iinii

NEW WORLD SCIENCE SERIES

' '. I ??F? A RY. AC U-*W *!.*.. .^-^

From the collection of the

Prejinger
v Jjibrary

t P

San Francisco, California
2006

GARDENING

AN ELEMENTARY SCHOOL TEXT

TREATING OF THE SCIENCE AND ART
OF VEGETABLE GROWING

NEW-WORLD SCIENCE SERIES

Edited by John W. Ritchie

SCIENCE FOR BEGINNERS

By Delos Fall
TREES, STARS, AND BIRDS

By Edwin Lincoln Moselcy
COMMON SCIENCE

By Carleton W. Washburne
GARDENING

By A. B. Stout
HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY

By John W. Ritchie
SANITATION AND PHYSIOLOGY

By John W. Ritchie
LABORATORY MANUAL FOR USE WITH
"HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY"

By Carl Hartman

EXERCISE AND REVIEW BOOK IN BIOLOGY

By /. G. Blaisdell
PERSONAL HYGIENE AND HOME NURSING

By Louisa C. Lippitt
SCIENCE OF PLANT LIFE

By Edgar Nelson Transeau

ZOOLOGY

By T.D.A. Cocker ell
EXPERIMENTAL ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

By Augustus P. West

NEW-WORLD SCIENCE SERIES

Edited by John W. Ritchie '

GARDENING

AN ELEMENTARY SCHOOL TEXT

TREATING OF THE SCIENCE AND ART

OF VEGETABLE GROWING

By A. B. Stout, Ph.D.

Director of the Laboratories
Nera York Botanical Garden

ILLUSTRATED

WITH PHOTOGRAPHS AND DIAGRAMS

AND WITH PEN DRAWINGS BY

MARY E. EATON AND OTHERS

Tonkers-on-Hudson^ New York

WORLD BOOK COMPANY

1922

WORLD BOOK COMPANY

THE HOUSE OF APPLIED KNOWLEDGE
Established, 1905, by Caspar W. Hodgson

YONKERS-ON-HUDSON, NEW YORK
2126 PRAIRIE AVENUE, CHICAGO

Publishers and editor offer Gardening to
the schools with every confidence in its
sincerity and practicability. They believe
it to be that rare product in the publish-
ing world, a text in a subject that holds a
secondary place in the schools, worked out
with the same skill and attention to details
that are given to the making of texts in
subjects having a major place in the curric-
ulum. World Book Company shares the
author's conviction that gardening should
be taught in our schools. Its hearty accord-
ance -with a pedagogy that combines know-
ing and doing in an almost perfect way might
easily havf .been forecast from the motto,
'Th* application of the world's knowledge
tb the- world's needs." Alike to the friends
of school gardening and to those who do
not yet realize the educational richness of the
garden field, this volume is commended

LIBRARY-AGRICULTURE DCfT

NWSS: SG-I

PRINTED IN U.S.A.

PREFACE

THE author is one of those who firmly believe that
the teaching of gardening in every school would yield
very rich returns educationally. The author believes,
further, that the best instruction in the subject must
include both classroom work and practice in the actual
growing of plants. An intellectual basis for the work
that will lift it to a plane above a mere manual appren-
ticeship and an opportunity for the practical applica-
tion of knowledge gained are alike necessary.

It is with the earnest wish to serve both teacher and
pupil and with the hope of further extending good
teaching of gardening that this text has been prepared.
The aim has been to make it as easy as possible for the
teacher to present theory and practice together, and
by making the practical directions very full and con-
crete to make it possible for the teacher to devote his
time more to the wider aspects of the work. It is hoped
that such a t&t will not only save the time of teachers
but will also serve as a guide to those of less experience
in their work.

The first part of the book deals chiefly with the most
important facts and principles of growth and repro-
duction in garden plants. The deliberate aim is to give-
the pupil an appreciation of the plant as a living thing
and an understanding of how it lives. The later chap-
ters deal chiefly with the various garden crops and the
practical work of growing them.

The writer has been a home gardener all his life, and
in his experimental work in plant breeding he has had
occasion to grow many thousands of plants. Further-
more, he has been a teacher in elementary school, high

504676

vi Preface

school, normal school, and university; and for nearly
three years at the New York Botanical Garden he taught
gardening to classes of convalescent soldiers and sailors,
many of whom were receiving their first instruction in
the subject. Naturally, the present volume has been
colored by personal experience. Some of the chapters
consist in large part of material presented to the classes
of soldiers and sailors. Yet in adapting the work to
younger beginners, countless changes in matter and
method of presentation have been made in the author's
own material, and the views of other teachers of gar-
dening and the subject matter presented by them have
been carefully considered. It is hoped that the book
will prove useful to teachers and pupils, and that the
needs of different sections of the country have been
adequately met.

ACKNOWLED GMENTS

FOR help most generously given during the preparation
of this volume the author is under obligation to many per-
sons. In the list of those who have read most of the galley
proofs and from whom many helpful criticisms and addi-
tional statements of fact were received are W. E. Larson,
Principal of the County Training School of Algoma, Wis-
consin, previously for several years Inspector of Rural
Schools for the State of Wisconsin; J. L. Randall, now in
charge of gardening in the Fitchburg, Massachusetts, Nor-
mal School, formerly Director United States School Garden
Army; W. R. Beattie, Extension Horticulturist, United
States Department of Agriculture; Hugh Findlay, of the
Department of Agriculture and Horticulture, Columbia
University, New York City; and Kenneth Boynton, for-
merly Supervisor of the Garden School for Convalescent
Soldiers and Sailors, now acting Head Gardener in the New
York Botanical Garden. The chapter on "Insects in the
Garden" was read by F. H. Chittenden, and the chapter
on "Diseases of Garden Plants" by W. W. Gilbert, both
of the United States Department of Agriculture and both
of whom contributed suggestions and ideas of the greatest
value. Many of the uncredited photographs which so
splendidly illustrate the processes of gardening were secured
from W. C. McCollom, Islip, New York.

To all the persons named above, to all those who have
contributed illustrations as acknowledged, and to various
other persons not mentioned who have answered letters of
inquiry or whose writings have been consulted, the writer
wishes to express deep appreciation.

It has indeed been a pleasure to write this little book.

A. B. STOUT
NEW YORK BOTANICAL GARDEN

vii

GARDEN LORE

To plow, to flant, and to hoe may not be the chief end
of man, but it was the first great work that was given him
to do ; and that he might keep it in mind for all time, he
had a pledge that the seed-time should never fail.

OLD FARMER'S ALMANAC

There's something wonderfully soothing in having your
fingers in Mother Earth. It seems to take the restlessness
out of one. FRANCES DUNCAN

The man who has planted a garden feels that he has done
something for the good of the world.

CHARLES DUDLEY WARNER

The ground must touch a man before he can amount to
much. ABRAHAM LINCOLN

To own a bit of ground; to scratch it with a hoe; to
plant seeds, and watch their renewal of life, this is the
commonest delight of the race, the most satisfactory thing
a man can do. CHARLES DUDLEY WARNER

A good garden saves the butcher's bill, and keeps down
the doctor's bill, too. OLD FARMER'S ALMANAC

Boy or girl, you need to feel plowed ground under your
feet; you need the contact with growing things in the ground;
you need to handle a hoe, [and] gather the garden vege-
tables. . . . You need to take part in the digging and
weeding and planting. . . . You need to smell [the soil],
to feel it, to work in it. DALLAS LORE SHARP

To smell a turf of fresh earth is wholesome for the body.

THOMAS FULLER
ix

x Garden Lore

Watching things grow, things that his own hands have
planted, is one of the chief joys of the householder.

JAMES G. NEEDHAM

Behold this compost ! behold it well /'.'..;. // gives such
divine materials to men, and accepts such leavings from
them at the last. WALT WHITMAN

A soil, to be fertile, must above all things be light and
pliable, and this condition we seek to bring about by the
operation of plowing. VIRGIL

// you keep square with the work, you feel greater pride
and satisfaction in it, and everything goes smoother.

OLD FARMER'S ALMANAC

Head work in the garden is worth quite as much as hand
work. OLD FARMER'S ALMANAC

In planning garden operations for the year remember
that rotation, clean tillage, and selected varieties will do
much to help you in your fight against both insects and
plant diseases. Such measures wisely taken bring other
advantages. OLD FARMER'S ALMANAC

Farmer Wideawake will have the plans for his crops all
made before spring opens, so as to be ready to plow and
plant each crop as soon as the proper season arrives.

OLD FARMER'S ALMANAC

Acquaint yourself with an intelligent system of crop
rotation Use your brains Then ivhen you are certain
and your program is ready, DIG IN HARD.

OLD FARMER'S ALMANAC

Not only does succession planting utilize limited areas
most intensively; it is sound economics from every point
of view. OLD FARMER'S ALMANAC

Garden Lore xi

Fall plowing now demands our attention. With minor
exceptions all the land which is to be put under cultivation
next year should be plowed before freezing. It is not nec-
essary nor desirable to turn the furrows smooth and flat
as in spring plowing. If the land is left quite rough, the
action of the frost during the winter will be more effective
in breaking up the soil and reducing it to a fine powder.

OLD FARMER'S ALMANAC

It should not be forgotten that all the heavier soils are
improved by fall plowing, which should be pushed when-
ever opportunity offers. OLD FARMER'S ALMANAC

'Tis the farmer's care that makes the field bear.

OLD PROVERB

Perfect tilth, no less than suitable enrichment, is essen-
tial for bumper crops. OLD FARMER'S ALMANAC

Nature will always find some mischief to do in idle land.
Give her the opportunity and you shall repent in another
season when you find redoubled labor essential to keep the
garden clear of noxious growths. OLD FARMER'S ALMANAC

In the garden more grows than the gardener sows.

OLD PROVERB

The rich garden soil from which you have taken an early
crop will bear weeds if you do not put it to use for produc-
tion of something better. OLD FARMER'S ALMANAC

A weed, as it grows from an inch to afoot high, increases
a thousand-fold in bulk or weight, and exhausts the soil in
proportion. OLD FARMER'S ALMANAC

xii Garden Lore

Cultivate! A hard crust over the surface of the ground
is almost as fatal to the growth of annual plants as would
be a coat of paint to the growth of a pig.

OLD FARMER'S ALMANAC

// a good crop is to be obtained, it must be well fed and
well cared for, and the work must be done at the right time.

OLD FARMER'S ALMANAC

Land for roots needs to be worked deep and fine.

OLD FARMER'S ALMANAC

Cauliflower for fall and winter use may be set after your
earliest peas. OLD FARMER'S ALMANAC

Cucumbers and melons can be grown in the spent hotbed
in summer, and the little plot made to do double duty.

OLD FARMER'S ALMANAC

The gardener no sooner gets the mastery of the destruc-
tive insects, than there comes another plague called fungi,
which, if not hindered or destroyed, will greatly injure the
crops of the garden. OLD FARMER'S ALMANAC

Now that bugs and blights abound, be up and at them;
but be sure to identify your enemy before you begin your
fight. OLD FARMER'S ALMANAC

The warfare of the insect tribes upon the vegetable king-
dom is a continuous performance at which the gardener
cannot afford to be an idle spectator.

OLD FARMER'S ALMANAC

He who would have a good garden must visit it daily,
that he may discover and destroy the insect enemies before
they do any essential injury. OLD FARMER'S ALMANAC

Garden Lore xiii

The race between man and the creeping things of the
earth is said to be very equal. As soon as man is master
of one, a new one appears, more persistent in its destruc-
tive work and more difficult to conquer than any that has
preceded it; consequently man has to seek new and more
effective poisonous compounds that will kill these enemies,

and not injure the vegetation upon which they feed.

OLD FARMER'S ALMANAC

The gardener must watch diligently lest he get outgen-
eraled by the bugs, worms, and creeping things of the earth,
which are ready to devour nearly every plant that grows.

OLD FARMER'S ALMANAC

Snug up and get things in order for a long winter.

OLD FARMER'S ALMANAC

Now that the harvest is past, it is time to prepare for
winter. Secure the vegetables in the cellar before freezing
weather comes. OLD FARMER'S ALMANAC

Observe these hints and you will find it easy to keep win-
ter vegetables in good condition: Keep onions cold, dry,
and well ventilated. Hang cabbages by the stump in a cool
cellar not too dry. Bury turnips, carrots, parsnips, and
beets in moist, fine soil in a dry, cool cellar.

OLD FARMER'S ALMANAC

We have drawn from the land all that our industry com-
pelled it to yield, and our crops in store and the book of
receipts will tell us the story of the year's work.

OLD FARMER'S ALMANAC

CONTENTS

CHAPTER PAGE

1. OBJECTIVES AND METHODS i

2. REASONS FOR LEARNING GARDENING . . .14

3. How PLANTS LIVE 24

4. How PLANTS GROW 36

5. THE FOOD OF PLANTS ...... 46

6. THE SOIL OF THE GARDEN . . . 55

7. WATER AND THE PLANT . . > 75

8. PLANNING THE GARDEN . . . * . . .90

9. TOOLS FOR THE GARDEN ...... 103

10. SEEDS FOR THE GARDEN . . . . . .112

11. THE TIME FOR PLANTING . . . . . .146

12. How TO GROW PLANTS FROM SEEDS . . .165

13. THE CARE OF GROWING CROPS . . . . .199

14. ROOT CROPS AND How TO GROW THEM . . .211

15. CROPS GROWN FOR THEIR LEAVES . . . .225

1 6. GARDEN CROPS GROWN FOR THEIR FRUITS . .258

17. GARDEN PLANTS GROWN FOR THEIR STEMS . .277

18. DISEASES OF PLANTS 286

19. INSECTS IN THE GARDEN . ..." . -311

20. HOME STORAGE OF VEGETABLES .... 339

APPENDIX: TABLES OF PLANTING DATES . . . 348
INDEX 351

<IG. i. "To hear or read, and then to do,
That is the perfect school."

GARDENING

CHAPTER ONE

OBJECTIVES AND METHODS l

A school garden worth the name is not a teacher's gar-
den, or a philanthropist's garden, but a garden worked out
in thought and act by happy, purposeful children.

DORA WILLIAMS

PROBABLY the first systematic elementary instruction
in gardening in the United States was given at Roxbury,
Massachusetts, in the year 1891 in the school conducted
by Mr. H. L. Clapp. Eleven years later (1902) Mrs.
Henry Parsons started the first children's " school farm "
in New York City in connection with the Park Depart-
ment. Since then, gardening in one form or another
has become a part of the education and training of chil-
dren in many cities. Recently, under the stimulus of
the war-time necessity for increased food production,
various national, state, city, and other agencies through-
out the United States joined in efforts to provide instruc-
tion in gardening, especially in connection with the
schools. According to records collected by the United
States Bureau of Education from 2258 towns and cities,
at the close of 1919 there were 2,500,000 pupils enrolled
in the garden work.

In some states the instruction is more or less organized
for the entire state, and in at least one state, New Hamp-
shire, there has been adopted a definite plan for teaching
gardening to all children in the elementary schools of

1 This opening chapter is intended for teachers and school officials
and is not for study by pupils.

Gardening

.W rv. Henry Parsons

FIG. 2. School gardens were started in New York City in 1002, in connec-
tion with the Park Department. This photograph was made in 1906, on the
site of the first "school farm."

the entire state. The teaching of gardening has be-
come widely recognized as an important part of the
educational work of the public schools ; the aims in
teaching it and the best methods to be employed are
now rather clearly denned.

There seems to be general agreement that the primary
purpose of school instruction in gardening is educational.
But the instruction in the school aims also to encourage
the making of home vegetable gardens whose chief func-
tion is that of food production. Obviously, it is through
the combination of school and home activities that the
educational values of gardening and its uses to the home
are to be realized.

Experience in the teaching of gardening seems to indi-
cate clearly that the most successful teaching of the sub-

Objectives and Methods 3

ject is that which combines classroom and textbook insinua-
tion with actual practice in the work of gardening. In gen-
eral, the relation between the classroom and the out-
door work is quite clear. Classroom and textbook
instruction deals primarily with principles ; it presents
the laws of plant growth and the fundamental relations
between plants and their environment in such a way
that their essential needs are understood. In all lines
of human effort, those individuals who understand the
reasons for what they are doing excel in practical work ;
thus, to obtain the best gardens we must give the pupils
an understanding of plant life. Secondarily, the class-
room and textbook instruction deals with the special
needs of the various vegetables and the special methods
of planting and caring for them in such detail that
with but little additional direction in the garden itself
the beginner can grow these successfully.

In the actual outdoor work the pupil learns the art of
gardening. Mechanical skill in the use of tools is ac-
quired through their use. Acquaintance with plants is
gained from contact with them. The best methods of
caring for crops are learned by experience. Yet (for the
beginner especially) there is constantly the application
of principles learned in the classroom and judgment of
the methods employed according to the results attained.
The art of gardening becomes an intelligent application
of principles to methods, with eventually the discovery
of the most suitable methods.

When both the principles and the practice of garden-
ing are taught, the subject has great educational and
utilitarian values, and it has taken its place in school

4 Gardening

curricula because experience has shown that the pupils
absorb these values. It is closely related to the pupil's
present life, so that he understands the significance of
what he learns and does ; and it correlates as few studies
do with the various subjects of school interest. Much of
the ordinary work in nature study can be taught in
gardening in a manner which gives additional interest
and purpose to the work. The daily experiences afford
excellent subject matter for language exercises, and there
is opportunity for the application of problems in arith-
metic and for practice in honest business methods.
The history of garden vegetables involves knowledge
regarding geography, climate, and the climatic needs of
the various vegetables. Gardening also teaches much
regarding the principles of breeding and improving
plants and may afford practice in such breeding.

In the larger schools, training in canning and drying
garden produce and in the construction and use of the
special storage rooms and cellars can be given with the
cooperation of teachers in domestic science and in manual
training. In most cases, however, teachers and parents
must lead in these activities.

Naturally, the simpler aspects of gardening are best
learned in the lower grades. As pupils advance in age,
more is learned. The vista of knowledge is ever widen-
ing. There are constantly new discoveries to be made.
There are constantly the exercise of judgment and the
practical application of knowledge suited to stimulate
and tax the child's growing mental powers.

Thus the pupil can follow the subject progressively
through the grades without undertaking work too cliffi-

Objectives and Methods

States Relations Service
FIG. 3. An individual plot garden with paths between the plots.

cult for him in the earlier years and .without repetition
in the higher grades of the simpler facts with which he is
already familiar. In agricultural sections especially,
the teaching of gardening naturally and progressively
leads to the more advanced teaching of agriculture.
This flexibility and exhaustlessness of the subject is
another reason why the teaching of gardening has been
so successful in the schools.

The organization of the practice work in gardening
has received much attention. Several types of gardens
have been successfully developed in meeting the various
conditions existing in different communities.

The school garden or school farm of individual plots is
one in which each pupil of the school or of certain grade

6 Gardening

Van Evrie Kilpalrick

FIG. 4. An individual plot garden without paths. The rows of vegetables
run uninterruptedly across the field and the corners of the plots are marked only
by stakes.

or grades has a garden plot, usually of small area. The
pupil cares for his own plot, but the work of planting,
caring for, and harvesting the crops is all done under the
direction of a teacher and supervisor.

Formerly, in school-garden work very generally, indi-
vidual plots were assigned to the pupils, and especially
in Los Angeles and New York City this plan is still
followed with marked success. This method stimu-
lates individual effort, and it provides individual plots
for children who have no opportunity for home gar-
dens. ." But in most places it has been replaced by the
community grade garden and the school-directed home
garden.

The community school or grade garden is one in which
all the children of the grade or the school jointly partici-
pate in the work of preparing the soil, planting, and
caring for the entire garden plot. The purpose of the

Objectives and Methods 7

garden is chiefly educational, and a large part of the in-
struction and training is accomplished by the time
school closes in June. Some four or five pupils of the
grade who have shown special interest and diligence are
selected to care for the garden through the summer,
but always under proper supervision. These pupils
share in the crops that mature within this period. The
time required of a child for the care of a grade garden
during vacation is usually not more than two half days a
week.

The community garden serves excellently for group
instruction at the school. It provides practical training
for the children who can have no home garden; more-
over, the united efforts of the community insure a con-
tinuous care of the plot, which is not always possible
when the individual-plot method is followed. A fur-

States Relations Service

FIG. 5. A school-supervised home garden. These gardens are especially suc-
cessful in suburban communities and in smaller cities and towns; yet in the
crowded city of New York space was found for more than 80,000 of them in
1917.

Gardening

\nrtli Dakota Auric. Eipt. Sta.

FIG. 6. The best place of all for a garden is on the farm. Here land is abun-
dant, so the rows should be planted wide for horse-cultivation. The photo-
graph shows a model farm garden of one third of an acre in North Dakota.

ther advantage of the community garden is that it gives
the pupil training in cooperative effort practice in
that " team work " which is so essential in a democracy.

The school-supervised home garden is made at the home
of the child under the supervision of a teacher ; and for
successful participation in the care of the home garden
a pupil is given a certain amount of school credit. The
garden is visited at intervals during the growing season
by a supervisor who gives advice and instruction and
judges the activity and interest. of the pupil. Certain
records are kept by the pupil, and these are correlated
with the work done in the school.

School supervision of home gardens is undoubtedly
one of the best means of combining school and home
activities. It aims to promote and improve the home

Objectives and Methods

North Dakota Ag-ric. Expt. Sla,
FIG. 7. The same garden shown in Figure 6, later in the season.

garden whenever there is opportunity for one at the
home of a pupil in the fourth grade or above. That
many home gardens are possible even in large cities
is shown by the fact that a school garden survey of New
York City in 1917 disclosed a total of 83,898 children
having their own home gardens.

But home gardens are especially successful in smaller
cities and towns and in suburban districts of large cities,
because here the conditions are often ideal for gardens of
this kind. The size of the plot is frequently ample for
the family needs, a well-drained site with rich soil can
often be selected, and manure for enriching the soil is
usually obtainable.

In the more sparsely settled rural districts especially,
the opportunity for educational, vocational, and moral
training through gardening is far from being utilized at
present. Here, however, special supervisors and teachers

io Gardening

must consume so much time in travel that the instruc-
tion becomes costly. Perhaps in the country the work
in gardening should become a part of the more general
boys' and girls' club work, with the same teacher
for both the gardening and the other work. Certainly,
under the stimulus of competent supervision and
guidance and with proper credit in the school course,
home gardening in the country can be made to yield
at least as rich results as it now yields in towns and
cities.

The demonstration or observation garden is chiefly for
educational purposes. It supplements the school, grade,
and home gardens, and serves to instruct the entire com-
munity, young and old alike. At the present time the
most common observation garden is one that demon-
strates a model home garden.

But an observation garden may serve other purposes.
Plants not usually seen in the region may be grown, and
new crops or new varieties of standard crops may
be tested to determine if they are suited to local culture.
A school can maintain hotbeds and "cold frames,
thus demonstrating their construction and uses and
at the same time supplying seedlings of such crops as
cabbage and tomato for transplanting to the home gar-
dens.

The observation garden can be used also for seed pro-
duction, for demonstrations in plant breeding, and
for practical instruction in agriculture and in the grow-
ing of plants of value in floriculture, horticulture, and
forestry. As instruction in gardening becomes more
general, demonstration gardens will undoubtedly be-

Objectives and Methods

FIG. 8. A school demonstration garden. The pupil is shown the various
operations of planting and cultivating his crops in this garden. Then he is able
to use this knowledge in caring for his garden at home.

come an important factor in the work. They cannot,
however, take the place of the school and home gardens,
which must necessarily be the basis of the instruction
and training.

The principal crops grown in school gardens are quite
the same throughout the entire United States. The
detailed plans for both classroom and practice work,
therefore, will vary chiefly according to climate. In the
more northern states, where the growing season is shorter
and the outdoor work begins late, the garden work must
be followed through the summer to be most effec-
tive. In the more southern states the long growing sea-
son allows many crops to reach full maturity before the

Gardening

Itainnond H". Smtt

FIG. 9. The garden of the fifth and sixth grades in the Emerson School, New-
ton, Massachusetts. The children of one or more grades work together in the
care of a common garden.

summer vacation begins ; also many autumn crops can
be planted after school again opens.

One of the best plans for organizing the grade gardens
of a city in the northern states that has come to the atten-
tion of the writer is that employed at Newton, Massachu-
setts. Here grade gardens are maintained for the fourth,
fifth, and seventh grades. In the garden for a fourth
grade, radishes, lettuce, beets, Swiss chard, carrots,
beans, and late squash are raised. These are all readily
grown from seed sown in the garden. Radishes and
lettuce yield crops before the close of school in June.
Beans, beets, and Swiss chard give returns during the
summer to the pupils who care for the garden through
vacation time. Work in the same garden is continued
by the class in the following autumn, when the squash

Objectives and Methods 13

crop is maturing and the beets, carrots, and Swiss chard
are still producing. In the following spring squash
is not planted, but corn, tomatoes, and kohl-rabi are
added to the other vegetables grown. In the seventh
grade potatoes also are planted.

The classroom work at Newton begins about March i .
The supervisor visits each grade about once in three
weeks to give special instruction to the pupils and to out-
line the work of the grade teacher. In addition, all
children of the fourth grade and above are encouraged
to have home gardens.

Many other cities and towns have carefully worked
out and put into operation progressive courses in
gardening, but space does not allow even a brief discus-
sion of them here.

The success which is attained in the teaching of gar-
dening in any school depends on the efficiency of the
organization and the coordination of classroom instruc-
tion with the actual practice in gardening. For com-
plete success, especially in the northern states, a super-
vision that follows the garden through the entire summer
vacation is absolutely essential. The quality of the
instruction and supervision is dependent on the train-
ing, interest, and enthusiasm of the supervisors and
teachers in charge. When it is well taught, the subject
is one that naturally appeals to the child's needs for
mental and physical training and to his normal desire to
obtain immediate returns for expended effort.

CHAPTER TWO

REASONS FOR LEARNING GARDENING

I'd ruther kindo git the swing
O' what was needed, first, I jing !
Afore I swet at anything !

JAMES WHITCOMB RILEY

THE idea expressed by the poet in the above lines is
a good one. It is always well to find out why we are
doing anything before we spend time and effort on it.
Here are some of the reasons for learning gardening.

Gardening is educative. The chief reason for learn-
ing gardening is that it gives us a store of useful and inter-
esting knowledge we would be likely to get in no
other way. Through his work the gardener learns
about insects, soils, and weather. He works with liv-
ing plants and comes to understand how they live and
grow. Thus he learns to know nature and nature's laws,
and how the workings of these laws affect his own life.

FIG. 10. Gardening is educative. Through his work the gardener learns many
facts about plants, insects, soils, and weather.

Reasons for Learning Gardening 15

FIG. xi. Gardening allows children to share in the family work. By carry-
ing his share of the burden a child gains in self-respect and has a position of
more dignity in the family circle.

Gardening allows children to share in the family work.

It is wrong to accept something for nothing when we
can pay. Through garden work children can give to
their parents something for what they have received
and are receiving from them. Excepting spading, gar-
den work is light, and the average child of ten can do
most of it. By taking up this work a child gains the
respect of the older members of the family, and his ideas
and wishes are more carefully considered in the family
circle than they would be if he were not helping to carry
the family load.

Another great advantage of gardening for many
children is that it allows them to work with their parents
or other older persons. Many parents play with their
children but do not find time to discuss serious matters
with them. Working with an older person in a garden

Gardening

gives a child an opportu-
nity to talk over many
important problems, and
to learn much about the
work in hand and also
about the larger affairs
of life.

Gardening gives an
appreciation of property
rights. We own our
gardens. We know the
thought and labor we
have put into them and
that without our labor
they never would have
existed. We know that
what we have thus
created by our own

FIG. 12. Another great advantage in gar- pffo-fj, Kplnnox to lie;

dening is that it allows children to work ( as

with older persons. This gives an oppor- and through an Under-
tunity for talking over many important ,. r

problems not connected with garden work. Standing Ol OUr Own

property rights we are
led to understand the property rights of others.

Gardening leads to industry and an understanding of
the importance of labor. By working in the garden we
establish habits of industry, and through the garden
we come to appreciate the value of labor and the im-
portance of industry. When we care for a garden
properly, it thrives and repays us in good harvests.
When we spend only a little effort on it, the harvest
is correspondingly scant. Thus we come to realize

Reasons for Learning Gardening

that men can have only
that which they produce
by their labor ; that by
labor we can create
something for ourselves
without taking it from
any one else.

Gardening gives prac-
tical business experi-
ence. Gardening often
affords business experi-
ence through the sale
of garden produce in the
market or to neighbors.
Such experience enables
a young person to learn
how to deal with others
and gives him a training

, , i i r i ' FIG. 13. Gardening gives an appreciation

and a knowledge of busi- of pr0 perty rights. Even a young gar-
ness methods that are d . en , er , J" 10 ^ that ^ fruits of ^ labor

rightfully belong to him.

of the highest value in

almost any profession or walk of life.

Gardening gives healthful exercise. Gardening gives
healthful outdoor exercise, which is especially beneficial
to school children and to those who in later life work
indoors. This exercise is varied, bringing into use many
different muscles, which rests the nervous system in-
stead of tiring it as fine and close work does.

For those inclined to be nervous, gardening is an
especially valuable form of exercise. Because it is
a light outdoor occupation, the work itself is soothing

Gardening

U. N. D. A.

FIG. 14. Gardening helps to fix habits of industry. It is for the good of all
that idle hands and idle land should be employed in this way.

f. L. Miller

FIG. 15. Through gardening we come to an understanding of the importance
of labor. No gardener produces a crop like this without understanding that
careful, persevering effort lies back of everything worth while. This splendid
garden is a "Cook County School-Home Project" at Harvey, Illinois.

Reasons for Learning Gardening

to tired nerves, and the
feeling of ownership and
the interest in watching
the plants grow gives
us satisfaction and peace
of mind. Such a mental
condition gives content-
ment of mind and sta-
bility of character, and
helps to make good
neighbors and good citi-
zens.

Gardening improves
the family diet. Fresh
vegetables are necessary
to the health. They
supply bulk in the diet ;
they furnish calcium,
iron, and other minerals n

riG. 10. Gardening gives practical busi-

that are Often lacking ness training. This young gardener is
i*n nrVipr fnnHd qnrl frnrn P re P arin S her tomatoes for market so care-

)ds , and om fully that there will be no complaints frora
them we get substances her customers.
called vitamins that are

absolutely necessary for health. Scurvy is due to the lack
of a vitamin found in abundance in tomatoes, turnips,
cabbage, and other fresh vegetables. The vitamins that
make milk and butter so necessary in the diet are collected
by the cow from the grass, and the same vitamins are
found in all green vegetables. Recent experiments with
animals make it seem probable that the chief reason
for tooth decay is a lack of vitamins in the diets of

Gardening

U. S. Bureau of Education

FIG. 17. Gardening gives healthful exercise. Such exercise is especially bene-
ficial to school children, who must spend much of the day indoors. This garden
is in Los Angeles.

children. If these are furnished in insufficient amounts,
the teeth are soft and the enamel covering is defective.

It will always be cheaper for many families to raise
their own vegetables. Often idle land and idle hands
can be used to grow them. There is no expense for
hauling and shipping, and buying and selling, when
vegetables come direct from the garden to the table.
In this way all loss in shipping is avoided also, and often
the vegetables are in much better condition for use.
Experience shows that those families that have their
own gardens use vegetables freely. Many other families
suffer in health for lack of fresh vegetables. It is es-
pecially important that those who are not able to buy
vegetables in abundance should raise them for them-
selves.

Reasons for Learning Gardening

Knowledge of gardening an aid in earning a living.

The gardener is able to raise for himself and his family
vegetables that it would cost money to buy in the
market. Also, through the sale of surplus vegetables,
a garden often increases the money income of the
family, thus making it possible to provide more comforts
for the family or to save more of the income for future
use.

Furthermore, more people make a living by growing
plants than in any other way, and to millions of persons
a knowledge of gardening is a direct aid in making a

FIGS. 18 and IQ. Gardening improves the family diet. In fresh vegetables
there are vitamins and minerals that are often lacking in other foods.

Gardening

FIG. 20. A knowledge of gardening is often an aid in earning a living. More
families make a living by growing plants than in any other way, and hundreds
of thousands of other families help out their incomes by cultivating home gar-
dens. These boys and girls are receiving a training that is more likely to prove
useful than any other practical work that could be given them.

living. Market gardeners, fruit growers, and farmers
are all engaged in raising plants and selling their products,
and these industries will always be important. What
a person learns as a child in gardening will be very useful
indeed if his life work is in any way connected with the
growing of plants.

Thus we see that we are likely to be well repaid for
any time we spend in learning gardening. And this is
the more true because much of the garden work can be
done in time that would not otherwise be spent in a
profitable way.

Questions

Name some reasons for learning gardening. Why is the
exercise obtained in gardening especially valuable? What
substances necessary for a healthful diet are furnished abundantly

Reasons for Learning Gardening 23

by fresh vegetables ? Why is it often better to raise fresh vegetables
than to buy them ?

Name persons in your neighborhood who either make a living
by growing plants and selling the produce or increase the family
income in this way. Is the number of persons who make a living
by growing plants large as compared with the number in other
important occupations ?

Things to Do and Observe

1. To determine whether gardening is profitable. Determine
whether or not a garden pays by keeping an exact account of
everything done- or money spent, and of everything harvested
from your garden throughout the entire garden season. Keep
this record in some permanent form (perhaps the diary form will
be easiest). At the end of the season put down in one column
just what the garden cost in actual expenditures for labor, tools,
seed, fertilizers, and other materials, and include also an estimate
of the value of your own labor. In another column set down the
market value of all produce obtained, whether used by the family,
sold or given away, or allowed to go to waste. Compare the two
totals.

After balancing the money account decide whether the edu-
cation and training you have received through caring for the
garden is of any particular value to you.

2. To find out whether families without gardens use -vegetables
freely. A wealthy farmer in a farmers' meeting argued that it
was cheaper for him to buy strawberries for his family than to
raise them, but when questioned about it, he admitted he had
bought none the past year. Find out, if you can do so, whether
families who buy their vegetables use them as freely as those who
have gardens.

CHAPTER THREE

HOW PLANTS LIVE

One who raises plants gets pleasure out of his craft in
proportion as he knows what they are doing in root and
branch or in flower and fruit, at every turn of the season.

JAMES G. NEEDHAM

A PLANT has its needs, such as food, water, air, sun-
light, and protection from its enemies ; and if these
needs are not supplied, it will grow poorly or may even
die. If a garden plant stands in poor soil, or is much
shaded, it grows only slowly. If it remains wilted con-
tinuously for several days and nights because of lack of
water, it is almost sure to die. And when plants are not
protected against insects and disease, many of them are
injured or destroyed. Like the gardener himself, the
cabbages, beets, carrots, and other plants which he
grows are alive, and to be healthy and vigorous, they
must have the things that they need for living and
growing.

The work of the gardener. The task of the gardener
is to supply the needs of his plants to give them the
best possible conditions for growth. The gardener,
therefore, enriches the soil so that it will supply an
abundance of food materials. He cultivates among his
plants so that the water will be retained in the soil. He
thins the seedlings in the rows and destroys the weeds,
so that each plant will be able to secure sufficient food
materials, water, light, and space to develop fully. If
necessary, he also sprays his plants to protect them
from insects and disease. And he does all this work in
order to give his plants better conditions for life and
growth.

How Plants Live

FIG. 21. A gardener is a caretaker of plants one who watches over them
and sees that their needs are supplied, so that they will flourish and yield
him an abundant crop.

Gardening

FIG. 22. "Weeds and bugs claim much of the attention of the gardener; but
if he be master of his business, he will destroy the former as soon as they germi-
nate, and the latter during the earliest stages of their growth." Old Farmer's
Almanac

A gardener is, therefore, a caretaker of plants one
who watches over them and sees that their needs are
supplied, so that they will flourish and yield him an
abundant crop.

Learning to be a gardener. One may learn much
about how to grow plants by growing them. By observ-
ing how our garden plants develop under different
conditions, we may judge what is best for them. It
was thus that our ancestors learned to raise plants, for
gardening is indeed an old art. In fact, many of our
important food crops were cultivated before the days
of written history. Man learned how to grow plants
long before he knew much about how plants grow.

But within the last hundred years plants have been
carefully studied in order to find (i) how they obtain
food materials from the soil, (2) what sorts of food

How Plants Live 27

materials they need, (3) what they take out of the air,
what they give off into the air, and how they do this,
(4) what advantage they have in being green, (5) how
they may be protected from their enemies, and (6) how
they may be grown to yield especially early crops or
crops of unusually fine quality.

This knowledge of how plants live and grow has now
become a science, and an understanding of this science
is of the greatest help to the gardener in his work. For
knowing how plants live makes it more interesting to
work with them, and the scientific gardener can care
for his crops far more intelligently and supply their
needs far better than one who does not understand the
reasons for what he does. In the following para-
graphs, therefore, we shall explain how a plant lives.

The parts of a plant. Let us examine some garden
plant, such as a bean or a corn plant. We notice that
it is composed of a stem and leaves which grow upward
into the air, and of roots that are in the soil.

Now let us look at a young radish about ready for
table use. At first glance its leaves appear to grow
directly from the roots. But careful examination shows
that there is really a short stem between the leaves and
the main root; and when the plant shoots up into
flower, we see that it has the same parts as the bean
and corn and other plants that we grow in our gardens.
Much as garden plants differ in form and appearance,
they are all alike in having (i) leaves that are exposed
to the air and sunshine, (2) roots that burrow in the earth
and darkness, and (3) a stem connecting the roots with
the leaves.

Gardening

FIG. 23. Young seedlings of beet and bean plants, showing how extensive is
the root system even in very young plants. The roots of the plant in the center
are 8 inches long, almost three times the length of the parts above ground.

The root system. Suppose we try to get out of the
ground all the roots belonging to a plant. We may
loosen the earth with a trowel or a spading fork and with
our hands break away the soil and sort out the roots.
Because the roots are so delicate and so interwoven in
the soil, many of the smaller ones are broken in spite of
the greatest care. But we readily find that there are
great numbers of roots, that they are very finely divided,
and that they go deeply and spread widely in the earth.

As a matter of fact, the root system of a plant often

How Plants Live 29

has a greater spread than the parts which reach out
into the air. A small plant of the garden radish with
leaves scarcely 2 inches long may have roots that go
down to a depth of 6 inches. The roots of the corn
plant have been traced to a depth of 6 feet 9 inches,
and to a spread of 7 feet 3 inches side wise from the plant,
and the roots of an old alfalfa plant have been found
at a depth of 12 feet 6 inches in the. soil. Studies have
been made which show that the roots of a wheat plant,
if placed end to end, would extend to a distance of 500
to 600 yards; and it is said that the roots of a large
pumpkin plant thus placed would extend to a distance
of 15 miles.

The work of the roots. Of what use is this great net-
work of roots to the plant? The roots anchor the plant
in place, and they take in from the soil the water and the
minerals that the plant must have for its life and growth.
One of the chief reasons why plants must not be crowded
in planting is that they require much room underground
for their roots to develop, so that they can obtain the
supplies of water and minerals that the plant needs.

The work of the leaves. Every important organ or
part of a plant or animal has a use. What do the leaves
do for the plant?

(1) The principal work of the leaves is to make food for
the plant. In the cells of the leaves there is a green
coloring matter called chlorophyll, and through the action
of this, sugar is built up when the sunlight falls on the
leaves. This process will be discussed more fully in a
later chapter (page 47) .

(2) The leaves help the plant also in securing a sufficient

3O Gardening

supply of the minerals that it needs. These minerals are
dissolved in only small amounts in the soil water, and to
get enough of them a plant must take in large quantities
of water. The greater part of this is given off by the
leaves into the air in the form of water vapor. This
evaporation of water from the leaves is called transpira-
tion.

The advantage of transpiration to the plant is that
it allows large amounts of water containing weak solu-
tions of minerals to be taken in by the roots, and when
the water is evaporated the minerals are left in the plant.
The minerals in water remain in a kettle when the water
is boiled away; similarly, the minerals remain in the
leaves when the water is given off into the air.

But in dry weather, transpiration is at times a disad-
vantage to a plant. Sometimes the roots do not absorb
water as fast as it evaporates from the leaves, and so
the plant wilts. One of the chief tasks of the gardener
is to provide enough water for the needs of his plants ;
for in hot, dry weather plants are often injured because
the water is lost too rapidly from the leaves.

The stem and its work. The stem supports the leaves
so that they will be distributed widely in the air .and can
receive much sunlight. It also carries the sap between
the roots and the leaves. The water and minerals that
are taken in by the roots as raw materials pass upward
through the stems to the leaves, where they are manu-
factured into food for the plant. This food is then
carried downward through the stem to the roots or to
any growing and working part of the plant. By hold-
ing up great numbers of leaves to the light, the stem

How Plants Live

The energy of the sunlight,
oxygen for respiration, and car-
bon dioxid for photosynthesis
are received by the leaves.

Water vapor, oxygen from pho-
tosynthesis, and carbon dioxid
from respiration are given off
by the leaves.

The stem transports ma-
terials between the leaves
and the roots. Water and
raw food materials pass up
to the leaves, and food
passes down from the
leaves to the roots.

Oxygen, water, and raw food ma-
terials that are dissolved in the
soil water are taken in by the

roots.

Carbon dioxid is given off by the
roots. Probably substances that
help to dissolve raw food mate-
rials in the soil are also given off.

FIG. 24. Diagram illustrating the work of the different parts of a plant.

32 Gardening

makes it possible for a plant to manufacture much food,
and the stem has in it " vessels " or bundles of long,
slender tubes that allow water and food materials to be
distributed throughout the plant.

The plant as a whole. Thus we see that the roots,
stem, and leaves all work together to promote the life of
the plant as a whole. The roots anchor the plant and
supply water and minerals ; the leaves manufacture
sugar ; and the stem makes it possible for the plant to
display many leaves to the light and for water and food
to be carried where they are needed in the plant. Thus
roots, leaves, and stem each have a work to do, and the
work of each is necessary for the life of the plant as a
whole.

Respiration in plants. All the living parts of a plant
breathe or respire. Like animals, plants take in oxygen
and use it in breaking down their foods. In this way
they obtain the heat and energy that they use in main-
taining their lives and in growing ; and like an animal,
a plant gives out carbon dioxid as a waste product
when it respires.

Respiration is one of the most important life processes,
for it releases the energy that keeps a plant or an animal
alive. It may be compared to the burning of wood in a
stove or of coal in the fire box of an engine. Fuel is
consumed or combined with oxygen, and a gas (carbon
dioxid) is given off to the air. Heat and energy to do
work result from the chemical change. A plant does not
consume as much food as an animal that is actively mov-
ing about and doing work with its muscles. But a man
cannot live without taking in oxygen and burning food

How Plants Live 33

in his body, even though he lie entirely motionless ; and in
like manner a plant must respire to keep up its life.

Supplying the needs of plants. From our studies thus
far we see that four of the great needs of a plant are air,
light, water, and mineral salts. Most garden work is
done in order that these four needs of the plant may be
met so that it will live and make the best growth. In
later chapters we shall learn in some detail how gar-
deners make conditions favorable for the growth of their
plants.

Questions

Name some of the principal needs of plants. State a few of the
gardener's tasks in caring properly for his plants. How did our
ancestors learn to grow plants? What advantages does our
modern knowledge give us in caring for plants ?

Name the parts of a typical garden plant. Tell how far the
root systems of certain plants extend. Does a plant have any
prominent parts, such as roots or leaves, that are not useful to the
plant ? What is the function (work) of the roots ? Of the leaves ?
Of the stem?

What is respiration? What do plants obtain through respira-
tion? What waste product is given off when a plant or an-
imal respires ? To meet what needs of plants is most garden work
done?

Things to Do and Observe

i. To note the extent of the root system of a young plant. Select
a young plant about four inches tall. A beet, tomato, cabbage,
or bean growing in the garden or in a pot or flat will do. Try to
get all of the roots out of the soil. Note the great number of
rootlets and how fine the smallest of them are. Compare the
spread of the roots with the spread of the parts above the ground.
What does this show about the work of roots ? About the room
that plants need ?

Gardening

2. To show that a leaf gives off water. Draw the stem of a
healthy young leaf (cabbage or geranium Will do) through a hole
in a square of cardboard. Seal about the stem of the leaf with

FlGS. 25, 26, and 27. Experiments to show that leaves give off water.

paraffin heated only to the melting point (too hot paraffin will
kill the stem of the leaf and spoil the experiment). Then arrange
the experiment as in Figure 25, making sure that the upper drink-
ing glass fits snugly to the cardboard.

Arrange two other glasses in the same manner but make no
hole in the cardboard and omit the leaf. Set both pairs of glasses
in the sunlight for several hours.

Where does the water come from that collects in the glass
inclosing the leaf? What happens to a leaf if it is not supplied
with water?

The second pair of glasses is used as a "check" or "control"
in the experiment. Why is it advisable to have a check in experi-
mental work ?

That a plant gives off water can be shown also in the manner
indicated in Figures 26 and 27. When the experiment is carried
out as suggested in Figure 26, the twig is left attached to the tree.
When done as indicated in Figure 27, the leaves should be placed
in the sun.

Transpiration may be demonstrated also by turning a large glass
vessel over a potted plant, after the pot has been wrapped in sheet

How Plants Live 35

rubber or oilcloth fitted closely about the stem to prevent evapo-
ration from the soil. The amount of water evaporated by a
potted plant in a day can be determined by wrapping the pot as
described above, weighing the pot and plant, and re weighing at
the end of 24 hours.

3. To show that plants respire. Soak 50 seeds of the garden
pea in water for 24 hours. Then place them in a drinking glass
with strips of wet blotting paper intermingled. As soon as the
roots protrude, the young plants are ready for use. Secure two
wide-mouth bottles of one-half-pint size with corks to fit tightly,
and two small vials or wide-mouth bottles that can be placed within
the larger bottles. Buy some limewater or make it. 1 Place 25
germinating seeds in one bottle, together with wet pieces of
blotting paper; then place an open vial or small bottle nearly
filled with limewater among the seeds. Cork securely. Prepare
the other bottle in the same way but omit the seeds ; this is the
"check" by which we can measure the action in the first bottle.
Place the two bottles side by side in a warm room.

Observe frequently for a period of 48 hours. Note that the
surface of the limewater in the vial containing the seeds becomes
coated with a white layer, and that this does not appear in the
other vial. This white material is lime carbonate, formed by
the chemical union of lime dissolved in the water and carbon
dioxid in the air of the larger bottle. Where does the carbon
dioxid come from? Why is it that no carbonate forms on the
limewater in the check bottle ?

Now remove the cork from the bottle with the seeds and insert
the burning end of a splinter of wood. Why does the flame
immediately go out ? Test the air in the other bottle in the same
way. Why does the flame continue to burn? What do the
growing pea plants remove from the air, and what do they give
off into the air?

1 Crush a large lump of unslaked lime. Pour enough of this pul-
verized lime into a bottle to fill it about one-third full. Then add
twice as much water as lime. Cork the bottle and shake vigorously.
Set aside for 24 hours ; then pour off the clear water, being careful not
to disturb the lime at the bottom. Filter this water through a fine
cloth or filter paper, and keep it in a tightly corked bottle.

CHAPTER FOUR

HOW PLANTS GROW

The wonder of growth ! There is more mystery in the
way one bean vine climbs its pole than in all the detective
stories ever printed.

NEVIN WOODSIDE

WITHIN a seed is a little plantlet. When the seed
germinates, this tiny plant breaks out of its case, sends
its root down into the earth, and pushes its stem and
leaves up to the air. Day by day it becomes larger, its
stem gets longer and thicker, new leaves appear, and
finally flowers and fruits are produced.

Or a bud on the tuber of a plant like the Irish potato
or Jerusalem artichoke, or on the root of a sweet potato
may produce a new plant. At first the bud is very
small, but it increases in size until a full-grown plant
is formed.

What happens inside a plant when it grows? How

FIG. 28. "Tall oaks from little acorns grow." Other plants also have small
beginnings, all our garden plants coming from either tiny plantlets in seeds or
from buds on stems and roots. The illustration shows early stages in the growth
of the pea, Irish potato, and sweet potato.

How Plants Grow

are the new parts formed? Where in a plant is
growth most actively going on? To answer these ques-

FIG. 20. Diagrammatic representation of a group of plant cells. Above is
a cell with the wall cut and a part of it lifted to show the contents. Below are
cells cut crosswise and lengthwise. All plants and animals are built up of these
cell units ; but, of course, many kinds of cells are very different from the box-
like structures here shown.

tions it is necessary to explain the structure of a plant.
The cells of a plant. If a thin section or piece of a
plant is examined under a microscope, it is seen to be
made of tiny units that are called cells. Each cell, like
a loaf of bread, has length, breadth, and thickness. The
outer part of the cell is a wall, and if the cell is living,
within the wall is a soft, living material that appears
somewhat like white of egg. In a full-grown plant cell
the most active part of its substance is found chiefly
in a layer just within and completely lining the wall,
in strands of this material that extend from the lining
layer to a rounded body called the nucleus, and in the

38 Gardening

nucleus itself. Within the living cell there is much
watery material known as the cell sap.

FIG. 30. Part of a section cut lengthwise through the tip of an onion root, as
seen through a microscope. The entire root tip is composed of cells which are
shown in different stages of division in the lettered series. It is through the
multiplication of the cells and the increase in size of the older ones that growth
takes place.

All the parts of a plant are composed of cells. The
roots, stems, and leaves are each built up of a multi-

How Plants Grow 39

tudc of these little units. The food is made within
the cells, and oxygen is used within the cells. It is the
cells that need water, and it is the cells that are alive and
grow.

How a plant grows. Plants grow in two ways : the
cells multiply, and they increase in size.

When a cell divides, the nucleus first separates into
two parts. Then a wall or partition grows across the cell.
Thus two cells are formed where there was but one
before. In the tips of growing stems and roots, where the
growth is active, the cells are dividing very rapidly,
and this multiplication of cells causes growth in these
parts.

In older parts of the plant, growth is largely due to
the increase in the size of the cells. This enlargement of
the cells is caused chiefly by the taking in of water,
which collects within the cell. After a warm rain in
early summer, the young corn plants take in water and
the cells expand so rapidly that sometimes the amount of
growth in a single night is noticeable. In the older re-
gions of the root or stem a cell often has a volume one
thousand times as great as the volume of one of the young
.cells in the growing tips. As the cell enlarges, its wall
stretches, and new materials are formed in it, so it in-
creases in size with the rest of the cell.

How new parts are formed. If we could see the plant
at the very beginning of its life, we would find that it
consists of. just one cell within the young seed. This cell
divides and multiplies and soon develops into the embryo
or tiny plantlet which we find within a seed. The root
which pushes out when the seed germinates is formed

4O Gardening

by a group of cells multiplying and enlarging very
rapidly. Other cells build the stem in the same way. A
branch of the stem or root is formed by a number of
cells multiplying and growing out to make the branch;
leaves, flowers, and all other parts arise from groups of
cells that divide rapidly and push out beyond the cells
about them. In this way new parts are formed. They
are built from parts that already exist by the multipli-
cation and enlargement of groups of cells.

Regions of growth in a plant. Growth causes stems
and roots to increase in thickness, and there is very rapid
growth in the ends of branches which causes them to
increase in length. Young leaves and other parts that
are just being formed are also places where rapid growth
is taking place.

Stages in the life of a plant. A garden plant like a
radish, a carrot, or a bean does not continue to grow
indefinitely. It goes through the stages of its develop-
ment, completes its life, and then dies. From the point
of view of the gardener the life of a garden plant like a
carrot consists of (i) a seed stage, (2) a nursling stage,
(3) a building stage or stage of rapid growth, and (4) a
stage of storing food and maturing seed.

In the seed stage the little plant is almost completely
inactive or dormant. We say it is in the " resting con-
dition." It respires very slightly. It does not grow.

In the nursling stage the plant begins to grow. At
first it lives entirely on the food stored in the seed. But
in small seeds like that of the carrot the supply of food is
scant and the little plant must soon depend on the food
it manufactures for itself. In the nursling stage a seed-

FIG. 31. Three stages in the life of the carrot. On the left is the nursling
stage, in the center the building stage, and on the right the stage when the seeds
are matured. In the nursling stage the plant requires especial care.

42 Gardening

ling is tender, its roots are few and near the surface of
the soil, and it is easily killed by heat, cold, drought,
or other unfavorable conditions. At this time, therefore,
it needs favorable conditions, and the gardener must
provide these as fully as possible. His methods of
growing seedlings, and of transplanting for certain
crops (which will be discussed later), aim to nurse the
plantlets carefully during the critical seedling stage of
their lives.

In the growing or building stage the plant manufac-
tures its own food from the raw food materials gathered
from the soil and air. It now builds up the food which
it makes into living matter and thus grows rapidly.
The gardener is concerned with providing for his plants
at this time an abundant and continuous supply of water
and of the minerals that they draw from the soil, so that
the cells will have an abundance of food for growth and
the plants will reach their full size.

In the fourth stage, growth becomes slower and food is
stored away for the future use of the plant itself or for its off-
spring. In the radish it is stored in the root and used
later in the same season for producing the rapid growth
of the flowering stem and for the development of seeds.
In the carrot, beet, and parsnip the food is stored in the
roots until the following season, when the flowering
stem and seeds are developed. In the potato, food for
the young plantlets that arise from the buds is stored
in the tuber, and in the sweet potato in the fleshy roots.
In the onion stores of food are found in the leaves that
form the bulb, and in lettuce and cabbage in the clus-
ters of leaves that make up the heads. In some plants,

How Plants Grow

FIG. 32. When a garden flourishes like this one, we know that the gardener
has supplied the needs of his plants before they began to suffer.

like the squash, the food is found in the fruit ; in peas,
beans, and corn most of the food is stored in the
seeds.

Importance of continuous care of plants. The growth
and storage of food by a plant in its later life is but the
accumulated result of the conditions under which it lived
in its earlier life. Much depends on giving the young
seedlings a good start, when they are, so to speak, getting
ready to grow up. In this stage they are establishing
the root system that must be developed before the top
can be enlarged, and if the young plants become stunted
and dwarfed it is difficult to get them to start rapid
growth again. Every care also should be taken to keep
plants growing continuously during the stage of most

44 Gardening

rapid development, for unfavorable conditions often
force them to flower and fruit before they reach full
size.

The good gardener knows that injury once done to his
crops can seldom be repaired by any amount of later care ;
so he supplies the needs of his plants before they suffer.
He prepares the ground properly and plants his seed
carefully, so that the seeds may germinate and start
vigorous growth at once. He cultivates the young
seedlings before the soil becomes compact and weeds
appear, so that they may come to the period of rapid
growth quickly and in good condition. When rainfall
is scant, he waters his garden before the soil becomes dry.
He thins his seedlings before they crowd each other, and
he pulls weeds before they overshadow and damage his
plants.

All this he does because by experience he has learned
that the growth his plants make and the amount and
quality of food that they yield depend on the care they
receive from day to day.

Questions

Describe a plant cell. In what two ways do plants grow?
Explain how new parts are formed. In what parts of a plant
is growth most rapid? What are the four stages in the life of
garden plants? How does the storage stage of the carrot differ
from that of the tomato? Compare the fruiting stages of these
two plants.

Why do plants need special care during the seedling stage?
Why should the gardener try to supply the needs of his plants
before they begin to suffer ? Name some of the things a gardener
does to make conditions favorable for his plants.

How Plants Grow 45

Things to Do and Observe

1. To study the structure of a stem. Examine with the aid
of a hand lens a freshly cut cross-section of a tree at least 6 inches
in diameter. Note the pith in the center. It is composed of
thin-walled empty cells. In some woods like the oak, ash, or
hickory the openings made by cutting across the larger wood cells
may be seen. Between the outer edge of the wood and the
inner bark is a zone of living cells. These are smaller than the
older woody cells, their walls are thin, they are filled with living
material, and it is by the growth and division of these cells that
the tree increases in diameter.

Garden plants have fewer woody cells than a tree or shrub, but
their general structure is the same. Examine the stem of a cab-
bage, noting the pith and the ring of wood.

2. To examine living cells. If a low-power microscope is
available, the teacher or pupil may strip off the outer layer of
cells from one of the inner leaves of a fresh onion bulb, or make
thin cross-sections of fleshy leaves and stems of plants (for example,
cabbage) and mount them for examination. The leaves of
many mosses consist of a single layer of cells, and these may be
seen by examining the entire leaf with a microscope or even a good
hand lens. In this way one can observe the cell walls, see that the
living cells contain much transparent material, and that in the
green cells the coloring matter is in rounded masses or bodies.
Possibly the rounded but almost colorless body called the nucleus,
shown in Figures 29 and 30, may also be seen. A little
iodine run under the cover glass will stain the cell contents
and often make the nucleus visible.

3. To observe the region of most active growth. With India ink,
mark off into half-inch spaces a foot of the end of a growing vine.
Then in a day or two note how much each space elongates. In
this way you can easily determine the region of most active growth
in the stem.

CHAPTER FIVE

THE FOOD OF PLANTS

There's magic done in plants.
O'er simple elements of earth and air,
A sun-beam wand is passed
And food is there !

NEVIN WOODSIDE

WE live and grow on the food we eat, but a corn
plant lives and grows without eating. It sends its roots
out into the soil, spreads its leaves to the light and air,
and week by week increases in size. Finally the ear ap-
pears with the kernels swollen with a rich store of food.
The plant has lived, reached its full size, and at the end
of life has a surplus of food on hand.

In our garden and field crops we find sugar, starch, oils,
and the other foods that we live on, and these are not in
the soil or air. Where do plants get them? What do
plants use for food? Only in comparatively recent years
have scientists been able to answer these questions.

The food of plants. In your study of physiology
you learn that man and the lower animals use for food
proteins, fats, and starch and sugar. Plants use these
same foods. 1 The difference between the nourishment
of a green plant and the nourishment of an animal is
that the green plant makes its own foods from water, carbon
dioxid, and minerals, while an animal cannot do this
but must have its food already prepared for it.

1 Sometimes carbon dioxid, water, and the various minerals used by
a plant are called "plant foods." Sometimes these are called the "raw
materials used in the making of food," or simply "food materials," and
the term "food" is used to mean the sugars, starches, fats, and proteins
that are built up from these substances. In this text the word is used
(as it is in animal physiology) to mean the complex, built-up substances
actually used in the nourishment and growth of the living matter of the
cells.

The Food of Plants

The green plants can,
therefore, build their
sugar, fats, and proteins
from substances which
they take from the soil
and air. They can build
vitamins also, which it is
believed an animal can-
not do. So the green
plants build out of sim-
ple materials all the
complex foods used by
the living matter of both
plant and animal cells. 1
Plants can live without
animals, but every ani-
mal is dependent on
plants for the food that
keeps it alive.

The manufacture of
sugar. The first com-

FiG. 33. Without eating, the corn plant
has lived, reached its full size, and at the

plete step in the manu- end of its life has a sur P lus of food which

it has stored in the ear.

facture of food by the

plant is the making of sugar. When light falls on
the chlorophyll, carbon dioxid and water are combined
within the cells to make sugar. This process is called
photosynthesis (Greek, photos, meaning light, and syn-
thesis, meaning a putting together). Photosynthesis

1 Plants also build wood, cork, gums, waxes, and all the various other
substances (excepting minerals) found in them.

Gardening

-*? <---''$ -Upper epidermis

.
duchng tissue i

Bundle sheath^

Bundle sheath^ Guard cell

Lower
epidermis

FIG. 34. Section of a leaf, very highly magnified.

goes on in all green parts of the plant, but takes place
especially in the leaves.

Leaves as sugar-making organs. As the term photo-
synthesis indicates, the energy used in building up sugar
is furnished by the light. Without light, plants cannot
do this work ; and when we examine a plant, we note at
once that the broad, thin blades of the leaves and the
way they are arranged on the plant enables them to
catch large amounts of light. This makes it possible
for the manufacture of sugar to be carried on rapidly by
the plant.

But it is only when we examine the internal structure
of a leaf that we understand how well fitted it is for

The Food of Plants 49

carrying on its work. The sugar is made in the cells
within the leaf. Most of these are loosely arranged ;
they touch each other on some sides so that there are
air spaces between them. Thus part of each cell lies
against other cells, and part is exposed to the air within
the leaf.

On the outside of a leaf there is a very thin covering
called the epidermis. This is composed of a layer of thin,
flat cells closely joined together. The outside walls of
these cells are thickened and usually covered with a
wax-like material which does not allow water and air to
pass readily through it. This covering protects the softer
and more tender cells within. But on the lower side of
the leaf of a garden plant (and in some plants on the
upper side of leaves also) the epidermis has many tiny
openings through which air and water vapor can pass.

Thus the inner portion of the leaf is in communica-
tion with the outside air through the openings in the
epidermis. The oxygen that the cells need for respira-
tion and the carbon dioxid needed for food-making
enter the leaf through the little openings in the epidermis,
and the excess of water brought up from the roots passes
out into the air as vapor. The veins of the leaf are com-
posed of vessels which connect with those in the stem.
They bring the water and dissolved minerals from the
roots to the leaf and carry away to other parts of the
plant food that the leaves have made.

How starch is made. Starch is only a changed form
of sugar, a form that does not dissolve in water and is
suitable for storage within the plant. In nearly all
garden plants the sugar is changed to starch before it

50 Gardening

becomes very abundant in the cells. Some of it is stored
as starch within the leaf. But the sugar is also con-
ducted to other parts of the plant to be used by them
immediately for food or for storage. The tuber of the
potato is an enlarged part of the stem where large
amounts of starch are stored. The starch that has been
stored in a plant can be again changed to sugar and
transported to the parts where active growth is taking
place or where seeds are being formed.

But while most plants change their sugar to starch for
storage, a few plants do not do this at least not until
the sugar has become very abundant in them. From
two plants, sugar cane and the sugar beet, the world's
supply of sugar is obtained. Onions and sweet corn
are rich in sugar, and wrinkled peas contain more sugar
than smooth peas.

The manufacture of fats and proteins. From sugar,
plants make oils, in which form many plants store a
part of their food. From the olive, coconut, flaxseed,
cotton seed, peanut, corn, and castor bean, oils are ob-
tained which are used for many purposes by man.

The fats are present in larger or smaller amounts in
all living plant cells. They are for the most part formed
in the cells where they are found, and are not to any great
extent transported from one part of the plant to another.
They contain the same chemical elements as sugar and
are believed to be formed from sugar.

Proteins are made by combining chemically nitrogen,
sulfur, and sometimes phosphorus with the elements of
the sugar. Minerals supplying these are obtained from
the soil. Without an abundant supply of the minerals

The Food of Plants

that are needed for
building proteins, rapid
growth in a plant is not
possible.

The proteins can be
made in any living part
of the plant ; but the
materials of which they
are built are most abun-
dant in the leaves, and
they are manufactured
in larger amounts in the
leaves than in other
parts. From the leaves
they may be carried to
other parts of the plants
for storage or for the
immediate use of the
cells in those parts.

Materials necessary
for life and manufacture
of food in green plants.
Ten chemical elements are necessary for the life and
growth of a green plant. 1 Of these elements, oxygen,
carbon, and hydrogen are used in largest amounts.

The oxygen used in respiration is secured chiefly from
the air; that used for building purposes comes from
water and carbon dioxid. The carbon is obtained in
the carbon dioxid taken in from the air. The hydro-

FIG. 35. The gardeners are appropriating
the food that the plants have made for
themselves.

1 These ten elements are carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, sulfur,
ohosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, and iron.

52 Gardening

gen comes from the water which the roots absorb from
the soil. The other seven elements are secured by the
plant from various mineral compounds which it takes
from the soil.

The minerals most often lacking in the soil are those
that furnish nitrogen, potassium, sulfur, and phosphorus.
These are often supplied in manures or other fertilizers
(page 66). When the gardener enriches the soil, he is
providing raw materials needed in some of the many
building operations going on in the plant.

Garden plants are builders and storers of food. A
weed, as a rule, uses its food for growth as fast as it makes
it, and in its small seeds it leaves no considerable store of
food that can be used by man. But a radish, cabbage, or
bean plant makes food faster than it uses it and collects
a surplus either for its own future use or for the use of
its offspring. These stores of food we take for ourselves,
and we have selected for cultivation in our gardens the
plants that will lay up for us food in largest amounts.

The successful gardener gives his plants favorable con-
ditions for food manufacture and provides them with
abundant supplies of the raw materials tkat they must
have for the work.

Questions

How does a green plant get its food? What classes of foods
do plants build ? What raw materials are used in making them ?
Why cannot animals live without plants ?

What is photosynthesis? In what part of the plant does
photosynthesis go on ? When does it go on ? Describe the struc-
ture of a leaf. What is the function of the epidermis? How
do gases enter and leave the leaf? How do water and minerals
get into the leaf ?

The Food of Plants 53

How is the surplus sugar that is made by most plants stored?
Can it be moved from one part of the plant to another? From
what do plants make fats? Name some plants from which fats
are obtained. From What are proteins manufactured? Where
in the plant are fats and proteins manufactured?

What minerals needed by plants are most often lacking in the
soil ? How does the gardener supply these to his plants ? Name
one difference between garden plants and weeds.

Things to Do and Observe

1. To examine the structure of leaves. Peel off strips of both the
upper and lower epidermis of leaves and examine them under the
low power of the microscope. The colorless epidermal cells and
the "stomata" surrounded by the green " guard cells" can be
seen. Make thin cross-sections of leaves (most easily made from
such fleshy leaves as the cabbage) and examine them. Perma-
nently prepared sections may be bought from botanical supply
houses.

2. To show that starch is formed only in the green parts of a leaf.
Expose a plant having white-margined leaves (variegated geranium
is excellent) to sunlight for several hours. Then remove a leaf
and make a tracing of it, showing the green and the white areas.
Place the leaf in a dish with enough alcohol to cover it. Heat
gently on a stove or over an alcohol lamp or gas flame, taking care
not to boil the alcohol so strongly that it will catch fire. The
green coloring matter is thus removed and the entire leaf becomes
almost colorless.

Obtain some iodine solution from a drug store. Add a little
of this to thin starch paste and note the blue color of the starch.
This is the iodine test for starch. Dip the decolorized leaf in
water to which iodine has been added. The part of the leaf that
contains starch will turn dark in color. Is starch found in the
green or in the white area?

Test cut surfaces of a potato, turnip, radish, bean seed, or other
vegetables for starch. Do not use too much of the iodine, or the
blue of the starch may be somewhat hidden by the brown color of
the excess iodine.

3. To show that sunlight is necessary for the accumulation of
starch in green leaves. Expose a potted plant (for example, a

54 Gardening

geranium) to sunlight during the day, remove a leaf (a), attach
a label with string, and immediately place it in a bottle of alcohol.
Place the plant in complete darkness for 24 hours. Then remove
another leaf (b), attach a label, and place in the alcohol. Now,
cut smoothly two disks from a cork stopper and carefully pin
these on opposite sides of a leaf (c) so that they fit snugly and
exclude the sunlight from the covered area. Expose the plant to
direct sunlight for several hours. Remove leaf c and also another
leaf (d) that has been left untouched. Test all four leaves with
iodine for starch.

Is starch present in a ? Was starch present in the leaves when
the plant was placed in darkness ? What became of the starch
formerly in the leaves during the time the plant was in darkness ?
Was starch formed in c and d? Was it formed in the shaded
area of c? What does each leaf show concerning the influence
of light upon the accumulation of starch in green parts of a plant ?

The above experiments can be worked with plants outdoors
by selecting b very early in the morning and the other leaves after
they have been exposed to sunshine.

CHAPTER SIX

THE SOIL OF THE GARDEN

Every clod feels a stir of might,
An instinct that reaches and towers,
And, groping blindly above it for light,
Climbs to a soul in grass and flowers.

JAMES RUSSELL LOWELL

THE roots of garden plants live in the soil. The
fineness or coarseness of the soil, its looseness or compact-
ness, its temperature, the food materials and the water
present all these influence the life and activity of the
roots. Sometimes, an excess of substances like acids
or alkalies is present ; and the activities of animals
and plants which live within the soil may benefit or harm
the plant. The gardener can, in a large degree, control
the conditions of the soil, and much of his success de-
pends on his making them suitable to the needs of the
plants that he grows.

In all his efforts to handle and improve the soil
for the growing of his crops, the gardener needs to have
in mind three points relating to the condition of the
soil:

(1) The size and arrangement of soil particles, which
we may refer to as the soil's physical condition.

(2) The richness in the various food materials which
plants obtain from it.

(3) The amount and kind of water present in the
soil and the soil's ability to hold water and supply it to
the plant. 1

While these conditions are closely interrelated, they
may be considered quite separately.

56 Gardening

THE PHYSICAL CONDITION OF SOIL

How soils are formed. Soils are formed from the
rock of the earth's crust mixed with the decayed remains
of plants and animals. Through the action of air,
water, and changes in temperature, the surface rock
in the course of time crumbles into particles which form
the rocky or mineral parts of the soil. Therefore soil
may be said to be composed largely of rocks that have
fallen into pieces. With a hammer one may pound
rock into powder, thus reducing it to small particles
like those which make up the soil.

The organic substances in the soil are formed by decay
of plants and animals that die and fall to the ground.
Organic matter that is well decayed so that it is black
in color and in fine particles is called humus. The dif-
ferences in soils are due both to the different kinds of
rocks from which they were formed and to the amount
of organic matter in them.

The breaking up of solid rock and of plant and animal
remains into fine particles meets the first need of living
plants, for it gives them a place to grow. It allows the
roots to find their way in among the soil particles, thus
making it possible for them to anchor the plant and to
secure a supply of water and raw food materials.

Size of soil particles. The size of the rock particles
in the soil may range from large bowlders to minute frag-
ments of dust. The number of individual particles
in a spoonful of ordinary garden soil is so great as to be
almost inconceivable. It is estimated that in an ounce
of coarse sand there are about one hundred billion

The Soil of the Garden

International Harvester Co.

FIG. 36. Soil that was not cultivated at the proper time and consequently be-
came "baked" by the hot sun. The good gardener never allows his soil to get
into this condition.

particles. In an ounce of the finest clay there are more
than five times as many.

The size of the particles of organic matter in soil
varies with the stage of decay. Leaf mold (formed from
decaying leaves) and peat (accumulations of plant re-
mains, usually in swamps where decay is very slow)
contain many somewhat coarse fragments of leaves and
twigs. Well-decayed humus is exceedingly fine, and it
dissolves or becomes somewhat jelly-like when soaked in
water.

Soil particles are usually grouped together. If they
are separate and free to move about one another, the
soil is loose. But it is seldom, except in the coarsest
sand, that the individual particles are entirely separate.
In most soils they stick together in groups, forming
granules of various sizes. When the granules are large^

58 Gardening

the soil is coarse grained and not in good physical condi-
tion for the growth of plants. When the granules are of
rather small size, the soil has a crumb structure favorable
to the growth of roots.

Soils like sand, that are composed chiefly of coarse
particles, are loose. Soils like clay, that are made up
chiefly of fine particles, often become hard and compact.

Importance of physical condition of the soil. In a
loose soil the roots easily make their way, and the root

FIGS. 37 and 38. Spading by the trench method. The gardener scrapes the
manure from the unspaded ground into the trench. Then he turns another
strip, throwing it forward, and thus completely covers the manure to a depth of
several inches. Weeds and grass may be covered in the same way.

The Soil of the Garden 59

hairs are able to push in among the soil granules and
particles. But a hard, compact soil may be as difficult
for the tiny roots to penetrate as solid rock. In such a
compact soil, moreover, there are no spaces (or only small
places) between the soil particles for air, and air is neces-
sary for the roots as well as for the other parts of the
plant (pages 32 and 51).

Land that has not been in cultivation recently is often
hard and compact. This is especially true of the soils
of backyard plots, vacant lots that have been much
trampled over, and areas that have been poorly drained.
The particles are pressed together, and the air spaces are
squeezed out. No gardener would think of planting
seed in such a soil without first preparing it by tillage.

But even a well- tilled soil tends to become compact
from one season to another. It is constantly settling
and becoming more solid. If one tramples much about
the garden, the soil will become more compact, as may
readily be noted from the condition in the paths.

Keeping the soil in good condition. Plowing and spad-
ing are the chief means of getting and keeping the soil in
good condition. When possible, large gardens should be
plowed, but most smaller gardens must be spaded. The
best tool for this work is a four-tined spading fork.

In spading, most good gardeners follow the trench or
furrow method. The soil is dug to a depth of at least
6 inches, turned over, and thrown forward, leaving a
trench into which the next strip of soil is thrown.
Manure, sods, leaves, and other coarse vegetable mate-
rials can be placed in the trench and well covered with
earth; but it is best to spade the coarser materials

60 Gardening

under only in autumn. Special pains should be taken
to pulverize thoroughly all the soil to the depth spaded.
If it turns over in large lumps, these should be broken
up by hammer-like blows of the fork or with the rake.
It pays to do this work well.

Plowing or spading in autumn, as well as in spring,
is advisable for all soils that tend to be compact or to be
lumpy. The soil is left in the rough, with no attempt to
take or level it down to a smooth surface. The action
of the frost on the exposed lumps gives a finer crumb
structure.

The gardener can also improve the physical condition
of soils by the addition of certain materials. Heavy
clay soils are benefited by addition of coarse vegetable
matter, as poorly rotted manure, leaves, and grass clip-
pings. It is well to add these in autumn so that the till-
age in the following spring will mix them well with the
soil. The addition of sand or lime will also make com-
pact and lumpy soils more finely granular. Sandy
soils tend to be so loose that they dry out too readily ;
this condition is improved by the addition of well-rotted
humus and manure.

Careful treatment required for clay soil. Clay soils
tend to become compact and to break up into coarse
granules or clods when tilled. If such a soil is too dry
when spaded, it is lumpy. If it is too wet, it will be
made lumpy. No soil should be spaded except when it is
dry enough to crumble readily when rolled in the hands.
An easy way to test this is to squeeze a small handful of
the soil into the form of a ball, quite as one makes a
snowball (Fig. 39). If it sticks together in a ball and

The Soil of the Garden

FIG. 39. The clay soil is easily made into a ball, while the loam falls apart.
This shows that the loam is in good condition for working, and that the clay is
too wet.

leaves the imprint of the hand upon it, then it is too wet
for working. But if, on being released, it crumbles
and falls apart, it is in suitable condition for working.
By spading at the right time and in the right manner
the physical condition of clay soils can be much improved.

The best garden soil. The best soil for the garden
from the standpoint of its physical condition is a mixture
of (i) the remains of plants (humus), (2) sand of various
sizes, and (3) silt or clay, with no one of these in excess.

Such soil is called loam. It tends to remain year
after year with the particles arranged loosely in fine
granules. It is easily kept in this condition by tillage.
Its physical condition enables the fine fibrous roots of
plants to penetrate it easily. But repeated tillage, the
addition of lime if it is needed, and supplying humus in
manure and compost (page 65) will in a few years
do much to improve the physical condition of any
soil.

62 Gardening

FIG. 40. Spreading manure over the garden. The coarse lumps should be
broken up and the material spread evenly. Many gardeners prefer putting the
manure into the trench direct and spading it under, instead of scattering it over
the surface of the soil.

SOIL FERTILITY

The soil is more than a place for the roots of plants to
grow. It supplies water and raw food materials on
which the plant lives. // is itself raw food material
for plants, as plants actually take into themselves certain
compounds contained in the soil and change these mate-
rials into substances which build the plants up. A rich
soil is one that supplies in large amounts the materials
that the plant needs. Of these, aside from water, the
ones that are most often lacking in sufficient amounts
are nitrogen, potassium, phosphorus, and lime.

The food materials are constantly being removed
from a cultivated soil in the crops harvested, and are
also being lost in the drainage water. Therefore it is
often necessary to furnish new supplies of these materials
to keep a soil from becoming poorer and less productive.
They may be added to the soil as manures, compost,

The Soil of the Garden 63

or commercial fertilizers ; and it is often advisable that
these should be liberally supplied.

Manures. The best fertilizers for gardens are manures.
A ton of the usual quality of stable manure that has not
been exposed to the weather contains 8.3 pounds of po-
tassium (or 10 pounds of potash), 10 pounds of nitrogen,
and 3 pounds of phosphorus (or 5 pounds of phosphoric
acid), which have a combined value of about $3.00.
Besides supplying these foods, manure improves the
physical condition of soil by the humus which it contains.
A ton of manure will cover about 4 square rods of area.
As stable manure is deficient in phosphorus, it is advis-
able to add about 2- pounds of acid phosphate to this area.

Coarse manure may be applied in autumn and plowed
or spaded under, but there will be some loss of its sub-
stances in the soil water. Well-rotted manures and rich,
readily soluble manures, like poultry manure, should be
supplied at the time of spading in spring. These may
be plowed or spaded in, or a part may be spread on the
surface after the spading is done, and raked into the up-
permost layers of the soil.

Poultry manure can often be secured by the gardener.
It is the richest in nitrogen of all farm manures ; but
this nitrogen is easily lost by decomposition, particularly
during warm weather, or if the manure is subject to
leaching. To conserve its materials and use them to
the best advantage, the following rules should be ob-
served :

The poultry manure should be dried quickly and
kept so until used. Wood ashes should never be mixed
with manures, and especially with poultry manure, as they

6 4

Gardening

cause chemical changes
which lead to the loss of
nitrogen. This will also
occur if lime is used to
" sweeten " the drop-
ping boards under the
roost. Dry dirt, sand,
peat, land plaster, or
sifted coal ashes should
be used instead. These
absorb liquids and help
to dry the manure.

The dropping boards
should be cleaned fre-
quently and the accumu-
lated manure spread out
in a dry place, or stored
in boxes or barrels and
kept away from rain
until the soil is plowed
or spaded in spring.

As poultry manure
is relatively much
richer in nitrogen than

in phosphorus or potash, it is good practice to add
to every 10 pounds of the fresh manure 4 pounds of acid
phosphate and 2 pounds of kainite (a mineral con-
taining about 12 per cent potash) together with coal
ashes, dry muck, or other absorbents. These may be
spread on the dropping boards, and the resulting mixture
stored dry until used.

FIG. 41. Refuse from the garden should
be made into compost to enrich the soil.
In the photograph above, which was taken
in the autumn, lime is being spread over
the garden to kill insects and to " sweeten "
the soil for the next season.

The Soil of the Garden

Poultry manure is so
rich that it ivill injure
plants if applied thickly.
The hard, rounded balls
should be broken up
and pulverized. This
may be done by spread-
ing out the dry mixed,
product on a board
platform or a walk and
breaking up the lumps
with strokes of the back
of a spade. As a rule
the manure should be
spaded into the soil just
before planting of seed.

Compost. Well-rotted
vegetable matter is
called compost. It may
be made from manure
which is placed in flat-
topped piles so as to
absorb much rainfall
and hasten rotting. If

FIG. 42. A Long Island picture showing
how the soil is "trenched" and humus
added. Two" trenches are dug about 3
feet apart and then filled with manure and
soil in alternate layers. Then another set
of two trenches is dug, the first one be-
tween the two shown in the picture, and
the second just beyond the last trench
filled. This process is repeated until the
necessary, Water Can be whole garden has been covered. The soil
j j i 4. 1 4.1, is improved in three ways by this method :

added to keep the mass first> humus is added . second) the soil from

moist If it is fre- below is brought to the surface ; and third,

the soil is made deeper, giving the roots

quently forked over and more space for growth.

kept moist, it will rot

rapidly without " burning." Layers of sod, dry soil, or

peat may be added to absorb the liquid materials.

66 Gardening

Compost may be made also from the vegetable wastes
of the kitchen that decay readily, from weeds, grass
clippings from the lawn, leaves in autumn, and other
vegetable matter of any kind. These should all be
saved and composted either with manure or separately.
Good compost is very valuable in forcing and growing
transplanted seedlings in flats in greenhouses, hotbeds,
and cold frames, as well as for enriching the soil of the
garden. 1 Every garden should have a compost pile.
Care should be taken not to add to compost diseased or
insect-infested plants, for this may facilitate the spread
of fungous diseases or insect pests.

Commercial fertilizers. A commercial fertilizer fur-
nishes for the use o^plants nitrogen, phosphorus, and
potassium. Nitrogen is usually obtained in sodium
nitrate, ammonium sulfate, and in " tankage " (the
refuse of slaughterhouses). Phosphorus is usually ob-
tained from tankage and from acid phosphate, which
is made by treating rock containing phosphates with
sulfuric acid. Potassium is obtained mostly from potas-
sium sulfate and potassium chlorid, both of which are
mined from the earth.

A fertilizer that supplies all of the three elements,
nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, is called a " com-
plete " or " general " fertilizer ; one that supplies only
one or two of these is called an " incomplete " or " spe-
cial " fertilizer.

A good general fertilizer for garden crops should
contain in a form that plants can use, by guaranteed

1 Compost should not be used for seed beds or in seed pans, as it is
too rich for young seedlings.

The Soil of the Garden 67

analysis, about 4 per cent nitrogen, 8 per cent phos-
phoric acid, and 10 per cent potash. Such a fertilizer
may be applied at the rate of about 3 to 5 pounds to
every 100 square feet of area.

The following mixture, in accbrdance with the propor-
tions just given, has been recommended 1 as best for
general garden crops :

Sodium nitrate 125 lb., yielding 20 Ib. nitrogen

Ammonium sulfate .... 100 lb., yielding 20 lb. nitrogen

Tankage 600 lb., yielding 40 lb. nitrogen and

54 lb. phosphoric acid

Acid phosphate 775 lb., yielding 109 lb. phosphoric acid

Potassium sulfate or potas-
sium chlorid 400 lb., yielding 200 lb. potash

2000 lb. (total weight)

This mixture is used at the rate of about 1000 pounds
to an acre, or about i\ pounds to 100 square feet of
area ; but on small home gardens as many as 5 pounds
to 100 square feet of area may profitably be used.

Such a fertilizer may be bought with the different
substances mixed together, or the gardener may buy
the materials separately and mix them for himself.
One pound of sodium nitrate, i pound of potassium
sulfate, and 3 pounds of acid phosphate, mixed thor-
oughly, will make up an amount sufficient for use on an
area of 100 square feet. By cooperative buying the
members of a garden class or club can often save money
on the fertilizer that they use.

Many soils are deficient in phosphorus. As manure
is also deficient in this element, acid phosphate should

1 Van Slyke, Fertilizers and Crops.

68 Gardening

be added when manure is used on such a soil. Wood
ashes are rich in potassium, and whenever they are
available they may be applied directly to the soil at the
rate of 10 pounds to every 100 square feet. They should
be previously stored in such a manner that leaching is
prevented.

Soils vary greatly in character, even in different parts
of the same garden. It is often advisable to obtain from
the state experiment station or from the county agri-
cultural supervisor special information regarding the
particular needs of a soil, especially if one must depend
upon commercial fertilizers.

Lime for acid soils. Most garden crops will not grow
well in an acid soil. In humid regions, especially, soils
tend to become acid. Lime and other substances that
keep the soil " sweet " are lost in the drainage water,
and the addition of humus and the decay of vegetable
matter also increase soil acidity.

The acids in the soil can be changed by the use of
lime. Finely pulverized limestone or air-slaked or
water-slaked (hydrated) lime are best for sweetening
soils. Never use quicklime unless it has been slaked,
as it is strongly caustic and will " burn up " the humus
in the soil. Do not spread lime in the row at the time
seed is sown, as excess of lime in contact with roots is
injurious.

Water-slaked or hydrated lime is widely used in making
plaster mortar and can usually be bought in small quan-
tities. From 5 to 10 pounds of ground limestone, or half
as much of hydrated lime, may be spread on an area of
100 square feet. Clay soils require more lime than

The Soil of the Garden

FIG. 43. Lime should be applied when no wind is blowing. Even a miid
breeze will carry much of the lime away and prevent an even distribution over
the surface.

sandy soils. Lime should not be plowed or spaded under,
either in autumn or in spring, but should be scattered
over the surface and thoroughly raked in shortly be-
fore planting. One application every three years should
be sufficient.

Other benefits of lime. Small amounts of the prin-
cipal elements in lime (calcium and magnesium) are used
by plants in building up their bodies, and these elements
combine with decayed organic material to form nitrates,
which the plants take in and use as the source of their
nitrogen. Lime in soils also leads to chemical changes
which make it easier for plants to secure the potassium
and phosphorus in rock particles. Lime improves the
physical condition of the heavy clay soils by making

Gardening

them finely granular.
It tends to break up
compact, coarsely lumpy
soils. Finally, lime in
soil increases the activ-
ity of certain bacteria
which cause organic
matter to decay and
break down into plant
foods.

Thus lime, both di-
rectly and indirectly,
benefits garden plants in
many ways, and its
moderate application
will improve most gar-
den soils.

A rich soil needed
for the garden. Often
the home vegetable gar-
den is small and the
main aim is to produce
as much food as possible
from it. A very fertile soil is necessary for this kind
of intensive gardening; for it is a well-known fact
that many soils that will produce fair field crops will
yield only meager crops of certain vegetables. This is
largely because most garden crops are heavy feeders,
requiring especially large amounts of nitrogen and
potassium. To yield abundantly they must grow on a
soil that supplies them plentifully with these materials.

FIG. 44. Effect of lime on the growth of
roots. These Swiss chard plants were
planted at the same time and each had
the same growing conditions, except that
lime was added to the acid soil in which
the plant at the left was grown.

The Soil of the Garden 71

The excellent qualities of garden vegetables also de-
pend upon a rapid growth that can take place only in
a rich soil. Unless thus grown, salad plants like lettuce,
Swiss chard, and celery will be of poor quality ; root
crops like radishes, turnips, and beets will be small,
woody, and of poor flavor ; and the quality of other
crops likewise will be poor.

Proper tillage, good drainage, the repeated addition of
humus, manures, and other fertilizers, and the applica-
tion of lime will in a few years improve almost any soil
until it will produce excellent vegetables in abundance.
And to have a garden that really pays, we must do
this ; for gardening is more expensive for a given area
in cost of seed and in labor than is agriculture.

Questions

How are soils formed? What is humus? About how many
particles are there in an ounce of coarse sand? in an ounce of
fine clay ? What are soil granules ? What size are the granules in
a soil that is favorable for the growth of plants ? What kind of
soil is likely to become compact?

Why is it important that a soil be loose? How may soil be
kept in good condition? What soils require most careful treat-
ment? Why? How can we determine if a soil is dry enough
for working? What is the best kind of soil for a garden? In
what sense is soil itself raw food for plants? What substances
needed by plants are most often lacking in soils?

In what ways do manures improve soils? Why must special
care be taken when poultry manure is used ? What is compost ?
How is it made?

What are commercial fertilizers ? How do they benefit crops ?
How does lime improve soils? When and how should it be
applied? Why is an especially rich soil needed in a garden?

72 Gardening

Things to Do and Observe

1. To observe how soil is made. Search inroad cuts, along river
banks, and other places where rock is exposed. Note that in
some of these places the compact rocks are crumbling into the
small particles that make soil.

2. To observe the formation of humus. Examine the surface
soil in a forest, or if this cannot be done, examine a compost heap.
Note that this soil contains parts of plants in various stages of
decay. Observe also its color and texture. What is the color of
soils that lack humus?

3. To observe soil particles and granules. Crush and examine,
first with the eye and then with a hand lens, dry, finely pulverized
samples of various soils (clay, humus, sand, and loam). In
which are the particles or granules largest ? smallest ? Compare
as to uniformity in the size of the granules.

4. To show the effect of working soils when they are too wet.
Secure some dry, finely powdered clay or soil in which clay pre-
dominates, and two large shallow dishes or pans. Place one
quart of the clay in the first dish, flood with water and stir, leaving
the clay in irregular, sticky masses.

Place the same amount of clay soil in the second dish, add the
same amount of water as was added to the first dish, but do not
stir.

Allow the soil in the two dishes to become quite dry. Note that
the soil that was stirred is in hard lumps which do not readily
break up into granules. Is the soil in the second dish more
easily cultivated?

This experiment shows how particles of clay soil may become
grouped into large lumps if worked before the excess of water
has dried out. Why is a soil of coarse lumps unsuited for plant-
ing seeds and growing crops? What should the gardener do to
such a soil?

Repeat the above experiment, using first sand and then loam.
Are these soils more easily cultivated when wet than is a clay soil ?

5. To determine when a garden soil is dry enough for cultivation.
Fill a flat two-thirds full of clay soil, another with the same amount
of sand, and a third with loam. Flood each to the top of the flat
with water. Allow the excess of water to drain off through the
cracks in the bottom of the flat. Test each soil, as described

The Soil of the Garden 73

on page 60, to determine if it is ready for tillage. Repeat the
test at intervals of a few hours. Which becomes ready for tillage
first? which last? Make similar tests in the garden before
beginning the work of spading or of surface tillage after a rain.

6. To test soils for acidity. Obtain a few strips of blue litmus
paper. Dig up some of the soil to be tested and place it in a pan.
Then insert three or four pieces of the litmus paper in the soil,
making sure that the soil particles are pressed firmly against the
paper. Examine one of the strips at intervals of several minutes,
or until one of them has turned red. The red color shows the
presence of acid. If at the end of half an hour the litmus paper
shows no change of color, the soil is free from acids.

7. To solve a few of the gardener's problems in supplying com-
mercial fertilizer to the soil. Work on the following exercises
until you are sure that you could solve similar problems in your
own garden.

A . A garden plot is 40 feet wide and 50 feet long. How many
pounds of general commercial fertilizer will the gardener need if
he desires to supply 5 pounds of the fertilizer to every 100 square
feet of the garden ?

B. If a gardener wishes to make 100 pounds of the fertilizer
mentioned on page 67 , how many pounds of each of the ingredients
should be purchased? (The quantities given on the page just
referred to will make 2000 pounds of fertilizer.) What part of
2000 is 100? Therefore, what part of the total amount of each
ingredient given for the 2000 pounds is needed for 100 pounds?

C. A gardener can obtain only (i) sodium nitrate, (2) acid
phosphate, and (3) potassium sulfate. He wishes to purchase
enough of each to make 100 pounds of a mixed fertilizer yielding
3^ per cent nitrogen, 8 per cent phosphoric acid, and 10 per cent
potash. Find the amount of each ingredient needed, as follows :

(1) There should be enough sodium nitrate in the 100 pounds
to yield 3^ pounds of nitrogen. Sodium nitrate is 15 per cent
nitrogen; one pound has rtnr pounds of nitrogen; therefore,
it will require as many pounds of sodium nitrate as rtnr is con-
tained in 3^. What is this amount ?

(2) Calculate the number of pounds of phosphoric acid required.
(Acid phosphate is about 14 per cent phosphoric acid.) How
many pounds of the acid phosphate are therefore needed to sup-
ply the amount of phosphoric acid required ?

74 Gardening

(3) A pound of potassium sulfate is 54 per cent potash. How
many pounds of potassium sulfate are needed to supply the potash
required ?

(4) Add the three amounts (or the amounts nearest the next
even number for any that are not even). If the total is less than
100 pounds, the difference indicates the amount of dry sand or
earth that is to be included in the mixture.

D. Is it possible to make a mixture of sodium nitrate, acid
phosphate, and potassium sulfate that will contain 8 per cent
nitrogen, 10 per cent phosphoric acid, and 15 per cent potash?
(Work out this problem, basing your calculation on the facts
learned in the previous problems. Determine the amount neces-
sary for each ingredient.)

CHAPTER SEVEN

WATER AND THE PLANT

The thirsty Earth soaks up the rain,
And drinks and gaps for drink again ;
The plants suck in the Earth, and are
With constant drinking fresh and fair.

ABRAHAM COWLEY

WATER forms a large part of a living plant. Lettuce
and various root crops, for example, are nine-tenths
water. The living matter of the cells is bathed in it,
and the whole structure of a plant, from the finest
rootlets to the most delicate tissues in the leaves, is
more or less filled with it. For good growth, garden
plants require large amounts of water, and the gardener
is interested in knowing how this may be provided for
them.

How water is used by a plant. All the various mineral
substances needed by the plant can be taken in only
when they are dissolved in water. They are all obtained
from the water that is in the soil. Furthermore, every-
thing that is moved about inside the plant is carried
in water; only minerals and foods that are dissolved
in water can pass from one part of the plant to
another.

Great quantities of water are evaporated (transpired)
from the leaves of plants. For every pound of dry
material in a mature plant, 500 pounds of water have
passed through that plant during its life. An acre of
thrifty vegetables in a single season uses 1000 tons of
water, which is equal to about 9 inches of rainfall over
the acre. A large sunflower in a single day of mid-
summer transpires more than a pint of water.

Gardening

These facts explain
why plants quickly suf-
fer if they are not pro-
vided with a continuous
and abundant supply of
water.

How roots are
adapted for work of
collecting water. The
roots are the water-
gathering organs of the
plant. To gain an idea
of how well these organs
are adapted to their
work, germinate some
radish seeds on moist
blotting paper and ex-
amine the roots of the
seedlings as they grow.

The young growing
roots are very small,
brittle, and tender, and
they quickly dry out

A mustard seedling soon after h exposed tc the air.
Note the deh-

FIG. 45-

germinating on a blotter.

cate root hairs.

At first there is only a
primary or first root,

which ends in a blunt point. It grows rapidly in length,

and side branches soon develop which are quite like the

tip of the older root.

Thus rootlet after rootlet appears until there is a

much-branched system with many growing ends. As

Water and the Plant

long as the plant lives
and is active, the root
system continues to
branch and send out a
mass of young rootlets.
When their limit of depth
and breadth is reached,
branches continue to fill
in the space between
with a network of the
fine roots.

A short distance be-
hind the tip of a rootlet
there is a growth some-
what resembling cotton
fibers. If we look at this
with a reading glass or
a simple pocket mag-
nifying glass, we find
that this is composed of
delicate hair-like out-
growths from the root
itself. Each of these
root hairs is a slender
tube that has grown out - drain off the water from them -
from the side of a cell. It is a rod-shaped structure,
closed like a finger of a glove at its outer end, and by
its growth it thrusts itself in among the soil particles
and absorbs water and mineral compounds in solution.
In this way the absorbing surface of the rootlet is enor-
mously greater than if no root hairs were developed.

FIG. 46. Young radish seedling with soil
clinging to root hairs. The root hairs
penetrate among the soil particles and

Gardening

Root hairs live for
only two or three days.
They die away on the
older parts of the root-
let, and new ones are all
the time developing just
back of the growing
root tips. This habit
makes it necessary for
the rootlets to keep on
growing if the plant is
to be supplied with
water.

What happens when
a plant wilts. When a
plant has plenty of
water, the cells are well
filled and rounded out,
so that they press
tightly against one an-
other and the whole
plant stands up firm and
strong. If the plant
lacks water, the cells are

only partly filled and the leaves and other parts of the
plant wilt and droop. In this condition, to a great
extent, growth and the manufacture of food stop ; and if
a garden plant remains wilted continuously for two or
three days and nights, it generally dies.

It does not take a plant long to wilt if it is pulled and
left in the open air. It wilts just as quickly while stand-

FiG. 47. A seedling carelessly pulled wilts
much faster than one carefully dug up.
The plant at the left wilted rapidly be-
cause many of its roots were broken off
and those remaining were unprotected by
soil particles. The seedling at the right
was carefully lifted from the soil at the
same time ; it will remain unwilled much
longer than the other one.

Water and the Plant 79

ing in the garden if a continuous supply of water does
not flow into it through the roots. When insects (such
as the squash borer) burrow into stems and cut off and
eat out the vessels that carry water upward, the plant
soon wilts and may die (page 330). The clubroot disease
of cabbage (page 289) often interferes with the work of
the roots to such an extent that the infested plant wilts
during the day and seldom grows up to be a good plant.
The cucumber wilt is caused by a bacterium that enters
the vessels and by its growth interferes with the ascent
of water, which soon causes the plants to wilt and die.
Such injuries as these make evident to us how necessary
is the supply of water to all parts of the plant. To re-
place that which is lost to the air there must be a cor-
responding intake through the roots from the soil.

Knowing these facts, it is easy to understand why in
transplanting seedlings the young plants must not be
allowed to become dry ; why they need protection from
the sun and air until they get a new root system estab-
lished ; why in cultivating and weeding care should
be used not to damage the roots of crops ; why cer-
tain diseases and insect pests must be combated ;
and why it is so important for the soil of the garden to
have in it sufficient water for the growing crops.

Capillary water in the soil. As the water from rain or
snow or irrigation sinks through the upper layers of the
soil, some of it sticks to the soil particles and is held over
and between them as a thin film on their surfaces. This
water is called capillary water. A good soil holds large
amounts of capillary water in this way, and as the root
hairs push in among the granules they come in contact

8o Gardening

with these films and are able to draw water from them
for the use of the plant.

Free water in the soil. In a soil that is poorly drained,
the water not only forms a coating over the granules, but
it may also fill the spaces between them. This water
which fills the spaces between the soil particles and
granules is called free w ater. It can be drained off. It
is not held in the soil, but is free ; and like the water
in a pond or lake, it will flow to a lower level if it
has the opportunity. The roots of garden plants cannot
live in a soil that continually retains free water, because
the water shuts out the air from between the soil granules.
There is not enough air present in such a soil to keep
the roots alive, and if a garden site is undrained so that
the level of the free water is near the surface, the plants
will have only a few shallow roots. These will be able
to supply only small amounts of water, and in times of
heat and drought the plants will suffer.

Wet soils are cold. Water absorbs more heat in be-
coming warm than does soil or air. Hence a soil that is
saturated with water remains cold longer than a soil con-
taining much air (especially in spring). If the excess of
water is removed by drainage, its place is taken by air
which may be warmer and which at any rate becomes
heated more quickly.

Soils that are naturally " warm " or " early " are those
which hold almost no free water in the upper layers.
They are usually well-drained soils or soils of loose
texture, like a sandy loam. " Cold " or " late " soils are
those that retain much water. They are usually fine-
grained, like clay, or are poorly drained or poorly tilled.

Water and the Plant

FIG. 48. On the surface of the stone is a thin film of capillary water ; at the
bottom is a drop of free water.

Draining a garden. On the farm a well-drained plot
can usually be selected for the garden. Cities and
villages are usually so well drained that simple ditching
about the garden or perhaps across it is all that is needed
to carry off the excess water from the soil. But in low-
lying land it is sometimes necessary to plant the crops
on narrow ridges with open ditches between, in which the
free water is exposed to the air for rapid evaporation.
Loosening a soil by deep spading and by adding vege-
table matter improves the drainage of fine, compact soils.

When the water can be led to a lower level, tiling, or
underground drainage, is an excellent means of drain-
ing a " wet " garden. For literature on such a special

82 Gardening

method of treatment one should write to the agricultural
college of his state.

It is well to lay out a garden that is inclined to be
wet in beds rather than in rows for level culture (page

93)-

How to tell if a soil is poorly drained. To determine
whether a plot is too wet for garden purposes, sink a
hole in the earth with a spade. If free water runs
into the hole and stands within 18 inches of the surface,
the soil is poorly drained. In such a soil, water will
often stand close to the surface or even on the surface
after heavy rains. In early spring this condition may
do no damage except to delay planting, but if with ordi-
nary rainfall the soil is watersoaked in midsummer,
drainage is necessary. The roots of garden crops need
to go down deeply into the soil, but they cannot thrive
below the level of the free water, which may happen to
be near the surface.

In draining a garden, it should be borne in mind that a
ditch will remove the free water only when it leads to
lower levels, and also that it will remove water only to
the level of the bottom of the ditch.

Increasing capillary water in the soil. By tillage and
by adding vegetable matter, the gardener can greatly in-
crease the power of the soil to furnish water to the grow-
ing crops. A coarse-grained and lumpy soil does not
hold much water. It dries out quickly after a rain, and
capillary water does not rise into it from lower levels in
abundance or with uniformity because of the large and
irregular air spaces between the lumps. Good tillage
makes such soils more finely granular, so that they can

Water and the Plant

FIG. 49.

Draining a garden site

soil, garden plants cannot grow in it.

States Relations Service
Unless the free water is removed from the

84 Gardening

take in more of the water that falls and hold more of it
as capillary water.

In a fine-grained, compact soil the air spaces between
the particles and granules are small. In wet weather
these small spaces are readily filled with free water, which
is then difficult to drain away. Another deficiency of a
compact soil is that much of the water that falls on it
runs off without sinking in and being held as capillary
water. Plowing and spading break up and loosen com-
pact soils, increasing the air spaces between the granules
and making it easier for water to enter and move to lower
levels.

Spading under manure and vegetable matter makes a
soil looser. Such materials also add to the water-holding
power of the soil, for the pieces of decaying plant material
hold water like little sponges and give it up to the roots
when needed.

Sandy soils hold less water than clay soils. Therefore,
well-rotted manure often greatly improves them. Lime
loosens a heavy clay soil and makes it more granular,
thus irnproving it for garden use.

Movement of water in the soil. The roots of vig-
orously growing plants quickly absorb most of the cap-
illary water that is on the soil particles which they touch.
But more water creeps to these particles from the sur-
rounding soil or from lower levels. The movement of
this water through the soil is quite like that of oil rising
through the wick of a burning lamp. Having the soil in
good physical condition makes it possible for the water to
move easily through it and thus to come within reach of
the plant's roots.

Water and the Plant 85

A fine, loose condition of the soil also allows the
roots to penetrate more deeply and to spread more
widely, thus increasing the water supply available to
the plant.

Conserving the soil moisture. Water evaporates from
the surface of a soil into the air. Then more water
rises from below, through capillary action, and this also
is lost to the air. Thus in time the soil becomes dried
out, and plants often suffer because the water they need
has evaporated into the air.

If a mulch of fine manure, straw, or leaves is placed
over the soil, the evaporation from the surface is checked,
and the soil moisture is conserved; celery, eggplant,
Chinese cabbage, endive, and lettuce are benefited by
such mulches, especially in dry periods or when grown on
dry, sandy soils.

A mulch may also be made of a layer of loose surface
soil. If the top inch of soil is raked loose and fine, it
quickly dries out, and because its connection with the
soil below is somewhat broken, the water does not
readily rise into it by capillary action. This loose sur-
face soil, therefore, acts as a covering for the lower soil,
keeping the moisture that is in it from being lost to the
air. Frequent shallow cultivation of growing crops is
very essential to maintain a surface mulch.

Watering the garden. Crops use large amounts of
water, and even under the best methods of culture the
natural supply may be insufficient for their needs. It is
then often advisable to supply water by irrigation. This
subject will be discussed in the chapter on " The Care of
Growing Crops " (page 207).

86 Gardening

Effects of the gardener's work on the supply of soil
water. From what we have now learned, it will be under-
stood that garden plants can use only the capillary water
of the soil ; that free water about roots is harmful to them ;
and that to fit a soil for garden purposes, the free water
must be drained off and the soil made to hold as much
capillary water as possible.

Nearly everything the gardener does to the soil affects
the water supply in it. Drainage has for its direct aim
the removal of free water, which makes it possible for the
roots of crops to penetrate deeply. The addition of
lime, manure, and compost causes the free water to drain
off more quickly and increases the amount of capillary
water held in the soil. Plowing and spading also increase
the power of the soil to hold capillary water, and one of
the reasons for the cultivation of growing crops is to
retain the water in the soil for the use of the plants.

The gardener, therefore, in large measure controls the
supply of water in the soil. He removes the excess that
is harmful ; he increases the power of the soil to hold
water in suitable form for his plants ; he saves or con-
serves the water present in the soil ; and he supplies
water when it is needed. By a study of the soil and of
the water in it, he can do the things that regulate the
water supply to the needs of his crops.

Questions

About what proportion of the entire living plant is composed
of water ? What are some of the uses of water to a green plant ?
Give some facts that explain why plants need an abundant and
a continuous supply of water.

Water and the Plant

FIG. 50. Seedlings germinating in earthen saucer.

Explain how the roots of a plant develop. How are roots
adapted to the work of getting water from soil? What happens
when a plant wilts ?

Why must a newly transplanted plant have special care?
W T hat is capillary water? free water? Do plants grow best
in a soil containing free water or only capillary water? Why?
Why do wet soils remain cold longer than a soil that is not so wet ?

How can you determine if a soil is poorly drained ? How can a
gardener increase the water-holding power of a soil? Describe
the movement of water in soils. How can the gardener conserve
soil moisture?

Things to Do and Observe

i . To observe root hairs. Germinate seeds of cabbage or radish
on blotters placed between saucers, keeping the blotters moist
with capillary water (Fig. 50). (Petri dishes are better than
saucers if the school has them.) With a hand lens examine the

Gardening

root hairs that form, noting their number and size. On what
part of the root are they actively growing? On what part are

FIG. 51. Experiment to show the power of different soils to hold capillary

water.

they dying? Describe a root hair. How do these root hairs
increase the total amount of root surface? How does this affect
the power of the plant to absorb water?

2. To show the upward movement of capillary water in soil.
Tie a piece of thin cotton cloth securely over the large end of a
lamp chimney. Fill with dry garden soil. Place in a shallow
dish containing a pint of water and leave thus until the following
day. How high does the free water rise? How high does the
capillary water rise ? How can it be kept from evaporating from
the surface of the soil ?

Now carefully lift the chimney with contents, allowing the free
water, if there is any, to drain back into the dish. Measure
the amount of water left in the dish. How much water has moved
up into the soil as capillary water ?

During dry weather is there an upward movement of water
from the deeper parts of the soil ?

3. To compare the power of different soils to hold capillary water.
Tie thin cotton cloth over the small end of four lamp chimneys.
Fill one with sand, one with clay, one with humus, and one with
loam (all dry and finely powdered). Arrange as shown in Figure

Water and the Plant 89

51. Pour gently and slowly a pint of water into the top of each
chimney. The water that drips through is free water ; that which
is kept has become capillary water. Compare as to time when
water begins to drip, length of time the dripping continues, and
amount of water retained.

How does the addition of humus affect the water-holding
power of sandy soils? How does sand improve a clay soil?

CHAPTER EIGHT

PLANNING THE GARDEN

Let us sit down by the crackling fire and lay out plans
for the year.

Old Farmer's Almanac

THE arrangement of every home vegetable garden
should be worked out according to a plan made several
weeks in advance of the earliest planting dates. This
will allow time for buying seed before planting time.
The plan should show the kinds of crops to be grown, the
relative location of each, and the space to be given to
each kind.

Such points as the size of the garden plot, the kind of
soil, the drainage, the exposure to sunlight, how the
garden is to be cultivated, the local climatic conditions,
the particular needs of the crops to be grown, the family
tastes and preferences for vegetables, and whether the
family will be away during the summer, are all matters
to be considered in planning the garden. It will help
greatly in deciding what crops should be grown and how
much of each it is best to plant, if a definite plan of the
garden is made.

Making the plan. In drawing a plan it is best to draw
to a scale. This means that the garden itself is first
measured and then the plan of it is drawn so that each
inch on the plan represents a certain number of feet
in the garden. If the garden is small the plan may be
drawn on a scale of 2 feet to the inch ; for the moderate-
sized garden it is better to use a scale of 4 feet to the
inch ; and for the very large garden a scale of 8 feet to
the inch may be necessary. In this way, by using the
divisions on an ordinary ruler ( such as ^ inch, inch,

Planning the Garden

i Corn, (late}

3
i

i
j

2 Corn, (medium}

3 Corn (medium}

f Corn (early }

5 Corn (early}

6 Tomatoes

7 Tomatoes

il
4 ?r

t:^

^ ^

& Tomatoes

9 Celery

i o Cauliflower (early} followed by pe -tsai

11 Peas\ ( beets (transplanted}

12 Peas f U cwe 1 : y \beets (transplanted}

13 Peas beets (transplanted }

14 Peas) {beets (transplanted}

15 3eets (from seed }

is Beets (from seed }

17 Carrots

18 Carrots

19 Cauliflower (early}} r v ji [kale

20 Cabbage (early} ) \kale.

11 Buskbeans } XJfc me J .(&**%****

T> 11 \JOLLOUDZ a. vy \
22 jDUsh beans ) {Seas

23 Lettuce | Clewed ^y f ^ e

24 Lettuce J [ cabbaqe (laie}

25 3eets (ea rly }., tra nspla n ted / -^//^^ e J fa \beans

26 Sects (early } , transplanted] \ beans

27 Swiss chard

28 Carrots (early} -followed by celery

29 Onions (front seed}

30 Onions (from sets} followed by 'kale

FIG. 52. Plan of a home garden. The ground is kept occupied during
entire season.

the

Gardening

FIG. 53. A photograph of the garden the plan of which is shown in Figure 52.
With only two seasons' experience the owner has one of the most successful
gardens in his community.

or inch) to represent a foot, the plan may be easily
drawn and distances on any part of it may be deter-
mined at once by merely laying the ruler on the por-
tion to be measured.

Several plans may have to be drawn before the most
satisfactory arrangement is found. The final plan should
be drawn on heavy cardboard and kept for ready refer-
ence. It should show exactly how many rows and how
many feet of rows of each variety are to be planted.
With such a plan one can determine the amount of seed
required for each variety.

A few general directions regarding the making of a
garden plan may be given. Tall growing plants, like
corn, pole beans, peas on brush or wire, tomatoes trained

Planning the Garden 93

to stakes, and Jerusalem artichoke should be placed
so that they will shade the smaller plants as little as
possible. Along a fence or at the north or west side of
a garden is a good location for tall plants. They may
also be used to good advantage as screens in front of a
chicken yard or about a compost pile (Fig. 160). Peren-
nials like rhubarb, asparagus, and strawberries should be
grouped at an end of the garden where they least interfere
with the work of tillage.

The vegetables that are planted first in spring may be
grouped together and the work of spading and planting
be done at intervals as later plantings are made.

Planting in rows. Most gardens should be laid out in
rows which run the entire length or width of the garden
or to necessary paths. If a horse is used in cultivating
the garden, the rows should run the long way and be
spaced about 2^- to 3 feet apart. When a wheel hoe is
used, a width of 12 to 36 inches, according to the crop,
is convenient. In small gardens, where the work is all
done by hand, the rows may be much closer for many of
the smaller growing crops ; thus more plants can be
grown on a given area. Radishes, for example, may be
spaced in rows 6 inches apart, and carrots as close as 8
or 10 inches apart. A distance of 18 inches is very suit-
able for many crops under hand cultivation.

Planting in beds. When the garden plot is of very
small size and the work is all done by hand, the garden
may often be laid out in beds to good advantage, as
shown in Figure 55. The narrow paths between the beds
enable children to walk freely about without injury to
the plants. The work of tillage and weeding can be done

Gardening

1 ^

Com /W/y) ^c7*raj fl

artichoke -^

V ^J-^ "f ^ OTn ^ ost

r/J, 9f>d rdC 1LS

{sOWt

C/Z, <f/U. ru LU3

Corn

Corn. (rH.ediu.rn)

* f

Corn

1" i

Corn

3" 1

Corn flate} tree

Youny te.f.'*^
a&ble. 6ree "^
i 5

Pole beans f

| , ^

Pole leans J (Xextuekv

, U . . lettuce () ". . ".P
.-.,. * V

+- -wonder)
Pole c>ean<s {

* * 'a.net* tovnaloes C") * '

StuA. lima, peans

Kohlrabi. fMooHdly {%%%""

iSu.tnm.er squash :J^e(i)2eataHdspivia

Pe-tsai, followed. %y celery

-I

Cnrrpfa

~&, - 'j*~

f^&TMn.'lrJJS

3 fc Cabl>a<re date! and

endive bcituecn rvtvs

C / '/*

c",,..-,.,. -i -,^7

iJuLstjJ

Lettuce ' eay plant

farslev Leetes

ft-ttai -followed h> e-tsa i

Onions (setslfollowed by celery

Lettuce 'pe-tsai

Mangels fainter food Jvr chickens)

Sirttwlyerty

Tomatoes () vj

bed

D J. ^

0M& -

f lowers

Mmael kerte ^

1 ^Ritsh beans, followed PV celerv *

1 planted between -rotas

- -CaVba.jes(severa.l kinds)

Scale 6 "" j" "* To"* "" if*" 3

FIG. 54. Plan of author's garden.

offeet

Planning the Garden 95

from the paths, for all parts of the bed are within easy
reach. Walking in the beds among the plants is thus
avoided ; therefore the soil is not compacted by tram-
pling and it remains much more uniformly loose. When
the seeds are planted, one should use a board to walk on.

At planting time the beds should be level with the
paths or only slightly rounded above. Walking in the
paths soon makes them lower than the beds, and then
water will run through them. If the garden is poorly
drained, the paths may be arranged to lead to a shallow
ditch, dug along one side of the garden so as to lead to
lower levels. Excess water is thus carried away after
each rain. The garden shown in Figure 55 was laid out
in beds chiefly because it needed the drainage that the
paths gave.

Special points to plan for. In planning a vegetable
garden, one should have especially the three following
aims in mind :

(1) To grow different sorts of vegetables which give
pleasing variety and a continued and adequate supply
of vegetables for the table.

(2) To avoid overplanting of any one crop at one time.

(3) To keep the soil fully occupied and busy in pro-
ducing crops.

What is meant by these three aims and how the
gardener may plan for them will now be discussed briefly.

Planting for variety. The home gardener grows at
least several kinds of vegetables. Such standard vege-
tables as corn, beans, cabbage, and tomatoes are all
quite different in the food products that they yield,
in their appeal to the taste, in their uses, and in the time

96 Gardening

of the season when they are ready for the table. By
increasing the number of kinds of vegetables grown,
greater variety is obtained. Fortunately the number
of different vegetables that can readily be grown is
large and affords a wide variety of vegetable foods.

Avoiding overplanting. Probably the mistake most
often made by the inexperienced gardener is the planting
of too much of one variety at one time. If this is done
the entire product is likely to "be ready for table use at
about the same time, and there may be more than can
be used, especially if the product is perishable. This
results in waste of food, waste of space in the garden,
and waste of labor.

To avoid overplanting, either (i) plant less of any one
variety at a time, and make successive plantings of it on
different dates ; or (2) plant seed of several varieties
which mature at different times. Seed of a single early
variety of corn, for example, may be planted at intervals
of two weeks ; or the seeds of early, medium, and late
varieties may all be planted at about the same time in
spring.

The later plantings of a vegetable sometimes fail
because the summer weather may be unfavorable for
the proper growth of the young plants. In a hot, dry
summer, late plantings of corn are likely to become
dwarfed and yield poorly developed ears. As a rule,
successive plantings are most successful on a rich soil
that is well supplied with water.

The planting of different varieties of the same vege-
table is one of the best ways of obtaining successive
crops. It is a good plan to grow a few plants of the

Planning the Garden

DITCH

t
|

XXX

Cabbaqe

XXX
XXX

-NXOOXOOX

Head, lettuce,
o X o o X o
and tomatoes
X o o X o o X

ooxooXooXooXooXooXooXooXooXooXoo

Tfead lettuce ( )

XooXooxoXoox ooXooXooXooXooXooX

a< tomatoes (x)

ooxooxo oxooxo 0x00X00X00X00x00X00

Parsnips

Salsify

Swiss

x x x

< x x x

1
x'lx x

XXX

Parsley

chard.

Beets

Carrots

Onions

XXX

New Zealand
XXX
Spinach
XXX

Pe-teai,

Radish,

Spring and

followed T?y
pepper

autumn,.

Scale

jf feet

FIG. 55. Plan of a small home vegetable garden arranged for planting in beds.
The paths between the beds slope down to a ditch at one side, thus insuring
perfect drainage.

very earliest varieties of such crops as peas, beans,
carrots, radishes, corn, and tomatoes, even though these
are not the best in yield or in flavor. They will furnish
food in advance of the main crop, at a time when any
" new " vegetable is especially relished and when the
market prices are high.

In the northern planting zones, as a rule, long-season
crops (like corn and tomatoes) are not suited to successive
plantings. For such vegetables, the planting of several
varieties is the best way to provide variety and avoid
overplanting. In the southern sections, successive
plantings may be made of the long-season crops. The

Gardening

early and late varieties
of certain crops, cab-
bage for example, are
best planted at different
dates.

The seed catalogues
list " novelties " for
early and late planting ;
but care should be taken
in selecting such vege-
tables, especially the
early kinds. It is al-
ways best to buy seed
of standard varieties
from reliable firms, for
the main crop.

Keeping the soil oc-
cupied. In small gar-
dens, vegetables should
be kept growing in
every bit of the space
throughout the garden

season. As soon as the yearly crops are removed,
others should take their places. This may be accom-
plished either by companion cropping or by succession
cropping.

Early vegetables may be placed together with slower-
growing and later-maturing plants, either in the same
row or in alternate rows. This is called companion
cropping. The early crop is removed before the late crop
has reached such a size that it needs all the ground.

FIG. 56. Successive plantings of corn.
By repeated plantings it is often possible
to have a supply of a vegetable through a
long season.

Planning the Garden

Lettuce may thus be
grown with tomato
plants, as shown in Fig-
ures 54 and 55. Both
the lettuce and tomato
plants may be trans-
planted to the garden
at about the same time,
or the lettuce may be
planted earlier. The
heads of lettuce are
gathered about the time
that the tomato plants
are overshadowing them.
Lettuce may thus be
grown with peppers and
eggplants. Lettuce ma-
turing in 5 weeks may
be grown with cabbage
that matures in 10 weeks.
(See Figure 58.) Rad-
ishes and carrots may be ex Pf nse than , if the

each separately.

sown in alternate rows

6 inches apart; then when the radishes are removed

the rows of carrots are left 12 inches apart.

Many of the short-period vegetables, and especially
the early cool-season crops, mature and are removed
from the garden in time to grow another crop. This
second crop is called a succession or follow crop. Some
of the short-period crops are : radishes, lettuce, peas,
early cabbages, spinach, turnips, beets, early carrots,

FIG. 57. A follow crop (carrots) planted
after lettuce has been removed. Two crops
are obtained from the same garden space
and they are secured with less labor and
were prepared for

TOO

Gardening

I'urdiie University Agrlc. Exit. sin.

FIG. 58. Lettuce and cabbage grown as companion crop. The lettuce will
soon be cut, making room for the cabbages.

early potatoes, and even early corn, early beans, and
onions from sets. Some of the vegetables that may be
planted as follow crops are : beets, carrots, late cabbages,
spinach, celery, pe-tsai, chicory, and endive.

Often the follow crop may be started somewhat before
the earlier crop is removed, by planting between the rows.
Sweet corn may be planted between rows of peas;
pe-tsai, late cabbages, kale, or endive may be set out
between rows of early sweet corn about the time the
latter is maturing ; and celery may be planted between
rows of beans, as shown in Figure 54.

As the gardener gains in experience in growing the
various garden vegetables, he learns their habits of
growth, the length of time required for each to mature,
and the space which each needs under the conditions
which his garden affords. In the small vegetable garden

Planning the Garden , IQI

where space is limited, many schemes of companion and
follow cropping can be worked out which will greatly in-
crease the total production.

A little study of the best ways of grouping vegetables
for companion and succession crops, as suggested in the
paragraphs above, will help the gardener so to plan that
overplanting will be avoided. He will then have a
pleasing variety of foods, and the soil will be kept busy
through the whole growing season. Notes regarding
these points and suggestions for improving the garden
should be recorded as they come to mind during the
growing of crops. Perhaps the notes may be kept on
the back of the cardboard on which the plan was drawn.
These will aid greatly in making plans for following
seasons.

Planning school gardens. What has been said con-
cerning the planning of home gardens and school directed
home gardens applies equally to school gardens, especially
to demonstration gardens (page 10) and community or
grade gardens (page 6). In most school gardens fewer
vegetables are grown than in a home garden, and the
planning is therefore somewhat simpler.

When the individual plot system with paths between
the plots is used, the whole area is laid out like a checker-
board into plots of uniform size with straight paths run-
ning entirely across the area (Figs. 2 and 3). Stakes
are placed at the corners of the plots and the paths and
plots are kept in line throughout the season. The plots
are as a rule all planted alike with the rows running the
same way and with the different kinds of vegetables in
the same relative positions. All this gives uniformity of

192 Gardening

t '*;V

appearance and makes for order and neatness. When

the paths are omitted (Fig. 4), the rows of vegetables
run without interruption straight across the entire gar-
den, and stakes are' used to indicate the corners of the
individual plots.

Questions

Study the plans given in Figures 52 and 54. What is the scale
to which these are drawn ? How large were the gardens ? What
crops were grown and how many feet (in rows) were planted to
each?

When is it best to plant in rows and when in beds ? In planning
a vegetable garden, what special points should the gardener have
in mind ? What are the usual methods of planting to provide for
variety? What crops are most likely to be overplanted? How
can overplanting be avoided ? What are companion crops ?
Name some and explain why they can be thus grown. What are
follow crops? Name some crops that may be thus planted.

Things to Do and Observe

1. To draw a garden plan. Measure the garden plot and draw
an outline of it to a scale (4 feet to i inch is a good scale, unless
the garden is unusually large) . Make a list of the crops you wish
to grow. If there are to be any perennials, decide where they are
to be planted ; also decide where the tall-growing crops will stand.
Determine how many rows can be allowed for each crop, and then
complete the plan by drawing the lines for each row. The rows
of companion and follow crops may be indicated by dotted lines
and the other rows by solid lines.

2. To observe the arrangement of other gardens. When visiting
other gardens in your neighborhood, note the general plan of
arrangement of each garden. Try to determine the good fea-
tures and the bad features of each plan, and then try to discover
how the arrangement might be improved. Note especially
whether each gardener is utilizing his garden space as efficiently
and economically as possible.

CHAPTER NINE

TOOLS FOR THE GARDEN

When putting away the tools for winter, lay aside those
which need repairs so that they will not be forgotten.

Old Farmer's Almanac

IN buying the first tools for gardening work, it is best
to select the kinds most commonly in use. Buy only
those that are strongly made and of good material. Poor
tools break easily and wear out quickly, and are there-
fore a source of discouragement. Most hardware stores
carry well-made sets of the most important garden tools ;
especially sets consisting of a hoe, a spade, and a rake.
These may be had in small sizes suitable for women and
children. Many of the " combination " tools (two or
more tools attached to one handle) are poorly made and
are so clumsy to use that they are not to be recom-
mended.

Tools for spading. For the work of spading, a fork
with four or five flat tines is the best tool. It should be
strongly made, and the tines should be of good steel to
stand the strain of the work. Even then, care must be
used not to break or bend the tines, especially if the
ground is stony. An ordinary square or round-pointed
spade may be used when sod is to be spaded under ;
it may also be used for any spading work, but it is
harder to force into the soil than a fork, and it does not
break up the earth so finely.

The rake. After the spading fork, an iron or steel rake
with numerous fine teeth is the most necessary tool in
the garden. It is used for making the soil fine after
spading and also for cultivating the growing crops. The
rake is the best tool for making a good surface mulch on

103

IO4

Gardening

FIG. 59. For a small garden a spading fork, hoe, and rake are all the tools that
are necessary. For a large garden, a wheelbarrow and some additional tools
are needed. Note the heavy cord for laying out the rows.

the soil (page 85). A child's steel rake, about 6 inches
wide, with short, fine teeth, is very useful in covering
seeds and in cultivating when crops are growing in rows
too close together for the use of the larger garden rake.
The smaller rake makes a fine and shallow surface
mulch.

Tools and accessories for planting. In laying out the
garden for planting, stakes and a line are almost neces-
sary. A hatchet for sharpening and driving stakes is
convenient. A trowel is useful in lifting and resetting
plants, in making shallow trenches for seed, and in cover-

Tools for the Garden

105

ing seeds after they are
sown. A dibble is used
in transplanting plants,
especially into flats ; but
a planting peg, equally
effective, may easily be
made from a y-inch
piece of a broom handle.
Whittle one end to a
tapering but blunt point,
and round off the other
end to fit into the hol-
low of the hand. Pegs
of smaller size (Fig. no)
may be made for trans-
planting very small seed-
lings.

For laying out and
planting in straight rows
of even distance apart,
a rule or measuring stick
and a line and stakes
are needed. An old
clothesline or a heavy
cord long enough to reach across the garden will do.
If the garden is laid out in beds, the line should be
stretched at each side of the bed and the rows planted
at right angles to these. Using a planting board about
8 feet long and i foot wide not only keeps the bed
from being trampled but also makes it easier to get the
rows straight and properly spaced.

FIG. 60. A wheel hoe is very useful in a
large garden. With it the plants can be
cultivated much more rapidly than with a
hand hoe or rake.

io6

Gardening

A basket should be
used for carrying and
keeping in order seed
packages, notebook or
record with garden plan,
and such small tools as
trowel and peg.

Tools for cultivating.
In cultivating the crops
grown in a small-sized
garden, a rake is the
most valuable tool. Its
repeated use to maintain
a surface mulch will pre-
vent weeds from start-
ing and keep the garden
in good condition. Gar-
den hoes are useful for
cutting off and killing
weeds that have started
to grow, in keeping paths
clean, and in making

furrows preparatory to seed planting or irrigation. A
sharp-pointed hoe of triangular shape, often called the
" Warren hoe," is excellent for working in compact
ground. A hoe of this kind is especially useful in work-
ing among strawberries and other plants that grow in
beds or matted rows. The square hoe is probably the
one most generally used.

Various sorts of hand weeders and long-handled
cultivators, such as the " Norcross " or the " Pull Easy "

FIG. 61. When the day's work is finished,
the tools should be gathered up and put
away.

Tools for the Garden

107

FIG. 62. If the soil sticks to the tools they should be washed before they are
put away. They must be wiped dry after washing, so that they will not rust.

adjustable cultivator, are used by many gardeners.
Several types of wheel hoes, with cultivator and rake
attachments, may be bought. These are especially
useful in cultivating large gardens by hand. The various
attachments are easily and quickly changed as desired,
and the implement is light and easy to use. The
machine covers ground rapidly and does efficient work.
The single- wheel type, such as is shown in Figure 60, is
most commonly used. Except in heavy soils, a boy or
girl of fifteen can easily operate this tool.

Care of tools. When not in actual use, all tools should
be kept clean and free from moisture and stored in a
dry place. In the home each tool should have a
definite place. In school gardening each set of tools

io8

Gardening

FIG. 63. Right and wrong ways of using the spading fork. Study the posi-
tions of the hands and feet of the man on the right, and practice until you are
sure you can spade correctly.

should be numbered and each child should be allotted
a number and be held responsible for the tools corre-
sponding to his number. Rust should never be allowed
to form on any tool. If it does, it should be removed
by vigorous use of sandpaper.

Perhaps the best place to hang tools is against a
wall inside a building. When they are put away for
the winter, a coat of heavy oil or oil paint should be
applied to the unprotected metal surfaces to prevent
rusting. A coating of melted paraffin or of vaseline will

Tools for the Garden

IOQ

protect them if no oil or
paint is at hand.

Right and wrong ways
of using tools. It will
pay the beginner, and
often also the more ex-
perienced gardener, to
make some study regard-
ing the easiest way of
using tools. It is not
easy to describe on paper
the best methods. In
hoeing, raking, spading,
carrying water, carry-
ing flats, and using the
wheel hoe, one should
aim to keep the body
well balanced and in
graceful position so that
the tools may be used
without undue strain. A
few illustrations will per-
haps show what is meant.

In Figure 63 the student to the left is forcing a spading
fork into the ground with the fork pressing against the
instep and heel. This position might strain and injure
the foot, since it is not intended to carry weight at this
point. The hand grasping the end of the handle has the
palm downward. The student is pushing against the
spade with his body. In lifting the soil, he must step
to one side or be put to undue strain in lifting the forkful

U. S.D. A.

FIG. 64. The proper way to leave tools in
the garden, when not in use. Make it a
habit to stick the fork in the ground and
to turn the rake and hoe down when they
are not in use.

no ' Gardening

of earth out and away from the body, and the position
of the left hand does not allow him to turn the fork and
soil over with ease.

The student at the right is using the ball of the foot
to force the spade into the ground. He stands in a posi-
tion to swing the left hand down to the side quite
naturally and thus lift the earth and turn it over with the
hands separated at each side of the body, giving excellent
leverage, perfect balance of the body, and an easy, swing-
ing motion. His task will not be unduly tiresome, and
his work will be effective.

The art of correctly using garden tools can be acquired
only by practice, but a practical demonstration by
an expert will greatly aid the beginner in getting
started right. Some gardeners can use a hoe or rake
all day without becoming very tired. Watch such
gardeners and learn to handle your tools in the right
way.

When such tools as the hoe and rake are laid down in
the garden, the cutting edge or teeth should be turned
downward. If they are left with edge or teeth upward,
children may step or fall upon them and be seriously
injured.

Questions

Why is it best to buy only well-made tools for garden work?
What are the two most necessary garden tools ? What other tools
and accessories are useful in the home or school garden? What
tools are used for cultivation, and how are they used ? How should
tools be cared for? Why is it important to learn the right ways
of using tools ?

Tools for the Garden in

Things to Do and Observe

1. To become familiar with garden tools. Examine the garden
tools displayed in store windows and those owned by your friends.
Look for advertisements of them in seed catalogues and in garden
and agricultural magazines. Be sure to buy tools suited to your
size and age, and to the work you wish to do with them.

2. To learn to use garden tools. Make a special effort to learn
the easiest and most effective ways of using the various tools.
Practice the right methods as explained and illustrated in this
chapter. Observe teachers, older students, and experienced
gardeners who are using tools.

3. To learn how to care for tools. Observe the effect of poor
care of tools. Find how gardeners store their tools when not in
use. Practice taking good care of your own tools.

CHAPTER TEN

SEEDS FOR THE GARDEN

In France, we are told, they have the finest vegetables in
the world, and this is so because they practice the most care-
ful seed selection. And strange to say, in France the chil-
dren are taught to select and prepare the seeds for the
garden.

ARTHUR D. CROMWELL

IF a row of radish seeds is planted in the garden some
of them will produce good roots earlier than others, while
there will be some poor plants which do not produce
fleshy roots at all. There are often noticeable differences
in the size, shape, and quality of beets grown from the
seed of a single packet. Some lettuce plants produce
good heads, while others shoot up flower stalks without
ever forming a head. Seedlings grown from a packet

.7. T. Rosa, Jr., Univ. of Mo.

FIG. 65. Seedlings of tomato, all grown from the same packet of seed,
showing difference in vigor. Select for transplanting only the largest and
best plants, for those that are wtak in the seedling stage may be weak during
their entire lives.

112

Seeds for the Garden

of tomato seed often differ greatly in natural vigor;
some are weak, others are strong and vigorous in
growth (Fig. 65). Squash plants of the same variety

Richard Wellington

FIG. 66. Best fruits of different plants of Hubbard squash from commercial
seed, all grown under the same conditions. The bottom row shows the best
type of fruit. The upper three rows are especially undesirable because of
their small size and thin flesh. From which ones would you select seed?

ii4 Gardening

often yield fruits that differ very much in size, shape,
and quantity and quality of flesh (Fig. 66).

Seeds from good plants are more likely to produce other
good plants than are seeds from poor plants. It is im-
portant, therefore, for the gardener to have good seeds
that have come from the kind of plants that he wishes to
raise.

Both parents of a plant important. Selecting seed
from good mother plants is an old practice. In this way
man has long attempted to improve the plants which he
has cultivated. In more recent times attention has been
paid also to securing a good plant for the father or pollen
parent of the young plant in the seed. Our knowledge
of what a seed is and of how it is formed shows why this
is necessary.

What a seed is. A seed contains a small plant with
very small leaves, stem, and root. This tiny plant is
called the embryo. Food is usually stored either around
the embryo or in its first leaves. The embryo, together
with the food, is inclosed in a tough coat which forms the
outside of the seed.

How a seed is produced. To learn how a seed is
produced, examine the flowers of the garden bean (al-
though almost any flower may be studied instead).
Notice that the bean flower has four different kinds of
parts, as follows :

(1) At the outsidf there are five green leaf -like parts,
which cover the rest of the flower in the bud stage.
These are called sepals.

(2) Next are five somewhat leaf-like but white or
colored parts called the petals. These are of different

Seeds for the Garden 115

shapes and the lower two are rolled together, appearing
like one. In the flowers of many kinds of plants the
petals are all alike.

(3) Inclosed within the two lower petals are ten
slender, rod-shaped stalks bearing at their summits sao

FIG. 67. Parts of a bean flower : a, the flower complete ; b, parts of the corolla ;
c, pistil ; d , pistil enlarged, with ovary wall cut away showing ovules ; e, cluster
of stamens ; /, single stamen. All are natural size except d and /, which are en-
larged 2\ times.

like structures. These are called stamens, and the sacs
are called anthers.

(4) In the very center of the flower is a single rod-
shaped organ, called a pistil, more or less coiled toward
the end.

In a few days after a flower of the bean opens, you will
observe that all the parts about the pistil wither and fall
away. In most of the flowers the pistil remains and
grows into a pod containing the seeds. .

The anthers and the ovules. If the two lower petals
of a fully opened flower of the bean are separated and
the stamens examined, it will be seen that the anthers
have split open and are shedding a 'fine, dust-like powder.

Gardening

This is the pollen, and under
the microscope it is seen to
be made up of very small
rounded bodies which are
called pollen grains or micro-
spores. The anthers are,
therefore, sacs that contain
minute spores.

The enlarged base of the
pistil is called the ovary. If
this is slit open and examined,
small rounded bodies, much
smaller than the anthers, will
be found in it. These are the
ovules. At first each ovule
contains a single spore and is
thus a spore sac like the
anther. The spore, however,
is not released but remains
within the ovule, and from it
there develops a cell called the egg cell. In some flow-
ers the ovules are so small that they are hard to see,
but in the young fruits the ovules which are becoming
seeds are easily seen with the naked eye.

Pollination. In nearly all plants the pistils will
wither and drop off unless pollen from the same kind of
plant or from. closely related plants is placed on the
end of each pistil ; that is, on the stigma.

In some garden plants like corn, cucumber, and
squash, the anthers with their pollen and the pistils
with their ovules are in separate flowers, and the pollen

FIG. 68. The pistil of a bean
flower at the stage when fertil-
ization occurs; magnified about
5 times. A portion of the outer
wall of the ovary is cut away to
show the ovules in place. On the
stigma and on the brush of hairs
near the stigma are several pollen
grains, and a black line shows the
course of a pollen tube through
the pistil to the first ovule.

Seeds for the Garden

117

must be carried by the wind or
by insects from the flowers with
only stamens to the flowers with
only pistils.

In other garden plants (bean,
pea, salsify, and tomato are good
examples) the stamens and pis-
tils are both present in each
flower. But even in these the
wind and the insects very often
carry pollen from one flower to
the pistils of another.

The carrying of pollen from
the stamens to the pistils is
called pollination. If the pollen
which reaches *a pistil is from
the same flower or another
flower of the same plant, it is

self-pollination. If it is from a different plant, it is cross-
pollination.

Fertilization. After the pollen grains have been
placed on the stigma, a tiny, thread-like tube sprouts out
from each pollen grain. These tubes grow downward,
making their way among the cells of the pistil, until they
reach the sac-like structures (ovules) . The pollen tube
enters the ovule through a tiny opening that is present
in its wall and continues growing until it reaches the
egg. There it bursts open at the tip, and a little cell
called the sperm cell, which was within the tube, unites
with the egg cell. This uniting of a sperm and an egg
cell is called fertilization.

FIG. 6g. a is a pollen grain, and
b and c show pollen tubes which
have developed from grains ger-
minated on sugar-agar. The
nucleus of the vegetative cell
of the pollen tube is shown near
the end of the longer tube ; the
two male nuclei are shown far-
ther back in the same tube.
The grains are here shown 220
times natural size.

n8 Gardening

The pollen grain must reach the pistil when both
are in the right condition or the pollen will not grow ;

FIG. 70. Stages of growth in the
fruit (pods) of the bean.

the ovules will not be fertilized, and no
fruit or seed will be produced. A pol-
len tube fertilizes only one ovule, and so '
at least as many different tubes must
grow down through the pistil as there
are seeds which develop later.

During fertilization the egg cell and a
sperm cell combine and make one cell.

This new cell begins to grow and
divide, and this growth is kept up until the embryo is
formed. Meanwhile, the ovule develops into the seed,
and the pistil enlarges to become the seed pod.

Importance of the pollen parent. The little plants in
the seeds borne by a bean plant all have the same mother.
But the embryos in two seeds that lie side by side in
the same pod may have different plants for pollen
parents. If good and poor plants are allowed to bloom
together, some of the seeds on even the best plants may

Seeds for the Garden 119

have pollen parents that are quite worthless. Because
of this fact it is important in seed growing to make sure
that both parents are good plants.

How new varieties are developed under cultivation.
Occasionally plants that are different from the others
appear in a crop, giving for example such differences as
are shown in the illustration on page 127. Sometimes
the difference is due to a natural variation. The new
kind of plant simply appears ; no one knows the cause
of the change in it. Such plants are called sports, or
mutants.

In other cases new plant forms appear because pollen
from one kind of plant reaches the pistil and leads to
the fertilization of an egg cell of a different kind ; then
when the seed grows, it produces a plant that may be
different from either of its parents. Such plants are
called hybrids. Gardeners and plant breeders often
cross plants to combine the good qualities of both parents
in one plant and to cause to appear new qualities that
neither parents have.

New varieties are developed from the seeds of these
new kinds of plants. All the different kinds of corn are
supposed to have come from one ancestor (which
may have been a hybrid). Possibly many of the
varieties were produced by saving seeds from plants
that were different from their parents. In the same
way all the different kinds of kidney beans, musk-
melons, and tomatoes have been developed by selecting
seed from plants that differed from their sister plants.

The various members of the cabbage group illustrate
well how gardeners have developed from a common stock

I2O

Gardening

FIG. 71. The two kinds of flowers of a corn plant. At the left is the "tassel,"
which bears the staminate flowers. At the right is the cluster of female
flowers that forms the immature ear. Each thread of this "silk" is a part
of a pistil, the portion outside of the husk being stigma. The pollen tubes
reach the ovules (which develop into the kernels) by growing down through
the silk.

plants that differ markedly from one another. The wild
cabbage, now growing on the chalk cliffs of England and
elsewhere, is believed to be the ancestor of all the culti-
vated members of this group. It is a rather scrawny plant
with comparatively few leaves, but under cultivation in
various climates there have been developed from it :

(1) kohl-rabi with its few leaves and thick, fleshy
stem;

(2) kale, with many but separated leaves ;

(3) cabbage, with the great bud on the top of the
stem developed as a compact head of leaves ;

Seeds for the Garden 121

FIG. 72. The two kinds of flowers borne on a summer squash plant; a, pis-
tillate flower, complete ; b, pistillate flower with calyx and corolla removed to
show the pistil ; c, staminate flower, complete ; d, staminate flower with calyx
and corolla removed to show the cluster of stamens.

(4) Brussels sprouts, in which the buds on the sides of
the stem develop as small heads ; and

(5) cauliflower, in which the first flowering branches
are thickened and fleshy.

Selection of seed has given us all these different types
of the cabbage group, and further selection has also
developed many varieties of each of these different types.
Thus there are now many kinds of cabbages, differing
in size and shape of the head, in color, and in the length
of time required for growth.

Crossing the white scallop pumpkin with the crook-
neck pumpkin (usually called summer squash) gives in
the second generation many types of fruit, varying in

122 Gardening

A"eu> Jersey Ex pi. stn.

FIG. 73. Three new varieties oi squashes produced by crossing a white scallop
summer squash (P, at the left side of picture) with a warty, yellow-colored sum-
mer crookneck (P, at right side). The photograph shows three new varieties
that have been produced. The upper row shows a type of short-necked "jug"
fruit of medium size with a smooth, cream-colored surface. The middle row
shows a longer-necked type of "jug" fruit, somewhat like the crookneck in shape,
but green-striped and not warty. In the lower row the fruits are very thin-
fleshed, nearly spherical, cream-colored, and not warty. After the first crossing,
the plants were selected and self-bred for five generations, after which some of
the new kinds would breed true enough to make new varieties.

shape, size, color, and quality of flesh. Selection and
breeding of these hybrids will develop new varieties
(Fig. 73).

New varieties are usually first described in the seed
catalogues as " novelties." In the course of time
novelties may become standard varieties, or they may be
discarded because they prove unworthy of cultivation.

How the plant breeder works. In cross-breeding
plants, the breeder needs to know for a certainty what
the parents are. He, therefore, first selects the two
plants that he wishes to cross. Then he applies the
pollen from one of them to the pistil of one or more
flowers on the other. To prevent self-pollination or
stray cross-pollination he may remove the stamens from
the flower that is to be pollinated, cover it with a paper
bag, or carry out such other measures as* may be neces-

Seeds for the Garden 123

New Jersey Expt. Sta.

FIG. 74. Result of crossing summer squashes with the field pumpkin. The
large cream-colored, pear-shaped fruits in the center of the upper row and
the somewhat flattened white or yellow-colored fruits in the bottom row
are offspring of a cross between the white scallop and the field pumpkin.
The large, elongated, warty fruits in the center row were obtained from
among the offspring of a warty "jug" fruit (itself a hybrid) crossed with the
field pumpkin.

sary. What he does depends on the kind of flowers
borne by the plants.

The plants that grow from the seeds produced in this
way are hybrids, or cross-breeds. In some cases (for
example, in peas and corn) the cross-bred seeds them-
selves may show that they are hybrids, but for the study
of characters like the shape of leaves and the size and
color of the fruit, the hybrid plants within the seeds
must be grown to maturity.

Usually the first generation of hybrids between two
stocks that are not themselves hybrids are all very much
alike. They may resemble one parent in one way and
the other parent in another way. In general appearance
they often seem to be a blend of the two parents.

When the plant breeder saves seed from some of these
first-generation hybrid plants, and raises the second
hybrid generation, this generation of plants usually
shows wide variations. Among these the plant breeder

124 Gardening

looks for new and valuable
kinds. In some respects the
plants may be like one or the
other of the original parents,
but there are often forms

FIG. 75. Showing how a tomato ji^ are Hiffprpnt in <;nmp
flower is prepared for hand pollina-
tion, a, the stage before shedding features from either parent

of pollen when anthers are removed : , 1-1 v i

b, flower with stamens removed; and Which When Selected

pistil fully developed and ready for may y i e ^ new and Valuable
artificial pollination.

varieties that will breed true.

In his work the plant breeder self-pollinates the
flowers, if possible, of the individuals of the hybrid gen-
erations. But in some plants the pollen will not ferti-
lize the ovules on the same plant, or the pollen and pistils
mature at different times, so that cross-pollination must
be practiced. In studying hybrids, one can obtain a
clearer idea of their resemblances to the original parents
if attention is given to only one character at a time.
The exact way in which a plant breeder goes about his
work can be better understood from a study of the
cross-breeding of a particular plant, like corn or the
tomato.

Cross-breeding corn. Plants of two varieties of corn
may readily be crossed, provided they bloom at the same
time. Let us suppose that rows of the variety of white
corn known as " S to well's Evergreen " are planted alter-
nately with rows of the black variety called " Black
Mexican." The tassels on the plants of the Evergreen
can be removed as soon as they appear and before they
shed any pollen. The wind will then carry pollen from
the Black Mexican to the pistils of the Evergreen, and

Seeds for the Garden 125

the seeds in the ears of all the Evergreen corn will be
black. Or the cross can be made by removing the tassels
of the Black Mexican and allowing the pollen from the
Evergreen to fall on the pistils of the Mexican.

Another way is to do the crossing by hand. Stalks
bearing two ears may be selected. One ear is used for
crossing and the other as a " check " to compare with the
hybrids produced. Each ear is properly " bagged,"
and as the pistils and pollen mature, the bags are
removed, the pollinations made, and the bags replaced.
The exact method of doing all this is best learned by
experiment (page 143).

When the plants (first-generation hybrids) are grown
from these seeds, self-pollinations of these may be made.
Later generations may be grown from both white and
black kernels to determine which breed true. As a rule,
it is necessary to cross-pollinate in breeding corn, because
the pollen produced by the tassel usually matures before
the silk on the same plant is ready to receive it. Self-
pollination is easier in the tomato, and in the different
varieties of pumpkins, which include the summer
squashes.

FIG. 76. An ear of a white variety of sweet corn that grew near a row of Black
Mexican corn. Can you explain why some of the grains are white and some are
black?

126

Gardening

Cross-breeding toma-
toes. Any two varieties
of tomatoes may be
crossed. If they are
planted together in
spring, they are certain
to have some flowers
opening at the same
time. For experimental
purposes it is well to
select two varieties with
marked differences, as,
for example, a yellow
pear-shaped variety and
a red variety of ordinary
shape.

As the stamens and
pistils are both found in
the same flower, it is

been bagged to protect them from other nCCCSSary, if One is to be
pollen. . . . .

certain of the parentage,

to remove the stamens from the flowers that are to be
pollinated (see Fig. 75).

Cross-breeding pumpkins. The patty pan, the sum-
mer crookneck, and the pumpkin may all be crossed,
yielding interesting results as to shape, color, and size
of fruits in the second hybrid generation. The stamens
and pistils are in separate flowers on the same plant.
The pistillate flowers may be recognized in the bud by
the enlarged part (ovary) which will later become the
fruit.

FIG. 77. A cluster of tomato flowers have

Seeds for the Garden

127

FIG. 78. Two squashes grown from the same
packet of seed purchased for summer crook-
neck. Both have the characteristic color of
the crookneck, but the one on the left is en-
tirely distinct from the crookneck in shape.
A variation such as this may be the result
of crossing or of sporting and may give rise
to new varieties.

To prevent pollina-
tion by insects, the
pistillate flowers are
bagged shortly before
they open. As the
stems of squash flowers
are tender and brittle,
special care must be
used to prevent injury
to them.

Keeping varieties
true to kind. After
valuable kinds of
plants have been pro-
duced, the seedsman
still has the problem of keeping them true to type.
Even the best varieties of vegetables produce some
worthless plants and plants not like the parent
stock ; also many varieties of garden plants cross-
fertilize easily. Therefore the well-known and stand-
ard varieties must be kept true to kind in seed
breeding by preventing accidental cross-pollination
between varieties and by discarding, either as seed
or pollen parents, the plants that are not true to the
variety.

The different varieties of the same species nearly
always cross readily. If grown close together, they
may bloom at the same time, and insects or the wind are
likely to bring about cross-pollination. Different kinds
of beets, of radishes, of corn, and of many other plants
may be grown at a distance from each other, or the seed

128

Gardening

FIG. 79. A portion of the seed trial grounds of a large seed company. Each
row is numbered, and a careful record is kept of the growth and yield of the
plants. Reliable seed firms spend much money in keeping up the quality of the
seeds they sell.

will often be of mixed parentage. When this is the case,
they may not be true to varieties.

Most standard varieties are already highly bred and
are the result of repeated selection ; they appear to have
reached their limits as far as the development of desirable
qualities is concerned. Variation in such highly bred
varieties most often gives rise to poorer plants. The
seed breeder watches carefully and pulls up such poor
plants (or " rogues/' as he calls them), so that they
cannot become the parents of his later crops.

Seed growing an important industry. The best
seedsmen maintain extensive fields for growing seeds of
plants of standard varieties. They also have large
growing plots for testing the seeds of other growers and
for experimenting in the production of new varieties.
Special and often expensive apparatus is used for collect-

Seeds for the Garden 129

ing and cleaning seeds. For many varieties the best seed
is produced only in certain localities where the climatic
conditions are especially favorable. The average gar-
dener has neither the time, the experience, nor the facilities
for the successful seed growing of most garden crops.
Because of these facts, he can buy good seeds of most
crops cheaper than he can raise them.

Buying seed. The first rule in buying seeds is to
buy those produced by a reliable firm. The best seed firms
take great pains to prevent mixing of different varieties
during growth and seed production. They have trial
grounds for testing the purity and the quality of seeds
before the supply is sold in the market. This makes sure,
to a high degree, that the seeds sold in packages will be
true to the name on the package. The gardener can-
not afford to plant poor seed, even if it is offered as a
gift.

The second rule in buying seeds is to buy only named
varieties. The gardener does not grow simply sweet corn.
He grows Golden Bantam, Country Gentleman, or some
other variety, and he selects these for such qualities as
earliness or lateness, size, yield, color, or sweetness.
The ordinary seed catalogue affords a choice of several
varieties of most garden vegetables. There may be
listed as many as 10 varieties of carrots, 25 of cabbages,
30 of sweet corn, 35 of lettuce, and 45 of tomatoes.
The gardener must decide what variety or varieties he
will grow. Naturally, he hopes to select those that
will give the best results in his garden.

The descriptions in the seed catalogues give much
valuable information regarding the general characteristics

Gardening

of the varieties listed. For example, the pole and bush
varieties of beans, the summer and winter radishes, and
the early and late varieties of the garden peas are prop-
erly listed and briefly described. One soon learns from
the seed catalogues alone, if there is no other source of
information, that there are wide differences between the
various sorts of the same vegetable. A study of the
descriptions in catalogues will help the beginner, before he
grows his crops, to judge the merits of different varieties.

Van Ernie Kilpatrick

FIG. 80. Seeds put up especially for New York City school children. The
Board of Education contracts with a seed firm for sets of seeds suitable for plant-
ing a small garden.

Seeds for the Garden 131

The advice of experienced home gardeners will often be
of special value.

The beginner in gardening should choose standard
varieties. These will usually give the most successful
crops. They are standard varieties because by long
trial they have been known to give the best crops. If
the gardener fails in growing standard sorts, he may be
sure that the fault lies in cultural conditions, especially
if his neighbors succeed with the same varieties.

As the gardener gains in experience, others besides
the standard varieties may be tried with results that may
give pleasure as well as profit. Sometimes new varieties
are found to be far better than the older varieties in
one or more desirable qualities.

Amount of seed needed. Before ordering seeds, the
amount of each kind needed should be rather carefully
estimated. A single packet of small seeds, such as
lettuce, tomato, radish, or cabbage, is sufficient for a
small garden. It is well to become familiar with the
amount necessary to sow a given area. An ounce of
beet seed, for example, will sow a row of about 25 feet.
Of the larger seeds, such as bean and corn, a half pint
is needed for a row of 50 feet. With a good plan of the
garden, one can determine very accurately the quantity
of seed needed. No more than this amount should be
ordered.

Seeds can be bought cheaper in bulk than in small
packets. In a half pound of corn, costing about 25
cents, there are more than three times as many seeds
as there are in a lo-cent packet. Any group of persons
(a garden club, a school, a class, a troop of Boy Scouts)

132 Gardening

who are engaged in gardening will find it to their advan-
tage to order in bulk and then divide the seed into
packets themselves.

How to produce seeds in the home garden. Good
seed of several of the crops grown in the home vegetable
garden may be raised by the gardener himself. In grow-
ing these seeds, he needs to pay attention to the same
matters that the commercial seedsman does. He should
aim first to select parents which are true to the variety ;
next, to prevent cross-pollination between varieties ;
and finally, to collect and care for the seed prop-
erly.

The successful selection of seed and the judgment of
parents is least difficult in those plants whose fruits or
seeds are used as food. Melons, corn, tomatoes, and
beans are in this class. These plants make complete,
or almost complete, development as ordinarily grown
in the garden. With a little study the best plants may
be selected for seed parents. The largest and earliest
fruits from best-yielding plants may be saved for their
seeds. To insure a good pollen parent for corn, it is an
excellent plan to cut out those stalks that bear no ears,
and break off, before the pollen is shed, the tassels of the
plants that have small ears.

In selection for those plants like the salad plants and
the root crops, attention is given especially to the edible
parts leaves, stems, or roots rather than to the
fruits or the seeds. The annuals of this group, especially
lettuce and radishes, tend to produce some poor plants
which " run to seed " early. These should be pulled
up before they blossom. If a few of the earliest of the

Seeds for the Garden 133

best plants are left standing for seed, both parents will be
good.

The biennials (plants that blossom in the second year
from seed and then die) require more attention than the
annuals. In the more northern parts of the United
States, to secure seed of the beet, carrot, cabbage, and
turnip, the roots must be carefully stored over winter
where they will not be frozen, and replanted the following
spring. This treatment may be difficult for the average
gardener, because he may not have a proper storage
place. Plants of salsify and of parsnips, however, can
be left in the ground over winter, and in the spring some
of the plants with the best roots may be transplanted
to a convenient place and left to mature their seeds.

Seed of crosses do not breed true, and if varieties of
the same plant grow near each other and bloom at
the same time, they usually cross. This is especially
true of corn, beets, various members of the cab-
bage tribe, cucumbers, melons, tomatoes, and lettuce.
Thus, cabbage will cross with kohl-rabi ; any two sorts
of cucumbers may cross ; and all sorts of muskmelons
can hybridize. But cucumbers will not cross with
muskmelons, as is commonly believed. If only one
variety of a given vegetable sort is grown in a garden,
there is, of course, no chance for crossing with other
varieties unless another garden is near by.

Early and late varieties that bloom at different times
have no opportunity to cross. The first ears of an early
corn, like Golden Bantam or Malcolm, are not usually
crossed with late varieties growing in the same gar-
den. In a few of the garden crops, peas and beans

134

Gardening

for example, the flowers
are so constructed that
self-pollination is very
general ; so there is lit-
tle chance for crossing,
and any seed collected
is likely to be of single
parentage.

Collection of seed.
The best methods of
collecting seeds depend
chiefly on the nature of
the fruit and how the
seeds are shed from it.
In all cases the aim is
to secure fully ripened
seeds and to collect them
before they are shed
broadcast.

The fleshy fruits of
the pumpkin, squash,
cucumber, and tomato, selected from plants of good
quality, should be allowed to ripen fully. They may
then be cut open and the seed removed, washed, and
spread out on paper or cloth to dry.

The best radish plants should be pulled when the
majority of the pods are fully ripe. The best bean
plants should be pulled when the pods are about to shed
their seeds. In both cases, the whole plant should
then be laid in a dry place for a while before the
seeds are removed.

States Relations Service
FIG. 81. A tomato plant marked for seed.

Seeds for the Garden 135

Seeds of lettuce are small and shell quickly. The
easiest way to collect these seeds is to wait until a
large number of the heads are ready to shed their seeds,
then pull the plants and insert the top portion in paper
bags. Hang them, with the heads down, in a dry place
until the seeds have dropped into the bag.

The heads on a plant of salsify ripen and shed seeds at
different times, and so the seeds must be collected by
hand from each as they ripen. In some localities seeds
of the New Zealand spinach ripen and fall to the ground,
where they may be very easily collected. Ears of corn
selected for seed should be allowed to ripen fully on the
plant; then after they are pulled the husks should be
stripped back and the ears hung up in a dry place.

The ten plants listed above are those from which seed
can most readily be obtained in the ordinary home
garden.

Storage of seeds. To keep seeds properly from year
to year, or until the next planting time, they must be
kept dry and protected from mice and insects. The
larger seeds may be kept in cloth or paper bags, but the
smaller seeds should be placed in envelopes and each
envelope plainly labeled with the name of the variety and
the date of collection or purchase. A tin bread box is
excellent for the storage of seed ; mice cannot get into it,
and the ventilator holes allow the air to circulate and
keep the seeds dry. Tin cans with close-fitting covers are
just as good, but two or three small holes should be
made in the cover to give ventilation. Do not store
the seed box in the cellar. A dry garret is a better
place.

136 Gardening

Fumigation for insects. Seeds of corn, peas, and beans
are especially likely to be destroyed by insects (larvae of
moths and weevils), and sometimes the eggs of these are
laid on or even in seeds about the time they are har-
vested. It is well, therefore, to gather these seeds as
soon as mature and fumigate immediately upon storing
them. Also examine the contents of seed boxes occa-
sionally and, if insects are present, fumigate again with
carbon bisulnd.

To fumigate, paste paper over the perforated areas of
the box and place an open dish containing two table-
spoonfuls of liquid carbon bisulnd within the box and
on top of the seed ; then immediately fasten the cover
on tightly.

Caution! Carbon bisulnd is highly inflammable. Its
gas readily catches fire if flame of any kind is near. It
also affects human beings quite like chloroform. Do
not breathe in the fumes ; do not take light or flame into
the room when fumigation is in progress. It is best to
place the box in the open, but the gas forms poorly if the
temperature is below 50 F. All fumigation should be
done by mature persons who understand fully what care
must be taken.

Seed treatment before planting. In a later chapter
we shall learn of certain plant diseases that are caused
by bacteria or by fungi. These bacteria and the spores
of the fungi, in some cases even the strands of fungi,
may be present on or in seeds, ready to grow and feed
upon the young plants when they germinate. This
condition may be indicated, especially in large seeds like
those of the bean, by the presence of blotches or dark-

Seeds for the Garden 137

colored sunken or shriveled areas. Seeds showing such
infection should never be planted.

It has been found that the proper use of hot water,
formaldehyde, and the deadly poison, corrosive sub-
limate, will often destroy the organisms that are present
on or in the seeds. Thus the farmer has learned how to
treat the seeds of oats for the smut disease. In much the
same way seeds of beans, corn, onions, cucumbers, and
beets can be treated for various diseases.

Seed treatment must be done carefully. In the first
place there is danger of injuring the seeds ; then different
kinds of diseases require different kinds of treatment;
also, we must remember that some of the chemicals
used for this work are deadly poisonous to man. Seed
treatment is not to be attempted by children unless
under the constant supervision of a fully competent
person.

Viability of seeds. When the tiny plant or embryo in
the seed begins to grow, we say it " germinates." A
seed in which the embryo is alive, so that the seed will
germinate, is called " viable." Whether a seed will
germinate depends upon (i) the maturity of the seed
when collected, (2) the conditions of storage, (3) the age
of the seed, and (4) the kind of seed.

If seeds are ripe when collected and if they are properly
cared for, the length of time that those of the principal
garden crops will remain viable is as follows :

2 years sweet corn, onion, parsnip, and salsify.

3 years bean, parsley, and pea.

4 years carrot, mustard, pepper, and tomato.

5 years cabbage, cauliflower, kale, kohl-rabi, lettuce,

138 Gardening

FIG. 82. A germination test of corn and beans. The seed planted in the left
half of the box is good ; that planted in the right half is poor.

muskmelon, watermelon, okra, radish, pumpkin, squash,
spinach, and turnip.

Up to 10 years cucumber and endive.

Seeds of parsnip, parsley, and celery are always rather
poor in viability, and only 60 to 75 per cent of the seed
will germinate.

As a rule not every seed in a given lot will germinate,
but at least 70 per cent should do so if the seed is in good
condition. Beans, peas, corn, radishes, and tomatoes
often germinate 95 per cent or more. If less than 70
per cent germinates, some of the plants that do appear
are likely to be weak.

Test for germination. One cannot tell for certain
from the appearance of seeds whether they will germinate
or not. It is therefore a good plan to test the viability of
seeds, especially if they are known to be more than one

Seeds for the Garden 139

year old. Do this several weeks in advance of the
planting dates, so that there will be time to secure a
new supply if necessary.

There are several simple methods of testing for ger-
mination. One plan is to count out a number of seeds
and plant them in garden soil in a seed box, a flat, or a
pan. Place this seed pan in a warm room, in a green-
house, or in a hotbed. Keep the soil properly moist.
The number of seeds that germinate will indicate how
viable the seeds are.

Another simple method is the blotter test. A blotter
is laid on an ordinary plate, seeds are placed on the
blotter, and the whole is covered with an inverted plate
and kept in a warm room. If the blotter is saturated
with water daily, the seeds will receive sufficient moisture
for germination. The proportion of embryos that start
to grow may readily be observed.

Thus we learn that when we plant seeds we are placing
in the earth little plants which we hope to grow to maturity
for the food they afford. The care which is given in prepar-
ing the soil, planting the seed, and rearing the plants deter-
mines to a large extent what the quantity and special
quality of the food will be. But the kind of plant and
the kind of food it will produce is already determined
through its parentage and ancestry.

We cannot afford to plant poor seed. We can avoid
many of the risks regarding quality of seed. We can
buy seed of pure varieties or strains from reliable firms,
or we can control and select the parentage when pro-

140 Gardening

ducing seed in our own gardens. We can properly store
and care for seeds to maintain their natural viability,
and we can test samples of seeds to determine if the
little plants in them are alive.

Questions

Why is it important for a gardener to plant good seed ? What
advance has recently been made in selecting seed parents ? De-
scribe the structure of a seed. Name the four different parts
that you have found in the flower of the bean. What do the
anthers contain? Where are the ovules found? What do they
become when they mature? What is pollination? Why is it
necessary? How is it accomplished? What is self-pollination?
cross-pollination? Describe what happens in fertilization. From
what does the embryo grow ? Why is it important for a seed to
have a good pollen parent?

What is a hybrid ? How are new varieties of plants obtained ?
Name a group of vegetables that illustrates the development of a
number of varieties from one ancestor. Name the members of
this group. What is meant by keeping varieties true to kind?
How is this done in seed breeding? Describe briefly the general
methods used by the plant breeder in cross-breeding. What can
you say of the characteristics of the first generation of hybrids?
of the second generation of hybrids? State briefly how corn is
cross-bred; tomatoes; pumpkins.

Why should seed be bought of a reliable firm? Why should
only named varieties be bought? How may the gardener deter-
mine how much seed to order?

From what garden vegetables is seed for planting most easily
obtained? Explain some of the things that must be done to
insure good seed from corn or from annuals like radish or lettuce.
How may seed be obtained from biennial crops, like parsnip and
salsify ? Under what conditions are different varieties of the same
vegetable apt to cross ? What garden crops readily cross ? Would
the pollen of corn lead to fertilization if placed on the pistil of a
pumpkin or tomato ?

How should seeds be stored in the home? How can insects

Seeds for the Garden 141

in seeds be killed? Why are seeds sometimes treated with hot
water or formaldehyde before planting ? When is a seed "viable " ?
Name two methods of testing the viability of seeds.

Things to Do and Observe

1 . To study the parts of flowers. Examine flowers of the different
garden plants. Learn to recognize the parts. Which have sta-
mens and pistils present in the same flower ? Which have them
in different flowers? Do flowers having only stamens produce
fruit ?

2. To study pollination. Watch the insect visitors to flowers.
What are they seeking? How do they cause pollination? Ob-
serve how the pollen of corn is distributed.

3. To observe the germination of pollen. The pollen of some
plants will germinate on a drop of sugar solution. Add i heaping
teaspoonful of cane sugar to 10 teaspoonfuls of water. When
the sugar is all dissolved, place a drop of the solution on a clean
glass slide. Scatter pollen from a freshly opened anther on
the drop. To prevent drop from drying, lay slide across
top of a small dish containing water and then invert and place a
larger dish so that it incloses both slide and small dish.

Pollen of the paper white narcissus, which may be grown during
winter, and of the sweet pea or Easter lily, which may be had
at florists', germinate well in this solution. Pollen of the apple
may be used in spring, and that of the tomato and beans during
summer.

The pollen of many plants germinates poorly if at all on sugar
solutions unless agar is added to make a jelly. l Place \ teaspoon-
ful of powdered agar (weighing about i gram) and 2\ teaspoonfuls
of table sugar (weighing about 10 grams) in 20 teaspoonfuls of
water (weighing about 100 grams). Heat to gentle boiling until
agar and sugar are dissolved. When cool, the mixture is like
jelly. To use, gently heat until mixture becomes liquid and then
place a drop on a glass slide. The drop soon cools and becomes

1 Agar-agar may be obtained from any of the many houses which
deal in scientific apparatus and supplies; of these Eimer and Amend
of New York City may be mentioned.

142 Gardening

solid; then the pollen may be scattered over it. Keep in moist
air as directed above. The pollen of corn, which does not ger-
minate on sugar and water, germinates readily on the agar-sugar-
water mixture.

If the pollen is in good condition, it often germinates in an
hour; and the tubes may grow until they are ten times as long
as the pollen grains are wide. Examine the germinating pollen
under a compound microscope and note the delicate, slender,
tube-like plant with its almost colorless granular living material
that grows from the pollen grain.

4. To observe the location of the ovules. Split a few pistils of peas,
beans, squashes, or cucumbers after the corolla has withered and
fallen and the fruits have begun to develop. Find the ovules,
that are developing into seeds.

5. To learn varieties of garden vegetables. Observe closely the
individual plants of the various garden crops and learn to judge
those that are best and truest to type. In this way learn to
distinguish the varieties of each crop.

6. To learn to recognize the seeds of garden vegetables. Make a
collection of the seeds of garden vegetables, keeping each kind
separate in wide-mouth bottles of suitable sizes. Square, screw-
top glass jars of one-half-ounce and one-ounce sizes (to be obtained
at most drug stores) are excellent for such a collection. Note the
characteristics of each kind and how it differs from the others.

Also collect, study, and learn to recognize the seeds of common
weeds.

7. To test the viability of seeds. Make the two tests for viabil-
ity mentioned in this chapter, using as many different kinds of
seeds as possible. Record the results in your garden notebook.

8. To demonstrate that pollination is necessary for fruit and seed
production. Select at least four corn plants having ears from
which the pistils ("silks ") are not quite ready to protrude. Invert
over each ear a paper bag (two-pound size), and fit the open end
around the ear at a point slightly above the middle ; then tie the
bag in place with ordinary twine. The end of the ear is thus
completely inclosed within the bag, and no pollen can reach the
pistils.

Leave the bags undisturbed on half the number of ears until
there is no chance that pollination can occur (this will be about
10 days from the date of bagging). Examine the other ears from

Seeds for the Garden 143

day to day, carefully replacing bags. When the pistils are pro-
truding in abundance, sprinkle pollen over their ends by shaking
it from a cluster of staminate flowers (tassels). This operation
should be repeated each day for several days, as the pistils do
not all mature at the same time. After about 10 days examine
again, and if the ends of the pistils are dry and shriveled, the
bags may be removed and each ear tagged or otherwise marked
for future identification.

Allow all plants to mature fully. Which ears bear seeds?
Which do not?

9. To learn how to cross-breed corn. Select a stalk of a white
or yellow sweet corn (StowelPs Evergreen will do) bearing two
ears, and another of Black Mexican also having two ears. (If
stalks bearing two ears are not found, select two stalks of each
variety.) "Bag" each ear at the proper time as directed above
in 8. Pollinate one ear on each stalk with pollen of the other
variety, and the other ear with pollen of the plant itself or from
another plant of the same variety. Tag the ears.

Which parent do the hybrid seeds resemble in color ? Can you
identify hybrid kernels of this cross when borne by the white
seed parent? by the black seed parent? Is black or white a
dominating character in this cross?

Plant some of these cross-bred seeds from both parents. When
the plants flower, bag some of the ears and make self-pollinations
as directed in 8. Count the black seeds and the white seeds on
each ear. Which are more numerous? What is the ratio?
Do all ears give the same ratio ? Are there any kernels intermediate
in color between black or white, or are there other colors?

10. To learn how to cross-breed tomatoes. Select a cluster of
tomato flowers in which two or three of the blossoms are freshly
opened ; that is, when the flowers are open but the yellow petals
are not expanded or the stamens cracked open (a of Figure 75).
First, remove all the stamens with a pair of slender-pointed,
curved forceps; to do this, take hold of each stamen near its
apex, pull outward with a gentle twist and break the anther from
its stem. As the pistils are not yet ready for pollination, they
must be left for a while ; during this time they should be guarded
from stray pollination.

After removing all the stamens of the several flowers, inclose the
entire flowering branch in a paper bag of about two-pound size.

144 Gardening

Wrap a small handful of cotton about the stem where the mouth
of the bag is to be tied, and then tie the bag to the stem (Fig. 77).

In about 2 days the flowers thus prepared may be pollinated.
From the plant that has been selected for the pollen parent remove
a flower having fully expanded petals and anthers that are shedding
pollen. Hold this flower by its stem and shake pollen directly
from the stamens on to the ends of the pistils to be pollinated.
Tag each flower cluster, rebag, and leave for about 5 days, or
until it is certain that fertilization has been accomplished. Then
remove the bags, allow the fruits to become fully ripe, and collect
the seeds.

Note whether the fruits that come from the cross-pollinated
flowers on the original parents are like the other fruits on the
plant in color, size, and shape. If, for example, pollen of a yellow-
fruited parent is used on pistils of a red-fruited parent, are the
fruits red or yellow? How does this compare with crosses of
black corn on white ?

Grow first-generation hybrid plants from these seeds and self-
pollinate some of these for seed for a second hybrid generation.
Are the fruits of the first hybrid generation alike as to shape,
color, and size ? Which parent do they resemble ?

Grow a number of the second-generation hybrid plants. Are the
fruits of the various plants similar or very different in color, size,
and shape? How many are like the immediate parent (first
hybrid generation)? Do any resemble the grandparents? Are
any of the fruits new in respect to color? to size? to shape?
Do any characters of the original parents disappear in the first-
generation hybrids and reappear in certain of the second-genera-
tion hybrids ? Do the plants differ from each other in respect to
such characters as size, vigor of growth, shape and color of
leaves, amount of fruit produced, and earliness of ripening fruit ?

ii. To learn how to cross-breed pumpkins. Select a pistillate
flower that is nearly ready to open. Place a stick firmly in the
soil in an upright position beside this flower. Invert a bag over
the flower and tie it about the stem of the flower, protecting the
flower and stem with a small handful of cotton at the place where
the tie is made. Tie the bag to the stick also so that its weight
will be supported. Another way to keep insects from entering
the flower is to tie the ends of the flower with soft twine or strong
yarn. This prevents the flower from opening. As bees are likely

Seeds for the Garden 145

to carry pollen from one male flower to another, it is advisable
also to bag or tie unopened male flowers from which the pollen is
to be used later in crossing.

In from 24 to 48 hours, depending on development, the stam-
inate flowers whose anthers are open and shedding pollen may be
picked. Remove the bags from the pistillate flowers to be crossed,
and dust the expanded stigmas with some of this pollen. Then
rebag and leave for a period of 4 or 5 days. Tag or otherwise
mark the cross-pollinated flowers and allow the fruits to mature.

Grow the first and second hybrid generations, and study the
fruits which are produced.

CHAPTER ELEVEN

THE TIME FOR PLANTING

Planting time ! Time to get a spade and tear up the turf
somewhere : to clear a space and stir the soil and set in
it the roots of some lusty plant-foundlings, in hopes of
seeing what they will do when summer comes.

JAMES G. NEEDHAM

RADISHES are planted as soon as the soil can be worked
in spring. Lima beans are not put into the ground until
at least a month later. The seeds of these crops are
planted directly in the garden, but cabbages and toma-
toes are grown from plants started indoors or under glass
and later transplanted to the open ground.

These different practices are followed because through
long experience gardeners have learned that plants differ
in their temperature needs and in their growing periods.
Some kinds of seeds, germinate in cool soil. Others rot
unless the soil is warm. Some plants grow best in cool
weather. Some thrive only when the heat of summer
comes. Some crops grow quickly. Others develop
slowly, and it is necessary to start the seedlings early
to permit them to mature before the heat of summer or
the frosts of autumn check their growth.

The right time for planting a garden crop depends,
therefore, not only on the climate and weather of the
locality, but also on the heat and light needs of the crop
and the length of its growing period. It is well for the
gardener first to understand the temperature require-
ments of the various garden crops, and how long it takes
each one to mature. Then he can with profit study the
climate of his region. In this way he can find out much
that will prove of value in determining the right plant-

146

The Time for Planting

147

Purdue Agric. Expt. Sta.

FIG. 83. A group of home-made plant forcers. One is placed over each plant
or hill of plants. It has a frame of wood and a glass top. Each plant forcer is
thus a miniature greenhouse or cold frame that can be removed as soon as warm
weather arrives. In the illustration the forcers are being used on rhubarb.

ing dates for the vegetables he wishes to grow in his
own garden.

TEMPERATURE REQUIREMENTS AND GROWING PERIODS
OF DIFFERENT GARDEN CROPS

Garden crops may be divided into cool-season and
warm-season crops. The seeds of cool-season crops ger-
minate in the cool soil of early spring, and their seedlings
are not much if at all injured by moderate frosts.
The growing plants of this class thrive during cool
weather, and most of them mature during the cool
weather of either spring or fall. In the more south-
ern states many of these crops are " fall and winter "
crops, growing and maturing from September to
May.

148 Gardening

On the other hand, the seeds of many warm-season
crops rot in cool soil ; the seedlings are injured by cool
weather and are usually killed by frost. The plants
grow very slowly, except in hot weather, and they are
killed by the first autumn frosts. The more quickly
maturing of these crops are grown from seed planted in
the garden ; but in the northern part of the United States
the season is too short to allow those with a long growing
period to be raised entirely outdoors. The seedlings
of such crops are, therefore, started indoors or under
glass, and when the soil and air became warm, the plants
are transferred to the open ground. In the more south-
ern states the warm-season crops yield harvests from
May to October.

Quick-growing cool-season crops. Leaf lettuce, spring
radishes, spinach, turnips, and peas are short-period cool-
season crops. The seeds are planted in the garden as
soon as the soil can be worked in the spring, and the crops
mature before hot weather arrives. Onions from sets also
are grown in this way. As the seedlings endure frost,
first plantings of these crops can be made from ten days to
two weeks before the latest killing frost of the locality.

Crops of these vegetables may be grown in the autumn
also, by planting them late in summer. The varieties
that are best for autumn are often different from those
that are best for spring planting. During late summer
the conditions are rather unfavorable to the seedlings,
and properly starting the autumn crops requires more
skill than does the spring planting. Success with such
crops depends in large measure on careful nurture of the
young seedlings.

The Time for Planting 149

Forced cool-season crops. Many varieties of head
lettuce, pe-tsai, and spring varieties of cabbage,
kohl-rabi, cauliflower, and celery mature properly only
in cool weather. But they require so long a period for
growth that if seed is sown in the open garden, hot
weather arrives before the crop is grown. The gardener
meets this condition by starting seedlings indoors or in
cold frames or hotbeds so that he may have sturdy seed-
lings 5 or 6 weeks old ready for transplanting into the
garden about the date of the latest frosts, or if especially
" hardened," even before that time.

All these crops will thrive in localities where the
summers are cool, and in such places crops can often
be grown during summer. Local conditions of soil and
climate may also favor cool-season crops. A clay soil
is often a " cool soil." A soil poorly drained in spring
may be cool and well supplied with water in summer.
A northern slope sometimes gives a good location for cool-
season crops.

The late crops of these vegetables are usually grown
from varieties especially suited to autumn conditions.
But these usually require a longer period of cool weather
than is available in autumn, at least in the northern
states, where killing frosts may occur early in September.

In the North the autumn crops of these vegetables are
most successfully grown as follows :

The seed is sown in outdoor seed beds or in cold frames
in mid spring, after the cold frames have been emptied of
the plants grown for early plantings. Here they can be
well supplied with water and given the partial shade
that is necessary. The plants are then transplanted to

North Dakota Agrlc. Expt. Sta.

FIG. 84. Cabbage seedlings, photographed just after a spring snowstorm.
The cabbage is typical of a group of hardy plants that may be forced indoors
and transplanted to the garden early in the season. In the South these hardy
plants grow outdoors all winter.

the garden in time for them to become established before
the hot weather of summer arrives. The plants grow
slowly during the summer, but make rapid growth when
the cool weather of early autumn approaches. Celery
and cabbage will stand considerable hot weather if
abundantly supplied with water.

In the more southern of the planting zones and in a
considerable portion of the Pacific coast region, the mild
winter weather makes it possible to grow cool-season
vegetables as fall and winter crops.

The principal vegetables that can be thus grown are :
cabbages, cauliflowers, lettuce, onions, garlic, leeks, peas,
radishes, turnips, rutabagas, mustard, spinach, beets, and
carrots. The perennial onions and asparagus are of
course grown over winter here quite as in the colder zones.

The Time for Planting 151

South of a line drawn through northern Alabama, and
turning farther north along the Atlantic coast, freezing
temperatures occur only during December and January.
In this region such vegetables as turnips, rutabagas,
and cabbages mature in autumn from seed sown in
August and September. Seed of hardy plants like
radishes and smooth peas is sown in the open in Decem-
ber, the seed lying dormant in the ground, or the seedlings
growing slowly during the period when frosts occur
and then developing rapidly in early spring. In the
sections with cooler winters, as in the North, the seed
is sown as early in spring as it is possible to work the
soil.

Throughout the South, especially where freezing
temperatures occur during winter, cold frames are
valuable for rearing seedlings of such cool-season crops
as cabbages, lettuce, onions from seed, and beets. Seeds
are sown in October and November directly in the soil
within cold frames. Later, in January or February
(according to the locality and the vegetable grown), the
seedlings thus grown are planted in the garden and pro-
duce crops in March and April. Inexperienced gardeners
in southern states often make their plantings of cool-
season vegetables in March and April, which is the season
when these crops should be ready for the table.

Cool-season crops that endure summer heat and light.
Vegetables belonging to a second group of cool-season crops
have longer growth periods and demand cool weather dur-
ing their early life, but they continue to thrive or even
mature during the hot weather. Beets, Swiss chard,
carrots, parsnips, salsify, onions from seed, New Zealand

152 Gardening

spinach, kale, collard, and Irish potatoes are of this
class.

Early varieties of some of these vegetables mature
during summer, while other varieties mature later.
Swiss chard and New Zealand spinach continue to
yield leaves for use as greens throughout the summer.
In general, the seeds for these crops may be planted about
the dates of the last killing frost in spring. The very
early varieties of beets, onions, carrots, and Irish potatoes
may be planted somewhat earlier.

Perennial vegetables maturing crops in cool weather.
The standard garden crops of this class are rhubarb,
asparagus, and certain types of perennial onions whose
edible parts are used for food only during the cool weather
of early spring. These plants continue to live and grow
throughout the growing season, and they are left in the
ground over winter.

Warm-season crops of short growing periods. Many
warm-season crops grow quickly enough to mature
from seed planted directly in the garden. Of these crops,
sweet corn and snap beans may be sown about the date
of the latest killing frost. Okra, cucumbers, melons,
squashes, and lima beans are planted about two or three
weeks later, or after the soil is thoroughly warmed.

The gardener is often anxious to plant these crops
early, but such plantings may be injured by cool weather
or even " nipped " by late frosts. Hence it is a good
plan to make successive plantings. If the first plantings
are killed, the space can be given to some other crop.
Planting both early and late varieties of these vegetables
is advisable. Extra early crops can be secured by trans-

The Time for Planting 153

planting seedlings raised in cold frames or hotbeds, pro-
vided they are grown in berry boxes or dirt bands so
that they can be set in the ground without injury to the
root system (page 190).

Warm-season crops of long growing periods. These
are slow-growing vegetables, and in many of our northern
states, if seeds are sown in the ground, the plants do not
mature crops before the autumn frosts. The vegetables
of this group, which should be grown from forced plants,
are peppers, tomatoes, eggplants, and sweet potatoes.
To grow good plants, suitable for transplanting, requires
from 8 to 10 weeks, except the sweet potato, which re-
quires only about 5 weeks. Transplanting to the field
is done after all danger of frost is past.

Spring and summer crops in the South. The planting
of warm-season vegetables in the South is regulated
according to temperature quite as in the North, except
that the planting is done at an earlier calendar date and
the growing season is longer. Some of the warm-season
vegetables like bush beans do not thrive during the
Southern summer, and should begin to mature early.
The pole beans, however, do well during the summer.
Kentucky Wonder and Southern Prolific are good summer
varieties.

When seeds of the long-period warm-season vegetables
(okra, peppers, and especially tomatoes) are sown in
cool soil, even in the South, they usually fail to germi-
nate ; and if one waits until the ground is warm enough
to plant out of doors before sowing such seed, the crop
matures late. The early crops of these vegetables are
secured by growing the plants under protection in hot-

154

Presaue Isle, Me.

Grand Forks, N.D.
Burlington, VI.
Billings, Montana .
Omaha, Nebraska.
Boston, Mass.
Pueblo, Colorado
Washington,,!). C.
WichitZ,Ka.n.
St. Louis, Mo.
Norfolk, Virginia.
Macon, Georgia.
Memphis, Tenn.
Montqomery.Ala.
Columbia., S.C.
Dallas, Texas
Charleston. S.C.
Jacksonville, Fla.
College Stationjex.

Tampa. Florida. \
Galveston, Texas j

Key West, Florida, \

Gardening

1OO GROWING DAYS

125

16O

190

22O

2-4O

26O

350

365

Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr May Jun. Jul. Aug. Sep. Oct Nov Dec.

FIG. 85 Chart showing average length of growing season and when the season
begins and ends in various localities in the United States. Such a chart for
a locality, together with a table of planting dates for different vegetables (pages
348 and 349) are a great aid to the gardener in deciding what crops to grow
and when to plant them.

beds and cold frames and transplanting to the garden
when danger of frost is over. This may be in February
or later, according to the locality.

CLIMATE AND WEATHER

Except in the more southern parts of the United States
the actual work of getting the soil ready for planting can
be done only when the ground has thawed and dried out
after the winter's freezing. As spring advances, the
heat received from the sun during the day remains in
the earth longer at night, and finally the soil is warm
enough throughout the night to serve as the home of
the roots of young plants. About this time, and seldom
before, the soil becomes dry enough for spading.

The Time for Planting

155

radish - early

beans -bush.

peas

lettuce.

beets

cucumber

sweet com

bush squash,

onion from, sets

car rocs

lima beans

tomatoes

melons

pepper

ey^ plant

vine -squash

onion (dry) from seed

sweet potato

parsnip and 'salsify

Days:0 30 60 90 120 150 180

FIG. 86. Chart showing growing period of some common garden crops. The
solid line shows the shortest period in which early varieties of the crop can be
grown. The dotted line shows the additional time required to bring later varie-
ties into condition for use.

It is usually safe to begin planting the crops that stand
cool weather as soon as the soil is in condition to be
worked. In many parts of the southern states planting may
begin in January or February ; in the more northern states
the same crops cannot be planted until April or later.

The growing season. The actual growing season of
most vegetables extends from the date of the last killing
frost in the spring to the first killing frost in the autumn.
In the extreme southern part of the mainland of Florida
only half the winters bring killing frosts. As far north
as Tallahassee, Florida, and Austin, Texas, and also in a
narrow strip along the coast of California as far north as
San Francisco, the length of the growing season is 9
months or longer. In the extreme northern part of the

156

Gardening

The Time for Planting 157

United States it is less than 4 months. Over a consid-
erable area of the Rocky Mountain region and west-
ward, the growing season for garden plants is not more
than 90 days.

Planting zones. Although certain cool-season crops
can be planted in spring before the last frost, warm-
season crops should not be planted until after frost. It is
therefore very convenient, in planning for the spring
planting of both seeds and young seedlings, to know
about when the latest killing frost may be expected. One
cannot tell in advance exactly on what calendar date
this will occur, as it varies from year to year. But the
beginner in gardening will be helped very much by the
maps, prepared by the United States Department of
Agriculture, which show the planting zones, based on
the occurrence of frost.

In making these maps, lines are drawn through the
points where the average date of the last killing frost in
the spring occurs on the ist and the i5th of each month.
Thus the line for killing frost in midwinter crosses central
Florida and the extreme southern part of Louisiana. In
a narrow belt below this line killing frosts are likely to
occur each year, and below that they are likely to occur
only once in several years. Killing frosts usually occur
at points on or about this line about February 15.

Two weeks later (March i) localities much farther
north experience their latest frost. Each two weeks
sees the frost line move farther north (as shown on the
map, Fig. 88) until about June i, when the last killing
frosts in the United States occur in the extreme north-
ern parts of North Dakota and Minnesota.

Gardening

The Time for Planting

159

I!
II

160 Gardening

The eight lines drawn mark off into zones that part of
the United States east of the Rocky Mountains. In
each of these zones the range of planting dates in spring
averages about the same. The earliest dates for plant-
ing the various vegetables in these zones are given in the
table on pages 348 and 349. There are, of course, local
conditions, such as elevation, drainage, and the slope
of the land, not indicated on a map of this kind, which
change somewhat the planting dates as given. Each
gardener must find out for himself the more exact
planting dates for his own locality and his own gar-
den.

The western part of the United States is broken by
mountains and streams, which cause so much irregularity
in the frost dates that it is not possible to mark out this
area into definite planting zones.

The killing frosts of autumn. The first severe frost
in autumn kills most garden plants. Tomatoes, corn,
beans, peppers, and eggplants are killed or badly in-
jured ; beets, carrots, cabbages, lettuce, turnips, pe-tsai,
celery, endive, and kale are not severely injured and may
be left in the garden until just before the ground is frozen.
Parsnips and salsify can be left in the ground over winter,
but even these more hardy plants practically cease
growth with the coming of severe frosts.

In planning for late or autumn crops, and especially
for the succession crops, the gardener should know (i)
how long a period is required by the particular crop to
mature, and (2) when the first killing frosts are to be
expected. This is especially important in the northern
states, where frosts come earliest.

The Time for Planting

161

The average dates
of first frosts in au-
tumn are shown on the
map on page 159. In
making this map effort
was made to leave the
zones the same as in
Fig. 88, but the boun-
dary lines do not coin-
cide, because different
localities having the
latest killing spring
frosts at the same
time do not always
have the first killing
frosts of autumn at
the same time. The
map, however, aids one
in judging the proba-
ble date when the first
autumn frost will kill
garden crops.

A chart for latest
plantings. Knowing
the date when killing
frosts may be expected
and the number of
days required for a vegetable to mature, one can de-
cide when the latest plantings should be made, or
whether the entire growing season is too short for a
crop to reach maturity. This information has been ar-

FIG. 90. Low-growing garden crops may
be protected from an early autumn frost
by the method shown above. Peach bas-
kets or light boxes are inverted at inter-
vals along the row, and boards laid on them.
Then burlap bags, old mattings or carpets,
or any other coverings are spread over the
boards. Sometimes the season for vegeta-
bles like beans, tomatoes, peppers, and egg-
plant can be prolonged for weeks by pro-
tecting the plants on the one night of the
frost.

1 62 Gardening

ranged in a form useful for ready reference in the chart
on page 350.

Practical use of these maps and charts. Judging the
probable date of the latest frost in spring helps the gar-
dener to determine when to prepare hotbeds and cold
frames and when to sow seeds for plants that are to be
transplanted to the garden.

Knowing the temperature needs of the various crops
and the probable or average date of latest frost helps the
gardener to judge when to plant seeds or transplant
seedlings in the open ground during spring.

Knowing also the probable date of the first frosts in
autumn and the length of time the crops require for
maturity will enable the gardener to plant for late or
follow crops at the best time.

Local records of frost dates. The gardener should
keep an accurate record of the frost dates the earliest
in autumn and the latest in spring from year to year.
Such a record can easily be kept at the public school
of the locality in connection with garden work, or with
studies of physical geography or elementary science.

Reliable local records give an opportunity to correct
the general maps, which cannot show local conditions.

The longer such records are kept, the more valuable
they become for judging the average or probable dates
of frost. In connection with these records, it will be
helpful to keep notes regarding varieties planted, plant-
ing dates, date when first of crop is gathered, quantity
and quality of yield, and special treatment given in
respect to culture or fertilizers. Such data will help the
gardener later, in planning for the next year's garden, in

The Time for Planting 163

selecting varieties best suited to local conditions, in
planting these varieties at the most suitable time, and in
caring for them so that they will produce the best crops.

Questions

On what two factors does the right planting time for a garden
crop depend ? Into what two great classes may crops be divided
according to their heat requirements? Why are some cool-
season crops grown from seed planted directly in the garden and
others by the transplanting method ? Name some crops grown in
each of these ways. What conditions other than a cool climate
may favor the growth of cool-season crops? What perennial
garden vegetables mature in the spring?

What crops mature best in warm weather? Which of these
are grown directly from seed planted in the garden ? Which have
to be started under glass ?

What is meant by the "growing season"? What is meant
by a "planting zone"? In what planting zone do you live?
What crops listed in the chart on page 155 can reach full maturity
in your garden? In your region, when should winter cabbage,
requiring 120 days for maturity, be planted? curled endive, re-
quiring 90 days for maturity ? How can peppers and eggplants
be grown successfully in a locality having an outdoor growing
period of 90 days ? Why can parsnip and salsify be grown from
seed in localities where the growing season is 100 days or less?
How will this crop compare with that growing where there are 125
days in the actual growing season ?

Things to Do and Observe

i. To make a table of planting dates. Make your own locality
tables of earliest and latest planting dates, similar to those on
pages 348-350. Visit successful gardeners and see if your table
agrees with their judgment as to best planting dates. Do people
usually make mistakes by planting the various garden crops too
early or too late?

Record the dates of the last killing frost in spring and the first
killing frost in autumn, as they occur in your locality. Compare

164 Gardening

these with the averages on your map. Write to the United States
Weather Bureau and get the record of frost dates at the observa-
tion station nearest your home.

2. To learn to determine planting time by the advancement of
vegetation. The Indians ha<} no Weather Bureau records, but
they judged of the proper time for planting by the advancement of
the vegetation. "When the oak leaves are as big as a mouse's
ear, then plant corn," is the rule they gave the New England
settlers. Observe the early flowers and shrubs that are in bloom
and the buds and leaves on different kinds of trees as each vege-
table is planted. A record of these observations will be most
helpful in judging the variation in planting dates required by the
differences in seasons.

CHAPTER TWELVE

HOW TO GROW PLANTS FROM SEEDS

The sturdy seedling with arched body comes
Shouldering its way and sjiedding tjie earth crumbs.

ROBERT FROST

WHEN a live seed is planted under proper condi-
tions, it germinates. The tiny plant within it breaks out
of the seed coat, thrusts its roots out into the soil, and
pushes its stem and leaves up toward the light and
air.

To awaken the young plant in the seed to active growth
certain conditions must be supplied. And the time
when the little plant is leaving its old home in the seed
and establishing itself under new conditions is the
most critical period of its whole life. To get his crops
properly started, therefore, the gardener must under-
stand when and how to plant his seed and how to care
for the seedlings during their early life.

What seeds need for germination. When seeds are
planted, they lie with the soil particles all about them.
Everything they obtain comes through the soil, and if
they are to germinate and grow, the soil must be in
condition to supply their needs.

First water soaks into the seed and gives the living
cells of the embryo the moisture required for growth.
Water also softens and weakens the seed coat, which
permits the growing embryo to break out more easily.
Without water, seeds will not germinate, for, as we know,
dry seeds may be kept for years. And if the supply
of moisture fails after germination is started, the little
plant dies. When the embryo has once begun growth, it
is not able to stop and become dormant again as it was

i66

Gardening

in the seed. A continual supply of water is therefore
necessary.

With the very beginning of growth, the embryo needs

iSurfcuie of soil

FIG. 91. The germination of corn, bean, and squash. In the corn (a) the
little plant pushes out both stem and root and grows upward, leaving the seed
in the ground. In the bean (b) the root grows out and turns downward, and
then the part just above the root grows into an arch and pushes upward, dragging
the seed with it. After this the seed coat is burst open and the first two seed-
ling leaves (cotyledons) are freed. In the squash (c) the seed coat is caught
against a small "peg" just above the root and held, while growth forces the
cotyledons upward and pulls them out of the old coat.

an additional and constant supply of oxygen for respira-
tion. This comes from the air that is held in the spaces
in the soil. But if water completely fills the spaces be-
tween the particles of soil in which seeds are planted, the
seeds will decay because of lack of air, just as they do if
left in a dish with water covering them. Hence seeds
germinate best when the soil about them is moist with
capillary water but has no free water in it.

A certain amount of warmth is necessary to start
growth in a seed. The amount required is greater for
seeds of warm-season vegetables than for those of
cool-season plants. In fact, the best temperatures for

How to Grow Plants from Seeds 167

germinating the seeds of various garden crops differ very
widely.

Seeds of a cool-season crop, like mustard and cabbage,
will often germinate well at temperatures as low as 32
to 38 F. ; but the best temperature for their germina-
tion is about 60 to 80. On the other hand, seed of
melons will usually not germinate at all if the tempera-
ture is below 55 ; the best temperature for their germi-
nation is somewhere between 90 and 100.

Germination is most rapid at the more favorable
temperatures. Thus muskmelons require 12 days to
germinate with a soil temperature of 60, but will germi-
nate in 48 hours with a soil temperature of 88. This
shows clearly why nothing is to be gained by planting
seeds of the warm-season crops while the soil is yet cold.
If the soil temperature is too low, germination will not
take place at all and the seed may decay.

It is an interesting fact that many seeds will germi-
nate well at somewhat lower temperatures than is most
favorable for the later growth and development of the
plant. The garden mustard germinates at only a little
above the freezing point ; but by the time the seedlings
have become established, spring is more advanced, the
air and the soil are warmer, and the temperatures and
hours of sunlight are more nearly those required for
vigorous growth. The natural conditions prevailing in
spring and in summer are hence quite normal for the
changing needs of the plant.

The differences between the best temperatures for
germination and for growth are least for warm-season
crops. The seeds of melons germinate best at 90, which

i68

Gardening

is about the tempera-
ture most favorable
for vigorous growth of
the plant.

Preparing the ground
for planting. Before
planting, the ground
(which has already been
well spaded or plowed
and perhaps raked)
should be raked to
break up or remove
lumps and to secure a
surface layer of fine
soil. It is usually best
to plant a well-drained
and well-tilled garden
soon after spading, be-
fore the top layer be-
comes dried out. But
if a garden soil is poorly
drained and cold, it

may be spaded and left without raking, both in au-
tumn and in spring. For a time this will make the
soil cold because of the evaporation of water from
it ; but after the free water is gone, it will quickly be-
come warm. Before planting, however, the surface
should be well raked. The lumps will break up more
easily and a better supply of moisture will be held in
the ground if this is done as soon after a rain as the
soil will work properly. The surface mulch will check

!FiG. 92. Making ready for planting.
The surface of the soil should be raked
fine before marking out the rows.

How to Grow Plants from Seeds

169

evaporation and help to keep the soil both warm and
moist.

How to lay out and plant a row of seed. The seeds of
most garden vegetables are planted in shallow trenches
which make rows across the garden. In order to get
the row straight it is a good plan to make the furrow
along a tightly stretched line.

First drive a stake firmly at each end of a row. Then
stretch the line between the stakes so that it lies on the
ground. To make sure that the line is straight, lift it
near the center to a height of a few inches and allow it to

FIGS. 93 and 94. Laying out the rows. The furrow at the left is for fine seeds.
The furrow at the right is for coarse seeds or onion sets.

FIGS. 95 and 96. Planting. Only an expert can sow fine seeds successfully
from the packet as this person is doing. It is better for the beginner to put the
seed in a cup and take out a few at a time between his finger and thumb. Note
the even spacing of the onion sets.

snap down. It will then be straight if it has been
stretched taut.

Then make a furrow by drawing the edge of a square
hoe along against the line and pulling the dirt to the side
away from the line. In this way it is easy to make
quickly a straight furrow of a depth suited to the needs
of the seed to be planted.

In planting small seeds like those of radishes, lettuce,
onions, carrots, or beets, the seeds should first be poured
from the packet into a shallow dish or a saucer. Then a

How to Grow Plants from Seeds 171

FIGS. 97 and 98. Making and planting a double-row furrow. This method is
often practiced on very rich soils, particularly when space is limited. One ad-
vantage of the double row is that it gives increased yields for a given amount of
space ; another is that the plants in the double row support one another better
than in the single row.

few seeds may be taken at a time between the forefinger
and the thumb and scattered at proper distances along
the bottom of the trench. If even an experienced gar-
dener tries to sow directly from the packet he usually
spills the seed sooner or later.

Spacing the rows. Proper spacing of rows is necessary
to give the plants the room which they need for matur-
ing. The best spacing suitable to the particular crops
to be planted, to the sort of cultivation employed, and to

172 Gardening

other conditions of the garden should be determined in
advance of planting at the time when the garden plan is
made (see Chapter 8). Suggestions as to the proper
spacing of rows and of plants in the row will be given in
the directions for the culture of the various crops.

Depth of planting. If seeds are planted too deep, they
may die and rot because they are too wet and too cold
and do not have enough air. If they are planted' too
shallow, there is danger that they will dry out or be
washed out by heavy rains.

Different kinds of seeds have different germination
needs and must be .planted at different depths. Corn,
peas, and beans should be planted 2 or 3 inches deep ;
seeds of beets, cucumbers, squashes, and melons about
i inch deep; and small seeds like those of carrots,
radishes, lettuce, and parsnips only about \ inch. The
seedlings from the smaller seeds are not so strong as those
of larger seeds and hence are not able to push their stems
and first leaves ,up through so much soil. But one
cannot follow exactly any " rule of thumb " in planting.
Under the discussion of the various crops later, sugges-
tions as to planting will be given. However, it is well
to remember that, generally speaking, seeds should be
planted deeper in a loose, warm soil than in a cold, heavy
soil; and later in the season when the ground is warm
they should be planted somewhat deeper than in early spring.
Peas might well be planted 3 inches deep in light, sandy
soil, but not more than i inch deep in heavy soils.

Covering seeds. After sowing, the seeds should be
covered with soil, and usually this soil should be firmed
about the seeds. Firming brings the soil particles close

How to Grow Plants from Seeds

173

against the seeds, so that
the soil water can pass
into them and the first
roots of the little plants
can readily come into
contact with the soil.
It also increases the
amount of water in a
given volume of the soil
by pressing the soil parti-
cles closer together, thus
reducing the air space.

A sandy soil or a dry,
loose soil should be
firmed by walking slowly
along the row of planted
and covered seeds, tread-
ing the soil with the ball
of the foot but not with
the heel . A loam should
be firmed in the same
way when it is dry. If

a soil is moist, light strokes with the back of the hoe
will press it down sufficiently under most circumstances.
When very dry, a clay soil may thus be firmed with
the hoe ; but firming down a moist clay soil in any
manner will make it too compact.

After the firming, fine dust from between the rows
should be lightly raked over the planted row. This
leaves' a thin layer of dust mulch over the compacted or
firmed soil.

FIG. 99. Covering the seeds. Fine soil
should be drawn carefully and evenly over
the row.

Gardening

Proper firming of the
soil is especially im-
portant in summer plant-
ing. Without it the
seeds may lie in the
loose, dry soil and fail
to germinate. Or the
little seedlings may die
after germination starts,
because the tiny rootlets
may find their way into
air pockets among the
lumps of loose soil in-
stead of getting into
contact with soil parti-
cles that will furnish
the water that the plants
must have.

Watering at planting
time. Watering imme-
diately after planting
seeds is not advisable.
It compacts the surface
layer of soil ; then, when
this dries, it cracks and
gives out moisture very rapidly. If the ground is dry,
soak the area to be planted some 24 hours before plant-
ing. Then, after planting, rake up a surface mulch. To
hold the moisture in the soil it is often advisable to
shade carrots and Chinese cabbage that are planted
in hot weather until the young plants begin to appear.

, -. J5 /

FIG. 100. Watering the bottom of the
furrow before planting the seed. In dry
weather this is often done where the soil
is sandy or loose, but with clay soils care
must be used to prevent puddling.

How to Grow Plants from Seeds 175

REARING SEEDLINGS FOR TRANSPLANTING

Many vegetables can be brought to maturity earlier
by starting the plants indoors. The seeds are planted in
boxes or flats or even in cans that are filled with earth,
and the growing seedlings are kept in warm rooms or in
hotbeds. Literally, these boxes are small gardens in
which crops are grown until it is warm enough to plant
them out of doors. As soon as the weather permits, the
seedlings are transplanted to the garden; and because
they are already of considerable size and have roots and
leaves developed, they mature sooner than the same
crops would if the seed were sown in the garden.

In this way cool-season crops like cabbage, pe-tsai, and
lettuce may be brought to maturity before the hot
weather of summer arrives. Long-period warm-season
crops like tomatoes, eggplants, peppers, and sweet po-
tatoes can thus be had earlier in the season and may
also be matured where the outdoor season is shorter than
the plant requires for full growth.

One can often buy plants, ready for transplanting, of
such crops as cabbages, tomatoes, eggplants, and pep-
pers ; but often these plants are poorly grown and the
name of the variety is uncertain. The gardener will
find it to be an advantage if he can grow his own seed-
lings for transplanting, unless he can buy good plants
from a reliable source.

Making flats. Flats are shallow boxes or trays, about
3 inches in depth, in which seedlings are grown. They
are most easily made by sawing off the bottom part of
boxes of suitable sizes. Or they can be made from

176

Gardening

boards cut to the right
form and nailed together.
A few holes, \ inch in
diameter, should be
bored in the bottom to
allow good drainage.

It is well to make
flats of such sizes that
they will fit into avail-
able hotbeds and cold
frames without loss of
space. Six flats, 20X14
inches, conveniently fill
a single sash 6X3 feet
in area. Smaller flats,
however, are easier for
children to handle.

The seed may be germinated in small earthen pans
or in small boxes (cigar boxes will do), filled with
ordinary garden loam mixed with sand, and the seedlings
"picked" out, after germination, into the larger flats
containing richer soil.

Soil for the flats. A good soil for the seed flat is made
by mixing sand with the ordinary garden loam. If
a rich soil containing decaying manure and compost is
used, it is likely to force the young plants too rapidly
and lead to development of " damping-off " diseases.

For filling flats to which seedlings are to be trans-
planted, a good soil can be made from equal parts of sand,
good garden soil, and well-rotted manure or compost.
Sift the sand and soil through a fine sieve (galvanized

States Relations Service
FIG. 101. The easiest way to make a flat.

How to Grow Plants from Seeds

177

wire screening of J-inch mesh can be used in making the
soil sieve), but put the manure through a still coarser one
(| -inch mesh) . The sieves can easily be made by nailing
screening to wooden frames of convenient size.
Thoroughly mix the sifted materials, and if dry, sprinkle
with water until moist.

Such a soil is high in fertility, and it will remain
loose for some time under repeated waterings. If sand
is lacking, the drainage is likely to be poor ; if there is too
much manure, the plants are likely to grow too rapidly and
become " soft" and subject to " damping-off " diseases.

FIG. 102. A gardener's equipment for preparing the soil for flats and
pots. The earth is piled upon the bench in readiness for sifting. The soil
sieves have meshes of different sizes.

Gardening

FIG. 103. A professional gardener planting seed in a flat. The flats are con-
veniently supported on a board laid between the greenhouse benches, the rows
are laid out by a wooden strip of proper width, and the soil is firmed with the
tool resting against the left side of the flat.

Cover the drainage holes in the bottom of the flat with
pieces of coal, small stones, or broken earthenware.
Then fill the flat with the prepared soil, level off even
with the top, and firm the soil by pressure with a piece
of board. The flat is now ready for the planting of the
seed or for the work of transplanting.

Planting the seeds in the flat. Seeds may be scattered,
or they may be sown in rows in the flat. If they are
planted in rows, make furrows about 2 inches apart and
about | inch deep ; this is deep enough for the small

How to Grow Plants from Seeds 179

seeds of the vegetables usually thus grown. Scatter
seeds about i to J inch apart in the row and cover them
by sifting on more soil. If the seeds are scattered broad-
cast in the flat, -J- inch of soil should be sifted over the
seeds after they are sown.

Place labels at the ends of the rows, or if all rows are
of one kind, at the middle of one side. Record the
name of the variety and the date of the planting on each
label.

The first waterings should be made gently with a fine
spray. It is a good plan to lay a cloth (a coarse gunny
sack will do) over the flat and sprinkle water over it,
allowing the water to trickle through into the soil.
After the seeds have been planted, the flats are ready to
be placed where the seeds and seedlings ill obtain
warmth and sunshine. Water must be supplied daily as
needed.

Growing seedlings in window boxes. Seedlings of
vegetables like cabbages, tomatoes, and peppers can
be grown in flats in the home. As a rule, the plants
should have all the light a south window will give. Turn
the flats from day to day so that all sides may have an
opportunity to face the light. Extremes of heat and cold
injure the plants ; the room should not become too
hot by day or too cold at night. If the room approaches
freezing temperatures during the night, the flats should
be removed from the window to a warmer place. During
the night the flats may be covered with newspapers or
with a blanket.

An easy way to do this is to set the flats on the seats
of two chairs that face each other closely and then place

i8o

Gardening

a blanket over the backs so that it reaches to the floor
all around. A well-lighted basement in which the fur-
nace is located is often warm enough for growing seed-
lings.

Since water gives off its heat slowly, watering with
lukewarm water at bedtime helps to keep the soil warm
at night, provided evaporation is checked. But be-
cause of the cooling effect of the evaporation of water,
it is well, unless the plants are covered at night, to
water in the forenoon so that the top layers of soil are
rather dry at night.

The hotbed. A hotbed is simple in its construction
and is not necessarily expensive. It consists of a glass-
covered frame, which is placed over a bed of decaying
manure. The frame and glass keep out the cold air and
keep in the warmth ; the decaying manure supplies heat ;
the glass allows the sunlight to enter during the day.

The frame may be made of boards ij or 2 inches thick

Glass

Plan of

S-'-B 7^>-^ -=t^ > :' ' > / ^1fc- d ^y$^a^^^^~a:

FIG. 104. Diagram showing the details in the construction of a hotbed.

How to Grow Plants from Seeds

181

and is usually of the shape shown in the accompanying
diagrams. The top is fitted with glass sash, which is

FIG. 105. Diagram showing the completed frame of a hotbed.

given a sloping surface to shed the rain. The standard
size for the sash is 3 X 6 feet ; so a frame 6X6 feet will
be covered by two sash. A hotbed of this size is large
enough to supply plants for the small home garden, but
the size and shape of the frame may be made to suit any
sash that may be at hand. The sash of the storm windows
may be used as a covering, as the hotbed is not started
until the most severe weather of winter is past.

The hotbed should be located on a well-drained spot.
Its sloping surface should be fully exposed to the south.
On the north it should be protected by a fence, a hedge,
a wall, or a building. It should be near a supply of
water and within the vicinity of a building or basement
in which the work of seed sowing and transplanting from
flat to flat can be done very easily.

Making the hotbed. To make a pit hotbed, dig a pit
about 20 inches deep and of the exact size and shape
of the frame to be used. Then drive a post at least 6
inches in diameter at each corner, so that all the tops
are on a level about 6 inches below the surface of the
ground.

1 82 Gardening

FIG. 106. The first step in preparing the hotbed. Throwing in and trampling
down the manure.

The frame is then placed in the pit, with the corners
resting on these posts, and a nail driven through the
frame into the post at each corner. This arrangement
holds the frame firmly in place and keeps it from settling.

Next, pack fresh horse manure firmly into the pit to
a depth of about 16 inches. The manure should be
about two-thirds straw and should not have been exposed
to the weather. It is best for use when about 10 days old
and after it has been kept in a pile and forked over two
or three times. None but horse or mule manure is
satisfactory. Place the manure in the pit in thin layers,
trample each layer until it is compact, and be sure that
the corners are well filled and that the surface is level.

If seedlings are to be grown in flats, from 4 to 6 inches
of sand is then placed on the manure. If seeds are to
be sown directly in the bed itself (this is not recom-
mended) , good garden soil is used instead of sand. This
brings the level of the material within the frame up to
the level of the ground outside. Above this the front of

How to Grow Plants from Seeds 183

FIG. 107. Adding the soil and raking it smooth.

the frame rises 8 inches and the back 14 inches. Earth
or manure should be banked about the frame to its upper
edge.

The pit is finally well sprinkled with water and the
sash put in place. The decay of the manure gives rather
violent heating within a few days, but after about 10
days the temperature lowers ; the frame may then be
ventilated and flats containing seeds placed within.
Under no circumstances should seeds be planted or flats
with seeds be placed within the hotbed during the period
of violent heating. The temperature may be determined
by the use of a hotbed or a dairy thermometer. Thrust
the bulb end into the manure. The temperature will
often rise to 110 F. or higher ; when it drops to 80 or
85, and not before, it is safe to place seeds in flats
within the frame.

Surface hotbeds are made by placing the frame on
a bed of manure which is placed upon the surface of the
ground. No pit is dug. The frame is constructed as for

1 84

Gardening

FIG. 108. Planting the seeds and marking the rows. Here the seeds are be-
ing planted directly in the soil of the hotbed, but usually it is better to plant
them in flats and set the flats in the hotbed.

a pit hotbed. Manure is packed in the frame, and sand
added as in the pit hotbed. If kept well banked, the
surface hotbed is very satisfactory.

Management of the hotbed. To use a hotbed success-
fully, the amount of moisture and the temperature within
it must be properly regulated. Water should always be
applied in a fine spray from a sprinkling can or a hose.
The soil in the flats should never become dry, but too
much water is to be avoided. On cool, cloudy days very
little or even no water is needed. On bright, sunny days
the flats should be watered in the early forenoon and the
bed ventilated (unless the air outside is very cold) so
that the leaves of the plants will become dry before night.

Ventilation also is needed to regulate the temperature.
On warm, sunshiny days the hotbeds may become too
warm in the middle of the day. To reduce the warmth,
raise one edge of the sash on the side away from the wind
and place under it a block of wood or a brick to hold

How to Grow Plants from Seeds 185

the sash at the height desired. If the weather suddenly
becomes cold or cloudy, the sash should be shut down.

In extremely cold weather, and especially at night,
the sash may be covered with straw, blankets, old carpet,
or the matting which is made for this use. As spring
advances, the sash may be raised higher and for longer
periods during the day, until finally they may be re-
moved, to be replaced only on cool nights.

At the time seedlings burst from the soil they may be
somewhat " burned " by midday sunshine. This may be
prevented by spreading a single sheet of newspaper over
them during the middle of the day for a day or two.
Freshly transplanted seedlings should thus be shaded.
Plants standing in the middle of the frame will receive
more light than those at the edge ; so it is a good plan
to shift and turn the flats from time to time. Usually
the growing plants are given all the sunlight that is
available.

After it is properly started, only a few minutes are
required each day to care for the hotbed ; but daily
attention and management, according to changing
weather, is absolutely necessary for the best results.

Construction and use of a cold frame. A cold frame
consists of a frame with a sash or cloth covering. It is
usually placed directly on the ground. No artificial heat
is supplied as in the hotbed, but the frame affords pro-
tection from the cold air of the outside. The covering of
sash or cloth helps to retain over night the heat received
from the sun during the day.

Cold frames are especially useful for hardening seed-
lings previously grown in a hotbed. This is done by

1 86

Gardening

FIG. 109. A cold frame at the New York Botanical Garden. Flats
lings are placed in the cold frame for growth and for hardening.

transferring, at the proper time, the flats of seedlings to
the cold frame. Seedlings to be transplanted to the
garden in late spring or during summer may be grown
directly in the soil of the cold frames. The soil should
be well tilled and should contain only small amounts of
manure. One should never stand or walk directly on
the soil in a cold frame, but on a board placed on the
surface within the frame.

Transplanting from flats to other flats. It is not
best to leave seedlings of cabbages, tomatoes, celery,
lettuce, peppers, and eggplants in the flats in which the
seed was sown until they are large enough to transplant
to the garden. The soil is likely to become compacted,
and the seedlings are usually too crowded. It is there-

How to Grow Plants from Seeds 187

fore best to reset the plants once or even twice before
they are placed in the garden.

When the seedlings are about 2 inches tall, they may
be transplanted into flats which are filled with somewhat
richer soil than was used in the seed flats. In this trans-
planting the best plants can be selected and respaced
so that they will have sufficient room for further develop-
ment. One can thus avoid the common mistake of
growing many more seedlings than are actually needed
and of leaving them so crowded that none of ttie plants
will be well developed.

For example, if one needs 36 tomato plants for the

FIG. no. A gardener transplanting seedlings to a second flat. Only the more
vigorous seedlings are selected for transplanting.

1 88

Gardening

FIG. in. A home gardener transplanting her seedlings. They were grown
in a small window box and are being transplanted to a flat to give them more
room and to cause root development.

garden, a small packet of seed may be planted in a seed
pan or a flat 12X12 inches, or in a part of a larger flat.
Perhaps 200 seeds will germinate, and the seedlings
will be more or less crowded and irregularly spaced.
Of these, 50 of the best plants may be selected and re-
planted in flats so that they stand at least 2 inches apart.
In this way enough plants for the garden will be obtained,
and the chances are that most of these will be strong
and vigorous.

A second advantage in transplanting seedlings sev-
eral times is that it often stimulates a more vigorous
development of the roots. This is especially true of
celery. The main taproot, which tends to go straight
down, is broken, and side roots branch out which make a
much larger and better plant.

How to Grow Plants from Seeds 189

For cabbage, kohl-rabi, head lettuce, tomato, pep-
per, eggplant, and celery the young seedlings should
be transplanted from the seed pan to flats when from
i to 2 inches in height and given plenty of space in the
new flat. Transplanting from seed pans to flats, as the
plants become larger, requires more room in hot-
beds ; but by this time the weather will probably be
mild enough to allow the use of cold frames or temporary
shelters for some of the flats.

Special methods of growing seedlings. The seedlings
of bean, corn, pumpkin, squash, cucumber, and okra
may also be started in a greenhouse, hotbed, or cold

FIG. 112. Carrying seedlings that have been grown in a cold frame to the
garden for transplanting. This picture illustrates the proper way of carrying
a flat. Notice that the fingers of the right hand are crooked around the corner
of the box. By holding a flat in this way there is no danger of tipping it, or of
losing the balance of the box and thus dropping it.

IQO

Gardening

FIG. 113. A flat filled with dirt bands. A dirt band is very easily made; it
is merely a strip of cardboard folded to form a square, as shown in this illustra-
tion. Plants grown in this manner can be transplanted with almost no dis-
turbance of the roots.

frame. But seedlings of these grow rapidly and have
rather coarsely branched roots which make transplanting
difficult. They may be handled successfully by growing
a few seedlings each in wooden berry boxes, pots, or any
containers of small size.

When grown in flats, the plants may be arranged in
groups of from three to five and the roots of each group
kept separate by bands of cardboard, in what is called the
" dirt-band " method. In transplanting to the garden,
the mass of soil with the enclosed roots is not allowed to
break up. Tomatoes and cabbages can thus be grown
with a -single plant in each " dirt band " (see Figure 113).

Hardening plants. Plants should never be trans-
planted to the garden without hardening. The sudden

How to Grow Plants from Seeds 191

change from the warm air of the hotbed or greenhouse
to the open air may so injure the tender plant that its
growth will be checked for days. As the warmer weather
approaches and the plants that are being grown in flats
become larger, they should be exposed to the open air
for longer periods each day. Finally, they may be left
uncovered, even throughout the night. Shortly before
the plants are to be placed in the garden, flats may be
left without any other protection except that of near-by
buildings which keep off the winds. During the period of
hardening, the plants should be rather sparsely watered,
but care should be taken to prevent them from becom-
ing wilted ; their growth must not be checked in any
way.

Transplanting to the garden. Water the flats contain-
ing the plants thoroughly, at least an hour before the work
is to begin. This allows the cells of the plant to become
well filled with water, and it causes soil to adhere to the
roots. Dig well under the plants, breaking the roots
as little as possible. Reset a plant immediately, before
it has time to wilt. Make a suitable hole with a trowel,
set the plant somewhat deeper than it formerly grew,
completely fill in about the roots with fine soil, and
gently firm the soil about the roots. Be sure that the
soil is carefully filled in so that no " air pockets " are
left about the roots. In the school garden or in the home
garden there are usually so few plants to be transplanted
that one can afford to take time to do the work well.
Water the plants by applying small amounts in a fine
spray at intervals of a few minutes, so that the water
sinks into the soil without any puddling.

192

Gardening

FIG. 114. Right and wrong ways to treat a potted seedling before transplant-
ing. The plant at the left was kept well watered and the roots were undisturbed.
The transplanting will check its growth only slightly, if at all. The roots of the
plant in the center were also undisturbed, but the plant has been given no water
for 24 hours. It will probably be set back severely in its growth. The plant at
the right was kept watered, but the roots were pulled from the soil and left ex-
posed to the air for about an hour. It will take it some time to get a new root
system fixed in the soil. The plant on the left will make a better plant and will
mature fruit at least one or two weeks before either of the others.

Replanting, even when carefully done, destroys some
of the roots of a plant, and for a time those that are left
may be unable to supply the leafy parts with all the
water they need. For this reason freshly reset plants
should be kept shaded from direct sunlight for at least
24 hours after the replanting; in hot, dry weather a
shading for 3 days may be necessary. Protection from
the sunlight may be had by arranging a sheet of news-
paper, lifted in the center like a wedge tent (not as a
cone) , with dirt or stones thrown on the corners to hold
it in place ; or a shingle may be thrust in the ground
on the sunny side. Do not place earthen or paper pots
over young plants to shade them, as this does not allow

How to Grow Plants from Seeds

193

air and light to harden them properly. The plants will
often become more tender when thus covered.

It is best to reset plants late in the afternoon or during
damp, cloudy weather if possible. In transplanting leafy
plants like lettuce and cabbage, it is a common practice
to cut or shear away part of the larger leaves and thus
decrease loss of water by reducing the leaf surface.
Plants grown in pots, berry boxes, or dirt bands can be
transplanted with very little injury to the root system.

If compelled to buy plants for transplanting, the
gardener should select the most stocky plants and in-
sist that they be carefully removed from the earth,

U. S. D. A.

FIG. 115. The effect of transplanting on the root development of celery plants.
The two plants at the left were transplanted several times ; those at the right
were grown without transplanting.

194

Gardening

sprinkled with water, and
completely wrapped to
prevent drying out. They
should then be replanted
as soon as possible, us-
ing great care in handling
them to prevent bruising.
Pulling plants carelessly
from flats, bruising and
breaking them in han-
dling, and leaving them to
dry out before replanting
will surely result in a
tardy growth and perhaps
failure of the crop.

The outdoor seedling
bed. Seedlings for trans-
planting may often be
grown to advantage in an

TIG. no. btrawberry boxes make very <

satisfactory covers for newly trans- Outdoor Seedling bed. Its

planted seedlings. They are light, easily
packed away, and provide ventilation
for the plants.

location in the spring
should be on a well-
drained soil and in a

sunny and sheltered place. The soil should be put in
good condition by cultivation and by the addition of
sand, lime, humus, and manure, as may be needed.

Such a bed is also of special value for starting seedlings
of autumn crops of lettuce, beets, cabbages, and kale.
During the late summer, seeds planted directly in the
garden often fail to germinate well. In a seed bed,
special care in preparing the soil, watering the seedlings,

How to Grow Plants from Seeds

and protecting them
from hot sunlight pro-
vides vigorous young
plants for transplanting.
Time required to
grow seedlings for
transplanting. To be
most successful in grow-
ing seedlings for trans-
planting, the gardener
must have plants of
suitable size and hardi-
ness ready for planting
at the proper time. The
length of time required
to bring plants to this
condition differs for the
various kinds of vegeta-
bles and for the differ-
ent varieties of each
kind. It also varies for
a single variety according to the differences in the prep-
aration and management of the window boxes, hotbeds,
cold frames, or seed beds. The beginner can safely
start the germination of seeds of cabbages, lettuce, and
tomatoes from 5 to 6 weeks before the time for trans-
planting to the garden. Peppers and eggplants are con-
siderably slower in growth and require a longer time.
Corn, beans, squashes, and melons grow very quickly
if proper conditions are supplied ; 2 or 3 weeks may be
sufficient for these.

FIG. 117. An outdoor seedbed. Such a
seedbed is especially useful for starting
seedlings for the autumn crops.

196 Gardening

With experience, one will learn how to handle the
various seedlings under the local conditions of weather
and the method of treatment used. It is a good plan
for the beginner to make a record of the dates of plant-
ing seed and transplanting, and of the results obtained
in growing seedlings of the different varieties for trans-
planting. This will serve as a guide in the following
seasons.

Questions

Describe the germination of a seed. What are the three main
requirements for germination? Why does too much water in
the soil hinder germination? Discuss the temperature require-
ments of different seeds for germination. Describe the proper
method of laying out and planting a row of seed.

How deep should the seeds of corn, beans, and peas be planted,
usually? seeds of beets, cucumbers, squashes, and melons?
carrots, radishes, lettuce, and parsnip? Name some conditions
that make it advisable to plant seeds deeper or shallower. When
is it of special value to firm the soil? Why? When should the
soil not be firmed ? Why is it best not to water seeds immediately
after planting ?

Describe the transplanting method of starting crops. With
what kinds of crops is this method used?

What is the best soil for a seed flat? Why should a very
rich soil not be used? What kind of soil should be used in the
flats to which seedlings are transplanted? How should it be
prepared? How should the seeds be planted in a flat?

How may seedlings of the tomato and cabbage be grown in
the home?

What is a hotbed ? Where should a hotbed be located ? What
is a pit hotbed? How is it made? When should the seeds or
seedlings be placed in the hotbed ? What is a surface hotbed and
how is it made? How should a hotbed be watered? How is it
ventilated? What is a cold frame? What are its principal
uses?

How to Grow Plants from Seeds 197

What is the advantage of transplanting seedlings at least once ?
What is the " dirt-band" method? How does it help in trans-
planting ? What is meant by " hardening " seedlings ? Why is
it necessary? What points need to be especially watched in
transplanting seedlings to the garden ? Why do plants often need
protection after transplanting ? When is the best time to reset
plants ? Why are some of the leaves often removed when a plant
is reset ?

What are the advantages of an outdoor seed bed ?

Things to Do and Observe

1. To observe the germination of seeds. Plant seeds of pea,
bean; squash, and corn in flats, boxes, or pots. As soon as ger-
mination is noticed, dig up seedlings of each kind and study the
various stages of germination. How does the first root get out of
the seed coat? How do the stem and leaves get out? What
does the root do if it emerges from the upper side of the seed as
planted? What becomes of the part or parts containing stored
food ? How do the stem and first leaves force their way through
the soil to the air above ? Does the position of the seed in the soil
increase or retard germination in any way ?

2. To show the effect of too little water on germination. Fill two
flats or pots with garden soil. In each flat or pot plant seeds of
corn, squash, radish, cabbage, bean, and tomato. Place both in a
warm room or in a hotbed. Keep only one watered. In which
do the seeds germinate better ? Why ?

3. To show the effect of too much water on germination. Select
two earthen flowerpots of the same size ; or if these are not avail-
able use tin cans, preferably at least 6 inches in diameter. If pots
are used, plug the opening in the bottom of one with a cork stop-
per; if tin cans are used, leave one intact, but make several
holes in the bottom of the other one. Fill with garden soil and
plant in each an equal number of seeds of beans or corn.

Keep both together in a warm room. Add the same amounts
of water to each every day, so that one is kept well watered and
well drained and the other is kept with free water standing at the
top. In which does germination take place better?

198 Gardening

After two weeks dig up the seeds in the one that lacked drainage
and note their condition. What does this show about the amount
of water that should be in soils in which seeds are germinating?

4. To show the influence of temperature on germination. Prepare
and plant two flats as directed in 2, above. Place one flat in a
warm room, and place the other out of doors or in a cool room.
Give the same amount of water to each. Observe and explain
differences in germination of the same kind of seeds in the two
flats. Note if the seeds of the cool-season crops germinate to
any degree in the flat kept out of doors.

5. To show the importance of careful transplantation. Watch
a number of different gardeners or school-garden pupils when they
are transplanting. Carefully note the methods of each. Then
if you can, visit the same gardens in a few days and see how the
plants transplanted by one person compare with those transplanted
by another. Recall the methods of each gardener, and then try
to determine from what you have observed why some of the
plants grew better than others.

CHAPTER THIRTEEN

THE CARE OF GROWING CROPS

It is not enough merely to plough and hoe, and plant
and sow ; you must see that everything is done in proper
time and order.

Old Farmer's Almanac

IN caring for the growing crops, as in all garden opera-
tions, much depends on doing the right thing at the
right time. In general, the best time for giving at-
tention to a crop is before the need for doing a particular
thing becomes apparent. Crops should be cultivated,
weeded, and watered before they begin to suffer for the
lack of such care.

Each crop grown requires a certain special treatment
because of its own peculiar habits of growth, but these
can best be treated in discussing the various crops.
Most crops also need protection from insect and fungous
pests, and the most important of these will be discussed
in special chapters. However, there are certain prin-
ciples which generally apply in caring for all crops, and
these will be treated in this chapter. The principal
divisions of the work of caring for vegetable crops are
(i) cultivation or stirring of the soil between the grow-
ing plants, (2) weeding, (3) thinning and replanting,
and (4) irrigation.

Cultivation of the soil. Cultivating the soil destroys
weeds, which if left to grow soon cover the ground and
choke even the most vigorous of the vegetable crops.
It breaks up the crust which forms on the surface of the
soil and allows air to enter the soil and reach the roots,
and it keeps the water in the soil by making a dry, loose
surface mulch. Constant cultivation is so important in

199

200

Gardening

Purdue Univ. Agric. Expt. Sta.

FIG. 1 1 8. A garden in need of cultivation. The surface crust should be
broken to admit air more uniformly to the roots and to conserve the soil moisture.

preserving a sufficient supply of water for plants that we
should thoroughly understand how a surface layer of
fine, loose soil keeps the water from escaping into the air.

How a dust mulch prevents loss of water from soil.
The water in the soil can travel in any direction by pass-
ing from particle to particle, just as oil travels up the
wick of a lamp by passing from thread to thread. It
moves from the places where it is most abundant to the
places where there is less of it ; hence, when the surface
layers of the soil dry out, the water in the damper soil
below creeps up toward the surface. In this way the
water in a soil is brought to the surface and evaporated
into the air.

But if the surface layer of the soil is cultivated, it is
broken loose from the soil below. Then the water
finds no direct path from particle to particle upward ;
the connection of the upper layer with the soil below is
broken. Hence the surface soil soon dries out because its

The Care of Growing Crops 201

supply of water from below is cut off. This dry surface
layer then covers the soil below like a heavy cloth
spread on the ground.

Beneath a good surface mulch of dry soil the earth
is moist, even after long periods of dry weather ; and
when a soil in good physical condition (see page 58) is
kept moist in this way it remains loose so that the roots
can easily penetrate it. Thus the mulch not only saves
the water for the plants, but it keeps the soil in good
physical condition for the roots.

When to cultivate. Rainfall and surface irrigation
destroy a surface mulch. Hence the garden should be
cultivated soon after each rain or irrigation. If one
waits several days, a dry crust will form and the surface
will become cracked and broken up into coarse lumps.
Much water is lost in this way ; also such a soil is in poor
condition for the roots.

Shallow cultivation should begin as soon as the seed-
lings are above the ground, and if seeds are slow in
germinating, as are parsnips and carrots, the soil should
be stirred before the plants are up. Crops need more
careful and more frequent cultivation while they are
young than they do later, for the roots are nearer the
surface and the soil is less shaded ; hence the roots are
more exposed to the drying effects of the sun and air.

In cultivating young crops, work the rake or tool
used in such a way that fine loose dirt is thrown about
the base of seedlings or even over seedlings that are not
yet above ground. Cultivate after each rain as soon as
the soil is dry enough not to stick to the tools. Do not
draw the cultivating tools so close to plants that the main

2O2 Gardening

root is touched. Fleshy roots like beets and carrots,
especially, may be injured in this way.

Tools for cultivating. In cultivating the small garden,
short-handled weeders with claw-like teeth, midget and
longer-handled prong cultivators, hoes, and garden
rakes may be used. For the larger garden a wheel hoe
with various cultivator attachments is an excellent tool.
In still larger gardens horse-drawn or tractor cultivators
may be used.

All these tools should be used so as to stir and break
up the surface of the soil. A depth of i inch is usually
enough to cultivate ; certainly one should seldom go
as deep as 2 inches. Such shallow tillage does little injury
to the roots of growing crops. It is important always to
cultivate at about the same level, for the feeding roots
of most crops reach near the surface and deep tillage
(to a depth of 3 inches or more) after shallow tillage may
destroy many roots and thereby check the growth of the
plants.

The best tool for surface tillage is a garden rake.
No other hand tool can do the work as effectively unless
the soil becomes much compacted ; then the hoe or the
Norcross weeder is better. When the crops are growing
in rows that are too close together to permit the use of
an ordinary garden rake, a small steel rake, 4 or 6 inches
wide, with numerous short teeth, is most useful. If it is
fitted with a long handle, the work can be done rapidly
and without much stooping. Shallow surface cultivation
is of course very necessary in periods of dry weather,
in order most fully to check the loss of water from the
soil.

The Care of Growing Crops

203

Van Etrie Kilpatrick

FIG. 119. "Thorough and clean culture is the watchword of the successful
gardener." Old Farmer's Almanac

Weeding. If a garden is properly tilled for maintain-
ing the surface mulch, weeds never get large enough to
become a menace, at least between the rows. Weeding,
therefore, becomes simply the task of pulling by hand
the weeds that appear close to the growing plants. Such
weeds should be pulled when they are small, before they
crowd and shade the growing plants and rob them of water
and food materials. If for any reason the weeds do be-
come large, special care should be taken in removing them
so that the roots of the growing crops are not injured.
Weeds of large size may be cut off just below the surface.

The roots of a weed (or of a vegetable that stands
close beside other plants of the crop) are often much en-
tangled with the roots of a plant that is near it, and by

204

Gardening

FIG. 1 20. When the soil is dry, the row should be watered before thinning.

careless weeding or thinning, the roots of the plant may
be badly broken and loosened in the soil, so that the plant
will have a great part of its water supply cut off. Hence
weeding is best done at a time when the soil is moist, or
even quite wet ; and it is best to do the weeding on cool
days or in the late afternoon, especially if the crops have
become tender and weak through much shading by weeds.
If such precautions are not taken, crops may be severely
checked in their growth. It is the using of common
sense in such matters that makes one person a more
successful gardener than another.

Thinning. Crops that are grown from seed sown in
the garden often need thinning. The roots of individual
plants need room to spread and feed in the soil, and the
leaves need plenty of room in the air. Crowded plants
always grow poorly. Thinning should be done early,
so that the young plants may be properly spaced from the

The Care of Growing Crops

205

first. The same sort of care that is exercised in weeding
should be employed in the thinning.

Plan to give room according to the particular need of
the plant. Radishes require less room than salsify
and parsnips : tomatoes require more room ; corn and
the various vine crops still more.

The thinning of some crops, as beets and carrots,
may be delayed until some of the plants are large
enough to be used as food. In thinning beets for use
as greens, it is often best to cut off the roots rather

FIGS. 121 and 122. Thinning corn and onions. It is well to plant thickly
because in this way a full stand is insured ; but the beginner often makes the mis-
take of allowing too many plants to remain in the row.

206

Gardening

FIG. 123. Watering in the wrong way and at the wrong time. The water is
being sprayed over the plants in the middle of the day. In consequence much
of it will evaporate without reaching the roots of the plant. The soil and not
the plants should be watered, and this should be done later in the afternoon or
on a cloudy day.

than to pull them, to avoid loosening the plants left
standing.

Replanting. Seed may germinate poorly, or seedlings
may die from such causes as improper care, or the at-
tacks of animals and insect or fungous pests. This gives
a poor stand. The vacant areas in the rows should be
filled by replanting with seeds or with young plants
of the same or even of some other crop. In this way
every bit of the garden may be kept occupied. In re-
planting, it is often advisable to use a quick-growing
variety that will mature not far behind the first plant-
ing ; but if the growing season admits of it, various other
vegetables may be planted as companion or follow
crops.

The Care of Growing Crops

207

Irrigation. In humid regions the natural rainfall is
such that there is seldom a complete failure of all crops.
In arid regions the rainfall is not sufficient to support
any crop, and the necessary water must be supplied
through some sort of irrigation. But provision for irri-
gation is also highly desirable in humid regions, for here
it does not always rain when the crops need water.
Periods of drought occur at some time nearly every year,
during which time the plants suffer, their rapid growth
is checked, their qualities of tenderness and good flavor
are greatly impaired, or pos-
sibly they may fail com-
pletely to produce a crop.
Therefore it pays the gar-
dener to have ready some
means of supplying water
whenever it may be needed.

For watering flats, hot-
beds, and cold frames, and
for watering at time of trans-
planting, the sprinkling can
is sufficient. But only a
very small garden can be
watered in this way.

A hose fitted with a spray
nozzle and connected with
a city water supply, a tank,
or a force pump gives excel-
lent results. Various sorts

of lawn Sprinklers, "water FIG. 124- The right way to water.
. The water is directed to the soil about

witches, and ring or shower the roots of the plants.

208 Gardening

FIG. 125. Usually when irrigation is spoken of we think of the dry region of
the West, but this photograph shows the Skinner system of overhead irrigation
in action on a New Jersey truck farm. With a system of this sort the gardener
has no fear of dry weather.

sprinklers may be attached to distribute the water in a
manner like rain.

When there is a supply of water under pressure, the
overhead or Skinner system of irrigation is well adapted
to the needs of the home garden. This system con-
sists of galvanized iron pipe into which holes are drilled
and fitted with fine brass nozzles. One end of the pipe
is closed ; the other is connected with the water supply.
When in action, the water spurts from each nozzle in a
fine stream to a considerable distance. The pipe can be
turned with the row of nozzles at various angles until
areas on both sides of the pipe are well watered. A
portable support and hose connection will enable one to
shift the pipe as needed, or several lengths of pipe
sufficient to cover the entire garden may be attached to
rather permanent supports.

The Care of Growing Crops 209

If the garden slopes somewhat, shallow trenches
may be made between the rows of plants with a hoe, and
then water may be allowed to run along these trenches
as needed. In arid regions this method of irrigation is
in very general use.

Whatever method of irrigation is employed, it is
best to soak the garden thoroughly at intervals of several
days rather than to water slightly at rather frequent
intervals. As soon after irrigation as the soil is suffi-
ciently dry, go over the garden with a rake, making a
fine surface mulch.

In watering crops with hose or sprinkling can, avoid
applying heavy and continued streams that wash the soil
away from roots, exposing them to the air. Soil may be
packed and puddled also by careless watering. Leafy
crops like lettuce often decay and rot if the head is rilled
with water.

Questions

In what three ways does surface cultivation benefit growing
crops? What is a dust mulch? How does it prevent loss of
water from the soil ? Why is it necessary to cultivate soon after
each rain ? How should young crops be cultivated ? Name the
best tools for cultivating a small garden.

Why is it best to pull weeds when they are small ? When is the
best time to do weeding? Why is this the best time? Why do
crops need thinning ? How is it best done ? Why should vacant
places in the rows be replanted ? When is the watering of gardens
necessary? Describe the proper methods of supplying water.

Things to Do and Observe

i. To show that a dust mulch retains water. Procure two deep
water-tight tin cans of the same size. Fill both with clay soil,
and water each thoroughly. Let stand until the soil can be worked.

210 Gardening

Then make a good mulch on the surface of one, leaving the other
as it is. Now weigh each accurately, recording the weights.
After about a week weigh each again, and compare the weights
with first weighing. Which has lost more in weight ? Why ?

2. To determine the best time for pulling large weeds. Two boys
started a garden together in the spring. They kept it in good
condition, but went to the seashore during July. When they
returned, they found many large weeds shading and crowding the
vegetables. One boy said: "Let's take out the weeds right
away. They're shading the vegetables and taking the water
from them." "No," said the other, "that will not do at all.
The weather's hot and dry, and if we pull the weeds now we'll
break the roots of the vegetables all to pieces and they'll wilt
for lack of water. We must wait till it rains." They consulted
a gardener, who advised them to cut the weeds off and cultivate
with a hoe but not to pull them during dry weather. Who do
you think was right ?

Plant three hills of bush beans with four plants close together in
each hill. After they are well grown, try thinning to one plant in a
hill by each of the above methods, studying the results in each case.

3. To show the effects of thinning. When you plant your
radishes, plant 3 feet of the row very thickly, and do not thin.
Plant and thin the rest of the row according to directions. When
the radishes are ready to gather, pull up the crowded plants and
also a yard of the row that has been thinned. Count the number
of edible radishes in each lot and compare. From this experiment,
would you say that thick planting gives greater or less yield to
a given space ? Observe the gardens in your neighborhood and
determine whether too wide spacing or crowding of vegetables is
the more common.

CHAPTER FOURTEEN

ROOT CROPS AND HOW TO GROW THEM

Say what you will of roots and the root crop, I like to
have a good lot of them for winter use. I would not do
without them for twice their cost.

Old Farmer's Almanac

THE radish, turnip, rutabaga, beet, carrot, parsnip,
and salsify are the principal root crops commonly grown
in vegetable gardens. While these plants thrive best in
temperate regions, they are all grown successfully in our
southern states during the cooler months of winter and
early spring. The sweet potato is another important
root crop, but it is not adapted to the shorter growing
period of the more northern states.

Root crops are very important vegetables. In the
first place, they yield abundantly. There are 400 or 500
plants in a row of carrots or beets 100 feet long, and these
crops often yield at the rate of 600 bushels to the acre.
The yield is high also in the other root crops.

In the second place, root crops, taken together, are avail-
able for use during practically the whole year. Radishes
are the first vegetable ready for the table from seed
planted in the spring. Beets and carrots are long-season
crops, but the young and partially grown roots may be
pulled for use early, thus much extending the period
of harvest for the crop. Radishes and turnips can be
grown in the fall as well as in the spring, and in the
autumn the surplus of all root crops may be stored
for winter consumption. Parsnips and salsify can be
dug for use, during autumn and spring, and also dur-
ing winter when the ground is not frozen. These root
crops have a special value because they supply vege-

211

212 Gardening

tables to the table in winter when other fresh foods
are scarce.

A good soil needed for root crops. As a rule, the
root crops are " light feeders." This is because the root
system is not extensive. The main root grows down
rather deeply but becomes thick and fleshy, while the
smaller, fibrous, feeding rootlets are not so numerous
and so widely spreading as in many other crops.

Root crops, therefore, thrive best in a mellow soil in
which the roots can go deep. A rich and well- watered
loam or a sandy soil that contains considerable humus
and well-rotted manure is best for them. On heavy and
compact soils the roots of these crops are often small,
ill-shaped, knotty, and more or less branched. They
often fail on " raw " or previously uncultivated soils,
but with good tillage and the addition of humus and
manure such soils become suited to all the root crops.

Root crops maturing during periods of hot, dry weather
are likely to be woody and of poor flavor. This can be
prevented in large degree by supplying an abundance of
water.

Thinning root crops. The beginner often fails to thin
root crops sufficiently. The tops of these plants as a rule
are small compared to the underground parts, and they
are likely to be left so thick that the plants do not have
room to mature properly.

In thinning these crops it is best to allow a distance
between plants twice the diameter of a mature root.
Thus radishes, which are i inch in diameter when mature,
should stand 2 inches apart, and turnips, which are 3
inches in diameter, should stand 6 inches apart. If there

Root Crops and How to Grow Them 213

is plenty of space, twice
this distance may well
be allowed; but in a
small garden the plants
should be grown as close
together as practicable.

RADISHES

There are spring,
summer, and winter
varieties of radishes.
The spring sorts are
very easy to grow, but
one is less certain of
success with the sum-
mer and winter varie-
ties. Rich soil, abun-
dance of water, and cool
weather favor rapid

growth, which makes the soil first, making it easier for the other

the roots crisp, tender, s f ds to P ush U P> and they are soon out of

the way.

and juicy. As spring

and summer radishes remain in good condition for eat-
ing only a short time they are often overplanted.

Spring varieties. The planting of spring radishes
may begin as soon as the soil can be worked. Some vari-
eties are ready for use in 20 days from planting. Plant
the seeds rather thickly, \ inch deep, in rows 10 inches
apart Begin to pull the largest roots as soon as they
are large enough for use.

FIG. 126. Radishes grown as a com-
panion crop with onions. When planted
with another crop, radishes usually break

214 Gardening

Spring radishes are best when about two- thirds grown.
They should be gathered promptly, as they soon become
hollow, pithy, dry, and of strong flavor. The roots of
some sorts are well below the surface of the soil, and the
leaf growth is rather sparse. The beginner is likely
to leave these plants in the soil too long. The size may
be determined by carefully feeling in the soil about the
root of a plant with the finger.

During the winter months the spring varieties may be
forced in hotbeds throughout zones F and G, or in cold
frames in zone E, and they may be grown in the open in
zones B, C, and D. (For map of zones, see page 158.)

The Scarlet Globe (globe-shaped), French Breakfast
(oval or olive-shaped) , and the White Icicle (long, finger-
shaped) are excellent standard sorts to be recommended
for any section of the United States.

Summer varieties. Summer radishes are somewhat
resistant to the stronger sunlight, warmer temperatures,
and drier conditions of summer months. The seed is
planted in the early or late spring, and the roots are
ready for use in about 50 days. Success with these
varieties depends on supplying the conditions that favor
rapid growth. Rich soil, abundance of water, and
partial shade (the latter may sometimes be supplied by a
screen of thin cloth or laths) are necessary where the
summers are rather warm.

Chartier and White Strasburg are considered the best of
the summer radishes.

Winter varieties. Winter radishes require about 75
days of rapid growth to mature roots of large size. The
seed is therefore planted during the summer (in July in

Root Crops and How to Grow Them 215

the more northern states of zone G, about August i in
zone E, and September i in zone C) . The roots can thus
mature in the cool weather of autumn. Before the heavy
frosts occur, the roots should be pulled and placed in soil
or sand and stored in a basement or a storage cellar.

The Celestial (or White Chinese), the Long Black
Spanish (especially good for storage), and the Sakura-
jima (or Mammoth Japan) are standard varieties.

TURNIPS

The turnip is essentially a cool-season crop. The
different varieties are ready for use in from 45 to 70 days,
and the earliest sorts are usually those grown as spring
crops. There are about 20 varieties in cultivation. Of
these, Early Purple Top Milan, maturing in about 45
days, and White Globe, maturing in about 70 days, are
standard varieties suitable to nearly all parts of the United,
States.

Growing turnips as a spring crop. In many localities
spring turnips are not a success because hot weather
comes before they are large enough for use, and they soon
become woody and bitter. But in localities having
cool and moist summers, crops maturing during summer
are often of fine quality. For these crops lay out the
rows 1 2 inches apart and sow seed in the furrows J inch
deep.

The beginner should attempt to grow only the very
earliest sorts as a spring crop. Two sowings, each a row
15 feet in length, will probably be sufficient for the family
needs.

2l6

Gardening

FIG. 127. Pulling young beets. The beets are large enough for use and the
leaves are still tender.

The autumn crop. Seed for the autumn crop is sown
during July and August in the northern states and later in
the South (about 15 days later for each planting zone).

In the small garden where space is limited, seed may
be sown among corn to mature as a follow crop. First,
make a finely pulverized seed bed by thorough raking.
Then sow the seeds broadcast and lightly rake them in
or plant them in rows as in the spring. Supply water if
there is scant fall of rain. Cut and remove the corn-
stalks as the ears are harvested.

Turnips are not injured by mild frosts, but the. roots
should be harvested and properly stored before they be-
come frozen. In many sections of the southern states,
from Florida to California, turnips can be grown in the
open during the winter so that the roots are maturing
from October until April.

Root Crops and How to Grow Them 217

RUTABAGAS

Rutabagas or " Swedes " are grown much the same as
fall crops of turnips, but as they require about 90 days
to reach maturity, the seed should be planted three or
four weeks earlier in summer. The best crops are pro-
duced in the northern states in sections having cool
summers. The roots are larger than turnips, and they
keep somewhat longer in storage than do most other
root crops. Rutabagas are much used for feeding stock
and poultry, and they are excellent food for human beings.
They are especially pleasing in a " boiled dinner." The
Improved Purple Top and the Golden Heart are excellent
varieties for the family garden.

GARDEN BEETS

Seed catalogues list about 12 varieties of table beets,
differing to some extent in shape, color, size, and flavor,
as well as in the time required for proper growth. Al-
though these beets are to be classed as essentially cool-
season crops, they thrive during summer, especially in
the more northern planting zones.

For the first planting, sow seeds of an early variety
like Crosby's Egyptian about the time of the latest frost.
This will furnish tender, partly grown roots for use during
summer. Successive plantings of this variety may be
made for later use, but the latest date of planting should
be about 60 days before the first killing frost of autumn.

In the lower altitudes of the southern parts of Arizona
and California and in the Gulf States, seeds sown in
September will yield roots that may be left in the ground

2i8 Gardening

all winter and used as desired. Proper plantings in the
northern states will supply the table throughout the
summer and give roots for storage.

The seeds are planted about i inch deep in rows that
are from 10 to 18 inches apart. What is ordinarily
called a seed of the beet is really a cluster of tiny seeds,
several of which may germinate into plantlets that crowd
one another. Thinning may be delayed, however, until
the young plants are 3 or 4 inches tall, when they may
be used for greens. In thinning, care should be exercised
so that the plants left standing are not rudely disturbed ;
it is often a good plan to cut off the plants to be removed
rather than to pull them.

Very young plants removed in thinning may be trans-
planted to fill out any vacant places in the rows. Plants
may be left i inch apart at the first thinning, and later
every other plant may be removed for use as greens,
leaving the others well spaced for more mature develop-
ment.

The Detroit Dark Red is a variety widely grown as a
main and late crop for storage. The roots are globular
and about 3 inches in diameter. About one third of the
root grows above ground, and this part is often tough and
cordy. The New Century (also called Rajah, Winter
Keeper, Green Top, and All Season) is a rather new
variety that promises to be valuable for autumn crops.

CARROTS

Carrots have practically the same planting dates, heat
requirements, and length of growing season as beets.

Root Crops and How to Grow Them 219

The varieties called Early
Scarlet Horn and French
Forcing are excellent for
early crops but yield small
roots. The varieties with
larger roots require about
80 days for maturity but
give much greater yield.
They should be planted for
the main or late crop.
Chantenay, Danvers Half
Long., and Improved Long
Orange are all excellent.

The small seeds of the
carrot should be planted
about J inch deep in rows
about 1 2 inches apart. The
seeds germinate slowly, and
it is often 2 weeks before the
seedlings are well above
ground. Gardeners frequently scatter seeds of early
radishes with the seeds of the carrot. The radishes
mature in 20 to 30 days and are removed about the
time the carrots need to be thinned to stand about
i inch apart. Further thinning is necessary; this
may be done by removing the larger roots as soon
as they can be used for food. The young half-grown
or " baby " carrots are one of the garden's best deli-
cacies.

The slow germination of the seeds of carrots, and also
of parsnips, and the small size of the seedlings make

FIG. 128. Thinning young carrots.

22o Gardening

weeding among them difficult. It is often advisable,
therefore, to cultivate the rows before the seedlings are
up. This can be done by drawing a fine-toothed rake
quickly along between the rows in such a manner that
a thin layer of fine dirt is thrown over the planted seeds.
This not only covers small weeds, but it keeps a crust
from forming on the soil and makes it easier for the little
plants to push through.

PARSNIPS AND SALSIFY

These two crops are the most hardy of the standard
root vegetables. They are long-period crops, requiring
for best development about 5 months of continuous
growth. In the northern states the seed is planted as
soon as the danger of frosts is past, and the roots are
ready for use in late autumn. They may be dug and
stored in the fall, or they may be left in the ground and
dug as needed during the winter and early spring. The
roots must be used before warm weather arrives, however,
for then the flower stalks are produced and the roots be-
come worthless as food. In the South these crops are
not much planted, but they can be grown if the seed is
planted rather late in summer.

The long taproots of the parsnip and salsify develop
best in deep, loose soil. Careful spading to a depth of
8 or even 10 inches is advisable. It is sometimes stated
that a development of large, well-shaped roots is pro-
moted by making a hole a foot deep with an iron bar,
filling the hole with loose, rich earth, and then planting
the seed at the top.

Root Crops and How to Grow Them 221

Parsnip seed is very likely to germinate poorly, and if
more than one year old, it may fail entirely. It is a good
plan to sow the seed rather thickly. The plants should
be thinned until they stand 3 inches from one another
in rows at least 12 inches apart. Salsify is less rank in
leafy growth and can stand slightly closer than 3 inches
in the row.

The so-called Sandwich Island variety of salsify is
the only sort widely cultivated in America. The Hollow
Crown is the best variety of parsnip to plant ; the variety
Early Round has short, top-shaped roots of good flavor
but of such small yield that it is not to be recommended
for the home garden.

HORSE-RADISH

Horse-radish is a perennial plant that thrives best in
rich loam soil. The roots are grated fine and used as a
relish and condiment. Roots for use during autumn
and spring may be dug as needed ; those for use during
winter can be stored in sand and placed in a cool cellar.

New plants are always started from roots rather than
from seeds. When digging roots for table use, spade
deeply, breaking up the root clusters and removing the
largest. New plants will arise from the small roots
left in the soil. A few hills will provide a family with a
sufficient supply of horse-radish.

SWEET POTATO

Sweet potatoes are grown successfully as a field and
garden crop as far north as the upper parts of zone E.

222 Gardening

The stems trail over the ground and take up so much
space that the crop is not well suited to gardens of small
area. It is, however, an important crop in many of the
large-sized home vegetable gardens of the South.

The sweet potato thrives in a warm, sandy, and well-
drained soil. Little rainfall is needed after the growth
is well under way ; in this requirement it differs from
the other root crops we have discussed.

The sweet potato plant is propagated by " slips " or
" draws." Roots are placed about 4 inches deep in
sand or soil in flats, or directly in the soil of hotbeds, and
kept moist and warm. Many shoots or draws develop
from an old root, and these in turn develop roots and
form young plants suitable for transplanting into the
garden in about 5 weeks.

In the South cuttings are taken from the vines of
growing plants and used as plants for later plantings.
The crop is grown in rows, and the plants are most often
set on low ridges ; but on sandy soils flat culture is used.

The roots should be dug before severe frosts occur.
They should be allowed to dry in the sunlight for several
hours, and then be placed loosely in baskets or slatted
crates and dried or cured in a warm room (beside a
kitchen stove or furnace will do) for a period of about
10 days. They may then be stored in a dry place
where the temperature does not go below 50. The
roots should be handled carefully, as they soon rot if
bruised.

Unless local conditions are found to be unfavorable
for certain of the root crops, or the family tastes reject

Root Crops and How to Grow Them 223

some sorts, all those mentioned above should find a place
in the home vegetable garden. All, excepting horse-
radish and sweet potatoes, are grown from seed sown
directly in the garden soil; hence it is easy to get the
crops started.

Gardeners planning to grow the sweet potato are
advised to send for Farm Bulletin 395 of the United
States Department of Agriculture; also to ask for
literature on propagation, culture, diseases, and varieties
from their own state agricultural experiment station.

Questions

Name the principal root crops grown in vegetable gardens.
Why are root crops especially important vegetables? What is
meant when it is said that root crops are "light feeders"? In
what soils do root crops thrive best? In what soils are root
crops most likely to fail ? Why should root crops be thinned ?
What is the general rule to be used in thinning them?

What special conditions do radishes need to yield well? What
conditions are necessary to grow summer radishes successfully?
When are winter radishes planted? Can turnips be grown as a
summer crop in localities having hot-weather conditions? How
are they grown as an autumn crop? When is thinning of beets
often done? What is the best method of doing this? Describe
a way to cultivate young carrots and parsnips without disturbing
them. When should parsnip seed be planted in the Northern
states? Describe the method of propagating the sweet potato.

Things to Do and Observe

i. To learn which root crops are suited to your locality and the
varieties of each that should be grown. Visit as many gardens or
farms in your neighborhood as you can and note the kinds of
root crops grown. Inquire as to the varieties grown for home
use and for market.

224 Gardening

2. To determine the soil best suited to growing root crops. In
your visits observe where the various root crops are usually grown.
Do you ever find, for example, these crops planted on a dry hill-
side? If so, how do those growing in such a location thrive in
comparison with those growing in rich bottom land?

3. To determine if you have planted your crop at the right time..
Keep a record of the dates of planting for all the crops grown in
your garden. Compare these dates with those in your table of
planting dates and with the dates of local frost. (See Exercise i
on page 163.)

Would planting at a different date have been better in any case?

CHAPTER FIFTEEN

CROPS GROWN FOR THEIR LEAVES

Who would be without celery and lettuce, rhubarb and
spinach, when it is so easy to raise them?

Old Farmer's Almanac

ALL leafy crops of the garden are used as food when
the leaves are tender and in good condition. The plants
are not left to reach natural or full maturity and pro-
duce seed. They are often grown in ways that promote
excessive leafy development, which may be somewhat
unnatural for the plant.

Some leafy vegetables, like rhubarb, onions from sets,
Swiss chard, and cabbage, are rather easy to grow success-
fully, but the greater number of leafy vegetables require
conditions that are very favorable to their growth. In
general, the production of many tender leaves in these
crops requires a rich soil, abundant moisture, cool weather
and good cultivation. Poor soil, lack of cultivation, in-
sufficient moisture, and hot weather invariably result in
fewer leaves, slower growth, and poorer quality.

Many of the most delicious of the leafy vegetables
(especially of the salad crops) wilt quickly when gathered,
and soon lose their tenderness and best flavor. For this
reason they are especially suited to home production, for
then they may be placed on the table fresh from the
garden. With a few exceptions, home-grown leafy
vegetables excel in crispness and flavor the vegetables
which are bought in the market ; and the excellent table
qualities of properly grown leafy crops well repay the
home gardener for his efforts in producing them.

At least twenty distinct sorts of plants may be grown
in the home vegetable gardens in the United States solely

225

226

Gardening

Stales Relations Service
FIG. 129. A boy's successful crop of leafy vegetables.

for the leaves which they produce. In the discussion of
these various crops it is convenient to group them into
classes according to the way the young plants are started
and the season when the crop matures.

LEAFY CROPS PROPAGATED VEGETATIVELY

This class includes rhubarb and four bulb-like plants
of the onion family chives, shallots, garlic, and
bulblet onions. With the exception of garlic, these vege-
tables are ready for use early in spring. Chives and the
bulblet onions are hardy perennials that may be left in
the ground during the winter.

Rhubarb or pieplant. This plant thrives anywhere
in the United States except in the lower planting zones.
In the northern sections it is a long-lived or perennial

Crops Grown for Their Leaves 227

plant, and if planted on* a well-drained soil, it withstands
very severe winters. Early in spring it throws up a crop
of leaves with thick, fleshy leafstalks. The stalk por-
tion of the leaves when properly cooked makes a tart
sauce whose acid flavor is decidedly appetizing in early
spring. In the more southern parts of the United States
the plant runs quickly to seed and usually dies during
the summer ; hence it is not well suited to culture there.

The acid flavor of rhubarb is due to the presence of
oxalic acid, but this acid is so diluted in the fleshy leaf-
stalks that their use as food does not cause poisoning.
It is not safe, however, to eat any part of the expanded,
less fleshy portion of the leaf. 1

Rhubarb forms large clusters of roots, and the plant
is usually propagated by digging up and dividing these
clusters. The plants should be set about 4 feet apart
each way, and the plot kept well cultivated. Add
about 3 inches of well-rotted manure late each autumn
and spade it under early in the spring.

When left alone the roots become crowded, and in
consequence the leafstalks are small and slender. To
prevent this, the plants should be divided and reset in
the autumn of every third or fourth year. Dig up the
root clusters and select for transplanting only good
roots with a well-formed bud or "eye." As the resetting
reduces somewhat the yield for the first year, it is a
good plan to transplant only half the bed at a time.

1 The garden sorrel (Rumex acetosa). a near relative of the rhubarb,
is sometimes cultivated and sold in the markets for use as early spring
greens. It produces considerable amounts of oxalic acid, and has some-
times caused death.

228

Gardening

FIG. 130. Rhubarb along the edge of a garden. The photograph shows the
"barrel method" of covering the plants to make the stems longer and more
tender. Every other barrel was removed before the picture was taken.

No leaves should be pulled the first year after reset-
ting.

Roots for starting a bed may be obtained from seed
houses or perhaps from a neighbor's garden. The
standard varieties known as Victoria and Linnceus are
the best sorts.

Rhubarb may be grown from seed also. Sow the seed
early in spring in rows i foot apart in a seed bed. Thin
to about 6 inches apart in the row, and when the plants
are a year old transplant them to a permanent bed.

The outer leaves of the rhubarb are pulled for use as
soon as they reach proper size. Break them off by a
quick side twist and jerk. Later in the season allow
plenty of the leaves to remain so that they may furnish

Crops Grown for Their Leaves 229

food to the underground parts. The plants will be more
vigorous if the flower stalks, which appear in the early
summer, are cut (not broken) as fast as they form.

Chives. Chives are hardy perennials having small,
onion-like bulbs and narrow, hollow, erect leaves 6 or 8
inches in length. Left alone, the plants multiply rapidly
and soon form dense mats. They are readily propagated
by dividing and replanting the clumps in spring. A
bunch of living plants for the first planting may be
obtained from a seed firm. The plant will thrive in any
garden soil. The leaves, which are used in seasoning
salads, stews, and soups, may be cut repeatedly, as they
come again quickly.

In the northern states the plants will furnish green
leaves during the winter if clumps of them are dug in
late autumn, placed in flats, and given the protection
of a cold frame or a spent hotbed.

Shallots. The mature or resting plant of the shallot
consists of a number of elongated and gray-colored
bulblets (usually called " cloves ") attached at the base
to a common stem. These cloves are separated and
planted with the stem-end down. In the North, planting
is done in the spring ; in the South, it is usually done in
the autumn. Each clove quickly makes a leafy growth
and is soon ready for table use.

If left undisturbed the basal bulb splits up into a
number of new cloves. These clusters may be cured like
bulb onions and stored for winter use or for planting the
following spring. Shallots are milder in flavor than most
onions and are easily grown. They are deserving of
more general culture in home gardens.

230 Gardening

Garlic. The mature garlic bulb consists of a number
of small bulblets or cloves, each of which is inclosed in
a thin, dry, tough leaf ; the whole cluster is in turn in-
closed within a larger dry leaf. The cloves are separated
and planted in eaily spring, the plants continue growth
during summer, and the mature bulbs are harvested in
autumn. The dry tops, which are tough and stringy,
are braided together, and the string of bulbs is hung up in
a dry place. Garlic has a strong flavor and is used prin-
cipally in flavoring stews and salads. It is well adapted
for growing in the warm sections of the United States.

Bulblet onions and their culture. In these onions
the mother plant produces small bulbs or bulblets and
seldom flowers and seeds. There are two sorts of bulblet
onions, commonly known as (i) multiplier and potato
onions, in which the mother bulb itself splits up into
bulblets, and (2) the Egyptian or perennial tree onion,
which not only divides at the base but also produces
erect stalks at the tops of which new bulblets develop.
The bulblets of multiplier and tree onions are quite
similar in structure to the onion sets grown from seed.
Not all seed firms list the sets of these onions, but they
may be had from some firms.

Multiplier onions planted in autumn and left in the
ground over winter begin growth very early in the spring.
Almost before the ground is thawed out, the bulblets
begin to produce leaves and may then be pulled for the
table. If left alone, each bulblet becomes n compound
bulb composed of new bulblets. Unless well thinned by
pulling during the spring, the bulbs and bulblets should
be separated and replanted in autumn to prevent crowding.

Crops Grown for Their Leaves 231

Tree onions also live through severe winters without
injury. The basal or mother bulb divides, making tender
young plants suitable for use in early spring. If left
alone, the plants may later produce erect stalks on which
a cluster of new bulblets is produced. These may be
planted in autumn to raise another crop of leafy plants
in the following spring.

The various bulblet onions furnish, as do chives, fresh
leafy food suitable for table use during spring, when
the green parts of the leaves as well as the basal parts
are tender, juicy, and of good flavor. They are then
pulled, cleaned, and eaten raw as a relish. In the
markets such onions are commonly sold in bunches ;
hence they are often called " bunch onions." Later
in the season the leaves become tough and of strong
flavor. The bulblets themselves are usually too small
to be of much value as " dry " onions, but they are about
the right size for use in pickling.

LEAFY CROPS GROWN FROM SEED

The leafy crops that are grown from seed may be
grouped into several classes, as follows :

(1) The bulb plants, such as seed onions and leeks.

(2) " Gut-and-come-again " crops that begin to yield
leaves early in the summer, like parsley, yellow rocket,
Swiss chard, and New Zealand spinach.

(3) The long-period cool-season crops that mature in
autumn, like endive and chicory.

(4) The forced cool-season crops, including celery,
the cabbages, and head lettuce.

232 Gardening

(5) The short-period crops, such as leaf lettuce,
spinach, peppergrass, and mustard.

BULB PLANTS GROWN FROM SEED

Seed onions and leeks are the two bulb-like garden
vegetables of this general class. In seed onions the
leafy growth is rapid during the cool weather of spring,
but with the arrival of hot weather the tops of the
leaves die, the growth stops, and the fleshy bases of
the leaves form a bulb which " rests " for a time ; in this
condition it is called " dry." In the leek the bulb por-
tion does not become much enlarged, but the lower por-
tion of the leaves forms a column of fleshy and edible
tissue. The leek grows rather slowly during the hot
summer, but makes a rapid development during the cool
season of autumn.

Leeks. The leek is a biennial plant. The crop is
best grown from seed sown early in the spring in outdoor
seed beds. The plants should be transplanted to the
garden when 6 or 7 inches tall, being placed 4 inches
apart in rows spaced at 12 inches. When transplanting,
set the plants deeply almost to the young center
leaves so that the column of leaves will blanch in the
soil. If set lower than this, especially in heavy clay
soils, the heart may fail to develop further.

When the crop is grown from seed planted in the row,
a little soil should be raked up around the leaves from
time to time as they develop. In the northern sections
plants may be covered with straw and left in the field for
use during winter, or they may be dug and stored in earth

Crops Grown for Their Leaves

233

FIG. 131. "Dry" onions grown from onion sets. They are now ready to be
pulled, dried, and stored away for the winter.

in a cool cellar or in a cold frame. In the South the
crop may be left in the garden for use as needed.

The green leaves of the leek have a coarse texture,
a rank odor, and are strongly acrid when eaten raw. The
blanched portion is more tender and less acrid. When
the leek is cooked, the flavor is even milder than that of
most onions ; hence the plant is excellent for flavoring
soups and stews. There are not many varieties of the
leek offered by seedsmen. London or American Flag
and Large Rouen are standard sorts.

Seed onions and their culture. If the seed of these
onions is planted in spring and the plants well cared for,
each plant forms a large bulb or " dry " onion before
autumn arrives. When properly cured and stored,

234

Gardening

FIG. 132. When onions are about two-
thirds grown, the tops are sometimes
broken down, as shown in this picture.
By this practice the growth of seed tops
is checked, the size of the bulb is increased,
and hollow centers are not so likely to form
within the bulb.

these bulbs may be used
as food until late in
the following spring. If
these one-year-old bulbs
are planted in spring,
they produce tall stalks
bearing flowers, and
later, seeds ; then the
mother bulb dies. Seed
is thus produced in the
second year of the plant's
growth, and for this
reason the onion is a
biennial.

If, however, the seeds
are sown late, or the
young plants are much
crowded, or are grown
on poor soil, the plants
do not form large bulbs
that year. Instead, the
tops die in summer,
leaving only small bulbs
that are called " sets."
If these sets are planted
early in the following
sufficient room, the plants

large "dry" bulbs.

spring in rich soil with
grown from them will make
These, if stored through the winter and planted the fol-
lowing season, will produce seed. Sets are therefore
plants that are halfway to the dry onion stage of de-

Crops Grown for Their Leaves 235

velopment ; and if the conditions for growth are un-
favorable the first year, the onion takes three years to
complete its entire life cycle.

Dry onions for table use may therefore be grown in
one season, either from seed or from sets. Although
onions grown from sets are inclined to shoot to seed, the
crop is more easily grown from sets than from seed.
They make a much quicker start, and the production of
bulbs of large size is somewhat more certain. It is well
to buy sets of named varieties rather than to buy simply
" sets." Red sets of the Red Wethers field; white, of
White Portugal; and yellow, of Yellow Darners, are
recommended for general planting. Sets are planted
early in spring.

Something like 30 varieties of onions grown from seed
are often listed by seedsmen. Southport White Globe,
Southport Yellow Globe, Southport Red Globe, Danvers,
Prizetaker, and Red Wethersfield are good varieties for
all sections of the United States. The Queen or White
Pearl is an early, small, flat, white onion excellent for
pickling. The Bermuda onions (White Bermuda, Red
Bermuda, and Crystal Wax) are good mild-flavored sorts.

In growing direct from seed, sow thickly in rows 12
or 14 inches apart, as soon as there is no danger of frosts.
The young plants are slow in getting a start. Cultivate
well, and keep weeds out of the rows. Thin to stand i
inch apart in the row, and later remove every other
plant for use as young onions, leaving the plants for dry
onions spaced about 2 inches apart in the row.

Larger bulbs and earlier bunch onions may be had by
starting plants in a hotbed, cold frame, or indoor seed

236 Gardening

bed. In doing this, sow seed about 10 weeks before
planting time. Transplant once to other flats as soon as
seedlings are 2 inches tall, and space them so that they
are about i inch apart. As soon as frosts are over,
harden the seedlings and transplant them to the garden.

In the South, seed is very generally planted in the
autumn and the crop grows during the mild winter.
Even in some sections of the northern states, seed may be
sown in the early autumn ; the young plants live over
winter and start growth early, yielding an early crop of
bunch onions, or later, dry onions.

All onions require a rich and well-drained soil. Success
in growing good dry bulbs from seed depends on sow-
ing the seed as soon as possible in spring, on thinning
early so that the growing plants are not crowded, on
keeping the weeds from even making a start in the onion
plantings, and on frequent but shallow surface cultivation.
With this treatment, the plants make rapid growth
during the cool spring season and form bulbs of good size.
It is, however, somewhat difficult to grow good bulbs in
localities where the summers are cool and damp, for in
such places the plants tend to remain green and leafy.

The proper maturing of onion bulbs depends on the
weather and upon their treatment. If the bulbs reach a
good size by the time hot weather arrives, the tops turn
yellow and begin to die, and the bulb enters a resting
condition. The bulb is, of course, still fleshy and
juicy inside, and it contains at least one living bud
or " heart." As long as this bud remains dormant, the
bulb "keeps" ; but if it resumes growth, the bulb soon
becomes useless as food.

Crops Grown for Their Leaves

2 37

FIG. 133. Parsley grown in a cold frame for use in the late fall and early winter

months.

The bulbs should be pulled as soon as the tops turn
down and begin to wither. They may be left in small
piles in the open air to dry for a few days, after which
the tops should be cut off. The bulbs are then placed in
crates or on trays and stored in a cool and well-venti-
lated room where they will not freeze.

In a small home garden, a short row, kept planted
with multiplier or with tree onions, will supply a family
with sufficient bunch onions for use during early spring.
For a supply of dry onions, the seed or the sets of good
seed varieties should be planted.

CUT-AND-COME-AGAIN LEAFY VEGETABLES

Parsley, yellow rocket, Swiss chard, and New Zealand
spinach are crops of this class. The outer and larger
leaves, or even the branches, are cut as they reach a good
size, leaving the inner leaves or new shoots to develop for

238 Gardening

later use. The repeated growth of these vegetables
makes them especially desirable for the small home
garden, for a few plants occupying a row only 10 feet
long will continue to yield a harvest of leaves from early
summer until autumn frosts. With rich soil, abundance
of water, and good cultivation, these vegetables will
thrive and yield abundantly during the summer months.

Parsley. Sow the seed of parsley rather thickly, not
more than ^ inch deep, in shallow drills that are about
1 2 inches apart. A row 5 feet long, containing 10 plants,
will furnish an abundance of attractive leaves for gar-
nishing throughout the summer and autumn. Plants
left in the garden over winter will supply leaves for a
while in the following spring, but will soon run to seed.

Plants may be potted and grown during the winter in
cold frames or even in the window of the home for use
when other green leaf vegetables are not readily avail-
able. The Plain-leaved variety is very hardy, but the
Double-curled, the Moss-curled, and the Fern-leaved are
more attractive in appearance and more generally grown.

Yellow rocket. This plant is also called " upland
cress " and " common winter cress." It is a member of
the mustard family and is closely related to mustard,
peppergrass, watercress, and horse-radish. The leaves
are used as a salad, and the plant is about the only good
salad plant that will thrive during hot weather. Sow
the seed early in spring ; in about 10 weeks leaves will be
ready for use. The plants form rather dense clusters of
leaves, and if these are picked carefully the plants will
continue to bear leaves. Yellow rocket will withstand
rather severe frosts.

Crops Grown for Their Leaves

239

FIG. 134. Gathering Swiss chard. Only the largest leaves should be picked;
the others should be left to grow.

In many parts of the planting zone E, and farther
south, plants of yellow rocket grown from seed live
over winter and will supply leaves until the next spring,
when they soon run to seed. It is said, however, that
the plants can often be kept in good condition for two
or more years if the flower stalks are picked off before
the flowers open.

Swiss chard. Swiss chard is a variety of beet that
develops large leaves with somewhat fleshy stems. It
does not have a fleshy root like that of the garden beet.
The culture of Swiss chard is the same as for the garden
root beets. The most satisfactory variety is the
Luculhis.

240

Gardening

The outer leaves may
be cut closely at inter-
vals from early summer
until frosts. The first
cutting can be made
about 60 days from date
of seed sowing. The
plant usually lives over
winter in and below
zone E, but goes to seed
the second year.

New Zealand spinach.
The New Zealand spin-
ach plant has recently
been introduced into
cultivation in America
where ;t is proving a
strong and vigorous
grower. It is an excel-
lent plant for use as
pot greens.

The seeds have thick,
nut-like walls and should be softened by soaking to make
germination more rapid and certain. Put seeds in a dish,
pour over them hot (almost boiling) water, and let stand
for from 12 to 24 hours before planting. Plant seeds
early in spring about i inch deep in groups of 4 or 5,
about 3 feet apart. The plants grow rapidly and thrive
all summer. The upturned ends of the branches, with
several leaves, are cut for greens. New side branches are
then formed, and growth is continued until the plants are

FIG. 135. New Zealand spinach, the best
plant for summer greens. The tips of the
branches are cut, as shown in the picture.

Crops Grown for Their Leaves 241

killed by frost. Six hills of the plants will supply a family
with one or two " messes " of tender, clean greens each
week from early summer until frosts occur.

In many sections as far north as planting zone F, the
plants seed themselves ; that is, the seeds which fall from
plants to the ground live over winter and germinate early
in the following spring. These young plants may be
transplanted to a place in the garden which has been
properly prepared for planting.

LONG-PEEIOD SALAD VEGETABLES THAT MATURE IN
AUTUMN

Endive and chicory are two salad plants that mature
best in autumn as cool-season crops. If planted very
early in spring, they tend to run to seed during the
summer, even in the more northern of the planting zones.
Seeds are therefore planted in summer (in early summer
in the north and later farther south). The plants grow
rather slowly during hot weather, but are ready to make
a rapid development during the cool autumn.

Endive. Endive is a favorite bitter salad plant,
grown in the North as a fall crop and in the South as a
winter crop. The seed is planted during June or July in
the North and as late as in August in the South. Seed
is sown directly in the garden or in seed beds for later
transplanting. The plants should stand i foot each way
in rows that are at least i foot apart.

Varieties such as Green-curled, Moss-curled, and White-
curled, which produce dense clusters of curled and finely
divided leaves, are very satisfactory for culture in the
home garden. When the outer leaves are 6 or more

242 Gardening

inches in length, they should be drawn together and tied
with soft cord or with raffia, in order to blanch the inner
leaves. One variety known as Escarole has broad
leaves and is less bitter than the cut-leaved sorts.

With the approach of freezing temperatures in the
northern planting zones, endive may be stored. Dig
up the plants, keeping a ball of dirt in place about the
roots, and pack close together in a cold frame or in boxes
that are .placed in a cool cellar. Keep the soil moist,
but be sure that the leafy portion is kept dry and well
exposed to the air to prevent rotting. Plants can readily
be kept in storage in good condition for a period of
at least 6 weeks ; with special care, under most suitable
conditions, they may be kept much longer.

Witloof chicory or French endive. When properly
grown, this plant yields a most delicious and mildly
bitter salad for use during the winter months. Al-
though easily grown, this crop has not become well
known in American gardens ; but it has long been a
favorite salad in European countries. The variety
known as the Witloof is especially to be recommended.
In the northern states, sow seeds during June or July
in shallow drills about 1 2 inches apart. Thin the young
seedlings to stand 8 inches apart.

The green leaves produced in the field are not used
as food, as are those of the curled endive, but a new crop
of leaves is forced from the roots in the following manner :
The roots, which should resemble those of the parsnip
in shape and size, are dug before severe frosts occur.
Those not needed for immediate forcing are stored in cold
frames, in pits, or in a cool room of a cellar, so that

Crops Grown for Their Leaves 243

they may be used for forcing during the winter. Trim
the roots to be used for forcing to a length of 8 inches, and
cut away the leaves, allowing a short " crown " to remain
on the roots. Then set the roots, about 4 inches
apart, in a box, placing earth about them to the level of
the crowns. Water the soil thoroughly, and the next day
add about 8 inches of clean sand. Place the box in a
moderately warm cellar (a temperature ranging from 50
to 60 is excellent) and keep the sand and soil moist.
In about 15 days leaves will begin to protrude through
the sand, and some of the heads will be ready for use.
The same box and soil may be used for forcing suc-
cessive crops. The head is a closely compacted, elon-
gated cluster of tender and well-blanched leaves. The
ease with which this delightful salad may be had during
the winter months justifies its thorough trial by the
home gardener.

COOL-SEASON LEAFY CROPS GROWN BY THE TRANS-
PLANTING METHOD

In general, celery, the various members of the cab-
bage tribe, pe-tsai, and head lettuce are long-period
crops. To obtain good spring or early summer crops
before hot weather arrives, the plants are forced by
the transplanting method. The late or autumn crops are
grown directly from seeds or by transplanting from sow-
ings made late in spring, or in southern sections even in
late summer. Head lettuce is usually grown best as a
spring crop. Early and late crops of celery, pe-tsai, and
the various cabbages may be grown, but the main crops of
these mature in autumn. In many sections of the north-

244 Gardening

ern planting zones having cool summers, certain varieties
of celery, kale, and cabbages may be grown successfully
as summer crops, the earlier varieties yielding crops
during the summer and the late varieties maturing in the
autumn.

Celery. Celery thrives best on rich soil ; it also de-
mands much water and cool weather. In the North it is
grown chiefly as an autumn crop, although in sections
with cool summers, early varieties maturing in August
may be grown. In the South the plant is grown as a
winter crop from seed grown in late summer in outdoor
seed beds that are kept well watered.

The crop is best grown throughout the North from
seedlings that are transplanted twice once from seed
pans to flats, and then from the flats to the field. Trans-
planting leads to the formation of many fibrous roots
and gives " stocky " plants. The seedlings grow slowly
and need special care throughout their entire period of
growth.

In the northern zones, seed of the earlier sorts, such
as the White Plume and the Golden Self -blanching, may be
sown as early as the first of February and the seedlings
planted in the garden as soon as weather conditions will
permit. The growth of seedlings is so slow that even
under very good care 3 months may be required to bring
them to a good size for transplanting to the garden. The
main or late crop is best grown from seedlings that are
ready for planting in the field about July i. For this
crop the varieties named above may be planted, or some
of the varieties that are better winter keepers (such as
Giant Pascal and Winter Queen) may be grown.

Crops Grown for Their Leaves

245

Celery plants are set about 6 inches apart in rows.
Level culture, or setting the plants only slightly below
the general level of the soil, is considered better than
the older methods of trench culture.

As the plants reach a good size they should be
blanched. This may be done with dirt as follows :
Draw the tops closely together with one hand, and with a
hoe in the other hand draw dirt up around the plants
until only the tops of the leaves protrude. With the

FIGS. 136 and 137. Celery. At the left the seedlings are being transplanted
from flats to the garden. At the right the mature plants are being tied pre-
paratory to hilling up with earth. This method of blanching is practiced es-
pecially on sandy soil.

246 Gardening

approach of freezing temperatures, more soil may be
banked up and straw or leaves packed about and over
the tops. Then more soil may be piled up, and a board,
or two boards arranged as an inverted trough, placed
over the straw. This protects from cold and keeps the
plants dry. In sections with moderate winters the crop
can be thus left for use as desired throughout the winter ;
but in the more northern of the planting zones the crop
should be stored in cool cellars, pens, or cold frames (see
page 346).

Blanching may also be accomplished by wrapping a
collar of paper about each plant and tying it firmly in
place. Newspaper may be used, but stiffer paper that
keeps its position after rains is better. For blanching
early crops and autumn crops that are to be stored before
cold weather the use of paper bands is advised. Early
crops often rot from heating if blanching with soil is
attempted. Paper collars or bleachers, with special
metal " handlers " that make easy the work of arranging
them, may be bought of seed firms that deal in garden
supplies. The use of 3 -inch Xi 2-inch drain tile for
blanching gives excellent results, and is to be recom-
mended for blanching the home supply of early celery.

The method of " new celery culture " recently used
consists of growing plants so crowded that they are self-
blanched through mutual shading. The plants are set
about 6 inches apart in rows that are only 8 inches apart.
The soil is excessively manured ; as much as i ton of
well-rotted manure to the square rod is often used, and
the plot is kept well watered continually. When thus
" forced in the field," the crop is often tender and wel)

Crops Grown for Their Leaves 247

self -blanched ; but it is more subject to disease and the
product is often of poorer quality than when given more
room and blanched by banking with earth or by collars.

Cabbage. All cabbages are best grown from trans-
planted seedlings that have been grown from 8 to 10
weeks in a hotbed, cold frame, or outdoor seed bed. For
early cabbages, transplant to the garden as soon as the
danger of severe frost is over. For late varieties, trans-
plant in June or July in the northern states and some-
what later southward. In the plot of cabbages shown
in Figure 142, several varieties of early and late cabbages,
together with cauliflower and Brussels sprouts, were
planted at the same time.

In many parts of planting zones D and E, cabbage can
be grown, or at least left outdoors, over winter. In
the climate of northern Louisiana, the seedlings for the
spring crop can be reared in cold frames from seed sown
in November or December and transplanted in February ;
in this way the crop is harvested in April and May.
Sweet potatoes may then be grown on the same plot, as a
succession crop. Treated in this way in the South, the
growing period of such a variety as New or Early
Jersey Wakefield is from November i to May i.

Plantings of early varieties, such as Early Jersey
Wakefield, yield heads in about 90 days, or early in July
in the vicinity of New York City if planted about
April i ; but the heads do not " keep " long in hot
weather. It is an excellent plan to plant from 5 to 10
plants each of several early and late varieties. For
general culture, the following varieties are excellent:
Early Jersey Wakefield and Charleston Wakefield for early

248 Gardening

use ; Early Summer and Succession for midsummer ; and
Autumn King and Danish Ball Head for fall and winter
use.

Cabbage is an easy crop for the beginner to grow. It
is likely to need protection from aphids, cutworms, and
the cabbage worm (especially discussed in the chapter on
injurious insects) . The crop may entirely fail because of
plant diseases carried in the soil and for which there is
no good remedy. In this case the gardener had best not
attempt to grow the crop, for a time at least ; or he should
secure seed of varieties found to be resistant to the
disease. (See Figures 172 and 173.)

Cauliflower. The cauliflower is less hardy than cab-
bage and less enduring of summer heat. For spring
planting, the crop does best in the cool sections of the
more northern of the planting zones, where the summers
are mild. The plant needs a rich soil and plenty of room
to grow. It is best to grow plants about 3 feet apart each
way, with a low and quick-growing companion crop be-
tween. The clusters of thick, fleshy flower stalks are
blanched for table use by tying the leaves together over
the top. The mature heads are not readily stored for
later use ; hence it is best not to grow any more plants
than can be used as they mature. In the North, Early
Snowball and Dwarf Erfurt are excellent varieties. The
Autumn Giant is a large-growing and late variety that
is well suited to southern sections.

Brussels sprouts. Brussels sprouts are grown best as
an autumn crop, but in the South they are extensively
grown as an early spring crop. The plant requires a
longer period of cool weather than most of the cabbages,

Crops Grown for Their Leaves 249

and is more hardy. It often fails from lack of water or
from excessive heat. In the North, when grown as a
fall crop, the small heads of leaves or " buttons," pro-
duced in the axils of the leaves, are gathered as desired
until some time after cold weather arrives ; or in sections
with severe winters, the plants may be dug and stored
as recommended in a later chapter (20). If one suc-
ceeds in the growing of cabbage, then it is safe to try
the growing of Brussels sprouts as an autumn crop.

Kale and collar d. These plants belong to the cabbage
group, but they have separate leaves instead of a head as
the cabbage has. Kale, which is the most hardy of the
cabbage group, is an excellent winter crop in the South
and a late autumn crop in the North, where it may be left
without protection even in rather severe winter weather.
Dwarf-curled, Siberian, and Tall Scotch are standard
varieties of kale.

The collard withstands summer heat better than kale
and hence is better suited for culture in the southern
planting zones. The variety known as Georgia is most
generally grown.

Both kale and collard are often grown from seeds
sown directly in the garden in rows about 2 or 3
feet apart, and later thinned so that the plants stand
about 12 inches from one another in the row. The
plants are left standing where grown until light freezing
makes the leaves of the loose heads tender.

Pe-tsai or Chinese cabbage. Chinese cabbage is a
leafy vegetable that deserves a trial in the home vege-
table garden. It is generally grown as an autumn crop,
but even in the northern planting zones it can be grown as

250

Gardening

a spring crop if .the roots of young plants are not dis-
turbed in transplanting.

For the spring crop, sow seed from 4 to 8 weeks before
the date of the latest frost. Transplant from seed pans to
individual pots of small size ; transplant again to larger
pots before plants become " pot bound " ; then trans-
plant to the field, keeping the roots and earth within the pots
intact. Grow in a rich soil, and supply water in abun-
dance unless rain is frequent. Plants of the larger vari-
eties thus grown will often make heads weighing 7 pounds
in 60 days from seed. The heads do not keep well in hot
weather, hence the main crop should be grown in autumn.
For an autumn crop sow seed late in July in the North
and later farther South, directly in the garden. As the
plants may be used when partly grown, it is a good plan

FIG. 138. A spring crop of Chinese cabbage (pe-tsai). This is a new vege-
table that is the best of all salad plants.

Crops Grown for Their Leaves 251

Garden Magazine

FIG. 139. Chinese cabbage. The plate at the left contains the tender inner
leaves used for salad. The outer, coarser leaves are usually cooked like cabbage,
and the heavy midribs are prepared like asparagus.

to start the crop with the plants standing 4 or 6 inches
apart, and then thin to 12 inches by removing every
other one.

The tender, crisp, and juicy blanched leaves that com-
pose the central portion of the head make a most excel-
lent salad. The outer leaves of mature heads and the
entire partly matured plant may be cooked as pot greens.

The plant is not a true cabbage. It has the flavor of
the turnip. It is more leafy than the turnip and, it
would seem, more desirable as a crop for use as pot greens,
especially in the South, where turnips are quite generally
grown for this purpose.

Pe-tsai is now coming into more general culture in the
United States. Several varieties are known in China;

252

Gardening

some of the smaller sorts resemble Cos lettuce in habit of
growth. Undoubtedly varieties will be found or de-
veloped that are suited to various conditions and needs
in the United States. The beginner can grow good
crops from the seed of any of those varieties that may
now be bought from seed firms.

Head lettuce. In some localities having moist and
somewhat prolonged cool weather in spring, excellent
head lettuce may be grown from seed sown early in the
field. Much commercial head lettuce, especially of the

Salamander variety, is
thus grown in the market
gardens on Long Island.
In most home gardens,
good head lettuce can be
grown best in the spring
by the transplanting
method. In many if
not most sections, heads
will form only if special
attention is given to
every step in the grow-
ing of the crop so that
a vigorous, rapid, and
continuous growth is
maintained during the
cool weather of spring.
Give seedlings plenty of
FIG. 140. Head lettuce, that was grown room in flats (space them

out-of-doors in the fall, being set out in g^ least 3 inches apart)
a cold frame at the approach of cold

weather. m order to obtain stocky

Crops Grown for Their Leaves

253

^>j\V (

<s jfe

FIG. 141. Head lettuce ready for transplanting. On the right a seedling pre-
pared for transplanting by the 'dirt ball" method is shown. The earth in the
flat is carefully compacted about the roots, thus preventing them from being
broken.- The plant at the left has been carelessly pulled and has little earth on
the roots. This plant may grow so slowly after transplanting that it will fail to
form a head.

plants. In transplanting, keep roots intact in a large
ball of earth. Transplant to the garden during cool,
damp weather. In the garden, supply plenty of water if
needed, and cultivate to maintain the earth mulch.

Some of the round-headed types, as the well-known
Big Boston, May King, Iceberg, Salamander, and Hanson,
together with Trianon Cos Lettuce, should be tried. The
crop should be used before hot weather, for then the
plants shoot up into flowers and seed.

Head lettuce makes an excellent part-companion crop
with such a long-season crop as the tomato.

SHORT-PERIOD COOL-SEASON LEAFY CROPS GROWN FROM
SEED IN THE GARDEN

Leaf lettuce, spinach, peppergrass, and mustard
mature leaves so quickly during the cool weather of
spring that seed may be sown in the garden where the

254 Gardening

plants are to stand. With rich soil, plenty of moisture
in the soil, and good cultivation, these vegetables seldom
fail to produce satisfactory crops.

These crops suffer especially (as do all other vege-
table crops) from crowding in the row. The average
gardener seems tempted to leave the plants standing
closely together. It does look like a " poor scant stand "
to thin the young plants to 3 or 6 inches apart in the row.
But proper and early thinning not only gives larger
plants and a greater total yield for each row, but the
plants mature more quickly.

Leaf lettuce. Many excellent varieties of loose or
leaf lettuce are listed in the seed catalogues. The seed
is usually sown in rows about 14 inches apart and seed-
lings thinned to stand 5 to 10 inches apart. Cos lettuce
also may be grown from seed sown directly in the garden,
but the heads are smaller and later in developing than
when grown by the transplanting method.

Spinach. From 30 to 60 days is sufficient for the
development of the loose clusters of spinach leaves, so
widely used as pot greens. In the North the seed is sown
early in the spring. The crop grows best on well-drained,
warm, and rich soil. As the entire plant is cut and used,
some of the thinning necessary may be done by removing
the largest plants rather early. If not used, the plants
soon run to seed, especially in hot weather. For a late
crop sow seed late in summer in the North, and later
southward. In the more southern of the planting zones,
the plant makes an excellent winter crop.

Peppergrass. The " peppery " flavor of peppergrass
or garden cress makes the plant useful in flavoring

Crops Grown for Their Leaves 255

salads or sandwiches. Its finely cut and attractive
leaves are used for decorating (garnishing) various cooked
dishes quite as parsley is used. The seed is sown early
in spring in shallow drills about 8 inches apart, and the
entire plant is cut when it is still tender.

Mustard. For spring crops of mustard, begin sowing
seed as soon as the soil can be worked. Plant rather
closely in drills about 6 inches apart. In 20 to 30 days
begin thinning by cutting out the larger plants, and con-
tinue this until plants are ready to bloom. For autumn
crops begin sowing seed in late summer, and allow the
latest sowing about 30 days for growth before frost. An
early crop can be forced in flats and the plants sheared
off as needed. The varieties of white mustard having
curled leaves, such as Large-leaved Curled and Giant
Ostrich Plume, are recommended.

Nasturtium. This familiar plant of the flower garden
can be used as food in the same ways as mustard and
peppergrass. The young plants are used entire, or the
leaves and flowers of older plants are plucked. These
give a delightfully appetizing flavor to mixtures of
salads, and especially to cold potato salad. The seed
pods of the nasturtium are also of use in seasoning pickles
and as a substitute for capers. Sow seeds of the nastur-
tium about \ inch deep, rather thickly, in flower beds or
in rows in the vegetable garden. Thin by pulling for
use the young plants.

From the many leafy crops that may be grown in the
home garden, one may select a number that are suitable

256

Gardening

FIG. 142. A group of plants belonging to the cabbage family. The varieties
shown here all mature at different times. Thus a continuous yield of leafy
vegetables may be had from this little plot from early summer until winter.
a, Early Wakefield cabbage ; b, late head cabbage ; c, Savoy cabbage : d, Brus-
sels sprouts ; e, cauliflower. A little planning will enable the gardener to have
a continuous supply of many different combinations of leafy vegetables.

to almost any condition, locality, or family taste. Rhu-
barb, bulblet onions, Swiss chard, New Zealand spinach,
leaf lettuce, cabbage, pe-tsai (as an autumn crop), and
chicory are all easily grown. With experience one can
learn to grow many of the other sorts of more difficult
culture ; that is, if they are at all suited to the local
conditions.

A few feet of row for each sort, properly cared for, will
provide leafy food of a variety of uses and tastes, fresh
out of the garden from early spring until late autumn ;
the surplus from such crops as late cabbage, pe-tsai, and
endive may be stored for winter use, while the crop of
chicory may be forced throughout the winter months.

The leafy vegetables, so necessary to health, may

Crops Grown for Their Leaves 257

therefore be had from the home garden in quality, variety,
and quantity sufficient for the needs of the family.
Questions

In general, what conditions are best for the development of
leafy crops? What conditions are unfavorable? Why are most
leafy vegetables best when fresh? What leafy crops are propa-
gated vegetatively ? Which of these are hardy perennials?
Describe the propagation and culture of rhubarb.

What are onion sets? How are they obtained from seed
onions? What are the advantages of planting onion sets? the
disadvantages? What are the important points to remember in
onion culture? When should onion bulbs be pulled? What is
meant by " cut-and-come-again " vegetables? What are the
general requirements for this class of leafy vegetables? How
is Swiss chard grown? Describe the culture of New Zealand
spinach.

Describe the general method of growing and storing endive.
How is Witloof chicory (French endive) grown to produce salad
crops for winter use ?

What leafy crops are grown by the transplanting method ?
How is celery grown ? Describe the various methods of blanching
celery. Which is the most practical of these? Tell how you
would proceed to raise a crop of late cabbages in the Northern
states; in the Southern states. What special conditions do
Brussels sprouts require? Describe pe-tsai. What special
attention does head lettuce require ? What leafy crops are grown
from seed planted directly in the garden? Why is thinning
especially necessary for these crops ?

Things to Do and Observe

1 . To determine the best leafy crops for your locality. Find out
which leafy crops are generally grown in your vicinity. Inquire
especially if pe-tsai and French endive are being raised.

2. To learn the best ways of growing leafy crops. Talk with
other gardeners in your neighborhood about the proper methods
of growing leafy crops. Compare the results of their methods
with yours. Which method proved to be the most successful?
If the methods were the same and results different, try to determine
the cause of the difference.

CHAPTER SIXTEEN

GARDEN CROPS GROWN FOR THEIR FRUITS

Seeds are the cradles of plant babies; fruits are the
houses in which the cradles are placed. And the gardener,
devouring houses, babies, and cradles together, smacks his
lips and exclaims about the quality of his vegetables !

NEVIN WOODSEDE

THE various garden crops grown for their fruits may
be grouped as follows :

A. Cool-season short-period crops
(i) Garden peas.

B. Warm-season crops, the seeds of which are sown

directly in the garden -

(1) Beans.

(2) The vine crops.

(3) Okra.

(4) Sweet corn.

C. Warm-season long-period crops requiring trans-

planting -

(1) Tomatoes.

(2) Peppers.

(3) Eggplants.

This list is not long, but it includes several of the
most important garden crops, among them peas, beans,
corn, and tomatoes. Since it is the fruit of these crops
that is eaten, they are grown until the plants approach
full maturity; yet in most cases the fleshy fruits are
used while green or immature, and before the seeds are
fully ripe. With the exception of garden peas, all the
crops here listed are tender, warm-season plants, strongly
affected by even slight frosts.

258

Garden Crops Grown for Their Fruits 259

Because of the great difference in the habit of growth
of the different plants, requirements for culture differ
greatly.

GARDEN PEAS

The common garden peas are divided into two main
sorts smooth-seeded and wrinkled. The smooth-seeded
varieties will begin growth in rather cold soil, and are
not injured by light frosts. They are therefore best for
planting as soon as the soil can be worked in spring.
They mature rather quickly, and are in most sections
short or dwarf in habit and hence need no support to hold
the plants erect. Alaska is a standard variety of this
class.

The wrinkled-seeded varieties are sweeter but less
hardy, and must be planted later in the spring. There
are both low-growing and tall-growing varieties of
wrinkled peas. Some of the dwarf sorts, as Little Gem
and American Wonder, are extra early in developing.
Gradus (also called Prosperity) grows to a height of
about 3 feet and is one of the best sorts. The tall-
growing varieties require a longer period for growth and
should have a support of brush or a trellis, made with
poultry fencing or otherwise, upon which the plants are
held erect. Telephone, Prize Taker, and Champion of
England are excellent sorts.

All varieties of peas require cool weather for proper
growth. If the pods do not mature before extremely hot
weather, they will invariably be few and will be poorly
filled with seeds.

The best crops of peas are grown on rich, well-drained

260

Gardening

Stales Relations Service

FIG. 143. Kidney beans will grow in almost any soil and are one of the best
crops for a beginner to raise. This garden was planted chiefly to bush beans,
with climbing beans along the fence. Strings were run from the ground to the
top of the fence to support the vines until they reached the top.

soil. In such soil sow the seed in a trench about 4 inches
deep and cover with 2 inches of soil. Then as the plants
grow, fill in the trench until it is level with the surround-
ing surface. The seeds are sown about 2 inches in the
row. For the dwarf sorts the rows may be about 2 feet
apart ; the tall-growing varieties require more room.
On soil that is likely to be wet during the early spring-
time, peas are planted on slight ridges and covered to a
depth of about an inch only.

The marrowfat peas are of somewhat more vigorous
growth and are more productive than the garden peas,
but are of decidedly poorer flavor and quality and are
not to be recommended for the home vegetable garden.

Garden Crops Grown for Their Fruits 261

The edible-podded or sugar peas are sorts whose entire
pods may be used as food when the seeds are about half
grown. These require the same cultural treatment as
the garden peas.

BEANS

Kidney beans are grown in the garden almost solely for
the edible pods and immature seeds, which are known as
' ' string " or " snap ' ' beans . Lima beans have much larger
seeds, and are grown for
the shelled beans. There
are dwarf or bush varie-
ties and running or pole
varieties of both kidney
and Lima beans.

All varieties of beans
are tender and are
planted after danger of
frost is past. String
beans thrive best on rich
soil. They will grow on
any soil, however, and
on raw or newly culti-
vated land often give
better returns than most
other garden vegetables.
Lima beans are more
difficult to grow. They
require a richer soil,

more Warmth, and have

a longer growing period.

FIG. 144.

String beans that become too

"" P0d '" * "^ "*

262

Gardening

FIG. 145. The Kentucky Wonder bean yields abundantly, it is excellent in
quality, either as pod or shell beans, and the ripened beans may be used for bak-
ing.

Kidney or string beans. According to the color of the
immature pods, string beans are divided into the green-
podded and the wax-podded sorts. There are dwarf and
pole varieties of each sort, and some varieties are more
nearly stringless than others. The beginner should
plant such standard kinds of the bush varieties as
Stringless Green Pod, Improved Golden Wax, and 1000 to i
(also called Late Refugee) ; and for a pole variety, he
may well plant Kentucky Wonder. The Tennessee Green
Pod is a bush variety that is said to excel all other string
beans in flavor.

As the seeds of kidney beans become larger and more
mature, the pod portion becomes thinner, less juicy, and
drier. While the seeds are still soft, they may be shelled

Garden Crops Grown for Their Fruits 263

and cooked as " green shelled beans." When cooked
with kernels of sweet corn cut from the cob, they make
the well-known dish called " succotash." If the seeds
ripen fully, they may be used as " dry beans," but dry
beans can be bought in the market much cheaper than
they can be produced in the home garden.

Edible pods will be produced by some of the bush va-
rieties in about 30 days after date of planting. Plant
for successive crops at intervals of about 2 weeks until
within 40 days of the probable date of the first killing
frost of autumn.

The bush varieties are usually grown in hills with 3 to
5 plants in a hill, and the hills about 12 to 15 inches
apart. In a small garden the rows may be 2 feet apart.
The bush varieties are the easier to grow. All kidney
beans may be planted as soon as danger of frost is past.

Pole varieties bear longer and somewhat more abun-
dantly. There are numerous good varieties, but Ken-
tucky Wonder is perhaps the favorite. The vines should
be supported on poles or by a trellis or fence.

Lima beans. The dwarf varieties are easiest to grow
in the home garden, as they need less space and require
no support. These may be planted in hills, or in contin-
uous rows like the dwarf varieties of kidney beans.

Pole Limas are usually grown in hills. Remove the
soil to the depth of about 8 inches and a diameter of 10
inches, place two shovelfuls of well-rotted manure in the
hole, cover with soil, and plant 5 or 6 seeds ij inches
below the surface, placing the seeds on edge with the
" eye " down. The hills should stand about 3 or 4 feet
apart. Supports should be set in the ground at the

264

Gardening

time the hills are prepared. A stout pole may be placed
in the ground in the middle of each hill, or lighter poles
or laths may be used. When the lighter supports are
used, it is a good plan to lean together those from three
or four adjacent hills of two rows, tying them together
securely at the top. The giant-podded sorts of pole
Limas are somewhat more difficult to grow than the
small-seeded pole Limas. The Sieva or Carolina, well
known in the South as the " butter bean," is one of the
best of the small-seeded sorts.

FIGS. 146 and 147. Planting Lima beans. This crop is more difficult to grow
than the kidney bean. It will not be a success unless the soil is rich and well
prepared, the seed planted at just the right time and depth, and the plants well
cared for through the entire season.

Garden Crops Grown for Their Fruits 265
VINE CROPS

All the vine crops grown for their fruits belong to
the gourd family. They are very much alike in habit of
growth and in cultural needs. All are tender and de-
cidedly warm-season crops, maturing in summer or
autumn. Their wide-spreading vines require more room
than can usually be spared in the garden of small size.
In the more northern states the season of growth is
scarcely long enough for some of the vine crops to
mature.

Of this group, the bush squashes and the cucumbers
are the most suitable for planting in the home garden.
The bush "squashes" (really pumpkins) do not have
the vine habit, and their fruits mature in summer.

All vine crops are grown in hills. For early crops,
plants may be started under glass, but special pre-
cautions should be taken to keep the roots intact during
the transplanting. As seedlings of these plants develop
quickly, they should be started only about 2 weeks before
the planting date.

Cucumbers. In the home garden cucumbers are
grown chiefly for the green, immature fruits. Grow in
hills about 4 feet apart in rich soil and keep well watered.
In the cooler sections of the more northern states a single
planting of both early and later varieties may be suffi-
cient. Further south and in sections where the summers
are hot and dry the plants tend to die during the summer,
and a second or late planting is advisable. Cucumbers
may be grown as a companion and follow crop with
such early crops as radishes and peas.

266 Gardening

The White Spine, Davis Perfect, and Emerald are all
recommended for culture throughout the United States.

Pumpkins and squashes. Many of the plants com-
monly called " squashes " are really more closely re-
lated to the pumpkins than to the true squashes. The
best of these for home gardens are the Yellow Crookneck,
very generally known in the North, and the Scallop and
the Patty Pan types, more generally grown in the South.
These are bush varieties that take up little space. The
fruits are used while still green and before the shells
become hard.

A recent variety, the Fordhook, which appears to be
suitable both for summer use and for winter storage, is
worthy of a trial.

The Vegetable Marrow, with a running vine habit of
growth, is also a pumpkin. It is a favorite in England
and seems to deserve more general use in America. The
Improved Prolific Marrow is early,, an abundant yielder,
and excellent for frying when the fruits are yet small.

The large-fruited pumpkin is a well-known field crop
often grown as a companion crop with corn. Varieties
known as " sugar pumpkins," which have smaller fruits
that mature earlier in autumn, are more desirable for the
home garden.

The best known of the true squashes is the Hubbard or
winter squash. This plant has a wide-running vine, and
it requires plenty of sunlight. Its large, hard-shelled
fruits mature in autumn and are stored for winter use.
The Delicious is said to be the best flavored of the winter
sorts, and when partly mature its fruits may be used in
the same way as those of the summer squashes.

Garden Crops Grown for Their Fruits 267

FIG. 148. Vine crops may be grown along the edge of a planting of corn, or
alternately with double rows of corn. The vines are then allowed to run in
among the corn, and where the summers are hot the crop is often better because
of the partial shade from the corn. The photograph shows pumpkins and corn
as close neighbors.

The Cushaw, also known as the China or Canada
Crookneck and as the Winter Crookneck, is sometimes
classed with the pumpkins and sometimes with the
squashes. It is really a different species. The Cushaw
produces a fruit having a long, thick neck of solid flesh ;
all the seeds are in a small cavity in the outer end, which
is somewhat enlarged. The variety Japanese is the
earliest, and White Cushaw is a well-known winter sort.

Squashes and pumpkins respond well to the addition
of manure in the hill, as described on page 263 under
directions for planting Lima beans. The pumpkin with
running vine and the Hubbard squashes may be grown
as a companion crop with corn.

Melons. Muskmelons (including cantaloupes) and
watermelons are grown in the same manner as cucumbers.

268

Gardening

FIGS. 149 and 150. Muskmelons. The young plants at the left are being
given an early start in glass-covered individual frames. At the right flower
pots are being placed under the melons to raise them off the ground. This
prevents rotting and insures more even and quicker ripening.

They thrive much better, however, during hot weather,
for the heat and light of summer are necessary for the
maturing of the fruits. A rich, well-drained soil will often
produce good melons, but as a rule the conditions in most
home gardens do not make a good crop certain. Musk-
melons should be grown in hills spaced about 6 feet
apart ; watermelons require more space.

The juice of the preserving watermelon, commonly
called citron, is used in making jelly of fruits whose juices
do not readily jell alone. The flesh is used in making
preserves.

Garden Crops Grown for Their Fruits 269

Seed catalogues list many varieties of muskmelons.
The beginner should perhaps choose first the sorts that
are most successfully grown in the locality. The Rocky
Ford or Netted Gem, Emerald Gem, and Defender (also
called BurreVs Gem) are excellent sorts for general culture.
Extra Early Hackensack and Osage are two other varie-
ties that are extensively grown.

OKRA

This plant grows splendidly throughout the southern
and the middle states. Dwarf varieties can be grown
with some success farther north, especially if seedlings
are started under glass; and in some sections of the
North the crop grows well if planted on rich soil in a
sunny location.

The crop thrives on any good garden soil, but does
best on a rich, well-drained soil. The seed is slow in
germinating, but the process can be hastened and made
more certain by soaking the seed in water. Because
of the cold soil, the seed of early plantings often fails to
germinate.

The seed is sown in rows rather thickly, to allow for
poor germination. The plants that grow should be
thinned to stand 15 to 18 inches apart in the row. The
young tender pods are harvested when one-half or two-
thirds grown, and used in soups, as well as for making
the famous Southern " Creole gumbo."

The Dwarf Prolific is an early variety that can be
recommended. Other excellent sorts, such as White
Velvet and Long Green, are very satisfactory.

270 Gardening

SWEET CORN

This plant should have a place in every garden, except
perhaps those of very small area. It is easily grown, its
fruit has a high food value, and any surplus in the crop
can readily be canned or dried. Besides, some of the
most delicious varieties, such as the Golden Bantam, can
seldom be bought in the markets. This variety is un-
doubtedly the best for the home garden. It does not
yield so heavily as larger-eared sorts, but it is more
sweet and tender.

An excellent plan is to grow about three varieties
which mature at different times. A judicious planting of
early, medium, and late sorts, to the total of 100 hills
or more, will supply the ordinary family abundantly.

The first planting of corn is made after all danger of
frost is past. Plant the seed from i to 2 inches deep,
either in rows or in hills. If in rows, the single stalks
may stand about 12 to 15 inches apart ; if in hills, plan
for 3 stalks in a hill, with the hills 3 feet apart each way.

Succession plantings of one variety may be made at
intervals of 2 weeks ; but if the soil is not especially rich
and well watered during a dry summer, this plan may
result in a stunted development of the later crops. As a
rule, the more certain plan is that of growing early and
late varieties which are planted about the same time.

The ears are best for table use if picked in the " milk
stage " and used promptly. In the milk stage the ker-
nels are well filled and plump, but still soft and juicy.
They are right for use when a quick, sharp pressure of
the finger nail causes the seed coat to burst and the juicy

Garden Crops Grown for Their Fruits 271

FIG. 151. " But let the good old crop adorn

The hills our fathers trod ;
Still let us for His golden corn
Send up our thanks to God." WHITTIER

272

Gardening

milk to spurt out. The seeds soon pass to the " dough
stage " ; the contents then become somewhat like dough
or putty.

The seed catalogues offer a choice of many varieties
of sweet corn. Extra early varieties to be recommended
areGolden Bantam, Malcolm, and Nordheim Extra-early;
medium early varieties are Adams' Early and Crosby;
the best of the late sorts are Country Gentleman, Black
Mexican, and Stowell's Evergreen.

Pop corn is grown in the same way as sweet corn.
The ears should fully ripen on the stalk and should be
stored where they are neither too damp nor too dry.

FIGS. 152 and 153. At the left, cutting the "suckers" from the corn; at the
right, training up a tomato vine by the stake method.

Garden Crops Grown for Their Fruits 273

FIG. 154. Tomato vines with barrel-hoop supports.

Varieties like Tom Thumb and White Rice may be grown
in the home garden.

TOMATOES

From 80 to 125 days are needed to bring the fruits of
the tomato to ripeness. To secure early crops, it is
necessary to have plants of good size ready for trans-
planting to the garden as soon as danger of frost is past.
With proper care such plants can be had in from 6 to 8
weeks from time of sowing seed.

The tomato is a tender plant that quickly suffers from
poor treatment, but it responds to careful handling and
proper transplanting. There are many good varieties
of tomatoes. For general table use those with medium-
sized, well-formed, solid, red fruits are most desira-
ble.

In the North the early and late varieties are planted at
the same time. In the South, where the plants grow

274

Gardening

FIGS. 155 and 156. At the left, setting out pot-grown peppers; at the right,
harvesting the "eggs" from eggplants.

poorly or may even die during the summer, a late crop
may be raised.

In the home garden it is best to grow plants from 18 to
30 inches apart. Each plant should be tied up to one or
more stakes as a support, and the side branches cut away
as they develop, leaving the main stem and possibly two
or three lateral ones to develop. After several clusters
of fruit are formed on a stalk, it is a good plan to pinch
off the growing tip.

Earliana, Bonny Best, and Chalk's Early Jewel are
perhaps the best of the early sorts. The Stone, Acme,
and Ponderosa are somewhat later, but yield heavily.

Garden Crops Grown for Their Fruits 275
PEPPERS

Peppers are tender plants requiring quite the same
temperature conditions as the tomato. They are slower
in growth and need a longer growing period. In the
northern states only one crop can be grown, and this by
the transplanting method. A few plants will usually
supply the needs of a family; the plants may stand
from i to 2 feet apart in rows. The large-fruited and
sweet varieties are best. The smaller sorts are more
" peppery " in taste.

EGGPLANTS

The eggplant needs a rich, warm soil, for it is a tender
plant and grows slowly. A period of 8 or 9 weeks of
proper forcing under glass is necessary to bring the
plants to good size for transplanting to the garden. The
beginner is advised to try one of the early small-fruited
sorts and to rear or purchase well-grown plants for plant-
ing. Fortunately the fleshy and almost solid fruits are
used before they are fully ripe, and for this reason the crop
may be grown where the season is too short to bring the
fruits to full maturity. In the extreme North, however,
the growing season is rather too short to bring the plants
to full production.

Questions

What are the main differences between the smooth-seeded
varieties and the wrinkled varieties of garden peas ? How should
peas be planted? How do string beans and Lima beans differ
in their requirements ? Describe the proper method of planting
Lima beans.

276 Gardening

What can you say of the general characteristics and cultural
needs of the vine crops? How should cucumbers be grown?
Name some of the pumpkins and squashes and their individual
characteristics. What special conditions do melons need to grow
and yield well ? How is okra grown ?

When should the first planting of corn be made? How is it
planted? What is the best plan for providing a successive yield
of corn ? What is the best way of determining when the ears, are
best for table use ? Why should sweet corn be used as soon as
possible after it has been pulled ?

How much time does the tomato plant need to grow from
planting the seed to yielding the first fruit ? Describe the planting
and care of tomatoes. Give a brief summary of the cultural
requirements of peppers ; of eggplants.

Things to Do and Observe

1. To determine the -varieties of the crops that are grown for fruits
in your neighborhood. Visit every garden in your neighborhood.
Make a list of each variety of fruit crop grown in gardens, and put
down the number of gardeners growing each variety. Then find
the variety that is grown by the greatest number. Ask each
gardener why he grows this particular variety. For example, if
you find that of the pole beans Kentucky Wonder is the variety
most often grown, find out from each grower if he grows this
variety because he likes the flavor, because it yields abundantly,
because it is easier to grow than others, or just because other
gardeners in his neighborhood grow it.

2. To find the best method of bringing tomatoes, melons, and
squashes to early fruiting. Inquire of gardeners if they use plant
protectors in the spring and if they have any special practices
for causing these plants to fruit early.

CHAPTER SEVENTEEN

GARDEN PLANTS GROWN FOR THEIR STEMS

Leaves for relishes ! But for solid support, let us have the stems.

NEVIN WOODSIDE

IN the United States, Irish potatoes, the Jerusalem
artichoke, kohl-rabi, and asparagus are the only impor-
tant garden vegetables that are grown for their stems.
These four plants belong to widely different families of
flowering plants, and are very different in their cultural
needs.

THE IRISH POTATO

The underground tubers, or thick, fleshy stems, of the
potato have recently become a most important food
for man. The plant is a native of America, but it is
now cultivated over practically all the cooler parts of the
world and also in the mountains of the tropics. More
tons of potatoes than of either wheat or rice are now used
each year for human food ; so the potato is one of the
leading food plants of the world.

In general, potatoes are a field rather than a garden
crop. On the farm there is every advantage in growing
them in fields where rotation of crops is the rule. The
villager and others who own at least a half an acre or
more of land may find it profitable to raise potatoes,
especially the early sorts which mature at the time po-
tatoes command the highest prices. In the small garden,
where intensive methods are necessary and a crop must
be judged by the returns for the space it occupies, the
potato is not as profitable as some other crops. Another
reason for buying potatoes, rather than raising them in a

277

Gardening

FIG. 157. Planting potatoes. The tubers are never formed deeper than the
"seed" is planted. Hence the planting furrow should be 3 or 4 inches in depth.

small garden, is that they stand shipping well and those
bought are often of better quality than those grown at
home.

The plant is propagated from the tubers, which are cut
into three or four pieces of nearly equal size so that each
piece has at least two " eyes " or buds. These pieces are
planted from 3 to 4 inches deep and 12 to 15 inches apart
in rows that are 2j or 3 feet apart. Cultivate well, and
hill up the soil about plants to protect the tubers from
the sun and to give loose earth in which they can
develop.

In the North the early crop is planted as soon as the
soil can be prepared in spring, and tubers for the main and
late crop are planted soon after. In the South the early
crop is planted from December to March, according to
the winter conditions prevailing in the particular section.

Garden Plants Grown for Their Stems 279

A fall crop is planted in July or August. There are many
varieties of both early and late sorts, and as a rule the
same variety is not planted for both the early and the
late crops. It is best to grow the kinds most generally
cultivated in the region.

Potatoes are very subject to attacks of many diseases.
Some of these diseases are carried from year to year in
the tubers. Such diseases may be avoided in a large
measure by planting tubers from crops grown in north-
ern Maine, Vermont, New York, or Wisconsin, where
these particular diseases are not so frequent or so severe.
Other diseases, commonly called " blights " and " rots,"

FlGS. 158 and 159. At the left, dusting with Paris green; at the right, gather-
ing the crop.

280

Gardening

may be kept somewhat in control by spraying with Bor-
deaux mixture (see page 295).

Insect enemies of potato plants are always abundant.
In some years the potato aphid (a tiny plant louse) is
very destructive unless vigorously combated with nico-
tine sulfate sprays. The potato " bug " (really a
beetle, not a true bug) is nearly always present. Dust-
ing with Paris green and the use of poison sprays are
effective for the larvae of potato beetles, and the adults
can be eradicated by hand picking.

JERUSALEM ARTICHOKE OR GIRASOLE

This sunflower was a food plant well known to the

FIG. 160. The Jerusalem artichoke is ornamental as well as useful. Here it
is grown on the edge of the garden to serve as a screen for the hen yard in the
rear.

Garden Plants Grown for Their Stems 281

FIG. 161. Tubers of Jerusalem artichoke, all from one hill.

Indians at the time America was discovered. It was soon
taken to Europe, where it has been rather extensively
cultivated ; but in its native land it has been neglected.
The swollen underground stems are delicious ; they are
usually served boiled.

The girasole thrives in any good garden soil. Plant
three or four small tubers or pieces of large tubers in hills
3 feet apart each way. Cultivate as for corn. The leafy
stems grow to a height of 6 or more feet, making a dense
mass of foliage. The yield of the improved sorts is truly
enormous ; a single hill of the " white-tubered " variety
often yields as much as 18 pounds of tubers. Some of
the less prolific sorts, as Suttorfs Rose, have smoother
tubers than those that yield more abundantly.

The tubers are ready for use in October ; and as the
plant is hardy, they may be left in the ground during the
winter without injury.

282

Gardening

As the plant often
grows to a height of 8
or 10 feet, it is especially
effective as a hedge-like
screen (Fig. 160).

ASPARAGUS

This hardy perennial
survives severe winter
weather and yields crops
of fleshy young stems
very early in the spring.
The plant will thrive on
any good garden soil,
but prefers a rich, sandy
loam. The site chosen
for an asparagus bed
should be well drained
and so situated that
it dries out quickly in the early spring.

Before the plants are set out, the soil should be spaded
deeply and abundantly manured. For the garden it
is best to buy well-grown roots one year old. Plant
either in autumn or in spring, rather deeply (4 inches be-
neath the surface), 15 inches apart in rows 3 feet apart.
Make a trench or furrow 4 inches deep and set the plants
in the bottom, spreading the roots out horizontally in
all directions. The crown of the plant is thus buried
deeply, and is less likely to be injured when the stalks
are cut for table use. During the first year after plant-
ing, cut none of the young shoots for table use ; and cut

FIG. 162. Cutting asparagus. The stalk
should be cut an inch or two below the
surface of the soil.

Garden Plants Grown for Their Stems 283

sparingly the second
year. In spring culti-
vate freely between the
rows and pull loose soil
up, forming a ridge over
the row. This helps to
blanch the shoots as they
push up to the light.

The cutting season
lasts for several weeks,
but toward its close the
shoots become smaller
and more woody. Then
it is time to level the
ridges with a rake, work-
ing into the soil at the
same time a liberal
coating of well-rotted
stable manure. The green branches are now allowed
to grow throughout the rest of the season and thus
store up food in the roots for the crop of the following
spring.

With proper care a bed will remain highly productive
for as long as 15 or 20 years. If a bed is producing
only poor, spindling shoots, it is best to start a new bed
elsewhere, using new plants.

KOHL-RABI

Kohl-rabi is a member of the cabbage group that pro-
duces a fleshy enlargement of the stem just above the
ground. If gathered before it reaches full size (about

Van Ei'He Kilpatrick

FIG. 163. Kohl-rabi is in the best condi-
tion for use when about the size shown in
this picture.

284 Gardening

2 or 3 inches in diameter), this stem portion is tender
and juicy, and when cooked like turnips it is of excel-
lent flavor.

In the extreme north of the United States, seed sown
directly in the garden about May i will begin to yield a
crop about July i. Well-grown plants transplanted to
the garden on this date (May i) will mature somewhat
sooner. In the South, very early and late crops may be
treated the same as early and late crops of cabbage.
Late crops may be stored for winter use, along with cab-
bage and root crops. Plants maturing in warm weather
soon become pithy and tough if not used ; hence kohl-
rabi should not be overplanted. In localities with cool,
moist summers, the crop does excellently during summer ;
but in sections with hot, dry summers, it often fails if
planted so that it matures during the hot weather.

The variety Early White Vienna is recommended for
general use.

Questions

Why is the potato an important vegetable ? Why are potatoes
a field rather than a garden crop ? How are they planted ? When
is the usual time for planting them? What does "hilling" do
for potato plants ? How are potato beetles controlled ?

How should Jerusalem artichoke be grown ? What would be
the best place in the garden to plant it ?

Describe the method of starting an asparagus bed. How
should the bed be treated after the cutting season? How long
should a good asparagus bed last ? What are the indications that
a bed is not doing as well as it should ?

How does kohl-rabi differ from head cabbages? How is this
plant affected by hot weather ?

Garden Plants Grown for Their Stems 285
Things to Do and Observe

1. To determine the best kind of soil for potatoes. By inquiry
and observation learn the kinds of soil in which potatoes are
grown in your neighborhood. If you find that some are grown
in different soils, find out which gives the biggest yield. If pota-
toes are not grown at all in your locality, find the reason why.

2. To determine what vegetables may be grown successfully as
border plants. In your visits to gardens note what vegetables
are used as border plants ; that is, what vegetables are planted
outside the main gardening area. For example, in one garden
you may find a double row of asparagus along the fence. This
arrangement does not interfere with the cultivation of the garden,
and the plants form a pleasing background. What other plants
do you find grown in this way ?

3. To determine the best time to plant the various crops. Talk
with gardeners about the best time to plant each crop. Take
special note of what the older, more experienced gardeners tell
you. If you find that some go by the condition of the trees, shrubs
or flowers, make notes of the information given you.

CHAPTER EIGHTEEN

DISEASES OF PLANTS

As a Blight is the most common and dangerous Distemper
that Plants are subject to, so I shall endeavour to explain
by what Means Vegetables are affected by it ; and if I shall
be so happy, from the Observations I have made, to dis-
cover the Cause of it, the Remedy may then be more easily
found out, and the Gardener will with more certainty hope
for Success from his Care and Labour.

From an Old English Garden Book (1726)

ALL the vegetables of the garden are plants that
have roots, stems, and leaves. Each of these parts has
different work to do ; and in the plants there are vessels
to carry water, minerals, and foods between the different
parts.

The garden plants all have chlorophyll, a green color-
ing matter which makes them able to use the energy of
the sunlight in building food. They are, therefore, self-
supporting ; they can make their own food from carbon
dioxid taken from the air, and from water and minerals
taken from the soil. As we have learned in earlier
chapters, this is one of the main reasons why they are so
valuable to man as food plants.

The garden plants also produce seeds, which usually
pass through a resting period before the young plants
resume growth. In this way the plants that live but
one year are able to pass the winter months.

In all these respects garden plants are like the many
kinds of trees, shrubs, and herbs that are abundant and
conspicuous all about us. Because of these qualities,
and especially because of their power to produce seeds,
these plants are considered to be the higher forms of

plant life.

286

Diseases of Plants 287

Lower forms of plant life. But all about us are many
sorts of plants that never produce flowers and seeds.
The simplest form of these seedless plants have no roots,
stems, or leaves. Some are so small that we cannot
see them with the naked eye. Many of these seedless
plants have no green coloring matter and hence are not
able to make their own sugary foods. These colorless
(not green) and seedless little plants are all about us,
and they affect, our crops in so many ways that we need
to learn about them.

Plants without green coloring matter. The fungi
(singular, fungus) are a great group of colorless and
seedless plants. Mushrooms, puffballs, molds, and the
bracket fungi (found on trees) are members of this
group. Although some are quite large, they are all
composed of single filaments of cells or groups of such
filaments and have no leaves, stems, roots, or flowers
and no special conducting vessels within them. The
fungi produce great numbers of small spores that, when
scattered abroad, start the new plants.

The yeasts and bacteria are other examples of color-
less and seedless plants. In these the plant consists of
but a single cell. The yeasts multiply by budding ; the
bacteria, by simple division. Some of the yeasts and
bacteria produce spores that can withstand drying and a
high temperature without injury. Some vegetables are
difficult to can so that they will keep, because they carry
bacterial spores that are killed only by steaming under
pressure or by a long period of boiling.

Parasites. A colorless plant cannot make its own food,
but, like an animal, it must have food that is already

288 Gardening

prepared. Some of these plants, such as the mushrooms
and bread mold, use dead plant or animal material for
food. Others feed directly on living plants or animals.
These are called parasites, and the plant or animal on
which the parasite feeds is called the host.

Parasitic diseases of plants. Many diseases of gar-
den plants are due to the attacks of parasitic plants
such as the rusts, smuts, and mildews. Most blights
and rots are caused by fungi ; but some of them, and
also many other plant diseases, are due to bacteria.

It is only within the last forty or fifty years that the
cause of these diseases has ceased to be a mystery. The
host plants become sickly, and even die suddenly ; but
because of their small size, the parasites are not even
seen with the naked eye. But the invention of the
microscope enabled man to see these small parasitic
plants ; consequently much is now known of the
various parasites that cause plant diseases and how to
control them.

The gardener can learn to recognize many of these
diseases by such signs as spots or blotches on the leaves,
by the occurrence of powdery or moldy growth, or by the
decay or rotting of parts. Just as the physician, without
seeing the germs, recognizes whooping cough or measles
from the symptoms of the patient, so the gardener can
learn to recognize plant diseases by the condition of the
host plants.

The diseases discussed below are selected to illustrate
the various sorts of parasites that are likely to appear
on crops in the home vegetable garden, and to give also a
knowledge of the diseases that are most destructive to

Diseases of Plants

289

R. F. Poole, N. J. Expt. Sta.
FIG. 164. Cabbage plants badly infected with the club root disease.

such crops and of the various means that are employed
in combating them.

CLUBROOT OF CABBAGE

All the members of the cabbage group, as well as
turnips, radishes, rutabagas, and mustards, serve as the
hosts of a parasite which causes a disease known as club-
root. This disease is especially common in cabbage over
most of the United States east of the Mississippi River.
Young plants are often attacked in the seed bed. They
become stunted and sickly and seldom grow to maturity.
They wilt during the heat of the day. The roots soon
become greatly swollen and misshapen. This condition
leads the gardener to speak of the disease as the club-

2 QO Gardening

root ; but it is also known as " clubfoot " or the " finger
and toe " disease.

The fungus causing this disease lives, during one stage
of its life, in the soil. It enters the roots of its host,
and multiplies by a simple kind of budding process.
After a period of feeding, during which the host becomes
greatly weakened, many spores are produced by the
fungus within the roots. Later, when the roots of the
dead host decay, these spores become mingled with the
soil. Under proper conditions, which usually occur
during early spring, they germinate and infest plants of
the new crop.

Means of control. All diseased plants should be dug
up and burned, care being taken to get all the roots out
of the soil. If the disease appears in cold frames or
hotbeds, one must remove and discard all the soil, and
thoroughly clean out flats and frames before using for
another year. The destruction of diseased plants and
the cleaning of frames is one of the first remedies to
use in preventing the disease.

A second method of combating the disease is to plant
in the infected soil crops not attacked by it. Do not
grow cabbage on ground where cabbage was attacked the pre-
vious year, and do not use soil from infected areas to grow
seedlings of cabbage. If the disease appears in an early
crop, do not plant a late crop of cabbage in the same
earth, but use this space for late crops of some vege-
table that is not subject to the disease, such as endive
or celery.

As the fungus thrives best in an acid soil, the appli-
cation of lime to the land helps in controlling the disease.

Diseases of Plants 291

The root-knot disease, which is caused by small " eel-
worms," may be confused with the clubroot disease, in the
southern states especially. The worms infest the roots
and produce swellings, but these are smaller than the
swellings of the clubroot. By breaking open the swollen
roots, one may often detect pearly white bodies about
the size of a pin head ; these are the female eelworms.

To combat this animal parasite, practice crop rotation,
destroy all diseased plants, and clean the frames and flats,
as is recommended for the clubroot.

BACTERIAL WILT OF VINE CROPS

This disease is caused by a bacterium that lives
within the woody vessels which carry sap up to the leaves.
This parasite is so minute that many thousands of them
can live together within a single cell of the host plant.
In time, the vessels are broken down and cavities formed
within the host. The supply of water is thus checked,
and the plant suddenly wilts and soon dies. There is no
recovery and no cure for plants after the germs once get
inside.

The minute germs of this disease are carried from
diseased plants to healthy ones by the striped cucumber
beetle. This insect chews into diseased plants and gets
the bacteria on its mouth parts ; then when it chews into
healthy plants, the bacteria gain an entrance.

The best measures of prevention are : (i) to destroy
and combat the striped beetle, and (2) to burn all plants
as soon as they become infected.

The various vine crops also wilt suddenly and die when
attacked by the grub of the stalk borer, but in this case

29 2 Gardening

proper examination will reveal the grubs burrowing in the
stem near the base of the plant (page 333) .

Plants may also wilt badly from lack of water. One
needs to recognize the various conditions that cause wilt-
ing before deciding that the bacterial wilt is present.

Muskmelons, watermelons, cucumbers, and squashes
are all subject to attacks of this disease at any time during
their growth. It is now a common and a very serious
disease of vine crops in the United States.

OTHER BACTERIAL DISEASES OF GARDEN CROPS

A wilt disease of potatoes, tomatoes, and eggplants
caused by a bacterium is especially destructive in the
southern states.

A soft rot of the carrot and other vegetables is a com-
mon and widespread disease and is 'caused by another
bacterium.

A bean blight, caused by a bacterium, is common on
both the kidney and the Lima bean. Its presence is
readily detected by the occurrence of water-soaked
patches or swellings that appear in the stems, leaves, and
green pods. The disease is seed-borne and there is no
effective control, except the use of seed from healthy
plants. However, treatment of diseased seed is some-
what effective in preventing this disease.

Before planting, soak the seed in a solution of mercuric
bichlorid (i part to 1000 parts of water) for 15 minutes ;
then rinse or wash in pure water, after which spread
out the seeds to dry. This kills the bacteria that are
being carried on the seeds. As the solution attacks

Diseases of Plants 293

metal vessels, an earthenware dish should be used.
Mercuric bichlorid is a deadly poison and should not be
used by children.

A " black rot " of cabbage (also called " brown rot,"
" stem rot," and " dry rot ") is caused by a bacterium.
Young plants are killed ; older ones lose their leaves and
become rotted. As young plants may become infected
in flats or in seed beds, these should be watched. Any
plants showing signs of the black rot should be de-
stroyed. The disease is seed-borne ; hence it is advis-
able always to disinfect seeds of cabbage with mercuric
bichlorid as directed above for destroying the germs of
bean blight.

All the diseases mentioned above are combated by
destroying diseased plants, by keeping flats and frames
clean, and by crop rotation.

THE DOWNY MILDEW OF THE CUCUMBER

Through the eastern and the southern states the
downy mildew is a very destructive disease of the cu-
cumber and of all the vine crops related to it. The first
sign of attack is the appearance of yellowish spots on the
leaves. These rapidly enlarge until the leaves are almost
or entirely yellow or brown, when they soon die. The
older leaves are attacked first, and the disease progresses
toward the tips of the vines until the plants are either
killed or very much stunted.

The disease is due to a fungus, which cannot itself be
detected with the naked eye. But an examination of the
discolored areas under a microscope will reveal colorless,
branched, and thread-like stalks of the fungus pro-

294

Gardening

FIG. 165.

Cucumber vines destroyed by bacterial wilt. A week before this
picture was taken the vines were growing vigorously.

truding through the breathing pores on the under sur-
faces of the leaves and extending out into the air. Very
small spores are borne on the ends of these branches.
When the spores are mature, they readily become sep-
arated from the stalk and may be borne long distances by
the wind. If, by chance, a spore lodges on a cucumber
leaf (or the leaf of a melon or squash), it gives rise to
thread-like filaments which may grow through a breath-
ing pore into the interior of a leaf. Here the fungus
feeds from the living cells of the host, becomes mature
itself, and sends out into the air branches which bear
spores for another germination.

The parasite, therefore, lives within the leaf. It
is outside on the surface of the plant for only a short
time previous to gaining entrance, and also when a part
of the fungus is exposed to the air for the short time that
the spores are being shed.

Diseases of Plants 295

Controlling fungous diseases with poison. Poisons
which kill fungi are called fungicides. The best-known
and most valuable fungicide is Bordeaux mixture. The
standard formula for this fungicide is known as the
" 4-4-50 formula," so called because it is made from 4
pounds of copper sulfate, 4 pounds of fresh slaked lime
(or 5 pounds hydrated lime), and 50 gallons of water.

For the home garden, a smaller amount of the material
is usually sufficient for all needs, and it can be made in
the same proportions, as follows :

Prepare separately two stock solutions which we will
call A and B. To make solution A, inclose 2 pounds of
copper sulfate in a cloth bag, and hang it in a vessel con-
taining 2 gallons of water. A metal bucket will be de-
stroyed by the solution ; so a wooden or glazed earthen-
ware vessel must be used. The bag containing copper
sulfate should be hung in the upper part of the water and
not allowed to touch the bottom or sides of the vessel.

To make solution B, prepare a lime paste either by
slaking 2 pounds of fresh stone lime in water or by adding
2 f pounds of hydrated lime to water. Then add water to
make 2 gallons. This solution also must be made and
kept in an earthen or wooden vessel.

These stock solutions may be kept for use throughout
the summer, but the vessels should be kept tightly
covered to prevent evaporation of water and to keep dust
out. As some water will evaporate, it is well to mark the
height of the liquid after each use of the stock, and then
add water to fill to this height just before the stock is
again used. In this way the proper strength of the sojih
tion is maintained.

296

Gardening

As it is seldom that the home gardener will wish to
use more than 3 gallons of spray at one time, this amount
can be made up from the stock as follows :

2 Ibs. copper sulfate
Suspended in aclotH
bag in 2 gals. of
cold water

Mix 1 qt. solution A with
2;/2 gals, water; add 1 qt. -D
!L solution B

2 Ibs. stone lime or
273 Ibs.hydrated lime

made into paste;

add 2 gals, water

Keep covered \ Keep covered

Strain and use
at once in spray

FIG. 1 66. Diagram showing how Bordeaux mixture is made up.

Stir the stock solutions thoroughly. Place i quart
of solution A in a wooden pail or glazed earthenware
vessel which holds not less than 4 gallons. Add 2 gal-
lons of water, and mix well.

Next, add i quart of stock solution B, and stir
thoroughly. Then strain the mixture through cheese-
cloth into the tank of the spray pump, and use imme-
diately. If a smaller amount of Bordeaux mixture is
needed, one-half the amounts mentioned may be mixed
for use. Or, if only a very small amount is needed for a
single application, it can be made by using 4 ounces of
copper sulfate dissolved in 6 quarts of water and 4
ounces quicklime (or 5! ounces hydrated lime) slaked

Diseases of Plants

297

and then dissolved in 6 quarts of water. When the lime
is well dissolved mix the two solutions, strain, and use
immediately.

Weaker solutions, such as a 2-4-50 formula, are often
prepared for use on
young plants and on
tender crops that are
injured by the stronger
solutions.

Sometimes the lime
is of poor quality or has
lost its strength, or the
copper may be so strong
that it " burns " leaves
that it touches. The
solution may be tested
as follows : Dip a clean,
bright steel knife blade
into the prepared solu-
tion for 30 seconds. If
it is " coppery " in color
when removed, there is
not enough lime, and
lime water should be
added until the knife
blade does not " cop-
per " when tested.

When this poison is
sprayed on the surface of

C7. S. D. A.

The proper way to carry a

FIG. 167.

compressed-air sprayer of the knapsack
leaves it kills the ger- tyP e - The strap goes over the left shoulder,
. and the tank is partially supported by the

minating spores which right hand.

298 Gardening

may be present. It will not destroy the fungus after it
has gained entrance to the inside of the leaf, however.
Spraying with Bordeaux mixture can therefore only
prevent the appearance and spread of the disease ; it
cannot cure diseased plants. Cucumber growers who
plant on a large acreage do not wait for the disease
caused by downy mildew to appear, but spray about
seven times during the growing of the crop. The home
gardener should at least begin spraying as soon as he de-
tects signs of disease. If, however, the disease has been
present in previous years or is known to be in the lo-
cality, it is advisable to begin spraying as soon as the
cucumber plants are well above the ground, and to
spray thereafter at intervals of about 10 days. If rains
occur soon after spraying, much of the poison will be
washed from the leaves ; it will then be necessary to
spray again immediately.

LEAF BLIGHT OR LEAF SPOT OF THE TOMATO

It is estimated by the United States Department of
Agriculture that the tomato-leaf blight causes a loss to
tomato growers in the United States of at least $5,000,000
each year ; yet this loss could largely be prevented if the
growers would learn to recognize the symptoms of the
disease and to spray properly with Bordeaux mixture.

The fungus which causes this disease attacks the lower
leaves first. Small angular or circular spots appear,
having grayish or light-colored centers and dark-colored
borders. These spots are seldom more than J inch in
diameter. Leaves thus attacked curl, and then dry and
fall. As the disease continues to extend to the newer

Diseases of Plants 299

leaves, the plants may in a short time become almost
leafless. In such a condition the plants will produce
few or no fruits.

In the center of the discolored spots, small dark dots
or pustules may be found. These are cistern-like cavities
in which countless spores are produced. Around the
spores is a material which when wet becomes jelly-like
and swells, pushing the spores in sticky clusters out of the
opening of the case. They will cling to insects and to
the hands of the gardener, and thus become distributed.
Rain may splash spores from leaf to leaf and from plant
to plant. Spores which fall to the ground will withstand
severe drying for at least three days, during which time
they may be blown about with the dust. Many gar-
deners quite naturally make the mistake of thinking
that the disease is caused by wet weather, but the wet
weather simply favors the spread of the parasite.

Control of this disease is effected largely by preven-
tive measures. Clean soil should be used in flats and
cold frames in which seedlings are started. The spores
live over winter on stems and leaves of old plants ; hence
the dead remains of all tomato plants should be burned in
autumn. The spread of the disease can be checked by
spraying with Bordeaux mixture (4-4-50 formula) at
intervals of about 10 days, or more often during rainy
weather. At the first signs of this disease the gardener
should tie up plants to stakes, remove and burn the lower
and infected leaves which are wilting and showing
blotches, and then spray with Bordeaux mixture. All
this work, as well as that of cultivation, should be done
when the plants are dry.

300

Gardening

THE DAMPING-OFF DISEASE

Several kinds of fungi attack young seedlings and cause
them to topple over and die. Heavy losses from this
cause often occur in seed beds and cold frames. Usually
all the plants in an area are attacked and killed, leaving
bare patches. In some cases the plants survive until
they are placed in the field, but even then they grow
poorly and often die.

The fungi which cause damping off can live on decay-
ing organic matter in the soil, they can attack the living
tissues of seedlings, and they can continue to feed on the
plants after they are dead. Certain of these fungi are
practically always present in soil which is rich in organic

FIG. 1 68. Lettuce seedlings affected with the damping-off disease. The plants
just above the center of the picture are falling down and rotting.

Diseases of Plants

materials. Their growth is
favored by an abundance
of moisture and warmth.

The prevention of damp-
ing off depends largely on
the use of proper methods in
growing seedlings. Do not
use soil so rich that the plants
are forced too rapidly. Give
the seedlings space, both by
proper sowing and by prompt
thinning and transplanting.
Supply water only according
to the needs of the plants;
mix sand with the soil to
help the drainage ; regulate
the temperature and venti-
late the frames to harden
the seedlings. With such
precautions, damping off will

Seldom be SerioUS.

R. F. Poole, N. J. Expt. Sta.

If it TIG. 169. Portion of a corn plant
badly infected with corn smut. The
diseased parts or the entire diseased

anr>psrQin flat* HkrarH the badly infected with corn smut. The
natS > a ' diseased parts or the entire di

entire flat and plant new plants should be cut off and de-
seeds in less rich soil, or

select healthy plants from uninfected parts of the flat
and transplant them to a new flat with fresh earth less
rich in humus.

CORN SMUT

One can readily detect the presence of this fungus, be-
cause of the prominent and sometimes enormous swell-

3 2 Gardening

R. F. Poole. N. J. Expt. Sta.

FIG. 170. Bean pods infected with bean anthracnose. The diseased portions
often extend through the walls of the pod and affect the seed within.

ings produced. These somewhat rounded but irregularly
shaped enlargements may appear on leaves, stalk, tassel,
or ears. At first, the outside of these swellings is glis-
tening white, but later the mass breaks up into black
powdery substances, largely composed of minute spores.
These spores live over winter and lead to the infection of
growing plants the next year. The filaments of the fun-
gus gain entrance anywhere in the growing parts, espe-
cially through wounds. The fungus grows rapidly, and
the parts in which it feeds become enlarged and greatly
distorted. The effect of this fungus differs very much
from that of such a fungus as the downy mildew of the.
cucumber, which kills tissues and does not first cause
them to become enlarged.

To prevent the spread of this smut, do not allow any
pustules to mature and shed their spores. Cut out the

Diseases of Plants

303

/i. F. PooZe, AT. J. -Ezp*. 5a.

FIG. 171. Bean seeds showing anthracnose spots. If these seeds are planted,
the disease will be transmitted to the plants of the next crop,
u

swellings when they are
destroy them by burning.

green " and immature, and

BEAN ANTHRACNOSE

The most common and perhaps the most destructive of
the diseases that attack varieties of the common or kid-
ney bean is the disease known as bean anthracnose. It is
nearly always present on some varieties. The fungus at-
tacks pods, stems, leaves, and even roots, causing dis-
colored blotches to appear. On the pods these first appear
as small, dark-colored spots which soon increase in size, be-
coming quite conspicuous. They are usually somewhat
circular and black or rusty, but may be pinkish at certain
stages. These " cankers," as they are called, become
sunken and dry and hard. It is in these areas that the
fungus is living. Spores are produced on the surface of
the canker ; and as these are sticky when wet, they are

304 Gardening

easily spread, much in the same way as the spores of the
tomato-leaf blight are spread. The filaments of the
fungus penetrate to the interior of the pod and infest
the seeds, and here they may remain, ready to thrive
on the young plant when the seed germinates.

Control. Do not cultivate or hoe the crop, or pick
the pods when the plants are wet from rain or dew, as
this spreads the spores from plant to plant. Burn all
badly infected plants and destroy the vines of others as
soon as the crop of pods is harvested. This helps to
check the spread of the disease to later crops.

The chief means of prevention is through seed selec-
tion. The fungus is carried over winter on the seed, and
the very first leaves (the seed leaves or cotyledons) may
already have the fungus present in the seed. Do not save
seed from infected pods. This is one of the seed-borne
diseases whose presence can often be detected with the
unaided eye. Examine carefully the seed that is bought
for planting, and reject all seeds that show dark or red-
dish spots indicating the cankers of the fungus. Seed
treatment with fungicides has not thus far proved success-
ful in controlling this fungus. The filaments penetrate
deeply into the embryo itself, and a treatment which
destroys the fungus also usually kills the embryo.

PREVENTING PLANT DISEASES

From the above discussion of the diseases typical of
plants grown in the vegetable garden, it will be evident
to the reader that there is no one means of control suitable
for all diseases. The best method to use is largely deter-
mined by the way the particular fungus lives and how it

Diseases of Plants 305

attacks its host. Most measures of control aim to pre-
vent the appearance of a disease, or at least to check its
spread after it has appeared. In general, the various
methods which are employed and which have been noted
above may be grouped in the following classes :

(1) Sanitary measures. The remains of diseased
plants often contain countless numbers of the spores of
the fungus or of the bacterium causing the disease. To
leave such plant refuse scattered about the garden or in
piles about the border often assists the fungus or bac-
terium to live over winter, and thus invites a reappear-
ance of the disease. On this account the garden should
be kept clear of plant refuse, and the remains of plants
known to be infected should never be used in a humus
pile. Hotbeds, cold frames, and flats should be thor-
oughly cleaned out at the end of the season ; and they
should be sprayed or sprinkled with weak solutions of
formaldehyde. Sanitary measures are as desirable for
the garden as for the household.

(2) Crop rotation. Through rotation in the planting
of crops it is often possible to kill out the fungus by not
planting a crop that serves as a host for it. This is
especially the case when a parasitic fungus lives, in some
form or other, for a considerable time in the soil where
the best sanitary measures are of little avail. In larger
gardens and on a farm, various crops can be shifted to
different locations from year to year. In a small garden
there is less chance to practice crop rotation. But even
here it can be practiced to some extent. For example,
late cabbage should not be planted in soil on which an
early crop showed infection with the clubroot disease.

306 Gardening

(3) Seed treatment. The aim of this method of
disease prevention is to destroy the parasites that exist
in some form either on or in the seeds. Soaking seed in
hot water or in solutions of certain chemicals will often
kill these parasites. There is, however, danger of in-
juring the seeds, especially if they are allowed to soak too
long or if they are not properly dried afterward. The
treatment most effective differs widely according to the
kind of seed and the kind of fungus. Seed treatment is
useless when seeds are planted in infected soil. Corrosive
sublimate, sometimes used in seed treatment, is a deadly
poison. Formaldehyde is extremely irritating to the
skin and to the nose and eyes. Seed treatment should
not be undertaken by the beginner in gardening without
considerable study of the literature and without a spe-
cial demonstration or study of the methods. Children
should never attempt the work alone.

(4) Fungicides. The use of fungicides, of which
Bordeaux mixture has already been mentioned, has now
become very general in combating various fungous dis-
eases. This aims chiefly to destroy the fungus at the
time it is gaining entrance to the leaves. The chemicals
applied stick to the leaves after the surface becomes
dry. When the leaves become wet from dew or rain,
the poisons are dissolved in the films of water that
cover the leaves. The poison is therefore present to
destroy spores which may lodge and germinate in the
water. Sooner or later the poisons which were ap-
plied are washed from the plant; therefore the gar-
dener must spray repeatedly, and most often when dis-
eases are especially destructive or the weather rainy.

Diseases of Plants

307

Univ. of Wis. Agrtc. Ex-pt.

FIG. 172. In a field of cabbage that was almost entirely destroyed by yellows,
a plant that had formed a good head was found. This plant was saved for seed.

The most successful truck growers often spray crops
subject to diseases that can be thus controlled, whether
disease is present or not. They do this to prevent any
appearance of disease. The home gardener should be
prepared to use fungicides whenever diseases appear that
can be thus controlled. Children should not be intrusted
with the task, but should have the help of some older
person, as a parent, teacher, supervisor of garden work,
or scoutmaster.

(5) Varieties resistant to disease. Sometimes certain
plants of a crop are able to resist the attacks of a parasite,
while the greater number of sister plants all about
suffer or die. If seed is saved from these more resistant
plants, a highly resistant variety may be obtained.
The work of developing such resistant strains is best

308

Gardening

Univ. of Wis. Agric. Expt. Sta.

FIG. 173. The rows of cabbage at the right were grown from seed from re-
sistant stock. They have inherited the power of the parent plants to resist the
disease. The plants on the left are from ordinary seed.

conducted by agricultural experiment stations or by seed
firms that produce seeds on a large scale. However, the
home gardener may secure seed, whenever available, of
desirable varieties known to be resistant to certain
diseases. When a disease tends to reappear year after
year, resistant varieties are especially valuable. For
example, the fungus that causes the " yellows " of cab-
bage is believed to persist in infected soil for a number
of years, and the growing of cabbages in such soil is only
possible when one uses seed of plants that are resistant
to this disease (see Figs. 172 and 173).

Whenever any noticeable and markedly injurious fun-
gous disease or insect (see next chapter) appears among
any of the vegetable crops, one should determine with-
out delay the nature of the injury. If this cannot be

Diseases of Plants 309

determined with reasonable certainty from personal
knowledge, from such literature as may be at hand,
or from persons who may readily be consulted, then
the county agricultural agent or the state agricultural
experiment station should be written to. When writing
for inlormation, it is well to send specimens from dis-
eased plants (or if the trouble is caused by insects, a
few of these), with a full description of the conditions.
Although children cannot be expected to handle poisons
used in seed treatment or in sprays, they can observe how
these remedies are applied and they can readily learn to
recognize the symptoms of many diseases and insect
pests. If there is a microscope in the school, demon-
stration of the spores of many parasitic fungi may readily
be made. Such a demonstration may often be arranged
through school authorities or through the county agri-
cultural agent. An acquaintance with the world of
microorganisms all about us may well be begun in this
manner.

Questions

Why are the garden plants considered as belonging to the
higher forms of plant life? Name some seedless plants. Name
some common plants that do not have green coloring matter.
How do fungi reproduce ?

What are parasites ? Why did the causes of many plant diseases
long remain a mystery? How may the gardener recognize the
presence of disease in his plants ?

How does the clubroot disease of cabbage affect the plant it
attacks? How is it controlled? How can the clubroot disease
be distinguished from the root-knot disease of cabbage? What
causes bacterial wilt of vine crops? Describe the activities of
the parasite. How does it gain an entrance to the host plant ?
What are the best means of controlling the disease? Describe

3io Gardening

the effect of bean blight. How is it controlled? What is the
"black rot" of cabbage? Describe the effects of the downy
mildew of cucumber.

How is Bordeaux mixture prepared? What are the general
rules for using this fungicide ?

Describe the appearance of a tomato plant affected by the
tomato-leaf blight. How is the disease spread? How is it
controlled? What is a "damping-off" disease? How is it
prevented? Describe the appearance of the corn-smut fungus.
How can the spores be prevented from spreading ? What is bean
anthracnose ? What are the methods of control ?

Why is there no one means of controlling all plant diseases?
What are the sanitary measures of controlling plant diseases?
How does crop rotation assist in keeping plant diseases in
check ? How may seeds be treated for diseases they are carrying ?
Why should children never attempt this work alone? What are
the general principles involved in using fungicides? How are
disease-resistant varieties of crops developed ?

Things to Do and Observe

1. To learn to recognize the symptoms of the "various diseases oj
garden "vegetables. Watch for the earliest appearance of a plant
disease. If at any time a plant looks as if it were diseased, try
to learn what disease it is, either by referring to a garden book
or by asking an experienced gardener ; or, if you cannot find out
in any other way, send specimens of diseased plants to the state
agricultural experiment station for identification, and ask for
information. In this way you will get into the habit of watch-
ing for the appearance of disease in your plants and you will
know just what to do as soon as you recognize the disease.

2. To learn how to control plant diseases. Secure bulletins
from your state department of agriculture on the diseases of
garden vegetables and their control. Consult the local dealer as
to the kind of sprayers and fungicides he sells. Inquire among
gardeners as to which of these are most effective.

CHAPTER NINETEEN

INSECTS IN THE GARDEN

He is rather handsome as bugs go, but utterly dastardly.

CHARLES DUDLEY WARNER

VARIOUS insects attack garden plants, and if left
alone, these insect enemies may seriously injure crops or
even destroy them entirely. The gardener therefore
needs to know what insects attack the different vege-
tables, how to tell when they are present, and what to do
in destroying or controlling them.

In the course of their lives, insects pass through re-
markable changes in form and appearance. Often the
habit of living and feeding entirely changes in passing
from one stage to another. In general, the best methods
of combating any given insect depend on its life history
and how it feeds at the time when it injures the plants.
In this chapter, therefore, we shall study the life history
and feeding habits of some of the insects that are of most
interest to the gardener and learn the best ways of pro-
tecting garden plants from them.

THE CHEWING INSECTS

The chewing insects are those which at some stage of
life chew or bite into plants from the surface. They may
therefore be killed by poisons sprayed or dusted over the
plants which they are eating. Other methods of control-
ling them may be used, depending, as we shall learn, on
the way the insect lives.

The cabbage butterfly. Cabbage plants, especially in
late summer, are often infested with greenish-colored
caterpillars, commonly spoken of as " cabbage worms."
These caterpillars have such hearty appetites that they

312 Gardening

often completely strip the leaves of young plants, check-
ing their growth and preventing the proper formation of

FIG. 174. Different stages in the life of the cabbage butterfly.

heads. On older plants they burrow from leaf to leaf
among the outer leaves of a head, leaving castings that
make the heads undesirable as food. The caterpillar in-
creases in size, shedding or molting its skin several
times as it grows, until in 2 or 3 weeks it is an inch or
more long.

When fully grown, a caterpillar attaches itself firmly
by a few silken threads, sheds its skin again, and in-
closes itself in a thin but tough and horny covering. It

Insects in the Garden 313

is now a pupa (plural, pupce) or, as it is also called, a
chrysalis (plural, chrysalides). Before it passes into this
stage the caterpillar usually leaves the plant upon which
it has been feeding and crawls up some object, as a tree,
a fence, or a building.

The pupal stage is the resting period of the insect's
life ; when in this stage it does not eat, and appears to be
inactive and dormant. But within the thin shell wonder-
ful changes are taking place, and in time a butterfly
develops and comes forth. This is the mature or adult
form of the insect.

The cabbage butterfly is white above and white or
yellowish beneath, with a wing spread of about 2 inches.
The male has one black spot on each of the four wings.
The female has an extra spot on each of the. front wings.
These butterflies may be seen flitting about the garden
almost any day during the summer. In the butterfly
stage the insect does not feed upon the cabbage plants ;
its food is now obtained from the nectar of flowers.

When the female is ready to lay eggs, she alights on
the edge of a cabbage leaf and glues the eggs, one at a
time, in different places on the lower surface. A butter-
fly has been known to lay as many as 125 eggs in a single
day, but of course not all of these are placed on any one
plant. The eggs are about -^ inch in length. In from
3 to 10 days the eggs hatch ; tiny caterpillars emerge and
immediately begin feeding.

In its life cycle, this insect passes through four rather
distinct forms : (i) the egg; (2) the caterpillar or larva
(plural, larva), which is often incorrectly called a
worm ; (3) the pupa, or so-called resting form ; and

314 Gardening

(4) the butterfly or adult form. The appearance of the
same individual insect and its habits of feeding and living
are very different in the various stages of its life.

In the northern states the cabbage butterfly lives
over winter in the pupal stage. The pupae that are
formed late in autumn remain in this stage until late in
the following spring. During the summer, however, the
butterflies emerge from pupae in from 7 to 10 days ; con-
sequently there are in the North at least two generations
in a season.

In the southern states, where the winters are very mild,
there may be as many as six generations in a year ; the
butterflies and the caterpillars of this insect are there-
fore present throughout the year.

The cabbage butterfly may be fought both in the
adult and in the larval stage. The following methods are
recommended :

(1) Catching the butterflies. The butterflies are active
in their movements, but they may be captured in butter-
fly nets as they flit about the garden. Special efforts
to catch the females at the time when eggs are being
laid will often greatly reduce the later work of killing
the caterpillars.

(2) Hand-picking the caterpillars. The caterpillars
are sluggish in their movements and can readily be
picked off the leaves and destroyed. At first they are
minute, and their color is almost the same as that of the
leaves upon which they feed, but as they grow larger they
are more easily seen.

A simple means of killing the caterpillars is to drop
them into a dish containing water and a little kerosene.

Insects in the Garden

To hand-pick successfully, the plants should be searched
repeatedly, beginning as soon as signs of the insect are
seen.

(3) Use of poisons. Poisons are often used to kill
chewing insects, and for some insects the use of a poison
is the best means of control. How to mix poisons and

U.S.D.A.

FIG. 175. Map showing the rapid spread of the cabbage butterfly. It first
appeared at Quebec in 1860, and, spreading southward and westward, by 1881 it
was found over half the continent.

316 Gardening

apply them to plants may be explained in this connec-
tion.

To use Paris green dry, mix it in the proportion of i
part to 10 parts of dry air-slaked lime, and dust the mix-
ture liberally over the plants while the dew is on. A
tin sifter or duster for use can be bought for less than
a dollar. A good duster can be made, however, by
punching small holes in one end of an empty baking-
powder can, by constructing a bag made of cheesecloth,
or by folding together the edges of a piece of loosely
woven burlap. Place the poison within the duster or
bag and use as a shaker.

Paris green may be applied also as a liquid spray.
Melt i ounce of common laundry soap in 4 gallons of hot
water. When the mixture is cool, add i ounce (about
5 heaping teaspoonfuls) of Paris green, stir well, and
apply by means of a compressed-air or auto sprayer.
Good sprayers of small size costing from one to two
dollars are listed in the catalogues of seed firms.

Arsenate of lead is another effective poison, and it is
sometimes cheaper than Paris green. To use it dry, mix
i part of powdered arsenate to 3 parts of air-slaked lime.
To make a spray, use i ounce of the arsenate of lead to
3 gallons of soapy water. The soap in the water is
needed to make the solution stick to the leaves of cab-
bages instead of rolling off their smooth, waxy surfaces.

White hellebore is very generally recommended as a
poison for chewing insects. It may be applied as a dry
powder or in a spray, using i ounce of powder in i gal-
lon of water. It is often stated that this poison soon
loses its activity when exposed to air and becomes

Insects in the Garden 317

harmless. If this were true, white hellebore would be
especially valuable for use on salad vegetables. There
is, however, considerable doubt that it becomes harm-
less in a short time, and for this reason its application
on leaves that are to be used as food is to be safe-
guarded, as noted in the next paragraph.

Caution. Paris green, arsenate of lead, and white
hellebore are deadly poisons to human beings. All
supplies of these materials should be kept where children
cannot obtain them. In the home garden, poisons should
be used only when no other means are effective, and then
only by experienced persons.

When these poisons are used in the dust form, children
should be careful not to get dust in their own faces or
in the faces of others. Leafy crops should be sprayed
with poisons only when young, long before they are to be
used as food. Poisons should not be applied to cabbages
after the heads are beginning to form.

Cutworms. Cutworms often do much damage by
chewing through and cutting off the tender stems of
young plants of beans, corn, tomatoes, onions, sweet
potatoes, and cabbages. These " worms " are the cater-
pillars or larvae of night-flying moths. During summer
evenings they often fly through open windows into a
room and flit about a lighted lamp.

The eggs are laid in late summer; the young cater-
pillars that soon hatch from them feed during autumn
chiefly on the roots of grasses, and then live over winter
as half-grown caterpillars. Hence cutworms are almost
sure to be present in a garden that was in sod the previous
year. In the spring they crawl over the surface of the

Gardening

V. S. D. A.

FIG. 176. Life history of the varie-
gated cutworm : a, adult moth ; b,
larva in the injurious stage, feeding ;

c, larva coiled up, a characteristic po-
sition when resting in the ground ;

d, top view of larva, showing the six
little white dots on the back ; e, egg
mass on a twig ; /, side view of an
individual egg, much enlarged.

garden during darkness and
feed by chewing through the
stems of young plants. Af-
ter feeding, they burrow into
the soil, where they curl up
and remain quiet during the
day. There are several ways
of overcoming cutworms.

(i) Protection from attack.
A stiff paper cylinder or
collar 3 inches in height, set
into the ground about a
plant, will afford protection,
for the worms rarely climb
over it. This method is feasible for protecting trans-
planted plants of cabbage and tomato, but not for crops
grown from seed planted in the garden.

(2) Killing the caterpillars. By carefully scraping
away the dirt from around the bases of plants that have
been cut off during the night, one can often find the
caterpillars and destroy them (see Figure 10). A search
for cutworms should be made early in the morning.

(3) Use of poisoned bait. This method is sometimes
used in commercial gardening, but its use is seldom neces-
sary in the small home garden if the methods noted above
are vigorously employed. To make poison bran mash,
mix 3 teaspoonfuls of Paris green with i pound of dry
wheat bran. Dissolve 2 teaspoonfuls of salt and 5 of
sirup in a teacupful of water. Mix all together and add
enough water to make the mash crumbly. This poisoned
bait is scattered over the ground every evening during

Insects in the Garden

the season when the cater-
pillars are causing injury to
crops.

One of the most common
species of owlet moth in the
United States is the " dingy

cutworm." The moth is a ^b d e

buffy and dingy gray color, FIQ ^ We ^ S /^

and the caterpillar is a light striped cucumber beetle : a, adult

T r .1 i j beetle ; b, larva ; c, pupa ; d, egg,

drab COlor. Many Other kinds much enlarged; e, markings on

Of CUtWOrmS may be found the egg as they appear when egg

is highly magnified. The short
black line in the center of the pic-
ture gives the exact length of the

adult beetle; the larva and pupa
are correspondingly smaller than
they appear here.

in the garden.

The striped cucumber bee-
tle. This insect does much
injury to cucumbers, musk-
melons, watermelons, pumpkins, and squashes, and also
sometimes to beans, peas, and corn. Early in spring
the beetles come forth and live on various weeds until
the vine crops start to grow in the garden. Then they
feed so ravenously upon these that the entire crop may
be destroyed in a few days, almost before the young
plants show above ground. This beetle occurs over
the greater part of the United States and is the most
destructive insect enemy of the vine crops.

The eggs are laid in late spring. They hatch in about
10 days into grubs, which feed by burrowing into or
feeding on the stems and roots of vine plants, and also by
eating into the fruits. The larvae are white, with a brown,
horny head. They are long and slender, not short and
thick like the larvae of the squash borer, described later.
After about a month, they pass into the resting stage,

320 Gardening

which lasts until late summer or autumn. Then the
mature beetles appear and live through the winter under
such rubbish as dead plants, mats of grass, or even boards
that may be lying about. The beetle is only about f
inch long. Its color above is yellow, with a black head
and a black stripe along the edge of each wing cover.
When the wings are closed, these colors give the back the
appearance of having three stripes.

The striped cucumber beetle passes through four
stages, quite the same as does the cabbage butterfly;
but it is of course a very different type of insect, both in
appearance and in habits. It is most injurious to vine
plants when in the adult stage, and it is then that it is
most easily destroyed.

The five following methods of fighting the striped
cucumber beetle are the most effective that gardeners
know:

(i) Early spraying. In spring it is well to spray the
plants of cucumbers and squashes, as soon as they appear
above the ground, with a solution of arsenate of lead of a
strength of 3 ounces to 5 gallons of water. As an ounce
of arsenate of lead is equal to about 5 heaping teaspoon-
fuls, the solution is made with 3 spoonfuls to i gallon of
water. Paris green is not used, because it is likely to
injure the leaves of cucumbers and squashes.

(2) Use of trap plants. As the beetle prefers to feed
on the squash, hills of the summer squash or the Hubbard
squash may be planted among the cucumbers to act as
" trap plants." Then, when the beetles are feeding on
these, a sudden application of a spray of pure kerosene
will catch them and kill them before they can escape.

Insects in the Garden 321

The trap plants also will be injured or even killed, but
they will have served their purpose.

(3) Protection by covering. During the early stages of
their growth, young plants of the vine crops may be pro-
tected by frames covered with cheesecloth.

(4) Late spraying and hand-picking. In the autumn,
large numbers of the adult beetles may be killed by spray-
ing or dusting late-growing plants of the Hubbard squash
with arsenate of lead. The beetles collect also on im-
mature fruits left in the garden ; and on cool mornings,
about the time of the first frosts, these insects are sluggish
with the cold. At such times the fruits may be picked
and the clinging beetles brushed into a pail of water and
kerosene. The common squash bug and the twelve-
spotted cucumber beetle also may be destroyed in con-
siderable numbers at the same time.

(5) Burning old vines. After the vines have been
killed by frost, they should be raked into piles and left
for several days; then, with the addition of brush or
straw, the piles may be burned quickly, thus killing the
beetles that have taken refuge within. During late
autumn the gardener is likely to become careless regard-
ing the use of remedies against insects ; but he should
remember that " a stitch in time saves nine."

Other chewing insects likely to injure garden crops.
The potato beetle is nearly always present on potatoes
and feeds vigorously both in the adult and in the larval
stages. Methods for the control of the potato beetle
have already been mentioned (page 280).

Two kinds of beetles are injurious to asparagus, feed-
ing in both the larval and adult stages on young

322 Gardening

shoots and mature plants. Various sorts of tiny " flea
beetles " eat holes into the leaves of eggplants, squashes,
cucumbers, melons, snap beans, and tomatoes. These
insects are best destroyed by sprays of arsenate of lead.
The blister beetles of the beet and Swiss chard are
black or striped beetles about J inch in length. They
often " come in droves," and if unchecked, soon do
much injury. It is not advisable to spray Swiss chard
with poisons, but the insects may be caught by beating
and shaking from the plants into a wide-mouthed pail
containing water and a small amount of kerosene.

THE SUCKING INSECTS

The insects which are known as the " true bugs " have
their mouth parts arranged in the form of a tube-like
beak. Those that live upon plants feed by inserting this
beak into the plant and sucking out the juice. They
are therefore not injured by poison on the surface of the
leaves, but must be sprayed or dusted with something
that will kill them by coming in contact with them.
Kerosene emulsion and preparations containing nicotine
are most generally used for this purpose.

Aphids. The most common sucking insects in the
garden are the plant lice or aphids. There are many
kinds of aphids that attack plants. Some feed upon
roots ; others on the parts that grow in the air, mostly on
tender young leaves, buds, or fruits. They are all
rather small and feed wholly on plant juices. In the
North they live over winter in the egg stage, but in
the more southern states they are present in the adult
stage throughout the winter as well as in summer.

Insects in the Garden 323

FIG. 178. Showing how aphids stunt the growth of seedlings. These two
cabbage plants were started at the same time ; the one at the left was allowed
to become infested with aphids, but the one at the right was kept free from
them.

In the vegetable garden, plant lice are often abundant
on peas, on melons, cucumbers, and other vine crops, and
on spinach and cabbage. The insects feed chiefly on the
under surface of the leaves, which often become irreg-
ularly curled and shriveled through their work. Badly
infested plants do not thrive, they often fail to pro-
duce good crops, and they may die prematurely.

Aphids are usually overcome with sprays made from
tobacco preparations. These are sold in the market
under various trade names. One of the best known and
most powerful is " Black Leaf 40." Nicotine sulfate,
made from tobacco, is much used in making insect
sprays. To use it, dissolve i ounce of soap in a gallon
of hot water, and then add i teaspoonful of the nicotine
sulfate. A small package of smoking tobacco boiled in

324 Gardening

3 gallons of water with an ounce of soap will make a
solution that will kill plant lice. This solution should
be strained before using, to prevent clogging of the
sprayer.

Kerosene emulsion also may be used to kill aphids and
other insects, but it is not so convenient to make up as
the tobacco preparations. To prepare it, boil ^ pound
of laundry soap in i gallon of water until dissolved.
Remove from the fire and add 2 gallons of kerosene.
Pour the kerosene into the water slowly, adding small
amounts at a time. Stir constantly and thoroughly, and
in about 5 or 10 minutes the mixture will become thick
and creamy. This stock solution may be kept stored for
use at any time. Dilute with from 10 to 20 parts of hot
water, stir well, and use as a spray. Both the kerosene
and the tobacco sprays should be cool when used on the
plants.

To be effective, these sprays must reach the body of the
insect. They should be applied as a fine, mist-like spray,
such as a good compressed-air spray pump will throw.
The under surface of leaves and the inclosed portions of
rolled-up leaves should be reached, so that all insects
present will be touched by the spray. Several applica-
tions of spray at intervals of 2 or 3 days may be required
to rid plants of aphids.

The common squash bug. The full-grown adult of the
common squash bug is about f inch long ; it is of a dirty
grayish-brown color above and a yellowish color beneath.
It gives off, especially when handled, an offensive odor.
The mouth parts are formed into a conspicuous beak
about \ inch long. This beak is characteristic of the

Insects in the Garden

325

sucking insects; with it, they puncture plants and
suck juices from within.

FIG. 179. Life history of the common squash bug : a, nymph soon after hatch-
ing from egg; b, second stage of nymph; c, third stage of nymph; d, fourth
stage of nymph ; e, fifth stage of nymph ; /, adult ; g, egg mass on the under
side of a squash leaf. All the figures are about one and a half times natural size.

The adult insects live over winter, hidden in and
protected by rubbish of various sorts. The small, cop-
pery-colored eggs are laid mostly on the under sides of
leaves of squash plants and usually in groups of thirty
or more. Young bugs or " nymphs " appear in about 10
days, and immediately begin to feed on the host plant.
After molting five times, which covers about 35 days
of feeding, the nymphs become adults. They thus
pass from egg to adult without the resting or chrysalis
stage.

326

Gardening

This insect is injurious through its whole life, except
when dormant in winter. It is found throughout the

u. s. D. A.

FIG. 180. Life history of the harlequin, or calico-back cabbage bug: a, adult;
b, egg mass ; c, first stage of nymph ; d, second stage ; e, third stage ; /, fourth
stage; g, fifth stage. All enlarged.

entire United States and is reported to be most abundant
east of the Rocky Mountains.

Unfortunately the common squash bug resists kerosene
and nicotine sulfate sprays, but the following methods of
control are effective when carefully carried out :

(i) Hand-picking. The adult bugs are picked from
the vines throughout the season, or if pieces of board are
placed in the garden, especially during spring and early
summer, the insects gather beneath them. Collect and
crush the eggs also.

Insects in the Garden 327

(2) Clean culture. Clean culture also should be prac-
ticed. In the autumn place the squash vines in small
piles scattered about the garden. Allow them to lie
until after several hard frosts, and then burn them.

The calico-back cabbage bug. The " calico bug,"
" fire bug," " terrapin bug," or " harlequin bug " is the
most destructive insect of the various cabbage crops,
and also of the turnip, radish, and mustard, throughout
the southern part of the United States. It saps the
juice from the veins of leaves and often causes plants to
wilt and die as if swept by fire. Its gay red and black
coloring makes it conspicuous and easily recognized.
In general, its habits and life history are quite similar
to that of the common squash bug described above. In
the South it is active throughout the season, but near
its most northern range (about the latitude of Washing-
ton, D. C.) it is dormant for a time in winter.

There are three good methods of controlling the calico
bug:

(1) Hand-picking. This is effective, especially when
adults appear on a crop before they have laid eggs.
Growers in various parts of the South have paid bounties
to school children for gathering them, and it is reported
that as many as 47,000 of these bugs were thus collected
for a grower at Denton, Texas, during one month
(February). The egg masses laid on the under side of
leaves are rather conspicuous, and these also may be
gathered and crushed.

(2) Use of trap crops. Early and late crops of mustard
may be grown among the plants largely for the purpose
of attracting the calico bug. The insects collect on the

328 Gardening

mustard and may be destroyed. In this way crops of
cabbage are protected in spring. In the autumn late
crops of mustard will attract the bugs at times when
other food may be scarce.

(3) Clean culture. The advice given for clean culture,
under methods of combating the common squash bug,
will be helpful also in keeping the calico bug under
control.

Gardeners living in the zone just north of the present
range of the insect should keep a sharp watch for its
appearance. Determined efforts should be made to pre-
vent its further spread.

THE BURROWING INSECTS

The larvae of many insects live within the plant and
cannot be killed in their feeding stage by poisons or
sprays. To combat them it is necessary, therefore,
to keep the adults from laying eggs among the plants, to
destroy them when they are outside the plant, or to
remove them from their tunnels by hand and kill them.
Several kinds of burrowing insects are troublesome to
garden plants, and some of these are often very injurious.

The radish maggot. The roots of radish and cabbage
plants are attacked by " maggots," which eat grooves in
them or even tunnel into the inside. Young cabbage
plants may thus be killed, and infested radishes are
stunted and made worthless as food.

The adult of this maggot is a fly (somewhat smaller
than the common house fly) which appears in the spring.
It lays its eggs in the soil, usually near plants of the
radish or the cabbage, and the eggs hatch in from 3 to

Insects in the Garden 329

5 days. The young maggots feed on or within the roots,
but when fully grown they usually leave the plants and
burrow out into the soil, where they change to the pupal
or dormant stage. During the summer months, the
pupa lies dormant only from 12 to 18 days, and then the
adult flies appear. Thus, several broods are produced
in a season. The pupae that are formed in the autumn
live over winter in the ground. The following methods
are used in the control of the radish maggot :

(1) Protection by covering. Beds of radishes or cab-
bage plants grown in cold frames, or outdoor beds of
these plants, may be protected from the flies by placing
over them a board frame covered with cheesecloth.

(2) Prevention of egg laying. It is believed by some
that the flies will not lay their eggs in soil upon which a
little kerosene has been sprinkled. To apply the kero-
sene, pour a cupful of it over a pail of dry sand, mix well,
and scatter the sand over the soil about the plants.

(3) Disks of tarred paper. Cabbage plants may be
protected by covering the earth about the roots of the
plant with disks of tarred paper about 4 inches in diam-
eter. These should be fitted closely about the stem of
the plant when it is placed in the field.

(4) Killing the maggots in the soil. The maggots that are
in the soil may be killed by pouring kerosene emulsion or
corrosive sublimate solution (i part of corrosive sublimate
to 1000 parts of water) over the bed or row until it soaks
down into the soil about the main roots of young plants.
Another effective solution, which may be used in the
same manner, is made as follows : mix a pint of crude
carbolic acid in a gallon of hot water, then add a bar of

330

Gardening

laundry soap and stir until soap is all dissolved. After
the solution has become cool, dilute to make 12^ gallons.

(5) Treatment of infested crops. After a bed of
radishes becomes infested, it is best to pull and destroy
all infested plants immediately, and to apply a solu-
tion that will kill the maggots that are in the soil.

The squash borer. Both the summer and the winter
squashes are attacked and often destroyed by the larvae
of the squash borer. The plants attacked soon wilt
badly and usually die within a few days. An examina-
tion of such plants will reveal discolored and dead areas
in the stem, especially near the ground. The stem within
is much eaten out by plump white " grubs " or larvae,
which may be found if the stem is split open.

These borers feed within the stems during summer and

FIG. 181. Summer squash plants killed by the squash borer.

Insects in the Garden

U. S. D. A.

FIG. 182. Life history of the
squash borer : a, adult male moth ;
b, adult female moth ; c, eggs, as
they appear on the surface of a
squash vine; d, full-grown larva
within a portion of the vine; e,
pupa; /, outer cell surrounding
the pupa. All the figures are about
one-third natural size.

autumn. When fully grown,
a grub leaves the plant, bur-
rows into the soil, and spins
a silky cocoon, within which
the pupa forms. Thus it lives
over winter. Late in the fol-
lowing spring (in June in New
Jersey, but earlier southward
and later northward) a beauti-
ful clear-winged and wasp-
like moth emerges from the
cocoon and escapes from the
soil. This moth is about

i inch long, with a wing spread of i| inches. Its hind
wings are transparent, but the fore wings are opaque
and of a brownish color. The adult moth is most readily
identified by a conspicuous fringe of orange-colored hairs
along the inner side of the hind legs.

The moths are active during the day but become
sluggish toward nightfall, and in the evening they settle
on the upper side of the leaves and rest during the
night.

The female moth lays small, dull-red oval eggs along
the stems of squash plants, usually near or even just be-
low the soil. The eggs are large enough to be seen with
the naked eye if one looks closely. The eggs hatch in a
few days, and the grubs burrow into the stem, where they
feed. They eat out the tissues that carry soil foods and
water to and from the leaves, and the plant soon suffers.
If several larvae are present in a single stem, the plant
usually dies.

332

Gardening

FIG. 183.

Vine of a summer squash laid open to show the borers,
a full-grown borer is shown.

At the right

In the more northern states there appears to be one
brood of the squash borer. Farther south there are two,
and in the more southern states there seem to be several
broods hatching at different times. Thus the adults
appear and lay their eggs in broods, and the larvae are
present throughout most of the growing season for
squashes. In some sections this insect is so troublesome
that it is almost impossible to raise squashes.

Because of its habits the squash borer is difficult to
control. However, if the following directions are care-
fully carried out, it may be kept somewhat in check :

(i) Learn to know the moths. Watch for them. If
they are seen in the garden, go over plants every evening
or early in the morning and kill all the adults found rest-
ing on the leaves.

Insects in the Garden 333

(2) Examine the stems of squash plants for eggs. If
any are found, remove them with the point of a knife,
holding a dish beneath to catch them as they fall, and
then destroy all the eggs as soon as they are collected.
Or instead, the eggs may be crushed by rubbing them
against the stem.

(3) Kill all grubs that may get into stems. To obtain
these grubs, split the stems of infested plants halfway
open from one side. If only a few grubs are present,
they may be removed without killing the plant by care-
fully slitting the stem. If plants are badly infested and
sure to die, either dig out all larvae or completely destroy
the entire plant and the larvae within it by burning.

(4) Help plants to resist the attacks of the borer. The
winter squashes that make long vines, and also to some
extent the summer squashes, can be rooted at the joints.
As the stem grows, cover the joints with soil ; roots will
form, and these will supply water and minerals to the
leaves even though the stem portions near the main root
may be badly infested, or much injured in digging for the
larvae.

(5) Cultivate to kill the insect in the pupal state. In
autumn dig up and rake over the soil on which infested
plants have grown, in order to bring the cocoons to the
surface where the winter weather may kill them. In
spring spade deeply, turning the top soil under so as to
bury the cocoons so deeply that the moth cannot emerge.

Other burrowing insects. There are several other
insects that damage garden plants by burrowing into
the stems of stalks.

The larvae of a stalk borer burrows into the stems of

334 Gardening

the tomato and the potato. The stem soon wilts and
dies above the place where the insect entered ; so one can
tell when a borer is in a plant. By slitting open the stem
the insect may be found and destroyed early in its life.

The seed-corn maggot burrows into the roots and stems
of young plants, especially corn, beans, and cabbage,
causing them to wilt and die. Pull up all infested plants
and destroy the larvae. The methods advised for combat-
ing the radish maggot may also be used for this maggot.

The carrot-rust fly attacks carrots, celery, parsnips,
and parsley, feeding in the tender roots and burrowing
into large roots of older plants. There is no very good
method of control, except perhaps that of growing the
crop under a frame completely covered with cheesecloth.

The European corn borer has recently been introduced
into several eastern states, and there is danger of its
spreading throughout the country. If it is not checked,
it may become a serious enemy of the corn grower. The
larvae burrow into the stalks, ears, and even the seeds.
As many as 311 borers have been found in a single hill of
corn. Such a destructive insect should be vigorously
fought, and its presence should be reported immediately
to the state agricultural college, to a county agricultural
agent, or to the Bureau of Entomology, United States
Department of Agriculture, for instruction as to the
best measure of control.

BENEFICIAL INSECTS

Not all of the insects seen in the garden are injurious
to garden crops. Some are very helpful, for they feed

Insects in the Garden 335

upon injurious insects and thus help to keep them in
check. A gardener should learn to recognize these ben-
eficial insects, so that he may preserve and protect them.

Parasitic insects. Many garden insects are preyed
upon by other smaller insects that feed upon the living
tissues of their bodies. The large caterpillar that lives
on the tomato (and sometimes on the potato) may often
be seen with its back covered with small white oblong
bodies that at first glance may be mistaken for eggs.
These are the cocoons of the larvae of a very small fly
(one of the Braconids). The fly punctures the body of
the caterpillar and lays its eggs under the skin. Then
the larvae hatch and feed upon the caterpillar's body.
A caterpillar that has been thus parasitized often dies.

Empty shells of plant lice (aphids) may often be found
clinging to the leaves of plants. These have been de-
stroyed by another kind of Braconid. The mother in-
sect finds an aphid and forces her eggs into its body. The
eggs soon hatch, and the larvae feed within the aphid and
kill it. The pupae form inside the aphid after it has died,
and when the adults develop they cut a circular opening
in the inclosing shell and fly out to lay eggs for another
generation. Wherever aphids are abundant, the shells
showing that the Braconids are at work on them can
nearly always be found.

The lady beetles or lady bugs. Most lady bugs (or
more exactly, lady beetles) are very beneficial to the
gardener. The adults are small, nearly hemispherical,
and usually gayly colored with conspicuous spots. Their
larvae somewhat resemble tiny alligators in shape and are
usually spotted and covered with bristling spines. Both

336 Gardening

adults and larvae of the beneficial lady beetles feed almost
entirely upon aphids. One of the lady beetles, however
(the "squash lady bug"), eats the leaves of the squash,
pumpkin, muskmelon, watermelon, and cucumber; and
another species is injurious to bean crops in Colorado,
Arizona, New Mexico, Texas, and Mexico. These in-
jurious lady beetles should be destroyed. They may be
controlled by spraying with lead arsenate, in the same
way that other chewing insects are treated.

The gardener receives much assistance from nature
through the feeding habits of beneficial insects and birds
which destroy and help to keep in check the various in-
sects that injure garden crops. But it is often necessary
for him to take the matter of destroying insects into his
own hands.

Fortunately, the gardener is able to use methods that
hold in check and destroy most of the insects injurious to
garden crops, and through close observation he can gain
in experience and knowledge so that as soon as insect
enemies appear in the garden he will know just what to
do, when to do it, and how to do it.

Questions

What do we need to find out about an insect before we attempt
to control it? How can the chewing insects in general be de-
stroyed? Describe the life history of the cabbage butterfly,
naming the four stages or conditions in its life. In which stage
is it injurious to cabbage plants? What are the usual methods
of controlling the cabbage butterfly ?

How is dry Paris green prepared for use against insects ? How is
it used ? How is Paris green prepared when used as a liquid
spray ? How is arsenate of lead used when dry ? How is it pre-
pared when used as a liquid spray? Describe the preparation

Insects in the Garden 337

and use of white hellebore. What cautions should the gardener
take in using these three poisons ?

How do cutworms injure plants ? What are the three most im-
portant methods of fighting them ? How is poison bran mash made ?

In what stage is the striped cucumber beetle most injurious to
crops ? What are the five most important ways of controlling it ?

How do the sucking insects feed? How does this method
of feeding injure the plant ? How are they most easily destroyed ?
How do aphids feed? What is "Black Leaf 40"? How is
nicotine sulfate prepared? How is kerosene emulsion prepared?
Describe the proper way of spraying to kill aphids. Give, briefly,
the life history of the common squash bug. What are the two
most effective ways of controlling it ? How does the calico-back
cabbage bug injure the plants? What three methods are used
in combating it ?

Where do the burrowing insects live? What, in general, are
the most effective methods of controlling them? Describe the
main events in the life history of the radish maggot. What are
the five best methods of combating this insect ? Describe the
appearance and activities of the squash borer. What methods
may be used to keep it in check? What should be done if the
European corn borer is found in your garden ?

Things to Do and Observe

i. To become familiar with the four stages in the life history of
an insect. Watch your cabbage plants for the appearance of the
cabbage butterfly. When you see one hovering over the plants, try
to find the egg after the butterfly has gone. Examine it carefully,
with a hand lens if possible, so that you may be able to recognize
others as soon as you sec them. Watch the larvae and try to
determine how long it takes to grow from the egg to the pupal
stage. When you have found a chrysalid, carefully remove it
without crushing and place it in a small box covered with netting
or cheesecloth. Look at it from time to time until the adult
butterfly emerges. Note whether the butterfly is male or female.

In the same way try to recognize the four stages of as many
other garden insects as possible. In some cases you may not be
able to find all four stages. Become thoroughly familiar, however,
with those you do find ; and note particularly in which stage each
insect is most destructive.

338 Gardening

If you have not been successful in observing the four stages as
they occur in the garden, make an insect cage. This will give
you an opportunity to observe closely the life history of any insect
you wish to study. Tie a piece of cheesecloth over the top of
a large lantern chimney, and set this over a pot of earth. Place
eggs, caterpillars, or larvae of any insect within the chimney,
together with a few twigs and the leaves of the plant that the insect
you are studying feeds upon. Supply fresh leaves every day, and
remove any that have wilted. Observe carefully the feeding
habits, and watch closely the change from larvae to pupa. Note
whether the insect pupates above ground or below. If you have
started with the egg stage, keep a record of the length of time
between egg and pupa, and pupa and adult.

2. To learn how the various garden insects feed. Catch a grass-
hopper, a cricket, a locust, or any large beetle, and examine its
mouth parts with a hand lens. Notice the two sets of jaws, one
working sideways and the other up and down. Then try to find
a large caterpillar (a tomato worm, a cabbage worm, or a milkweed
caterpillar, for example) that is actively feeding on a leaf. Ob-
serve carefully the method of biting off and chewing. Note
how rapidly the caterpillar eats and how much it consumes in a
meal. Could a single caterpillar consume during its life every
leaf on a half -grown plant ?

With a hand lens examine an aphid, a squash bug, or a calico-
back cabbage bug, while feeding. Note carefully the sucking
beak embedded in the stem or leaf. By watching you may be
able to see one of these sucking insects pierce the stem or leaf of
the plant and settle down to feeding.

If the insects mentioned in the above paragraph are not to be
found in your garden, you may be able to find one or more of the
following insects which will show the sucking beak just as well :
(i) a water boatman (an insect about half an inch long that swims
through the water by moving two of its legs like oars), (2) a
froghopper in the larval stage (look for a small insect underneath
a mass of bubbles on a grass stem), or (3) a cicada (harvest fly
or "locust")- Examine carefully the long beak used for piercing
and sucking. (Note. In your search for one of these insects
you may find the empty larval case of the cicada clinging to a
tree trunk or post. This will show the form of the beak as well
as would a live specimen.)

CHAPTER TWENTY

HOME STORAGE OF VEGETABLES

The roots must come in now, and the harvest will soon end.

Old Farmer's Almanac

A GARDEN not only provides fresh vegetables during
the growing season, but it also furnishes certain crops
that may be preserved or stored for future use. In
this chapter we shall discuss the winter storage of root
crops and other vegetables ; but snap beans, peas, corn,
tomatoes, asparagus, rhubarb, spinach, New Zealand
spinach, Swiss chard, and summer squash may be canned.
Many vegetables may also be preserved by drying, in the
same way that prunes, apricots, and other fruits are pre-
served. In doing this work of canning and drying, the
beginner should have the help of an experienced person.

Often this help is given in special classes organized
to teach this phase of home economics, or it may be
treated as project work in connection with gardening.
The beginner may secure bulletins on the subject that
will give full information concerning the methods that
are used. Such bulletins are furnished by various
organizations and especially by state agricultural experi-
ment stations and the United States Department of
Agriculture. The directions should be followed very
carefully ; otherwise the work may not be a success.

Rules for storage of vegetables. To be thoroughly
successful in keeping vegetables in storage, the follow-
ing rules must be observed :

(i) Only vegetables that are in good condition should be
selected. They should show no signs of decay or disease,
they should be dry, and at least moderately free from

339

340

Gardening

FIG. 184. Preparing root crops for storage. Only the sound vegetables should
be selected for storage, and these should not be cut or otherwise injured. Proper
selection and preparation often determine the keeping qualities of vegetables
stored as much as the conditions of storage themselves.

clinging earth. All vegetables should be stored before
they are frozen, and carefully handled to prevent
bruising.

(2) The temperature under which they are stored should
not vary suddenly or greatly. For most vegetables it
should not go above 50 F. and of course should not fall
below the freezing point.

(3) Ventilation must be provided. More vegetables
are lost in storage through failure to provide ventila-
tion than from any other cause. Especially during the
warm weather of autumn and spring, vegetables are
likely to " heat " and decay if they are shut up without

air.

(4) For all vegetables except onions, sweet potatoes,

Home Storage of Vegetables 341

squashes, and pumpkins the air should be rather moist.
This prevents wilting and shriveling.

(5) The storage room should be dark. As a rule vege-
tables keep best in darkness. Some vegetables, like
Irish potatoes, become somewhat green, and root crops
may start growth if they are not kept in darkness.

Storage in the house cellar. An unheated frost-proof
cellar is an excellent storage place for nearly all garden
vegetables. A cellar with a furnace in it is likely to be
too warm for very long storage of most vegetables, and a
cool room should be partitioned off. This is usually
made in one corner, with the outside walls of the cellar
forming two sides. The other walls of the cool room
should be tightly built of tongue-and-groove lumber,
with double walls, or else made of hollow tile.

For ventilation there should be a window with a chute
built into one pane and leading to the floor. This per-
mits the entrance of cool, fresh air. A hinged door in
place of another pane is provided to allow warm air to
escape, thus insuring perfect ventilation. In severely
cold weather these may be closed to prevent freezing.

Cabbages, beets, carrots, turnips, rutabagas, and
potatoes are stored in bins or shelves built about the
walls or placed in boxes, baskets, crates, or barrels that
are rather loosely stacked. Packing in dry leaves, straw,
or sand aids in keeping root crops in good condition.
Celery, curled endive, and pe-tsai may be packed in
boxes, with the roots in soil or sand. If water is added
to the soil about the roots at intervals, the plants will
remain remarkably fresh ; but the tops should be kept
rather dry, or they may rot.

34 2 Gardening

The cellar without a furnace, or the cool room in a
cellar containing a furnace, is undoubtedly the most
satisfactory means of storing vegetables for home con-
sumption. A dirt floor helps to keep the air moist,
but if the floor is made of cement, it may be covered
with 2 or more inches of sand and sprinkled occasion-
ally.

Vegetables that must be stored in dry air. Squashes,
pumpkins, and sweet potatoes keep best when stored in a
warm, dry place. They may be placed on shelves or in
crates near the furnace. Onions need a cool, dry place.
The cool room is usually too damp for them, and a cellar
with a furnace in it is likely to be too warm. They do
not suffer from slight freezing and usually keep best in
the attic, or even in a barn or workshop.

Outdoor storage cellars. Simple one-room cellars
built so that they are dry and free from frost are often
made out-of-doors. In the South they are usually built
entirely above ground ; in the North they are generally
built partly or wholly below ground. They may be
made like a cave in a side hill. Walls of stonework or
concrete are desirable. The roof may be made of con-
crete, with a dirt covering ; or of lumber, double walled
and insulated with paper ; or of poles and planks covered
with earth and straw. Outdoor cellars are, of course,
most suitable on farms and large truck gardens where
there are often considerable amounts of vegetables to be
stored.

A barrel storage pit. The simplest and perhaps the
best outdoor storage place for the owner of a small home
garden is the barrel pit. To make this, a barrel is placed

Home Storage of Vegetables

343

FIG. 185. Getting vegetables from a barrel storage pit during a warm day in
midwinter. Note the depth of earth over the barrel, and the ventilating chimney
in the center.

on its side in a well-drained place and a ventilating
chimney of some sort attached to an opening in the top
of it. The barrel is first covered with leaves or straw
and then with a layer of earth. After the vegetables
have been placed within, the open or " head " end is
closed with boards and a sufficient amount of earth
banked up over these boards to cover them entirely.
If now a layer of straw, leaves, or cornstalks is placed
over the earth at the head end, this earth will freeze less
solidly and it will be easier to open the pit during the
winter. The covering of earth on the top of the barrel
should be thick enough not to freeze through; 3 to 6
inches of earth, or even more, should be used, according
to the severity of the winter. The readiness with which
supplies can be obtained from the barrel pit makes it
especially suited to the needs of a small family.

344 Gardening

Earthen storage pits. These are simply piles of
vegetables covered with straw or leaves and soil. Venti-

FIG. 186. Cross-section of an earthen storage pit. (Adapted from drawing
in Farmer's Bulletin 936, U. S. D. A.)

lation is provided by allowing a large bunch of straw to
extend up through the covering of earth at the center
of the pit. A board or flat stone is laid over this to shed
the water. Vegetables keep well when thus stored, but
they are not easily removed unless the entire pit is
emptied. Several small pits with different sorts of
vegetables in each may be built and emptied one at a
time during the winter as the contents are needed.

Storage in banks of earth. If located on a well-
drained site, a bank of earth is excellent for the storage
of cabbage. The plants are pulled out by the roots and
laid, heads down, in rows of two or three abreast. Then
a layer of leaves or straw is placed about the heads, and
over this a layer of earth a few inches thick is banked up,
leaving the roots and part of the stems exposed to the air.
As colder weather approaches, more earth may be added ;
or leaves, straw, or cornstalks may be piled over the
bank. Unless the soil freezes very solidly, the cabbages
are easily removed one at a time as they are wanted.

Home Storage of Vegetables

345

Storage in pens. Cabbage, celery, pe-tsai, endive,
cauliflower, and Brussels sprouts may be stored in pens.
The plants are pulled or dug, leaving some earth on the
roots, and reset rather closely in a bed about 3 feet wide.
A frame of poles or boards is made about the bed, and
boards or poles are laid across the top, completing the
pen. Earth is banked about the sides, and the top is
covered with straw, leaves, or dirt as the severity of
the winter may require. Supplies may be taken from one
end as needed.

FIGS. 187 and 188. Storing vegetables in the ground. The cabbages are set
head down in a trench and the earth filled in about them. Boxes of root vege-
tables are placed in a pit. Straw is laid over the top of them, and the earth will
then be mounded up over the straw. Vegetables should be stored below the
level of the ground only where the soil is loose and well drained.

346 Gardening

Use of hotbeds and cold frames for storage. These
may be used for storage in the same manner that pens are
used. The beds may be emptied by the time they are
needed for growing seedlings in the following spring.
Late crops of lettuce, celery, and endive may be grown
directly in the soil of hotbeds and cold frames. As freez-
ing temperatures occur, the top may be covered and the
crop removed as desired.

Storage in attics. Sweet potatoes and squashes may
sometimes be stored in an attic near a chimney. Onions
may be kept in rather cool attics, as they are not injured
by slight freezing, although it is best not to submit them
to alternate freezing and thawing. Dry beans and peas
may be stored in an attic or even on the pantry shelf.

To provide suitable means for winter storage of home-
grown vegetables is thus in most cases a simple matter.
The cellar and the attic are usually to be had in the home.
Cool rooms are easily made, and once made are perma-
nent. Outdoor barrel pits, banks, and pens also are
easily and quickly constructed and afford efficient means
of keeping vegetables fresh.

The produce raised on a small garden plot will per-
haps be used directly from the garden, but a garden no
larger than 4 by 5 rods may yield some produce for
storage.

During the winter months fresh vegetables such as
beets, carrots, and cabbages are much needed in the diet,
and it is during winter that these vegetables usually
reach their highest market price. Potatoes, which the
small gardener will perhaps buy in the market, may be

Home Storage of Vegetables 347

had cheaper in autumn when bought in bulk. Proper
storage in a cool room or in pits will keep these in ex-
cellent condition. It pays the gardener to raise crops
for storage and to provide simple means of storage, not
only for the surplus of the crops he raises, but for such
staple vegetables as he does not raise but can buy to
advantage in bulk during early autumn.

Questions

In what two ways does the garden serve the table? Why
are crops maturing in summer subject to waste? How can such
waste be avoided? Give five principal rules applying to the
storage of vegetables.

Why is a cellar containing a furnace unsuited to the storage of
most vegetables ? How can a cool storage room be made in a
cellar? What vegetables may be stored in such a room? What
vegetables do not keep well in such a room, and where may they
be stored ?

How is a barrel storage pit made and used ? How are earthen
storage pits made? What is their disadvantage? How may
cabbage be stored in banks of earth ? What vegetables may be
stored in pens and how are such pens made ? How may hotbeds
and cold frames be used for storage?

In what ways is storage for winter use profitable ?

Things to Do and Observe

To observe how the various vegetables "keep" under the conditions
of storage which you give them. Watch carefully the vegetables
you have stored, and if potatoes, carrots, and beets soon shrivel,
try to determine the cause, and then take measures to remedy this
defect in your storage system or conditions. If the vegetables
start to grow, find whether this is caused by too high a temperature
or too much light. If they rot to any great extent, try to deter-
mine whether they need better ventilation or a lower temperature.
Be sure to remember just which remedy was the most effective
in each case, so that you can provide the best conditions for
storage next year.

APPENDIX

EARLIEST PLANTING DATES

Safe dates for planting vegetable seeds and seedlings in the open in
Zones A, B, and C. (See Figure 88.)

CROP

ZONE A

ZONEB

ZONE C

Cabbage

Jan. i-Feb. i

Feb. i-Feb. 15

Feb. is-Mar. i

Collard

Garlic

Lettuce leaf

Onion sets

Pea smooth

Potato Irish

Radish

Turnip

Mustard

Feb. i-Feb. 15

Feb. is-Mar. i

Mar. i-Mar. 15

Onion seed

Parsley

(

Parsnip

Pea wrinkled

Artichoke Jerusalem

Asparagus

(Not grown)

Beet

Feb. i-Feb. 15

Brussels sprouts

Carrot

Cauliflower

Celery

Chard

Lettuce head

Rhubarb
Salsify

(Not grown)
Feb. i-Feb. 15

(Not grown)
Feb. is-Mar. i

Spinach

Bean snap

Feb. i5-Mar. i

Mar. i-Mar. 15

Mar. is-Mar. 30

Corn sweet

Bean Lima

Mar. i-Mar. 15

Mar. i5-Apr. i

Apr. i-Apr. 15

Cucumber

Eggplant
Melons

Okra

Pumpkin

Potato Sweet

Squash

Tomato

348

Appendix

349

EARLIEST PLANTING DATES Continued

Safe dates for planting vegetable seeds and seedlings in the open in
Zones D, E, F, and G. (See Figure 88.)

ZONE D

ZONEE

ZONEF

ZONEG

Mar. i-Mar. 15

Mar. i5-Apr. 15

Apr. is-May i
(Not grown)
Apr. i5-May i

May i-May 15
(Not grown)
May i-May 15

Mar. is-Apr. 15

Apr. is-May i

May i-May 15

May is-June i

Mar. i5-Apr. i

Apr. i-May i

Apr. i-Apr. 15

Apr. is-May i

May i-May 15

May 1 5- June i

Apr. i5~May i

May i-May 15

May is-June i

June i -June 15

(Not grown)
May i5-June i

(Not grown)
June i-June 15

35o

Appendix

LATEST PLANTING DATES

Latest safe dates for planting vegetable seeds in the open in the North,
based on the average date of the first killing frost. (See Figure 89.)
Only one planting is made of vegetables for which no dates are given.

CROP

ZONE C

ZONE D

ZONE E

ZONEF

ZONE G

PERIOD NECES-
SARY FOR
MATURITY

Bean :

Bush

Sept. 15

Sept. i

Aug. 15

Aug. i

July 15

40 to 65 days

Bush Lima

Aug. 15

Aug. i

fuly 15

70 to 90 days

Pole Lima

Aug. i

fuly 15

[uly i

5o to 1 20 days

Beet

Sept. i

Aug. 15

Aug. i

July 15

60 to 80 days

Cabbage, late

Aug. 15

July 15

[uly i

[une 15

90 to 130 days

Carrot

70 to 100 days

Cauliflower

Oct. i

100 to 130 days

Celery

Sept. 15

Sept. i

Aug. i

July i

[une i

i oo to 1 50 days

Collard

100 to 1 20 days

Corn, sweet

Aug. 30

Aug. 15

[uly 30

[uly 15

July i

60 to 100 days

Cucumber

60 to 80 days

Eggplant

[uly 15

[uly i

June 15

June i

100 to 140 days

Kale

tfov. i

Oct. i

Sept. 15

sept, i

Aug. 15

90 to 1 20 days

Lettuce

Oct. 15

Oct. i

Sept. 15

Sept. i

60 to 90 days

Melon :

Muskmelon

[une 15

Tune i

May 15

May i

1 20 to 1 50 days

Watermelon

[uly i

June 15

loo to 1 20 days

Okra

[uly 15

June i

90 to 140 days

Onion :

Seed
Sets

June 15
July 15

Tune i
[uly i

May 15
June 15

May i
June i

Apr. 15

May 15

130 to 150 days
60 to 1 20 days

Parsley

Nfov. i

Oct. i

Sept. i

Aug. i

July i

90 to 1 20 days

Parsnip

July 15

[une i

125 to i6odays

Peas

Nov. i

Oct. i

Sept. i

Aug. i

July 15

40 to 80 days

Pepper

July 15

July i

June 15

June i

100 to 140 days

Pumpkin

Potato :

Irish

Aug. 15

Aug. i

July 15

July i

June 15

80 to 140 days

Sweet

July 15

June 15

May i

1 40 to 1 60 days

Radish

Oct. 15

Oct. i

Sept. 15

Sept. i

Aug. 15

20 to 140 days

Salsify

June 15

June i

1 20 to 1 80 days

Spinach

Oct. 15

Oct. i

Sept. i

Aug. 15

Aug. i

30 to 60 days

Squash :

Bush
Vine

Aug. 15
July 15

Aug. i
July i

July 15

June 15

July i
June i

June 15

60 to 80 days
120 to 1 60 days

Tomato

Aug. 15

July 15

July i

June 15

80 to 1 25 days

Turnip

Oct. 15

Oct. i

Sept. i

Aug. i

July 15

60 to 80 days

INDEX

The special discussion of a subject begins on the page that is printed in bold-
face type. Thus the special discussion of "Asparagus" begins on page 282.
A star (*) after a number indicates that an illustration of the subject is to be
found on the page referred to.

Acid, in soil, 68; test for, 73.

Anther, 115*.

Aphids, 322, 323*, 335.

Arsenate of lead, 316, 317, 320, 322.

Artichoke, Jerusalem, 36*, 93, 280*,

281*.

Ashes, wood, 63, 68.
Asparagus, 93, 150, 282*; insects of,

321.

Bacteria, causing plant diseases, 287,

291, 292, 294*.
Bean, kidney, 12, 43, 101, 119, 132, 153,

155, 260*, 261, 262; diseases of , 292,

302*, .303*; flower of, 115*; fruit of,

118*, 302*, 303*.
Bean, Lima, 146, 152, 155, 189, 261,

263, 264*; diseases of, 292; insects

of, 322.
Beet, 12, 42, 99, 100, 133, 150, 151, 155,

1 60, 170, 211, 216*, 217; storage of,

34i-

Biennials, 133.
"Black leaf 40", 323.
Breeding plants, 119, 122*, 123*, 124*,

125*, 126*, 128, 143, 144, 145; for

resistance to disease, 307*, 308*.
Bordeaux mixture, 295, 296*, 298, 299,

306.

Cabbage, 19, 42, 78*, 99, 100*, 120, 133,
137, 147, 149, 150*, 151, 160, 167,
175, 179, 190, 193, 195, 225, 247,
256*, 289*; diseases of, 289, 293,
307*, 308*; insect enemies of, 311,
312*, 313, 314, 315, 323*, 326*, 327;
storage of, 341, 344, 345.

Cabbage butterfly, 311, 312*.

Cabbage bug, harlequin, 326*, 327.

Cabbage, Chinese. See Pe-tsai.

Capillary water. See Water, capillary.

Carbon, 51.

Carbon bisulfid, 136.

Carbon dioxid, 31, 46, 49, 51.

Carrot, 12, 41*, 42, 99*, 133, 137, 150,
160, 170, 2ii,218, 219*; diseases of,
341 ; insects of, 334 ; storage of, 341.

Catalogues, seed, 30, 98, 129, 130.

Cauliflower, 121, 137, 149, 150, 248,
345-

Celery, 100, 101*, 149, 189, 193*, 244*,
245*, 346; storage of, 341, 345.

Cells, 37*, 38*, 39, 40, 45, 48*, 49,
78.

Chicory, 100, 242.

Chives, 229.

Chlorophyll, 28, 286.

Clay, 58, 60, 6 1*, 80.

Climate, 154.

Clubroot, 289*.

Cold frame, 149, 151, 185, 186*, 189,
34-

Collard, 152, 249.

Companion crops, 98, 100*, 101*, 213*.

Compost, 64*, 65, 66.

Cool season crops, 147, 148, 149, 150*,
151, 243.

Corn, pop, 272.

Corn, sweet, 13, 25*, 43, 47, 96, 98,
zoo*, 119, 120, 125*, 129, 132, 133,
137, 138, 152, 155, 160, 189, 195, 205*,
270, 271*, 272*; breeding, 124, 125,
142, 143; diseases of, 301 *; insects
of, 234.

Crop rotation, 305.

Cross-pollination, 127, 132.

Cucumber, 133, 134, 138, 152, 155, 189,
265; diseases of, 291, 293, 294*, 298;
insects of, 291, 319*, 322.

Cucumber beetle, 291, 319*.

Cultivation, 106, 199, 200*, 201, 202,
203*.

Cushaw, 267.

Cutworms, 14*, 317.

Damping off disease, 176.
Dibble, 105.
Dirt band, 190*.

352

Index

Diseases of plants, Chapter XVIII,
286, 289*, 294*, 300*, 301*, 302*,
303*, 307*, 308*.

Drainage, 80, 81, 82, 83*.

Dust mulch, 104, 200, 201.

Eggplant, 99, 153, 155, 160, 175, 189,
iQS, 274*, 275; diseases of, 292;
insects of, 322.

Elements needed by plants, 51.

Embryo, 114, 118, 137, 165.

Endive, 100, 138, 241, 346; French,
341, 345 ; storage of, 341, 345-

Fat, 47, 50.

Fertilization, 117.

Fertilizers, 52, 66, 67, 73, 74. See

also Manure.
Flats, 175, 176*, 186*, 187*, 188*, 189*,

100*.

Flowers, of bean, 115*; of corn, 120* ;

of pumpkin, 121*; parts of, 114,

115*.

Follow crops, 99*, 100.
Food, for plants, 29, 31 * ; kinds of, 46 ;

manufacture of, 42, 46, 47, 48*, 49,

50, 51, 53, 55 ; storage in plants, 46.
Food materials, raw, 31*, 46, 51.
Forcers, 147*.

Fork, spading, 103, 104*, 108*.
Frosts, 147, 148, 149, 155, 157, 160,

161*, 162 ; charts for dates of, 158*,

159*.
Fruit, 118*; plants grown for, Chapter

XVI.

Fumigation of seed, 136.
Fungi, 287, 288.
Fungicides, 295, 306.

Garden, care of, Chapter XIII ; plans
for, 90, 91*, 92*, 94, 95, 101, 102;
planting the, Chapter XII; types
of school, 5*, 6*, ii*, 12*; school-
supervised home, 7*, 8, 9.

Garlic, 150, 230.

Germination of pollen, 116*, 117*, 141.

Germination of seed, 137, 138, 165,
166*, 167, 172, 173, 174, 197, 198,
219; test for, 138*, 139.

Growing season, 154*, 155, 156*.

Growth, 36, 38*, 39, 40, 45.

Hardening plants, 190.

Hellebore, white, 316, 317.

Hoes, 105*, 106*, 107; wheel, 93, 105*,

106, 107.

Horse-radish, 221.
Hotbed, 180*, 181*, 182*, 183*, 184*,

185, 189, 346.
Humus, 56, 57, 60, 72.
Hybrids, 119, 122*, 123*, 124.
Hydrogen, 51.

Insects, Chapter XIX ; beneficial, 334 ;
fumigation of seeds for, 136; inju-
rious, 14*, 312*, 318*, 319*, 325*,
326*, 330*, 331*, 332*; poisons for,
315, 316, 317, 321. See also refer-
ences to insects under Spraying.

Iron, 51.

Irrigation, 85, 174*, 206*, 207*, 208*,
209.

Kale, 100, 120, 137, 152, 249.
Kerosene emulsion, 322, 324.
Kohl-rabi, 13, 120, 133, 137, 149, 189,
283.

Leaves, crops grown for, Chapter XV,
225*, 226*, 227*, 233*, 234*, 237*,
239*; structure of, 28, 31, 48*, 53;
work of. 29, 31*, 34*, 48*, 53.

Leek, 150, 232.

Lettuce, 12, 42, 99, 100*, 112, 132, 150,
151, 155, 160, 170, 175, 189, 193, 194,
346; head, 149, 252*, 253*; leaf,
148, 254*.

Light, use to plants, 28, 47, 48, 49, 53.

Lime, 60, 62, 64*, 68, 69*, 70*, 84, 86,
290 ; in Bordeaux mixture, 295.

Line for planting, 104, 105.

Loam soil, 61.

Magnesium, 51.

Manure, 52, 62*, 63, 67, 84; composi-
tion of, 63 ; poultry, 63, 64, 65.

Melons, 132, 133, 152, 155, 167, 267;
diseases of, 292; insects of, 322;
musk, 119, 138, 267, 268*; water,
138, 267, 268.

Index

353

Mulch, 85, 104, 200, 201.
Mustard, 137, 150, 167, 255, 289.
Mutant, 119.

Nasturtium, 255.

Nitrates, 66, 73, 74.

Nitrogen, 50, 51, 62, 63, 66, 67, 73, 74.

Novelties, 98, 122.

Okra, 138, 152, 153, 189, 269.

Onion, 42, 100, 137, 149, 150, 155, 170*,
205*, 224, 232, 233, 234*; bulblet,
230; Egyptian, 230; multiplier,
230; storage of, 241, 346.

Organic material in the soil, 56, 60.

Ovary, 115*, 116*, 126.

Overplanting, 96.

Ovules, 115*.

Oxygen, 30, 31, 49, 51, 166.

Parasites, 287, 288.

Paris green, 316, 317.

Parsley, 137, 237, 238.

Parsnip, 42, 133, 137, 151, 155, 211,

220.
Peas, 41*, 43, 99, 100, 137, 150, 155,

259.

Peg for transplanting, 105, 187*.
Pepper, 99, 137, 153, 160, 175, 179,

189, 195, 274*.
Peppergrass, 254.
Perennials, 93, 152.
Petals, 114, 115*.
Pe-tsai, 100, 149, 160, 175, 249*, 250*,

251*; storage of, 341, 345.
Phosphorus, 50, 51, 62, 63, 64, 66, 67,

73, 74-

Photosynthesis, 47, 48, 53.
Pistil, 115*, 116*.

Planning the garden, Chapter VIII.
Planting, charts of dates for, 348, 349,

350; time for, Chapter XI, 97, 157,

158*, 159*, 160, 161, 162; preparing

soil for, 1 68; tools for, 104, 105;

work of , 169*, 170*, 171*, 173*.
Planting zones, 97, 157, 158*, 159*,

348, 349, 350.
Plants, care of growing, Chapter XII ;

care of seedling, Chapter XII ; food

of, Chapter V; life of, 40, 41*, 42;

needs of, 24, 30*, 33, 43, 199 ; parts

of, 27, 30*; work of, 31*, 40, 42, 52.
Poisons, for insects, 315, 316, 317, 321;

for parasitic fungi, 292, 295, 298,

299, 306.
Pollen, 116, 117*, 118; germination of,

116*, 117*, 141, 142.
Pollination, 116, 117, 124, 125, 127,

141.

Potash, 63, 66, 67, 73, 74.
Potassium, 51, 62, 66, 67, 73, 74.
Potato, Irish, 36*, 152, 277, 278*,

279* ; diseases of, 279, 292 ; insects

of, 280, 321, 334; storage of, 341.
Potato, sweet, 36*, 153, 155, 175, 211,

221 ; storage of, 341, 346.
Protein, 47, 50, 51.
Pumpkin, 121, 126, 127*, 134, 138, 144,

145, 266, 267*. See also Summer

squash.

Radish, 12, 42, 77*, 99, 112, 132, 134,
138, 146, 148, 150, 155, 170, 2ii,213,
289; diseases of, 289; insects of, 328.

Rake, 103, 104, 106, 168*.

Raking, 168*.

Replanting, 206.

Respiration, 31, 32, 35, 49, 51, 166.

Rhubarb, 93, 147*, 152, 224, 226,
227*, 256.

Rocket, yellow, 238.

Roots, 26,27, 28*, 30, 31*, 55, 76*, 77*;
work of, 29.

Root crops, Chapter XIV.

Root hairs, 76*, 77*, 78, 87*, 88.

Rogues, 128.

Rutabaga, 150, 151, 211, 217, 289;
storage of, 341 .

Salsify, 133, 137, 151, 155, 211, 220.

Sand, 58, 60.

Sap, 29, 38.

Seedlings, 40, 41, 42, 76*, 77*, 78*, 87*,
1 66*, 175. See also Transplanting.

Seeds, Chapter X, 36, 40, 42, 112,
165; amounts needed, 131; buying
of, 129, 130*, 131 ; catalogues of, 30,
98, 129, 130; collecting, 134, 135;
germination of, see Germination ;
growing plants from, Chapter XII ;

354

Index

outdoor beds for, 194, 195*; plant-
ing of, 146, 169, 170*, 171*, 172, 174*,
178, 179, 194, 195*; producing, 128*,
129, 132 ; storage of, 135 ; treatment
for diseases, 136, 137, 306 ; treat-
ment for insects, 136; viability of,
137- '

Sepals, 114.

Shallot, 229.

Short-period crops, 99.

Sieves for soil, 176, 177*.

Soil, Chapter VI ; clay, 58*, 60*, 61 ;
fertility of, 62 ; formation of, 56 ; for
flats, 176 ; granules of, 57 ; loam, 61 ;
particles of, 55, 56, 57; physical
condition of, 55, 56, 57*, 58, 59;
water in, 55, 80.

Sorrel, garden, 227.

Spade, 103.

Spading, 58*, 59, 60, 103, 108*, 154;
fork for, 103, 104*, 108*.

Spinach, 99, 100, 138, 150, 254.

Spinach, New Zealand, 135, 151, 152,
240*, 256.

Sports, 119, 127.

Spraying, 295, 297*, 316, 320, 321, 323,
324-

Squash, diseases of, 292; Hubbard,
113*, 134, 138, 152, 155, 189, 266;
insects of, 322, 324, 325, 330*, 331*,
332* ; storage of, 341, 346 ; summer,
121*, 122, 123*, 134, 138, 152, 189,
265, 266.

Stamen, 115*.

Starch, 46, 49, 50, 53.

Stems, 26, 28, 30, 31*, 33, 277; plants
grown for, Chapter XVII.

Storage of vegetables, Chapter XX,
4, 256, 339, 340*, 343*, 344*, 345*-

Succession crops, 98, 99, 101*, 270.

Successive crops, 96, 98*.

Sugar, 28, 46, 47, 48, 49.

Sulfur, 50, 51.

Swiss chard, 12, 70, 151, 225, 239*,
256.

Tankage, 66, 67.

Teaching of gardening, Chapter I;
aims of, 2, 3, 4, 10, n*.

Thinning crops, 204*, 205*, 210, 212.

Temperature requirements of plants,
146.

Tomato, 13, 19, 112*, 119, 124*, 125*,
126*, 132, 133, 134*, 137, 142, 143,
153, 155, 160, 175, 179, 189, 190,
192*, 195, 272*, 273; diseases of,
292, 298, 299; insects of, 322, 334.

Tools, Chapter IX, 103, 104*, 105*,
106*, 107*, 108*, 109*, no, in,
202; care of, 106*, 107*; proper
use of, 108*, 109*, no.

Transpiration, 30, 34, 75.

Transplanting, 79, 175, 186, 187*, 188*,
189*, 190, 191, 192*, 193*, 194*,
198, 236, 243.

Turnip, 19, 99, 133, 138, 150, 151, 160,
211, 215, 289; storage of, 341.

Varieties, developing new, 119, 122*,
123*; how kept true to type, 127;
resistant to disease, 248, 307*, 308*;
standard, 98, 137.

Viability of seeds, 137.

Vine crops, 265.

Vitamines, 19, 21*, 47.

Warm-season crops, 147, 148, 152, 153.

Water, capillary, 79, 81*, 82, 84, 86;
88*; conserving, 85-200; free, 80;
in plants, Chapter VII, 29, 42, 75, 78,
79 ; in soil, 79, 80, 85 ; movement
in soil, 84, 85 ; for germination of
seeds, 165, 167.

Watering. See Irrigation.

Weather, 154.

Weeding, 203, 210.

Weeds, 24, 44, 52.

Wilt of vine crops, 291.

Wilting, 78*, 192*.

Witloof chicory, 242.

Zones, planting, 97, 157, 158*, 159*.

Biiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiimiiiiimiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiin^^^

I NEW-WORLD I

SCIENCE SERIES

WORLD BOOK COMPANY

YONKERS-ON-HUDSON, NEW YORK

2126 PRAIRIE AVENUE, CHICAGO

Edited by JOHN W. RITCHIE

'TpHE publication of books that "apply the world's

JL knowledge to the world's needs" is the ideal of this

1 house and it is intended that the different volumes of this |

series shall express this ideal in a very conrcete way.

Completed

I Human Physiology. By John W. Ritchie, Professor of Biology
College of William and Mary. A text on physiology, hygiene,
and sanitation for upper grammar or junior high schools. $1.60.
Laboratory Manual for Human Physiology. By Carl Hartman, |
University of Texas. A manual to accompany Ritchie's Human =
Physiology. Bound in paper and cloth 60 cents and $1.00,

I Science for Beginners. By Delos Fall, Albion College, Michigan.
A beginning text in general science for intermediate schools and
junior high schools. $1.68.

Exercise and Review Book in Biology. By J. G. Blaisdell, Yonkers, =
N. Y., High School. A combined laboratory guide, notebook and
review book for students' use. Written from the standpoint of =
efficiency and furnishing material for a year's work and to ac- =
company any one of several high-school texts in general biology. I
Bound in strong paper. $1.20.

I Trees, Stars, and Birds. By E. L. Moseley, Ohio State Normal
College, Bowling Green. A book of outdoor science for junior high
schools and the upper grammar grades. $1.80.

Personal Hygiene and Home Nursing. By Louisa C. Lippitt,
University of Wisconsin. A practical text for use with classes
of young women in vocational and industrial high schools, colleges, =
and normal schools. $1.68.

Science of Plant Life. By E. N. Transeau, Ohio State University. =
A scientific and very practical text for high schools. $1.88.

1 Zoology. By T. D. A. Cocker ell, University of Colorado. A text for

college use. $3.60.

Experimental Organic Chemistry. By A. P. West, University of the I
Philippines. A text for college use. $3.20.

| Common Science. By Carleton W. Washburne^ Superintendent of Schools,
W'innetka, Illinois. Especially made for junior high schools. $1.68-

Also Manual for above. 20 cents.

= =

Other volumes are also in preparation.

iiinmiiiiiniii immu

iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiinii?

rMMMIMllllHllUNI IIINIlMHIMlllllMMlMllllHlllMIUniMIIIIIUnMinMllinilMiniiniHMMIMIIIIIIMIiMlNnillliMIMnilMMiniriUninnrlU
i

NEW-WORLD SCIENCE SERIES

Edited by John W. Ritchie

! SCIENCE of PLANT LIFE |

A HIGH SCHOOL BOTANY treating of the
plant in its relation to its environment

By E. N. TRANSEAU

Professor of Botany, Ohio State University

THE fundamental aim of this text is to give the student
an understanding of the plant as it lives. Environ-
mental factors are considered in such a way that they |
help to make clear the reasons which underlie many agri- f
cultural practices. The author so arranges and presents
his facts that the idea that the plant is alive and that it
has a definite relation to every other living being is
unescapable.

The teacher of botany will 1 find an ally in this book.
Every page carries its answer to that old query of pupils,
"What is the use in studying botany?" Almost all the |
chapters are preceded by suggestions for laboratory and |
field work and are followed by practical problems. The |
exercises are varied enough to provide work for any
class and they are adapted to the succession of seasons.
The illustrations, the exercises, and the subjects that re-
ceive distinctive treatment are not embroidered on the
text; they are made a part of its warp and woof.

In bringing out SCIENCE OF PLANT LIFE, publisher,
printer, and artist have collaborated to produce a volume
which in appearance and in every detail of manufacture 1
is worthy of its content. The book is admirably adapted
to meet the needs of beginning students of botany every-
where, and it will prove helpful to all who wish to be |
intelligent about plants.

viii + 344 pages. Price $1.88

WORLD BOOK COMPANY

YONKERS-ON-HUDSON, NEW YORK

2126 PRAIRIE AVENUE, CHICAGO

iiiiiiiiiiiiuiuiimuiiiiuumimiiiii

NEW-WORLD AGRICULTURE SERIES

Edited by W. ]. Sfillman

NATURE-STUDY
AGRICULTURE

A Textbook for Beginners
By WILLIAM T. SKILLING

Supervisor of Nature Study and Agriculture
State Normal School, San Diego

HERE is a book written in a style so simple that it can
be used in the seventh grade. Yet it covers the essen-
tials so well that it may be used in any first course in this
subject.

Practically every paragraph has a marginal note which the
student will find helpful in review and which the teacher
can easily use for questions to pupils.

Every chapter has a list of Experiments to be performed and
a list of Observations to be made. The list of References
is valuable because the bulletins named are easily available.

The book is especially adapted to the project method of
teaching agriculture to young people. The procedure is to
present principles in the classroom, demonstrating them by
simple experiments where possible, and also have each
pupil do work in the school or home garden.

The book meets the needs and interest of the pupil. It can
be used in any part of the country. It is largely self-teaching.
The illustrations are unusually clear and appropriate. There
are 266 of them. Price $1.68

Cloth, viii -\-j22 pages

WORLD BOOK COMPANY

YONKERS-ON-HUDSON, NEW YORK
2126 PRAIRIE AVENUE, CHICAGO

iiiiiiiimiimiimiimmimiiiimimiii niiiiiin iiiiimiimiiiiiiiiiiimmnimimiiii iiiiiiiiiuiiui m

NEW-WORLD AGRICULTURE SERIES

FARM SCIENCE |

A Foundation Textbook on Agriculture
By W. J. SPILLMAN, D. sc.

Formerly Chief of the U. S. Office of Farm Management

TN this new text, Professor Spillman succeeds in
[_ presenting the subject of agriculture compre-
hensively yet adequately to beginning students,.
There is no attempt at being "practical" in the
sense of teaching what is usually learned by ex-
perience, but fundamental principles are developed
in such a way that they will prove to be valuable
guides in farm work anywhere.
Problems, experiments, and exercises supplement
the text admirably. The class exercises are par-
ticularly significant. One that is typical requires
a livestock census for neighborhood farms. Not
only are the numbers and breeds of animals learned,
but the special reasons for keeping them are in-
quired into. The very essence of the business and
science of farming is revealed.
The text is illustrated with pertinent photographs,
numerous drawings, by R. C. Steadman and J. M.
Shull, that are of rare value, and a large soil map
of the United States. The material throughout is
conveniently arranged for use in the classroom.
The language is simple and the teacher does not
need to be an expert in agriculture to use the
book effectively.

FARM SCIENCE is suited for use in any grade that
is prepared to take up the study of agriculture
at all, and it may be read with profit by many a
successful man who has made farming his life
work.

pages.

WORLD BOOK COMPANY

YONKERS-ON-HUDSON, NEW YORK
2126 PRAIRIE AVENUE, CHICAGO

Hllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllll

iHiiiiimuuiS

UIIIMUIIIIIIIUIIINMIIUIIIIIIIinilllMlllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllMIIIIIIIIIIIIIIMIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIMIIIIIIIIIIIIIIllllllllllllllll

SCHOOL GARDEN SERIES
Edited by JOHN W. RITCHIE

THE CHILD'S FOOD GARDEN

WITH A FEW SUGGESTIONS FOR FLOWER CULTURE

By VAN EVRIE KILPATRICK

Former President, School Garden Association of America
I I

/ "T A HIS is a real beginner's book, far more simple
JL than any other garden book that has been
published. It explains the very first steps in garden- |
ing and the different problems are treated as they
will arise. The clear and exact directions make it
| possible for the child to succeed in his first garden
attempt. The various steps are illustrated with |
photographs of children carrying out the actual
operations. Work is planned for each month in
the year, from seed testing in January to mulching
in November and taking stock in December.

It is the child and his problems, not the subject
| of horticulture that the author continually holds in
mind. His book is intended for any pupil who can |
read. It may be used as low as the third grade by
the pupil who has a garden plot assigned to him at
school or at home ; and it may be profitably followed
by high-school students or even by adults who are |
making gardens for the first time.

A book to help the child do his part in the food
campaign

Bound in cloth, 60 cents postpaid
Paper bound, 36 cents postpaid

WORLD BOOK COMPANY

YONKERS-ON-HUDSON, NEW YORK

2126 PRAIRIE AVENUE, CHICAGO

.'iiiii iiiiiiiiiiiimiMiiiiiiiiiiiiimimiiiimiii IMIIIIIIIIIMII IIIIIIMIIIIIIHIIIIIIIIIIIIII iiiiiiiimimmimimiiiimmiiimu

NEW-WORLD SCIENCE SERIES
Edited by John W. Ritchie

| SCIENCE for BEGINNERS (

By DELOS FALL

Professor of Chemistry, Albion College

| |

*HpO supply the need for a course that will give the pre-
A paratory training which any scientific study demands,
1 SCIENCE FOR BEGINNERS by Professor Delos Fall was made.
| The aim in this text is to win the interest of pupils, to
give them conceptions of nature that are fundamental, and
above all to ground them in the method of science.

The subject matter has to do with the earth sciences, and
principally with physics and chemistry. In the develop-
ment of each topic, every advantage that the pupils' ex-
perience and interest may afford is utilized. Exercises

I or experiments are interspersed throughout the work, and
for these only the simplest materials are required. The
studies are carried to those connecting principles which
permit the organization of knowledge. The book is illus-
trated with a number of excellent photographs and over
200 drawings of more than usual merit.

|
The text is adapted for use in grades seven, eight, and

| nine, or in any classes that are about to take up their first
work in science. It will prove helpful to the teachers and
pupils who use it directly, and its influence will continue |
with classes as they advance. It will thoroughly ground
pupils in those ideas that are prerequisite to any right 1
work in science.

xi + 388 pages. Price $1.68

WORLD BOOK COMPANY

YONKERS-ON-HUDSON, NEW YORK

2126 PRAIRIE AVENUE, CHICAGO

illMIMIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIMIIIIIIIIHIIIIIIIIIIIMIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIllllllllllllMMIIIHIIIIIIIIIIIMMIIIIIIIII

:AGO
iiiiiMiiiiiiiiiiiimiiimiimiiiiiMiiiiimiiiMiii?

Fig. 36. Why doesn't
the water spill out?

neiv junior high school general science text
based uon 'what children 'want to know.

COMMON
SCIENCE

By CARLETON W. WASHBURNE

THIS is an entirely new kind of book.
The foundation on which the book
was built is a collection of 2,000 questions.
These were classified according to the
principles involved.

The book is written in the language of children, full of in-
teresting stories. It makes real use of the child's imagination.

It contains a wealth of practical information. There are
116 fascinating experiments to be performed with simple
apparatus. The 88 applications are to everyday problems.
Over 600 exercises help the child to thoroughly understand
all the principal laws of nature.

The illustrations show the apparatus in use with children
who are performing the experiments. There are 146 very
helpful reproductions of photographs and drawings.

Mimeographed editions of the book have been in successful
use in several schools for four years. It has proved itself
adaptable to either the individual system of instruction or the
usual class method. The book in its present form is the result
of its long trial use. It will thus be found successful in use.

Cloth, xvi +390 pages. (Also MANUAL

OF INFORMATION. Paper. 24 pages.)

Price of book $1.68, of Manual 20 cents.

WORLD BOOK COMPANY

YONKERS-ON-HUDSON, NEW YORK

2126 PRAIRIE AVENUE, CHICAGO

iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiHiiiiiimiminiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiimiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiMiniiiiiiiiinniiiiiniiiiiiiHinniiinfnmimmiiniiiiinMiu

NEW-WORLD SCIENCE SERIES
Edited by John W. Ritchie

TREES, STARS and BIRDS I

A BOOK OF OUTDOOR SCIENCE
By EDWIN LINCOLN MOSELEY

Head of the Science Department, State Normal College of

Northwestern Ohio

I I

'TpHE usefulness of nature study in the schools has been
JL seriously limited by the lack of a suitable textbook. |
It is to meet this need that Trees, Stars, and Birds is
issued. The author is one of the most successful teach-
| ers of outdoor science in this country. He believes in
| field excursions, and his text is designed to help teachers |
and pupils in the inquiries that they will make for them-
selves.

| The text deals with three phases of outdoor science that f
| have a perennial interest, and it will make the benefit I

of the author's long and successful experience available

to younger teachers.

The first section deals with trees, and the discussion of
maples is typical: the student is reminded that he has
eaten maple sugar; there is an interesting account of its
production ; the fact is brought out that the sugar is really
made in the leaves. The stars and planets that all should

| know are told about simply and clearly. The birds
commonly met with are considered, and their habits of

| feeding and nesting are described. Pertinent questions
are scattered throughout each section.

E =

The book is illustrated with 167 photographs, 69 draw- 1
| ings, 9 star maps, and with 16 color plates of 58 birds,
from paintings by Louis Agassiz Fuertes.

It is well adapted for use in junior high schools, yet the |
presentation is simple enough for pupils in the sixth grade. I

E =

Cloth, inii -f 404 -j- xvi pages. Price 1.80.

WORLD BOOK COMPANY

YONKERS-ON-HUDSON, NEW YORK
2126 PRAIRIE AVENUE, CHICAGO

IIIHIIIIllIlilllUllllUlIllIllIlllllllllllllllIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIMIIlllllIll

CONSERVATION SERIES

Conservation Reader

By HAROLD W. FAIRBANKS, Ph. D.

Lecturer, University of California; Geography Supervisor Berkeley
Public Schools

A small book bringing out in a simple and interesting manner the
principles of conservation of natural resources has long been wanted ,
for there has been little on the subject that could be placed in the hands
of pupils. It is to answer this need that Fairbanks' CONSERVATION
READER has been prepared.

The book touches upon every phase of conservation, but it deals at
greatest length with saving the soil, the forests, and wild life. It is one
of the author's main purposes to arouse a stronger sentiment for pre-
serving what remains of the forests as well as for extending their areas.
This is because proper forestation will lessen the danger of floods and
of erosion of the soil, and it will encourage the return of the wild crea-
tures that are of so much economic importance and add so much to the
joy of life.

The matter is presented in an easy narrative style that is calculated to
arouse the intelligent interest of children. The text is illustrated with
photographs of wild animals, trees, landscapes, and rarely beautiful
birds, printed in colors. The subject is timely and the treatment is
happy throughout.

CONSERVATION READER should be used as a reader or as a book for
regular study in every elementary school in the country.

Cloth, vi + 216 pages.
Price $1.40.

WORLD BOOK COMPANY

YONKERS-ON-HUDSON, NEW YORK

2126 PRAIRIE AVENUE, CHICAGO

iiimmiiiiimmimiiiimiiiimim iiiiiimm iiiiiiui iimmimmiimiimiimmmmiimmiimmiiiiiiiimimiiimninu

INSECT ADVENTURES

By J. HENRI FABRE

Selected and Arranged for Young People by Louis Seymour Hasbrouck

ANEW supplementary reader m nature study for the
intermediate grades. A book containing a vast
amount of information relating to insect life the life
story of the spider, the fly, the bee, the wasp, and other
insects told by one who was at once a lover of nature, a
great scientist, and a most entertaining writer. Maeter-
linck calls Fabre the "insects' Homer," and declares that
his work is as much a classic as the famous Greek epic,
and deserves to be known and studied as a classic.

This is the first time that Fabre's writings have been
made available for school use, and the book will prove
a delight to school children wherever they are given the
chance to read it. No live boy or girl could fail to be
interested in nature subjects presented by so gifted a
naturalist as Fabre in the form of such absorbing ad-
ventures.

The many quaint sketches with which the book has been
illustrated by Elias Goldberg complete its charm.

A useful index is included.

Cloth. 300 pages. Price $1.48.

WORLD BOOK COMPANY

YONKERS-ON-HUDSON, NEW YORK

2126 PRAIRIE AVENUE, CHICAGO

ailUUIUIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIll IIIIIHIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIlllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllll

14 DAY USE

RETURN TO DESK FROM WHICH BORROWED

This book is due on the last date stamped below, or

on the date to which renewed.
Renewed books are subject to immediate recall.

*fr

General Library
sity of CaJ
Berkeley

YB 47520

5040...

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY