- 
 lings previously grown in a hotbed. This is done by 
 
1 86 
 
 Gardening 
 
 FIG. 109. A cold frame at the New York Botanical Garden. Flats 
 lings are placed in the cold frame for growth and for hardening. 
 
 transferring, at the proper time, the flats of seedlings to 
 the cold frame. Seedlings to be transplanted to the 
 garden in late spring or during summer may be grown 
 directly in the soil of the cold frames. The soil should 
 be well tilled and should contain only small amounts of 
 manure. One should never stand or walk directly on 
 the soil in a cold frame, but on a board placed on the 
 surface within the frame. 
 
 Transplanting from flats to other flats. It is not 
 best to leave seedlings of cabbages, tomatoes, celery, 
 lettuce, peppers, and eggplants in the flats in which the 
 seed was sown until they are large enough to transplant 
 to the garden. The soil is likely to become compacted, 
 and the seedlings are usually too crowded. It is there- 
 
How to Grow Plants from Seeds 187 
 
 fore best to reset the plants once or even twice before 
 they are placed in the garden. 
 
 When the seedlings are about 2 inches tall, they may 
 be transplanted into flats which are filled with somewhat 
 richer soil than was used in the seed flats. In this trans- 
 planting the best plants can be selected and respaced 
 so that they will have sufficient room for further develop- 
 ment. One can thus avoid the common mistake of 
 growing many more seedlings than are actually needed 
 and of leaving them so crowded that none of ttie plants 
 will be well developed. 
 
 For example, if one needs 36 tomato plants for the 
 
 FIG. no. A gardener transplanting seedlings to a second flat. Only the more 
 vigorous seedlings are selected for transplanting. 
 
1 88 
 
 Gardening 
 
 FIG. in. A home gardener transplanting her seedlings. They were grown 
 in a small window box and are being transplanted to a flat to give them more 
 room and to cause root development. 
 
 garden, a small packet of seed may be planted in a seed 
 pan or a flat 12X12 inches, or in a part of a larger flat. 
 Perhaps 200 seeds will germinate, and the seedlings 
 will be more or less crowded and irregularly spaced. 
 Of these, 50 of the best plants may be selected and re- 
 planted in flats so that they stand at least 2 inches apart. 
 In this way enough plants for the garden will be obtained, 
 and the chances are that most of these will be strong 
 and vigorous. 
 
 A second advantage in transplanting seedlings sev- 
 eral times is that it often stimulates a more vigorous 
 development of the roots. This is especially true of 
 celery. The main taproot, which tends to go straight 
 down, is broken, and side roots branch out which make a 
 much larger and better plant. 
 
How to Grow Plants from Seeds 189 
 
 For cabbage, kohl-rabi, head lettuce, tomato, pep- 
 per, eggplant, and celery the young seedlings should 
 be transplanted from the seed pan to flats when from 
 i to 2 inches in height and given plenty of space in the 
 new flat. Transplanting from seed pans to flats, as the 
 plants become larger, requires more room in hot- 
 beds ; but by this time the weather will probably be 
 mild enough to allow the use of cold frames or temporary 
 shelters for some of the flats. 
 
 Special methods of growing seedlings. The seedlings 
 of bean, corn, pumpkin, squash, cucumber, and okra 
 may also be started in a greenhouse, hotbed, or cold 
 
 FIG. 112. Carrying seedlings that have been grown in a cold frame to the 
 garden for transplanting. This picture illustrates the proper way of carrying 
 a flat. Notice that the fingers of the right hand are crooked around the corner 
 of the box. By holding a flat in this way there is no danger of tipping it, or of 
 losing the balance of the box and thus dropping it. 
 
IQO 
 
 Gardening 
 
 FIG. 113. A flat filled with dirt bands. A dirt band is very easily made; it 
 is merely a strip of cardboard folded to form a square, as shown in this illustra- 
 tion. Plants grown in this manner can be transplanted with almost no dis- 
 turbance of the roots. 
 
 frame. But seedlings of these grow rapidly and have 
 rather coarsely branched roots which make transplanting 
 difficult. They may be handled successfully by growing 
 a few seedlings each in wooden berry boxes, pots, or any 
 containers of small size. 
 
 When grown in flats, the plants may be arranged in 
 groups of from three to five and the roots of each group 
 kept separate by bands of cardboard, in what is called the 
 " dirt-band " method. In transplanting to the garden, 
 the mass of soil with the enclosed roots is not allowed to 
 break up. Tomatoes and cabbages can thus be grown 
 with a -single plant in each " dirt band " (see Figure 113). 
 
 Hardening plants. Plants should never be trans- 
 planted to the garden without hardening. The sudden 
 
How to Grow Plants from Seeds 191 
 
 change from the warm air of the hotbed or greenhouse 
 to the open air may so injure the tender plant that its 
 growth will be checked for days. As the warmer weather 
 approaches and the plants that are being grown in flats 
 become larger, they should be exposed to the open air 
 for longer periods each day. Finally, they may be left 
 uncovered, even throughout the night. Shortly before 
 the plants are to be placed in the garden, flats may be 
 left without any other protection except that of near-by 
 buildings which keep off the winds. During the period of 
 hardening, the plants should be rather sparsely watered, 
 but care should be taken to prevent them from becom- 
 ing wilted ; their growth must not be checked in any 
 way. 
 
 Transplanting to the garden. Water the flats contain- 
 ing the plants thoroughly, at least an hour before the work 
 is to begin. This allows the cells of the plant to become 
 well filled with water, and it causes soil to adhere to the 
 roots. Dig well under the plants, breaking the roots 
 as little as possible. Reset a plant immediately, before 
 it has time to wilt. Make a suitable hole with a trowel, 
 set the plant somewhat deeper than it formerly grew, 
 completely fill in about the roots with fine soil, and 
 gently firm the soil about the roots. Be sure that the 
 soil is carefully filled in so that no " air pockets " are 
 left about the roots. In the school garden or in the home 
 garden there are usually so few plants to be transplanted 
 that one can afford to take time to do the work well. 
 Water the plants by applying small amounts in a fine 
 spray at intervals of a few minutes, so that the water 
 sinks into the soil without any puddling. 
 
192 
 
 Gardening 
 
 FIG. 114. Right and wrong ways to treat a potted seedling before transplant- 
 ing. The plant at the left was kept well watered and the roots were undisturbed. 
 The transplanting will check its growth only slightly, if at all. The roots of the 
 plant in the center were also undisturbed, but the plant has been given no water 
 for 24 hours. It will probably be set back severely in its growth. The plant at 
 the right was kept watered, but the roots were pulled from the soil and left ex- 
 posed to the air for about an hour. It will take it some time to get a new root 
 system fixed in the soil. The plant on the left will make a better plant and will 
 mature fruit at least one or two weeks before either of the others. 
 
 Replanting, even when carefully done, destroys some 
 of the roots of a plant, and for a time those that are left 
 may be unable to supply the leafy parts with all the 
 water they need. For this reason freshly reset plants 
 should be kept shaded from direct sunlight for at least 
 24 hours after the replanting; in hot, dry weather a 
 shading for 3 days may be necessary. Protection from 
 the sunlight may be had by arranging a sheet of news- 
 paper, lifted in the center like a wedge tent (not as a 
 cone) , with dirt or stones thrown on the corners to hold 
 it in place ; or a shingle may be thrust in the ground 
 on the sunny side. Do not place earthen or paper pots 
 over young plants to shade them, as this does not allow 
 
How to Grow Plants from Seeds 
 
 193 
 
 air and light to harden them properly. The plants will 
 often become more tender when thus covered. 
 
 It is best to reset plants late in the afternoon or during 
 damp, cloudy weather if possible. In transplanting leafy 
 plants like lettuce and cabbage, it is a common practice 
 to cut or shear away part of the larger leaves and thus 
 decrease loss of water by reducing the leaf surface. 
 Plants grown in pots, berry boxes, or dirt bands can be 
 transplanted with very little injury to the root system. 
 
 If compelled to buy plants for transplanting, the 
 gardener should select the most stocky plants and in- 
 sist that they be carefully removed from the earth, 
 
 
 U. S. D. A. 
 
 FIG. 115. The effect of transplanting on the root development of celery plants. 
 The two plants at the left were transplanted several times ; those at the right 
 were grown without transplanting. 
 
194 
 
 Gardening 
 
 sprinkled with water, and 
 completely wrapped to 
 prevent drying out. They 
 should then be replanted 
 as soon as possible, us- 
 ing great care in handling 
 them to prevent bruising. 
 Pulling plants carelessly 
 from flats, bruising and 
 breaking them in han- 
 dling, and leaving them to 
 dry out before replanting 
 will surely result in a 
 tardy growth and perhaps 
 failure of the crop. 
 
 The outdoor seedling 
 bed. Seedlings for trans- 
 planting may often be 
 grown to advantage in an 
 
 TIG. no. btrawberry boxes make very < 
 
 satisfactory covers for newly trans- Outdoor Seedling bed. Its 
 
 planted seedlings. They are light, easily 
 packed away, and provide ventilation 
 for the plants. 
 
 location in the spring 
 should be on a well- 
 drained soil and in a 
 
 sunny and sheltered place. The soil should be put in 
 good condition by cultivation and by the addition of 
 sand, lime, humus, and manure, as may be needed. 
 
 Such a bed is also of special value for starting seedlings 
 of autumn crops of lettuce, beets, cabbages, and kale. 
 During the late summer, seeds planted directly in the 
 garden often fail to germinate well. In a seed bed, 
 special care in preparing the soil, watering the seedlings, 
 
How to Grow Plants from Seeds 
 
 and protecting them 
 from hot sunlight pro- 
 vides vigorous young 
 plants for transplanting. 
 Time required to 
 grow seedlings for 
 transplanting. To be 
 most successful in grow- 
 ing seedlings for trans- 
 planting, the gardener 
 must have plants of 
 suitable size and hardi- 
 ness ready for planting 
 at the proper time. The 
 length of time required 
 to bring plants to this 
 condition differs for the 
 various kinds of vegeta- 
 bles and for the differ- 
 ent varieties of each 
 kind. It also varies for 
 a single variety according to the differences in the prep- 
 aration and management of the window boxes, hotbeds, 
 cold frames, or seed beds. The beginner can safely 
 start the germination of seeds of cabbages, lettuce, and 
 tomatoes from 5 to 6 weeks before the time for trans- 
 planting to the garden. Peppers and eggplants are con- 
 siderably slower in growth and require a longer time. 
 Corn, beans, squashes, and melons grow very quickly 
 if proper conditions are supplied ; 2 or 3 weeks may be 
 sufficient for these. 
 
 FIG. 117. An outdoor seedbed. Such a 
 seedbed is especially useful for starting 
 seedlings for the autumn crops. 
 
196 Gardening 
 
 With experience, one will learn how to handle the 
 various seedlings under the local conditions of weather 
 and the method of treatment used. It is a good plan 
 for the beginner to make a record of the dates of plant- 
 ing seed and transplanting, and of the results obtained 
 in growing seedlings of the different varieties for trans- 
 planting. This will serve as a guide in the following 
 seasons. 
 
 Questions 
 
 Describe the germination of a seed. What are the three main 
 requirements for germination? Why does too much water in 
 the soil hinder germination? Discuss the temperature require- 
 ments of different seeds for germination. Describe the proper 
 method of laying out and planting a row of seed. 
 
 How deep should the seeds of corn, beans, and peas be planted, 
 usually? seeds of beets, cucumbers, squashes, and melons? 
 carrots, radishes, lettuce, and parsnip? Name some conditions 
 that make it advisable to plant seeds deeper or shallower. When 
 is it of special value to firm the soil? Why? When should the 
 soil not be firmed ? Why is it best not to water seeds immediately 
 after planting ? 
 
 Describe the transplanting method of starting crops. With 
 what kinds of crops is this method used? 
 
 What is the best soil for a seed flat? Why should a very 
 rich soil not be used? What kind of soil should be used in the 
 flats to which seedlings are transplanted? How should it be 
 prepared? How should the seeds be planted in a flat? 
 
 How may seedlings of the tomato and cabbage be grown in 
 the home? 
 
 What is a hotbed ? Where should a hotbed be located ? What 
 is a pit hotbed? How is it made? When should the seeds or 
 seedlings be placed in the hotbed ? What is a surface hotbed and 
 how is it made? How should a hotbed be watered? How is it 
 ventilated? What is a cold frame? What are its principal 
 uses? 
 
How to Grow Plants from Seeds 197 
 
 What is the advantage of transplanting seedlings at least once ? 
 What is the " dirt-band" method? How does it help in trans- 
 planting ? What is meant by " hardening " seedlings ? Why is 
 it necessary? What points need to be especially watched in 
 transplanting seedlings to the garden ? Why do plants often need 
 protection after transplanting ? When is the best time to reset 
 plants ? Why are some of the leaves often removed when a plant 
 is reset ? 
 
 What are the advantages of an outdoor seed bed ? 
 
 Things to Do and Observe 
 
 1. To observe the germination of seeds. Plant seeds of pea, 
 bean; squash, and corn in flats, boxes, or pots. As soon as ger- 
 mination is noticed, dig up seedlings of each kind and study the 
 various stages of germination. How does the first root get out of 
 the seed coat? How do the stem and leaves get out? What 
 does the root do if it emerges from the upper side of the seed as 
 planted? What becomes of the part or parts containing stored 
 food ? How do the stem and first leaves force their way through 
 the soil to the air above ? Does the position of the seed in the soil 
 increase or retard germination in any way ? 
 
 2. To show the effect of too little water on germination. Fill two 
 flats or pots with garden soil. In each flat or pot plant seeds of 
 corn, squash, radish, cabbage, bean, and tomato. Place both in a 
 warm room or in a hotbed. Keep only one watered. In which 
 do the seeds germinate better ? Why ? 
 
 3. To show the effect of too much water on germination. Select 
 two earthen flowerpots of the same size ; or if these are not avail- 
 able use tin cans, preferably at least 6 inches in diameter. If pots 
 are used, plug the opening in the bottom of one with a cork stop- 
 per; if tin cans are used, leave one intact, but make several 
 holes in the bottom of the other one. Fill with garden soil and 
 plant in each an equal number of seeds of beans or corn. 
 
 Keep both together in a warm room. Add the same amounts 
 of water to each every day, so that one is kept well watered and 
 well drained and the other is kept with free water standing at the 
 top. In which does germination take place better? 
 
198 Gardening 
 
 After two weeks dig up the seeds in the one that lacked drainage 
 and note their condition. What does this show about the amount 
 of water that should be in soils in which seeds are germinating? 
 
 4. To show the influence of temperature on germination. Prepare 
 and plant two flats as directed in 2, above. Place one flat in a 
 warm room, and place the other out of doors or in a cool room. 
 Give the same amount of water to each. Observe and explain 
 differences in germination of the same kind of seeds in the two 
 flats. Note if the seeds of the cool-season crops germinate to 
 any degree in the flat kept out of doors. 
 
 5. To show the importance of careful transplantation. Watch 
 a number of different gardeners or school-garden pupils when they 
 are transplanting. Carefully note the methods of each. Then 
 if you can, visit the same gardens in a few days and see how the 
 plants transplanted by one person compare with those transplanted 
 by another. Recall the methods of each gardener, and then try 
 to determine from what you have observed why some of the 
 plants grew better than others. 
 
CHAPTER THIRTEEN 
 
 THE CARE OF GROWING CROPS 
 
 It is not enough merely to plough and hoe, and plant 
 and sow ; you must see that everything is done in proper 
 time and order. 
 
 Old Farmer's Almanac 
 
 IN caring for the growing crops, as in all garden opera- 
 tions, much depends on doing the right thing at the 
 right time. In general, the best time for giving at- 
 tention to a crop is before the need for doing a particular 
 thing becomes apparent. Crops should be cultivated, 
 weeded, and watered before they begin to suffer for the 
 lack of such care. 
 
 Each crop grown requires a certain special treatment 
 because of its own peculiar habits of growth, but these 
 can best be treated in discussing the various crops. 
 Most crops also need protection from insect and fungous 
 pests, and the most important of these will be discussed 
 in special chapters. However, there are certain prin- 
 ciples which generally apply in caring for all crops, and 
 these will be treated in this chapter. The principal 
 divisions of the work of caring for vegetable crops are 
 (i) cultivation or stirring of the soil between the grow- 
 ing plants, (2) weeding, (3) thinning and replanting, 
 and (4) irrigation. 
 
 Cultivation of the soil. Cultivating the soil destroys 
 weeds, which if left to grow soon cover the ground and 
 choke even the most vigorous of the vegetable crops. 
 It breaks up the crust which forms on the surface of the 
 soil and allows air to enter the soil and reach the roots, 
 and it keeps the water in the soil by making a dry, loose 
 surface mulch. Constant cultivation is so important in 
 
 199 
 
200 
 
 Gardening 
 
 Purdue Univ. Agric. Expt. Sta. 
 
 FIG. 1 1 8. A garden in need of cultivation. The surface crust should be 
 broken to admit air more uniformly to the roots and to conserve the soil moisture. 
 
 preserving a sufficient supply of water for plants that we 
 should thoroughly understand how a surface layer of 
 fine, loose soil keeps the water from escaping into the air. 
 
 How a dust mulch prevents loss of water from soil. 
 The water in the soil can travel in any direction by pass- 
 ing from particle to particle, just as oil travels up the 
 wick of a lamp by passing from thread to thread. It 
 moves from the places where it is most abundant to the 
 places where there is less of it ; hence, when the surface 
 layers of the soil dry out, the water in the damper soil 
 below creeps up toward the surface. In this way the 
 water in a soil is brought to the surface and evaporated 
 into the air. 
 
 But if the surface layer of the soil is cultivated, it is 
 broken loose from the soil below. Then the water 
 finds no direct path from particle to particle upward ; 
 the connection of the upper layer with the soil below is 
 broken. Hence the surface soil soon dries out because its 
 
The Care of Growing Crops 201 
 
 supply of water from below is cut off. This dry surface 
 layer then covers the soil below like a heavy cloth 
 spread on the ground. 
 
 Beneath a good surface mulch of dry soil the earth 
 is moist, even after long periods of dry weather ; and 
 when a soil in good physical condition (see page 58) is 
 kept moist in this way it remains loose so that the roots 
 can easily penetrate it. Thus the mulch not only saves 
 the water for the plants, but it keeps the soil in good 
 physical condition for the roots. 
 
 When to cultivate. Rainfall and surface irrigation 
 destroy a surface mulch. Hence the garden should be 
 cultivated soon after each rain or irrigation. If one 
 waits several days, a dry crust will form and the surface 
 will become cracked and broken up into coarse lumps. 
 Much water is lost in this way ; also such a soil is in poor 
 condition for the roots. 
 
 Shallow cultivation should begin as soon as the seed- 
 lings are above the ground, and if seeds are slow in 
 germinating, as are parsnips and carrots, the soil should 
 be stirred before the plants are up. Crops need more 
 careful and more frequent cultivation while they are 
 young than they do later, for the roots are nearer the 
 surface and the soil is less shaded ; hence the roots are 
 more exposed to the drying effects of the sun and air. 
 
 In cultivating young crops, work the rake or tool 
 used in such a way that fine loose dirt is thrown about 
 the base of seedlings or even over seedlings that are not 
 yet above ground. Cultivate after each rain as soon as 
 the soil is dry enough not to stick to the tools. Do not 
 draw the cultivating tools so close to plants that the main 
 
2O2 Gardening 
 
 root is touched. Fleshy roots like beets and carrots, 
 especially, may be injured in this way. 
 
 Tools for cultivating. In cultivating the small garden, 
 short-handled weeders with claw-like teeth, midget and 
 longer-handled prong cultivators, hoes, and garden 
 rakes may be used. For the larger garden a wheel hoe 
 with various cultivator attachments is an excellent tool. 
 In still larger gardens horse-drawn or tractor cultivators 
 may be used. 
 
 All these tools should be used so as to stir and break 
 up the surface of the soil. A depth of i inch is usually 
 enough to cultivate ; certainly one should seldom go 
 as deep as 2 inches. Such shallow tillage does little injury 
 to the roots of growing crops. It is important always to 
 cultivate at about the same level, for the feeding roots 
 of most crops reach near the surface and deep tillage 
 (to a depth of 3 inches or more) after shallow tillage may 
 destroy many roots and thereby check the growth of the 
 plants. 
 
 The best tool for surface tillage is a garden rake. 
 No other hand tool can do the work as effectively unless 
 the soil becomes much compacted ; then the hoe or the 
 Norcross weeder is better. When the crops are growing 
 in rows that are too close together to permit the use of 
 an ordinary garden rake, a small steel rake, 4 or 6 inches 
 wide, with numerous short teeth, is most useful. If it is 
 fitted with a long handle, the work can be done rapidly 
 and without much stooping. Shallow surface cultivation 
 is of course very necessary in periods of dry weather, 
 in order most fully to check the loss of water from the 
 soil. 
 
The Care of Growing Crops 
 
 203 
 
 Van Etrie Kilpatrick 
 
 FIG. 119. "Thorough and clean culture is the watchword of the successful 
 gardener." Old Farmer's Almanac 
 
 Weeding. If a garden is properly tilled for maintain- 
 ing the surface mulch, weeds never get large enough to 
 become a menace, at least between the rows. Weeding, 
 therefore, becomes simply the task of pulling by hand 
 the weeds that appear close to the growing plants. Such 
 weeds should be pulled when they are small, before they 
 crowd and shade the growing plants and rob them of water 
 and food materials. If for any reason the weeds do be- 
 come large, special care should be taken in removing them 
 so that the roots of the growing crops are not injured. 
 Weeds of large size may be cut off just below the surface. 
 
 The roots of a weed (or of a vegetable that stands 
 close beside other plants of the crop) are often much en- 
 tangled with the roots of a plant that is near it, and by 
 
204 
 
 Gardening 
 
 FIG. 1 20. When the soil is dry, the row should be watered before thinning. 
 
 careless weeding or thinning, the roots of the plant may 
 be badly broken and loosened in the soil, so that the plant 
 will have a great part of its water supply cut off. Hence 
 weeding is best done at a time when the soil is moist, or 
 even quite wet ; and it is best to do the weeding on cool 
 days or in the late afternoon, especially if the crops have 
 become tender and weak through much shading by weeds. 
 If such precautions are not taken, crops may be severely 
 checked in their growth. It is the using of common 
 sense in such matters that makes one person a more 
 successful gardener than another. 
 
 Thinning. Crops that are grown from seed sown in 
 the garden often need thinning. The roots of individual 
 plants need room to spread and feed in the soil, and the 
 leaves need plenty of room in the air. Crowded plants 
 always grow poorly. Thinning should be done early, 
 so that the young plants may be properly spaced from the 
 
The Care of Growing Crops 
 
 205 
 
 first. The same sort of care that is exercised in weeding 
 should be employed in the thinning. 
 
 Plan to give room according to the particular need of 
 the plant. Radishes require less room than salsify 
 and parsnips : tomatoes require more room ; corn and 
 the various vine crops still more. 
 
 The thinning of some crops, as beets and carrots, 
 may be delayed until some of the plants are large 
 enough to be used as food. In thinning beets for use 
 as greens, it is often best to cut off the roots rather 
 
 FIGS. 121 and 122. Thinning corn and onions. It is well to plant thickly 
 because in this way a full stand is insured ; but the beginner often makes the mis- 
 take of allowing too many plants to remain in the row. 
 
206 
 
 Gardening 
 
 FIG. 123. Watering in the wrong way and at the wrong time. The water is 
 being sprayed over the plants in the middle of the day. In consequence much 
 of it will evaporate without reaching the roots of the plant. The soil and not 
 the plants should be watered, and this should be done later in the afternoon or 
 on a cloudy day. 
 
 than to pull them, to avoid loosening the plants left 
 standing. 
 
 Replanting. Seed may germinate poorly, or seedlings 
 may die from such causes as improper care, or the at- 
 tacks of animals and insect or fungous pests. This gives 
 a poor stand. The vacant areas in the rows should be 
 filled by replanting with seeds or with young plants 
 of the same or even of some other crop. In this way 
 every bit of the garden may be kept occupied. In re- 
 planting, it is often advisable to use a quick-growing 
 variety that will mature not far behind the first plant- 
 ing ; but if the growing season admits of it, various other 
 vegetables may be planted as companion or follow 
 crops. 
 
The Care of Growing Crops 
 
 207 
 
 Irrigation. In humid regions the natural rainfall is 
 such that there is seldom a complete failure of all crops. 
 In arid regions the rainfall is not sufficient to support 
 any crop, and the necessary water must be supplied 
 through some sort of irrigation. But provision for irri- 
 gation is also highly desirable in humid regions, for here 
 it does not always rain when the crops need water. 
 Periods of drought occur at some time nearly every year, 
 during which time the plants suffer, their rapid growth 
 is checked, their qualities of tenderness and good flavor 
 are greatly impaired, or pos- 
 sibly they may fail com- 
 pletely to produce a crop. 
 Therefore it pays the gar- 
 dener to have ready some 
 means of supplying water 
 whenever it may be needed. 
 
 For watering flats, hot- 
 beds, and cold frames, and 
 for watering at time of trans- 
 planting, the sprinkling can 
 is sufficient. But only a 
 very small garden can be 
 watered in this way. 
 
 A hose fitted with a spray 
 nozzle and connected with 
 a city water supply, a tank, 
 or a force pump gives excel- 
 lent results. Various sorts 
 
 of lawn Sprinklers, "water FIG. 124- The right way to water. 
 . The water is directed to the soil about 
 
 witches, and ring or shower the roots of the plants. 
 
208 Gardening 
 
 FIG. 125. Usually when irrigation is spoken of we think of the dry region of 
 the West, but this photograph shows the Skinner system of overhead irrigation 
 in action on a New Jersey truck farm. With a system of this sort the gardener 
 has no fear of dry weather. 
 
 sprinklers may be attached to distribute the water in a 
 manner like rain. 
 
 When there is a supply of water under pressure, the 
 overhead or Skinner system of irrigation is well adapted 
 to the needs of the home garden. This system con- 
 sists of galvanized iron pipe into which holes are drilled 
 and fitted with fine brass nozzles. One end of the pipe 
 is closed ; the other is connected with the water supply. 
 When in action, the water spurts from each nozzle in a 
 fine stream to a considerable distance. The pipe can be 
 turned with the row of nozzles at various angles until 
 areas on both sides of the pipe are well watered. A 
 portable support and hose connection will enable one to 
 shift the pipe as needed, or several lengths of pipe 
 sufficient to cover the entire garden may be attached to 
 rather permanent supports. 
 
The Care of Growing Crops 209 
 
 If the garden slopes somewhat, shallow trenches 
 may be made between the rows of plants with a hoe, and 
 then water may be allowed to run along these trenches 
 as needed. In arid regions this method of irrigation is 
 in very general use. 
 
 Whatever method of irrigation is employed, it is 
 best to soak the garden thoroughly at intervals of several 
 days rather than to water slightly at rather frequent 
 intervals. As soon after irrigation as the soil is suffi- 
 ciently dry, go over the garden with a rake, making a 
 fine surface mulch. 
 
 In watering crops with hose or sprinkling can, avoid 
 applying heavy and continued streams that wash the soil 
 away from roots, exposing them to the air. Soil may be 
 packed and puddled also by careless watering. Leafy 
 crops like lettuce often decay and rot if the head is rilled 
 with water. 
 
 Questions 
 
 In what three ways does surface cultivation benefit growing 
 crops? What is a dust mulch? How does it prevent loss of 
 water from the soil ? Why is it necessary to cultivate soon after 
 each rain ? How should young crops be cultivated ? Name the 
 best tools for cultivating a small garden. 
 
 Why is it best to pull weeds when they are small ? When is the 
 best time to do weeding? Why is this the best time? Why do 
 crops need thinning ? How is it best done ? Why should vacant 
 places in the rows be replanted ? When is the watering of gardens 
 necessary? Describe the proper methods of supplying water. 
 
 Things to Do and Observe 
 
 i. To show that a dust mulch retains water. Procure two deep 
 water-tight tin cans of the same size. Fill both with clay soil, 
 and water each thoroughly. Let stand until the soil can be worked. 
 
210 Gardening 
 
 Then make a good mulch on the surface of one, leaving the other 
 as it is. Now weigh each accurately, recording the weights. 
 After about a week weigh each again, and compare the weights 
 with first weighing. Which has lost more in weight ? Why ? 
 
 2. To determine the best time for pulling large weeds. Two boys 
 started a garden together in the spring. They kept it in good 
 condition, but went to the seashore during July. When they 
 returned, they found many large weeds shading and crowding the 
 vegetables. One boy said: "Let's take out the weeds right 
 away. They're shading the vegetables and taking the water 
 from them." "No," said the other, "that will not do at all. 
 The weather's hot and dry, and if we pull the weeds now we'll 
 break the roots of the vegetables all to pieces and they'll wilt 
 for lack of water. We must wait till it rains." They consulted 
 a gardener, who advised them to cut the weeds off and cultivate 
 with a hoe but not to pull them during dry weather. Who do 
 you think was right ? 
 
 Plant three hills of bush beans with four plants close together in 
 each hill. After they are well grown, try thinning to one plant in a 
 hill by each of the above methods, studying the results in each case. 
 
 3. To show the effects of thinning. When you plant your 
 radishes, plant 3 feet of the row very thickly, and do not thin. 
 Plant and thin the rest of the row according to directions. When 
 the radishes are ready to gather, pull up the crowded plants and 
 also a yard of the row that has been thinned. Count the number 
 of edible radishes in each lot and compare. From this experiment, 
 would you say that thick planting gives greater or less yield to 
 a given space ? Observe the gardens in your neighborhood and 
 determine whether too wide spacing or crowding of vegetables is 
 the more common. 
 
CHAPTER FOURTEEN 
 
 ROOT CROPS AND HOW TO GROW THEM 
 
 Say what you will of roots and the root crop, I like to 
 have a good lot of them for winter use. I would not do 
 without them for twice their cost. 
 
 Old Farmer's Almanac 
 
 THE radish, turnip, rutabaga, beet, carrot, parsnip, 
 and salsify are the principal root crops commonly grown 
 in vegetable gardens. While these plants thrive best in 
 temperate regions, they are all grown successfully in our 
 southern states during the cooler months of winter and 
 early spring. The sweet potato is another important 
 root crop, but it is not adapted to the shorter growing 
 period of the more northern states. 
 
 Root crops are very important vegetables. In the 
 first place, they yield abundantly. There are 400 or 500 
 plants in a row of carrots or beets 100 feet long, and these 
 crops often yield at the rate of 600 bushels to the acre. 
 The yield is high also in the other root crops. 
 
 In the second place, root crops, taken together, are avail- 
 able for use during practically the whole year. Radishes 
 are the first vegetable ready for the table from seed 
 planted in the spring. Beets and carrots are long-season 
 crops, but the young and partially grown roots may be 
 pulled for use early, thus much extending the period 
 of harvest for the crop. Radishes and turnips can be 
 grown in the fall as well as in the spring, and in the 
 autumn the surplus of all root crops may be stored 
 for winter consumption. Parsnips and salsify can be 
 dug for use, during autumn and spring, and also dur- 
 ing winter when the ground is not frozen. These root 
 crops have a special value because they supply vege- 
 
 211 
 
212 Gardening 
 
 tables to the table in winter when other fresh foods 
 are scarce. 
 
 A good soil needed for root crops. As a rule, the 
 root crops are " light feeders." This is because the root 
 system is not extensive. The main root grows down 
 rather deeply but becomes thick and fleshy, while the 
 smaller, fibrous, feeding rootlets are not so numerous 
 and so widely spreading as in many other crops. 
 
 Root crops, therefore, thrive best in a mellow soil in 
 which the roots can go deep. A rich and well- watered 
 loam or a sandy soil that contains considerable humus 
 and well-rotted manure is best for them. On heavy and 
 compact soils the roots of these crops are often small, 
 ill-shaped, knotty, and more or less branched. They 
 often fail on " raw " or previously uncultivated soils, 
 but with good tillage and the addition of humus and 
 manure such soils become suited to all the root crops. 
 
 Root crops maturing during periods of hot, dry weather 
 are likely to be woody and of poor flavor. This can be 
 prevented in large degree by supplying an abundance of 
 water. 
 
 Thinning root crops. The beginner often fails to thin 
 root crops sufficiently. The tops of these plants as a rule 
 are small compared to the underground parts, and they 
 are likely to be left so thick that the plants do not have 
 room to mature properly. 
 
 In thinning these crops it is best to allow a distance 
 between plants twice the diameter of a mature root. 
 Thus radishes, which are i inch in diameter when mature, 
 should stand 2 inches apart, and turnips, which are 3 
 inches in diameter, should stand 6 inches apart. If there 
 
Root Crops and How to Grow Them 213 
 
 is plenty of space, twice 
 this distance may well 
 be allowed; but in a 
 small garden the plants 
 should be grown as close 
 together as practicable. 
 
 RADISHES 
 
 There are spring, 
 summer, and winter 
 varieties of radishes. 
 The spring sorts are 
 very easy to grow, but 
 one is less certain of 
 success with the sum- 
 mer and winter varie- 
 ties. Rich soil, abun- 
 dance of water, and cool 
 weather favor rapid 
 
 growth, which makes the soil first, making it easier for the other 
 
 the roots crisp, tender, s f ds to P ush U P> and they are soon out of 
 
 the way. 
 
 and juicy. As spring 
 
 and summer radishes remain in good condition for eat- 
 ing only a short time they are often overplanted. 
 
 Spring varieties. The planting of spring radishes 
 may begin as soon as the soil can be worked. Some vari- 
 eties are ready for use in 20 days from planting. Plant 
 the seeds rather thickly, \ inch deep, in rows 10 inches 
 apart Begin to pull the largest roots as soon as they 
 are large enough for use. 
 
 FIG. 126. Radishes grown as a com- 
 panion crop with onions. When planted 
 with another crop, radishes usually break 
 
214 Gardening 
 
 Spring radishes are best when about two- thirds grown. 
 They should be gathered promptly, as they soon become 
 hollow, pithy, dry, and of strong flavor. The roots of 
 some sorts are well below the surface of the soil, and the 
 leaf growth is rather sparse. The beginner is likely 
 to leave these plants in the soil too long. The size may 
 be determined by carefully feeling in the soil about the 
 root of a plant with the finger. 
 
 During the winter months the spring varieties may be 
 forced in hotbeds throughout zones F and G, or in cold 
 frames in zone E, and they may be grown in the open in 
 zones B, C, and D. (For map of zones, see page 158.) 
 
 The Scarlet Globe (globe-shaped), French Breakfast 
 (oval or olive-shaped) , and the White Icicle (long, finger- 
 shaped) are excellent standard sorts to be recommended 
 for any section of the United States. 
 
 Summer varieties. Summer radishes are somewhat 
 resistant to the stronger sunlight, warmer temperatures, 
 and drier conditions of summer months. The seed is 
 planted in the early or late spring, and the roots are 
 ready for use in about 50 days. Success with these 
 varieties depends on supplying the conditions that favor 
 rapid growth. Rich soil, abundance of water, and 
 partial shade (the latter may sometimes be supplied by a 
 screen of thin cloth or laths) are necessary where the 
 summers are rather warm. 
 
 Chartier and White Strasburg are considered the best of 
 the summer radishes. 
 
 Winter varieties. Winter radishes require about 75 
 days of rapid growth to mature roots of large size. The 
 seed is therefore planted during the summer (in July in 
 
Root Crops and How to Grow Them 215 
 
 the more northern states of zone G, about August i in 
 zone E, and September i in zone C) . The roots can thus 
 mature in the cool weather of autumn. Before the heavy 
 frosts occur, the roots should be pulled and placed in soil 
 or sand and stored in a basement or a storage cellar. 
 
 The Celestial (or White Chinese), the Long Black 
 Spanish (especially good for storage), and the Sakura- 
 jima (or Mammoth Japan) are standard varieties. 
 
 TURNIPS 
 
 The turnip is essentially a cool-season crop. The 
 different varieties are ready for use in from 45 to 70 days, 
 and the earliest sorts are usually those grown as spring 
 crops. There are about 20 varieties in cultivation. Of 
 these, Early Purple Top Milan, maturing in about 45 
 days, and White Globe, maturing in about 70 days, are 
 standard varieties suitable to nearly all parts of the United, 
 States. 
 
 Growing turnips as a spring crop. In many localities 
 spring turnips are not a success because hot weather 
 comes before they are large enough for use, and they soon 
 become woody and bitter. But in localities having 
 cool and moist summers, crops maturing during summer 
 are often of fine quality. For these crops lay out the 
 rows 1 2 inches apart and sow seed in the furrows J inch 
 deep. 
 
 The beginner should attempt to grow only the very 
 earliest sorts as a spring crop. Two sowings, each a row 
 15 feet in length, will probably be sufficient for the family 
 needs. 
 
2l6 
 
 Gardening 
 
 FIG. 127. Pulling young beets. The beets are large enough for use and the 
 leaves are still tender. 
 
 The autumn crop. Seed for the autumn crop is sown 
 during July and August in the northern states and later in 
 the South (about 15 days later for each planting zone). 
 
 In the small garden where space is limited, seed may 
 be sown among corn to mature as a follow crop. First, 
 make a finely pulverized seed bed by thorough raking. 
 Then sow the seeds broadcast and lightly rake them in 
 or plant them in rows as in the spring. Supply water if 
 there is scant fall of rain. Cut and remove the corn- 
 stalks as the ears are harvested. 
 
 Turnips are not injured by mild frosts, but the. roots 
 should be harvested and properly stored before they be- 
 come frozen. In many sections of the southern states, 
 from Florida to California, turnips can be grown in the 
 open during the winter so that the roots are maturing 
 from October until April. 
 
Root Crops and How to Grow Them 217 
 
 RUTABAGAS 
 
 Rutabagas or " Swedes " are grown much the same as 
 fall crops of turnips, but as they require about 90 days 
 to reach maturity, the seed should be planted three or 
 four weeks earlier in summer. The best crops are pro- 
 duced in the northern states in sections having cool 
 summers. The roots are larger than turnips, and they 
 keep somewhat longer in storage than do most other 
 root crops. Rutabagas are much used for feeding stock 
 and poultry, and they are excellent food for human beings. 
 They are especially pleasing in a " boiled dinner." The 
 Improved Purple Top and the Golden Heart are excellent 
 varieties for the family garden. 
 
 GARDEN BEETS 
 
 Seed catalogues list about 12 varieties of table beets, 
 differing to some extent in shape, color, size, and flavor, 
 as well as in the time required for proper growth. Al- 
 though these beets are to be classed as essentially cool- 
 season crops, they thrive during summer, especially in 
 the more northern planting zones. 
 
 For the first planting, sow seeds of an early variety 
 like Crosby's Egyptian about the time of the latest frost. 
 This will furnish tender, partly grown roots for use during 
 summer. Successive plantings of this variety may be 
 made for later use, but the latest date of planting should 
 be about 60 days before the first killing frost of autumn. 
 
 In the lower altitudes of the southern parts of Arizona 
 and California and in the Gulf States, seeds sown in 
 September will yield roots that may be left in the ground 
 
2i8 Gardening 
 
 all winter and used as desired. Proper plantings in the 
 northern states will supply the table throughout the 
 summer and give roots for storage. 
 
 The seeds are planted about i inch deep in rows that 
 are from 10 to 18 inches apart. What is ordinarily 
 called a seed of the beet is really a cluster of tiny seeds, 
 several of which may germinate into plantlets that crowd 
 one another. Thinning may be delayed, however, until 
 the young plants are 3 or 4 inches tall, when they may 
 be used for greens. In thinning, care should be exercised 
 so that the plants left standing are not rudely disturbed ; 
 it is often a good plan to cut off the plants to be removed 
 rather than to pull them. 
 
 Very young plants removed in thinning may be trans- 
 planted to fill out any vacant places in the rows. Plants 
 may be left i inch apart at the first thinning, and later 
 every other plant may be removed for use as greens, 
 leaving the others well spaced for more mature develop- 
 ment. 
 
 The Detroit Dark Red is a variety widely grown as a 
 main and late crop for storage. The roots are globular 
 and about 3 inches in diameter. About one third of the 
 root grows above ground, and this part is often tough and 
 cordy. The New Century (also called Rajah, Winter 
 Keeper, Green Top, and All Season) is a rather new 
 variety that promises to be valuable for autumn crops. 
 
 CARROTS 
 
 Carrots have practically the same planting dates, heat 
 requirements, and length of growing season as beets. 
 
Root Crops and How to Grow Them 219 
 
 The varieties called Early 
 Scarlet Horn and French 
 Forcing are excellent for 
 early crops but yield small 
 roots. The varieties with 
 larger roots require about 
 80 days for maturity but 
 give much greater yield. 
 They should be planted for 
 the main or late crop. 
 Chantenay, Danvers Half 
 Long., and Improved Long 
 Orange are all excellent. 
 
 The small seeds of the 
 carrot should be planted 
 about J inch deep in rows 
 about 1 2 inches apart. The 
 seeds germinate slowly, and 
 it is often 2 weeks before the 
 seedlings are well above 
 ground. Gardeners frequently scatter seeds of early 
 radishes with the seeds of the carrot. The radishes 
 mature in 20 to 30 days and are removed about the 
 time the carrots need to be thinned to stand about 
 i inch apart. Further thinning is necessary; this 
 may be done by removing the larger roots as soon 
 as they can be used for food. The young half-grown 
 or " baby " carrots are one of the garden's best deli- 
 cacies. 
 
 The slow germination of the seeds of carrots, and also 
 of parsnips, and the small size of the seedlings make 
 
 FIG. 128. Thinning young carrots. 
 
22o Gardening 
 
 weeding among them difficult. It is often advisable, 
 therefore, to cultivate the rows before the seedlings are 
 up. This can be done by drawing a fine-toothed rake 
 quickly along between the rows in such a manner that 
 a thin layer of fine dirt is thrown over the planted seeds. 
 This not only covers small weeds, but it keeps a crust 
 from forming on the soil and makes it easier for the little 
 plants to push through. 
 
 PARSNIPS AND SALSIFY 
 
 These two crops are the most hardy of the standard 
 root vegetables. They are long-period crops, requiring 
 for best development about 5 months of continuous 
 growth. In the northern states the seed is planted as 
 soon as the danger of frosts is past, and the roots are 
 ready for use in late autumn. They may be dug and 
 stored in the fall, or they may be left in the ground and 
 dug as needed during the winter and early spring. The 
 roots must be used before warm weather arrives, however, 
 for then the flower stalks are produced and the roots be- 
 come worthless as food. In the South these crops are 
 not much planted, but they can be grown if the seed is 
 planted rather late in summer. 
 
 The long taproots of the parsnip and salsify develop 
 best in deep, loose soil. Careful spading to a depth of 
 8 or even 10 inches is advisable. It is sometimes stated 
 that a development of large, well-shaped roots is pro- 
 moted by making a hole a foot deep with an iron bar, 
 filling the hole with loose, rich earth, and then planting 
 the seed at the top. 
 
Root Crops and How to Grow Them 221 
 
 Parsnip seed is very likely to germinate poorly, and if 
 more than one year old, it may fail entirely. It is a good 
 plan to sow the seed rather thickly. The plants should 
 be thinned until they stand 3 inches from one another 
 in rows at least 12 inches apart. Salsify is less rank in 
 leafy growth and can stand slightly closer than 3 inches 
 in the row. 
 
 The so-called Sandwich Island variety of salsify is 
 the only sort widely cultivated in America. The Hollow 
 Crown is the best variety of parsnip to plant ; the variety 
 Early Round has short, top-shaped roots of good flavor 
 but of such small yield that it is not to be recommended 
 for the home garden. 
 
 HORSE-RADISH 
 
 Horse-radish is a perennial plant that thrives best in 
 rich loam soil. The roots are grated fine and used as a 
 relish and condiment. Roots for use during autumn 
 and spring may be dug as needed ; those for use during 
 winter can be stored in sand and placed in a cool cellar. 
 
 New plants are always started from roots rather than 
 from seeds. When digging roots for table use, spade 
 deeply, breaking up the root clusters and removing the 
 largest. New plants will arise from the small roots 
 left in the soil. A few hills will provide a family with a 
 sufficient supply of horse-radish. 
 
 SWEET POTATO 
 
 Sweet potatoes are grown successfully as a field and 
 garden crop as far north as the upper parts of zone E. 
 
222 Gardening 
 
 The stems trail over the ground and take up so much 
 space that the crop is not well suited to gardens of small 
 area. It is, however, an important crop in many of the 
 large-sized home vegetable gardens of the South. 
 
 The sweet potato thrives in a warm, sandy, and well- 
 drained soil. Little rainfall is needed after the growth 
 is well under way ; in this requirement it differs from 
 the other root crops we have discussed. 
 
 The sweet potato plant is propagated by " slips " or 
 " draws." Roots are placed about 4 inches deep in 
 sand or soil in flats, or directly in the soil of hotbeds, and 
 kept moist and warm. Many shoots or draws develop 
 from an old root, and these in turn develop roots and 
 form young plants suitable for transplanting into the 
 garden in about 5 weeks. 
 
 In the South cuttings are taken from the vines of 
 growing plants and used as plants for later plantings. 
 The crop is grown in rows, and the plants are most often 
 set on low ridges ; but on sandy soils flat culture is used. 
 
 The roots should be dug before severe frosts occur. 
 They should be allowed to dry in the sunlight for several 
 hours, and then be placed loosely in baskets or slatted 
 crates and dried or cured in a warm room (beside a 
 kitchen stove or furnace will do) for a period of about 
 10 days. They may then be stored in a dry place 
 where the temperature does not go below 50. The 
 roots should be handled carefully, as they soon rot if 
 bruised. 
 
 Unless local conditions are found to be unfavorable 
 for certain of the root crops, or the family tastes reject 
 
Root Crops and How to Grow Them 223 
 
 some sorts, all those mentioned above should find a place 
 in the home vegetable garden. All, excepting horse- 
 radish and sweet potatoes, are grown from seed sown 
 directly in the garden soil; hence it is easy to get the 
 crops started. 
 
 Gardeners planning to grow the sweet potato are 
 advised to send for Farm Bulletin 395 of the United 
 States Department of Agriculture; also to ask for 
 literature on propagation, culture, diseases, and varieties 
 from their own state agricultural experiment station. 
 
 Questions 
 
 Name the principal root crops grown in vegetable gardens. 
 Why are root crops especially important vegetables? What is 
 meant when it is said that root crops are "light feeders"? In 
 what soils do root crops thrive best? In what soils are root 
 crops most likely to fail ? Why should root crops be thinned ? 
 What is the general rule to be used in thinning them? 
 
 What special conditions do radishes need to yield well? What 
 conditions are necessary to grow summer radishes successfully? 
 When are winter radishes planted? Can turnips be grown as a 
 summer crop in localities having hot-weather conditions? How 
 are they grown as an autumn crop? When is thinning of beets 
 often done? What is the best method of doing this? Describe 
 a way to cultivate young carrots and parsnips without disturbing 
 them. When should parsnip seed be planted in the Northern 
 states? Describe the method of propagating the sweet potato. 
 
 Things to Do and Observe 
 
 i. To learn which root crops are suited to your locality and the 
 varieties of each that should be grown. Visit as many gardens or 
 farms in your neighborhood as you can and note the kinds of 
 root crops grown. Inquire as to the varieties grown for home 
 use and for market. 
 
224 Gardening 
 
 2. To determine the soil best suited to growing root crops. In 
 your visits observe where the various root crops are usually grown. 
 Do you ever find, for example, these crops planted on a dry hill- 
 side? If so, how do those growing in such a location thrive in 
 comparison with those growing in rich bottom land? 
 
 3. To determine if you have planted your crop at the right time.. 
 Keep a record of the dates of planting for all the crops grown in 
 your garden. Compare these dates with those in your table of 
 planting dates and with the dates of local frost. (See Exercise i 
 on page 163.) 
 
 Would planting at a different date have been better in any case? 
 
CHAPTER FIFTEEN 
 
 CROPS GROWN FOR THEIR LEAVES 
 
 Who would be without celery and lettuce, rhubarb and 
 spinach, when it is so easy to raise them? 
 
 Old Farmer's Almanac 
 
 ALL leafy crops of the garden are used as food when 
 the leaves are tender and in good condition. The plants 
 are not left to reach natural or full maturity and pro- 
 duce seed. They are often grown in ways that promote 
 excessive leafy development, which may be somewhat 
 unnatural for the plant. 
 
 Some leafy vegetables, like rhubarb, onions from sets, 
 Swiss chard, and cabbage, are rather easy to grow success- 
 fully, but the greater number of leafy vegetables require 
 conditions that are very favorable to their growth. In 
 general, the production of many tender leaves in these 
 crops requires a rich soil, abundant moisture, cool weather 
 and good cultivation. Poor soil, lack of cultivation, in- 
 sufficient moisture, and hot weather invariably result in 
 fewer leaves, slower growth, and poorer quality. 
 
 Many of the most delicious of the leafy vegetables 
 (especially of the salad crops) wilt quickly when gathered, 
 and soon lose their tenderness and best flavor. For this 
 reason they are especially suited to home production, for 
 then they may be placed on the table fresh from the 
 garden. With a few exceptions, home-grown leafy 
 vegetables excel in crispness and flavor the vegetables 
 which are bought in the market ; and the excellent table 
 qualities of properly grown leafy crops well repay the 
 home gardener for his efforts in producing them. 
 
 At least twenty distinct sorts of plants may be grown 
 in the home vegetable gardens in the United States solely 
 
 225 
 
226 
 
 Gardening 
 
 Stales Relations Service 
 FIG. 129. A boy's successful crop of leafy vegetables. 
 
 for the leaves which they produce. In the discussion of 
 these various crops it is convenient to group them into 
 classes according to the way the young plants are started 
 and the season when the crop matures. 
 
 LEAFY CROPS PROPAGATED VEGETATIVELY 
 
 This class includes rhubarb and four bulb-like plants 
 of the onion family chives, shallots, garlic, and 
 bulblet onions. With the exception of garlic, these vege- 
 tables are ready for use early in spring. Chives and the 
 bulblet onions are hardy perennials that may be left in 
 the ground during the winter. 
 
 Rhubarb or pieplant. This plant thrives anywhere 
 in the United States except in the lower planting zones. 
 In the northern sections it is a long-lived or perennial 
 
Crops Grown for Their Leaves 227 
 
 plant, and if planted on* a well-drained soil, it withstands 
 very severe winters. Early in spring it throws up a crop 
 of leaves with thick, fleshy leafstalks. The stalk por- 
 tion of the leaves when properly cooked makes a tart 
 sauce whose acid flavor is decidedly appetizing in early 
 spring. In the more southern parts of the United States 
 the plant runs quickly to seed and usually dies during 
 the summer ; hence it is not well suited to culture there. 
 
 The acid flavor of rhubarb is due to the presence of 
 oxalic acid, but this acid is so diluted in the fleshy leaf- 
 stalks that their use as food does not cause poisoning. 
 It is not safe, however, to eat any part of the expanded, 
 less fleshy portion of the leaf. 1 
 
 Rhubarb forms large clusters of roots, and the plant 
 is usually propagated by digging up and dividing these 
 clusters. The plants should be set about 4 feet apart 
 each way, and the plot kept well cultivated. Add 
 about 3 inches of well-rotted manure late each autumn 
 and spade it under early in the spring. 
 
 When left alone the roots become crowded, and in 
 consequence the leafstalks are small and slender. To 
 prevent this, the plants should be divided and reset in 
 the autumn of every third or fourth year. Dig up the 
 root clusters and select for transplanting only good 
 roots with a well-formed bud or "eye." As the resetting 
 reduces somewhat the yield for the first year, it is a 
 good plan to transplant only half the bed at a time. 
 
 1 The garden sorrel (Rumex acetosa). a near relative of the rhubarb, 
 is sometimes cultivated and sold in the markets for use as early spring 
 greens. It produces considerable amounts of oxalic acid, and has some- 
 times caused death. 
 
228 
 
 Gardening 
 
 FIG. 130. Rhubarb along the edge of a garden. The photograph shows the 
 "barrel method" of covering the plants to make the stems longer and more 
 tender. Every other barrel was removed before the picture was taken. 
 
 No leaves should be pulled the first year after reset- 
 ting. 
 
 Roots for starting a bed may be obtained from seed 
 houses or perhaps from a neighbor's garden. The 
 standard varieties known as Victoria and Linnceus are 
 the best sorts. 
 
 Rhubarb may be grown from seed also. Sow the seed 
 early in spring in rows i foot apart in a seed bed. Thin 
 to about 6 inches apart in the row, and when the plants 
 are a year old transplant them to a permanent bed. 
 
 The outer leaves of the rhubarb are pulled for use as 
 soon as they reach proper size. Break them off by a 
 quick side twist and jerk. Later in the season allow 
 plenty of the leaves to remain so that they may furnish 
 
Crops Grown for Their Leaves 229 
 
 food to the underground parts. The plants will be more 
 vigorous if the flower stalks, which appear in the early 
 summer, are cut (not broken) as fast as they form. 
 
 Chives. Chives are hardy perennials having small, 
 onion-like bulbs and narrow, hollow, erect leaves 6 or 8 
 inches in length. Left alone, the plants multiply rapidly 
 and soon form dense mats. They are readily propagated 
 by dividing and replanting the clumps in spring. A 
 bunch of living plants for the first planting may be 
 obtained from a seed firm. The plant will thrive in any 
 garden soil. The leaves, which are used in seasoning 
 salads, stews, and soups, may be cut repeatedly, as they 
 come again quickly. 
 
 In the northern states the plants will furnish green 
 leaves during the winter if clumps of them are dug in 
 late autumn, placed in flats, and given the protection 
 of a cold frame or a spent hotbed. 
 
 Shallots. The mature or resting plant of the shallot 
 consists of a number of elongated and gray-colored 
 bulblets (usually called " cloves ") attached at the base 
 to a common stem. These cloves are separated and 
 planted with the stem-end down. In the North, planting 
 is done in the spring ; in the South, it is usually done in 
 the autumn. Each clove quickly makes a leafy growth 
 and is soon ready for table use. 
 
 If left undisturbed the basal bulb splits up into a 
 number of new cloves. These clusters may be cured like 
 bulb onions and stored for winter use or for planting the 
 following spring. Shallots are milder in flavor than most 
 onions and are easily grown. They are deserving of 
 more general culture in home gardens. 
 
230 Gardening 
 
 Garlic. The mature garlic bulb consists of a number 
 of small bulblets or cloves, each of which is inclosed in 
 a thin, dry, tough leaf ; the whole cluster is in turn in- 
 closed within a larger dry leaf. The cloves are separated 
 and planted in eaily spring, the plants continue growth 
 during summer, and the mature bulbs are harvested in 
 autumn. The dry tops, which are tough and stringy, 
 are braided together, and the string of bulbs is hung up in 
 a dry place. Garlic has a strong flavor and is used prin- 
 cipally in flavoring stews and salads. It is well adapted 
 for growing in the warm sections of the United States. 
 
 Bulblet onions and their culture. In these onions 
 the mother plant produces small bulbs or bulblets and 
 seldom flowers and seeds. There are two sorts of bulblet 
 onions, commonly known as (i) multiplier and potato 
 onions, in which the mother bulb itself splits up into 
 bulblets, and (2) the Egyptian or perennial tree onion, 
 which not only divides at the base but also produces 
 erect stalks at the tops of which new bulblets develop. 
 The bulblets of multiplier and tree onions are quite 
 similar in structure to the onion sets grown from seed. 
 Not all seed firms list the sets of these onions, but they 
 may be had from some firms. 
 
 Multiplier onions planted in autumn and left in the 
 ground over winter begin growth very early in the spring. 
 Almost before the ground is thawed out, the bulblets 
 begin to produce leaves and may then be pulled for the 
 table. If left alone, each bulblet becomes n compound 
 bulb composed of new bulblets. Unless well thinned by 
 pulling during the spring, the bulbs and bulblets should 
 be separated and replanted in autumn to prevent crowding. 
 
Crops Grown for Their Leaves 231 
 
 Tree onions also live through severe winters without 
 injury. The basal or mother bulb divides, making tender 
 young plants suitable for use in early spring. If left 
 alone, the plants may later produce erect stalks on which 
 a cluster of new bulblets is produced. These may be 
 planted in autumn to raise another crop of leafy plants 
 in the following spring. 
 
 The various bulblet onions furnish, as do chives, fresh 
 leafy food suitable for table use during spring, when 
 the green parts of the leaves as well as the basal parts 
 are tender, juicy, and of good flavor. They are then 
 pulled, cleaned, and eaten raw as a relish. In the 
 markets such onions are commonly sold in bunches ; 
 hence they are often called " bunch onions." Later 
 in the season the leaves become tough and of strong 
 flavor. The bulblets themselves are usually too small 
 to be of much value as " dry " onions, but they are about 
 the right size for use in pickling. 
 
 LEAFY CROPS GROWN FROM SEED 
 
 The leafy crops that are grown from seed may be 
 grouped into several classes, as follows : 
 
 (1) The bulb plants, such as seed onions and leeks. 
 
 (2) " Gut-and-come-again " crops that begin to yield 
 leaves early in the summer, like parsley, yellow rocket, 
 Swiss chard, and New Zealand spinach. 
 
 (3) The long-period cool-season crops that mature in 
 autumn, like endive and chicory. 
 
 (4) The forced cool-season crops, including celery, 
 the cabbages, and head lettuce. 
 
232 Gardening 
 
 (5) The short-period crops, such as leaf lettuce, 
 spinach, peppergrass, and mustard. 
 
 BULB PLANTS GROWN FROM SEED 
 
 Seed onions and leeks are the two bulb-like garden 
 vegetables of this general class. In seed onions the 
 leafy growth is rapid during the cool weather of spring, 
 but with the arrival of hot weather the tops of the 
 leaves die, the growth stops, and the fleshy bases of 
 the leaves form a bulb which " rests " for a time ; in this 
 condition it is called " dry." In the leek the bulb por- 
 tion does not become much enlarged, but the lower por- 
 tion of the leaves forms a column of fleshy and edible 
 tissue. The leek grows rather slowly during the hot 
 summer, but makes a rapid development during the cool 
 season of autumn. 
 
 Leeks. The leek is a biennial plant. The crop is 
 best grown from seed sown early in the spring in outdoor 
 seed beds. The plants should be transplanted to the 
 garden when 6 or 7 inches tall, being placed 4 inches 
 apart in rows spaced at 12 inches. When transplanting, 
 set the plants deeply almost to the young center 
 leaves so that the column of leaves will blanch in the 
 soil. If set lower than this, especially in heavy clay 
 soils, the heart may fail to develop further. 
 
 When the crop is grown from seed planted in the row, 
 a little soil should be raked up around the leaves from 
 time to time as they develop. In the northern sections 
 plants may be covered with straw and left in the field for 
 use during winter, or they may be dug and stored in earth 
 
Crops Grown for Their Leaves 
 
 233 
 
 FIG. 131. "Dry" onions grown from onion sets. They are now ready to be 
 pulled, dried, and stored away for the winter. 
 
 in a cool cellar or in a cold frame. In the South the 
 crop may be left in the garden for use as needed. 
 
 The green leaves of the leek have a coarse texture, 
 a rank odor, and are strongly acrid when eaten raw. The 
 blanched portion is more tender and less acrid. When 
 the leek is cooked, the flavor is even milder than that of 
 most onions ; hence the plant is excellent for flavoring 
 soups and stews. There are not many varieties of the 
 leek offered by seedsmen. London or American Flag 
 and Large Rouen are standard sorts. 
 
 Seed onions and their culture. If the seed of these 
 onions is planted in spring and the plants well cared for, 
 each plant forms a large bulb or " dry " onion before 
 autumn arrives. When properly cured and stored, 
 
234 
 
 Gardening 
 
 FIG. 132. When onions are about two- 
 thirds grown, the tops are sometimes 
 broken down, as shown in this picture. 
 By this practice the growth of seed tops 
 is checked, the size of the bulb is increased, 
 and hollow centers are not so likely to form 
 within the bulb. 
 
 these bulbs may be used 
 as food until late in 
 the following spring. If 
 these one-year-old bulbs 
 are planted in spring, 
 they produce tall stalks 
 bearing flowers, and 
 later, seeds ; then the 
 mother bulb dies. Seed 
 is thus produced in the 
 second year of the plant's 
 growth, and for this 
 reason the onion is a 
 biennial. 
 
 If, however, the seeds 
 are sown late, or the 
 young plants are much 
 crowded, or are grown 
 on poor soil, the plants 
 do not form large bulbs 
 that year. Instead, the 
 tops die in summer, 
 leaving only small bulbs 
 that are called " sets." 
 If these sets are planted 
 early in the following 
 sufficient room, the plants 
 
 large "dry" bulbs. 
 
 spring in rich soil with 
 grown from them will make 
 These, if stored through the winter and planted the fol- 
 lowing season, will produce seed. Sets are therefore 
 plants that are halfway to the dry onion stage of de- 
 
Crops Grown for Their Leaves 235 
 
 velopment ; and if the conditions for growth are un- 
 favorable the first year, the onion takes three years to 
 complete its entire life cycle. 
 
 Dry onions for table use may therefore be grown in 
 one season, either from seed or from sets. Although 
 onions grown from sets are inclined to shoot to seed, the 
 crop is more easily grown from sets than from seed. 
 They make a much quicker start, and the production of 
 bulbs of large size is somewhat more certain. It is well 
 to buy sets of named varieties rather than to buy simply 
 " sets." Red sets of the Red Wethers field; white, of 
 White Portugal; and yellow, of Yellow Darners, are 
 recommended for general planting. Sets are planted 
 early in spring. 
 
 Something like 30 varieties of onions grown from seed 
 are often listed by seedsmen. Southport White Globe, 
 Southport Yellow Globe, Southport Red Globe, Danvers, 
 Prizetaker, and Red Wethersfield are good varieties for 
 all sections of the United States. The Queen or White 
 Pearl is an early, small, flat, white onion excellent for 
 pickling. The Bermuda onions (White Bermuda, Red 
 Bermuda, and Crystal Wax) are good mild-flavored sorts. 
 
 In growing direct from seed, sow thickly in rows 12 
 or 14 inches apart, as soon as there is no danger of frosts. 
 The young plants are slow in getting a start. Cultivate 
 well, and keep weeds out of the rows. Thin to stand i 
 inch apart in the row, and later remove every other 
 plant for use as young onions, leaving the plants for dry 
 onions spaced about 2 inches apart in the row. 
 
 Larger bulbs and earlier bunch onions may be had by 
 starting plants in a hotbed, cold frame, or indoor seed 
 
236 Gardening 
 
 bed. In doing this, sow seed about 10 weeks before 
 planting time. Transplant once to other flats as soon as 
 seedlings are 2 inches tall, and space them so that they 
 are about i inch apart. As soon as frosts are over, 
 harden the seedlings and transplant them to the garden. 
 
 In the South, seed is very generally planted in the 
 autumn and the crop grows during the mild winter. 
 Even in some sections of the northern states, seed may be 
 sown in the early autumn ; the young plants live over 
 winter and start growth early, yielding an early crop of 
 bunch onions, or later, dry onions. 
 
 All onions require a rich and well-drained soil. Success 
 in growing good dry bulbs from seed depends on sow- 
 ing the seed as soon as possible in spring, on thinning 
 early so that the growing plants are not crowded, on 
 keeping the weeds from even making a start in the onion 
 plantings, and on frequent but shallow surface cultivation. 
 With this treatment, the plants make rapid growth 
 during the cool spring season and form bulbs of good size. 
 It is, however, somewhat difficult to grow good bulbs in 
 localities where the summers are cool and damp, for in 
 such places the plants tend to remain green and leafy. 
 
 The proper maturing of onion bulbs depends on the 
 weather and upon their treatment. If the bulbs reach a 
 good size by the time hot weather arrives, the tops turn 
 yellow and begin to die, and the bulb enters a resting 
 condition. The bulb is, of course, still fleshy and 
 juicy inside, and it contains at least one living bud 
 or " heart." As long as this bud remains dormant, the 
 bulb "keeps" ; but if it resumes growth, the bulb soon 
 becomes useless as food. 
 
Crops Grown for Their Leaves 
 
 2 37 
 
 FIG. 133. Parsley grown in a cold frame for use in the late fall and early winter 
 
 months. 
 
 The bulbs should be pulled as soon as the tops turn 
 down and begin to wither. They may be left in small 
 piles in the open air to dry for a few days, after which 
 the tops should be cut off. The bulbs are then placed in 
 crates or on trays and stored in a cool and well-venti- 
 lated room where they will not freeze. 
 
 In a small home garden, a short row, kept planted 
 with multiplier or with tree onions, will supply a family 
 with sufficient bunch onions for use during early spring. 
 For a supply of dry onions, the seed or the sets of good 
 seed varieties should be planted. 
 
 CUT-AND-COME-AGAIN LEAFY VEGETABLES 
 
 Parsley, yellow rocket, Swiss chard, and New Zealand 
 spinach are crops of this class. The outer and larger 
 leaves, or even the branches, are cut as they reach a good 
 size, leaving the inner leaves or new shoots to develop for 
 
238 Gardening 
 
 later use. The repeated growth of these vegetables 
 makes them especially desirable for the small home 
 garden, for a few plants occupying a row only 10 feet 
 long will continue to yield a harvest of leaves from early 
 summer until autumn frosts. With rich soil, abundance 
 of water, and good cultivation, these vegetables will 
 thrive and yield abundantly during the summer months. 
 
 Parsley. Sow the seed of parsley rather thickly, not 
 more than ^ inch deep, in shallow drills that are about 
 1 2 inches apart. A row 5 feet long, containing 10 plants, 
 will furnish an abundance of attractive leaves for gar- 
 nishing throughout the summer and autumn. Plants 
 left in the garden over winter will supply leaves for a 
 while in the following spring, but will soon run to seed. 
 
 Plants may be potted and grown during the winter in 
 cold frames or even in the window of the home for use 
 when other green leaf vegetables are not readily avail- 
 able. The Plain-leaved variety is very hardy, but the 
 Double-curled, the Moss-curled, and the Fern-leaved are 
 more attractive in appearance and more generally grown. 
 
 Yellow rocket. This plant is also called " upland 
 cress " and " common winter cress." It is a member of 
 the mustard family and is closely related to mustard, 
 peppergrass, watercress, and horse-radish. The leaves 
 are used as a salad, and the plant is about the only good 
 salad plant that will thrive during hot weather. Sow 
 the seed early in spring ; in about 10 weeks leaves will be 
 ready for use. The plants form rather dense clusters of 
 leaves, and if these are picked carefully the plants will 
 continue to bear leaves. Yellow rocket will withstand 
 rather severe frosts. 
 
Crops Grown for Their Leaves 
 
 239 
 
 FIG. 134. Gathering Swiss chard. Only the largest leaves should be picked; 
 the others should be left to grow. 
 
 In many parts of the planting zone E, and farther 
 south, plants of yellow rocket grown from seed live 
 over winter and will supply leaves until the next spring, 
 when they soon run to seed. It is said, however, that 
 the plants can often be kept in good condition for two 
 or more years if the flower stalks are picked off before 
 the flowers open. 
 
 Swiss chard. Swiss chard is a variety of beet that 
 develops large leaves with somewhat fleshy stems. It 
 does not have a fleshy root like that of the garden beet. 
 The culture of Swiss chard is the same as for the garden 
 root beets. The most satisfactory variety is the 
 Luculhis. 
 
240 
 
 Gardening 
 
 The outer leaves may 
 be cut closely at inter- 
 vals from early summer 
 until frosts. The first 
 cutting can be made 
 about 60 days from date 
 of seed sowing. The 
 plant usually lives over 
 winter in and below 
 zone E, but goes to seed 
 the second year. 
 
 New Zealand spinach. 
 The New Zealand spin- 
 ach plant has recently 
 been introduced into 
 cultivation in America 
 where ;t is proving a 
 strong and vigorous 
 grower. It is an excel- 
 lent plant for use as 
 pot greens. 
 
 The seeds have thick, 
 nut-like walls and should be softened by soaking to make 
 germination more rapid and certain. Put seeds in a dish, 
 pour over them hot (almost boiling) water, and let stand 
 for from 12 to 24 hours before planting. Plant seeds 
 early in spring about i inch deep in groups of 4 or 5, 
 about 3 feet apart. The plants grow rapidly and thrive 
 all summer. The upturned ends of the branches, with 
 several leaves, are cut for greens. New side branches are 
 then formed, and growth is continued until the plants are 
 
 FIG. 135. New Zealand spinach, the best 
 plant for summer greens. The tips of the 
 branches are cut, as shown in the picture. 
 
Crops Grown for Their Leaves 241 
 
 killed by frost. Six hills of the plants will supply a family 
 with one or two " messes " of tender, clean greens each 
 week from early summer until frosts occur. 
 
 In many sections as far north as planting zone F, the 
 plants seed themselves ; that is, the seeds which fall from 
 plants to the ground live over winter and germinate early 
 in the following spring. These young plants may be 
 transplanted to a place in the garden which has been 
 properly prepared for planting. 
 
 LONG-PEEIOD SALAD VEGETABLES THAT MATURE IN 
 AUTUMN 
 
 Endive and chicory are two salad plants that mature 
 best in autumn as cool-season crops. If planted very 
 early in spring, they tend to run to seed during the 
 summer, even in the more northern of the planting zones. 
 Seeds are therefore planted in summer (in early summer 
 in the north and later farther south). The plants grow 
 rather slowly during hot weather, but are ready to make 
 a rapid development during the cool autumn. 
 
 Endive. Endive is a favorite bitter salad plant, 
 grown in the North as a fall crop and in the South as a 
 winter crop. The seed is planted during June or July in 
 the North and as late as in August in the South. Seed 
 is sown directly in the garden or in seed beds for later 
 transplanting. The plants should stand i foot each way 
 in rows that are at least i foot apart. 
 
 Varieties such as Green-curled, Moss-curled, and White- 
 curled, which produce dense clusters of curled and finely 
 divided leaves, are very satisfactory for culture in the 
 home garden. When the outer leaves are 6 or more 
 
242 Gardening 
 
 inches in length, they should be drawn together and tied 
 with soft cord or with raffia, in order to blanch the inner 
 leaves. One variety known as Escarole has broad 
 leaves and is less bitter than the cut-leaved sorts. 
 
 With the approach of freezing temperatures in the 
 northern planting zones, endive may be stored. Dig 
 up the plants, keeping a ball of dirt in place about the 
 roots, and pack close together in a cold frame or in boxes 
 that are .placed in a cool cellar. Keep the soil moist, 
 but be sure that the leafy portion is kept dry and well 
 exposed to the air to prevent rotting. Plants can readily 
 be kept in storage in good condition for a period of 
 at least 6 weeks ; with special care, under most suitable 
 conditions, they may be kept much longer. 
 
 Witloof chicory or French endive. When properly 
 grown, this plant yields a most delicious and mildly 
 bitter salad for use during the winter months. Al- 
 though easily grown, this crop has not become well 
 known in American gardens ; but it has long been a 
 favorite salad in European countries. The variety 
 known as the Witloof is especially to be recommended. 
 In the northern states, sow seeds during June or July 
 in shallow drills about 1 2 inches apart. Thin the young 
 seedlings to stand 8 inches apart. 
 
 The green leaves produced in the field are not used 
 as food, as are those of the curled endive, but a new crop 
 of leaves is forced from the roots in the following manner : 
 The roots, which should resemble those of the parsnip 
 in shape and size, are dug before severe frosts occur. 
 Those not needed for immediate forcing are stored in cold 
 frames, in pits, or in a cool room of a cellar, so that 
 
Crops Grown for Their Leaves 243 
 
 they may be used for forcing during the winter. Trim 
 the roots to be used for forcing to a length of 8 inches, and 
 cut away the leaves, allowing a short " crown " to remain 
 on the roots. Then set the roots, about 4 inches 
 apart, in a box, placing earth about them to the level of 
 the crowns. Water the soil thoroughly, and the next day 
 add about 8 inches of clean sand. Place the box in a 
 moderately warm cellar (a temperature ranging from 50 
 to 60 is excellent) and keep the sand and soil moist. 
 In about 15 days leaves will begin to protrude through 
 the sand, and some of the heads will be ready for use. 
 The same box and soil may be used for forcing suc- 
 cessive crops. The head is a closely compacted, elon- 
 gated cluster of tender and well-blanched leaves. The 
 ease with which this delightful salad may be had during 
 the winter months justifies its thorough trial by the 
 home gardener. 
 
 COOL-SEASON LEAFY CROPS GROWN BY THE TRANS- 
 PLANTING METHOD 
 
 In general, celery, the various members of the cab- 
 bage tribe, pe-tsai, and head lettuce are long-period 
 crops. To obtain good spring or early summer crops 
 before hot weather arrives, the plants are forced by 
 the transplanting method. The late or autumn crops are 
 grown directly from seeds or by transplanting from sow- 
 ings made late in spring, or in southern sections even in 
 late summer. Head lettuce is usually grown best as a 
 spring crop. Early and late crops of celery, pe-tsai, and 
 the various cabbages may be grown, but the main crops of 
 these mature in autumn. In many sections of the north- 
 
244 Gardening 
 
 ern planting zones having cool summers, certain varieties 
 of celery, kale, and cabbages may be grown successfully 
 as summer crops, the earlier varieties yielding crops 
 during the summer and the late varieties maturing in the 
 autumn. 
 
 Celery. Celery thrives best on rich soil ; it also de- 
 mands much water and cool weather. In the North it is 
 grown chiefly as an autumn crop, although in sections 
 with cool summers, early varieties maturing in August 
 may be grown. In the South the plant is grown as a 
 winter crop from seed grown in late summer in outdoor 
 seed beds that are kept well watered. 
 
 The crop is best grown throughout the North from 
 seedlings that are transplanted twice once from seed 
 pans to flats, and then from the flats to the field. Trans- 
 planting leads to the formation of many fibrous roots 
 and gives " stocky " plants. The seedlings grow slowly 
 and need special care throughout their entire period of 
 growth. 
 
 In the northern zones, seed of the earlier sorts, such 
 as the White Plume and the Golden Self -blanching, may be 
 sown as early as the first of February and the seedlings 
 planted in the garden as soon as weather conditions will 
 permit. The growth of seedlings is so slow that even 
 under very good care 3 months may be required to bring 
 them to a good size for transplanting to the garden. The 
 main or late crop is best grown from seedlings that are 
 ready for planting in the field about July i. For this 
 crop the varieties named above may be planted, or some 
 of the varieties that are better winter keepers (such as 
 Giant Pascal and Winter Queen) may be grown. 
 
Crops Grown for Their Leaves 
 
 245 
 
 Celery plants are set about 6 inches apart in rows. 
 Level culture, or setting the plants only slightly below 
 the general level of the soil, is considered better than 
 the older methods of trench culture. 
 
 As the plants reach a good size they should be 
 blanched. This may be done with dirt as follows : 
 Draw the tops closely together with one hand, and with a 
 hoe in the other hand draw dirt up around the plants 
 until only the tops of the leaves protrude. With the 
 
 FIGS. 136 and 137. Celery. At the left the seedlings are being transplanted 
 from flats to the garden. At the right the mature plants are being tied pre- 
 paratory to hilling up with earth. This method of blanching is practiced es- 
 pecially on sandy soil. 
 
246 Gardening 
 
 approach of freezing temperatures, more soil may be 
 banked up and straw or leaves packed about and over 
 the tops. Then more soil may be piled up, and a board, 
 or two boards arranged as an inverted trough, placed 
 over the straw. This protects from cold and keeps the 
 plants dry. In sections with moderate winters the crop 
 can be thus left for use as desired throughout the winter ; 
 but in the more northern of the planting zones the crop 
 should be stored in cool cellars, pens, or cold frames (see 
 page 346). 
 
 Blanching may also be accomplished by wrapping a 
 collar of paper about each plant and tying it firmly in 
 place. Newspaper may be used, but stiffer paper that 
 keeps its position after rains is better. For blanching 
 early crops and autumn crops that are to be stored before 
 cold weather the use of paper bands is advised. Early 
 crops often rot from heating if blanching with soil is 
 attempted. Paper collars or bleachers, with special 
 metal " handlers " that make easy the work of arranging 
 them, may be bought of seed firms that deal in garden 
 supplies. The use of 3 -inch Xi 2-inch drain tile for 
 blanching gives excellent results, and is to be recom- 
 mended for blanching the home supply of early celery. 
 
 The method of " new celery culture " recently used 
 consists of growing plants so crowded that they are self- 
 blanched through mutual shading. The plants are set 
 about 6 inches apart in rows that are only 8 inches apart. 
 The soil is excessively manured ; as much as i ton of 
 well-rotted manure to the square rod is often used, and 
 the plot is kept well watered continually. When thus 
 " forced in the field," the crop is often tender and wel) 
 
Crops Grown for Their Leaves 247 
 
 self -blanched ; but it is more subject to disease and the 
 product is often of poorer quality than when given more 
 room and blanched by banking with earth or by collars. 
 
 Cabbage. All cabbages are best grown from trans- 
 planted seedlings that have been grown from 8 to 10 
 weeks in a hotbed, cold frame, or outdoor seed bed. For 
 early cabbages, transplant to the garden as soon as the 
 danger of severe frost is over. For late varieties, trans- 
 plant in June or July in the northern states and some- 
 what later southward. In the plot of cabbages shown 
 in Figure 142, several varieties of early and late cabbages, 
 together with cauliflower and Brussels sprouts, were 
 planted at the same time. 
 
 In many parts of planting zones D and E, cabbage can 
 be grown, or at least left outdoors, over winter. In 
 the climate of northern Louisiana, the seedlings for the 
 spring crop can be reared in cold frames from seed sown 
 in November or December and transplanted in February ; 
 in this way the crop is harvested in April and May. 
 Sweet potatoes may then be grown on the same plot, as a 
 succession crop. Treated in this way in the South, the 
 growing period of such a variety as New or Early 
 Jersey Wakefield is from November i to May i. 
 
 Plantings of early varieties, such as Early Jersey 
 Wakefield, yield heads in about 90 days, or early in July 
 in the vicinity of New York City if planted about 
 April i ; but the heads do not " keep " long in hot 
 weather. It is an excellent plan to plant from 5 to 10 
 plants each of several early and late varieties. For 
 general culture, the following varieties are excellent: 
 Early Jersey Wakefield and Charleston Wakefield for early 
 
248 Gardening 
 
 use ; Early Summer and Succession for midsummer ; and 
 Autumn King and Danish Ball Head for fall and winter 
 use. 
 
 Cabbage is an easy crop for the beginner to grow. It 
 is likely to need protection from aphids, cutworms, and 
 the cabbage worm (especially discussed in the chapter on 
 injurious insects) . The crop may entirely fail because of 
 plant diseases carried in the soil and for which there is 
 no good remedy. In this case the gardener had best not 
 attempt to grow the crop, for a time at least ; or he should 
 secure seed of varieties found to be resistant to the 
 disease. (See Figures 172 and 173.) 
 
 Cauliflower. The cauliflower is less hardy than cab- 
 bage and less enduring of summer heat. For spring 
 planting, the crop does best in the cool sections of the 
 more northern of the planting zones, where the summers 
 are mild. The plant needs a rich soil and plenty of room 
 to grow. It is best to grow plants about 3 feet apart each 
 way, with a low and quick-growing companion crop be- 
 tween. The clusters of thick, fleshy flower stalks are 
 blanched for table use by tying the leaves together over 
 the top. The mature heads are not readily stored for 
 later use ; hence it is best not to grow any more plants 
 than can be used as they mature. In the North, Early 
 Snowball and Dwarf Erfurt are excellent varieties. The 
 Autumn Giant is a large-growing and late variety that 
 is well suited to southern sections. 
 
 Brussels sprouts. Brussels sprouts are grown best as 
 an autumn crop, but in the South they are extensively 
 grown as an early spring crop. The plant requires a 
 longer period of cool weather than most of the cabbages, 
 
Crops Grown for Their Leaves 249 
 
 and is more hardy. It often fails from lack of water or 
 from excessive heat. In the North, when grown as a 
 fall crop, the small heads of leaves or " buttons," pro- 
 duced in the axils of the leaves, are gathered as desired 
 until some time after cold weather arrives ; or in sections 
 with severe winters, the plants may be dug and stored 
 as recommended in a later chapter (20). If one suc- 
 ceeds in the growing of cabbage, then it is safe to try 
 the growing of Brussels sprouts as an autumn crop. 
 
 Kale and collar d. These plants belong to the cabbage 
 group, but they have separate leaves instead of a head as 
 the cabbage has. Kale, which is the most hardy of the 
 cabbage group, is an excellent winter crop in the South 
 and a late autumn crop in the North, where it may be left 
 without protection even in rather severe winter weather. 
 Dwarf-curled, Siberian, and Tall Scotch are standard 
 varieties of kale. 
 
 The collard withstands summer heat better than kale 
 and hence is better suited for culture in the southern 
 planting zones. The variety known as Georgia is most 
 generally grown. 
 
 Both kale and collard are often grown from seeds 
 sown directly in the garden in rows about 2 or 3 
 feet apart, and later thinned so that the plants stand 
 about 12 inches from one another in the row. The 
 plants are left standing where grown until light freezing 
 makes the leaves of the loose heads tender. 
 
 Pe-tsai or Chinese cabbage. Chinese cabbage is a 
 leafy vegetable that deserves a trial in the home vege- 
 table garden. It is generally grown as an autumn crop, 
 but even in the northern planting zones it can be grown as 
 
250 
 
 Gardening 
 
 a spring crop if .the roots of young plants are not dis- 
 turbed in transplanting. 
 
 For the spring crop, sow seed from 4 to 8 weeks before 
 the date of the latest frost. Transplant from seed pans to 
 individual pots of small size ; transplant again to larger 
 pots before plants become " pot bound " ; then trans- 
 plant to the field, keeping the roots and earth within the pots 
 intact. Grow in a rich soil, and supply water in abun- 
 dance unless rain is frequent. Plants of the larger vari- 
 eties thus grown will often make heads weighing 7 pounds 
 in 60 days from seed. The heads do not keep well in hot 
 weather, hence the main crop should be grown in autumn. 
 For an autumn crop sow seed late in July in the North 
 and later farther South, directly in the garden. As the 
 plants may be used when partly grown, it is a good plan 
 
 FIG. 138. A spring crop of Chinese cabbage (pe-tsai). This is a new vege- 
 table that is the best of all salad plants. 
 
Crops Grown for Their Leaves 251 
 
 Garden Magazine 
 
 FIG. 139. Chinese cabbage. The plate at the left contains the tender inner 
 leaves used for salad. The outer, coarser leaves are usually cooked like cabbage, 
 and the heavy midribs are prepared like asparagus. 
 
 to start the crop with the plants standing 4 or 6 inches 
 apart, and then thin to 12 inches by removing every 
 other one. 
 
 The tender, crisp, and juicy blanched leaves that com- 
 pose the central portion of the head make a most excel- 
 lent salad. The outer leaves of mature heads and the 
 entire partly matured plant may be cooked as pot greens. 
 
 The plant is not a true cabbage. It has the flavor of 
 the turnip. It is more leafy than the turnip and, it 
 would seem, more desirable as a crop for use as pot greens, 
 especially in the South, where turnips are quite generally 
 grown for this purpose. 
 
 Pe-tsai is now coming into more general culture in the 
 United States. Several varieties are known in China; 
 
252 
 
 Gardening 
 
 some of the smaller sorts resemble Cos lettuce in habit of 
 growth. Undoubtedly varieties will be found or de- 
 veloped that are suited to various conditions and needs 
 in the United States. The beginner can grow good 
 crops from the seed of any of those varieties that may 
 now be bought from seed firms. 
 
 Head lettuce. In some localities having moist and 
 somewhat prolonged cool weather in spring, excellent 
 head lettuce may be grown from seed sown early in the 
 field. Much commercial head lettuce, especially of the 
 
 Salamander variety, is 
 thus grown in the market 
 gardens on Long Island. 
 In most home gardens, 
 good head lettuce can be 
 grown best in the spring 
 by the transplanting 
 method. In many if 
 not most sections, heads 
 will form only if special 
 attention is given to 
 every step in the grow- 
 ing of the crop so that 
 a vigorous, rapid, and 
 continuous growth is 
 maintained during the 
 cool weather of spring. 
 Give seedlings plenty of 
 FIG. 140. Head lettuce, that was grown room in flats (space them 
 
 out-of-doors in the fall, being set out in g^ least 3 inches apart) 
 a cold frame at the approach of cold 
 
 weather. m order to obtain stocky 
 
Crops Grown for Their Leaves 
 
 253 
 
 ^>j\V ( 
 
 <s jfe 
 
 FIG. 141. Head lettuce ready for transplanting. On the right a seedling pre- 
 pared for transplanting by the 'dirt ball" method is shown. The earth in the 
 flat is carefully compacted about the roots, thus preventing them from being 
 broken.- The plant at the left has been carelessly pulled and has little earth on 
 the roots. This plant may grow so slowly after transplanting that it will fail to 
 form a head. 
 
 plants. In transplanting, keep roots intact in a large 
 ball of earth. Transplant to the garden during cool, 
 damp weather. In the garden, supply plenty of water if 
 needed, and cultivate to maintain the earth mulch. 
 
 Some of the round-headed types, as the well-known 
 Big Boston, May King, Iceberg, Salamander, and Hanson, 
 together with Trianon Cos Lettuce, should be tried. The 
 crop should be used before hot weather, for then the 
 plants shoot up into flowers and seed. 
 
 Head lettuce makes an excellent part-companion crop 
 with such a long-season crop as the tomato. 
 
 SHORT-PERIOD COOL-SEASON LEAFY CROPS GROWN FROM 
 SEED IN THE GARDEN 
 
 Leaf lettuce, spinach, peppergrass, and mustard 
 mature leaves so quickly during the cool weather of 
 spring that seed may be sown in the garden where the 
 
254 Gardening 
 
 plants are to stand. With rich soil, plenty of moisture 
 in the soil, and good cultivation, these vegetables seldom 
 fail to produce satisfactory crops. 
 
 These crops suffer especially (as do all other vege- 
 table crops) from crowding in the row. The average 
 gardener seems tempted to leave the plants standing 
 closely together. It does look like a " poor scant stand " 
 to thin the young plants to 3 or 6 inches apart in the row. 
 But proper and early thinning not only gives larger 
 plants and a greater total yield for each row, but the 
 plants mature more quickly. 
 
 Leaf lettuce. Many excellent varieties of loose or 
 leaf lettuce are listed in the seed catalogues. The seed 
 is usually sown in rows about 14 inches apart and seed- 
 lings thinned to stand 5 to 10 inches apart. Cos lettuce 
 also may be grown from seed sown directly in the garden, 
 but the heads are smaller and later in developing than 
 when grown by the transplanting method. 
 
 Spinach. From 30 to 60 days is sufficient for the 
 development of the loose clusters of spinach leaves, so 
 widely used as pot greens. In the North the seed is sown 
 early in the spring. The crop grows best on well-drained, 
 warm, and rich soil. As the entire plant is cut and used, 
 some of the thinning necessary may be done by removing 
 the largest plants rather early. If not used, the plants 
 soon run to seed, especially in hot weather. For a late 
 crop sow seed late in summer in the North, and later 
 southward. In the more southern of the planting zones, 
 the plant makes an excellent winter crop. 
 
 Peppergrass. The " peppery " flavor of peppergrass 
 or garden cress makes the plant useful in flavoring 
 
Crops Grown for Their Leaves 255 
 
 salads or sandwiches. Its finely cut and attractive 
 leaves are used for decorating (garnishing) various cooked 
 dishes quite as parsley is used. The seed is sown early 
 in spring in shallow drills about 8 inches apart, and the 
 entire plant is cut when it is still tender. 
 
 Mustard. For spring crops of mustard, begin sowing 
 seed as soon as the soil can be worked. Plant rather 
 closely in drills about 6 inches apart. In 20 to 30 days 
 begin thinning by cutting out the larger plants, and con- 
 tinue this until plants are ready to bloom. For autumn 
 crops begin sowing seed in late summer, and allow the 
 latest sowing about 30 days for growth before frost. An 
 early crop can be forced in flats and the plants sheared 
 off as needed. The varieties of white mustard having 
 curled leaves, such as Large-leaved Curled and Giant 
 Ostrich Plume, are recommended. 
 
 Nasturtium. This familiar plant of the flower garden 
 can be used as food in the same ways as mustard and 
 peppergrass. The young plants are used entire, or the 
 leaves and flowers of older plants are plucked. These 
 give a delightfully appetizing flavor to mixtures of 
 salads, and especially to cold potato salad. The seed 
 pods of the nasturtium are also of use in seasoning pickles 
 and as a substitute for capers. Sow seeds of the nastur- 
 tium about \ inch deep, rather thickly, in flower beds or 
 in rows in the vegetable garden. Thin by pulling for 
 use the young plants. 
 
 From the many leafy crops that may be grown in the 
 home garden, one may select a number that are suitable 
 
256 
 
 Gardening 
 
 FIG. 142. A group of plants belonging to the cabbage family. The varieties 
 shown here all mature at different times. Thus a continuous yield of leafy 
 vegetables may be had from this little plot from early summer until winter. 
 a, Early Wakefield cabbage ; b, late head cabbage ; c, Savoy cabbage : d, Brus- 
 sels sprouts ; e, cauliflower. A little planning will enable the gardener to have 
 a continuous supply of many different combinations of leafy vegetables. 
 
 to almost any condition, locality, or family taste. Rhu- 
 barb, bulblet onions, Swiss chard, New Zealand spinach, 
 leaf lettuce, cabbage, pe-tsai (as an autumn crop), and 
 chicory are all easily grown. With experience one can 
 learn to grow many of the other sorts of more difficult 
 culture ; that is, if they are at all suited to the local 
 conditions. 
 
 A few feet of row for each sort, properly cared for, will 
 provide leafy food of a variety of uses and tastes, fresh 
 out of the garden from early spring until late autumn ; 
 the surplus from such crops as late cabbage, pe-tsai, and 
 endive may be stored for winter use, while the crop of 
 chicory may be forced throughout the winter months. 
 
 The leafy vegetables, so necessary to health, may 
 
Crops Grown for Their Leaves 257 
 
 therefore be had from the home garden in quality, variety, 
 and quantity sufficient for the needs of the family. 
 Questions 
 
 In general, what conditions are best for the development of 
 leafy crops? What conditions are unfavorable? Why are most 
 leafy vegetables best when fresh? What leafy crops are propa- 
 gated vegetatively ? Which of these are hardy perennials? 
 Describe the propagation and culture of rhubarb. 
 
 What are onion sets? How are they obtained from seed 
 onions? What are the advantages of planting onion sets? the 
 disadvantages? What are the important points to remember in 
 onion culture? When should onion bulbs be pulled? What is 
 meant by " cut-and-come-again " vegetables? What are the 
 general requirements for this class of leafy vegetables? How 
 is Swiss chard grown? Describe the culture of New Zealand 
 spinach. 
 
 Describe the general method of growing and storing endive. 
 How is Witloof chicory (French endive) grown to produce salad 
 crops for winter use ? 
 
 What leafy crops are grown by the transplanting method ? 
 How is celery grown ? Describe the various methods of blanching 
 celery. Which is the most practical of these? Tell how you 
 would proceed to raise a crop of late cabbages in the Northern 
 states; in the Southern states. What special conditions do 
 Brussels sprouts require? Describe pe-tsai. What special 
 attention does head lettuce require ? What leafy crops are grown 
 from seed planted directly in the garden? Why is thinning 
 especially necessary for these crops ? 
 
 Things to Do and Observe 
 
 1 . To determine the best leafy crops for your locality. Find out 
 which leafy crops are generally grown in your vicinity. Inquire 
 especially if pe-tsai and French endive are being raised. 
 
 2. To learn the best ways of growing leafy crops. Talk with 
 other gardeners in your neighborhood about the proper methods 
 of growing leafy crops. Compare the results of their methods 
 with yours. Which method proved to be the most successful? 
 If the methods were the same and results different, try to determine 
 the cause of the difference. 
 
CHAPTER SIXTEEN 
 
 GARDEN CROPS GROWN FOR THEIR FRUITS 
 
 Seeds are the cradles of plant babies; fruits are the 
 houses in which the cradles are placed. And the gardener, 
 devouring houses, babies, and cradles together, smacks his 
 lips and exclaims about the quality of his vegetables ! 
 
 NEVIN WOODSEDE 
 
 THE various garden crops grown for their fruits may 
 be grouped as follows : 
 
 A. Cool-season short-period crops 
 (i) Garden peas. 
 
 B. Warm-season crops, the seeds of which are sown 
 
 directly in the garden - 
 
 (1) Beans. 
 
 (2) The vine crops. 
 
 (3) Okra. 
 
 (4) Sweet corn. 
 
 C. Warm-season long-period crops requiring trans- 
 
 planting - 
 
 (1) Tomatoes. 
 
 (2) Peppers. 
 
 (3) Eggplants. 
 
 This list is not long, but it includes several of the 
 most important garden crops, among them peas, beans, 
 corn, and tomatoes. Since it is the fruit of these crops 
 that is eaten, they are grown until the plants approach 
 full maturity; yet in most cases the fleshy fruits are 
 used while green or immature, and before the seeds are 
 fully ripe. With the exception of garden peas, all the 
 crops here listed are tender, warm-season plants, strongly 
 affected by even slight frosts. 
 
 258 
 
Garden Crops Grown for Their Fruits 259 
 
 Because of the great difference in the habit of growth 
 of the different plants, requirements for culture differ 
 greatly. 
 
 GARDEN PEAS 
 
 The common garden peas are divided into two main 
 sorts smooth-seeded and wrinkled. The smooth-seeded 
 varieties will begin growth in rather cold soil, and are 
 not injured by light frosts. They are therefore best for 
 planting as soon as the soil can be worked in spring. 
 They mature rather quickly, and are in most sections 
 short or dwarf in habit and hence need no support to hold 
 the plants erect. Alaska is a standard variety of this 
 class. 
 
 The wrinkled-seeded varieties are sweeter but less 
 hardy, and must be planted later in the spring. There 
 are both low-growing and tall-growing varieties of 
 wrinkled peas. Some of the dwarf sorts, as Little Gem 
 and American Wonder, are extra early in developing. 
 Gradus (also called Prosperity) grows to a height of 
 about 3 feet and is one of the best sorts. The tall- 
 growing varieties require a longer period for growth and 
 should have a support of brush or a trellis, made with 
 poultry fencing or otherwise, upon which the plants are 
 held erect. Telephone, Prize Taker, and Champion of 
 England are excellent sorts. 
 
 All varieties of peas require cool weather for proper 
 growth. If the pods do not mature before extremely hot 
 weather, they will invariably be few and will be poorly 
 filled with seeds. 
 
 The best crops of peas are grown on rich, well-drained 
 
260 
 
 Gardening 
 
 Stales Relations Service 
 
 FIG. 143. Kidney beans will grow in almost any soil and are one of the best 
 crops for a beginner to raise. This garden was planted chiefly to bush beans, 
 with climbing beans along the fence. Strings were run from the ground to the 
 top of the fence to support the vines until they reached the top. 
 
 soil. In such soil sow the seed in a trench about 4 inches 
 deep and cover with 2 inches of soil. Then as the plants 
 grow, fill in the trench until it is level with the surround- 
 ing surface. The seeds are sown about 2 inches in the 
 row. For the dwarf sorts the rows may be about 2 feet 
 apart ; the tall-growing varieties require more room. 
 On soil that is likely to be wet during the early spring- 
 time, peas are planted on slight ridges and covered to a 
 depth of about an inch only. 
 
 The marrowfat peas are of somewhat more vigorous 
 growth and are more productive than the garden peas, 
 but are of decidedly poorer flavor and quality and are 
 not to be recommended for the home vegetable garden. 
 
Garden Crops Grown for Their Fruits 261 
 
 The edible-podded or sugar peas are sorts whose entire 
 pods may be used as food when the seeds are about half 
 grown. These require the same cultural treatment as 
 the garden peas. 
 
 BEANS 
 
 Kidney beans are grown in the garden almost solely for 
 the edible pods and immature seeds, which are known as 
 ' ' string " or " snap ' ' beans . Lima beans have much larger 
 seeds, and are grown for 
 the shelled beans. There 
 are dwarf or bush varie- 
 ties and running or pole 
 varieties of both kidney 
 and Lima beans. 
 
 All varieties of beans 
 are tender and are 
 planted after danger of 
 frost is past. String 
 beans thrive best on rich 
 soil. They will grow on 
 any soil, however, and 
 on raw or newly culti- 
 vated land often give 
 better returns than most 
 other garden vegetables. 
 Lima beans are more 
 difficult to grow. They 
 require a richer soil, 
 
 more Warmth, and have 
 
 a longer growing period. 
 
 FIG. 144. 
 
 String beans that become too 
 
 "" P0d '" * "^ "* 
 
262 
 
 Gardening 
 
 FIG. 145. The Kentucky Wonder bean yields abundantly, it is excellent in 
 quality, either as pod or shell beans, and the ripened beans may be used for bak- 
 ing. 
 
 Kidney or string beans. According to the color of the 
 immature pods, string beans are divided into the green- 
 podded and the wax-podded sorts. There are dwarf and 
 pole varieties of each sort, and some varieties are more 
 nearly stringless than others. The beginner should 
 plant such standard kinds of the bush varieties as 
 Stringless Green Pod, Improved Golden Wax, and 1000 to i 
 (also called Late Refugee) ; and for a pole variety, he 
 may well plant Kentucky Wonder. The Tennessee Green 
 Pod is a bush variety that is said to excel all other string 
 beans in flavor. 
 
 As the seeds of kidney beans become larger and more 
 mature, the pod portion becomes thinner, less juicy, and 
 drier. While the seeds are still soft, they may be shelled 
 
Garden Crops Grown for Their Fruits 263 
 
 and cooked as " green shelled beans." When cooked 
 with kernels of sweet corn cut from the cob, they make 
 the well-known dish called " succotash." If the seeds 
 ripen fully, they may be used as " dry beans," but dry 
 beans can be bought in the market much cheaper than 
 they can be produced in the home garden. 
 
 Edible pods will be produced by some of the bush va- 
 rieties in about 30 days after date of planting. Plant 
 for successive crops at intervals of about 2 weeks until 
 within 40 days of the probable date of the first killing 
 frost of autumn. 
 
 The bush varieties are usually grown in hills with 3 to 
 5 plants in a hill, and the hills about 12 to 15 inches 
 apart. In a small garden the rows may be 2 feet apart. 
 The bush varieties are the easier to grow. All kidney 
 beans may be planted as soon as danger of frost is past. 
 
 Pole varieties bear longer and somewhat more abun- 
 dantly. There are numerous good varieties, but Ken- 
 tucky Wonder is perhaps the favorite. The vines should 
 be supported on poles or by a trellis or fence. 
 
 Lima beans. The dwarf varieties are easiest to grow 
 in the home garden, as they need less space and require 
 no support. These may be planted in hills, or in contin- 
 uous rows like the dwarf varieties of kidney beans. 
 
 Pole Limas are usually grown in hills. Remove the 
 soil to the depth of about 8 inches and a diameter of 10 
 inches, place two shovelfuls of well-rotted manure in the 
 hole, cover with soil, and plant 5 or 6 seeds ij inches 
 below the surface, placing the seeds on edge with the 
 " eye " down. The hills should stand about 3 or 4 feet 
 apart. Supports should be set in the ground at the 
 
264 
 
 Gardening 
 
 time the hills are prepared. A stout pole may be placed 
 in the ground in the middle of each hill, or lighter poles 
 or laths may be used. When the lighter supports are 
 used, it is a good plan to lean together those from three 
 or four adjacent hills of two rows, tying them together 
 securely at the top. The giant-podded sorts of pole 
 Limas are somewhat more difficult to grow than the 
 small-seeded pole Limas. The Sieva or Carolina, well 
 known in the South as the " butter bean," is one of the 
 best of the small-seeded sorts. 
 
 FIGS. 146 and 147. Planting Lima beans. This crop is more difficult to grow 
 than the kidney bean. It will not be a success unless the soil is rich and well 
 prepared, the seed planted at just the right time and depth, and the plants well 
 cared for through the entire season. 
 
Garden Crops Grown for Their Fruits 265 
 VINE CROPS 
 
 All the vine crops grown for their fruits belong to 
 the gourd family. They are very much alike in habit of 
 growth and in cultural needs. All are tender and de- 
 cidedly warm-season crops, maturing in summer or 
 autumn. Their wide-spreading vines require more room 
 than can usually be spared in the garden of small size. 
 In the more northern states the season of growth is 
 scarcely long enough for some of the vine crops to 
 mature. 
 
 Of this group, the bush squashes and the cucumbers 
 are the most suitable for planting in the home garden. 
 The bush "squashes" (really pumpkins) do not have 
 the vine habit, and their fruits mature in summer. 
 
 All vine crops are grown in hills. For early crops, 
 plants may be started under glass, but special pre- 
 cautions should be taken to keep the roots intact during 
 the transplanting. As seedlings of these plants develop 
 quickly, they should be started only about 2 weeks before 
 the planting date. 
 
 Cucumbers. In the home garden cucumbers are 
 grown chiefly for the green, immature fruits. Grow in 
 hills about 4 feet apart in rich soil and keep well watered. 
 In the cooler sections of the more northern states a single 
 planting of both early and later varieties may be suffi- 
 cient. Further south and in sections where the summers 
 are hot and dry the plants tend to die during the summer, 
 and a second or late planting is advisable. Cucumbers 
 may be grown as a companion and follow crop with 
 such early crops as radishes and peas. 
 
266 Gardening 
 
 The White Spine, Davis Perfect, and Emerald are all 
 recommended for culture throughout the United States. 
 
 Pumpkins and squashes. Many of the plants com- 
 monly called " squashes " are really more closely re- 
 lated to the pumpkins than to the true squashes. The 
 best of these for home gardens are the Yellow Crookneck, 
 very generally known in the North, and the Scallop and 
 the Patty Pan types, more generally grown in the South. 
 These are bush varieties that take up little space. The 
 fruits are used while still green and before the shells 
 become hard. 
 
 A recent variety, the Fordhook, which appears to be 
 suitable both for summer use and for winter storage, is 
 worthy of a trial. 
 
 The Vegetable Marrow, with a running vine habit of 
 growth, is also a pumpkin. It is a favorite in England 
 and seems to deserve more general use in America. The 
 Improved Prolific Marrow is early,, an abundant yielder, 
 and excellent for frying when the fruits are yet small. 
 
 The large-fruited pumpkin is a well-known field crop 
 often grown as a companion crop with corn. Varieties 
 known as " sugar pumpkins," which have smaller fruits 
 that mature earlier in autumn, are more desirable for the 
 home garden. 
 
 The best known of the true squashes is the Hubbard or 
 winter squash. This plant has a wide-running vine, and 
 it requires plenty of sunlight. Its large, hard-shelled 
 fruits mature in autumn and are stored for winter use. 
 The Delicious is said to be the best flavored of the winter 
 sorts, and when partly mature its fruits may be used in 
 the same way as those of the summer squashes. 
 
Garden Crops Grown for Their Fruits 267 
 
 TK 
 
 FIG. 148. Vine crops may be grown along the edge of a planting of corn, or 
 alternately with double rows of corn. The vines are then allowed to run in 
 among the corn, and where the summers are hot the crop is often better because 
 of the partial shade from the corn. The photograph shows pumpkins and corn 
 as close neighbors. 
 
 The Cushaw, also known as the China or Canada 
 Crookneck and as the Winter Crookneck, is sometimes 
 classed with the pumpkins and sometimes with the 
 squashes. It is really a different species. The Cushaw 
 produces a fruit having a long, thick neck of solid flesh ; 
 all the seeds are in a small cavity in the outer end, which 
 is somewhat enlarged. The variety Japanese is the 
 earliest, and White Cushaw is a well-known winter sort. 
 
 Squashes and pumpkins respond well to the addition 
 of manure in the hill, as described on page 263 under 
 directions for planting Lima beans. The pumpkin with 
 running vine and the Hubbard squashes may be grown 
 as a companion crop with corn. 
 
 Melons. Muskmelons (including cantaloupes) and 
 watermelons are grown in the same manner as cucumbers. 
 
268 
 
 Gardening 
 
 FIGS. 149 and 150. Muskmelons. The young plants at the left are being 
 given an early start in glass-covered individual frames. At the right flower 
 pots are being placed under the melons to raise them off the ground. This 
 prevents rotting and insures more even and quicker ripening. 
 
 They thrive much better, however, during hot weather, 
 for the heat and light of summer are necessary for the 
 maturing of the fruits. A rich, well-drained soil will often 
 produce good melons, but as a rule the conditions in most 
 home gardens do not make a good crop certain. Musk- 
 melons should be grown in hills spaced about 6 feet 
 apart ; watermelons require more space. 
 
 The juice of the preserving watermelon, commonly 
 called citron, is used in making jelly of fruits whose juices 
 do not readily jell alone. The flesh is used in making 
 preserves. 
 
Garden Crops Grown for Their Fruits 269 
 
 Seed catalogues list many varieties of muskmelons. 
 The beginner should perhaps choose first the sorts that 
 are most successfully grown in the locality. The Rocky 
 Ford or Netted Gem, Emerald Gem, and Defender (also 
 called BurreVs Gem) are excellent sorts for general culture. 
 Extra Early Hackensack and Osage are two other varie- 
 ties that are extensively grown. 
 
 OKRA 
 
 This plant grows splendidly throughout the southern 
 and the middle states. Dwarf varieties can be grown 
 with some success farther north, especially if seedlings 
 are started under glass; and in some sections of the 
 North the crop grows well if planted on rich soil in a 
 sunny location. 
 
 The crop thrives on any good garden soil, but does 
 best on a rich, well-drained soil. The seed is slow in 
 germinating, but the process can be hastened and made 
 more certain by soaking the seed in water. Because 
 of the cold soil, the seed of early plantings often fails to 
 germinate. 
 
 The seed is sown in rows rather thickly, to allow for 
 poor germination. The plants that grow should be 
 thinned to stand 15 to 18 inches apart in the row. The 
 young tender pods are harvested when one-half or two- 
 thirds grown, and used in soups, as well as for making 
 the famous Southern " Creole gumbo." 
 
 The Dwarf Prolific is an early variety that can be 
 recommended. Other excellent sorts, such as White 
 Velvet and Long Green, are very satisfactory. 
 
270 Gardening 
 
 SWEET CORN 
 
 This plant should have a place in every garden, except 
 perhaps those of very small area. It is easily grown, its 
 fruit has a high food value, and any surplus in the crop 
 can readily be canned or dried. Besides, some of the 
 most delicious varieties, such as the Golden Bantam, can 
 seldom be bought in the markets. This variety is un- 
 doubtedly the best for the home garden. It does not 
 yield so heavily as larger-eared sorts, but it is more 
 sweet and tender. 
 
 An excellent plan is to grow about three varieties 
 which mature at different times. A judicious planting of 
 early, medium, and late sorts, to the total of 100 hills 
 or more, will supply the ordinary family abundantly. 
 
 The first planting of corn is made after all danger of 
 frost is past. Plant the seed from i to 2 inches deep, 
 either in rows or in hills. If in rows, the single stalks 
 may stand about 12 to 15 inches apart ; if in hills, plan 
 for 3 stalks in a hill, with the hills 3 feet apart each way. 
 
 Succession plantings of one variety may be made at 
 intervals of 2 weeks ; but if the soil is not especially rich 
 and well watered during a dry summer, this plan may 
 result in a stunted development of the later crops. As a 
 rule, the more certain plan is that of growing early and 
 late varieties which are planted about the same time. 
 
 The ears are best for table use if picked in the " milk 
 stage " and used promptly. In the milk stage the ker- 
 nels are well filled and plump, but still soft and juicy. 
 They are right for use when a quick, sharp pressure of 
 the finger nail causes the seed coat to burst and the juicy 
 
Garden Crops Grown for Their Fruits 271 
 
 FIG. 151. " But let the good old crop adorn 
 
 The hills our fathers trod ; 
 Still let us for His golden corn 
 Send up our thanks to God." WHITTIER 
 
272 
 
 Gardening 
 
 milk to spurt out. The seeds soon pass to the " dough 
 stage " ; the contents then become somewhat like dough 
 or putty. 
 
 The seed catalogues offer a choice of many varieties 
 of sweet corn. Extra early varieties to be recommended 
 areGolden Bantam, Malcolm, and Nordheim Extra-early; 
 medium early varieties are Adams' Early and Crosby; 
 the best of the late sorts are Country Gentleman, Black 
 Mexican, and Stowell's Evergreen. 
 
 Pop corn is grown in the same way as sweet corn. 
 The ears should fully ripen on the stalk and should be 
 stored where they are neither too damp nor too dry. 
 
 FIGS. 152 and 153. At the left, cutting the "suckers" from the corn; at the 
 right, training up a tomato vine by the stake method. 
 
Garden Crops Grown for Their Fruits 273 
 
 FIG. 154. Tomato vines with barrel-hoop supports. 
 
 Varieties like Tom Thumb and White Rice may be grown 
 in the home garden. 
 
 TOMATOES 
 
 From 80 to 125 days are needed to bring the fruits of 
 the tomato to ripeness. To secure early crops, it is 
 necessary to have plants of good size ready for trans- 
 planting to the garden as soon as danger of frost is past. 
 With proper care such plants can be had in from 6 to 8 
 weeks from time of sowing seed. 
 
 The tomato is a tender plant that quickly suffers from 
 poor treatment, but it responds to careful handling and 
 proper transplanting. There are many good varieties 
 of tomatoes. For general table use those with medium- 
 sized, well-formed, solid, red fruits are most desira- 
 ble. 
 
 In the North the early and late varieties are planted at 
 the same time. In the South, where the plants grow 
 
274 
 
 Gardening 
 
 FIGS. 155 and 156. At the left, setting out pot-grown peppers; at the right, 
 harvesting the "eggs" from eggplants. 
 
 poorly or may even die during the summer, a late crop 
 may be raised. 
 
 In the home garden it is best to grow plants from 18 to 
 30 inches apart. Each plant should be tied up to one or 
 more stakes as a support, and the side branches cut away 
 as they develop, leaving the main stem and possibly two 
 or three lateral ones to develop. After several clusters 
 of fruit are formed on a stalk, it is a good plan to pinch 
 off the growing tip. 
 
 Earliana, Bonny Best, and Chalk's Early Jewel are 
 perhaps the best of the early sorts. The Stone, Acme, 
 and Ponderosa are somewhat later, but yield heavily. 
 
Garden Crops Grown for Their Fruits 275 
 PEPPERS 
 
 Peppers are tender plants requiring quite the same 
 temperature conditions as the tomato. They are slower 
 in growth and need a longer growing period. In the 
 northern states only one crop can be grown, and this by 
 the transplanting method. A few plants will usually 
 supply the needs of a family; the plants may stand 
 from i to 2 feet apart in rows. The large-fruited and 
 sweet varieties are best. The smaller sorts are more 
 " peppery " in taste. 
 
 EGGPLANTS 
 
 The eggplant needs a rich, warm soil, for it is a tender 
 plant and grows slowly. A period of 8 or 9 weeks of 
 proper forcing under glass is necessary to bring the 
 plants to good size for transplanting to the garden. The 
 beginner is advised to try one of the early small-fruited 
 sorts and to rear or purchase well-grown plants for plant- 
 ing. Fortunately the fleshy and almost solid fruits are 
 used before they are fully ripe, and for this reason the crop 
 may be grown where the season is too short to bring the 
 fruits to full maturity. In the extreme North, however, 
 the growing season is rather too short to bring the plants 
 to full production. 
 
 Questions 
 
 What are the main differences between the smooth-seeded 
 varieties and the wrinkled varieties of garden peas ? How should 
 peas be planted? How do string beans and Lima beans differ 
 in their requirements ? Describe the proper method of planting 
 Lima beans. 
 
276 Gardening 
 
 What can you say of the general characteristics and cultural 
 needs of the vine crops? How should cucumbers be grown? 
 Name some of the pumpkins and squashes and their individual 
 characteristics. What special conditions do melons need to grow 
 and yield well ? How is okra grown ? 
 
 When should the first planting of corn be made? How is it 
 planted? What is the best plan for providing a successive yield 
 of corn ? What is the best way of determining when the ears, are 
 best for table use ? Why should sweet corn be used as soon as 
 possible after it has been pulled ? 
 
 How much time does the tomato plant need to grow from 
 planting the seed to yielding the first fruit ? Describe the planting 
 and care of tomatoes. Give a brief summary of the cultural 
 requirements of peppers ; of eggplants. 
 
 Things to Do and Observe 
 
 1. To determine the -varieties of the crops that are grown for fruits 
 in your neighborhood. Visit every garden in your neighborhood. 
 Make a list of each variety of fruit crop grown in gardens, and put 
 down the number of gardeners growing each variety. Then find 
 the variety that is grown by the greatest number. Ask each 
 gardener why he grows this particular variety. For example, if 
 you find that of the pole beans Kentucky Wonder is the variety 
 most often grown, find out from each grower if he grows this 
 variety because he likes the flavor, because it yields abundantly, 
 because it is easier to grow than others, or just because other 
 gardeners in his neighborhood grow it. 
 
 2. To find the best method of bringing tomatoes, melons, and 
 squashes to early fruiting. Inquire of gardeners if they use plant 
 protectors in the spring and if they have any special practices 
 for causing these plants to fruit early. 
 
CHAPTER SEVENTEEN 
 
 GARDEN PLANTS GROWN FOR THEIR STEMS 
 
 Leaves for relishes ! But for solid support, let us have the stems. 
 
 NEVIN WOODSIDE 
 
 IN the United States, Irish potatoes, the Jerusalem 
 artichoke, kohl-rabi, and asparagus are the only impor- 
 tant garden vegetables that are grown for their stems. 
 These four plants belong to widely different families of 
 flowering plants, and are very different in their cultural 
 needs. 
 
 THE IRISH POTATO 
 
 The underground tubers, or thick, fleshy stems, of the 
 potato have recently become a most important food 
 for man. The plant is a native of America, but it is 
 now cultivated over practically all the cooler parts of the 
 world and also in the mountains of the tropics. More 
 tons of potatoes than of either wheat or rice are now used 
 each year for human food ; so the potato is one of the 
 leading food plants of the world. 
 
 In general, potatoes are a field rather than a garden 
 crop. On the farm there is every advantage in growing 
 them in fields where rotation of crops is the rule. The 
 villager and others who own at least a half an acre or 
 more of land may find it profitable to raise potatoes, 
 especially the early sorts which mature at the time po- 
 tatoes command the highest prices. In the small garden, 
 where intensive methods are necessary and a crop must 
 be judged by the returns for the space it occupies, the 
 potato is not as profitable as some other crops. Another 
 reason for buying potatoes, rather than raising them in a 
 
 277 
 
Gardening 
 
 FIG. 157. Planting potatoes. The tubers are never formed deeper than the 
 "seed" is planted. Hence the planting furrow should be 3 or 4 inches in depth. 
 
 small garden, is that they stand shipping well and those 
 bought are often of better quality than those grown at 
 home. 
 
 The plant is propagated from the tubers, which are cut 
 into three or four pieces of nearly equal size so that each 
 piece has at least two " eyes " or buds. These pieces are 
 planted from 3 to 4 inches deep and 12 to 15 inches apart 
 in rows that are 2j or 3 feet apart. Cultivate well, and 
 hill up the soil about plants to protect the tubers from 
 the sun and to give loose earth in which they can 
 develop. 
 
 In the North the early crop is planted as soon as the 
 soil can be prepared in spring, and tubers for the main and 
 late crop are planted soon after. In the South the early 
 crop is planted from December to March, according to 
 the winter conditions prevailing in the particular section. 
 
Garden Plants Grown for Their Stems 279 
 
 A fall crop is planted in July or August. There are many 
 varieties of both early and late sorts, and as a rule the 
 same variety is not planted for both the early and the 
 late crops. It is best to grow the kinds most generally 
 cultivated in the region. 
 
 Potatoes are very subject to attacks of many diseases. 
 Some of these diseases are carried from year to year in 
 the tubers. Such diseases may be avoided in a large 
 measure by planting tubers from crops grown in north- 
 ern Maine, Vermont, New York, or Wisconsin, where 
 these particular diseases are not so frequent or so severe. 
 Other diseases, commonly called " blights " and " rots," 
 
 FlGS. 158 and 159. At the left, dusting with Paris green; at the right, gather- 
 ing the crop. 
 
280 
 
 Gardening 
 
 may be kept somewhat in control by spraying with Bor- 
 deaux mixture (see page 295). 
 
 Insect enemies of potato plants are always abundant. 
 In some years the potato aphid (a tiny plant louse) is 
 very destructive unless vigorously combated with nico- 
 tine sulfate sprays. The potato " bug " (really a 
 beetle, not a true bug) is nearly always present. Dust- 
 ing with Paris green and the use of poison sprays are 
 effective for the larvae of potato beetles, and the adults 
 can be eradicated by hand picking. 
 
 JERUSALEM ARTICHOKE OR GIRASOLE 
 
 This sunflower was a food plant well known to the 
 
 FIG. 160. The Jerusalem artichoke is ornamental as well as useful. Here it 
 is grown on the edge of the garden to serve as a screen for the hen yard in the 
 rear. 
 
Garden Plants Grown for Their Stems 281 
 
 FIG. 161. Tubers of Jerusalem artichoke, all from one hill. 
 
 Indians at the time America was discovered. It was soon 
 taken to Europe, where it has been rather extensively 
 cultivated ; but in its native land it has been neglected. 
 The swollen underground stems are delicious ; they are 
 usually served boiled. 
 
 The girasole thrives in any good garden soil. Plant 
 three or four small tubers or pieces of large tubers in hills 
 3 feet apart each way. Cultivate as for corn. The leafy 
 stems grow to a height of 6 or more feet, making a dense 
 mass of foliage. The yield of the improved sorts is truly 
 enormous ; a single hill of the " white-tubered " variety 
 often yields as much as 18 pounds of tubers. Some of 
 the less prolific sorts, as Suttorfs Rose, have smoother 
 tubers than those that yield more abundantly. 
 
 The tubers are ready for use in October ; and as the 
 plant is hardy, they may be left in the ground during the 
 winter without injury. 
 
282 
 
 Gardening 
 
 As the plant often 
 grows to a height of 8 
 or 10 feet, it is especially 
 effective as a hedge-like 
 screen (Fig. 160). 
 
 ASPARAGUS 
 
 This hardy perennial 
 survives severe winter 
 weather and yields crops 
 of fleshy young stems 
 very early in the spring. 
 The plant will thrive on 
 any good garden soil, 
 but prefers a rich, sandy 
 loam. The site chosen 
 for an asparagus bed 
 should be well drained 
 and so situated that 
 it dries out quickly in the early spring. 
 
 Before the plants are set out, the soil should be spaded 
 deeply and abundantly manured. For the garden it 
 is best to buy well-grown roots one year old. Plant 
 either in autumn or in spring, rather deeply (4 inches be- 
 neath the surface), 15 inches apart in rows 3 feet apart. 
 Make a trench or furrow 4 inches deep and set the plants 
 in the bottom, spreading the roots out horizontally in 
 all directions. The crown of the plant is thus buried 
 deeply, and is less likely to be injured when the stalks 
 are cut for table use. During the first year after plant- 
 ing, cut none of the young shoots for table use ; and cut 
 
 FIG. 162. Cutting asparagus. The stalk 
 should be cut an inch or two below the 
 surface of the soil. 
 
Garden Plants Grown for Their Stems 283 
 
 sparingly the second 
 year. In spring culti- 
 vate freely between the 
 rows and pull loose soil 
 up, forming a ridge over 
 the row. This helps to 
 blanch the shoots as they 
 push up to the light. 
 
 The cutting season 
 lasts for several weeks, 
 but toward its close the 
 shoots become smaller 
 and more woody. Then 
 it is time to level the 
 ridges with a rake, work- 
 ing into the soil at the 
 same time a liberal 
 coating of well-rotted 
 stable manure. The green branches are now allowed 
 to grow throughout the rest of the season and thus 
 store up food in the roots for the crop of the following 
 spring. 
 
 With proper care a bed will remain highly productive 
 for as long as 15 or 20 years. If a bed is producing 
 only poor, spindling shoots, it is best to start a new bed 
 elsewhere, using new plants. 
 
 KOHL-RABI 
 
 Kohl-rabi is a member of the cabbage group that pro- 
 duces a fleshy enlargement of the stem just above the 
 ground. If gathered before it reaches full size (about 
 
 Van Ei'He Kilpatrick 
 
 FIG. 163. Kohl-rabi is in the best condi- 
 tion for use when about the size shown in 
 this picture. 
 
284 Gardening 
 
 2 or 3 inches in diameter), this stem portion is tender 
 and juicy, and when cooked like turnips it is of excel- 
 lent flavor. 
 
 In the extreme north of the United States, seed sown 
 directly in the garden about May i will begin to yield a 
 crop about July i. Well-grown plants transplanted to 
 the garden on this date (May i) will mature somewhat 
 sooner. In the South, very early and late crops may be 
 treated the same as early and late crops of cabbage. 
 Late crops may be stored for winter use, along with cab- 
 bage and root crops. Plants maturing in warm weather 
 soon become pithy and tough if not used ; hence kohl- 
 rabi should not be overplanted. In localities with cool, 
 moist summers, the crop does excellently during summer ; 
 but in sections with hot, dry summers, it often fails if 
 planted so that it matures during the hot weather. 
 
 The variety Early White Vienna is recommended for 
 general use. 
 
 Questions 
 
 Why is the potato an important vegetable ? Why are potatoes 
 a field rather than a garden crop ? How are they planted ? When 
 is the usual time for planting them? What does "hilling" do 
 for potato plants ? How are potato beetles controlled ? 
 
 How should Jerusalem artichoke be grown ? What would be 
 the best place in the garden to plant it ? 
 
 Describe the method of starting an asparagus bed. How 
 should the bed be treated after the cutting season? How long 
 should a good asparagus bed last ? What are the indications that 
 a bed is not doing as well as it should ? 
 
 How does kohl-rabi differ from head cabbages? How is this 
 plant affected by hot weather ? 
 
Garden Plants Grown for Their Stems 285 
 Things to Do and Observe 
 
 1. To determine the best kind of soil for potatoes. By inquiry 
 and observation learn the kinds of soil in which potatoes are 
 grown in your neighborhood. If you find that some are grown 
 in different soils, find out which gives the biggest yield. If pota- 
 toes are not grown at all in your locality, find the reason why. 
 
 2. To determine what vegetables may be grown successfully as 
 border plants. In your visits to gardens note what vegetables 
 are used as border plants ; that is, what vegetables are planted 
 outside the main gardening area. For example, in one garden 
 you may find a double row of asparagus along the fence. This 
 arrangement does not interfere with the cultivation of the garden, 
 and the plants form a pleasing background. What other plants 
 do you find grown in this way ? 
 
 3. To determine the best time to plant the various crops. Talk 
 with gardeners about the best time to plant each crop. Take 
 special note of what the older, more experienced gardeners tell 
 you. If you find that some go by the condition of the trees, shrubs 
 or flowers, make notes of the information given you. 
 
CHAPTER EIGHTEEN 
 
 DISEASES OF PLANTS 
 
 As a Blight is the most common and dangerous Distemper 
 that Plants are subject to, so I shall endeavour to explain 
 by what Means Vegetables are affected by it ; and if I shall 
 be so happy, from the Observations I have made, to dis- 
 cover the Cause of it, the Remedy may then be more easily 
 found out, and the Gardener will with more certainty hope 
 for Success from his Care and Labour. 
 
 From an Old English Garden Book (1726) 
 
 ALL the vegetables of the garden are plants that 
 have roots, stems, and leaves. Each of these parts has 
 different work to do ; and in the plants there are vessels 
 to carry water, minerals, and foods between the different 
 parts. 
 
 The garden plants all have chlorophyll, a green color- 
 ing matter which makes them able to use the energy of 
 the sunlight in building food. They are, therefore, self- 
 supporting ; they can make their own food from carbon 
 dioxid taken from the air, and from water and minerals 
 taken from the soil. As we have learned in earlier 
 chapters, this is one of the main reasons why they are so 
 valuable to man as food plants. 
 
 The garden plants also produce seeds, which usually 
 pass through a resting period before the young plants 
 resume growth. In this way the plants that live but 
 one year are able to pass the winter months. 
 
 In all these respects garden plants are like the many 
 kinds of trees, shrubs, and herbs that are abundant and 
 conspicuous all about us. Because of these qualities, 
 and especially because of their power to produce seeds, 
 these plants are considered to be the higher forms of 
 
 plant life. 
 
 286 
 
Diseases of Plants 287 
 
 Lower forms of plant life. But all about us are many 
 sorts of plants that never produce flowers and seeds. 
 The simplest form of these seedless plants have no roots, 
 stems, or leaves. Some are so small that we cannot 
 see them with the naked eye. Many of these seedless 
 plants have no green coloring matter and hence are not 
 able to make their own sugary foods. These colorless 
 (not green) and seedless little plants are all about us, 
 and they affect, our crops in so many ways that we need 
 to learn about them. 
 
 Plants without green coloring matter. The fungi 
 (singular, fungus) are a great group of colorless and 
 seedless plants. Mushrooms, puffballs, molds, and the 
 bracket fungi (found on trees) are members of this 
 group. Although some are quite large, they are all 
 composed of single filaments of cells or groups of such 
 filaments and have no leaves, stems, roots, or flowers 
 and no special conducting vessels within them. The 
 fungi produce great numbers of small spores that, when 
 scattered abroad, start the new plants. 
 
 The yeasts and bacteria are other examples of color- 
 less and seedless plants. In these the plant consists of 
 but a single cell. The yeasts multiply by budding ; the 
 bacteria, by simple division. Some of the yeasts and 
 bacteria produce spores that can withstand drying and a 
 high temperature without injury. Some vegetables are 
 difficult to can so that they will keep, because they carry 
 bacterial spores that are killed only by steaming under 
 pressure or by a long period of boiling. 
 
 Parasites. A colorless plant cannot make its own food, 
 but, like an animal, it must have food that is already 
 
288 Gardening 
 
 prepared. Some of these plants, such as the mushrooms 
 and bread mold, use dead plant or animal material for 
 food. Others feed directly on living plants or animals. 
 These are called parasites, and the plant or animal on 
 which the parasite feeds is called the host. 
 
 Parasitic diseases of plants. Many diseases of gar- 
 den plants are due to the attacks of parasitic plants 
 such as the rusts, smuts, and mildews. Most blights 
 and rots are caused by fungi ; but some of them, and 
 also many other plant diseases, are due to bacteria. 
 
 It is only within the last forty or fifty years that the 
 cause of these diseases has ceased to be a mystery. The 
 host plants become sickly, and even die suddenly ; but 
 because of their small size, the parasites are not even 
 seen with the naked eye. But the invention of the 
 microscope enabled man to see these small parasitic 
 plants ; consequently much is now known of the 
 various parasites that cause plant diseases and how to 
 control them. 
 
 The gardener can learn to recognize many of these 
 diseases by such signs as spots or blotches on the leaves, 
 by the occurrence of powdery or moldy growth, or by the 
 decay or rotting of parts. Just as the physician, without 
 seeing the germs, recognizes whooping cough or measles 
 from the symptoms of the patient, so the gardener can 
 learn to recognize plant diseases by the condition of the 
 host plants. 
 
 The diseases discussed below are selected to illustrate 
 the various sorts of parasites that are likely to appear 
 on crops in the home vegetable garden, and to give also a 
 knowledge of the diseases that are most destructive to 
 
Diseases of Plants 
 
 289 
 
 R. F. Poole, N. J. Expt. Sta. 
 FIG. 164. Cabbage plants badly infected with the club root disease. 
 
 such crops and of the various means that are employed 
 in combating them. 
 
 CLUBROOT OF CABBAGE 
 
 All the members of the cabbage group, as well as 
 turnips, radishes, rutabagas, and mustards, serve as the 
 hosts of a parasite which causes a disease known as club- 
 root. This disease is especially common in cabbage over 
 most of the United States east of the Mississippi River. 
 Young plants are often attacked in the seed bed. They 
 become stunted and sickly and seldom grow to maturity. 
 They wilt during the heat of the day. The roots soon 
 become greatly swollen and misshapen. This condition 
 leads the gardener to speak of the disease as the club- 
 
2 QO Gardening 
 
 root ; but it is also known as " clubfoot " or the " finger 
 and toe " disease. 
 
 The fungus causing this disease lives, during one stage 
 of its life, in the soil. It enters the roots of its host, 
 and multiplies by a simple kind of budding process. 
 After a period of feeding, during which the host becomes 
 greatly weakened, many spores are produced by the 
 fungus within the roots. Later, when the roots of the 
 dead host decay, these spores become mingled with the 
 soil. Under proper conditions, which usually occur 
 during early spring, they germinate and infest plants of 
 the new crop. 
 
 Means of control. All diseased plants should be dug 
 up and burned, care being taken to get all the roots out 
 of the soil. If the disease appears in cold frames or 
 hotbeds, one must remove and discard all the soil, and 
 thoroughly clean out flats and frames before using for 
 another year. The destruction of diseased plants and 
 the cleaning of frames is one of the first remedies to 
 use in preventing the disease. 
 
 A second method of combating the disease is to plant 
 in the infected soil crops not attacked by it. Do not 
 grow cabbage on ground where cabbage was attacked the pre- 
 vious year, and do not use soil from infected areas to grow 
 seedlings of cabbage. If the disease appears in an early 
 crop, do not plant a late crop of cabbage in the same 
 earth, but use this space for late crops of some vege- 
 table that is not subject to the disease, such as endive 
 or celery. 
 
 As the fungus thrives best in an acid soil, the appli- 
 cation of lime to the land helps in controlling the disease. 
 
Diseases of Plants 291 
 
 The root-knot disease, which is caused by small " eel- 
 worms," may be confused with the clubroot disease, in the 
 southern states especially. The worms infest the roots 
 and produce swellings, but these are smaller than the 
 swellings of the clubroot. By breaking open the swollen 
 roots, one may often detect pearly white bodies about 
 the size of a pin head ; these are the female eelworms. 
 
 To combat this animal parasite, practice crop rotation, 
 destroy all diseased plants, and clean the frames and flats, 
 as is recommended for the clubroot. 
 
 BACTERIAL WILT OF VINE CROPS 
 
 This disease is caused by a bacterium that lives 
 within the woody vessels which carry sap up to the leaves. 
 This parasite is so minute that many thousands of them 
 can live together within a single cell of the host plant. 
 In time, the vessels are broken down and cavities formed 
 within the host. The supply of water is thus checked, 
 and the plant suddenly wilts and soon dies. There is no 
 recovery and no cure for plants after the germs once get 
 inside. 
 
 The minute germs of this disease are carried from 
 diseased plants to healthy ones by the striped cucumber 
 beetle. This insect chews into diseased plants and gets 
 the bacteria on its mouth parts ; then when it chews into 
 healthy plants, the bacteria gain an entrance. 
 
 The best measures of prevention are : (i) to destroy 
 and combat the striped beetle, and (2) to burn all plants 
 as soon as they become infected. 
 
 The various vine crops also wilt suddenly and die when 
 attacked by the grub of the stalk borer, but in this case 
 
29 2 Gardening 
 
 proper examination will reveal the grubs burrowing in the 
 stem near the base of the plant (page 333) . 
 
 Plants may also wilt badly from lack of water. One 
 needs to recognize the various conditions that cause wilt- 
 ing before deciding that the bacterial wilt is present. 
 
 Muskmelons, watermelons, cucumbers, and squashes 
 are all subject to attacks of this disease at any time during 
 their growth. It is now a common and a very serious 
 disease of vine crops in the United States. 
 
 OTHER BACTERIAL DISEASES OF GARDEN CROPS 
 
 A wilt disease of potatoes, tomatoes, and eggplants 
 caused by a bacterium is especially destructive in the 
 southern states. 
 
 A soft rot of the carrot and other vegetables is a com- 
 mon and widespread disease and is 'caused by another 
 bacterium. 
 
 A bean blight, caused by a bacterium, is common on 
 both the kidney and the Lima bean. Its presence is 
 readily detected by the occurrence of water-soaked 
 patches or swellings that appear in the stems, leaves, and 
 green pods. The disease is seed-borne and there is no 
 effective control, except the use of seed from healthy 
 plants. However, treatment of diseased seed is some- 
 what effective in preventing this disease. 
 
 Before planting, soak the seed in a solution of mercuric 
 bichlorid (i part to 1000 parts of water) for 15 minutes ; 
 then rinse or wash in pure water, after which spread 
 out the seeds to dry. This kills the bacteria that are 
 being carried on the seeds. As the solution attacks 
 
Diseases of Plants 293 
 
 metal vessels, an earthenware dish should be used. 
 Mercuric bichlorid is a deadly poison and should not be 
 used by children. 
 
 A " black rot " of cabbage (also called " brown rot," 
 " stem rot," and " dry rot ") is caused by a bacterium. 
 Young plants are killed ; older ones lose their leaves and 
 become rotted. As young plants may become infected 
 in flats or in seed beds, these should be watched. Any 
 plants showing signs of the black rot should be de- 
 stroyed. The disease is seed-borne ; hence it is advis- 
 able always to disinfect seeds of cabbage with mercuric 
 bichlorid as directed above for destroying the germs of 
 bean blight. 
 
 All the diseases mentioned above are combated by 
 destroying diseased plants, by keeping flats and frames 
 clean, and by crop rotation. 
 
 THE DOWNY MILDEW OF THE CUCUMBER 
 
 Through the eastern and the southern states the 
 downy mildew is a very destructive disease of the cu- 
 cumber and of all the vine crops related to it. The first 
 sign of attack is the appearance of yellowish spots on the 
 leaves. These rapidly enlarge until the leaves are almost 
 or entirely yellow or brown, when they soon die. The 
 older leaves are attacked first, and the disease progresses 
 toward the tips of the vines until the plants are either 
 killed or very much stunted. 
 
 The disease is due to a fungus, which cannot itself be 
 detected with the naked eye. But an examination of the 
 discolored areas under a microscope will reveal colorless, 
 branched, and thread-like stalks of the fungus pro- 
 
294 
 
 Gardening 
 
 FIG. 165. 
 
 Cucumber vines destroyed by bacterial wilt. A week before this 
 picture was taken the vines were growing vigorously. 
 
 truding through the breathing pores on the under sur- 
 faces of the leaves and extending out into the air. Very 
 small spores are borne on the ends of these branches. 
 When the spores are mature, they readily become sep- 
 arated from the stalk and may be borne long distances by 
 the wind. If, by chance, a spore lodges on a cucumber 
 leaf (or the leaf of a melon or squash), it gives rise to 
 thread-like filaments which may grow through a breath- 
 ing pore into the interior of a leaf. Here the fungus 
 feeds from the living cells of the host, becomes mature 
 itself, and sends out into the air branches which bear 
 spores for another germination. 
 
 The parasite, therefore, lives within the leaf. It 
 is outside on the surface of the plant for only a short 
 time previous to gaining entrance, and also when a part 
 of the fungus is exposed to the air for the short time that 
 the spores are being shed. 
 
Diseases of Plants 295 
 
 Controlling fungous diseases with poison. Poisons 
 which kill fungi are called fungicides. The best-known 
 and most valuable fungicide is Bordeaux mixture. The 
 standard formula for this fungicide is known as the 
 " 4-4-50 formula," so called because it is made from 4 
 pounds of copper sulfate, 4 pounds of fresh slaked lime 
 (or 5 pounds hydrated lime), and 50 gallons of water. 
 
 For the home garden, a smaller amount of the material 
 is usually sufficient for all needs, and it can be made in 
 the same proportions, as follows : 
 
 Prepare separately two stock solutions which we will 
 call A and B. To make solution A, inclose 2 pounds of 
 copper sulfate in a cloth bag, and hang it in a vessel con- 
 taining 2 gallons of water. A metal bucket will be de- 
 stroyed by the solution ; so a wooden or glazed earthen- 
 ware vessel must be used. The bag containing copper 
 sulfate should be hung in the upper part of the water and 
 not allowed to touch the bottom or sides of the vessel. 
 
 To make solution B, prepare a lime paste either by 
 slaking 2 pounds of fresh stone lime in water or by adding 
 2 f pounds of hydrated lime to water. Then add water to 
 make 2 gallons. This solution also must be made and 
 kept in an earthen or wooden vessel. 
 
 These stock solutions may be kept for use throughout 
 the summer, but the vessels should be kept tightly 
 covered to prevent evaporation of water and to keep dust 
 out. As some water will evaporate, it is well to mark the 
 height of the liquid after each use of the stock, and then 
 add water to fill to this height just before the stock is 
 again used. In this way the proper strength of the sojih 
 tion is maintained. 
 
296 
 
 Gardening 
 
 As it is seldom that the home gardener will wish to 
 use more than 3 gallons of spray at one time, this amount 
 can be made up from the stock as follows : 
 
 A 
 
 2 Ibs. copper sulfate 
 Suspended in aclotH 
 bag in 2 gals. of 
 cold water 
 
 Mix 1 qt. solution A with 
 2;/2 gals, water; add 1 qt. -D 
 !L solution B 
 
 2 Ibs. stone lime or 
 273 Ibs.hydrated lime 
 
 made into paste; 
 
 add 2 gals, water 
 
 Keep covered \ Keep covered 
 
 Strain and use 
 at once in spray 
 
 FIG. 1 66. Diagram showing how Bordeaux mixture is made up. 
 
 Stir the stock solutions thoroughly. Place i quart 
 of solution A in a wooden pail or glazed earthenware 
 vessel which holds not less than 4 gallons. Add 2 gal- 
 lons of water, and mix well. 
 
 Next, add i quart of stock solution B, and stir 
 thoroughly. Then strain the mixture through cheese- 
 cloth into the tank of the spray pump, and use imme- 
 diately. If a smaller amount of Bordeaux mixture is 
 needed, one-half the amounts mentioned may be mixed 
 for use. Or, if only a very small amount is needed for a 
 single application, it can be made by using 4 ounces of 
 copper sulfate dissolved in 6 quarts of water and 4 
 ounces quicklime (or 5! ounces hydrated lime) slaked 
 
Diseases of Plants 
 
 297 
 
 and then dissolved in 6 quarts of water. When the lime 
 is well dissolved mix the two solutions, strain, and use 
 immediately. 
 
 Weaker solutions, such as a 2-4-50 formula, are often 
 prepared for use on 
 young plants and on 
 tender crops that are 
 injured by the stronger 
 solutions. 
 
 Sometimes the lime 
 is of poor quality or has 
 lost its strength, or the 
 copper may be so strong 
 that it " burns " leaves 
 that it touches. The 
 solution may be tested 
 as follows : Dip a clean, 
 bright steel knife blade 
 into the prepared solu- 
 tion for 30 seconds. If 
 it is " coppery " in color 
 when removed, there is 
 not enough lime, and 
 lime water should be 
 added until the knife 
 blade does not " cop- 
 per " when tested. 
 
 When this poison is 
 sprayed on the surface of 
 
 C7. S. D. A. 
 
 The proper way to carry a 
 
 FIG. 167. 
 
 compressed-air sprayer of the knapsack 
 leaves it kills the ger- tyP e - The strap goes over the left shoulder, 
 . and the tank is partially supported by the 
 
 minating spores which right hand. 
 
298 Gardening 
 
 may be present. It will not destroy the fungus after it 
 has gained entrance to the inside of the leaf, however. 
 Spraying with Bordeaux mixture can therefore only 
 prevent the appearance and spread of the disease ; it 
 cannot cure diseased plants. Cucumber growers who 
 plant on a large acreage do not wait for the disease 
 caused by downy mildew to appear, but spray about 
 seven times during the growing of the crop. The home 
 gardener should at least begin spraying as soon as he de- 
 tects signs of disease. If, however, the disease has been 
 present in previous years or is known to be in the lo- 
 cality, it is advisable to begin spraying as soon as the 
 cucumber plants are well above the ground, and to 
 spray thereafter at intervals of about 10 days. If rains 
 occur soon after spraying, much of the poison will be 
 washed from the leaves ; it will then be necessary to 
 spray again immediately. 
 
 LEAF BLIGHT OR LEAF SPOT OF THE TOMATO 
 
 It is estimated by the United States Department of 
 Agriculture that the tomato-leaf blight causes a loss to 
 tomato growers in the United States of at least $5,000,000 
 each year ; yet this loss could largely be prevented if the 
 growers would learn to recognize the symptoms of the 
 disease and to spray properly with Bordeaux mixture. 
 
 The fungus which causes this disease attacks the lower 
 leaves first. Small angular or circular spots appear, 
 having grayish or light-colored centers and dark-colored 
 borders. These spots are seldom more than J inch in 
 diameter. Leaves thus attacked curl, and then dry and 
 fall. As the disease continues to extend to the newer 
 
Diseases of Plants 299 
 
 leaves, the plants may in a short time become almost 
 leafless. In such a condition the plants will produce 
 few or no fruits. 
 
 In the center of the discolored spots, small dark dots 
 or pustules may be found. These are cistern-like cavities 
 in which countless spores are produced. Around the 
 spores is a material which when wet becomes jelly-like 
 and swells, pushing the spores in sticky clusters out of the 
 opening of the case. They will cling to insects and to 
 the hands of the gardener, and thus become distributed. 
 Rain may splash spores from leaf to leaf and from plant 
 to plant. Spores which fall to the ground will withstand 
 severe drying for at least three days, during which time 
 they may be blown about with the dust. Many gar- 
 deners quite naturally make the mistake of thinking 
 that the disease is caused by wet weather, but the wet 
 weather simply favors the spread of the parasite. 
 
 Control of this disease is effected largely by preven- 
 tive measures. Clean soil should be used in flats and 
 cold frames in which seedlings are started. The spores 
 live over winter on stems and leaves of old plants ; hence 
 the dead remains of all tomato plants should be burned in 
 autumn. The spread of the disease can be checked by 
 spraying with Bordeaux mixture (4-4-50 formula) at 
 intervals of about 10 days, or more often during rainy 
 weather. At the first signs of this disease the gardener 
 should tie up plants to stakes, remove and burn the lower 
 and infected leaves which are wilting and showing 
 blotches, and then spray with Bordeaux mixture. All 
 this work, as well as that of cultivation, should be done 
 when the plants are dry. 
 
 \ 
 
300 
 
 Gardening 
 
 THE DAMPING-OFF DISEASE 
 
 Several kinds of fungi attack young seedlings and cause 
 them to topple over and die. Heavy losses from this 
 cause often occur in seed beds and cold frames. Usually 
 all the plants in an area are attacked and killed, leaving 
 bare patches. In some cases the plants survive until 
 they are placed in the field, but even then they grow 
 poorly and often die. 
 
 The fungi which cause damping off can live on decay- 
 ing organic matter in the soil, they can attack the living 
 tissues of seedlings, and they can continue to feed on the 
 plants after they are dead. Certain of these fungi are 
 practically always present in soil which is rich in organic 
 
 FIG. 1 68. Lettuce seedlings affected with the damping-off disease. The plants 
 just above the center of the picture are falling down and rotting. 
 
Diseases of Plants 
 
 materials. Their growth is 
 favored by an abundance 
 of moisture and warmth. 
 
 The prevention of damp- 
 ing off depends largely on 
 the use of proper methods in 
 growing seedlings. Do not 
 use soil so rich that the plants 
 are forced too rapidly. Give 
 the seedlings space, both by 
 proper sowing and by prompt 
 thinning and transplanting. 
 Supply water only according 
 to the needs of the plants; 
 mix sand with the soil to 
 help the drainage ; regulate 
 the temperature and venti- 
 late the frames to harden 
 the seedlings. With such 
 precautions, damping off will 
 
 Seldom be SerioUS. 
 
 R. F. Poole, N. J. Expt. Sta. 
 
 If it TIG. 169. Portion of a corn plant 
 badly infected with corn smut. The 
 diseased parts or the entire diseased 
 
 anr>psrQin flat* HkrarH the badly infected with corn smut. The 
 natS > a ' diseased parts or the entire di 
 
 entire flat and plant new plants should be cut off and de- 
 seeds in less rich soil, or 
 
 select healthy plants from uninfected parts of the flat 
 and transplant them to a new flat with fresh earth less 
 rich in humus. 
 
 CORN SMUT 
 
 One can readily detect the presence of this fungus, be- 
 cause of the prominent and sometimes enormous swell- 
 
3 2 Gardening 
 
 R. F. Poole. N. J. Expt. Sta. 
 
 FIG. 170. Bean pods infected with bean anthracnose. The diseased portions 
 often extend through the walls of the pod and affect the seed within. 
 
 ings produced. These somewhat rounded but irregularly 
 shaped enlargements may appear on leaves, stalk, tassel, 
 or ears. At first, the outside of these swellings is glis- 
 tening white, but later the mass breaks up into black 
 powdery substances, largely composed of minute spores. 
 These spores live over winter and lead to the infection of 
 growing plants the next year. The filaments of the fun- 
 gus gain entrance anywhere in the growing parts, espe- 
 cially through wounds. The fungus grows rapidly, and 
 the parts in which it feeds become enlarged and greatly 
 distorted. The effect of this fungus differs very much 
 from that of such a fungus as the downy mildew of the. 
 cucumber, which kills tissues and does not first cause 
 them to become enlarged. 
 
 To prevent the spread of this smut, do not allow any 
 pustules to mature and shed their spores. Cut out the 
 
Diseases of Plants 
 
 303 
 
 /i. F. PooZe, AT. J. -Ezp*. 5a. 
 
 FIG. 171. Bean seeds showing anthracnose spots. If these seeds are planted, 
 the disease will be transmitted to the plants of the next crop, 
 u 
 
 swellings when they are 
 destroy them by burning. 
 
 green " and immature, and 
 
 BEAN ANTHRACNOSE 
 
 The most common and perhaps the most destructive of 
 the diseases that attack varieties of the common or kid- 
 ney bean is the disease known as bean anthracnose. It is 
 nearly always present on some varieties. The fungus at- 
 tacks pods, stems, leaves, and even roots, causing dis- 
 colored blotches to appear. On the pods these first appear 
 as small, dark-colored spots which soon increase in size, be- 
 coming quite conspicuous. They are usually somewhat 
 circular and black or rusty, but may be pinkish at certain 
 stages. These " cankers," as they are called, become 
 sunken and dry and hard. It is in these areas that the 
 fungus is living. Spores are produced on the surface of 
 the canker ; and as these are sticky when wet, they are 
 
304 Gardening 
 
 easily spread, much in the same way as the spores of the 
 tomato-leaf blight are spread. The filaments of the 
 fungus penetrate to the interior of the pod and infest 
 the seeds, and here they may remain, ready to thrive 
 on the young plant when the seed germinates. 
 
 Control. Do not cultivate or hoe the crop, or pick 
 the pods when the plants are wet from rain or dew, as 
 this spreads the spores from plant to plant. Burn all 
 badly infected plants and destroy the vines of others as 
 soon as the crop of pods is harvested. This helps to 
 check the spread of the disease to later crops. 
 
 The chief means of prevention is through seed selec- 
 tion. The fungus is carried over winter on the seed, and 
 the very first leaves (the seed leaves or cotyledons) may 
 already have the fungus present in the seed. Do not save 
 seed from infected pods. This is one of the seed-borne 
 diseases whose presence can often be detected with the 
 unaided eye. Examine carefully the seed that is bought 
 for planting, and reject all seeds that show dark or red- 
 dish spots indicating the cankers of the fungus. Seed 
 treatment with fungicides has not thus far proved success- 
 ful in controlling this fungus. The filaments penetrate 
 deeply into the embryo itself, and a treatment which 
 destroys the fungus also usually kills the embryo. 
 
 PREVENTING PLANT DISEASES 
 
 From the above discussion of the diseases typical of 
 plants grown in the vegetable garden, it will be evident 
 to the reader that there is no one means of control suitable 
 for all diseases. The best method to use is largely deter- 
 mined by the way the particular fungus lives and how it 
 
Diseases of Plants 305 
 
 attacks its host. Most measures of control aim to pre- 
 vent the appearance of a disease, or at least to check its 
 spread after it has appeared. In general, the various 
 methods which are employed and which have been noted 
 above may be grouped in the following classes : 
 
 (1) Sanitary measures. The remains of diseased 
 plants often contain countless numbers of the spores of 
 the fungus or of the bacterium causing the disease. To 
 leave such plant refuse scattered about the garden or in 
 piles about the border often assists the fungus or bac- 
 terium to live over winter, and thus invites a reappear- 
 ance of the disease. On this account the garden should 
 be kept clear of plant refuse, and the remains of plants 
 known to be infected should never be used in a humus 
 pile. Hotbeds, cold frames, and flats should be thor- 
 oughly cleaned out at the end of the season ; and they 
 should be sprayed or sprinkled with weak solutions of 
 formaldehyde. Sanitary measures are as desirable for 
 the garden as for the household. 
 
 (2) Crop rotation. Through rotation in the planting 
 of crops it is often possible to kill out the fungus by not 
 planting a crop that serves as a host for it. This is 
 especially the case when a parasitic fungus lives, in some 
 form or other, for a considerable time in the soil where 
 the best sanitary measures are of little avail. In larger 
 gardens and on a farm, various crops can be shifted to 
 different locations from year to year. In a small garden 
 there is less chance to practice crop rotation. But even 
 here it can be practiced to some extent. For example, 
 late cabbage should not be planted in soil on which an 
 early crop showed infection with the clubroot disease. 
 
306 Gardening 
 
 (3) Seed treatment. The aim of this method of 
 disease prevention is to destroy the parasites that exist 
 in some form either on or in the seeds. Soaking seed in 
 hot water or in solutions of certain chemicals will often 
 kill these parasites. There is, however, danger of in- 
 juring the seeds, especially if they are allowed to soak too 
 long or if they are not properly dried afterward. The 
 treatment most effective differs widely according to the 
 kind of seed and the kind of fungus. Seed treatment is 
 useless when seeds are planted in infected soil. Corrosive 
 sublimate, sometimes used in seed treatment, is a deadly 
 poison. Formaldehyde is extremely irritating to the 
 skin and to the nose and eyes. Seed treatment should 
 not be undertaken by the beginner in gardening without 
 considerable study of the literature and without a spe- 
 cial demonstration or study of the methods. Children 
 should never attempt the work alone. 
 
 (4) Fungicides. The use of fungicides, of which 
 Bordeaux mixture has already been mentioned, has now 
 become very general in combating various fungous dis- 
 eases. This aims chiefly to destroy the fungus at the 
 time it is gaining entrance to the leaves. The chemicals 
 applied stick to the leaves after the surface becomes 
 dry. When the leaves become wet from dew or rain, 
 the poisons are dissolved in the films of water that 
 cover the leaves. The poison is therefore present to 
 destroy spores which may lodge and germinate in the 
 water. Sooner or later the poisons which were ap- 
 plied are washed from the plant; therefore the gar- 
 dener must spray repeatedly, and most often when dis- 
 eases are especially destructive or the weather rainy. 
 
Diseases of Plants 
 
 307 
 
 Univ. of Wis. Agrtc. Ex-pt. 
 
 FIG. 172. In a field of cabbage that was almost entirely destroyed by yellows, 
 a plant that had formed a good head was found. This plant was saved for seed. 
 
 The most successful truck growers often spray crops 
 subject to diseases that can be thus controlled, whether 
 disease is present or not. They do this to prevent any 
 appearance of disease. The home gardener should be 
 prepared to use fungicides whenever diseases appear that 
 can be thus controlled. Children should not be intrusted 
 with the task, but should have the help of some older 
 person, as a parent, teacher, supervisor of garden work, 
 or scoutmaster. 
 
 (5) Varieties resistant to disease. Sometimes certain 
 plants of a crop are able to resist the attacks of a parasite, 
 while the greater number of sister plants all about 
 suffer or die. If seed is saved from these more resistant 
 plants, a highly resistant variety may be obtained. 
 The work of developing such resistant strains is best 
 
308 
 
 Gardening 
 
 Univ. of Wis. Agric. Expt. Sta. 
 
 FIG. 173. The rows of cabbage at the right were grown from seed from re- 
 sistant stock. They have inherited the power of the parent plants to resist the 
 disease. The plants on the left are from ordinary seed. 
 
 conducted by agricultural experiment stations or by seed 
 firms that produce seeds on a large scale. However, the 
 home gardener may secure seed, whenever available, of 
 desirable varieties known to be resistant to certain 
 diseases. When a disease tends to reappear year after 
 year, resistant varieties are especially valuable. For 
 example, the fungus that causes the " yellows " of cab- 
 bage is believed to persist in infected soil for a number 
 of years, and the growing of cabbages in such soil is only 
 possible when one uses seed of plants that are resistant 
 to this disease (see Figs. 172 and 173). 
 
 Whenever any noticeable and markedly injurious fun- 
 gous disease or insect (see next chapter) appears among 
 any of the vegetable crops, one should determine with- 
 out delay the nature of the injury. If this cannot be 
 
Diseases of Plants 309 
 
 determined with reasonable certainty from personal 
 knowledge, from such literature as may be at hand, 
 or from persons who may readily be consulted, then 
 the county agricultural agent or the state agricultural 
 experiment station should be written to. When writing 
 for inlormation, it is well to send specimens from dis- 
 eased plants (or if the trouble is caused by insects, a 
 few of these), with a full description of the conditions. 
 Although children cannot be expected to handle poisons 
 used in seed treatment or in sprays, they can observe how 
 these remedies are applied and they can readily learn to 
 recognize the symptoms of many diseases and insect 
 pests. If there is a microscope in the school, demon- 
 stration of the spores of many parasitic fungi may readily 
 be made. Such a demonstration may often be arranged 
 through school authorities or through the county agri- 
 cultural agent. An acquaintance with the world of 
 microorganisms all about us may well be begun in this 
 manner. 
 
 Questions 
 
 Why are the garden plants considered as belonging to the 
 higher forms of plant life? Name some seedless plants. Name 
 some common plants that do not have green coloring matter. 
 How do fungi reproduce ? 
 
 What are parasites ? Why did the causes of many plant diseases 
 long remain a mystery? How may the gardener recognize the 
 presence of disease in his plants ? 
 
 How does the clubroot disease of cabbage affect the plant it 
 attacks? How is it controlled? How can the clubroot disease 
 be distinguished from the root-knot disease of cabbage? What 
 causes bacterial wilt of vine crops? Describe the activities of 
 the parasite. How does it gain an entrance to the host plant ? 
 What are the best means of controlling the disease? Describe 
 
3io Gardening 
 
 the effect of bean blight. How is it controlled? What is the 
 "black rot" of cabbage? Describe the effects of the downy 
 mildew of cucumber. 
 
 How is Bordeaux mixture prepared? What are the general 
 rules for using this fungicide ? 
 
 Describe the appearance of a tomato plant affected by the 
 tomato-leaf blight. How is the disease spread? How is it 
 controlled? What is a "damping-off" disease? How is it 
 prevented? Describe the appearance of the corn-smut fungus. 
 How can the spores be prevented from spreading ? What is bean 
 anthracnose ? What are the methods of control ? 
 
 Why is there no one means of controlling all plant diseases? 
 What are the sanitary measures of controlling plant diseases? 
 How does crop rotation assist in keeping plant diseases in 
 check ? How may seeds be treated for diseases they are carrying ? 
 Why should children never attempt this work alone? What are 
 the general principles involved in using fungicides? How are 
 disease-resistant varieties of crops developed ? 
 
 Things to Do and Observe 
 
 1. To learn to recognize the symptoms of the "various diseases oj 
 garden "vegetables. Watch for the earliest appearance of a plant 
 disease. If at any time a plant looks as if it were diseased, try 
 to learn what disease it is, either by referring to a garden book 
 or by asking an experienced gardener ; or, if you cannot find out 
 in any other way, send specimens of diseased plants to the state 
 agricultural experiment station for identification, and ask for 
 information. In this way you will get into the habit of watch- 
 ing for the appearance of disease in your plants and you will 
 know just what to do as soon as you recognize the disease. 
 
 2. To learn how to control plant diseases. Secure bulletins 
 from your state department of agriculture on the diseases of 
 garden vegetables and their control. Consult the local dealer as 
 to the kind of sprayers and fungicides he sells. Inquire among 
 gardeners as to which of these are most effective. 
 
CHAPTER NINETEEN 
 
 INSECTS IN THE GARDEN 
 
 He is rather handsome as bugs go, but utterly dastardly. 
 
 CHARLES DUDLEY WARNER 
 
 VARIOUS insects attack garden plants, and if left 
 alone, these insect enemies may seriously injure crops or 
 even destroy them entirely. The gardener therefore 
 needs to know what insects attack the different vege- 
 tables, how to tell when they are present, and what to do 
 in destroying or controlling them. 
 
 In the course of their lives, insects pass through re- 
 markable changes in form and appearance. Often the 
 habit of living and feeding entirely changes in passing 
 from one stage to another. In general, the best methods 
 of combating any given insect depend on its life history 
 and how it feeds at the time when it injures the plants. 
 In this chapter, therefore, we shall study the life history 
 and feeding habits of some of the insects that are of most 
 interest to the gardener and learn the best ways of pro- 
 tecting garden plants from them. 
 
 THE CHEWING INSECTS 
 
 The chewing insects are those which at some stage of 
 life chew or bite into plants from the surface. They may 
 therefore be killed by poisons sprayed or dusted over the 
 plants which they are eating. Other methods of control- 
 ling them may be used, depending, as we shall learn, on 
 the way the insect lives. 
 
 The cabbage butterfly. Cabbage plants, especially in 
 late summer, are often infested with greenish-colored 
 caterpillars, commonly spoken of as " cabbage worms." 
 These caterpillars have such hearty appetites that they 
 
312 Gardening 
 
 often completely strip the leaves of young plants, check- 
 ing their growth and preventing the proper formation of 
 
 FIG. 174. Different stages in the life of the cabbage butterfly. 
 
 heads. On older plants they burrow from leaf to leaf 
 among the outer leaves of a head, leaving castings that 
 make the heads undesirable as food. The caterpillar in- 
 creases in size, shedding or molting its skin several 
 times as it grows, until in 2 or 3 weeks it is an inch or 
 more long. 
 
 When fully grown, a caterpillar attaches itself firmly 
 by a few silken threads, sheds its skin again, and in- 
 closes itself in a thin but tough and horny covering. It 
 
Insects in the Garden 313 
 
 is now a pupa (plural, pupce) or, as it is also called, a 
 chrysalis (plural, chrysalides). Before it passes into this 
 stage the caterpillar usually leaves the plant upon which 
 it has been feeding and crawls up some object, as a tree, 
 a fence, or a building. 
 
 The pupal stage is the resting period of the insect's 
 life ; when in this stage it does not eat, and appears to be 
 inactive and dormant. But within the thin shell wonder- 
 ful changes are taking place, and in time a butterfly 
 develops and comes forth. This is the mature or adult 
 form of the insect. 
 
 The cabbage butterfly is white above and white or 
 yellowish beneath, with a wing spread of about 2 inches. 
 The male has one black spot on each of the four wings. 
 The female has an extra spot on each of the. front wings. 
 These butterflies may be seen flitting about the garden 
 almost any day during the summer. In the butterfly 
 stage the insect does not feed upon the cabbage plants ; 
 its food is now obtained from the nectar of flowers. 
 
 When the female is ready to lay eggs, she alights on 
 the edge of a cabbage leaf and glues the eggs, one at a 
 time, in different places on the lower surface. A butter- 
 fly has been known to lay as many as 125 eggs in a single 
 day, but of course not all of these are placed on any one 
 plant. The eggs are about -^ inch in length. In from 
 3 to 10 days the eggs hatch ; tiny caterpillars emerge and 
 immediately begin feeding. 
 
 In its life cycle, this insect passes through four rather 
 distinct forms : (i) the egg; (2) the caterpillar or larva 
 (plural, larva), which is often incorrectly called a 
 worm ; (3) the pupa, or so-called resting form ; and 
 
314 Gardening 
 
 (4) the butterfly or adult form. The appearance of the 
 same individual insect and its habits of feeding and living 
 are very different in the various stages of its life. 
 
 In the northern states the cabbage butterfly lives 
 over winter in the pupal stage. The pupae that are 
 formed late in autumn remain in this stage until late in 
 the following spring. During the summer, however, the 
 butterflies emerge from pupae in from 7 to 10 days ; con- 
 sequently there are in the North at least two generations 
 in a season. 
 
 In the southern states, where the winters are very mild, 
 there may be as many as six generations in a year ; the 
 butterflies and the caterpillars of this insect are there- 
 fore present throughout the year. 
 
 The cabbage butterfly may be fought both in the 
 adult and in the larval stage. The following methods are 
 recommended : 
 
 (1) Catching the butterflies. The butterflies are active 
 in their movements, but they may be captured in butter- 
 fly nets as they flit about the garden. Special efforts 
 to catch the females at the time when eggs are being 
 laid will often greatly reduce the later work of killing 
 the caterpillars. 
 
 (2) Hand-picking the caterpillars. The caterpillars 
 are sluggish in their movements and can readily be 
 picked off the leaves and destroyed. At first they are 
 minute, and their color is almost the same as that of the 
 leaves upon which they feed, but as they grow larger they 
 are more easily seen. 
 
 A simple means of killing the caterpillars is to drop 
 them into a dish containing water and a little kerosene. 
 
Insects in the Garden 
 
 To hand-pick successfully, the plants should be searched 
 repeatedly, beginning as soon as signs of the insect are 
 seen. 
 
 (3) Use of poisons. Poisons are often used to kill 
 chewing insects, and for some insects the use of a poison 
 is the best means of control. How to mix poisons and 
 
 U.S.D.A. 
 
 FIG. 175. Map showing the rapid spread of the cabbage butterfly. It first 
 appeared at Quebec in 1860, and, spreading southward and westward, by 1881 it 
 was found over half the continent. 
 
316 Gardening 
 
 apply them to plants may be explained in this connec- 
 tion. 
 
 To use Paris green dry, mix it in the proportion of i 
 part to 10 parts of dry air-slaked lime, and dust the mix- 
 ture liberally over the plants while the dew is on. A 
 tin sifter or duster for use can be bought for less than 
 a dollar. A good duster can be made, however, by 
 punching small holes in one end of an empty baking- 
 powder can, by constructing a bag made of cheesecloth, 
 or by folding together the edges of a piece of loosely 
 woven burlap. Place the poison within the duster or 
 bag and use as a shaker. 
 
 Paris green may be applied also as a liquid spray. 
 Melt i ounce of common laundry soap in 4 gallons of hot 
 water. When the mixture is cool, add i ounce (about 
 5 heaping teaspoonfuls) of Paris green, stir well, and 
 apply by means of a compressed-air or auto sprayer. 
 Good sprayers of small size costing from one to two 
 dollars are listed in the catalogues of seed firms. 
 
 Arsenate of lead is another effective poison, and it is 
 sometimes cheaper than Paris green. To use it dry, mix 
 i part of powdered arsenate to 3 parts of air-slaked lime. 
 To make a spray, use i ounce of the arsenate of lead to 
 3 gallons of soapy water. The soap in the water is 
 needed to make the solution stick to the leaves of cab- 
 bages instead of rolling off their smooth, waxy surfaces. 
 
 White hellebore is very generally recommended as a 
 poison for chewing insects. It may be applied as a dry 
 powder or in a spray, using i ounce of powder in i gal- 
 lon of water. It is often stated that this poison soon 
 loses its activity when exposed to air and becomes 
 
Insects in the Garden 317 
 
 harmless. If this were true, white hellebore would be 
 especially valuable for use on salad vegetables. There 
 is, however, considerable doubt that it becomes harm- 
 less in a short time, and for this reason its application 
 on leaves that are to be used as food is to be safe- 
 guarded, as noted in the next paragraph. 
 
 Caution. Paris green, arsenate of lead, and white 
 hellebore are deadly poisons to human beings. All 
 supplies of these materials should be kept where children 
 cannot obtain them. In the home garden, poisons should 
 be used only when no other means are effective, and then 
 only by experienced persons. 
 
 When these poisons are used in the dust form, children 
 should be careful not to get dust in their own faces or 
 in the faces of others. Leafy crops should be sprayed 
 with poisons only when young, long before they are to be 
 used as food. Poisons should not be applied to cabbages 
 after the heads are beginning to form. 
 
 Cutworms. Cutworms often do much damage by 
 chewing through and cutting off the tender stems of 
 young plants of beans, corn, tomatoes, onions, sweet 
 potatoes, and cabbages. These " worms " are the cater- 
 pillars or larvae of night-flying moths. During summer 
 evenings they often fly through open windows into a 
 room and flit about a lighted lamp. 
 
 The eggs are laid in late summer; the young cater- 
 pillars that soon hatch from them feed during autumn 
 chiefly on the roots of grasses, and then live over winter 
 as half-grown caterpillars. Hence cutworms are almost 
 sure to be present in a garden that was in sod the previous 
 year. In the spring they crawl over the surface of the 
 
Gardening 
 
 V. S. D. A. 
 
 FIG. 176. Life history of the varie- 
 gated cutworm : a, adult moth ; b, 
 larva in the injurious stage, feeding ; 
 
 c, larva coiled up, a characteristic po- 
 sition when resting in the ground ; 
 
 d, top view of larva, showing the six 
 little white dots on the back ; e, egg 
 mass on a twig ; /, side view of an 
 individual egg, much enlarged. 
 
 garden during darkness and 
 feed by chewing through the 
 stems of young plants. Af- 
 ter feeding, they burrow into 
 the soil, where they curl up 
 and remain quiet during the 
 day. There are several ways 
 of overcoming cutworms. 
 
 (i) Protection from attack. 
 A stiff paper cylinder or 
 collar 3 inches in height, set 
 into the ground about a 
 plant, will afford protection, 
 for the worms rarely climb 
 over it. This method is feasible for protecting trans- 
 planted plants of cabbage and tomato, but not for crops 
 grown from seed planted in the garden. 
 
 (2) Killing the caterpillars. By carefully scraping 
 away the dirt from around the bases of plants that have 
 been cut off during the night, one can often find the 
 caterpillars and destroy them (see Figure 10). A search 
 for cutworms should be made early in the morning. 
 
 (3) Use of poisoned bait. This method is sometimes 
 used in commercial gardening, but its use is seldom neces- 
 sary in the small home garden if the methods noted above 
 are vigorously employed. To make poison bran mash, 
 mix 3 teaspoonfuls of Paris green with i pound of dry 
 wheat bran. Dissolve 2 teaspoonfuls of salt and 5 of 
 sirup in a teacupful of water. Mix all together and add 
 enough water to make the mash crumbly. This poisoned 
 bait is scattered over the ground every evening during 
 
Insects in the Garden 
 
 the season when the cater- 
 pillars are causing injury to 
 crops. 
 
 One of the most common 
 species of owlet moth in the 
 United States is the " dingy 
 
 cutworm." The moth is a ^b d e 
 
 buffy and dingy gray color, FIQ ^ We ^ S /^ 
 
 and the caterpillar is a light striped cucumber beetle : a, adult 
 
 T r .1 i j beetle ; b, larva ; c, pupa ; d, egg, 
 
 drab COlor. Many Other kinds much enlarged; e, markings on 
 
 Of CUtWOrmS may be found the egg as they appear when egg 
 
 is highly magnified. The short 
 black line in the center of the pic- 
 ture gives the exact length of the 
 
 adult beetle; the larva and pupa 
 are correspondingly smaller than 
 they appear here. 
 
 in the garden. 
 
 The striped cucumber bee- 
 tle. This insect does much 
 injury to cucumbers, musk- 
 melons, watermelons, pumpkins, and squashes, and also 
 sometimes to beans, peas, and corn. Early in spring 
 the beetles come forth and live on various weeds until 
 the vine crops start to grow in the garden. Then they 
 feed so ravenously upon these that the entire crop may 
 be destroyed in a few days, almost before the young 
 plants show above ground. This beetle occurs over 
 the greater part of the United States and is the most 
 destructive insect enemy of the vine crops. 
 
 The eggs are laid in late spring. They hatch in about 
 10 days into grubs, which feed by burrowing into or 
 feeding on the stems and roots of vine plants, and also by 
 eating into the fruits. The larvae are white, with a brown, 
 horny head. They are long and slender, not short and 
 thick like the larvae of the squash borer, described later. 
 After about a month, they pass into the resting stage, 
 
320 Gardening 
 
 which lasts until late summer or autumn. Then the 
 mature beetles appear and live through the winter under 
 such rubbish as dead plants, mats of grass, or even boards 
 that may be lying about. The beetle is only about f 
 inch long. Its color above is yellow, with a black head 
 and a black stripe along the edge of each wing cover. 
 When the wings are closed, these colors give the back the 
 appearance of having three stripes. 
 
 The striped cucumber beetle passes through four 
 stages, quite the same as does the cabbage butterfly; 
 but it is of course a very different type of insect, both in 
 appearance and in habits. It is most injurious to vine 
 plants when in the adult stage, and it is then that it is 
 most easily destroyed. 
 
 The five following methods of fighting the striped 
 cucumber beetle are the most effective that gardeners 
 know: 
 
 (i) Early spraying. In spring it is well to spray the 
 plants of cucumbers and squashes, as soon as they appear 
 above the ground, with a solution of arsenate of lead of a 
 strength of 3 ounces to 5 gallons of water. As an ounce 
 of arsenate of lead is equal to about 5 heaping teaspoon- 
 fuls, the solution is made with 3 spoonfuls to i gallon of 
 water. Paris green is not used, because it is likely to 
 injure the leaves of cucumbers and squashes. 
 
 (2) Use of trap plants. As the beetle prefers to feed 
 on the squash, hills of the summer squash or the Hubbard 
 squash may be planted among the cucumbers to act as 
 " trap plants." Then, when the beetles are feeding on 
 these, a sudden application of a spray of pure kerosene 
 will catch them and kill them before they can escape. 
 
Insects in the Garden 321 
 
 The trap plants also will be injured or even killed, but 
 they will have served their purpose. 
 
 (3) Protection by covering. During the early stages of 
 their growth, young plants of the vine crops may be pro- 
 tected by frames covered with cheesecloth. 
 
 (4) Late spraying and hand-picking. In the autumn, 
 large numbers of the adult beetles may be killed by spray- 
 ing or dusting late-growing plants of the Hubbard squash 
 with arsenate of lead. The beetles collect also on im- 
 mature fruits left in the garden ; and on cool mornings, 
 about the time of the first frosts, these insects are sluggish 
 with the cold. At such times the fruits may be picked 
 and the clinging beetles brushed into a pail of water and 
 kerosene. The common squash bug and the twelve- 
 spotted cucumber beetle also may be destroyed in con- 
 siderable numbers at the same time. 
 
 (5) Burning old vines. After the vines have been 
 killed by frost, they should be raked into piles and left 
 for several days; then, with the addition of brush or 
 straw, the piles may be burned quickly, thus killing the 
 beetles that have taken refuge within. During late 
 autumn the gardener is likely to become careless regard- 
 ing the use of remedies against insects ; but he should 
 remember that " a stitch in time saves nine." 
 
 Other chewing insects likely to injure garden crops. 
 The potato beetle is nearly always present on potatoes 
 and feeds vigorously both in the adult and in the larval 
 stages. Methods for the control of the potato beetle 
 have already been mentioned (page 280). 
 
 Two kinds of beetles are injurious to asparagus, feed- 
 ing in both the larval and adult stages on young 
 
322 Gardening 
 
 shoots and mature plants. Various sorts of tiny " flea 
 beetles " eat holes into the leaves of eggplants, squashes, 
 cucumbers, melons, snap beans, and tomatoes. These 
 insects are best destroyed by sprays of arsenate of lead. 
 The blister beetles of the beet and Swiss chard are 
 black or striped beetles about J inch in length. They 
 often " come in droves," and if unchecked, soon do 
 much injury. It is not advisable to spray Swiss chard 
 with poisons, but the insects may be caught by beating 
 and shaking from the plants into a wide-mouthed pail 
 containing water and a small amount of kerosene. 
 
 THE SUCKING INSECTS 
 
 The insects which are known as the " true bugs " have 
 their mouth parts arranged in the form of a tube-like 
 beak. Those that live upon plants feed by inserting this 
 beak into the plant and sucking out the juice. They 
 are therefore not injured by poison on the surface of the 
 leaves, but must be sprayed or dusted with something 
 that will kill them by coming in contact with them. 
 Kerosene emulsion and preparations containing nicotine 
 are most generally used for this purpose. 
 
 Aphids. The most common sucking insects in the 
 garden are the plant lice or aphids. There are many 
 kinds of aphids that attack plants. Some feed upon 
 roots ; others on the parts that grow in the air, mostly on 
 tender young leaves, buds, or fruits. They are all 
 rather small and feed wholly on plant juices. In the 
 North they live over winter in the egg stage, but in 
 the more southern states they are present in the adult 
 stage throughout the winter as well as in summer. 
 
Insects in the Garden 323 
 
 FIG. 178. Showing how aphids stunt the growth of seedlings. These two 
 cabbage plants were started at the same time ; the one at the left was allowed 
 to become infested with aphids, but the one at the right was kept free from 
 them. 
 
 In the vegetable garden, plant lice are often abundant 
 on peas, on melons, cucumbers, and other vine crops, and 
 on spinach and cabbage. The insects feed chiefly on the 
 under surface of the leaves, which often become irreg- 
 ularly curled and shriveled through their work. Badly 
 infested plants do not thrive, they often fail to pro- 
 duce good crops, and they may die prematurely. 
 
 Aphids are usually overcome with sprays made from 
 tobacco preparations. These are sold in the market 
 under various trade names. One of the best known and 
 most powerful is " Black Leaf 40." Nicotine sulfate, 
 made from tobacco, is much used in making insect 
 sprays. To use it, dissolve i ounce of soap in a gallon 
 of hot water, and then add i teaspoonful of the nicotine 
 sulfate. A small package of smoking tobacco boiled in 
 
324 Gardening 
 
 3 gallons of water with an ounce of soap will make a 
 solution that will kill plant lice. This solution should 
 be strained before using, to prevent clogging of the 
 sprayer. 
 
 Kerosene emulsion also may be used to kill aphids and 
 other insects, but it is not so convenient to make up as 
 the tobacco preparations. To prepare it, boil ^ pound 
 of laundry soap in i gallon of water until dissolved. 
 Remove from the fire and add 2 gallons of kerosene. 
 Pour the kerosene into the water slowly, adding small 
 amounts at a time. Stir constantly and thoroughly, and 
 in about 5 or 10 minutes the mixture will become thick 
 and creamy. This stock solution may be kept stored for 
 use at any time. Dilute with from 10 to 20 parts of hot 
 water, stir well, and use as a spray. Both the kerosene 
 and the tobacco sprays should be cool when used on the 
 plants. 
 
 To be effective, these sprays must reach the body of the 
 insect. They should be applied as a fine, mist-like spray, 
 such as a good compressed-air spray pump will throw. 
 The under surface of leaves and the inclosed portions of 
 rolled-up leaves should be reached, so that all insects 
 present will be touched by the spray. Several applica- 
 tions of spray at intervals of 2 or 3 days may be required 
 to rid plants of aphids. 
 
 The common squash bug. The full-grown adult of the 
 common squash bug is about f inch long ; it is of a dirty 
 grayish-brown color above and a yellowish color beneath. 
 It gives off, especially when handled, an offensive odor. 
 The mouth parts are formed into a conspicuous beak 
 about \ inch long. This beak is characteristic of the 
 
Insects in the Garden 
 
 325 
 
 sucking insects; with it, they puncture plants and 
 suck juices from within. 
 
 FIG. 179. Life history of the common squash bug : a, nymph soon after hatch- 
 ing from egg; b, second stage of nymph; c, third stage of nymph; d, fourth 
 stage of nymph ; e, fifth stage of nymph ; /, adult ; g, egg mass on the under 
 side of a squash leaf. All the figures are about one and a half times natural size. 
 
 The adult insects live over winter, hidden in and 
 protected by rubbish of various sorts. The small, cop- 
 pery-colored eggs are laid mostly on the under sides of 
 leaves of squash plants and usually in groups of thirty 
 or more. Young bugs or " nymphs " appear in about 10 
 days, and immediately begin to feed on the host plant. 
 After molting five times, which covers about 35 days 
 of feeding, the nymphs become adults. They thus 
 pass from egg to adult without the resting or chrysalis 
 stage. 
 
326 
 
 Gardening 
 
 This insect is injurious through its whole life, except 
 when dormant in winter. It is found throughout the 
 
 u. s. D. A. 
 
 FIG. 180. Life history of the harlequin, or calico-back cabbage bug: a, adult; 
 b, egg mass ; c, first stage of nymph ; d, second stage ; e, third stage ; /, fourth 
 stage; g, fifth stage. All enlarged. 
 
 entire United States and is reported to be most abundant 
 east of the Rocky Mountains. 
 
 Unfortunately the common squash bug resists kerosene 
 and nicotine sulfate sprays, but the following methods of 
 control are effective when carefully carried out : 
 
 (i) Hand-picking. The adult bugs are picked from 
 the vines throughout the season, or if pieces of board are 
 placed in the garden, especially during spring and early 
 summer, the insects gather beneath them. Collect and 
 crush the eggs also. 
 
Insects in the Garden 327 
 
 (2) Clean culture. Clean culture also should be prac- 
 ticed. In the autumn place the squash vines in small 
 piles scattered about the garden. Allow them to lie 
 until after several hard frosts, and then burn them. 
 
 The calico-back cabbage bug. The " calico bug," 
 " fire bug," " terrapin bug," or " harlequin bug " is the 
 most destructive insect of the various cabbage crops, 
 and also of the turnip, radish, and mustard, throughout 
 the southern part of the United States. It saps the 
 juice from the veins of leaves and often causes plants to 
 wilt and die as if swept by fire. Its gay red and black 
 coloring makes it conspicuous and easily recognized. 
 In general, its habits and life history are quite similar 
 to that of the common squash bug described above. In 
 the South it is active throughout the season, but near 
 its most northern range (about the latitude of Washing- 
 ton, D. C.) it is dormant for a time in winter. 
 
 There are three good methods of controlling the calico 
 bug: 
 
 (1) Hand-picking. This is effective, especially when 
 adults appear on a crop before they have laid eggs. 
 Growers in various parts of the South have paid bounties 
 to school children for gathering them, and it is reported 
 that as many as 47,000 of these bugs were thus collected 
 for a grower at Denton, Texas, during one month 
 (February). The egg masses laid on the under side of 
 leaves are rather conspicuous, and these also may be 
 gathered and crushed. 
 
 (2) Use of trap crops. Early and late crops of mustard 
 may be grown among the plants largely for the purpose 
 of attracting the calico bug. The insects collect on the 
 
328 Gardening 
 
 mustard and may be destroyed. In this way crops of 
 cabbage are protected in spring. In the autumn late 
 crops of mustard will attract the bugs at times when 
 other food may be scarce. 
 
 (3) Clean culture. The advice given for clean culture, 
 under methods of combating the common squash bug, 
 will be helpful also in keeping the calico bug under 
 control. 
 
 Gardeners living in the zone just north of the present 
 range of the insect should keep a sharp watch for its 
 appearance. Determined efforts should be made to pre- 
 vent its further spread. 
 
 THE BURROWING INSECTS 
 
 The larvae of many insects live within the plant and 
 cannot be killed in their feeding stage by poisons or 
 sprays. To combat them it is necessary, therefore, 
 to keep the adults from laying eggs among the plants, to 
 destroy them when they are outside the plant, or to 
 remove them from their tunnels by hand and kill them. 
 Several kinds of burrowing insects are troublesome to 
 garden plants, and some of these are often very injurious. 
 
 The radish maggot. The roots of radish and cabbage 
 plants are attacked by " maggots," which eat grooves in 
 them or even tunnel into the inside. Young cabbage 
 plants may thus be killed, and infested radishes are 
 stunted and made worthless as food. 
 
 The adult of this maggot is a fly (somewhat smaller 
 than the common house fly) which appears in the spring. 
 It lays its eggs in the soil, usually near plants of the 
 radish or the cabbage, and the eggs hatch in from 3 to 
 
Insects in the Garden 329 
 
 5 days. The young maggots feed on or within the roots, 
 but when fully grown they usually leave the plants and 
 burrow out into the soil, where they change to the pupal 
 or dormant stage. During the summer months, the 
 pupa lies dormant only from 12 to 18 days, and then the 
 adult flies appear. Thus, several broods are produced 
 in a season. The pupae that are formed in the autumn 
 live over winter in the ground. The following methods 
 are used in the control of the radish maggot : 
 
 (1) Protection by covering. Beds of radishes or cab- 
 bage plants grown in cold frames, or outdoor beds of 
 these plants, may be protected from the flies by placing 
 over them a board frame covered with cheesecloth. 
 
 (2) Prevention of egg laying. It is believed by some 
 that the flies will not lay their eggs in soil upon which a 
 little kerosene has been sprinkled. To apply the kero- 
 sene, pour a cupful of it over a pail of dry sand, mix well, 
 and scatter the sand over the soil about the plants. 
 
 (3) Disks of tarred paper. Cabbage plants may be 
 protected by covering the earth about the roots of the 
 plant with disks of tarred paper about 4 inches in diam- 
 eter. These should be fitted closely about the stem of 
 the plant when it is placed in the field. 
 
 (4) Killing the maggots in the soil. The maggots that are 
 in the soil may be killed by pouring kerosene emulsion or 
 corrosive sublimate solution (i part of corrosive sublimate 
 to 1000 parts of water) over the bed or row until it soaks 
 down into the soil about the main roots of young plants. 
 Another effective solution, which may be used in the 
 same manner, is made as follows : mix a pint of crude 
 carbolic acid in a gallon of hot water, then add a bar of 
 
330 
 
 Gardening 
 
 laundry soap and stir until soap is all dissolved. After 
 the solution has become cool, dilute to make 12^ gallons. 
 
 (5) Treatment of infested crops. After a bed of 
 radishes becomes infested, it is best to pull and destroy 
 all infested plants immediately, and to apply a solu- 
 tion that will kill the maggots that are in the soil. 
 
 The squash borer. Both the summer and the winter 
 squashes are attacked and often destroyed by the larvae 
 of the squash borer. The plants attacked soon wilt 
 badly and usually die within a few days. An examina- 
 tion of such plants will reveal discolored and dead areas 
 in the stem, especially near the ground. The stem within 
 is much eaten out by plump white " grubs " or larvae, 
 which may be found if the stem is split open. 
 
 These borers feed within the stems during summer and 
 
 FIG. 181. Summer squash plants killed by the squash borer. 
 
Insects in the Garden 
 
 U. S. D. A. 
 
 FIG. 182. Life history of the 
 squash borer : a, adult male moth ; 
 b, adult female moth ; c, eggs, as 
 they appear on the surface of a 
 squash vine; d, full-grown larva 
 within a portion of the vine; e, 
 pupa; /, outer cell surrounding 
 the pupa. All the figures are about 
 one-third natural size. 
 
 autumn. When fully grown, 
 a grub leaves the plant, bur- 
 rows into the soil, and spins 
 a silky cocoon, within which 
 the pupa forms. Thus it lives 
 over winter. Late in the fol- 
 lowing spring (in June in New 
 Jersey, but earlier southward 
 and later northward) a beauti- 
 ful clear-winged and wasp- 
 like moth emerges from the 
 cocoon and escapes from the 
 soil. This moth is about 
 
 i inch long, with a wing spread of i| inches. Its hind 
 wings are transparent, but the fore wings are opaque 
 and of a brownish color. The adult moth is most readily 
 identified by a conspicuous fringe of orange-colored hairs 
 along the inner side of the hind legs. 
 
 The moths are active during the day but become 
 sluggish toward nightfall, and in the evening they settle 
 on the upper side of the leaves and rest during the 
 night. 
 
 The female moth lays small, dull-red oval eggs along 
 the stems of squash plants, usually near or even just be- 
 low the soil. The eggs are large enough to be seen with 
 the naked eye if one looks closely. The eggs hatch in a 
 few days, and the grubs burrow into the stem, where they 
 feed. They eat out the tissues that carry soil foods and 
 water to and from the leaves, and the plant soon suffers. 
 If several larvae are present in a single stem, the plant 
 usually dies. 
 
332 
 
 Gardening 
 
 FIG. 183. 
 
 Vine of a summer squash laid open to show the borers, 
 a full-grown borer is shown. 
 
 At the right 
 
 In the more northern states there appears to be one 
 brood of the squash borer. Farther south there are two, 
 and in the more southern states there seem to be several 
 broods hatching at different times. Thus the adults 
 appear and lay their eggs in broods, and the larvae are 
 present throughout most of the growing season for 
 squashes. In some sections this insect is so troublesome 
 that it is almost impossible to raise squashes. 
 
 Because of its habits the squash borer is difficult to 
 control. However, if the following directions are care- 
 fully carried out, it may be kept somewhat in check : 
 
 (i) Learn to know the moths. Watch for them. If 
 they are seen in the garden, go over plants every evening 
 or early in the morning and kill all the adults found rest- 
 ing on the leaves. 
 
Insects in the Garden 333 
 
 (2) Examine the stems of squash plants for eggs. If 
 any are found, remove them with the point of a knife, 
 holding a dish beneath to catch them as they fall, and 
 then destroy all the eggs as soon as they are collected. 
 Or instead, the eggs may be crushed by rubbing them 
 against the stem. 
 
 (3) Kill all grubs that may get into stems. To obtain 
 these grubs, split the stems of infested plants halfway 
 open from one side. If only a few grubs are present, 
 they may be removed without killing the plant by care- 
 fully slitting the stem. If plants are badly infested and 
 sure to die, either dig out all larvae or completely destroy 
 the entire plant and the larvae within it by burning. 
 
 (4) Help plants to resist the attacks of the borer. The 
 winter squashes that make long vines, and also to some 
 extent the summer squashes, can be rooted at the joints. 
 As the stem grows, cover the joints with soil ; roots will 
 form, and these will supply water and minerals to the 
 leaves even though the stem portions near the main root 
 may be badly infested, or much injured in digging for the 
 larvae. 
 
 (5) Cultivate to kill the insect in the pupal state. In 
 autumn dig up and rake over the soil on which infested 
 plants have grown, in order to bring the cocoons to the 
 surface where the winter weather may kill them. In 
 spring spade deeply, turning the top soil under so as to 
 bury the cocoons so deeply that the moth cannot emerge. 
 
 Other burrowing insects. There are several other 
 insects that damage garden plants by burrowing into 
 the stems of stalks. 
 
 The larvae of a stalk borer burrows into the stems of 
 
334 Gardening 
 
 the tomato and the potato. The stem soon wilts and 
 dies above the place where the insect entered ; so one can 
 tell when a borer is in a plant. By slitting open the stem 
 the insect may be found and destroyed early in its life. 
 
 The seed-corn maggot burrows into the roots and stems 
 of young plants, especially corn, beans, and cabbage, 
 causing them to wilt and die. Pull up all infested plants 
 and destroy the larvae. The methods advised for combat- 
 ing the radish maggot may also be used for this maggot. 
 
 The carrot-rust fly attacks carrots, celery, parsnips, 
 and parsley, feeding in the tender roots and burrowing 
 into large roots of older plants. There is no very good 
 method of control, except perhaps that of growing the 
 crop under a frame completely covered with cheesecloth. 
 
 The European corn borer has recently been introduced 
 into several eastern states, and there is danger of its 
 spreading throughout the country. If it is not checked, 
 it may become a serious enemy of the corn grower. The 
 larvae burrow into the stalks, ears, and even the seeds. 
 As many as 311 borers have been found in a single hill of 
 corn. Such a destructive insect should be vigorously 
 fought, and its presence should be reported immediately 
 to the state agricultural college, to a county agricultural 
 agent, or to the Bureau of Entomology, United States 
 Department of Agriculture, for instruction as to the 
 best measure of control. 
 
 BENEFICIAL INSECTS 
 
 Not all of the insects seen in the garden are injurious 
 to garden crops. Some are very helpful, for they feed 
 
Insects in the Garden 335 
 
 upon injurious insects and thus help to keep them in 
 check. A gardener should learn to recognize these ben- 
 eficial insects, so that he may preserve and protect them. 
 
 Parasitic insects. Many garden insects are preyed 
 upon by other smaller insects that feed upon the living 
 tissues of their bodies. The large caterpillar that lives 
 on the tomato (and sometimes on the potato) may often 
 be seen with its back covered with small white oblong 
 bodies that at first glance may be mistaken for eggs. 
 These are the cocoons of the larvae of a very small fly 
 (one of the Braconids). The fly punctures the body of 
 the caterpillar and lays its eggs under the skin. Then 
 the larvae hatch and feed upon the caterpillar's body. 
 A caterpillar that has been thus parasitized often dies. 
 
 Empty shells of plant lice (aphids) may often be found 
 clinging to the leaves of plants. These have been de- 
 stroyed by another kind of Braconid. The mother in- 
 sect finds an aphid and forces her eggs into its body. The 
 eggs soon hatch, and the larvae feed within the aphid and 
 kill it. The pupae form inside the aphid after it has died, 
 and when the adults develop they cut a circular opening 
 in the inclosing shell and fly out to lay eggs for another 
 generation. Wherever aphids are abundant, the shells 
 showing that the Braconids are at work on them can 
 nearly always be found. 
 
 The lady beetles or lady bugs. Most lady bugs (or 
 more exactly, lady beetles) are very beneficial to the 
 gardener. The adults are small, nearly hemispherical, 
 and usually gayly colored with conspicuous spots. Their 
 larvae somewhat resemble tiny alligators in shape and are 
 usually spotted and covered with bristling spines. Both 
 
336 Gardening 
 
 adults and larvae of the beneficial lady beetles feed almost 
 entirely upon aphids. One of the lady beetles, however 
 (the "squash lady bug"), eats the leaves of the squash, 
 pumpkin, muskmelon, watermelon, and cucumber; and 
 another species is injurious to bean crops in Colorado, 
 Arizona, New Mexico, Texas, and Mexico. These in- 
 jurious lady beetles should be destroyed. They may be 
 controlled by spraying with lead arsenate, in the same 
 way that other chewing insects are treated. 
 
 The gardener receives much assistance from nature 
 through the feeding habits of beneficial insects and birds 
 which destroy and help to keep in check the various in- 
 sects that injure garden crops. But it is often necessary 
 for him to take the matter of destroying insects into his 
 own hands. 
 
 Fortunately, the gardener is able to use methods that 
 hold in check and destroy most of the insects injurious to 
 garden crops, and through close observation he can gain 
 in experience and knowledge so that as soon as insect 
 enemies appear in the garden he will know just what to 
 do, when to do it, and how to do it. 
 
 Questions 
 
 What do we need to find out about an insect before we attempt 
 to control it? How can the chewing insects in general be de- 
 stroyed? Describe the life history of the cabbage butterfly, 
 naming the four stages or conditions in its life. In which stage 
 is it injurious to cabbage plants? What are the usual methods 
 of controlling the cabbage butterfly ? 
 
 How is dry Paris green prepared for use against insects ? How is 
 it used ? How is Paris green prepared when used as a liquid 
 spray ? How is arsenate of lead used when dry ? How is it pre- 
 pared when used as a liquid spray? Describe the preparation 
 
Insects in the Garden 337 
 
 and use of white hellebore. What cautions should the gardener 
 take in using these three poisons ? 
 
 How do cutworms injure plants ? What are the three most im- 
 portant methods of fighting them ? How is poison bran mash made ? 
 
 In what stage is the striped cucumber beetle most injurious to 
 crops ? What are the five most important ways of controlling it ? 
 
 How do the sucking insects feed? How does this method 
 of feeding injure the plant ? How are they most easily destroyed ? 
 How do aphids feed? What is "Black Leaf 40"? How is 
 nicotine sulfate prepared? How is kerosene emulsion prepared? 
 Describe the proper way of spraying to kill aphids. Give, briefly, 
 the life history of the common squash bug. What are the two 
 most effective ways of controlling it ? How does the calico-back 
 cabbage bug injure the plants? What three methods are used 
 in combating it ? 
 
 Where do the burrowing insects live? What, in general, are 
 the most effective methods of controlling them? Describe the 
 main events in the life history of the radish maggot. What are 
 the five best methods of combating this insect ? Describe the 
 appearance and activities of the squash borer. What methods 
 may be used to keep it in check? What should be done if the 
 European corn borer is found in your garden ? 
 
 Things to Do and Observe 
 
 i. To become familiar with the four stages in the life history of 
 an insect. Watch your cabbage plants for the appearance of the 
 cabbage butterfly. When you see one hovering over the plants, try 
 to find the egg after the butterfly has gone. Examine it carefully, 
 with a hand lens if possible, so that you may be able to recognize 
 others as soon as you sec them. Watch the larvae and try to 
 determine how long it takes to grow from the egg to the pupal 
 stage. When you have found a chrysalid, carefully remove it 
 without crushing and place it in a small box covered with netting 
 or cheesecloth. Look at it from time to time until the adult 
 butterfly emerges. Note whether the butterfly is male or female. 
 
 In the same way try to recognize the four stages of as many 
 other garden insects as possible. In some cases you may not be 
 able to find all four stages. Become thoroughly familiar, however, 
 with those you do find ; and note particularly in which stage each 
 insect is most destructive. 
 
338 Gardening 
 
 If you have not been successful in observing the four stages as 
 they occur in the garden, make an insect cage. This will give 
 you an opportunity to observe closely the life history of any insect 
 you wish to study. Tie a piece of cheesecloth over the top of 
 a large lantern chimney, and set this over a pot of earth. Place 
 eggs, caterpillars, or larvae of any insect within the chimney, 
 together with a few twigs and the leaves of the plant that the insect 
 you are studying feeds upon. Supply fresh leaves every day, and 
 remove any that have wilted. Observe carefully the feeding 
 habits, and watch closely the change from larvae to pupa. Note 
 whether the insect pupates above ground or below. If you have 
 started with the egg stage, keep a record of the length of time 
 between egg and pupa, and pupa and adult. 
 
 2. To learn how the various garden insects feed. Catch a grass- 
 hopper, a cricket, a locust, or any large beetle, and examine its 
 mouth parts with a hand lens. Notice the two sets of jaws, one 
 working sideways and the other up and down. Then try to find 
 a large caterpillar (a tomato worm, a cabbage worm, or a milkweed 
 caterpillar, for example) that is actively feeding on a leaf. Ob- 
 serve carefully the method of biting off and chewing. Note 
 how rapidly the caterpillar eats and how much it consumes in a 
 meal. Could a single caterpillar consume during its life every 
 leaf on a half -grown plant ? 
 
 With a hand lens examine an aphid, a squash bug, or a calico- 
 back cabbage bug, while feeding. Note carefully the sucking 
 beak embedded in the stem or leaf. By watching you may be 
 able to see one of these sucking insects pierce the stem or leaf of 
 the plant and settle down to feeding. 
 
 If the insects mentioned in the above paragraph are not to be 
 found in your garden, you may be able to find one or more of the 
 following insects which will show the sucking beak just as well : 
 (i) a water boatman (an insect about half an inch long that swims 
 through the water by moving two of its legs like oars), (2) a 
 froghopper in the larval stage (look for a small insect underneath 
 a mass of bubbles on a grass stem), or (3) a cicada (harvest fly 
 or "locust")- Examine carefully the long beak used for piercing 
 and sucking. (Note. In your search for one of these insects 
 you may find the empty larval case of the cicada clinging to a 
 tree trunk or post. This will show the form of the beak as well 
 as would a live specimen.) 
 
CHAPTER TWENTY 
 
 HOME STORAGE OF VEGETABLES 
 
 The roots must come in now, and the harvest will soon end. 
 
 Old Farmer's Almanac 
 
 A GARDEN not only provides fresh vegetables during 
 the growing season, but it also furnishes certain crops 
 that may be preserved or stored for future use. In 
 this chapter we shall discuss the winter storage of root 
 crops and other vegetables ; but snap beans, peas, corn, 
 tomatoes, asparagus, rhubarb, spinach, New Zealand 
 spinach, Swiss chard, and summer squash may be canned. 
 Many vegetables may also be preserved by drying, in the 
 same way that prunes, apricots, and other fruits are pre- 
 served. In doing this work of canning and drying, the 
 beginner should have the help of an experienced person. 
 
 Often this help is given in special classes organized 
 to teach this phase of home economics, or it may be 
 treated as project work in connection with gardening. 
 The beginner may secure bulletins on the subject that 
 will give full information concerning the methods that 
 are used. Such bulletins are furnished by various 
 organizations and especially by state agricultural experi- 
 ment stations and the United States Department of 
 Agriculture. The directions should be followed very 
 carefully ; otherwise the work may not be a success. 
 
 Rules for storage of vegetables. To be thoroughly 
 successful in keeping vegetables in storage, the follow- 
 ing rules must be observed : 
 
 (i) Only vegetables that are in good condition should be 
 selected. They should show no signs of decay or disease, 
 they should be dry, and at least moderately free from 
 
 339 
 
340 
 
 Gardening 
 
 FIG. 184. Preparing root crops for storage. Only the sound vegetables should 
 be selected for storage, and these should not be cut or otherwise injured. Proper 
 selection and preparation often determine the keeping qualities of vegetables 
 stored as much as the conditions of storage themselves. 
 
 clinging earth. All vegetables should be stored before 
 they are frozen, and carefully handled to prevent 
 bruising. 
 
 (2) The temperature under which they are stored should 
 not vary suddenly or greatly. For most vegetables it 
 should not go above 50 F. and of course should not fall 
 below the freezing point. 
 
 (3) Ventilation must be provided. More vegetables 
 are lost in storage through failure to provide ventila- 
 tion than from any other cause. Especially during the 
 warm weather of autumn and spring, vegetables are 
 likely to " heat " and decay if they are shut up without 
 
 air. 
 
 (4) For all vegetables except onions, sweet potatoes, 
 
Home Storage of Vegetables 341 
 
 squashes, and pumpkins the air should be rather moist. 
 This prevents wilting and shriveling. 
 
 (5) The storage room should be dark. As a rule vege- 
 tables keep best in darkness. Some vegetables, like 
 Irish potatoes, become somewhat green, and root crops 
 may start growth if they are not kept in darkness. 
 
 Storage in the house cellar. An unheated frost-proof 
 cellar is an excellent storage place for nearly all garden 
 vegetables. A cellar with a furnace in it is likely to be 
 too warm for very long storage of most vegetables, and a 
 cool room should be partitioned off. This is usually 
 made in one corner, with the outside walls of the cellar 
 forming two sides. The other walls of the cool room 
 should be tightly built of tongue-and-groove lumber, 
 with double walls, or else made of hollow tile. 
 
 For ventilation there should be a window with a chute 
 built into one pane and leading to the floor. This per- 
 mits the entrance of cool, fresh air. A hinged door in 
 place of another pane is provided to allow warm air to 
 escape, thus insuring perfect ventilation. In severely 
 cold weather these may be closed to prevent freezing. 
 
 Cabbages, beets, carrots, turnips, rutabagas, and 
 potatoes are stored in bins or shelves built about the 
 walls or placed in boxes, baskets, crates, or barrels that 
 are rather loosely stacked. Packing in dry leaves, straw, 
 or sand aids in keeping root crops in good condition. 
 Celery, curled endive, and pe-tsai may be packed in 
 boxes, with the roots in soil or sand. If water is added 
 to the soil about the roots at intervals, the plants will 
 remain remarkably fresh ; but the tops should be kept 
 rather dry, or they may rot. 
 
34 2 Gardening 
 
 The cellar without a furnace, or the cool room in a 
 cellar containing a furnace, is undoubtedly the most 
 satisfactory means of storing vegetables for home con- 
 sumption. A dirt floor helps to keep the air moist, 
 but if the floor is made of cement, it may be covered 
 with 2 or more inches of sand and sprinkled occasion- 
 ally. 
 
 Vegetables that must be stored in dry air. Squashes, 
 pumpkins, and sweet potatoes keep best when stored in a 
 warm, dry place. They may be placed on shelves or in 
 crates near the furnace. Onions need a cool, dry place. 
 The cool room is usually too damp for them, and a cellar 
 with a furnace in it is likely to be too warm. They do 
 not suffer from slight freezing and usually keep best in 
 the attic, or even in a barn or workshop. 
 
 Outdoor storage cellars. Simple one-room cellars 
 built so that they are dry and free from frost are often 
 made out-of-doors. In the South they are usually built 
 entirely above ground ; in the North they are generally 
 built partly or wholly below ground. They may be 
 made like a cave in a side hill. Walls of stonework or 
 concrete are desirable. The roof may be made of con- 
 crete, with a dirt covering ; or of lumber, double walled 
 and insulated with paper ; or of poles and planks covered 
 with earth and straw. Outdoor cellars are, of course, 
 most suitable on farms and large truck gardens where 
 there are often considerable amounts of vegetables to be 
 stored. 
 
 A barrel storage pit. The simplest and perhaps the 
 best outdoor storage place for the owner of a small home 
 garden is the barrel pit. To make this, a barrel is placed 
 
Home Storage of Vegetables 
 
 343 
 
 FIG. 185. Getting vegetables from a barrel storage pit during a warm day in 
 midwinter. Note the depth of earth over the barrel, and the ventilating chimney 
 in the center. 
 
 on its side in a well-drained place and a ventilating 
 chimney of some sort attached to an opening in the top 
 of it. The barrel is first covered with leaves or straw 
 and then with a layer of earth. After the vegetables 
 have been placed within, the open or " head " end is 
 closed with boards and a sufficient amount of earth 
 banked up over these boards to cover them entirely. 
 If now a layer of straw, leaves, or cornstalks is placed 
 over the earth at the head end, this earth will freeze less 
 solidly and it will be easier to open the pit during the 
 winter. The covering of earth on the top of the barrel 
 should be thick enough not to freeze through; 3 to 6 
 inches of earth, or even more, should be used, according 
 to the severity of the winter. The readiness with which 
 supplies can be obtained from the barrel pit makes it 
 especially suited to the needs of a small family. 
 
344 Gardening 
 
 Earthen storage pits. These are simply piles of 
 vegetables covered with straw or leaves and soil. Venti- 
 
 FIG. 186. Cross-section of an earthen storage pit. (Adapted from drawing 
 in Farmer's Bulletin 936, U. S. D. A.) 
 
 lation is provided by allowing a large bunch of straw to 
 extend up through the covering of earth at the center 
 of the pit. A board or flat stone is laid over this to shed 
 the water. Vegetables keep well when thus stored, but 
 they are not easily removed unless the entire pit is 
 emptied. Several small pits with different sorts of 
 vegetables in each may be built and emptied one at a 
 time during the winter as the contents are needed. 
 
 Storage in banks of earth. If located on a well- 
 drained site, a bank of earth is excellent for the storage 
 of cabbage. The plants are pulled out by the roots and 
 laid, heads down, in rows of two or three abreast. Then 
 a layer of leaves or straw is placed about the heads, and 
 over this a layer of earth a few inches thick is banked up, 
 leaving the roots and part of the stems exposed to the air. 
 As colder weather approaches, more earth may be added ; 
 or leaves, straw, or cornstalks may be piled over the 
 bank. Unless the soil freezes very solidly, the cabbages 
 are easily removed one at a time as they are wanted. 
 
Home Storage of Vegetables 
 
 345 
 
 Storage in pens. Cabbage, celery, pe-tsai, endive, 
 cauliflower, and Brussels sprouts may be stored in pens. 
 The plants are pulled or dug, leaving some earth on the 
 roots, and reset rather closely in a bed about 3 feet wide. 
 A frame of poles or boards is made about the bed, and 
 boards or poles are laid across the top, completing the 
 pen. Earth is banked about the sides, and the top is 
 covered with straw, leaves, or dirt as the severity of 
 the winter may require. Supplies may be taken from one 
 end as needed. 
 
 FIGS. 187 and 188. Storing vegetables in the ground. The cabbages are set 
 head down in a trench and the earth filled in about them. Boxes of root vege- 
 tables are placed in a pit. Straw is laid over the top of them, and the earth will 
 then be mounded up over the straw. Vegetables should be stored below the 
 level of the ground only where the soil is loose and well drained. 
 
346 Gardening 
 
 Use of hotbeds and cold frames for storage. These 
 may be used for storage in the same manner that pens are 
 used. The beds may be emptied by the time they are 
 needed for growing seedlings in the following spring. 
 Late crops of lettuce, celery, and endive may be grown 
 directly in the soil of hotbeds and cold frames. As freez- 
 ing temperatures occur, the top may be covered and the 
 crop removed as desired. 
 
 Storage in attics. Sweet potatoes and squashes may 
 sometimes be stored in an attic near a chimney. Onions 
 may be kept in rather cool attics, as they are not injured 
 by slight freezing, although it is best not to submit them 
 to alternate freezing and thawing. Dry beans and peas 
 may be stored in an attic or even on the pantry shelf. 
 
 To provide suitable means for winter storage of home- 
 grown vegetables is thus in most cases a simple matter. 
 The cellar and the attic are usually to be had in the home. 
 Cool rooms are easily made, and once made are perma- 
 nent. Outdoor barrel pits, banks, and pens also are 
 easily and quickly constructed and afford efficient means 
 of keeping vegetables fresh. 
 
 The produce raised on a small garden plot will per- 
 haps be used directly from the garden, but a garden no 
 larger than 4 by 5 rods may yield some produce for 
 storage. 
 
 During the winter months fresh vegetables such as 
 beets, carrots, and cabbages are much needed in the diet, 
 and it is during winter that these vegetables usually 
 reach their highest market price. Potatoes, which the 
 small gardener will perhaps buy in the market, may be 
 
Home Storage of Vegetables 347 
 
 had cheaper in autumn when bought in bulk. Proper 
 storage in a cool room or in pits will keep these in ex- 
 cellent condition. It pays the gardener to raise crops 
 for storage and to provide simple means of storage, not 
 only for the surplus of the crops he raises, but for such 
 staple vegetables as he does not raise but can buy to 
 advantage in bulk during early autumn. 
 
 Questions 
 
 In what two ways does the garden serve the table? Why 
 are crops maturing in summer subject to waste? How can such 
 waste be avoided? Give five principal rules applying to the 
 storage of vegetables. 
 
 Why is a cellar containing a furnace unsuited to the storage of 
 most vegetables ? How can a cool storage room be made in a 
 cellar? What vegetables may be stored in such a room? What 
 vegetables do not keep well in such a room, and where may they 
 be stored ? 
 
 How is a barrel storage pit made and used ? How are earthen 
 storage pits made? What is their disadvantage? How may 
 cabbage be stored in banks of earth ? What vegetables may be 
 stored in pens and how are such pens made ? How may hotbeds 
 and cold frames be used for storage? 
 
 In what ways is storage for winter use profitable ? 
 
 Things to Do and Observe 
 
 To observe how the various vegetables "keep" under the conditions 
 of storage which you give them. Watch carefully the vegetables 
 you have stored, and if potatoes, carrots, and beets soon shrivel, 
 try to determine the cause, and then take measures to remedy this 
 defect in your storage system or conditions. If the vegetables 
 start to grow, find whether this is caused by too high a temperature 
 or too much light. If they rot to any great extent, try to deter- 
 mine whether they need better ventilation or a lower temperature. 
 Be sure to remember just which remedy was the most effective 
 in each case, so that you can provide the best conditions for 
 storage next year. 
 
APPENDIX 
 
 EARLIEST PLANTING DATES 
 
 Safe dates for planting vegetable seeds and seedlings in the open in 
 Zones A, B, and C. (See Figure 88.) 
 
 CROP 
 
 ZONE A 
 
 ZONEB 
 
 ZONE C 
 
 Cabbage 
 
 Jan. i-Feb. i 
 
 Feb. i-Feb. 15 
 
 Feb. is-Mar. i 
 
 Collard 
 
 " 
 
 " 
 
 " 
 
 Garlic 
 
 " 
 
 " 
 
 " 
 
 Lettuce leaf 
 
 ' 
 
 " 
 
 " 
 
 Onion sets 
 
 ' 
 
 " 
 
 
 
 Pea smooth 
 
 ' 
 
 " 
 
 
 
 Potato Irish 
 
 ' 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 Radish 
 
 1 
 
 a 
 
 " 
 
 Turnip 
 
 < 
 
 
 
 " 
 
 Mustard 
 
 Feb. i-Feb. 15 
 
 Feb. is-Mar. i 
 
 Mar. i-Mar. 15 
 
 Onion seed 
 
 1 
 
 u 
 
 " 
 
 Parsley 
 
 1 
 
 ( 
 
 " 
 
 Parsnip 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 " 
 
 Pea wrinkled 
 
 1 
 
 ' 
 
 11 
 
 Artichoke Jerusalem 
 
 u 
 
 t 
 
 u 
 
 Asparagus 
 
 (Not grown) 
 
 i 
 
 it 
 
 Beet 
 
 Feb. i-Feb. 15 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 Brussels sprouts 
 
 " 
 
 ' 
 
 " 
 
 Carrot 
 
 a 
 
 1 
 
 " 
 
 Cauliflower 
 
 " 
 
 ' 
 
 " 
 
 Celery 
 
 " 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 Chard 
 
 " 
 
 1 
 
 " 
 
 Lettuce head 
 
 " 
 
 1 
 
 " 
 
 Rhubarb 
 Salsify 
 
 (Not grown) 
 Feb. i-Feb. 15 
 
 (Not grown) 
 Feb. is-Mar. i 
 
 u 
 
 Spinach 
 
 " 
 
 " 
 
 M 
 
 Bean snap 
 
 Feb. i5-Mar. i 
 
 Mar. i-Mar. 15 
 
 Mar. is-Mar. 30 
 
 Corn sweet 
 
 M 
 
 " 
 
 
 Bean Lima 
 
 Mar. i-Mar. 15 
 
 Mar. i5-Apr. i 
 
 Apr. i-Apr. 15 
 
 Cucumber 
 
 " 
 
 " 
 
 " 
 
 Eggplant 
 Melons 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 Okra 
 
 " 
 
 " 
 
 1 
 
 Pumpkin 
 
 a 
 
 " 
 
 ' 
 
 Potato Sweet 
 
 " 
 
 " 
 
 ' 
 
 Squash 
 
 M 
 
 " 
 
 ' 
 
 Tomato 
 
 
 
 
 348 
 
Appendix 
 
 349 
 
 EARLIEST PLANTING DATES Continued 
 
 Safe dates for planting vegetable seeds and seedlings in the open in 
 Zones D, E, F, and G. (See Figure 88.) 
 
 ZONE D 
 
 ZONEE 
 
 ZONEF 
 
 ZONEG 
 
 Mar. i-Mar. 15 
 
 Mar. i5-Apr. 15 
 
 Apr. is-May i 
 (Not grown) 
 Apr. i5-May i 
 
 May i-May 15 
 (Not grown) 
 May i-May 15 
 
 u 
 
 i 
 
 | 
 
 j 
 
 Mar. is-Apr. 15 
 
 Apr. is-May i 
 
 May i-May 15 
 
 May is-June i 
 
 Mar. i5-Apr. i 
 
 Apr. i-May i 
 
 . 
 
 (i 
 
 n 
 
 (t 
 
 * 
 
 u 
 
 ii 
 
 
 
 
 
 11 
 
 u 
 
 
 
 ' 
 
 " 
 
 Apr. i-Apr. 15 
 
 Apr. is-May i 
 
 May i-May 15 
 
 May 1 5- June i 
 
 Apr. i5~May i 
 
 May i-May 15 
 
 May is-June i 
 
 June i -June 15 
 
 
 u 
 
 
 
 (Not grown) 
 May i5-June i 
 
 (Not grown) 
 June i-June 15 
 
35o 
 
 Appendix 
 
 LATEST PLANTING DATES 
 
 Latest safe dates for planting vegetable seeds in the open in the North, 
 based on the average date of the first killing frost. (See Figure 89.) 
 Only one planting is made of vegetables for which no dates are given. 
 
 CROP 
 
 ZONE C 
 
 ZONE D 
 
 ZONE E 
 
 ZONEF 
 
 ZONE G 
 
 PERIOD NECES- 
 SARY FOR 
 MATURITY 
 
 Bean : 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Bush 
 
 Sept. 15 
 
 Sept. i 
 
 Aug. 15 
 
 Aug. i 
 
 July 15 
 
 40 to 65 days 
 
 Bush Lima 
 
 
 Aug. 15 
 
 Aug. i 
 
 fuly 15 
 
 
 70 to 90 days 
 
 Pole Lima 
 
 
 Aug. i 
 
 fuly 15 
 
 [uly i 
 
 . 
 
 5o to 1 20 days 
 
 Beet 
 
 
 Sept. i 
 
 Aug. 15 
 
 Aug. i 
 
 July 15 
 
 60 to 80 days 
 
 Cabbage, late 
 
 
 Aug. 15 
 
 July 15 
 
 [uly i 
 
 [une 15 
 
 90 to 130 days 
 
 Carrot 
 
 
 
 
 " 
 
 " 
 
 " 
 
 70 to 100 days 
 
 Cauliflower 
 
 Oct. i 
 
 " 
 
 " 
 
 " 
 
 " 
 
 100 to 130 days 
 
 Celery 
 
 Sept. 15 
 
 Sept. i 
 
 Aug. i 
 
 July i 
 
 [une i 
 
 i oo to 1 50 days 
 
 Collard 
 
 
 " 
 
 " 
 
 
 
 
 
 100 to 1 20 days 
 
 Corn, sweet 
 
 Aug. 30 
 
 Aug. 15 
 
 [uly 30 
 
 [uly 15 
 
 July i 
 
 60 to 100 days 
 
 Cucumber 
 
 
 
 " 
 
 " 
 
 " 
 
 60 to 80 days 
 
 Eggplant 
 
 [uly 15 
 
 [uly i 
 
 June 15 
 
 June i 
 
 
 
 100 to 140 days 
 
 Kale 
 
 tfov. i 
 
 Oct. i 
 
 Sept. 15 
 
 sept, i 
 
 Aug. 15 
 
 90 to 1 20 days 
 
 Lettuce 
 
 ** 
 
 Oct. 15 
 
 Oct. i 
 
 Sept. 15 
 
 Sept. i 
 
 60 to 90 days 
 
 Melon : 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Muskmelon 
 
 [une 15 
 
 Tune i 
 
 May 15 
 
 May i 
 
 
 
 1 20 to 1 50 days 
 
 Watermelon 
 
 [uly i 
 
 [uly i 
 
 June 15 
 
 
 
 
 
 loo to 1 20 days 
 
 Okra 
 
 [uly 15 
 
 
 " 
 
 June i 
 
 
 
 90 to 140 days 
 
 Onion : 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Seed 
 Sets 
 
 June 15 
 July 15 
 
 Tune i 
 [uly i 
 
 May 15 
 June 15 
 
 May i 
 June i 
 
 Apr. 15 
 
 May 15 
 
 130 to 150 days 
 60 to 1 20 days 
 
 Parsley 
 
 Nfov. i 
 
 Oct. i 
 
 Sept. i 
 
 Aug. i 
 
 July i 
 
 90 to 1 20 days 
 
 Parsnip 
 
 July 15 
 
 [une i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 125 to i6odays 
 
 Peas 
 
 Nov. i 
 
 Oct. i 
 
 Sept. i 
 
 Aug. i 
 
 July 15 
 
 40 to 80 days 
 
 Pepper 
 
 July 15 
 
 July i 
 
 June 15 
 
 June i 
 
 
 
 100 to 140 days 
 
 Pumpkin 
 
 
 " 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Potato : 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Irish 
 
 Aug. 15 
 
 Aug. i 
 
 July 15 
 
 July i 
 
 June 15 
 
 80 to 140 days 
 
 Sweet 
 
 " 
 
 July 15 
 
 June 15 
 
 May i 
 
 
 
 1 40 to 1 60 days 
 
 Radish 
 
 Oct. 15 
 
 Oct. i 
 
 Sept. 15 
 
 Sept. i 
 
 Aug. 15 
 
 20 to 140 days 
 
 Salsify 
 
 June 15 
 
 June i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 20 to 1 80 days 
 
 Spinach 
 
 Oct. 15 
 
 Oct. i 
 
 Sept. i 
 
 Aug. 15 
 
 Aug. i 
 
 30 to 60 days 
 
 Squash : 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Bush 
 Vine 
 
 Aug. 15 
 July 15 
 
 Aug. i 
 July i 
 
 July 15 
 
 June 15 
 
 July i 
 June i 
 
 June 15 
 
 60 to 80 days 
 120 to 1 60 days 
 
 Tomato 
 
 Aug. 15 
 
 July 15 
 
 July i 
 
 June 15 
 
 
 
 80 to 1 25 days 
 
 Turnip 
 
 Oct. 15 
 
 Oct. i 
 
 Sept. i 
 
 Aug. i 
 
 July 15 
 
 60 to 80 days 
 
INDEX 
 
 The special discussion of a subject begins on the page that is printed in bold- 
 face type. Thus the special discussion of "Asparagus" begins on page 282. 
 A star (*) after a number indicates that an illustration of the subject is to be 
 found on the page referred to. 
 
 Acid, in soil, 68; test for, 73. 
 
 Anther, 115*. 
 
 Aphids, 322, 323*, 335. 
 
 Arsenate of lead, 316, 317, 320, 322. 
 
 Artichoke, Jerusalem, 36*, 93, 280*, 
 
 281*. 
 
 Ashes, wood, 63, 68. 
 Asparagus, 93, 150, 282*; insects of, 
 
 321. 
 
 Bacteria, causing plant diseases, 287, 
 
 291, 292, 294*. 
 Bean, kidney, 12, 43, 101, 119, 132, 153, 
 
 155, 260*, 261, 262; diseases of , 292, 
 
 302*, .303*; flower of, 115*; fruit of, 
 
 118*, 302*, 303*. 
 Bean, Lima, 146, 152, 155, 189, 261, 
 
 263, 264*; diseases of, 292; insects 
 
 of, 322. 
 Beet, 12, 42, 99, 100, 133, 150, 151, 155, 
 
 1 60, 170, 211, 216*, 217; storage of, 
 
 34i- 
 
 Biennials, 133. 
 "Black leaf 40", 323. 
 Breeding plants, 119, 122*, 123*, 124*, 
 
 125*, 126*, 128, 143, 144, 145; for 
 
 resistance to disease, 307*, 308*. 
 Bordeaux mixture, 295, 296*, 298, 299, 
 
 306. 
 
 Cabbage, 19, 42, 78*, 99, 100*, 120, 133, 
 137, 147, 149, 150*, 151, 160, 167, 
 175, 179, 190, 193, 195, 225, 247, 
 256*, 289*; diseases of, 289, 293, 
 307*, 308*; insect enemies of, 311, 
 312*, 313, 314, 315, 323*, 326*, 327; 
 storage of, 341, 344, 345. 
 
 Cabbage butterfly, 311, 312*. 
 
 Cabbage bug, harlequin, 326*, 327. 
 
 Cabbage, Chinese. See Pe-tsai. 
 
 Capillary water. See Water, capillary. 
 
 Carbon, 51. 
 
 Carbon bisulfid, 136. 
 
 Carbon dioxid, 31, 46, 49, 51. 
 
 Carrot, 12, 41*, 42, 99*, 133, 137, 150, 
 160, 170, 2ii,218, 219*; diseases of, 
 341 ; insects of, 334 ; storage of, 341. 
 
 Catalogues, seed, 30, 98, 129, 130. 
 
 Cauliflower, 121, 137, 149, 150, 248, 
 345- 
 
 Celery, 100, 101*, 149, 189, 193*, 244*, 
 245*, 346; storage of, 341, 345. 
 
 Cells, 37*, 38*, 39, 40, 45, 48*, 49, 
 78. 
 
 Chicory, 100, 242. 
 
 Chives, 229. 
 
 Chlorophyll, 28, 286. 
 
 Clay, 58, 60, 6 1*, 80. 
 
 Climate, 154. 
 
 Clubroot, 289*. 
 
 Cold frame, 149, 151, 185, 186*, 189, 
 34- 
 
 Collard, 152, 249. 
 
 Companion crops, 98, 100*, 101*, 213*. 
 
 Compost, 64*, 65, 66. 
 
 Cool season crops, 147, 148, 149, 150*, 
 151, 243. 
 
 Corn, pop, 272. 
 
 Corn, sweet, 13, 25*, 43, 47, 96, 98, 
 zoo*, 119, 120, 125*, 129, 132, 133, 
 137, 138, 152, 155, 160, 189, 195, 205*, 
 270, 271*, 272*; breeding, 124, 125, 
 142, 143; diseases of, 301 *; insects 
 of, 234. 
 
 Crop rotation, 305. 
 
 Cross-pollination, 127, 132. 
 
 Cucumber, 133, 134, 138, 152, 155, 189, 
 265; diseases of, 291, 293, 294*, 298; 
 insects of, 291, 319*, 322. 
 
 Cucumber beetle, 291, 319*. 
 
 Cultivation, 106, 199, 200*, 201, 202, 
 203*. 
 
 Cushaw, 267. 
 
 Cutworms, 14*, 317. 
 
 Damping off disease, 176. 
 Dibble, 105. 
 Dirt band, 190*. 
 
352 
 
 Index 
 
 Diseases of plants, Chapter XVIII, 
 286, 289*, 294*, 300*, 301*, 302*, 
 303*, 307*, 308*. 
 
 Drainage, 80, 81, 82, 83*. 
 
 Dust mulch, 104, 200, 201. 
 
 Eggplant, 99, 153, 155, 160, 175, 189, 
 iQS, 274*, 275; diseases of, 292; 
 insects of, 322. 
 
 Elements needed by plants, 51. 
 
 Embryo, 114, 118, 137, 165. 
 
 Endive, 100, 138, 241, 346; French, 
 341, 345 ; storage of, 341, 345- 
 
 Fat, 47, 50. 
 
 Fertilization, 117. 
 
 Fertilizers, 52, 66, 67, 73, 74. See 
 
 also Manure. 
 Flats, 175, 176*, 186*, 187*, 188*, 189*, 
 
 100*. 
 
 Flowers, of bean, 115*; of corn, 120* ; 
 
 of pumpkin, 121*; parts of, 114, 
 
 115*. 
 
 Follow crops, 99*, 100. 
 Food, for plants, 29, 31 * ; kinds of, 46 ; 
 
 manufacture of, 42, 46, 47, 48*, 49, 
 
 50, 51, 53, 55 ; storage in plants, 46. 
 Food materials, raw, 31*, 46, 51. 
 Forcers, 147*. 
 
 Fork, spading, 103, 104*, 108*. 
 Frosts, 147, 148, 149, 155, 157, 160, 
 
 161*, 162 ; charts for dates of, 158*, 
 
 159*. 
 Fruit, 118*; plants grown for, Chapter 
 
 XVI. 
 
 Fumigation of seed, 136. 
 Fungi, 287, 288. 
 Fungicides, 295, 306. 
 
 Garden, care of, Chapter XIII ; plans 
 for, 90, 91*, 92*, 94, 95, 101, 102; 
 planting the, Chapter XII; types 
 of school, 5*, 6*, ii*, 12*; school- 
 supervised home, 7*, 8, 9. 
 
 Garlic, 150, 230. 
 
 Germination of pollen, 116*, 117*, 141. 
 
 Germination of seed, 137, 138, 165, 
 166*, 167, 172, 173, 174, 197, 198, 
 219; test for, 138*, 139. 
 
 Growing season, 154*, 155, 156*. 
 
 Growth, 36, 38*, 39, 40, 45. 
 
 Hardening plants, 190. 
 
 Hellebore, white, 316, 317. 
 
 Hoes, 105*, 106*, 107; wheel, 93, 105*, 
 
 106, 107. 
 
 Horse-radish, 221. 
 Hotbed, 180*, 181*, 182*, 183*, 184*, 
 
 185, 189, 346. 
 Humus, 56, 57, 60, 72. 
 Hybrids, 119, 122*, 123*, 124. 
 Hydrogen, 51. 
 
 Insects, Chapter XIX ; beneficial, 334 ; 
 fumigation of seeds for, 136; inju- 
 rious, 14*, 312*, 318*, 319*, 325*, 
 326*, 330*, 331*, 332*; poisons for, 
 315, 316, 317, 321. See also refer- 
 ences to insects under Spraying. 
 
 Iron, 51. 
 
 Irrigation, 85, 174*, 206*, 207*, 208*, 
 209. 
 
 Kale, 100, 120, 137, 152, 249. 
 Kerosene emulsion, 322, 324. 
 Kohl-rabi, 13, 120, 133, 137, 149, 189, 
 283. 
 
 Leaves, crops grown for, Chapter XV, 
 225*, 226*, 227*, 233*, 234*, 237*, 
 239*; structure of, 28, 31, 48*, 53; 
 work of. 29, 31*, 34*, 48*, 53. 
 
 Leek, 150, 232. 
 
 Lettuce, 12, 42, 99, 100*, 112, 132, 150, 
 151, 155, 160, 170, 175, 189, 193, 194, 
 346; head, 149, 252*, 253*; leaf, 
 148, 254*. 
 
 Light, use to plants, 28, 47, 48, 49, 53. 
 
 Lime, 60, 62, 64*, 68, 69*, 70*, 84, 86, 
 290 ; in Bordeaux mixture, 295. 
 
 Line for planting, 104, 105. 
 
 Loam soil, 61. 
 
 Magnesium, 51. 
 
 Manure, 52, 62*, 63, 67, 84; composi- 
 tion of, 63 ; poultry, 63, 64, 65. 
 
 Melons, 132, 133, 152, 155, 167, 267; 
 diseases of, 292; insects of, 322; 
 musk, 119, 138, 267, 268*; water, 
 138, 267, 268. 
 
Index 
 
 353 
 
 Mulch, 85, 104, 200, 201. 
 Mustard, 137, 150, 167, 255, 289. 
 Mutant, 119. 
 
 Nasturtium, 255. 
 
 Nitrates, 66, 73, 74. 
 
 Nitrogen, 50, 51, 62, 63, 66, 67, 73, 74. 
 
 Novelties, 98, 122. 
 
 Okra, 138, 152, 153, 189, 269. 
 
 Onion, 42, 100, 137, 149, 150, 155, 170*, 
 205*, 224, 232, 233, 234*; bulblet, 
 230; Egyptian, 230; multiplier, 
 230; storage of, 241, 346. 
 
 Organic material in the soil, 56, 60. 
 
 Ovary, 115*, 116*, 126. 
 
 Overplanting, 96. 
 
 Ovules, 115*. 
 
 Oxygen, 30, 31, 49, 51, 166. 
 
 Parasites, 287, 288. 
 
 Paris green, 316, 317. 
 
 Parsley, 137, 237, 238. 
 
 Parsnip, 42, 133, 137, 151, 155, 211, 
 
 220. 
 Peas, 41*, 43, 99, 100, 137, 150, 155, 
 
 259. 
 
 Peg for transplanting, 105, 187*. 
 Pepper, 99, 137, 153, 160, 175, 179, 
 
 189, 195, 274*. 
 Peppergrass, 254. 
 Perennials, 93, 152. 
 Petals, 114, 115*. 
 Pe-tsai, 100, 149, 160, 175, 249*, 250*, 
 
 251*; storage of, 341, 345. 
 Phosphorus, 50, 51, 62, 63, 64, 66, 67, 
 
 73, 74- 
 
 Photosynthesis, 47, 48, 53. 
 Pistil, 115*, 116*. 
 
 Planning the garden, Chapter VIII. 
 Planting, charts of dates for, 348, 349, 
 
 350; time for, Chapter XI, 97, 157, 
 
 158*, 159*, 160, 161, 162; preparing 
 
 soil for, 1 68; tools for, 104, 105; 
 
 work of , 169*, 170*, 171*, 173*. 
 Planting zones, 97, 157, 158*, 159*, 
 
 348, 349, 350. 
 Plants, care of growing, Chapter XII ; 
 
 care of seedling, Chapter XII ; food 
 
 of, Chapter V; life of, 40, 41*, 42; 
 
 needs of, 24, 30*, 33, 43, 199 ; parts 
 
 of, 27, 30*; work of, 31*, 40, 42, 52. 
 Poisons, for insects, 315, 316, 317, 321; 
 
 for parasitic fungi, 292, 295, 298, 
 
 299, 306. 
 Pollen, 116, 117*, 118; germination of, 
 
 116*, 117*, 141, 142. 
 Pollination, 116, 117, 124, 125, 127, 
 
 141. 
 
 Potash, 63, 66, 67, 73, 74. 
 Potassium, 51, 62, 66, 67, 73, 74. 
 Potato, Irish, 36*, 152, 277, 278*, 
 
 279* ; diseases of, 279, 292 ; insects 
 
 of, 280, 321, 334; storage of, 341. 
 Potato, sweet, 36*, 153, 155, 175, 211, 
 
 221 ; storage of, 341, 346. 
 Protein, 47, 50, 51. 
 Pumpkin, 121, 126, 127*, 134, 138, 144, 
 
 145, 266, 267*. See also Summer 
 
 squash. 
 
 Radish, 12, 42, 77*, 99, 112, 132, 134, 
 138, 146, 148, 150, 155, 170, 2ii,213, 
 289; diseases of, 289; insects of, 328. 
 
 Rake, 103, 104, 106, 168*. 
 
 Raking, 168*. 
 
 Replanting, 206. 
 
 Respiration, 31, 32, 35, 49, 51, 166. 
 
 Rhubarb, 93, 147*, 152, 224, 226, 
 227*, 256. 
 
 Rocket, yellow, 238. 
 
 Roots, 26,27, 28*, 30, 31*, 55, 76*, 77*; 
 work of, 29. 
 
 Root crops, Chapter XIV. 
 
 Root hairs, 76*, 77*, 78, 87*, 88. 
 
 Rogues, 128. 
 
 Rutabaga, 150, 151, 211, 217, 289; 
 storage of, 341 . 
 
 Salsify, 133, 137, 151, 155, 211, 220. 
 
 Sand, 58, 60. 
 
 Sap, 29, 38. 
 
 Seedlings, 40, 41, 42, 76*, 77*, 78*, 87*, 
 1 66*, 175. See also Transplanting. 
 
 Seeds, Chapter X, 36, 40, 42, 112, 
 165; amounts needed, 131; buying 
 of, 129, 130*, 131 ; catalogues of, 30, 
 98, 129, 130; collecting, 134, 135; 
 germination of, see Germination ; 
 growing plants from, Chapter XII ; 
 
354 
 
 Index 
 
 outdoor beds for, 194, 195*; plant- 
 ing of, 146, 169, 170*, 171*, 172, 174*, 
 178, 179, 194, 195*; producing, 128*, 
 129, 132 ; storage of, 135 ; treatment 
 for diseases, 136, 137, 306 ; treat- 
 ment for insects, 136; viability of, 
 137- ' 
 
 Sepals, 114. 
 
 Shallot, 229. 
 
 Short-period crops, 99. 
 
 Sieves for soil, 176, 177*. 
 
 Soil, Chapter VI ; clay, 58*, 60*, 61 ; 
 fertility of, 62 ; formation of, 56 ; for 
 flats, 176 ; granules of, 57 ; loam, 61 ; 
 particles of, 55, 56, 57; physical 
 condition of, 55, 56, 57*, 58, 59; 
 water in, 55, 80. 
 
 Sorrel, garden, 227. 
 
 Spade, 103. 
 
 Spading, 58*, 59, 60, 103, 108*, 154; 
 fork for, 103, 104*, 108*. 
 
 Spinach, 99, 100, 138, 150, 254. 
 
 Spinach, New Zealand, 135, 151, 152, 
 240*, 256. 
 
 Sports, 119, 127. 
 
 Spraying, 295, 297*, 316, 320, 321, 323, 
 324- 
 
 Squash, diseases of, 292; Hubbard, 
 113*, 134, 138, 152, 155, 189, 266; 
 insects of, 322, 324, 325, 330*, 331*, 
 332* ; storage of, 341, 346 ; summer, 
 121*, 122, 123*, 134, 138, 152, 189, 
 265, 266. 
 
 Stamen, 115*. 
 
 Starch, 46, 49, 50, 53. 
 
 Stems, 26, 28, 30, 31*, 33, 277; plants 
 grown for, Chapter XVII. 
 
 Storage of vegetables, Chapter XX, 
 4, 256, 339, 340*, 343*, 344*, 345*- 
 
 Succession crops, 98, 99, 101*, 270. 
 
 Successive crops, 96, 98*. 
 
 Sugar, 28, 46, 47, 48, 49. 
 
 Sulfur, 50, 51. 
 
 Swiss chard, 12, 70, 151, 225, 239*, 
 256. 
 
 Tankage, 66, 67. 
 
 Teaching of gardening, Chapter I; 
 aims of, 2, 3, 4, 10, n*. 
 
 Thinning crops, 204*, 205*, 210, 212. 
 
 Temperature requirements of plants, 
 146. 
 
 Tomato, 13, 19, 112*, 119, 124*, 125*, 
 126*, 132, 133, 134*, 137, 142, 143, 
 153, 155, 160, 175, 179, 189, 190, 
 192*, 195, 272*, 273; diseases of, 
 292, 298, 299; insects of, 322, 334. 
 
 Tools, Chapter IX, 103, 104*, 105*, 
 106*, 107*, 108*, 109*, no, in, 
 202; care of, 106*, 107*; proper 
 use of, 108*, 109*, no. 
 
 Transpiration, 30, 34, 75. 
 
 Transplanting, 79, 175, 186, 187*, 188*, 
 189*, 190, 191, 192*, 193*, 194*, 
 198, 236, 243. 
 
 Turnip, 19, 99, 133, 138, 150, 151, 160, 
 211, 215, 289; storage of, 341. 
 
 Varieties, developing new, 119, 122*, 
 123*; how kept true to type, 127; 
 resistant to disease, 248, 307*, 308*; 
 standard, 98, 137. 
 
 Viability of seeds, 137. 
 
 Vine crops, 265. 
 
 Vitamines, 19, 21*, 47. 
 
 Warm-season crops, 147, 148, 152, 153. 
 
 Water, capillary, 79, 81*, 82, 84, 86; 
 88*; conserving, 85-200; free, 80; 
 in plants, Chapter VII, 29, 42, 75, 78, 
 79 ; in soil, 79, 80, 85 ; movement 
 in soil, 84, 85 ; for germination of 
 seeds, 165, 167. 
 
 Watering. See Irrigation. 
 
 Weather, 154. 
 
 Weeding, 203, 210. 
 
 Weeds, 24, 44, 52. 
 
 Wilt of vine crops, 291. 
 
 Wilting, 78*, 192*. 
 
 Witloof chicory, 242. 
 
 Zones, planting, 97, 157, 158*, 159*. 
 
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 serving what remains of the forests as well as for extending their areas. 
 This is because proper forestation will lessen the danger of floods and 
 of erosion of the soil, and it will encourage the return of the wild crea- 
 tures that are of so much economic importance and add so much to the 
 joy of life. 
 
 The matter is presented in an easy narrative style that is calculated to 
 arouse the intelligent interest of children. The text is illustrated with 
 photographs of wild animals, trees, landscapes, and rarely beautiful 
 birds, printed in colors. The subject is timely and the treatment is 
 happy throughout. 
 
 CONSERVATION READER should be used as a reader or as a book for 
 regular study in every elementary school in the country. 
 
 Cloth, vi + 216 pages. 
 Price $1.40. 
 
 WORLD BOOK COMPANY 
 
 YONKERS-ON-HUDSON, NEW YORK 
 
 2126 PRAIRIE AVENUE, CHICAGO 
 
iiimmiiiiimmimiiiimiiiimim iiiiiimm iiiiiiui iimmimmiimiimiimmmmiimmiimmiiiiiiiimimiiimninu 
 
 INSECT ADVENTURES 
 
 By J. HENRI FABRE 
 
 Selected and Arranged for Young People by Louis Seymour Hasbrouck 
 
 ANEW supplementary reader m nature study for the 
 intermediate grades. A book containing a vast 
 amount of information relating to insect life the life 
 story of the spider, the fly, the bee, the wasp, and other 
 insects told by one who was at once a lover of nature, a 
 great scientist, and a most entertaining writer. Maeter- 
 linck calls Fabre the "insects' Homer," and declares that 
 his work is as much a classic as the famous Greek epic, 
 and deserves to be known and studied as a classic. 
 
 This is the first time that Fabre's writings have been 
 made available for school use, and the book will prove 
 a delight to school children wherever they are given the 
 chance to read it. No live boy or girl could fail to be 
 interested in nature subjects presented by so gifted a 
 naturalist as Fabre in the form of such absorbing ad- 
 ventures. 
 
 The many quaint sketches with which the book has been 
 illustrated by Elias Goldberg complete its charm. 
 
 A useful index is included. 
 
 Cloth. 300 pages. Price $1.48. 
 
 WORLD BOOK COMPANY 
 
 YONKERS-ON-HUDSON, NEW YORK 
 
 2126 PRAIRIE AVENUE, CHICAGO 
 
 ailUUIUIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIll IIIIIHIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIlllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllll 
 
14 DAY USE 
 
 RETURN TO DESK FROM WHICH BORROWED 
 
 This book is due on the last date stamped below, or 
 
 on the date to which renewed. 
 Renewed books are subject to immediate recall. 
 
 *fr 
 
 General Library 
 sity of CaJ 
 Berkeley 
 
YB 47520 
 
 5040... 
 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY