J . Y\) ^ REESE 'LIBRARY [University OF California Rra'hrd (£/l^^^ l^.^iSS <^ Auessiotn No.^^ly)"/^^ Shelf No -4.\ MILITARY DICTIONARY fn AND GAZETTEER COMPRISING ANCIENT AND MODERN MILITARY TECHNICAL TERMS, HISTORICAL ACCOUNTS OF ALL NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS, AS WELL AS ANCIENT WARLIKE TRIBES ; ALSO NOTICES OF BATTLES FROM THE EARLIEST PERIOD TO THE PRESENT TIME, WITH A CONCISE EXPLANATION OF TERMS USED IN HERALDRY AND THE OFFICES THEREOF. THE WORK AIJsO GIVES VALUABLE GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION. COMPILED FROM THE BEST AUTHORITIES OF ALL NATIONS. WITH AN APPENDIX CONTAINING THE ARTICLES OF WAR, Etc. BY THOMAS AVILHELM, CAPTAIN EIGHTH INFANTRY. REVISED EDITION. PHILADELPHIA : L. R. HAMERSLY ct CO. 1881. Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1880, by THOMAS WILHELM, U.S.A., In the office of the Librarian of Congress at Washington. TO BREVET MAJOR-GENERAL AUGUST V. KAUTZ, COLONEL EIGHTH REGIMENT OF INFANTRY, U.S.A. , BY WHOSE SUGGESTIONS, ENCOURAGEMENT, AND AID THE WORK WAS UNDER- TAKEN, PERSEVERED IN, AND COMPLETED, THIS COMPILATION IS, WITH KESPECT AND GRATITUDE, DEDICATED BY HIS OBEDIENT SERVANT, THE COMPILER. PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. It is with no small degree of relief that the compiler of this work now turns from a self-imposed task, involving some years of the closest applica- tion, to write a brief preface, not as a necessity, but in justice to the work and the numerous friends who have taken the warmest interest in its prog- ress and final completion. It is inevitable that in the vast amount of patient and persistent labor in a work of this kind, extending to 1386 pages, and containing 17,257 distinct articles, there should be a few errors, oversights, and inconsistencies, not- withstanding all the vigilance to the contrary. Condensation has been accomplished where it was possible to do so, and repetition avoided to a great extent by reference, where further information was contained in other articles of this book. The contributions to the Eegimental Library, which afforded the oppor- tunity for this compilation, of standard foreign works, were of infinite value, and many thanks are tendered for them. To G. & C. Merriam, Publishers, for the use of Webster's Unabridged Dictionary ; J. B. Lippincott & Co., Publishers, Philadelphia ; D. Yan Nos- TRAND, Publisher, New York ; Maj. "William A. Marye, Ordnance Depart- ment, U.S.A.; Maj. W. S. Worth, Eighth Infantry, U.S.A.; Maj. D. T. Wells, Eighth Infantry, U.S.A. ; Lieut. F. A. Whitney, Adjutant Eighth Infantry, U.S.A. ; Lieut. C. A. L. Totten, Fourth Artillery, U.S.A. ; Lieut. C. M. Bailt, Quartermaster Eighth Infantry, U.S.A.; and Lieut. G. P. Scriven, Third Artillery, U.S.A., the compiler is indebted for courteous assistance in the preparation of this volume. October, 1879. PREFACE TO THE REVISED EDITION. In submitting this volume to the public it is deemed proper to say that the design of the work is to bring together into one series, and in as compact a form as possible for ready reference, such information as the student of the science and art of war, persons interested in the local or reserve forces, libra- ries, as well as the editors of the daily press, should possess. In short, it is believed that the work will be useful to individuals of all ranks and con- ditions. The compiler has labored under some disadvantages in obtaining the necessary information for this volume, and much is due to the encourage- ment and assistance received from accomplished and eminent officers, through which he was enabled to undertake the revision of the first issue of this work with greater assurance ; and among the officers referred to, Lieut. "William E. QuiNAN, of the Fourth Artilleiy, U.S.A., deserves especially to be men- tioned. It may not be out of place here to state that the compiler takes no credit to himself beyond the labor contributed in the several years of re- search, and bringing forward to date the matter requiring it, with such changes as the advance of time and improvements demand. As it was thought best to make this work purely military, all naval refer- ences which appeared in the first edition have been eliminated. May, 1881. AUTHORITIES CONSULTED IN THE COMPILATION OF THIS WORK. ENGLISH AND AMEKICAN WORKS. A Handt Dictionary of Military Terms — Knollys. Aide Memoirs to the Military Sciences — Originally edited by a Committee of the Royal Engineers in England (Revised and Enlarged). Analytical Digest oe the Military Laws of the United States — Scott. A Treatise on the Law of Evidence— Greenleaf. Beeton's Dictionary of Universal Biography. " " " Geography. Chambers's Encyclopedia. Customs of Service for Non-Commissioned Officers and Soldiers of the Army — Kautz. Customs of Service for Officers of the Army — Kautz. Classical Dictionary — Smith. Digest of Opinions of the Judge- Advocate-General — Winthrop. Dictionary of the United States Army — Gardner. " " Greek and Roman Antiquities — Smith. " " " " " Biography and Mythology — Smith. " " " " " Geography — Smith. " " Arts, Manufactures, and Mines — Ure. " " Every Days Difficulties — Shilton. " " Science, Literature, and Art — Brande. Elements of the Art and Science of War — Wheeler. " " Military Arts and Sciences — Halleck. Encyclopedia Britannica. French and English Pronouncing Dictionary — Spiers and Surenne. Field Exercise (English), 1870. FiELD-BooK of the REVOLUTION — Lossing. Hand-Book OF Artillery — Roberts. Haydn's Dictionary of Dates — Payne. " " Science— Payne. " " THE Bible — Payne. History of the United States — Bancroft. " the War in the Peninsula and in the South of France — Napier. " England — Knight. " the Rebellion — Tenney. Infantry, Cavalry, and Artillery Tactics, U.S.A. Instructions for Field Artillery. JoMiNi's Art of War — Translated from the French by Captains Mendell and Craig- hill, U.S.A. JoMiNi's Treatise on Grand Military Operations, or a Critical and Military History of the Wars of Frederick the Great — Translated by Colonel S. B. Holabird, U.S.A. Johnson's New Universal Encyclopedia. Judge-Advocate and Recorder's Guide — Regan. Law Dictionary — Bouvier. Lippincott's Pronouncing Gazetteer of the World — Thomas. Manual for Engineer Troops — Duane. Maxims of War — Napoleon. Military Bridges — Haupt. " Catechism and Hand-Book — Walshe. " Dictionary — Duane. " Dictionary — Scott. " Engineering — Mahan. " Law and Court-Martial — Benet. " Miscellany — Marshall. AUTHORITIES CONSULTED. Military Schools and Coubses of Instruction in the Science and Art of War — Barnard. Native Kaces of the Pacific Slope — Bancroft. Naval and JIilitahy Technical Dictionary of the French Language — Burns. Ordnance and Gunnery — Benton. Pictorial Field-Book of the War of 1812— Lossing. Practical Treatise on Attack and Defense — Jebb. Queen's Keoulations and Orders for the Army (British). Report of Comxii.ssioners of Indian Affairs, 1870. " the Chief of Ordnance, 1878. Shifts and Expedients of Camp-Life — Lord and Baines. The Armies of Europe— McClellan. The Last Century of Universal History, 1767-18G7 — Fiwald. The Military Laws of the United States- Callan. The Soldier's Pockkt-Book for Field-Service — Major-Grenenil Sir G. Wolseley. United States Army Keoulations. " " Bridge Equipage— Prepared by a Board of Engineer Offlcera— Lieu- tenant W. K. Quinan, 4th U. S. Artillery. United States Revised Statutes. W^ebster's Dictionary — G. & C. Merriam. GERMAN WORKS. Dien.st-Vorschriften der KiiNiGLiCH Preussischen Armee — Karl von Helldorff. Die Leiire vom neueren Festungskrieo — W. Riistow. Grundzuoe der Taktik der drei Waffen, Infantebie, Kavallkrie, und Ar- tillerie — Dr. H. v. Brandt. Heerwesenund Infanteriedienst deu Koniglich Preussischen Armee— A. v. AVitzleben. Kriegsfeuerwerkerei zum Gebrauch f(Jb die Koniglich Pbeussiscue Abtil- LERiE — A. Bath. KriegswoRterbuch — Carl Ad. Loehr. MiLiTAiR Conversations-Lexikon — Hans Eggcrt Willibald von der Luhe. FRENCH WORKS. Encyclopkdir Militaire et Maritime. Geographic Phisique, Historique et Militaire — Theophile Lava. Legislation et Administration Militaires — M. Leon GuilloL Sur la Fobm.\tion des Troupes pour le Combat — Jomiui. IMPORTANT MAXIMS. Misfortune will certainly fall upon the land where the wealth of the tax-gatherer or the greedy gambler in stocks stands, in public estimation, above the uniform of the brave man who sacrifices his life, health, or fortune in the defense of his country. Officers should feel a conviction that resignation, bravery, and faithful attention to duty are virtues without which no glory is possible, no army is respectable, and that firmness amid reverses is more honorable than enthu- siasm in success. It is not well to create a too great contempt for the enemy, lest the morale of the soldier should be shaken if he encounter an obstinate resistance. It would seem to be easy to convince brave men that death comes more surely to those who fly in disorder than to those who remain together and present a firm front to the enemy, or who rally promptly when their lines have been for the instant broken. Courage should be recompensed and honored, the different grades in rank respected, and discipline should exist in the sentiments and convictions rather than in external forms only. — Jomini. An army without discipline is but a mob in uniform, more dangerous to itself than to its enemy. Should any one from ignorance not perceive the immense advantages that arise from a good discipline, it will be sufficient to observe the alterations that have happened in Europe since the year 1700. — Saxe. If the first duty of a state is its own security, the second is the security of neighboring states whose existence is necessary for its own preservation. — JominVs " Life of Napoleon." A good general, a well-organized system, good instruction, and severe discipline, aided by effective establishments, will always make good troops, independently of the cause for which they fight. At the same time, a love of country, a spirit of enthusiasm, a sense of national honor, will operate upon young soldiers with advantage. The officer who obeys, whatever may be the nature or extent of his com- mand, will always stand excused executing implicitly the orders which have been given to him. Every means should be taken to attach the soldier to his colore. This is best accomplished by showing consideration and respect to the old soldier. The first qualification of a soldier is fortitude under fatigue and privation. Courage is only the second ; hardship, poverty, and want are the best schools for a soldier. Troops, whether halted, or encamped, or on the march, should be always in favorable position, possessing the essentials required for a field of battle. Some men are so physically and morally constituted as to see everything through a highly-colored medium. They raise up a picture in the mind on every slight occasion, and give to every trivial occurrence a dramatic interest. But whatever knowledge, or talent, or courage, or other good qualities such men may possess, nature has not formed them for the command of armies or the direction of great military operations. — Napoleon's ^^ Maxims of War." i X. MILITARY DICTIONARY, A. Aachen. See Aix-la-Chapelle. Aar. A river in Switzerland, flows into the Khine opposite and near Waldshut, in Aarguu. Prince Charles, while crossing the river, August 17, 17'J'J, was repulsed by the French generals Ney and Ileudelet. Aarau. A city in Switzerland. Peace was here declared, July 18, 1712, ending the war between the cantons Zurich and Berne on one side, and Luzerne, Uri, Schuyz, Unterwalden, and Zug on the other. Abad {Abadhie.s). A line of Moorish kings who reigned in Seville from 102G to 1090. Abaisse. In heraldry, when the fesse or any other armorial figure is depressed, or situated below the centre of th© shield, it is said to be abaisse (" lowered"). Abandon. In a military sense, used in the relintjuishment of a military post, dis- trict, or station, or the breaking up of a military establishment. To abandon any fort, post, guard, arms, ammunition, or colors without good cause is punishable. Abase, To. An old word signifying to lower a flag. Abaisser is in use in the French marine, and both may be derived from the still older abcigh, to cast down, to humble. Abatement. In heraldry, is a mark placed over a portion of the paternal coat of arms, indicating some base or ungentlemanly act on the part of the bearer. Abatis, or Abattis. A means of defense forujed by cutting off the smaller branches of trees felled in the direction from which the enemy may be expected. The ends of the larger branches are sharpened and the butts of the limbs or trees fastened by crochet picket, or by imbedding in the earth, so that they cannot be easily removed. Abatis is generally used in parts of a ditch or in- trench ment to delay the enemy under fire. Abblast. See Arbalest. Abblaster. Sec Arbalist. Abdivtes. A piratical people descended from the Saracens, who lived south of Mount Ida (Psilorati). in the island of Crete (Can- dia), where thev established themselves in 825. Abduction (Fr.). Diminution ; diminish- 2 ing the front of a line or column by break- ing off a division, subdivision, or files, in order to avoid some obstacle. Abencerrages. A Moorish tribe which , occupied the kingdom of Granada. Granada I was disturbed by incessant quarrels between j this tribe and the Zegris from 1480 to 1492. ■ They were finally extinguished by Abou- j Abdoullah, or Boabdil, the last Moorish j king of Granada, and the same who was ! dethroned by Ferdinand and Isabella in 1 1492. Abensburg. A small town of Bavaria, on the Abens, 18 miles southwest of Katis- bon. Here Napoleon defeated the Austrians, Aj^ril 20, 1«09. Aberconway, or Conway. A maritime city of the Gauls in England, fortified by William the Conqueror, and taken by Crom- ; well in 1G45. j Abet. In a military sense it is a grave crime to aid or abet in mutiny or sedition, or \ excite resistance against lawful orders. I Abgersate. Fortress of the Osrhoene, in Mesopotamia. The Persians took it by as- sault in the year 534. ! Abii. A Scythian tribe which inhabited j the shores of the Jaxartes, to the northeast of Sogdiana. They were vanquished by Al- I exander the Great. ' Abipones. A tribe of Indians living in the Argentine Confederation, who were for- merly numerous and powerful, but are now I reduced to a small number. ' Able-bodied. In a military senseapplies to one who is physically competent as a soldier. Ablecti. Ancient military term applied \ to a select body of men taken from tlie cx- iraordinaril of the Koman army to serve as a body-guard to the commanding general or the consul. The guard consisted of 40 j mounted and IGO dismounted men. j Abo. A Russian city and seaport, on the I Aurajoki near its entrance into the Gulf of I Bothnia. It formerly belonged to Sweden, 1 but was taken with the whole of Finland by I the Russians in the war begun by Sweden in : 1741. By a treaty of usace concluded hero in 1743 the conquered possessions were re- i stored to Sweden. They were ceded to Rus- ! sia in 1809. ABOLLA 10 ACCOUTKE Abolla. A warm kind of military gar- ment, lined or doubled, worn by both Greeks and Romans. Abou-girgeh. A city of Upper Egypt ■where the French defeated the Egyptians in 1799. Aboukir (anc. Canopus). A village of Egypt on a promontory at the western ex- tremity of the bay of the same name, 15 miles northeast of Alexandria. In the bay Nel- son defeated the Erench fleet, August 1, 1798. This engagement, which resulted in a loss to the French of 11 line-of-battle ships, is known as the "battle of the Nile." In 1801 a Brit- ish expedition under Sir llalph Abercromby landed at Aboukir, and captured the place after an obstinate and sanguinary conflict with the French (March 8). Here also a Turkish army of 15,000 men was defeated by 5000 French under Bonaparte, July 25, 1799. Aboumand. Village of Upper Egypt, near the river Nile, where the French fought the Arabs in 1799. About. A technical word to express the movement by which a body of troops or ar- tillery carriages change front. Abraham, Heights of. Near Quebec, Lower Canada. In the memorable engage- ment which took place here September 13, 1759, the French under Gen. Montcalm were defeated by the English under Gen. Wolfe, who was killed in the moment of victory. Abri (Fr.). Shelter, cover, concealment; arm-sheds in a camp secure from rain, dust, etc. ; place of security from the eflfect of shot, shells, or attack. Absence, Leave of. The permission which oflScers of the army obtain to absent themselves from duty. In the U. S. service an oflScer is entitled to 30 days' leave in each year on full pay. This time he may permit to accumulate for a period not ex- ceeding 4 years. An officer, however, may enjoy 5 months' continuous leave on full pay, provided the fifth month of such leave is wholly distinct- from the four-year period within and for which the 4 months' absence with full pay was enjoyed. An officer on leave over this time is entitled to half-pay only. Absent. A term used in military returns in accounting for the deficiency of any given number of officers or soldiers, and is usually distinguished under two heads, viz. : Abse^it with teave^ such as officers with permission, or enlisted men on furlough. Absent loith- out leave ; men who desert are sometimes reported absent ivithout leave, to bring their crimes under cognizance of regimental, gar- rison, or field-officers' courts ; thus, under mitigating circumstances, trial by general court-martial is avoided. Absence without leave entails forfeiture of pay during such absence, unless it is excused as unavoidable. An ufficer absent •without leave for three months may be dropped from the rolls of the army by the President, and is not eligi- ble to reappointment. Absolute Force of Gunpowder. Is meas- ured by the pressure it exerts on its environ- ment when it exactly fills the space in which it is fired. Various attempts have been made to determine this force experimentally with widely diflerent results. Robins esti- mated the pressure on the square inch at 1000 atmospheres, Hutton at 1800, and Count Rumford as high as 100,000 atmos- pheres. While Rodman, by experiments upon strong cast-iron shells, verified the ac- curacy of Rumford's formulas, he found that his estimate of the force was greatly in error. According to Rodman the pressure is approximately 14,000 atmospheres. Dr. Woodbridge, another American philosopher and inventor, has shown that, fired in small quantities, the force of gunpowder does not exceed 6200 atmospheres. This agrees closely with the conclusion arrived at by the English "Committee on Explosives," 1875, who found that even in large guns the force did not exceed 42 tons. Absorokas. A tribe of North American Indians. See Crows. Absterdam Projectile. See Projectile. Abydus. An ancient city of Mysia on the Hellespont nearly opposite Sestus on the European shore. Near this town Xerxes placed the bridge of boats by which his troops were conveyed across the channel to the town of Sestus, 480 B.C. Abyssinia. A country of Eastern Africa, forming an elevated table-land and contain- ing many fertile valleys. Theodore II., the king of this country, having maltreated and imprisoned some English subjects, an expe- dition under Lord Napier was sent against him from Bombay in 1867. On April 14, 1868, the mountain fortress of Magdala was stormed and taken with but little trouble, and Theodore was found dead on the hill, having killed himself. The country is at present governed by Emperor John of Ethi- opia, who was crowned in 1872. Academies, Military. See Military Academies. Accelerator. A cannon in which several charges are successively fired to give an increasing velocity to the projectile while moving in the bore. See Multi-charge Gun. Accessible. Easy of access or approach. A place or fort is said to be accessible when it can be approached with a hostile force by land or sea. Accintus. A word in ancient times sig- nifying the complete accoutrements of a soldier. Accolade. The ceremonious act of con- ferring knighthood in ancient times. It consisted of an embrace and gentle blow with the sword on the shoulder of the person on whom the honor of knighthood was being conferred. Accord. The conditions under which a fortress or command of troops is surren- dered. Accoutre. To furnish with accoutrements. ACCOUTREMENTS 11 ACTUARIUS Accoutrements. Dress, equipage, trap- pins^s. .Specifically, the equipments of a soldier, except arms and clothing. Accused. In a military sense, the desig- nation of one who is arraigned before a mil- itary court. Acerrae (now Acera). A city in the kingdom of Naples, talicn and burned by Hannibal in 216 n.c. In 'JO B.C. the Romans defeated under its walls the allied rebels commanded by Papius. Acerrae. A citv of the Gauls, taken by Marcclliis in 222 h'.c. Achaean League. A confederacy which existed from very earl}' times among the twelve states of the province of Achaia, in the north of tlie Peloponnesus. It was broken up after the death of Alexander the Great, but was set on fcjot again by some of the origimil cities, 280 B.C., the epoch of its rise into great historical importance; for from this time it gained strength, and finally spread over the whole Peloponnesus, though not without much opposition, principally on the part of Lacediemon. It was finally dis- solved by the Romans, on the event of the capture of Corinth by Mummius, 147 B.C. The two most celebrated leaders of this league were Aratus, the principal instru- ment of its early aggrandizement, and Phil- opo>men, the contemporary and rival, in military reputation, of Scipio and Ilanni- bal. Achern. A city in the grand duchy of IJaden, on the river Acher. Near this place a monument marks the spot where Marshal Turenne was killed by u random shot in 107.-). Acheron. A small stream in ancient Bruttium. In 330 B.C., Alexander, king of E])iriis, was killed while crossing it. Acinaces. A short sword used by the Persians. Aclides. In Roman antiquity, a kind of missile weapon with a thong fixed to it whereby it might be drawn back again. Acoluthi. In military antiquity, was a title given in the Grecian emjiirc to the cap- tain or connnander of the body-guards ap- pointed for the security of the emperor's jiulace. Aconite. A poisonous plant. Several ancient races poisoned their arrows with an extract from tliis plant. Acontium. In Grecian antiquity, a kind of dart or javelin resembling the Roman spiridum. Acquereaux (Fr.). A machine of war, which was used in the Middle Ages to throw sttmes. Acqui. A walled town of the Sardinian states on the river Boriuida in the division of Alessandria. It was taken by the Span- iards in 1745, retaken by the Piedmontese in 174ti ; it was dismantled by the French, who defeated the Austrians and Piedmontese here in 1794. Acquit. To release or set free from an obligation, accusation, guilt, censure, sus- picion, or whatever devolves upon a person as a charge or duty ; as, the court acquits the accused. This word has also the reflexive signification of "to bear, or conduct one's self;" as, the soldier acquitted himself well in battle. Acquittance Roll. In the British service, a roll containing the names of the men of each troop or company or regiment, show- ing the debts and credits, with the signature of each man, and certificate of the olficer commanding it. Acre, or St, Jean d'Acre. A seaport town of Palestine (in ancient times the cele- brated city of Ptolemais), which was the scene of many sieges. It was last stormed and taken by the British in 1840. ACre was gallantly defended by Djez/.ar Pacha against Bonaparte in Jul}', 1798, till relieved by Sir Smith, who resisted twelve attempts by the French, between March IG and May 20, 1799. Acre, or Acre-fight. An old duel fought by warriors between the frontiers of Eng- land and Scotland, with sword and lance. This dueling was also called ccnnp-fiyht. Acrobalistes (Fr.). A name given by the ancients to warlike races, such as the Parthians and Armenians, who shot arrows from a long distance. Acropolis. In ancient Greece, the name- given to the citadel or fortress of a city, usually built on the summit of a hill. The most celebrated was that of Athens, remains of which still exist. Acs. A village in Hungary on the right bank of the Danube, noted as the scene of several battles in the Hungarian revolution, that of August 3, 1849, being the most im- portant. Acting Assistant Surgeons. See SuR- GKONS, AlTING ASSISTANT. Action. An engagement between two armies, or bodies of troops. The word is likewise used to signify some memorable act done by an officer, soldier, detachment, or party. Actium (now Azio). A town of ancient Greece in Arcanania, near the entrance of the Ambracian Gulf. It became famous for the great naval engagement fought near- here in 31 B.C. between Uctavius and Antony,, in which the ft>rmer was victorious. Active Service. Duty against an enemy ;: operations in his presence. Or in the pres- ent day it denotes serving on full pay, on the active list, in contradistinction to those- who are virtually retired, and placed on the retired list. Activity. In a military sense, denotes attention, labor, diligence, and study. Acto, or Acton. A kind of defensive tunic, made of <]uilted leather or other strong material, formerly worn under the outer dress and oven under a coat t>f mail. Act of Grace. In Gnat Britain, an act of Parliament for a general and tVee pardon to deserters from the service and others. Actuarius. A name given by the Ro- ADACTED 12 ADVANCED GUAKD mans to officers charged with the supplying of provisions to troops. Adacted. Applies to stakes, or piles, driven into the earth by large malls shod with iron, as in securing ramparts or pon- tons. Adda. A stream in Italy. The Komans defeated the Gauls on its banks in 223 B.C. Addiscombe Seminary. An institution near Croydon, Surrey, England, for the education of young gentlemen intended for the military service of the East India Com- pany : closed in 1861. Aden. A free port on the southwest cor- ner of Arabia. It was captured by Eng- land in 1839, and is now used as a coal depot for Indian steamers. Aderbaidjan (Fr.). A mountainous prov- ince of Persia, celebrated for raising the finest horses in the province for army pur- poses. Adige (anc. Athesis). A river in North- ern Italy formed by numberless streamlets from the Helvetian Alps. In 563 the Ko- mans defeated the Goths and Pranks on its banks. Gen. Massena crossed it in 1806. Adis. A city in Africa. Xantippe, chief of the Carthaginians, defeated under its walls the Komans commanded by Kegulus. Adit. A passage under ground by which miners approach the part they intend to sap. Adjeighur. A fortress in Bundelcund, which was captured in 1809 by a force under the command of Col. Gabriel Martindell. Adjourn. To suspend business for a time, as from one day to another ; said of military courts. Adjournment without day [sine die), indefinite postponement. Adjutant (from adjuvo, " to help"). A regimental staff-officer with the rank of lieu- tenant, appointed by the regimental com- mander to assist him in the execution of all the details of the regiment or post. He is the channel of official communication. It is his duty to attend daily on the command- ing officer for orders or instructions of any kind that are to be issued to the command, and promulgate the same in writing after making a complete record thereof. He has charge of the books, files, and men of the headquarters ; keeps the rosters ; parades and inspects all escorts, guards, and other armed parties previous to their proceeding on duty. He should be competent to instruct a regi- ment in every part of the field exercise, should understand the internal economy of his corps, and should notice every irregular- ity or deviation from the established rules or regulations. He should, of course, be an officer of experience, and should be selected with reference to special fitness, as so much depends upon his manner and thoughtfulness in the exercise of the various and important duties imposed upon him. Unexceptionable deportment is especially becoming to the adjutant. Adjutant-General, An officer of distinc- tion selected to assist the general of an army in all his operations. The principal staff- officer of the U. S. army. The j)rincipal staff-officers of generals of lower rank are called assistant adjutant-gen rals. Adjutant-General's Department. In the United States, consists of 1 adjutant-gen- eral with the rank of brigadier-general ; 2 assistant adjutant - generals, colonels ; 4 lieutenant- colonels, and 10 majors; also about 400 enlisted clerks and messengers. The officers are generally on duty with gen- eral officers who command corps, divisions, departments, etc. " They shall also perform the duties of inspectors when circumstances require it." The lowest grades must be se- lected from the captains of the army. Administration. Conduct, management ; in military affairs, the execution of the du- ties of an office. Administration, Council of. A board of officers periodically assembled at a post for the administration of certain business. Admissions. In a military sense, the judge-advocate is authorized when he sees proper to admit what a prisoner expects to prove by absent witnesses. Adobe (Sp.). An unburnt brick, dried in the sun, made from earth of a loamy char- acter, containing about two-thirds fine sand mixed intimately with one-third or less of clayey dust or fine sand. Adour. A river in the southwest of Prance, which Lord Wellington, after driv- ing the armies of Napoleon Bonaparte across the Pyrenees, passed in the face of all op- position, on the 26th of Pebruary, 1814. Adrana. A river in Germany, at present called Eder. Germanicus defeated the Ger- mans on its bank in 15. Adrianople. A Turkish city named after the Emperor Adrian ; unsuccessfully be- sieged by the Goths in the 4th century ; the army of Murad I. took the city in 1361 ; unconditionally surrendered to the Kussians in August, 1829; peace was declared in this city between Russia and Turkey, September 14, 1829, and the city relinquished to the Turks. Adrumetum, or Hadrumetum. An an- cient African city, now in ruins, situated on the Mediterranean, southeast from Car- thage. The Moors took this city from the Komans in 549, but it was retaken soon after by a priest named Paul. Advance. Before in place, or beforehand in time; used for advanced; as, advance- guard, or that before the main guard or body of an army ; to move forward. Advanced Covered Way. Is a ter7-e jjlein on the exterior of the advanced ditch, similar to the first covered way. Advanced Ditch. Is an excavation be- yond the glacis of the enciente, having its surface on the prolongation of that slope, that an enemy may find no shelter when in the ditch. Advanced Guard. A detachment of troops which precedes the march of the main body. ADVANCED GUARD 13 AGINCOURT Advanced Guard Equipage. See Pon- tons. Advanced Lunettes. Works resembling hastiuiis ur ravelins, liavini; faces or flunks. Tliov ari' lornicd iijion or beyond the glacis. Advanced Works. Are such as are con- structed Ixynnd the covered way and glacis, but within range of the musketry of the main works. Advancement. In a military sense, sig- nidcs honor, jjroniotion, or preferment in the army, regiment, or company. Advantage Ground. That ground which affords the greatest facility for annoyance or resistance. Adversary. Generally applied to an enc- mv, but strictly an opponent in single com- bat. Advising to Desert. Punishable with death ur otlierwisc, as a court-martial may direct. See Ai'I'kndix, Articles of "VVak, Gl. Advocate, Judge-.See Judge-Advocate. Adynati. Ancient name for invalid sol- diers receiving pension from the public treas- ury. IflEgide {JEges). A name, according to Homer, for a protecting covering Avound around the left arm in the absence of a shield ; used by Jupiter, Minerva, and Apoll... .ffigolethron {Gr.). A plant. This word moans goat and death. It was believed by the ancients that this plant would kill goats only, if eaten by them. Xenophon reports that the soldiers of the army of the " Ten Thousand" tasted of some honey prepared from this plant which caused them to be aflected with hallucinations. .^gospotamos ("Stream of the Goaf). A small river flowing into the Hellespont, in the Thracian Chersonese; is famous for the defeat of the Athenian fleet by the Lacedemonians under Lysander, which put an end to the Peloponnesian war, and to the predominance of Athens in Greece, 405 B.C. .^neatores. In military antiquity, the musicians in an army, including those who sounded the trumpets, horns, etc. .ffirarium Militare. In Koman antiquity, the war treasury of Home, founded by Au- gustus ; in addition to other revenues, the one-hundredth part of all merchandise sold in Rome was paid into it. JE,TO. A basket used by the Roman sol- diers to carry earth in to construct forti^ca- tions. .^rumnula. A wooden pole or fork, in- troduced among the Romans by Consul Marius. Each soldier was provided with one of these poles, which had attached thereto a saw, hatchet, a sack of wheat, and baggage ; and he was compelled to carry it on a march. Affair. An action or engagement, not of suflicient magnitude to bo termed a battle. Affamer (Fr.). To besiege a place so closely as to starve the garrison and inhab- itants. Affidavit. In military law is an oath duly subscribed before any person author- ized to administer it. In the U. S. service, in the absence of a civil officer any com- missioned uflicer is empowered to administer an oath. Afforciament. An old term for a for- tress or stronghold. Afghanistan. A large country in Central Asia, at war with England 1838, and 1878- 79. Afrancesados («S/j.). Name given to the Spaniards who upheld the oath of allegiance to king Joseph nonaparte;, also called Jo- sephins (in the Peninsular war). Aga. Rank of an officer in the Turkish army ; the same as a general with us. Age. In a military sense, a young man must be 14 years old before he can bocotne an officer in the English army, or be entered as a cadet at Woolwich, in the English military academy. For admission to the military academy at West Point, U. S., the age is from 17 to 22 years. Men are enlisted for soldiers at from 17 to 45 in the Engli.sh army, and in the U. S. army at from l8 to 35. Officers in the U. S. army may be re- tired, at the discretion of the President, at 02 years of age. Agema [Gr.). In the ancient military art, a kind of soldiery, chiefly in the Mace- donian army. The word is Greek, and de- notes vehemence, to express the strength and eagerness of this corps. Agen. Principal place of the department Lot-ct-Garonne, France, on the right bank of the river Garonne, which has a city of the same name, and was the scene of many battles. Agency. A certain proportion of money which is ordered to be subtracted from the pay and allowances of the British army, for transacting the business of the several regi- ments comprising it. Agent, Army. A person in the civil de- partment of the British army, between the paymaster-general and the jiaymaster of the regiment, through whom every regimental concern of a pecuniary nature is transacted. Agger. In ancient military writings, de- notes the middle part of a military road raised into a ridge, with a gentle slope on each side to make a drain for tlie water, and keep the way dry ; it is also used for a mili- tary road. Agger also denotes a work or fortification, used both for the defense and attack of towns, camps, etc., termed among the moderns, lines. Agger is also used for a bank or wall erected against the soa or some great river to con fine or keep it with in bounds, and called by modern writers, dam, sea-wall. Agiades. In the Turkish armies arc a kind of pioneers, or ratlier field engineers, employed in fortifying tlie camp, etc. Agiem-clich. A very crooked sabre, rounded near the point ; an arm much in use in Persia and Turkey. Agincourt, or Azincourt. A village of France, celebrated for a great battle fought AGMEN 14 AIX-LA-CHAPELLE near it in 1415, wherein Henry V. of Eng- liind defeated the French. Agmen. Koman name for an array on the march. Agminalis. Name given by the ancients to a horse which carried baggage, equip- ments, etc., on its baclv ; now termed paclc- horse. Agnadello. Village in the duchy of Milan, on a canal between the rivers Adda and Serio, celebrated by the victory of Louis XII., king of France, over the Venetian and Papal troops in 1509, and by a battle between Prince ■ Eugene and the Duke of Vendome in 1705. Agrigente {now Oirgenfi). City in Sicily, situated on the Mediterranean ; sacked by the Carthaginians under Amilcar in 400 B.C., and taken twice by the Komans in 262 and 210 B.C. Aguebelle. City in the province of Mau- rienne, in Savoy. The French and Spaniards defeated the troops of the Duke of Savoy in 1742. Aguerri (F?-.). A term applied to an oflRcer or soldier experienced in war. Agustina. See Saragossa, Maid of. Ahmednuggur. A strong fortress in the Deccan, 30 miles from Poonah, which was formerly in the possession of Scindia, but fell to the British arms during the campaign conducted by Gen. Wellesley. Aidan (Prince). See Scotland. Aid-de-camp. An officer selected by a general to carry orders ; also to represent him in correspondence and in directing movements. Aid-major (Fr.). The adjutant of a regi- ment. Aigremore. A term used by the artificer in the laboratory, to express the charcoal in a state fitted for the making of powder. Aiguille (Fr.). An instrument used by engineers to pierce a rock for the lodgment of powder, as in a mine, or to mine a rock, so as to excavate and make roads. Aiguillettes. A decoration, consisting of bullion cords and loops, which was formerly worn on the right shoulder of general officers, and is now confined to the officers of house- hold cavalry ; also worn in the TJ. S. army by officers of the adjutant-general's depart- ment, aids-de-camp, and adjutants of regi- ments. Aiguillon. A city in France ; while in the possession of the English in 1345, it was besieged by the Duke oif Normandy, son of Philip de Valois. According to some authors, cannons were used on this occasion for the first time in France. Aile (Fr.). A wing or flank of an army or fortification. Ailettes (/^r.). Literally " little wings," were ajipendages to the armor worn behind or at the side of the shoulders by knights in the 13th century. They were made of leather covered with cloth, and fastened by silk laces. They are supposed to have been worn as a defense to the shoulders in war. Aim. The act of bringing a musket, piece of ordnance, or any other missive weapon, to its proper line of direction with the object intended to be struck. Aim -frontlet.' A piece of wood hollowed out to fit the middle of a gun, to make it of an equal height with the breech ; formerly made use of by the gunners, to level and direct their pieces. Aiming Drill. A military exercise to teach men to aim fire-arms. Great impor- tance is justly attached to this preliminary step in target practice. Aiming-stand. An instrument used in teaching the theorj' of aiming with a mus- ket. It usually consists of a tripod with a device mounted upon it, which holds the gun and allows it to be pointed in any di- rection. Ainadin. Name of a field near Damas in Syria, celebrated by a battle on July 25, 633, in which Khaled, chief of the Saracens, defeated Verdan, a general of the Roman army. Verdan lost 50,000 men and was decapitated. Ain-Beda. (Africa). An engagement at this place between the French and Arabs in October, 1833. Ain Taguin. " Spot of the little desert," in the province of Algiers; here the Duke d'Aumale surprised and dispersed the troops of Abd-el-Kader. Air-cylinder. A pneumatic buffer used in America to absorb the recoil of large guns. For 10-inch guns, one cylinder is used ; for the 15-inch, two. They are placed between the chassis rails, to which they are firmly secured by diagonal braces. A piston traversing the cylinder is attached to the rear transom of the top carriage. When the gun recoils the piston-head is drawn backwards in the cylinder, and the recoil is absorbed by the compression of the air be- hind it. Small holes in the piston-head al- low the air to slowly escape while the. gun is brought to rest. The hydraulic buffer largely used abroad operates in the same way, water being used in place of air. Air, Resistance of. The resistance which the air offers to a projectile in motion. See PRO.JECTILES, Theory of. Aire. A military position on the Adour, in the south of France, where the French were defeated by the English under Lord Hill, on March 2, 1814. Air-gun. An instrument resembling a musket, used to discharge bullets by the elastic force of compressed air. Aix. A small island on the coast of France between the Isle of Oleron and the continent. It is 12 miles northwest of Rochefort, and 11 miles from Rochelle. On it are workshops for military convicts. Aix-la-Chapelle (Ger. Aachen). A dis- trict in the Prussian province of the Lower Pihine. Here Charlemagne was born in 742, and died in 814. The city was taken by the French in 1792; retaken by the Austrians in 1793; by the French 1794; reverted to AKERMAN 15 ALBANA Prussia 1814. Coni;ress held by the sover- eigns of Austria, Kussia, and Prussia, as- sisted by ministers from Enghmdand France, at Aix-hi-Chapelle, and convention signed October 9, 1818. Akerman (Bessarabia). After being sev- eral times taken it was ceded to Russia, 1812. Here tlie celebrated treaty between Russia and Turkey was concluded in 182G. Aketon. Another name for a portion of armor, used in the feudal times, called the gambrnon (wliich see). Akhalzikh (Armenia). Near here Prince Paskiewitth defeated the Turks Aug. 24, and gained the city, Aug. 28, 1828. Akindschi. A sort of Turkish cavalry, cmnloyed during the war between the Turks ana the German emperors. Aklat. A small town in Asiatic Turkey, takoii by Eddin in 1228, and by the Turks in the 14th century. Akmerjid. A city in the Crimea ; an an- cient residence of the khan of Tartary ; taken by the Russians in 1771. Akoulis. A city in Armenia, often pil- hi<;ed by the Persians and Turks ; taken in 17-j2 by the Persian general Azad-Khan, by whom the majority of the inhabitants were put to the sword. Akrebah. At this place, about tlie year (;;iO, K baled, general of the Mussulman troops, fought the army of a new prophet named Mosseilamah, who perished in the combat. Ala. According to Latin authors, this word signifies the wing of an army, i.e., the flanks, on which were placed troops fur- nished by the allied nations ; also sometimes used to designate a brigade of cavalry occu- pying the same position in battle. Alabama. One of the Southern States of the American confederacy, is bounded on the north by Tennessee, east by Georgia, south by Florida and the Gulf of Mexico, and west by Mississippi. The celebrated exploring expedition of De Soto in 1541 is believed to have been the first visit of the white man to the wilds of Alabama. In the beginning of the 18th century the French built a fort on Mobile Bay, but the city of that name was not commenced till nine years later (1711). In 1703, the entire French possessions east of the Mississippi (except New Orleans) fell into the hands of the English. Alabama was incorporated first with Georgia, afterwards, in 1802, with the Mississippi Territory ; but finally, in 1819, it became an independent member of the great American confederacy. In 1813 and 1814 the Creek Indians waged war on the settlers and massacred nearly 400 whites who had taken refuge at Fort Minims, on the Alabama River. They were, however, seon reduced to subjection by Gen. Jackson, and after their defeat at Horseshoe Bend, March, 1814, the greater portion of their territory was taken from them, and they were subsequently removed to the Indian Territorv. On the outbreak of the civil war in 1861, the temporary capital of the Con- federate Slates was established at Mont- gomery, Ala., but it was soon afterwards removed t<> liichmond, Va. Alabanda {Hour Dorian, or Arab Hissar). A city in Asia Minor ; destroyed by Labi- enus, a Roman general, in 38 H.c. Alacays. Name given by the ancients to a kind of soldiery, and afterwards to ser- vants following an army. Alage. A mounted guard of the Byzan- tine emperors, doing duty in the palace of Constantinople, and defending, in case of danger, the person of the emj)eror. Alaibeg. A Turkish commander of regi- ments of l(;vied troops. Alamo, Fort, or The Alamo. A cele- brated fort in Bexar County, near San An- tonio, Texas, where a small garrison of Texans bravely resisted a body of Mexicans ten times their number, and perished to a man, March G, 1836. This spot has hence been called the Thermopyla3 of Texas, and " Remember the Alamo!" was used as the battle-cry of the Texans in their war of in- dependence. Alanda. Name of a legion formed by Julius Caisar from the best warriors of the Gauls. Aland Isles (Gulf of Bothnia). Taken from Sweden by Russia, 1809. See Bomar- SUXD. Alani. A Tartar race ; invaded Parthia, 75 ; were subdued by the Visigoths, 452, and eventually incorporated with them. Alarcos (Central Spainj. Here the Span- iards under Alfonso IX., king of Castile, were totally defeated by the Moors, July 19, 1195. Alares. Name given by the Romans to troops which were placed on the wings of an army ; these troops were generally furnished by allies. Alarm. A sudden apprehension of being attacked by surprise, or the notice of such attack being actually made. It is generally signifitd by the discharge of fire-arms, the beat of a drum, etc. Alarm Gun. A gun fired to give an alarm. Alarm Post. In the field, is the ground apj)ointed by the quartermaster-general for each regiment to march ti>, in case of an alarm. In a garrison, it is the place allotted by the governor for the troops to assemble on any sudden alarm. Alaska. A large territory forming the northwest part of North America, which was purchased by the United States from Russia in 1807, and was annexed as a county to "Washington Territory in 1872. The na- tive inhabitants are Esquimaux, Indians, and Aleuts, with a few persons of Russiaa descent. Alba de Tormes. A city in Snain, where the French defeated the Spaniards in 1809. Albana. A city in ancient Albania, situ- ated on the coast of the Caspian Sea ; a wall was constructed to the west of the city for ALBANIA 16 ALERT the purpose of staying the progress of the Scythians, by Darius I., or by Chosrois. Albania. A province in European Turliey, formerly part of the ancient Epirus, a scene of many battles ; a revolt in Albania was suppressed in 1843. Albanians, or Albaniers. The inhabit- ants of the Turkish territory of Albania, are a very brave and active race, and fur- nish the best warriors for the Turkish army. Albans, St. (Hertfordshire, Eng.). Near the Koman Verulam ; first battle of St. Albans took place in May, 1455, between the Houses of Lancaster and York, wherein the former were defeated, and King Henry VI. taken prisoner ; second battle took place in Feb- ruary, 1461, wherein Queen Margaret to- tally defeated the Yorkists and rescued the king. Albe. A city in Naples, situated near the Lake Celano; in ancient times it was an important city in Samnium. Albeck. A village in Wiirtemberg where 25,000 Austrians, under the command of Gen. Mack, were defeated by 6000 French in 1805. Alberche. A river of Spain, which joins the Tagus near Talavera de la Eeyna, where, in 1809, a severe battle was fought between the French arm}' and the allied British and Spanish troops, in which the former were defeated. Albe-Royale. A city in Lower Hungary, which sustained several sieges. Albesia. In antiquity, a kind of shield, otherwise called decumnna. Albi. A city in the department of Tarn, France ; pillaged by the Saracens in 730, and taken by Pepin in 765. Albigenses. A sect of heretics, who were in existence during the 12th and 13th cen- turies, and inhabited Albi, France; fought many battles ; went to Spain in 1238, where they were slowly exterminated. Albuera. A small village near the river Guadiana, in Spain, where the French army under Marshal Soult was defeated by the British and Spanish forces under Marshal, afterwards Lord, Beresford, March 16, 1811. Albufera (Spain, East Central). A la- goon, near which the French marshal Suchet (afterwards Duke of Albufera), defeated the Spaniards under Blake, January 4, 1812; this led to his capture of Valencia, Janu- ary 9. Alcacsbas (Portugal). A treaty was con- cluded here between Alfonso V. of Portugal and Ferdinand and Isabella of Castile. Alcantara. A creek near Lisbon, on the banks of which a battle was fought between the Spaniards under Alva and the Portu- guese under Antonio de Crato (prior of the Maltese order). Alcantara, Order of. Knights of a Span- ish military order, who gained a great name during the wars with the Moors. Alcassar, or Alcacar. A fortified city in Morocco, situated between Ceuta and Tan- gier ; the narrowest point of the Strait of Gibraltar. The Portuguese seized this city in 1468. Alcazar-Quiver. A city near Fez, North- west Africa, where the Moors totally de- feated the Portuguese, whose gallant king, Sebastian, was slain August 4, 1578. Alcmaer. A city in Holland ; besieged by the Spaniards in 1573 without success; here th6 British and Russians were defeated by the French in 1799. Aldenhofen. A village of the Prussian Rhenish province, where the French, under Gen. Miranda, were defeated by Archduke Charles, March 1, 1793 ; the Austrians were defeated March 18, 1793. Aldershott, Camp. A moor near Farn- ham, about 35 miles from London. In April, 1854, the War Office, having obtained a grant of £100,000, purchased 4000 acres of land for a permanent camp for 20,000 men ; additional land was purchased in 1856. The camp is used as an army school of instruc- tions. Aldionaire (Aldionarms). A sort of equerry, who in the army was kept at the expense of his master. Under Charlemagne, the aldionaires were of an inferior rank. Alem. Imperial standard of the Turkish empire. Alemanni (or all men, i.e., men of all nations, hence Allemannen, German). A body of Suevi, who took this name; were defeated by Caracalla, 214. After several repulses they invaded the empire under Aurelian ; they were subdued in three bat- tles, 270. They were again vanquished by Julian, 356-57. They were defeated by Clo- vis at Tolbiac (or Zulpich), 496. The Sua- bians are their descendants. Alemdar. An official who carries the green banner of Mahomet (Mohammed), when the sultan assists in ceremonies of solemnity. Alen9on (Northern France). Gave title to a count and duke. Martel, count of An- jou, seized this city, which was retaken by William the Conqueror in 1048. It was the scene of many battles. Aleppo (Northern Syria). A large town named Beroeaby Seleucus Nicator about 299 B.C. It was taken by the Turks in 638 ; bv Saladin, 1193, and sacked by Timur, 1400. Its depopulation by the plague has been fre- quent ; 60,000 persons were computed to have perished by it in 1797 ; and many in the year 1827. On October 16, 1850, tie Mohammedans attacked the Christians, burning nearly everything. Three churches were destroyed ; five others plundered, and thousands of persons slain. The total loss of property amounted to about a million pounds sterling; no interference was at- tempted by the pasha. Aleria. An important city in Corsica, at the mouth of the river Tavignano ; was taken in 259 B.C. by the Romans under Con- sul Cornelius. Alert. Watchful; vigilant; active in vigi- ALESIA 17 ALLECTI MILITES lance; upon the watch; guarding against surprise or danfror. Alesia, or Alisia. Now called Alise- Sainte-Koine, a city in the department of Cote-dOr. This citj* was besici^cd and taken by the Komans in 52 B.C. ; it was one of the greatest events of Cesar's war in Gaul. Alessandria. A city of Tiedrnont, built in llOH, under the name of Ciusarea by the Milanese and Cremonese, to defend the Tanaro aij^ainst the emperor, and named after Pope Alexander III. It has been fre- quently besieged and taken. The French took it in 17%, but were driven out July 21, 1799. They recovered it after the battle of Marengo, in 1800, and held it until 1814, when the strong fortifications erected by Napoleon were destroyed. They have been restored since June, 1850. Alet, or Aleth. A small city in the de- partment of Ande, France; was taken by the Protestants in 1573. Aleut. An inhabitant of the Aleutian Islands. These people differ both from the Indians of the neighboring continent and the Esquimaux farther north. They are expert hunters of the seal and other ani- mals. They are industrious and peaceful, but addicted to drunkenness. Aleutian Islands. A number of islands str(!tcliiiig from the peninsula of Alaska in North America to Kamtschatka in Asia. The greater number belong to the territory of Alaska. Alfere, or Alferez. Standard-bearer ; en- sign ; cornet. The old English term for en- sign ; it was in use in England till the civil wars of Charles I. Alford (Northern Scotland), Battle of. Gen. Biiillie, with a large body of Covenan- ters, was defeated by the Marquis of Mont- rose, July 2, 1G45. Alfuro. A city in Navarre, Spain. The British proceeded against the city in 1378, the garrison being absent; they found the women ranged on the ramparts disposed to defend the place. Capt. Tivet, commander of the English forces, would not attack the brave women, but retreated and did not molest the place. Algebra. A peculiar kind of mathematical analysis allied to arithmetic and geometry. Algidus. A Tuountain-range in Latium, Italv, where Cincinnatus defeated the vEqui in 4r)8 n.c. Algiers (now Algeria, Northwest Africa). Part of the ancient Mauritania, which was conquered by the Komans, 4(j n.c. ; by the Vandals, 439; recovered for the empire bj- Belisarius, 534, and subdued by the Arabs about 090. The city of Algiers was bom- barded a number of times, and finally taken by the French in 1830. Algeria at present belongs to Fraiu'o. Algonkins, or Alogonquins. One of the two great families of Indians who formerly peopled the country east of the Mississippi. The Chippewas are at present the most numerous nice descended from this stock. Alhama. A city in Spain, in the prov- ince of Granada. It was a most important fortress when the Moors ruled Granada, and its capture by the Christians in 1482 was the most decisive step in the reduction of their power. Alhambra. The ancient fortress and resi- dence of the Moorish monarchs of Granada ; tV)unded by Mohammed I. of Granada about 1253; surrendered to the Christians in No- vember, 1491. Ali Bey. Colonel of Turkish cavalry ; also the rank of a district commander. Alibi (Lnt. "elsewhere"). An alibi is the best defense in law if a man is innocent ; but if it turns out to be untrue, it is conclu- sive against those who resort to it. Alicante. A fortified city and seaport in Spain, where the French defeated the Span- iards in a naval battle, April 1, 1088. Alidade. The movable arm or rule carry- ing the sights of an angle-measuring instru- ment. Alien. In law, implies a person born in a foreign country, in contradistinction to a natural born or naturalized person. Alife [Alifa). A city in the kingdom of Nai)les, where Fabius defeated the Samnites in 307 B.C. Alighur. See Allyghur. Align. To form in line as troops ; to lay out the ground-plan, as of a road. Alignment. A formation in straight lines, for instance, the alignment of a nattalion means the situation of a body of men when drawn up in line. The alignment of a camp signifies the relative position of the tents, etc., so as to form a straight line from given points. Aliwal. A village on the banks of the Sutlej, contiguous to the Punjab, where a British division, commanded by 3Iaj.-Gen. Sir Henry Smith, on the 20th of January, 1840, encountered and defeated a superior body of Sikhs. Aljubarrota (Portugal). Here John I. of Portugal defeated John I. of Castile, and secured his country's independence, August 14, 1385. Alkmaer. See Beroex-op-Zoom. Allahabad (Northwest Hindostan). The holy city of the Indian Mohammedans, situated at the junction of the rivers Jumna and Ganges ; founded by Akbar, in 1583 ; incorporated with the British possessions in 1803. During the Indian mutiny several Sepoy regiments rose and massacred their officers, June 4. 1857 ; Col. Neil marched promptly from Benares and suppressed the insurrection. In November, 1801, Lord Can- ning made this the capital of the northwest provinces. Allecrete. Light armor used by both cavalry and infantry in the 10th century, especially by the Swiss. Jt consisted of a breastplate and gussets, often reaching to the middle of the thigh, and sometimes below the knees. Allecti Milites. A name given by the ALLEGIANCE 18 ALMONACID-DE-ZORITA Romans to a body of men who were drafted for military service. Allegiance. In law, implies the obe- dience which is due to the laws. Oath of Allegiance is that taken by an alien, by which he adopts America and renounces the au- thority of a foreign government. It is also applied to the oath taken by officers and soldiers in pledge of their fidelity to the state. Allegiant. Loyal ; faithful to the laws. Allia (Italy). A small river flowing into the Tiber, where Brennus and the Gauls de- feated the Romans, July 16, 390 B.C. The Gauls sacked Rome and committed so much injury that the day was thereafter held to be unlucky {nefas), and no public business was permitted to be done on its anniversary. Alliage [Fr.). A term used by the French to denote the composition of metals used for the fabrication of cannon, mortars, etc. Alliance. In a military sense, signifies a treaty entered into by sovereign states for their mutual safety and defense. In this sense alliances may be divided into such as are off'ensive, where the contracting parties oblige themselves jointly to attack some other power ; and into such as are defensive, whereby the contracting powers bind them- selves to stand by and defend one another, in case of being attacked by any other power. Alliances are variously distinguished accord- ing to their object, the parties in them, etc. Hence we read of equal, unequal, triple, quadruple, grand, offensive, defensive alli- ances, etc. AUigati. A name given by the Romans to prisoners of war and their captors. A chain was attached to the right wrist of the prisoner and the left wrist of the warrior who captured him. Allobroges. A powerful race in ancient Gaul ; inhabited a part of Savoy ; van- quished by Fabius Maximus, 126 B.C. AUocutio. An oration addressed by a Roman general to his soldiers, to animate them to "fight, to appease sedition, or to keep them to their duty. Allodial. Independent; not feudal. The Allodii of the Romans were bodies of men embodied on any emergency, in a manner similar to our volunteer associations. Allonge. A pass or thrust with a rapier or small sword, frequently contracted into lunge ; also a long rein used in the exercising of horses. Allowance. A sum paid periodically for services rendered. The French use the word traitment in this sense. The allowances of an officer are distinct from his pay proper, and are applicable to a variety of circum- stances. Alloy. Is a composition by fusion of two or more metals. The alloy most used for gun-making is bronze (which see). AUumelle. A thin and slender sword which was used in the Middle Ages, to pierce the weak parts or joints of armor. Ally. In a military sense, implies any nation united to another, — under a treaty either offensive or defensive, or both. AUyghur. A strong fortress on the north- west of" India, which was captured, after a desperate conflict, by Lord Lake, in 1803. The French commander-in-chief. Gen. Per- ron, surrendered himself after the siege. Alma. A river in the Crimea, near which was fought a great battle on September 20, 1854, between the Russian and Anglo-French armies; the Russians were defeated with great loss. Almadie. A kind of military canoe or small vessel, about 24 feet long, made of the bark of a tree, and used by the negroes of Africa. Almadie is also the name of a long boat used at Calcutta, often from 80 to 100 feet long, and generally 6 or 7 broad ; they are rowed with from 10 to 30 oars. Alman-rivets, Almain-rivets, or Al- mayne-rivets. A sort of light armor de- rived from Germany, characterized by over- lapping plates which were arranged to slide on rivets, by means of which flexibility and ease of movement were promoted. Almaraz, Bridge of. In Spain, which on the 18th of May, 1812, was captured by Lord Hill, when he defeated a large French corps (V armee, which was one of the most brilliant actions of the Peninsular war. Almeida. A strong fortress of Portugal, in the province of Beira. The capture of it by the Duke of Wellington, in 1811, after it had fallen into the hands of the French, was deemed a very brilliant exploit. Almenara, or Almanara. City in Spain, in the province of Lerida, where, in 1710, Gen. Stanhope, with 4 regiments of dra- goons and 20 companies of grenadiers, de- feated a Spanish corps, composed of 4 battal- ions and 19 escadrons. Almeria. City and seaport in Andalusia, Spain; captured from the Moors in 1147, by the united troops of Alfonso VII., king of Castile, Garcias, king of Navarre, and Ray- mond, count of Barcelona. Almexial, Battle of. Between the Span- iards and Portuguese in 1663. The Portu- guese were commanded bySanctius Manuel, count of Vilaflor, and the celebrated Count Frederick von Schomberg, the latter being the veritable hero of the "day. The Portu- guese gained a great victory ; the Spanish army was commanded by Don Juan of Aus- tria, son of Philip IV. Almissa (Dalminium). City in Dalmatia, Austria ; it was the ancient capital of Dal- matia, but was ruined by Scipio Nasica in 156 B.C. Almogavares. See Catalans. Almohades. Mohammedan partisans, fol- lowers of El-Mehedi in Africa, about 1120. They subdued Morocco, 1145 ; entered Spain and took Seville, Cordova, and Granada, 1146-56 ; ruled Spain until 1232, and Africa until 1278. Almonacid-de-Zorita. A town in the province of Guadalaxara, Spain, where the French defeated the Spaniards in 1809. ALMOKA 19 AMENDE HONOKABLE Almora. City in Beiii;al, which the Eng- lisli ciipturfd in'lHl'), mid still hold. Almoravides. Muhaiiiinedun partisans in Africa, rose about 1050; entered Spain by invitation, 1086 ; were overcome by the Almohades in 1147. Alney. An island in the Severn, Glouces- tershire, England. Here a combat is asserted to have taken place between Edmund Iron- side and Canute the Great, in the sight of their armies. The latter was wounded, and proposed a division of the kingdom, the south Sart falling to Edmund. Edmund was mur- ered at Oxford shortly after, it is said, by Aodric Strcon, and Canute obtained posses- sion of the whole kingdom, 1010. Alnwick (Sax. FJiiu-ix). On the river Alne in Northumberland, England, was given at the Conquest to I vod(! Vesco. It has belonged to the I'ercios since 1310. Malcolm, king of Scotland, besieged Alnwick in 1093, where he and liis sons were killed. It was taken by David I. in 1136, and attacked in 1174, by AVilliam the Lion, who was defeated and taken prisoner. It was owned by King John in 1215, and by the Scots in 1448. Since 1854 the castle has been repaired and enlarged with great taste and at unsparing expense. Alost. A city in Belgium, captured and disTnantled by Turenne in 1067, then aban- doned to the allies after the battle of Kamil- lies, in 1700. Alps. European mountains. Those be- tween France and Italy were passed by Han- nibal, 218 H.c. ; bv the Romans, 154 B.C., and by Napoleon I., May, 1800. Alsace. See Elsass. Altenheim. A village on the banks of the Ithiiie, grand duchy of Baden, where the French under Count de Lorges fought the Imperials, July 80, 1675, neither side being victorious ; the French army retreated after the death of Turenne. Altenkirchen. A town in the Prussian Rhine province, where several battles were fought during the war of the Kcpublic, in one of which Gen. Marceau was killed, while protecting the retreat of Gen. Jourdan, September 20, i71t6. Altiscope. A device which enables a per- son to see an object in spite of intervening obstacles. In gunnery it is used to point a piece witliout exposing the person of the gunner. The simplest form consists of a small mirror set in the line of the sights, which reflects the sights and the object aimed at to the eye of the gunner. This form of reflecting sight is used with the Moncrietl' counterpoise carriage, and has been recently proposed by Col. Laidley (U. S. Ordnance Corps) for small-arms. Altitude. Height, or distance from the ground, measured upwards, and may be both acce>sible and inaccessible. Altitude of a shot or shell, is the perpendicular height of the vortex of the curve in which it moves above the horizon. Altitude of the eye, in perspective is a right line let fall from the eye, perpendicular to the geometrical plane. Alumbagh. A palace with other build- ings near Lucknow, Oude, India, taken from thrtili?d by the Turks in 1784 ; stormed and taken by the Russians in 17'J1. Anarchy. Want of government ; the state of society where there is no law or supreme power, or where the laws are not eflicient, and individuals do what they please with intpunity; political confusion ; hence, con- fusion in general. Anatha. A fort on an island of the Eu- phrates ; taken bv Julian the Apostate in 3U3. Anatolia, Nadoli, or Natolia. The mod- ern name of Asia Minor, a peninsula in the most western territory of Asia, extending northward from the Mediterranean to the Euxine, or Black Sea, and eastward from the Grecian Archipelago to the banks of the Euphrates. It is a part of the Turkish do- minions, and was in ancient times the seat of powerful kingdoms and famous cities. Anazarba, or Anazarbus. A city in Asia Minor, whore the Christians were defeated by the Saracens in 1130. Anazehs. Nomadic Arabs, who infested the desert extending from Damas to Bagdad ; they often laid under contribution the cara- vans on the way to Mecca. Ancile. In antiquity, a kind of shield, which fell, as was pretended, from heaven, in the reign of Numa Pompilius ; at which time, likewise, a voice was heard declaring that Rome would be mistress of the world as l(»ng as she should preserve this holy buckler. Ancona. An ancient Roman port on the Adriatic. In 1790 it was taken by the French ; but was retaken by the Austrians in 17*J9. It was occupied by the French in 1832; evacuated in 1838; after an insurrec- tion it was bombarded and captured bv the Austrians, June 18, 1849. The Marches (comprising this city) rebelled against the papal government in September, 1800. La- moriciere, the papal general, fled to Ancona after his defeat at Casteltidardo, but was compelled to surrender himself, the city and the garrison, on September 28. The king of Sardinia entered soon after. Ancyra. A town in ancient Galatia, now Angora, or Engour, Asia Minor. Near this city, on July 28, 1402, Timur, or Tamerlane, defeated after a three days' battle and took prisoner the sultan Bajazet, and is said to have conveyed him to Samarcand in a cage. Andabatae. In military antiquity, a kind of gladiators who fought hoodwinked, hav- ing a kind of helmet that covered the eyes and face. They fought mounted on horse- back, or on chariots. Andaman Islands. A group of small isl- ands in the Hay of Bengal, which has been used by Great Britain as a penal colony for Hindoos. The Earl of Mayo, governor-gen- eral of India, was assassinated here by a convict, Fchruary 8, 1872. Anderlecht. A town near Brussels, in Belgium, where the French under Gen. Duniouriez defeated the Austrians. Novem- ber 13, 1792. Andernach. A city in Rhenish Prussia ; near here the emperor Charles I. was totally defeated by Louis of Saxonv, ofi October 8, 87fi. Andersonville. A post-village of Sumter Co., (ja.. about 65 miles south-southwest of Macon. Here was located a Confederate mil- itary prison in which Union soldiers were coniined during the civil war. So severe was the treatment which they received hero (nearly 13,000 having died), that a general feeling of horror was excited against the superintendent, Cant. Henry AS'irz; and after the close of tnc war he was tried for inhuman treatment of the prisoners, found ANDREW 22 ANGLES guilty, and executed November, 1865. The place is now the site of a national cemetery. Andrew, St., or The Thistle, Order of. A nominally military order of knighthood in Scotland. The principal ensign of this order is a gold collar, composed of thistles interlinked with amulets of gold, having pendent thereto the image of St. Andrew with his cross and the motto, Nemo me im- pune lacessit. Andrew, St., Knights of. Is also a nomi- nal military order instituted by Peter III. of Muscovy in 1698. Andrussov, Peace of. This peace was ratified (January 30, 1667) between Russia and Poland for 13 years, with mutual con- cessions, although the latter power had been generally victorious. Anelace, or Anlace. A kind of knife or dagger worn at the girdle by civilians till about the end of the 15th century. Anemometer, or Wind-gauge. An in- strument wherewith to measure the direction and velocity of wind under its varying forces, — used in the Signal service. Aneroid Barometer. A pocket instru- ment indicating variations in atmospheric pressure. Used in military surveys to ob- tain the height of mountains. It consists of a circular metallic box, hermetically sealed, from which the air has been extracted. The play of the thin, metallic cover under atmos- pheric pressure, is made to operate a hand pointing to a scale on the dial-face. Angaria. According to ancient military writers, means a guard of soldiers posted in any place for the security of it. Angaria, in civil law, implies a service by compulsion; as, furnishing horses and carriages for con- veying corn and other stores for the army. Angeliaphori. Reconnoitring parties of the Grecian army. Angel-shot. A kind of chain-shot. See Chain-shot. Angers. Principal city of the depart- ment of Maine-et-Loire, France. It was sacked by the Normans during the 9th cen- tury ; taken and retaken several times by the Bretons, English, and French. Anghiari. A city of Tuscany, where the Florentines under Berardino Ubaldini were defeated by the Milanese general Torello, in 1425, and in 1440 the Florentine general Orsini defeated the Milanese general Picci- nino. Angle. In geometry, is the inclination of two lines meeting one another in a point, or the portion of space lying between two lines, or between two or more surfaces meeting in a common point called the ve?-- tex. Angles are of various kinds according to the lines or sides which form them. Those most frequently referred to in fortification and gunnery are : Angle, Diminished, is that formed by the exterior side and the line of defense. Angle, Flanked, or Salient, is the pro- jecting angle formed by the two faces of a bastion. Angle, Interior Flanking, is that which is formed by the meeting of the line of defense and the curtain. Angle of Arrival. The angle of arrival is the angle which the tangent to the tra- jectory at the crest of the parapet makes with the horizon. Angle of Departure, or Angle of Pro.jection, is the angle which the tangent makes with the horizontal at the muzzle. Angle of Elevation, or Angle of Fire, in gunnery, is that which the axis of the barrel makes with the horizontal line. Angle of Fall, in gunnery, is the angle made at the point of fall by the tangent to the trajectory with a horizontal line in the plane of fire. Angle of Fire, in gunnery, is the angle included between the line of fire and hori- zon ; on account of the balloting of the pro- jectile, the angle of fire is not always equal to the angle of departure, or projection. Angle of Incidence is that which the line of direction of a ray of light, ball from a gun, etc., makes at the point where it first touches the body it strikes against, with a line drawn perpendicularly to the surface of that body. Angle of Reflection is the angle inter- cepted between the line of direction of a body rebounding after it has struck against an- other body, and a perpendicular erected at the point of contact. Angle of Sight, in gunnery, is the angle included between the line of sight and line of fire. Angles of sight are divided into natural and artificial angles of sight, corre- sponding to the natural and artificial lines of sight, which inclose them. See Pointing. Angle of the Centre is the angle formed at the centre of the polygon by lines drawn thence to the points of two adjacent bas- tions. Angle of the Epaule, or Shoulder, is formed by one face and one flank of the bastion. Angle of the Face is formed by the angle of the face and the line of defense produced till they intersect each other. Angle of the Flank is that formed by the flank and curtain. Angle of the Line of Defense is that angle made by the flank and the line of de- fense. Angle of the Polygon is that formed by the meeting of two of the sides of the polygon; it is likewise called the polygon angle. Angle of the Tenaille, or Flanking Angle, is made by two lines fichant, — that is, the faces of the two bastions extended until they meet in an angle towards the cur- tain, and is that which always carries its point towards the outworks. Angle, Re-entering. An angle whose vertex points inward, or towards the place. A re-entering angle which is not defended by a flanking flre is said to be dead. Angles. An ancient German tribe from ANGLOU ANNUNCIADA which England derives its name. They oc- cupied a narrow district in the south of yieswick, whence some of them passed over in the oth century, in conjunction with other Saxon tribes, into IJritain, wliere they conquered the native IJritons, and estal>- li.siied the Anglo-Saxon Ueptarchy. See Hkptakchy. Anglou. A place in Armenia where a Persian army 4000 strong defeated and cut to pieces a Roman army of 30,0(X), in .'A'i. Angon. In ancient military history, was a kind of a dart of modern length, having an iron beaded head and cheeks ; in use about the 5th century. Tliis sort of javelin was much used by the French. The iron head of it resembled ajfeur-de-lis. Angora. See Ancyra. Angouleme. A city in the department of Charciite, France. It was ruined by the Normans during the Oth century, and de- vastated several times during the 10th cen- tury. Anguis. A flag adopted by the Eomans, which was carried at the head of a cohort (the tenth part of a Roman legion, consist- ing of GOO men) ; this flag resembled a ser- pent in shape, and was more commonly called draco. Angusticlave. A robe or tunic embroid- ered with purple studs or knobs, and with narruw purple stripes, worn by Roman knights, to distinguish them from members of the senatorian order, who wore a gar- ment with broad stripes, called laiuti claims. Anholt, Island of ( Denmark). Was taken possession of by England, May 18, 1809, in the French war, on account of Danish cruisers injuring British commerce. The Danes made an attempt to regain it with a force which exceeded 1000 men, but were gallantly re- pulsed bv the British force, not amounting to more than loO, March 27, 1811. Animate, To. In a military sense, is to encourage, to incite, to add fresh impulse to any body of men who are advancing against an enemy, or to prevent them from shame- fully abandoning their colors in critical sit- uations. Anime (Fr.). A sort of ancient cuirass, also called hrigandlne ; was used in Italy until the 17th century, under the name of anii/ia, or anlmrita. Anio (now Teverone). A river of ancient Italy, an attluent of the Tiber. On its banks tlie Romans gained two great battles over the Ciauls, one by Camillus about 367 B.C., and the other about sixty years afterwards. Aniocrater. The highest military rank of the l^acediemonians ; one who commanded ihe whole army during the absence of the king. Anippus. Name of the light cavalry of the Ciri'cians. Anisocycle. An ancient machine of a spiral form, like the spring of a watch, used for throwing arrows to a great distance. Anitorgis. A city in Spain, near which Asdrubal, general of the Carthaginians, gained a memorable battle over the Romans under Scipio and his brother Publius, in 212 ii.c. Anjou, or Beauge, Battle of. Between the English and French ; the latter com- manded by the Dauphin of France, March 22, 1421. 'The English were defeated; the Duke of Clarence was slain by Sir Allan Swinton, a Scotch knight, and loOO men terished on the field ; the Earls of Somerset, >orset, and Huntingdon were taken pris- oners. Beauge was the first battle that turned the tide of success against the Eng- Annals. A species of military' history, wherein events are related in the chronolog- ical order they happened. They ditter from a perfect history, in being only a mere re- lation of what passes every year, as a journal is of what passes every day. Annatinae. Were transport-ships (so called by Julius CiB6ar)in which were trans- ported provisions, etc., to armies and fleets. Also called Corbitce. Anneau d'Or (Z'/-.). A gold ring. In ac- cordance with the example of the ancients, Francis I. of France instituted a military recompense in the shape of an anneau, for all who distinguished themselves in any military enterprise. Annee de Corbie (Fr.). Name given to the year 16o6, when the capture of Corbie (by the Austrians), a small city of the de- partment of the Somrae, France (during the war which Richelieu had decided to under- take against the Austrian house), nearly caused the overthrow of France. Anne, St., Order of. An order of knight- hood, originally established in Holstein, and carried with the princes of that country into Russia. It was made a Russian order in 1796, and is now widely difl'used. Annihilate. To reduce to nothing; to destroy the existence of; to cause or cease to be; as, the army was annihilated. Annoy. To injure or disturb by con- tinued or repeated acts ; to incommode or molest; as, to annoj* an army by impeding their march, or by a continued cannonade. Annuity. A sum of money jiayable yearly, to continue for a given number of years, for life or forever; an annual allowance. The U. S. government furnishes annuities and annuity goods to certain tribes of Indians. Annul. To make void, or of no eti'ect; to abrogate; to rescind; — used of laws, de- cisions of courts, or other established rules, permanent usages, and the like, which are made void by competent authority. Annunciada. An order of military knighthi>od in Savoy, first instituted by Amadcus I. in the year 1400; their collar was of fifteen links, interwoven one with an- other, and the motto " F. E. R. T.," signi- fying fortltudo eju.s lihodum tenuii. Ama- deus VIII. changed the image of St. Maurice, patron of Savoy, which hung at the collar, for that of the Virgin Mary, and instead of the motto above mentioned, substituted the ANSE DES PIECES 24 ANTIETAM words of the angel's salutation. Now ex- tinct. Anse des Pieces (Fr.). A term for the handles of cannon. Those of brass have two, those of iron seldom any. These handles serve to pass cords, handspikes, or levers through, the more easily to move so heavy a body, and are made to represent dolphins, serpents, etc. Antandros (now St. Dimitri). A city of Troas, inhabited by the Leleges, near which vEneas built his fleet after the destruction of Troy. Antecessores, or Antecursores. Light cavalry of the Komans, which formed the advance-guard of an army while on the march. Antemuraille. In ancient military art, denoted what now the moderns generally call the outworks. Antepilani. Soldiers of a Roman legion who composed the first and second ranks in line of battle, and who were accordingly placed in front of the third rank. The first rank was called hastati, the second principes, and the third ^ji^«ni, or triarii. Antequera. A city in Spain, formerly fortified ; besieged and captured from the Moors by Ferdinand of Castile, September 16, 1410 ; he also defeated under the walls of this city the Moorish king of Toledo, who had an army of 100,000 men. Antesignani. A name given to the sol- diers of the Eoman army who protected the colors, etc. ; according to some authorities they were the hastati or principes, and ac- cording to others they were a select detach- ment consisting of picked soldiers. Antestature {Fr.). A small intrench- ment or work formed of palisades or sacks of earth. Anthony, St., Knights of. A military order instituted by Albert, Duke of Bavaria, Holland, and Zealand, when he designed to make war against the Turks in 1382. The knights wore a collar of gold made in the form of a hermit's girdle, from which hung a stick like a crutch, with a little bell, as they are represented in St. Anthony's pic- tures. Antibes. A city in the department of Alpes Maritimes, France. It was ruined some time after the capture of Marseilles by Caesar. This city was fortified by Francis I. and Henry IV. ; besieged without success by the Imperials in 1746. Anti-corrosion. A lacker applied to iron traversing platforms, gun-carriages, and the outside of guns. See Lacker. Antietam. A small, deep river in Mary- land, which empties into the Potomac about 6 miles above Harper's Ferry. Here was fought a terrible battle on September 17, 1862, between the Federals, under Gen. McClellan, and the Confederates, under Gen. Lee. After his victory at Bull Eun, August 30, Lee in- vaded Maryland, and was immediately fol- lowed by McClellan. On September 16, Lee was joined by Jackson. The battle on which was staked " the invasion of Mary- land," in the view of the Federal govern- ment, but in reality the sovereignty of the Union, was near at hand. On the night of the 15th the greatest part of McClellan's troops were in bivouac behind the heights on the left bank of the Antietam, sheltered from, but within range of, the enemy's bat- teries. The morning of the 16th was occu- pied in reconnoissance of the enemy's posi- tion, in rectifying the position of the Federal troops, and perfecting the arrangements for the attack. At about 3 o'clock p.m. Gen. Hooker crossed the Antietam by the bridge in the village on the Hagerstown road, and an adjacent ford, and soon gained the crest of the height on the right bank of the stream. He then turned to his left and fol- lowed down the ridge under a strong oppo- sition, until brought to a standstill by the darkness. Gen. Mansfield was ordered to follow Gen. Hooker, so as to be in a position to support him at daybreak. At daybreak on the 17th, Gen. Hooker at- tacked the forces in his front, and for a time drove them before him. The enemy, how- ever, rallying, and strengthened from their supporting columns, repulsed him. Gen. Mansfield's corps was then drawn to Hook- er's support, and the two masses repelled the enemy. Gen. Mansfield was killed and Gen. Hooker wounded at this crisis, and obliged to withdraw from the field. Gen. Sumner's corps soon reached this portion of the field and became hotly engaged. This corps suftered greatly at this period of the contest. Gens. Sedgwick and Crawford being wounded, and portions of the line were com- pelled to fall back. The enemy, however, were checked by the Federal artillery. Sum- ner's corps was soon reinforced, and the lost ground was recovered. The contest in the mean time on the right was most obsti- nate, and the losses in this part of the field were very heavy. Gen. Burnside's corps, on the left, was ordered early in the day to carry the bridge across the Antietam and to attack the enemy's right. The approaches to the bridge being in the nature of a defile, and being swept by batteries of tlie enemy, the opposite bank of the Antietam was only reached after a severe struggle. It was afternoon before the heights were in his pos- session. The enemy were driven back, and a portion of their line in disorder. By the most desperate eflTorts, however, the enemy rallied their retreating regiments, strength- ened their lines with all their available fresh troops, and opened batteries on the hills. Gen. Burnside could not maintain his advantage, and was obliged to withdraw from the extreme position which he had gained to one slightly in rear. He, however, held his bank of the river completely, and main- tained much ground beyond it which he had taken from the enemy. During the advance on the left Gen. Rodman was wounded. Notwithstanding substantial and decided ANTIOCH 25 APPARATUS successes of the day, the Federal forces had suffered so severely during the conflict, hav- ing lost 11,426 killed iind wounded, and among them many general and superior officers, that it was deemed prudent by Gen. McClellan to reorganize and give rest and refreshment to the trooj)s before renewing the attack. The 18th was accordingly de- voted to those objects. On the night of the 18th, however, Gen. Lee.withdrew his forces hastily across the Potomac, abandoning further contest with the Union forces, and yielding all hopes of further remaining on Maryland soil. The Confederate army is supposed to have lost nearly 30,000 men during its brief campaign in Maryland. The Federal forces captured 39 colors, 13 guns, mure than 15,000 small-arms, and more than fiOOO prisoners. — Extracts frotn D. Appleton's " Hi.ston/ of the Itebellion," by Teiuiey, '^ Lippincoit's Gazetteer," and Hai/c/n's ^^ Dates." Antioch. A city in Syria, built by Se- leucus 300 B.C. ; after the battle of Ipsus it acquired the name "Queen of the East." Here the disciples were first called Chris- tians, A.i>. 42. Antioch was taken by the Persians, 540; by the Saracens about 638; recovered from the Eastern emperor, 966; lost again in 1086 ; retaken by the Crusaders in 1098, and held by them till 1268, when it was captured by tlie sultan of Egypt. It was taken from the Turks in the Syrian war, Aug. 1, 1833, by Ibrahim Pasha, but re- stored at the peace. Antium. A maritime city of Latium, now Porto d'Anzio, near Kome ; after a long struggle for independence it became a Konian colony at the end of the great Latin war, 340-38 u.c. The treasures deposited in the Temple of Fortune here were taken by Octavius Cajsar during his war with Antony in 41 B.C. Antonia. A fortress in Jerusalem on the north side of the area of the temple, origi- luilly l)uilt by the Maccabees under the name of Haris, and afterwards rebuilt with groat strength and splendor by the first Herod. Tlie fortress cotninunicated with the north- ern and western porticoes of the temple area, so that the garrison could at any time enter the courts of the temple and prevent tu- mults. Josephus describes it as jstanding on a rock 50 cubits high, and having every- thing nofc>=iiry witliin itself. Antustriones. A body-guard of the kings or cliicfs of tiic ancient Germans, which was composed of volunteers. Antwerp (Fr. Anvers). The principal port of Belgium ; is mentioned in history in 517; it was pillagcnl and burnt by the Spaniards ami tlie inhabitants nnissacred, November 4. 1576. This event has been termed the ''Spanish Fury." After Marl- borough's victory at Kuiuillies, Antwerp surrendered at once, June 6, 170ti ; tlio Bar- rier treaty concluded here, November Iti, 1715 ; taken by Marshal Saxe, .May 9, 1746; occupied by tlie French, 1792-94 »\nd 1814. 3 The Belgian troops, having entered Ant- werp, werci ()pposed by the Dutch garrison, who, after a dreadful conflict, being driven into their citadel, cannonaded the town with hot shot and shells, October 27, 1830; the citadel was bonibarded by the French, De- cember 4 ; surrendered by Gen. Chasse, December 23, 1832. The exchange burnt, archives, etc., destrf)yed, August 2, 1858; fortification completed, 1865. Anvil. An archaism for the handle or hilt of a sword. Also, a little narrow flag at the end of a lance. Anvil. Th(! resisting cone, plate, or bar against which the fulminate in a metallic cartridge is exj)loded. See Pkimkk. Aosta. A town in Piedmont, which was captured by the Romans in 24 B.C. Aous, or Aeas (now the Voyussa). A river in Epirus, Greece, which flows into the Adriatic Sea ; on the banks of this river Philip of Macedon was twice defeated by the R(mians. Apaches. A warlike tribe of savage In- dians who infest New Mexico and Arizona. Until witliin a few years they were hostile, making frequent raids into the neighboring Mexican states of Sonora and Chihuahua, and robbing and murdering the settlers. They are now peaceable, and settled on reservations (with the exception of a few renegades); but being entireh' uncivilized, their peaceful condition is uncertain. See Indians and their Aoencik.s. Aparejo. A kind of pack-.saddle used in the American military service. See Pack- SADDLE.S. Apex. The tip, point, or summit of any- thing. The Romans so named the crest of a helmet, or the part whereon the horse-hair plume was attached. Aphracti. In the ancient military art, open vessels, without decks or hatches, fur- nished only at head and stern with cross- planks, whereon the men stood to fight. Apobates. A name given by the ancients to warriors who fought mounted on chari- ots; they were also called Atinhntrs, or Pa- rnehntrs ; they were generally leaders who fought in this manner ; their armor and arms consisted of helmet, breast-armor, lance, javelin, sword, and shield. These warriors occasionally alighted from the chariots to attack their adversaries on foot. Apology. In a military sense, when made and accepted, debars the officer wiio accepts from bringing forward the matter as a sub- stantive accusation. See Appendix, Arti- cles OK War, 25. Apomaque. This word, with the Gre- cians, signified those soldiers who were dis- qualified for nnlitary service from physical disability or other causes. Appaiachee Indians. A tribe of Indians once powerful in West Florida. In 17lK> a part of them removed into what is now Ala- itaina, and the tribe soon ceased to exist. Apparatus. Ammunition and equipage for war. APPAREILLES 26 AQUILA Appareilles. Are those slopes that lead to the {ilatform of the bastion. Appastis, or Pactis. A war-tax, which was levied in ancient times upon the inhab- itants of conquered countries. Appeal. See Appendix, Articles of War, '29, 30. Appel (Fr.). A smart stroke with the blade by a fencer on the sword of his antag- onist on the opposite side to that which he engaged, generally accompanied with a stamp of the foot, and used for the purpose of procuring an opening. Appian Way. A Roman road, made by Apjiius Claudius Csecus, while censor, 312 B.C. Appointe (Fr.). This word was applica- ble to French soldiers only, during the old monarchy of France, and meant a man who fur his service and extraordinary bravery received more than common pay. There were likewise instances in which ofRcers were distinguished by being styled officers appointes. Appointing Power. It has been con- tended by advocates of executive discretion, that army appointments are embraced in the power granted to the President in the 2d section of the Constitution, to nominate, and, by arid with the advice and con.sent of the Senate, appoint "all other officers of the United States, whose appointments are not herein otherwise provided for, and which may be established by law. But the Congress may, by law, vest the appointment of such infe- rior officers as they think proper in the President alone, in the courts of law, or in the heads of departments." If due regard, however, be paid to the words " whose ap- pointments are not herein otherwise provided for," the pretension set up in favor of execu- tive power will receive no support from the terms of the Constitution. The powers granted to Congress to raise and support ar- mies, and to make all 7-ules for tha government and regulation of the land and naval forces, are necessarily so comprehensive in character, as to embrace all means which Congress, ac- cording to circumstances, may deem proper and necessary in order to raise armies, or govern them when raised. Kules of appoint- ment to office, rules of promotion, — another form of appointment, — and all rules what- ever in relation to the land and naval forces, save the appointment of the commander-in- chief of those united forces, who is desig- nated by the Constitution, are hence within the competency of Congress. Appointment. Office, rank, or employ- ment. Appointment. The equipment, ordnance, furniiure, and necessaries of an army. Appointments, Military. The accoutre- ments of an officer. Appointon {Fr.). A sort of poniard which w;is used in ancient times. Apprehend. In a military sense, implies the seizing or confining of any person ; as, to apprehend a deserter, etc. Apprenti (Fr.). Apprentice. Formerly in the French service they had apprentices or soldiers among the artillery, who served for less pay than the regular artillerymen, until they became perfect in their profes- sion, when they were admitted to such vacancies as occurred in their respective branches. Approach. The route by which a forti- fied place or military position can be ap- proached by an attacking force. Approaches. The trenches or covered roads by which the besiegers convey ord- nance, ammunition, and stores, and march troops to and from the parallels ; also the trenches by means of which the successive parallels are established. Appropriations. For the support of the U. S. army are made annually ; the bill for the same must originate in the lower house of Congress. The English army is raised by the queen, and maintained by annual appropriations by Parliament ; the system for the support of armies is much tiie same throughout Europe. In the United States, the term is also used by post and regimental councils of administration in the exjienditure of funds. Appui. See Point d'Appui. Apri, or Apros. A small town in Thrace, on the river Melas, where the daring leader of the Catalonians, Berengar de Kocafort, defeated the Greeks under the Emperor Michael, 1307. Apron. A piece of sheet-lead used to cover the vent of a cannon. Apulia. A province in Southeast Italy, conquered by the Normans, whose leader, Guiscard, received the title of Duke of Apulia from Pope Nicholas II. in 1059. After many changes of masters, it was ab- sorbed into the kingdom of Naples in 12(35. Aqueduct. A channel to convey water from one place to another. Aqueducts in military' architecture are generally made to bring water from a spring or river to a fort- ress, etc. ; they are likewise used to carry canals over low ground, and over brooks or small rivers ; they are built with arches like a bridge, only not so wide, and are covered by an arch, to prevent dust or dirt from being thrown into the water, — there are also subterranean aqueducts, such as pipes of wood, lead, or iron. Aquila (Southern Italy). Near here the Aragonese, under the condottiere Braccio Fortebraccio, were defeated by the allied Papal, Neapolitan, and Milanese army under Jacob Cald(jra, June 2, 1424. Braccio, a wounded prisoner, refused to take food, and died, June 5. Aquila. The principal standard of a Ro- man legion. The standard of Komulus is said to have consisted of a handful of hay, straw, or fern, affixed to a pole or spear; whence the company of soldiers who served under it v/ -as caWed Manipulus. This primi- tive standard was soon superseded by the AQUILIFER 27 AliCH-GAYE figures of animals. In 104 b c. the eagle was jiernianently tidopted ; it was made of silver or bronze, and was represented with exparulfd wings. Aquilifer. A name given by the Romans to the ofiicers who carried the eagles of the legions. Aquitaine. A province in the southwest of France ; conquered by the liomans in 'J8 u.<;. ; by the Visigoths, 418; taken from them by Clovis in 507. Henry 11. of Eng- land obtained it with his wile Eleanor, 1152. It wa.s erected into a principality for Edward the Blaik Prince in 13(;2; but was annexed to France in 1370. The title of duke of Aquitaine was taken by the crown of Eng- land on the conquest of this duchy by Henry V. in 1418. Tlie province was lost in the reign of Henry V'l. Arabia. A "tract of land in Western Asia ; the terms Petraa (stony ), Fe/i.c (happy), and Desfrt'i arc .«aid to have been applied to its divisions by Ptolemy, about 140. Arabia was unsuccessfully invaded by Gallus, the lloman governor of Egypt, 24 n.c. In 622, the Arabians under tlie name of Saracens (which see), followers of Mohammed, their general and prophet, commenced their course of conquest. The Arabs greatly fa- vored literature and the sciences, especially mathematics, astroniMuy, and chemistry. To tliem we owe our ordinary (Arabic) nu- merals and ariilimetii al notation. Aracillum. A city in Spain. The Can- tabriaiis being besieged in this city by the Komans, killed each other rather than sur- render. Aradus (now Rund). A city of Phoe- nicia ; laptured by the lioman general Ven- tidius, 38 B.C. Aragon. Part of the Roman Tarracon- ensis, a kingdom. Northeast ."^pain, was con- queied by the Carthaginians, who were expelled by the Konums about 200 u.c. It became an independent monarchy in 1035. Aranjuez (Central Spain). Contains a fine royal palace, at which several important j treaties were concluded. On March 17, \ 1808, an insurrection broke out here against Cbarles IV. and his favorite, Godoy, the I'rince of Pence. The former was compelled to abdicate in favor of his son, Ferdinand VII., March 19. Aransas. A small river of Texas, which empties into a bay of the same name, imme- diately north of Corpus C hristi Hay. The Conlederate works near this jilace were cap- tured by the Federal troops November 20, 18»;4. Arapahoe Indians. A tribe of Indians assotiaud with tlie C heyennes. who inhabit the country between the South Fork of the Platte Kiver and the head-waters of the Ar- kansas. See Indians and theib Aoen- CIKS. Arapiles. A village of Spain, 4 miles southeast of Salamanca. It was the scene of the sanguinary engagement called the battle of Salamanca, in which the allies under "Wellington defeated the French under Marmont, July 22, 1812. Arausio (now Oratuje, Southeast France). Through jealousy c>f the Roman proconsul Q. Servilius Ca-pio, who would not wait for the arrival of the army of the consul 0. Manlius, both were here defeated by the Cinibri with much slaughter, 105 u.c. Arbalest. In the ancient art of war, a cross-bow made of steel, set in a shaft of wood, with a string and trigger, bent with a piece of iron fitted for that purpose, and used to throw bullets, large arrows, darts, etc. Arbalestina. In the military system of the Middle Ages, was a small window or wicket through which the cross-bow men shot their quarrels or arrows at an enemy besieging a fortiticd pla<('. Arbaletrier d'une Galere {Fr.). That part of a galley where the cross-bow men were placed during an engagement. Arbalist, or Arblast. A cros.s-bow man. Arbela(now A'/-6i7). A city in Asiatic Tur- key ; near here was fought the third and deci- sive battle between Alexander the Great and Darius Codomanus which decided the fate of Persia, October 1, 331 B.C., on a plain in Assyria, between Arbela and Gaugamela. The" army of Darius consisted of 1,000,000 foot and 40,000 horse ; the Macedonian army amounted to only 40,000 foot and 7000 horse. The gold and silver found in the cities of Susa, Persepolis, and Babylon, which fell to Alexander from this victory, amounted to £30,000,000 sterling; and 'the jewels and other precious sjioil belonging to Darius sufficed to load 20,000 mules and 555o camels. Arbourg. A city in Switzerland, whose citadel, which was constructed in lOGO, is an important depot for military stores. Arbrier {Fr.). Stock of a cross-bow. Arc (/'>.). A bow ; an arch in building. Arc a Jalet (Fr.). A small cross-bow, used to throw bullets, etc. Arc, Elevating. In gunnery, is an arc attached to the base of the breech parallel to the ratchets and graduated into degrees and parts of a degree. A pointer attacJied to the fulcrum points to the zero of the scale when the axis of the piece is horizontal. Eleva- tions and depressions are indicated by the scale. Besides the graduations on the arc, the ranges (in yards) and the charges for shot and shells are given. Arch. In military architecture, is a vault or concave building, in form of a curve, erected to support some heavy structure, or passage. Archers. In military history, a kind of militia or soldiery, armed with bows and arrows. They were much used in former times. Archery. The use of the bow and arrow ; the practice, art, or skill of archers ; the art of shooting with a bow and arrow. Arch-gaye, or Lance-gaye (Fr.). A AKCHITONNERRE 28 ARKANSAS lance used by the Gauls and Franks, which consisted of a sharp-pointed piece of iron attached to a light wooden handle. Architonnerre {Fr.). A machine made of copper, which threw iron bullets with great force and noise; it was used in an- cient times, being an invention of Archim- edes. Architrave. The master-beam, or chief supporter, in any part of subterraneous fortification. Arch, Triumphal. In military history, is a stately monument or erection, generally of a semicircular form, adorned with sculpture, inscriptions, etc., in honor of those heroes who have deserved a triumph. Arcis-sur-Aube. A small town in the French department of Aube ; here a battle took place on March 20, 1814, between Na- poleon and the allied forces under Prince Schwartzenbcrg. The battle, beginning with several skirmishes on the first day, and end- ing in a general engagement on the second day, when the French retreated over the Aube, was not in itself very important. But Napoleon now formed the plan of oper- ating in the rear of the allies, and left the road to Paris open; assuming that they would not venture to proceed without at- tempting first to secure their rear. The allies marched, nevertheless, on the capital, and thus decided the campaign. Arco. A metal composed of 70 parts of pure copper, 27 of zinc, and 3 of lead ; used for the brass-work of small-arms. Areola (Lombardy). The site of battles between the French under Bonaparte, and the Austrians under Field-Marshal Alvinzi, fought November 15-17, 1796. The Austri- ans^lost 18,000 men in killed, wounded, and prisoners, 4 flags, and 18 guns. The French lost about 15,000, and became masters of Italy. Arcot (East Indies). This city (founded 1716) was taken by Col. Clive August 31, 1751 ; was retaken, but again surrendered to Gol. Coote, February 10, 1760; besieged and taken by Hyder Ali, when the British under Col. Baillie suffered severe defeat, October 31, 1780. Arcot has been subject to Great Britain since 1801. Arcubalist. See Akbalest. Ardalion. A river in Algeria. On the banks of this river in 398, Mascezil, a Ro- man genera], defeated Gildo, a Moorish chieftain, then in rebellion against Rome. Ardebil. A city in Persia ; its citadel was constructed by French officers ; captured by the Turks in 1827. Ardres. A city in the department of Pas- de-Calais, France^ it was dismantled in 1850. This city was captured by the Duke of Bur- gundy, brother of Charles V., from the Eng- lish in 1377; a treaty was concluded here between Francis I. of France and Henry VIII. of England June 7, 1546; captured by the Spaniards in 1596 ; returned to France in 1598. Area. In a military sense, is the superfi- cial contents of any rampart or other work of a fortification. Areoscope. An instrument used for ana- lyzing tlic air of rooms; used in English medical corps. Ares. Tlie god of war in Greek mythol- ogy, corresponding to the Roman Mars (which see). Argaum. A village in the Deccan, near to which Gen. Wellesley (afterwards Duke of Wellington) totally defeated the army of Dawlut Rao Scindia in October, 1803. Argelinos, or Algerinos. The Spaniards so named the foreign legion, which was sent to them from Algiers by France, during the reign of Louis Philippe. Argent. This word means silver in French, and is always used in heraldry to designate that metal. In engraving English shields the part designated as argent is left white. Argentaria (now Colmar, Northern France). Where the Roman Emperor Gra-' tian totally defeated the Alemanni and secured the peace of Gaul, 378. Argentine Republic. Formerly the Con- federation of La Plata, a South American federal republic, consisting of 14 provinces extending over an immense area of country. Buenos Ayres, one of its provinces, with the city of the same name, now the capital, seceded from the confederation in 1853, and was reunited in 1860. The country is re- markable chiefly for its internecine wars, revolutions, and struggles, incident to all the countries colonized by the Spanish race. See Buenos Ayres. Argives. The inhabitants of Argos, a state of ancient Greece of which Mycenae was the capital, and which was ruled by Agamemnon at the time of the Trojan war. The name is frequently used by Homer to signify the whole body of the Greeks. Argos (now Pnnitza). An ancient city of Greece; near here, in 272 B.C., Antigonus Gonatas, king of Macedon, defeated the army of Pyrrhus, king of Epirus ; the latter was killed. Argoulet {Fr.). An ancient dragoon. Also an inferior sort of a musket made at Liege for trading with the negroes. Arich (anc. Rhinocolura). A fortress in Lower Egypt. The French occupied this place in 1793, but were obliged to surrender it in 1800. Aries {Laf. " a ram"). An ancient bat- tering-ram. See Battering-kam. Arizona. A Territory of the United States, originally part of New Mexico, organized February, 1863. For many years known for its Indian hostilities, and conflicts be- tween the Indians and U. S. troops ; also for frequent terrible massacres of whites. Arkansas. One of the Southwestern States of the Union. It was settled by the French in 1685, and formed a part of the great tract purchased from the French in 1803 under the name of Louisiana Territory. It was organized as a Territory in 1819, and ad- ARKANSAS INDIANS 29 ARMISTICE mitted as a State in 1836. Arkansas passed an ordinance of secession Murcli 4, 1801 ; was the scene of several ent^afjements dur- ing the civil war, and sufierod its share of the hardships of that eventful period. The battles of Tea Itidije and Fayetteville were fouglit in its territory ; Arkansas Post was captured in 18*33; and Helena and Little Rook were taken the same year. Arkansas Indians. A trihe of Indians allied to tile Dakiitas, who formerly resided on the Ohio. At |)reseiit they numher about 2(K), and live in the Indian Territory. Arkansas Post. A village in Arkansas, on the Arkansas Kiver, aboiit 40 miles from its mouth, garrisoned hy the Confederates during tlie civil war. The combined forces of Admiral Porter and Gen. McClernand made an attack upon the place January 11, 1803, and carried it by storm. Arklow. A town in Ireland, where a bat- tle was fought between the insurgent Irish, amounting to 31,000, and a small regular force of IJritish, which signally defeated them, June 10, 1798. Aries. A city in the department Mouths- of-the-Khone, France; said to have been founded 2000 ii.c. ; was formerly a powerful Roman city ; sustained four memorable sieges against the Visigoths, in 42"), 420, 4')2, and 457; besieged by Clovis I., king of the Franks, 508. The Count of Barcelona took posses- sion of it in 115G, and Alfonso 11., king of Aragon, in 1107. Arlon. A town in the province of Lux- embourg, Belgium. Here the French, com- manded by Jourdan, defeated the Austrians in April, 17'J3, and again in April, 1794. Arm. In a military sense, signifies a f)articular species of troops, — thus the artil- ery is an arm, and the cavalry, and infantry, etc., are each called an arm of the service. The word is also used to denote an instru- ment of warfare ; a weapon of offense or defense. Arm. To be provided with arms, weapons, or means of attack or resistance ; to take arms. Armament. A body of forces equipped for war ; — used as a land force. All arrange- ments made for the defense of a fortification with musketry and artillery. Armamentary. An armory ; a magazine or arsoiial. Arm a Shot, To. Is to roll rope-yarns about a cross-bar shot in order to facilitate ramming it hon>e, and also to prevent the ends catching anv accidental inequalities in the bore. Armatoles. A Grecian militia of Thes- saly, instituted by Selim I. at the beginning of "the 10th centiiry, to ojipose the raids of the mountaineers called klrp/ife.i,or brigands. Later the Armatoles and Klephtes united against the Turks. Armatura. In ancient military history signified the fixed and established military exercises of the Romans. Under this word is understood the throwing of the spear. javelin, shooting with bows and arrows, etc. Armatura was also an appellation given to the soldiers who were light-armed ; and was a name also given to the soldiers in the emperor's retinue. Armature. Armor; whatever is worn or used for the protection and defense of the body. Arm-chest. A portable locker for hold- ing arms, and affording a ready supply of pistols, muskets, or other weapons. Also used in the military service for the trans- portation of rifles, revolvers, etc. Arme Courtoise (/•>.). This arm was used in tilts or tournaments during the Middle Ages; it was a kind of sword with a ring or knob placed at the tip of the blade to prevent it causing a dangerous wound. Armed. Furnished with weapons of of- fense or defense ; furnished with the means of security or protection ; furnished with whatever serves to add strength, force, or efficiency. Armed neutrality, the ccmdition of affairs when a nation assumes a threaten- ing position, and maintains an armdd force to repel any aggression on the part of bel- ligerent nations between which it is neutral. Armentiers. A city of the department of the North, F'rame ; captured and burned by the English, 1339 ; pillaged by the French, 1382; destroyed by the Calvinists in ir>00; occupied by Marshals de Gassion and de Kantzan, 1045; by Archduke Leopold, 1047 ; by the French in 1007, and remained a city of France in accordance with the peace treaty of Aix-la-C'hapelle in 1008. Armes de Jet (/■>.). Missive weapons; offensive arms or instruments wliich act by propulsion, whether by the force of powder, steam, wind, or mechanism. Armet {/•>.). A helmet or head-piece much in use in the 10th century, and worn with or without the beaver. Armgaunt. Worn by military service ; as, an armgaunt steed. Armiger. Formerly an armor-bearer, as of a knight; an esquire who bore his shield and rendered other services. In later use, one next in degree to a knight, and entitled to a coat of arms. Armilausa. A military uniform coat, worn by the Romans over their armor. Armiludia. A name given b\- the Romans to tlu! exercises of arms, and also applied to the day on which these e.\ercises took place. Armilustrium. This name was given by the Romans to a military fe.stival which took place on the 19th of October annually. Af- ter review the soldiers otlered up sacrifices for the success of the RonMn arms. Armipotent. Powerful in arms; mighty in battle. Armisonous. Rustling in arms ; resound- ing with arms. Armistice. A cessation of hostilities be- tween belligerent nations ior a considerable time. It is either partial and K>cal, or gen- eral. It dirt'ers from a mere suspension of AKMLESS 30 ARMSTRONG GUN arms, which takes place to enable the two armies to bury their dead, their chiefs to hold conferences or pourparlers, and the like. The terms truce (see Truce) and armistice are sometimes used in the same sense. Armless. Without arms or armor. Armlet. The name of a piece of armor for the arm, to protect it from the jar of the bow-string. Armor. Defensive arms for the body ; any clothing or covering worn to protect one's person in battle. In English statutes, armor is used for the whole apparatus of war, including offensive as well as defensive arms. The statutes of armor directed what arms every man should provide. Armor has also been extensively used in England in plating important fortifications as those of Portsmouth, and also in Germany for the forts along the frontier. Armor-bearer. One who carries the armor of another; an armiger ; an esquire. Arm9rer. The person who makes, cleans, or repairs arms. Armorial. Belonging to armor, or to the arms or escutcheon of a family. Armor Plates. From experiments of the effects of shot and shell on armor plates in England, the following results have been obtained: Where it is required to perforate the plate, the projectile should be of hard material, such as steel, or chilled iron, and the form best suited for this purpose is the pointed ogeeval. The resistance of wrought- iron plates to perforation by steel projectiles varies as the squares of their thickness. Hit- ting a plate at an angle diminishes the elfect as regards the power of perforation in the proportion of the sine of the angle of inci- dence to unity. The resistance of wrought- iron plates to perforation by steel shot is practically not much, if at all, increased by backing simply of wood, within the usual limits of thickness ; it is, however, much in- creased by a rigid backing either of iron combined with wood, or of granite, iron, brick, etc. Till quite recently armor plates have been made of wrought iron only, as numerous ex- periments in England had served to show that notwithstanding the enormous resist- ance of steel to penetration it was unfit for armor plating, — the damage from the impact .of shot not being localized as in wrought iron. The Italians were led, however, by the experiments with the 100-ton gun on targets of both metals at Spezzia, 1876, to adopt steel for their new ships, the " Duilio"' and " Dandolo." Since that time an armor compounded of ?leel and wrought iron has been introduced in England which bids fair to supersede all others. It is made by cast- ing a heavy facing of steel upon wrought- iron plates. A section of this compound armor exhibits a gradual change of struc- ture from the hard steel face to the soft iron backing. Its resistance to penetration is equal to steel, while in toughness and endur- ance under the blows of shot it resembles wrought iron. To glance at some of the heaviest armor plating afloat, the English " Inflexible" carries a maximum thickness of 24 inches of iron, the Italian frigates mentioned above 21.5 of steel, the French "Admiral Du- perre" 21.6 of 'mm, the Ru.ssian " Peter the Great" 14 inches of iron. In regard to the power of some of the most noted of modern guns, the 12-inch calibres used now by all leading nations will penetrate, at 1000 vards, 16 to 18 inches of iron. The 38-ton English gun of this calibre has penetrated fat shorter range) 22 inches' of iron and 6 inches of teak backing. The 80-ton Woolwich gun will penetrate 23 inches of iron at 1000 yards. The largest Krupp, 72 tons, will penetrate 26 inches, and the 100-ton Armstrong 30 inches at the same distance. None of the guns mentioned would penetrate at a single shot the steel armor of the Italian ships, but any of them would destroy it in a number of rounds. Armory. A manufactory, or place of de- posit for arms. See Arsenal. Armory, National. The U. S. govern- ment establishment for the manufacture of small-arms at Springfield, Mass. Arm-rack. A frame or fitting for the stowage of arms (usually vertical) out of harm's way, but in readiness for immediate use. In the conveyance of troops by sea arm-racks form a part of the proper accom- modation. Arm-racks are also used in sol- diers' barrack-rooms. Arms. In a general sense, comprehend weapons both of an offensive and defensive character, but in the usual restricted sense they only embrace the former, and in mod- ern warfare include the gun and bayonet, the rifle, the pistol, the carbine, the sword, the lance, cannon, etc., all of which are noticed under their respective heads. For punishment inflicted upon soldiers who sell or otherwise dispose of their arm's, see Ap- pendix, Articles of War, 17. Arms. This term is used in heraldrj' to designate the devices borne on shields, and includes all the accompaniments, such as the crest, helmet, supporters, etc. Arms, Bells of. Are tents, used in the English service, mostly of a conical shape, for containing the small-arms for each com- pany in a regiment of infantry. The tent is frequently painted with the color of the facings of the regimental uniforms. Arms, Stand of. A complete set for one soldier, as a rifle and bayonet, cartridge-box and belt, frequently the rifle and bayonet alone. Armstrong Gun. The Armstrong gun as a breech-loading field-piece first attracted attention in England about 1850. About 1858 it was adopted by the British govern- ment. This gun was made of wrought iron, and consisted of a single coiled tube rein- forced at the breech with two thin tubes, the outer one being a coiled tube, the inner ARMSTRONG PROJECTILE 31 ARRACAN heinir formed by bending a pbite and weld- ing ihi' edges. Tbe coiled tuJ)es were formed by bending square burs of iron around a mandrel and welding the coils together. Tubes made in this way ofl'cir great resist- ance to tangei\tial strains. The intermediate tube was designed to take up the longi- tudinal strain near the breech, and for this reason was made differently. The breech was closed with a vent-piece, slipjjcd by the hand into a slot cut in the piece near the breech, and hold in its place by a breech- screw, which supported it from behind. This screw was made in the form of a tube, so that its hollow formed a part of the bore prolonged, when the vent-piece was drawn. Through the hollow screw the charge was passed into the chamber. The vent was formed in the breech-piece. This gun was a ;5-inch 12-pounder, firing a lead-coated pro- jectile. It was followed by the 40-pounder, 110-pounder, and otlicr calibres. Muzzle- loaders were also made. The breech-load- ing apparatus did not prove entirely success- ful in large guns, and was accordingly dis- carded except for small calibres. The method of construction was changed f(jr larger guns, and a plan adopted which has been adhered to ever since, and is that now used. The barrel or part surrounding the bore is made of steel tempered in oil ; that portion at and in rear of the trunnions is enveloped by sev- eral layers of wrought-iron tubes, the num- ber of layers depending upon the size of the gun. These tubes, instead of being joined at their ends by welding, are hooked on to each other by a system of shoulders and recesses. There are also projections fitting into corresponding recesses, which servo to prevent the tubes from slipping within each other. The tube which immediately sur- rounds the barrel opposite to the seat of the charge is called the breech-piece. It is made with its fibres and welds running lon- gitudinally, so as to resist the recoil of the barrel against the head of the breech-plug, which is screwed into the breech-piece. The shunt system of rifling was first a)>plied to muzzle-loading Armstrongguns, which have fewer grooves than the breech-loaders. The method of manufacturing originally pro- posed by Sir William Armstrong has been greatly modilied by Mr. Eraser, of the Royal Arsenal, Woolwich. (See Okdxanck, Akm- STRONo CA^■^■o^•). For some years largo numbers of Armstrong guns were made at the Royal Arsenal, Woolwich, under the supervision of the inventor. His works are now located at Klswick, Newcastle-upon- Tyne, and are known as the Klswick Ord- nance Works. To distinguish the system of gun-constructjon from the "Woolwich," which it closely resembles, it is frequently called the " Klswick' system. The largest, as well as the most jwwerful guns ever nuule, are the lOO-ton guns manufactured nt Kls- wick for the Italian navy. See Cannon AND Okdnanck, Modkkx History ok. Armstrong Projectile. See Projectilk. Army. A large and organized body of sftldiers, consisting of infantry, cavalry, and artillery, completely armed, and ]irovided with the necessary stores, etc., the whole being compo.sed of companies, battalions, n-giments, brigades, divisions, and corps, under proper officers, and the entire force being under the direction of one general, who is called the general-in-chief, and some- times ihe ffrnrralissinif). Armies are distin- guished by different appellations; as, &corer- iriff army, a bluckndlnrf army, an army of ob- sf ruction, an army of rename, afying army, etc. An army is said to cover a place when it is encamped or in cantonments for the protection of the different passes which lead to a principal object of defense. An army is said to blorknde. a place when, being well provided with heavy ordnance and other warlike means, it is em])loyed to invest a town for the direct and immediate purpose of reducing it by assault or famine. An army of obstruction is so called because by its advanced positions and desultory move- ments it is constantly employed in watching the enemy. A fyivf] army means a strong body of horse and foot, which is always in motion, both to cover its own garrisons and keep the enemy in continual alarm. For method of providing for armies, sec Appro- PKIATIONS. Army Corps. See Corps d'Armke. Army Regulations. This is the name of a work jmbli-hed by the War Department embodying all thi; acts of Congress, and the rules laid down by the President for the management of the army, both in peace and war. See Rkoui-ation.s. Arnaouts, or Arnouts, Corps des. ^lil- itia of Greece organized during the war of Russia against the Porte iii 17»i'.>. Arnheim. A fi)rtified city in Holland ; it was captured by the French in 1072; taken bv storm by the Prussians under Gen. Von Hiilnw in IKl.j. Arnott's Pump. An ingeniously arranged machine fur forcing jnire air into buildings. Arquebusade. Shot of an arquebuse. Also distilled water from a variety of aro- matic plants, as rosemary, millefoil, etc., applied to a bruise or yound ; so called be- cause it was originally used as a vulnerary in gunshot wounds. Arquebuse, <>r Harquebuse. An old fire- arm resembling a musket, which was suj- ported on a rest by a hook of iron fastened to the barrel. It was longer than a mus- ket, and of large calibre, and formerly used to fire through the loop-holes of antique for- tifications. Arquebusier. A soldier armed with an arquebuse. Arques (Northern France). Near here the league army, commanded by the Ducde Mayenne, was defeated by Henry IV., Sep- tem'ber 21, l.')89. Arracan. A province of Northeast In- dia. Arracan, the capital, taken by tbe Burmese, 1783; was taken from them bjt AKRAH 32 ARTIFICE Gen. Morrison, April 1, 1825. The sub- jugation of the whole province soon fol- lowed. Arrah. A town in British India, in the presidency of Bengal, the scene of several exciting incidents in the Indian mutiny. The English troops gained a victory here over themutinous Sepoys in 1857. Arras (Northeast France). The ancient Atrebates ; conquered by Ca?sar in 50 B.C. ; captured and sacked by the Vandals in 407; captured by the Normans in 880 ; besieged by Charles VI. in 1414; captured bv Louis XI. ; held by the Austrians from 1493 till 1640, when it was taken by Louis XIII. ; besieged by the Spaniards in 1654. Arrawak Indians. A race or collection of tribes of Indians in Guiana, who were formerly numerous and powerful. Array. Order; disposition in regular lines ; hence, a posture for fighting ; as, drawn up in battle array. Arrayer. In some early English statutes, an ofBcer who had care of the soldiers' ar- mor, and who saw them duly accoutred. Arrest. The temporary confinement of officers in barracks, quarters, orients, pend- ing trial by court-martial, or the considera- tion of their imputed offenses previous to deciding whether they shall or shall not be tried. (See Appendix, Articles of War, 65.) Private soldiers are usually placed un- der guard ; by the custom of the service non-commissioned officers may be simply placed in arrest in quarters. Arrest {Old Fr., now ai-j-et). A French phrase, similar in its import to the Latin word retinaculum ; it consisted of a small piece of steel or iron, which was formerly used in tlie construction of fire-arms, to pre- vent the piece from going oft'. A familiar phrase among military men in France is, Ce pistolet est en arret , " this pistol is in arrest or is stopped." Arreste of the Glacis. Is the junction of the talus which is formed at all the an- gles. Arretium. A city of the Gauls, now in the department of the Yonne, France, where the Gauls defeated the Romans in a bloody battle in 284 B.C. Arrow. In fortification, a work placed at the salient angles of the glacis, communi- cating with the covert way. Arrow. A missile weapon of defense, straight, slender, pointed, and barbed, to be shot with a bow. Arrow-head. The head of an arrow. Arrow-wood. A species of Viburnum, from the long straight stems of which the Indians dwelling between the Mississippi and the Pacific make their arrows. Arrowy. Consisting of arrows. Arroyo del Molinos. A small town in Estremadura, Spain, near the river Guad- iana, where Lord Hill, on the 28th of Oc- tober, 1811, surprisedand defeated the French under Gen. Gerard. Nearly 1500 prisoners were taken, including Prince d'Aremburg, Gen. Brun, one colonel, two lieutenant- colonels, a commissaire de guerre, and no less than 30 captains and inferior officers. It was altogether a most brilliant achieve- ment. Arsenal. A public establishment for the storage or for the manufacture and storage of arms and all military equipments, whether for land or naval service. In the United States there are 17 arsenals and 1 armory (Springfield, Mass.), situated at diflferent points throughout the whole country conve- nient for the distribution of materiel^ as fol- lows : Alleghany arsenal, at Pittsburg, Pa. ; at Augusta, Ga. ; Benicia, Cal. ; Fort Mon- roe, Va. ; Fort Union, N. M. ; Frankford arsenal, Philadelphia, Pa.; Indianapolis, Ind. ; Kennebec arsenal, Augusta, Me. ; New York; Pikesville, Md. ; Rock Island, 111. ; Jefterson Barracks, Mo. ; San An- tonio, Texas ; Vancouver, W. T. ; Wash- ington, D. C. ; Watertown, Mass.; and Watervliet arsenal, West Troy, N. Y. Arsouf (Syria). At a battle here Rich- ard I. of England, commanding the Chris- tian forces, reduced to 30,000, defeated Saladin's army of 300,000 and other in- fidels on September 6, 1191. Ascalon sur- rendered, and Richard marched to Jerusa- lem, 1192. Art, Military. Military art may be di- vided into two principal branches. The first branch relates to the order and arrangement which must be observed in the management of an army, when it is to engage an enemy, to march, or to be encamped. This branch is called tactics. The same appellation be- longs to the other branch of military art, which also includes the composition and ap- plication of warlike' machines. See Logis- tics, Strategy, Stratagem, Tactics, and War. Arta, or Narda. A town in Albania. The Greek insurgents again.st the Porte were defeated here, July 16,^1822. Artaxata. The ancient capital of Ar- menia ; burned by the Roman general Car- bulo, about 59. Artemisium. A promontory in Euboea, near which indecisive conflicts took place between the Greek and Persian fleets for three days, 480 b.c. The former retired on hearing of the battle of Thermopylffi. Articles of War. Are known rules and regulations, fixed by law, for the better gov- ernment of an army. The articles of war of the United States consists of 128 articles. (See Appendix, Articles of War.) All that relates to the army not comprehended therein is published in general orders or in established regulations, issued from time to time from the War Department, copies of which are furnished and read to the troops. In England they may be altered and enlarged at the pleasure of the sovereign, but must be annually confirmed by Parliament under the Mutiny Act. Artifice. Among the French, is under- stood as comprehending everything which ARTIFICER 33 ASHANTEES enters the composition of lire- works, as the sulithiir, saltpetre, charcoal, etc. See Py- ROTKCHNICS. Artificer. One who miikes fire-work?, or •work.s in the artillery laboratory, and pre- pares the shells, fuzes, grenades, etc. It is also applied to military mechanics, such as carpenters, blacksmiths, masons, etc. Artificial Line of Sight. Is the right line from the eye to the object to be hit, passing through the front and rear sights. See PoiXTiNo. Artillery. In a general sense, signifies all sorts of great guns or cannon, mortars, howit/.fTs, petards, and the like, together with all the apparatus and stores thereto be- longing, which are not only taken into the field, but likewise to sieges, and made use of both to attack and defend fortified places; also the (itt]iiit((l his successor, August 24, 18.). Hatons or canes with iron at both ends. They were carried by the Estradiots, or Albanian cavaliers, who served in France under Charles VIII. and Louis XII. Asapes. An inferior class of Turkish soldiers employed in sieges to work in in- trenchments and perform other pitmeer duty. Asaraouas. A tribe in Algeria against whom the French undertook an expedition in 1837. Ascalon (Syria). A city of the Philis- tines which shared the fate of Plnenicia and Judea. The Egyptian army was defeated here by the Crusaders under Gi>dl'rey of Bouillon, August 12, lOlV.t ; it was besieged by the latter in 1148, taken in 1153, and again in llltl. Its fortifications were de- stroyed through fear of the Crusaders, by the "sultan, in 1270. Aschaffenburg. On the Maine, Bavaria, Southwestern (Jermany ; here, op July 14, 18tit'., the Prussians defeated the German I'ederal army, captured the town, and took 20(X) prisoners. Asculum (now Asml!^ Apulia, Southern Italy). Near it Pyrrhus of Epirus defeated the Romans 270 n.c. Asculum, a city of the Piceni, with all their country, was conquered by the Consul Sempronius 2f>8 ».r. Andrea, general of the Emperor Henry VI.. en- deavoring to wrest Naples from Tancred, was deteated and slain in 1190. Ashantees. Warlike negroes of West ASHBURTON TREATY 34 ASSAULT Africa. In 1807 they conquered Fantee, in which the British settlement of Cape Coast Castle is situated. On the death of their king, who had been friendl}- to the English, hostilities began; and on January 21, 1824, the Ashantees defeated about 1000 British under Sir Charles McCarthy at Accra, and brought away his skull with others as tro- phies. They were totally defeated August 27, 1826, by Col. Pardon. The governor of Cape Coast Castle began a war with them in the spring of 1803 ; but the British troops suffered much through disease, and the war was suspended by the government in Mav, 1864. Ashburton Treaty. Concluded at "Wash- ington, August 9, 1842, by Alexander, Lord Ashburton, and John Tyler, President of the United States ; it defined the boundaries of the respective countries between Canada and Maine, settled the extradition of crimi- nals, etc Ashdod, or Azotus. An ancient city of Judea, identified with the site of the modern Asdood, about 12 miles northeast of Ascalon. It is celebrated by Herodotus as having stood a siege of 29 years from Psammatichus, king of Egypt (about 630 B.C.). It was taken by the Assyrians under Tartan, the general of Sennacherib (713 B.C.) ; taken and destroyed by Judas Maccabaeus and his brother Jon- athan ; restored by Gabinius, and given by Augustus to Salome. Ashdown, or Assendune. Now thought to be Asliton, Berks, England, where Ethel- red and his brother Alfred defeated the Danes in 1171. Asia Minor. See Anatolta. Askeri Mohammedize. A name given to the Turkish regular troops organized ac- cording to modern tactics. Aslant. Formed or placed in an oblique line. Asow. An old fortified city in Southern Russia. Towards the end of the 14th cen- tury it fell into the hands of Timur ; the Turks took possession of it in 1471 ; cap- tured by the Cossacks in 1637 ; besieged without success by the Turks in 1641, they returned the following year with a large army to attack the city, when the Cossacks, thinking it impossible to hold the city against such a force, plundered and burned it ; the Turks then rebuilt the city and fortified it ; it was surrendered to Peter the Great in 1696; the city again came into the Turkish possession . after the peace treaty on the Pruth. In the war between Turkey and Russia, Asow was besieged by Field-Marshal Munich ; it surrendered to Gen. Lascy, July 4, 1736. Aspe. A village in the department of the Lower Pyrenees, France, where a- small de- tachment of the French army defeated 6000 Spaniards in 1792. Aspect. An army is said to hold a men- acing aspect, when by advanced move- ments or positions it gives the opposing enemy cause to apprehend an attack. A country is said to have a military aspect, when its general situation presents appropri- ate obstacles or facilities for an army acting on the offensive or defensive. An army is said to have an imposing aspect, when it appears stronger than it really is. This ap- pearance is often assumed for the purpose of deceiving an enemy, and may not improp- erly be considered as a principal ruse de guerre, or feint in war. Aspern, Great. A town near the Danube and Vienna, where a series of desperate con- flicts took place between the Austrian army under the Archduke Charles, and the French under Napoleon, Massena, etc., on May 21- 22, 1809, ending in the retreat of Napoleon on May 22. The loss of the former exceeded 20,000men, andof the latter 30,000. The dar- ing Marshal Lannes was mortally wounded on May 22, and died May 31. The bridge of the Danube was destroyed and Napo- leon's retreat endangered ; but the success of the Austrians had no beneficial effect on the subsequent prosecution of the war. Aspic {Fr.). An ancient piece of ord- nance which carried a 12-pound shot; the piece itself was 11 feet long, and weighed 4250 pounds. Aspis. A large, round, or oblong shield which was used by the heavy infantry of the ancient Grecians. Aspromonte (Naples). Here Garibaldi was defeated, wounded, and taken prisoner, August 29, 1862, having injudiciously risen against the French occupation of Rome. Assagai, or Assegai. An instrument of warfare among the Kaffirs. Assail. To attack with violence, or in a hostile manner ; to assault, etc. See At- tack. Assailable. Capable of being assailed, attacked, or invaded. Assas-Bachi. A superior oiBcer of jan- issaries, who was also administrator of the police department in Constantinople, and presided over public executions. Assassins, or Assassinians. Fanatical Mohammedans, collected by Hassan-ben- Sabah, and settled in Persia about 1090. In Syria they possessed a large tract of land among the mountains of Lebanon. They murdered the Marquis of Montferrat in 1192, Louis of Bavaria in 1213, and the Khan of Tartary in 1254. They were ex- tirpated in Persia about 1258, and in Syria about 1272. The chief of the corps was named " Old Man of the Mountain." They trained up young people to assassinate such persons as their chief had devoted to de- struction. From them the word assassin has been derived. Assault. A furious but regulated effort to carry a fortified post, camp, or fortress by personal attack, uncovered and unsupported. While an assault during a siege continues, the batteries of the besiegers cease, lest the attacking party should be injured. The party which leads the assault is sometimes called "the forlorn hope." ASSAYE 35 ASYLUM Assaye. A small town in the province I of Baliar, in the Doccan, celebrated for a buttle foiiEcht in 1803, between the British army, 4ij(M) strong, under the Duke of Wel- linjjton, then Gen. W'ellesley, and the con- federated armies of India, numbering 50,- 000 troops ; the latter were completely routed, leavinij 1200 dead on the field, with nearly the whole of their artillery. Such was the battle of Assaye, which established the fame of the greatest commander of the age, and fi.xed the dominion of Britain over prostrate India. Asseerghur. A strong hill fortress, situ- ated about 12 miles northerly and easterly from Burhampoor, India. It was taken from the Mahrattas by the British on two occasions ; the first time in 1803, and finally in 181!». Asseguay. The knife-dagger used in the Levant. Assembly. A beat of the drum or sound of tlie bugle as a signal to troops to as- semble. Assens. A maritime town of Denmark on the island of Funen ; here Christian III. deft'utcd his insurgent subjects in l.')3o. Asser. An instrument of warfare used by tlie Romans on their war ships; it con- sisted of a heavy pole with an iron head, and was used as a battering-ram against hostile ships. Other authorities assert that it was u-f'il to destroy the rigging only. Assessment of Damages. In the Eng- lish army, is the determination by a com- mittee of.oHicers of the value of the injury done to the barracks each month, in order that stoppages in liquidation may be made from men who have committed the damage. Assidui Milites. Roman soldiers who served in the army without receiving pay. Assignment. If, upon marches, guards, or in (juarters, different corps of the army shall happen to join or do duty together, the officer highest in rank of the line of the army, marine corps, or militia, by commis- sion, there on duty or in quarters, shall command the whole, and give orders for what is needful to the service, unless other- wise specially directed by the President of the United States, according to the nature of the case. See Appendix, Articles of War. 122. Assignment of Pay. By a non-commis- sioned otHcer or private, previous to dis- charge, is invalid. A transfer subsequent to the discharge is valid. Assinaries, or Assinaires. Festivals which were instituted at Syracuse, in com- memoration of the destruction of the Athe- nian fi|^t commanded by Nicias and De- mosthimes. Assinarus fnow Fabtnara). A small river in Sicily, near which the army of Nicias and Demosthenes was defeated 413 n.r. Assistant. In the English army, is the third grade in any jiarticulur branch of the start", such as the quartermaster-general s j or adjutant-generals. After the principal | comes the deputy and then the assistant. In the United States it is the second grade in the staff branches of the army. Assyria. A name which is usually ap- propriated to the first of what are known as the four great empires of the world, but which in geography nearly correspcmds with the modern Koordistan. Its capital was Nineveh, of which the ancient ruins may still be traced. In 025 n.r., Nineveh was destroyed by Cyaxare.s the Mede, and As- syria became a province of Media. Astapa ( now KHtepn). A city in the prov- ince of Seville, Spain ; it was besieged by the Komaiis under ^larius; the besieged slew their women and children and allowed themselves to be cut down to a man before they would surrender to the Romans. Asta-Regia. A city of Spain (now in ruins) ; near here the pnetor Caius Atinius gained a victory over the ancient Lusitan- ians. in 18i; h.c. Asti.or Asta. A city in Piedmont, Italy. Chevert took its fortress in 1745. Astorga (anc. Asturicn Augusta). A city in Spain, which was taken bv the French in 1810. Astragal and Fillets. Are the mould- ings at the front end of the chase, used in the ornamental work of ordnance. Astrakhan (Southeast Ru-ssia). Capital of a province of the same name; it was captured by the Russians in 1554; besieged by the Turks in 15(;!t, who were defeated with great slaughter; seized by the rebel Stenko Ra/.in in 1670, who was soon dispo.ssessed of it by his uncle Jacc>lof. The province was visited and settled by Peter the Great in 1722. Astrolabe. An instrument for observing the position of the stars, now disused. A graduated ring with sights for taking alti- tudes at sea was also formerly so called. Asturias. An ancient princi[>ality in Northwest Spain. Here Pelayo collected the Gothic fugitives, about 713. founded a new kingdom, and by his victories checked Moorish conquests. In 1808 the junta of Asturias began the organized resistance to the French usurpation. Asylum, Royal Military. A benevolent institution erected at Chelsea. Middlesex, England, for the reception and education of the children of soldiers of the regular army. The first stone was laid by the Duke of York, June 19, 1801. The direction and control of the instifution are placed in the hands of commissioners appointed by her maje.ety, the principals of which are the commander- in-chief, the secretary of war. the master- general of the ordnance, and other high offi- cials connected with the government. In the selection of children for admissit>n pref- erence, in general, is given: — First, to or- fihans ; second, to those whose fathers have •een killed, or have died on foreign service; third, to those who have lost their mothers, and whose fathers are absent on duty abroad ; fourth, to those whose fathers are ordered on foreign service, or whose parents have ASYLUM 36 ATTACK other children to maintain. There is also a branch establishment at Southampton, for the maintenance and education of girls. Asylum, Military. See Soldiers' Homes. As You Were. A word of command cor- responding to the French remettez vous, fre- quently used by drill instructors to cause a resumption of the previous position, when any motion of the musket or movement of the body has been improperly made. Atabal. A kettle-drum ; a kind of tabor, used by the Moors. Ataghan. See Yataghan. Ataman. A hetman, or chief of the Cos- sacks. Atchevement. In heraldry, is a term nearly equivalent to arms, or armorial bear- ings, and is often used in its abbreviated form of hntchment when speaking of the arms of a deceased person as displayed at his funeral or elsewhere. Ategar. The old English hand-dart, named from the Saxon aeton, " to fling," and ga)\ " a weapon." Ategna. An important city of ancient Italy. It was taken from the Republicans by Julius Cfesar, in 45 B.C. Atella (now San Arpino). A place in Italy, where the French under the Duke of Montpensier, general of Charles VIII., had to capitulate and surrender to Ferdinand II. of Naples, in 1496. The prisoners were transported to the island of Procida, where the majority of them, including the Duke of Montpensier, perished by contracting an infectious disease. Ath. A fortified town in Belgium ; it was ceded to France in 1668; fortified by Vauban ; restored to the Spaniards in 1678 ; captured by the French under Marshal Catinat in 1697, but was restored in the same year by the peace of Ryswick. The allies under Field-Marshal d'Auvergne took it October 1, 1706. It remained in the posses- sion of the Dutch till 1716, when it was given up to the emperor of Austria, with the re- mainder of the Spanish Netherlands. Louis XV. of France captured it in 1745. France lost it by the treaties of 1814-15. Athanati. A corps of picked soldiers be- longing to the ancient Persian army, 10,000 strong, which were called the "Immortals," for the reason that, as soon as one of the corps died, another was put in his place. Athenry. A town in Galway, Ireland; near here the Irish were totally defeated, and a gallant young chief, Feidlim O'Con- nor, slain in 1316. Athens. A celebrated city, the capital of the modern kingdom of Greece, situated in the plain of Attica, about 4 miles north- east of the Gulf of ^gina. It was for sev- eral ages the centre of European civilization. The city is said to have been founded by Cecrops, and afterwards enlarged by Theseus, who made it the capital of the new state which he formed by uniting into one politi- cal body the 12 independent states into which Attica had previously been divided. A new era in the history of the city commences with its capture by Xerxes, who reduced it almost to a heap of ashes, 480 B.C. This event was followed by the rapid develop- ment of the maritime power of the city and the establishment of her empire over the islands of the ^gean Sea. Her increasing wealth afforded her ample means for the em- bellishment of the city, and during the half century which elapsed between the battle of Salami's and the commencement of the Pelo- ponnesian war, the Athenians erected those masterpieces of architecture which have been the wonder of succeeding ages. The city was captured by the Lacediemonians in 404 B.C., and was conquered by Sulla, the Ivoman general, 86 B.C., after which it dwin- dled into insignificance as a maritime city. Its prosperity continued, however, under the Roman sway, and it continued to be famous as the centre of philosophy, literature, and art, many famous buildings having been erected there by foreign rulers after the de- cline of its power. During the Middle Ages it sunk into insignificance. It has successively belonged to the Goths, Byzan- tines, Bergundians, Franks, Catalans, Flor- entines, Venetians, and Turks. In 1687 the buildings of the Acropolis suffered severe injury in the siege of Athens by the Vene- tians under Morosini. In 1834 Athens was declared the capital of the kingdom of Greece. Athlone. A town in Roscommon, Ire- land, which was burnt during the civil war in 1641. After the battle of the Boyne, Col. R. Grace held Athlone for James II. against a besieging army, but fell when it was taken by assault by Ginkel, June 80, 1691. See AUGHRIM. Atilt. In the manner of a tilter ; in the })Osition or with the action of a man making a thrust. " To run a tilt at men." Atlanta. A city of Fulton Co., Ga., and the capital of the State In its vicinity a battle was fought between the Federal forces under Gen. Sherman and the Confed- erates under Gen. Hood, July 22, 1864. The city was taken by Gen. Sherman on Septem- ber 2, and held by him until November 15, when he set out on his famous " march to the sea." Atmidometer, or Admometer. An in- strument for measuring the rate of evapora- tion, used in English medical corps. Atrebates. A Belgic people subdued by Ca?sar, 57 B.C. Attach. To place, to appoint. Officers and non-commissioned officers are said to be attached to the respective army, regiment, battalion, troop, or company witl^ which they are appointed to act. Attache [Ft:]. The seal and signature of the colonel-general in the old French service, which were affixed to commissions of officers after they had been duly exam- ined. Attack. Any general assault or onset that is given to gain a post or break a body ATTACK AND DEFENSE 37 AUSTERLITZ of troops. False attnck, a feigned or second- ary movement in tiie urrrtni^cments of an as- sault, intended to divert the attention of an enemy from the real or principal attack. Such a movement luis been sometinie.s con- verted into a real att«cl<, and .succeeded when the main assault, to which it was in- tended to be subsidiary, had failed. Adnr.k of a niege, is a furious attack made by the be- siegers by means of trenches, galleries, saps, breaches, or n)ines, etc., by storming any part of the front attack. To attack in front or iiank, in fortifications, means to attack the salient angle, or both sides of the bastion. Attack and Defense. A part of the sword exorci.-e drill. Attacking. The act of making a general assault or onset for the capture of a post, fort, etc., or the breaking of a body of troops. Previous to an a.ssault on a fortified position, the artillery ought to support the other troops by a combined tire of guns, howitzers, and small mortars, so that, if possible, the lire may be simultaneous, as such diversity of projectiles would tend to distract tlie de- fenders, and prevent them from extinguish- ing any tires among buildings, besides throwing them into confusion at the mo- ment of as-sault. In cases of surprise, when immediate action is required, this method cannot, of course, be practicable. Attention. A cautionary command ad- dressed to troops preparatory to a particular exercise or manoeuvre. Uare-n-vous has the same signification in the French service. Attestation. In the English service, is a certificate which is granted by a justice of the peace within four days after the enlist- ment of a recruit. This certificate bears testimony that the recruit has been brought before the justice in conformity to the Slu- tiny Act, and has declared his assent or dis- sent to such enlistment, and that (if accord- ing to the said act he shall luive been duly enlisted) the proper oaths have been admin- istered to him by the magistrate, and the sections of the articles of war against mu- tiny and desertion road to the said recruit. Audenarde. See Otdknaudk. Auditor, Second. An otlicial connected with the Tnasiuy l)('|iartmcMt, whose duties consist in examining all accounts relating to the pay and clothing of the army, the sub- sistence of officers, bounties, premiums, mil- itary and hospital stores, and the contingent expenses of the War Department, etc., and transmitting them with vouchers, etc., to the Second (.'oiuptroller for his decision. Auditor, Third. To him is assigned the duty of examining all accounts relative to the subsistence of tlie army, the quartcr- ma.ster's department, and generally all ac- counts of the War Department other than those provided for; also all accounts relating to pensions, claims for compensation for loss of hor.ses and equipments of officers and en- listed men in the military service of the United States, etc. Auditor, Fourth. Examines all accounts accruing in the Navy Department, or rela- tive thereto, and all accounts relating to navy pensions. Auerstadt (Prussia). Here and at Jena, on October 4, IWk;. the From h signally de- feated the Prussians. See .Ikna. Auget. A kind of small trough used in mining, in which tlie saucisson or train-hose is laid in straw, to prevent the powder from contracting any dampness. Aughrim. Near Athlone, in Ireland, where, on .July 12, lOiM, a battle was fought between the Irish, headed by the French general St. Kuth, and the English, under Gen.Ginkel. The former were defeated and lost 7000 men ; the latter lost only GOO killed and %0 wounded. St. Kuth was slain. This engagement proved decisively fatal to the interests of James II., and Ginkel was cre- ated earl of Atlilone. Augusta. A city and capital of Richmond Co., (ia., on the Savannah Kiver. It was an important place at the time of the Revo- lution, and was captured by the English and Tories in 1779, but surrendered to Col. Henry Lee, of the Revolutionary armv, June 5, 1781. Augusta, or Agosta. A well-built and fortitifd city in the intendancy of Catania, in Sicily; near here, on April 21, l(>7'i, a naval battle was fought between the French under Duquesne, and the Dutch and Spanish fleet under Ruy ter, the advantage remaining with the French. Ruyter was wounded at this battle, and died a few days after at Syracuse. Augusticum. A bounty that was given by the Roman emperors to their soldiers upon the latter taking the oath of allegiance for the first time, or upon a renewal of the oath. Aulic Council. A term applied to a council of the War Department of the Aus- trian empire, and the members of different provincial chanceries of that empire are called aulic councillors. Aumacor. A title similar to general-in- chief, which was given to the chief of the Saracens during the Crii-sadcs. Ausen. A name given by the Goths to their victoriovis generals. This word in their language signifies " more than mortal,"' i.e.. demi-gods. Aussig. A village in Prussia, where, in 142tj, the army of the margrave Frederick von Meissen was defeated by the Hussites and Poles under Jakubko von Wrezezow- ecez and Prince Sigismund Koribut. The city was ydundered and burned the same night by the Hussites. Austerlitz ( .Moravia). Here a battle was fought between the French and the allied Austrian and Russian armies, December 2, 180o. Three em|)erors c»>mmanded : Alexan- per of Russia, Francis of Austria, and Na- doleon of France. The killed and wounded exceeded .SO.lKKl on the sif a river. They are driven into the ground with battering-rams or strong pieces of iron, to form a level floor by means of strong planks being nailed ujion it, which serve for the foundation of a bridge. iJoats are placed wherever the avant-duc terminates. The avnui-duc is had recourse to when the river is so broad that there are not boats sufficient to make a bridge across. Avnnt-ducs are made on each side of the river. Avnn(-fo.isc, the ditch of the counterscarp next to the country. It is dug at the foot of the glacis. Avnnt-gnrde, advance-guard. Avaitt-traius, the limbers of tield-pieccs on which are placed boxes containing ammunition enough for immediate service. Avars. Barbarians who ravaged Pan- nonin and annoyed the Eastern empire in the 0th and 7th centuries ; subdued by Charlemagne about 79'J, after an eight years' war. Avein, or Avaine. A village in Luxem- bourg, where, on May 20, 1(>3.). the French and Dutch, under Marsluils de Chatillon and de Hrere, defeated the Spaniards under Prince Thonuis of Savoy. The prince lost 4000 men killed and wounded, 900 prisoners, and 14 pieces of cannon. Aventaile. The movable part of a hel- met. Averysborough. A village of North Carolina, on Cajie Fear Kivcr, about 40 miles .south of Kalcigh. During Gen. Sher- man's South Carolina campaign, in 1805, this place was the scene of an engage- ment between his forces and about 20,000 Confederates under Gen. Hardee, who were intrenched in a swampy neck between Cape Fear and South llivers in order to check Sherman's progress, and gain time for tlie concentration of (>en. Johnston's forces in the rear at Raleigh, Sniithfield, or Golds- boro'. The position of the Confederates was ft strong one to carry by reasoq of the nature of the ground, which was very soft; but after four hours' lighting they were driven back to a second line better and more strongly held, losing 3 guns and 217 prisoners. Here the tighting was continued until late in the afternoon, when the entire Federal line advanced and drove the Con- federates within their intrencliments, press- ing them so hard that during the night of March 10, which was stormy, they retreated towards Smithfield. The Union loss was 12 officers and 05 men killed and 477 wounded. Avesnes. A city in the department of the North, France; captured by Louis XI. ; recaptured by the Spaniards in 1559; re- turned to France in 1059; occupied by the Russians in 1814, and by the Prussians in 1815. Avesnes le Sec, Battle of. The French were defeated by the Auslrians in this bat- tle, September, *1793. Avigliana. A city in Italy where the French dctcatcd the Piedmoiite«e in 1030. Avignon. A city in Southeastern Franc; besieged and cajiluicd by Louis Vlll. of France in 1220; ceded by Philij) IIL to the pope in 1273. The papal seat was removed by Clement V. to Avignon in 1-309. In 1348, Clement VI. purchased the sovereignty from Jane, countess of Provence and queen of Naples. In 1408 the French, wearied of the schism, expelled Benedict XIII., and Avig- non ceased to be the seat of pajiacv. Here were held nine councils (1080-1457). This city was seized and restored several times by the French kings; the last time in 1773. It was claimed by the National Assembly, 1791, and was confirmed to Frame by the congress of sovereigns in 1815. In October, 1791, hor- rible massacres took place here. Avis, or Aviz. An order of knighthood in Portugal, instituted by Sancho, the tirst king of Portugal, in imitation of the order of Calatrava, and having, like it, for its object the subjugation of the Moors. The king of Portugal is grand-master of the order. Avranches (anc. Ahrancae). A city in the department of La Manche, France. It was a jilace of importance during the Konutn j )ieriod. Charlemagne forlitied it, but it was I taken by the Normans in 805. It was cap- tured bv Geofl'rev Plantagenet in 1141; by Guy de'Thouars'in 1203;' by the English in 1418; by the Calvinisls in 1*502; besieged by the royal troops in 1591. Award. A judgment, the result of arbi- tration. In a military sense, the decision or sentence of a court-martial. To award medals of honor. Awkward Squad. See Squad. Axel. A town in tli<* province of Zealand, Holland ; captured by escalade from the Spaniards August 20, 1580, by Prince Mau- rice of Saxony, who was then but twenty years of age ; captured by assault on May ' 10, 1747, by Marshal Maurice de Saxe. I Axis. A straight line, real or imaginary, I about which a body revolves is called the axis of rotation. In gunnery, the axis of , the piece is the central line of the bore of I the gun. Axum, or Axoum. A town in Abyssinia, said to have been the capital of a kimrdom , whose i>eople were cimverted to Christianity I by Frunieiitius, in the 4tli lentury, and to I have been the allies of Justinian, 533; cap- tured and burned by the Arabs in l.')32. j Aya-Bassi, or Bachi. A non-conimis- ; sioned grade in the corps of janissaries, cor- , responding to that of corporal in modern ' armies. ^ Ayacucho. A city in Peru ; hero the Pe- AYLESBURY 40 BACK-PLATE ruvians finally gained their independence by defeating the Spaniards, December 9, 1824. The Spaniards lost 6 generals killed, and General Lascerna wounded and taken prisoner ; 700 men under Canterac and Val- dez, who tried to escape, were forced to sur- render. Aylesbury. A town in Buckinghamshire, England ; was reduced by the West Saxons in 571. St. O'Syth, beheaded by the pagans in Essex, was buried there, 600. "William the Conqueror invested his favorites with some of its lands, under the tenure of pro- viding straw for his bed-chambers, three eels for his use in winter, and in summer, straw, rushes, and two green geese, thrice every year. Aylesford. A town in Kent, England ; here, it is said, the Britons were victorious over the Saxon invaders, 455, and Horsa was killed. Azaine (Fr.). A name formerly applied to a trumpet in the French army. Azapes. Auxiliary troops which were levied by the Turks among the Christians (under their dominion), whom they exposed to the first attack of the enemy. Azay-le-Rideau. A small town in the department of Indre-et-Loire, France, for- merly fortified ; it sustained several sieges during the reign of Charles VI. Azaz. A fortress which was situated be- tween Aleppo and Antioch ; captured by the Saracens in 688 B.C. Azmooz. A village in Switzerland, where the French under Massena defeated the Austrians and took 3000 prisoners. Azoe, or Azov. A town in Russia in Eu- rope, captured by Tamerlane in 1392, by the Turks in 1471, by the Russians in 1696; re- turned to the Turks in 1711 ; ceded to Rus- sia in 1774. It was bombarded and destroyed by an allied English and French squadron in 1855. Azof, Sea of. The Palus Mcjeotia of the ancients, communicates by the Strait of Yenikale, or Kertch (the Bosphorus Cim- merius), with the Black Sea, and is entirely surrounded by Russian territory. An expe- dition composed of British, French, and Turkish troops, commanded by Sir G. Brown, arrived at Kertch, May 24, 1855, when the Russians retired, after blowing up the fortifications. On the 27th the allies marched upon Yenikale, which also offered no resistance. On the same evening the al- lied fleet entered the sea of Azof, and in a few days completed their occupation of it, after capturing a large number of merchant vessels, etc. "immense quantities of stores were destroyed by the Russians to prevent them falling into the hands of the allies. Azotus. See Ashdod. Aztecs. The ruling tribe in Mexico at the time of the Spanish invasion, 1519. Azure. A French word used in heraldry to signify blue. In engraving arms it is always represented by horizontal lines. '» iiTOr ( o B. Baalbec. An ancient city of Syria. From the accounts of Oriental writers, it Was a place of importance down to the time of the Moslem invasion of Syria. After the cap- ture of Damascus, it was regularly invested by the Moslems, and after a courageous de- fense at length capitulated ; sacked and dis- mantled by the caliph of Damascus, and the principal inhabitants put to the sword, 748; pillaged by Timour Bey, 1400; after- wards subjected to Turkish supremacy ; pil- laged August 8, 1860, and the Christian in- habitants massacred by the Mohammedans. Bab-el-Thaza. A place in Algeria where the French fought the Arabs, April 22, 1842. Babylon. One of the oldest and most celebrated cities in the world, the ancient capital of the Babylonio-Chaldean empire, was situated in an extensive plain on the Euphrates, about 60 miles south of Bagdad. The modern town of Hillah is supposed to occupy a portion of its site. About 588 B.C., Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon, captured Jerusalem, burned the great temple of Solo- mon, and carried away the .Jews as captives to Babylon. Cyrus besieged Babylon, took it by stratagem in 538, and put to death the king Belshazzar, after which the kingdom of Babylon ceased to exist. The city was occupied by Darius in 518, and taken by Alexander the Great in 831. Alexander having selected it as the capital of his em- pire, died there in 323 B.C. Bacchi. Two ancient warlike machines; the one resembled a battering-ram, the other cast out fire. Bachelier [Fr.). A young squire, or knight, who has passed through his first cam- paign, and received the belt of the order. Bachevaleureux, A term which, in the old French language, signified warrior, brave, valiant, etc. Backing. The heavy plating of wood, or of wood and iron, used to support and strengthen iron plates. Back-plate. A piece of armor for cover- ing the back. BACK-SIGHT 41 BAGS Back-sight. See Sight, Kkar. Back-step. The retrograde movement of a man, or a body of men, w'thout chang- ing front. Backsword. A sword with one sharp edge. In England, a stick with a basket handle, used in rustic amusements; the game in which it is used ; called also " single stick." Backwards. A technical word made use of in the British service to express the retro- grade movement of troops from line into column, and vice versa. Also a word of comnuind in the U. S. service, to cause a man, or body of men, to march to the rear without changing front. Bactria (n<)W Bokhara). A province of the Persian empire; it was inhabited by a rude and warlike people, who were subdued by Cyrus or his next successors. It was in- cluded in the conquests of Alexander, and formed a j)art of the kingdom of the Selu- cidib until 255 u.c, when Theodotus, its governor, revolted from Antiochus II., and founded the Greek kingdom of IJactria ; overthrown by the Parthians 184 or 125 B.C. Bacule. A kind of portcullis or gate, made like a pitfall, with a counterpoise. See 13.VSCULK Hkidcjk. Badajos (Southwest Spain). An impor- tant harrier fortress, surrendered to the French, under Soult, March 11, 1811; was invested by the British, under Lord Wel- lington, on March IG, 1812, and stormed and taken on April 0, 1812. The French re- treated in haste. Badaleers. Musket-charges of powder in tin or copper tubes, worn dangling from a shoulder-belt, before the introduction of car- tridges. Baddesdown Hill, or Mount Badon. Near Bath, England, where Bcde says the Britons defeated the Saxons, 41)3 ; others say in 511 or 5L'(i. Badelaire, or Bandelaire (Fr.). A short, broad, curved, and double-edged pointed sword. Baden (Southwest Germany). A grand ducliv ; broke out in insurrection and joined by th'e free city of Rastadt, May, 184'J; the Prussians entered it, and defeated the in- surgents commanded by .Mierolawski, June 15, 1849. Noted as the'place where the Em- peror Napoleon III., the prince regent of Prussia, and the German kings and princes held an interview, June 1(3, 1800. Badge. A distinctive mark, token, or sign, worn on the person. Corps badges were worn to distinguish the army corps during the civil war, 1861-65. Marksmen's badfjes are given to good shots in most armies. Badon, Mount. The scene of a battle said to have been fought by King Arthur I against the Saxons who invaded his king- I dom, and in which the latter were signally defeated. By some writers Badon has been identiticd with Bath, by others in Berkshire. Bsecula. An ancient town in Uispunia j 4 Tarraconensis, west of Cmtulo, where the liomans under Scipio defeated the Cartha- ginians under Ilasdrubal, 209 B.C. Bagaudes. A natne given to the peas- ants of Gaul, who revolted against the Ro- mans in 270; they pillaged cities and vil- lages and massacred the Roman officers ; two of the insurgent chiefs, Aliandus and Aman- dus, were elected emperors; their reign was of short duration ; besieged in their camp near the confluence of the Seine and Marne, where Saint-Maur is now situated, they died in arms. This place was named for a long time "Camp des Bagaudes." Bagdad. In Asiatic Turkey, built by Al Mansour, and made the seat of the .Saracen empire about 762 ; taken by the Tartars, and a period put to the Saracen rule, 1258; often taken by the Persians, and retaken by the Turks, with great slaughter ; the latter took it in l(i.38, and have held it since. Baggage. The clothes, tents, utensils of divers sorts, and provisions, etc., belonging to an army, or part of an army. Baggonet. The old term for bayonet. Bagpipe. The name of a musical warlike instrument, of the wind kind, used by the Scotch regiments, and sometimes by the- Irish. Bagpipes were used by the Danes, by the Romans, and by the Asiatics. The Greeks also had an instrument composed of a pipe and blown-up skin. The bagpipe has been a favorite instrument among the Scots. There are two varieties, the one with long pipes, sounded with the rnouth ; the other,, with short pipes, filled with air by a bellows, and played on with the lingers.' The first,, the loudest and most ear-piercing of all music, is the genuine Highland pipe, and was suited to the warlike genius of that Eeople. It formerly roused their courage to attle, alarmed them when secure, and col- lected them when scattered, solaced them in- their long and jiainful marches, and in time- of peace kept up the memory of the gallan- try of their ancestors by the tunes composed after signal victories. The other is the Iri&b bagpipe. Bags. Articles used in field fortifications, and in works to cover a besieging army. Sa?t(/-ba(/s, which are generally 16 inches- in diameter, and 80 high, are filled with earth or sand, to repair breaches and embra- sures of batteries, when damaged by the enemy's fire or by the blast of the guns. They are also placed on jiarapets, so arranged as to form a covering for men to fire through. Earth-bafjH contain about a cubical foot of earth, and are used to raise a parapet in haste, or to repair one that is beaten down. They are only employed where tlu; ground is rocky, or too hard for the pickaxe and spade, and does not afford ready material fur a temporary paraj>et. Bags, Cartridge-. See Cartridgk. Bags of Powder. Are used to blow down gates, stockades, and slight oKstructions. In future wars the higher explosives will prob- ably be used for such purposes. BAHAMA 42 BALLISTIC Bahama Isles (North America). Were the first points of discovery by Cohimbus. New Providence was settled by the English in 1629. They were expelled "^by the Span- iards in 1G41 ; returned in 16G6 ; again ex- pelled in 1703. These isles were formally ceded to the English in 1783. The Bahamas profited by blockade-running during the American civil war, 1861-65. Bahar. A province in Northern India ; conquered by Baber in 1530. Bahar, Ben- gal, and Orissa, a princely dominion, be- came subject to the English East India Com- pany in 1765, by the treaty of Allahabad. Baiclaklar. A color-bearer in the Turk- ish army. Baiky. The ballium, or inclosed plat of ground in an ancient fort. Bail. A stout iron yoke placed over heavy guns and fitting closely over the ends of the trunnions, to which it is attached by pins in the axis of the trunnions ; used to raise or lower the gun by means of the gin. Bailie (Fr. ). A term formerly used to des- ignate a work or fortification which served as an outpost or exterior defense. Baionnier (Fr.). A name formerly given to soldiers who were armed with a bayonet. Baker, Post. The person who bakes bread for a garrison. In the U. S. service an enlisted man, who receives additional pay for his labor. iSakery, or Bakehouse. See Ovens. Balaklava. A small town in the Crimea, with a tine harbor, about 10 miles from Se- bastopol. Near here about 12,000 Ilussians, commanded by Gen.'Liprandi, were repulsed by a furious charge of heavy English cav- alry, led by Brig.-Gen. Scarlett, under the orders of Lord Lucan, October 25, 1854. After this, from an unfortunate misconcep- tion of Lord Kaglan's order. Lord Lucan ordered Lord Cardigan, with the light cav- alry, to charge the Kussian army, which had reformed on its own ground, with its artil- lery in front. This order was most gallantly obeyed, and great havoc was made on the Kussians ; but of 670 British horsemen only 198 returned (termed by Tennyson "The Charge of the Six Hundred"). On March 22, 1855, a sortie from the garrison of Se- bastopol led to a desperate engagement here, in which the Russians were vigorously re- pulsed, with the loss of 2000 men killed and wounded ; the allies lost about 600. Balance-step. An exercise in squad drill, a preliminary to marching. Balbec. See Baalbec. Baldrick, or Baudrick. A girdle, or richly ornamented belt, worn pendent from one shoulder across the breast, and under the opposite arm. Bale, or Basel. One of the largest towns in Switzerland; captured and burned by the Hungarians in 917. In 1444 there was a bloody battle fought about a quarter of a mile beyond its gates, called the battle of St. Jacob, between the Swiss, 1600 strong, and a French army that was twenty times their number, commanded by the dauphin, afterwards Louis XII. For ten hours the brave Swiss band kept this large army in check; but nearly all the Swiss fell, not more than 10, according to some accounts, escaping alive. This exploit first spread the fame of Swiss valor, and led to the enroll- ment of the Swiss body-guard of France. Tiie treaties of peace between France and Spain, and France and Prussia, were signed here, July 22, 1795. Balearic Islands. A group of islands in the Mediterranean ; conquered by the Ro- mans 123 B.C. ; by the Vandals about 426 B.C., and formed part of Charlemagne's em- pire, 799. They were conquered by the Moors about 1005, and held by them till about 1280, when they were annexed by Ar- agon. See Majorca and Minorca. Balista. A machine in ancient warfare used for throwing stones, burning objects, leaden balls, and even dead and putrefied bodies. The latter were thrown to cause sickness in besieged cities. Balistarium. A store-room or arsenal in which the Romans stored their balistas. Balister. A term applied in ancient times to a cross-bow. Balistrier. A name applied to cross-bow men in ancient times. Balkan. The ancient H^mus, a range of mountains extending from the Adriatic to the Euxine. Their passage, up to that time deemed impracticable, was completed by the Russians under Diebitsch during the Russian and Turkish war, July 26, 1829. An armis- tice was the consequence, and a treaty of peace was signed at Adrianople, September 14, following. The Balkan was again crossed by the victorious Russians in the face of all opposition during the Russian and Turkish war, 1877. Balks. Joist-shaped spars, which rest be- tween the cleats upon the saddles of two pon- tons, to support the chess or flooring. Ball. Is a general term applied to every kind of spherical shot fired from a musket, rifle, or cannon. Leaden balls are chiefly used for the small-arms and iron for the ar- tillery. See Cartridge, Shot, Shells. Ball and Chain. For serious offenses sol- diers are sometimes sentenced to wear a 6- or 12-pounder ball attached by a chain to the leg. Ball-cartridge. A cartridge containing a ball. Ballinamuck. A town in the county of Longford, Ireland. Here, on Septen'iber 8, 1798, the Irish rebels and their French aux- iliaries were defeated and captured. Ballistea. In antiquity, songs accompa- nied by dancing, used on occasions of vic- tory. Ballistic, or Electro-ballistic Machine. Is a machine designed to determine by elec- tricity the initial velocity of a projectile. The West Point ballistic machine, devised for use at the Military' Academy by Col. Benton, of the ordnance department, and BALLISTIC 43 BAN since adopted by that department, consists of a iK'd-plate of niotal i-iippiirling an arc placed in a perpendicular position, and grad- uated. Suspended perpendicular to the plane of this arc are two pendulums, having a com- mon axis of motion passing through the centre. Two electro-magnets are attached to the horizontal limb of the arc to hold up the pendulums when thej' are deflected through angles of 90°. There is also an ap- paratus which rect)rds the pi»int at which the pendulums pass each other, when they fall by the breaking of the currents which excite the magnets, two targets being placed 60 as to support tl|^ wires in a position to be cut by the projectile. The velocity of the electric currents being considered instan- taneous, and the loss of the power of the magnet.s simultaneous with the rupture of the currents, it follows that each pendulum begins to move at the instant that the pro- jectile cuts the wire, and that the interval of time corresponds to the ditlerence of the arcs described by the pendulums up to the time of meeting. Ballistic Pendulum. A machine consist- ing of a massive block of wood suspended by a bar. It was devised for experiments on the initial velocities of cannon-shot. The shot being tired into the bloik, the velocity is calculated from the vibrating effect on the pendulum. Ballistics. Is that branch of gunnery which treats of the motion of projectiles. Ballistraria. Cruciform apertures in the walls of a stronghold, through which the cross-bow men discharged their bolts. It also signified a projecting turret, otherwise called a bartizan, such as is commonly seen in old castles. Ballium. A term used in ancient military art, and probably a corruptioti of vallium. In towns, the appellation "ballium" was given to a work fenced with palisades, and sonu'times to masonry covering the suburbs ; but in castles, it was the space imniediately within the outer wall. Ballon. A town in the department of the Sartlie, France, formerly fortified; captured by the English in 1417; retaken by Charles VII. of France. Balloon. A bag or hollow vessel, made of silk or other light material, atid filled with hydrogen gas or heated air, so as to rise and float in the atmosphere; called for distinc- tion an nu--ba!loon. IJalloons were used ex- tensively as a means of ()hservation during the American civil war, 18t)l-G5, and in the Franco-Prussian war of 1870. Balloting. A bounding movement of a spherical projectile in the bore of a cannon. See In.hkiks to Cannon. Ball-proof. I nca|>able of being penetrated by balls t'r.im tire-arms. Ball's Bluff. In Virginia, on the banks of the Totomac. On October 21, 18(11, by di- rection of the Federal general C. P. Stone, the heroic Col. Haker crossed the river to reconnoitre. He attacked the Confederate camp at Leesburg, and was defeated with great loss. The disaster was attributed to mismanagement, and in February, 1802, Gen. Stone was arrested on suspicion of treason, but was afterwards discharged, and at a later period again given a command. The FY'deral loss in killed, wounded, and drowned was probably 1000 men. Ballynahinch. A town in Ireland where a sanguinary engagement took place between a large body of the insurgent Irish and the British troops, under Gen. Nugent, June 13, 17'*8. A large part of the town was de- stroyed, and the royal army gutlered very severely. Balots (Fr.). Sacks or hales of wool, made use of in cases of great emergency, to form parapets or places of arms. They are likewise adapted for the defense of trenches, to cover the workmen in saps, and in all in- stances where j)romptitude is required. Baltic Sea (Ger. Oxtsee, or " Eastern Sea"). Separates Sweden and the Danish Isles from liussia, Prussia, and (iermany. Declared neutral for commerce by treaty be- tween Kussia and Sweden, 11 V.), and Den- mark, 1700. It is often partially frozen. Charles X. of Sweden with an army crossed the Belts in 1058. Several Baltic expedi- tions were undertaken by the British and French against Denmark and Russia. Baltimore. The chief city in Maryland, situated at the head of navigation on the Patapsco Hiver; it was founded in 1729. On September 12, 1814, the British army under Col. Koss advanced against this place. He was killed in a skirmish, and the command was assumed by Col. Brooke, who attacked and routed the American army, which lost 000 killed and wounded, and 300 prisoners. The projected attack on the town was, however, abandcmed. Baltimore (Ireland). A decayed town; early in the 17th century, the Algerine pirates plundered the town, carrying away 2(M) prisoners. Baltinglass. A town in the county of AVicklow, Ireland. Here an action took place in 1798 between the royalists and the insurgents, in which the latter were de- feated. Bamberg. A town in Bavaria, said to have been founded bv the Saxons in 804; taken and pillaged by the Prussians in 17o9. Bampton. A town in Devonshire, Eng- land. A great battle was fought here, 614, between the West Saxons and Britons, in which the former were defeated. Ban (Fr.). A sort of proclamation made at the head of a body of troops. ..r in the several quarters or cantonments of an army, by sound of trumpet or beat of drum, either for observing martial discipline, or for de- claring a new officer, or punishing a sol- dier, or the like. At present such kind of proclamations are given out in the written orders of the day. Ban. In the former days of France, when BANBURY 44 BANYULS-DE-ASPRES the feudal barons, who held their estates and honors from the king, were summoned to attend him in time of war, they were culled the ban, or the levy first called out; while the tenants, subordinate to these barons, formed the Arriere ban, or secondary levy. Banbury. A town in Oxfordshire, Eng- land. The castle erected by Alexander de Blois, 1125, has been frequently besieged ; in 1046 it was taken by the Parliamentarians and demolished. At Edgecote, or Danes- more, near Banbury, Edward IV. defeated the Lancastrians under the Earl of Pem- broke, July 26, 1469, and their leader and his brother were soon after taken prisoners and executed. Bancal (Fr.). A curved sabre, which was used in France during the Republic and the Empire. Band, Military, Consists of a body of musicians attached to each army regiment or battalion. The law provides for a band at the Military Academy at West Point, and for each artillery, cavalry, and infantry regiment. A chief musician, who shall be instructor of music, and for each artillery and infantry regiment two principal musi- cians ; each cavalry regiment to have one chief trumpeter. Musicians for regimental bands are enlisted as soldiers, and formed under the direction of the adjutant, but are not permanently detached from their compa- nies, and are instructed in all the duties of a soldier. Banda Isles. Eastern Archipelago, visited by the Portuguese (1511), who settled on them 1521, but were expelled by the Dutch about IGOO. Rohun Island was ceded to the English in 1616. The Bandas were taken by the latter in 1796 ; restored in 1801 ; re- taken, 1811, and restored in 1816. Banded-mail. A kind of armor, which consisted of alternate rows of leather or cot- ton and single chain-mail. Banderet. In military history, implies th • commander-in-chief of the troops of the canton of Berne, in Switzerland. Banderol. A small flag used in marking out a camp, etc. ; a camp color. Bandes (Fr.). Bands, bodies of infantry. Bandes Frnngaifies ; the French infantry was anciently so called; the term, however, be- came less general, and was confined to the Prevot des Bandes, or the judge or provost- marshal that tried the men belonging to the French guards. Banditti. Bands of robbers who infest the mountainous parts of Italy and Greece. Formerly they frequently attacked travelers, hurried them oft' into their mountain fast- nesses, and held them captive until ran- somed. Bandoleer. In ancient military history, a large leathern belt worn over the right shoulder, and hanging under the left arm, to carry some kind of warlike weapons. Bandoleer. A little wooden case covered with leather ; every musketeer used to wear 12 of them hanging on a shoulder-belt ; each case contained the charge of powder for a musket. Bandoleers are now superseded by the cartridge-box. Banffshire. A maritime county in the northeast of Scotland ; it was the scene of many bloody conflicts between the Scots and their Danish invaders, and was the theatre of almost incessant struggles from 1624 to 1645. Bangalore. A fortified town of Hindos- tan, in Mysore, which was taken from Tip- poo Saib by Lord Cornwallis in 1791. Baniwas. A tribe of South American Indians living on the Amazon and the Rio Negro. Banner. Originally a small square flag borne before a banneret, whose arms were embroidered on it ; hence, a military ensign ; the principal standard of a prince or state ; a pennon ; a streamer. Bannered. Furnished with or bearing banners. Banneret. Was originally a military rank conferred only on such as were able to bring a certain number of vassals into the field ; hence, a rank corresponding to this ; also, a small banner. Bannockburn. In Stirlingshire, Scot- land ; the site of two battles : 1. Between Robert Bruce of Scotland and Edward II. of England, June 24, 1314. The army of Bruce consisted of 30,000; that of Edward of 100,000 men, of whom 52,000 were archers. The English crossed the rivulet to the attack, and Bruce having dug and covered pits, they fell into them and were thrown into confusion. The rout was com- plete ; the English king narrowly escaped, and 50,000 were killed or taken prisoners. 2. At Sanchieburn, near here James II. was defeated and slain on June 11, 1488, by his rebellious nobles. Banquette. Is the step of earth within the parapet, sufficiently high to enable the defenders, when standing upon it, to fire over the crest of the parapet with ease. Banquette Slope. Is a slope of earth or timber, place in rear of the banquette when the top cannot be reached by an ordinary step. Bantam. In Java ; here a British factory was established by Capt. Lancaster in 1603. The English and Danes were driven from their factories by the Dutch in 1683. Ban- tam surrendered to the British in 1811, but was restored to the Dutch at the peace in 1814. Bantry Bay. In the south of Ireland, where a French fleet bringing succor to the adherents of James II. attacked the English under Admiral Herbert, May 1, 1689. A French squadron of 7 sail of the line and 2 frigates, armed en flute, and 17 transports anchored here for a few days, but without eft'ect, December, 1796. Mutiny of the Bantrv Bay squadron took place in Decem- ber, 1801. Banyuls-de-Aspres. A town in the department of the Eastern Pyrenees, France, BAPAUME 45 BARI wliioh is memorable for the defense which its inhabitunts made in 1793, when they compelled 7000 Spaniards, who had attacked them, to surrender. Bapaume. A fortified town of France, department of Pas-de-Calais. A portion of the allied troops advanced to this place after compelling]: the French to abandon their for- tified position, and to retreat behind the scarpe, in Aniinst, 1703. Baptism of Blood. As the name implies, is the act of bfini^ l)aptized with blood, and was used s|)ccially with reference to soldiers who fought on their first battle-field. In the old French service, baptism of blood equalized all grades, and military services, not rank, were the recognized claims for promotion. Baptism of Fire. A figurative term ap- plied to soldiers who have passed through their first fire in battle. Bar. A long piece of wood or iron. Bars have various denominations in the construc- tion of artillery-carriages, as sweep- and cross-bars for tumbrils, fore, hind, and un- der cross-bars for powder-carts, shaft-bars for wagons, and dowel-bars, used in mortar- beds. Bar. In heraldry, is one of those impor- tant figures or charges known as ordinaries. It is formed by two horizontal lines passing over the shield like the fess, but it differs from it in size, — the fess occupying a third, the bar only a fifth part of the shield. The fess is also confined to the centre, while the bar may be borne in several parts of the shield. Barb. The reflected points of the head of an arrow. The armor for horses was so called. Barbacan, or Barbican. In fortification, a watth-tower for the purpose of descrying an enemy at a distance; advanced works of a place or citadel, properly the boulevards of the gates and walls ; a fort at the entrance of a tower or bridge, with a double wall; or an aperture or loop-hole in the walls of a fortress through which to fire upon an enemy. Barbary. A country in North Africa, considered to comprise Algeria, Morocco, Fez, Tunis, and Tripoli, with their depend- encies (all of wliich see). Piratical states (nominally subject to Turkey) were founded on the coast by IJarbarossa about lolS. Barbels. Were peasants of Piedmont, who abandoned tlu^ir dwellings when an enemy had taken possession of them. They formed into bodies and defended the Alps." Barbette. An earthen terrace, raised within a parapet, so high as to enable guns to be fired over the latter, and therefore with a freer range tlian when worked at an em- brasure. Barbette Carriage. Is a carriage of the stali«>iiary class, on which a gun is mounted to fire over a parapi-t ; and a barbette gun is any gun niountcil on a barbcltc carriage. Barbette Centre-pintle Carriage. See Ordnance, Carriages for, Sea-coast Carriaok-s. Barbette Front-pintic Carriage. See Orona.nck, Cakriacjks for. Ska-coast Carkiaoks. Barbole (Fi:). A heavy battle-axe, used in ancient times. Barboursville, or Cabell Court-house. The cai-ital of Cabell Co., W. Va. It was the scene of a brilliant action between the Confederate and Federal forces, in which the latter were victorious, July 18, 18i;i. Barce, or Berche (/•'/•.). A small gun, shorter and tliicker than a falconet, which was formerly used on board ship. Barcelona. An ancient maritime city in Northeastern Spain, said to have been rebuilt by Hatnilcar Harca, father of the great Han- nibal, about 233 n.c. The city has suffered much by war. The siege by the French, in' l()fl4, was relieved by theapproach of the Eng- lish fleet commanded by Admiral Russell; but the city was taken liy the Earl of Peter- borough in 1706; bombarded and taken by the Duke of Berwick and the French in 1714; taken by Napoleon in 1808, and retained till 1814. It revolted against the queen in 1841, and was bombarded and taken in De- cember, 1842, by ilspartero. Bard. A fortress and village of Piedmont on the bank of the Dora Baltea, 23 miles south-southeast of Aosta. The fortress is situated on an impregnable rock, and ar- rested for some time Napoleon's march in the valley of the Dora, at the outset of his campaign of 1800, almost compelling him to abandon it. The garrison consisted of 400 men, and was finally passed only by strata- gem. It was subsequently razed by the French (1800), but has since been restored. Bardewick. A town in Hanover, which was dismantled by Henry the Lion in 1180. Bareilly. A province of Delhi, North- west India, ceded to the East India Com- pany by the ruler of Oude, 1801. A mutiny at Bareilly, the capital, was suppressed in April, 181. Barfleur. An ancient seaport town in the department of Manche, France, where Wil- liam the Conqueror equipped the fleet by which he conquered England, 10(U;. Near it Prince William, duke of Normandy, son of Henry I., in his passage from Normandy, was shipwrecked November 2"), 1120. Bar- fleur was destroyed by the English in the campaign in whiih they won the battle of Crecy, 1346. The French navy was destroyed near the cape by Admiral Kussell after the victory of La Hogue in lti<,t2. Bari (Southern Italy). The Barium of Horace was in the 0th century a stronghold of the Saracens, and was captured by the emperor Louis II , a descendant of Charle- magne, in 871. In the 10th century it be- came subject to the Eastern empire, and BAKIL AKDENT 46 BAPvRITUS remained so till it was taken by Eobert Guiscaid, the Norman, about 1060. Baril Ardent (/'>•)• Fire-barrel ; a barrel filled with layers of tarred chips intermixed with powder and primed at each end with a shell-fuze; it had holes bored in it for tlie purpose of admitting air to the burning contents ; formerly used for illuminating purposes. Baril Foudroyant, or D'artifice {Fr.). Of the same nature as the ba7-U ardent, with the addition of grenades placed between the layers of chips. Barils foudroyants were used at the defense of a breech, by rolling them upon the assailants. Barkam. A fortress on the banks of the Danube. Near here John Sobieski, king of Poland, was defeated by Pasha Ka-Me- hemed, October 7, 1683. Barking-irons. Large dueling pistols. Barnacles. In heraldry, resemble what are now called twitchers, or instruments used by farriers to curb unruly horses. They are frequently introduced into coats of arms as a charge. Barnet. A town in Hertfordshire, Eng- land. Here, at Gladsmore Heath, Edward IV. gained a decisive victory over the Lan- castrians on £astei'-day, April 14, 1471, when the Earl of Warwick and his brother, the Marquis of Montacute, or Montague, and 10,000 men were slain. Barometer. An instrument for measur- ing the weight of the atmosphere. The form ordinarily used was invented in 1643, by Torricelli. It consists of a glass tube filled with mercury inverted in an open cup. Baron. In England a title of nobility, — the grade between the baronet and viscount, — the lowest grade in the House of Lords. Barons' War. Arose in consequence of the faithlessness of King Henry III. and the oppression of his favorites in 12-58. The barons, headed by Simon de Montfort, earl of Leicester, and Gilbert de Clare, earl of Gloucester, met at Oxford in 1262, and enacted statutes to which the king objected. In 1263 their disputes were in vain referred to the decision of Louis IX., king of France. "War broke out, and on May 14, 1264, the king's party were totally defeated at Lewes, and De Montfort became the virtual ruler of the kingdom. Through treachery the war was renewed, and at the battle of Evesham, August 4, 1265, De Montfort was slain, and the barons were defeated. They, however, did not render their final submission till 1268. Barrackpore. A native town and mili- tary cantonment on the river Hoogly, 16 miles from Calcutta, India. In 1857 it be- came famous as the cradle of the formidable mutiny or rebellion of that year. Several regiments of native troops were stationed at Barrackpore. The meii objected to bite oft" the ends of the cartridges for the Enfield rifle, believing the paper to be polluted by animal fat. The troubles connected there- with — a mere prelude to the fatal outbreak at Meerut in May — commenced about the beginning of February, and continued to assume various degrees of intensity, till at last two regiments of Bengal native inftintry had to be disbanded. An intoxicated Sepoy of one of the disbanded regiments attacked and wounded his officer, Lieut. Baugh, with sword and pistol. This fellow, whose name was Mungal Pandy, would seem to have had the equivocal honor of giving the local des- ignation of Pandies to the entire body of insurgents. Barrack-allowance. In the British army, is a specific allowance of bread, beef, wood, coals, etc., to regiments stationed in barracks. Barrack-guard. When a regiment is in barracks the principal guard is called the barrack-guard, the officer being responsible for the regularity of the men in barracks, and for all prisoners duly committed to his charge while on that duty. Barrack-master. The officer who super- intends the barracks of soldiers. Barracks. Are permanent structures for the accommodation of soldiers, as distin- guished from huts and tents, which have usually a square or open place in front, for the purpose of drill and parade. Barrack-sergeants. In the British army, are faithful old sergeants who are selected from the line and placed in charge of bar- racks, under the superintendence of the tar- rack-nuisters. Barrel. A round vessel or cask, of more length than breadth, and bulging in the middle, made of staves and headings and bound with hoops. Powder- barrels are made to contain 100 pounds each, the bar- rels being large enough to allow sufficient space for the powder to move when rolled, to prevent its caking. Also any hollow cyl- inder or tube, as the barrel of a gun. See Fire-barrel. Barricade. An obstruction formed in streets, avenues, etc., so as to block up access to an enemy. They are generally formed of overturned wagons, carriages, large stones, breastworks, abatis, or other obstacles at hand. Barrier. In a general sense means any fortification or strong place on the frontiers of a country. It is likewise a kind of fence composed of stakes and transoms, as over- thwart rafters, erected to defend the entrance of a passage, retrenchment, or the like. In the middle of the barrier is a movable bar of wood, which is opened or shut at pleasure. It also implies a gate made of wooden bars, about 5 feet long, perpendicular to the hori- zon, and kept together by two long bars going across and another crossing diago- nally. Barriers are used to stop the cut made through the esplanade before the gate of a town. Barrier Treaty. A treaty by which the Low Countries were ceded to the emperor Charles VI., and which was signed by the British, Imperial, and Dutch ministers No- vember 15, 1715. Barritus, or Bardites. A word which BARROSA 47 BASHKIRS not only signified the battle-cry of the an- cient Gcrmuns, but all battle-cries were formerly so called. Barrosa, or Barosa. In Southern Spain, where a battle was fought on Marc* o, 1811, between the Britisii army, commanded by Maj.-Oen. Sir Thomas (Jraham. after- wards Lord Lynedoch, and the French under Marshal Victor. After a long con- flict, the IJritish achieved one of the most glorious triumphs of the Peninsular war. Although they fought at great disadvantage the British compelled the French to retreat, leaving nearly 3000 dead. 6 piecef of cannon, and an eagle, the first that the British had taken. The loss of the British was 1169 men killed and wounded. Bar-shot. An obsolete projectile, con- sisting of two shot connected by a bar of iron. Bar-sur-Aube. An ancient town of France, on the Aube, in the department of Aulic, where the French under Oudinot and MacDonuld were defeated by the allies, February 27, 1814. Bar-sur-Seine. A town in the depart- ment of Aube, France; often ruined and sacked during the wars of Burgundy. It was the scene of a severe engagement be- tween Napoleon and the allies, May 25, 1814. Bartholomew, St, The massacre of St. Bartholomew commenced at Paris on the night of the festival of this saint. Accord- ing to Sully 70,000 Huguenots, or French Protestants, including women and children, were murdered throughout the kingdom by secret orders from Charles IX., at the insti- gation of his mother, the queen-dowager, Catherine de Medicis, Augiist 24, 1572. Bartholomew, St. A West India island held by Sweden. It was colonized by the French in lf!48; and has b»;en several times taken and restored by the British. It was ceded to Sweden by France in 1785. Bartizan. A small stone closet thrown out upon corbels over doorways and on other parts of mediaeval castles, generally for defensive purposes, but sometimes for the convenience of the inmates. Bascinet. A light helmet, generally without a visor; so called from its resem- blance to a basin. Baschi. A Turkish title, signifying a superior commander, officer, chief, etc. ; this title is only used in connection with the office title; the most prominent are: Toptschjy-Baschi, general of artillery and inspector of forts, etc. Solacki-Basciii, sub-commander of the archers. Sandschjack-Darlars-Baschi, chief of the 50 cob>r-bearer3. Konadscujy-Baschi, quartermaster-gen- eral. BoLUCK-BA.srni, colonel of a regiment (Boluck) of 1000 militia. Oda-B ASCII IS, company officers who su- perintend drill. Bascule Bridge. A kind of draw-bridge with a counterpiiise swinging up and down, and usually a pit behind it, in which the counterpoise falls or rises as the bridge rises or falls. Bascule is the arrangement of the counterpoise in bascule bridges. Base. In fortifications, is the exterior side of the polygon, or that imaginary line which c(mnects the salient angle of two ad- jacent bastions. Base. In heraldry, denotes the lower part of the shield. Base-line. In gunnery, is a line traced around the gun in rear of the vent; also the measured line used to obtain ranges by triangulation. Base of Operations. That secure line of frontier or fortres.ses, or strong country occufiied by troops, or of sea occupied by fleets, from which forward movements are made, supydies furnished, and upon which a retreat may be made, if necessary. Base of the Breech. In gunnery, is the rear surface of the breech of a gun. Basel, Treaty of. This place gives its name to two important treaties of peace, concluded here on April 5 and July 22, 1795, between the representatives of the French Republic, Prussia, and Spain, by which Prussia withdrew from the coalition against France, took under her protection all the states of Northern Germany which sho\ild like herself relinquish the war in which the German empire was engaged, and also give up to the victorious republic her possessions beyond the Rhine; whilst Spain gave up her portion of St. Domingo, and prepared the way for that alliance with France which was afterwards productive of consequences so important. Base-ring. In gunnery, is a projecting band of metal adjoining the base of the breech, and connected with the body of the gun by a concave moulding. Bashaw. See Pasha. Bashi-Bazouks. Are irregular troops in the pay of the sultan. Very few of them are Europeans ; they are mostly Asiatics, from some of the pashalics in Asiatic Tur- kej' ; they are wild, turbulent men, ready to enter the sultan's service under some leader whom they can understand, and still more ready to plunder whenever an oppor- tunity oflfers. During the Russia-Turkish war of 1854, etc., they had many encounters with the enemy in that kind of irregular warfare which the Russians intrust to Cos- sack horsemen ; but the peaceful villagers had almost as much distrust of the Bashi- Bazouks as of the Russians. They were also partially employed by the British dur- ing the Crimean war. Bashkirs. A race supposed to be descend- ed from the Nogay Tartars, who inhabit the Russian provinces of Ufa and Yekaterin- boorg, in the governments of Orenburg and Perm respectively. They are but partially civilized, and are generally employed by Russia as guards on the frontier of Asia. BASIENTELLO 48 BASTION Basientello (Southern Naples). Here the army of Otto II., in an ambuscade, was nearly cut to pieces by the Greeks and Saracens, July 13, 982; the emperor barely escaped. Basilisk. An ancient piece of ordnance, which was 10 feet long and weighed 7200 pounds ; so called from its supposed resem- blance to the serpent of that name, or from its size. Basillard. An old term for a poniard. Basket-hilt. The hilt of a sword, so made as to contain and guard the whole hand. Basket-hilted. Having a hilt of basket- work. Baskets. See Gabion. Baslard. A short sword or dagger, worn in the 15th century. Basnet. See Bascinet. Basque Provinces (Northwest Spain, Biscay, Guipuzcoa, and Alva). The Basques, considered to be descendants of the ancient Iberi, were termed Vascones by the Romans, whom they successfully resisted. They were subdued with great difficulty by the Goths about 580, and were united to Castile in the 13th and 14th centuries. Basque Roads (Western France). Four French ships of the line, riding at anchor here, were attacked by Lords Gambler and Cochrane (the latter commanding the tire- ships), and all, with a great number of mer- chant and other vessels, were destroyed, April 11-12, 1809. Cochrane accused Gam- bier of neglecting to support him, and thereby allowing the French to escape. At a court-martial Lord Gambier was acquitted. Bassee, La. A town in the department of the North, France, formerly fortified. It sustained several sieges. Louis XIV. cap- tured it from the Spaniards and caused it to be dismantled. Basseterre Roads, St.Christopher's, West Indies. Here the French admiral, the Comte de Grasse, was repulsed with loss in three desperate attacks on the British fleet, com- manded by Sir Thomas Graves, January 25- 26, 1782. Basson (Northern Italy). Here the Aus- trians under Wurmser were defeated by the French under Massena, September 8, 1796. Bassorah, Basrah, or Bussorah (Asia Minor). A Turkish city, founded by the Caliph Omar about 035. It has been several times taken and retaken by the Persians and Turks. Bass Rock. An isle in the Frith of Forth, Southern Scotland ; granted to the Landers in 1316; purchased for a state prison, 1671 ; taken by the Jacobites, 1690; surrendered, 1694; granted to the Dalrymples, 1706. Bastard, or Batarde (Fr.). An ancient piece of ordnance of about 8 pounds calibre, 9J feet long, and weighing 1950 pounds. It was invented by Jean Maurique de Lard, master-general of ordnance under Charles V. of France in 1535. He also had several bastards cast of a larger calibre. This term was also applied to guns of an unusual make or proportion, whether longer or shorter. Bastarnse, or Basternae. A warlike Ger- mar# people who migrated to the country near the mouth of the Danube. They are first mentioned in the wars of Philip and Perseus against the Romans, and at a later period they frequently devastated Thrace, and were engaged in wars with the Roman governors of the province of Macedonia. In 30 B.C. they were defeated by Marcus Crassus, and driven across the Danube, and we find them, at a later period, partly settled between the Tyras (now Dniester) and Bo- rysthenes (now Dnieper), and partly at the mouth of the Danube, under the name of Peucini, from their inhabiting the island of Pence, at the mouth of the river. Bastia. A fortified seaport town, and formerly capital of Corsica, on its north- east coast, and 67 miles from Ajaccio ; be- sieged without success by the Piedmontese in 1748 ; captured by the'English, 1794. Bastide (Fr.). In ancient times, a bas- tion, block-house, fortress, or outer fortifica- tions. Bastile. Originally, a temporary wooden tower used in warfare ; hence, any tower or fortification. Bastile, or Bastille (Paris). A castle built by Charles V., king of France, in 1369, for the defense of Paris against the English ; completed in 1383, and afterwards used as a state prison. Henry IV. and his veteran army assailed it in vain in the siege of Paris during the war, 1587-94. On July 14-15, 1789, it was pulled down by the pop- ulace, the governor and other officers seized, conducted to the Place de Greve, their hands and heads were cut off, and the heads car- ried on pikes through the streets. Bastinado. A punishment among the Turkish soldiers, which is performed by beating them with a cane or flat of a sword on the soles of their feet. Bastion. A work consisting of two faces and two flanks, all the angles being salient. Two bastions are connected by means of a curtain, which is screened by the angle made by the prolongation of the corresponding faces of two bastions, and flanked by the line of defense. Bastions contain, sheltered by their parapets, marksmen, artillery, platform, and guards. They are protected by galleries of mines, and by demi-lunes and lunettes outside the ditch, and by pali- sades, if the ditch is inundated. The faces of the bastion are the parts exposed to being enfiladed by ricochet batteries, and also to being battered in breach. Bastion, Composkd, is where two sides of the interior polygon are very unequal, which makes the gorges also unequal. Bastion, Cut, is that which, instead of a point, has a re-entering angle. Bastion, Deformed, is when the irregu- larity of the lines and angles puts the bas- tion out of shape ; as, when it wants a demi- BASTIONED 49 BATTERIE EN ROUAGE gorge, one side of the interior polygon being too short. Bastion, Demi, is that whit-h has only one face and one flank, out oflf by the capital, — like the extremities of horn- and crown- works. Bastion, Douhle, is that which is raised on the plane <>f another bastion. Bastion, Flat, is a bastion built in the middle of the curtain, when it is too long to be defended by the bastions at its extremes. Bastions, Hoi.low, are those surrounded only with a rampart and parajiet, having the space within unocinpifd where the ground is so low that no retrenchment can be made in the centre in the event of the rampart being taken. Bastion, Regular, is that which has true proportion of faces, flanks, and gorges. Bastions, Solid, are those which have the void space within them filled entirely, and raised of an ofjual height with the rampart. Bastioned Fort. A fort having bastions. Baston. A start' or cudgel formerly used in tournaments. In heraldry, a staff or cud- gel generally borne as a mark of bastardy, and properly containing one-eighth in breadth of the bend-sinister. Bat de Mulet (/•>.). A pack-saddle used on service when mules are employed to carry stores. Aparejos in the United States ser- vice are used for a similar purpose. See Pack-sawdles. Batage (/•>.). The time employed in re- ducing gunpowder to its proper consistency. The French usually consumed 24 hours in pounding the materials to make good gun- powder. Supposing the mortar to contain IT) pounds of composition, it would require the application of the pestle 3r)00 times each hour. The labor required in this process is less in summer than in >vinter, because the water is softer. Bataillon de la Salade (Fr.). A name formerly given in PVance to old corps which wore a peculiar kind of helmet called salade. See Salade. Batardeau (Fr.). A wall built across a ditch or fortification, with a sluice-gate by which the height of the water in the ditch on both sides may be regulated. To prevent this wall being used as a passage across the ditch, it is built up to an angle at the top, and armed with iron sj>ikos; and to render the attempt to cross still more diflicult, a tower of masonry is built <>n it. Batavia and Batavian Republic. See Holland. Bateau { Fr.). A light boat. Bateau-bridge. Is a floating bridge sup- ported by bateaux or light boats. See Pon- tons. Bateau d'Avant-garde (Fr). A sniall light boat attached to the advance-guard of an army. It is ;?;? feet in length by 5 feel 6 inches in breadth. Bate Isle. An island of Ilindostan, be- i longing to the province of Guzerat, situated at the southwestern extremity of the Gulf of i Cutch. It was formerly a rendezvous for pirates, who were the dread of all traders on the western coast (»f India. In 1803 a naval force, consisting of a British frigate and two Bombay cruisers, succeeded in destroying several of the j)irate boats and vessels; but an attack U{)on the castle, though cf^pducted under the tire of the ships, was repulsed with some loss. In 1807 a treaty was entered into with the chiefs of the island, whereby they consented to relinquish their piratical practices. Bath, Knights of the. See Order of Knights ok the Hath. Bat-horse. A baggage horse which bears the bat or pack. Bat-man. A servant in charge of the bat-horses. The term is now applied in the English service to a soldier who acts as ser- vant to an oflScer. Baton. A truncheon borne by generals in the French army, and afterwards by the marshals of other nations. Henry III. of France before he ascended the throne was made generalissimo of the army of his brother Charles IX., and received the baton as the mark of the high command, 1509. Baton. A staflf used by drum-majors of foot regiments. Baton Rouge. A city of Louisiana. It was captured by the Federals August 6, 1862, after a fierce conflict. Batourin. A town of Russia, C3 miles east of Tcheringov,on the Seim. It was the residing place of the hetman of the Ukraine Cossacks from lOItO to 1708; captured and sacked by the Russians in 1708. Batta. An allowance made to military oflScers in the service of the East India Com- pany in addition to their pay. See Half- batta. Battalia. The order of battle ; disposition or arrangement of troops, brigades, regi- ments, battalions, etc., as for action. For- merly the term a[)plii'd to the main body of an army in array, as distinguished from the winu^s. Battailant. Equipped for battle; war- like; a combatant. This word is now ob- solete. Battalion. A body of troops, so called from being originally a body of men ar- ranged for battle; consisting in European armies of about 800 or 1000 men ; in the U. S. service, an aggregation of from two to twelve companies. Battard. An early cannon of small size. Batten. The sloping of a wall which brings the perpendicular from the top inside the base. Batter. A cannonade of heavy ordnance, from the first or second parallel of intrench- ment, against any fortress or works. To batter in breach implies a heavy cannonade of many pieces directed to one part of the revetment from the third parallel. Batterie en Rouage ( Fr. ). Is an enfilad- ing battery, when directed against another batterv. BATTERING 50 BATTERY-WAGON Battering. In military affairs, implies the firing with heavy artillery on some for- tification or strong post possessed by an enemy, in order to demolish the works. Battering Charge. The charge of powder used in battering. The heaviest charge used in a gun. Battering-pieces. Are large pieces of ordnance, used in battering a fortified town or post. Battering-ram. In antiquity, a military engine used to batter and beat down the walls of places besieged. There were two different kinds of battering-rams, one rude and plain, the other compound. The former seems to have been no more than a great beam, which the soldiers bore on their arms and shoulders, and with one end of it, by main force, assailed the walls. The com- pound ram was a large beam with a head of iron, which was sometimes made to resemble the head of a ram. It was suspended by ropes to a beam supported by posts, and balanced so as to swing backwards and forwards, and was impelled by men against the wall. These rams were sometimes 120 feet in length. Battering-train. A train of artillery used solely for besieging a strong place, inclu- sive of mortars and howitzers. See Siege- train. Battery. A battery consists of two or more pieces of artillery in the field. The term battery also implies the implacement of ordnance destined to act offensively or defensively. It also refers to the company charged with a certain number of pieces of ordnance. The ordnance constitutes the battery; men serve it; horses drag it, and epaulments may shelter it. Ambulant Battery, heavy guns mount- ed on traveling carriages, and moved as occasion may require, either to positions on the coast or in besieged places. Barbette Batteries are those without embrasures, in which the guns are raised to fire over the parapet. Battery d'Enfilade is one that sweeps the whole length of a line, or the face or flank of any work. Battery de Reverse is one which plays upon the rear of the troops appointed to de- fend a place. Battery en Echarpe is that which plays obliquely. Breaching Battery. See Breach. Covered, or Masked Battery is when the c/innon and gunners are covered by a bank or breastwork, commonly made of brushwood, fagots, and earth. Cross-batteries are two batteries which play athwart each other upon the same ob- ject, forming there an angle, and battering with more effect, because what one battery shakes the other beats down. Facine and Gabion Batteries are bat- teries constructed of those machines where sods are scarce, and the earth very loose and sandy. Floating Batteries are such as are erected either on rafts or on the hulls of ships. Gun-battery is a defense constructed of earth faced with green sods or fascines, some- times of gabions filled with earth. It con- sists of a breastwork, epaulment, or parapet ; the open spaces through which the muzzles of the cannon are pointed are called embra- sures, and the solid masses between the em- brasures, ■)nerlons ; the genouiliei-es are those parts of the parapet which cover the carriage of the gun. The platforms are plank floors made to prevent the cannon from sinking into the ground ; they are made with a slope to check the recoil of the guns, and to render it more easy to bring them forward again when loaded. Half-sunken Battery. This term is applied to a battery in which the earth to form the parapet is derived partly from a ditch in front and partly from the excava- tion of the terre-plein. See Artillery, also Cavalier. Mortar-batteries differ from gun- batteries in this, that the parapets have no embrasures, and the platforms have no slope, but are exactly horizontal ; the shells being fired quite over the parapet, commonly at an elevation of 45°. Open Battery is a number of cannon, commonly fieM-pieces, ranged in a row abreast on some natural elevation of ground, or on an artificial bank raised for that pur- pose. Raised Battery, one whose terre-plein is elevated considerably above the ground. Redan Batteries are such as flank each other at the salient and re-entrant angles of a fortification. Ricochet Battery, so called by its in- ventor Vauban, was first used at the siege of Aeth in 1697. It is a method of dis- charging cannon with a very small charge of powder, and with just elevation enough to fire over the parapet. When properly managed its effects are most destructive ; for the shot, rolling along the opposite rampart, dismounts the cannon and disperses or de- stroys the troops. Ricochet practice is not confined to cannon alone; small mortars and howitzers may be effectually employed for the same purpose. Sunken Battery, where the sole of the embrasures is on a level with the ground, and the platforms are consequently sunk below it. Battery-boxes are square chests or boxes, filled with earth or dung; used in making batteries, where gabions and earth are not to be had. They must not be too large, but of a size that is governable. Battery-wagon. It consists, besides the limber, of a long-bodied cart with a round top, which is connected with the limber in the same way as all other field-carriages. The lid opens on hinges placed at the side ; and in the rear is fixed a movable forage- rack for carrying along forage. One of these wagons accompanies each field battery, for BATTERY, ELECTRIC 51 BATTERY GUN the purpose of transporting carriage-maker's and saddler's tools, spare parts of carriages, harness, and equipments, and rough ma- terials for replacing different parts. Both it and the forge arc made of equal mobility with the other field-carriages, in order to accompany them wherever they may be re- quired to go. See Ordnance, Carriaoks FOR. Battery, Electric. The apparatus used to generate a current of electricity. Battery, or Traveling Forge. See Ord- NANCK, CaKRIAOES FOR. Battery Gun. A gun capable of firing continuously a great number of shots in a short time. Applied to guns mounted upon tripods, stands, swivels, or carriages. A 7nag- azine cannon in contradistinction to a maga- zine small-arm. Also called mnc.hine qiin and mitrailleur. Guns of this kind existed as early as the 14th century. From the ar- rangement of the barrels they were called killinp organs. They have always been used in various forms, but were comjiaratively in- efficient till recent times, when the introduc- tion of the metallic cartridge gave the sub- ject a new importance Pucklf.'n revolve}-, 1718, was ingeniously mounted upon a tripod with good elevating and traversing arrangements. It had one barrel and a movable rotating breech contain- ing nine charges. These were fired in suc- cession, and a new breech, ready charged, was slipped on. Two kinds of bullets were used, — round bullets against Christians and square ones for Turks. ]yina)is'is steam gun, invented about 1801 by the celebrated American inventor and engineer Thomas Winans, of Baltimore, was a battery gun of large calibre. The shot fell from a hopper into a breech-chamber, and were projected through the barrel by the sudden admission behind it of steam under enormous pressure. The infernal machine with which Ficschi killed Marshal Mortier and a large number of others in his attempt to assassinate Louis Philippe, in 1885, was a crude form of bat- tery gun, consisting of a row of gun-barrels fired by a train of powder. Many battery guns arc of this type. The lici/na battery — American — used in the civil war, ISGl-d"), consisted of a row of 24 barrels on a wheel -carriage, so arranged as to ijive either j)arallel or divergent fire. It was breech-loading, the cartridges being forced iifto the barrels by a transverse bar worked by levers. It was capable of seven volleys a minute. One of the forms of mitrailleur used in the Franco-Prussian war was very much the same. The loading-bar was rotating, and had two sets of chambers. One set was fired while the other was being loaded. The Ahhfrtini gun used in Europe has 10 barrels arranged as in the Kequa battery. It is worked by a crank. The cartridges are conveyed by mechanical devices from a box magazine to the rear of the barrels. The form in which a cluster of barrels is used was |)robably first introduced in France, and was nuide by inserting 25 gun-barrels into the bore of a brass field-piece, into the breech of which a slot was cut, the open rear ends of the barrels being flush with the front wall of the slot. A cylinder-i-ase con- taining cartridges beitig placed in the slot, a set of plungers pushed the cartridges into the barrels. The case was then replaced by a firing-block containing a lock and pin for each cartridge. This was improved by mo\inting the bar- rels (37) without the casing and replacing the cartridge-case by a steel block in which the cartridges were fired without being pushed into the barrels. The first successful gun in which the clus- ter of barrels was made to revolve was the Catling. (See Gatlino Gun.) In this both the barrels and the locks revolve. The Gat- ling gun in its various forms is used by all the leading nations of Europe. It is used in a variety of ways for field service, moun- tain service, flank defense of fortificati(»ns, in the main-tops of ships, etc. It has been mounted upon the backs of camels, on tri- pods, swivels, and field-carriages. In Eu- rope its principal rival is the Noj-denfelt, in which the barrels are stationary and the breech mechanism works horizontally. It is probably su|)erior to the Catling in the amount of metal thrown in a given time. In mechanism and accuracy it is inferior. Its principal claim to superiority is that it fires either volleys or single shots. The re- coil, which is always great in volley-guns, requires a very heavy stand, making it clumsy and unwieldy compared to the Gat- ling. Accidents have also hapj)ened in its use from defective mechanism. Among other American battery or machine guns are the Lowell and Gardner, both of which have won enviable reputations. A late form of the Gardner consists of two barrels fixed in a brass casing, giving it the exter- nal appearance of an ordinary field-piece. It has less rapidity of fire (its maximum being about 3o7 shots a minute) than some other guns, but it is simple, strong, and efficient. The Tai/lor gun was something like the Nordenfelt in principle, having a fixed clus- ter of barrels and a sliding breech mechan- ! ism, firing volleys or sini:lc shots at discro- I tion. A later form of Taylor gun has the barrels in a horizontal row. The imjirovc- ment consists in rapidity of loading. Tho cartridges are carried in the ordinary paper or wooden cases, ex|>osing the heads. Tho gun has a number of upright pieces at tho breech with grooves between them. By drawing the cartridge-<-ase downward over these uprights the cartridges are caught in the grooves by their flanged heads. They fall by gravity, and are conducted by suit- able devices in grooved duinnels to the bar- rels. This gun, it is believed, fires more shots a minute than anv other, but its me- BATTLE 52 BATTLE chanisrn is not so perfect as several of its rivals. The Hotchkiss revolving cannon has the largest calibre of the modern machine guns. It differs from the Gatling in having but one lock for all the barrels. It is worked by a crank like the Gatling, but the mechanism is such that during a part of the revolution of the crank the barrels are stationary. It is during this time that one cartridge is fired and another case extracted. The rapidity of fire is much less than the Gatling and most others, but in perfection of mechanism, ac- curacy, and other qualities, it is unsurpassed. A peculiar form of brake is fitted to the wheels of the field-gun to prevent the recoil from moving the carriage. For the larger sizes both shells and canister are used. The metallic cartridge-case is of brass. This gun is the invention of B. B. Hotchkiss, an American, now residing in Paris. His guns are made at the Hotchkiss Works, jiear that city, and have been adopted for flank de- fense of fortifications and for naval use by several of the continental powers. Battle. An action or engagement be- tween the forces of two armies. A battle is either general or partial ; general, where the whole or the greater part of each army is brought into action ; and partial, where only brigades, divisions, or corps (Varinee are engaged. But, however the numbers may vary, the great principles to be applied in delivering battle are in almost every case the same. Palamedes of Argos is said to have been the first who ranged an army in order of battle, placed sentinels round a camp, and excited the soldier's vigilance by giving him a watch-word. Battles may be arranged into three gen- eral classes, defetisive, offensive, and mixed battles. In a purely defensive battle, an army chooses a position in which to await the enemy, and there to give battle with no other end in view than to hold this position and repulse the enemy. In a purely offen- sive battle, an army seeks the enemy and attacks him wherever he is to be found. A mixed battle, is a combination of these two. The most common case of this last class is that in which a position is selected before- hand, where the army awaits the attack of the enemy, and, at a suitable moment, moves from it, and attacks the assaulting columns. This case is sometimes known as a defen- sive-offensive battle. Details of particular battles and engagements are given under their respective headings in this work. Battle-Abbey. In Sussex, England ; founded by William I. 1067, on the" plain where the battle of Hastings was fought, October 14, 1066. It was dedicated to St. Martin, and given to Benedictine monks, who were to pray for the souls of the slain. The original name of the plain was Hethe- land. After the battle of Hastings, a list was taken of William's chiefs, amounting to 629, and called the B a tile- Roll ; and among these chiefs the lands and distinc- tions of the followers of the defeated Harold were distributed. Battle-array. Array or order of battle ; the disposition of forces preparatory to a battle. Battle-axe. A weapon much used by the early northern nations, Celtic and Scandi- navian, requiring great strength in its use. Some were held with one hand, some with two; the former kind could be wielded equally by horse and foot, but the latter was for foot soldiers only. The battle-axe has a longer handle, and a broader, stronger, and sharper blade than the common axe. During the Middle Ages and somewhat earlier, it was much used in sorties, and to prevent the escalading of a besieged fortress. The /)oZ«-rt.ce diflfered but little from the battle-axe. The black-bill and broivn-bill were a sort of halbert, having a cutting part like a wood- man's bill, with a spike projecting from the back, and another from the head. The qlaive was a kind of pole-axe or bill used by the Welsh. Battle-cries. See War-cries. Battle-ground. A village of Tippecanoe Co., Ind., where the battle of Tippecanoe was fought, November 7, 1811, between Gen. Harrison and the Indians under the chief Tecumseh and his brother the "Pro- phet." Battlements. The indentations in the top of old castles, or fortified walls, in the form of embrasures, for the greater con- venience of firing or looking through. Battle of the ioiants. See Marignano. Battle of the Herrings. A name given by historians to an engagement which took place February 12, 1429, in which Sir John Fastolfe, an English general at the head of 1500 men, gained a victory over 6000 French- men near Orleans, and brought a convoy of stores in safety to the English camp before that place. The stores comprised a large quantity of herrings. Battle of the Nations. See Leipsic. Battle of the Spurs. A name given to the battle of Courtrai (which see); also to that of Guinegate. See Guineoate. Battle of the Standard. A name given to a battle between the English and Scotch at Northallerton (which see). Battle of the Thirty. A name given in English and French history to a celebrated engagement which took place at a spot known as Midway Oak, half-way between the castles of Josselin and Ploe'rmel, in France, March 27, 1351. The French gen- eral Beaumanoir, commanding at the former place, being enraged at the English general Bemborough, occupying the latter position, challenged him to fight. Upon this it was agreed that 30 knights of each party should meet and decide the contest. At the first onset the English were successful, but Bem- borough having been killed, the French re- newed the struggle with redoubled courage, and finally won the victory. Battle-range. The range corresponding BATTLE 53 BAZAR to the maximum "dangerous space" for the trajectory of any fire-arm. Tliis rani^e is somewhat greater for sucli tire-arm employed against mounted troops than against foot troops. For instance, it is 202 yards for the Springfield rifle (calihre .45) when used against foot troops, and rcjiresents the ex- treme range for whicli the rear siglit may be set so as to cover sucii foot troops continu- ously between that point and the firer. There is also a "dangerous space" of 75 yards behind that point for the foot soldier; hence the maximum "dangerous space" is 3:57 yards, and is a continuous one. For the same arm and against cavalry, the "battle- range" is 201 yards, corresponding to a max- imum continuous "dangerous space," front and rear, of (291+95=) 380 yards. For the carbine (cal. .45) against infantry, this range is 204 yards, and the maximum " dan- gerous space" is 300 yards. Upon the latest model sights (1879) "for these two fire-arms, the letter "/}" is placed opposite the "bat- tle-range" elevation, and indicates the most suitable one for firing at an enemy's line of battle ; with this elevation and the aim taken at the foot, the enemy will be hit wherever i he may be within a range of about 400 yards. ' The most eflective fire, and one covering the greatest zone of continuous "dangerous space," can be secured by causing troops to lie down, to fire at the feet of the opposing line, and to use the " battle" elevation. The zone then swept will be round about 500 yards for troops armed with the service rifle, tjoe Danukkous Si'ack. Battle, The Fearless. An engagement between the Lacedaemonians under Archi- damus IIL and the Arcadians. Battre (/•>.). To direct one or more pieces of ordnance in such a manner that any given object nuiy be destroyed or broken into by the continued discharge of cannon- ball, or other warlike material ; it likewise means to silence an enemy's fire. Battre de Front (/•>.'). To throw can- non-balls in a perpendicular or almost per- ])endiiular direction against any body or place which becomes an object of attack. This mode of attack is less eflectual than any other unless bntfering in breach. Baulois. A piece of punk stuff, used by millers for firing the saucision, or train. Bavaria. A kingdom in South Germany ; conquered from the Celtic Gauls by the Franks, between 030 and tiOO. The country was afterwards governed by dukes subject to the French monarchs. Tasillon H. was de- posed by Charlemagne, who established mar- graves in 788. lienry the Lion, duke of Saxony, Bavaria, and Brunswiik, was dis- possessed in 1180 by the emperor Frederick Barbarossft (who had previously been his friend and benefactor.) Havaria supported Austria in the contest with Prussia in June, 1800, and took part in the war; made peace with Prussia August 22. Took part with Prussia against the French in the Franco- Prussian war, 1870. [ Bavier. The beaver of a helmet. Bavin. The old word for fascine. Bayberry Tallow. A product of the wax myrtle, used as lubricant for bullets. Bayeux. A city in the department of Calvados, France, 17 mile.s west-northwest of Caen ; captured and sacked bv Henry L of England in 1100; by Philip (if Nava'rre in 1350 ; the P:nglish took p.issession of it, 1450 ; the Protestants in 1501 ; Lamoriciere for the League in 1589, and the Duke of Alontpen- sier in 1590. Baylen. A town in Southern Spain, where on July 20, 1808, the French, commanded by (iens. Uupont and Wedel, were defeat<'d by the Spaniards under Keding, Coujiigny, and other generals, whose force amounted to 25,000. Bayonet. A triangular dagger, made with a hollow handle and a shoulder, to fix on the muzzle of a rifle, so that its presence does not impede either the charging or firing of the piece. It is said to have been invented at Hayonne, in France, about 1047, 1070, or lOliO. It was used at Killiecrankie in 1089, and at Marsaglia by the French in 1093, " with great success against the enemy, un- prepared for the encounter with so formid- able a novelty." Bayonets are sometimes made in other shapes. See Sword-bayonet and Trowki.-hayonkt. Bayonet Exercise. A drill in fencing with till' bayonet fixed on the gun. Bayonet Scabbard. A leather or metal- lic case for carrving the bavonet suspended from the belt. Bayonne. An ancient city in Southern France, at the confluence of the Adour and Nive; held by the British from 1295 till it was taken by Charles VII. The queens of Spain and France met here in 1505 the cruel l)uke of Alva, it is supposed to arrange the massacre of St. Bartholomew. Charles IV. of Spain abdicated here in favor of his "friend and allv," the emperor Napoleon, May 4, 1808. In the neighborhood of Ba- yonne was much desperate fighting between the French and English armies, December 10, 11, and 13, 1813 Tinvested by the British January 14, 1814; on April 14, the French made a sally and attacked the English with success, but were at length driven back. The loss of the British was considt-rable, and Lieut.-Gen. Sir John Hope was wounded and taken prisoner. Bayou. A long and narrow place; a branch of a trench in fortification; a hose or leathern pipe; the outlet of a lake; a channel for water. Baza. A city in Andalusia, Spain ; it was taken by the Spaniards under Ferdi- nand V. from the Moors inl)ecember, 1489, after a siege of nearly seven months ; in 1810 the Spaniards under (iens. Blake and Freire were defeated by the French under Mar>lial Soult. Bazar. The sutler establishment which accoMi]iMnies a native regiment in the India service wherever it goes. BAZEILLES 54 BEDOUINS Bazeilles. A village in the Ardennes, Northeast France. During the dreadful battle of Sedan, September 1, 1870, Bazeilles was burnt by the Bavarians, and outrages committed. Of nearly 2000 inhabitants scarcely 50 remained alive, and these indig- nantly denied having given provocation. The cause of provocation appears to have been that an old woman whose husband and sons had been killed had fired upon and killed two Bavarians. Bazoche-des-Hautes. Near Orleans, Central France. Here a part of the army of the Loire, under Gen. d'Aurelle de Pala- dines, was defeated after a severe action by the Germans under the Grand Duke of Mecklenburg, December 2, 1870. Beach-master. Formerly a superior offi- cer, appointed to superintend the disembar- kation of an attacking force, who holds ple- nary powers, and generally leads the storm- ing-party. His acts when in the heat of action are unquestioned. Beachy Head. A promontory. Southeast Sussex, England, near which the British and Dutch fleets, commanded by the earl of Tor- rington, were defeated by a superior French force under Admiral Tourville, June 30, 1690; the allies suffered very severely. The Dutch lost 2 admirals, 500 men, and several ships, — sunk to prevent them from falling into the hands of the enemy ; the English lost 2 ships and 400 men. The admirals on both sides were blamed, — the English for not fighting, the French for not pursuing the victory. Beacon. A signal-fire to notify the ap- proach of an enemy. Bear. In a military sense, a piece of ordnance is said to bear, or come to bear, or is brought to bear, when pointed directly against the object ; that is, pointed to hit the object. Bear, Order of. Was a military order in Switzerland, instituted by the emperor Frederick II. in 1213, by way of acknowl- edgment for the service the Swiss had done him, and in favor of the abbey of St. Gall. To the collar of the order hung a medal, on which was represented a bear raised on an eminence of earth. Beard. The reflected points of the head of an ancient arrow, particularly of such as were jagged. Beat. In a military sense, to gain the day, to win the battle, etc. Beating the Wind. Was a practice in use in the ancient method of trial by combat. If one of the combatants did not appear in the field at the time appointed, the other was to make so many flourishes with his weapon, by which he wifs entitled to all the advan- tages of a conqueror. Beauceant, or Beaucent {Fr.). Standard of the Knights Templar; it was white on one side and black on the other. Beaugency. An ancient town of France, in the department of Loiret, and situated on the right bank of the Loire. It was at one time surrounded by walls, flanked with tow- ers and bastions, and defended by a strong castle, now ruined. In the history of the wars of France Beaugency occupies a con- spicuous place; it was successively in the hands of the Huns, Saxons, Normans, and English, but the town sustained most dam- age during the religious wars of the 16th century. Beaumont. A town in the department of the Somme, France; here the French routed the allies, June 16, 1815. Beaumont. A village near Sedan, de- partment of Ardennes, Northeast France. Near here a part of the army of Marshal MacMahon, under De Failly, which, after vainly endeavoring to reach Metz, was re- treating before the Germans under the crown prince of Prussia, was surprised, defeated, and driven across the Meuse at Mouzon, August 30, 1870. The French loss included about 7000 prisoners, many guns, and much camp equipage. The victory was chiefly gained by the Bavarians. Beaune-la-Rolande. A village in the Loiret, France. Here the French army of the Loire under Gen. d'Aurelle de Pala- dines was defeated by the Germans under Prince Frederick Charles, in an attempt to march in the direction of Fontainebleau, to relieve Paris, November 28, 1870. The French loss was reported by the Germans to be 1000 dead and 4000 wounded, with more than 1700 prisoners. Their own loss was also heavy. Beauvais (Northern France). The an- cient Bellovaci, formerly capital of Picardy. When besieged by Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundy, with 80,000 men, the women under Jeanne Fourquet or Laine, also called de la Hachette, from her using that weapon, particularly distinguished themselves, and the duke raised the siege, July 10, 1472. In memory of this, the women of Beauvais walk first in the procession on the anniversary of their deliverance. Bebra. A sort of javelin, used by the ancient Germans ; it was an imitation of the pllmn of the Romans. Bee de Corbin {Fr.). A kind of halbert formerly used by the body-guards of the kings of France. Bechlis. Light cavalry of the Turks, composed of picked men and horses. Bedaines [Fr.)'. Stone bullets which were thrown from catapults during the Middle Ages. Bednore, or Nuggur. A large city of Mysore, India. In 1763 it was taken and pillaged by Hyder Ali, who subsequently made it the seat of his own government. It was taken b}' the British under Gen. Mat- thews in 1783, but was soon retaken by Tippoo, at the head of a vastly superior force, when Gen. Matthews and all the principal British officers were put to death. Bedouins. Wandering tribes of Arabs, living on the plunder of travelers, etc. They profess a form of Mohammedanism, and are BEDS 55 BELLAIR governed by sheikhs. They are said to be descendiirits of Ishmael. Beds. Are receptacles for ordnance of lari^c calibre, — mortar-beds serve the same purpose as {jun-carriages. They are made of solid timber, consisting generally of two Iiieces fastenc^d together with strong iron lolts and bars. Their sizes depend on the kind of mortar they carry. The beds for the smaller mortars are made of one solid block only. Tlie reason that a bed is used for a mortar instead of a wheel-carriage is on account of the high elevation at which a mortar is usually tired, when the recoil, in- stead of forcing the piece backwards, tends to torce it downwards, and this tendency becomes so great at the higher angles that no wheel-carriage could long sustain the shock. Beeren, Gross. A village of Prussia, 11 miles east-southeast of I'otsdam, well known as the scene of a great victory gained by the Prussians over the French on August 22-'2:^, 1813. Beetles. In a military sense, are large wooden hammers for driving down palisades, and for other uses. Beetlestock. The stock or handle of a beetle. Befort, or Belfort. A fortified town in the departmiMit of Haut-l{hin, France; sustained several sieges; taken by the Aus- trians in 1814. Its citadel was constructed by Vauban. Beg, or Bey. A Turkish title, rather vague in its import, and commonly given to superior military officers, ship-captains, and ■ distinguished foreigners. More strictly, it applies to the governor of a small district, who bears a horse-tail as a sign of his rank. Beglerbeg, or more correctly Beilerbcgi (" inrd of lords"), is the title given to the governor of a province who bears three horse-tails as his badge of honor, and has authority over several begs, agas, etc. Begkos, or Beikos. A large village of Anatolia, on the IJosphorus, 8 mihjs north- northeast of Scutari, said to be the locality of the contest between Pollux and Amycus, in which the latter was killed; At the commencement of the Crimean war, the allied fleets anchored in Begkos Bay, prior to their entering the Black Sea, in January, 1854. "^ ^' Behourd, Bihourt, or Bohourt ( Fr. ). This name was given during tin- .Middle Ages, to a combat on horseback, lance in hand ; also a tilting of cavaliers, which took place at public amusements. Beilan. A town and mountain-pass of Syria at its northern extremity, on the east side of the (iulf of Iskanderoon. Here the Egyptian troops totally defeated the Turks in 1832. Belbeys, or Belbeis. A town of Lower Egypt, on the eastern arm of the Nile, 28 miles north-northeast of Cairo; it is inclosed by earthen ran)parts, and is n station on the route from Egypt to Syria. During the expedition of the French into Egypt, Gen. Bonaparte had the ancient for- titications repaired. Beleaguer. To invest a town or fortress, so as to j)reclude escape ; to besiege •, to block- ade. Belem. A town of Portugal, on the right bank of the Tagus, near Lisbon. It is his- torically interesting as the place from whence Vasco de Gama set sail on his voy- age of oriental discovery; it was taken in November, 1807, by the French, the royal family of Portugal embarking from its quay for Brazil as they entered ; in 1833, it was occupied by Don Pedro's troops. Belemnon. A dart used by the ancient Grecians. Belfry, or Beffroi. Among military writers of the Middle Ages, a movable tower, often several stories high, erected by besiegers for purposes of attack and de- fense. Belgian-fuze. See Bormann-fuze. Belgium. Late the southern portion of the kingdom of the Netherlands, and anciently the territory of the Belgse, who were tinally conquered by Julius Cajsar, 51 H.c. ; a revo- lution commenced at Bru.ssels, August 25, 1830; Antwerp taken (ex- proached to relieve it, and a sanguinary battle was fought at Peterwardein, in which the Turks lost 20,000 men ; after this battle Bel- grade surrendered. In 173'.> it was ceded to the Turks, after its line foriitications had been demolished; retaken in 178H. and re- stored at the peace of Heichenbach in 17JK). j The Servian insurgents had jmssession of it in 180(); in 1815, it was jdaced under Prince Milosch, subject to Turkey; the fortitica- 1 tions were restored in 1820; the fortress was surrendered by the Turks to the Servians about August,' 18»J7. Belier (/>.). A batfering-ram, inve.nted by the Carthaginians about 441 H.c. ; used in ancient times for siege pur|>oses. Also a wooden machine for driving wedges under u ship's button). Bellair. In North America; this town BELLE-ALLIANCE 56 BENEYENTO was attacked by the British forces under Sir Peter Parker, who, after an obstinate en- gagement, were repulsed with considerable loss ; their gallant commander was killed August 30, f814. Belle-Alliance. A farm-house on the field of Waterloo, Belgium ; it is situated on the right side of the high-road to Brussels and about two miles from Mount-Saint-Jean. Here Napoleon marshaled his guards for their last eflbrt at Waterloo ; and here Wel- lington and Bliicher met after the battle was gained by the allies. Bellegarde. A hill fortress of France, in the department of the Pyrenees Orien- tales. Here the French under Philip III. were defeated by Peter III. of Aragon, in 1285; captured by the Spaniards in 1674, and again by the French under Marshal Schoniberg, in 1675; blockaded and taken by the Spaniards under Pvicardos, but was retaken by the French in the following year. Belleisle. An isle on the southeast of Brittany, France, erected into a duchy for Marshal Belleisle in 1742, in reward of his military and diplomatic services, by Louis XV. Belleisle was taken by the British forces under Commodore Keppel and Gen. Hodgson, after a desperate resistance, June 7, 1761 ; restored to France in 1763. Belley, Bellica, Bellicum, or Bellicium. A town in the department of Ain, France, 39 miles east from Lyons, formerly fortified. Belley served as a place of arms to Caisar against the Allobroges ; burned by Alaric in 390 ; it was in the possession of the dukes of Savoy; it was ceded to France in 1601. Belligerent. In a state of warfare. Hence any two or more nations at war are called belligerent powers. Bellinzona. A town in the Swiss canton of Ticino, on the river Ticino. It has several castles, and was captured and recaptured several times by the Germans, Swiss, and French. Bellipotent. Powerful or mighty in war. Bell-metal. An alloy of about 78 parts copper and 22 of tin, used in making bells. It is harder and more sonorous than gun- metal, but much more brittle. Bellovaci. The most powerful of the Belgce, dwelt in the modern Beauvais, be- tween the Seine, Oise, Somme, and Bresle. In Caesar's time they could bring 100,000 men into the field, but they were subdued by Caesar with the other Belgae. Bellows-house. See Ordnance, Car- riages FOR, Traveling Forge. Bells of Arms. In the British service, are tents in front of the quarters of each company of infantry, in which the arms are piled. In Indian cantonments, the bells of arms are of masonry. Beloochistan, Southern Asia. The an- cient Gedrosia. The capital, Kelat, was taken by the British in the Afghan war, in 1839; abandoned in 1840; taken and held for a short time in 1841. Belt, Great. A strait forming the central communication between the Baltic and the Cattegat; it separates the island of Funen from that of Seeland. In the winter of 1658, while frozen, it was crossed by Gus- tavus Adolphus, king of Sweden, and his army, on his way to besiege Copenhagen. Belts. Leathern suspenders of ditferent sorts and for various purposes, viz. : sword belts, to which swords hang ; shoulder or cross belts, broad leathern belts, crossing from the right shoulder, and to which the pouch is aifixed ; and leathern straps fixed round the waist, by which a sword or bay- onet is suspended. Benares. A holy city of the Hindoos in India ; it was ceded by the nabob of Oude to the English in 1755; the scene of an insurrection in 1781, which nearly proved fatal to the British interests in Hindostan. In June, 1857, Col. Neil succeeded in sup- pressing attempts to join the Sepoy mutiny. Ben-Azzedin. A place in Algiers, where the French fought the Kabyles, September 9, 1848. Benburb. Near Armagh (Northern Ire- land). Here O'Neill totally defeated the Eng- lish under Monroe, June 5, 1646. Moore says that it was " the only great victory since the days of Brian Boru achieved by an Irish chieftain in the cause of Ireland." Bend. In heraldry, is one of the ordi- naries, or more important figures. It is formed of two parallel lines drawn from the dexter to the sinister base, and consequently passing athwart the shield. It is supposed to represent a shoulder-belt, or scarf worn over the shoulder. Bender (Bessarabia, European Kussia). Was the asylum of Charles XII. of Sweden after his defeat at Pultowa bv the czar Peter the Great, July 8, 1709. " The i)eace of Bender was concluded in 1711 ; it was taken by storm, by the Kussians, in September, 1770; again taken by Potemkin in 1789; and again stormed in 1809. It was restored at the peace of Jassy, but retained at the peace of 1812. Benevente. A small town of the prov- ince of Alentejo, Portugal, where Lord Paget, afterwards Marquis of Anglesea, in 1808, greatly distinguished himself by a brilliant cavalry action, against the French under Marshal Soult ; when Gen. Lefebre Desnouettes, who commanded the advanced guard of the French forces, was taken prisoner. Benevento (anc. Beneventuni). An an- cient city in South Italy, said to have been founded by Diomedes the Greek, after the fall of Troy; Pyrrhus of Macedon, during his invasion of Italy, was totally defeated near Beneventum, 275 B.C. At a battle fought here, February 26, 1266, Manfred, king of Sicily, was defeated and slain by Charles of Anjou, who thus became virtu- ally master of Italy. It was seized by the king of Naples, but restored to the pope, 1773; it was taken by the French in 1798, and restored to the pope in 1814. BENGAL 57 BERLIN Bengal. Chief presidency of British In- diii, containing Calcutta, the capital. Its governors were delegated by the sovereigns of Deilii till 1.340, when it became independ- ent. It was added to the Mogul empire by Baber about 152'J. Beni-Abbes. An Algerian tribe who fou-lit tlic French, May KJ, 1847. Beni-Achour. An Algerian tribe who were defeated by the French, September 22, 184H. Benicke. A kind of military fete among the Turks, similar to a tournament, but without tli(! jiresence of ladies. Beni-Mered. An Algerian tribe who were defeated by the French, May 27, 183G. Beni-Yala. An Algerian tribe who were chastised by tlic French, ^lay -31, 1847. Ben-Nahr. A place in 'Algeria where the French defeated the Arabs, February 7, 184»i. Bennington. A post-township of Ben- nington Co., Vt., 117 miles southwest of 3Iontpelier. Here a detachment of the English army under Gen. Burgoyne were defeated by the Americans under Gen. Stark, August IG, 1777, and GOO prisoners cajiturcd. Ben-Tijour. A place in Algeria where the French engaged the Arabs, September 22, 1S4S. Bentonville. A village in Johnston Co., N. C. Here part of the army of Gen. Sher- man encountered a Confederate army (40,000 strong) under Gen. Johnston, March, 18G5. The attack was made by Gen. Johnston on the left wing of the Federal army with the intention of overwhelming it before it could be relieved. Six assaults were gallantly sus- tained by the Federals against the combined forces of (icns. Hoke, Hardee, and Cheat- ham. During the night Gen. Slocum re- ceived reinforcements which rendered his positicm impregnable. On March 21, Gen. Sherman ordered a general attack by his skirmish-line, and the ensuing night Johns- ton retreated towards Sniithtield, leaving his jiickets to fall into Gen. Sherman's hands. The Federal lo.-^s was 1G4G ; the Confederate loss is unknown, but about 1800 prisoners were taken by the Union forces. Beraun. A walled town of Bohemia, cap- ital of a circle, on the Heraun Kivor. Here the Au«trians defeated the Prussians in 1744. Berbers. The general name usually given to till' tribes inhabiting the mountainous re- gions of IJarbary and the northern portions of the Groat Desert. They were conquered in succession by the Phienicians, Komans, Vandals, and Arabs. They are of middle stature, sparely but strongly built; com- plexion varies t^rom a red to a yellow brown ; hair is, in general, dark, and eyes dark and piercing. Their manners are austere, and in disposition they are cruel, suspicious, and implacable. They are usually at war with their neighbors or among themselves. Beresina, or Berezina. A river in Rus- sia, crossed bv the French main army after its defeat by the Russians, November 25-29, 1812. The French lost upwards of 20,000 men, and their retreat was attended by great calamity and sutlering. Bereung. A description of Swedish mi- litia, consisting of every man in the king- dom, from 20 to 25 years of age, capable of bearing arms. Bergamo. A fortified city of Lombardy, Italy; captured by the French in 1G'J8. During the height of the Venetian power, Bergamo was a dependency on its territory ; under Na])oleon, it was the capital of the department of Serio. Bergedorf. A town of North Germany ; it was taken from the Duke of Saxe-Lauen- berg in 1736 by the cities of Hamburg and Lubeck ; recaptured in 1412; and again taken by the same two cities in 1720. Bergen. A small town in Germany, about 5 miles from Frankfort. Here the French, under the Duke of Broglie, defeated the allies under the Duke Ferdinand of Bruns- wick, April 13, 1759. The allies lost 2^300 killed and wounded, and the French lost about 1800. Bergen. A town in Holland. Here the allies under the Duke of York were defeated by the French, under Gen. Brune, with great loss, September 19, 1799. In another battle fought October 2, the same year, the duke gained the victory over Brune ; but on the Gth, the duke was' defeated before Alkmaer, and on the 20th entered into a convention, by which his army was exchanged for G0(»0 French and Dutch prisoners in England. Bergen-op-Zoom, or Berg-op-Zoom. A strongly-fortified town of Holland, in North Brabant, on the river Zoom. In 158G it was unsuccessfully besieged by the famous Duke of Parma, and afterwards, in 1(522, it defied the utmost attemjtts of Spinola, who was forced to abandon the enterprise after a siege of ten weeks, with the loss of 12.000 men. It was taken by the French under Count Lowendahl in 1747, and in 1795 was again occupied by them. An attemj)t made by the British under Gen. Sir T. Graham (afterwards Lord Lynedoch) to carry the fortress by storm was defeated ; after forcing an entrance, their retreat wa-s cut ofi", and a dreadful slaughter ensued ; nearly all were cut to pieces or made prisoners, March 8, 1814. Bergerac. A town in the department of Dordogne, France ; it was formerly fortified, and sustained many sieges ; taken by the English in 1345, and retaken by the Duke of Anjou in 1370. Its fortifications were razed by Louis XIII. in lf,21. ' Bergfried, Combat of. A combat which took place between tlio French and Rus*ians, February 3, 1807, in which the latter wero repulsed. Bergues. .V fortified town in the depart- ment of the North, France; it was captured and recaptured by the Spaniards and French ; the last time by Turenne in 1058. Berlin. Cajiital of Prussia, in the proy- BERME 58 BEYROOT ince of Brandenburg ; alleged to have been founded by the margrave Albert the Bear, about 1163. It was taken by an army of Russians and Austrians in 1760, but they were obliged to retire in a few days. On October 26, 1806, after the battle of Jena (October 14), the French entered Berlin; and from this place Napoleon issued the famous " Ber- lin decree" or interdict against the commerce of England, November 20. On November 5, 1808, Napoleon entered into a convention with Prussia by which he remitted to Prus- sia the sum due on the war-debt and with- drew many of his troops to reinforce his army in Spain. An insurrection commenced here in March, 1848; a treaty of peace be- tween Prussia and Saxony was signed on October 21, 1866. Berme. A narrow path round fortifica- tions between the parapet and the ditch, to prevent the earth from falling in. Bermuda Hundred. In Chesterfield Co., Va., on the right bank of the James River, just above the mouth of the Appomattox. Here on May 16, 1864, the Federal forces under Gen. Butler were attacked by the Con- federates under Beauregard, and after sev- eral hours' severe fighting Butler was com- pelled to fall back to his first line of intrench- ments, with a loss of about 2500. Bermuda Islands, or Bermudas. A group of islands in the North Atlantic Ocean, discovered by Juan Bermudez, a Spaniard, in 1527, but not inhabited until 1600, when Sir George Somers was cast away upon them. The Bermudas are garrisoned by British troops. ' Bernard, The Great St. A famous moun- tain-pass of the Pennine Alps, so called from a monastery founded on it by Bernardine de Meuthon in 972. Velan, its highest peak, is about 8000 feet high, covered with per- petual snow. Hannibal, it is said, conducted the Carthaginians by this pass into Italy, 218 B.C. ; and by the same route, in May, 1800, Bonaparte led his troops to Italy before the battle of Marengo, June 14, 1800. Berne. The sovereign canton of Switzer- land ; joined the Swiss League in 1352 ; the town of Berne was made a free city by the emperor Frederick, May, 1218; it success- fully resisted Rudolph of Hapsburg, 1288. It surrendered to the French under Gen. Brune, April 12, 1798; the town was made capital of Switzerland in 1848. Berry (anc. BUurigum regis), Central France ; held by the Romans since the con- quest by Caesar, 58-50 B.C., till it was sub- dued by the Visigoths ; from whom it was taken by Clovis in 507. Bersaglieri. The sharpshooters of the Sardinian army ; first employed about 1848. Berserker. A legendary Scandinavian hero of the 8th century, celebrated for his strength and valor. He fought without a coat of mail or helmet, whence his name. The name Berserkers was also applied to a class of warriors who, under the influence of a sort of demoniac possession, fought naked, performing marvelous feats of valor, un- mindful or insusceptible of wounds. Berwick-on-Tweed. A fortified town on the northeast extremity of England ; the theatre of many bloody contests while Eng- land and Scotland were two kingdoms ; it was claimed by the Scots because it stood on their side of the river ; annexed to England in 1333 ; and after having been taken and retaken many times, was finally ceded to England in 1482; in 1651 it was made inde- pendent of both kingdoms ; the town sur- rendered to Cromwell in 1648, and after- wards to Gen. Monk in 1659. Besan9on. A fortified city of France, capital of the department of Doubs ; sacked by Attila ; captured and ruined by the an- cient Germans ; rebuilt by the Burgundians ; it was ceded to Spain by the peace of West- phalia; taken bv Louis XIV. on May 15, 1670 ; united to France in 1678 ; in 1814 the Austrians besieged it without success. Besiege. To lay siege to or invest any fortified place with armed forces. Besieged. The garrison that defends the place against the army that lays siege to it. Besiegers. The army that lays siege to a fortified place. Bessarabia, A frontier province of Eu- ropean Russia, part of the ancient Dacia. After being possessed by the Goths, Huns, etc., it was conquered by the Turks in 1474, and ceded to Russia in 1812. Bessemer Steel. See Ordnance, Metals FOR. Bessi. A fierce and powerful Thracian people, who dwelt along the whole of Mount Hfcemus as far as the Euxine. After the conquest of Macedonia by the Romans, 168 B.C., the Bessi were attacked by the latter, and subdued after a severe struggle. Bethoron. A village of Palestine. Near here Judas Maccabajus gained advantages on two different occasions over the generals of Antiochus. Bethsur. An ancient city of Palestine, now extinct. The Syrian general Lysias captured it, 163 B.C., after a severe combat in which Eleazar, a brother of Judas, perished. Beton. French term for concrete. Much used in permanent fortifications. See Con- crete. Beton Agglomere. A species of concrete invented by M. Coignet. Used in building arches, aqueducts, cellar walls, etc. It dif- fers from ordinary beton, having much greater strength and hardness, — qualities derived from the ramming to which it is subjected. Betray. To deliver perfidiously any place or body of troops into the hands of the enemy. To discover that which has been intrusted to secrecy. Betty. A machine used for forcing open gates or doors. See Petard. Bey. See Beq. BejTOOt, or Beyrout (anc. Berytus). A seaport of Syria, colonized from Sidon ; alternately possessed by the Christians and B^ZIERS 59 BIG BETHEL Saracens; and after many changes, fell into the power of Ainurath IV., since when it remained with the Ottoman empire up to the revolt of Ibrahim Pasha in 1882. The total defeat of the Egyptian army by the allied British, Turkish, and Austrian forces, and evacuation of Beyroot (the Egyptians losing 70(K) in killed, wounded, and pris- oners, and 20 pieces of cannon), took place October 10, 1840. Sir C. JJapier was the English admiral engaged. Beyroot suffered greatly in consequence of the massacres in Syria "in May, 1860. Beziers. A city of France, department of Ilcrault; sacked by the Vandals in the 5th century; by the Visigoths in the 5th, 0th, and 7th centuries; by the Saracens in 720; by Charles Martel in 787; in 1209, this city was taken by the Catholics under Simon de Montfort and Arnaud, abbe of Citeaux, and was the scene of a barbarous massacre of the Albigenses; 60,000 inhab- itants were slain without consideration of sex or age (7000 were found dead in the church (k la Mnqdclcine, where they sought refuge from their relentless slayers). Bhootan. A country north of Lower Bengal. Invaded by the Hritish in Decem- ber, 18(14, in consequence of injurious treat- ment of an envoy. Bhurtpoor (India). Capital of Bhurt- poor. was besieged by the British, January 3, 1805, and attacked five times up to March 21, without success. The fortress was taken by Gen. Lake, after a desperate engage- ment with Holkar, the Mahratta chief, April 2, 1805; this led to a treaty on April 17. On the rajah's death, during a revolt against his son, Bhurtpoor was taken by storm, by Lord Combcrmere, January 18, 1826. Biacolytes. A military organization in the Grecian empire, whose duty was to pre- vent the committal of any excesses against life or property. Their service was analo- gous to that of the French gendarmes. Biagrasso, or Abbiategrasso. A city on the Ticiiiella, in Lonibartiy ; here, in 1524, the French were defeated by tlie Imperialists. Bibans, or Bibens. " The Gates of Iron." A dangerous defile of the Atlas Mountains, between Algiers and Constan- tine ; it is traversed by a number of currents. The French, led by the Duke of Orleans and Marshal Valee, passed through it in 1839. Bibaux, or Petaux (Fr.). In ancient times, were soldiers who fought on foot, with cross-bow and lance. Biberach ( Wiirtemberg). Here Moreau twice defeated the Austrians, — under La- tour, October 2, 1796, and under Kray, May 9. 1800. Bicker. A word formerly used in the sense of to skirmish ; to fight ofl' and on ; to make repeated attacks. Bicocca (Northern Italy). Lautrec and the French were here defeated by Colon na and the Imperialists, April 29, 1522, and Francis thereby lost his conquests in Milan. Bicoque [Fr.). A term used in France to signify a place ill fortified and incapable of much defense. It is derived from a place on the road between Lodi and Milan, which was originally a gentleman's country-house surrounded by ditches. In 1522, a body of Imperial troops were stationed in it, and stood the attack of the whole French arniy, during the reign of Francis I. This en- gagement was called the battle of Bicoque. Bicorneurs {Fr.). Name given to the militia of Valenciennes, Bidarkee. A skin boat used by the Aleuts. Bidassoa. A river of the Pyrenees, which forn)s one of the boundaries of France and Spain, the passage of which is memorable as completing the endeavors of Lord Wellington to drive the French, under Marshal Soult, out of the Penin- sula into France. In 1808, Marshal Juiiot crossed the Bidassoa with the armies of France to invade the Peninsula, and in 1813, Lord AVellington crossed it, after driving the French out of Spain. Bidauts, or Bidaux (Fr.). An ancient French corps of infantry ; according to some authorities they were armed with two jave- lins. Bien-Hoa. A fortified seaport town of the French colony in Cochin China; it was taken from the Annamites by the French under Kear-Admiral Bonard, December 15, 1861. Bienne. A town of Switzerland ; it was captured and burned by the bishop of Basel in 1367. Biga. A Roman term applied in ancient times to vehicles drawn by two horses abreast, and commonly to the Roman chariot used in processions or in the circus. In shape it resembled the Greek war-chariot, — a short body on two wheels, low, and open behind, where the charioteer entered, but higiier and closed in front. Big Bethel. A village of York Co., Va., near Back River, about 12 mile.s northwest of Fortress Monroe, on the road frt)m IIamj>- ton to Yorktown, and about 3 miles beyond Little Bethel, on the same road. In June, 1861, the main body of the Confederate army, under Gen. ^lagruder, being in the vicinity of Yorktown, an outpost of con- siderable strength was established at Lit- tle Bethel, which Gen. Butler, who was in command at Fortress Mimroe, determined to dislodge. Accordingly, on the night of June 9, two New York regiments were ordered to gain the rear of the enemy's position, while a battalion of Vermont and Massachusetts troops and a New York regi- ment were to attack in front at break of day. Before daybreak, through some error, these forces approached and fired into each other, and thus betrayed their projected movements to the enemy, who retreated to Big Bethel, where there was another out- ' post, with works of some strength in pro- I cess of erection. Gen. Pierce, who was in ; command of the Federal expedition, deter- BIG HORN 60 BITHYNIA mined to carry these works. An attack was ordered, and after nearly three hours' fighting, the Federals being exposed to a heavy "fire, while the Confederates were almost entirely protected. Gen. Pierce de- termined to retreat, which he did in good order, the enemy falling back the same day to Yorktown. The number of Federal troops was between 3000 and 4000, while that of the enemy was nearly 1500. The Federal loss was about 60, that of the Con- federates was small in comparison. Big Horn. A navigable river of the United States, near Fremont's Peak, in the Kocky Mountains. It has a north- east course of about 400 miles, being the longest affluent of the Yellowstone, which, again, is the largest affluent of the Mis- souri. A desperate battle was fought on the Little Big Horn, between the 7th XJ. S. Cavalry and the Sioux Indians, June 2-5, 1876. Bigles. A military corps of Rome, whose particular duty was to furnish sentinels ; the bread which these troops received was called bigliaticicm. Bihach, or Bichacz. One of the strongest fortress-towns of Croatia, European Tur- key ; it has been the scene of frequent con- tests during the Turkish wars. Bilbo. A rapier, a sword ; so named, it is said, from Bllboa, in Spain, where the best are made. Bilboa, or Bilbao (Northeast Spain). Founded about 1300; taken by the French in 1795; captured and recaptured during the invasion of the French in 1808; deliv- ered from the Carlists bv Espartero, aided by the British, December '24, 1836. Bilboquet. A small 8-inch mortar, whose bore is only half a caliber in length. It throws a shell of 60 pounds about 400 toises. Bill. A weapon much used by infantrj^, in the 14th and 15th centuries, for defense against cavalry, consisting of a broad, hook- shaped blade, having a short pike at the back and another at the summit, and at- tached to the end of a long staff. Billet (Fr. Billet de loffemerit). In Eng- land, is a ticket for quartering soldiers on publicans and others, which entitles each soldier, by act of Parliament, to candles, vinegar, and salt, with the use of fire and the necessary utensils for dressing and eat- ing his meat. In the United States, no soldier shall, in time of peace, be quartered in any house without the consent of the owner, nor in time of war, but in the man- ner to be prescribed by law (Art. 3, Amend- ments to the Constitution of the United States). Bill-hook. A small hatchet used in Eu- ropean armies in cutting wood for fascines and other military purposes. The pioneers of the infantry are always provided with them, and a sufficient supply is issued to regiments engaged on active service. Binche. A town in the province of Hai- naut, Belgium. The French drove the Aus- trians out of this place in 1794. Bipennis. A double-headed axe, the weapon which, according to ancient histo- rians and authors, particularly distinguished those fabulous female warriors, the Amazons. Biporus. With the ancients this word signified a double-prowed boat, so that it could change its course to the opposite direc- tion without turning. Bir, or Biridjek, A walled town of Asi- atic Turkey, on the Euphrates, which was ruined by Tamerlane. Birse. A small river in Switzerland, on the banks of which, on August 26, 1444, 1500 Swiss fought an army of about 20,000 men, commanded by the dauphin of France, afterwards Louis XL There were but 11 of the Swiss who survived the day, while their enemy left 8000 men and 1100 horses on the battle-field. On the same river 6000 confed- erate Swiss gained a splendid victory over 15,000 Austrums, July 22, 1499. Birtha. See Tkkrit. Biscaien (Fr.). A name formerly given to a long-barreled musket, the range of which was greater than the ordinary mus- ket. Now this appellation is given to a leaden ball about the size of an egg, which is used for canister or case-shot. Bisceglia. A fortified seaport town of Naples, on the Adriatic, 21 miles northwest of Bari. Here a celebrated combat took place between 13 Spaniards and the same number of French. Among the latter was the Chevalier Bayard. Biskara, or Biskra. A town of Algeria, on the Kantara, taken by the French, March 3, 1844. Bistritz. A fortified town of Transylva- nia, situated on the Bistritz River. Form- ing, as it does, the last strong position in the northeast of Transylvania, it was repeatedly, during 1848-49, the scene of hot strife be- tween the Hungarian and Austrian gen- erals. Bitche. A town of France, in the depart- ment of the Moselle, in a wild and wooded pass of the A'osges. The Prussians, under Colonel Count von Wartensleben, attempted to surprise it in 1793, but failed. Bithynia. An ancient division of Asia Minor, separated from Europe by the Pro- pontus (Sea of Marmora) and the Thracian Bosphorus (Strait of Constantinople). It contained the famous Greek cities or colonies of Chalcedon, Heraclea, etc., and at later periods, Nicomedia, Nica^a, and Prusa. The inhabitants were supposed to be of Thracian origin. The country is said to have been subdued by Crcesus of Lydia (560 B.C.), and five years later fell under the Persian dominion. About 440 or 430 B.C. it became an independent kingdom, un- der a dynasty of native princes, who made Nicomedia their capital. It afterwards fell into the hands of the Romans, and was gov- erned as a province. In 1298, Osman the Turk broke into the country, and in 1328 BITONTO 61 BLAIR-ATHOL Prui^a, or Bnisa, then its chief town, bociime tile caiiital of the i bivouac when they make the best of it for the night, encamping in the open air. The term was also applied to a night-guard of the whole army, when apiirelionsive of surprise. The word comes from the German bei, "near," and wache, "watch." In re- cent times it is common for soldiers on the march to use the tf)iti' d'abri, or shelter-tent. Bizerta, or Benzerta. The most north- ern town of Africa, and a fortified seaport of Tunis. It is defended by two castles, which, liowcver, are commanded by adja- cent heights. Though its port now only admits small vessels, it was formerly one of the best in the Mediterranean. TJiis city was noted for the piracy of its inhabitants. Black. In blazonry, sable denotes con- stancy, wisdom, and prudence. Black-book. An ancient book of English admiralty law, compiled in the reign of Eduaid III. It has always been deemed of the highest authority in matters concerning the admiralty in England. Blackfeet. A once powerful and fero- cious tribe of American Indians of Algon- kin stock, who infest the countrv between the Yellowstone and Missouri Rivers, and are also found in British America. See In- dians AND THKIR AliKNCIKS. Blackheath (Kent, near London). Here Wat Tyler and his followers assembled, Juno 12, l;;s'l. and here also Jack Cade and his 20, (KM) Kentish men encamped, June 1, HoO. lltpi' the Cornish rebels were defeated and Flaiinock's insurrection quelled, June 22, 14',»7. The cavern on the ascent to Hlack- hcath, the retreat of Cade and the haunt of banditti in the time of Cromwell, was redis- cov.-rcd in 17S0. Black Hole. The appellation familiarly given in England to the dungeon or dark cell of a jirison. The name is associated with a horrible catastrophe in the history of Hritish India, namely, the cruel confinement of a party of English in an apartment called the " Hhick Hole of Calcutta," on the night of June lit, 17ot). The garrison of a fort at Calcutta having been captured by the nabob Surajah Dowlah, he caused the whole of the prisoners taken, \A(\ in number, to be con- lined in an apartment 20 feet square, having only two small windows, which were ol)- structed by a veranda. After a night of ex- cruciating agony from heat, thirst, and want of air, there remained in the morning but 23 survivors. Black Rod, Usher of the. An officer of the English House of Lords, whose emblem of authority is the wand or rod, with a gold lion on top. He behmgs to the order of the Garter, and keejjs the door when tlie chapter of that order is in session. His principal duty is to summon the Commons to the House of Lords when royal assent is given to bills, etc., and to take into custody any peer guilty of breach of privilege. Black Sea, or Euxine. Pontus Euxinus of the ancients ; a large internal sea between the southwest provinces of Russia and Asia Minor, connected with the Sea of Azof by the Straits of Yenikale and with the Sea of Marmora by the Bosphorus. This sea was much frequented by the Greeks and Italians till it was closed to all nations by the Turks after the fall of Constantinople, in 14.")3. The Russians obtained admission by the treaty of Kainavdji, July 10, 1774. In 1779 it was partially opened to British and other traders, since which time the Russians grad- ually obtained the preponderance. It was entered by the British and French fleets, January 3, 1854. A dreadful storm in this sea raged from November 13 to 1(5, 1854, and caused great loss of life and shipping, and valuable stores for the allied armies. By the treaty of 1850 the Black Sea was opened to the commerce of all mitions, the Russians and Turks not being allowed to keep ships of war on it. In 1871 the Russians were again permitted to have men-of-war on this sea. Black Watch. Armed companies of the loyal clans (Campbells, Munros, etc.) em- ployed to watch the Highlands fr(»m about 1725 to 1739, when they were formed into the celebrated 42d Regiment, which was for- merly enrolled "The Royal Highland Black "Watch." Their removal probably facilitated the outbreak of 1745. They wore dark tar- tans, and hence their name. Blackwater, Battle of. In Ireland, Aug- ust 14, 1598, when the Irish chief O'Neal defeated the English under Sir Henry Bag- nail. Pope Clement VIII. sent O'Neal a consecrated plume, and granted to his fol- lowers the same indulgences as to Crusaders. Bladensburg. A village of Prince George Co., Md., memorable for the battle which was fought here August 24, 1814, between the British and Americans, and which re- sulted in the lapture of Washington. Blair-Athol. A village in Perthshire, Scotland ; it was occupied by the Marquis of Montrose in 1644; stormed by a party under the command of one of Cromwell's officers in 1653; and gallantly defended by Sir An- drew Agnew, in 174ii, when besieged by a portion of the Highland army, until he wjvs relieved by the Hessians under the Earl of Crawford.' The pass of Killekrankie, about two miles from Hlair Castle, is famous for the battle which was there fought in 1689, between the Highlanders under Viscount Dundee, and King Williains troops under Gen. Mackav. BLAISE BLAUBEUREN Blaise. A military order instituted by the kings of Armenia, in honor of St. Blaise the Martyr, anciently bishop of Sebasta, and the patron saint of Armenia. Justinian calls them Knights of St. Blaise and St. Mary, and places them not only in Ar- menia, but in Palestine. They made a vow to defend the Church of Rome, and followed the rule of St. Basil. This institution ap- pears to have commenced about the same time with the Knights Templar and Hospit- allers. BlakelyGun. See Ordnance, Built- up GUN.S. Blakely Projectiles. See Projectile. Blamont. A small town of France, de- partment of Doubs. This small place was protected by an ancient fortress, which was ruined by the allies in 1814. Blanch-Lyon. A title of one of the English pursuivants-at-arms. See Pursui- vant. Blank. The point of a target at which aim is taken, marked with a white spot; hence, the object to which anything is di- rected. Blank Cartridge. See Cartridge. Blanket-boats. A practical and highly useful plan for crossing streams is by means of boats constructed of a single rubber blan- ket, capable of carrying a soldier, knapsack, arms, and accoutrements, with only 4 inches of displacement. The size of some of the ordinary blankets is 6 feet long and 4 feet 9 inches wide; but 7 feet by 5 ifeet would be preferable. If the height of the boat be made 1 foot, the length will be 4 feet, and the width 2 feet 9 inches, so as to be com- pletely covered by the blanket. The frame may be made of round sticks, 1 inch and Ih inch in diameter, in the following man- ner : For the bottom the two end-sticks are 2 feet 9 inches long, and the side-pieces 3 feet 9 inches long. They are connected by boring a |-inch hole through the end-pieces, and into the ends of the side-pieces, into which pins are driven. The top is formed in the same manner, and both top and bottom of 1^-inch sticks. The side-pieces of the bot- tom, and the top and bottom frames are con- nected by 1-inch round sticks inserted in ^-inch holes, in the same manner as the up- right pieces are fastened in a chair. To keep the frame from falling apart, loops of cord are passed from top to bottom, and from side to side, and twisted with a stick. The rub- ber blanket is then spread upon the ground, the frame placed up(m it, the sides and eyes turned up and lashed to the top rail by twine passed through the eyelets. Loops of cord are passed over these projecting ends, and twisted with a stick, which binds the parts together. One of these boats having a hori- 7,ontal area of 11 square feet, would require 687 pounds to sink it 1 foot, and the aver- age weight of a man would displace less than 4 inches. In using these blanket-boats it will be convenient to lash several together, side by side, upon which soldiers can be transported. The float can be paddlec^, or a rope may be stretched across, supported by floats, and the men can pull themselves across. If used for cavalry, some of the men can hold the bri- dles of the horses, while the others can pull, paddle, or pole across the stream, the saddles being placed in the boats. The frames are abandoned, or used for fuel, when the army has crossed over. Several of these boats lashed together, and covered with poles, would form a raft on which wagons could be carried over; but for artillery, rafts of wagon-bodies, or some- thing possessing greater powers of flotation, should be employed. The bill of materials for the frame of a blanket-boat is: 4 end- pieces, lo- inches round or square, 2 feet 9 inches long; 4 side-pieces, IJ inches round or square, 3 feet 9 inches long ; 30 uprights, 1 inch round or square, 1 foot long ; 10 pieces across bottom, 1 inch round or square, 2 feet 9 inches long ; 8 double pins, i-inch in diam- eter, 3 inches long ; 4 pieces of cord or strong twine, each 9 feet long ; 6 pieces of cord or strong twine, each 3 feet long ; 1 india-rub- ber blanket, 6 feet long, 4 feet 9 inches wide, with eyelet holes around all sides, not more than 6 inches apart, and 30 feet of twine to lash the blanket to the frame. Blanketeers. A number of operators who, on March 30, 1817, met in St. Peter's Field, near Manchester, England, many of them having blankets, rugs, or great-coats rolled up and fastened to their backs. This was termed the "blanket meeting." They proceeded to march towards London, but were dispersed by the magistracy. It is stated that their object was to commence a general insurrection. Eventually the ring- leaders had an interview with the cabinet ministers, and a better understanding be- tween the working-classes and the govern- ment ensued. Blasting. The displacement of earth or rock by the use of an explosive. One of the most important parts of the art of mining in its various branches of tunneling, shaft- boring, well-digging, submarine mining, etc. The explosive is ordinarily placed in a bore hole, but in submarine mining this is some- times dispensed with when a high explosive like nitro-glycerine is used. Blasting Powder. An explosive in the form of powder used for blasting. The most powerful blasting powders in common use are made by adding certain substances to nitro- glycerine, which, by absorbing it, reduce it to the form of powder, and thus render it comparatively safe against the shocks and jars of use. (See Giant Powder, Dyna- mite.) The term blasting powder is also specially applied to a powder analogous to gunpowder, but which contains sodium ni- trate in place of potassium nitrate, or salt- petre. Blaubeuren. A town of Wurtemberg. on the Blau ; here the French defeated the BLATLE 63 BLOCKADE Austrians in 1800; the fortress was razed in 1800. Blayle (anc. litavia). A fortified sea- port of Fran80o. Bray. A snuiU town in the department of 8eine-et-Marne, France ; it was occupied by the allies, February 12, 1814. Brazil. An empire in South America, was discovered by Vincent Pinzon in Feb- ruary, and Pedro Alvarez de Cabral, a Por- tuguese, driven upon its coasts by a tempest, in luOO. The French having seized Portu- gal in 1807, the n)yal family'and nobles em- barked for Brazil, and landed March 7, 1808. Brazil declared war against Uruguay in Feb- ruary, 1805; entered into a treaty with Uruguay and the Argentine Republic against Paraguay, governed by Lopez, in May, 181(5, and war was waged with vary- ing results up to 1870. Breach. Rupture made in a fortification to facilitate the assault. The operation by which the oj>ening is produced is called breachiufi, and the guns used for this pur- pose are brcachiug batteries. To repair a breach, is to stop or fill up the gap with gabions, fascines, etc., and prevent the as- sault. To fortify a breach, is to render it inaccessible by means of chevaux-de-frise, crow's feet, etc. To make a lodgment in the breach. After the besieged are driven away, the besiegers secure themselves against any future attack in the breach. To clear the breach, that is, to remove the ruins, that it limy be better defended. Breach" of Arrest. See Appendix, Ar- Tici.Ks UK War, (15. Bread and Water. A diet used as a mil- itary puiiisliiiicnt. Break Ground. Is to commence the siege of a place by ojuMiing trenches, etc. Breast-height. In fortification, the in- terior slope of a jiarapet. Breastplate. A plate worn upon the breast as a part of defensive armor. Breastwork. In fortification, a defensive work breast-high, hastily thrown up, of earth or other material. Brechin. A place in Scotland ; sustained a siege against the armv of Edward III., 1333. The battle of Brechin was fought be- tween the Earls of Iluntly and Crawford; the latter was defeated, 1452. Breech. In ordnance, is the mass of solid metal behind the bottom of the bore, extend- ing to the cascabel. The bane of the breech is its rear surface. Breech-block. The block of metal which closes the Ijon- in breech-loading arms. Breech-loader. A fire-arm that receives its load at the breech. Breech-loading. Receiving the charge at the breech instead of the muzzle. A feature of modern small-arms. The principle, how- ever, is very old, as some of the earliest guns were breech-loaders. A gun of the time of Henry VIII. still extant is substantially the same as the modern Snider. Puckle's re- volver of 1718 was mounted on a tripod, and was very much like the Gatliruj gun in its general features. The first American patent was to Thornton & Hall, of Massachusetts, 1811. These guns were extensively issued to U. S. troops. There is a specimen in the West Point Museum. Prior to 1801 the best known breech-loading small-arms were Sharps', Buriiside's, Magnard's, Merrill's, and Spencer's. See Small-akm.s. In modern times the breech-loading prin- ciple for heavy ordnance has gained and lost favor at difierent epochs. On the continent of Europe it is generally accepted. Italy, however, has committed itself in the largest calibers to the enormous 100-ton muzzle- loaders of Sir William Armstrong. The same inventor introduced his breech-loading field-piece in England about 1850. His prin- ciple was approved and adopted for various calibers about 1858, but partial failures in his system led to an investigation by a com- mittee of the House of Commons, 1802-03, and after a tedious discussion, the breech- loading principle was officially discarded (1806), though many of the guns were re- tained in the service. The successful appli- cation of hydraulic machinery in handling and loading heavy guns (1870) confirmed the government in its choice of muzzle-loaders. The difficulty of muzzle-loading in a turret and the impossibility of employing the great length of bore necessary to obtain the best results was, up to this time, the strong argu- ment in favor of breech-loaders. Loading by hydraulic machinery from beneath the deck through a trap-door outside the turret obviated these objections to muzzle-loaders, and gave the gunners ample protection by closing the port, thus placing these guns for the time being on a par with breech-loaders. The bursting^ of the 38-ton gun on the "Thunderer'' (1878). however, which has been generally attributed to double loading, has shaken confidence in hydraulic ram- j ming, and now there is a strong current in I favor of a return to breech-loaders. The I splendid performance of Kriipp guns on the 1 practice-ground at Meppen, 1879, and the BEEECH MECHANISM 72 BREITENFELD numerous misfortunes which have recently befallen the Woolwich and Elswick systems, have doubtless had their weight in this chanu;e of o]iinion. Breech Mechanism. The mechanism used for openinjj; and closing the breech of a fire-arm and securing it against the escape of the gas. In small-arms this is readily ac- complished. The use of the metallic car- tridge-case renders any spfecial gas-check un- necessary, as the case itself by being ex- panded against the walls of the chamber serves the purpose. The various mechan- isms used in small-arms have been classified as follows: 1st, Fixed chamber ; 2d, Movable cliamher. The second class is now obsolete. ^\\Q, fixed chamber class is subdivided into — 1st, Barrel moves; 2d, Breech-block moves. The first class comprises many of the shot- guns in use, the second, the best known of military arms. Under this latter class are the following subdivisions : 1st, Sliding blockj 2d, Sliding and rotating ; 3d, Rotating about an axis. We find excellent guns under each of these classes which are further subdivided as to the direction of the motions. The Sharps' may be taken as typical of the first of these classes, the Hotchkiss magazine gun of the second, and the Springfield of the third. A similar classification may be made for hreech-loading devices in heavy ordnance, but the problem here is not so simple. The press- ure is much greater, the masses of metal much larger, and the cartridge must be used without a case to check the gas. Breech- loaders were impossible until the problem of checking the gas had been solved. The in- ventor of the first successful gas-check was an American, L. W. Broadwell, now re- siding abroad. The term Broadwell ring has been applied to all similar devices. This is a steel ring which fits in a recess reamed out in the rear of the chamber and abutting upon the breech-block. The inside of the ring is so shaped as to be pressed by the gas out- wards and backwards, thus closing both the space outside of the ring and between it and the block. Broadwell is also the inventor of a breech mechanism which, with a few modi- fications, is that used by Ivrupp for all of his guns. The breech-block slides horizontally through a rectangular slot in rear of the chamber. In the Armstrong breech-loader, the block called the vent-piece is taken out and put in through a rectangular orifice on the top of the gun. It is locked in place by a hollow breech-screw. The French use a breech-screw with the threads cut away in longitudinal rows. The female-screw being similarly arranged, a very small rotation en- ables it to be entirely withdrawn. Among American devices are Thompson's, a breech- block which rolls to the side and opens or closes the bore. Sutclifi-'e's, a cylindrical block, with its axis parallel to the one hang- ing on a pin projecting from the front pe- riphery of the hollow screw. The block is raised and locked by turning the screw, and falls into a recess below when the screw is half turned back. Mann's, in which the gun rotates upwards about the trunnions some- thing like a shot-gun, and many others. Breech-pin. A strong plug firmly screwed in at the breech of a musket or other fire- arm. Breech-sight. In gunnery, an instru- ment having a graduated scale of tangents by means of which any elevation may be given to a piece. Correctly speaking, the breech-sight gives the angle made by the line of aim or sight with the axis of the piece. The base of the breech-sight is a plate of brass curved to fit the base-ring or line, the scale and slides are similar to those of the pendulum hausse except that a hole is made in the plate, instead of a notch to sight through. Breech-sights are graduated for no disparts, & front-sight equal in height to the dispart being screwed into the top of the muzzle; in the Rodman guns, into the seat provided for the purpose between the trun- nions. Breech-sights are also frequently held in sockets, and when the front-sight is placed on the trunnion, the socket is on the side of the breech. The pendulum hausse (see Hausse) is a breech-sight used for field-guns to correct the error arising from ditference of level in the wheels of the carriage. The Quina7i breech-sight (invented by Lieut. AV. R. Quinan, 4th U. S. Artillery) is an im- provement on the pendulum hausse. It is fixed in a socket on the right side of the breech. The scale has a spirit-level, by means of which it is made vertical. The front sight is a short tube with cross-hairs fixed in it. The advantages claimed over the hausse are increased steadiness and accu- racy. Bregenz, or Bregentz. A town of Tyrol, a, Austria ; it was occupied by the French in 1799. Breisach, Old. A very old town of the grand duchy of Baden ; taken by Ariovistus when he invaded Gaul. Being regarded as the key to the west of Germany, it was a prominent scene of action during the Thirty Years' War, at the conclusion of which it was ceded to the French. During the next century it frequently changed masters, now belonging to France and now to Austria ; its fortifications were destroyed by the French in 1744, and during the war of the Revolu- tion, in 1793, part of the town was burned by them. In 1806 the French handed it over to the house of Baden. Breitenfeld. A village and manor of Saxony, about 5 miles north of Leipsic. It is historically remarkable for three battles, fought on a plain in its neighborhood. The first of these, between. the Swedes and the Imperialists, which was fought Septem- ber 7, 1631, was of the highest importance to Europe, as it secured the permanency of Protestantism and the freedom of Germany. Tilly's pride had reached its highest point after the fall of Magdeburg, which took place on May 20, 1631 ; and in the early BREMEN 73 BRICOLE jmrt of September of the same year he ad- vanced nj^ainst the Saxons with an army of about 40,000 men for the purpose of forcing the elector, John George I., into an alliance with the emperor. Gustavus Adolphus, king of Sweden, joined by the Saxons, advanced towards Lei[)sic, where Tilly lay, the latter advancing into the plain of Hreitcnfeld. The Imperial forces were completely de- feated, and their three most distinguished generals, Tilly, Pappenheim, and Fiirsten- berg, wounded. The second battle which Breitcnfcld witnessed again, resulted in the triumph of Swedish valor : it took place on October 215, l»j42, between the Swedes, headed by Torstenson, one of the j>upils of Gustavus, who had invested Leipsic, and the Archduke Leopold, with Gen. Piccolomini, who were advancing from Dresden to its relief. The Swedes gained a complete victory over the Imperialists, who fled into Bohemia, leaving behind them 4(3 cannon, 121 flags, (39 stand- ards, and the whole of their baggage. The third battle of which Breitenfeld was the scene was fought on October 1(3-18, 1813. See Lkitsic. Bremen (Northern Germany). Saidtohave been founded in 788; in 1(348 it was erected into a duchy and held by Sweden till 1712; it was taken possession of by Denmark in 1731, by whom it was ceded to Hanover; it was taken by the French in 1757, who were expelled by the Hanoverians in 1758; annexed by Napoleon to the French empire in 1810; its independence restored in 1818; its old franchises in 1815 It became a mem- ber of the North German Confederation in 18GG. Brenneville (Northwest France). Hero Henry 1. of 'England defeated Louis VI. of France, who had embraced the cause of "William Clinton, son of Robert, duke of Normandy, August 20, 1119. Brenta. A river which rises in Tyrol and flows, after a course of 90 miles, into the Adriatic Sea, at Porto di Brondolo. On the banks of this river the French twice de- feated the Austrians in 179(3. Brentford. A county town of Middlesex, England. Here Edmund Ironside defeated the Danes, May, 1016. It was taken by Charles I., alter a sharp fiijht, November 12,1(142. ^ ' Brescelia, or Bregelia (anc. BrlreAlum). A town on the right bank of the Po, in North Italy. Here the emperor ()th.> put himself to 'death in G9. On May 20, 1427, an army under Duke Philip Maria Visconti, of .Milan, was here defeated by an army sent against him by the republic of Venice, under Francis Carmagnola. Brescia. A town in Northern Italy (the aiuient Hriria), became important under the Lombards, and sutterod by the wars of the Il4ilian republics, being attached to Venice. It was taken by the Frcncli under (iaston de Foix in 1512, when it is said 40,000 of the inhabitants were massacred. It surrendered to the Austrian general Haynau, March 30, 1849, on severe terms; annexed to Sardinia In 1859. Breslau. Capital of the province of Si- lesia, Prussia ; it was burnt by the Mongols in 1241, and conquered by Frederick II. of Prussia in January, 1741. A fierce battle took place here between the Austrians and Prussians, the latter under Prince Bevern, who was defeated November 22, 1757. Bres- lau was taken, but was regained, December 21, the same year; besieged by the French, and surrendered to them January, 1807, and again in 1813. Bressuire. A small town of France, de- partment of Deux-Sevres ; it was fortified during the Middle Ages, and was captured from the English by the celebrated Du Gu- esclin in 1373; it was nearly destroyed during the wars of La Vendee. Brest. A seaport in Northwestern France; besieged by Julius Ca?sar, 54 K.c. ; possessed by the English in 1378 ; given up to the Duke of Brittany in 1390. Lord Berkeley and a British fleet and army were repulsed here with dreadful loss in 1(394. The maga- zine burnt to the value of some millions of pounds sterling, 1744 ; marine hospital, with 50 galley-slaves, burnt, in 17G6; the maga- zine again destroyed by fire, July 10, 1784. England maintained a large blockading squadron oft' the harbor from 1793 to 1815, but with little injury to France. It is now a chief naval station of France, and from the fortifications and other vast works of late construction it is considered impreg- nable. Bretigny, Peace of. Concluded with France, May 8, 1300, by which England retained Gascony and Guienno, and acquired other provinces ; renounced her pretensions to Maine, Anjou, Touraine, and Normandy; was to receive 3,000,000 crowns, and to re- lease King John, long a prisoner. Th& treaty not being carried out, the king re- mained and died in London. Breuci. A powerful people of Pannonia^ near the confluence of the Savus and the Danube, took an active part in the insurrec- tion of the Pannonians and Dalmatians against the Romans, 6 a.d. Brevet. An honorary rank conferred upon an oflicer, for meritorious services,, above the rank he holds in his own corps. In the U. S. army rank by brevet is con- ferred, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, for "gallant actions or meri- torious services." A brevet rank gives no right of command in tlie particular corps t<> which the officer brevctted belongs, and can be exercised only by special assignment of the President. Officers while so serving under assignment are said to have local rank (which see). Brevet. To confer rank or title upon by brevet. Brevetcy. The rank or condition of a brevet. Bricole. An improved kind of traces used by the French in drawing and manoeu- BRIDGE 74 BRIGADE vring artillery ; analogous to the old drag- rope, Lut having the addition of a leather strap or girdle with a buckle, to which the drag is affixed, and an iron ring and hook at the end to drag by. Bridge, A structure usually of wood, stone, brick, or iron, erected over a river or other water-course, or over a ravine, rail- road, etc., to make a continuous roadway from one bank to the other. Bridge. In gunnery, two pieces of tim- ber which go between the two transoms of a gun-carriage. Not used in the U. S. service. Bridge, Flying. See Pontons. Bridge, Trail. See Pontons. Bridge, Train. See Equipage. Bridge, Trestle. See Trestle Bridge. Bridges. When a river is more than 4 feet in depth, or when its bottom is of mud or quicksand, recourse must be had either to ferrying by means of boats, rafts, etc., or to military bridges. The latter are always to be preferred when circumstances will permit their establishment. Military bridges are composed of a road- way and its supports ; the first consists of beams or balks reaching across the adjacent supports, and covered with plank called chess. The supports, from which the bridge takes its name, may be either fixed, as trestles, gabions, carriages, piles, or floating, as pon- tons, boats of commerce, rafts, etc. Ponton bridges are preferable to all others when a passage by main force or surprise is to be undertaken. They may be constructed on any stream of sufficient depth; they may be replaced by rafts when the velocity of the stream does not exceed 6 feet per second. In swifter currents the latter are unmanage- able, drag their anchors, and are liable to destruction from floating bodies. Trestle bridges may be constructed in rivers whose depth does not exceed 9 feet, and whose velocity is not more than 6 feet. They may be employed with advantage in rivers of moderate depth and gentle current, with hard, even bottoms. AVhen the bed of the river is uneven the adjustment of the trestles to the bottom is very tedious, and if the current is rapid, almost impossible. "When the bed is of mud or fine sand, the settlement of the legs is liable to be irregular. Gabion bridges are used over marshes and shallow streams. They consist of gabions constructed in the ordinary way, and of a height necessary to give a level road ; these are placed in rows perpendicular to the axis of tli« bridge, are filled with stones or gravel, ■ and are capped with a piece of timber on which the balks rest. Pile bridges are superior in point of sta- bility to all other military bridges, but re- quiring much labor and time in their con- struction ; they are usually restricted to securing the communications in rear of the army. Bridge-head. A fortification covering the extremity of a bridge nearest the enemy. The French term for the same is Ute du prmt. Bridle. An instrument with which a horse is governed and restrained, consisting of a head-stall, a bit and reins, with other appendages, according to its particular form and uses. Bridle. In gunnery, the piece in the interior of a gun-lock, which covers and holds in place the tumbler and sear, being itself held by the screws on which they turn. Bridle, Arm Protect. The term for a guard used by the cavalry, which consists in having the sword-hilt above the hel- met, the blade crossing the back of the head, with the point of the left shoulder, and the bridle-arm ; its edge directed to the left and turned a little upwards, in order to bring the mounting in a proper direction to protect the hand. Bridoon. The snafile rein of a military bridle, which acts independently of the bit, at the pleasure of the rider. Brieg. A town of Silesia, Prussia, about 27 miles from Breslau ; it was taken by Frederick II., April 4, 1741; dismantled by the French in 1807. Briel, Brielle, or The Brill. A fortified seaport town on the north side of the island of Voorne, Holland. It was the nucleus of the Dutch republic, having been taken from the Spaniards by William de la Marck in 1572. This event was the first act of open hostility to Philip II., and paved the way to the complete liberation of the country from a foreign yoke. Briel was the first town of Holland which, without extraneous aid, expelled the French in 1813. The cele- brated admirals De Witt and Van Tromp were natives of this place. Brienne, or Brienne le Chateau. A town of France, department of the Aube. It has a fine castle, but it is chiefly celebrated as the place where Napoleon received the rudi- ments of his military education, and where, in 1814, a bloody battle was fought between the French and the allied forces of Russia and Prussia. Brier Creek. In Warren Co., Ga. An American force 2000 strong, under Gen. Ashe, was defeated on this creek by the English under Prevost, March 4, 1779. Brigade. A body of troops, whether cavalry, artillery, or infantr}^, or a mixed command, consisting of two or more regi- ments, under the command of a brigadier- general. Two or more brigades constitute a division, commanded by a major-general ; two or more divisions constitute an army corps, or corps d^a?-mee, the largest body of troops in the organization of the U. S. army. Brigade. To form into a brigade, or into brigades. Brigade. In the British service the artil- lery is divided into brigades, which consist of seven batteries each, under the command of a colonel. The Household Brigade is composed of the Horse Guards, Life Guards, and Foot Guards. BRIGADE-INSPECTOR 75 BRONDOLO Brigade-Inspector. An oflBcor whoso duty it is to inspect tro()j)S in companies bfl'on- tlicy are mustered into the service. Brigade-Major. An officer appointed to assist tiie <,'encral commanding a brigade in all his duties. Brigadier-General. An officer in rank next ai)ovc a colond and below a major- general. III.' commands a brigade ; and this officer is sometimes called simply brigadier. Brigand. A species of irregular foot soldiers, frequently mentioned by Froissart. From their plundering propensities comes the modern use of the term. Brigandine, or Brigantine. A coat of mail, consisting of thin, jointed scales of plate, pliant and easy to the body. Brigantes. The 'most powerful of the British tribes, inhabited the whole of the north of the island from the Abus (now Hutnber) to the Roman wall, with the ex- ception of the southeast corner of Yorkshire. They were conquered by Petilius Cerealis in the 'reign of Vespasian. There was also a tribe of this name in the south of Ireland. Brignais (anc. Priscinniacum). An an- cient fortress in France, department of the Rhone; it was captured in 1361 by bodies of adventurers, called Grandes Compngnies. Prince Jacques de Bourbon made an etfort to dislodge them, but' was completely de- feated, and died of wounds received upon this occasion. Brihuega. A town of New Castile, Spain ; it was formerly surrounded by walls, of which traces still exist. Here, in 1710, during the War of the Succession, the Eng- lish general Stanhope, owing to the dilatori- ness of his allies in aflbrding him support, was defeated by the Duke of Vendome, and compelled to surrender with all his force, amounting to about 5500 men. Brindisi (anc. Brumlisiiun). A fortified seaport of Italy, on a small bay of the Adri- atic ; it was the usual place of embarkation for Greece and the East; taken by the Ro- mans from the Sallentines in 2(17 u c, and was afterwards the principal naval station of the Romans on the Adriatic. During the civil war between Caesar and Pompey, this place was invested by Ciesar in 49 u.c. Brins d'Est (/•>.). Large sticks or poles rescmiiliiii^ small pickets, with iron at each eiul. They were used to cross ditches, par- ticularly in Flanders. Brise-mur (Fr.). A heavy piece of ord- nance which was used during the 15th cen- tury to batter down walls, etc. Brissarthe. A village of France, depart- ment of Maine-et-Loire. Here the Nor- mans were defeated in 886 by Robert the Strong. Bristol (West England). Built by B'on- nus. a British prince, ;i8U n.c. ; is mentioned in 430 as a fortitied city ; taken by the Earl of Gloucester in his defense of his sister !Maud, the empress, against King Stephen, 11:^^; taken by Prince Rupert, 1043 ; by Cromwell. ll)4o. Brisure. In fortification, any part of a rampart or parapet which deviates from the general directing, under Gen. Zachary Taylor, over a Mexican army four times their number under Santa Anna, Februarv 22-23, 1847. Gen. Taylor, on the way from Victoria to ^lonterey, having learned that Santa Anna was threatening him with an overwheluiing force, decided to withdraw his troops from their camp at Agua Nueva to a position more favorable for withstanding a superior force, which had been selected a little south of the small village of Buena Vista, at a point where the road passed through a mountain gorge called Angos- tura. Accordingly, on the afternoon of Feb- ruary 21, the camp at Agua Nueva was broken up, and Santa Anna, believing the American forces were retreating, eagerly pursued them until he was drawn into their chosen position. After a useless summons to siirrender, on the afternoon of the 22d the Mexicans opened the attack on the American left, but they made no impression, while they suftered severe loss. During the night the Mexicans occupied a position on the heights to the east of the American lines with the intention of forcing their left flank, and it was here that the fighting commenced on the 23d, and continued during the day with varying success, finally resulting in the re- pulse of the enemy. Meanwhile a force of Mexican cavalry had been detached to attack the American camp at Buena Vista, but was gallantly repulsed. The final attack was made against the American centre — where Gen. Taylor commanded in person — by Santa Anna himself, with his entire reserve, but he was met with such a deadly fire from the American batteries that he was obliged to draw off his much-diminished forces, and during the night he fell back to Agua Nueva. The American loss in killed" and wounded was about 700; the Mexicans lost about 2000. Buenos Ayres. A province of the Ar- gentine Republic, with a capital of the same name. A British fleet and army took the citv with slight resistance, June 27, 180<> ; retaken August 12, 1800. Gen. "Whitelock and 8000 British entered Buenos Ayres. and were severely repulsed, July 5, 1807; inde- pendence of the province declared July 10, 1810; a prey to civil war for many years. It seceded from the Argentine Republic in 18')3, and was reunited to it in June. 1800. Buffalo. See Pack and Draught Ani- mals. Buffalora. A town of Italy, on the river Ticino. In its environs in 1030, the French and Spanish armies met in combat, in which the former were victorious. There is a bridge at this place crossing the Ticino, over which a division of the invading army of Austria marched, April-2!1, 18.V.). This was the first act of overt hostility in the war be- tween Austria and Sardinia. Buff Coat. A close military outer gar- ment, with short sleeves, and laced tightly over the chest, made of buftahvskin, or other thick and elastic material, worn by soldiers in the 17th century a.s a defensive covering. Buffer, Pneumatic. See AiR CYL1NDKR8. Buffers. .S'c Hirter. Buff Jerkin. Originally a leathern waist- coat ; afterwards one of a bufl* color, worn as an article of dress by sergeants and catch- poles ; used also as a dress. BUFF LEATHER 78 BULLETS Buff Leather. A sort of leather pre- pared from the butlalo, which, dressed with oil, makes what is generally called buff-skin. In European armies, troopers' breeches, shoulder-belts, and sword-belts are made of this leather. Buff Stick. A wooden stick covered with buff leather, used by soldiers in cleaning their equipments. Bugle-horn, or Bugle. The old Saxon horn, now used by all infantry regiments. By its soundings their manoeuvres are di- rected, either in advancing, skirmishing, or retreating. Bugler. One who plays a bugle. Built-up Guns. See Ordnance. Bukors. Kettle-drums of the Swedish cavalry. Bulgaria. Anciently Mcesia, now part of European Turkey. The Bulgarians were a Slavonian tribe, who harassed the Eastern empire and Italy from 499 to 678, when they established a kingdom. They defeated Jus- tinian II., 687; but were subdued, after several conflicts, by the emperor Basil in 1018. After defeating them in 1014, having taken 15,000 Bulgarian prisoners, he caused their eyes to be put out, leaving one eye only to every hundredth man, to enable him to conduct his countrymen home. The king- dom was re-established in 1086 ; but after many changes, was annexed to the Ottoman empire, 1396. Bull. A fort which the English possessed in Canada, and which constituted one of their military depots ; it was captured by the French, March 27, 1756. Bulletin. A brief statement of facts re- specting some passing events, as military operations, etc. Bullet-mold. An implement containing a. cavity of the proper shape into which lead is poured to fofin a bullet. Bullet-proof. Capable of resisting the force of a bullet. Bullets. Are projectiles of lead to, be dis- charged from various kinds of small-arms. The first bullets used were round, and were designated by the number weighing one pound. The sizes employed were very large. T^ntil quite recently the round ball still held its place with rifles and smooth-bores. Va- riovis devices were used for making it take the grooves of the rifle, — a guard-patch be- ing among the best. (See Small-arms.) It was with this that the early settlers of Amer- ica won their reputation as marksmen. Robins, in 1742, showed the superiority of the conical form, but it was not till about 1840 that round balls were generally dis- carded. The conical bullet was often used in grooves with an increasing twist, and gave wonderfully accurate results at short range. For long ranges, long bullets are necessary, and these require uniform twists, which are now generally used in military arms. Va- rious forms of the elongated bullets were used. Most of these bullets had an expan- sive base, either hollow or plugged with wood ; the design being to force the soft lead outward, so as to cause it to fit the grooves of the rifle, and thus give the bullet a rota- tion around its long axis during the motion forward. (See Small-arms.) This rotation, as is well known, increases the range and precision. Bullets were formerly cast, but now they are more frequently stamped in steel dies, and, as in breech-loading arms, the bullet takes the grooves by compression ; the exploding base is omitted. The form of bullet now used in military arms is the cyl- indrical conoidal. The tendency recently has been to reduce the caliber. (See Prcjec- tiles.) Copper bullets are used by the Cir- cassians. Bullets of stone were used in 1514 ; iron ones are mentioned in the Foalera, 1550, and leaden ones were made before the close of the 16th century. Bullets, Explosive. Oblong bullets car- rying a percussion-cap on the front end and sometimes containing a small charge of pow- der in a cavity, used to blow up caissons and magazines. There is a strong sentiment against the use of these bullets in firing at troops. Bullets, Express-. An explosive bullet of great killing power, used in hunting large game. It is of large caliber but quite light, being much shorter than the ordinary rifle-bullet. A cylindrical cavity bored in at the point carries a small metallic cartridge- case filled with powder. It is fired with a large charge of powder, which, owing to its lack of weight, gives it a high initial ve- ocity and a very flat trajectory up to about 200 yards, obviating the necessity for an elevating sight. The Winchester E.vpress- bullet (a good type of those made in Amer- ica) has a caliber of .50, weighs 300 grains, and is fired with 95 grains of powder, giving an initial velocity of 1640 feet. It is made of pure lead, the softness of which increases its deadliness. The shock from this bullet will bring down the largest game. See Express-Rifle. Bullets, Grooved. Bullets having grooves, or cannelures. These grooves were originally used to increase the relative resistance of the air on the 7-ear of the bullet, thus assisting the rotation in keeping the point to the front. In muzzle-loading arms they also increased the setting up of the bullet to take the grooves. They are now used to hold the lubricant, and to facilitate the swaging action of the grooves and lands in breech-loading guns. For the other form of modern bullets, see Bullets, Patched. Bullets, Patched. One of the forms of modern rifle-bullets. The bullet has wrapped around its cylindrical portion a layer of thin paper called the patch. The bullet is per- fectly smooth. The other form has grooves, or cannelures. (See Bullets, Grooved.) The lubricant for the patched bullet is a greased wad or disk of wax, placed between powder and bullet. The grooved buJIet., car- rying its own lubricant, is best adapted to shallow lands and grooves. The piatched BULLETS 79 BURNING bullet to sharp lands. The grooved bullet would seem to be the best for military ser- vice, as the cartridge-case can be tightly crimped upon it, making the case water- proof. For very long range the best shoot- ing has been done with patched bullets. Bullets, Percussion-. See Bullet.s, Exi-I.llSl VK. Bullock. Sec Pack and Drauout An- imals. Bull Run Battles. See Manassas. Bull's-eye. In gunnery and archery, is the centre of a target. Bulwark. In fortification, a rampart or bastion ; an outwork for defense ; that which secures against an enemy; a shelter or means of protection. Bunker Hill. A hill in Charlcstown, now part ()f Mdston, Mass., whicli gave its name to the first im])ortant battle of the American Kevolution. The Americans learning that Gen. Gage, who was in command of the British forces in Boston, intended to fortify Bunker Hill, determined to forestall his design, and for this purpose a detachment of 1000 men under Col. Prescott was ordered on the night of June 16, 1775, to tlirow up a breastwork on the hill. After a consulta- tion, however, it was decided to fortify in- stead another eminence which was nearer to Boston, known as Breed's Hill. During the night they worked with such activity that by daybreak a strong redoubt was nearly completed. Upon its discovery by the Britisli on the morning of the 17th, they opened fire on it from the ships in the har- bor, and Gen. Gage sent about 3000 men under Howe and Pigot to attack it. They landed under cover of tlie fire from the guns, and setting fire to Charlcstown, ad- vanced to the attack. The Americans awaited their approach in silence until the whites of their eyes could be seen, then poured a deadly fire into their ranks, caus- ing them to retreat in disorder. They were rallied by Howe, and again advanced over the same ground with a like result as on the first attack. Clinton now arrived with reinforcements, and an attack was made on three sides of the redoubt at once. The ammunition of the Americans being now exhausted they met their assailants with chililu'd muskets, but the superiority of the British in numbers being so great, Col. Prescott ordered a retreat. This was effected across Charlcstown Neck, where they were e.\posed to a galling fire from the ships in the harbor. During the retreat Gen. Warren was killed, and the Bunker Hill monument erected to commemorate this engagement now stands near the spot whtre iie'fell. The British lo.ss was over 1000 killed and wounded ; the Americans lost less than half that number. Bureaux. See Militarv Departments throughout this work unier appropriate headings. Buren. A town of Switzerland, canton of Berne. It was the scene of several com- bats. The S|)aniards under Gilles de Barlc- mont took possession of it in 1575. Burford, A town in the county of Ox- ford, England. It is celebrated for a battle fought between Cuthred, king of the West Saxons, and Ethelbald, kingof the Mercians ; and for a victory by Fairfax in lf;49 over the army of Charles I. at Edgehill, in its vicinity. Burganet, or Burgonet. A kind of hel- met used by the French. Burgos. A city of Spain, capital of the new province of the same name, was founded in 844; sacked by the French in 1808; in 1812 the castle was four times unsuccessfully besieged by AVellington, who, however, took it in the following year, when the French blew it up, as well as the fortifications. Burguete. A town of Navarro, .Spain. Here the army of Charlemagne was defeated in 778. Burgundy. A large province in France, derives its name from the Burgundians, a Gothic tribe who overran Gaul in 275, but were driven out by the Empemr Probus ; they returned in 287, and were defeated by Maximin. In 413 they established a king- dom, comprising the ))resent Burgundy, large parts of Switzerland, with Alsace, Savoy, Provence, etc., Gondicaire, their leader, the first king. It was concpiered by the Franks, 534. Annexed to France, 1477. Burhampoor. A town of Hindostan, in the jirovince of Bengal. It is one of the military stations of the British government ; and the cantonments, consisting of a grand square inclosing a fine parade ground, com- mand the notice of the traveler. It was captured by the English troops under Col. Stevenson in 1803. Burial Honors. See Funeral Honors. Burich. A small town in the circle of Lower Rhino; its fortifications were burned by the French in 1G72. Burkersdorf. A village of Austria, where a combat took place between the Prussians and Austrians, July 21, 1762, in which the former were victorious. Burley. The butt end of a lance. Burlington Heights, Hero a fierce con- test took jilace between the British and the U. S. forces, Juno 6, 1813. The British carried the heights. Burmah, Burma, or Birmah. Also called the Burmese omjiire, or kingdom of Ava, formerly the most extensive and powerful state in Farther India. The most cele- brated ruler of the country was Alompra, the founder of tho present dynasty, who reigned about the middle of the 18th cen- tury. The Burmese became involved in a war with the English 1824-26, which termi- nated in tho curtailment of their power and the loss of several provinces. Burning, Quickness of. The relative quickness of two ditlbrent powders may be aetermined by burning a train laid in a cir- cular or other groove which returns into itself, one-half of the groove being filled with BURNISH 80 BYZANTIUM each kind of powder, and fire communicated at one of the points of meeting of the two trains ; the rehitive quickness is readily deduced from observation of the point at which the flames meet. Burnish. In a military sense, is to give a peculiar lustre to a gun-barrel or other part of a rifle by rubbing it with a piece of steel. It is generally forbidden as injurious to the gun. Burque (F?-.). A kind of cuirass which was worn with the brigantine. Burr. In gunnery, a round iron ring, which serves to rivet the end of the bolt, so as to form a round head. Burrel-shot. Small shot, nails, stones, pieces of old iron, etc., put into cases to be discharged from any piece of ordnance. Very seldom used. Bursting. The simplest method of burst- ing open strong gates is, to explode a bag of gunpowder containing 50 or 60 pounds sus- pended near the middle of the gate upon a nail or gimlet, by means of a small piece of port-fire inserted at the bottom, and well secured with twine. Busaco. A hamlet in the province of Beira, Portugal. Here the British under Wellington repulsed an attack of the French under Massena, September 27, 1810. The French lost about 4000 killed and wounded ; the English loss did not exceed 1300. Busby. A military coiffure, or cap, or bear-skin ; the French colbach. Bushiere (on the Persian Gulf ). Attacked bv sea by Sir H. Leeke, and by land by Gen. Stalker, was taken December 10, 1856. The place proved stronger than was expected, and was bravely defended. Bushing a Gun. Inserting a piece of metal about an inch in diameter (near the bottom of the bore) through the centre of which the vent has been previously drilled. It is screwed in. The object of bushing a piece is to prevent deterioration of the vent, or provide a new one, when this has already occurred. In bronze pieces pure copper is always used in bushing, as it is not so liable to run from heat as gun-metal. Only rifled and bronze pieces are bushed. Bushwhackers. This term was used dur- ing the civil war to designate a class of men who claimed to be non-combatants in the presence of a superior force, and who, to outward appearance, pursued their peaceful avocations, but who did not hesitate, when an opportunity off'ered, to slay stragglers, and pick off" soldiers from ambush. When caught in the commission of such acts they were treated with merciless severity. Buskins. A kind of shoe, or half-boot, adapted to either foot, formerly part of the Roman dress. They are now worn by some European armies. Butin [Fr.). Booty or pillage. At the beginning of the French monarchy, and for a long time after its establishment, a partic- ular spot was marked out by the prince or general, to which all persons belonging to the victorious army were directed to bring every species of booty that might have fallen into their hands. This booty was not divided, or appropriated according to the will and pleasure of the prince or general, but was thrown into dilferent lots, and drawn for in common. The soldiers who distributed these spoils were called Bu- tiniers. Butler Projectile. See Projectile. Butrinto. A fortified maritime town of European Turkey, opposite Corfu. The town and fortress are of Venetian construc- tion ; taken by the French from the Vene- tians in 1797. Butt. In gunnery, is a solid earthen par- apet, to fire against in the proving of guns, or in practice. Butt, or Butt-end. That extremity of a musket which rests against the shoulder when the piece is brought up to a position of firing. Button. In gunnery, is a part of the cascabel, in either a gun or howitzer, and is the hind part of the piece, made round in the form of a ball. Buttress. A sustaining wall at right angles to the main wall, which it is intended to strengthen. Buxar. A town in Bengal near which, on October 23, 1764, Major, afterwards Sir Hector, Munro (with 857 Europeans and 6215 Sepoys) gained a great victory over the troops of the nabob of Oude, 40,000 in number; 6000 of these were killed, and 130 pieces of cannon taken. Byblos. An ancient town of Egypt, on the Delta of the Nile. Here the Athenians sustained a memorable siege against the Persians, 456 B.C. Byrnie. Early English for body-armor. Byssa. An ancienl; cannon for throwing stones. Byzantium. See Constantinople. CABAS 81 CAFFA O. Cabas (Fr.). A basket made of ruslics, used in ancient Languedoc and Rousillon, for tlio jnirpose of conveying stores and am- niiinitioii. Cabasset, Cabacet, or Capacite. A kind of helmet, lighter than the morion, termi- nating in a rounded top. It was also called Cerveliere, because it only covered the upper part of the head. Cabeira (Asia Minor). Here Mithridates, king of Tontus, was defeated by Lucullus, 71 ».c. Cabell Court - house. See Baruours- VII.LK. Cabezon de la Sal. A town of Spain, in the province of "S'alladolid. It is celebrated as the scene of one of the tirst battles of the Peninsular campaign, in which the Span- iards were signally defeated by the French. Cabocbed, or Cabossed. A heraldic term from the old French word cahoche, "head." "When the head of an animal is borne without any part of the neck, and ex- hibited full in face, it is said to be cnboched. Cabrera. One of the Balearic Islands, 10 miles south of ^lajorca. Celebrated in the annals of war for the number of French prisoners who were there decimated by hun- ger, disease, and other physical and mental tortures. Cabul, or Cabool. A city of Afghanistan, taken by Subuctajeen, grandfather of Mo- hammed, founder of the Gaznevide dynasty, and by Nadir Shah in 1738. In 1809, the sovereign Shah Soojah was expelled by Futleh^Khan ; and in 1818, Cabul came into the hands of Dost Mohammed, a clever and ambitious chieftain. In 1839, the British restored Shah Soojah ; but in November, 1841, a dreadful outbreak took place. The British civil otiicer, Sir "William McNaugh- ten, was massacred, and the British com- menced a most disastrous retreat. Of about 3849 soldiers, and about 12,000 camp-follow- ers, only one European, Dr. Dryden, and four or live natives escaped. In the same year (September lij), General, afterwards Sir George, Pollock retook the town, and res- cued Lady Sale and many of the prisoners. After destroying many public buildings he left Cabul, October 1'/, 1842. Cabule {Fr.). A machine of war, used during the 12th century to throw stones, etc. Cache. A hidden reservoir of provision (to secure it from bears) in Arctic travel. Also, a deposit of dispatches, etc. Cadence. A uniform time and pace in marching, indispensable to the correct move- ments of bodies of troops. Cadency, Marks of. In heraldry, are marks on the shields of younger members of families, by which they are distinguished from the elder and from each other. Cadet, Military (Fr. cadet, "younger," "junior'). Is a youth studying for the military service in a school established for military training, such as the Military Academy at AV'est Point, N. Y., the Koyal Military Academy at Woolwich, England, the Polytechnic School at Paris, etc. (See Military Academie.s.) There are also medical and engineer cadets, who are youths undergoing special instruction ff)r the public service in the several professions implied by their names. Cadetship. The rank or commission of a cadet ; as, to get a cadetship. Cadiz (anc. Gades). A fortified mar- itime city of Spain, in the province of the same name. The Carthaginians became masters of Cadiz during the first Punic war, but the Romans obtained possession of it in 20G B.C. It was taken and pillaged by the Earl of Essex in 1506, and was blockaded in 1G56 by Admiral Blake, who captured two rich galleons. It was l)esicged bv the French from February, 1810, until August, 1812. Captured by the Due d'Angouleme, October 3, 1823, and held till 1828; declared a free port in 1829. Cadore. A town of "\"enice, 22 miles northeast from Belluno. This j)lace stands on the Piave, and is distinguished as the birthplace of Titian. In 1797 the French obtained a victory over the Austrians near this town. Caen. A city of France, in Normandy. A place of importance before 912, when it became the capital of the possessions of the Normans, under whom it fl(jurished. It was taken by the English in 1340 and 1417; but was finally recovered by the French, July 1, 1450. Here were buried William the Con- queror (1087) and his queen (1083). Caernarvon. A town in North Wales. In the custle (founded in 1283 or 1284) Ed- ward II. was bi«rn, April 25, 1284; and the town was chartered by Edward I. in the same year. The town sutlered by the civil war of Charles, but was finally retained for the Parliament. Caffa, Kaffa, or Theodosia. A town in Euri>pean liussia, in the Crimea, at the end of a large bay on the northern shore of the Black Sea." In 1770 the Russians took this place by assault, and in 1774 it was ceded with the rest of the Crimea to the khan of Tartary, who made it his resi- dence. CAFFRAKIA CALCUTTA Caffraria, and Caffre War. See Kaf- FRARIA. Cahors. A town of France, capital of the department of Lot. It is supposed to have been the capital of the Cadurca, before the conquest of Gaul. It was captured by as- sault in 1580, by Henry IV. Caic. See Caique. Caiffa. See Kaiffa. Cai-fong. In China, capital of Honan, on the right bank of the Hoang-ho. It was besieged by 100,000 rebels in 1G42. The com- mander of the relieving forces, in order to drown the enemy, broke down the embank- ments of the river. It is said all the be- siegers and 300,000 of the citizens perished. Cairo, or Grand Cairo. The modern capital of Egypt, partially built by the Sara- cens in 969 ; it is surrounded by stone walls which are surmounted with antique battle- ments ; taken by the Turks from the Egyp- tian sultans, 1517 ; taken by the French under Napoleon Bonaparte; they entered the city July 23, 1798 ; captured by the British and Turks, when 6000 French capitu- lated, June 27, 1801 ; massacre of the Mame- lukes, March 1, 1811. Caisson. In gunnery, is a carriage used for conveying ammunition for a field bat- tery. It is a four-wheeled carriage, consist- ing of two parts, one of which is a limber similar to that of a gun-carriage, and con- nected in a similar way by a wooden stock and lunette. On the axle-body of the rear part, and parallel to the stock, are placed three rails upon which are fastened two am- munition-boxes, one behind the other, and similar to the one on the limber ; so that the caisson has three ammunition-boxes, which will seat nine cannoneers. The interior compartments of the ammunition-boxes vary according to the nature of the ammunition with which they are loaded. In the rear of the last box is placed a spare wheel-axle of iron, with a chain and toggle at tlie end of it. On the rear end of the middle rail is placed a carriage-hook similar to a pintle- hook, to which the lunette of a gun-carriage whose limber has become disabled may be attached, and the gun carried off the field. The caisson has the same turning capacity and mobility as the gun-carriage, so that it can follow the piece in all its manoeuvres, if necessary. It also carries a spare wheel, spare pole, etc. See Ordnance, Carriages FOR, The Caisson. Cake-powder. See Gunpowder. Caking. To prevent powder caking, the barrels should be taken outside the magazine and rolled on boards. Calabozo. A town of Venezuela, South America; it was captured by Bolivar, 1820. Calabria (anc. Messapia). A region of Southern Italy ; it was conquered by the Romans 266 B.C. It formed part of the kingdom of the Ostrogoths under Theo- doric, 493 ; was reconquered (for the Eastern empire) by Belisarius, 536 ; subdued by the Lombards and joined the duchy of Bene- vento, 572. After various changes, it was conquered by liobert Guiscard, the Nor- man, 1058. Calabuss. An early kind of light mus- ket with a wheel-lock. Bourne mentions it in 1578. Calagurris (now Calahorra, Spain). A town of the Vascones and a Roman munici- pium in Hispania Tarraconensis, near the Iberus (Ebro), memorable for its adherence to Sertorius and for its siege by Pompey and his generals (78 B.C.), in the course of which mothers killed and salted their children. Calais. A fortified seaport town of France, department of Pas-de-Calais, on the Strait of Dover. The town and harbor are defended by a castle and several forts, and can be ren- dered inaccessible by land by flooding the adjacent ground, which is low and marshy. It was taken by Edward III. after a year's siege in August, 1347 ; retaken by the Duke of Guise, January, 1558. It was taken by the Spaniards, April, 1596; restored, 1598. Louis XVIII. landed here in 1814, after his exile. Calasiries, or Calosires. One of the two divisions (the other being the Hermotybii) of the warrior-caste of Egypt. Their great- est strength was 250,000 men, and their chief abode in the western part of the Delta. They formed the king's body-guard. Calatafimi. A town of Sicily, province of Trapani. Here, in May, 1860, Garibaldi defeated the royalist troops under Gen. Landi. Calatanazor. A small town of Spain in Old Castile. Here Al-Mansoor gained a great victory over the Christians in 1001. Calatayud. A town of Spain, province of Saragossa. It was captured frojn the Moors by Alfonso of Aragon in 1118 ; taken from the descendants of Alfonso by the king of Castile in 1362. Calatrava, The Order of. Was founded in 1158 by Sancho III. of Castile. For a long period the war against the Moors was carried on almost entirely by the knights of Calatrava. The knights bear a cross gules, fleur-de-lised with green, etc. Calcans. The bucklers of the Turks were so called during the Middle Ages. Calcinato. A town of Italy, on the river Chiese. The Duke of Vendome here defeated the Austrians under Count de Reventlau in 1706. Calcium-light. A brilliant light produced by projecting the oxyhydrogen flame upon a surface of lime. Called also the Drummond- light. Calcutta. Capital of Bengal and British India ; the flrst settlement of the English here was made in 1689. The town was at- tacked and taken by an army of 70,000 horse and foot and 400 elephants (146 of the British were crammed into the " Black-Hole prison," a dungeon about 16 feet square, from whence 23 only came forth alive next day), June 20, 1756; it was retaken byClive, January 2, 1757. CALDIERO 83 CAMBRAI Caldiero. A village of Northern Italy. Here, just before t lie battle of Areola, the French under JJapoleon I. were repulsed by the Austrians under Alvinzl in 1790, and in 1805 were beaten under Massena by the Archduke Charles. Caledonia. The name given by the Romans to that j)art of Britain north of the Wall of Antoninus, and afterwards applied to the whole of the country now known as Scotland. The inhabitants were called Caledonii until about the beginning of the 4th century, when they began to be spoken of as Picts and Scots. In 84 they were defeated under their chief Galgacus by the Roman general Agri- cola, and a great part of the country was overrun by the Romans, who formed many encampments there; but the country was never reduced to a Roman province. Caliano. A town of the Tyrol, Austria, on the left bank of the Adige. Here the Venetians were defeated by the Austrians in 1487. Caliber, or Calibre. From the Latin qua libra, '-what pound," applied tirst to the weight of a bullet, then to the diameter, which determined the diameter of the gun, now signifies the diameter of the bore of a cannon or any fire-arm, and is expressed in inches or fractional parts of an inch, as a 15-inch gun ; a Springfield rifle, caliber .45. Cannon are sometimes also designated by the weight of metal which they throw, as a 24-pounder. Caliber-rule. A gunner's calipers ; hav- ing two scales, to determine the weight of a ball from its diameter, and conversely. Calicut (now Kollkod). A town in South- western India; the first Indian port visited by Vasco de Gama, May 20, 1498. It was seized bv Hyder Ali, 1766, and taken by the English, 1790. California (from the Spanish Caliente For- nalla, " hot furnace," in allusion to the cli- mate). Was discovered by Cortez in 1537; others say Cabrillo in 1542; and visited by Sir Francis Drake, who named it New Al- bion in 1579. The Spaniards established missionary and military stations in Califor- nia, 1698 ; it became subject to Mexico in 1823 ; bi'came independent in 1836 ; occupied by the army of the United States in 1846; ceded to the United States, 1848; admitted into the Union as a sovereign State, 1850. Caligae. A kind of half-boots worn by the I'koman soldiers. These soldiers were somotiini's called Calignil. Caliper-compass. An instrument by which the bore of cannon, small-arms, etc., is measured ; said to have been invented by an artificer of Nuremberg, 1540. Caliver. A hand-gun or arquebuse ; prob- ably the old name for the match-lock or carabine. Call. A military musical term, signifies a signal given by a trumpet, bugle, or drum. Callao. A fortified seaport of Peru. Lord Cochrane gallantly cut out the " Esme- ralda," a Spanish ship-of-war, from under the guns of the fort in 1821. Its roadstead (the best on the Peruvian coast) was the scene of a combat between the Spaniards and the Independents; the Colombians took it in 1826. The attempt of the Spanish admi- ral Nunez to bombard Callao on May 2, 1866, was defeated by the Peruvians. Calle, La. A seaport on the coast of Al- geria. The French, who possessed it before the revolution of 1789, lost it during that epoch ; again occupied it in 1815, but lost it in 1827. It has been in the possession of the French since the conquest of Algeria. Callinger. One of the hill-forts of Bun- delcund. From its position and size, Cal- linger must at one time have been a place of great strength. It was stormed by the British in 1812. Calmar. See Kalmar. Calones. A term applied to menials of the Roman armies ; also slaves belonging to the Roman soldiers, who followed their mas- ters to the wars. Calore. A river in Italy; on its banks the Romans (composed of slaves), com- manded by Tiberius (Gracchus), defeated the Carthaginian general Hanno in 215. After the battle each Roman (slave) who could present the head of an enemy slain by him was granted his freedom. Calpee, or Kalpee. A city of India, in Bwfidelcund, on the right bank of the river Jumna. It wa-s conquered by the British in 1803, and in May, 1858, was captured by Gen. Rose from the mutinous >Sepoys, it being the headquarters of the Gwalior con- tingent. Caltrop, or Crow's-foot. An instrument with 4 iron points, so disposed that, three of them being on the ground, the other pro- jects upward. They are scattered on the ground where an enemy's cavalry are to pass, to impede their progress by endanger- ing the horses' feet. Calumet. A kind of pipe used by the North American Indians for smoking to- bacco, having the bowl usually of soft red stone, and the tube a long reed ornamented with feathers. The calumet is used as a sym- bol or instrument of peace. To accept the calumet is to agree to the terms of peace, and to refuse it is to reject them. The calu- met is used to seal or ratify contracts and alliances, and to receive strangers kindly. Calvi. A seaport on the island of Cor- sica, situated on a peninsula in the (Julf of Calvi. It is strongly fortified and has a good port. It was captured by the English in 1794, after a siege of 51 days. Calvi. A decayed town of Naples. Here the French gained a victory over the Nea- politans, December 9, 1798. Cam. A river in England. On its banks was fought a battle between the Saxons and Danes during the reign of Edward I. Camail. Ancient armor, consisting of a guard for the throat made of chain-mail ci>ming down from the helmet. Cambrai, or Cambray. A fortified city CAMBRIA 84 CAMP-GUARD of France, department of the North. It was fortified by the Romans ; besieged and cap- tured bv Childebert in 535; taken bv Ed- ward III., king of England, in 1337; in 1544 by Charles V. ; by the Spaniards in 1595 ; captured by the French and annexed, 1667 ; taken by Clairfait, the Austrian gen- eral, on September 10, 1798. The French were defeated at Caesar's camp, in the neigh- borhood, by the allied army under the Duke of York, April 24, 1794. Cambray was seized by the British under Sir Charles Colville, June 24, 1815. Several important treaties were entered into at this place. Cambria. See Wales. Cambridge. The Roman Camboricum and the Saxon Granta ; a town of England, in Cambridgeshire. It was burned by the Danes in 870 and 1010. Roger de Mont- gomery destroyed it with fire and sword, to be revenged of King William Rufus. Dur- ing Wat Tyler's and Jack Straw's rebellion, the rebels entered the town, seized the Uni- versity records and burned them in the mar- ket-place, 1381. Cambuskenneth (Central Scotland). Here Wallace defeated the English under War- renne and Cressingham, September 10, 1297. Camden. A village in Kershaw Co., S C. Gen. Gates was defeated here August 16, 1780, by Lord Cornwallis, and April 25, 1781, Gen Greene was here defeated by Lord Rawdon. During the civil war this place was captured, February 24, 1865, by the Federal forces under Gen. Sherman, and the bridge over the Wateree, the railroad depot, and a considerable quantity of stores, etc., burned by the 15th Corps. Camel. See Pack and Draught Ani- mals. Camelford. A town of England, in Corn- wall. It was the scene of a famous battle between King Arthur and his nephew Mo- dred in 543, in which the former was vic- torious. The West Saxons, under Egbert, had a battle with the Britons here in 823. Cameron Highlanders. The designation given to the 79th Regiment of Infantry in the British service, in consequence of the corps having been raised by Allan Cameron of Errooh in 1793. This gallant regiment, which wears the Highland garb, performed distinguished services in the Peninsula and at Waterloo, and has been engaged in the principal warlike struggles of more recent times. Camisado. A shirt formerly worn by soldiers over their uniform, in order to be able to recognize one another in the dark- ness, in a night attack. Camisado. An attack by surprise at night, or at break of day, when the enemy is supposed to be in bed, by soldiers wearing the camisado. Camouflet (Fr.). A small mine contain- ing about 10 pounds of powder, sufficient to compress the earth all around it without dis- turbing the surface of the ground. It is sometimes formed in the wall or side of an enemy's gallery, to blow in the earth and cut off the retreat of the miner. Camp. From the Latin word campus, a " plain" ; is the whole extent of ground cov- ered by an army when under canvas. Its breadth should not exceed the line occupied by the troops when drawn out in order of battle. As a general rule, camps should be located in a position convenient to wood and water, with the front close and well covered, and the rear perfectly open. Campaign. A connected series of mili- tary operations, forming a distinct stage or step in a war. Formerly, when troops kept the field only during the summer months, the term was used to include all that was done from the time an army took the field until it went again into winter quarters. In modern times, when no ordinary degree of cold is allowed to arrest military operations, the term is frequently used to include all steps taken to accomplish one immediate object. Campaigner. One who has served in an army several campaigns ; an old soldier ; a veteran. Camp and Garrison Equipage. All the tents, fittings, utensils, etc., carried with an army, applicable to the domestic rather than to the warlike wants of the soldier. The allowance of camp and garrison equi- page to U. S. troops is prescribed in general orders from the War Department. Campania (Southern Italy). Was occu- pied by Hannibal and various cities declared in his favor, 216 B.C. ; conquered by the Romans, 213. Its capital was Capua (which see). Camp-bedstead. A bedstead made to fold up within a narrow space, as used in war ; a trestle bedstead. Campbell's Station. A post-village of Knox Co., Tenn. Here on November 16, 1863, Gen. Burnside, marching from Knox- vjlle to meet the Confederate forces under Gen. Longstreet, was attacked by them, and after several hours' fighting succeeded in re- pulsing them. Burnside then withdrew to the neighborhood of Knoxville and fortified his position. Camp-boy. A boy that serves in camp. Campeachy. A city of Central America, and the principal seaport of Yucatan. The country was discovered about 1517, and set- tled in 1540. This city was taken by the English in 1659 ; by the buccaneers in 1678, and \)Y the freebooters of St. Domingo in 1685. These last burnt the town and blew up the citadel. Campestre. A kind of girdle or apron worn by Roman soldiers around their waists at certain exercises, where the rest of their bodies remained naked. Camp-followers. The sutlers, traders, and dealers generally ; also civilian em- ployes, servants, and women who follow troops, and are amenable to the regulations and restrictions of the service. Camp-guard. A camp-guard consists of J CAMPIDOCTORES 85 CANISTER one or two rows of sentinels placed around a camp, and relieved at rei^ular intervals. The number of rows of sentinels, and the dis- tance between each man, will depend upon the character of the ijjround and the degree of dant^er apprehended. Campidoctores. Officers who drilled the Koniaii sdldit-ry. Camp, Intrenched. Is a position fortified by field-works, which may be selected by an army in the field, for important operations during a campaign or a war, — such as to secure itself while covering a siege, or in winter quarters to accommodate a corps of observation, while the active army is en- gaged elsewhere, or to defend a position near a fortified j)lace. Camp of Instruction. Is an encampment of troops ill the field to habituate them to the duties and f'litigues of war. They may be either temporary or permanent. Of the latter description are thecamps at Alder- shott, England, and the Curragh of Kildare, Ireland. Campo Formio. A town of Northern Italy ; here a treaty was concluded between France and Austria, the latter yielding the Low Countries and the Ionian Islands to France, and Milan, Mantua, and Modcna to the Cisalpine Republic, October 17, 1797. By a secret article the emperor gained the Venetian dominions. Campo Mayor. A stronghold which covers the district between the Guadiana and the Tagus, where the French, retreat- ing from this place in March, 1811, were suddenly confronted by a large British force under .Marshal l^eresford, and a combat en- sued which was disastrous to the French. Campoos. Kegiments of infantry in the service of tlie Mahratta confederates. Campo Santo. A town of Northern Italy, situated on the Panaro. In 1743 a sanguinary battle was fought here between the Spanish and Austrian forces. Camp Out, To. To rest for the night without a standing roof; whether under a light tent, a screen of boughs, or any make- shift that the neighborhood nuiy at^"ord. Camprodon. A fortified town of Cata- lonia, Spain. This town was taken by the French in IUSO, and again in 171)4. Camp-stool. A portable seat used on campaigns. It is usually made with crossed legs, so as to fold up, and with a full-sized seat of leather or canvas, or else of strips of dressed hide. Canada, Dominion of. A country of Nortii America which embraces all of the American possessions of Creat l^ritain lying north of the United States. It was 'dis- covered bv John and Sebastian Cabot, June 24, 14D7 ; the French founded Quebec in ir.()8. The English general Wolfe caj)turcd Quebec in 1751», and the conquest of Canada was completed in 17<'iO. The Americans under Montgomery invaded Camula, and surprised ilontreal, November, 177i'>; expelled by Carleton, March, 1770; the Americans under Gen. Hull again invaded Canada; de- feated at Brownstown, August 8, and sur- rendered August 10, 1812. The Amer- icans took York April 27, Fort George May 27, 1814 ; they were defeated at Chippewa July 25, and peace was signed at Ghent, December 24, 1814. Several rebellions took place in Canada, but were speedily sup- pressed. Invasions of Camida by armed Fe- nians from the United States were attempted in 1806 and 1870, but were repelled without difficulty. Cananore. A seaport town of Briti.sh India, in the presidency of Madras ; it is the chief military station of the British in Mal- abar. In 1501 a small fort was built here by the Portuguese, which was taken by the Dutch in 1004. These were subsequently driven out by Tippoo Saib, and in 17'J0 the British took possession. Candahar, or Kandahar. A fortified city of Afghanistan ; stands in a fertile plain, 200 miles southwest from Cabiwl. This city is suj)posed to have been founded by Alexander the Great. Candahar was held by Tartary, India, and Persia in turn. During all the disasters of the Afghan war, the British succeeded in holding possession of the city, 1839-42. Candia (anc. Crete). An island in the Mediterranean Sea. It was conijuered by the Komans, 08 B.C. ; seized by the Sara- cens, 823 ; retaken by the Greek's, 900 ; sold to the Venetians, 1204 ; gained by the Turks after a 24 years' siege, during which more than 200,000 men perished, 1009; ceded to the Egyptian pasha, 1830; restored to Tur- key, 1840; in 1800 the Christian inhabitants revolted against the Turks, and demanded an annexation to the kingdom of Greece. This war excited much sympathy among Christian nations, but the Cretans were sub- dued in 1809. Candle Bombs. Pasteboard shells filled with pyrotechnic compositions which make a brilliant display upon explosion. They are used for signaling, and are nuide up with a powder charge attached to one side; a strand of quick-match leads to the charge when placed in the mortar. The mortars used are very light, being simply hollow cylinders of stout paper, sole-Jeather, or wood. They are made very light for case of transportation. Candy. A kingdom of Ceylon ; it was taken by a British detachment, February 20, 1803, who capitulated June 23, following, anxious to evacuate the place on account of its unhealthiness ; on the third day many were treacherously massacred at Columbo. The war was renewed in October, 1814 ; the king made prisoner by Gen. Brownrigg, February 19, 1815, and the sovereignly vested in Great Britain, March 2, 1815. Canister. In the U. S. service, a round of canister consists of a hollow tin cylinder filled with cast iron or lead balls, which vary- in size and number with the caliber and i kind of piece; the cylinder is closed at the CANISTEK-SHOT 86 CANTABRUM Lottom by a thick cast-iron plate, and at the top by one of sheet-iron. The interstices between the balls are filled with dry saw- dust, the object of which is to give more solidity to the mass, and to prevent the balls from crowding on one another when the piece is fired. In the English service this is called case-shot. Canister-shot. One of the lead or iron balls in a round of canister. Cannae. A town of Naples, province of Terra di Bari. It is celebrated for the great victory gained there by Hannibal over the Romans, in the summer of 216 B.C. The loss of the Romans is stated by Livy at 45,000 infantry and 3000 cavalry. Cannon. A military engine of which the general form is that of a hollow cylinder closed at "one end, and variously mounted, used for throwing balls and other instru- ments of death 'by force of gunpowder. Cannons are made of iron, brass, bronze, and sometimes of steel rods welded together, and are of different sizes. They are classi- fied, from their nature, guns, howitzers, and mortars ; also from their use, as field, moun- tain, prairie, sea-coast, and siege'; also as rified and smooth-bore. See Ordnance. The following are the most famous cannon of all ages, arranged according to the diam- eter of the bore : 1. The Tsar Poosehka, the great bronze gun of Moscow, cast in 1580 ; bore 36 inches, "weight 86,240 pounds; threw a stone ball weighing 2000 pounds. 2. Mallet's Mortar, English, 1857-58; built up of cast and wrought iron ; bore 36 inches ; cast-iron shell weighing 2986 pounds. 3. The Mali k-I-My dan, "Master of the Field," the great bronze gun of Bejapoor, India ; cast 1538 ; bore 28.5 inches ; basalt ball, 1000 pounds. 4. The Bronze Ghm of Mahomet 11., A.D. 1464 ; bore 25 inches ; granite ball, 672 pounds. 5. The Dulle-Griete of Ghent, wrought iron, A.D. 1430; bore 25 inches ; stone ball, 700 pounds. 6. The Dhool-Dhanee, bronze gun of Agra, India; bore 23.2 inches; stone balls, 520 pounds. 7. Mons Meg of Edinburgh ; wrought iron, A.D. 1455; bore 20 inches; stone ball, 400 pounds. 8. Rodman Oun, American, 1863 ; cast iron ; bore 20 inches, weight 117,000 pounds ; cast-iron solid shot weighing 1080 pounds. The most powerful cannon the world has ever seen have been made within the present decade (1870-80). They are rifles. The 100-ton Armstrong guns sold to Italy to arm the " Duilio" and " Dandolo" ; bore 17 inches, weight of oblong shot of chilled iron 2000 pounds, charge of Fossano 2^owder 552 pounds. Muzzle-loading. The ^0-ton Woolwich guns made to arm the " Inflexible" ; bore 16 inches, weight of shot 1700 pounds, charge of cubical 2iOwder 440 pounds. Muzzle-loadirig . The 72-to7i Kruppgims; bore 15.75 inches, weight of steel shot 1700 pounds, charge of jyrismatle powder 452 pounds. Guns all steel. Breech-loading. Cannonade. The act of discharging shot or shells from cannon for the purpose of de- stroying an army, or battering a town, ship, or fort ; usually applied to an attack of some continuance. Cannon-ball. A ball usually made of cast iron, to be thrown from cannon. Cannon Baskets. The old English phrase ' for gabions. Cannon-bullet. A cannon-ball. Cannoneer. A man who manages cannon. Cannoneering. The use of cannon. Cannoneers' Seats. See Ordnance, Carriages for, Nomenclature of Ar- tillery Carriages. Cannon-lock. A contrivance, like the lock of a gun, placed over the vent of a can- non to explode the charge. Cannon-metal. An alloy of copper with about 9 per cent, of tin ; — called also gim- metal. Cannon-perer, An ancient piece of ord- nance throwing stone shot. Cannon-proof. Proof against cannon. Cannon Royal. A 60-pounder of 8^ inches bore. Cannonry. Cannon collectively ; artil- lery. Cannon-shot. A ball for cannon. Canonniere {Fr.). This name was given formerly to a tent which served to shelter four canonniers, but later the term was ap- plied to all infantry tents which contained seven or eight men. Canonniere (Fr.). An appellation for- merly given to a gun-proof tower ; it also designated an opening in the walls of cities, forts, etc., through which the defenders of these places could fire on an enemy without being exposed. Canonniers (Fr.). Artillerymen, gunners. In 1671, during the administration of Lou- vois in France, the name of canonniers was given to the first companj^ of the regiment of the king's fusileers ; in April, 1693, this regiment was named artiUerie royal, but the first company retained the name of can- onniers. Canonniers Gardes-cotes {Fr.). "Were instituted in 1702, by Louis XIV. of France, for the service of coast batteries. They are similar to the Artillery Coast Brigade in the British service. Canstadt, or Cannstadt. A town of Wiir- temberg, on the river Neckar. In the vi- cinity a battle was fought in 1796, between Gen. Moreau and the Archduke Charles of Austria. Cantabri. A rude race of ancient moun- taineers who lived in Cantabria, the northern part of Spain, near the Bay of Biscay. They made a brave resistance to the Romans in the Cantabrian war, 25-19 B.C. They are said to have been of Iberian origin. Cantabrum. A large banner used during CANTEEN 87 CAPPADOCIA the time of the Roman emperors, and borne on ft'stive occasions. Canteen. A tin vessel used by soldiers to carry water on the march, or in the field. It ' is usually su.«pended by a strap from the shoulder. In the British service the can- teen is made of wood. The name is also ap- plied to the store authorized within the pre- cincts of British barracks for the sale of liquors, small stores, etc. (See Post Trader.) A leather or wooden chest divided into com- partments, and containing the table equipage of an otlicer when on active service, is also called a canteen. Canterbury (the Dnrovernum of the Ro- mans). A town in Kent, England. Its ca- thedral was sacked by the Danes, 1011, and burnt down, 10(17; rebuilt, 1130; again burnt down, 1174, and again rebuilt. During the civil war in England, CromwelTs dragoons used Canterbury Cathedral as a stable. Cantiniere (i-V.). Women who are au- thorized to establish themselves in the bar- racks or follow the troops in time of war, selling them Wquors and provisions. The enntinieres, whether attached to regiments or barracks, are selected from the wives of non- commissioned officers or privates, and wear a uniform. See VivANDii:RE. Cantle. The hind-bow or protuberance of a saddle ; also written cantel. Canton. The only city in China with which Europeans were allowed to trade till the treaty of August 29, 1842. In 1850 a se- rious misunderstanding arose between Great Britain and China, on account of the Chi- nese having boarded the " Arrow," a small vessel, lying in the Canton River, with a British colonial register. The Canton forts were taken, and Canton was bombarded by Sir Michael Seymour in 185G, and in the fol- lowing year the Chinese fleet was entirely destroyed. In 1858 Canton was taken, and the forts at the mouth of the Pei-ho River were taken by the allied French and English forces. Canton. One of the nine honorable or- dinaries in heraldry. It occupies a corner of the shield either dexter or sinister, and is a third of t lie chief. Cantonments. In the general operations of European armies are temporary resting- places. In cantonments the men are not under canvas, as in camps, but occupy during an armistice, or in intervals between active operations, adjacent towns and villages. In India cantonments are permanent places, being regular military towns, distinct and at some little distances from the principal cities. Cantonni. In heraldry, when a cross is placed between four other objects it is said to be raiittiiuic. Canusium (now Canosa). An important and very ancient city of Apulia, in Italy. It was probably founded by the Greeks. Here a battle took place between the Car- thaginians under Hannibal, and the Romans under Marcellus, 209 B.C. ; it lasted two days; the first day the Carthaginians were victorious, but on the second day the Ronjans gained the victory after committing great havoc among their adversaries. It was cap- tured by the Romans, 318 B.r. Canvas. A coarse hempen or linen cloth which is extensively used in the form of tents, etc. Cap-a-pie (Fr.). " Head to foot. " In mil- itary language of the Middle Ages, this term was applied to a knight or sntirmed to the English by the treaty of Breda, in 1007. See Asuan- TEES. Cape Colony. See Cape of Good Hope. Capeline(/V.). A helmet without a visor, nearly in the form of a round head; it was formerly worn by infantry. Cape of Good Hope. In Southern Africa ; long held by the Dutch; was captured by the British, Septcinber 10, 1795; restored to the Dutch at the general peace, but was again taken by the British, January 9, 1806 ; it still belongs to the British, though a se- vere desultory warfare has often been car- ried on with the native tribes. Capital. In technical fortification, is an imaginary line bisecting the salient angle of a work. Capitulation. The surrender of a fortress or iiniiy on ,-tipulated conditions. Caponiere. A covered passage across the ditch of a fortified place, for the purjx>se either of sheltering communication with outworks or of atfording a flanking fire to the ditch in which it stands. If the capon- iere is protected only on one side, it is single ; if on both sides, and covered, it is double. Capote. A heavy coat with a hood, worn by soldiers, sailors, and others. Cappadocia. An ancient province of Asia Minor, now included in Asiatic Turkey. It was conquered by Cyrus the Great of Persia, and was ruled by independent kings after the time of Alexander the Great until 17, when Tiberius reduced it to a Roman prov- CAPPEL CAPTAIN-GENERAL Cappel. A village of Switzerland. Here the reformer LTlrie Zwinglius was slain in a conflict between the Catholics and the men of Zurich, in October, 1531. Capri (anc. Caprece). An island near Na- ples, the sumptuous residence of Tiberius, memorable for the debaucheries he com- mitted during the last seven years of his life. Capri was taken by Sir Sidney Smith, April 22, 1806 ; taken from the British, October 4, 1808, by a French force under Gen. La- marque. Caps. The head-dress or shako of such troops as are not supplied with helmets. Forage Caps are the cloth undress head- covering of the officer or soldier. Caps. In gunnery, are the leathern plugs, or bungs, used to prevent rain or rubbish from collecting in the bore of the guns and howitzers. There are also cannon caps for similar purposes, used for mortars. Caps, Percussion-. Are small metal covers, inlaid with detonating powder, and placed on the nipple of a rifle or revolver. The hammer, striking on the outer surface of the cap, causes the powder to explode and ignite the charge. Cap-square. A strong plate of iron ■which comes over the trunnion of a cannon, and keeps it to its place. Capstan. A strong, massy column of timber, formed somewhat like a truncated cone, and having its upper extremity pierced to receive bars, or levers, for winding a rope round it, to move great weights, or to exert great power; used in moving heavy guns considerable distances ; called also a o-ab. Capsules. Copper caps for percussion- locks. Captain. In a limited and technical sense, is the title of an officer who commands a troop of cavalry, a company of infantry, or a battery of artillery. He is the next in rank below a major, and in the U. S. army is responsible for the camp and garrison equipage, the arms, ammunition, and cloth- ing of his company. There is no position in the army that will give as much satisfaction in return for an honest, capable, and conscientious discharge of his duty as that of captain or command- ing officer of a company. There is a reward inhaving done his full duty to his company, that no disappointment of distinction, no failure can deprive him of; his seniors may overlook him in giving credits, unfortunate circumstances may defeat his fondest hopes, and the crown of laurel may never rest upon his brow, but the reward that follows upon the faithful discharge of his dutj' to his com- pany he cannot be deprived of by any dis- aster, neglect, or injustice. He receives it whenever he looks upon his little command, and sees the harmony, com- fort, and discipline that prevail ; he feels it when he comes to part with his men in the due course of promotion, or as they individ- ually take their discharge after a faithful service; he remembers it when, in after- years, no matter if rank and honors have in the mean time fallen upon him, he meets an old soldier who, with respect and aflection, still calls him his captain. He is a small sovereign, powerful and great within his little domain, but no im- becile monarch ever suffered more from in- trigues, factions, and encroachments than an incapable company commander ; no ty- rant king must contend more with rebel- lions, insurrections, and defections than an arbitrary and unjust captain, and no wise and beneficent ruler ever derived more heart- felt homage, more faithful services, or more patriotic devotion than a just, competent, and faithful commander receives from his company. They will love him truly, they will obey him faithfully, and whilst there is life they will stand by him in the hour of battle. The command of a company divides itself into two kinds of duty, requiring very dif- ferent capacity, viz., Government and Ad- ministration. The former requires force of character, judgment, and discretion, and has often been well performed without much capacity for the latter. Administration re- quires a certain amount of knowledge ab- solutely indispensable to a discharge of a duty. Government. — Under this head may be in- cluded instruction in tactics and discipline, the preservation of order and subordination, and the cultivation of a military spirit and. pride in the profession among the men. It involves the appointing and reduction of non-commissioned officers, and the subject of rewards and punishments. Administration. — Providing the clothing and subsistence, and keeping the accounts of soldiers in order, that they may be paid, and attending to the transportation of the men and their supplies, belong under this head. They involve the keeping of the records of the company, and the pay and clothing ac- counts of the men ; the drawing and dis- tributing of supplies, and the care and ac- countability of public and company prop- erty. The efficient administration of the affairs of a company greatly facilitates the discipline and government of the company, makes the men content and cheerful in the performance of their duties, and attaches them to their commander. Captaincy. The rank, post, or commis- sion of a captain. Captaincy-general. The office, power, territory, or jurisdiction of a captain-gen- eral. Captain-General. This was the proper appellation of a commander-in-chief till Marlborough's time, if not later. The rank is sometimes still given on extraordinary occasions. It was born by the Marquis of Wellesley during his government in India, and is applied to the governor-genei-al of the Canadas. In the United States, the gov- ernor of a State is captain-general of the militia. Captain-lieutena7it, an officer, who CAPTAINRY 8y CARBINEERS with the rank of a captain, and pay of lieu- tenant, commands a company or troop. Captainry. The power, or command, over a certain district; chieftainship; cap- tainsliip. Captainship. The condition, rank, post, or autliority of a captain or chief commander. Also skill in military atfairs ; as, to show good captainship. Captive. A prisoner taken by force or Btrataj^em in war, by an enemy ; made pris- oner, espcciall}' in war; kept in bondage or contineinont. Captivity. The state of being a prisoner, or of being in the power of the enemy, by force or the fate of war. Captor. One who takes, as a prisoner or a prize. Capture. The act of taking or seizing by force; seizure; arrest; as, the capture of an enemy. The thing taken; a prize; prey tiiken by force, surprise, or stratagem. Captured Property. As civilization has advanced during the last centuries, so has likewise steadily advanced, especially in war on land, the distinction between the private individual belonging to a hostile country and the Jjostile country itself, with its men in arms. The principle has been more and more acknowledged that the unarmed citizen is to be spared in person, propertj', and honor, as much as the exigencies of war will admit. A victorious army appropriates all public money, seizes all public movable property until further direction by its gov- ernment, and sequesters for its own benefit or that of its government all the revenues of real property belonging to the hostile gov- ernment or nation. The title to such real property remains in abeyance during mili- tary occupation, and until the conquest is made compU'te. As a general rule, the prop- erty beUmging to churches, to hospitals, or other establishments of an exclusively chari- table nature, to establishments of education, or foundations for the promotion of knowl- edge, whether pviblic schools, universities, academies of learning, or observatories, mu- seums of the fine arts, or of a scientific char- acter, — such property is not to be considered public property ; but it may be taxed or used when the public service may require it. C'lassiial works of art, libraries, scientific collectit)ns, or precious instruments, such as astronomical telescopes, as well as hospitals, must be secured against all avoidable injury, even when they are contained in fortified places whilst besieged or bombarded. And if they can be removed without injury, the ruler of the con(|uering state or nation may order them to be seized and removed for the benefit of the said nation. The ultimate ownership is to bo settled by the ensuing treaty of peace. The United States acknowledge and pro- tect, in hostile countries occupied by them, religion and morality ; strictly private prop- erty ; the persons of the inhabitants, espe- cially those of women ; and the sacredness 7 of domestic relations. Offenses to the con- trary are rigorously punished. This does not interfere with the right of the victorious invader to tax the people or their property, to levy forced loans, to billet soldiers, or to appropriate property, especially houses, land, boats or ships, and churches for temporary and military uses. Private property can be seized only by way of military necessity, ex- cept the owner forfeits his right to it by com- mitting a crime or offense against the victori- ous power. All captures and booty belong, accordingtothemodernlawof war, primarily to the government of the captor. See Stores, Military. Capua. A town of Naples, in the prov- ince of Terra di Lavoro ; took the part of Hannibal when his army wintered here after the battle of Canna?, 21G B.C., and, it is said, became enervated through luxury. In 211, when the Romans retook the city, they scourged and beheaded all the surviving senators ; many of them having poisoned themselves after a banquet previous to the surrender of the city. During the Middle Ages, Capua was successively subjugated by the Greeks, Saracens, Normans, and Ger- mans. It was restored to Naples in 1424, and was taken, November 2, 18G0, by Gari- baldi. Capuchons (Fr.). A society formed in France from 1181 to 1183, for the suppression of the brigandage of the Rnutiers ; they ex- terminated 7000 brigands in an engagement near Verdun. Caracas (South America). Part of Ven- ezuela, discovered by Columbus in 1498. It was reduced by arms, and assigned as prop- erty to the Welsers, German merchants, by Charles V. ; but for their tyranny they were dispossessed in 1550, and a crown governor appointed. The province declared its inde- pendence. May 9, 1810. Caracole (Sp. caracal). A French term used in horsemanship or the manege to de- note a semi-round or half-turn. "When cavalry advance to charge in battle they sometimes perform caracoles in order to per- plex the enemy, and excite a doubt whether they will attack the flank or the front. Caravaggio. A walled town of Italy, in the province of Bergamo. Uere a battle was fought, September 15, 1448, between the Milanese and Venetians, in which the latter were defeated. Carberry Hill. In Southern Scotland; here on June 15, 1507, Lord Hume and the confederate barons dispersed the royal army under Bothwell, and took Mary, queen of Scots, prisoner. Bothwell fled. Carbine. A short light musket, used by cavalry. It is so called from a kind of light horse (Carabins), whose weapon it was. Thev were employed by Henry II. of France in 1559. Carbineers, or Carabineers. Dragoons armed with carbines, who iKcasionally acted as infantry. All regiments of light-arnied horse were formerly called carbineers ; but CARBON 90 CAENATIC since the establishment of hussars and lan- cers, they have, for the most part, lost that denomination. Carbon. See Charcoal. Carcass. In gunnery, is a spherical shell having three additional holes, of the same dimensions as the fuze-hole, pierced at equal distances apart in the upper hemisphere of the shell, and filled with a composition which burns with intense power from 8 to 10 minutes, and the flame issuing from the holes sets fire to everything combustible within its reach ; it is used in bombard- ments, setting fire to shipping, etc., and is projected from cannon like a cannon-shell. Carcassonne (anc. Carcaso). A city in the south of France, capital of the depart- ment of Aude. It was taken from the Visi- goths by the Saracens in 724. Carchera. A name given by the Corsi- cans to their cartridge-belts. Cardiff. A seaport and county town of "Wales, in Glamorganshire. Cardiff" is an ancient place, and is surrounded by walls, in which were four gates. Its castle, once large and strongly fortified, was erected about the year 1079. Robert, duke of Nor- mandy, was confined in it for 28 j^ears after the battle of Tinchebria. This fortress was afterwards taken and partially destroyed by Cromwell. Cardigan. A town in Cardiganshire, "Wales. It was an important town about the Norman conquest, and the Normans were frequently defeated before mastering it. The town suffered much in the struggles between the Welsh and the Normans. Cardinal Points. The four intersections of the horizon with the meridian, and the prime vertical circle, or north and south, east and west. In astrology, the cardinal points are the rising and setting of the sun, the zenith and nadir. Caria. An ancient province in the ex- treme southwest of Asia Minor. It was con- quered by Cyrus, 546 B.C. ; by Dercyllidas, a Lacedsemonian, 397. Caria was absorbed in the Turkish empire. Carignan. A small town about 12 miles from Sedan, department of Ardennes, North- east France. At the plain Douzy, near this place and the encampment of Vaux, a part of MacMahon's army, retreating before the Germans, turned round and made a stand, August 81, 1870. After a long and severe en- gagement, in which the positions were taken and retaken several times, the Germans turned the flank of their enemies, who were compelled to fall back upon Sedan, where they were finally overcome, September 1. Caripi. A kind of cavalry in the Turkish army, which, to the number of 1000, are not slaves, nor bred up in the seraglio, like the rest, but are generally Moors, or renegade Chi-istians, who have obtained the rank of horse-guards to the Grand Seignior. Carisbrooke Castle. In the Isle of Wight, England ; it is said to have been a British and Roman fortress ; was taken in 530, by Cerdic, founder of the kingdom of the West Saxons. Here Charles I. was im- prisoned in 1647. Carizmians. Were fierce shepherds liv- ing near the Caspian Sea ; having been ex- pelled by the Tartars, they invaded Syria in 1243. The union of the sultans of Aleppo, Hems, and Damascus was insufiicient to stem the torrent, and the Christian military orders were nearly exterminated in a single battle in 1244. In October they took Jeru- salem. They were totally defeated in 1247. Carlaverock Castle. In Southern Scot- land ; it was taken by Edward I. in July, 1300. Carlisle. A frontier town of England, in the county of Cumberland, wherein for many ages a strong garrison was kept. Just below this town the famous Picts' wall began, which crossed the whole island to Newcastle- upon-Tyne, and here also ended the great Roman highway. The castle was destroyed by the Danes, 875, restored in 1092 by Wil- liam II. ; was the prison of Mary, queen of Scots, in 1568. Taken by the Parliamentary forces, in 1645, and by the young Pretender, November 15, 1745; retaken by the Duke of Cumberland, December 30, same year. The cathedral was almost ruined by Cromwell in 1648. Carlisle. Capital of Cumberland Co., Pa. This town was shelled by the Confederates, July, 1863. Carlow. A town in Southeastern Ireland ; the castle, erected by King John, surrendered after a desperate siege to Rory Oge O' Moore, in 1577 ; again to the Parliamentary forces in 1650. Here the royal troops routed the insurgents. May, 1798. Carlowitz, or Karlowitz. A town of the Austrian empire, on the Danube. Here, in 1699, a treaty was concluded between Tur- key and Austria ; and here Prince Eugene defeated the Turks in 1716. Carlsruhe, or Karlsruhe. Capital of the grand duchy of Baden ; built by the Mar- grave Charles William, 1715. It was occu- pied by the Prussians, June 25, 1849, who aided to suppress the revolution, and enabled the grand duke to return, August 18, 1849. Carmagnola. A town of Piedmont, on the river Po. It was captured by Catinat troops in 1691 ; taken by the French Repub- lican troops in 1795. Carmel, Knights of the Order of Our Lady of Mount. A semi-religious order of knighthood instituted by Henry IV. of France, and incorporated with the order of the Knights of St. Lazarus of Jerusalem. The order consisted of 100 gentlemen, all French, who were to attend the king in his wars, and had considerable revenues as- signed them. Carnatic. A district of Southern Hindos- tan, extending along the whole coast of Coro- mandel. Hyder AH. entered the Carnatic with 80,000 troops in 1780, and was defeated by the British under Sir Eyre Coote, July 1 and August 27, 1781, and decisively over- CARNIFEX 91 CARTAGENA •thrown, June 2, 1782. The Carnatic was overrun by Tippoo in 1790. The British have pos.se!s.sed entire authority over tlie Car- natic .since 1801. Carnifex Ferry. Over the Gauley River, West Virginia. A force of about 5000 Con- federates under Gen. Floyd, who occupied a strong position here, became engaged with a Federal brigade of the troops under Gen. Ro.secrans on the afternoon of September 10, 1861, when some severe fighting occurred until night put an end to the contest. The Federals intended to renew the attack in the morning with a stronger force, but during the night Gen. Floyd withdrew his troops across the river, burned the ferry-boats and the bridge which he had constructed, thus cutting oft" pursuit, but leaving his camp, baggage, small-arms, and munitions of war in the hands of the Federals. Carolina, North. See North Carolina. Carolina, South. See South Carolina. Caroling. A custom of the ancients be- fore going to war, which consisted of sing- ing, etc. Carpet Knight. A man who obtains knighthood on a pretense for services in which he never participated. Carpi. In Northern Italy; here Prince Eugene and the Imperialists defeated the French, July 9, 1701. Carquois (/'>.). A quiver of iron, wood, leather, etc., which was worn slung over the right shoulder. Carrago. A kind of fortification, consist- ing uf a great number of wagons placed round an arin\\ It was employed by bar- barous nations, as, for instance, the Scyth- ians and Goths. Carreau, Quarreau, or Carre (Fr.). A bolt or dart, with a large steel head, for a cross-bow. Carriage. A gun-carriage is designed to support its piece when fired, and also to transport cannon from one point to another. It consists of two cheeks, connected together and with a stock by assembling bolts. The frtmt part su]iports the piece, and rests upon an axle-tree furnished with wheels, the rear end of the stock or trail resting on the ground. See Urdxanck, Carriac.es for. Carriage, Casemate. See Ordnance, C.\iM{iA(.Ks Ki)K, Ska-Coast Carriages. Carriage, Field-. See Field-Carriage. Carnage, Mountain. See Ordnance, CAIUUAliKS KilR. Carriage, Prairie. See Ordnance, Car- RIAIIKS KOR. Carriage, Sea-coast. See Ordnance, CaKKIAUK> Ki)R. Carriage, Siege. See Ordnance, Car- RIAdKS KOR. Carrical, or Karical. A seaport town of Hindostan, on the coast of Coromandel. It was formerly strongly fortified, but is now thoroughly dismantled. It came into pos- session of the French in 1759; was taken by the English in 1803; and restored to the French in 1814. Carrick. An old Gaelic term for a castle or fortress, as well as for a rock in the .sea. Carrickfergus. A seaport town in the county of Antrim, Ireland. Its castle is supposed to have been built by Hugh de Lacy in 1178. The town surrendered to the Duke of Schomberg, August 28, 1089. The castle surrendered to Thurot, a French naval oflRcer, in 17tj0. Carrick's Ford. Over the Cheat River, Virginia. On July 13, 18G1, a force of Con- federates under Gen. Garnett, retreating frt)m Laurel Hill, were pursued and here attacked by Union troops under Gen. Mor- ris, and after a few attempts to make a stand, were completely routed, and Gen. Garnett killed. Carroccio (Hal.). A very large four- wheeled carriage, which was used by the Crusaders during the Middle Ages. (3n its platform, which was large enough to hold 50 persons, was erected a tower surmounted with a cross and a standard, and to it was attached a bell, which indicated the passing of the carroccio. Before engaging in battle, an effigy of Christ of life size was placed on the platform and at its feet an altar; then a mass was held. A number of knights guarded it, and it was drawn by oxen richly caparisoned. Its invention is attributed to the people of Lombardy. Carton. A village in Stirlingshire, Scot- land, on a stream of the same name, falling into the river Forth. It is noted for its ex- tensive iron-works. The carronade, a pecu- liar kind of gun, derives its name from this place. Carrousel. A species of knightly exer- cise in imitation of the tournament, common in the courts of Europe till the beginning of the IStlvcentury. It usually consisted in tests of skill in horsemanship,' and in the use of the lance, sword, and pistol, the competi- tors being mostly dressed as were the knights of former times. Cart. In a military sense, is a vehicle mounted on two wheels, and drawn by hand or by horses or oxen. See Hand-cart, Hand Sling-cart. Cartagena. A .city and fortified seaport of Spain, is in the province of Murcia, and on a bay of the Mediterranean. It was built byHasdrubal, the Carthaginian gen- eral, 242 B.C. ; taken by Scipio, 210. It was subsequently taken by the Goths, and did not begin to rise into importance again till the time of Philip II. It was taken by a British force under Sir John Leake in 170C; retaken bv the Duke of Berwick, 1707. Cartagena, or Carthagena. A fortified city of New (iranada. South America. It was taken by the French in 1")44, and sub- sequently by' the English under Sir Francis Drake, in 1585, who plundered it and set it on fire; pillaged by the French in 1(597; bombarded by Admiral Vernon in March, 1740; and unsuccessfully besieged by the English in 1741. In the contest with the CAETE 92 CARTKIDGE-BELT mother-country, Cartagena was first besieged by Bolivar, and afterwards by Morillo, to whom it surrendered. It was subsequently reduced by the independent troops. Carte, or Quarte. A movement of the sword in fencing, as tierce and carle. Also a movement of the rifle bayonet drill. Carte-blanche. In a military sense, means a full and absolute power which is lodged in the hands of a general of an army, to act according to the best of his judgment, without waiting for superior instructions or orders. It likewise strictly means a blank paper, to be filled up with such conditions as the person to whom it is sent thinks proper. Cartel. As a military term it is used to denote an agreement between two belliger- ents for the exchange of prisoners. Cartel-ship. A vessel used in exchang- ing prisoners or carrying proposals to an enemy. Carthage. An ancient and celebrated city in Africa, the renowned rival of Rome. It was founded by the Phoenicians, and was one of the latest settlements made by them on the African coast of the Mediterranean, about the middle of the 9th century b.c. No record of the early history of Carthage has been preserved. First alliance of Car- thaginians and Romans, 509 B.C. ; the Car- thaginians in Sicily were defeated at Himera by Gelo, 480 B.C.; they took Agrigentum, 406 B.C., and were defeated by Agathocles, 310 B.C. The first Punic war began (which lasted twenty-three years) in 264 b.c, and ended in 241 B.C. Hamilcar Barcas was sent into Spain, and took with him his son, the famous Hannibal, 237 B.C. Hannibal conquered Spain as far as the Iberus, 219 B.C. The second Punic war began (which lasted seventeen years) in 218 B.C., and ended in 201 B.C. The third Punic war commenced 149 or 150 B.C. ; Carthage taken and burned by order of the senate, 146 B.C. A colony settled at Carthage by C. Gracchus, 122 B.C. ; its rebuilding planned by Julius Caesar, 46 B.C., and executed by his successors ; it was taken by Genseric the Vandal in 439 ; re- taken by Beli-sarius, 533 ; taken and de- stroyed by Hassan, the Saracenic governor of Egypt, 698. Carthage. The capital of Jasper Co , Mo., on Spring River. Near here, on July 5, 1861, an engagement took place between some of Gen. Lyon's troops under Col. Sigel, and a superior force of Confederates under Gen. Rains and Col Parsons. The Union loss was 18 killed and 21 wounded. Carthoun. The ancient cannon royal, carrying a 66-pound ball, with a point-blank range of 185 paces, and an extreme one of about 2000. It was 12 feet long and of 8| inches diameter of bore. Cartouch. A roll or case of paper, etc., holding a charge for a fire-arm. Cartouch, In gunnery, a case of wood, about 3 inches thick at the bottom, bound about with marline, holding about 400 musket-balls, besides 8 or 10 iron balls of < a pound each, to be discharged from a how- itzer, for the defense of a pass, etc. It also implies an article made^of leather, to sling over the shoulder of the gunner, who therein carries the ammunition from the tumbril for the service of the artillery, when at ex- ercise in the field. Cart-piece. An early battering cannon mounted on a peculiar cart. Cartridge. For cannon, is the powder charge and its case. The case is a cylindri- cal bag of fiannel, wildbore, or serge, in which the charge is placed. The mouth is closed by tying with twine, forming the choke, which is always turned towards the muzzle when the gun is charged. For chambered pieces the mouth of the cartridge- bag is closed with a cartridge-block to give it a proper form. For some services the cartridge is attached to the projectile, in others it is carried separately. See Ord- nance, Ammunition for. For small-arms, is the complete charge when the powder and lead are in the same case; if separate, it applies only to the powder and its case. A case containing powder only is called a blank cartridge. Cartridge-cases for military small-arms were formerly made of paper. In loading the gun the case was torn and the powder and ball put in separately. By using an in- flammable paper the cartridge was after- wards used entire, especially in pistols and breech-loaders. Paper cases made very strong and reinforced by metallic heads are still much used in breech-loading shot-guns. Linen or cloth cases were also used at one period. The introduction of breech-loaders into the military service has led to the universal adoption of 7netallic cartridges. The cases are cylinders of copper or brass, closed at the breech end, and holding both powder and bullet, the latter being retained in the case by a slight crimp. A small quantity of fulminate in the base inflames the powder upon being struck by the firing-pin. Eng- land is behind all other nations in the use of the Boxer cartridge, the case of which is made by a wrapping of thin sheet-brass. In the manufacture of metallic cartridges the United States leads the world. Millions were supplied the Turks in their late war with Russia by the Winchester Arms Com- pany, of New Haven, Conn. Metallic car- tridge are reloading and single fire. Reload- ing cartridges have an external primer, which can bo renewed for successive load- ings. The single fire have the fulminate inside the base, and cannot readily be re- loaded. The copper cartridges for the U. S. service rifle, made at Frankford Arsenal, Pa., are of this latter class. Cartridge-bag. See Cartridge. Cartridge-bags. See Ordnance, Am- munition FOR, Ammunition for Field Service. Cartridge-belt. A belt for carrying small- CARTKIDGE-BLOCK 93 CASE-SUOT arm cartridges. A form extensively used in the Western United States, called the prairie-bcif, has a number of leather or canvas loops sewed on the outside in which the oartridi^es are stuck. Cartridge-block. Sec Ordnance, Am- munition FOR, Strapi'ed Ammunition. Cartridge, Bottle. A metallic cartridge, so called from its shape. It contains a larger charge than the ordinary cylindrical car- tridge for the same caliber. The cartridge used in the Martini-Henry is of this shape. Cartridge-box. A leathern case, with cells for cartridges, which are protected by a flap of leather. This box is suspended by a leathern strap, which passes over the left shoulder and under the right arm of the wearer, or is suspended from the waist-belt, as in th(! 11. 8. service. Cartridge, Buck-and-ball. A cartridge containing a round musket-ball and 3 buck- shot, formerly much used in smooth-bore muskets. Cartridge, Buckshot. Containing a charge of buckshot. Formerly used in muskets, but now obsolete for military pur- poses. Cartridge, Centre Primed. A metallic cartridge in which the fulminate is placed in the centre of the cartridge head or base. Cartridge, Multi-ball. A metallic car- tridge recently proposed by Capt. E. M. Wright, U. y. Ordnance Corps, in which two or more bullets or pieces of lead are substituted for the ordinary bullet, with the idea of doing more execution at short ranges. Cartridge-paper. A stout i)aper formerly used in making military cartridges. Cartridge, Reloading. See Cartridge. Cartridge, Rim-fire. A metallic car- tridge in which the fulminate is placed in the rim surrounding the head. This rim being struck at any point, explodes the powder. Formerlj' much used in pistols and magazine guns. These cartridges are not reUinilinci. Cartridge, Single-fire. See Cartridge. Casale, or Casal. A town of Piedmont, the capital of a province of the same name, on the river Po. Here the French defeated the Spaniards in 1G40. In May, 1859, an Austrian reconnoitring party, who had ad- vanced from Vercelli, were here repulsed by the Sardinian Bersaglieri (riflemen). Casal Nova. A village in Spain, where a corps of Lord "Wellington's army liad an atfjiir with the French troops under Marshal Massi-na, during tiieir retreat from Portu- gal on March 14, 1811. Cascabel. In gunnery, is the projection in rear of the breech, and is composed of the knob, the neck, and the fillet. It is used to facilitate the handling of the piece in mounting and dismounting it, and moving it when otF its carriage. Cascans. In fortification, are holes in the form of wells, serving as entrances to galleries, or giving vent to the enemy's mines. Case-hardening. The process of con- verting the >urface of iron into steel. For- merly much used in making small-arms. The parts to be hardened, such as the /tam- tner, tumbler, etc., were inclosed in an air- tight iron box, filled with charcoal, bones, particles of horn, or other carbonizing sub- stance. The box and its contents were then submitted to prolonged heat. The process is that of incomplete cementation (which see). Casemate. "Was originally a loop-holed gallery excavated in a bastion, from which the garrison could fire on an enemy who had obtained possession of the ditch' with- out risk of loss to themselves. The term was afterwards applied to a bomb-proof vault in a fortress, which is designed for the protection of the garrison, without direct reference to the annoyance of the enemy. A casemated battery consists of such a vault or vaults, with openings for the guns. Casemate Carriage. A gun-carriage used in cuicmates. See Ordnance, Carriages FOR. Casemate Gun. A gun mounted in a casemate. Casemates Nouvelles (Fr.). Arched batteries which are constructed under all the openings of revetments or ramparts. The different forts of Cherbourg are de- fended by these casemates ; the works erected around Dover Castle come like- wise under this description; the works at Fort Columbus, N. Y., are erected on the same principle. Casemate Truck. Consists of a stout frame of wood mounted upon three barbette traverse wheels. The front wheel is piv- oted so as to change direction. It is used to move cannon and heavy weights through posterns and along casennite galleries. Casernes. In fortification, are buildings for the soldiers of the garrison to live in; generally erected between the houses of forti- fied towns and the rampart. In a general acceptation, casernes signify barracks. Case-shot. In the IT. S. service, a case- shot is a hollow cast-iron projectile filled with musket-balls. The jirojectile has thinner walls than the ordinary shell. To fill it a tube is inserted in the fuze-hole, the balls are introduced, and melted sulphur or rosin is poured in to fill up the interstices and keep the balls in position. When this has solidi- fied the tube is withdrawn, leaving a vacant space for a small bursting charge. This description answers for the two kinds used, — the spherical case for the 12-pounder smooth- bore and the oblong case for rifle guns. Case- shot should be burst in the air a short dis- tance in front of the troops fired upon. Time-fuzes are, therefore, used with both ; the Borraann-fuze for the former, and the paper fuze for the latter. In Eun»pe this ammunition is called shrapnel, from the in- ventor. There the term case-shot is applied to what is called in the United Stales cants- CASHIER 94 CASTLE-GTJARD ter^ — that is, a thin case filled with bullets, used for short range without fuzes, the case being disrupted in the gun. Cashier. To dismiss from the service with ignominy. An officer thus dismissed is understood to be excluded from the service thereafter. A dismissed officer may be re- stored ; a cashiered officer is deemed unwor- thy of the indulgence. Cashmere. A province of Northern In- dia; was subdued by the Mohammedans in the 16th century; by the Afghans in 1752; by the Sikhs in 1819; and ceded to the British in 1846, who gave it to the Mahara- jah Gholab-Singh, with a nominal sover- eignty. Casing. The cast-iron case of converted guns (which see). Casks, Raft of. See Raft of Casks. Casque, or Cask. A piece of defensive armor, to cover and protect the head and neck in battle ; a helmet. Cassano. A town of Lombardy, 16 miles from Milan, on the river Adda. In 1259, Eccelino Romana, chief of the Ghibelines, was here defeated and killed. In 1705 the French under the Duke of Vendome gained a victory over the Imperialists, commanded by Prince Eugene; and in 1799, Suwarrow inflicted a defeat on the French under Moreau. Cassel. A city of Germany, 90 miles northeast from Frankfort-on-the-Main. It was the capital of Westphalia under Napo- leon I. ; besieged by the allies in 1761 ; taken by the allies November 1, 1762; captured by the Russians in September, 1813. Cassel. A town of France, department of the North. On April 11, 1677, the Mar- shal de Luxemburg near here defeated the Prince of Orange, who lost 4000 dead and 8000 prisoners. The French occupied Cas- sel, June 19, 1707. Casse-tete [Fr.). A mace or war-club, made of very hard wood, used formerly in savage warfare. Cassine. A small house, especially in the open country ; applied also to a house stand- ing alone, where soldiers may lie hid, or may take a position. Cas, St. A village on the coast of France, in the department Cote du Nord. Here, in 1758, a landing of the British under Lord Cavendish was repulsed, and 100 years after- wards a column was inaugurated to com- memorate the event. Castalla. A town of Spain, 24 miles northwest of Alicante. The Spaniards un- der O'Donnell were here defeated by the French under Delort, August 21, 1812. Casteggio. A town of Northern Italy, in the division of Alessandria. On June 9, 1800, the battle of Montebello was gained by the French under Lannes over the Aus- trians in the neighborhood of this place. On May 20, 1859, another engagement was fought here between the Austrians under Count Stadion and the French and Sardinian troops, in which the latter were victorious. Castel-a-Mare. A seaport town of Sicily. Richelieu defeated the Spanish fleet here in 1648; and in 1799 a battle was fought be- tween the French under Marshal Macdonald and the allied English and Neapolitans. Castel Fidardo. Near Ancona, Central Italy. Near here Gen. Lamoriciere and the papal army of 11,000 men were totally defeated by the Sardinian general Cialdini, September 18, 1860. Lamoriciere with a few horsemen fled to Ancona, then besieged ; on September 29 he and the garrison sur- rendered. Castellan. A governor or constable of a castle. Castellated. Adorned with turrets and battlements, like a castle. Castellation. The act of fortifying a house and rendering it a castle. Now obso- lete. Castelnaud^ry. A town of France, de- partment of Aude. It suffered greatly in the wars of the Middle Ages, and under its walls the Duke of Montmorency was made prisoner by the royal troops in 1632. Castiglione. A fortified town of Lom- bardy, 22 miles northwest from Mantua. Here, in 1796, the French under Augereau gained a decisive victory over the Austrians. The French commander was afterwards made, on account of this battle. Due de Castiglione. In 1859 the battle of Solferino also occurred in its neighborhood. Castillejos. In Northern Africa ; here, in January, 1860, was fought the first deci- sive action of the war between Spain and Morocco. Gen. Prim, after a vigorous re- sistance, repulsed the Moors under Muley Abbas, and advanced towards Tetuan. Castillon. A town of France, in the de- partment of Gironde. It is celebrated as the scene of the battle between the forces of Henry VI. of England and Charles VII. of France, in July, 1453, in which the English met with a signal defeat, their leader, the Earl of Shrewsbury, and his son being slain. Casting. The rejection of horses deemed unfit for further cavalry use. Casting Cannon. See Ordnance, Con- struction OF. Cast Iron. See Ordnance, Metals for. Castle. A name given to a building con- structed as a dwelling, as well as for the purpose of repelling attack. The name is especially given to buildings of this kind constructed in Europe in the Middle Ages, and which were generally surrounded by a moat, foss, or ditch. Castlebar. A town of Ireland. French troops under Humbert landed at Killala, and, assisted by Irish insurgents here, com- pelled the king's troops under Lake to re- treat, August 27, 1798; but were compelled to surrender at Ballinamuck. Castlecomer. A town of Ireland ; in the rebellion of 1798 this town was attacked by the rebels, and nearly destroyed by fire. Castle-guard. The guard which defends a castle. CASTLES 95 CAVALIER Castles. In heraldry, castles are often given as charges in the shields of persons who liiive reduced them, or heen the tirst to mount their walls in an assault. Cast-metal Gun. See Okdnance, Cast- MKTAi. Cannon. Castrametation. Is the art of laying out canips, and of placing the troops so that the ditltTCMt arms of the service shall aft'ord support to each other in the best manner. Cast Steel. See Okdxan'ce, Metal.s for. Casualties. In the military service, is a word which includes all losses in numerical strength of officers by death, dismissal, or resignation, and of enlisted men by death, desertion, or discharge; also all losses in fighting strength caused by wounds. Casus Belli. A Latin phrase used with reference to any event, or complication be- tween sovereign powers, which gives rise to a declaration of war. Catafalco. In ancient military architec- ture, a scaffold of timber, decorated with sculpture, paintings, etc., for supporting the coffin of a deceased hero during the funeral solemnity. Catalans. The inhabitants of Catalonia, Spain. Their language, costume, and habits arc quite distinct from those of the rest of their countrymen. In energy, industry, and intelligence they greatly surpass the rest of the Spaniards. They were considered brave warrior>i. Catalaunian Plain. The ancient name of the wide plain surrounding Chalons-sur- Marne, in the old province of Campagne, France, celebrated as the field of battle where the AVest Goths, and the forces under the Roman general Aetius, gained a great victory over Attila in 4ol. A wild tradition tells that three days after the great fight, the ghosts of the fallen myriads appeared on the plain, and renewed the conflict. Catalonia. An old province of Western Spain, was settled by the Goths and Alani about 4(»'.t; conquered by the Saracens, 712; recovered by Pepin and Charlemagne ; united with Arago'n in 1137. It formed part of the Spanish marches and the territory of the Count of Barcelona. Catania (anc. Cutana). A town near Mount Etna, Sicily. The ancient city was founded by the Phtcnicians or Greeks, and was nearly as old as Home. It was taken by the Athenian general Nicias about 413 B.C., and was an important city under the Komans. In August, 18t>2, the town was held by Garibaldi and his volunteers, in opposition to the Italian government. Ho was captured on August 29. Cataphract. The old Roman term for a horseman in complete armor. Cataphracta. I n the ancient military art, a jtii'co of heavy defensive armor, formed of cloth or leather, fortified with iron scales or links, wherewith sometimes only the breast, sometimes the whole boily, and sometimes the horse too, was covered. Catapult (Lat. catapulta). An engine of war used by the ancients, somewhat resem- bling a cro.«s-bow. In the catapult a string or rope, suddenly freed from great tension, gave a powerful impulse to an arrow placed in a groove. There were great catapults, fl.\ed upon a scaflold with wheels, which were used in sieges, and small ones, carried in the hand, which were employed in the field. Cataract. A portcullis. Catawrba Indians. A tribe of aborigines who formerly inhabited the Carolinas. A remnant still exists on a reservation on the Catawba River. See Indians and thkib AOENCIES. Cateau Cambresis. In Northern France, where f)n April 2 and 3, 1").59, peace was concluded between ilenry II. of France, Philip II. of Spain, and Elizabeth of Eng- land France ceded Savoy, Corsica, and nearly 200 forts in Italy and the Low Coun- tries to Philip. Caterva. In ancient military writings, a term used in speaking of the Gaulish or Celtiberian armies, denoting a body of GOOD armed men. The word is also used to denote a party of soldiers in disarray ; in opposition to cohort or turma, which signify in good order. Cat-o'-nine-tails. An instrument of pun- ishment formerly used to flog offenders in the army, consisting of nine pieces of line or cord fastened to a piece of thick rope, and having three knots at intervals. Cattaro. A fortified town of Dalmatia, Austria, at the bottom of the Gulf of Cat- taro. This town was captured by the British in 1813, and till 1814 belonged successively to Austria and France. Catti. An ancient German tribe, attacked but not subdued by the Romans ; absorbed by the Franks in the 3d century. Caudine Forks. Two narrow mountain- gorges or defiles near the town of Caudium, in ancient Samnium. They are celebrated in connection with a humiliating disaster which the Roman army suffered in 321 n.c. Caution. An explanation given previous to the word of command, by which soldiers are called to attention, that they may exe- cute any given movement with unanimity and correctness. Cavalcade. In military history, implies a pompous procession of horsemen, equi- pages, etc., by way of parade, to grace a triumph, public entry, or the like. Cavalier. Originally meant any horse- soldier, but in English history is the name given to the party which adhered to King Charles I., in opposition to the Roundheads, or friends of the Parliament. Cavalier. In fortification, is a defense- work constructed on the terre-plein, or level ground of a bastion. It rises to a height varying from 8 to 12 feet alxive the ram- part, and has a parapet about t> feet high. Its uses are to command any rising ground held by the enemy within cannon-shot, and to guard the curtain, or plain wall between two bastions, from being enfiladed. A cav- CAVALOT CEMENTATION alier battery — used in siege operations— is a battery of which the terre-plein, or platform of earth on which the gun stands, is above the ordinary level of the ground. Cavalot. An obsolete cannon carrrying a ball weighing one pound. Cavalry. That part of a military force ■which consists of troops that serve on horse- back. In European armies cavalry are gen- erally classed as heavy, medium, and light, — cuirassiers and dragoons, lancers, hussars, etc. In the U. S. service all mounted sol- diers are simply called cavalry. Caveating. In fencing, iinplies a motion whereby a person in an instant brings his sword, which was presented to one' side of his adversary, to the opposite side. Cavesson. A sort of nose-band of leather or iron, which is put on the nose of a horse, to assist in breaking or training him. Cavin. In military affairs, implies a nat- ural hollow, sufficiently capacious to lodge a body of troops, and facilitate their approach to a place. If it be within musket-shot, it is a place of arms ready made, and serves for opening the trenches, free from the enemy's shot. Cavriana. A village of Northern Italy. The tower of this place formed one of the principal positions of the centre of the Aus- trian army, from which it was driven by the Franco-Sardinian forces, under Napoleon III. and Victor Emmanuel, at the battle of Solferino, June 24, 1859. Cawnpoor, or Cawnpore. A town of Hin- dostan, on the right bank of the Ganges. It IS an important British military station. It was garrisoned during the mutiny in June, 1857, by native troops under Sir Hugh Wheeler ; these troops broke out into revolt. Nana Sahib, who had long lived on friendly terms with the British, joined the rebels ; he took Cawnpoor, June 26, after a three weeks' siege, and in spite of a treaty, massacred great numbers of the British, without re- spect to age or sex, in the most cruel manner. Gen. Havelock defeated Nana Sahib July 16, at Futtehpore, and retook Cawnpoor, July 17. Sir Colin Campbell defeated the rebels here on December 6, following. Cayenne. French Guiana, South Amer- ica ; settled by the French, 1604-35. It afterwards came successively into the hands of the English (1654), French, and Dutch. The last were expelled by the French in 1677. Cayenne was taken by the British, January 12, 1809, but was restored to the French in 1814. Cedar Creek. In Northern Virginia. "While encamped on this creek on the morn- ing of October 19, 1864, the army of Gen. Sheridan was suddenly attacked before day- light by the Confederate troops under Gen. Early, its left ilank turned, and the whole line driven back in confusion about 4 miles, with the loss of 24 pieces of artillery. Gen. Sheridan, who was at Winchester on his return from Washington, on hearing of this disaster, hastened to the scene of action, re- formed his corps, and awaited the attack of the enemy, which was made and handsomely repulsed about 1 p.m. About 3 p.m. Sheri- dan attacked the eneniy and completely routed him, recovering his own artillery and capturing 30 pieces besides, thus converting into a brilliant victory what threatened to be a great disaster. About 2000 prisoners and 300 wagons and ambulances fell into Sheridan's hands, and many of his own men who had been taken prisoners in the morn- ing were recovered. Cedar Mountain. A sugar-loaf eminence about 2 miles west of Mitchell's Station, Culpeper Co., Va. On August 9, 1862, a sanguinary conflict took place here between the Confederate forces under Gens. Jackson and Ewell, and part of Gen. Pope's army under Gen. Banks, night putting an end to the contest. The Federals being largely outnumbered, suffered severely, and fell back about a mile, but without disorder. Their loss was about 1500, 300 of whom were taken prisoners. A considerable quan- tity of ammunition, stores, etc., also fell into the hands of the Confederates. Celeres. The life-guards which attended Romulus in the infancy of Rome, were so called. They were laid aside by Numa Pompilius. Celeres were properly distin- guished from other troops, by being lightly armed and acting always on foot. Cells. Places of solitary confinement in which soldiers are placed, as punishment for serious crimes. Celtiberi, or Celtiberians. An ancient and warlike people of Spain, who are re- nowned in history for their long and obsti- nate resistance to the Romans. In the sec- ond Punic war, after giving important aid to the Carthaginians, they were induced by the generosity of Scipio to accept the alli- ance of Rome. They revolted against Rome in 181 B.C., but were appeased by Gracchus in 179. War was renewed in 153, and con- tinued with varying success until after the capture of Numantia, 134 B.C. In spite of this great blow the Celtiberi again renewed the war under Sertorius, and it was only after his fall that they began to adopt the Roman language, dress, and manners. Cement. Hydraulic cements are much used in building permanent fortifications. The cement used by the Romans in their great sea-walls, aqueducts, etc., which are still standing as monuments of their civil engineering, w&spozzuola7ia, a volcanic earth from near BaicB, Italy. It is still an article of export from Italy. The most noted mod- ern cement is Portland, made artificially in England by burning a mixture of the chalk and clay from the valley of the Medway. Cementation. In metallurgy, is the pro- cess of converting metals by absorption under great heat. Specially applied to the conver- sion of iron into steel by causing it to absorb carbon. The iron bars are imbedded in char- coal and exposed to prolonged heat in a closed furnace. The qualities of the result- CENOTAPH 97 CEUTA ing steel vary with the degree and duration of the heating. The bars, when removed, are called blistered steel from their appearance. See Okdnance, Metals for, Blistered Steel. Cenotaph. The empty tomb of a hero, or monument erected in honor of a person, without the body of the deceased being in- terred in or near it. Centesimation. In ancient military his- tory, a mild ivind of military punishment, in cases of desertion, mutiny, and the like, when only every one hundredth man was executed. Central America. Includes the republics of GuateiiKila.San Salvador, Honduras, Nic- aragua, and Costa liica (which see). They declared their independence September 21, 18*21, and separated from the Mexican Con- federation July 21, 1823. The states made a treaty of union between themselves March 21, 1847. There has been among them since much anarchy and bloodshed. Centre. A point equally distant from the e.xtremities of a line, figure, or body ; the middle point or place of anything. Centre of an Army. The body of troops occujjying the place in the line between the wings. See T.vkoet. Centre of Gravity. The point of a body about which all its parts are balanced. This is a matter of great importance in cannon, both for mechanical manoeuvres and for ordi- nary handling. In all large guns in the United States, and in many in Europe, the axis of the trunnions passes through the centre of gravity of the gun. Such guns have no preponderance, and need no support in firing except the trunnions. This inno- vation was introduced by the genius of Rod- man, and brought many advantages in the handling of heavy guns. In projectiles, the centre of gravity, or inertia, is also a thing of moment. Spherical projectiles in which this point does not coincide with the centre of fif/iire are said to be eccentric, and are subject to certain deviations (see Pro.iec- TILK.S) ; ilevintion of the relative position of these jioints inlluences the flight also of rifle projectiles. Centre of the Bastion. In fortification, is the intersection made by the two dcmi- gorges. Centrifugal Gun. A form of machine gun in which balls are thrown from a cham- bered disk rotating with great speed. Centrobaric Method. The method or- dinarily used to determine by calculation the centre of gravity of a j^rojected gun. The principle used is that the'volume gen- erated by any surface in revolving about a fixed axis is measured by the product of the surface into the path described by its centre of gravity. The moments of the j weights of the several parts are referred to an axis usually taken tangent to the knob of the cascabel. The sum of these moments, divided by the weight of the piece, gives the distance of the centre of gravitv from the assumed axis. In homogeneous guns, the volumes of the several parts can be used instead of the weights. Centurion. A military oflScer among the ancient Romans, who commanded a [centxim) hundred men. Century. In an ancient military sense, meant a hundred soldiers, who were em- ployed in working the battering-ram. Cephalonia. One of the Ionian Islands ; was taken from the ..Etolians by the Ro- mans 189 B.C., and given to the Athenians by Hadrian in 135. It was conquered by the Normans in 11 4f), afterwards passed into the possession of the Venetians, and was taken by the English in 1810. Cephisus. A river in Attica, near which Walter de Brieniie, duke of Athens, was defeated and slain by the Catalans in 1311. Cercelee, or Recercelee. In heraldry, is a cross circling or curling at the ends, like a ram's horn. Cercle (Grnnd-cercle), Fr. A form ob- served under the old government of France, by which it was directed that every evening at a specific hour the sergeants and corpo- rals of brigade should assemble to receive orders, the former standing in front of the latter. Subsequent to the grand cercle, a smaller one was made in each regiment, when general or regimental orders were again repeated to the sergeants of each regi- ment, and from them communicated to the officers of the several companies. Ceremonies, Stated Military. Exercises, such as parades, reviews, inspections, escorts of the color, escorts of honor, funeral hon- ors, guard-mounting, etc. Cerignola. A town of South Italy, in the province of Capitanata. Here, in 1503, the French were defeated by the Spaniards, and the Duke of Nemours, who commanded the former, was slain. Cerro Gordo. A celebrated mountain- pass in Mexico, about 00 miles northwest of Vera Cruz. Here an army of about 12,000 Mexicans under Santa Anna was totally defeated by about 8000 U. S. troops under Gen. Scott^ April 18, 1847. The Mexicans lost about 1000 killed and wounded, besides 3000 prisoners ; the American loss was 431 killed and wounded. Certificate of Disability. See Disabil- ity. Certificate of Merit. See Merit, Cer- tificate OF. Cessation of Arms. An armistice or truce, agreed to by the commanders of armies, to give them time for a capitulation, or for other purposes. Ceuta. A fortified seaport of Morocco, opposite Gibraltar. The castle stands on the highest point of the ancient Ahyla, ono of the pillars of Hercules, terminating a peninsula. This was a .Mauritanian town under the Romans, and in 1415 was taken from the Moors by the Portuguese. In 1580 it passed int\). A barrel containing an- other barrel, which holds gunpowder. It likewise means a composition of earth, horse- dung, and wad, that covers the mouth of a cannon or mortar. Chapultepec. A strong fortress of Mex- ico, situated about 2 miles southwest of the metropolis. It consists of an eminence ris- ing to the height of about loO feet, with a strong castle on top. During the Mexican war it was deemed necessary by Gen. Scott, for strategic reasons, to capture this last out- ward defense of the capital prior to the at- tack on the city itself. This was gallantly effected on September 13, 1847, and next day the city was entered by the American forces, thus virtually ending the war. Prepara- tions for the assault were commenced on the night of September 11, and before the even- ing of the 12th, owing to the skillful arrange- ment of Gen. Scott's artillery, the exterior defenses began to give way. Next day was determined on for the attack. The Ameri- can forces were so placed that the assault could be made simultaneously from different sides at a preconcerted signal, which would be the temporary cessation of the cannonade from their batteries. It was jjiven, and the attacking forces advanced, Gen. (^uitnuin's j division from the south, and Gen. Pillow I from the wooded slope on the west, Gen. ; Smith's brigade supporting Quitman, Pillow ] supported by the division of Gen. Worth, and the batteries throwing shells into the j fort over the heads of their friends. Under a heavy tire of musketry the attacking forces advance, and step by step they gain every disputed point, scaling-ladders are brought into requisition, an entrance effected, and the defeated Mexicans, dislodged and retreat- ing, are pursued to the very gates of their capital. The American loss during the three days was 833 killed and wounded. Charcoal. One of the ingredients of gun- powder. It is made by distilling small sticks of wood in closed retorts. Willow, alder, poplar, and dogwood are some of the woods used. In distilling the heat should be kept below redness. Charcoal should be light in weight, and have a velvety fracture. It in- flames at about 4(30^ Fahr. Its composition CHARD 100 CHAELEROI and properties vary with the nature of the wood and mode of distillation employed. Charcoal obtained from light wood is the best for gunpowder, as it is more combusti- ble and easy to pulverize, and contains less earthy matters. Willow and poplar are used for this purpose in the United States and black elder in Europe. The wood must be sound and should not be more than 3 or 4 years old, and about 1 inch in diameter; branches larger than this should, be split up. It is cut in the spring when the sap runs freely, and is immediately stripped of its bark. The smaller branches are used for fine sporting powder. The operation of charring may be per- formed in pits, but the method now almost universally used in making charcoal for gunpowder is that of distillation. For this purpose the wood is placed in an iron vessel, generally of a cylindrical form, to which a cover is luted ; an opening with a pipe is made to conduct otF the gaseous products, and the wood is thus exposed to the heat of a furnace. The progress of distillation is judged of by the color of the flame and smoke, and sometimes by test-sticks, which are introduced through tubes prepared for the purpose. Properties. — The charcoal thus obtained should retain a certain degree of elasticity, and should have a brown color, the wood not being entirely decomposed. As it readily absorbs one-twentieth of its weight of moist- ure, which diminishes its inflammability, it should be made only in proportion as it is required for use. Wood generally contains 52 per cent, of carbon, but distillation fur- nishes not more than 30 to 40 per cent, of charcoal. As it is desirable to have charcoal for gun- powder very combustible, it must be pre- pared at a low temperature, and must be light. Accidents. — When recently prepared char- coal is pulverized and laid in heaps, it is liable to absor,b oxygen with such rapidity as to cause spontaneous combustion. This has been the cause of serious accidents at pow- der-mills, and hence it is important not to pulverize charcoal until it has been exposed to the air for several days. When charcoal has not absorbed moisture, and is mixed with oxidizing substances, it may be in- flamed by violent shocks or by friction. This is the principal cause of the accidents which occur in the preparation of explosive mixtures which contain charcoal. See Gun- powder. Chard. A town of England, in Somer- setshire. Here the royalists were defeated in the civil wars between Charles I. and the Parliament. Charenton. A town of France, in the department of the Seine. It stands on the Marne, over which there is a bridge, which was frequently the scene of bloody conflicts between the citizens and the soldiers during the French revolutions. It now forms a portion of the fortifications of Paris. Charge. The act of rushing on the enemy with a view to come to close fighting. It is also sometimes applied to the temporary command of a detachment, troop, company, or battery. A charge likewise means the statement of the crime for which an ofl5cer or soldier is brought before a court-martial. Charge. The quantity of powder with which a piece of artillery is loaded. The charge corresponding to the maximum ve- locity in the projectile is called the maximum charge. The longer the gun the greater the maximum charge. In the early days of ar- tillery, when powder was used in the form of dust, a very large charge was necessary. After the introduction of grained powder it was reduced gradually to about one-fourth the weight of the shot. At the time of the recent departures in ordnance, the charge for smooth-bore guns was from one-fifth to one- eighth the weight of the projectile ; for how- itzers, from one-eighth to one-twentieth ; for mortars the chai-ge varied with the range, the largest being about one-ninth. For rifle guns the disproportion was greater than for smooth-bores, the average being about one- tenth. In small-arms, the charge for the old smooth-bore musket was about one-third the weight of the ball. When the rifle was in- troduced, this proportion was retained till the oblong bullet began to be used, when the charge was relatively much diminished, till it fell to about one-tenth. The tendency lately has been to increase it. In some of the best-known rifles of the present day the charge is about one-fifth, — a majority use more than one-sixth. The same tendency is still more observable in heavy ordnance. The largest KrwpTp, Woolwich, and Arm- strong guns use a charge greater than one- fourth the weight of the projectile. Charge. The position of a weapon fitted for attack ; as, to bring a weapon to the charge. Charge. In heraldry, the figures repre- sented on a shield are called charges, and a shield with figures upon it is said to be charged. The charges in a shield ought to be few in number, and strongly marked, both as regards their character and the mode of their representation. The family shield be- longing to the head of the house almost alwaj'S is simpler, — i.e., has fewer charges than the shields of collaterals, or even of junior members. Charger (Fr. cheval de bataille). A horse kept by an oflicer for military purposes. Chariot. In antiquity, a war car or ve- hicle. Charleroi, A strongly fortified town of Belgium, in Hainaut. This place was forti- fied by Vauban. Several great battles have been fought near this town, especially in 1690 and 1794. Charleroi was besieged by the Prince of Orange, 1672 and 1677 ; but he was soon obliged to retire. Near here, at Ligny, Napoleon attacked the Prussian line, making it fall back upon Wavres, June 16, 1815. CHARLESTON 101 CHEEKS Charleston. A port of entry and the chief city of South Caroluia, founded in 1672. On Sullivan's Island, about 7 miles below, com- municating with the harbor, a garrison of about 400 Americans under Crces in considerable strength and the British commanded by Lord (afterwards Viscount) Gough, fought January 13, 1840. The Sikhs were com- pletely routed, but the loss of the British was very severe. On February 21, Lord Gough attacked the Sikh army under Shere Singh in its position at Goujcrat, with com- plete success, and the whole of the enemy's camp fell into the hands of the British. China. The " Celestial Empire," in Ea.st- ern Asia, for which the Chinese annals claim an antiquity of from 80,000 to 100,000 years n.c, is allowed to have commenced about 2500 B.C. ; by others to have been founded bv Fohi, supposed to be the Noah of the Bible, 2240 B.C. We are told that the Chinese were acute astronomers in the reign of Yao, 2357 B.C. Towards the clo.se of the 7th century B.C. the history of China becomes more distinct. Thirty-two dynas- ties have reigned, including the present. See important cities of China throughout this work. China, Great Wall of. One of the most remarkable structures known in history, supposed to have been erected about 220 B.C. by the first emperor of the Tsin dynasty as a' protection against the invasions of the Tartars. It traverses the northern boundary of China, and extends about 1250 miles. Including a parapet of 5 feet, the total height is 20 feet, thickness of base 25 feet, and at the top 15 feet. Towers or bastions occur at intervals of about 100 yards. Earth inclosed in brick-work forms the mass of the wall, but for more than one-half its length it is little else than a heap of gravel and rubbish. Chinese Fire. A pyrotechnic composition, consisting of IG parts of gunpowder, 8 of nitre, 3 of charcoal, 3 of sulphur, and 3 of iron-borings. Ching-Hai. A fortified seaport town of China. At this place, in October, 1841, the Chinese were signally defeated by the British. Ching-Kiang-Foo. A fortified city of China, on the Yan-1(J, 1700. Closterseven (Hanover), Convention of. "Was entered into September 8, 1757, between the Duke of Cumberland, third son of George II., and the Duke of Richelieu, com- mander of the French armies. By its hu- miliating stipulations, 38,000 Hanoverians laid down their arms, and were dispersed. The duke immediately afterwards resigned all his military commands, and the conven- tion was soon broken bv both parties. Clothing. The Pres'ident of the United States is authorized to prescribe the kind and auality of clothing to be issued annually to le troops of the United States. The nian- ner of issuing and accounting for clothing shall be established by general regulations of the War Department. The clothing of the British army is determined by a permanent board, composed of the commander-in-chief and a certain number of general officers, who act under the authority of the sover- eign. Club, To. To throw into confusion, to deform through ignorance or inadvertence. To club a f)uttalio7t, to throw it into confu- sion. This happens through a temporary inability in the conmianding officer to re- store any given body of men to their natu- ral front in line or column, after some ma- nceuvre has been performed. Coa. A river in Portugal, province of Beira. The spur which separates the Coa from the Agueda incloses the plateau of Fu- entcs d'Onore, famous for the battle of 1811, which was fought by Msissena with the Eng- lish. See FuENTKS d'Onork. Coat-armor. Coats of arms ; armorial en- signs. Coat of Arms. A habit formerly worn by knights over their armor. It was a short- sleeved coat or tunic reaching to the waist, and embroidered with their armorial en- signs and various devices. Any representa- tion of the armorial devices upon such a habit ; an armorial device. Coat of Mail. A piece of armor cover- ing the upper portion of the body, consist- ing of a net-work of iron rings. Coblentz. A fortified town of Rhenish Prussia, situated at the conflux of the Rhine and Moselle, opposite the great Prussian fortress of Ehrenbreitstein. In 1794 this place was taken by Napoleon I., and made the capital of the department of the Rhine and ^losclle. Cocherel. Near Evreux, Northwest France. Here Bertrand and Du Guesclin defeated the king of Navarre, and took pris- oner the Captal de Buch, May 10, 13t;4. Cochin. A city of Hindostan, presidency of Madras. It was held by the Portuguese in 1503; by the Dutch in 16(J3 ; was taken by the British in 1796, and ceded to them in 1814. Cockade (Fr. cocarde). The word signi- fied originally a cocked-hat, or a hat with the broad flap looped up on one side, and then applied to the knot of ribbon with which the loop is ornamented. The word is now, however, restricted to signify an ap- pendage worn on the hat of military and naval officers. Cock-feather. In archery, the feather which stood up on the arrow, when it was rightly placed upon the string, perpendicu- larly upon the cock or notch. Code. A compilation or collection of laws made by public authority, as the Code Xapu- U-on. Code. A list of signal .symbols. Sec Sio- NALI\0. Codogno. A town of Italy, in the prov- ince of Milan, between the Adda and the Po. Here the Austrians were defeated by the Spaniards in 1746, and by the French in 179(5. Coehorn. So named from the military engineer, Baron Van Coehorn, who invented it. It is a small howitzer, or mortar, gen- erally 4| inches caliber. These implements of w'ar, being easily moved and adjusted, COEHORN 108 COLONIA and taking little powder, are found very ' useful in sieges, if grouped ih great num- bers. Coehorn Beds. See Ordnance, Car- RIAGKS FOR MORTAR BeDS. Coeverden, Coevorden, or Koevorde. A fortified town of Holland; it was captured by the French in 1795. Coffer. In fortification, a hollow lodg- ment, sunk in the bottom of a dry ditch, from 6 to 7 feet deep, and from 16 to 18 feet broad. Its length corresponds with the whole breadth of the said ditch, from side to side. The besieged generally make use of these ootfers to repulse the besiegers when they attempt to pass the ditch ; tliey are distinguished only by their length from capo7inieres. They are covered with joists, hurdles, and earth, raised 2 feet above the bottom of the ditch, so as to serve the pur- poses of a loop-holed parapet. Cohort. A division of the ancient Roman armies, consisting of about 600 men, divided into centuries. It was the tenth part of a legion, and its number, consequently, was under the same fluctuation as that of the legions. In the time of the empire the co- hort often amounted to 1000 men. Coif. Was originally an iron skull-cap, worn by knights under their helmets ; it was introduced before 1259. It is now es- pecially applied in Great Britain to a cap worn by sergeants-at-law. Coimbra. An ancient city of Portugal, capital of the province of Beira. It appears to have been originally built by the Goths ; from them it passed to the Moors, from whom it was finally conquered in 10G4 by Fernando the Great, aided by the gallant Cid. It was taken by the troops under the British colonel Kent, October 7, 1810. Coin (Fr. coin d'artilleur). In gunnery, a kind of wedge to lay under the breech of a gun, in order to raise or depress the metal. "Written also quoin. Colberg, or Kolberg. A strongly fortified seaport of Prussian Pomerania. It stands on a hill, surrounded with swamps which can be laid under water, and is chiefly re- markable for the protracted sieges it has undergone. In 1102, Duke Boleslaus, of Poland, besieged it m vain. It endured long sieges in the Thirty Years' War and in the Seven Years' War, and again in 1807, when it was most gallantly defended against the French. Colchester. The chief town in the county of Essex, England. It was taken from the Danes in 921 by Edward the Elder, who founded the castle. It was ravaged by the plague in 1348, in 1360, and again in 1665. In 1648 it was taken by Lord Goring for Charles I., but was retaken by Fairfax after a siege of 11 weeks, when the castle was dis- mantled. Cold Harbor. A village of Hanover Co., Va., about 10 miles northeast of Richmond. During the civil war a series of desperate struggles took place in and around this place (May 28-June 3, 1864) between the forces of Gens. Grant and Lee, resulting in a loss of probably 13,000 men on the Fed- eral side. Coldstream. A border-town of Scotland, in Berwickshire, on the left bank of the Tweed. Near this place is the famous ford where the English and Scottish armies for- merly crossed the Tweed. Here Gen. Monk raised the regiment still known as the Cold- stream Guards. Coldstream Guards. A regiment in the Foot Guards, or Household Brigade, is the oldest corps in the British army except the First Foot. It was raised at Coldstream in 1660, by Gen. Monk, and was first called Monk's regiment, but when Parliament con- sented to give a brigade of guards to Charles II., this corps, under its present name, was included in it. College of Arms. See Herald's Col- lege. Collet {Fr.). In gunnery, that part of a cannon which is between the astragal and the muzzle. Colmar. A city of France, capital of the department of Haut-Rhin. This city had an active share in the civil wars under Ro- dolph of Hapsburg and Adolphe of Nassau ; it was captured by the Swedes in 1632; by the French in 1635 and 1673. It was ceded to France by the peace of Ryswick in 1697. Occupied by the Bavarians on January 3, 1814. Colocotroni. See Kolocotroni. Cologne. A fortified city of Prussia, the capital of the province of Rhenish Prussia, on the left bank of the Rhine. It is a fort- ress of the first rank. "It was taken by the French in 1795, and assigned to Prussia in 1814. Colombia, United States of. A republic of South America, known by this name since 1861, but formerly called New Granada. It united with Venezuela in 1819, and estab- lished one central government for the pur- pose of resisting Spain, but in 1829 was sep- arated from it, and soon after another re- public — that of Ecuador — was formed from it, three republics being thus formed out of what was formerly but one. Colombo. A fortified seaport town and capital of Ceylon ; it was fortified in 1638 by the Portuguese, who were expelled by the Dutch in 1666; the latter surrendered it to the British, February 15, 1796. The British troops were murdered here in cold blood by the Adigar of Candy, June 6, 1803. Colonel. The'title of the highest officer of a regiment, ranking next below a briga- dier-general, and above a lieutenant-colonel. The rank of captain in the navy corresponds with this title. Colonel, Lieutenant-. The rank next be- low that of colonel. Colonia do Santissimo Sacramento {i.e., Colony of the Most Holy Sacrament). A fortified maritime town of South America, in Uruguay, opposite Buenos Ayres. On COLONIAL 109 COMBUSTION Aii^Mist 31, 1845, it was taken by the English and Fronoh fleets. ' Colonial Corps. Are certain regiments formin;:^ part of the regular army of the British empire, and paid for out of the im- perial revenues. The native troops of India are paid from the Indian revenues. Colorado. One of the United States, bounded on the north by Dakota and Ne- braska, on the east by Nebraska and Kansas, on the south by New Mexico, and on the west by Utah. In 1857 an exploring party startedthrough its territory, but were driven back by hostile Indians.' The country is now, however, being rapidly settled, owing to its great fertility and the presence of auriferous deposits. Color-bearer. The bearer of the colors. Color-Guard, The. In the U. S. infan- try, consi-sts of the color-bearer and a guard of 7 corporals in each regiment. They must all be good soldiers The color-guard is at- tached to the right centre company in the line, and its post on the field is one of honor as well as danger. Colorno. A fortified castle in Italy, on the banks of the Po ; it was captured by the Marquis de Maillebois, from the Austrians under the Prince of Wiirtemberg, in 1784. Colors. A military term applied to ban- ners or flags carried by each regiment of infantry. The banners of the cavalry are called standards. Each U. S. regiment has two colors, one national and one regimental. Colors. In heraldry, the colors generally used are red, blue, black, green, and purple, which are called gules, azure, sable, vert or sinople, and purpure. Colors and metals, when engraved, are generally indicated by dots and lines : or, gold, by dots ; argent, silver, is left plain ; gules, red, is indicated by perpendicular lines from top to bottom ; azure, blue, by horizontal lines from side to Bide; snhle, black, by horizontal and per- pendicular lines crossing each other; veri, green, by diagonal lines from right to left; and purpure, purple, by diagonal lines from left to right. Color-Sergeant. Is the sergeant detailed to carry the regimental colors, lie is usually selected for military deportment and sol- dierly bearing, and when carrying the colors is escorted by a guard of 7 corporals. In the British service he has a distinct rank, but in the U. S. service he ranks no higher than other sergeants. Colt's Pistol. The most celebrated of modern revolvers. Invented by an Amer- ieiui, Col. Samuel Colt; first patented in 18;?5, and perfected about 1845. It has kept Saee with the times, and is still one of the rst of its kind. Columbia. The capital of South Caro- lina, situated on the left bank of the Con- garee River. It was taken by Gen. Sher- man's army, February 17, 18G5, and was then niueh injured by fire. Columbiad Gun. " See Ordnance, Con- struction OF. Column. Signifies, in military evolu- tions, a mass of soldiers several ranks in depth as opj)osed to line. There may be columns of brigades, of regiments, of di- visions, or of companies, presenting a front of limited width, but a depth depending on the number of elements in the column. In a battalion the formation is called open column when the distance between the ele- ments of the column is such as to admit of their wheeling into line ; when the distance is only a few yards it is termed close column ; when intermediate between these two, it is "column at half distance." Battalions are drawn up in column with either the right or left in front, or the battalions may be doubled upon their centres. To pjiss from column into line is to "deploy"; to pass from line to column is to "ploy." Some- times the name column is given to a small army, especially when engaged in active operations. In drawing uji troops for action, as a general rule, the French prefer the column, the Americans and English the formation in line. Column, Military. Among the Romans, a column on which was engraven a list of the forces in the Koman army, ranged by legions in their proj)er order. They had another kind of military column called col- umna bellica, standing before the temple of Janus, at the foot of which the consul de- clared war by throwing a javelin towards the enemy's country. Column, Triumphal. A column erected amoni; the aiuients in honor of a hero, and decorated with various kinds of crowns, corresponding to the number of his achieve- ments in battle. Each crown had its par- ticular name, as rallaris, which was filled with spikes, in memory of his having faced a palisade; muralis, adorned with little tur- rets or battlements, for having mounted an a.ssault; 7iavalis, of prows and beaks of ves- sels, for having vanquished at sea ; obsidion alis, or graminalis, ofgrass, for having raised a siege; ova7is, of myrtle, which expressed an ovation, or minor triumph ; and tri- iimphalix, of laurel, for a grand triumph. Comanche Indians, or Comanches. An extremely warlike and predator}- tribe of Mexico and Texas. They have a reserva- tion in Indian Territory with some Kiowas and Apaches. See Indians and their Aqkncies. Combat. An engagement of no great magnitude, or one in which the parties en- gaged are not armies. Combustion. The phenomena attending intense chemical actions which are accom- panied by heat and light. Usually restricted to the burning of bodies by their union with oxygen. It is ditficult io draw the line wlicre combustion ends and explosion be- gins. Combustion, "Velocity of. Is the space passed over bv the surface of combustion in a second of time, mea.rding to the regulations for the subsistence depart- ments. Commission. A writing, generally in the form of a warrant or letters-patent, au- thorizing the perfornumco of duties, or exer- cise of powers belonging to another. Instru- ments bearing this title are issued by the Executive to officers in the army or navy, who, on confirmation of their appointment, are known as commissicmed officers. The practice of buying and selling all commis- sions under the rank of colonel, which for- merly prevailed in the British army, was abolished in 1871. Commissioned. One having a commis- sion ; funiishcil with a commission ; empow- ered or authorized to act ; as, a commissioned officer. Common Time. In marching, the length of the direct step in common time is 28 inches, and the cadence is at the rate of 90 steps per minute. Communication, Line of. A fantastical name ap|)]icd by Helidor to mines with im- mense charges, which he proposed to use for the destruction of countermines, and which were used successfully in the attack of Schweidnitz, under Frederick II. Commutation. Is the conversion of allow- ances, such as fuel, forage, and quarters, into their money value. Comorn. A royal free town of Hungary, 48 miles from Buda. Its citadel is consid- ered one of the strongest in Europe. Its works and intrenchments extend about 7 miles along the banks of the rivers (Waag and Danube), and it requires for its defense at least 15,000 men and 400 pieces of artil- lery. It has the reputation of being impreg- nable, and justified it in the Hungarian war, for the Austrians besieged it from October, 1848, to September, 1849, and only became masters of it at last in virtue of a capitula- tion. Compagnies de Discipline {Fr.). "Com- panies of discipline." These companies were created by Napoleon I. in 1802; the basis of their actual organization was laid by a royal order, dated April 1, 1818. This order fixes the number of companies at 10, 6 of fusileers and 4 of pioneers, the former to be composed of soldiers of the army who were guilty of indiscipline, and the latter to be formed of men of the former who were deemed incor- rigible. The number of companies is now reduced to 7, who are stationed in Algeria. There are also 4 companies similarly or- ganized which are stationed in the French colonies. Compagnies d'Ordonnance (Fr.). The name of a corps of cavalry, which was or- ganized in France by Charles VII. in 1439; it numbered 1(> companies, and the entire strength was 9000 men. This was the first regular cavalry organized in France. Company (Fr. compaqnie). In military organization, is a body of men comnumded by a captain, and forming an aliquot part of a regiment or battalion. In the British ser- vice a full company consists of about 100 men, and a regiment of infantry generally comprises. 10 or 12 companies, or if there is more than 1 battalion, each has this number of companies. The captain of each com- COMPANY 112 COMPLIMENT pany is assisted by 2 subalterns. In the U. S. army each regiment of infantry is divided into 10 companies, and each com- pany has a captain and 2 lieutenants. The artillery and cavalry regiments are divided into 12' companies each, and the former has a captain and 4 lieutenants to each com- pany. See Organization. Company Column. The successive im- provements that have been made in fire-arms during the last hundred years have been fol- lowed by a gradual diminution of the depth of tactical formations, until to-day the " open order," or the formation as skirmish- ers, is the only one adopted under the fire of the enemy. In the most recent development of the " open order" the company, composed of 250 men, is recognized as the " fighting unit," while the battalion, composed of 4 companies, is regarded as the " tactical unit," — that is, the smallest body of men that can be safely employed independently. The adoption of breech-loaders has not changed the principles of strategy and grand tactics, nor has it diminished the number of lines in which armies are drawn up to give and receive battle. It has simply demon- strated the impossibility of attacking posi- tions in battalion columns, and, as a conse- quence, has necessitated a division of the troops into smaller fractions, which, under fire, can be moved with the greatest rapidity and least exposure, thereby insuring the least loss of life. Hence the formation of troops in " company column" in the German and other European armies. In the German army, the company is formed in three ranks ; the tallest men are in the front rank ; the most adroit and best shots are selected for the third rank, because the special duties of this rank require these qualities ; the distance between ranks is 2 feet. The company is divided into divisions (or platoons). If the divisions consist of 20 or more files, they are- divided into sub- divisions (or half platoons) ; the subdivisions are again divided into sections of not less than 4, nor more than 6 files. If the com- pany be of full strength, it will have a front of 72 files ; each division will contain 36 files; each subdivision 18 files; and each section 6 files. The battalion consists of 4 companies. The "company column" is formed in the following manner: The battalion being in line, at the command to "form company column," the third rank of each even divis- ion of the right wing faces about, marches 12 paces to the rear, halts, and faces to the front; the first and second ranks of the uneven divisions face to the left, and place themselves 6 paces in rear of the first and second ranks of the even divisions ; the third rank of the uneven subdivisions faces to the left, and, filing in front of the third rank of the even division, forms with it a third di- vision in double rank. The movement is executed in the uucadenced step. The col- umn when formed consists practically of 3 platoons in double rank. In the left wing the movement is similarly executed ; the even subdivisions ploying in rear of the uneven subdivisions. The third division of each column is called the "shooting divis- ion." In the French army the company is formed in 2 ranks, and is normally divided into 4 sections, the first two of which constitute the first platoon, the last two the second platoon. The " company column" is always formed on the second section from the right, which stands fast ; the distance between sec- tions is 6 paces. The " company column" in Italy, Austria, and Kussia, as in France, varies very slightly from tlie German. With a battalion of 8 or 10 companies, subdivisions may be dispensed with, and, so long as this organization is retained in Eng- land and America, the "company column" will not therefore become a necessity. Should the regimental system of 3 battal- ions, of 4 companies each, be adopted, all of the advantages claimed for the " company column" can be secured by adopting the double column of fours for each company. — Armies of Asia and Etirope, Upton. Compass, Prismatic. A pocket instru- ment for measuring horizontal angles by means of the magnetic meridian. It is much employed in the military service for sketch- ing the general features of a country, and in reconnoissances. It consists of a small glass- covered box containing a magnetized needle attached to a graduated card. A sight-vane with a fine wire stretched longitudinally in the slot is hinged to one side of the box. On the opposite side is a prism. To use it the sight-vane is turned up to the perpendicular. The eye is applied to the prism, and the wire directef on the object. The division in the card coinciding with the reflection of the wire gives the angle with the meridian. Compassionate Allowances. In the British service, are grants of allowances which are made to the legitimate children of deceased officers of the land forces in all cases in which the widow of the officer would be entitled to be placed on the pension-list, provided it be shown that they are deserving objects of the sovereign's bounty, and are in distressed circumstances. Compiegne. A town of France, depart- ment of Oise. It was besieged by the Eng- lish in 1430, who failed to capture it owing to the brave defense made by its governor, Flavia. Joan of Arc, who came to the as- sistance of this town, was taken prisoner by the English besiegers. The emperor Napo- leon III. and the king of Prussia met here on October 6, 1861. Complement of the Curtain. That part in the interior side of a fortification which makes the demi-gorge. Complement of the Line of Defense. The remainder of the line of defense after the angle of the flank is taken away. Compliment. The military mark of re- COMPOSITIONS 113 CONI spect shown by a body of troops to oflicial personsif^es, to an officer, or to another body of troops. Compositions, Pyrotechnic. See Pyro- TKCIIN Y. Compound Armor. See Armor Plates. Compression Strain. See Ordnaxck, Strains uroN. Compulsion, or Inevitable Necessity. Is a constraint upon the will whereby an officer is urged to that which his judgment disapproves, and which, it is to be presumed, his will (if left to itself) would rejoct. As punishments are, therefore, only intlicted for the abuse of that free will whicli God has given to num, it is liighly just and equita- ble that an olKcer should be excused for those act.« whicli are done through unavoid- able force atid compulsion. Comrade. A soldier who acts as the friend of another soldier, rendering him friendly services, etc. Each soldier gener- ally has one special friend who is recognized as his comrade. The term comrade is also extended so as to include all the members of a particular corps, branch of the service, or the army generally. Concarneau. A maritime town of France, department of P'inistere; it was taken by Du Guesclin in 1373, and by tlie Leaguers in 157(). The town is defended by a fort and surrounded by ancient walls. Concave Order of Battle. See Order OF Hatti.k, Concave. Concepcion. A port of Chili, capital of a province of the same name. In 1554, 1555, and lt)03, it was taken and burnt by the Araucanians. A portion of it was again devastated by the Araucanians in 18'23. Concord. A town of Middlesex Co., Mass., 11 miles from Boston. Here, on April 19, 1775, one of the first conflicts took place be- tween the Americans and the British troops. A monument is erected at this place to com- memorate the event. Concrete. A coarse building mortar, containing broken stone, gravel, etc., used nuu'li in fortifications. Conde. A town of France, in the depart- ment of the North. It is strongly fortified and has a military arsenal. In 1793 this town was taken by the Austrians. Condemned Property. In the military service, property uuist bt; condemned by an inspector before it can rightfully be de- stroyed. Condottieri. A name given in the 14th century to the leaders of certain bands of military adventurers in Italy, who, for booty, offered their services to any party in any contest, and often practiced warfare on their own account purely for the sake of plunder. The Compn/jtiii.i Gmixfrs in France at about the same period were somewhat similar to the condottieri, and were so powerful at one time that in LSfJl they routed the king's forces at Brignais.and slew Jacques de Bour- bon, constable of France. Conduct Unbecoming an Officer and a Gentleman. See Uncjenti.emanlikk or Unokkkeki.ike, and Appendix, Articles OF War, (jOandVn. Confederate Projectiles. See Projec- tile. Confederate States of America, or South- ern Confederacy. The etlbrts of the South- ern Slates for the extension of slavery, and the zeal of the Northern States fr)r its aboli- tion, with the consequent political dissen- sions, led to the great secession of 18rmandy was ceded to the Duke of Berry, and an end was put to the " War of the Public Good." It was confirmed by tho treaty of Peronne, 1408. Congreve Rocket. See Rocket. Coni, or Cuneo. The capital of a prov- ince of tlio same name in Piedmont. It was once a fortified place, and had to undergo several sieges. After being taken and re- taken, the victory of Marengo gave it into the hands of the French, who demolished CONNECTICUT 114 CONTRAVALLATION the fortifications and turned them into promenades. Connecticut. One of the original States of the American Confederation, and the most southwestern of the New England States. The country was early explored by the Dutch, but the first permanent settlements were made by English emigrants in 1634. In 1G37 the settlers were much annoyed by Indians, who were shortly afterwards sub- dued, however, in engagements at Mystic and Fairfield, and never after gave any serious trouble. The State took an active part in the cause of American independence, and also in the late war for the Union, and throughout both these eventful contests she sustained eminent distinction as well for the wisdom of her statesmen as for the bravery and patriotism of her soldiers. Conquer. To gain or acquire by force ; to take possession of by violent means ; to gain dominion over ; to subdue; to reduce, etc. To gain the victory ; to overcome. Conqueror. One who conquers ; one who subdues and brings into subjection or pos- session by force or by influence. Conquest. The act of conquering or ac- quiring by force; the act of overcoming or subduing opposition by force ; subjugation; victory. Conquisitores. So were called the re- cruiting officers of the Romans. Consarbruck. A village of Rhenish Prussia where the French were defeated by the Due de Lorraine, August 11, 1675. Conscription. A system of enrolling men for military service, which is in vogue in France and some other foreign countries. Voluntary enlistments being so very few, the compulsory system of keeping up the armies is deemed indispensable. An account is kept of all the youths who reach the age of 20 in one year, and out of these the num- ber required for the army is drawn by lot. Cosigne (Fr.). Parole or countersign. Constable. The title in the Middle Ages of the highest military officer in France under the king. The term comes from the low Latin phrase conies stabuli, count of the stables. Constable of the Tower. In England, is a general officer who has the chief super- intendence of the Tower, and is lord-lieu- tenant of the Tower Hamlets. He holds his appointment by letters-patent from the sovereign, and is not removable at pleasure. Constantine, or Constantina. A forti- fied city of Algeria, capital of a province of its own name. It stands on the site of the ancient Cirta, celebrated as the bulwark of Numidia. It is built upon a high rock, formed into a species of peninsula by the Rummel. It was besieged by the French in 1836, but held out till October, 1837, when it was taken by assault. Constantinople. A celebrated city of Turkey in Europe, the capital of the Otto- man empire. It was formerly called By- zantium, but having been rebuilt by the em- peror Constantine in 328, it received his name. No city in the world has been sub- jected to as many numerous and celebrated sieges, yet it was only taken twice, — by the Crusaders in 1204 (held by them till 1261), and by the Turks under Mohammed II., May 29, 1453, — an event which completed the extinction of the Roman empire in the East. Contest. In a military sense, to struggle to defend ; as, the troops contested every inch of ground. Earnest struggle for superiority, defense, or the like ; strife in arms. Continental. A term adopted by the Americans in the Revolutionary war in contradistinction to British. Contingent. This term is applied to the quota of troops furnished to the common army by each member of a confederation of states ; the proportion of troops or money furnished by each party to an alliance. Contingent. In the British service, the sum paid monthly to each captain of a troop, company, or battery, to defray the expense of stationery, the care of arms, and other minor demands. A contingent account is also the account, sent in by a stafl-officer, of money expended for miscellaneous purposes. Contours. Are the lines in which a site or ground surface is cut by horizontal planes, usually taken at equidistances. Contraband of War. Are such articles as a belligerent has by the law of nations the right of preventing a neutral from fur- nishing to his enemy. Articles contraband of war are, in general, arms and munitions of war and those out of which munitions of war are made. Contraband articles are sub- ject to confiscation ; but very arbitrary in- terpretations have been affixed to the term by powerful states, when able to enforce them by arms. Thus, provisions are held contraband of war when it is the object to reduce the enemy by famine. But with re- spect to these and other articles not in tlieir nature contraband, it seems to be the prac- tice that the belligerent should purchase them from the neutral for a reasonable equivalent, instead of confiscating. Contramure. In fortification, is a wall built before another partition-wall to strengthen it, so that it may receive no damage from the adjacent buildings. Contravallation. In fortification, is an intrenchment formed in the same manner as the line of circumvallation, to defend the besiegers against the enterprises of the garrison. An army forming a siege lies between the line of circumvallation and contravallation. The trench of this line is towards the town, at the foot of the parapet, and is never made but when the garrison is numerous enough to harass and interrupt the besiegers by sallies. This line is con- structed in the rear of the camp, and by the same rule as the line of circumvallation, with this diff'erence, that, as it is only in- tended to resist a body of troops much in- ferior to a force which might attack the CONTRE-FORTS 115 COREA circumvallation, its parapet is not made so thick, nor the ditoh so wide and deep. Contre-forts (Fr.). Brick-work which is added to the revetment of a rampart on the side of the terre-plein, and which is equal to its height. Contre-forts are used to support the body of earth with which the rampart is formed. They are likewise used in the re- vetments of counterscarps, in gortjes and demi-gorges, etc. Contre-forts likewise form a part of the construction of powder-maga- zines, which are bomb-proof. j Contreras. A celebrated battle-field of Mexico, about 14 miles south of the capital. I Here, on August 19 and 20, 1847, the Amer- I ican forces under Gen. Scott defeated and ! totally routed, with loss of all his artillery, the Mexican general Valencia. Contribution. In a military sense, is an imposition or tax levied on the people of a conquered town or country. Control Department. In the British service, is the department which performs all the administrative duties of the army, in fact, all duties neither combatant, educa- tional, nor scientific. It has a sub-depart- ment which performs all work connected with supply and transport, and to which is attached the " Army Service Corps, "a body of men officered by the control department, and employed as butchers, bakers, military train, dispensers, hospital attendants, and those engaged in non-combatant duties gen- erally. Controller. In the British service, the highest grade in the control department. The officers holding it — three in number — rank with major-generals. A depiiii/ co)i- troller Ix^longs to the second grade in the control department. Otficers holding it rank witii lieutenant-colonels. Convalescent. A soldier who though discharged from hospital is not sufficiently recovered to do duty. Convention. In a military sense, is an agreement made between hostile armies for some well-defined purpose, such as the evac- uation of a fort, territory, etc. One of the most celebrated conventions of modern times was that of Cintra (1808), between the French and the English generals. Conversion. A change of front, as of a body of troops attacked in the flank. Conversion, Bridge by. See Pontons. Converted Guns. A term applied to cast- iron guns lined with wrought iron or steel tube. See Oudnanck, Palliser and Par- sons (JlNS. Convex Order of Battle. See Order of Battlk, Convk.x. Convoy. In the military service, is a train of wagons la72, and made the capital of an Arab kingdom in 750. It was rescued from the Arabs by Ferdinand III. of Castile in 123(3; was taken by the French under Dupont and disgracefully ravaged, June 8, 1808; sur- rendered to Joseph Bonajjarte, January, 1810, and abandoned by the French in 1813. Corduroy Road. A roadway formed of I logs laid side by side across it, as in marshy places ; so called from its rough or ribbed surface, resembling corduroy. See Cord- way. Cordway. This way or road is made over extensive marsh tracks, and is constructed as follows, from the description of material usually abounding in such places: Trees and poles of almost any description will be found to answer. Cut as many as is thought requisite. Divide them into three classes, — ground -poles, cross- poles, and stringers. The ground-poles should be the largest and heaviest. The cross-poles are comparatively short lengths, and lie across the ground-poles with their ends projecting some distance beyond. They are laid closely together, and then secured and bound down by the stringers which lie on them. A tree-nail driven in here and there serves to keep all in place by nipping the cross-poles tightly. The ends of the ground-poles and stringers may be either scarfed and tree- nailed, or laid side by side and tied with withers or strips of suitable bark. This road is quickly made and found very useful in transporting the supplies of an army over a wet, marshy country. Core. "When cannon are cast hollow, after the plan of Rodman, a core is used to make the bore. It consists of a hollow cast- iron pi|)e, fluted on the outside, called the core-bnrrel. This is wrapped with rope and the molding sand is plastered over the rope. A water-pipe entering the core-barrel and reaching nearly to the bottom, and another leaving it near the to[>, are used to maintain a circulation of water through it, thus cool- ing the casting from the interior. Corea, or Korea. Is an extensive penin- sular country in Northeastern Asia, whoso limits are not accurately known. It is bounded east by the Sea of Japan, south by CORFU IK CORPS D'ARMEE the.Strait of Corea, and west by the Whang- hai, or Yellow Sea. Corea was first sub- jected by the Tartars, but in about 1120 B.C. the Chinese appear to have gained pos- session of the country The Japanese con- quered and held it between the years 1692 and 1698, when it again fell under the sway of China, and still pays a small annual tribute to the emperor. Corfu. The capital and principal town of the Ionian Islands. It was first occupied by the Phascians, and then by the Libur- nians ; but the accounts of it are somewhat mythical until its settlement bj' the Corin- thians about 784 B.C., and through its com- merce it soon after acquired a considerable importance. It soon quarreled with the mother-country, and after many vicissitudes of fortune passed under the dominion of the Romans about 229 B.C. The town is defended by two fortresses, and garrisoned by British troops since 1864, though belong- ing to the kingdom of Greece. Corinth. An ancient and celebrated city of Greece, the capital of a department of the same name, situated on the Isthmus .of Corinth. It was totally destroyed by L. Mummius, the Roman consul, and burnt to the ground, 146 B.C. It remained in ruins for a century, and was rebuilt in the year 46 by Julius Cse.«ar, after which it again arose to be a populous and prosperous city. After the taking of Constantinople it "fell into the hands of the Turks, from whom it was retaken in 1687 by its former possessors, the Venetians. In 1715 it was again possessed by the Turks, who held it till 1823, when it was taken by the Greeks. Corinth. A village in the northeast of Mississippi, about 90 miles east of Memphis. It was evacuated by the Confederates under Beauregard, May 29, 1862, and next day oc- cupied by the Federal forces under Gen. HaJleck. The Confederates, under Gens. Van Dorn, Price, and others, attempted to take this place, but they were thoroughly defeated after several desperate struggles by Gen. Rosecrans, October 3—5, 1862. The Confederate loss in prisoners alone was nearly 3000. Corinthian War. Began 395 B.C. ; re- ceived this name because it was carried on mostly in the neighborhood of Corinth ; waged by a confederacy of the Athenians, Thebans, Corinthians, and Argives against the Lacedsemonians. It was closed by the peace of Antalcidas, 387 B.C. Corium. Leather body-armor, formed of overlapping leaves or scales, worn by Ro- man soldiers, and those of other nations. Its use was continued in England till the reign of Edward I. Cork. A city of Ireland, capital of the county of the same name ; built in the 6th century, it was garrisoned by Henry II., 1172; taken by Cromwell in 1649. The Earl of Marlborough besieged and took this city from King James's army, 1690. Cornet (Ital. cornetta, a "small flag"). Is the lowest grade of commissioned officers in the cavalry, equivalent to ensign in the infantry, his duty being to bear the standard. In the IT. S. army there are no cornets. Cornet. In the military history of the ancients, an instrument much in the nature of a trumpet : when the cornet only sounded, the ensigns were to march alone without the soldiers ; whereas, when the trumpet only sounded, the soldiers were to move forward without the ensigns. A troop of horse was so called. Cornette-blanche (Fr.). An ornament which in ancient times served to distinguish French officers who were high in command. It was worn by them on the top of their helmets. It likewise meant a royal standard, and was substituted in the room of the royal pennon. The cornette-blanche was only un- furled when the king joined the army ; and the persons who served under it were princes, noblemen, marshals of France, and old cap- tains, whose orders came direct from the king. Coroneia. An ancient town of Bceotia. The Athenians were here defeated by the Bceotians, and their leader, Tolmides, slain, 447 B.C. The Athenians, Thebans, Argives, and Corinthians having entered into a league, offensive and defensive, against Sparta, Ages- ilaus, after diffusing the terror of bis arms from his many victories, even into Upper Asia, engaged' the allies at Coroneia and achieved a great victory over them, 394 B.C. Corporal. In the military service, is a non-commissioned officer next in rank below a sergeant. He is distinguished by two chevrons worn on the arm. Corporal, Lance. A private soldier who acts as corporal. He wears one chevron, but has no increase of pay. Corporal-Major. In the British service, a troop ciirpiiral-iiiajor is the non-commis- sioned officer of the highest rank in a troop of the Household Cavalry ; his position and authority are the same as those of a color- sergeant of infantry. A regimental corporal- major is the non-commissioned officer of the highest rank in each of the three regiments of Household Cavalry, and corresponds to a sergeant-major of infantry. Corporal's Guard. Used to indicate a detachment of several men under arms. May be applied to a squad equal to that usually placed under the charge of a corporal for drill, police, guard duty, etc. Generally made use of in a derisive manner. Corps. A body of men ; especially a body of troops ; an organized part or division of an army. Corps d'Armee. In the military organi- zation of large armies two or more divisions form a co7-ps d^armee, or army corps, which is complete in itself as an army, with every- thing needed for service. In European states, where large standing armies are kept, this custom of dividing them into corps, each under an officer of very high rank, and quartering them in different provinces, is followed even in times of peace. CORRESPONDENCE 117 COUNTERMAND Correspondence, Official. Is correspond- ence carried on officially between military officers and various departments of the ser- vice, such as orders, reports, letters, indorse- ments, etc. All official correspondence be- tween the lieadsof the ilitterent departments of the statf of any command and its com- mander must puss throuj^h the adjutant- general, assistant adjutant-general, or ad- jutant of the command, as the case may be. Communications toor from a commander and those under his command must pass through the adjutant-general, assistant adjutant-gen- eral, or adjutant on duty with it; excepting only such communications between a dis- bursing officer and thechief of his jiarticular branch of the staff as relate exclusively to the ordinary routine of business in their own department. All communications, whether from an inferior to a superior, or vice versa, are, as a general rule, to bo passed through the intermediate commanders. The same rule governs in verbal applications : for example, a lieutenant seeking an indulgence must apply through his captain, the captain through the adjutant, and soon. All corre- spondence relating toor involving the pe>-- siiuucl of the army when forwarded to the Secretary of "VVar for his orders, must be forwarded through the adjutant-general for the consideration of the general of the army. Corridor. The covered way lying round the whole compass of the fortifications of a place. Corselet. A little cuirass, or piece of armor to cover the front of the body, worn formerly by j)ikemen. Corsica. An island in the Mediterranean, held by the French. This island has been successively occupied by the Carthaginians, Romans, Goths, Saracens, Franks, the popes, and Genoese; and lastly by the French, in whose possession it now remains, and to whom it was ceded by the Genoese in 1768. This island was held bv the British from June, 17!»4, to Oct. 22, 1790. Cortege. The official staff, civil or mili- tary. Corus, Corupedion, or Cyropedium. A plain in IMirygia, Asia Minor, where the aged Lysimachus was defeated by Seleucus, and slain, 2S1 B.C. These two were the only survivors of Alexander the Great's generals. Corygaum. An insignificant village in the presidency of Bombay ; historically inter- esting in connection with the final subjuga- tion of the Peishwa of the Mahrattas. On Jan. 1, 1818, it was defended for nine hours by n mere handful of men under Capt. Staunton, against a native force immberins; at least 3000 infantry and about 20,0tXI cavalry, the struggle terminating in the re- pulse of the assailants after terrible slaughter. Cossacks (Ru.ss., KasacLi). A military organization of irregulars in the Ru-ssian service. They contribute much to the mili- tary strength of Russia; but several insur- rections, of which the most alarming was that of 1773, have taken place since they became subjects to the Russian govern- ment. Cossova. A plain in Servia. Here Amurath I. totally defeated the Christian army (Servians, Hungarians, etc.), Septem- ber, 1389; but was himself killed by an expiring soldier. At this place, in 144H, John Uuniades was defeated by a Turkish army four times larger than his own. Costa Rica. The most southern state of Central America; bounded north. by Nica- ragua, northeast by the Caribbean Sea, south by New Granada, and south and west by the Pacific. The government of Costa Rica was established in 1832, and is accounted as the best and most liberal in Central America. Coston's Lights. Colored pyrotechnical compositions used for night signaling. Some- times used in the form of a pistol cartridge. Cotice, or Cost. In heraldry, one of the diminutives of the bend. It is a fourth part of the bend, and is usually borne in couples, with a head between. Couchant. In heraldry, a beast lying down, with his head up, is couchant. If the head is down, he is dormant. Coulmiers. A village 10 miles west of Orleans, Central France. Here the Bava- rians under Gen. Von der Tann were de- feated by the French army of the Loire un- der Gen. d'Aurelle de Paladines, who took about 2000 prisoners, Nov. 9, 1870, and re- gained Orleans. Council of War. A conference of offi- cers in military or naval warfare, on some matter in which the commander wishes to fortify his judgment by an appeal to that of others. The commandant of a garrison gen- erally solicits the opinion of a council of war before surrendering to besiegers. Counter-approach. A trench by which the besieged proceeds to meet the approaches of the besiegers. It is generally zigzag. Counter-arch. A vertical arch connect- ing the top of the counter-forts. Counter-battery. A battery which re- turns the fire of an opposing battery. Counter-changed. In heraldry, when several metals and colors are intermixed, one being set against the other, they are said to be counter-changed. Counter-forts. Interior buttre-sses con- structed for the purpose of strengthening masonry revetments. Counter-guards. Sometimes called cou- vre-faces, are works constructed in ])erma- nent fortifications to cover a bastion or demi- lune. They consist of two faces forming a salient angle. Counterhurters. In gunnery, are pieces of iron bolted to the rails on which the gun- carriage moves to check it in front and rear. See Ordnance, Carriages for. Sea-coast Carriages. Countermand, To revoke, as a former command ; to direct or order in opposition to an order previously given, thereby an- nulling it, or prohibiting its execution. COUNTERMARCH 118 COURT-MARTIAL Countermarch. A change of direction of a company or battalion in column from front to rear, by a flank movement, retaining the same ground. Countermine. A gallery underground so constructed as to facilitate the formation of mines, by means of which those of the enemy may be reached and destroyed. Countermine. To oppose by means of a countermine; to frustrate the designs of, by sinking a well and gallery in the earth, in search of an enemy's mine. Counter-parole. A word given in any time of alarm, as a signal. Counterpoise Carriage. A gun-carriage which, applied to a gun mounted in barbette, allows it to recoil behind the parapet or other shelter, and by means of a counter- poise brings it, or assists in bringing it, again into battei-y after it has been loaded. Among the best known of these carriages are Moncrieff^ s and King^s, — the former in- vented by Capt. Moncrieft', of the British army, and the latter by Capt. W. R. King, of the U. S. Engineers. In Moncrieff"'s car- riage the counterpoise is a heavy weight be- tween the cheeks of the top carriage. In King's the weight is in a well under the pin- tle-block, and is attached to the carriage by a wire cable. Counter-round. A body of oiRcers, whose duty it is to visit and inspect the rounds and sentinels. Counterscarp. In fortification, is the vertical or nearly vertical side of the ditch nearest to the besiegers, and opposite to the scarp or escarp. It is generally faced or revetted in permanent works, to render the descent into the ditch difficult. Counterscarp Galleries. Galleries under the counterscarp at the salients, for the pur- pose of flanking the ditch. Countersign. In military discipline or manoeuvres, is a watch-word given by the commanding officer of an army or garrison daily, in order that a friend may be distin- guished from an enemy. The countersign is given to sentinels, and others who are im- mediately concerned. It is given in garri- son to prevent unauthorized persons from passing the guards. The countersign is usually the name of a battle. Counter-swallowtail. In fortification, is a kind of an outwork very much resembling a single tenaille. Counter-trenches. Are trenches made against the besiegers, which consequently have their parapets turned against the ene- my's approaches, and are enfiladed from several parts of the place on purpose to ren- der them useless to the enemy, if they should chance to become masters of them ; but thej'' should not be enfiladed or commanded by any height in the enemy's possession. Counter-vair. A heraldic fur. It diff'ers from vair by having its cups or bells of the same tinctures placed base against base, and point against point. The tinctures are or and azure. Coup de Grace. A finishing or decisive stroke. Coup de Main. A sudden and vigorous attack, for the purpose of instantaneously capturing a position. Coup d'CEil. The gift of rapidly grasp- ing and turning to the best account the con- tingencies of war, and the features of the country which is its scene. Couped (Fr. coupe). A term in heraldry, used to describe the head or any limb of an animal cut oft" from the trunk, and smooth. When crosses, bends, bars, etc., are cut so as not to touch the sides of the escutcheon, they are also said to be couped. Coupe-gorge {Fr. ). Literally means cut- throat. It is used in a military sense to sig- nify any spot or position which aftords an enemy so many advantages that the troops who occupy it must either surrender or be cut to pieces. Coupures. In fortification, are passages cut through the glacis, of about 12 or 1-5 feet broad, in the re-entering angle of the covert way, to facilitate the sallies of the besieged. They are sometimes made through the lower curtain, to let boats into a little haven built in the re-entrant angle of the counterscarp of the outworks. Cour9on (Fr.). A long piece of iron which is used in the artillery and serves to constrain or tighten cannon. Courier. In a military sense, means a messenger sent post or express to carry dis- patches of battles gained, lost, etc., or any other occurrences that happened in war. Courland. A duchy of Livonia, sub- jected to Poland in 1582, conquered by Charles XII. of Sweden in 1701 ; Ernest Biren, duke, 1737; his son, Peter, 1769; annexed to Russia, March, 1795. Couronement, or Couronnement. In for- tification, implies the most exterior part of a work when besieged. Courtel. A military implement which served both for a knife and a dagger. Court-martial. In the army, a tribunal for the examination and punishment of offenders against martial law or against good order and discipline. Under the present construction of law, members of courts-mar- tial become judges and jurors. In ancient feudal times the lords had arbitrary power over vassals who held their lands by tenure of military service, and punished them as they saw fit, and courts of chivalry took cognizance of off"enses committed by the nobles. With the decline of feudalism the system of military despotism became ob- noxious to the English people, and although the necessity for a standing army was ad- mitted in time of peace, it could only exist with the consent of Parliament. The first military act passed after the accession of William to the throne of England is be- lieved to have laid the foundation of the present system of courts-martial, which has also been adopted to a certain extent in the American service. Parliament having been COURT 119 COVERT notified that a body of English and Scotch troops who were ordered to HolUmd had mutinied, tliat body passed, on April 3, 1(J89, an act for punishing mutiny, desertion, etc., which has been renewed annually by Par- liament to tlie present day. It authorized the king to grant commissions to certain officers to hold courts-martial for the trial of crimes committed by officers and soldiers. Similar acts were at difl'erent times passed in relation to oftenses committed in the navy. A court-martial is a court of limited and special jurisdiction called into existence by force of express statute for a special purpose, and to perform a particular duty ; and when the object of its creation is accomplished it ceases to exist. The law presumes nothing in its favor. He who seeks to enforce its sentences, or to justify its conduct under them, mustsetforth affirmatively and clearly all the facts which are necessary to show that it was legally constituted, and that the subject was within its jurisdiction. And if in its proceedings or sentence it transcends the limits of its jurisdiction, the members of the court and its officer who executes its sentence are trespassers, and as such are answerable to the party injured in damages in the courts of common law. Courts are classed into general, garrison, summary, regimental, and field-officers', according as the authority convening, the nature of the offenses to be inquired into, the punishment to be awarded, or other circumstances may determine. See Appkndix, Articles of AVak, 72 to 114; also Tkial. Court of Honor. Is a military court au- thorized by the regulations of the Prussian service, convened for the purpose of sus- taining the honor of the service and of indi- viduals, and of punishing officers who may be found guilty of conduct deviating even in the least from the principles which actuate military men as men of honor. The court of honor of a regiment consists of all com- missioned officers in it, except the prosecutor, the defendant, near relations, officers appear- ing as witnesses in the case, officers on leave, detached service, under arrest, or awaiting trial before any court ; and has for its regular business management a council of honor, consisting of the senior captain, senior first lieutenant, and senior second lieutenant. The court has jurisdiction over all acts or omissions (not provided for by any fixed laws) which are unofficerlike or ungentlemanly in their nature, particularly such as contracting debts, imprt>per choice of society, excessive use of int*)xicating liquors, gambling, quar- rels, carelessness »>r neglect of duty, and scandal. "With the exception of general officers, all officers of the standing army, the reserve, the landwehr, and those of the retired list are subject to the laws of the court of honor. The court to investigate the conduct of a field-i>fficer is made up of the fiold-otlicers of the division to which the officer beloiiijs. Court of Inquiry. In the military ser- vice of the United States, is a legally con- stituted court which may be ordered by the President or by any commanding officer to examine into the nature of any transaction of, or accusation or imputation against, any otficer or soldier upon a demand by the officer or soldier whose conduct is to be in- quired into. It may consist of one, two, or three officers, and a judge-advocate or other suitable person as recorder, all of whom are sworn. It has the same powers as a court- martial to summon witnesses and to examine them on oath. Courts of inquiry cannot award punishment, but must report to the officer by whose order they were assembled. (See Appendix, Articles of War, 115 to 121; also Inquiry, Board of.) In the British service courts of inquiry are not regulated by any statute or standing regula- tion, but depend on the will of the sovereign, or of the superior officer convoking the court, both as to the officers who may com- pose it, and as to every particular of its constitution. It is not a judicial body, but is rather a council, having no power to com- pel the attendance of witnesses not of the army or navy, nor to administer oaths. Courtrai. A fortified town of Belgium, on the river Lys. Here Robert, count of Artois, who had defeated the Flemings in 1297, was defeated and slain by them, July 11, 1302. The conflict was named the "Battle of the Spurs," from the number of gilt spurs collected. Coussinet a Mousquetaire (Fr.). A bag formerly worn by a French soldier on his left side beneath the cross-belt. It hung on a hook near the butt of his musket. It likewise signifies a wedge used to support the mortar in its frame. Coutere. A piece of armor which cov- ered the elbow. Coutras. In Southwestern France. Here Henry of Navarre totally defeated the Due de Joveuse and the Royalists, October 20, 1587. ' Cover. N^atural or artificial protection from the fire of the enemy, the former being afforded by hills, woods, banks, walls, etc., the latter by fortifications constructed for the purpose. To cover is, in military lan- gUMge, to stand exactly.behind another man. Covering. Standing exactly in front or in rear t>f another man or an object. Covering-fascines. Are those made of stout jiicket stuff, not less than 1 inch thick, without any mixture of small brush-wood. They may be used in place of planks for the superstructure of wooden bridges; and may also be used, if no stout planks or spars are to be had, for the roofs of field powder- magazines. They may be made of the usual diameter of 9 inches. Their length will depend upon the special purpose for which they are intended. The withes should bo particularly good. Covert Way. or Covered Way. Is a road or brond path outside the fosse or moat of a fortified place, between the counterscarp COVINAKII 120 CEENAUX and the glacis. It is usually about 30 feet wide, and sunk so far below the crest of the glacis that soldiers standing upon it cannot be seen by the besiegers ; hence the name. The covert way is broad enough to allow troops to form on it, either to act defensively or make sorties; and to increase this accom- modation enlarged portions, called places of arms, are made at certain spots. Covinarii. The soldiers who fought on the covinus were so called. Covinus. A kind of war-chariot used by the ancient Britons and Belgians. Cowardice. See Appendix, Articles of War, 42. Cow-boys. A band of marauders in the time of the American Kevolution, consisting mostly of refugees who adhered to the British side, and who infested the so-called "neutral ground" lying between the Amer- ican and British lines, plundering all those who had taken the oath of allegiance to the Continental Congress. See Skinners. Cowpens. A village in Spartanburg Co., N. C. At this place Gen. Morgan defeated Col. Tarleton, January 17, 1781; it is said that Tarleton lost 300 men in killed and wounded, and about 500 prisoners. The American loss was also considerable. Cracow. A city in Austrian Poland, on the left bank of the Vistula. It was taken by Charles XII. in 1702; taken and retaken several times by the Kussians and other confederates. The Russians were expelled from the city March 24, 1794; but it sur- rendered to the Prussians June 15, the same year, and in 1795 was awarded to Austria. It was occupied by 10,000 Piussians, who followed the defeated Poles, September, 1881. It was finally incorporated with the Austrian empire, November 16, 1846. Cradle. A narrow frame-work of heavy timbers upon which heavy guns are some- times placed, to be moved upon rollers. Crakers. Choice soldiers were so called in the time of Henry VIII. Crakys. An old term for great guns. Crampets. The cramp rings of a sword scabbard. Crampton's Gap. A pass in the South Mountains, Frederick Co., Md. A stubborn fight of four or five hours took place here Sep- tember 14, 1862, between partof Gen. McClel- lan's army under command of Gen. W. B. Franklin and a portion of the Confederate army under Gen. Cobb, which was defending the pass. The Confederates were forced to retire, having suifered severe loss in killed and wounded. Cranon. In Thessaly, Northern Greece. The Macedonians under Antipater and Crat- erus defeated the confederated Greeks, twice by sea, and once by land, near Cranon. Craonne. A town of France, in the de- partment of Aisne. Here Victor and Ney defeated the Prussians under Bliicher, after a severe contest, March 7, 1814. Crater. The pit left by the explosion of a military mine. Cravant. See Crevant-stjr-Yonne. Crecy, or Cressy. A village in France, department of the Somme, famous for a great victory obtained over the French, under Philip of Vafois, by Edward III. of England, August 26, 1346. In this battle fell the king of Bohemia, the Count of Flanders, 8 other sovereign princes, 80 bannerets, 1200 knights, 1500 gentlemen, 4000 men-at-arms, with the Duke of Alencjon and the flower of the French nobility. The English army was drawn up in three lines ; of which the first was com- manded by Edward, prince of Wales, assisted by the Earls of Warwick and O.xford ; the second led by the Earls of Arundel and Northampton; while the third, or body reserve, was posted along the summit of a hill, under the command of the king in person, attended by the Lords Mowbraj', Mortimer, and others. The English loss in this battle was very small. Crecy-sur-Serre. A town of France, department of Aisne. Its castle was taken and razed by Louis le Gros in 1115. The English took the town in 1339, 1358, and 1373; it was taken by the forces of the League in 1589; and it was burned by the Spaniards in 1662. Creedmoor. About 10 miles east of New York, noted for its splendid rifle range, which was established in 1871. Creek Indians. Formerly a numerous and powerfuj tribe dwelling in Georgia and Alabama. Their number was much reduced by the war of 1814, in which year they waged war against the United States, but were subdued by Gen. Jackson. Of the survivors most removed beyond the Missis- sippi, and are nowsettledin Indian Territory, where they are rapidly advancing in the art of civilization. For numbers, etc., see In- dians AND THEIR AGENCIES. Creil. A town of France, department of the Oise. It was ravaged several times by the Normans ; taken by the king of Navarre in 1358 ; by the English in 1434 ; by Charles VII. in 1441 ; pillaged by the Calvinists in 1567, and occupied by forces of the League in 1588. Cremaille. In field fortification, is when the inside line of the parapet is broken in such a manner as to resemble the teeth of a saw. This advantage is gained by the meas- ure, that a greater fire can be brought to bear upon the defile than if only a simple face was opposed to it ; and consequently the passage is rendered more difficult. Cremaillere [Fr.). An indented or zig- zag line of intrenchment. Cremona. A fortified city of Northern Italy, the capital of the province of the same name. It was besieged by the Gauls in 200 B.C.; by Primus, a general of Vespasian, in 69; by Frederick Barbarossa in 1160. Prince Eugene took possession of it in 1702; it was taken by the French in 1796 and 1800. Crenaux (Fr.). In fortification, small openings or loop-holes, made through the CRENELLE 121 CRIQUES walls of a fortified town or place. They are extremely narrow towards the enemy, and wide within ; so that the balls from the be- giegers can scarcely ever enter, whereas two or three soldiers may fire from within. Crenelle, or Crenel. A term used some- times to denote a battlement, but more fre- quently an embrasure in a battlement. The adjective crenellated is employed to signify that u building is supplied with crenelles. Crepy. A town of France, department of the (Jsie ; it was captured and sacked by the English in 1339; by the Duke of Lancaster in 1373; occupied by the Hurgundians in 1418; by Pothon and Xaintrailles in 1419; it was besieged by the Duke of Burgundy in 1420; tal.). The "bottom of a bag." A passage with only one outlet; a position ill whicii an army finds itself, with no wiiv of exit hut to thefront. CuUen Rifle. Sec .Maoazixe Guks. Cullen's-wood. In Ireland. A horrible slaughter of the English by the Irish took place ut a village near Dublin on Easter or Black Mondav, so called from this massacre, March 30, 12()1>. The English were a col- ony from Bristol inhabiting Dublin, whence they went to divert themselves at Cullen's- wood, when the OByrnes and O'Tooles fell upon them, and destroyed 500 men, besides Women and children. Culloden, or Drummossie Moor. A wide heath in Scotland. 3 miles east of Inverness, on which the Duke of Cumberland gained a decisive victory over the Highland army in their attemjit "to restore the Stuart dynasty to the throne, in I74(j. Culpeper Court-house. See Fairfa.x. Culverin. A long cannon u.sed from the 14th to the ItJth century; generally carried a shot of 18 pounds. The gun at Dover Castle, called Queen Elizabeth's nocket-pis- tol, is a specimen of a large culverin. A demi-culuerin was a similar piece, carrying u 9-pound shot. Cumae. An ancient and celebrated Gre( k city on the coast of Campania, about G miles north of Cape Misenum. The Tyrrhenians and Carthaginians attacked it by sea, and were defeated by Hieron, 474 n.c. In 420 the Samnites laid siege to the city, and after repeated attacks succeeded in carrying it by assault. It was given up to pillage and its inhabitants put to the sword. In the second Punic war Hannibal made an attempt upon the city, but was repulsed by Sempronius Gracchus. It was chosen by the Gothic kings as the depository of their regalia and valuables, and was the last place in Italy that held out against Narses. Cumberland Gap. Is a natural gap in the Cumberland Mountains, about 80 miles in length, and about 150 miles south by east from Lexington, Ky. During the civil war it was an important strategic point, and was held at different times by each of the con- tending forces. It was held by the Con- federates without any serious interference until Chattanooga was occupied by the forces of Gen. Mitchell, when it was evacuated about June 18, 1862, and occupied on thfr same daj' by the Union general Geo. AV. Morgan. It was held by him until Septem- ber 17, when he was compelled to evacuate it. It was again occupied by the Confeder- ates, who to the number of 2000 under Gen. Frazer surrendered to Gen. Burnside, Sep- tember 9, 1803. A large quantity of stores, and 10 pieces of artillery were captured. Cunaxa. In Mesopotamia, near the Eu- phrates, where Cyrus the Younger was de- feated and slain by his brother Artaxerxes II., against whom he had conspired, 401 n.c. Cunette, or Cuvette. A trench in the bottom of a dry ditch; an obstacle in the- passage of an enemy (especially if tilled with water), and also acting as a drain. Cunnersdorf, or Kunnersdorf. A village in Bohemia, 12 miles north-northwest of Buntzlau. On August 12, 1759, Frederick the Great with 50,000 men attacked the Austrian and Russian army of 90,(X>0 in their camp near this place, and at first gained considerable advantages ; but pursuing them too far, the Austrians and Russians rallied, and gained a complete victory. The Prus- sians lost 200 pieces of cannon and 30,000 men in killed and wounded. Cura^oa. An island in the Caribbean Sea, settled by the Spaniards about 1.527, was seized by the Dutch in H;;U. In 1800 the French settled on part of this island, quarreled with the Dutch, who surrendered it to a British frigate. It was restored to the Dutch in 18n2; taken from them by the British in 1807, and again restored in"l814. CURIET 124 CZASLAU Curiet. A breastplate made of leather. Current Series. In military administra- tion, orders issued from established com- mands, such as divisions, departments, etc., being numbered in regular order for each year; this term is frequently used when re- ferring to orders issued in the year passing or current, when the expression is employed. Currier. A small musketoon with a swivel mounting. Currytown. A village in Montgomery Co., N. Y., noted for the attack on and murder of its settlers by nearly 500 Indians and a few loyalists, commanded by a Tory named Doxstader, July 9, 1781. The settlers were unsuspicious of danger, and were gener- ally at work in the fields when the enemy fell upon them. After killing and capturing all they could, the Indians set lire to the buildings, and drove away most of the cattle and horses in the neighborhood. Next day Col. Willett, who was at Fort Plain when the attack was made, pursued the enemy with about 150 men, attacked and killed about 40 of them, and recovered all their plunder. Curtain. In fortification, is that part of the rampart or wall between two bastions or two gates. Curtail, or Curtald. An ancient piece of ordnance, apparently a short one. Curtatone. Near Mantua, Northern Italy. Here the Austrians under Radetzky crossed the Minco, and defeated the Italians after a severe conflict, May 29, 1848. Customs of the Service. Sometimes called common law of the army. Signifies gener- ally a right or law not written, but estab- lished by long usage. To render a custom valid it has been said that the following qualities are requisite: 1, habitual or long established practice; 2, continuance with- out interruption; 3, without dispute; 4, it must be reasonable; 5, certain ; 6, com- pulsory; 7, customs must be consistent with each other. It may be said that the common law of the army derives its force from the tacit consent of those in the service. Gen. Kautz states that officers of the army have certain duties to perform that are governed by certain laws, rules, and regulations, which are interpreted and executed in a certain way, called "Customs of the Service." A knowledge of these rules of the service, and their application, constitutes the military profession, and is the true art of war. To this extent it is an exact science, and may be acquired by application and experience. Custozza. Near Verona, Northern Italy. Here the Italians were defeated by Marshal Radetzky, July 23, 1848; and here they were again defeated June 24, 1860, after a series of desperate attacks on the Austrian army. The Italians were commanded by their king, Victor Emmanuel, and the Aus- trians by the Archduke Albrecbt. Cut Off, To. To intercept, to hinder from union or return. In a military sense this phrase is variously applicable, and extremely familiar. To Cut Off an Enemy's Retreat is to manoeuvre in such a manner as to prevent an opposing army or body of men from re- tiring, when closely pressed, either to their intrenchments or into a fortified town from which they had marched or sallied. Cut up, To. To destroy promiscuously. "When the cavalry are sent in pursuit of a flying enemy, the latter are generally cut up. Cuttack (anc. Catac). A province in^the East Indies, ceded to the East India Com- pany in 1803. Cuttack, the capital, was taken by Col. Harcourt, October 14, 1803. This province was captured by the Mahrat- tas in 1750. Cuzco. A city of Peru, capital of a de- partment, and the ancient capital of the Peruvian empire, in South America. This city was entered by Pizarro in November, 1533, and taken by him in August, 1536, after a five months' siege. Cylinder-gauge. See Inspection of Cannon. Cylinder-staff. See Inspection of Can- non. Cyprus. The most eastern island in the Mediterranean, near the mouth of the Gulf of Iskanderoon. It was divided among several petty kings till the time of Cyrus of Persia, who subdued them. It was taken by the Greeks in 477 B.C., and ranked among f the proconsular provinces in the reign of Augustus. It was conquered by the Sara- cens, 648 A.D., but recovered by the Greeks in 957. It was reduced by Richard I. of England in 1191, and given by him to Guy de Lusignan, who became king in 1192, and whose descendants governed it until 1489, when it was sold to the Venetians. It was taken by the Turks in August, 1571, and held by them until June, 1878, when it was awarded to England by the "Peace Congress of Berlin.'' Czaslau. A town of Bohemia, 45 miles east-southeast of Prague. Here Frederick the Great gained a victory over the Austrians, May 17, 1742. DACIA 123 DAKOTA D, Dacia. The liind of the Daci or Getae. It comprised the various countries now known as Eastern Hungary, Transylvania, Wallachia, and Moldavia. The Getae came originally from Thrace, and were divided into various tribes, and seem to have been the most valiant of the Thracian barbarians. Curio, the first lloinan general who ever penetrated as far north as the Danube, did not venture to assail them. Julius Ciesar, however, is said to have intended their sub- jugation. In 10 B.C., Augustus sent an army up the valley of the Maros. PVom this time a continual war was waged by the Dacians against the Komans, who actually compelled the latter, in the reign of Do- j mitian, to pay a tribute. In 101 A.D. the | Emperor Trajan crossed the Theiss, and marched into Transylvania, where he fought a great battle near Thorda. The Daci, who were commanded by their famous chief De- cebalus, were defeated. A second expedition of the emperor's (104 a.d.) resulted in the destruction of their capital, the death of Decebalus, and the loss of their freedom. In 270 and 275 a.d. the Romans abandoned the country to the Goths, and the colonists were transferred to Mcesia. After a series of vicissitudes, Dacia fell into the possession of the Magyars in the 9th century. • Dacota. See Dakota. Dadur. A town of Beloochistan, 5 miles to the east of the Bolan Pass. It is said to be one of the hottest places in the world, and is celebrated as the place where, in Novem- ber, 1840, the British troops routed a Kelat force. ^ Dag. A thick, clumsy pistol, used in the 15th and 16th centuries. Dagen. A peculiar kind of poniard. Dagger. A weapon resembling a sword, but considerably smaller, being used for stabbing at close quarters. Daggers are generally two-(*dged, and very sharp to- wards the point. Daghestan. A province of Russia, on the west coast of the Caspian Sea. It was conquered by the C7.ar Peter in 1723; re- stored to Persia, 173.'j; but re-annexed to Russia by Alexander I. in 1813. Dague {Fr.). Dagger, a short thick pon- iard which was formerly used when individ- uals engaged in single combat. Dahigren Gun. So named from Admiral Dahlgren, its inventor. An improved form of ordnance used for howitzers, heavy artil- lery, and especially in naval gunnery. It having been demonstrated that in ordinary cast guns the weight of the metal forward is greater than is needed, and that by far the greatest strain in firing is at the breech, Dahlgren greatly increased the relative size and weight of the breech, with the best results. These guns are chiefly used by the U. S. forces. See Ordnance, Construc- tion OF. Dahme. A town of Prussia, on the river of the same name. It is defended by a strong citadel, and inclosed by walls. Here, in 1713, the French were defeated by the Prussians. Dahomey. An independent state of Guinea, Western Africa, extending along the coast from Fort Badagry on the eJist, to the river Volta, which separates it from Ashantee on the west. The Dahomans, who came into possession of this tract of coun- try about the beginning of the 18th cen- tur}', are for the most part tall, well formed, and intelligent, and, for an African race, singularly honest and far advanced in agri- culture. With the exception of a few Mo- hammedans, whose religious belief is in no way interfered with, they are all pagans, and practice fetish-worship. The king is the most absolute of despots, having entire con- trol over the lives and property of his sub- jects. Wholesale murder is one of the chief features in religious and state ceremonies, and the most valued ornaments of the royal residence are human skulls. As many as 2000 human victims are sometimes sacri- ficed at one " grand custom." Of the regu- lar army of 12,000, about one-half are Ama- zons (devoted to celibacy), who are described as much more effective soldiers than their male companions in arms ; but at the same time as blood-thirsty and ferocious as ti- gresses. Dahra. In Algeria; on June 18, 1845, above 500 Kabyles at war with the French, were sutlbcated in a cave by smoke, the fire having been kindled by order of Gen. Pel- issier, afterwards Duke of Malakoft". They had fired on a messenger bearing an offer of truce. The massacre was condemned by Soult, the minister of war, but justified by Marshal Bugcaud. Dakota. A Territory in the north central part of the United States. It was organ- ized under a territorial form of government March 2, 1861, but verv extensive altera- tions have since been made in its boundaries. The Territory has been greatly disturbed by marauding bands of Si«>ux Indians, or Da- kotas, who were in 18tJ2 and 18<;3 especially daring and aggressive, and though they have frequently been defeated by U. S. troops, notably "under Gens. Sully and Sibley in 1863, they are still very troublesome, DAKOTA 126 DANGEROUS necessitating the frequent intervention of troops for the protection of the settlers. Dakota Indians. A numerous and power- ful tribe or collection of tribes of Indians of common stock, often called Sioux, who formerly roamed over the territory between the Missouri and Mississippi, but have moved farther west since 1851, and are settled on agencies in Dakota, Montana, Nebraska, etc. A great proportion of them still preserve their nomadic habits and are still frequently troublesome. See Indians AND THEIR AGENCIES. Dalecarlians. Natives of Dalecarlia, Sweden, who revolted against Christian of Denmark, 1521, and placed Gustavus Vasa on the throne of Sweden. Dalmatia. A narrow strip of territory extending along the Adriatic Sea ; bounded north by Istria and Croatia, and east by Bosnia and Herzegovina. In ancient times Dalmatia was a considerable kingdom, and, after many unsuccessful attempts, was first subjugated by the Romans in the time of Augustus. After the fall of the Western empire, Dalmatia, which had formed the most southern part of the province of II- lyricum, was captured by the Goths, from whom it was taken by the Avari (490), who in their turn yielded it to the Slavonians about 620. It continued under the rule of the Slavonians until the beginning of the 11th century, when King Ladislaus of Hun- gary incorporated a part of it with Croatia, while the other part, with the title of duchy, placed itself under the protection of the Venetian republic. The Turks afterwards made themselves masters of a small portion, and by the peace of Campo-Formio (1797), the Venetian part, with Venice itself, be- came subject to Austrian rule, and when Austria, in 1805, had ceded this part to Napoleon, it was annexed to the kingdom of Italy ; afterwards (1810) to Illyria. Since 1814, excepting the Turkish portion, it has been reunited with Austria. Damages, Barrack. In the British ser- vice, is the term applied to the injuries done to barracks, barrack furniture, etc., by sol- diers, when the actual perpetrator cannot be discovered. The term is also applied to the sum levied from the company or regiment generally, to make good the injury. Dam- ages to arms, clothing, etc. See Appendix, Articles or War, 17. Damascus. A city of Syria, in Asiatic Turkey. During the time of the Hebrew monarchy, it was the capital of Syria, but afterwards passed successively under the rule of the Assyrians, Persians, Macedonians, Ro- mans, and Saracens; and finally, in 1516, it was captured by the Turks (under Sultan Selim I.), in whose hands it has remained ever since. Damascus was at one time cele- brated for the manufacture of sword-blades of the finest temper and most exquisite work- manship, but the process by which such unequaled specimens of art were perfected appears no longer to exist. Damaskin. A certain kind of sabre; .so called from the manufacture of Damascus. Dame (Fr.). Among miners any portion of earth which may remain after the explo- sion of a mine has taken place. It likewise means a piece of wood with two handles used to press down turf or dirt in a mortar. Damietta. A city of Lower Egypt, on the east branch of the Nile. It was taken by the Crusaders, 1219; lost, 1229; retaken by Louis IX., June 5, 1249; surrendered as his ransom when a prisoner. May 6, 1250. Damnonii, Dumnonii, or Dumnunii. A powerful people who inhabited the southwest of Britain, comprising Cornwall, Devon- shire, and the western part of Somersetshire, from whom was called the promontory Dam- nonium (now Cape Lizard), in Cornwall. Danai. An ancient name of the Greeks, derived from Danaus, king of Argos, 1474 B.C. Danala. A city in the territory of the Trocmi, in the northeast of Galatia, notable in the history of the Mithridatic war as the place where Lucullus resigned the command to Pompey. Dancette. One of the lines of partition in heraldry, difl'ering from indented only in the greater size of the notches. See In- dented. Danes, or Northmen. Natives of Den- mark ; during their attacks upon Britain and Ireland they made a descent on France, where, in 895, under Rollo, they received presents under the walls of Paris. They re- turned and ravaged the French territories as far as Ostend in 896. They attacked Italy in 903. Neustria was granted by the king of France to Rollo and his Normans (North- men), hence Normandy, in 911. The Danes invaded England, Scotland, and Ireland with varying succes.ses from 783 to 1084. Dangerous Space. That zone, partly be- fore and partly beyond the object fired at (the sights having been correctly elevated), which is covered by«the trajectory ; the object may be displaced to the front or rear of its correct range-point, a distance equal, in the aggregate, to the depth of this zone, and still be struck by the projectile. " Dangerous space" is calculated under the assumption that the gun when fired is 56 inches from the ground, that it is aimed at "a point 34 inches from the ground, and that the stature of a man is 68 inches ; and that the head of a man on horseback is 8 feet above the ground. The "dangerous space" will, of course, be in- creased by the firer lying down and aiming at his adversary's feet. A part of the "dan- gerous space" is near the muzzle of the gun in the rising branch of the trajectory; the rest of it is in the falling branch ; these two parts being continuous up to and including the "battle-range" (which see). The "dan- gerous space" varies with the weapon used and the object fired at ; and for the same arm diminishes as the range increases beyond "battle-range"; up to this point it increases with the range. A perfect understanding of DANNEBROG 127 DEAD this subject is essential to effective infantry fire upon the field of battle. Valuable tables will be found upon it in Laidley's " Rifle Firinsj." Dannebrog. The ancient battle-standard of Deiitnark, bearing the figures of a cross and crown. It was fabled to have fallen from heaven at the battle of Volmur, in Es- thonia (1211)), during a crusade against the heathens. It was twice taken in battle and twice recaptured. In 1500 a mere fragment remained. Dannebrog, Order of the. Is the second of the Danish orders of knighthood. It is said to liave been founded in 1219, but fell into decay, and was restored in 1071. Dannevirke, or Dannewerke. A series of earthworks considered almost impregnable, stretching across the long narrow peninsula of Sleswick, Holstein, ancL Jutland, — said to have been built during the " stone age." It was rebuilt in 937 by Thyra, queen of Gormo the Old, for which she was named Dunnnhod, "the })ride of the Danes." It was again repaired between 995 and 1000. Near here the Prussians, aiding the duchies, defeated the Danes, April 23, 1848. Dantzic, or Danzig. A city of Prussia; is surrounded with ramparts, mounted with cannon, and the town may be considered as being one of the strongest fortresses in Prussia. In the 10th century it was known as the capital of Pomcrali ; it passed with that province, in 1295, under the author- ity of Poland; but in 1308, Ladislaus IV. ceded the whole to the Teutonic knights, who held it till 1454. In that year it was again seized by the Poles ; and in 1575, hav- ing refused to acknowledge Stephen Bathory, it had to sustain a siege by that monarch, and was taken in 1577. From 13(j0 to 1641 it was one of the principal towns in the Hanseatic League. When this league was dissolved, Dantzic joined Lubeck, Hamburg, and Bremen ; and these four cities, down to a very late period, retained their name of Hanse Towns. In 1734 it was forced to sur- render to the Russians and Saxons, who were then besieging Stanislaus of Poland. In 1793 it was occupied by the Prussians. It was taken by the French in May, 1807, after a long siege, by Marshal Lefevre, who thence acquired his title of duke of Dantzic. After Bonapartos disastrous campaign in Russia, it was blockaded and obliged to sur- render, after a long and able defense by Gen. Rapn. At the peace of Paris, in 1814, it reverted to Prussia. Dardanelles, or Hellespont (anc. Hellcs- po)ifux). A narrow strait between Europe and Asiatic Turkey, connecting the Sea of Marmora and the .Egean Sea. As it is the key to Constantinople, there are on both shores of this narrow channel numerous forts and batteries, there being 8 on the European and 7 on the Asiatic side. It was here the invading armies of Xerxes crossed on a bridge of boats to enter Europe. The passage of the strait was achieved by the British under Sir John Duckworth, Febru- ary 9, 1807 ; but he repassed with great loss, Marcii 2, two castles occupying the sites of the ancient Sestos and Abydos, hurling d()wn stones of many tons weight upon the British. The allied English and French passed the Dardanelles at the sultan's re- quest, October, 1853. Dart. A pointed, missile weapon, intend- ed to be thrown by the hand ; a short lance; a javelin ; hence, any mi.ssile weapon. Dartmouth. A seaport town of England, in Devonshire ; it was burnt by the French in the reigns of Richard I. and Henry IV. In a third attempt (1404) the invaders were defeated by the inliabitants, assisted by the valor of the women. In the war of the Parliament, Dartmouth was taken, after a siege of four weeks, by Prince Maurice, who garrisoned the place for the king (1043); but it was retaken by Gen. Fairfax by storm in 1040. Dauphin (Dolphin), Fr. An ornamental handle on brass guns over the trunnions, so called from its resemblance to that fish. Dauphine. An old province of Southeast France, successively held by the Allobroges, Burgundians, and Lombards ; was, about 723-24, delivered from the invading Sara- cens by Charles Martel. Its counts were called dauphins ; and when it was ceded to Philip of Valois, in 1349, the title of dau- phin was given to the eldest son of the king of France, to whom it continued to be ap- plied till the revolution of 1830. David's Day, St. The 1st day of March is annually commemorated by the Welsh, in honor of St. David. Tradition states that on St. David's birthday, 540, a great victory was obtained bj- the Welsh over their Saxon invaders, and that the Welsh soldiers were distinguished by order of St. David by a leek in their caps. Dax. A well-built town of France, de- partment of Landes. It is surrounded by an old wall, flanked with towers, and is also protected by a castle. Dax was taken by the English in the 12th century, and re- mained in their possession till the middle of the 15th century. Day-book. In the British service, is a sort of private memorandum-book, in which the pay-sergeant enters all details of expen- diture' other than pay under each man's head. These entries are made at the mo- ment, and afterwards transferred to the led- ger. Day's March. See ^lARrri. Dead Angle. In fortification, is any an- gle or piece of ground which cannot be seen, and which therefore cannot be defended from behind the parapet of the fortification. Dead-head. In casting a cannon, is the surplus metal in the top of the mold ; called also the sprue. Dead March. A piece of solemn music intended t<> be played as an accompaniment to a funeral procession. Dead Pay. Was the pay formerly drawn DEAD-SHOT 128 DEEG for soldiers really dead, whose names were kept on the rolls ; and whose pay was appro- priated by dishonest officers. Dead-shot. An unerring marksman. Debark. To leave a ship or boat ai^ pass to the land; to go on shore; as, the troops debarked at 4 o'clock ; disembark. Deblai. The hollow space or excavation formed by removing earth for the construc- tion of parapets in fortification. Thus the ditch or fosse whence the earth has been taken represents the deblai, while the earth itself, so removed, constitutes the remhlai. Deblayer un Camp {Fr.). To evacuate a camp for the purpose of cleaning and purifying the ground. Debouch. A military term, signifying to march out from a wood, defile, or other confined place into open ground ; also an outlet or available issue by which an army can march out. Debris (Fr.). Remains, ruins of a build- ing or town which has been sacked ; broken remains of an army after defeat. Debruised. A term in English heraldry used to indicate the restrained position of an animal in a coat of arms, by having any of the ordinaries laid over it. Decagon. In fortification, is a polygon figure, having 10 sides, and as many angles ; and if all the sides and angles be equal, it is called a regular decagon, and may be inscribed in a circle. The sides of a regular decagon are in power and length equal to the greatest segment of a hexagon, inscribed in the same circle and cut in extreme and mean proportion. Decamp, To. To march an army or body of men from the ground where it be- fore lay encamped. It also signifies to quit any place or position in an unexpected man- ner. Decanus. In Roman military history, a petty officer who presided over the 10 sol- diers of his contubernium, or those living in the same ten. Deccan. An extensive region of India ; invaded by the Mohammedans in 1294. About 1686-90, Aurungzebe I. recovered the Deccan, but soon lost great part of it to the Mahrattas. A large part of the Deccan was ceded to the English in 1818. Deceased Officers and Soldiers. See Appkndix, Articles OF Wak, 125,126. . Dechargeurs {Fr.). Are men appointed to attend the park of artillery, and to assist the non-commissioned officers, etc., who are employed on that service. It is the duty of the former to keep a specific account of articles received and consumed, in order to enable the latter to furnish their officers with accurate statements. Decimation. A military punishment in- flicted among the Romans on cowardly or mutinous troops. It consisted in selecting by lot one-tenth of the whole body of troops who misbehaved, and putting them to death. There have been a few instances of this spe- cies of punishment in modern times. In 1642 the Archduke Leopold employed it against a regiment of cavalry ; Marshal Crequi also had recourse to it against the mutinous garrison of Treves, and before the battle of Waterloo Bliicher is said to have punished in this manner a body of mutinous troops. Decisions. In courts-martial, the ma- jority of votes decides all questions as to the admission or rejection of evidence, and on other points involving law or custom. If equally divided, the doubt is in favor of the prisoner. Declaration of Independence. This celebrated document by which the thirteen United Colonies of America announced their intention of taking their affairs into their own hands, renouncing their alle- giance to Great Britain, and asserting their freedom, was dra,wn up by Thomas jefl'er- son, and received the unanimous approval of the delegates in the Congress of the Col- onies, July 4, 1776. Declaration of War. The formal an- nouncement by a government of its inten- tion to wage war against another, is a pro- ceeding which is observed among all civ- ilized nations. In the United States the declaration of war is a power exercised by Congress alone. During the age of chivalry, a herald made declaration of war at the enemy's court, his tabard on his arm. Decompte (Fr.). Signifies a liquidation or balance, which from time to time was made in the old French service, between the captain of a company and each private sol- dier for money advanced or in hand. Decoration Day. The anniversary, in the United States, on which flowers are placed on soldiers' graves, and which is ob- served on May 30. This day was set apart for the purpose mentioned soon after the war of the Rebellion, 1861-65. Decoration, Military. A medal, cross of honor, etc., bestowed for distinguished ser- vices. Decorations. In pyrotechny, are the com- positions which are placed in the heads of rockets, in paper shells, etc., to make a bril- liant display when the receptacle is burst. Decouple. In heraldry, signifies severed or disjoined, so that the ends stand at a dis- tance from one another, as a chevj-on decou- ple. Decoy. To lead or to entice into a snare ; to lead into danger by artifice; to entrap. An enemy is said to be decoyed when a small body of troops draws them in to ac- tion, whilst the main body lies in ambush ready to act with the greatest effect. Decrement. Is a heraldic term by which the wane of the moon is indicated. Decrescent and decours are also used in the same sense. A moon decrescent is a half- moon with her horns turned to the sinister. Decurion. An officer in the Roman cav- alry, who commanded a decuria, which was a body consisting of 10 men. Deeg. A strong fortress of Hindostan DEEP 129 DELAWARE in tlie province of Agra, which was cap- tured bv the British arms under Gen. Lake in 1804: Deep. A term used in the disposition or arrangements of soldiers pluced in ranks before each other; hence, two deep, three deef), etc. Deej) line of operations, a long line. Default. A military offense, in the Brit- ish service, is so called. Defaulter. A soldier who has been guilty of a military offense. It is generally applied to men sentenced to conlinement to barracks, and attaches to them until the completion of their punishment. Defaulter Book. The book in which the defaulter sheets are contained. The regi- mental defaulter book containing regimental, and the company defaulter book company, defaults. Defaulters' Sheet. For every soldier there are two sheets of foolscap paper, in one of which, called his company defaulter sheet, are entered all offenses and the pun- ishments awarded. The other, called the regimental defaulter sheet, contains only ' oftenses for which a man has been punished by more than seven days confined to bar- racks, or other awards considered of equal gravity. Defeat. This word expresses the com- plete want of success of an army ; a repulse signifying less, and a rout more, than defeat. Defeat. To resist with success ; as, to de- feat an assault. Defection. The act of abandoning a per- son or cause to which one is bound by alle- giance OP duty, or to which one has attached himself. Defend. To secure against attack ; to maintain ; as, to defend a town ; to defend a cause. Defender. One who defends; one who maintains, supports, protects, etc. Defense. In military law, is the defend- ant's answer to the plea ; an opposing or denial of the truth or validity of the plain- tiff's case ; themethod of proceeding adopted b}' the defendant to protect himself against the plaintiffs action. Defense. In fortification, consists of all sorts of works that cover and defend the op- posite posts ; as flanks, parapets, casements, etc. Defense, Active. Comprehends every species of otVensive operation which is re- sorted to by the besieged to annoy the be- siegers. Defense, Distant. Consists in being able to interrupt the enemy's movements by cir- cuitous inundations ; to inundate, for in- stance, a bridge, when a convoy is passing, or to insulate batteries, the heads of saps or lodgments which have been made in the covert way. By this species of defense an enemy's communications may be perpetu- ally intercepted, and his approaches so ob- structed as to force him to leave dangerous intervals. Defense, Line of. Represents the flight of a rifle-ball from the j)lace where the sol- diers stand, to scour the face of the bastion. The line of defense should never exceed the range of a rifle. It is either /Jc/ian^ or ray- ant. The first is when it is drawn from the angle ; the last, when it is drawn from a point in the curtain, ranging the face of the bastion in fortification. Defense, Lines of. Are the distances between the salient angle of the bastion and the opposite flank ; that is, the faces pro- duced to the flanks. Defense, Passing. Is chiefly confined to inundations, and is effected by letting out water in such a manner that the level ground which lies round a fortified town or place may be entirely overflowed, and become an inert stagnant pool. Defensive. A force is said to be on the defensive, or to assume a defensive attitude, when it takes up a position to receive an attack. Defensive 'War. See War, Defensive. Defilading, or Defilement. The art of arranging the plan and profile of works, so that their lines shall not oe liable to enfilade, nor their interior to plunging or reverse fire. Defile. A narrow passage, or road, through which troops cannot march other- wise than by making a small front and tiling off. Defile, To. To reduce a body of troops into a small front, in order to march through a defile ; also, to defilade. Deformer (Fr.). In a military sense, signifies to break ; as, deformer une colonne, to break a column. Degat (F/-.). The laying waste an ene- my's country, particularly in the neighbor- hood of a town which an army attempts to reduce by famine, or which refuses to pay military exactions. Degorgeoir ( Fr. ). A sort of steel pricker used in examining the vent of a cannon ; a priming wire. Degradation. In military life, the act of depriving an officer forever of his commis- sion, rank, dignity, or degree of honor, and taking away at the same time every title, badge, or privilege he may possess. Degraded. In heraldry, means placed upon steps or degrees. Degsestan, Battle of. See Scotland. Dehors. In the military art, all .sorts of outworks in general, placed at son)c distance from the walls of a fortification, the better to secure the main places, and to protect the siege, etc. Delaware. One of the Middle States of the United States, and one of the original thirteen. It derives its name (as do the Delaware River and Bay and Delaware In- dians) from Thomas AVcst. lord de la Warr, who visited the bay in UHO, and died on his vessel at its mouth". It was first settled by the Swedes and Dutch, but came into pos- session of the English in 1GG4, and formed DELAWAKE 130 DENBIGH part of the grant to William Penn in 1682. In 1701 it was separated from Pennsylvania, though subject to the same governor down to the period of the Revolution, to the suc- cess of which it contributed its full share, and for the maintenance of the results of which it has ever been a zealous advocate. Delaware Indians. A tribe of aborigi- nes, called by themselves Lennl-Lenape^ who formerly lived on the Delaware River, but are now settled in Indian Territory, on the "Wichita Agency, with the Caddos. See Indians and their Agencies. Delf. A heraldic charge representing a square sod or turf, the term being probably derived from the word delve, to dig. A delf tenne is the appropriate abatement for him who revokes his challenge, or otherwise goes from his word. Delhi. A celebrated city of Northern India, situated on an offset of the river Jumna. The city was taken by a British army under Lord Lake, September 8, 1803, and has ever since continued under British rule. In 1857 it was held by the Sepoys, who murdered several English subjects, but was retaken, after a successful assault, Sep- tember, 1857. Deliver Battle. A term taken from the French livrer bataille, meaning to enter prac- tically upon a contest ; the opposing armies being in sight of each other. Dellamcotta. A fortress of Northern Hin- dostan, in the province of Bootan, command- ing the principal pass into that province. It was stormed by the British troops in 1773, which so alarmed the Booteans that they petitioned for peace. The fortress was then restored to them. Dellis. Were Bosnian and Albanian horsemen, who served without pay in the Turkish armies. Delphi (now CaRtri). An ancient town of Phocis, Greece, celebrated on account of its oracle of Apollo. Its temple was burnt by the Pisistratidse, 548 b.c. A new temple was raised by the Alcniieonidje. The Per- sians (480 B.C.) and the Gauls (279 B.C.) were deterred from plundering the temple by awful portents. It was, however, robbed and seized by the Phocians, 357 B.C., which led to the Sacred War, and Nero carried from it 300 costly statues in 67 a.d. Demembre, or Dismembered. A heraldic term signifying that the members of an ani- mal are cut from its body. Demerara and Essequibo. Colonies in Guiana, South America, founded by the Dutch in 1580, were taken by the British, under Maj.-Gen. Whyte, Apri'l 22,1796, but were restored at the peace of Amiens, 1802. The}' again surrendered to the British under Gen. Grinfield and Commodore Hood, Sep- tember, 1803, and became English colonies in 1814. Demi, or Demy. In heraldry, an animal is said to be demi when only the upper or fore half of it is represented. Demi-bastion. A piece in fortification, which generally terminates the branches of crown-works or horn-works towards their head. Demi-brigade. A half brigade. Demi-cannon. A kind of ordnance, an- ciently used, carrying a ball of from 30 to 36 pounds in weight. Demi-culverin. A kind of ordnance an- ciently used, carrying a ball of 9 or 10 pounds in weight. Demi-distances {Fr.). Half distances; as, serrcz la calonne a demi-distances, close to the column at half distances. Demi-file (Fr.). Is that rank in a French battalion which immediately succeeds to the serre-demi-file, and is at the head of the re- maining half of its depth. Demi-gorge. In fortification, is half the gorge or entrance into the bastion, not taken directly from angle to angle, where the bas- tion joins the curtain, but from the angle of the flank to the centre of the bastion, or the angle which the two curtains would make by their prolongation. Demihag. A long pistol, much used in the 16th century. Demi-lance. A light lance; half-pike. Also a light horseman who carried a lance. Demi-lune. In fortification, is a work constructed beyond the main ditch of a fort- ress, and in front of the curtain between two bastions, intended to defend the curtain ; a ravelin. Demi-parallel. In fortification, is a place of arms formed between the second and third parallels to protect the head of the sap. Demi-pike. A kind of spontoon, 7 feet long, used by infantry or for boarding. Demi-place d'Armes. In fortification, a circular trench constructed upon the prolon- gation of the lines of the covered way, to the right and left of the zigzags, to cover the troops employed in their defense. Demi-revetment. A revetment of the scarf only to the height protected by the glacis. Demmin. A town of Prussia, on the river Peene, on the borders of Pomerania and Mecklenburg. It is a town of considerable antiquity, having been a place of importance in the time of Charlemagne, and is noted for the number of sieges it has sustained. Its fortifications were destroyed in 1759. In 1807 several engagements took place here between the French and Russians. Demonstration. In military operations, is an apparent movement, the chief object of which is to deceive the enemy, and induce him to divide his force, as if to meet dangers from various quarters. When thus divided and weakened, he may be attacked with greater chance of success. Denain. A village of France, department of the North. It is celebrated in history as the scene of the decisive victory gained in 1712 by Marshal Villars over the allies com- manded by Prince Eugene. Denbigh. The capital town of the county of the same name. North Wales. In ancient DENDERMONDE 131 DEPARTMENT times it was a place of groat military im- portance. The castle was gallantly held by Col. William Salisbury for the king during the civil wars of the revolution, but finally surrendered to the Parliamentary forces under Gen. Mytt(m. Dendermonde. A town of Belgium, in the province of East Flanders. It is forti- fied, and has a citadel dating from l')84, and posse-ssing the means of laying the surround- ing country under water in case of an attack. Louis XIV. besieged it in vain in l(j(J7, but Marlborough, aided by a long drought, suc- ceeded in taking it in 170G. Denmark. A kingdom of Northern Eu- rope, which, with Sweden and Norway, was originally called Scandinavia. In ancient times it was occupied by a fierce and war- like people, whose principal occupation was 1)iracy. In 832 the Danes landed in Eng- and, and there cstabli.slied two kingdoms, and two centuries afterwards the conquest of England was completed by Canute, king of Denmark. In the 1.5th century Christian I. connected Norway, Sleswick, and Hol- stein with the crown of Denmark, but in con- sequence of siding with Napoleon, Denmark was obliged to cede Norway to Sweden in 1814. In 1848 Sleswick and Holstein re- volted, the duchies being aided by Prussia and other powers of the Germanic Confed- eration, wlm, however, concluded a peace on their own account, July 2, 1850. The duchies continued the war, were defeated at Idstet, July 25, 1850, and peace was restored by the intervention of the powers in January, 1851. Hostilities again commenced in 1803, and were terminated by the peace of Vienna in 1864, Denmark renouncing all claim on Sleswick-Holstein. Dennewitz. A small village in the prov- ince of Hnuulenburg, Prussia. Here was fought, on the (ith of September, 1813, a battle between 70,000 P'ronch, Saxons, and Poles, commanded by Marshal Ney, and 45,000 Prussians, under Gen. Tauentzien. Both armies more than once drove each other from their positions, but the Prussians finally pre- vailed, and Ney gave orders to retreat. At this moment Bcrnadotte, crown-prince of Sweden, appeared at the head of a large army, and turned the retreat of the French army into a complete rout. Denonciateur (/•>.). In a general sense, may not improperly be called a military in- former. So rigid indeed were the regula- tions (even in the most corrupt state of the French government) against every species of misapplication and embezzlement, that if a private dragoon gave information to thecom- mis.sary of musters of a troop horse that had passed nuister, having been used in the pri- vate service of an otficer, he was not onl}' entitled to his discharge, but received, more- over, UX) livres in cash, and became master of the horse and equipage, with which he re- tired unmolested. The officer was summarily dealt with. Densimeter. An apparatus for obtaining the specific gravity of gunpowder by im- mersing it in mercury. It consists of an open vessel containing mercury, a frame sup- porting a glass globe communicating by a tube with the mercury in the open vessel, and joined at top to a graduated glass tube, which communicates by a fie.xible tube with an ordiruirj- air-pump. Sto))-cocks are in- serted in the tubes above and below the glass globe, and a diajdiragm of chamois-skin is placed over the bottom orifice and one of wire cloth over the top orifice of the globe. The arrangement allows the globe to be filled with mercury to any mark on the graduated tube, or with gunpowder and mercury. The globe can be taken otl' and weighed in both cases. The specific gravity is obtained from the re- lation between the weights in the two cases. Density. The density or specific gravity of gunpowder is one of its most important properties. In the form of du.st, the velocity of combustion increases rapidly with theden- sity up to about 1.00, when it decreases. In grained powder the velocity of combustion decreases as the density increases. For Eng- lish or American powder this velocity is about four-tenths of an inch per second. For French and most of the continental powders, which are less dense than the English, it is about forty-eight-hundredths of an inch. The excellent preservative qualities of Eng- lish and American powders are largely due to their high densities, — the standard being about 1.75. A certain degree of density is absolutely essential to grain powder to pre- vent the inflamed gases from penetrating the pores of the powder and flashing otf the whole mass to the destruction of the gun. In the manufacture of powder the density depends, first, upon the amount of trituration to which the ingredients are subjected in the incorpo- rating mill; second, upon the pressure em- ployed to form the cake; and, third, upon the degree of moisture it contains when sub- jected to these operations, particularly the last. The jiressure-gauge is not a reliable measure of the tlmsity given to a powder, though a good indication of the /mnhiess, with which density must not be confounded. Dry powder meal oflers a great resistance to compression, but becomes very hard, — the work being consumed in consolidating the surface particles. To obtain uniform den- sity a certain amount of moisture is neces- sary to assist the particles in their move- ment. As much as per cent, of moisture is used in making ]irismatic powder. Department Commander. See Geo- GRAIMIICAI, DkI'AKTMKNT, CoMMANKKR OF. Department, Military. A military sul>- division of a country. The whole territory of the United States is divided into military departments, each under a general oflicer. See Geooraphical Departmkxt, Com- MAXDKR OK. Department of War. That department of a <;ovornment which takes charge of all matters relating to war. See Skorktary of War. DEFENSES 132 DETACH Depenses (Fr.). In a military sense, im- plies secret service money. Deploy. Signifies a military movement, in which a body of troops is spread out in such a way that they shall display a wider front and a smaller depth than before deploy- ing. To ploy is to execute the reverse of this movement. Deployment. The act of unfolding or ex- panding any given body of men, in order to extend their front. Deposits, Soldiers'. Soldiers in the U. S. service may deposit with the paymaster any portion of their savings, in sums not less than $5, the same to remain so deposited until final payment on discharge. Interest on deposits at the rate of 4 per cent, per annum will be paid on final settlement upon each deposit from the date thereof to date of discharge. No interest is payable, however, upon any deposit of less than |oO, or upon any sum, whatever its amount, which has been on deposit for a less period than six months prior to date of discharge. Deposits are forfeited by desertion. Depot. Any place at which military stores are deposited for the use of an army. It also signifies a fort or other suitable place appropriated for the reception of recruits, or detached parties belonging to diflerent regi- ments. In fortification, the term is likewise used to denote a particular place at the trail of the trenches out of the reach of the cannon of a besieged place. It is here that besiegers generally assemble when ordered to attack the outworks, or support the troops in the trenches when there is reason to im- agine the besieged intend making a sally. Depredate. To take plunder or prey ; to commit waste; as, the troops depredated on the country ; also, in an active sense, to plun- der or pillage ; to spoil ; to lay waste. Depressed Gun. Any piece of ordnance having its mouth depressed below the hori- zontatline. Depression. The pointing of any piece of ordnance so that its shot may be projected short of the point-blank. Depth. A technical word, peculiarly ap- plicable to bodies of men drawn up in line or column. The depth of a battalion or squadron is the number of men in rank and file from front to rear. Deputy-Marshal. In the British service, is the senior sergeant-major of each regiment of Foot Guards, who sees after and makes out the routes of deserters, and receives an allowance for so doing. Deraser [Fr.). To cut off the superfluous clay from a gun-mold previous to its being placed in the pit. Derayeh, El. A town of Arabia, nearly in the centre of the district called El Nedjed. It is tolerably well fortified, but after a siege of seven months, in 1819, it was nearly de- stroyed by the troops of Ibrahim Pasha. Derbend, or Derbent. A town of Russia, the capital of the province of Daghestan. It is surrounded by strong walls and flanked and strengthened by massive bastions. It was taken from Persia by Russia in 1722, restored to the former power in 1735, and retaken by the Muscovites in 1795. Derivation (Fr.). Drift of rifle pro- jectiles. See Projectiles. Descend. In a military sense, means to make an attack or incursion as if from a vantage-ground. Descents. In fortification, are the holes, vaults, and hollow places made by under- mining the ground. Descents into the Ditch. Cuts and ex- cavations made by means of saps in the counterscarp, beneath the covert way. They are covered with thick boards and hurdles ; and a certain quantity of earth is thrown upon the top in order to obviate the bad effects which might arise from shells, etc. Descriptive Book. A book in which de- scriptive lists of the soldiers belonging to a company are kept. Descriptive List of Soldier. A paper giving a short history of the soldier, a de- scription of his person, and the statement of his account. It accompanies him wherever he goes, being intrusted to his detachment or company commander. Descriptive Memoir. This memoir, which should always accompany a sketch of a topo- graphical reconnoissance, is intended to con- vej' that information relating t(»the natural features of the ground not expressed upon the sketch ; to express that information for which there are no conventional signs, and to present those facts relative to the ground which become important by being considered in connection with the probable military operations to be undertaken. Desenzano. A town of Lombardy, in the province of Brescia. Garibaldi, in com- mand of the Italian volunteers, defeated an Austrian force near this place in 1859. Desert. To quit a service without per- mission ; to run away ; as, to desert from the army ; to forsake in violation of duty ; as, to desert one's colors. Deserter. A soldier who absconds, dur- ing the period for which he is enlisted, from the service of the army or navy. In England this crime was by certain old statutes made punishable with death, but now the punish- ment is left to the discretion of a court- martial. In the United States, deserters in the time of war may be sentenced to death, but in time of peace the penalty for this offense is lighter. Desertion. The act of absence from duty without intention to return. See Appendix, Articles of War, 47. Despatch, or Dispatch. An official mil- itary letter sent by the commander of an army in the field to the authorities at home. The term is also applied to the mili- tary letters giving an account of military operations sent by subordinate officers hold- ing detached commands to the general of an army in the field. See Dispatches. Detach. To separate for a special object DETACHED 133 DICTATOR or use ; as, to send out a body of men on some particular service, separate from that of the main body. Detached Bastion. In fortification, is that basis wliich is separated from the en- ceinte by a ditch. Detached Works. In fortification, are such outworks a> are detached, or at a dis- tance from the body of the place ; such as half-moons, ravelins, bastions, etc. Detachment. In military affairs, an uncertain number of men drawn out from several regiments or camps equally, to march or be employed as the general may think proper, whether on an attack, at a ' siege, or in parties to scour the country. A j detachment of 2000 or 3000 men is a' com- 1 mandfor a general officer, 800 for a colonel, 500 for lieutenant-colonel, 200 or 300 for a major, 80 or 100 for a captain, 40 for a lieutenant, 12 for a sergeant, and 6 for a corposal. Detachment, Gun. The men required for the service of a ])icce of artillery. Detachment, Manoeuvring. The men required for mechanical manoeuvres of a siege or sea-coast gun. Detail for Duty. Is a roster, or table, for the regular performance of duty either in camp or garrison. The general detail is regulated by the adjutant-general, according to the strength of the several corps. The adjutant of each regiment superintends the detail of officers and non-commissioned offi- cers for duty, and orderly sergeants detail the privates. Detmold. A town of Northwestern Ger- many, capital of the principality of Lippe- Detmold, on the Werra. In the vicinity is the battle-field on which the army of Varus was destroyed by the Germans under Ar- minius, in 9 a.d. Detonating Powder. A term applied in chemistry to fulminating mercury and sil- ver, and to other comjiounds which sud- denly explode when struck or heated. Some of these compounds have been much used for the ignition of gunpowder in percussion locks. Detonation. The instantaneous conver- sion of an explosive into gas ; a term applied to the phenomena attending the explosion of certain substances, such as nitro-glycerine^ chloride of nitrogen, iodide of nitrogen, gun- cotton, the picrates, etc. Detonation, or ex- plosion of the first order, is distinguished from ordinary explosion, or explosion of the second order, by the difl^erent way in which the explosion is propagated. Ordinary ex- plosion proceeds by inflammation, being no- thing more than a rapid combustion. Deto- nation is propagated by vibration. A deto- nating agent is a substance used to produce the initial vibration, or " impulse of explo- sion." The exploder, or cap, used for this purpose is usually primed with fulminate of mercury, a substance having a wide range in bringing about detonation in the high ex- plosives. Dettingen. A village of Bavaria, on the Maine. It is noted for a victory gained by the Knglish, under George II., over the French, commanded by Marshal Noaille.9, in 1743. Devastation. In warfare, is the act of destroying, laying waste, demolishing, or unpeopling towns, etc. Deviation of Projectiles. See Projec- Device. The emblem on a shield or standard. Devicotta. A fort and seaport town in the south of India, and district of Tanjore. It was taken in 1749 from the rajah of Tan- jore. Devonshire. A maritime county in the southwest peninsula of England, between the Bristol and English Channels. The Saxons failed to conquer Devonshire till the 9th century. It was ravaged by the Danes in the 9th and 10th centuries, and by the Irish in the 11th century. In 1088 the Prince of Orange landed at Tor Bay, in this county. Deyrah, or Dehra. A town of Northern Hindostan, and the principal place of the British province designated the Deyrah Doon. During the Nepaul war in 1815, the Deyrah Doon became the scene of military operations, and acquired a mournful celeb- rity by the obstinate defense made by the Goorkhas at Kalunga, or Nalapani, in the siege of which the British lost a considerable number of men, including their gallant commander, Gen. Gillespie. Diable { Devil-carriage), Fr. A truck car- riage on four trucks, for carrying mortars, etc., to short distances; it is provided with draught-hooks at each end, so as to be drawn to front or rear. Diameter. In both a military and geo- metrical sense, implies a right line passing through the centre of a circle, and terminated at each end by the circumference thereof. Diaphragm Shell. An obsolete spherical shell formerly used in the English service, so named from the arrangement of the interior. Diapre. A term applied in heraldry to fields and charges relieved by arabesque and geometrical patterns. This ornamentation, not affecting the heraldic value of the objects to which it wa.s applied, was gener- ally left to the fancy of the painter. biarbekir. A city of Asiatic Turkey, and capital of the pashalic of Diarbekir. This place was successively taken, retaken, and destroyed, in the ancient wars between the Persians and Romans. It was pillaged by Tamerlane in the year 1393 ; and was successively taken and retaken by the Per- sian kings, until it was conquered by Selim, the first sultan of theOsmanli Turks, in the year 1515. In ltl05 it again fell into the power of Persia ; but it was afterwards re- taken by the Turks, under whose dominion it ha? since continued. Dictator. In the earliest times, was the DIDEON'S 134 DIRECTING name of the highest magistrate of the Latin Confederation, and in some of the Latin towns the title was continued long after these towns were subjected to the dominion of Rome. In the Roman republic the dic- tator was an extraordinary magistrate, irre- sponsible and endowed with absolute author- ity. The dictatorship could not lawfully' be held longer than six months. Dicta- tors were only appointed so long as the Romans had to carry on wars in and out of Italy, or when any vigorous measure had to be acted upon. The limits of his power were as follows : he could not touch the treasury ; he could not leave Italy ; and he could not ride through Rome on horseback without previously obtaining the permission of the people. Dideon's Formulas. Certain equations relating to the trajectory of a projectile in the air, obtained by Capt. Dideon of Metz by integrating the ditferential equations of the trajectory under certain assumptions as to the law of the resistance, etc. See Pro- jectiles, Trajectory, in Air. Diego. A very strong and heavy sword. Diest. A town of Belgium, in Southern Brabant, on the Demer. This town was taken by the Duke of Marlborough in 1705, but retaken by the French, and dismantled, in the same year. Since 1830 it has been sur- rounded with fortifications and made a place of great strength. Dietary, Military. See Subsistence of Armies and Food. Dieu et Mon Droit {F>\). " God and my Right. " The motto of the royal arms of England, first assumed by Richard I., to in- timate that he did not hold his empire in vassalage of any mortal. It was afterwards assumed by Edward III., and was continued witho'ut interruption to the time of William, who used the motto Je maintiendray, though the former was still retained upon the great seal. After him Anne used the motto Semper eadem; but ever since her time Dieu et 7non droit has continued to be the royal motto. Differences. In heraldry, are marks in- troduced into a coat of arms to distinguish brothers and their descendants from the father or head of the house, while he is alive; marks of cadency being used for a similar purpose after his death. Differential Pulley. A hoisting apparatus consisting of an endless chain and two pulleys of slightly different diameters. The chain winds upon one while unwinding from the other. It is attached to a crane, and used to hoist heavy shot to the muzzle of large cannon. Dijon. An ancient walled city of France, chief town of the department of Cotc-d'Or. It has been several times captured in war. It was attacked by the Germans under Gen. Beyer, October 30, 1870. The heights and suburbs were taken by Prince William of | Baden, and the town surrendered October 31. | Dike, or Dyke. A channel to receive j water; also a dam or mound, to prevent inundation. Dikes diflTer from sluices; the former being intended only to oppose the flowing of other water into a river, or to confine the stream by means of strong walls, pieces of timber, or a double row of hurdles, the intervals of which are filled with earth, stones, or pebbles. Dimachae. In ancient military aflfairs, were a kind of horsemen, answering to the dragoons of the moderns. Dimidiation. In heraldry, a mode of marshaling arms, adopted chiefly before quartering and impaling according to the modern practice came into use, and subse- quently retained to some extent in conti- nental, though not in English heraldry. It consists in cutting two coats of arms in halves by a vertical line, and uniting the dexter half of one to the sinister half of the other. Coats of husband and wife were often so marshaled in England in the 13th and 14th centuries. Diminish. In a military sense, means to decrease the front of a battalion ; to adopt the columns of march, or manoeuvre ac- cording to the obstructions and difliculties which it meets in advancing. Diminished Angle. Is that formed by the exterior side and line of defense in forti- fication. Diminutions. A word sometimes used in heraldry for diff'erences, marks of cadency, and brisures, indifferently. Dinan. A town of France, in the depart- ment of C6tes-du-Nord, situated on the Ranee. This place was often besieged during the Middle Ages ; in 1373 was taken by Du Guesclin, and in 1379 by De Clisson. Dinant. A town of Belgium, on the Meuse, 14 miles south from Namur. It was taken bv Philip the Good, duke of Burgundy, in 1466, when 800 of its inhab- itants were taken by twos, tied back^to back, and thrown into the Meuse. The town was also razed to the ground ; but in 1493 it was rebuilt. In 1554 and 1675 it was again taken by the French. Dinapore, or Dinapoor. A town of Brit- ish India, in the presidency of Bengal, on the Ganges. It is an important military station, containing extensive barracks and cantonments for English and native troops. Dindigul. Capital of a district in the south of India, in the presidency of Madras. It was captured by the British troops, under Col. Stuart, in 1790. Dipping of the Muzzle. A piece of ar- tillery when fired has been explained by the action of the vent in bringing increased pressure on the elevating screw or quoin, the reaction from which throws down the muzzle. Direct Fire. See Fire, Direct. Directing Sergeant. When a company is being drilled in marching, a sergeant dis- tinguished for precision in marching is se- lected, who is called a directing sergeant, and placed in front of the guide on the line established, the direction selected by I The rii^ht g straight in the-, Direction, x..., nitie.s tlie line or pa. along which it endeavc according to the propellu.^., given to it. Direction. In gunnery, is that v,.. of pointing which relates to the movcnieni of the j)iece around an imaginary vertical axis. The direction is given when the j)lane of sight passes through tlie object. Elevation is a iMovcini.nt about a horizontal axis. Directory. In the history of France, the name given by the constitution of 1795, to an executive body comnosed of live mem- bers of the French republic. They assumed authority in a moment f)f immense peril. France was environed with gigantic adver- saries, while distrust, discontent, and the malice of rival factions made her internal administration almost hopeless. The frantic heroism of her soldiers saved her from spoliation by the foreigner; but, on the contrary, the home policy of the Directory was deplorable. In 1799 the Directory was overthrown by the coup d'etat of the 18th Brumaire, November 9, 1799, and was suc- ceeded by the Consulate. Dirk. Is a short dagger which at various times and in various countries has been much used as a weapon of defense. It is still worn by Highland regiments in the British service. Dirk-knife. A clasp-knife, having a large, dirk-like blade. Disability. Stateof being disabled ; want of competent physical or intellectual power. "When a soldier becomes disabled from ex- posure, accidents, or other causes, he is dis- charged from the service on a surgeon's cer- tificate of disability, which enables him to draw a pension. Disarm. To deprive of arms; to take away the weapons of; to deprive of the means of attack or defense. Disarmament. The act of disarming. Disarmed. Soldiers divested of their arms, either by conquest, or in consequence of some defection. Disarmer. One who disarms. Disarray. To throw into disorder; to break the array of. Disarray. Want of array or regular order; ilisurder. Disbanding. Is the breaking up of a niilitury organization and the discharge of soldiers frmii military duty. Disbursing Officer. An officer whose special function is to make disbursements of money. Discharge. From military service, is obtained by non-commissioned officers and privates by expiration of term of service, which varies in different countries; on sur- geon's certificate of disability, and by spe- conducL .... ..^.i -. V.JO souiit..o, etc. This is the technical meaning. In u higher sense discipline is the habit of obedi- ence. The soldier acquires the habit of subor- dinating his own will, pleasure, and inclina- tions to those of his superior. When the habit has become so strong that it is second nature, the soldier is disciplined. Discomfit. Defeat, rout, overthrow. Discretion. Se rendre a discretion, sur- rendering unconditionally to a victorious enemy. Disembarkation. The act of landing troops from a boat or ship. The term has lately been applied to the act of quitting a railway train. Disembody. To disarm a military body, and to disjiense with its services. Disengage. To separate the wings of a battalion or regiment, which is necessary when the battalion counternnirches from its centre and on its centre by files. It like- wise means to clear a column or line which may have lost its proper front by the over- lapping of any particular division. It also signifies to extricate oneself and the troops commanded from a critical situation. It likewise means to break suddenly from any particular order in line or column, and to re|)air to some rallying-point. Disengage. In fencing, means to quit that side of an adversary's blade on which one is opposed by his guard, in order to eftect a cut or thrust where an opportunity may present. Disgarnish. To take guns from a for- tress. Disgarrison. To deprive of a garrison. Dishelm. To deprive of the helmet; to take the helmet from. Dish of a Wheel. Is the inclination out- ward of the spokes when fastened in the nave. Dislodge. To drive an enemy from a position. Dismantle. To render fortificatii>ns in- ciijialile iif defense, or cannon unserviceable. Dismiss. To discard, or deprive an offi- cer of his commission or warrant. See Ap- I'KNDIX, AkTICLK.S OK WaK. Dismount. To dismount the cavalry is to use them as infantry. Guards, when re- lieved, are said to di?mount. They are to be marched with the utmost regularity to the parade-ground where they were formed, and from thence to their regimental or com- pany parades, previously to being dismissed jxterior pol- •OINTING. ally, any di- the purposes of -^ents made for the - ^ iiac- ural angle of sight to a rauius equal to the distance from the rear of the base-ring, or base-line, to the highest point of the swell of the muzzle, measured parallel to the axis. For convenience the muzzle sight is usually made equal in height to the "dispart in modern guns, — giving a natural line of sight parallel to the axis of the piece. Dispatches. Official messages. In war, important dispatches which have to pass through the enemy's country, or in the vi- cinity of his forces, are only intrusted to officers to whom their contents can be con- fided. Dispatches are frequently in cipher, especially when telegraphed or signaled with a liability to interception. See Despatch. Disperse. To scatter any body of men, armed or unarmed, who may have assem- bled in an illegal or hostile manner. The cavalry are generally employed on these oc- casions. Displaced. Officers in the British ser- vice are sometimes displaced from a partic- ular regiment in consequence of misconduct, but they are at liberty to serve in any other corps. Display, To. In a military sense, is to extend the front of a column, and thereby bring it into line. Displayed. In heraldic usage, means expanded ; as, an eagle displayed, or what is commonly known as a spread eagle. Displume. To deprive of decoration or ornament ; to degrade. Dispose. To dispose cannon, is to place it in such a manner that its discharge may do the greatest mischief. Disposition. In a general sense, is the just placing of an army or body of men upon the most advantageous ground, and in the strongest situation, for a vigorous attack or defense. Disposition de Guerre (Fr.). Warlike arrangement or disposition. Under this head may be considered the mode of estab- lishing, combining, conducting, and finally terminating a war, so as to produce success and victory. Disrespect to a Commanding Officer. See Appendix, Articles of War, 20. Disrespectful Words. See Appendix, Articles of War, 19. Distance. In military formation, signi- fies the relative space which is left between men standing under arms in rank, or the interval which appears between those ranks. Distance of the Bastion. In fortifica- _, . One of those portions „ 11 try is divided, for the con- . command, and to insure a co- ^ ..aiion between distant bodies of troops. Disvelloped, or Developed. Are heraldic terms applied to the colors of a regiment, or army, when they are flying. Ditch. In fortification, is an excavation made round the works, from which the earth required for the construction of the rampart and parapet is obtained. Ditches are of two kinds, wet and dry ; but in mod- ern fortification the dry ditch is considered preferable to the wet one. When the exca- vation is on the side farthest from the en- emy it is called a trench. Diu. A once celebrated island and for- tress of Hindostan, in the peninsula of Kat- tywar. In 1515 the Portuguese gained pos- session of it; they fortified it, and in ten years rendered it impregnable against all the powers of India. With the decline of Portuguese power it fell into decay, and was plundered by the Arabs of Muscat in 1670. Diversion. An attack upon an enemy in a place where he is weak and unprovided, in order to draw ofl' his forces from making an irruption elsewhere; or a manoeuvre, where an enemy is strong, which obliges him to detach part of his forces to resist any feint or menacing attempt of his opponent. Divest. To strip of clothes, arms, or equipage. Divine Service. See Appendix, Arti- cles OF War, 52. Division. In military matters, is one sec- tion of an army, comprising 2 or more bri- gades, commanded by a general officer. In regimental formation, 2 companies of a reg- iment or battalion constitute a division, when in column. Dizier, St. A town of France, on the Marne. The emperor Charles V. besieged and took this place in 1544 ; and in its neigh- borhood Napoleon defeated the allies in two battles fought January 27 and March 26, 1814. Djokjokarta. A Dutch residency of Java, near the middle of the south coast of that island. The town of the same name is the seat of a Dutch resident and a native sultan, who has a body-guard of young females, completely armed and equipped, some of whom do duty on horseback. It was taken by the British in 1812. Dobrudscha (anc. Scythia Minor). A name used to denote the northeastern por- tion of Bulgaria. The Dobrudscha has long been a famous battle-ground. Some of the earliest incidents of the Russian war of 1854- 56 took place here. Dolabra. A rude ancient hatchet. They d6le 137 DOUBLE-SHELL are represented on the columns of Trajan and Antoninus, and abound in ail museums. "When made of flint, wliioh was their earliest and rudest form, they are usually called celts. Ddle. A town of France, in the depart- ment of Jura, on the rii^ht hank of the Doubs. In 1479 it was taken by Louis XL, when the greater part of the town was de- stroyed, and many of its inhabitants were put to the sword. It subsequently came into the hands of the Spaniards, and was forti- fied by Charles V. in 1030. In 1(586 it was ineffectually besieged by the Prince of Conde. In 1068 it was taken by the French ; and again in 1074, when its fortifications were destroyed. Dolphins. Two handles placed upon a piece of ordnance with their centres over the centre of gravity, by which it was mounted or dismounted. They are no longer in use in the I'. S. service. Domingo, San. The capital of the Span- ish part of the island of Hayti, in the West Indies. About the year 1580 the city was sacked by Sir Francis Drake. Dominica. An island in the West Indies, belonging to the Leeward grt>up, lying about 20 miles to tl)e north of Martinique. This island was discovered by Columbus in 1498, and was claimed alternately by England, France, and Spain : it was finally ceded to Great Uritain in 1763. Dommage {Fr. ). In a general acceptation of the term, signified in the old French ser- vice, the compensation which every captain of a troop, or company, was obliged to make in consequence of any damage that their men might have done in a town, or on a march. Donahue. A town in India, in the Brit- ish province of Pegu. In 1825, during the Burmese war, it maintained a successful re- sistance against the assault of a British force under the command of Brigadier Cotton ; and here in 1853, during the last war with the same nation, the British troops suffered a repulse in an encounter with a Burmese force, losing several otficers. Donauworth. A town of Bavaria, situ- ated at the confluence of the Wernitz and the Danube. Here Marlborough stormed and carried the intrenched camp of the Ba- varians in 1704, and on October 6, 1805, the French under Soult obtained a victory over the Austriuns under Mack. Donelson, Fort. A position on a slight bend of the Cumberland River, in Tennes- see, which was strongly fortified by the Con- federates during the civil war. On the afternoon of February 14, 1862, Commodore Foote commenced with his gunboats an attack on this place, but met with a decided reverse. Meantime, Gen. Grant's army, ad- vancing from the capture of Fort Henry, ?;radually approached, and surrounded the ort, with occasional skirmishing on the line. Ne.xt day the Confederates attacked them, but were repulsed with loss, and find- ing all hope of reinfo%oments unavailing, 10 they surrendered the fort on the 16th. About 10,0.). Sleeping. In heraldic representation, an animal dormant has its head resting on its fore-paws, whereas an animal ro^/r/io;;^ has its head erect. Dornach. A village of Switzerland, 20 miles northeast from Soleure, remarkable for the victory obtained by the Swiss over the Austrians, July 22, 1499, and which, gave Switzerland her iiule|)endence. Dorogoboozh, Dorogobush, or Dorogo- bouge. A town of Kussia, in the govern- ment of Smolensk. At this place the French were defeated by the Russians, Oc- tober 12, 1812. Dosser. In military matters, is a sort of basket, carried on the shoulders of men, used in carrying the earth from one part of afortification toanother, where it is required. Dossiere (Fr.). Back-piece of a cuirass. Douai, or Douay. A fortified town of France, on the small river Scarpe, 18 miles .south from Lille. This place was taken from the Flemings bv Philip the Fair in 1297; restored by Charles V. in 1368. It reverted to Spain, from whom it was taken by Louis XIV'. in 1667. It was captured by the allies, under the Duke of Marlborough and Prince Eugene, in 1710, but was retaken by the French, September 8, 1712. Double. To unite, as ranks or files, so as to form one. To double upon, to inclose be- tween two fires. Double-quick. Performed in the time called d(»uble-quick; as, a double-quick step or march. Double-quick. To move, or cause to move, in double-quick time. Double-rank. A line formed of double files. Double-shell. A shell used in the 7-inch English rirtes. It is 27 inches long, and ha« a large cavity. To strengthen it against outside pressure it has three internal longitu- dinal ribs projecting about an inch into the cavitv. DOUBLE-SHOTTING 138 DRAWBRIDGE Double-shotting. Is an increase of the destructive power of ordnance by doubling the shot fired oft' at one time from a gun. Sometimes three shots are fired at once, in which case the piece is said to be treble- shotted. Double-time. The fastest time or step in marching, next to the run, requiring 1G5 steps, each 33 inches in length, to be taken in one minute. The degree of swiftness may vary in urgent cases, and the number of steps be tlius increased up to 180 per minute. Doubling. The putting of two ranks of soldiers into one. Doublings. The heraldic term for the linings of robes or mantles, or of the mantlings of achievements. ' DouUens. A town of France, 15 miles northeast of Amiens. This place was taken by the allies in 1814. Doune. A village of Perthshire, Scot- land. The ruins of Doune Castle, a large and massive fortress built about the 14th century, are situated on the point of a steep and narrow elevation. Doune was held for Prince Charles in 1745, and here he confined his prisoners taken at Falkirk, among the rest the author of the tragedy of "Douglas." Douro. A large river in Spain and Por- tugal, which was crossed in 1809 by the British army under the Duke of Wellington, when he surprised the French under Mar- shal Soult, and won the battle of Oporto. Dover (anc. Dubris). A city and sea- port of England, in the county of Kent, on Dover Strait. The city is defended by Dover Castle, which is built on chalk-clifts 320 feet high, and is a fortress of great strength and extent. The castle is said to have been founded by the ancient Romans Near here Julius Cffisar is said to have first landed in England, August 26, 55 B.C., and here King John resigned his kingdom to Pandolf, the pope's legate. May 13, 1213. Dowletabad. A celebrated city and for- tress of Hindostan, province of Hyderabad, deemed impregnable by the natives ; but notwithstanding its strength, it has been frequently taken. Drabants. A company of 200 picked men, of which Charles IX. of Sweden was captain. Draft. A selecting or detaching of sol- diers from an army, or any part of it, or from a military post ; also from any com- pany or collection of persons, or from the people at large for military service. Draft. See Draught. Draft, To. To draw from a military band or post, or from any company, collec- tion, society, or from the people at large ; to detach ; to select. Written also draught. Dragon. An old name for a musketoon. Dragon et Dragon Volant {Fr.). Some old pieces of artillery were anciently so called. The Dragon was a 40-pound er; the Dragon Volant a 32-pounder. But neither the name nor the size of the caliber of either piece is now in use. Dragonner {Fr.). According to the French acceptation of the term, is to attack any person in a rude and violent manner; to take iinything by force; to adopt prompt and vigorous means; and to bring those people to reason by hard blows, who could not be persuaded by fair words. Dragoon. From the old fable that the dragon spouts fire, the head of the monster was worked upon the muzzle of a peculiar kind of short muskets which were first carried by the horsemen raised by Marshal Brissac in 1600. This circumstance led to their being called dragoons ; and from the general adoption of the same weapon, though without the emblem in question, the term gradually extended itself till it be- came almost synonymous with horse-soldier. Dragoons were at one time a kind of mounted infantry, drilled to perform the services both of horse and foot. At present, dragoon is simply one among many desig- nations for cavalry, not very precise in its application. This term is not now used in the U. S. service. Dragoon, To. Is to persecute by aban- doning a place to the rage of the soldiers. Dragoon Guards. In the British ser- vice, seven regiments of heavy cavalry bear this title. Drag-rope. This is a 4-inch hemp rope, 28 feet long, with a thimble worked into each end, one of the thimbles carrying a hook. Six handles, made of oak or ash, are put in between the strands of the rope, and lashed with a marline. It is used to assist in extricating carriages from different posi- tions by the men, for dragging pieces, etc. Drag-rope Men. The men attached to light or heavy ordnance, for the purpose of expediting movements in action. The French servans d la prolonge are of this description. Drain, or Drein. In the military art, is a trench made to draw water out of a ditch, which is afterwards filled with hurdles and earth, or with fascines or bundles of rushes, and planks, to facilitate the passage over the mud. Drake. A small piece of artillery, no longer used. Draught. The act of drawing men from a military band, army, or post, or from any company or society; draft; detachment; also, formerly, a sudden attack or drawing upon an enemy. Draughted. The soldiers of any regi- ment allotted to complete other regiments are said to be draughted, or drafted. Draught-hook. Either of two large hooks of iron fixed on the cheeks of a gun- carriage, two on each side, used in drawing the gun backward and forward. Drawbridge. A bridge of which the whole or part is made to be let down, or drawn or turned aside, to admit or hinder communication at pleasure, as before the gate of a town or castle. It is called bas- cule, swivel, or rolling bridge according as DRAWING 139 DRUM-HEAD it turns on a hinge verticully, on a pivot horizontally, or is pushed lengthwise on rollers. Drawing. In a military sense, is the art of representing the api)earances of all kinds of military objects by imitation or copying, both with and without the assistance of mathematical rules. Drawn Battle. A fight from which the combatants withdraw without either side claiming the victory. Draw off, To. In a military sense, means to retire ; also to abstract or take away ; as, to draw oft' your forces. To draw on is to advance ; also to occasion ; as, to draw on an enemy's tire. To draw over is to persuade to revolt; to entice from a party. To draw out is to call the soldiers forth in array for action. To draw up is to form in battle array. To draw out a party is to assemble any particular number of armed men for military duty. The French say, faire un detachotient. Drayton-in-Hales, or Market Drayton. A town of England, in Slimpsliire. Here the partisans of the house of York defeated the Lancastrians in 1459. Dresden. The capital of the kingdom of Saxony, and one of the best built towns of Europe. Taken by Frederick of Prussia in 1756 ; by the Austrians in 1759 ; bombarded in vain by Frederick, July, 1700. On August 2tj-27, 1813, the allies were defeated in a terrible battle by the French under the walls of this city ; and about a mile from it is a granite block, surmounted by a helmet, marking the spot where Moreau fell in the conflict, while conversing with the emperor Alexander. Dress. A word of command for align- ment uf troops ; also of the alignment itself. Dressers. See Guides. Dress, Full. Dress uniform. The French isprtnide tcinte, or grande uniforme. Dress Parade. Parade in full uniform ; one of the ceremonies prescribed in tactics. Dress, To. To cause a company or bat- taliun t pliance with the rules which they have laid down. In the United States the practice of fighting duels, being declared illegal by stat- utes, is very seldom resorted to. Dueling. See Appendix, Articles of War, 26, 27. Duffadar. A rank in the East Indian Native Cavalry, corresponding with that of sergeant. Duffadar, Kot. A non-commissioned oiR- cer in the East Indian Native Cavalry, cor- responding with a troop sergeant-major. Duffadar Major. A rank in the East Indian Native Cavalry, corresponding with that of regimental sergeant-major. Duke. From the Latin dux, a " leader," a title that first came into use when Constan- tine separated the civil and military com- mands in the provinces. This title was successively borrowed bj'^ the Goths and Franks, and since the time of the Black Prince, who was created first duke in Eng- land (Duke of Cornwall) in 1335, it has been a title of the nobility, ranking next be- low the blood royal. Dukigi-Bachi. Second officer in the Turkish artillery, who commands the Tope- las, or gunners and founders. Duledge. A peg of wood which joins the ends of the felloes, forming the circle of the wheel of a gun-carriage ; and the joint is strengthened on the outside of the wheel by a strong plate of iron, called the duledge jilnte. Dumdum. The name of a town and of a valley in India, well known in the military history of the country ; it is 8 miles to the northeast of Calcutta, having extensive ac- commodations for troops, and a cannon- foundry. The place is famous in connection with the mutiny of 1857, as the scene of the first open manifestation on the part of the Sepoys against the greased cartridges. Dumfries. A royal burgh and parish of Scotland, the capital of Dumfriesshire, on the Nith. This town was exposed to re- peated calamities from the invasions of the English during the border wars. In this town John Comyn, the competitor for the Scottish throne, was stabbed by Robert Bruce in 1305. Diinaburg. A strongly fortified town of Western Russia, on the Diina. It is of great military importance, owing to the strength of its fortifications. It was founded by the Knights of the Sword in 1277. Dunbar. A seaport town of Scotland, in Haddingtonshire, at the mouth of the Frith of Forth. On the high rocks at the entrance to the new harbor are a few fragments of the ruins of an old castle, which was once very strong, and an important security against English invasions. Edward I. took it, and Edward II. fled thither after the bat- tle of Bannockburn ; it was demolished in 1333, and rebuilt in 1336 ; it was successfully defended in a siege of six weeks against the Earl of Salisbury by Black Agnes, countess of Dunbar, in 1338 ; it sheltered Queen Mary DUNBLANE 141 DYNAMITE and Bothwcll in 1567; and in the same year it was destroyed by the retjent Murray. In 1650, Cromwell, at the " Kaoe of Dunbar," defeated the Scottish army under Leslie. Dunblane, or Dumblane. A town and parish of Scotland, in Perthshire, on the Allan. Not far from this place is Sheriff- muir, where, in 1715, a battle was fought between the royal troops and the followers of the Pretender. Dungan Hill (Ireland). Here the Eng- lish army, commanded by Col. Jones, sig- nally defeated the Irish, of whom 6000 are said to have been slain, August 8, 1647. Dungeon (originally Donjon, which see). A prison ; a dark and subterraneous cell or place of confinement. Dunkirk. A fortified seaport town in the extreme northern part of France, in the de- partment of the North. In 1558 the English, who had for some time held possession of the town, were expelled from it by the French, who, in the ensuing year, surrendered it to the Spaniards. In the middle of the 17th century it once more passed into the hands of the French, who, after a few years' occu- pation of it, again restored it to Spain. In 1658 it was retaken by the French and made over to the English. It was sold to the French king byCharles II. in 1662. In 1793 it was attacked by the English under the Duke of York, who, however, was com- pelled to retire from before its walls with severe loss. Dunnottar. A parish of Scotland, in Kincardineshire. It contains the castle of Dunnottar, now in ruins. In the time of the civil wars, this was thefortress in which the Scottish regalia were deposited. After being besieged by Cromwell's forces for six months, it capitulated ; but, before this, the regalia were secretly conveyed from it. Dunsinane. In Perthshire, Scotland. On the hill was fought the battle between Macbeth, the thane of Glammis, and Siward, earl of Northumberland, July 27, 1054. Macbeth was defeated, and it was said pur- sued to Lumphanan in Aberdeenshire, and there slain, 1056 or 1057. Durazzo (aiic. Epidnmnus). A town of Albania, European Turkey. It is fortified, and is a place of considerable antiquity. Durazzo was founded about 627 b.c. by a conjoined band of Corcyr;eans and Corin- thians under one Phaleus, a Heracleidan. It became a great and populous city, but was much harassed by the internal strifes of party, which ultimately led to the Pelopon- nesian war. Under the Romans it Wiis called Di/rrarhiuin (whence its modern name). Hero Pompey was for some time beleaguered by Ciesar. In the 5th century it was besieged by Thcodoric, the Ostro- Goth ; in the lOthand 11th centuries by the Bulgarians; and in 1081 it was captured, after a severe battle, by the Norman, Robert Guiscard of Apulia. Diiren. A town of Prussia, on the Roer. This was a Roman town, and is mentioned by Tacitus by the name of Marcodurum. Charlemagne held two diets here in 775 and 779, when on his way to attack the Saxons. It was taken by assault and burned by Charles Y., after an obstinate resistance, in 1543. In 1794 it fell into the hands of the French, but was ceded to Prussia in 1814. Diirkeim. A town of Rhenish Bavaria, 20 miles north from Landau. The sum- mit of a height near this town is crowned by a rampart of loose stones 6 to 10 feet high, 60 to 70 feet wide at the base, and inclosing a space of about two square miles called the Heidenmnner (" heathens' wall"), which the Romans are said to have built to keep the barbarians in check, and where Attila is said to have passed a winter, after having wrested the fortress from the Romans, when passing on his way to Rome. Durrenstein. A town of Austria, on the Danube. In the neighborhood, on a rock, are the ruins of the castle in which Richard Coeur de Lion was imprisoned in 1192. In 1805 the Russian and Austrian armies were defeated here by the French. Duties. This word is used in military parlance to express the men paraded for any particular duty, such as guards, etc. Duty. There is no word oftener used in military parlance than this. In the techni- cal sense it refers to the various services necessary for the maintenance, discipline, and regulation of armies, — as signal duty, staff duty, the duties of a sentinel, etc. To be on duty is to be in the active exercise of military functions ; to be off duty is to have these functions temporarily suspended ; to be put on duty is to be assigned to duty by order of a superior. Military duties are variously classed as duties of detail, which are recur- ring and governed by a roster, such as guard, fatigue, etc. ; special duties which are de- termined by appointment, selection, or order; extra duty, continuous special duty of en- listed men, entitling them to pay ; daily duty, short terms of special service for enlisted men. In a higher and broader sense duty is that which is due one's country. It covers all the soldier's obligations, and forms his simplest and sublimest rule of action. Dyer Projectile. See Pkojectilk. Dynamite, called in the United States "giant powder," is formed by mixing nitro- glycerine with certain porous substances, and especially with certain varieties of silica or alumina, these substances absorbing the nitro-glycerine. It was invented in 1867 by the Swedish engineer Nobel, who pro- posed to prevent the frequent and unexpected explosions of nitro-glycerine, at the same time without sacrificing any of its power. This he eflected by the use of certain sili- cious earths as a base for the absorption of the nitro-glycerine, the experiment resulting in the new compound which he called dyna- mite, its transportation and handling being no more dangerous than that of ordinary gunpowder. It is not liable to spontaneous explosion like pure nitroglycerine, nor can DYNAMITE 142 EAST INDIAN AEMY it be exploded by moderate concussion ; when unconfined, if set tire to, it will burn without explosion ; it may be safely kept at any moderate temperature ; is inexplosive when frozen, and acts effectively under water. Its effects are proportional to the quantity of nitro-glycerine held in absorp- tion ; but under circumstances where a sus- tained bursting pressure is required, not being as instantaneous in its action as nitro- glycerine, its effects are more powerful than those of an equal weight of the pure mate- rial. The best absorbent of nitro-glycerine for the formation of dynamite is a silicious earth found at Oberlohe, Hanover. During the siege of Paris, a scientific committee of investigation, engaged in experimenting on different substances as a substitute for this earth, selected as the best silica, alumina, and boghead cinders. Any of these, they de- clared, when combined with nitro-glycerine, formed a substance which possessed all the remarkable qualities attributed to the dyna- mite of Nobel. During the siege of Paris dynamite was used successfully by the French engineers to free a flotilla of gun- boats caught in the ice on the Seine, below Charenton, by simply placing a quantity of it on the surface of the ice. The explosion dislodged the ice for a great distance, and the masses thus loosened, being directed into the current by the aid of a small steamer, floated down the stream, and left the river open. There are various other compounds of nitro-glycerine, such as dualin, glyoxiline, etc., all differing in the matter used as a base, they being generally some explosive substances ; but none of them appears to have come into such general use or to be as reliable as dynamite. Many preparations of chlorate and picrate of potassium have also been used from time to time as explosive agents ; but their great sensibility to friction or percussion renders them extremely dan- gerous ; they are, therefore, not liable to come into general use. A preparation of potassium chlorate and sulphur, not liable to explode by concussion, but very sensitive to friction, is used with great effect as a charge for explosive bullets. Dynamometer. An instrument for meas- uring the force of recoil in a small-arm, consisting usually of a spiral spring so ar- ranged as to be compressed by the butt of the gun in firing. An index shows the number of pounds required to produce a similar com- pression. The instruments now used by the U. S. Ordnance Department are graduated to show the effect of the recoil in foot-pounds or unltfi of work. This sensible change was made at the suggestion of Lieut. Henry Metcalfe of that department. ^.^ E. Eagle. In heraldry, is used as an emblem of magnanimity and fortitude. In the Ko- man armies the eagle was used as a military standard, and even previous to that time the Persians under Cyrus the Younger used the same military emblem. In modern times, France, Russia, Prussia, Austria, and the United States have adopted the eagle as a national military symbol. The Austrian eagle is represented as double-headed. Eagle, Black. A Prussian order of knighthood, founded in 1701 ; united with theorder of the Red Eagle, or order of Sin- cerity, instituted by the margraves of Bay- reuth. Earl Marshal. Of England, is one of the officers of state ; is the head of the col- lege of arms, which has jurisdiction in de- scents and pedigrees ; determines all rival claims to arms ; and he grants armorial- bearings, through the medium of the kings- of-arms, to parties not possessed of hereditary arms. Early Cannon. See Ordnance, His- tory OF. Earth-bag. See Bags. Earth-house, or Eird-house. The name generally given throughout Ireland and Scotland to the underground buildings (which in some places are called also " Picts' houses") which served to hide a few people and their goods in time of war. The earth- house is a single irregularly-shaped cham- ber, from 4 to 10 feet in width, from 20 to 60 feet in length, and from 4 to 7 feet in height, built of unhewn and uncemented stones roofed by unhewn fiags, and entered from near the top by a rude doorway, so low and narrow that only one man can slide down through it at a time. Implements of va- rious kinds have been found in them, — such as bronze swords, gold rings, etc. Earthworks. In fortification, is a general name for all military constructions, whether for attack or defense, in which the material employed is chiefly earth. East Indian Army. In 1861 the British Secretary of State for India brought forward a measure for reorganizing the Indian army, which has been passed into a law. The British portion of the Indian army is to form part of the queen's army generally, with certain honorary distinctions, and is to take its turn at home and in the colonies like EBERSBERG 143 ECUADOR the rest; but the expenses are to be paid out of Indian, not Imperial revenues. The native portion is to be wholly in India; in its reconstruction many iniprovoments are made to lessen the chances of future revolt. Ebersberg, or Ebelsberg. A town of Upper Austria, on the Traun, 8 miles north- west from Ens, remarkable for beinjf the scene of the defeat of the Austrians by the French in 1H0<». Eboulement (Fr.). The crumbling or fallinir "f the walls of a fortification. Ebro. A river in Spain, the scene of a signal defeat of the .Spaniards by the French under Lunnes, near Tudela, November 28, 1808; and also of several important move- ments of the allied British and Spanish armies duriiij; the Peninsular war (1809-13). Eccentric. A device applied to tlie truck wheels of top carriages and beds of mortars in sea-coast artillery to give either rolling or sliding friction at will. The wheels turn on axle-arms which project eccentrically from the ends of an axle passing through both cheeks; when the axle is turned the axle-arms carry the wheels up or down; when at the lowest point the weight of the carriage is borne by the wheels, and the system moves on rolling friction; the wheels are then said to be in (jeo'; when out of gear, or at their highest points, the wheels do not touch the rails or platform plates, but the cheeks rest on them, and the carriage moves upon sliding friction. A similar device is attached tothe chassis near the pintle to enable it to be readily traversed when in gear, and give it stability when out of (fear. Eccentric Projectiles. A spherical pro- jectile in which the centre of inertia does not coincide with the centre of figure. Such projectiles are subject to great deviations, which can be predicted as to direction by knowing the position of the centre of inertia of the shot in the bore of the gun. (See Pro- JECTILKS, Dkviation OF.) The side of the ball upiin which the centre t)f inertia lies can be found by floating it in a bath of mercury, and marking the highest point where itcomes to a state of rest; the centre of inertia lies nearest the opposite side; its exact position is determined by a kind of balance called the eccentrowrier ; the ball is placed in the bal- ance with the marked point nearest the fulcrum ; the distance of the centre of inertia or gravity from the fulcrum is obtained by dividing the product of thecounterbaiancing weight and its distance from the fulcrum by the weight of the projectile. Echarge, Feu, or Feu d'Echarge. Is employed to signify that a column of troops is struck at a very oblique angle. Echaugette. In military history, signifies a watch-tower, or kind of sentry-box. Echelon. A military term applied to a certain arrangement of troops when several divisions are drawn up in parallel lines, each to the right or the left of the one preceding it, like "stops," or the rounds of a ladder, so that ao two are on the same alignment. Each division by marching directly forward can form a line with that which is in advance of it. There are two sorts of echelon, direct and oblique, the former of which is used in an attack or retreut. Eckmiihl, or Eggmiihl. A small village of Bavaria, on the (ireut Laber. This place is celebrated for the imi)ortant victory gained by the French over the Austrians on Ajiril 22, 1800, and which obtained for Davoust the title of Prince of Eckmiihl. Eclaireurs (Fr.). A corps of grenadiers raised by Bonaparte in France, who from their celerity of movements were compared to lightning. Eclopes (Fr.). A military term to ex- press those soldiers who, though invalids, are well enough to follow the army. Among these may be classed dragoons or horsemen whose horses become lame and cannot keep up with the troop or squadron. They always march in the rear of a column. Ecole Polytechnique. A celebrated mili- tary school in Paris, established in 17H4, chiefly for the artillery service. The ex- aminations for the sciiools are public to all France. It not only furnishes officers of artillery, but also civil and military engineers of every description. The pupils of this school defended Paris in 1814 and 1830. Economy. In a military sense, implies the minutiffl or interior regulations of a regiment, troop, or company. Hence regi- mental economy. Ecorcheurs '{Ffaj/ers). A name given to ])ands of armed adventurers who desolated France and Belgium during the 15th century, beginning about 1435, and they at one time numbered 100,000. They are said to have stripped their victims to their shirts, and flayed the cattle. They were favored by the English invasion and the civil wars. Ecoutes. Small galleries made at equal distances in front of the glacis of the fortifi- cations of a place. They serve to annoy the enemy's miners, and to interrupt them in their work. Ecreter (Fr.). To batter or fire at the top of a wall, redoubt, epaulement, etc., so as to dislodge or drive away the Tuen that may be stationed behind it, in order to ren- der the approach more easy. Ecreter leu y)oai/e.9rf<'.s/)«/i.s, be done before you attack the covert way, which is generally fenced by them. Ecu (Fr.). A large shield which was used by the ancients, and carrieii on their left arm, to ward ott' the blows of sword or sabre. This instrument of defense was originally invented by the Samnite.s. The Moors had ecus, or shields, sufficiently large to cover the whole of their bodies. The clipei of the Romans only di tiered from the ecii in shape ; the former being entirely round, and the latter oval. Ecuador, or Equator. A South Ameri- can republic, founded in 1831, when the Colombian republic was divided into three; EDESSA 144 EI LAU-PEEUSSISCH the other two being Venezuela and New Granada. Gen. Franco was here defeated in battle by Gen. Flores, August, 1860. Several insurrections have taken place in Ecuador since 1860. Edessa, or Callinhoe. An ancient city of Mesopotamia. In 1144 the Edessenes were defeated by the Saracen chief Nur-ed- deen, and all who were not massacred were sold as slaves. After many vicissitudes, it fell successively into the hands of the sul- tans of Egypt, the Byzantines, the Mongols, Turkomans, and Persians; the city was finally conquered by the Turks, and has ever since formed a portion of the Turkish do- minion. Its modern name is Oorfa. Edge. The thin or cutting part of a sword or sabre. Edgehill. An elevated ridge in War- wickshire, England, 7 miles northeast from Banbury. Here was fought, on Sunday, October 23, 1642, the first great battle of the civil war, between the royalist forces under Charles I. and the Parliamentarians under the Earl of Essex. Prince Rupert, who led the right wing, charged with his cavalry the left wing of the Parliamentarians, broke it, and pursued it madly to Keinton. Essex with his force defeated the right wing of the royalists. Edinburgh. The metropolis of Scotland, situated about IJ miles from the Firth of Forth. It was taken by the Anglo-Saxons in 482 ; retaken by the Picts in 695 ; city fortified and castle rebuilt, 1074; besieged by Donald Bane, 1093. The city was taken by the English in 1296; surrendered to Edward III. in 1356. It was burnt by Eichard II., 1385, and by Henry IV., 1401. A British force landed from a fleet of 200 ships, in 1544, and burned Edinburgh. The castle surrendered to Cromwell in 1650. The young Pretender occupied Holyrood September 17, 1745, and the battle of Pres- ton Pans took place September 21, 1745. Effective. Fit for service ; as, an army of 30,000 eflTective (fighting) men. Efficient. A thoroughly trained and capable soldier. It is also a term used in connection with the volunteers. A volun- teer is said to be eflicient when he has per- formed the appointed number of drills and fired the regular number of rounds at the target, in the course of the year. Egham. A village in the northwest of Surrey, 18 miles west of London. In the vicinity is Runnymede, a meadow on the Thames, where King John conferred with his barons before signing the Magna Charta in 1215. Egypt. A country in Northeast Africa. On the division of the Roman empire (395 A.D.) Egypt became a part of the dominions of Arcadius, ruler of the Eastern empire. But, owing to religious feuds of the Jaco- bites and Melchites, it became a province of Persia (616) for twelve years. In 640 the governor, Makaukas, endeavored to make himself independent, and invited the arms of the Arabs, and Amrou easily conquered Egypt. Although Alexandria was retaken by Constantine III., the Arabs drove him out and maintained their conquest, and Egypt remained an appenage of the caliph- ate. It afterwards passed into the dynasty of the Turks, and was administered by pashas. Constant rebellions of the Mame- lukes, and the violence of contending fac- tions, distracted the country for more than two centuries. The most remarkable event of this period was the French invasion by Bonaparte in 1798, which, by the conquest of Alexandria and the battle of the Pyra- mids against the Mamelukes, led to the en- tire subjection of the country, from which the French were finally expelled by the Turks and British in 1801, and the country restored to the Ottoman Porte. The rise of Mohammed Ali in 1806 imparted a galvanic prosperity to Egypt by the destruction of the Mamelukes, the formation of a regular army, and the introduction of European civilization. He considerably extended its boundaries, even into Asia ; but in 1840 he was dispossessed of his Asiatic conquests. The treaty of London, however, in 1841, con- firmed the viceroyalty of Eg\'pt as a fief of the Ottoman empire to him and his descend- ants. Ehrenbreitstein. A town and fortress of Rhenish Prussia, situated on the right bank of the Rhine, directly opposite Coblentz, with which it is connected by a bridge of boats. The fortress of Ehrenbreitstein oc- cupies the summit of a precipitous rock 490 feet high, and has been called the Gibraltar of the Rhine, on account of its great nat- ural strength and its superior works. It is capable of accommodating a garrison of 14,000 men, and provisions for 8000 men for ten years can bestowedin its vast magazines. Ehrenbreitstein was besieged in vain by the French in 1688, but fell into their hands in 1799, after a siege of fourteen months. Two years after, the French, on leaving, at the peace of Luneville, blew up the works. It was assigned, however, to Prussia by the Congress of Vienna in 1814, and under that country was restored and thoroughly forti- fied, it is now one of the strongest forts in Europe. Eighty- ton Gun. A large "Woolwich gun designed as an armament for the " Inflexi- ble." Its construction was authorized in March, 1874, and the gun was ready for proof in October, 1875. When first made it weighed 81 tons, having a caliber of 14J inches. It was bored during the progress of the experiments to 16 inches, and was given an enlarged chamber. The experiments were conducted by the celebrated " Committee on Explosion." See Ordnance, Recent His- tory OF. Eilau-Preussisch. A town of Prussia, government of Konigsberg. It is chiefly celebrated for the victory gained there by the French over the united Prussian and Russian armies, February 8, 1807. EINSIEDELN 145 ELMINA Einsiedeln. A small town of Switzer- land, in the canton of Schwylz. It contains a fine abbey, which was rilled by the French in 1798. Ejector. The device used in breech- loading small-arms to throw out the metallic cartridge-case after it is fired. Ejector Spring. The spring which oper- ates an ejector. El Arish. A village of Lower Egypt on the Mediterranean, on the route from Egypt to Syria. It is but little more than a i'ort and a few houses, and was taken by the French in 1799; and here the French gen- eral Kleber signed, in 1800, a convention with Sir Sydney Smith, engaging to leave Egypt with his troops. Elath, or Eloth. A seaport situated at the head of that gulf of the Red Sea, to which it gave its name. It was a fertitied yort in the time of Solomon ; revolted against Oram ; was retaken by A/.ariah ; and was eventually conquered by liezui, and held by the Syrians till it became a Uoman frontier town. Under the Mohammedan rule it rose for a while to some importance, but has now sunk into insignificance. Elba. An island belonging to the king- dom of Italy, in the Mediterranean Sea, between Corsica and the coast of Tuscany, from the latter of which it is separated by a channel 5 miles in breadth. Elba has been rendered famous in history from having been Napoleon's place of e.\ile from May, 1814, till February, 1815. El Boden. A mountain-range, near Ciu- dad Uoilrino, in Spain, where the British troops distinguished themselves against an overwhi'lming French force in 1811. Elbow-gauntlet. An ancient piece of armor, a gauntlet of plate reaching to the elbow, adopted from the Asiatics in the lOth century. Elbow-piece. An ancient piece of armor, a metal jplate used to cover the junction of the rere-brace and rant-brace, by which the upper and lower half of the arm were cov- ered. Elchingen. A village of Bavaria, on the Danube, 7 miles northeast from Ulm. Here the -Vustrians were defeated by the French in ISO.'). Fur this victory Marshal Ney re- ceived the title of Duke of Elchingen. " Electric light. An intense light produced by passing an electric current between points of carbon forming electrodes of the circuit. There are many forms of the apparatus. It will bo extensively used in future wars for lighting harbor channels, approaches to forts, etc. Elements. In a military sense, signify the first principles of tactics, fi>rtification, and gunnery. Elephant. See Pack and Draught Ani- mals. Elevate, To. Is to raise the muzzle of tne cannon or ritlo so that tlio luttor shall bo di- rected at a point above that which it is in- tended shall be struck. Elevating Arc. In gunnery, is an arc at- tached to the base of the breech parallel to the ratchets and graduated into degrees and parts of a degree. A pointer attached to the fulcrum points to the zero of the scale when the axis of the piece is horizontal. Eleva- tions and depressions are indicated by the .scale. Besides the graduations on the arc, the ranges (in yards) and charges for shot and shell are i^iven. Elevating Bar. An iron bar used in ele- vating guns or mortars having ratchets at the breech. Elevating Screw. The screw by means of which the breech of a cannon is raised, the result being to depress the muzzle. Elevating Sight. See Sight, Elevat- ing. Elevatioru In gunnery, is one of the ele- ments of pointing, being the movement of the axis of a piece in a vertical plane as dis- tinguished from direction or its movement horizontally. The elevation is usually posi- tive, — that is, the gun is pointed above the horizontal. VV^hen it is pointed below, it is said to be depressed. The word is also used to express degree, or as a synonym for atirile of elevation. The sights or elevating appa- ratus of guns are graduated on the theory that the object is in the horizontal plane of the piece, or that the line of sight is horizont^il, which is not always the case in practice. "When the elevation is determined by sights the angle of elevation is the angle between the line of sight and the axis of the piece, when these lines are in the same vertical plane, — or the angle between the line of sight and a plane containing the axis of the j)iece and a horizontal line intersecting it at right angles, when they are not. The graduations of tangent scales and fixed breech-sights give this angle in degrees. The graduation of the pendulum hausse gives the angle cor- rectly only when the line of sight is horizon- tal. When the elevation is given by ele- vating arcs or gunner's quadrant, the angle of elevation becomes the angle of tire, or the angle which the axis of the piece makes with the horizontal. Elevation is necessary to overcome the effect of gravity on the pro- jectile. The degree of elevation increases with the range. In vacuo the elevation cor- responding to the maximum range is 4o°. In the air the angle of maximum range di- minishes with the velocity and increases with diameter and density of the ball. It is greater in mortars than in howitzers, and greater in howitzers than in guns. In mor- tars it approximates to 42°; in guns it is about 37°. EUisburgh. A village of Jefferson Co., X. Y. In 1814 an engagement tk place here between the Americans and British, in which the latter were defeated. Elmina. A fortified town and seaport of "West Africa, founded l>y the Portuguese in 1481 ; was the fir.-*t European 8ottK art of designing and superin- tending the execution of railways, bridges, canals, harbors, docks, the defense of for- tresses, etc. Engineer Corps. In modern nations, the necessity for a corps of stafl-oflicers. trained to arrange for and overcome the embarrass- ments of the movements of an army in the ENGINEEES 148 EPAULEMENT field, has been thoroughly demonstrated, and hence, in European armies, a trained staff of officers is organized for this purpose. In the United States a force of about 300 officers and enlisted men are engaged in these duties. See Sappers and Miners. Engineers, Topographical. See Topo- graphical Engineers. England. The southern and larger divis- ion of the island of Great Britain, and the principal member of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. It was so named, it is said, by Egbert, first king of the English, in a general council held at "Winchester, 829. It was united with "Wales, 1283; with Scotland in 1G03; and Ireland was incorporated with them, Jan- uary 1, 1801. For previous history, see Britain; and for further details of bat- tles, etc., see separate articles. Enlargement. The act of going or being allowed to go beyond the prescribed limits ; as the extending the boundaries of an arrest, when the officer is said to be enlarged, or under arrest at large. Enlargement. Enlargements of the bore and vent are injuries suftered by all cannon that are much used. The term is technically applied to certain injuries to brass cannon. See Injuries to Cannon. Enlistment. The voluntary enrollment of men in the military or naval service. Enniscorthy. A town of Ireland, in the county of Wexford, on the river Slaney. It arose in the Norman castle, still entire, founded by Raymond le Gros, one of the early Anglo-Norman invaders. Cromwell took this place in 1649 ; and the Irish rebels stormed and burned it in 1798. Enniskillen. A town of Ireland, in the county of Fermanagh. This place is famous for the victory, in 1689, won by the troops of William III., under Lord Hamilton, over a superior force of James II., under Lord Gilmoy. The banners taken in the battle of the Bo^'ne hang in the town-hall of En- niskillen. Enniskillen Dragoons. A British regi- ment of horse ; it was first instituted from the brave defenders of Enniskillen, in 1689. Enrank. To place in ranks or in order. Enroll. To place a man's name on the roll or nominal list of a body of soldiers. Ensconce. To cover as with a fort. Enseigne (F;-.). The colors. The French designate all warlike symbols under the term enseiffne ; but they again distinguish that word by the appellations of drapeaux, colors, and etendards, standards. Drapeaux of colors are particularly characteristic of the infantry ; etendai-ds or standards belong to the cavalry. Ensemble. Together ; the exact execu- tion of the same movements, performed in the same manner, and by the same motions. It is the union of all the men who compose a battalion, or several battalions or compa- nies of infantry and cavalry, who are to act as if put in motion by the same spring. Enshield. To cover from the enemy. Ensiform. Having the shape of a sword. Ensign-bearer. One who carries a flag ; an ensign. Ensigncy. The rank or office of an en- sign. Ensisheim. In Eastern France; here Turenne defeated the imperial army, and expelled it from Alsace, October 4, 1674. Entanglement. Abatis, so called, when made by cutting only partly through the trunks, and pulling the upper parts to the ground, where they are picketed. Entanglement, Wire. Formed by twist- ing wire round stout stakes or trees 7 feet apart. The wires are placed about a foot or 18 inches above the ground. The trees- pickets or trees are in two or three rows, arranged cheekerwise, the wires crossing diagonally. Enter, To. To engage in ; to enlist in ; as, to enter an army. Enterprise. An undertaking attended with some hazard and danger. Enterpriser. An officer who undertakes or engages in any important and hazardous design. Entire, or Rank Entire. A line of men in one continued row by the side of each other. When behind each other, they are said to be in file. Entonnoir {Fr.). The cavity or hole which remains after the explosion of amine. It likewise meant the tin case or port-feu which is used to convey the priming powder into the vent of a cannon. Entrench, To. Is to construct hastily thrown-up field-works for the purpose of strengthening a force in position. See In- trench. Entrepots. Magazines and places appro- priated in garrison towns for the reception of stores, etc. Envelope. In fortification, a work of earth, sometimes in the form of a single parapet, and at others like a small rampart ; it is raised sometimes in the ditch, and some- times beyond it. Envelopes are occasionally en zif/zag, to inclose a weak ground, where that is practicable, with single lines. En- velopes, in a ditch, are sometimes called sillons, contregardes, conserves, lunettes, etc. Environ, To. To surround in a hostile manner ; to hem in ; to besiege. Enzersdorf. A fortified town of Austria, 8 miles east from Vienna. Epaule. In fortification, denotes the shoulder of a bastion, or the place where its face and flank meet and form the angle, called the angle of the shoulder. Epaulement (Fr. epaule). In siege works, is a portion of a battery or earthwork. The siege batteries are generally shielded at one end at least by epaulements, forming an obtuse angle with the main line of the battery. The name is often given errone- ously to the parapet of the battery itself, but it applies properly to the flanking return EPAULETTE 149 EQUIPMENTS only. Sometimes the whole of a small or secondary earthwork, inoludinfij the battery and its flanks, is called an opaulement; and sometimes the same name is given to an isolated breastwork intended to shield the cavalry employed in defending a body of besiegers. Epaulette. A shoulder-knot worn by commissioned officers of the army and navy, as a mark of distinction. The insignia of their rank are usually marked on officers' epaulettes. Epauletted. Furnished with epaulettes. Ephebi. In Grecian antiquity, the name given to tiie Attic youth from the age of 18, till they entered upon their '20th year. During this period they served a sort of ap- prenticeship in arms, and were frequently sent, under the name of pei-ipoli, to some of the frontier towns of Attica to keep watch against foreign invasion. Epibatae. In Grecian antiquity, the name given to soldiers whose duty it was to tight on board ship. They corresponded almost exactly to the mariiies of modern naval war- fare. The term is sometimes found in Roman authors to denote the same class of soldiers, but the general phrase adopted by them is milites cUiKsinrii, or socii navales. Epignare (/'>•). A small piece of ord- nance which docs not exceed one pound in caliber. Epigoni. A term which signifies "heirs" or "descendants." It was applied to the sons of the seven chiefs who conducted an expedition against Thebes to restore Polyni- ces, and who were all killed except Adrastus. Ten years later the Epigoni — nameh', Alc- niajon, Thersander, l)iomedes, yEgialeus, Promachus, Sthenelus, and Euryalus — re- newed the enterprise and took Thebes. The war of the Epigoni was celebrated by several ancient epic and dranuitic poets. Epinglette (/*>.)• An iron needle with which the cartridge of any large piece of ord- nance is pierced before it is primed. Epinikian. Pertaining to, or celebrating, victory ; as an epinikian ode. Epirus. A celebrated country of ancient Greece, lying between the Ionian Sea and the chain of Pindus. E Pluribus Unum. " One out of many." A inotto adopted by the United States since their declaration of independence, in 1770. Epouvante (/•>.). A sudden panic with which troops arc seized, and under which thev retreat without any actual necessity for 80 (Joing. Eprouvette (Fr.). A small mortar to prove the strength of gunpowder. There are different sorts of eprouvettes, according to the fancy of difi'erent nations who use them. Some raise a weight, and others throw a shot, to certain heights and distances. As a test of gunpowder the eprouvette is compara- tively worthless, and it has been generally superseded by instruments for measuring the initial velocity obtained by tiring the powder in the particular gun for which it is intended. A short mortar is, however, still used, to a certain extent, for testing the power of mod- ern blasting powders, such as the mixtures of nitroglycerine. A very small charge and a heavy shot of chilled iron which enters two or three inches only into the mortar are used. The square roots of the ranges (other things being equal) give the relative powers of the different powders, nearly. Equalize. To render the distribution of any number of men equal as to the compo- nent parts. To equalize a battalion, to tell off a certain number of companies in such a manner that the several component parts shall consist of the same number of men. Equation of Time. See Time, Mean Solar Time. Equerry. Any person who is appointed to attend the sovereign, or prince of tiie royal blood, upon out-door excursions, and who has the care and management of their horses. Eques Auratus. A heraldic term for a knight. Equestrian. A man who rides on horse- back ; a horseman ; a rider. Equestrian Order. Among the Romans, signified their knights or equites ; as, also, their troopers or horsemen in the field. Equip, To. To furnish an individual, a corps, or an army with everything that is requisite for military service, such as arms, accoutrements, uniforms, etc. Equipage. In military matters, is the name given to the necessaries of the soldier. The equipment of a private is often used as a name for the whole of his clothes, arms, and accoutrements, collectively. The equipage of the camp is of two kinds, camp and field equipage. Equipments, Cannoneers'. Include the haiisse pouch, cai-tridge pouches, primer pouches, and thumb-stall, used in the field service. The equipments for a field-piece are the tampkm and strap, vent cover &r\A tar- paulin. Other things u.sed in service of can- non are called implements, which see. Equipments, Horse. In the mounted service, comprise the bridle, halter, watering brittle, saddle, saddle-bags, saddle blanket, nose-bag, lariat, rurnj-comb, brush, etc. Equipments, Infantry. Comprise the per- sonal outfit of the soldier, excluding arms proper and clothing. A set of equipments is called a kit (which see). The standard equipments for infantry include the knap- sack, belts, and plates, cartridge-bo.r, bnuonet- scabbard, hncosack, and canteen. The kna|> sack, haversack, and canteen are only used in marching. In the United States there is a strong tendency towards discarding the knap- sack ; a roll made of the blanket, jiiece of shelter-tent, or overcoat, being frequently used instead. A clothing-bag is also some- times used to take its place. The best man- ner of arranging and slinging the various articles carried, for the comfort and health of the soldier, is still an open question. In future wars it is probable that an intrench- ing tool will be added to the soldiers equip- EQUIPMENTS 150 ESPINOSA ment. The equipments for a cavalry soldier in the United States are very much the same as for infantry. Equipments, Signal. The flags, staffs, flying torches, fort torches, flame shades, haversacks, telescopes, etc., used in signaling. A set of equipments for one man is called a signal kit. Equites. An order of equestrian knights introduced among the Komans by Romulus. Eretria. One of the most celebrated of ancient cities, and, next to Chalcis, one of the most powerful in Eubcea. After the Peloponnesian war, the city was governed by tyrants. Erfurt. A town of Prussian Saxony, on the river Gera ; it was founded in 476. Erfurt was ceded to Prussia in 1802. It capitulated to Murat, when 14,000 troops surrendered, October 16, 1806. In this city Napoleon and Alexander met, and offered peace to England, September 27, 1808. The French retreated from Leipsic to Erfurt, October 18, 1813. This place was restored to Prussia by the Congress of Vienna. Ericius. In Roman antiquity, a military engine, so named from its resemblance to a hedge-hog. It was a kind of chevaux-de- frise, placed as a defense at the gate of the camp. Erie, Fort. A strong fortification in Upper Canada, on the northern shore of Lake Erie. Here the British were defeated by the Americans, August 15, 1814. Erlau. A fortified town of Hungary, the old castle of which was frequently be- sieged during the Turkish wars, both by Moslem and Christian. Eryx. A city and mountain in the west of Sicily, 6 miles from Drepana, and a short distance from the sea-shore. The pos- session of the town of Eryx was contested by the Syracusans and Carthaginians. A great battle was fought off the town between the fieets of the two nations, in which the Syracusans were victorious. The town subsequently changed hands more than once, but it seems to have owned the Car- thaginian supremacy at the time of the ex- pedition of Pyrrhus, 278 B.C. Though taken by that monarch, it once more fell into the hands of its original conquerors, who retained it till the close of the first Punic war. Erzroom, Erzroum, or Erzrum. A for- tified town of Armenia (Asiatic Turkey), on the river Kara-Soo, a branch of the Euphrates. Its position renders it an im- portant military post. In 1210 it was taken by the Seljooks, who are said to have destroyed here 100 churches ; taken by the Ottoman Turks in 1517. It was taken by the Russians in 1829, but was restored to Turkey in the following year. Escadron [Fr.). Squadron. Froissart was the first French writer who made use of the word escadron to signify a troop of horse drawn out in order of battle. The term esca- dron is more ancient than the word battalion. Escalade. From the Latin scala, a ladder. In siege operations, a mode of gaining admission within the enemy's works. It consists in advancing over the glacis and the covert way, descending, if necessary, into the ditch by means of lad- ders, and ascending to the parapet of the curtain and bastions, and are either pro- cured on the spot, or are sent out with the siege army. The leaders constitute a forlorn hope. Escale {Fr.). A machine used to ply the petard. Escape of Gas. See Gas-check and Breech Mechanism. Escarp. In fortification, the surface of the ditch next the rampart, the surface next the enemy being termed the counterscarp. Called also scarp. Escarp Galleries. Galleries constructed in the escarp for the purpose of flanking the ditch caponniere. Escarpment. Ground cut away nearly vertically about a position, in order to ren- der it inaccessible to the enemy. Escort. A body of troops attending an individual as a guard. The term is also applied to a guard placed over prisoners on a march, to prevent their escape, and to the guard of a convoy of stores. Escort, Funeral. See Funeral Escort. Escort of Honor. A body of troops at- tending a personage of rank by way of mili- tary compliment. Escort of the Color. The military cer- emony of sending for and receiving the colors of a battalion. Escouade {Fr.). In the old French ser- vice generally meant the third part of a company of foot or a detachment. Com- panies were divided in this manner for the purpose of more conveniently keeping the tour of duty among the men. We have corrupted the term, and called it squad. Escuage. An ancient feudal tenure by which the tenant was bound to follow his lord to war or to defend his castle. Espadon. In old military works, a kind of two-handed sword, having two edges, of a great length and breadth ; formerly used by the Spanish. Espauliere {Fr.). A defense for the shoulder, composed of flexible, overlapping plates of metal, used in the 15th century; the origin of the modern epaulette. Espiere. A town of Belgium, 8 miles from Courtrai, where the atlied Austrian and English army defeated the French, May 22,^1794. Espingard, or Epingare {Fr.). An an- cient name for a small gun under a 1-pounder. They were used as early as the 14th century. Espingole, or Spingole (F/-.). A blun- derbuss ; a kind of blunderbuss which, in early times, was loaded with several balls ; the charges were separated from each other by tampions in which a hole was made, and thus the balls were fired in succession. Espinosa de la Monteros. A town of ESPLANADE 151 ETOILES Spain, on the Trueba, 50 miles from Burgos. The French defeated the Spaniards here in 1808. Esplanade. In fortification, is the open space iiileiitii)iuilly left between the houses of a city and the glacis of its citadel, so that the enemy may not be able to erect breach- ing batteries under cover of the houses. In old works on fortification, the term is often applied to the glacis of the counterscarp, or the slope of the parapet of the covered way towards the country. Espontoon (Fr.). A sort of half pike, about 3 feet in length, used in the 17th century. The colonels of corps as well as the captains of companies always used them in action. This weapon was also used by officers in the British army. Espringal. In the ancient art of war, a machine lor throwing large darts, generally called nuu'hettiB. Esprit de Corps (Fr.). This term is fenerally u.-ed among all military men in )urope. It may not improperly be defined a laudable sjiirit of ambition which pro- duces a peculiar attachment to any particu- lar corps, company, or service. Officers without descending to mean and pitiful sen- sations of selfish envy, under the influence of a true esprit de co7-ps rise into an emu- lous thirst after military glory. The good are excited to peculiar feats of valor by the sentiments it engenders, and the bad are de- terred from ever hazarding a disgraceful action by a secret consciousness of the duties . it prescribes. Esquimaux. The tribes inhabiting Green- landand Arctic America. Those inhabiting the continent are found in sparse settlements from Behring Strait to Labrador. They are generally peaceable. Some of these in Green- land have been civilized by the influence of the Danes. Esquire. In chivalry, was the shield- bearer or armor-bearer to the knight. He was a candidate for the honor of knighthood, and thus stood to the knight in the relation of a novice or apprentice. ^Vhen fully equipped each knight was attended by two esquires. Essedarii. In Roman antiquity, gladia- tors who fought in a heavy kind of chariot called esscda or essedurn. The csscdn ( which derived its name fnjin the Celtic word r.w, signifying a carriage) was a ponderous kind of chariot much used in war by the Gauls, the Belga'.and the Britons. It differed from the currus in being open before instead of behind; and in this wuy the owner was en- abled to run along the pole, from the ex- tremity of which, or even from the top of the yoke, he discharged his missiles with surprising dexterity. Essek, or Eszeic. A town and fortress of the Austrian empire, in Sdavonia, on the Drave. It contains an arsenal, barracks, and other military buildings. There were several battles fought here between the Turks and Germans. It was finally taken from the Turks in 1687, since which time it has continued in the hands of the house of Aus- tria. Essling. A village of Lower Austria, on the left bank of tlie Danube, G miles east of Vienna. Between this village and that of Aspern the French were repulsed by the Austrians in a severe engagement in 1809. See Aspkrn. Establish. A technical phrase to express the (juiirtering of an}' considerable body of troops in a country. Thus it is common to say, the army took up a position in the neighborhood of , and established the headquarters at . Establishment. The quota of ofllicers and men in an army, regiment, troojt, or company. Establishment, Peace. Is the reduced condition of an army suited to a time of peace. Establishment, VJar. Is the augmenta- tion of regiments to a certain number, by which the whole army of a country is con- siderably increased, to meet war exigencies. Estacade {Fr.). A dike constructed of piles in the sea, a river, or a morass, to check the approach of an enemy. Estafette {Fr.). A military courier, sent express from one part of an army to another. Esthonia, or Revel. A Russian province, said to have been conquered by the Teutonic knights in the 12th century; after various changes it was ceded to Sweden by the treaty of Oiiva in ir)t;0, and finally to Russia by the peace of Nystadt in 1721, having been con()uered by Peter in 1710. Estimates. Army estimates are the com- putation of expenses to be incurred in the su]iport of an army for a given time. j Estimating Distances. See Pointing. Estoc ( Ifal. ). A small dagger worn at the I girdle, called in Elizabethan times u ticcke. I Estoile. See Etoilks. Estradiots, or Stradiots. Grecian and Albanian horsemen, some of whom were employed in the Italian wars by Charles Vlll. ; their favorite weaj>on was the za- gaye; besides this they had a broadsword, and club slung on the bow of the saddle, with sleeves and gauntlets of nniil. Estramacon {Fr.). A sort of two-edged sword formerly used. A blow with the ' edge of a sword. ; Etat Major (/-v.). The staflTof an army, j including all officers above the rank of colo- 1 nel ; also, all adjutants, inspectors, quarter- I nuisters, commissaries, engineers, ordnance officers, paymasters, physicians, signal-oflS- cers, judge-advocates ; also, the non-com- missioned assistants of the above officers. Etoiles {Fr.). Small redoubt-s which are constructed by means of angles rentrant and angles sortant, and have from 5 to 8 salient points. This species of fortification has fallen into disuse, and are superseded by square redoubts, which are sooner built and are applicable to the same purpose of de- fense. ETOUPILLE 152 EXAUCTORATIO Btoupille (Fr.). An inflammable match, composed of three threads of very fine cot- ton, which is well steeped in brandy mixed with the best priming gunpowder. . Etruria, or Tuscia (hence the modern name Tuscany). A province of Italy, whence the liomans, in a great measure, derived their laws, customs, and supersti- tions. The subjugation of this country forms an important part of early Koman history. A truce between the Romans and Etrurians for forty years was concluded in 351 B.C. The latter and their allies were de- feated at the Vadimonian Lake, 310 B.C.; with the Boii their allies, 823 B.C., and totally lost their independence about 265 B.C. Euboea. The largest island in the yEgean Sea. Two of its cities, Chalcis and Eretria, were very important, till the former was subdued by Athens, 506 B.C., and the latter by the Persians, 490. After the Persian war Eubcea became wholly subject to Athens. It revolted in 445, but was soon subdued by Pericles. After the battle of Chferonea, 338, it became subject to Macedon. It was made independent by the Romans in 194, but was afterwards incorporated in the province of Acbaia. It now forms part of the kingdom of Greece. Eupatoria, or Koslov. A town of Rus- sia, on the west coast of the Crimea. In September, 1854, the allied English and French armies landed near here, and the town soon after was occupied by a small de- tachment. The Turks subsequently occu- pied it, and in 1855 it was attacked by the Russians, who, however, were repulsed by the Turks, and the Anglo-French ships of war, lying in the neighboring roadstead. Eureka" Projectile. See Projectile. Europe. The least extensive, but most civilized of the five great divisions of the globe. It is bounded by the sea in all direc- tions, except the east, where it is separated from Asia by a boundary-line, formed by the river Kara, the Ural Mountains and River, and the Caspian Sea. For military and naval events which occurred in Europe, see separate articles. Eurymedon (now Kapri-Su). A small river in Pamphylia, celebrated for the vic- tory which Cimon gained over the Persians on its banks, 469 B.C. Eustace, St. In Lower Canada ; the rebels were defeated here, December 14, 1837, and compelled to surrender their arms. Their chiefs fled. Eustatius, St. A West India island, which was settled by the Dutch in 1632 ; taken by the French in 1689 ; by the Eng- lish in 1690; again by the British forces under Rodney and Vaughan, February 3, 1781. It was recovered by the French, November 26, same year. It was again captured by the British in 1801 and fSlO, and restored to the Dutch in 1814. Eutaw Springs. A small affluent of the Santee River, in South Carolina. On its banks was fought, September 8, 1781, the battle of this name. Gen. Greene, determin- ing to dispossess the British of their femain- ing posts, with about 2000 men attacked their forces under Col. Stuart. The British were routed and fled ; but finding in their flight some objects afibrding shelter, rallied and repulsed their assailants, and Gen. Greene finding it impossible to dislodge them, retreated to his camp with 500 prison- ers. The British loss was about 1000 ; the American about 600. Euxine Sea. See Black Sea. Evacuate. To withdraw from a town or fortress, in consequence either of a treaty or a capitulation, or of superior orders. Evagination. An unsheathing or draw- ing out of a gheath or scabbard. Evesham. A borough and market town of England, in Worcestershire, on the Avon. Near this place a battle was fought between Prince Edward, son of Henry III., and Simon de Montfort, earl of Leicester, Au- gust 4, 1265. Evidence. Is that which makes clear, demonstrates, or ascertains the truth of the very fact or point in issue. Hearsay evi- dence, the declaration of what one has heard from others. This species of evidence is not admissible in courts-martial. Evocati. Were a class of soldiers among the Romans, who, after having served their full time in the army, entered as volunteers to accompany some favorite general. Hence they were likewise called emereti and beyie- ficlarii. Evocation. A religious ceremony which was observed among the Romans at the com- mencement of a siege, wherein they solemnly called upon the gods and goddesses of the place to forsake it and come over to them. When any place surrendered they always took it for granted that their prayer had been heard. Evolutions. Are the movements of troops in order to change position. The object may be to maintain or sustain a post, to occupy a new post, to improve an attack, or to improve a defense. All such movements as marching, countermarching, changing front, forming line, facing, wheeling, mak- ing column or line, defiling, deploying, etc., come under the general heading of evolu- tions. Evreux (anc. Mediolanum). A city of France, capital of the department of Eure. It has sustained several sieges, and was burned by Henry 1. of England in 1119. Examination.Boards of. See Boards of Examination. Exarchs. Were appointed by the Byzan- tine emperors of the East, to govern Central Italy after its conquest by Belisarius and Narses, 548. They ruled from 568 to 752, when Eutychus, the last, was overcome by Astolphus the Lombard. Exauctoratio. In the Roman military discipline, diflTered from the missio, which was a full discharge, and took place after soldiers had served in the army twenty years ; EXCAVATION 153 EXPLOSIVES whereas the exauctoratio was only a partial discharge; they lost their pay, indeed, but still kept under their colors or vexilla, though not under the aquila or eagle, which was the standard of the legion ; whence in- stead of legionarii, thev were called auhsig- nani, and were retained till they had either served their full time, or had lands assigned thcni. The exauctoratio took place after they had served seventeen years. Excavation. The art of cutting or other- wise making hollows in the earth ; also the cavity formed. Exchange. The act of two officers chang- ing regiments, battalions, or batteries. The mutual giving up of an equal number of prisoners by hostile states or artnics. In this sort of exchange an officer, according to his rank, is reckoned as equal to a certain number of men or of officers of a lower grade than his own. Excubiae. I n ancient warfare, the watches and guards kept in the day by the Roman soldiers. They di tiered from the vigilix, which were kept in the night. Execution, Military. Is the pillaging or plundering of a country by the enemy's armv. Military execution also means every kind of punishment inflicted in the army by the sentence of a court-martial ; which is of various kinds, including putting a soldier to death by shooting him, which is the ordinary punishment of deserters to the enemy, mutineers, etc. This form of death is considered less disgraceful than hanging by the neck. Exempt. Not subject, not liable to. Men of certain age are exempt from serving in the militia. An aide-de-camp and brigade- major are exempt from all regimental duties j ■while serving in those capacities. Officers on courts-martial are sometimes exempt from all other duties until the court is dissolved. Exercise. The practice of all those mo- tions and actions, together with the whole management of arms, which are essential to the perfection of a soldier, and the render- ing him fit for service. Exercise, Artillery. Is the method of teaching the regiments of artillery the use and practice of all the various machines of war belonging to that particular arm of the service. Exon. In England, an officer of the Yeomen of the Koyal Guard; an exempt. Exostre (Fr.). "Bridge of the Hdepcle or movable tower of the ancients, by which they passed upon a wall during a siege. Expanding System of Projectiles. See PRO-IKCTILKS, UlKI.K. Expedient. A stratagem in warfare. Expedition. Is an enterprise taken by Bea or by land against an enemy, the fortu- nate termination of which depends on the rapidity and unexpected nature of its move- ments. It is usually intrusted to a com- mander of acknowledged talents and experi- ence. Expense Magazines. Are small powder- 11 magazines containing ammunition, etc., made up for present use. There is usually one in each bastion. Experiments. The trials or applications of any kind of mililury machines in order to ascertain their practical qtuilities and uses. Expiration of Service. The termination of a snldi'^r's contract of enlistment. Explode. T(j burst with a loud report; to delimato, as gunpowder, or a shell filled with powder or the like material. Explosion. The sudden enlargement of the volume of a body by its conversion into gas or vapor. (See Explosivks.) The explo- sion of powder may be divided into three distinct parts, viz. : ignition, inflammation, and combustion, all of which see under their proper headings. Explosives. Substances the elements of which under certain conditions suddenly un- dergo a chemical rearrangement into gases, giving rise to great pressures on surrounding bodies. Modern writers recognize two dif- ferent kinds of exj)losions, — explosions of the \st order, or detonations, and explosions of the 2d order, or rapid combustions. Detonat- ing explosions are practically instantaneous. The explosion is supposed to be propagated by a vibration throughout the mass. Ordi- nary explosions are propagated by inflamma- tion. Gunpowder, which may be taken as a type of explosives of the 2d order, burns at a certain rate, depending upon the density. When a charge is fired the inflammation spreads from the point of ignition to all parts of the charge, — each grain is success- ively enveloped and burned from surface to centre. The relocitt/ of inflammation is the greater in proportion to the degree of con- finement from the increased tension of the gases. The velocity of combustihn is the rate at which the solid grains are burned. It is measured by the distance passed over by the burning surface (the line being taken per- pendicular to the surface) in the unit of time. Time thus enters into the explosion of gunpowder and gives it its peculiar value as a ballistic agent. In the detonating explosives, the case is very dififerent. These bodies may be sup- posed to be made up of molecules containing so many atoms of carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, etc., so placed as to be held in a state of equilibrium by their mutual attractions and repulsions, but this equilibrium is unstable; that is to say, each atom has only a very snuillarcof vibration in which the molecule is stable. If by any cause an atom is forced beyond this limit the eijuilibrium of the whole mass is destroyed, and the elements instantly rearrange themselvfs under the influence of the chemical affinities which obtain under the particular conditions of the explosion. This kind of explosion is brought about in various ways, — by percus- sion, concussion, heat, etc., — some bodies being susceptible to one mode of firing more than another. The theory which offers the best explanation of the various phenomena EXPLOSIVES 154 EXPKESS is that the molecular balance is peculiarly susceptible to overturn by certain vibrations. The vibrations given out by the explosion of the fulminates seem to have the widest range in bringing about the detonation of difl'erent substances. For this reason the fulminate of mercury is the universal detonating agent. Its own susceptibility to explosion by heat, percussion, and the electric spark especially fits it for this work. Wet gun-cotton re- quires in addition to the fulminatea" primer" of dry gun-cotton. Explosives, Composition of. Ordinary explosives of which gunpowder is the type are mechanical mixtures of two essential ingre- dients, — one a combustible, the other an oxi- dizing agent. The combustible is usually carbon, — sometimes associated with hydro- gen. It may be sulphur or any substance having a great afiinity for oxygen. Or- ganic substances containing carbon and hy- drogen are frequently used. In the chemi- cal reaction the cartjon is oxidized to car- bonic acid and the hydrogen to water with the evolution of great heat. The oxidizing substances ordinarily used are the nitrates and chlorates. Mixtures containing nitrates are the most stable, since the nitrate is comparatively slow to give up its oxygen. The chlorate mixtures are sen- sitive to friction and percussion, and explode with great quickness. Many of them are unsafe to handle. A new mode of prepar- ing chlorate mixtures has been suggested which avoids this danger. A combustible liquid is used, being absorbed in cakes or lumps of potassium or other chlorate. Detonating explosives are chemical com- pounds. Among them are chloride and iodide of 7iitrogen. Both are dangerous, vio- lent explosives of which no practical use has been made. The fulminates are salts of fulminic acid. Thefulniinate of m.ercury is the one in com- mon use. See Fulminates. The nitro-substitution compounds form a large class, comprising the most important of the higher explosives. They are all formed by the action of nitric acid on organic sub- stances containing oxygen, carbon, and hy- drogen. This action is to replace hydrogen (H) in the organic substance by hyponitric acid (NO2) (in the acid), equivalent for equivalent. Sulphuric acid is generally mixed with the nitric, though it plays no direct part in the reaction, being used to ab- sorb the water formed and prevent the dilu- tion of the nitric acid. Nitro-glycerine, the most powerful explo- sive in common use, is formed by the action of the acids on glycerine. See Nitbo-qly- CERINE. Nitro-starch and nitro-mannite are anal- ogous substances, formed by the action of the acids on starch and sugar. Gun-cotton is produced by the action of the acids on cotton- wool — a form of cellulose. See Gun-cotton. There are varieties of all these compounds produced by the substitution of difl'erent numbers of equivalents of hyponitric acid, but the names are specially given to the most highly nitrated forms. Ficric acid, the salts of which form the well-known picrates, is made by the action of the acids on carbolic acid. To heighten the etfect of the lower forms of nitro-substitution compounds they are usually mixed with an oxidizing agent, such as nitrate or chlorate, which supplies the deficient oxygen. This is exemplified in Schultz's wood powder (which see), and Reeve's gun felt. The picrates are similarly treated. Am- monium picrate mixed with nitre forms Abel's picric powder (Burgess's powder). This has been used as a bursting charge for shells. Mixtures of two high explosives have also been used, as in glyoxiline, invented by Prof. Abel, which is gun-cotton saturated with nitro-glycerine. Explosive eff"ect depends upon three ele- ments, — 1st, the volume of the gases produced taken at a standard temperature; 2d, the heat evolved in the chemical reaction ; 3d, the time consumed in the development of the gases. Explosive elTect is directly propor- tional to the first two of these elements, and inversely proportional to the third. Ac- cording to Bertholet, nitro-glycerine gives out twice as much heat and three and a half times as much gas as an equal weight of gun- powder, but this gives no idea of their rela- tive explosive eftects, as the element of time in the detonating explosives is so short that it cannot be calculated. So nearly is this element absent that we may consider these explosions as almost perfect Impulsive Forces. To secure ballistic effect requires the gradual application of force. When motion is imparted to a body the inertia developed is inversely proportional to the time consumed in imparting it. This re- sistance to motion becomes enormously great when the detonating explosives are used. For this reason their ballistic effect is small. The force which should give the projectile motion is expended in producing molecular changes in both projectile and gun. The same quality, however, fits them especially for blasting and torpedoes, where shattering effect is desirable. Express Rifle. A modern sporting rifle of great killing power, used in hunting large or dangerous animals. They were first in- troduced in England, and have become cele- brated in the hands of African travelers and explorers. The principle consists in using large charges of powder and a light bullet, which gives a very high initial velocity and a trajectory practically a right line for 150 or 200 yards, hence the term " Express." To increase the killing power of the bullet it is made of pure lead and has a hollow point. Upon striking game the bullet spreads outwardly, giving a fearful death- wound. Moreover, for specially ugly game EXPUGN 155 FACTION a small explosive cartridge can be dropped into tlie cavity in the jioiiit, making it an explosive bullet. (See Billets, Extkess. ) In England a caliber as large as .57 is used for some Express rifles. In the United States a caliber of .45 or .50 is considered sufficient. Expugn. To conquer ; to take by assault. Expugnable. Ca[)able of being expugned, forced or comiuered. Expugnation. The act of taking by as- sault ; conquest. Expugner. One who expugns or con- quers. # Extend. A term peculiarly applicable to light infantry movements, when the tiles are frequently loosened, and the front of the line extended for the purpose of skirmishing. "When the divisions of a column are made , to occupy a greater space of ground, they ; are said to extend their front. | Exterior Crest. The crest of the exterior slope of a piira|)et. Exterior Form of Cannon. See Ord- nance, EXTEKIOU FoKM. Exterior Side. In fortification, is the side of the polygon, upon which a front of fortification is formed. Exterior Slope. In fortification, is the slope given to the outside of a parapet. It I is found by experience that earth of common I quality will naturally acquire a slope of 45°, even when battered by cannon. This in- clination is therefore given to the slo])e. External Injuries to Cannon. See In- J U K I E.S T O C A N N O X . Extortion. Under the modern laws of war, honorable men no longer permit the use of any violence against prisoners in or- der to extort information or to punish them for having given false information. Extrados (Fr.). The exterior surface of a regular arch, used in tho construction of powder-magazines. Extraordinaries of the Army. In the English service, the allowances to troops be- yond the gross pay in the pay office, come under this head. Such are the expenses for barracks, marches, encampments, staff, etc. Extraordinarii. In the ancient Koman army, a select body of men consisting of the third part of the foreign cavalry and a fifth of the infantry. These were carefully sepa- rated from the other forces borrowed from the confederate states, in order to prevent any treacherous coalition between them. From among the extraordinarii a morechoice body of men were drawn, under the name of ablecil. See Aulecti. Eylau, or Eilau. Usually called Prussian Eylau, a town in the government of K6nigs- berg, celebrated for the battle fought here between Napoleon and the allies — Russians and Prussians — under Bennigscn, February 8, 1807. The French force amounted to about 80,000, and the allies numbered 58,000, but were superior in artillery. The French claimed the victory, chiefly because the allied forces, unable to recruit their strength, were ordered to retreat from the field on the night of the battle, and to retire upon Ko- nigsberg. The loss of the allies is estimated at about 20,000, while that of the French must have been considerably greater. " > OBCj »' » F. Face. A term of varied application. In [ fortification, it is an appellation given to several parts of a fortress, as \.\\o face of the baxtion, which is the two §ides, reaching from the flanks to the salient angles. The prolonged or extended face is that part of the line of defense which is terminated by the curtain and the angle of the shoulder. Strictly taken, it is the line of defense ray- ant, diminished by the face of the bastion. Face. In tactics, is the turning of a soldier on his heels as a " right face" ; also the word of command for the movement. To fare is to turn on the heels. Face of a Piece. In gunnery, is the ter- minating j>lane perpendicular to the axis of thi* bore. Face of a Place. In fortification, is the front comprehended between the flanked anglesof two neighboring bastions, composed of a curtain, two flanks, and two faces; and is S(imetimes called the tenaille of the place. Faces of a Square. The sides of a bat- talion when formed in square. Fachon. An Anglo-Norman term for a sword or falchion. Facing. A covering, a plating. Facings. The movements of soldiers by turning on their heels to the right, left, right-about, left-about, etc. To put one through one's facings, is to examine into his elementary knowledge, to test his pretensions. Facings. Are atso the cuffs and collars of a military ^)at, and are generally of a different color from that of the coat. Faction. In ancient history, one of the- troops or bodies of comhntants in the games of the circus, especially of the horse-races. Faction. A term applied in an ill sens© to any party in a state that offers uncom- FACTION 156 FALLING promising opposition to the measures of the government, or that endeavors to excite pub- lic discontent upon unreasonable grounds. Faction (Fr.). The duty done by a private soldier when he patrols, goes the round, etc., but most especially when he does duty as a sentinel. The French usually say, entrer en faction, to come upon duty; eti-e en factioti, to be upon duty ; sortir de faction, to come off duty. Factionnaire {Fr.). Soldat factionnaire, a soldier that does every species of detail duty. The term factionnaire was likewise applicable to the duty done by officers in the old French service. Faenza (anc. Faventia). A town in Cen- tral Italy, 19 miles southwest of Kavenna. Faventia is noted in history as the place where Carbo and Norbanus were defeated with great loss by Metillus, the general of Sulla, in 82 B.C. Fsesulse. See Fiesole. Fag-end. Is the end of any rope. This term is also applied to the end of a rope when it has become untwisted. To fog out, to wear out the end of a rope or a piece of canvas. Fagnano. A village of Italy, 12 miles from Verona. In 1799 a battle was fought here between the Austrians and French. Fagots. See Fascines. Fagots. In military history, were men hired to muster by officers whose companies were not complete ; by which means they cheated the public of the men's pay, and deprived the country of its regular establish- ment. Failure. An unsuccessful attempt ; as, the failure of an expedition. Faint. To lose courage or spirit ; to be- come depressed or despondent. Faint-hearted. Wanting in courage; depressed by fear, easily discouraged or frightened ; cowardly, timorous. Fairfax, or Culpeper Court-house. A village, the capital of Culpeper Co., Va., on the Orange and Alexandria Railroad. This place was an important strategic point during the civil war (1861-65). Fairfield. A village of Fairfield Co., Conn., situated on Long Island Sound. It was settled in 1659; it was burned in 1779 by order of Gov. Tryon. Fair Haven. A village of Bristol Co., Mass., on Buzzard's Bay. The town was attacked by the British on September 7, 1788, but they were repulsed without loss. Fair Oaks. A locality in Henrico Co., Va., on the Richmond and York River Rail- road, about 7 miles east of Richmond. Here a severe battle took place between the Fed- erals under Gen. McClellan and the Con- federate army under Gen.*Johnston, May 31-June 1, 1862, in which the latter were defeated, although the former obtained no decisive results from their success. The Union loss was estimated at 5500; the Con- federate was somewhat greater. Fakir. A word derived from the Arabic fakhar, and designating a member of an order of mendicants or penitents, chiefly in India and the neighboring countries. They live either separately as hermits or solitary mendicants, or unite in large gangs, carrying arms and a banner, beating drums, and sounding horns, whenever they approach a town or village. Falarique {Fr.) Falarica; combustible darts or arrows of various thicknesses, gen- erally about 3 feet long; close behind the head was lodged the combustible matter by which shipping, etc., was set on fire; it was projected from a bow or catapult. Falcair {Fr.). A soldier who was armed with a falcarius or short crooked sword. Falchion. A curved sword, or small cim- eter. Falcon, An ancient form of cannon, 7 feet in length, carrying a ball of 4 pounds in weight. Falconet. A small cannon anciently used, a little exceeding 6 feet in length, and carrying a ball of 2 pounds in weight. Falczi, Peace of. Concluded between Russia and Turkey, July 2, 1711, the Rus- sians giving up Azof and all their posses- sions on the Black Sea to the Turks. The Russians were saved from imminent destruc- tion by the address of Catharine, the em- press. In 1712 the war was renewed, and terminated by the peace of Constantinople, April 16, 1712. Falerii. A city of ancient Etruria, which was situated west of the Tiber. The inhab- itants, who were called Falisci, joined with those of Veii in assisting the Fidenates against the Romans, and were among the most dangerous enemies of Rome. In 241 B.C. the city was destroyed, and a Roman colony was settled in the time of the trium- virs. Falkirk. A town of Scotland, in Stirling- shire. Sir William Wallace was defeated in a battle near Falkirk by Edward I., and here, also, the royal army was defeated by the adherents of the house of Stuart in 1746. Falkoping. A town of Sweden, near which, in 1338, Margaret, queen of Den- mark, defeated Albert, king of Sweden, and took him prisoner. Fall. 'The surrender or capture of a place after it has been besieged. Fall. The rope rove through blocks, used with gins and shears for raising weights, and with the crab for moving them. Fall. The descent of a bt>dy by the at- traction of the earth. Kail Foul, To. To attack ; to make an assault. Fall In. A word of command for men to form in ranks, as in parade, line, or divis- ion, etc. Falling Bodies, Laws of. When a body falls freely in vacuo it is actuated by a force which may be taken as constant, conse- quently its velocity will be uniformly accel- erated. The constant increment to the ve- FALLING 157 FATIGUE locity in one second is called the aeceleraiion, and is a measure of the force. (See Force of Gravity.) The velocity acquired at the end of a certain time will be found by multiply- ing the force of f^ravity by the number of seconds. The laws of falliuf; bodies are given by the following equations : v = gt V = i/2gJi In which v is the velocity acquired, h the heiejht fallen through, ^r the force of gravity, and t the time in seconds. These laws are appro-vimately true for dense or heavy bodies falling for a few seconds in the atmosphere. For longer periods, v is less than that due to h under the above laws. For full discus- sion, see Final Vklocity. Falling Branch. That part of the tra- jectory of a projectile in which it approaches the caVtli. Fall Out, To. To quit the rank or file in which you were first posted. Dirty soldiers on a parade are frequently ordered to fall out, and remain in the rear of their compa- nies. The phrase is applicable in a variety of other instances. Fall Upon, To. To attack abruptly. Falots (Fr..). Small lanterns fi.ved upon the end of a stick or pole. Small lamps likewise used, attached in the same manner, for the purpose of carrying them readily about to light a camp, or besieged towns, as occasion may require. False Alarm. An alarm or apprehension which is cithLT designedly or unintentionally created by noise, report, or signals, without being dungcrnus. False Attack. An approach which is made as a feint for the purpose of diverting an enemy from the real object of attack. False Fires. Lights or fires employed for the purpose of deceiving an enemy. "When an army is about to retire from a po- sition during the night false fires are lighted in difl^'crent parts of the encampment to im- pose upnii the enemy's vigilance. False Lights. In debarkations under cover of the night, may likewise be used as # signals of deception, when it is found expe- dient to attract the attention of the invaded country towards one part of the coast or territory, whilst a real attack is meditated against another. False Muster. An incorrect statement of the number of eficctive soldiers and horses. See /Vri'KNDix, Articlks of War, 14. False Return. A willful report of the actual state of a brigade, regiment, troop, or compmiiy, by which the commander-in- chief of the war department is deceived as to the eft'ective force of such regiment or conipanv. Sue Aim'F.ndix, Articles of "NVar, 8. Famagosta, or Famagusta. A seaport town of the island of Cyprus, on the ea^t coast, built on the ruins of the ancient Ar- siiKje. In lo71 Famagosta was taken by the Turks, and the town was almost entirely destroyed by an earthquake in 1735. Fanfare. The French name of a short and lively military air or call, executed on brass instruments. Fang, To. To pour water into a pump in order to fetch it, when otherwise the bo.\es do not hold the watf-r left on them. Fanion (/'/•.). A small fiag which was sometimes carried at the head of the bag- gage of a brigade. It was made of serge, and resembled in color the uniform livery of the brigadier, or of the commandant of any particular corps. JF'antassin (Fr.). A foot-soldier. This term is derived from the Italian /^/j/f, a boy, the light troops in the 14th and loth cen- turies being formed of boys who followed the armies and were formed into corps with light arms, hence the origin of the word in- fantry. Fantee, or Fanti. A maritime country of Guinea, inhabited by a tribe of the same name, who are now under English pro- tection. Farcy. A horse disease of the absorbents , affecting the skin and its blood-vessels ; is of the nature of mange, and allied to glanders. Farrier. In a general acceptation of the term, any person who shoes horses, or pro- fesses to cure their diseases. In a practical military sense, a man appointed to do the duty of farriery in a troop of cavalry. Troop farriers should be under the imme- diate superintendence and control of a veter- inary surgeon. There is one farrier allowed to each troop of cavalry in the U. S. army. Farrier-Major. A person who was for- merly appointed by the colonel of a dragoon regiment to superintend the farriers of troops. He has since been superseded or replaced oy a veterinary surgeon. Fasces. Bundles of rods usually made of birch, but sometimes of elm, with an axe projecting from the middle of them, which were carried before the chief magistrates of ancient Rome, as symbols of their power over life and limb. They were borne by the lictors, at first before the kings ; in the time of the republic, before consuls and prajtors ; and afterwards before the emperors. Fascine. A long cylindrical fagot of brushwood, used to revet the interior of bat- teries and embrasures, and for many other purposes of military engineering. Fascines, Covering. "See Covkrino-fas- CINKS. Fastness. A fast place ; a stronghold ; a fortress or fort; a place fortified; a castle, etc. Fatigue. The cause of weariness ; labor ; toil.; as, the fatigues of war. Fatigue. The labors of military men, distinct from the use of arms. Fatigue Call. A particular military call, sounded on the bugle or drum, by which FATIGUE 158 FEKENTAKII soldiers are called upon to perform fatigue duties. Fatigue Dress, The working dress of soldiers. Fatigue Party. A party of soldiers on fatigue. Faulcon. A small cannon. Faulx {Fr.). An instrument nearly re- sembling a scythe. It was often used to de- fend a breach, or to prevent an enemy from scaling the walls of a fortified place. This weapon was first resorted to with some suc- cess, when Louis XIV. besieged Mons. On the surrender of that town, large quantities of faulx, or scythes, were found in the garrison. Fausse Braye. In fortification, was a parapet constructed -at a lower elevation than the main parapet, and between the foot of the parapet and the edge of the ditch. It was used only in permanent fortification, and has long been obsolete. Fayetteville. A small town, capital of Washington Co., Ark. On April 18, 1863, this place, which was garrisoned by two regiments of Federal troops under Col. Harrison, was attacked by the Confederate general Cabell, with about 2000 men ; and after six hours' severe fighting the Confed- erates were repulsed. Fayetteville. A town of Cumberland Co., N. C, on the left bank of the Cape Fear Kiver. On April 22, 1861, the arsenal at this place surrendered to the Confederates, and about 35,000 stand of arms, besides some cannon and a considerable quantity of am- munition, fell into their hands. The town was taken by Gen. Sherman in March, 1865. Fecial. Pertaining to heralds, and the denunciation of war to an enemy ; as, fecial war. Federal States. Are those united by treaty as one state, without giving up self- government, — as in Switzerland or the United States of North America. The Fed- erals were the people of the Northern of the United States of America during the great conflict in 1861-65 ; their opponents were styled the Confederates. Fehrbellin. A town of Prussia, 22 miles northwest from Potsdam. The elector of Brandenburg defeated the Swedish army near this town in 1675. Feint. In military or naval matters, a mock attack or assault, usually made to throw an enemy off" his guard against some real design upon his position. Feint. In fencing, a seeming aim at one part when another is intended to be struck. Felloes. In artillery, the parts of the wheel which form its circumference. There are generally seven in each wheel. Feltre (Fr.). A Roman cuirass made of strong woolen cloth. Fence. Self-defense by the use of the sword ; fencing ; the art and practice of fencing or sword-play. Fencer. One who fences; one who teaches or practices the art of fencing with sword or foil. Fence-roof. A covering of defense. Fencible. Capable of being defended, or of making or affording defense. Fencible. A soldier enlisted for the de- fense of the country, and not liable to be sent abroad. Fencible Light Dragoons. A body of cavalry raised voluntarily in various coun- ties of England and Scotland in 1794, to serve during the war in any part of Great Britain. This force was disbanded in 1800. Fencibles. In England, regiments raised for a limited service, and for a definite period. The officers rank with the militia. Fencing. The art of using skillfully a sword or foil in attack or defense ; the art or practice of self-defense with the sword. Fenian. A name formerly applied among the Celts to bodies of troops some- what similar to our modern militia. They derived their name from Finn McCumhaii, a famous Celtic chief. In modern times the name was assumed by an association formed for the liberation of Ireland, whose principal headquarters was in the United States, but ramifications of which extended through Great Britain, Ireland, and the colonies. In 1866 the Fenians attempted to invade Canada, and succeeded in crossing the frontier ; but they were soon dispersed, and their leaders arrested by the U. S. authorities for violation of the neutrality laws. In 1867 there were several demon- strations made by them in England and Ireland, but their leaders were promptly arrested, and after some were executed, and others sentenced to long terms of imprison- ment, the movement was crushed. Fer (Fr.). Iron. Figuratively, this word is used for a sword or dagger ; as, manier le fer, to wear the sword, to follow the profession of arms. Fer k Cheval {Fr.). In fortification, a horseshoe, a small round or oval work, with a parapet, generally made in a ditch or in a marsh. It further means, according to the French acceptation of the term, a work constructed for the purpose of covering a gate, by having within it a guard-house, to prevent the town from being taken by sur- prise. Ferdwit. In ancient military history, a term formerly used to denote a freedom from A serving upon any military expedition ; or, according to some, the being acquitted of manslaughter committed in the army. Fere Champenoise, La. A town of France, in the department of the Marne, 20 miles from Epernay. In 1814 the French wore defeated here by the allies. Fere, La. A fortified town of France, in the department of the Aisne, on an island in the Oise. It has an arsenal and a school of artillery. This town was taken by the Spaniards in 1530; and by the allies in 1814. Ferentarii. Among the Romans, were auxiliary troops lightly armed ; their weapons being a sword, arrows, and a sling. FEROZESHAH 159 FIELD-BATTERY We have also mention of imother 6ort of Ferentarii, whose business was to curry arms after the army, and to be n-ady to supply the soldiers therewith in battle. Ferozeshah. A village in Hindostan, situated a few miles frt)ni the left bank of the river Sutlcj. Here the British, com- manded by Sir Hugh Goui^h, attacked the intrenchments of the Sikhs, and carried their first line of works, December 21, 1845; but nif^ht cominfj on, the r>|)erations were suspended till daybreak next day, when their second line was stormed by Gen. Gil- bert, and 74 i^uns captured. The Sikhs ad- vanced to retake their f^uns, but were re- pulsed with great loss, and retreated toward the Sutlej, December 22; and recros-ed that river unmolested, December 27. The loss of the British was reckoned at 2415. Ferrara. A city of Italy, and the capital of one of the yEmilian provinces of the same name. It was subdued by the Lombards in the 8th century, and taken from them by Pepin, about 752, who gave it to Pope Ste- phen II. About 1208 it fell into the hands of the house of Este, and in 15U8 Pope Cle- ment VIII. obtained the sovereignty. The French under Massena took Ferrara in 1796 ; but it was restored to the pope in 1814. An Austrian garrison held it from 1849 ; it retired in June, 1859, and the people rose and declared for annexation to Sardinia, which was accomplished in March, 18G0. Ferrara. A sword of excellent temper, made of steel from Ferrara, Italy. The kind most prized was manufactured by Andrea di Ferrara ; hence such a sword was often called an Andrea-P\'rrara. Ferries, Rope. See Pontons. Ferrol. A seaport town of Spain, prov- ince of Corunna, and an important naval station. This place was unsuccessfully at- tacked by the British in August, 1800. Mar- shal Soult captured Ferrol, January 27, 1809. Ferry. A water conveyance made use of to cross a river, or branch of the sea. Fetter. To put fetters upon ; to shackle or confine the feet with a chain; to bind; to enchain. Deserters are sometimes fettered while undergoing punishment for the crime of desertion. Feu-de-joie. A salute fired by musketry on occasions of public rejoicing, so that it should pass from man to man rapidly and steadily, down one rank and up the other, giving one long continuous sound. Feu Rasant (Fr.). A grazing fire, or a discharge of mu-;ketry or cannon, so directed that the balls shall run parallel with the ground they fly over, within 3 or 4 feet of the surface. Feud. A contention or quarrel ; espe- cially an inveterate strife between families, clans, or parties in a state; deadly hatred; contention satisfied only by bloodshed. Feudal. Consisting of, or founded upon, feuds or fiefs; embracing tenures by military •ystem ; as, the feudal system. Fez. A red cap without a brim, worn by Turkish soldiers and others. Fez. A city of Morocco, Africa; it was founded by Edris, a descendant of Moham- med, about 787 ; was long capital of the king- dom of Fez. After long-continued struggles it was annexed to Morocco about 1550. Fichant. In fortification, said of flanking fire which impinges on the face it defends ; that is, of a line of defense where the angle »of*defense is less than a right angle. Fidenae. An ancient city of Latium, on the left bank of the Tiber, 5 miles from Rome. The proximity of the two cities brought them early into collision, and we find that Fidenae was engaged in successive wars with the early Roman kings. After the expulsion of the Tarquins Fidenae en- tered into a league with the Sabines and Latins to effect their restoration, but the at- tempt proved abortive, and, deserted by their allies, the Fidenates were compelled to sur- render to the Roman arms. The city after- wards continued its struggles against Rome, but without success, and, though there is no record of its destruction, it had dwindled into an insignificant village before the close of the Roman republic. Fidentia (now Rargo S. Domine/n). A town in Cisalpine Gaul, on the Via ^^milia, between Parma and Placentia, memorable for the victory which Sulla's generals gained over Carbo, 82 B.C. Fief. An estate held of a superior on condition of military service; a fee ; a feud. Field. A cleared space or plain where a battle is fought; also, the battle itself. To take the field means to commence active op- erations against an enemy. Field. In heraldry, the surface of a shield; hence, any blank space or ground on which figures are drawn or projected. Field Allowance. In the British service, is an allowance granted to officers in camp at home, or on a campaign, to enable them to repay themselves the expense of purchasing camp equipage, bat-horses, etc. It is di- vided into ordinary and extraordinary field allowance, the former being granted in time of peace, the latter in that of war. Field Artillery. That portion of the ar- tillery which is used in the field. In the U. S. army the 3- and 3.1-inch rifle guns, Gat- ling, and 12-pounder smooth-bore, constitute the field artillery. See Artillkry. I Field-battery. Is a certain number of pieces of artillery so equipped as to be avail- ; able for attack or defense, and capable of ac- , ct>mpanying cavalry or infantry in all their I movements in the field. There are allotted I to a field-battery 4 pieces in time of peace and 6 in time of war, and it is divided into mounted artitleru, which usually serves with infantry, and horse artillery, which ordina- rily serves with cavalry. The main difference between the two consists in the cannoneers of the latter being mounted ; in rapid evolu- tions of the former they are conveyed on the gun-carriages. See Artillkry. FIELD-BED 160 FIGHT Field-bed. A folding bed used by officers while on campaigns or in the field. _ Field-carriage. Field-gun carriages con- sist of two short cheeks of wood, bolted upon a stock and wooden axle-body, in a recess which fits the iron axle on which the wheels are placed. The stock terminates, in a trail and trail-plate which rests on the ground, and has on the end a strong ring called the lunette, which is placed on the pintle-hook when the piece is limbered. In the stock Is placed an elevating screw-box of bronze in which the elevating screw fits. They have also limbers (which see). Field-colors. Small flags of about a foot and a half square, carried along with troops for marking out the ground for the squad- rons and battalions ; camp-colors. Field-day. A term used when a regi- ment is taken out to the field, for the piar- pose of being instructed in the field exer- cise and evolutions. Fielded. Being in the field of battle ; en- camped. This term is now obsolete. Field-equipage. Military apparatus for field service. Field Forge. See Forge. Field-glass. A binocular telescope, used by officers in field service. Field-gun. A small kind of gun, or cannon, used on the battle-field; a field- piece. Field -Marshal (Mareschal, Feldmar- schall, Feldzeugmeister). The commander of an army; a military officer of high rank in France, Germany, and other nations, and the highest military officer in England. Forrnerly a captain-general was occasionally appointed, who had rank higher even than a field-marshal. Field-officer. Is a colonel, lieutenant- colonel, or major of a battalion or regiment, as distinguished from general officers, who are superior to field-officers in rank; from line-officers, who are inferior; and from staff"-officers, general or regimental, who may be of rank superior, equivalent, or in- ferior to that of field-officers. Field-officer's Court. In the U. S. service, a court-martial consisting of one field-offi- cer empowered to try cases, subject to juris- diction of garrison and regimental courts, takes the place of the latter courts in time of war, but cannot be held in time of peace. Field of the Cloth of Gold. A name given to an open plain between Ardres and Guisnes, where Henry VIII. of England had an interview in 1520 with Francis I. of France. The nobility of both kingdoms embraced the opportunity to display their magnificence with the utmost emulation and profusion of expense. Field-park. The spare carriages, re- served supplies of ammunition, tools, and materials for extensive repairs and for mak- ing up ammunition, for the service of an army in the field, form the field-park, to which should be attached also the batteries of reserve. Field-piece. A small cannon which is carried along with armies, and used in the field of battle. Field Service. Service performed by troops in the field. Field-staff. A staff formerly carried by gunners in the field, and holding lighted matches for discharging cannon. It is no- longer used. Field Telegraph, See Telegravh, Field. • Field-train. In the British service, a department of the Royal Artillery, consist- ing of commissaries and conductors of stores, responsible for the safe custody of the ammu- nition, for the formation of proper depots of shot, etc., between the front and the base of operations, and that a due proportion shall be constantly at the service of each gun during an engagement. Field-works. Are intrenchments and other temporary fortifications thrown up by an army in the field, either as a protection from the onslaught of a hostile force, or to cover an attack upon some stronghold. All works which do not come under the head of permanent fortification are called field- works. Fiesole (anc. Faesulce). One of the most ancient Etruscan cities, situated about 3 miles from Florence. This city was first mentioned in 225 B.C. during the great Gaulish war. Hannibal encamped here after crossing the Apennines. The city was next destroyed by Sulla in the Social war (90-89 B.C.), who afterwards dispatched thither a military colony. About the be- ginning of the 11th century, it was destroyed by the Florentines, and many of its inhab- itants compelled to remove to the city of Florence. Fife. A wooden wind instrument, which is used with the snare-drum for playing mil- itary music. The music is produced by blowing through a hole in a reed or tube, while the escape of air is regulated by the fingers stopping or opening a number of other holes in different parts of the pipe. Fife-Major. The chief or superintend- ent of the filers of a regiment. Fifer. One who plays a fife; there is one fifer allowed to each company of infantry in the U. S. army. Fifers are also employed aboard men-of-war, and in the marine corps. Fight. To strive or contend for victory, in battle or in single combat ; to defeat, subdue, or destroy an enemy, either by blows or weapons; to contend in arms; — followed by with or against. Fight. To carry on, or wage, as a con- flict, or battle; to win or gain by struggle, as one's way ; to sustain by fighting, as a cause. To contend with in battle ; to war against, as, they fought the enemy in two pitched battles. To cause to fight; manage or manoeuvre in a fight. Fight. A battle ;" an engagement ; a con- test in arms; a struggle for victory, either between individuals or between armies, FIGHTER 161 FIRE ships, or mivies. A duel is called a single fight or combat. Fighter. One who fights; a combatant; a warrior. Fighting. Qualified for war ; fit for bat- tle; as, "A host of fighting men." Also, occupied in war; being the scene of war; as, a fighting field. Fight, Running. That in which the en- emy is fdiitiiiually chased. Figueras. A town in the northeast of Spain, province of Gerona. On a height near the town is the citadel of San Fer- nando, the strongest fortress of Spain, and the key of the Pyrenees on their south side. It has accommodation for 2000 men. Figure. In fortification, the plan of any fortified place, or the interior polygon. Of this there are two sorts, regular and irregular ; a regular figure is that where the sides and angles are equal ; an irregular one where they are unequal. File. A line of soldiers drawn up behind each other, in contradistinction to rank, which refers to men standing beside one another. The general term means two soldiers, consist- ing of the front and rear rank men. To file is to advance to or from any given points by files; as, to file to the front, etc. To file off, or to defile, is to wheel off by flies from moving in a spacious front, and march in length. Flank file, is the extreme file on the right or left of a squadron or troop, battalion or company, etc. Indian files, i\ line of men advancing or retreating from either of the flanks, from the centre or from any proportion of a line in succession to one another. File Firing. Firing by files. File-leader. Is the soldier placed in front of any Hie, or the man who is to cover all those who stand diret;tly in the rear of him, and by whom they are to be guided in all their movements. Filibuster. A lawless military adven- turer, especially one in quest of plunder ; a freebooter; a pirate; applied especially to the followers of Lopez in his expedition to Cuba in 1851. Filings. Are movements to the front, rear, or thinks by files. Fillet. A molding used on cannon of old pattern. Fillibeg, or Filibeg. A little plaid; a kilt or dn-ss reaching nearly to the knees, ■worn in the liiglilands of Scotland, and by the soldiers of Highland regiments in the British service. Fillibuster. See Filihuster. Final Velocity. In gunnery, is the tech- nical term for the uniform velocity which a projectile would acquire in falling through »n indefinite height in the air. A body falling in vacuo is uniformly accelerated, its velocity being continually increased. In the atmosphere the case is different. Since the resistance of the air increases with some power of the velocity greater than the square, it follows that at some point in the descent the retardation becomes equal to the acceleration, and the body will move with uniform velocity. This is called " final velocity," and is one of the most impor- tant elements in the theory of projectiles. Every projectile has its own ''final velocity." Other things being equal, that projectile is best which has the greatest '■ final velocity." The " final velocity" of a given projectile will depend upon its weight on the one hand, and the extent of surface and the way it is presented to the air on the other. The extent and form of the surface directly opposed to the action of the air will largely determine the resistance. The wIt form, as determined by the experiments of Borda, is the ogival. The resistance, other things being the same, may be taken as pro- portional to the area of greatest cross-sec- tion. The weight in spherical projectiles is proportional to the cube of this dimension. It follows from these general principles that large projectiles are better than small, dense ; better than light, solid better than hollow, in regard to their final velocities ; moreover, I that oblong projectiles are better than 1 spherical, ogival-headed oblong better than j flat-headed, and long rifle projectiles better I than short, in the same regard. I Finding. Before a court-martial delib- erates upon the judgment, the judge-advo- cate reads over the whole proceedings of the court; he then collects the votes of each member, beginning with the youngest. The best mode of doing so is by slips of paper. The Articles of War require a ma- jority in all cases, and in cases of sentence of death two-thirds. It is not necessary to find & qeneral verdict of guilt or acquittal upon the whole of every charge. The court may find the prisoner guilty of part of a charge, and acquit him of the remainder, and render sentence according to their find- ing. This is a special verdict. Finland. A Russian grand duchy ; in the middle of the I'ith century was conquered by the Swedes, who introduced Christianity. It was several times conquered by the Rus- sians (1714, 1742, and 1808), and restored (1721 and 1743) ; but in 1809 they retained it by treaty. Fire. In the art of war, a word of com- mand to soldiers of all denominations to dis- charge their fire-arms, cannon, etc. It like- wise expresses a general discharge against an enemy. To bo " under fire" means to be exposed to the attack of an enemy by cannonade or fusilade. The fire in artil- lery may be either direct, ricochet, rolling, plunging, horizontal, or vertical, according to the nature of the projectile and the angle of elevation. A fire is said to be direct, when the projectile hits the object without striking any intermediate one; ricochet, when the projectile strikes the ground or water under a snuill angle of fall, penetrates obliquely to a certain distance, and is then reflected at an angle greater than the angle of fall. This action may recur frequently, depend- FIRE-ALARM 162 FIRE ing, as it does, on the nature of the surface struck, the initial velocity, shape, size, and density of the projectile, and on the angle of fall. It is employed in siege-works to attain the face of a work in flank, or in reverse ; and in the field, or on water, when the ob- ject is large, and the distance is not accu- rately known. The character of ricochet fire is determined by the angle of fall. It is flattened when this angle does not exceed 4°, and curvated when the angle is between 6° and 15°. Against troops the angle of fall should not exceed 3°. A particular kind of ricochet fire called rolling is produced by plac- ing the axis of the piece parallel, or nearly so, with the ground. It was formerly much used when the conditions were favorable in the field service, where it was very elfective, as the projectile never passes at a greater distance above the ground than the muzzle of the piece. The projectile was solid round shot; rifled projectiles are unsuited to this kind of flre. When the object is situated below the piece, the fire is said to he plung- ing. This kind of fire is particularly eft'ec- tive against the decks of vessels. Under low angles of elevation the fire of guns and howitzers is said to be horizontal. The fire of mortars under high angles of elevation is called vertical. Fire-alarm. An alarm given of a fire or conflagration. In military barracks or camp, it is sounded on drum or bugle, or the discharge of fire-arms by the guard. Fire, Angle of. See Pointing. Fire-arms. EvtJry description of arms charged with powder and ball. See spe- cial headings. Fire-arrow. A small iron dart, furnished with a match impregnated with powder and sulphur, used to fire the sails of ships. Fire-ball. See Pyrotechny. Fire-bavin. A bundle of brushwood used in fire-ships. Fire-bucket. A bucket to convey water for extinguishing fires. To each set of quar- ters in a garrison there are allotted a certain number of fire-buckets. Fire-cross. An ancient token in Scot- land for the nation to take up arms. Fire, Curved, or Curvated. See Pire. Fire, Direct. See Fire. Fire-eater. One notoriously fond of being in action. Fire, Effects of. See Projectiles, Ef- fects OF. Fire, Enfilade. Fire in the direction of the length of a parapet or a line of troops. Fire-engine. A hydraulic or forcing pump for throwing water to extinguish fires. Fire, Greek. See Greek Fire. Fire-hoops. A combustible invented by the Knights of Malta to throw among their besiegers, and afterwards used in boarding Turkish galleys. Fire, Line of. See Pointing. Firelocks. Were fire-arms formerly used by foot-soldiers ; they were so called from their producing fire of themselves, by the action of the flint and steel. They were first made use of in 1(390, but ft is not ascertained when they were first invented. About the middle of the last century a fire- lock was called, by military writers, asfiap- baan, which being a low Dutch word, seems to indicate its being a Dutch invention. Fire-master. In the artillery, was a com- missioned ofiicer who gave the directions and proportions of all ingredients for each composition required in fireworks, whether for the service of war, or for rejoicings and recreation. Fire-master's-mate. In the artillery, a commissioned t)flicer whose duty was to aid and assist the chief fire-master; and he was required to be skilled in every kind of labo- ratory works. Fire, Oblique. That which strikes a par- apet or a body of troops in a slanting direc- tion. Fire-pan. A pan for holding or convey- ing fire ; especially, the receptacle for the priming in a gun. Fire, Plane of. See Pointing. Fire, Plunging. See Fire. Fire-pot. A small earthen pot, into which is put a charged grenade, and over that, powder enough to cover the grenade ; the whole covered with a piece of parch- ment, and two pieces of quick-match across lighted ; it breaks and fires the powder, as also the powder in the grenade, which has no fuze, that its operations may be quicker; it burns all that is near it. These are no longer used. Fire Rasant. Is produced by firing the artillery and small-arms in a line parallel with those parts of the works you are de- fending. Fire, Reverse. -Is that which strikes the rear of a parapet or body of troops. Fire, Ricochet. See Fire. Fire, Slant. Is when the shot strikes the interior slope of the parapet, forming with it a horizontal angle, not greater than 30°. Fire Stone. A composition placed in a shell with the bursting charge, to set fire to ships, buildings, etc. It is made by stirring nitre, sulphur, antimony, and rosin in a mix- ture of melted tallow and turpentine. It is cast in molds made of rocket-paper. A priming of fuze composition is driven in a hole to insure its ignition. Fire-swab. The bunch of rope-yarns sometimes secured to the tampion, saturated with water to cool the gun in action, and to swab up any grains of powder. Fire, Tables of. In artillery, are tabu- lated statements for each piece, showing the range and time of flight for each elevation, charge of powder, and kind of projectile. Their purpose is to assist the artillerist in attaining his object without waste of time and ammunition, and also to regulate his aim when the efl^ect of shot cannot be seen on account of the dust and smoke of the battle-field. The first few shots generally produce a great effect on the enemy, and it FIRE 163 FLAGS is very important that they should be di- rected with some knowledj^e of their results, which, in the tield, can only be attained by experience, or from the data afiorded by a table of fire. Tables of fire for different kinds of cannon may be found in the Ord- nance and Artillery Manuals. Fire, Vertical. See Fire. Fire-workers. In the British service, were formerly subordinate to the fire-master and his mate ; had afterwards the rank of youngest lieutenants in the regiment of artil- lery, but now that rank is abolished, and they are all second lieutenants. They were sup- posed to be well skilled in every kind of laboratory-work, which knowledge is an essential qualification in every officer of that branch of the service. Fireworks. Are various combustible preparations used in war. See Pyrotechny. Firing. The act of discharging fire-arms. First Sergeant. The ranking non-com- missioned othcer in a company. lie has im- mediate, charge of all enlisted men of the company and company property ; has com- mand o( it during formations, and calls the roll. He also makes all details, keeps the roster, etc. See Urukkly Skrgeant. Fishguard. A seaport town of South "Wales, county of PcMubroke. About 2i miles south of this town a French force of 1400 men, under Gen. Tate, landed on Feb- ruary 22, 1797, and next day surrendered to a few militia and volunteers not half their number. Fishtail Wind. A term in target prac- tice with small-arms for a rear wind which is variable in direction. Fish Torpedoes. See Torpedoes. Fissure. A narrow chasm where a small breach has been made, as in a fort, citadel, etc. Five Forks. A name given to a locality in Dinwiddle Co., "S'a., the junction of the "White Oak and Ford's road with the one leading to Dinwiddie Court-house. An important battle was fought here April 1, 18(35. The possession of this radiating cen- tre was one of great strategic importance, inasmuch as by Ford's road the South- side Railroad could be reached, and, in- deed, the whole country which the in- trenched Confederate lines were intended to ! cover. The attempt to gain possession of this position had been made (Mareh 30-31) by Gen. Sheridan, with momentary success (March 31), during the absence of most of the Confederate force, engaged in fighting "Warren on the "White Oak road, but which now being recalled, regained possession, driving Sheridan back towards Dinwiddie Court-house. On the morning of April 1 Sheridan renewed the attempt, and after u day of very severe fightingcompelled the s»ir- render of" nearly all the Confederate force, gursuing such as escaped till after dark, •ver 6000 prisoners were captured with 5 i guns. The Union loss was not above 1900 I »U told. The effect of this decisive battle I was to determine Lee to abandon Petersburg, which he did undercover of night (April 2), but not before his entire outer line of works had been carried during the day. One week later Lee surrendered his army at Appomat- tox Court-house. Fix Bayonets. A word of command in the manual exercise, whereby the bayonets are fixed on the rifies. Fixed Ammunition. Consists of a pro- jectile and its cartridge whieh are attached to the same block of wood called a sabot. See Ordnance, Ammi'mtion for. Flag, Black. A flag of a black color, displayed as a sign that no mercy will be shown to the vanquished, or that no quarter will be given. Flag, Garrison. In the IT. S. army the garrison flag is the national flag, and is 36 feet fly and 20 feet hoist. It is furnished only to very important posts, or those having large garrisons, and is hoisted only on gala days and great occasions. Flag of the Prophet [Snnjak-Sheriff). Is the sacred banner of the Mohammedans. It was originally of a white color, and was composed of the turban of the Koreish, cap- tured by i[obammcd. A black flag was, however, soon substituted in its place, con- sisting of the curtain that hung before the door of Ayeshah,one of the prophet's wives. This flag is regarded by the Mohammedans as their most sacred relic ; it was brought into Europe by Amurath III. It was covered with forty wrappings of silk, deposited in a costly casket, and preserved in a chapel in the interior of the seraglio, where it is guarded by several emirs, with c(jnstant prayers. The banner unfolded at the commencement of a war, and likewise carefully preserved, is not the same, although it is believed by the people to be so. Flag of Truce. A white flag carried by an otlicer sent to communicate with the enemy. The flag signifies his errand, but the enemy are not bound to receive him, though it would be a violation of the rules of war to injure the messenger, unless he persisted in his endeavor to communicate after due warning given. The term is often extended to the party whieh accompanies the flag, which consists generally of an offi- cer, a trumpeter or bugler, who sounds to attract attention, and sometimes of an addi- tional soldier who carries the flag. Flag, Post. In the U. S. army, is the national flag, and is 20 feet fly and 10 feet hoist; it is furnished to all posts garrisoned by troops, and is hoisted only in pleasant weather. Flag, Red. Is frequently used by revo- lutionists as an emblem of defiance. It is used in the U. S. service as a danger-signal at target practice, and »>n a man-of-war as a signal that the ship is receiving or discharg- ing her powder. Flags. See Colors, Standards, etc. Flags. The national flag of the United States consists of 13 horizontal stripes, alter- PLAG-STAFF 164 FLANK nately red and white ; the union to consist of 20 stars, white, in a blue lield ; one star to be added to the union on the admission of every new State ; the addition to be made on the 4th day of July succeeding such admis- sion. There are flags which are symbols of individual authority. Among such are royal standards, flag-officers' flags, etc. An admiral's flag is usually the flag of the country which such admiral serves, with the exception of the union. The flag of the admiral, vice-admiral, and rear-admirals of the United States is rectangular and consists of 13 alternate red and white stripes. The admiral hoists this at the main ; the vice- admiral at the fore ; the rear-admiral at the mizzen. Should there be two rear-admirals present, the junior hoists a flag at the miz- zen similar to the one described, with the addition of two stars in the upper left-hand corner. The commodore's flag diflers from that of the admiral's in form alone, it being a swallow-tail instead of a rectangular. Should the President go afloat, the American flag is carried in the bows of his barge or hoisted at the main of the vessel on board of which he may be. In foreign countries the royal standard is worn at ceremonies in honor of the sovereign or at which the sov- ereign may be present. The highest flag in the British navy is the anchor and cable, the next is the union, and the lowest the blue. Flags are said to be at half-mast when they are hoisted but half the height at which they are ordinarily worn, and in this posi- tion designate mourning. To strike or lower the flag, to pull it down upon the cap, in token of respect, submission, or, in an en- gagement, of surrender. Dipping the flag is a salute to a fort or passing vessel by low- ering it slightly and hoisting it again. Flag-staff. The stafl" on which a flag is fixed. Flag, Storm. In the U. S. army, is the national flag, and is 8 feet fly and 4 feet 2 inches hoist; it is furnished to all occupied military posts and national cemeteries, and will be hoisted in stormy or windy weather. It is also to be used as a recruiting flag. Flam. A peculiar tap upon a drum. This word was formerly made use of in the British service, signifying a particular tap or beat upon the drum, according to which each battalion went through its firings or evolutions. Flambeau. A kind of torch made of thick wicks, covered with wax, and used in the streets at night, at illuminations and in processions. Flanchiere { Fr.). A part of horse armor which covered the flanks and croup as far as the houghs. Flanconade. In fencing, a thrust in the side. Flanders. The principal part of the an- cient Belgium, which was conquered by Ju- lius Csesar, 51 B.C. It became part of the kingdom of France in 843, and was gov- erned by counts subject to the king, from 862 till 1369. Flanders was subjected suc- cessively to Burgundy (1384), Austria (1477), and Spain (1555). In 1580 it declared its independence, but afterwards returned to its allegiance to the house of Austria. In 1792 the French invaded imperial Flanders, and occupied it till 1814. In 1814 a portion of Flanders was given to the king of the Neth- erlands. Since the revolution of 1831, it has belonged to Belgium. Flank. A word of very extensive appli- cation in military matters. It literally means sides or ends of any fortification, or encamp- ment, or body of troops. Thus a writer has described flanks as "certain proportions of offensive or defensive forces extended to the right and left of a main body." In forti- fication the term means any part of the work defending another by a fire along the outside of its parapet. Flank Casemate Carriage. Is a gun- carriage which is especially adapted to the mounting of the 24-pound iron howitzer in the flanks of casemate-batteries, for defending the ditch. Flank Company. A certain number of men drawn up on the right or left of a bat- talion. Thus when there are grenadiers they compose the right, and the light in- fantry the left flank company. Grenadiers and light infantry are generally called flank companies, whether attached or not to their battalions ; rifle corps are always flankers. Flank, Concave. Is that which is made in the arc of a semicircle bending outwards. Flank, Covered. The platform of the casemate, which lies hid in the bastion. These retired flanks were a great defense to the opposite bastion and passage of the ditch ; because the besiegers could not see nor easily dismount their guns. Flank Defense Carriage. See Ordnance, Carriagks for. Sea-coast Carriage.s. Flank, Directing. In drill, that by which companies march, — i.e., that at which is placed the guide, who directs and regulates the march. Flank En Potence. Is any part of the right or left wing formed at a projecting angle with the line. See Potence. Flank Files. Are the two first men on the right and the two last men on the left of a battalion, company, etc. When a battalion is drawn up three deep, its flank files con- sist of three men, or, as the French call it, file and demi-file. When four deep, the flank files are termed double files ; so that a column formed from any of these alignments will have all its relative flank files, be the depth of formation what it may. Flank, Inner. That which is nearest the point on which a line rests, or which is farthest from the enemy. In drill, it is that nearest the point from which the line is dressed. Flank, Leading. When the line breaks into column in order to attack an enemy, it is the flank which must always preserve the line of appui in all movements in front. The FLANK 165 FLEUR-DE-LIS first battalion, or company of every column which conducts, is called the head or leading flank of that column. Flank, Oblique. Or second flank, in forti- fication; that part of the curtain from whence the face of the opposite bastion may be dis- , covered, and is the distance between the lines rasant and Jichant, which are rejected by some engineers, as being liable to be ruined at the beginning of a siege, especially when made of sandy earth. This second flank defends very obliquely the opposite face, and 18 to be used only in a place attacked by an army without artillery. Flank of a Bastion. In fortification, that part which joins the face to the curtain, com- prehended between the angle of the curtain and that of the shoulder, and is the principal defense of a place. Its use is to defend the curtain, the flank, and the faceof the opposite bastion, as well as the passage of the ditch ; and to batter the salient angles of the counter- scarp and glacis, from whence the besiegers generally ruin the flanks with their artillery. Flank, Outward. Of a line or battalion, the extreme file on the right or left of a division, subdivision, or section, according to the given front, when the battalion is at | close or open column, and which is the farthest wheeling point from line into col- umn, or from column into line. It is like- wise called the reverse flank. Flank, Prolonged. In fortification, is the extending of the flank from the angle of the epaule to the exterior side, when the angle of the flank is a right one. Flank, Second. See Flank, Oblique. Flank, To. In fortification, is to erect a battery which may play upon an enemy's works on the right or left without being ex- posed to his line of tire. In evolutit)ns, to take such a position in action as either to assist your own troops, or to annoy those of your enemy by attacking either of his flanks, without exposing yourself to all of his fire. To oufflnnk, a manannre by which an army, battalion, troop, or company outstretches another, and gets upon both or either of his flanks. In an extensive acceptation of the term, when applied to locality, it means to possess any range or opposite parts, or terri- tory, whence you might invade your neigh- bors. Flanker. A fortification jutting out so as to command the side or flank of an enemy marching to the assault or attack. Riflemen and all light troops are also called flankers, from the fact of their acting on the flanks. Flanker, To [Vr. Jlnnquer). In fortifica- tion, to fortify the walls of a city with bul- warks or countermines. Flanking. Is the same in fortification as defending. Flanking Angle. In fortification, that composed of tlie two lines of defense, and pointing toward thecurtain. See Tknaillb. Flanking Party. Any body of men de- tached from the main army to act upon the flanks of an enemy. See Flanker. Flanks of a Frontier. Are certain salient points in a national boundary, strong by nature and art, and ordinarily projecting somewhat beyond the general line. The efl'ect of these flanks is to protect the whole frontier against an enemy, as he dare not penetrate between, with the risk of their garrisons, reinforced from their own terri- tories, attacking his rear, and cutting off communicationbetween him and his ba.se. Flash. The flame which issues from any fire-arm or piece of ordnance on its being fired. Flash in the Pan. An explosion of gun- powder without any communication beyond the vent. "When a piece is loaded, and, upon the trigger being drawn, nothing but the priming takes fire, that piece is said to flash in the pan. Flask, Powder-. A measure formerly made of horn, used to carry powder in, with the measure of the charge of the piece on the top of it. Flathead Indians. A tribe of aborigines, so called from the practice which prevailed among them of binding some solid sub- stance on the foreheads of their children so as to cause a depression of the skull. They are located on an agenc}' in Montana. See Indians and their Agencie.s. Flaw. A crack or small opening in a gun or its carriage is so called. Fleau d'Armes (Fr.). An ancient of- fensive weapon; the part used for striking was armed with sharp iron spikes. Fleche. Literally an arrow ; but applied in forliHcation to a work resembling a redan, except that it is raised upon the terre-plein without a ditch. It is in short a field-work, having faces and small flanks hastily run up to shelter a small number of men, and form an outwork to some more powerful fortifica- tion. Fleece, Order of the Golden. One of the mosteminont orders of knight liood in Europe, was founded in 1430 by riiilip III., duke of Burgundy. By its foundation his successors were declared hereditary grand-masters ; and thus the title passed to the imperial house of Austria with the Burgundian inheritance, and thence to the Spanish line of the same house after the death of the emperor Charles V. "When the Spanish Netherlands, how- ever, became Austrian, and the Bourbons became monarchsof Spain, the grand-master- ship was claimed by the archdukes of Aus- tria. Hence at present the Spanish and Austrian sovereigns alike confer the order, and at both courts it gives the highest rank. Fletch, To. To feather an arrow. Fletcher. The man who made or re- paired the military bows wjis so called. Also called hou-ycr. Fleur-de-lis (Fr.). This celebrated em- blem is derived from the white lily of the garden, or from the flag or iris. The Franks of old had a custom at the proclamation of their king, to elevate him uiwn a shield or target, and j^lace in his hana a reed or flag FLEURUS 166 TLUSHING in blossom, instead of a sceptre; and from that time the kings of the first and second race in France are represented with sceptres in their hands like the flag with its flowers, these flowers subsequently becoming the armorial bearings of France. In later times their arms were azure, three fleur-de-lis or. Many English and Scotch families bear the fleur-de-lis in some portion of their arms, and generally with some reference to France. Fleurus. A small town in Belgium, in the province of Hainault. It has been the scene of several conflicts, the last and most important being the battle fought June 26, 1794, between the army of the French re- public under Jourdan and the allies under the Prince of Saxe-Coburg. The allied forces were compelled for a time to evacuate Flanders. Flight. Is used figuratively for the swift retreat of an army or &ny party from a vic- torious enemy. It is likewise applicable to missile weapons or shot ; as, a flight of ar- rows, a flight of bombs, etc. Flight, Time of. In gunnery, the flight of a shot or shell is the time during which it is passing through the air from the piece to the first graze. Flight, To Put to. To force your enemy to quit the field. Flint. In the flint-lock musket, the stone which was fixed to the cock or gun-lock by which the sparks were elicited that dis- charged the piece. Flint-lock. A musket lock with a flint fixed in the hammer for striking on the cap of the pan ; also the musket itself. Flint Weapons. Believed to have been used by the primitive inhabitants, have from time to time, in more or less number, been turned up with the plow. and the spade, and dug out from ancient graves, fortifica- tions, and dwelling-places. They do not ditter in any material respect from the flint weapons still in use among uncivilized tribes in Asia, Africa, America, etc. The weapons of most frequent occurrence are arrow-heads, spear-points, dagger-blades, and axe-heads, or celts. Flo. An arrow was formerly so called. Floating Batteries. These are used in defending harbors, or in attacks on marine fortresses. The most remarkable instance of their employment was by the French and Spaniards against Gibraltar, in the memor- able siege which lasted from July, 1779, to February, 1783. During the Russian war, 1854-55, they rendered good service before Kinburn. Now they are only used for de- fensive purposes. Floating-bridge. A kind of double bridge, the upper one projecting beyond the lower one, and capable of being moved for- ward by pulleys, used for carrying troops over narrow moats in attacking the out- works of a fort. See Bridge, Flying. Flodden Field. The last point of the Cheviots, the place where King James IV. ot Scotland, after crossing the border on August 22, 1513, with an army of over 30,000 men, took up his position, and where, on September 9, the bloody battle was fought in which the king was killed, and the Scot- tish army destroyed. Flogging. A barbarous punishment for- merly inflicted in the British army and navy. It was generally administered with a whip, or " cat-of-nine-tails," on the bare back. This mode of punishment formerly existed in the American army and navy. Flood-gate. In fortified towns, is com- posed of 2 or 4 gates, so that the besieged by opening the gates may inundate the environs so as to keep the enemy out of gun- shot. Florent, St. A fortified seaport town of Corsica, on the gulf of the same name, 6 miles west from Bastia. This town was taken by the British in 1793. ^ Florida. One of the United States of America, which was discovered by Sebastian Cabot, in the year 1497. Its conquest was accomplished by the Spaniards in 1539. It was plundered by Sir Francis Drake in 1585 ; and by Davis, a buccaneer, in 1665. It was ! invaded by the British in 1702; and again ' by Gen. Oglethorpe in 1740. In 1763 it was ceded to Britain, but in 1781 was recovered i by Spain, and confirmed to her by the peace ; of 1783. In 1821 it was purchased from Spain by the United -States. A war with \ the Seminole Indians commenced in 1835. After great trouble and expense they were ; subdued and emigrated to the Indian Terri- , tory in 1842. In 1839 its constitution was ; formed, and in 1845 it was admitted into the : Union. Florida seceded from the Union on January 10, 1861, and was one of the first to return to the Union, October 25, 1865. ; Flourish. The waving of a weapon or 1 other thing ; a brandishing ; as, the flourish ; of a sword. ! Flourish. To execute an irregular or 1 fanciful strain of music, by way of orna- ; ment or prelude, as, a flourish of trumpets. Flugelman. The leader of a file ; one who stands in front of a body of soldiers, and whose motions in the manual exercise i they all simultaneously follow ; a fugelman. i Flushed. A term frequently applied when \ men have been successful; as, flushed with i victory, etc. ; Flushing. An important seaport of the J Netherlands, in the island of Walcheren, on j the north side of the Scheldt, where that i river enters the North Sea. It was the flrst j town which declared against the Spaniards j in 1572. In 1585 the Prince of Orange j pledged it to Queen Elizabeth as security \ for a loan which she made to the people of the Netherlands in their struggle against Philip II. of Spain. The English held it till 1616. ; At the commencement of the 19th century i it came into the possession of the French, j and in 1809 was bombarded by the British i composing the Walcheren expedition, under Lord Chatham, when it sutt'ered severely. Admiral Ruyter was born here in 1607. FLUTE 167 FOOD Flute. A wind instrument which is some- times used in military bands, but never in service. Fly. The length of a flag. The dimen- sion at right angles to the stafT. The other diuK'nsion is called the hoist. Flying Army. A strong body of cavalry and infantry which is always in motion, both to cover its own garrisons and to keep the enemy in ctiiitinual alarm. Flying Artillery. Artillery trained to very rapid ('voiiitions. In passing from one part of the field to another, the men spring upon their horses in horse artillery, or on the ammunition-chests in light artillery. Flying Bridges. See Pontons. Flying Camp. A camp or body of troops foriiicd tor r:ii)id motion from one place to another. Flying Colors. Colors unfurled and left to wave in the air. Hence to return or come oft' with flying colors is to be victorious, to get the better. Flying Party. A detachment of men era- ployed lu hover about an enemy. Flying Sap. See Sat. Flying Shot. A shot fired at something in motion, as a bird on the wing, a ship under sail, etc. ; also, one who fires thus. Flying Torch. The torch used on a staflf in signaling. Fodder. See Forage. Foe. An enemy in war; a national en- emy ; a hostile army ; an adversary. Foeman. An enemy in war. Fogey. An old-fashioned or singular per- son ; an invalid soldier or sailor. Foil. A long piece of steel of an elastic temjier, mounted somewhat like- a sword, which is used to learn to fence with ; it is without a point, or any sharpness, having a button at tlie extremity covered with leather. Foil. To render vain or nugatory as an eflfort or attempt ; to frustrate ; to defeat ; to battle ; to balk ; as, the enemy attempted to pass the river, but was foiled; he foiled his adversaries. Fein. A thrust with a pike or sword. Foissonnement. A term used in fortifi- cation to signify the increase in bulk of earth after its excavation. This increase varies from one-eighth to one-twelfth gen- erally. Folding Boat. A boat of a jointed frame- work euventl with canvas, used in cam- paigning and by voyageurs. Followers, "Canrjp-. See Camp-fol- LOWEKS. Follow Up. To pursue with additional vigor some advantage which has already been gained ; as, to follow up a victory. Fone. Formerly the plural of Foe. Now obsolete. Fontainebleau. A town and parish of France, in tlie department of the Seine and Marne, 37 miles southeast from Paris. There is a celebrated royal palare here en- compa.ssed by parks and gardi-ns, mentioned in history, ever since the 13th century, as the residence of the monarchs of France This place was entered by the Austrians, February 17, 1814. liere Napoleon resigned his dignity, April 4, and bade farewell to his army, April 20, 1814. Fontenoy. A village in Belgium, in the province of Hainaut, 5 miles southwest of Tournay. Here was fought thp most fa- mous contest in the AVur ()f the Austrian Succession, on May 11, 1745, between the French under Marshal Saxe and the allies (English, Dutch, and Austrians) under the Duke of Cumberland. After a hard-fought battle the allies were forced to retreat. The loss on both sides was stated at about 7U00 men. Food. Food has two functions, building lip the body, and sup|)lying it with force. Substances used as food may 1)e divided into elements which are oxidizable and those conducive to chemical changes. Milk con- tains all the necessary elements in the best form. The nourishing elements of foods are usually cla.«sed under the heads of albu- minates, fats, carbo-hydrates, and salts. In regard to the part played by the condiments used in flavoring and seasoning, and such things as tea, cotfee, chocolate, alcohol, etc., little is positively known beyond the fact that some of them are useful in exciting the salivary and alimentary secretions. The amount of food necessary to health and vigor varies with the kind and amount of occupation, the character of the climate, and specifically with the individual. Playfair and Parkes give the following as the aver- age daily allowance of anhydrous food for an adult, in avoirdupois ounces: Jn quietude. Albuminates 2.5 Fats 1. Cailw-hydTHtes 12. SalU 5 Total 16. Hard labor or campaignitig. Albuminates 6. to 7. Fats 3.5 to 4.5 CarlKj-hydrates 16. to 18. Salto 12 to 1.5 Total 2C.7 to 31.0 European standard, for moderate xcork. AlbumiDates 4.587 FaU 2.964 Carbo-bydrutM 14.257 Salts 1.058 Total 22.866 From 70 to 90 ounces of water in addi- tion to this are usually consumed jier day. The ration of the U. S. army resolved into anhydrous elements gives the follow- ing: Soft bread, with Afresh beef, | salt pork and beans. Albuminates ~ 3.93 FmU 4.15 Oarlio-bvilrates 12.:i7 Salts.....". l.I'J Total 21.64 and .26 coffe«. FOOT 168 FORAGE-MASTER Same with rice instead of beans. Albumioates 3.47 Fats 4.11 Carbo-hydrates 12.50 Salts 1.14 Total 21.22 and .26 coffee. Hard bread, Afresh beef, ^ salt pork arid r beans. Albuminates 4.99 Fats 4.09 Carbo-hydrates 15.26 Salts 1.23 Total 25.57 and .26 coffee. Hard bread, bacon and beans. Albuminates 4.10 Fats 9.06 Carbo-hydrates 15.-26 Salts 1.29 Total 29.71 and .26 coffee. The following table, compiled from stand- ard authorities, gives an alimentary analy- sis of 100 parts of various substances used as food, by means of which the nutritive value of all ordinary diets may be calcu- lated : Meat (best quality), beefsteak Meat (average like sol- diers), less 1-5 for bone Meat (very fat, stall fed) Salt beef (Girardin)... Salt pork (Girardin)... Fat pork (Letheby) Bacon (salted and smoked) (Letheby).. Fish (Letheby) Poultry, less bone J/^ (Letheby) Butter Eggs(le88 1- 10 for shell) Cheese Bread (wheat, average quality) Biscuit, hard Wheat flour (average) Kice Oatmeal Cornmeal Peas (dry) Beans (dry) Potatoes, Iriiih Potatoes, sweet Yams Carrots Parsnips Turnips Cabbage Milk (average) Cream Sugar s g c & te S •1 s ^ < ^ 6 74.4 75. 20.5 15, 3.5 8.4 63. 49.1 44.1 14. 29.6 26.1 19. 0.2 7. 39. 15. 9.8 88 48.9 73.3 78. 18.1 21. .3 2.9 3.8 91. 735 30.8 13.5 33.5 11.6 24.3 40. 8. 1.5 49.2 8. 15.6 1.3 73.4 15. 11. 2. 70.3 10. 5. 0.8 83.2 15. 12.6 5.6 63. 13 5 10. 6.7 64.5 15. 22. 2. 53. 16. 22.5 2.2 49.9 74. 1.5 0.1 23.4 70.2 1.5 0.3 23.5 74. 2. 0.5 10.2 85. .6 25 8.4 82.4 1.125 0.54 6.39 90.5 1.1 4. 91. .2 0.5 5.8 88.3 3.5 3.1 4.5 66. 2.7 26.7 2.8 3. 96.5 Foot. The foot-soldiers; the infantry, usually designated as the foot, in distinction from the cavalry. Foot. To gain or lose ground foot by foot, is to do it regularly and resolutely ; defend- ing everything to the utmost extremity, or forcing it by dint of art or labor. Foot Artillery. Artillery troops serving on foot. Heavy artillery. Foot-band. A band of infantry. Foot-bank. See Banquette. Foot-boards. The transverse boards on the front of a limber, on which the can- noneers rest their feet when mounted. Foot-fight. A conflict by persons on foot ; in opposition to a tight on horseback. Foot Guards. Guards of infantry. The flower of the British infantry, and the garri- son ordinarily of the metropolis, comprise 3 regiments, the Grenadier, Coldstream, and Scots Fusilier Guards, in all 7 battalions, and 6307 officers and men of all ranks. Footing. To be on the same footing with another, is to be under the same circum- stances in point of service ; to have the same number of men, and the same pay, etc. Footman. A soldier who marches and fights on foot. Foot-pound. In mechanics, is the unit of work. It is simply a contraction for " one pound raised through a height of one foot." See Work. Foot-soldier. A soldier that serves on foot. Foot-ton. In England the power of mod- ern ordnance is estimated by the energy of the shot in foot-tons, divided by the num- ber of inches in the shot's circumference. The formula for calculating it is 2nr.g in which TFis the weight of the shot in tons (English), V is the velocity, 277r, the circum- ference of the shot in inches, and g the force of gravity ; is the living force of the shot, and is equal to twice the quantity of work it is capable of doing. This divided by the circumference gives a very fair esti- mate of its power in penetrating armor, as the resistance to penetration increases with the size of the projectile. This unit is also used to estimate the resisting power of armor- plating against shots of various sizes. Forage. The hay, corn, fodder, and oats required for the subsistence of the animals in the army. The allowance of forage in the U. S. army is fixed by regulations at 14 pounds of hay and 12 of grain to each horse, and 14 pounds of hay and 9 of grain to each mule in the public service. Gener- als, field-officers, staiF-officers, and cavalry officers receive forage for a certain number of private horses while actually kept in ser- vice. Forage. To collect supplies both for man and beast, from an enemy by force, from friends by impressment, but giving to friends receipts, to be paid ultimately. Forage Cap. A small low cap worn by soldiers when not in full dress. Forage-master. See Wagon-mastkr. FORAGERS 169 FORD ABLE Foragers. A detachment of soldiers who forage or collect stores for an army. Foraging. Is properly the collection of forage or other supplies systematically in towns or villages, or going with an escort to cut nourishment for horses in fields. Such operations frequently lead to engagements with the enemy. Foraging parties are fur- nished with reaping-hooks and cords. The men promptly dismount, make bundles with which they load their horses, and are pre- pared for anything that may follow. The word foraging is sometimes inaccurately used for marauding. Forbach. A small town of France, in the department of the Moselle, now a part of German Lorraine. It was occupied by the Prussians, January 10, 1814. During the Franco-Prussian war it was taken by the German generals Von Goebcn and Von Steinmetz, after a fierce contest, in which the French were defeated and compelled to retreat, August 6, 1870. Forcat. "A rest for a musket in ancient times. Force. In its military application, signi- fies an army of all branches, — artillery, cav- alry, and infantry. It is sometimes used in the" plural number, but with the same sig- nification ; as, " commander of the forces ;" and occasionally we find the word used in another sense, thus, " He is in great force." To force, in broadsword exercise, is to break an adversary's sword-guard, and either ■wound him or expose him to a wound. Force. To obtain or win by strength ; to take by violence or struggle; specifically, to capture by assault ; to storm, as a fortress. Also to impel, drive, wrest, extort, get, etc., by main strength or violence; with a fol- lowing adverb, as along, away, from, into, ihroufih, out, etc. Force. To provide with forces ; to re- inforce ; to strengthen by soldiers ; to garri- son. Force of Gravity. The force by virtue of which all terrestrial bodies fall to the earth when unsupported. As a terrestrial force it may be considered constant f1. Fort Jackson. A fort on the right bank of the 5lississippi River, about 80 miles be- low New (Orleans. On April 18, 1862, Ad- miral Farragut, then captain, commenced the bombardment of this fort and Fort St. Philip on the opposite bank of the river, and after six daj's' and nights' continuous firing, succeeded in passing with his fleet; and de- stroying the Confederate flotilla, the forts surrendered. Fort La Fayette. A fort surrounded by water in the Narrows, at the entrance of New York harbor, immediately in front of Fort Hamilton. It was used during the civil war as a prison. This fort was recently destroyed by fire. Fort Lee. A village of Bergen Co., N. J., on the Hudson River, at the foot of the Pal- isades. It was once a noted military post,, and was ca])tured by the British in 1776. Fort McAllister. See McAllistkr, Fort. Fort McHenry. Is situated on Whet- stone Point, a peninsula formed by the junc- tion of the northwest branch of the Patapsco with the main river, about 3 miles from Bal- timore, Md. The site was first occupied as a military post by the erection of a water- battery in 1775 for the defense of the town. In 17'.)4 the fort was repaired, and a star or- pentagon fort of brick-work added, when it was ceded to the United States and called by its present name. Fort Mackinaw. See Mackinaw. Fort Macon. Situated on the eastern ex- tremity of Boguo Banks, near Heauft>rt har- bor, N. C. It was surrendered to Gen. Burnside after a siege of about two weeks, in which he was aided by the blockading gun- boats, April 25, 1862. Fort-Major. A commandant of a fort in the absence of the governor. Officers em- ployed as fort-majors, if under the rank of captains, take rank and precedence as the junior captains in the garrisons in which they are serving. He is a staff-officer. Fort Marion. At St. Augustine, Fla. ; was erected by the Spaniards more than 100 years ago, and formerly called the Castle of St. Mark. Fort Mifflin. Is one of the old Revolu- tionarv fortresses, situated near the junction of the' Schuylkill and Delaware Rivers. It is one of the defenses of the city of Phila- delphia. Fort Monroe. A massive work of gran- ite surrounded by a moat, situated at Old Point Comfort, Elizabeth City Co., Va. It FORT 172 FORT was established in 1818, in which year a reservation of about 250 acres for defensive purposes was here ceded to the United States by the State of Virginia. It is the largest military work in the United States, and during the civil war was an important naval rendezvous. The artillery school of the army is established at this post. Fort Morgan. Situated at the entrance to anchorage in Mobile Bay, on the site of the old Fo'rt Bowyer, which bore such an important part in the war of 1812-15, the Americans under Maj. Lawrence having here repulsed with great loss a combined land and sea attack of the British and their Indian allies, September 15, 1814. Fort Moultrie. One of the defenses of Charleston harbor, S. C, on the west shore of Sullivan's Island, about 5 miles east- southeast of Charleston. It received its name in honor of Col. Moultrie, an officer of the Revolution, who here successfully re- sisted an attack from 9 British vessels in 1776. It was abandoned by the Federal troops in December, 18G0, and was seized bj' the Confederates, who fired from it some of the first shots of the civil war. It has been garrisoned by U. S. troops since the close of the war. Fort Niagara. On the right bank of the Niagara River, in the county of the same name, in the State of New York. It was established by La Salle in 1678; captured by the British under Sir William Johnson in 1759; surrendered to and occupied by the United States in 1796. In the war of 1812-15 it was but feebly garrisoned, and on December 19, 1813, a force of 12U0 British crossed the river, and took it by surprise, killing 65 of the garrison. Fort Ninety-Six. A stockaded fort which was situated in Abbeville District, 6 miles .from the Saluda River. It received its name from being 96 miles from the frontier fort Prince George, on the Keowee River. This fort was the scene of many exciting events during the Revolutionary war. With a gar- rison of about 350 Tories under Lieut.-Col. John Cruger, it was besieged by the Ameri- cans under Gen. Greene for twenty-seven days, May-June, 1781 ; but just as his efforts were about to be crowned with success. Gen. Greene was obliged to retreat, to avoid fall- ing into the hands of a vastly superior Brit- ish force, which was coming to relieve the beleaguered garrison. Fort Ontario. An inclosed work on the west bank of Oswego River, built in 1755, on the site of Fort Oswego. Here were the scenes of many stirring events in the wars between France and England, and of a skirmish in 1814. Fort Pickens. A fort on Santa Rosa Island, Pensacola harbor, Fla. Lieut. A. J. Slemmer in January, 1861, after evacu- ating Fort Barrancas, held this post against the Confederates until reinforced. Fort Pillow. In Lauderdale Co., Tenn., by land about 40 miles north of Memphis. It was erected by the Confederates during the civil war. It was bombarded by Federal gunboats, and evacuated by the Confed- erates, June 4, 1862. On April 12, 1864, it was captured by the Confederates, when took place an indiscriminate slaughter of the negro troops garrisoned there. Fort Plain. A Revolutionary fortress, which was situated near the junction of Os- quaga Creek and the Mohawk, in Mont- gomery Co., N. Y. For a while it was an important fortress, aflTording protection to the people in the neighborhood, and form- ing a key to the communication with the Schoharie, Cherry Valley, and Unadilla settlements. On August 21, 1780, a party of 500 Tories and Indians marched up within cannon-shot of this fort, burned 53 dwellings and as many barns, destroyed the crops, and carried oft" everything of value. Sixteen of the inhabitants were slain, and between 50 and 60 persons, chiefly women and children, were taken prisoners. Fort Pulaski. Located on Cockspur Island, at the head of Tybee Roads, com- manding both channels of the Savannah River. It was named after a Polish patriot who fought in the American war of the Revolution, and died in consequence of wounds received in the attack on Savannah, October, 1779. During the civil war, being in possession of the Confederates, it surren- dered to the Federals under Gen. Hunter, April 10, 1862. Fort Schuyler. An old Revolutionary fort, which occupied the site of old Fort Stanwix, and was built on the present site of Rome, N. Y. It is celebrated in early American history as among the strongest forts on the then northern frontier. Fort St. David. A town of Hindostan, on the sea-coast of the Carnatic, situated on the river Tripapalore. After the capture of Madras by the French in 1746, the English were besieged here without success ; and from this period it continued the head of the English settlements till 1758, when it was taken by Lally, after a short siege, and the fortifications were destroyed. Fort St. Philip. Situated on the left or north bank of the Mississippi River, nearly opposite Fort Jackson (which see). Fort Sumter. A fort celebrated in the annals of the civil war. It is situated on a small island in Charleston harbor, S. C, between 3 and 4 miles from the city. April 12-13, 1861, it was bombarded and captured by the Confederates, who thus inaugurated the civil war. It was reduced to a ruinous condition during the siegei of Charleston, in the summer of 1863, but was held by the Confederates until February 18, 1865. Fort Taylor. An inclosed casemated pentagonal brick-work in Key West harbor, Fla., commenced 1845. Fort Trumbull. Situated in the harbor of New London, Conn., on the west side of the Thames River. It is an inclosed work, and was commenced in 1839. FORT 173 FORTIFIED Fort Wadsworth. A permanent fortifi- cation on Stutcn Island, west of the Nar- rows, cotiiiiumdini; the entrance on that side of New Vurit harbor, distant from Fort Hamilton 1 mile. Fort Wagner. See MoiiRis Island. Fort Washington. A stroni; earthwork erected diiririi^ the Itcvohitionary war upon the hii^hest eminence on Manhattan Island, at a point now between 18lst and 18fJth Streets, New York City. Diirin<; the Kevo- lutionary war it fell into the hands of the English, and nearly 3000 Americans were captured. Fort Wayne. A U. S. fortification in Wayne Co., Mich., just below Detroit. It is intended to command the navigation of the Detroit Itiver. Fort William Henry. A Revolutionary fort near the iiciid of Lake George, N. Y. During the wars of the colonies it was cap- tured by the French and Indians in 1757. Fort Winthrop. One of the defenses of Boston harbor, Mass., on Governor's Island, the former site of old Fort Warren. It is a small inclosed quadrangular work, with ex- terior open barbette batteries ; commenced 1844. Fort Wood. On Bedloe's Island, New York harbor, and in the city of New York, IJ miles southwest of the Battery. It was erected in 1841, and mounted 71 guns. Fort Wool, A large unfinished inclosed casematcd work or "rip-rap'' foundation, formerly called Fort Calhoun, designed for the defense of Hampton Koads, Va. Fortalice. A small outwork of a fortifi- cation ; a fortilage ; — called iiho forfelnce. Forted. Furnished with or guarded by forts ; strengthened or defended, as by forts. Forth. The ancient name for ford. Forth Mountains. A range in the county of We.vi'ord, Ireland, celebrated for being the rendezvous of 15,000 insurgents, who, in 17'J8, met here previous to the attack and cai«ture of the town of Wexford. Fortifiable. Capable of being fortified. Fortification. Is the art of fortifying a town, or other place ; or of putting it in such a posture of defense that every one of its parts defends, and is defended by some other parts, by means oframparts, parapets, ditches, and other outworks; to the end that a small number of men within may be able to defend themselves for a considerable time against the as.saults of a numerous army without ; so that the enemy in attacking them must of necessity sufi'er great loss. There are various kinds of ft)rtification, as defensive and offen- »ive, natural, ariijicial, and permanent. De- fensive fortification is the art of surrounding a place by works so disposed as to render it capable of a lasting defense against a besieg- ing army. Offensive fortification compre- hends the various works employed in con- ducting a siege. Natural fortification consists of those obstacles which nature afl'ords to retard the progress of an enemy ; such as ■woods, deep ravines, rocks, marshes, etc. Artificial fortification is that which is raised by human ingenuity to aid the natural ad- vantages of the ground, or supply its defi- ciencies. It is divided \nio permanent &Ti6. field fortification. Permaneiit fortification is intended for the defense of towns, frontiers, and seaports, and is constructed of durable materials in time of peace; while /i«W/o;-/i- fication being raised only for the temporary purpose of protecting trooj)s in the field, its materials are those attordcu by local circum- stances and a limited time. For the princi- pal parts of a regular fortress, see Hanqukttk, Bastiox, Batakdkau, Bkkm,Cai'on.\ikre, Cavalikr, Citadel, Cordon, Cou.ntkr- 8CARP, Covered Way, Crown-work, Cu- NETTE, Curtain, Ditch, Embrasures, En- ceinte, Envelope, Epaulemest, Escarp, Esplanade, Faces, Flank, FLki^iiK, or Arrow, Fraises, Glacis, Hornwork, Lines, Loop- holes, Lunettes and Ten a il- LONs, Outworks, Palisades, Parallels, or Places of Arms, Parapet, Kamps, Rampart, Ravelin, Redan, Redoubt, Revetment, Sally ports, Slope Interior, Star Fort, Ten aille,Terre-plein,T£te8 DE Pont, Traverses, Ziqzaqs, or Boyaux of Co.mmunication. Fortification, Elementary. By some likewise called the theory of fortification, consists in tracing the plans and profiles of a fortification on paper, with scales and compasses; and examining the systems pro- posed by diflerent authors, in order to dis- cover their advantages and disadvantages. Fortification, Front of. Consists of all the works constructed upon any one side of a regular polygon, whether placed within or without the exterior side. Some authors give a more limited sense to the term "front of fortification," by confining it to two half bastions j(jined by a curtain. Fortification, irregular. Is that in which, from the nature of the ground or other causes, the several works have not their due proportions according to rule; irregularity, however, does not necessarily imply weak- ness. Fortification, Practical. Consists in form- ing a project of a fortification, according to the nature of the ground, and other necessary circumstances, to trace it on the ground, and to execute the project, together with all the military buildings, such as magazines, store- houses, barracks, bridges, etc. Fortification, Regular. Is that in which the works are constructed on a regular jxily- gon, and which has its corresponding parts equal to each other. Fortification, Semi-permanent. During the civil war in America, 18»;i-6"), it became necessary to construct strong fortifications for large cities in a short time. These cir- cumstances gave rise to a new kind of forti- fication combining certain of the arrange- ments of both permanent and field works, which were called semi-permanent works. Fortified. Strengthened and secured by forU. FORTIFY 174 FOWLING-PIECE Fortify. To strengthen and secure by forts, batteries, and other works of art; to render defensible against an attack by hos- tile forces, or capable of standing a siege. Fortilage. A little fort; a block-house. Now obsolete. Fortin. A little fort ; a field fort ; a sconce ; a fortlet. Now obsolete. Fortlet. A little fort. Fortress. Is a fortified city or town, or any piece of ground so strongly fortified as to be capable of resisting an attack carried on against it, according to rule. Also, as a verb, to furnish with fortresses ; to guard ; to fortify. Forward. A word of command given when troops are to resume their march after a temporary interruption. Fosseway. One of the military Eoman roads in England, so called from the ditches on both sides. Fotheringay. A village of England, in Northamptonshire. Richard III. was born in the castle of this place, and Mary, queen of Scots, was imprisoned and executed here. James I. razed it to the ground after his ac- cession to the throne. Foucade, or Fougade. A small mine. Fougasses. A description of small mines, constructed in front of the weakest parts of a fortification, as the salient angles and faces not defended by a cross-fire. Fougass Shell. A row of loaded shells in a box divided into two compartments. The lower compartment is filled with powder. The box is only just covered by the earth. The fougass is fired by a fuze, electricity, or a tube which explodes when trodden upon. Fougass, Stone. A sort of natural mortar formed by an excavation in the ground. At the bottom of the excavation is placed the charge in a box, over this comes a shield of wood, and over that again is placed about 5 cubic yards of stones, each of which should weigh not less than 1 pound. The excava- tion is in the shape of a frustrum of a cone, and makes an angle of about 40° with the horizon. The charge is about 80 pounds of powder, and the stones will fall over a par- allelogram about 110 yards by 120 yards. Fougeres. A town and parish of France, 28 miles northeast from Rennes. This town was the scene of many engagements between the English and the French, from the 11th to the 15th centuries. Fougette (Fr.). An Indian sky-rocket, a species of firework which is frequently used by the Asiatics. It is made of the hol- low tube of the bamboo, of a very large size, filled with the usual composition of rockets. The rod is only a part of the same bamboo, the greater part of which is cut away. Foughard. Near Armagh, Northern Ire- land. Here Edward, brother of Robert Bruce, after invading Ireland in 1315, was defeated by »Sir John Bermingham in 1318. Bruce was killed by Roger de Maupis, a burgess of Dundalk. Fouiller {F?-.). To search. In a military sense, it signifies to detach small bodies of infantry round the flanks of a column that is marching through a wood, for the purpose of discovering an ambuscade, and of giving timely notice that it may be avoided. The same precaution is necessary when a body of men advance towards or enter a village. Fouling. The action of gunpowder in dirt\'ing the bore of a gun. Cannon for this and other reasons are sponged after each round. Foundation. In military architecture, is that part of a building which is under- ground, or the mass of stone, brick, etc., which supports a building, or upon which the walls of a superstructure are raised ; or it is the coffer or bed dug below the level of the ground to raise a building upon. Founder. A person who casts cannon, etc. Foundery. In military matters, the art of casting all kinds of ordnance, such as cannon, mortars, etc. Foundry. A place for casting all kinds of ordnance ; a foundery. Four. A place of confinement in Paris to which vagabonds and persons who could not give any satisfactory account of themselves were committed ; and when once shut up had their names registered, and were enlisted for the old French government. These Fours added annually 2000 men at least to the king's regular army ; by which means the capital was relieved of a multitude of thieves, pickpockets, etc. Fourage (Fr.). Forage ; in the artillery, it is used figuratively to signify hay, straw, or anything else of vegetable growth, which is used to ram into the bore of a cannon for the purpose of cleansing it. Fourager (Fr.). To forage, or look about for provender and provisions. It likewise means among the French to ravage, desolate, pillage, and waste a country for the purpose of throwing the inhabitants into disorder. The word is derived from fo7-as agere, or to seek for forage in the field. Fourier {Fr.). A quartermaster belong- ing to a cavalry or infantry regiment. In France there were fonriers-majors who com- posed a part of the cavalry staff. Sergeant- fourier and corporal-fourier answer to our quartermaster-sergeant. Fourniment {Fr.). A horn formerly used, which held about 1 pound of gunpowder to prime cannon. It was likewise used by cav- alry and infantry soldiers, who slung it across their shoulders. The artillerists kept it in a belt. Fowley. A decayed seaport town of Eng- land, in the county of Cornwall, at the mouth of a small river of the same name. It became famous in the old French wars, and in 1347 sent 37 tall ships to the siege of Calais. It was burned by the French in 1457. Fowling-piece, A term sometimes ap- plied to shot-guns of large caliber and great power, for shooting ducks, geese, and other large birds. FOX 175 FRANKFORT Fox. Tho old English broadsword. Fox Indians. A tribe of American ab- oriuitu's of the Algonkin stock, associated •with the Sacs. They formerly dwelt in the southern part of Iowa, but now occu|)y lands in Indian Territory. See Indians and TIIEIK AOKNCIES. Fraisers (Fr.). To plait, knead, or drill. In a military sense to fraise or fence; as, fraitier mh haitnlion, is to fraise or fence all the infantrymen with pikes, to oppose the irruption of cavalry, should it charge them in a plain. At present it means to secure a battalion by opposing bayonets obliquely forward, or cross ways in such a manner as to render it impossible for horsemen to act against it. Fraises. Kows of palisades planted hor- izontally, or nearly so, as at the edge of a ditch, or on the steep exterior of a parapet. Fraises are generally 7 or 8 feet long, and about 5 inches thick. When an army in- trenches itself, the parapets of the retrench- ment are often fraised in the parts exposed to an attack. To /raise a battalion is to line or cover it every way with bayonets, that it may withstand the shock of a body of horse. France. A country of Western Europe, •which was known to the Romans by the name of Gaul (which see). In the decline of their power it was conquered by the Franks, a j)eople of Germany, then inhabit- ing Franconia, where they became known about 240. These invaders gave the name to the kingdom (Franken-ric, Frank's Kingdom); but the Gauls, being by far tho more numerous, are the real ancestors of the modern French. For details of important events in France, see separate articles. Franches (Fr.). Les canipnpnies fran- ehes, free companies, were bodies of men detached and separated from the rest of the army, having each a chief, or commandant. They consisted chiefl\' of dragoons, hussars, etc., and their peculiar duty was to make irruptions into an enemy's country. They may not improperly be called land-pirates, as their chief occupation was to harass and plunder the enemy and his adherents, in whatever manner they could, without pay- ing any regard to military forms. The per- sons who composed these corps were termed partisans. They always accompanied the main army in time of war, and were dis- tributed among the difiorent garrison towns in France during peace. They were common to every power in Europe; the Pandours and Ilulans were of this description. They were the worst afflictions of war; and gen- erally as fatal to their friends as to their enenues. Francisque (Fr.). A battle-axe; an an- cient wea|H)n formed like an axe, used principally by the Franks. Franco-Prussian War. The origin of this dreadful series of sanguinary conflicts is ascribed to the jealousy of the emperor of the French of the greatly increased power of Prussia, in consequence of the successful issue of the war with Denmark in 1804, and more especially of that with Austria in 1800. By thus'e events the German Confed- eration was annulled, and the North Ger- man Confederation established under the supremacy of the king of Prussia, whose territories were also enlarged bj' the an- nexation of Hanover, Hesse-Casel, Nassau, Frankfort, and other provinces. This great augmentation of the power of Prussia was mainly due to the policy of Count Bismarck- Schonhausen, prime minister. In March, 1857, a dispute arose through the emperor's proposals for the purchase of Luxemburg of the king of Holland, which was strongly opposed by Prussia, but the affair was event- ually settled, by a conference of the repre- sentatives of the great powers declaring Luxemburg neutral. Both governments, however, had prepared for the impending struggle, and the crisis came when Prince Leopold of Ilohenzollern-Sigmaringen con- sented to become a candidate for the throne of Spain, about July 3, 1870. This was violently denounced by the French govern- ment, and eventually, after some negotia- tion and the intervention of Great Britain, the prince, with the consent of his sover- eign, declined the prot!ered crown. This submission did not satisfy the French gov- ernment and nation, and the demand for a guarantee against the repetition of such an acceptance irritated the Prussian govern- ment, and led to the termination of the ne- gotiations. War was declared by the em- peror July 1-5, 1870, and actually com- menced about July '2-i. It did not end until January 27, 1871, and France was overrun by the victorious Prussians and their auxil- iaries. On May 10, 1871, a definitive treaty of peace was concluded at Frankfort-on-the- Main, and on account of the rapid payment of the war expenses the last German soldier left French soil in July, 1873. For impor- tant battles and engagements during the war, see separate articles. Franconia (Gcr. Frankcn). An old duchy, afterwards a circle of the Germanic empire, between Upper Saxony, the Upper and Lower Rhine, Swabia, Bavaria, and Bohemia. Since 180<5, it has been divided between the grand duchies of Baden and Hesse, and the kingdoms of Bir\-aria and Sax- ony. Franc-Tireurs. Literally free-shopers, and the wire at the end of the ser- rated part doubled under to prevent dis- placement. The other end of the wire is doubled and twisted by machinery. The lonij tube is filled with rifie-powder, its upper end being covered with shellac-var- nish blackened with lamf)-black, and its lower end closed with shoemaker's wax and dipped into varnish. One great advantage of the friction tube is that it gives an enemy at night no clue to the position of a piece as does the lighted port-fire or slow-match. Friedland. A town of East Prussia, in the circle of Kunigsberg, on the Alle. This place is famous for being the scene of the Dattle gained by Napoleon I. over the Rus- sians and Prussians on June 14, 1807, and which led to the peace of Tilsit. Frill. "Was an ornamental appendage to the shirt which officers and soldiers generally wore with regimentals. A small aperture ■was usually made at the top to admit the hook and eyeof the uniform coat. Enlisted men generally wore frills detached from the coat. Frisians. Were an ancient Teutonic race, dwelling together with the Batnvi, the Bruc- teri, and the Chauci, in the extreme north- west of Germany, between the mouths of the Rhine and Ems. They became tributaries of Rome under Drusus, and for a time re- mained faithful to the Roman alliance; but, in 28, they were driven to hostilities by the oppression of their protectors, and although partially subdued, they again rose against the Romans under Civilis. They were de- feated and compelled to embrace Christianity in 689 and 785. Frisrutter. An instrument made of iron, and used for the purpose of blocking up a haven or a river. The beams through which tbo upright bars pass must be 12 feet in length, and the upright bars that go through the beam must be of that length so that when one of these iron frisruttrrs is let down into a haven or river, the perpendic- ular bars of this iron instrument shall be deep enough to reach at high water within 6 feet of the surface. Friuli. An old province of Italy, belong- ing to Venice ; nuide a duchy by Alboin tlie Lombard, when he established his kingdom about 570. It was conquered by Charle- magne; and lienri, a Frenchman, made duke, who was assassinated in 799. It was conquered by Venice in 1420. Frock. In the British service, the undress regimental coat of the guards, artillery, and royal marines. Frogged. A term used in regard to uni- forms, and applied to stripes or workings of braid or hue, as ornaments, mostly on the breast, on the plain cloth of which a coat is made. Fronde (i-V.). A sling. This weapon ling, mis y the Hugi was used in France by the Huguenots at Sancerre, as late as the year 1572, in order to save their powder. There were two kinds one which was used in throwing a stone from the arm, and the other that was fixed to a lever, and was .so contrived that a large quantity of stones might be thrown out of a machine, either from a camp into a besieged town, or from a town into the enemy's camp. This machine has been used since the in- vention of cannon. The fronde or sling was used by the Romans on three difierent <»c- casions, viz. : when they sent their light- armed men, called velltes, forward toskirmish before a general engagement ; when they wished to drive the enemy from under the walls of a town which they were preparing to storm, and finally to harass and wound the men in the enemy's works. This weapon, in fact, together with the bow and arrow, may be numbered among the primitive arms of mankind. Fronde, Civil Wars of the. These oc- curred in France in the minority of Louis XIV. (ltJ48-5;5), during the government of the queen, Anne of Austria, and Cardinal Mazarin, between the followers of the court and the nobility, and the Parliament and the citizens. The latter were called Fron- denrs {siinffers), it is said, from an incident in a street quarrel. Front. A word of command signifying that the men are to face to their proper front ; also to cast their eyes to the front after dressing. Front. The foremost rank of a battalion, squadron, or any other body of men. T\\Q front nf a gun is the direction in which the muzzle points ; but when a field-piece is limbered, its front is the direction in which the pole points. The front of a work or forti- fication is the side it presents to the enemy. The front of an army, except in retreating, is the side towards the enemy. A column is said to be right in front when it is formed by facing or wheeling to the right. Front, Bastioned. A curtain connecting two half bastions. Front of Operations. See Stratkgy. Frontal. A front piece; something worn on the forehead or face; or the metal face- guard of a soldier. Frotited. Formed with a front ; as, fronted brigades. Frontier. That part of a country which fronts or faces another country ; the marches ; the border, confines, or extreme part of a country, bordering on another country; hence, a fortified or guarded position. Also, lying on the exterior part ; as, a frontier town. Acquired on a frontier; as, frontier exjierience. Frontiera. A town of Portugal, in the provinceof Alemtejo, lomiles from F^stremos. The Spaniards were defeated here in 1(363 by the Portuguese under Schomberg. Froschweiler. See Worth. Frumentarius. A Roman soldier, whose FUEL 178 FUNERAL duty was to bring supplies of provisions to the army, and the earliest notice of all hostile movements. They were also, under the Eoman empire, officers who acted as spies in the provinces, and reported to the emperor whatever seemed worthy of note. They appear to have derived this appellation from their gathering news in the same way that the Frumentarii or purveyors collected corn. Fuel. The matter or aliment of fire ; any- thing capable of ignition. There is a certain allowance of fuel made by government to regiments and companies. Officers in the U. S. army, at the present time, buy their fuel ; in other countries it is furnished. Fuente-la-Higuera. A city of Spain, in the province of Valencia. At this place Jourdan, Soult, and Suchet, after the rout of Salamanca, met with their retreating forces, and held a council how best to get back into France, when Ballesteros, by re- fusing to obey Wellington's order, opened the way for them to Madrid, in October, 1812. Fuehterabia. A very ancient city of Spain, in the province of Guipuzcoa. The Prince of Conde was repulsed here by the admiral of Castile, 1638. In 1794 the French completely dismantled the place. Fuentes de Onore. A small town of Spain, 16 miles from Ciudad Rodrigo. It was the scene of some sharp fighting in May, 1811, between the French and the British. Fugitive. One who flees from his station or duty ; a deserter ; one who flees from danger. One who has fled or deserted and taken refuge under another power, or one who has fled from punishment. Fugleman (an incorrect method of pro- nouncing Jiiigelmon). A well-drilled intel- ligent soldier advanced in front of the line, to give the time in the manual and platoon exercises. The word fugel is derived from the Germans, and signifies a wing ; the man having been originally posted on the right wing. Fulcrum. A cast-iron post at the breech of large cannon used as a support for an iron bar in giving elevations ; called also ratchet post. Full Charges. The charges of powder required in actual service. Full Pay. The full amount of an officer's regimental pay. When an officer receives that he is said to be on full pay. Full Pay, Retired. In the British ser- vice, an officer of 30 years' full pay is per- mitted to retire on the full pay of his regi- mental rank, with a rank one step higher than that which he holds by brevet or otherwise. Full Sap. See Sap. Full Uniform. See Dress Uniform. Fulminate. A salt of fulminic acid. Fulminate of mercury is the most useful. It explodes readily by percussion, by a heat of 367° Fahr., when touched with strong sulphuric or nitric acid, by sparks from flint and steel and by the electric spark. It is used for percussion-caps, primers, fuzes, etc. From its peculiar power to produce detona- tions it is the detonating agent for modern blasting powders, containing nitro-glycerine, also, for gun-cotton. Detonating caps, or ex- ploders, are copper caps containing from 3 to 25 grains of the fulminate. In ordinary blasting, where the tube fuze is used, the cap is placed on the end of the fuze and crimped around it. The cap is then buried a short distance in the blasting charge, or cartridge. See Explosives. Fumigation. To correct and purify an infectious or confined atmosphere, such as is often found in transports, fumigations are necessary. The materials recommended for the purpose are brimstone with saw-dust; or nitre with vitriolic acid ; or common salt with the same acid. Fund. There are several kinds of funds in the U. S. service, viz. : post fund, which is constituted by the troops baking their own bread and thereby saving 33^ per cent., the difference between bread and flour ; the post trader also pays an assessment of 10 cents a month for every officer and soldier in the garrison, which is carried to the credit of the fund. This fund is used to defray ex- penses of the post bakery, garden, school, library and reading-room, chapel, printing- press, etc. Fifty per cent, of the post fund, after deducting expenses of the bakery, is set aside and transferred to the regimental treasurer ; this constitutes a regimental fund, which is appropriated exclusively for the maintenance of a band, and, when a regi- ment does not have access to a post library, for the purchase of books and papers. The savings arising from an economical use of rations of the company (excepting the sav- ings of flour) constitute the company fund, which is kept in the hands of the company commander, and disbursed by him exclusively for the benefit of the enlisted nieti of the com- pany, as follows : For enlisted men's mess, for garden seeds and utensils, for purchase of books, papers, etc., when the company does not have access to a post library or reading-room, and for such exercise and amusements as may be, in the judgment of the commanding officer, for the benefit or comfort of the enlisted men of the company. Funeral Honors. If an officer dies when on duty with his regiment, or engaged on staff employ, he is buried with military honors. His hat, epaulettes, and sword are placed upon the coffin, soldiers support it, and officers bear the pall ; the troops march at a slow and solemn pace, with arms re- versed ; the drums are muffled ; the band plays the dead march ; and after the body has been lowered into the grave, a party of infantry, cavalry, or artillery, fire three vol- leys over it, and then retire. The strength of the funeral party, as it is called, depends upon the rank of 'the deceased. Artillery officers are sometimes honored by discharges of cannon. When a cavalrj' officer is buried his horse follows the cortege. When the fu- FURL 179 FUSILS norul of un officer entitled, when living, to a salute, takes place at or near a military post, minute-guns are fired while the remains are hcing borne to the place of interment; but the number of such guns is not to exceed that which the officer was entitled to as a salute when living. After the remains are deposited in the grave, a salute correspond- ing to the rank of the deceased officer will be fired, — three salvos of artillery, or three volleys of musketry. In the event of a flag-officer of the navy, whether of the United States or of a foreign country, dying afloat, and the remains are brought ashore, minute-guns are fired from the ship while the bh one with arms for defense. Furniture. In a military sense, applies to certain articles which arc allowed in bar- racks, to which are added household utensils, etc. Horse furniture, are ornaments and embellishments which are adopted by mili- tary men when they are mounted for service or parade, consisting chiefly of housings, saddle-cloth, etc. Furruckabad. A fortified town, and capi- tal of a district of the same name, in the province of Agra, Hindustan, about a mile from the Ganges. Lord Lake defeated Hol- kar at this place in 1H04. Fiirth. A town of Franconia, situated at the confluence of the Kezat and Pcgiiitz, 4 miles northwest from Nuremberg. In 10.T2 a battle was fought here between Gustavus Adoli)hus and \Vallenstein, in which the latter had the advantage. Fuse. See Fuzk. Fusil. A light musket; a steel which strikes fire out of a flint; a tinder-box; the piece of steel which covers the pan of a fire- arm. Fusil k. Chevalets. A species of fusils upon rests, which was recommended by Mar- shal Vauban, to be used at the commence- ment of a siege, about 50 or 100 toises in front of the glacis, at the entrances of nar- row passages, etc. Fusiliers. In the British service, were formerly soldiers armed with a lighter fusil or musket than the rest of the army ; but at present all regiments of foot carry the same rifle. Fusilier is therefore simply a histori- cal title borne by a few regiments. The royal regiment of Scotch Fusiliers was raised in 1078 ; the royal regiment of Welsh Fusiliers was raised in KiSo, and another royal regi- ment of Welsh Fusiliers was raised in 1688-89. It is always presumed that these corps like the guards possess an esprit de corps, which is peculiar to themselves. The Fusilier regi- ments never had any ensigns, their junior officers ranked as second lieutenants, taking precedence of all ensigns, and the 7th or Koyal Fusiliers have no second lieutenants, so that their junior officers rank with the rest of the army according to the date of their several commissions, as lieutenants. Fusilier regiments wear a bear-skin head- dress. Among the French when pikes were in use, each regiment had only 4 fusiliers, exclusive of 10 grenadiers, who carried the fusil or musket. Among the French there was a distinct regiment of fusiliers under the immediate command of the master of the ordnance. Fusillade. A simultaneous discharge of fire-arms in a military exercise; as, a grand fusillade. To shoot down by a simultaneous discharge of fire-arms. " Fusillade them all." Fusils k I'Eppe (Fr.). Fusils with long bayonets, shaped like a cut-and-thrust sword. These weapons were recommended as ex- tremely useful in the rear rank of a battalion, or in detached bodies that are stationed for the defense of baggage, etc. Fusils, Mousquets ( Fr. ). A sort of fusil which was invented bv Marshal Vauban, FUSTUARIUM 180 FUZES and wliich was so contrived that in case the flint did not strike fii-e, the powder might be inflamed by means of a small match which was fixed to the breech. Fustuarium. In Roman antiquity, a method of inflicting capital punishment upon any soldier guilty of theft, desertion, or similar crimes. "When the accused had been found guilty he was made to stand in front of the legion to which he belonged. One of the tribunes then touched him lightly with a stick, and all the soldiers immediately rushed upon the criminal and beat him to death with clubs (fustes). If he escaped — as he was allowed to do if he could, but which was rarely if ever possible — he was forbidden ever to return to his native coun- try, and his nearest relatives were not al- lowed to receive him into their houses. This method of capital punishment continued to be enforced even under the empire, Futtehghur. A town of Hindostan, Brit- ish district of Furruckabad, on the western bank of the Ganges. In the vicinity is the British military cantonment. Holkar, the Mahratta chief, appeared before the place in 1804, and was preparing for the assault of the fort, when the arrival of the British army under Lord Lake drove him into pre- cipitate flight. Fuyard {Fr.). A runaway; a coward. Un corps fuyard, a regiment that has been in the habit of running away. Fuze. In gunnery, is a contrivance for igniting the bursting charge in a hollow projectile at any point of its flight. The simplest classification of fuzes is the time fuze, the percussion fuze, and the concussion fuze, which are usually defined as follows : Fuze, Concussion. Is a fuze that is operated by the shock of discharge, or the shock of impact, excluding direct percussion effects. It is especially applicable to hollow spherical projectiles. The usual dift'erence between the concussion and percussion fuze is, that the former explodes no matter what point of the projectile strikes, whereas the latter requires the projectile to strike at or near the front end ; but these are exceptions to the rule. Fuze, Percussion. As shown below, is a fuze that receives no flame from the charge in the gun, but at the moment of impact a flame is generated by means of fulminates, which produces the explosion of the charge in the shell. Most varieties of this fuze consist essentially of a brass or pewter /wze- plug, or case which contains an iron or steel pluyiger terminating in a nipple which car- ries a common percussion-cap ; the pluyiger is held in its place at the lower end of the fuze-plug by a collar-screw, wire, or other device; when the projectile strikes the plunger breaks loose, and by its inertia is driven forward with such force as to explode the cap and ignite the charge. This form of fuze is used for rifle-shells. Fuze, Time. This fuze is composed of a case of paper, wood, or metal, inclosing a column of burning composition ignited by the charge in the gun ; it burns for a certain time, at the end of which the flame is com- municated to the bursting charge of the projectile. This fuze is used for both shells and case-shot. Fuze, Blasting. A fuze used to fire charges in mines and quarries. It consists usually of a flexible tube filled with a slow- burning composition. The tube is made of various materials, and is usually waterproof. In Beckford's fuze the composition is en- cased in flax, which is covered with gutta- percha, and wound with varnished tape. This fuze is used extensively in England. Fuze-Composition. See Laboratory Stokes. Fuze, Electric. A fuze ignited by the passage of an electric current. It is used for firing torpedoes, for the simultaneous discharge of guns and charges in mining. The principle used is the heating of the wire by the current at a point of resistance. The point of resistance is called the bridge. Being surrounded by a priming of powder or other explosive, its sudden heating causes ignition in the fuze. The bridge is made in various ways, — by connecting the current wires by a fine platinum wire; by passing the current through a chemical mixture rendered conducting by containing a salt of copper ; also by filing the main wire nearly in two, and rubbing the cut with a lead- pencil. Fuze-implements. Are the fuze-cutter, fuze-setter, fuze-mallet, fuze-saw, etc. See Implements. Fuze, Safety. A name given to a blast- ing fuze filled with quick-burning composi- tion, but sufficiently long to be ignited at a safe distance from the charge. Fuze, Tape. So called from its shape. May be quick or slow burning. Fuzes, Combination. Are fuzes com- bining the principles of the simple fuzes. The term is specially applied to time-percus- sion fuzes, which are so arranged as to burst either at the end of a certain time or upon striking the object. No very exact classifi- cation of fuzes has ever been made. If we consider all the operations necessary to the action of the fuze, only certain time fuzes can be considered simple. Concussion fuzes usually depend for their action upon some operation which takes place between the discharge and the time of impact, which be- stows a character of sensitiveness which would, if existing at the time of loading, make them too dangerous to handle. Per- cussion fuzes, also, must have a similar sup- plementary operation, but this usually takes place at the time of discharge, or upon im- pact. It is by this means that the safety- pin, screw, or wire holding the plunger is removed or broken. For these reasons these fuzes are ordinarily time-concussion and concussion-percussion, respectively. A fuze, however, usually takes its name from the im- mediate cause of the explosion. If this is due FUZES 181 FYROZ to the explosion of a fulminate by a direct blow, it is a percussion fuze. If tlie shock acts in a different way, it is called concussion. If the explosion takes place at the end of a given time, we have a time fu/.e. There arc also fuzes which may be called centrtjugal- percussion, eonciission-r/iemical, concusxion- jr*7nc^ion, etc. ,examplesof which will be given. It is readily seen that it is difficult to make a classification which will cover all the in- genious devices which have been invpnted. The simplest time fuze is one which is ignited by the flame of discharge. In the U. 8. field and siege .service the paper fuze is used for rifle projectiles, both shells and case-shot, and in the field service the Bor- mann for spherical. For larger spherical pro- jectiles, the jiaper case is inclosed in a hollow plug of wood, as in mortar-shells, and in a brass ))lug in the sea-coast service. In the latter the outer end of the plug is closed with a brass cap having a crooked chaunie, to prevent the burning composition from being extinguished in striking water. In the U. S. service percussion fuzes are used only for rifle-shells. The fuze ordinarily employed is, strictly speaking, a concussion- percussion, since the safety wire must be ruptured by the shock of impact before the cap can be exploded. The time fuze already described can be used in smooth-bore guns and in muzzle- loading rifles ; but in breech-loading guns or guns without windage, the fuze composi- tion cannot be ignited directly by the flame of discharge, — one of the strongest argu- ments in favor of muzzle-loaders. The time fuze for breech-loading guns is ignited by an interior contrivance, usually a plunger and cap; it is, consequently, a pn-cussion- iime fuze. Such is the nature of the Arm- ftrong time fuze and the time fuzes used in Germany and Russia. Time fuzes are abso- lutely necessary to the successful use of case-shot or shrapnel, which must be burst in the air. The latest invention in time fuzes is the substitution of clock-work for the column of burning composition as a time-keeper, — a Yankee idea which has not yet received any official recognition, or been eubjectcd to public test. The Hoxer fuze, used extensively in Eng- land, is a time fuze consisting of a column of composition driven in a wooden plug, which is closed at the lower end. In some forms of the fuze small longitudinal chan- nels filled with rifle-powder communicate with the bursting charge. The time-scale is a row of holes in the side of the plug, one of which is bored through to the com- position in setting the fuze. The flame communicates with the charge either through the side hole directly, or by the side channels downwards through the end of the plug. Two kinds of fuzes are used, — the simple time fuze for muzzle-loaders, and ihc percussion-titne for breech-loaders. The Splingard fuze, invented by Captain Splingard, of the Belgian service, is a good I example of a time-concussion fuze. It con- I sists of a column of pure composition sur- I rounding a hollow spindle of f)laster of Paris. The compositi.). Wages. Among the French this term signified the fruits or compensa- tions which were derived by individuals from appointments given by the crown, whether of a military, civil, or judicial na- ture, or for service done at sea or by land. Gain. To conquer ; to get the better ; as, we gained the day, etc. To gain ground, im- plies to take up the ground which a retiring enemy vacates. Gaine de Flamme {Fr.). A sort of linen sheath or cover, into which the stafl" of a flag or pendant is put. Gaine de Pavilion {Fr.). A cloth or linen band, which is sewed across the flag, and through which the diflerent ribbons are interlaced. Gaines's Mill. In Hanover Co., Va., about 20 miles northeast of Eichmond. Here, on June 27, 1862, was fought one of the " seven days' contests" between the Con- federate forces under Gen. Lee and the Federals under Gen. McClellan, in which the latter were victorious. Gain-pain. Bread-gainer; a term applied in the Middle Ages to the sword of a hired soldier. Gaiters. A sort of cover for the leg, usu- ally made of cloth, and are either long, as reaching to the knee, or short, as only reach- ing just above the ankle; the latter are termed half-gaiters, and are worn by infantry soldiers in Europe. Galatia. An ancient province of Asia Minor; in the 3d century B.C., the Gauls under Brennus invaded Greece, crossed the Hellespont, and conquered Troas, 278 ; were checked by Attains in a battle about 239 ; and then settled in what was called after- wards Gallogrsecia and Galatia. The country was ravaged by Cn. Manlius, 189 B.C., and was finally annexed to the Roman empire, 25 B.C. Galatone. A very ancient town in the south of Italy, in the province of Otranto, GALEA 183 GAMBESON about 9 miles northeast of Gallipoli. In the struggle between Joanna, queen of Naj)les, and Alfonso, Galatone having declared for the former, was besieged by Alfonso, and its ramparts destroyed. Galea. Among the Romans, a light casque, head-piece, or morion, coming down to the shoulders, and commonly of brass; though Camillus, according to Plutarch, ordered those of his army to be of iron, as being the stronger metal. Galeated. Covered, as with a helmet. Galet {Fr.). A round stone thrown from a sling or bow. Gaiicia. A province of Northwest Spain, was coniiuerecl by D. Junius Brutus, 13G B.C., and by the Vandals, 41'J, and was sub- dued by successive invaders. Gaiicia. A kingdom or province of the Austrian empire, which formerly constituted a part of Poland. East Gaiicia was acquired by the emper(jr of Germany at the partition in 1772; and West Gaiicia at that of 17'J5. The latter was ceded to the grand duchy of "Warsaw in 1809; but recovered by Austria in 1815. Gall. To injure; to harass; to annoy ; as, the troops were galled by the shot of an enemy. Gallant. Noble in bearing or spirit; brave; high-spirited; courageous; heroic; magnanimous; as, a gallant youth; a gallant officer. Gallantly. In a gallant manner, spirit or bearing ; nobly ; bravely ; as, to fight gal- lantly ; to defend a jilace gallantly. Gallantry. Bravery ; courageousness ; heroism ; intrepidity ; as, the troops attacked the fort with great gallantry. Gallas. A warlike race occupjMng the south and east of Abyssinia. They first appear in history in the Itjth century, when they extended their conquests from the interior of Africa, laying waste by constant incursions the countries of Eastern Africa to the mountains of Abyssinia. Politically they do not form a single nation, but are divided into numerous tribes, forming sepa- rate kingdoms and states, which are fre- quently at war with each other. Gallery. An underground passage, whether cut in the soil or built in masonry ; it forms the communication between the inner and exterior works of a fortified place. "When prepared for defense, it is a defensive gallery. In military mines, galleries are the underground passages leading to and connecting the mine chambers. Scarp and counter. Hcarp galleries are covered passages built in the scarp and counterscarp to give a flanking fire in tlie ditch. Gallery Descent of a Ditch. Is the term applied when the besiegers cross the ditch by an underground jiassage. Gallet "( Fr. ). 6ce J alkt. Galling Fire. A sustained discharge of cannon or small-arms, which by its execution greatly annoys the enemy. Gallipoli. An important town and sea- port of Turkey in Europe, in the province of Kumili, is situated on the i)eninsula of the same name at the northeast extremity of the Dardanelles, and about 130 miles west-south- west of Constantinople. It was once fortified, but its only defense now is a sorry square castle with an old tower. In 1357 the town was taken by the Turks, and formed the earliest Turkish possessions in Europe. In 1854 the allied armies of England and France occupied it. Gallipoli. An important commercial sea- ?ort of Italy, in the Neapolitan province of 'erra di Otranto. It has a good harbor, and in time of war is an important position, being strongly protected by fortifications and a castle. In 450 the town was sacked by the Vandals ; in 1284 it was destroyed and almost depopulated by Charles ofAnjou; and during subsequent centuries sufiered severely from the Venetians, French, Span- iards, and Turks. In 1809 it repulsed an attack from the English fiotilla. Gallop. A mode of running by a quad- rujied, jiarticularly by a horse, by lifting alternately the fore feet and the hind feet together, in successive leaps or bounds. A word of command in the cavalry service. Galloper. A carriage on which very small guns are conveyed, having shafts on which the gun may be conveyed without a limber. This carriage is no longer used. Gallowglass. In ancient times, a heavy- armed foot-soldier of Ireland and the West- ern Isles. Galway. A seaport town of Ireland, and capital of Galway County. It was originally surrounded with walls. It was conquered by Richard de Burgo in 1232; in lt»90 the city declared for King James, but was taken by Gen. Ginckel immedi- ately after the battle of Aughrim, July 12, 1C)91. Gamala. A town and strong fortress in Palestine, frequently mentioned by Jo- sephus. Its site, though so remarkable and minutely described, had been forgotten for nearly 18 centuries ; but it has latterly been identified with El-Ho.fsn, which lies to the east of the Sea of Tiberias, nearly opposite the town. In the Jewish rebellion it re- volted against Agrippa, whe besieged it for seven months, but without success. It was afterwards, however, taken by Vespasian after a spirited resistance, and an indis- criminate slaughter of the inhabitants took {ilace, 4000 being put to the sword, and 5000 leing said to have thrown themselves from the walls, and to have been dashed to pieces on the rocks below. Gambado. A case of leather, formerly used to defend the leg from mud, and in riding on horseback. Gambeson (/>.). A term which the French formerly applied to a coat of mail that was worn under the cuirass. It wjis likewise called coitr patnhoi.iie. It was made of two strong cloths interwoven with pointed worsted. GAMELLE 184 GARDES Gamelle (Fr.). A wooden or earthen bowl formerly used among the French sol- diers for their messes. It generally con- tained the quantity of food which was allotted for 3, 5, or 7 men belonging to the same room. The porridge-pots of the navy were made of wood, and held a certain al- lowance. During the monarchy of France, subaltern officers and volunteers were fre- quently punished for slight offenses by being sent to the gnmelle, and excluded from their regular mess ; they were put upon short allowance according to the nature of their transgression. Gantlope {Fr.). Corruptly 5rff?^M/^e^, from the French gant, a glove. A military pun- ishment, which consisted in passing along the whole line, and receiving a blow from every man's iron glove or gauntlet {gantelet). Whips and canes were subsequently used ; this mode of punishment is now obsolete. Gaol. A withe used for binding fascines or securing gabions. Gap. An opening for a passage or en- trance; an opening which implies a breach. To stand hi the gap, to expose one's self for the protection of something ; to make defense against any assailing danger. To atop a gap, to secure a weak point ; to repair a defect. Gap. A small town of France, capital of the department Hautes Alps. It was sacked and almost wholly reduced to ashes by Vic- tor Amadeus of Savoy in 1692. Gar. The general term used by the Saxons for a weapon of war. Garamantes. A Libyan people of the old race called Amnzergh, who in ancient times inhabited the largest oasis of the desert of Sahara. When the Romans became masters of North Africa, they found it necessary to repress the barbarian tribes, and accordingly Cornelius Balbus Gaditanus the younger, as pro-consul, was sent against this people. He succeeded in defeating them, and obtained the honors of a triumph; but, owing to their nomadic character, he was unable thoroughly to subdue them. Gar9on-Major (Fr.). An officer, so called in the old French service. He was selected from among the lieutenants of a regiment to assist the aid-majors in the gen- eral details of duty. Garda, Lake of. A lake of Northern Italy, lying between the provinces of Lom- bardy and "Venice. In 1796 the battle of Rivoli was fought near its eastern shore, in which Bonaparte defeated Wurmser. Gardant. In heraldry, is said of an ani- mal which is represented full-faced, and looking forward. Garde (Fr.). Guard. Garde de I'armee, the grand guard of an army. Guards in the old French service were usually divided into three sorts : guards of honor, fatigue guard, and the general's guard. That was called a guard of honor in which the officers and men were exposed to danger. A fatigue guard belonging to a garrison or camp. A gen- eral's guard was mounted before the door or !' gate of a house in which the commanding officer resided. Garde-General d'Artillerie {Fr.). An officer was so called under the old govern- ment of France, who had charge of all the ordnance and stores belonging to his majesty for the land service. He gave receipts for all ammunition, etc., and his bills were paid by the treasurer-general of the army. Garde, Imperiale [Fr.]. See Guards, Imperial. Garde, Nationale {Fr.). See National Guards. Garde Pluie {Fr.\. Literally means a fence, or cover against rain. This machine was originally invented by a Frenchman, and submitted to the Prussians, who adopted it for the use of their infantry. Under the cover of them, the besieged, or the troops stationed in the posts attacked, would be able to keep up a brisk and effective dis- charge of musketry during the heaviest fall of rain, and thereby silence or considerably damp the fire of the enemy. Gardelegen. A small town of Prussian Saxony, situated about 30 miles north-north- west of Magdeburg, on the Milde. It was destroyed by Duke Dervan in 633, and re- built about 924. It remained a free town until 1478. Gardens. In ancient military history, places of resort to practice military exercises. Gardes Blancs {Fr.). Were Roman mil- itia, composed of picked men. Gardes Costes, or C61es {Capitaineries), Fr. The maritime divisions, into which France was formerly divided, were so called. \ i Each division was under the immediate su- perintendence of a captain, named capitaine gardes-costes, who was assisted by a lieuten- ant and an ensign. Their duty was to watch the coast, and to attend minutely to every- thing that might affect the safety of the di- vision they had in charge. Gardes de la Porte (Fr.). A company so called during the monarchy of France, and of so ancient a date, indeed, with respect to original institution, that it appears to have been coeval with it. Mention is made of the gardes de la porte in the oldest ar- chives or records belonging to the king's household, in which service they were em- ployed, without being responsible to any particular treasurer as other companies were. This company consisted of 1 captain, 4 lieutenants, and 50 guards. The captain and officers received their commissions from the king. The first took an oath of fidelity to the king in person, and received the baton from his hands. The duty he did was purely discretionary, and depended on his own will. The lieutenants served by detachment, and took their tour of duty every quarter. Their specific service consisted in guarding the principal gate belonging to the king's apart- ments. They were relieved at night by the body-guards, and delivered the keys to a brigadier belonging to the Scotch garrison. GARDES 185 GARTER Gardes du Corps (Fr.). The body-guards. Under the old French government, they consisted of a certain number of gentlemen or cavaliers whose immediate duty was to attend the king's person. They were divided into four companies, under as many cap- tains, whose tour of duty came every quar- ter. They took rank above the f)ens d'armes and the king's light cavalry. The first and most ancient of the four companies was called the Scotch company, which was es- tablished by Charles VII. of France in 1423. Gardes Fran^aises (Fr.). The French guards. In 15fj3 Charles IX., king of France, raised a regiment for the immediate protec- tion of the palace. The colonel of the gardes Fran(;aise was on duty throughout the year, and was entitled to the baton de commande- ment in common with the four captains of the body-guards. I'eculiar privileges were attached to every officer belonging to this body. No stranger, not even a native of Strasburg, Savoy, Alsace, or Piedmont, could hold a commission in the French guards. In the revolution of 1789 they took a very active and leading part. Gardes-magazins (Fr.). In the old French service there were two sorts of mag- azine guards, — one for the military stores and the other for the artillery. The first was subject to the grand nuister, and the second was appointed by the secretary at war. Gardes particuliers des niagazins (Var- tUlei-ie, officers appointed by the grand mas- ter of ordnance for the specific purpose of attending to the ammunition, etc. Their pay was in proportion to the quantity of stores with wiiich they were intrusted. Gardes Suisses (Fr.). A celebrated Swiss corps in tlie French army, constituted "Gardes" by royal decree in 1()16. They comprised upwards of 2000 men, were al- ways unswerving in their fidelity to the Bourbon kings, and are chiefly remarkable for their heroic end. On August 10, 1792, thev withstood the Parisian revolutionary mob, and defended the palace of the Louvre till almost every man was cut down. Dur- ing the resistance they otiercd, the royal family was enabled to escape to such shelter as the National Assembly aflordod. Oardes Suisses du corps du Roi, one hundred Swiss guards who were immediately attached to the king's person. They were a select body of men who took an oath of fidelity to the king, and were formed into a regular troop. But in the last period of the nu)narchy of France, the principal duties of the one hun- dred Swiss guards consisted in domestic and menial attendance. Garigliano. A river in Southwestern Italy. After long waiting and refusing to recede a step, the great captain Gonsalvo de Cordova made a bridge over this river De- cember 27, 1503, and surprised and totally defeated the French army. Gacta surren- dered a few days after. Garland. A sort of chaplet made of flowers, feathers, and sometimes of precious 13 stones, worn on the head in the manner of a crown. Both in ancient and modern times it has been custonuiry to present garlands of ficjwers to warriors who liave distinguished themselves. A beautiful young woman was generally selected (or that purpose. Garlasco. A market-town of Northern Italy, 24 miles from Novara. The Aus- triniis, when they invaded Italy in 1849, crossed the Po near this place. Garnished. In heraldry, any charge is said to be garnished with the ornaments set on it. Garnish-nails. Diamond-headed nails, formerly used to ornament artillery car- riages. Garret. A turret or battlement. Now obsolete. Garreted. Protected by turrets. Now obsolete. Garrison. A body of troops stationed in a ft>rt or fortified town to defend it against an enemy, or to keep its inhabitants in sub- jection. A strong place, in which troops are quartered for its security. In garrison, in the condition of a garrison; doing duty in a fort or as one of a garrison. Garrison town, is a strong place, in which troops are quartered and do duty for the security thereof, keeping strong guards at each post, and a main-guard in or near the market- place. As a verb it means to place troops in, as in a fortress, for its defense ; to furnish with soldiers ; as, to garrison a fort or town. To secure or defend by fortresses manned with troops ; as, to garrison a conquered territory. Garrison Court-martial. Is a legal tri- bunal for the exaiiiinatinii and punishment of otl'dulcrs against martial law, or against good order and military discipline. It is composed of three members and a judge-ad- vocate. See Court-martial, and Trial ; also .lUDGK-AUVOCATE. Garrison Gin. The largest size gin. See Gin. Garrison Guns. Guns used in fortifica- tions. Fortress guns. Garrison des Janissaries {Fr.). The elite or fiuwer of the Janis'iaries of Constan- tinople was frequently sent into garrison on the frontiers of Turkey, or to places where the loyalty of the inhabitants was doubted. The Jani-ssaries did not indeed assist in the immediate defense of a besieged town or fortress, but they watched the motions of all suspected persons, and were subject to the orders of their officers, who usually com- manded the garrison. Garter, Order of the. One of the most ancient and illustrious of the military orders of knighthood. It was instituted by Ed- ward III. of England, and dates from about the year 1350, though some writers say 1344. Its origin is variously related. In Kastel's "Chronicles" it is stated that this order was devised by Richard I. at the siege of Acre, when he is said to have caused 26 knights to wear thongs of blue leather about GAKTER 186 GATH their legs. But the common account is, that the Countess of Salisbury happened at a ball to drop her garter, and that the king took it up and presented it to her, at the same time exclaiming, Honi soit qui inal y pense, — " Evil be to him who evil thinks," in refer- ence to the smiles which he observed the action had excited among some of the by- standers ; adding " that shortly they should see that garter advanced to so high an honor and renown, as to account them.y the name of Georges, and others were ar- rested at Paris, charged with a conspiracy .against the life of Bonaparte, and for the restoration of Louis XVIII., February, 1804. Pichegru was found strangled in prison, April 6, and 12 of the conspirators, includ- ing Georges, were executed, and others im- prisoned, June 22. Moreau was exiled and went to America ; in 1818 he was killed be- fore Dresden. Georgia. Called by the Russians Grusia, a considerable country of Asia, situated be- tween the Black Sea and the Caspian, to the north of Armenia, and forming a govern- ment of Russia. The Georgians are skilled in the bow, and are thought to be the best soldiers in Asia. Georgia was formerly one kingdom, the inhabitants of which were Christians ; but, in 1639, when it was con- quered by the Persians, the country was di- vided betwfien two native princes, by them- selves called kings, but by the Sophia styled governors. Each of these had a guard of Mohammedan horse in their pay. In 1802 it was annexed to Russia. Georgia. One of the original States of the United States, bounded on the north by Tennessee and North Carolina, on the east by South Carolina and the Atlantic Ocean, south by Florida, and west by Florida and Alabama. It was named in honor of King George II., who granted a charter for estab- lishing a colony there in 1732 ; but a perma- nent settlement was not made till the follow- ing year, when Oglethorpe established him- self at what is now Savannah. The colony soon became involved in several contests with the Spaniards of Florida, who claimed the territory. In 1739 Oglethorpe invaded Florida, but without much success. In 1 742 the Spaniards retaliated by invading Geor- gia ; but they also effected nothing. The next noteworthy event in the history of the colony was a war with theCherokees in 1761, which was terminated by their suing for peace, after their country had been laid waste. They were afterwards peaCeable, and were removed to the Indian Territory in 1838. In the war of the Revolution Georgia warmly sided with the colonies, and, in consequence, suftered severely at the hands of the British, who overran the country, and captured Sa- vannah, December 29, 1778. In the follow- ing year (October, 1779) the Americans and French attempted to retake it, but were re- pulsed with severe loss. In the civil war ( 1861-65), Georgia took an active part against the Union, and suffered severely' in conse- quence. Atlanta was captured September 2, 1864, after which Gen. Sherman marched with his ami}- through the State to the sea over an area extending from 20 to 60 miles in width, destroying railroad communica- tion, etc., and ending with the capture of Savannah, December 20, 1864. This mag- nificent military movement eflectually hum- bled the State, and in 1866 the President issued a proclamation declaring it no longer in a state of insurrection. Gerasa, or Jerash. An ancient city of Syria, whose site is now marked by very ex- tensive and magnificent ruins, situated about 35 miles east of the Jordan, at the eastern extremity of the land of Bashan, and on the borders of the great desert of Hauran. But little of its early history is known. In the 6ERBE 191 GETTYSBURG time of the Antonincs it had arrived at the height of its splendor and prosperity. It was taken by Alexander Jannajus in 85 B.C. ; the Jews burned it at the commencement of their last war with the Koman.s ; it was taken and plundered by Annius, the general of Ves- pasian, and in H2'J its castle was destroyed by Baldwin II. of Jerusalem. Gerbe. An ornamental firework. See Pyroteciiny. Gerberoi. In Normandy, north of France. Here William the Conqueror was wounded in battle bv his son Robert, who had joined the French king, Philip I., 1078. Gerit (/•>.). A Turkish dart '2i feet long. Germany (Lat. Germnnia). The name given to a large portion of Central Europe, composed of a number of independent states united together, and forming tlie German empire. In the time of Julius Cac.sar the Germans were the most formidable and war- like of all the European barbarians. They long withstood the attempts of the Romans to subdue them ; and, although that people conquered some parts of the country, they were e.vpelled before the close of the 3d cen- tury. In the 5th century the Huns and other tribes prevailed over the greater por- tion of Germany. In the latter part of the 8th century Charlemagnesubdued theSaxons and other tribes, and was crowned emperor at Rome, December 'JS, 800. At the extinc- tion of his family the empire became elective, 911, and was generally obtained by a member of the house of Hapsburg from 1437 to 180(5, when the emperor Francis Joseph II. for- mally renounced the title of emperor of Ger- many, having assumed that of emperor of Austria two years previously. The Confeder- ation of the Rhine was formed July 12, 180G ; the Germanic Confederation, June 8, 1815; and the North German Confederation, Au- gustl8, 18fiG. In consequence of the success of the Prussian arms in the war with France (1870-71) the new empire of Germany was founded, and the king of Prussia declared emperor. January IS, 1S71. Germinal Insurrection. That of the fau- bourirs of Paris, supjirossed on 1 2th Germinal, year III. (April 1, 1795). Gerona. A strong town of Spain, in Cata- lonia, at the confluence of the Oiia and Ter, the latter of which flows through the town. It is built in the form of a triangle, at the foot of a steep mountain, and is surrounded by walls flanked with fortilications, and cov- ered by a fort erected on a hill to the north of the town. It was besieged 28 times, and taken 6 tinies. In June, 1808, it success- fully resisted the French, but after suftering much famine surrendered December 12, 1809. Gesate, or Gessate {Fr.). Formerly a Gallic mercenary soldier, who volunteered hie serviees beyond his native country. These adventurers, or knights-errant, were called CtfK, either on accoiint of the gese, or ^edart, which they carried. or, as Polybius imagines, on account of the subsistence they W^-eived, which was called by that name. Geserne. The Anglo-Norman term for baltlt-axe. Geses and Materes. Were weapons adopted by the Allobroges (a body of ancient Gauls so called), independently of the broad cut-and-thrust sword which the Swiss still wear. These instruments were only one cubit long; half the blade was nearly square; but it terminated in a round point that was exceedingly sharp. Not only the Romans, but the Greeks received it into their armies. The former retained the full aitpellation and called \igeae, but the latter corrupted it into ysae. This is the only weapon with which those soldiers were armed that escorted mal- efactors, who were condemned to death, to the place of execution. The term gese was also applied to a sort of a javelin. Gestic. Pertaining to deeds or feats of arms ; legendary. Gettysburg. Capital of Adams Co., Pa., situated near the southern border of the State, 8 miles from " Ma>on and Dixon's line." Here three days' severe fighting took place on July 1-3, 1803, between the invading Confederate army under Gens. Lee, Long- street, and Ewell, and the Federals under Gen. George G. Meade. On the morning of July 1, Maj-Gen. Reynolds, in command of the 1st Corps, ad- vanced on the Emmittsburg road from Marsh Creek to Gettysburg, arriving about 10 o'clock A.M., and marched directly through the town, and soon after encountered a body of the enemy, which were driven back by Gen. Bufords cavalry, which allowed the 1st Corps to form up in order of battle on a ridge northwest of the town, which sloped to the west into a little open valley. Beyond this valley wsis a ridge of higher land thickly wooded. ' Across this valley the line of Gen. Reynolds advanced somewhat hastily, almost before it was well formed, and soon en- countered a heavy force of the enemy's in- fantry, and was compelled to fall back, which it did in good order, and by a move- ment of its left centre against the enemy while falling back secured a large number of prisoners. The Confederate line being broken soon after, Gen. Reynolds again pre- pared to go forward. His line advanced as before, and drove the enemy from the valley and over the ridge at the farthest side, with a severe loss by the heavy fire of the foe. While reconnoitring on this ridge (ien. Rey- nolds was killed by a shot from the enemy. The llth Corps now arrived and (ien. How- ard took command of the whole field, Gen. Schur/, commanding the llth Corps. At about half-past 2 p.m. the enemy again ad- vanced in force against the 1st Corps, which slowly fell back to its original position north- west "of the town. The Confederate force advanced across the open space in line of battle, whilst their batteries shelled the posi- tion of the 1st Corps to covi-r the advance, but it met a fire so sharp and well served that it caused it to reel and fall back ; iiuiir, or Prestonpans, was fought. Glaire. A broadsword or a falchion fixed on a pike. Glais, Militaire (F?-.). A military com- Slimeiit which wijs paid to the remains of a eceased general. It consisted in a dis- charge of ordnance. It also signifies the funeral procession of a sovereign. * Glaive. Sword ; a large blade fixed on the end of a pole, whose edge was on the outside curve; a light lance with a long sharp-pointed head. Also a knight, fully armed, with his squire. A kind of sword worn by peers in France in full dress. Glaize. A kind of halbert, so called by the Saxons. Glanders. A contagious and very de- structive disease of the mucous membrane in horses, characterized by a constant dis- charge of sticky matter from the nose and an enlargement and induration of the glands beneath and within the lower jaw. Glarus. A canton in the northeast of Switzerland. In the earliest times Glarus was reckoned sometimes as a part of Rhoetia, sometimes as a part of Swabia, and was peo- pled by German settlers. After various changes it pa.f the Potomac under Gen. McClel- lan, on its retreat towards the James River, and the Confederate forces under Gen. Lf a warrior, and has been col- lected by hard service, extraordinary genius, and unblemished integrity ; but which may de.'sert the greatest hero through one unfor- tunate failure, occasioned by the fatality of human imperfection. Gloucester. A city and the capital of a county of the same name in England. It GLOUCESTERSHIKE 196 GOLDBERG became a Roman station under the name of Colonia Glcvium, and an important town in Mercia under the Saxons, by whom it was called Glean-Ceasie?-, — whence its present name. Here the celebrated single combat between Edmund Ironsides and Canute is said to have taken place. It was repeatedly visited by William I. ; afforded a refuge and support to Queen Matilda in her contest with Stephen ; saw Henry III. crowned, and Parliaments held under Richard II and Henry IV., and sided successfully with the Parliament in the civil war against Charles I. Gloucestershire. A county of England, which, previous to the Roman invasion, was inhabited by a tribe called the Dobuni ; and after that event, the county, or the greater part of it, was included in the province named Flavia Ccesarienes. From the earli- est of the Danish invasions down to the battle of Tewkesbury, in 1471, and to the civil wars between the crown and Parlia- ment, Gloucestershire has been the scene of many and disastrous encounters. There are traces of British, Saxon, and Danish works in the county. Glove. A cover for the hand, or for the hand and wrist, with a separate sheath for each finger. To throw the glove, an old ex- pression which formerly meant to challenge to single combat. Gliickstadt. A town of the German em- pire, capital of the duchy of Holstein, on the Elbe, 32 miles below Hamburg. It was founded in 1620 by Christian IV. of Den- mark, and fortified. During the Thirty Years' War, it successfully withstood three sieges ; its fortifications were demolished in 1815. Glycerine, Nitro-. See Explosives. Glyoxiline. See Explosives. Go. The verb "to go" is variously used in a military sense ; as, to march in a hostile or warlike manner. To go off implies to de- part from any post. To go on is to make an attack. To go over is to revolt. To go out, to go upon any expedition, etc. It was likewise frequently used to signify the act of fighting a duel; as, he went out with so and so. Goa. A town of Hindostan, on the Mala- bar coast. It was formerly the capital of the Portuguese dominions in India. This place was taken by the Portuguese under Albuquerque in 1510; and by the English April 2, 1756. Gobille (Fr.). A small copper ball, a quarter of an inch in diameter, several of which are put into a revolving cask for the purpose of more intimately incorporating the ingredients of powder, carcass, and rocket composition. Gobisson, or Gambasson {Fr.). A quilted and padded dress worn under the habergeon. Godesberg. A village of Rhenish Prus- sia, on the left bank of the Rhine, 4 miles south of Bonn. In 1582, Gebhard, the de- posed archbishop, took refuge here, and in- trusted the castle to a Dutch garrison. It was, however, soon after taken possession of by his successor, on which occasion it sus- tained much injury. During the Thirty Years' War it was alternately in the pos- session of the Swedes and the Imperialists, and .was finally almost demolished by the French. Godolo. A market-town in Hungary. It was near here that the combined armies of Austria under Prince Windischgriitz and Count Jellachich were defeated in two bloody battles by the Hungarians under Gorgei. On the eve of victory, Governor Kossuth held a conference with the generals Gorgei, Klapka, and Damjanich for laying down the principles of the famous declaration of independence, issued April 14, 1849. It was this declaration which served the emperor of Russia as a pretext for the invasion of Hungary. " Gohud. A fortified town of Hindostan, in the territory of Gwalior; or possessions of the Scindia family. This place was taken from Bheem Singh by the Mahrattas about 1761. When this nation lost the battle of Paniput, the rannah of Gohud attempted to shake oft' their yoke, but was conquered by Ragoonauth Row in 1766, and compelled to continue tributary. On a subsequent rup- ture Gohud was. taken by Scindia in 1784. Relinquished to Scindia by a treaty with Great Britain subsequent to 1804. Goito. A small town in Lombardy, 15 miles northwest from Mantua. In 1630 this place was carried by assault by the Imperial- ists, who entered Mantua on the same night, and took it by surprise. During the War of the Spanisia Succession in 1701, it was alternately captured by the allies and the Imperialists; and in 1796 the French took it, but were expelled, after a brief tenure, by the Austrians. In 1814, a severe engage- ment took place here between the Aus- trian and Italian troops ; and during the war of independence in 1848, it became the theatre of two other battles between the same powers, to which it owes its modern celebrity. Goladar, or Goldar. An East Indian term signifying a store-keeper, or store-house keeper. Golandaazee, or Golandauzee. The In- dian term of an artilleryman. Golconda. A town of Hindostan, strongly fortified by nature and art, standing on a hill 5 miles northwest from Hyderabad. It was once noted for its diamonds. Golconda was once the capital of an extensive kingdom which arose on the dissolution of the Bha- menee dynasty, and was governed by native Hindoo princes ; but being taken by Au- rungzebe by treachery in 1687, after a siege of seven months, the whole territory became incorporated with the empire of Delhi. Goldberg. A town in Prussian Silesia, on an afliuent of the Oder, 12 miles south- west from Liegnitz. The French were de- feated by the Prussians near this place in 1813. GOLD COAST 197 GORGONS Gold Coast Corps. A corps in the British , Bcrvice formed of drilled Afrieuris, und j officered from the West India regiments. ; It is kept up for the purpose of protecting the possessions of Sierra Leone and Gambia. Gold Stick. A title given to the captain of the gentlemen-at-arms, or body-guard of the British sovereign, and to colonels of the Life Guards. "When either of the regiments of Life Guards is given to an officer, he is presented by the .sovereign with the gold stick. The colonels of the two regiments are in attendance on the sovereign alter- nately month and month. The one thus on duty is called gold stick in waiting ; and all orders relating to the Life Guards are trans- mitted through him. See Silvkk Stick. Golden Fleece. A celebrated order of knighthood in Austria and Spain, founded bp I'hilip III., duke of Burgundy and the Isetherlands, at Bruges, January 10, 142U. The order was instituted for the protection of the Homan Catholic Church, and ranks next after the order of the Garter. The in- signia of the Austrian order are a golden fleece hanging from a gold and blue enameled flint-stone emitting llame, and borne in its ; turn by a ray of tire. On the enameled j obverse is inscribed Preiuitn laburum nan vile. The Spanish decoration differs slightly from the Austrian. Golden Horde. A name given to the Mongolian Tartars, who established an em- pire in what is now Southeast Russia about lT2-i, their ruler being Baton, grandson of Genghis Khan. They invaded liussia, and made Alexander Newski grand duke in 1252. At the battle of Bielawlsch, in 1481, they were crushed by Ivan 111. and the Nogay Tartars. Gollette {Fr.). A shirt of mail formerly worn by foot-soldier.*. Gonfalon, or Gonfanon. An ensign or standard ; colors. Gonfalonier. A Turkish general and standard-keeper who always precedes the grand scignor during war. Gong. An Indian and Chinese instru- ment of percu.ssion, made of a mixture of metals, which produces a very loud, piercing sound on being struck by a wooden mallet. It is used by the Chinese as an instrument of martial niiiMc. Gong Wallas. Militia in India; so called from ;ii>)iii, a village, and wallas, a man. Goniometer. A general name for angle- measuring instruments. Good-conduct Pay. Given in the British service us a stimulus to soldiers to conduct themselves with jjropriety. Soldiers who have not figured in the defaulters' book arc entitled to extra pay, which goes on increas- ing at intervals upon the same condition of "good conduct." To mark the soldiers so distinguished, badges are given them in the form of rin^s of white lace, worn on the right arm. The receipt of good-conduct pay uninterruptedly for some years influences the amount of pension. Goojerat. A village in the Punjab, India, the scene of the last stand made by the Sikh army against tin; British under Lord Gough, in 184'J. In this action tlie Sikhs lost 53 guns, and their army of 00,000 men was entirely broken up and dispersed. The whole of the Punjab then fell under the British yoke. Gordian Knot. It is said to have been made of the thongs that served as harness to the wagon of Gordius, a husbandman, after- wards king of Phrygia. Whosoever loosed this knot, the ends of which were not dis- coverable, the oracle declared should be ruler of Persia. Alexander the Great cut away the knot with his sword until he found the ends of it, and thus, in a military sense at least, interpreted the oracle, 330 u.c. Goree. A town and snuill island, or rather rock, oft' the coast of Africa, a little more than a mile from Cape Verd. This island was first occupied by the Dutch, and afterwards taken by the French, to whom it was finally ceded by the treaty of Nimeguen, 1G78. It is now the bulwark of the posses- sions of the French in Africa. Goree was taken by the British in 1758, 1779, 1800, and 1804. Gorey. A town in the southeast of Ire- land. Near here the king's troops under Col. Walpole were defeated, and their leader slain by the Irish rebels, June 4, 1798. Gorge. The entrance into any piece of a fortification, which consists of the distance orspace between the inner extremities of the two faces; as, between the faces of a half- moon, redoubt, bastion, redan, lunette, etc. Gorge, Demi-. See Demi-ooroe. Gorge of a Bastion. In fortification, is usually an open space between the extremi- ties of the flanks of the bastion. The larger this gorge is, the better is the defense ; for when the ruined bastion is about to fall by siege into the hands of the enemy, the de- fenders can construct defensive works or dig small ditches in the gorge of the abandoned bastion. Such resistance sometimes drives the besiegers to the necessity of battering in breach the curtain. Gorge of Mountains. Is the passage, more or less compressed, between two moun- tains, which is used as a passage-way into valleys. Gorges arc important military points. If they lead to an intrenched camp, it is necessary to fortify them, and there post grand guards ; tliese positions are the principal theatres for affairs of posts. Gorged. In heraldry, when an animal is represented with a crown round its neck, it is said to be gorged. Gorgerin (Fr.). In ancient times, that part of the armor which covered the neck of a num. Hence our word gurgrt. Gorget (Itnl. gorgirtta, from gorga, a throat). That part of ancient armor which defended the neck. Also a crescent-shaped ornament formerly worn by military officers on the breast. Gorgons. In military antiquity, a war- GOTHAKD 198 GRAIN like female nation of Lybia, in Africa, who had frequent quarrels with another nation of the same sex, called Amazons. Gothard, St. The pass of St. Gothard is one of the best and most frequented routes across the Alps. On the northern slope is the celebrated Devil's Bridge across the Euess. The French and Russians had sev- eral combats here in 1799. Gothland. An island in the Baltic Sea. It was conquered by the Teutonic ivnights, 1397-98; given up to the Danes, 1.5-24; to Sweden, 1645; conquered by the Danes, 1677, and restored to Sweden, 1(579. Goths. A warlike nation that inhabited the country between the Caspian, Pontus, Euxine, and Baltic Seas. They entered Moesia, took Philippopolis, massacring thou- sands of its inhabitants', defeated and killed the emperor Decius, 251 ; but were defeated by Claudius, 320,000 being slain. Aurelian ceded Dacia to them in 272 ; but they long troubled the empire. After the destruction of the Roman empire by the Heruli, the Ostrogoths, under Theodoric, became mas- ters of the greater part of Italy, where they retained their dominion till 553, when they were finally conquered by N arses, Justinian's general. TheVisigoths settled in Spain, and founded a kingdom, which continued until the country was subdued by the Saracens. Gotthard, St. Near the river Raab, Hun- gary. Here the Turks under the grand vizier Kupruili were totally defeated by the Imperialists and their allies, commanded by Montecuculli, August 1, 1664. Peace fol- lowed this great victory. Goudrons {Fi\). Small fascines, or fagots, which are well steeped in wax, pitch, and glue, and then are lighted for the purpose of setting fire to beams, planks, traverses, galleries, pontons, etc. They are likewise used in various shapes and ways, to convey light into the ditches, or upon the ramparts. Goujat (Fr.). A soldier's boy. It like- wise signifies an ignorant, good-for-nothing fellow. Gourdin (Fr.). A flat stick, two fingers in breadth, which was used by the French to punish galley-slaves. Government. The Constitution of the United States provides that Congress shall make rules for the government and regula- tion of armies. Bj' government is under- stood not only the body of fundamental laws of a state, but also the body of persons charged with the management of the execu- tive power of a country ; direction, power or authority which rules a community ; admin- istration ; rule; management. Government of the military is that branch of the code which embraces the creation and regulation of the military hierarchy, or the gradual dis- tribution of inferior authority. The power of making rules of government is that of sm- preme command, and from this living prin- ciple proceed the localization of troops, their organization and distribution ; rules for re- wards and punishments ; and generally, all i rules of government and regulation whatso- ever, which the legislature may judge neces- sary to maintain an efficient and well-disci- plined army. All authority over the land forces of the United States must, therefore, be derived from Congress. For, although the President is the commander-in-chief, yet his functions, as such, must be regulated by Congress, under the 17th clause of Sec. 8 of the Constitution, as well as under the general authority of Congress to make rules for the government and regulation of the land forces. The President cannot be di- vested of power which Congress may assign to any inferior military commander, because the authority of the greater includes that of the less. But all the authority over the land and naval forces, save the appointment of the commander-in-chief, rests with Con- gress, and no authority can be exercised not delegated by Congress, except such as may be fairly deduced from powers given for the eftective discharge of the duties annexed to his office. Government's Island. See Rock Island. Governor. An officer placed by royal commission in the military command of a fortress, not only over the garrison but over the inhabitants. In time of war it is an office of great responsibility, and at all times requires considerable experience and military information. Also, in the United States, one who is invested with supreme authority in a State. Governor's Island. An island in New York harbor, about a mile and a half south of the City Hall. It belongs to the United States, and is strongly fortified by Fort Columbus, Castle Williams, and a battery commanding the entrance to Buttermilk Channel, the channel which separates the island from Brooklyn. The ordnance de- partment has a depot here. It is now the headquarters of the military division of the Atlantic. Gowrie Conspiracy. One of the most singular events in the history of Scotland took place in August, 1600. John Ruthveii, earl of Gowrie, and others entered into a conspiracy to possess themselves of the king's (James VI.) person, to convey him to Eng- land and to administer the government in the interest of the Presbyterian leaders at home. They succeeded in enticing the king to the Gowrie House at Perth, and after they had held him as a prisoner were almost suc- cessful in dismissing his attendants without exciting suspicion ; but the king crying out for assistance his voice was instantly recog- nized ; his attendants hastened to the rescue, and quickly dispatched the earl and his brother Alexander. Grade. Synonymous with rank ; peculi- arly applicable to the different ranks among officers, beginning from an ensign to the commander-in-chief of an army. Gradivus. A surname of Mars (which see). Grain. See Forage. GRAINOIR 199 GRAVELINES Grainoir, or Gr6noir (Fr.). A term used in the French artillery to signify a sort of sieve, in which there are small round holes for moist powder to be passed through, in order to make the grains j)erfeetly round. Gran. A town of Hungary, on the right bank of the Danube, 25 miles northwest of Pesth. It is one of the oldest towns of Hungary, was formerly fortified, and has undergone assaults and sieges almost with- out number. Granada. A city of Southern Spain, founded by the Moors in the 8th century. It formed at first part of the kingdom of Cordova. In 1230, Mohammed-al-Hamar made it the capital of his new kingdom of Granada, which wassubjugatudby the "great captain," Gonsalvo de Cordova, in 1492. Granada was taken by Marshal Soult in 1810, and held till 1812. Granada, New. The name formerly given to the ri'ipublic now known as the United States of Colombia (which see). Grand. This word is frequenth' used, both in French and English, to indicate superiority of position, force, or display ; as gi-and master, grand army, grand march, grand parade, etc. Grand Division. A battalion or regiment being told otl" by two companies to each division, is said to be told oft" in grand di- visions ; hence, grand-division firing is when the battalion tires by two companies at the same time, and is commanded by one officer only. Grand Guard. The main guard of an army ; the guard covering the army or camp from an attack by the enemy ; other guards are called iufrrior guards. Grand Master. The title of the head of the military orders, the Hospitallers, the Templars, and the Teutonic knights. Grand Master of Cross-bows. The personnel of the French artillery was for a long time prior to 1420 retained, together with the engineers, under the general di- rection of an otficcr who was titled "grand master of cross-bows." In 1420 the master- general of artillerv was made independent of thisutlicer. Grand Rounds. See Rounds. Grand Tactics. See Ta(;tic8. Granicus. A river in Northwestern Asia Minor, near which, on May 22, 334 H.c, Alexander the Great signally defeated the Persians. The Macedonian 'troops (30,000 foot and 5000 horse) crossed the Granicus in the face of the Persian army (tJOO,000 foot and 20,000 horse). Sardis capitulated, Mile- tus and Halicarnassus were taken by storm, and other great towns submitted to the con- queror. Granson, or Grandson. A town of Swit- lerland, canton of Vaud, on the southwest shore of the Lake of Neutchati-1, 20 miles north of Lausanne. Near it the Hurgun- dians under Charles the Rash were defeated by the Swiss with great loss, March 3. 1476. Granville. A fortified seaport of France, in the department of La Manche, on a rocky peninsula 12 miles northwest from Avran- ches. In It/JS this place was burned by the English, and in 1793 it was besieged by the Vendeans. Grape-shot. A certain number of iron balls, usually nine, put together by means of two cast-iron plates, two rings, and one pin and nut. Each plate has on the inside three beds for the shot, of a depth equal to half the thickness of the jilate and of the form of ft spherical segment, the curvature of which is the same as that of the shot. An iron pin riveted to the bottom iron plate pa.sses through the centre and also through the top plate, where tlie whole is secured by a nut and screw. In the United States the use er«onages, as a mark of respect, or to accompany them. Guard, Picket. An outpost guard for the purpose of [in-venting a surprise. Guard, Police. The interior guard of a camp or army in charge of arms, profierty, tents, etc. Also a guard in charge of pris- onerscngaged in policing a camp or garrison. Guard, Provost-. See Provo8T-<30ard. Guard, Quarter. The guard which is posti-d in front of a camp. Guard, Rear-. The guard posted in rear of a camp.. It also means the body of troops which, when troops are on the march, bring up the rear, and hold a pursuing enemy in check. Guard Report. The report which the non-commissioned officer or officer in charge of the guard sends in on dismounting. It contains a statement of duties performed, of hours at which the guard was visited by the officer of the day or field-officer, a list of government property and its condition, and also of the prisoners handed over to the guard, with the charge against each, together with the name of the officer by whom the prisoniT was confined. Guard Tent. Tent occupied bj' the guard. Guardable. Capable of being guarded or protected. Guardiagrele. An old town of Southern Italy, in the province of Chieti. Belisarius surrounded it with a turreted wall as a defense against the Goths. It wiis often besieged during the Middle Ages, and in 1799 was mercilessly sacked and burned by the French. Guards. In the British service constitute in time of peace the garrison of London, and the guard of the sovereign at Windsor. The Guards compose what is called the Household Brigade, and include in cavalry the 1st and 2d Life Guards, and the Royal Horse Guards ; and in infantry the Grenadier Guards, the Coldstream Guards, and the Scots Fusilier Guards. The officer of the regiments of Foot Guards hold higher army rank than that they bear regimentally, — that is, ensigns rank with lieutenants of other regiments, lieutenants with captains, and so- on. Guards, Imperial. The name of a body of select troojis organized by the French em- peror. Napoleon I., which greatly distin- guished themselves at Austerlitz. Guards' Institute. An establishment \n London ; it consists of reading-, lecture- rooms, etc., for all officers and soldiers in the metropolis. It was inaugurated by the Duke of Cambridge, .July 11, 18ti7. Guards, The Horse Grenadier. Formerly a body of horse guards in the British service; the first troop was raised in lt)93, and the second in 1702. This corps was reduced in 1783, the officers retiring on full pay. Guastadours (Fr.). Turkish pioneers. Armenians and (ireeks are general!^ em- ployed in the Turkish armies to do the iatngue-work that is necessary for the forma- tion of ft camp, or for cf>nducting a siege. Guastalla. A city in Northern Italy, near which the imperial army, commanded by the king of Sardinia, was defeated by the French, September 19, 1734. The ancient district of that name, long held by the dukes of Man- tua, was seized by the emperor of Germany, 174G, and ceded to Parma, 1748. After bar- ing been comprised in the Italian republic, GUATEMALA 204 GUIDES 1796, and subjected to other changes, it was annexed to Parma, 1815, and to Modena, 1847. Guatemala. A republic in Central Amer- ica, declared independent March 21, 1847. A war between Guatemala and San Salvador broke out in January, 18G3, and on June 16 the troops of the latter were totally defeated. Guatuso Indians. A tribe of aborigines living on the Rio Frio, in Central America. They are said to be a brave and warlike race. Gubbio (anc. Iguviicm). A city of Cen- tral Italy, 27 miles south of Urbino, on the southern declivity of the Apennines. It bore a conspicuous part in the beginning of the civil war between Ctesar and Pompey, when it was occupied by the prsetor Minucius Thermus with five cohorts ; but on the ap- proach of Curio with three cohorts, Ther- mus, who was apprehensive of a revolt of the citizens, abandoned the town without resistance. Gudda. An Indian term for a fool ; also a small fort erected upon a hill or eminence. Guelphs and Ghibellines. Names given to the papal and imperial factions who de- stroyed the peace of Italy from the 12th to the end of the 15th century (the invasion of Charles VIII. of France in 1495). The ori- gin of the names is ascribed to the contest for the imperial crown between Conrad of Hohenstaufen, duke of Swabia, lord of Wib- lingen (hence Ghlbelin), and Henrv, nephew of Wolf, or Guelf, duke of Bavaria, in 1138. The former was successful; but the popes and several Italian cities took the side of his rival. Hie Guelf and Hie Ghibelin are said to have been used as war-cries in 1140, at the battle before Weinsberg, in Wiirtem- berg, when Guelf of Bavaria was defeated by the emperor Conrad IV., who came to help the rival duke, Leopold. The Ghibel- lines were almost totally expelled from Italy in 1267, when Conrad, the last of the Hohen- staufens, was beheaded by Charles of Anjou. Guelph is the name of the present royal family of England. Guelphs, Order of. An order of knight- hood for Hanover, instituted by George IV., when regent, on August 12, 1815. It is both a military and civil order, unlimited in number, and consisted originally of three classes, — Knights Grand Cross, Command- ers, and Knights; but in 1841 another class of simple members was added to the order. Guerite {Fr.). A sentry-box, small tur- ret. In fortified towns there are several smalltturrets of this denomination, which are sometimes made of wood, and sometimes built with stones. They are generally fixed to the acute points of bastions, and sentinels are posted within them for the purpose of watching the ditch, and of preventing any surprise in that quarter. Guerre {Fr.). War; warfare; art of war ; dissension ; strife. En guerre, at war ; in action; ready for action; a piece of ord- nance unlimbered, trunnions shifted, and everything made ready for firing. Guerrillas {Sp.guer^-a, "war"). The name given to armed bands, who on occasion of foreign invasion or civil wars, carry on an irregular warfare on their own account. The name was first applied in Spain to ir- regular soldiery. From 1808 to 1814 they were regularly organized against the French, and being favored by the character of the country which they fought in, were success- ful on many occasions. In our late civil war many bands were organized in the Bor- der States, and were a great annoyance to both armies. If guerrillas are taken captive in open warfare, they should be treated ac- cording to the usual customs of war, unless they are known to have been guilty of acts not tolerated in civilized warfare. In the Franco-German war, however, we find that the Germans refused to recognize as soldiers, or extend the privileges of war, to the frnncs-tireurs, a body of French volunteer sharpshooters, who, to a great extent, adopted this system of guerrilla warfare. Guerrillero {Sp.). An irregular soldier; a member of a guerrilla band or party ; a partisan. Guet {Fr.). This term was particularly attached to those persons belonging to the French body-guard, who did duty during the night. It also signified rounds, or those duties of a soldier, or patroJing party, which are prescribed for the security of a town, etc., and to prevent surprises. It is also used in a military sense in conjunction with other words ; as guet a pied, foot patrol ; guet a, cheval, horse patrol, etc. Gueux (jP?-.). "Beggars." A name ap- plied by the Count of Barlaimont in 1566 to the confederated nobles and others of the Low Countries who opposed the tyrannies of Philip II. The malcontents at once adopted the title, and calling themselves gueux, for many years opposed the Spanish king by sea and land with varying success. Guichet {Fr.). A small door or outlet, which is made in the gates of fortified towns. It is generally 4 feet high, and 2 broad, so that a man must stoop to get through. In garrison towns the guichet was left open for the space of one-quarter of an hour after the retreat, in order to give the inhabitants time to enter. Guides. Generally the country people in the neighborhood where an army encamps. They give intelligence concerning the coun- try, and the roads by which the enemy may approach. In time of war, particularly in the seat of it, the guides invariably accom- pany headquarters. Of late years it has been customary to form them into regular corps with proper officers at their head. Guides. The name given to the noil- commissioned officers, or other enlisted men, who take positions to mark the pivots, marches, formations, and alignments in modern discipline ; the French call them jalo)ieu7-s, {rom jalon, a post. Guides, Corps des {Fr.). The corps of guides. This body was originally formed GUIDON 205 GUN in France in 1756, and consisted of 1 cap- tain, 1 first lieutenant, 2 second lieutenants, I 2 sergeants, 2 corporals, 1 ansjiessade, and 20 privates, caWcd fusilicrs-fjuulrs. Another corps of {guides was also l^ormed in 1796. This corps now forms part of the imperial gua rd. Guidon. A small flag or streamer, as that carried by cavalry, which is broad at one end, nearly pointed at the otlier, and usually of silk ; or that used to direct the movements of infantry, or to make signals at sea. In the U. S. service, each company of cavalry has a guidon. Guidon. One who carries a flag. Also, one of a community of guides established at Kome by Charlemagne to accompany pil- grims t" the Holy Land. Guienne, or Guyenne. An old province in the sotiilnvcst of France, lying to the north of Gascony. It was part of the do- minions of Henry II. Philip of France seized it in 12!)8, which led to war. It was alternately held by England and France till 1453, when John Talbot, earl of Shrews- bury, in vain attempted to take it from the latter. Guilford Court-house was situated about 6 miles northwest of Greensboro', N. C. Here an engagement took place between I the British troops under Cornwallis, and I the American forces, chiefly composed of inexperienced militia, under Gen. Greene, on March 15, 1781. The fight resulted in a partial victory for the royal troops, owing principally to the disorganization and flight of the North Carolina militia. Gen. Greene, not wishing to risk the annihilation of liis army, retreated to Speedwell's iron-works, 10 miles distant. Cornwallis, however, did not attempt to pursue him, but fell back himself to Cross Creek (Fayetteville). Guillotine. The instrument of decapita- tion introduced during the French revolu- tion by the Convention, and nametl after its supjvosod inventor, J. I. (iuillotin. It is composed of two upright posts, grooved on the inside, and connected on the top by a cross-beam. In these grooves a sharp iron blade, placed obliquely, descends by its own weight on the neck of the victim, who is bound to a board laid below. The invention of machines of this kind is ascribed to the Persians. In Italy, from the 13th century, it was the privilege of the nobles to be put to death by a nuiihine of this kind, which was called inaimaia. Machines of similar kind were used in Scotland and Holland for the purpose of decapitation. Guinegate, Battle of. Or more famil- iarly, the " Hattleof the Spurs," was fought at (iuincguti', not far from Tournai, in the province of Ilainault, August 16, 1513, be- tween the English under Henry VIII., assisted by a considerable body of troops headed by the eniperor Maximilian, and the French under the Due de Longueville. The latter were defeated. The battle received its familiar designation from the circum- stance of the French knights having made I better use of their .syj(//-.s than of iha'w nwords. [ Guisarme, or Gisarme {/>>.). An offen- sive weapon formerly used in France ; it ] was a two-edged axe mounted upon a long handle, and sometimes called roM/ywe. There were three kinds ; ih& glaive giwrme liad a sabre-blade with a spike, the bill f/inarme a, blade like a hedging-bill, and the hand gia- arme was a kind of bill with a serrated back. Guisarmiers {Fr.). Were French foot- soldiers {pietons) of the free archers, armed with the guisarme. Gujerat, or Guzerat. A walled town of the Punjab, on the right side of the Chenab, about 8 miles from tbe stream. It is a place of some military importance, being on the great route between Attock and Lahore. Here on February 21, 1849, a Sikh army of 60,000 men was utterly defeated by a British force decidedly inferior in point of numbers. Gules. The term by which the color red is known in hersildry. In engraving it is marked by perpendicular lines traced from the top of the shield to the bottom. It is supposed to indicate valor, magnanimity, and the like, and is regarded as the most honorable heraldic color. Gun. In its most general sense, a gun is a machine, having the general shape of a hollow cylinder closed at one end, and used for the purpose of projecting heavy bodies to great distances by means of gunpowder. Technically, it is a heavy cannon, distin- guished by its great weight, length, and ab- sence of a chamber. It is used for throwing projectiles with large charges of powder to long distances, with great accuracy and pen- etration. Guns came into use in the 14th century, and were first fired from supjwrts, and in reality were artillery. Shortly after, they took the form of a clumsy hand-guji, called an arquebuse, which was portable, but discharged from a forked rest. The next modification, which came into use about the end of the 14th century, was called the matchlock. The piece was discharged by a lighted match brought down on the juiwder- pan by the action of a trigger. This was superseded in 1517 by the wheel-lock, the fire being produced by the action of a toothed wheel upon flint or iron pyrite.^. Almost contemporary with this was the snaphance gun, in which sparks were generated by the concussion of flint on the ribbed top of the powder-pan. About the middle of the 17th century the flint-lock began to be employed. This was a combination of the two latter weapons, but much superior to either. It continued universally in use until the earlj part of the present century, when the per- cussion-lock was invented, which by 1840 (the time of its adoption by the British gov- ernment), had completely superseded it. As the lock improved, and the rapidity of fir- ing increased, the weight of the piece di- minished; the old tripod first used as a rest i gave way to one stake, and finally, in tbe GUN 206 GUN-COTTON 18th century, was abandoned altogether. The weapon was then the smooth-bore musket, which continued in use with vari- ous modifications until the middle of the 19th century, when it was partially super- seded by the rifle. (See Small-arms.) In their earlier stages cannon went by various names, as bombards, culverins, petronels, and later on were reduced to the three de- nominations, technically, of guns, howitzers, and mortars. For the two latter, see How- itzer and Mortar. Guns are subdivided in the U. S. service according to their use, into field, siege, and sea-coast guns. The field-guns consist of two rifle pietes ; the 3-inch rifle, adopted in 1861, and the 3^-inch rifle, adopted in 1870 (see Ordnance, Con- struction of), and the Napoleon gun, a 12-pounder smooth-bore, adopted in 1857. (See Napoleon Gun. ) The only siege gun adopted by the United States is a 4i-inch rifle. The 30-pounder Parrott, so exten- sively employed in our service for siege pur- poses, is not a regulation gun. The sea-coast guns consist of 13-, 15-, and 20-inch smooth- bores, and 10- and 12-inch rifles. An 8-inch rifle has been constructed by converting the 10-inch smooth-bore according to the Pal- liser or Parsons method. The 13-inch smooth-bore and the 10- and 12-inch rifles are regarded as experimental guns. The guns principally in use for the land and sea forces of the United States are those known as the Columbiad, or Rodman, Dahlgren, Gatling, Hotchkiss, Napoleon, Parrott. (For particular descriptions, see appropriate head- ings.) In the British service they are the Armstrong, Palliser, Woolwich, or Fraser, and the Lancaster, Mackay, and Whitworth ; the three latter being now very little used. (See appropriate headings. ) The only breech- loader in general use in Europe is the Krupp, which is largely employed for all purposes by Germany and Eussia. See Krupp Gun. Gun, Curricle. Is a small piece of ord- nance, mounted upon a carriage of two wheels, and drawn by two horses. The ar- tilleryman is seated on a box, and the whole can be moved forward into action with as- tonishing rapidity. The tumbrils belonging to curricle guns carry 60 rounds of ball cartridges. This gun is no longer in gen- eral use. Gun Factories, Royal. Are government establishments in England, at Woolwich, and Elswick, near Newcastle-on-Tyne, for the construction of great guns for the use of the British army and navy. Gun-barrel. The barrel or tube of a gun. Gun-barrels were formerly made on the coiled principle, and this method is still largely followed in thin barrels like those of shot-guns. The superior kinds of shot- gun barrels are known as stub^ stub-twist, wire-twist, laminated, etc. Stub-iron is made from horseshoe nails cleaned by tumbling and mixed with a small proportion of steel scrap. It is then pud- dled and put through various processes, which end in the production of a flat bar called a skelp. Twist is the term applied to coiled barrels. The iron or steel is made into a ribbon, which is wound spirally around a mandrel and welded. Stub-twist is stub-iron coiled. Wire-twist is made by welding iron and steel bars together, or two qualities of iron, and drawing the compound bar into a rib- bon, which is coiled as before described. The term is specially applied to coiled barrels made from small ribbons. Damascus iron is made by twisting com- pound bars of steel and iron, welding sev- eral of the twisted bars together and forming a ribbon from the mass. Laininated is the term applied to barrels made from compound bars. In twist-barrels, the ribbon is several yards long, about half an inch wide, and thicker at the breech than at the muzzle end. It is heated to redness, wound on the mandrel, then removed and heated to the welding- point slipped over a rod with a shoulder at the lower end. The rod is then dropped vertically several times on a block of metal, which welds the spiral edges together. This is c&Wq^ jumping . The welding is completed by hammering. Rifle-barrels and the cheaper kinds of shot-gun barrels are made directly from the skelp, which is passed between rollers, which first bend the plate longitudinally and af- terwards convert it into a tube. The tube is then heated to a welding heat, a mandrel is pushed into it, and it is passed through the welding rolls, which weld the edges and at the same time taper and lengthen the tube. The boring and turning are done in lathes. Gun-carriage. See Carriage. Gun-carriage, Barbette. See Barbette Carriage. Gun-carriage, Field. See Fielb-car- riage. Gun-carriage, Flank Casemate. See Flank Casemate Carriage. Gun-carriage, Mountain. See Ord- nance, Carriages for. Gun-carriage, Prairie. See Ordnance, Carriages for. Gun-carriage, Sea-coast. See Ord- nance, Carriages for. Gun-carriage, Siege. See Ordnance, Carriages for. Gun-cotton, or Pyroxyle. Gun-cotton was discovered by Schonbein in 1846, and was first made by treating ordinary cotton with a mixture of nitric and sulphuric acids. The product resembles ordinary cotton in appearance, but in color is slightly tinged with yellow, and is very much heavier. It explodes with great violence, but is unfit for most military purposes on account of its lia- bility to spontaneous explosion, its corroding residue, and the irregular character of its explosion. Baron von Lenk, of the Aus- trian service, however, succeeded to some GUNDERMUK 207 GUNNEK'S extent in regulating the suddenness of the explosion by twisting it into ropes, and weaving it into clotli, but it never came much into favor for military purposes. As first made, the length of time necessary for its manufacture was about two or three months, but Mr. Abel, of the British war oflBce, has by a series of experiments mate- rially decreased the time neco.ssary for its manufacture, and greatly increased the safety and certainty of the product. At Fave.sham the manufacture of a peculiar kind of gun-cotton, known as tonite, is con- ducted on a large scale. The process con- sists in intimately mixing the ordinary gun- cotton with about an equal weight of nitrate of baryta. This compound is then com- pressed into candle-shaped cartridges, formed with a recess at one end for the reception of a fulminate of mercury detonator. It con- trasts favorably with soft, plastic dynamite from the fact of its being easily fastened to the safety-fuze. Among its advantages, said to be due to the use of the nitrate, are that it contains a great amount of ox\'gen in a very small volume, and that it is very ready under the detonator, while its great density makes it slow to the influence of or- dinary combustion. It is 30 per cent, stronger than ordinary gun-cotton, and takes up but two-thirds of its space, or the same space as dynamite. The cartridges are gen- erally made water-proof. The projectile force of gun-cotton, when used with mod- erate charges, is equal to about twice its weight of the best gunpowder. Its explosive force is in a high degree greater than that of gunpowder, and in this respect its nature assimilates much more to the fulminates than to gunpowder. It evolves little or no smoke, as the principal residue of its com- bustion is water and nitrous acid. Recently, by the mixture of nitre and cane-sugar its quickne-ss in action has been reduced so as to make it available for use in small-arms. The nitrous acid, however, will soon corrode the barrel if the piece is not carefully wiped after tiring. Other explosive substances anal- ogous to gun-cotton may be prepared from many organic bodies of the cellulose kind, by immersing them in the same bath as for gun-cotton ; among these may be mentioned paper, tow, sawdust, calico, and wood tibre. Gundermuk. A village f)f Afghanistan, 28 miles west from JelJalabad. Here the remnant of the British force, consisting of 100 soldiers and 800 camp-followers, were massacred in 1842, while retreating from Cabul (('abooD. only one man escaping. Gun-fire. The hour at which the morn- ing or evening gun is tired. Gun-lift. Tiie gun-lift recently devised by Col. Laidlcy, of the V . S. Ordnance Corps, is a most coinjilcteand rapid means for mov- ing and dismounting heavy guns. In it the hydraulic jack is placed upon a stand over j the gun, whereby the building-up of the j crib-work of blocks, which serves as a base for the jack to stand on, is dispensed with, | and the position 'of the jack haff not to be changed during the operation of raising or lowering a gun. The ordinary carpenter's horse or trestle is taken as the basis of the hoisting apparatus. The cap of the trestle, having to sustain the weight of the gun sus- pended at a distance of more than 2 feet from the jxtints of support, is a large, strong, and heavy piece of timber, and the legs of the trestle have to be strongly braced. The bolster, a strong piece of oak on tf>p of the cap of the trestle, has two mortices cut in it, one for a hoisting-bar to pnnit throiii/h, and the other for the fulcrum-post to i-est in. The fulcrum-post has a recess cut on the top to receive the end of a lever and keep it in place. The lever has a mortice through which the hoisting-bar, already mentioned, passes; the latter is perforated with a series of holes through which a pin passes, by which the end of the lever, under which the hydraulic jack works, can be fastened to the hoisting-bar. The hoisting-bar has a hook on its lower end to which the weight to be raised is fastened by means of a sling. Gun-metal. An alloy of nine parts of copper and one part of tin, used for brass cannon, etc. (See Bronzk). The name is also given to certain strong mixtures of cast iron. Gunner. A soldier employed to manage and discharge great guns ; an artilleryman. In the U. S. service there is with each piece a gunner, who gives all the executive com- mands in action. He is answerable that the men at the piece perform their duties cor- rectly. Gunner's Calipers. Are made of sheet- brass, with steel points. The graduations show diameters of guns, shot, etc. Gunner's Elevating Arc. See Elevat- ing Arc. Gunner's Level, or Gunner's Perpen- dicular. Is an instrument made of sheet- brass ; the lower part is cut in the form of a crescent, the points of which are made of steel ; a small spirit-level is fastened to one side of the plate, parallel to the line joining the points of the crescent, and a slider is fastened to the same side of the plate, per- pendicular to the axis of the piece. This instrument is used to mark the points of sight on pieces. By means of the bubble the feet or points of the crescent are placed on a horizontal line on the base-ring or base- line, the slider pushed down until the point rests on the base-ring or line, and its jx)sition marked with chalk. Gunner's Pincers. Are made of iron with steel jaws, which have on the end of one a claw for drawing nails, etc. Gunner's Plummet. A simple line and bob for pointing mortars. Gunner's Quadrant. Is a graduated quarter of a circle of slieet-brass of 6 inches radius, attached to a brass rule 22 inches long. It has an arm carrying a spirit-level at its middle and a vernier at its movable end. To get a required elevation, the vernier GUNNERY 208 GUNPOWDER is fixed at the indicated degree, the brass rule is then inserted in the bore parallel to the axis of the piece ; the gun is then ele- vated or depressed until the level is hori- zontal. There is also a graduated quadrant of wood, of 6 inches radius, attached to a rule 23.5 inches long. It has a plumb-line and bob, which are carried, when not in use, in a hole in the end of the rule, covered by a brass plate. Gunnery. The art of using fire-arms ; but the term is commonly understood as being restricted to the use or application to the purposes of war of the larger pieces of ordnance, as cannon, mortars, and howitzers. In its practical branch gunnery includes a just knowledge of the construction of the several pieces of artillery, and of the strength, tenacity, and resisting power of the materials of which they are formed ; of the method of mounting them upon strong, eflicient, well-proportioned, and conveniently con- structed carriages ; of the proportions due to the strength of the powder and projectiles they should carry ; of the force and efl'ect, and also of the manufacture of gunpowder; and, generally, of all such mechanical ar- rangements and appliances as may facilitate the movements and working of the guns, etc., when prepared for action. But gun- nery takes a yet far more extensive range ; for it may be said to be based upon nearly every branch of the mathematical and phys- ical sciences, and may be itself considered as a science requiring the most intricate combinations of human knowledge and me- chanical ingenuity fully to comprehend and perfect. It particularly requires an ac- quaintsince with all experiments which may have been made to ascertain the impetus of projection, the momentum of bodies in mo- tion, and the range and time of flight of projectiles with given charges of gunpowder, — with the effect of the resistance of the atmosphere upon projectiles propelled with different velocities, and the laws of gravita- tion as afiecting falling bodies ; and with the various causes, mechanical and other- wise, of the usual deflection of projectiles in their course, when fired from a gun. See Projectiles and Velocity. Gunning. The act of hunting or shooting game with a gun. Gun-pendulum. A contrivance for ob- taining initial velocities of projectiles. The gun is suspended from a frame-work with its axis horizontal. The velocity of the shot is deduced from the arc described in the re- coil. The apparatus is now nearly obsolete. Gun-platform. See Platform. Gunpowder. A well-known explosive mixture, who.se principal employment is in the discharge, for war or sport, of projectiles from fire-arms, and for mining purposes. The ingredients in gunpowder are saltpetre, charcoal, and sulphur. Slightly dift'erent proportions are employed in dift'erent coun- tries. In the United States the proportions are 75 to 76 saltpetre, 14 to 15 charcoal, and 10 sulphur. Charcoal is the combustible ingredient; saltpetre furnishes the oxygen necessary to support a rapid combustion and to change the whole mass into gas, and sulphur adds consistency to the mixture and intensity to the flame, besides rendering the powder less liable to absorb moisture; in- creases the volume of gas by preventing the formation of a solid potassium carbonate, and by increasing the temperature. In the manufacture of ordinary powder, the operations usually employed are pulver- izing the ingredients, incorporation, compres- sion, gra7iulatio7i, glazing, drying, and dust- ing. The ingredients &ve pulverized by placing each separately in barrels which contain bronze or zinc balls, and which are revolved rapidly for several hours. Incorporation or thorough mixing is ef- fected partially by the use of a rolling barrel, and completed in the rolling-mill. This consists of two cast-iron cylinders rolling round a horizontal axis in a circular trough with a cast-iron bottom. The cylinders are very heavy, and give a grinding motion, which is very eff'ective in bringing about a thorough mixture of the three ingredients. A wooden scraper follows the rollers and keeps the composition in the middle of the trough. • The charge in the trough is moist- ened with 2 or 3 per cent, of water before the rollers are started. A little water is added from time to time as required. This is the most important operation in the man- ufacture of powder. The time required is about one hour for each 50 pounds of com- position. When finished the composition is called mill-cake. Com.pressing. — This is next taken to the press-house, slightly moistened and arranged between brass plates, and then subjected to hydraulic pressure of about 70 tons (English tons) per square foot. Each layer is thus reduced to a hard cake. Granulation. — The cake is broken up into grains by means of toothed rollers revolving in opposite directions, the cake being passed between them. The different-sized grains are separated by sieves between the different sets of rollers. Glazing is effected by moistening the grains and revolving them in a rolling barrel. Dn/i7ig is done on sheets in a room heated to 146°-160°. Dusting. — The dust is removed by revolv- ing the powder in rolling barrels covered with coarse canvas. The dust is caught by an outside case. There are five kinds of grain powder used in the U. S. service, distinguished as mam- 7noth, ea7mon, 7nortar, musket, and ri-fle powder, all made in the same manner, of the same proportion of materials, and difl'er- ing only in the size of the grain. Mammoth is- employed for the heaviest sea-coast guns ; cannon "for smaller sea-coast guns ; mortar for mortars and field- and siege-pieces ; mus- GUNPOWDER 209 GUNPOWDER Fossano powder, made in Italy, 1871, gramilated by hand, is a slow-burning pow- ket for rifle-muskets; and rifle for pistols. In addition to the above we have the follow- ing: Meal powder, a fine dust containing the ingredients of ordinary gunpowder, but in which the relative proportions of these in- gredients vary, according to the rate of burn- ing desired, and the object for which the powder is to be used. Used principally in ])yrotechny, and in mortar tire to communi- cate the flame from the charge to the shell. Also " G'c;-mrtM" or '■'^ Americmi" " White Gunpowder," more powerful than ordinary gun{»owder, but more expensive; acts upon iron, and is very little used in gunnery. Pebble potvder, an irregular large-grain powder, very similar to American " Mam- moth," which preceded it, was made in Eng- land, 18G5, by breaking ordinary yj/ess-ca/ce with copper hammers 'ssano po ulated by der, used in large guns, notably in the 100- j ton guns, one of which was recently burst, 1880, by a charge of 552 pounds of this pow- I der. Lately the grains of this powder have been given a regular form. Amons;, regular grain powders made with- out molding are cubical, an English powder, ! extensively used in all their large guns, the ! largest being 2 inches on the edge. This I 18 made by passing the cake between fluted I rollers, which cut it into strips, and then these ; strips endways between a second set of rollers. Schaghticoke, made at Hart's Falls, N. Y., is a cubical powder made very much like the English, — the lines of fracture are, however, simply scratched on the cake (both sides), which is afterwards broken in the ordinary way. Afolded Powder. — The ingredients are the same as those of ordinary gunpowder, but each grain is separately molded. Gen. Rodman was the first to propose the manufacture of these powders in \\\i perfo- rated cake, 1800; the object being to cause the powder to burn on an increasing surface, thus lessening tiie strain on the gun in the first moments of combustion. His powder after a few e.\perinients was allowed to fall into disuse in the United States, but the in- vention was carried to Europe and developed with a smaller grain into prismatic powder, used in Europe, and especially in Germany and Russia, and particularly adapted to breech-loading cannon ; the grain is a hex- agonal prism in form and contains six cylin- drical orifices passing entirely through it parallel to the axis, and symmetrically ar- ranged with respect to it. ' The cartridge is so made timt the cylindrical orifices pass through the entire length. Hexagonal Powder. — This is the powder principally used in the United States; the trains have the shape which would be given y joining the larger bases of two frustrums of equal six-sided pyramids, and vary in size according to the piece in which the powder is to be used. This powder is believed in the United States to give the best results, and can be adapted to cannon of any caliber. Hintory of Gunpowder. — The origin of gunpowderasanexplosive, and its application to the projection of missiles of war, are lost in the mists of obscurity. Its use in Europe can be traced only to the middle or early part of the 14lh century. It is believed by many that certain experiments by Schwartz, a German monk, led to its introduction in war, but the better theory seems to be that the knowledge was obtained from the Saracens. It is j)robable that the invention arose in Central Asia in the regions where saltpetre occurs as an eft'ervescence of the soil. The Chinese appropriated the discovery at a very early period, and fireworks were common in that country when Europe was roamed by the primitive savage. WhenGhengis Khan invaded China, B.C. 1219, fire-arms of a frimitive form appear to have been used, "assages in old writers seem also to show that when Alexander invaded India, 327 B.C., he encountered tribes that used similar wcapcms. The i)eople of India doubtless ob- tained their knowledge from China. Wars and migrations of tribes gradually dissemi- nated a knowledge of gunpowder over Asia and Northern Africa. The use of gunpow- der is mentioned in Arabic writings in the 13th century. The Moors used it in .Spain in 1312. In 1331 the king of Granada em- ployed it in sieges. It is said to have been used by the English in the battles of Crecy, 1316. 'The Venetians employed it in 1380 against the Genoese. From that time to the present fire-arms have gradually supplanted other weapons. • For a long time after its introduction gun- powder was used in the form of dust or " meal powder." Granulation was attempted to get rid of the difficulties in handling the dust, but the grained form proved too strong for tlie arms used, and " meal powder" con- tinued in general use till improvements in the weapons about the close of the IGth cen- tury admitted of the other form. The granu- latit)n was at first very crude. This was remedied in time by the introduction of ma- chinery or coruing-viills in the manufacture. Though ditferent-sized grains were at first used in large and small guns the principles involved were not studied, and afterwards one uniform size — large musket powder — was employed in all fire-arms. This step backwards may have been caused by the im- purity of the ingredients and bad numufac- ture, which made the large grains too weak. In the early part of the present century a classification of grains was revived under the two general names of mu.fket and cannon powder. The invention of the mercunj den- simeter rendered practicable an accurate de- termination of the specific gravity of jiowder and its relation to quickness of burning, but tiic importance of size and t'orm of grain was first appreciated by Gen. Rodman, who, in 1869, began experiments which led at once GUNPOWDER 210 GUY to the introduction of mammoth powder for large guns, and later to the invention of per- forated cake. The introduction of the pow- erful ordnance now existing in Europe has been rendered possible by improvements in this direction based upon the principles first formulated by Rodman. The latest idea on the subject is "compensating powder" (pro- posed by Lieut. C. A. L. Totten, of the 4th U. S. Artillery), a spherical grain of gun- powder inclosing a smaller sphere of gun- cotton. This powder remains to be made and experimented with, but it opens a field of research which must lead to valuable re- sults. Gunpowder, Absolute Force of. See Ab- solute Force of Gunpowder. Gunpowder Pile-driver. A pile-driver operated by the explosive force of gunpow- der. The hammer is arranged as usual to slide in vertical guides. It has a piston on its lower end, which enters a cylindrical hole in the pile-cap. In this hole the cartridge is placed, and is exploded through the com- pression of the air by the piston of the ham- mer, when the latter falls. The explosion drives down the pile and raises the hammer at the same blow. The powder ordinarily used is a mixture of chlorate of potash and bituminous coal. Gunpowder Plot, A conspiracy entered into by a few Roman Catholics to destroy the king, lords, and commons on the meet- ing of JParliament on November 5, 1605. On the evening of the 4th, the famous Guy Fawkes, who was to be the leader and agent of the conspirators, was detected under the vaults of the House of Lords preparing the train for being fired the next day ; and on the morning of the 5th, a little after mid- night, he was arrested, examined, and tor- tured. He confessed his own guilt, but would not discover his associates. However, all of them were either killed on being cap- tured, or died on the scaftbld, except one. The memorj' of this plot has survived in England, and the name of Guy Fawkes is detested. Gunpowder-mill. See Mill, Gunpow- der-. Gunreach. The reach or distance to which a gun will shoot; gunshot. Giins. A town of Hungary, situated on the river of the same name, about 57 miles south-southeast of Vienna. It is famous for its noble defense of its fortifications for twenty-eight days against the Turks under Solyman in 1532, thus enabling the emperor Charles V. time to assemble a force strong enough to oppose them. Gunshot. The distance of the point- blank range of a cannon-shot. The distance to which shot can be thrown from a gun so as to be effective ; the reach or range of a gun. Gunshot. Made by the shot of a gun ; as, a gunshot wound. Gun-sling. See Sling. Gunsmith. A maker of small-arms : one whose occupation is to make or repair small fire-arms ; an armorer. Gunsmithery. The business of a gun- smith ; the art of making small fire-arms. Gunster. A gunner. This term is now rare. ' Gunstick. A stick to ram down the charge of a musket, etc. ; a rammer or ramrod. This term is now rare. Gunstock. The stock or wood in which the barrel of a gun is fixed. Gunstone. A stone used for the shot of cannon. Before the invention of iron balls, stones were used for shot, but are now alto- gether superseded. Gunter's Chain (from Edmund Gunter, the inventor). The chain commonly used by military engineers for measuring land. It is 4 rods, or 66 feet long, and is divided into 100 links. Gunter's Line. A logarithmic line on Gunter's scale, used for performing the mul- tiplication and division of numbers mechan- ically by the dividers ; — called also line of lines, and line of numbers ; also a sliding scale corresponding to logarithms, for per- forming these operations by inspection, with- out dividers ; — called also Gunter's sliding rule. This is used by military engineers. Gunter's Scales. A wooden rule 2 feet long, on one side of which are marked scales of equal parts, of chords, sines, tan- gents, rhombs, etc., and on the other side, of logarithms of these various parts, by means of which many problems in surveying and navigation may be solved mechanically, by the aid of the dividers alone. This instru- ment is used by military engineers. Gurges, or Gorges. A charge in heraldry meant to represent a whirlpool. It takes up the whole field, and when borne proper is azure and argent. Gurries. Mud forts made in India are so called. These forts are sometimes sur- rounded with ditches. Gurwal. A state of Northern Hindo- stan, under the protection of the British government, at the foot of the Himalaya Mountains. Gurwal was subdued by the Nepaulese about the year 1803, when Pur- dumin Shah, the rajah, at the head of 12,000 men, was defeated and slain at Gurudwara. The country was conquered by the British in 1814, and partly restored to the rajah's son. Gusset. Was at first a piece of chain, and afterwards of plate-armor, intended as a pro- tection to the vulnerable point where the defenses of the arm and breast left a gap. In heraldry it is one of the abatements, or marks of disgrace for unknightly conduct. It is represented by a straight line extending diagonally from the dexter or sinister chief point one-third across the shield, and then descending perpendicularly to the base. Guy. A rope used to swing any weight, or to keep steady any heavy body, and pre- vent it from swinging, while being hoisted or lowered. GUZERAT 211 HADDINGTON Guzerat. A state in India, founded by Maliriioiid the Guznevide, uLout lO'JO; was conquered by A i< bur in 1572; and becunie subject to the Mahrattas, 1732 or 1752. At the battle of Gu/.erat, February 21, 1849, Lord (ioui^b totally defeated the Sikhs, and captured the city of Guzerat. Gwalior. Capital of the state of the same name, in Central India. Its nucleus is a completely isolated rock of about 800 feet in height, perpendicular, either naturally or artificially, on all sides; and as it measures H miles by 300 yards, it can accommodate ap^rrison'of 15,000 men. It is thus virtu- ally impregnable against an}' native force. The spot is understood to have been occu- pied as a stronghold for more than a thou- sand years. Gyongyos. A town of Ilungary, 43 miles northeast from Pesth. The Austrians were defeated here by the Hungarians in 1840. Gythcum, or Gythium (now Pahropolis, near Marat/iomai). An ancient town on the east coast of Laconia, founded by the Achaj- ans, near the head of the Laconian Bay, southwest of the mouth of the river Eurotas. It served as the harbor of Sparta, and wius important in a military point of view. In the Persian war, the Laceduimonian fleet was stationed at Gytheum, and here the Athenians under Tolmides burned the Lace- da3monian arsenal, 455 n.c. After the bat- tle of Leuctra (370) it was taken by Epam- inondas. In 195 it was taken by Flamini- nus, and made independent of Nabis, tyrant of Sparta, whereupon it jcjined the Achaean league. Gyves. Fetters ; old word for handcuffs. «^^ H, Haarlem, or Haerlem. A city of the I Netherlands, in the province of Northern | Holland, on the Spaarne. It is an ancient [ town, and was once the residence of the i counts of Holland; was taken by the Duke j of Alva in .July, 1573, after a siege of seven months. He violated the capitulation by I butchering half the inhabitants. | Habeas Corpus. A writ of habeas corpus is an order in writing, signed by the judge who grants the same, sealed with the seal of the court of which he is a judge, and issued in the name of a sovereign power where it is I erantcd, by such a court or a judge thereof | Having lawful authority to issue the same, ; directed to any one having a person in his j custody or under his restraint, commanding him to produce such person at a certain time and place, and to state the reason why he is held in custody or under restraint. Habergeon. A short coat of mail, con- sisting of u jacket without sleeves. In early times the habergeon was composed of chain- mail ; but in the 14th century a habergeon of plate-armor was worn over the hauberk. Habiliments of War. In ancient statutes signify armor, harness, utensils, etc., with- out which it is supposed there can be no ability to maintain a war. Habsburg, or Hapsburg, House of. An ancient sovereign family of Austria, which derives its name from the castle of Habsburg, in Switzerland. The tirst member of the family who acquired great celebritv electea em pi tria and other provinces by conquest, and founded the dynasty which now reigns over the Austrian empire, and which, since 1736, ily who acquired great celebritv was iolph of Habsburg,' born in 1218, and ted emperor in 127'3. He obtained Aus- has been styled the house of Habsburg- Lor- raine. Hach6e (Fr.). Ignominious punishment of carrying a saddle or dog, to which soldiers were formerlv subject in France. Haches d'Armes (Fr ). Pole- or battle- axes. A /tarhe fl'arnie is an axe with a narrow handle armed with a sliarj) blade in the form of a crescent very much curved, terminating in two points approaching the handle on one side; the other side terminat- ing in a point or hammer; when both sides were armed with a blade it was called hcsapne. Hack. To cut irregularly, without skill or definite purpose ; to notch ; to mangle by repeated strokes of a cutting instrument. " My sword hacked like a handsaw." Hack-bush. Formerly a heavy hand-gun. Hacquet Wagen. A four-wheeled wagon used in the Prus-iian service to carry pontons. The under-frame of this carriage is built like that of a chariot, by which means it can turn without difficulty. Hacqueton. ' A stuffed coat or cloak, generally of leather, mounted with metal, formerly worn in France by certain knights of the king's guards called " Gnrdr.s de la Mnuche." \i came into use during the reign of Charles V., and was di.scarded during the revolution of 1789. Haddington. A royal burgh of Scotland, and county town of Haddingtonshire, or East Lothian. It was burnt in 12K) by an invading army under John, king of England. Having been rebuilt, it was again burnt to the ground in 1244. In 1355 it was retluced to ashes for the third time by Edward III. of England. The year after the battle of Pinkie, 1548, Haddington was seired and HADRUMETUM 212 HALF-HITCH strongly furtified by the English. An allied army of Scotch and French laid siege to it, and, after a memorable defense, it was evac- uated by the English in October, 1549. Hadrumetum. See Adrumktum. Hagbut, or Haguebut ( Fr. haquebute). An arquebuse, of which the butt was bent or hooked, in order that it might be held more readily. Hagbutar. The bearer of a fire-arm for- merly used. Hagg. An arquebuse with a bent butt. Hague. A little hand-gun of former times. Haguebut, or Hague-but. The same as hagbut (which see). Haguenau. A town of France, in the department of Bas-Rhin, formerly a free town of Germany and a strong forti'ess, sit- uated on the Moder, 18 miles north-north- east of Strasburg. It was founded in 1164 by Frederick Barbarossa. It successfully withstood many sieges, especially during the Thirty Years' War; but on its occupation in 1675 by the Imperialists, its fortifications were destroyed. On October 17 and De- cember 22, 1793, bloody battles took place here between the French and Austrians, in which the former were the victors. Haik. A large piece of woolen or cotton cloth worn by the Arabs over the tunic, being itself covered in foul weather by the bur- noose. This word is also written fiT/ke. Hail. To accost ; to call ; to salute. A sentinel hails any one approaching his post with, " Who comes there?" Hail-shot. Grape-shot. Hainburg. A town of Austria, on the Danube, 28 miles southeast from Vienna. The Magyars, or Hungarians, gained a great victory here over the Germans in 907. Hair. A spring or other contrivance in a rifle or pistol lock, which, being unlocked by a slight pressure on the trigger, strikes the tumbler-catch, and unlocks the tumbler. Hair-cloth. A species of cloth made of horse-hair, laid upon the floors of magazines and laboratories to prevent accidents. It is usually made up in pieces 14 feet long and 11 feet wide, each weighing 36 pounds. Hair-line. A line made of hair ; a very fine line. This line is used in military en- gineering. Hair-trigger. A trigger so constructed as to discharge a fire-arm by a very slight pressure, as by the touch of a hair. It is connected with the tumbler-catch by a de- vice called a hair. Hajduk, Haiduk, or Hayduk. The Mag- yar inhabitants of the district of Hajdu Kerulet, in Eastern Hungary. The Hajduk are direct descendants of those warriors, who, during the long and bloody contest be- tween the house of Hapsburg and the Prot- estant insurgents of Hungary, formed the nucleus of Prince Stephen Bocskay's valiant armies. They formerly enjoyed the privi- leges of the nobility, and were free from taxation. Hake. An old term for a hand-gun. Halberd, or Halbert. A weapon borne up to the close of the 18th century by all sergeants of foot, artillery, and marines, and by companies of halberdiers in the various regiments of the English army. It consisted of a strong wooden shaft about 6 feet in length, surmounted by an instrument much resembling a bill-hook, constructed alike for cutting and thrusting, with a cross-piece of steel, less sharp, for the purpose of pushing ; one end of this cross-piece was turned down as a hook for use in tearing down works against which an attack was made. "old Halberd is a familiar term formerly used in the British army, to signify a person who had gone through the ditferent grada- tions, and risen to the rank of a commis- sioned ofiicer. Halberdier. One who is armed with a halberd. Hale's Rocket. See Rocket. Half Bastion. A demi-bastion. That half of a bastion cut off by the capital, con- sisting of one base and one front. Half Caponniere. A communication in a dry ditch with one side prepared for defense. Half Merlens. The merlens at the ends of a parapet. Half-batta. An extra allowance which was granted to the whole of the officers be- longing to the British East Indian army, ex- cept Bengal, when out of the company's dis- trict in the province of Oude. In the upper provinces double batta was allowed. AH above full was paid by the native princes, as the troops stationed in that quarter wer« considered as auxiliaries. Batta is equal to full pay. See Batta. Half-brigade. A demi-brigade. Half-cock. The position of the cock of a gun when retained by the first notch. Also, to set the cock at the first notch. Half-companies. The same as subdivis- ions, and equal to a platoon. Half-distance. Is half the regular inter- val or space between troops drawn up in ranks or standing column. Half-face. Is to take half the usual dis- tance between the right or left face, in order to give an oblique direction to the line, or to fill up a gap at the corner of a square. Half-file Leader (Fr. chef de demi-file). The foremost man of a rank entire. Half-files. Is half the given number of any body of men drawn up two deep. They are so called in cavalry when the men rank off singly. Half-'full Sap. When the sappers have only a flank fire (coming in a direction nearly perpendicular to that of the sap) to fear, the sap-roller may be dispensed with. The first sapper then covers himself with the last- filled gabion whilst placing and filling the new one. This species of sap is called the half-full sap. Half-hitch. Pass the end of a rope round its standing part, and bring it up through the bight. HALF-MOON 213 HAMMER-WRENCH Half-moon (Fr. demi-lunc). In fortifica- tion, is an outwork that has two faces which form a salient anj^le, tlie gori^e of which re- semhlcs a crescent. It owes its original in- vention to the Dutch, who used it to cover the points of their bastions. This kind of fortification is, however, defective, because it is weak on its flanks. Half-moons are now called ravelins, which species of work is con- structed in front of the curtain. Half-pay. An allowance given in the Hritish army and navy to commissioned of- ficers not actively employed. It was first granted by William 111." in IfJttS. In the U. S. service officers receive half-pay only when on leave of absence for a longer period than that for which full ])ay on leave is al- lowed, namely, thirty days in each year. Sec Aii.sK.vcK, Leavk ok. Half-pike. A short pike, which was for- merly carried by othccrs. Half-sunken Battery. See Battery. Half-sword. A light within half the length of a sword ; a close fight. Haliartus (now Mf a gun-lock works. Hammer-wrench. A combination ham- mer and wrench ; culled also monkey-wrench. HAMPTON 214 HANGER Hampton. A small village on the Chesa- peake Bay, in Virginia, giving its name to Hampton Koads, a southerly branch of Ches- apeake Bay, and mouth of James River, defended by Forts Monroe and Calhoun. These roads were the scene of important events in the American Revolution, the war of 1812, and the late civil war, especially the first naval battle between ironclad vessels, the " Merrimac" and the " Monitor." Hanapier, or Hanepier {F>-.). The front part of a cuirass, or iron breastplate worn by light-armed soldiers. Hanau. A town of Germany, the capital of a province of the same name, in Hesse- Cassel, on the Kinzig, 12 miles from Frank- fort-on-the-Main. In 1792, Hanau was at- tacked by the French, and occupied by them in 1796, 1797, and 1805. Hand. A measure 4 inches in length. The height of a horse is computed by so many hands and inches. Hand-barrow. A frame which is carried around by two men, instead of being rolled forward like a wheel-barrow. Those em- ployed in the ordnance department are very useful in the erection of fortifications, as well as carrying shells and shot along the trenches. They generally weigh about 19 pounds. Hand-cart. It consists of a light body with shafts, mounted on two wheels. The shafts are joined together at the ends, and supported immediately in front of the body by iron legs. It weighs 181 pounds, and is used for the transportation of light stores in siege and garrison service. Handcuff. A listening consisting of an iron ring around the wrist, usually connected by a chain with one on the other wrist ; a manacle. Men who have deserted the ser- vice are usually manacled in this manner when removed from place to place. Handful. Used figuratively, in a military sense, to denote a comparatively small num- ber ; as, "a handful of men." Hand-gallop. A slow and easy gallop, in which the hand presses the bridle to hinder increase of speed. Hand-grenades. Are small iron shells, from 2 to 3 inches in diameter, filled with powder, which being lighted by means of a fuze, were formerly thrown by the grena- diers among the enemy, in storming a fortress. See Grenades. Hand-gun. An old term for a small-arm in the times of Henry VII. and VIII. Handle Arms. Formerly a word of com- mand ( when the men were at ordered arms ), by which the soldier was directed to bring his right hand briskly up to the muzzle of his firelock, with his finger bent upwards. Handles. Bronze guns were formerly furnished with handles placed over the centre of gravity ; from their shape they were called dolphins. Hand-mallet. A wooden hammer with a handle, to drive fuzes, or pickets, etc., in making fascines or gabion batteries. Hand Sling-cart^ Is a two-wheeled car- riage made entirely of iron, except the pole, which is of oak. The axle-tree is arched to make it stronger, and connected with the pole by strong wrought-iron straps and braces. In the rear of the axle a projection is welded, to receive the end of a strong hook. The end of the pole terminates in a ferule and an eye. The eye is for the purpose of attaching to the cart, when necessary, a limber or a horse. The diameter of the wheel is 6 feet. The hand sling-cart is used in siege and gar- rison service for transporting artillery short distances. It should not be used habitually for heavier weights than about 4000 pounds, but in case of necessity, a 24- or 32-pounder gun may be transported on it. For heavier guns or material, the large sling-cart drawn by horses or oxen should be used. jTAiscart is wooden throughout, and the diameter of the wheels 8 feet. Hand-spike. Is a wooden or iron lever, flattened at one end and tapering towards the other, used in raising heavy weights, or in moving guns to their places after being reloaded. Manceuvring hand-spike^ for garrison and sea-coast carriages and for gins, is 66 inches ; for siege and other heavy work, it is made 84 inches long and 12 pounds weight. Roller hand-spike, for casemate carriages. The latter is made of iron 1 inch round, the point conical ; whole length 34 inches. Shod hand-spike is particularly useful in the service of mortars, and of casemate and barbette carriages. Trail hand-spike, for field-carriages, is 53 inches in length. Truck hand-spike, for casemate carriages (wrought iron). Hand-staff. A javelin. Hand-to-hand. A close fight ; the situ- ation of two persons closely opposed to each other. Handy-fight. A fight with the hands ; boxing. Hang Fire. Fire-arms and trains are said to hang fire when there is an unwonted pause between the application of fire to the gunpowder and its ignition. Hang Upon, To. To hover ; to impend. Thus, to hang upon the flanks of a retreating enemy, is to follow the movements of any body of men so closely as to be a perpetual annoyance to them ; to harass and perplex him in a more desultory manner than what is generally practiced when pressing upon his rear. Hanged, Drawn and Quartered. In Great Britain, the description of the capital sentence on a traitor, which consisted of drawing him on a hurdle to the place of exe- cution, and after hanging him, dividing the body into quarters. This punishment was substituted by the stat. 54 Geo. III. c. 146, for the ancient and more barbarous sentence of disemboweling alive ; but the crown has power to reduce the sentence to simple hanging. Hanger. That which hangs or is sus- HANGIER 215 HARPE pended ; specifically, a short broadsword, incurvuted towards the point. Hangier. A Turkish poniard, formerly worn by the Janissaries. Hango Head. A promontory on" the north coast of the Gulf of Finlandf. It was at this place, durin/jj the war with Russia, in 1855, that the unarmed crew of an English man-of-war's boat, with a tlag of truce flying, was treacherously fired upon by Russian grenadiers, when all the IJritish sailors in the Doiit wore either killed or wounded. Hanover. A kingdom in the north of Germany, and since ISflC) a province of I'russia. It was originally peopled by the Cherusci, the Chauci, and the Lungobardi, afterwards known as Lombards. In the time of Charlemagne it was occupied by Saxon tribes, and continued, even after its conquest by that monarch, to be governed by Saxon dukes. From 1714 till 1837, Hanover was governed by the kings of England, without. However, forming part of that kingdom. The French occupied it in 1803; but, two years afterwards, ceded it to Prussia. In 1807, however, they took possession of it, and held it till 1813 Hanover Court-house. A town in East Virginia. Here on May 27, 18(52, a severe action took place between the armies of the North and South, which resulted in a victory for the former. The loss on the Northern ■ido was 54 killed and 194 wounded and missing; and on the Southern side, between 200 and 300 killed and wounded, and about 500 taken prisoners. Hanse Towns. The Hanseatic League (from /lansn, association), formed by port towns in Germany against the piracies of the Swedes and Danes, began about 1140, and was signed in 1241. At first it consisted only of towns situated on the coasts of the Baltic Sea, but in 1370 it was composed of 66 cities and 44 confederates. They pro- claimed war against Waldemar, king of Denmark, about the year 1348, and against Eric in 1428, with 40 ships and 12,000 regu- lar troops, besides seamen. The Thirty Years' War in Germany (1018-48) broke up the strength of this association. In 1G30 the only towns retaining the name were Lubeck, Hamburg, and Bremen. Hansy. A town of Ilindostan, in the Britisii district of Hurreeana, under the jurisdiction of the lieutenant-governor of the northwest provinces. It is a very ancient town ; was taken by the Mohammedans early in 1035, and has experienced many revolutions. Hante (/•'/•.). An ornamental pike, hav- ing a banner attached. Haquebut. See IIaohut. Har. A syllable used in composition nsually as a prefix, and signifying army ; — occurring in various forms, as Vin/e, her, and kere ; as, harisvalt, leader of an army. Haranes (/■>.). Hungarian militia are io called. Harangue. A speech addressed to a large public assembly; a popular oration ; a loud address to a multitude ; as, a general makes a harangue to his troops on the eve of a battle. Harass. To annoy ; to perplex, and in- cessantly turmoil any body of men ; to hang upon the rear and flanks of a retreating army, or to interrupt operations at a siege by repeated attacks ufion the besiegers. Harboring an Enemy. See Appendix, Aktki.ks ok Wak, 45. Harcarrah. In India, a messenger em- ployed to carry letters, and otherwise in- tru.«ted with matters of consequence that re- quire secrecy and punctuality. They are very often Brahmins, well acquainted' with the neighboring countries; they are sent to gain intelligence, and are used as guides in the field. Hard-fought. Vigorously contested ; as, a hard-fought battle. Hardihood. Boldness, united with firm- ness and constancy of mind ; dauntless brav- ery ; intrepidity ; audaciousness. Hardiment. Hardihood; courage; bold or energetic action ; contest ; struggle. Hard-labor. A military punishment fre- quently awarded by courts-martial. Hard-tack. Sea-bread. Hard-tack is also used by U. S. troops while campaigning; large crackers. Harfleur. A town of France, in the de- partment of the Lower Seine, situated at the confluence of the Seine and the Lezarde, a mile from the sea, and 3 miles northeast from Havre. Harfleur was formerly fortified, and an important place. It was besieged by the English under Henry V. in 1415, and this monarch succeeded in taking it, after being before it fortv davs. It was again taken by the English fn 1440. Hariaw. A township of Scotland, in Ab- erdeenshire, situated 4 miles southwest from old Meldrum, near the confluence of the Ury and Don, memorable for a sangui- nary battle fought in 1411 between the High- landers under Donald, the Lord of the Isles, and the royal forces under the Earl of Mar. Harmostes. A city governor or prefect appointi'd by the Spartans in the cities sub- jugated by them. Harness. The iron covering or dress which a soldier formerly wore, and which was fastened to the body by straps and buck- les ; coat of mail ; also, the whole accoutre- ments, olTensive and defensive ; armor of a knight or soldier; the armor of a horse. Also the equipments of a draught-horse. Harness. To dress in armor; to equip witii armor for war, as a horseman. To equip or furnish for defense. Harol. An Indian term signifying the officer who commands the van of an army. It sometimes means the van-guan.1 itself. Harpe. A species of drawbridge used among the ancients, and deriving its name from Its resemblance to the musical instru- ment. This bridge, which consisted of a HARPER'S FERRY 216 HATJBERK wooden frame, and hung in a perpendicular direction against the turrets that were used in those times to carry on the siege of a place, had a variety of ropes attached to it, and was let down upon the wall of a town by means of pulleys. The instant it fell, the soldiers left the turret, and rushed across the tempo- rary platform upon the rampart. Harper's Ferry. A town of Jefferson Co., W. Va., situated at the junction of the Shenandoah and Potomac Rivers, about 107 miles north from Richmond. In October, 1859, John Brown, the leader of the anti- slavery party, and his followers entered the town, and seized and held for a short time the armory and arsenal located here. In April, 1861, the Federal troops evacuated the public buildings here, and they were immediately taken possession of by the Confederates, who destroyed them and evac- uated the place in June, following. The town was again taken by the Confederates in September, 1862, but was soon after re- captured by the Federal forces, who from that time retained possession of it. HarponuUy. A district in the south of India. The rajah of this district was trib- utary to the kings of Benjanagur and Be- japore, to the Moguls, and the Mahrattas ; in 1774 he became tributary to Hyder, and in 1786 he was completely subdued by Tip- poo, and sent prisoner to Seringapatam. On the capture of that city, HarponuUy was assigned to the nizam as a portion of his division of Tippoo's territory, and by him assigned to the British in 1800. Harpy. A fabulous creature in Greek mythology, considered as a minister of the vengeance of the gods. In heraldry it is represented as a vulture, with the head and breast of a woman. Harquebuse. See Arqtjebuse. Harquebusier. See Arquebu.sier. Hartlepool. A seaport of England, in the county Durham, a few miles north of the mouth of the river Tees. It is men- tioned as a harbor of some consequence as early as 1171. In the 13th century it be- longed to the Bruces of Annandale, in Scot- land. Hartlepool suflered severely from the Scots in 1312, and again in 1315, a year after the battle of Bannockburn. It was seized by the insurgents in the northern re- bellion under the Earls of Northumberland and Westmoreland, in the time of Eliza- beth. During the civil war it was taken by the Scottish army in 1644, and retained by them till 1647. Hastaire (F/-.). Pikeman ; spearman. Hastati. From the Latin word hnsta, a spear, so that they may literally be called spearmen. A body of Roman soldiers who were more advanced in age, and had ac- quired a greater reputation in arms than the velites possessed, were distinguished by this appellation. They wore a complete set of armor, and always carried a buckler, made convex, measuring 2^ feet in breadth and 4 feet in length. The longest measured about 4 feet 9 inches, or a Roman palm. The buckler was made of two boards glued to- gether. These were covered in the first in- stance with a broad piece of linen, which was again covered over with sheep-skin. The edges, both at top and bottom, were fenced with iron, to enable them to meet the broad- sword and sabre, and to prevent them from rotting when planted on the ground. The convex part was further covered over with iron plates, to resist the impression of hard blows, and to withstand the violent concus- sion of stones, etc. The hastati commonly formed the first line in the order of battle; the principes were placed in the second line ; whilst the oldest and best legionaries, classed under the name of triarii, constituted a reserve or third line. Hastings. A town of England, in the county of Surrey, 33 miles northeast from Brighton, and one of the Cinque Ports. Near this place, in 1066, was fought the de- cisive battle of Hastings, which wrested the crown of England from Harold, and gave it to William the Conqueror. Hatchet. A small, light sort of axe, with a bazil edge on the left side, and a short handle. It is used by soldiers for cutting wood to make fascines, gabions, pickets, etc. To take up the hatchet, among the Indians, to declare war, to commence hostilities, etc. To bury the hatchet, to make peace. Hatchment. An ornament on the hilt of a sword. In heraldry, a hatchment is the funeral escutcheon, usually placed in front of the house of a deceased person, setting forth his rank and circumstances. It is in the form of a lozenge, and in its centre are depicted the arms of the deceased, single or quartered. Hatras. A town of Hindostan, in the northwest provinces, 33 miles to the north of Agra. As a place of some strength, it was at one time prominent in the wars of the Doab ; but on falling, in 1817, into the possession of the British, it was immedi- ately dismantled. Hattrass. A fortress of India, taken by siege and storm by the troops under the Marquis of Hastings during the Mahratta war. Haubergier {Fr.). An individual who held a tenure by knight's service, and was subject to the feudal system which formerly existed in France, and by which he was obliged to accompany the lord of the manor in that capacity whenever the latter went to war. He was called fief de haubert, and had the privilege of carrying a halbert. All vassals in ancient times served their lords- paramount as squires, haubergiers, lance- men, bow-men, etc. Hauberk. A twisted coat of mail, some- times extending only as high as the neck, but more generally continued so as to form a coif, leaving only the face of the knight who bore it exposed. In early times the sleeve of the hauberk sometimes terminated at the elbow, but in the 13th and 14th cen- HAUL 217 HAZAREE turies it came down to the wrist, and very geneniUy descended over the hand in the form of a glove, either one-tingered or di- vided. In tlie 11th century the hauberk was worn under plate-armor. Haul. To pull or draw with force or violence ; to transport by drawing ; to drag; to cniupcl to move or go. Hausse, Pendulum. Is a scale of sheet- brass, the i^raduations of which are the sines of each (piarter of a degree to a radius equal to the distance between the muzzle-sight of the piece, and the axis of vibration of the hausse, which is one inch in rear of the base- ring. At the lower end of the scale is a brass bulb tilled with lead. The slider which marks the divisions on the scale is of thin bra.ss, and is clamped at any desired division on the scale by means of a screw. The scale passes through a slit in a piece of steel, with which it is connected by a screw, forming a pivot on which the scale can vibrate later- ally. This piece of steel terminates in pivots, by means of which the pendulum is supported on the seat attached to the gun, and is at liberty to vibrate in the direction of the axis of the piece. The sent is of metal, and is fastened to the base of the i breech by screws, so that the centres of the steel pivots of vibration shall be at a dis- tance from the axis of the piece equal to the radius of the base-ring. Hausse-col (Fr.). An ornamental plate similar to tin; gorget. It was formerly worn by infantry ofHcers. Hautes-payes (Fr.). "Were soldiers se- lected by the captains of companies to attend them personally, for which service they re- ceived something more than the common pay. Ilaute-paye became afterwards a term to signify the subsistence which any body of men superior to, or distinguished from the private soldier were allowed to receive. Haut-le-pied {Fr.). A term used to dis- tinguish such persons as were formerly em- ployetl in the French armies without having any permanent appointment. G»nmissaires hauts-lc-pied were known in the artillery during the monarchy of France. They were usually under the quartermaster-gen- eral. Havana (Sp. Habana). The capital of the island of Cuba, on its north coast, at the mouth of the river Lagida. The harbor is one of the best in the world, being capable of holding 1000 ships with ease; but it has so narrow a channel that only one vessel can enter at a time. This channel is strongly fortified ; the city is also surrounded with defensive works,' all furnished with heavy artillery. Havana has been frequently at- tacked ; it was captured in 153r, by a French pirate, and partially de.«troycd ; it was sub- sequently taken, at different times, by the English, by the French, and by the bucca- neers. In 1702 the British took possession of it, but restored it in 1763. Havelock. A light cloth covering for the head and neck, used by soldiers as a pro- 15 tection from sunstroke. This covering de- ri ved its name from Havelock, a distinguished English general. Haverfordwest (Welsh, Hwlfford). A seaport of Wales, in Pembrokeshire, and the capital of that county. It was at one time stron!;ly fortified, and was possessed of a strong castle, which was built by Gilbert de Clare, first earl of Fi-mbrnke. In the insurrection of Owen Glendowcr, it was successfully defended against the French troops in the Welsh service. In the civil war of the 17th century it was held by the royalists. Haversack. A strong, coarse, linen bag, in which, on a nuirch, a soldier carries his rations. It is bi;rne on the left side, sus- pended by a strap passing over the right shoulder. The name is also given to the leather bag used in artillery to carry car- tridges from the ammunition-chest to the piece in loading. Havildar. A non-commissioned oflBcer or sergeant among the Sepoys. He ranks next to the jemadar, or native lieutenant. Havildar-raajor. The native sergeant- major in a native infantry regiment. Havoc. Wide and general destruction ; devastation ; waste. Also, to waste; to de- stroy ; to lay waste. Havock. A cry originally used in hunt- ing, but afterward in war as the signal for indiscriminate slaughter. Havre Le, or Havre de Grace. An im- portant and strongly fortified commercial town of France, in the department of the Lower Seine, at the entrance of the Seine into the English Channel. Havre was taken by the British in 1502, and bombarded by them in 1750, 1794, and 179.5. Hawaii. See Owyhke. Haxo-casemate. A vault of masonry thrown over a gun, but not over its embra- sure. It is open at the rear, and acts as a traverse. Hayti, Haiti, St. Domingo, or Hispani- ola. The largest island in the West Indies, with the exception of Cuba. It was discov- ered by Christopher Columbus in 1495. Until 1665 Spain kept po.ssession of the island ; but in that year the French obtained a footing, and retained their position for ujv- wards of a century and a quarter. In 18(X) the independence of Hayti was proclaimed by the negro population, and the French finally quitted the island in 1803. Since that time various revolutions have occurred, and a kind of military elective government has prevailed under different leaders. In 1849 the former French portion of the island was proclaimed an empire under it.s presi- dent, Solouque, who took the title of Faustin I. The sable emperor was, however, de- posed in 1858, and a republic was again pro- claimed. Hazaree. An Indian term signifying the commander of gun-men. It is derived from haznr, which, in its literal interpretation,, signifies a thousand. HAZE 218 HELENA Haze, To. To punish a man by making him do unnecessary work. Head. In gunnery, the fore part of the cheeks of a gun or howitzer carriage. To head^ is to lead on, or he the leader of a party. Head of a wo7'k, in fortification, is the front next to the enemy, and farthest from the place ; as the front of a horn-work is the dis- tance between the flanked angles of the demi- bastions. The head of a double tenaille is the salient angle in the centre and the two other sides which form the re-entering angles. Head of an army, or body of men, is the front, whether drawn up in lines or on a march, in column, etc. Head of a camp, is the ground before which an army is drawn up. Head, Bridge. Is the end of a bridge, — also the work defending it. Header. In a revetment, is a brick, stone, or sod laid with its end outwards. Headless. Destitute of a chief or leader. Head-man. A chief; a leader. Head-piece. Armor for the head ; a hel- met ; a morion. Headquarters. The place where the offi- cer commanding any army or independent body of troops takes up his residence. The quarters or place of residence of the chief officer; hence, the centre of authority or order. Headstall. That part of a bridle which encompasses the head. Heaume (F>\). A word derived from the German, which formerly signified casque, or helmet. The heaume has been sometimes called among the French salade, armet, and celate from the Latin word which means en- graved, on account of the diflerent figures which were represented upon it. The heaume covered the whole of the face, except the eyes, which were protected by small iron bars laid crosswise. It serves as an orna- ment or helmet in coats of arms and armorial bearings ; it is still preserved in heraldry, and is a distinguishing mark of nobility. Heaver. A bar used as a lever. Heavy. Strong; violent; forcible; as, a heavj" cannonade. Heavy Artillery. Troops who serve heavy guns. The term is specially applied to troops in charge of siege guns or guns of position. Also large guns themselves. Heavy Cavalry. European cavalry is di- vided into light and heavy cavalry, accord- ing to the size of the men and horses and the character of the equipment. Heavy Fire. A continuous cannonading ; a continuous discharge of musketry. Heavy Marching Order. An expression applied to troops equipped for permanent field service with arms, accoutrements, knapsacks, canteens, and haversacks. Heavy Metal. Large guns carrying balls of a large size ; also, large balls for such guns. Heavy Ordnance. Ordnance of great weight and caliber. In the United States the term is restricted in the land service to sea- coast ordnance. See Ordnance. Hebrides, or Western Islands. A series of islands oti" the west coast of Scotland, consisting of two principal groups. In an- cient times they were subject to the kings of Norway, but were annexed to the crown of Scotland in 1264. From that time they were held by various native chieftains in vassalage to the Scottish monarch, until they came under the sway of one powerful chief, who assumed the title of " Lord of the Isles" in 1346, and eflfected entire independence of Scotland. In 1748 all hereditary jurisdic- tions were abolished, and for the first time, under a just and powerful government, the peace of the islands was secured. Hebron. A place in Palestine, about 20 miles a little west of south from Jerusalem, and one of the oldest existing cities in the world. The Maccabees recovered it from the Edomites, who had taken it after the Cap- tivity. It was burned by an officer of Ves- pasian just before the destruction of Jerusa- lem. It was taken by the Arabs in 637, and by the Crusaders about 1100; andeversince 1187 has been in the hands of its present masters, the Mohammedans. Hedge. To surround for defense ; to for- tify ; to guard ; to protect ; to hem. To sur- round so as to prevent escape. Hedjrah. See Hegira. Heel. That part of a thing corresponding in position to the human heel; the lower back part, or part on which a thing rests. In a small-arm it is the corner of the butt which is upwards in the firing position. Heel-piece. Armor for the heels. Hegemony. Leadership ; preponderant influence or authority ; usually applied to the relations of a government or state to its neighbors or confederates. Hegira, or Hedjrah ( from the Arabic hajara, to desert). A Mohammedan epoch, dating from the expulsion or flight of Mo- hammed from Mecca to Medina, July 16, 622. This flight was fixed as the great Moslem epoch by the caliph Omar, seventeen years later. Heidelberg. A city of Germany, in Baden, situated on the Neckar, which is possessed of a celebrated university. This town has been besieged several times ; it was taken by Tilly in 1622, and by Turenne in 1674. Helder. A town of Northern Holland, on the North Sea, at the mouth of the Mars- diep, which separates it from the island of Texel. Near this place a naval battle was fought between the English and the Dutch in 1653, in which Van Tromp was killed. It was taken by the English under Sir Ralph Abercrombie in 1799; was afterwards re- taken by Brewe, and subsequently rendered a first-class fortress by Napoleon I. It is connected with Amsterdam by the famous Helder Canal. Helena, Saint. An island in the At- lantic Ocean, which presents to the sea, throughout its whole circuit, an immense wall of perpendicular rock, from 600 to 1200 feet high. This island was discovered by the HELEPOLIS 219 HELOTS Portuguese in 1502, and belonged to the Dutch from IfJlO to lr,'M, when it fell into the hands of the British. It is chief!}' famous for having been the place in whicli Najioleon I. was confined by the allied pow- ers after his final overthrow at the battle of Waterloo. Here he lived at Long wood, from November, 1815, till his death in 1821. His remains »lso lay here till 1840, when, by the permission of the English government, they were conveyed to France. Helepolis. In the ancient art of war, a machine for battering down the walls of a place besieged. The invention of it is as- cribed to Demetrius Poliorcetes. Diodorus Siculus .says that each side of the helepolis was 450 cubits broad, and 90 in height ; that it had nine stages, or floors, and was carried on four strong solid wheels, 8 cubits in di- ameter ; that it was armed with huge batter- ing-rams, and had two roofs capable of sup- porting them ; that in the lower stages there were different sorts of engines for casting stones, and in the middle they had large catapults for launching arrows. Heligoland. A small island in the North Sea, situated about 46 miles northwest from the mouths of the Elbe and Weser. It was taken from the Danes by the British in 1807, and became a depot for merchandise intended to be smuggled into the continent during Napoleon's continental blockade. At the peace of 1814 it was retained by England, and is of importance as an outpost in time of war. Heliography. See Lookixo-olass Sig- NAI.I.VO. Hellespont. See Dardanelles. Hellin ^anc. Ilununi). A royal town of Spain, in the province of Murcia. This town was sacked by the French under Mont- brun, and was the point where Joseph and Soult united with Suchet after Marmont's rout at Salamanca. Helmet. A piece of defensive armor or covering for the head. Among the early nations of antiquity the helmet forms a prominent feature in all military costume, and is often of very great utility in distin- guishing the age or country of the wearer. The Egyptian kings had them of brass, while the soldiers wore linen ones thickly padded. The crests of the royal E";yptian helmet were the heads of the lion, bull, or dragon. The Milyans had helmets of skins ; those of a fox formed the early Thracian hel- met ; and this ancient fashion of the heroic ages appears in the galcrufs of the Roman light troops. The Phrygian bonnet was a skull-can, with a bent j)cak projecting in front, like the bust of a bird, with an arched neck and head. It is certainly the most ancient form of helmet. Strabo says the ancient Persians, and probably their oriental neighbors, wore modern turbans; in war, a cap cut in the form of a cylinder or tower. This Asiatic fashion e.vtended itself widely. The helmet of the Grecian soldier was usually made of brass, and sometimes of the skins of beasts, with the hair still on ; and to ren- der them more terrible, the teeth were often placed in a grinning manner. The crc^t was made of horse-hair or feathers, and was curiously ornamented. In the early period of the Greeks, hehnets had been composed of the skins of quadrupeds, of which none were more common than the dog. After the time of Alexander the Great, common soldiers had only small crests; chieftains, {)lumes or two crests. The helmet of the Komans was a head-piece of brass or iron, which left the face uncovered, and descended behind as far as the shoulders. Upon the top was the crest, in adorning wliich the soldiers took great pride. The usual orna- ment was horse-hair or feathers of divers colors ; but the helmets of the officers were sometimes very splendid, and adorned with gold and silver. Helmets occur with cheek- pieces and m(jvable visors. Singular hel- mets, with aigrettes, plumes, wings, horns, double crests, double-cheek pieces (some of which are seen on the Hamilton vases), and others, with fantastical additions and over- loaded crests, are either barbarian, or subse- quent to the removal of the seat of empire to Constantinople. The Gauls wore helmets of brass, with monstrous appendages for osten- tation, as the shapes of birds, beasts, etc. In the Middle Ages the knights of Europe were distinguished by helmets adorned with the figure of a crown, or of some aninnil. The king wore a helmet of gold, or gilt ; his at- tendants of silver ; the nobility of steel ; and the lower orders of iron. In European armies helmets are worn by the horse-guards and heavy cavalry. In the United States, helmets made of felt and adorned with horse- hair plumes are worn by light artillery and cavalry troops. Helmet-shap«d. Shaped like a helmet ; galoate. Helmless. Destitute of a helmet ; with- out a helm. Helos. In ancient geography, the name of several towns, so called from their position among or near fens. The most important town of this name was in Laconia, ^it the mouth of the Eurotas, in a plain close to the sea. In the Dorian C(mquest of the Pelopon- nesus Helos was taken, and its inhabitants carried off to Sparta and reduced to slavery. Their name is said to have been applied by their masters generally to all the bondsmen or helots that fell into their power. Helots. The lowest class of the popula- tion of ancient Sparta, which was formed of serfs or slaves. They are suppt>sed to have formed the original population of the coun- try, and to have been reduced to bondage by their Dorian conquerors. In war, they served as light troops, each free-born Spartan who bore heavy armor being accompanied to battle by a number of them, sometimes as many as seven. In order to keep their num- bers Within bounds the Spartans organized secret companies, who went abroad over the country armed with daggers, and both by HELSINGFOKS 220 HEEACLEA night and day assassinated the unfortunate Helots, selecting as their special victims the strongest and most vigorous of the oppressed race. Helsingfors. A fortified town, and sea- port in Finland, on a peninsula in the Gulf of Finland. It has a good harbor, and is defended by the almost impregnable citadel and fortifications of Sweaborg, which stand on a number of rocky islands at the en- trance of the harbor. This town was burnt in 1741, during the war between Sweden and Russia. In 1855, Sweaborg was bom- barded for two days by the allied English and French fleet, when some damage was done to the interior defenses of the place. Helvetian Republic. Switzerland hav- ing been conquered by the French in 1797, a republic was established in 1798 with this title. Helvetii. A Celtic people inhabiting, ac- cording to Cajsar, the region between the mountains of Jura on the west, the Rhone on the south, and the Rhine on the east and north, the region corresponding pretty closely with modern Switzerland. The great and fatal event in their history is their at- tempted irruption into and conquest of Southern Gaul, in which they were repulsed by Cffisar with frightful slaughter in 58 B.C., and compelled to return to their own country, where they became subjects to the Romans. In the commotions which followed the death of Nero, the Helvetians met with another terrible catastrophe. Remaining faithful to Galba, they were fallen upon by Cacina, a general of Vitellius, who gave them up to the rapacity of his legions, and from this time they scarcely appear in history as a dis- tinct people. Helvoetsluys. A fortified town of Hol- land, on the south shore of the island of Voorn, 17 miles southwest from Rotterdam. At this place the Prince of Orange, after- wards William III., embarked for England in 1688. It was taken by the French in 1798, and evacuated by them in 1813. Hem In. To surround an enemy, whether on land or sea. Hertierodromi. In Grecian antiquity, were, as the name imports, runners or cou- riers, who could keep running all day. In a country like Greece, where the roads were few and bad, the hemerodromi were indis- pensable for the rapid diflusion of important news. Every Greek state made a point of training a number of these men who could travel great distances in an incredibly short space of time, and at every dangerous crisis they were stationed on commanding points to observe and report at headquarters what it was necessary for the authorities to know. In the service of the Persian kings, these men were called angoroi, and the service a/igereioji. Among the Romans these cou- riers were known as cursores; they traveled sometimes on foot, sometimes on horseback. It is a well-known fact that running foot- men attended the Duke of Marlborough in his wars in the Low Countries and in Ger- many. In the Byzantine empire they were employed as sentinels at the gates of towns. When the gates were opened they were obliged to patrol round the outskirts of the town during the whole day. Frequently, indeed, they advanced considerably into the country, in order to discover whether any hostile body of men was apgroaching ia order to surprise the garrison. Henery Isle. A small island lying due south from Bombay. In 1790 it belonged to Ragojee Angria, and was a principal rendezvous of pirate vessels, though within sight of Bombay. Near it is another small island named Kenery, which is also fortified, and of considerable strength. It was taken possession of and fortified by Sevajee in 1C79. In 1790 it belonged to the Peshwa, and was also the haunt of pirates. Heneti. An ancient people in Paphla- gonia, dwelling on the river Parthenius; fought on the side of Priam against the Greeks, but had disappeared before the his- torical times. They were regarded by many ancient writers as the ancestors of the Veneti in Italy. Hengestdown. In Cornwall, England. Here Egbert is said to have defeated the Danes and West Britons in 835. Hennebon. A town of France, in the department of Morbihan, on the Blavet. It was formerly a very strong place, and was successfully defended by the Countess of Montfort, when it was besieged by Charles de Blois, in 1342. Henry Rifle. See Magazine Guns. Hephestion, or Hephaestion. A Mace- donian courtier and commander, the son of Amyntor of Pella ; became a favorite of Alexander the Great, whom he followed in the invasion of Persia and India. In the return of this expedition, Hephestion and Craterus commanded a separate part of tlje army. He died in 325 B.C. Hep-pah, or Hippa. A New Zealand fort, or space surrounded with stout palisades. Heptarchy. A government of seven ; said to have been established by the Anglo- Saxons in England before the reign of Eg- bert (800-836 A.D.). Under Egbert, Wessex rose to be supreme, and virtually swallowed up the others. The common idea is that these seven kingdoms were contemporaneous ; but all that can be safely asserted is, that England in this time was peopled by various tribes, whose leading occupation was war; and that sometimes one was conquered, some- times another. At no time was there a counterpoise of power among seven of them, so that they could be said to have a separate, much less an independent existence. Still, seven names do survive, so as to use the term Heptarchy. Heraclea. In ancient geography, a large and important city of Magna Grsecia. It was situated in Lucania, between the small streams Siris and Aciris, a little way inland from the shore of the Tarentine Gulf. It HERACLEA 221 HERCOTECTONIQUE seems to have been colonized about 432 n.c. In the wars with Pyrrhus it sided with Tarentum against Rome ; but it afterwards abandoned its parent state and became an ally of the Roman people. It suflered se- verely during the Social war, but still re- tained a considerable measure of importance and prosperity. It afterwards fell into decay. Heraclea. 8urnamcd Minoa ; in ancient geogriijihy, a Greek city of Sicily, at the mouth of the Ilalycus (now the Plafnni), 20 miles northwest from Agrigentum. The sur- name seems to have been originally the name of the town, which is first mentioned in history as a colony of Selinus. About the end of the 0th century it was recolonized by the Spartans, and had attained to great pros- perity and power, when it was destroyed by the jealousy of the Carthaginians. After renuiining in their power for about 200 j'ears it fell into the hands of Agathocles, and then of Pyrrhus. It was next recovered by the Carthaginians, who retained it to the end of the first Punic war, when the whole of Sicily was made over to the Romans. In the second Punic war it reverted to the Carthaginian sway, but was finally attached to the Roman empire by Marcellus, shortly after the fall of byracuse. After the servile war, Heraclea was repeopled by the Romans, and continued to flourish till the time of Cicero. It after- wards sunk into decay, and at this day its very ruins can hardly be traced. Heracleidae. This term means, in its •widest sense, all the descendants of Heracles (Hercules), of whatever time, and in what- ever district of Greece ; but is specially applied to those adventurers who, founding their claims on their supposed descent from the great hero (to whom Zeus had promised a portion of the land), joined the Dorians in the conquest of the Peloponnesus. There were five different expeditions, the last and greatest occurring eighty years after the Trojan war. The story of the return of the Heracleida? touches on the historical period, and though there is much of fable and tra- dition, yet there seems to be also a large sub- stratum of truth in the records of the Greek historians. Heracleum. A place near Gindarus, in the Syrian province of Cyrrhestice, where Ventidius, the legate of M. Antony, gained his ijrcut victory over the Parthians under Pucorus in 38 B.C. Herald. An officer in the European courts, whose duty consists in the rogulaticm of armorial bearings, the marshaling of rirocessions.and the superintendence of pub- ic ceremonies. In the Middle Ages heralds were highly honored, and enjoyed important privileges; their functions also included the i bearing of messages between royal person- ages, and registering all chivalric exercises ; the computation of the slain after battle; and the recording of the valiant acts of the falling or surviving combatants. The office of herald is probably as old as the origin of coat-armor. In England the principal her- aldic officers are designated kings-of-arms, or kings-at-arms, and the novitiates or learners are styled pursuivants. There are in Eng- land three kings-at-arm«, named by their offices Garter, Clarencienx, and Norroy ; six heralds,— Somerset, Chester, \Vindsr)r, Richmond, Lancaster, and York; and four pursuivants, called Rouge Dragon, P0 miles west from Cabul. This place has often been rav- aged by various concjuerors, who have claimed and won the empire of Asia. In 1220 it was taken bj- Genghis Khan, and in 1308 by Tamerlane. It was subsequently united to Persia ; but the Afghans took pos- session of it in 171"). Nadir Shah n'took it in 1737, and Ahmed Khan, an Afghan, and one of Nadir's generals, added it to .\fghan- istan, after the assassination of Nadir Shah, in 1747. Mohammed Shah marched against Herat in 183fi, and, after a long siege, the Persians were forced to withdraw. In 1855 the Persians again made an attempt to get possession of Herat ; but, after a short war with England, desisted. Hercotectonique ( Fr.). A term in forti- fication signifying that branch of military HERCULEAN 222 HERSE architecture which specifically points out the best means of defense and the surest method of providing stores. This word is derived from the Greek. Herculean. Very great, difficult, or dangerous ; such as it would require the strength or courage of Hercules to encoun- ter or accomplish. Hercules, Pillars of. The name given by the ancients to the two rocks forming the entrance to the Mediterranean at the Strait of Gibraltar. Their erection was ascribed by the Greeks to Hercules, on the occasion of his journey to the kingdom of Geryon. Herefare. An old term from the Saxon, signifj'ing the same as warfare. Hereford. The chief town of Hereford- shire, England, on the Wj'e. During the Saxon era, the Welsh inflicted considerable damage on this city ; it also suffered greatly in the wars of the barons, and under the Plantagenets. During the civil war it held loyally to the cause of the king, and was one of the last places that yielded to the Parliament. Heregeld. A term derived from the Saxon, signifying a tax which was formerly levied for maintaining an army. Herera. In Aragon. Here Don Carlos of Spain, in his struggle for his hereditary right to the throne, 'at the head of 12,000 men, encountered and defeated (August 24, 1837) Gen. Buerens, who had not much above half that number of royal troops. Hereslita, or Heresilia. A term derived from the Saxon, signifying a soldier who abandons his colors, or deserts the service. Heretoch, or Heretog. The leader or commander of an army; also, a constable; a marshal. Heretum. A court in which the guards or military retinue that usually attended the old British nobility and bishops were accustomed to parade or draw up. Hergate. A term derived from the Saxon, signifying a tribute which was paid in an- cient times to the lord of the soil, to enable him to carry on a war. Herisson. A formidable hedge or che- vaux-de-frise ; made of one stout beam fenced by a number of iron spikes, and which, being fi.xed upon a pivot, revolves in every direction upon being touched, always pre- senting a front of pikes. Hermandad (Sp.). " Brotherhood." An association of the principal cities of Castile and Aragon, bound together by a solemn league and covenant for the defense of their liberties in seasons of trouble. The most noteworthy (called Santa Hermandad, or Holy Brotherhood) was established in the middle of the 13th century in Aragon, and in Castile about thirty years later; while in 129-5, 35 cities of Castile and Leon formed a joint confederacy, and entered into a com- pact, by which they pledged themselves to take summary vengeance on every noble who had either robbed or injured a member of their association, and refused to make just atonement for the wrong; or upon any one who should attempt, even by the order of the king, to levy an unjust tax. Isabella of Castile, seeing the beneficial effects which an extension of the institution was capable of producing, obtained the sanc- tion of the Cortes for its thorough reorgani- zation and extension over the whole kingdom in 1496. In 1498, the objects of the Herman- dad having been obtained, and public order established on a firm basis, the brotherhood was disorganized and reduced to an ordinary police, such as it has existed, with various modifications of form, to the present century. Herminia Gens. A very ancient patri- cian house at liome, which appears in the first Etruscan war with the republic, 506 B.C. ; vanishes from history in 448. Hermunduri. One of the most powerful nations of Germany ; belonged to the Sue- vie race. They were for a long time the allies of the Romans ; but along with the other German tribes they assisted the Marcomanni in the great war against the Romans in the reign of M. Aurelius. After this time they are rarely mentioned as a separate people, but are included under the general name of Suevi. Hernici, A people in Latium ; belonged to the Sabine race. They inhabited the mountains of the Apennines between the Lake Fucinus and the river Trerus. They were a brave and warlike people, and long offered a formidable resistance to the Ro- mans. They were finally subdued by the Romans in 806 B.C. Hero. A man of distinguished valor, intrepidity, or enterprise in danger; a prom- inent or central personage in any remark- able action or event ; hence, a great, illus- trious, or extraordinary person. Hero. In mythology, an illustrious man, supposed by the populace to partake of im- mortality, and after his death to be placed among the gods. Heroic, Pertaining to, or like, a hero or heroes ; as, heroic valor. Becoming a hero ; bold ; daring ; illustrious ; as, heroic action ; heroic enterprises. Heroic Age. The age when the heroes, or those called the children of the gods, are supposed to have lived. Heroically. In the manner of a hero ; with valor ; bravely ; courageously ; intrep- idly ; as, the town was heroically defended. Heroine. A female hero ; a woman of a brave spirit. The principal female person who figures in a remarkable action. Heroism. The qualities of a hero ; brav- ery ; courage ; intrepidity. Heroship. The character of a hero. Herrings, Battle of the. Fought on February 12, 1429, when the English were besieging Orleans. It obtained its name from the Due de Bourbon attempting to in- tercept a convoy of salt fish on the road to the English camp before Orleans, and in which he was defeated. Herse (from the Fr. herlse). In fortifica- HERSILLON 223 HIGHLANDERS tion, a grated door, formed by strong pieces of wood joined crosswise, and stucit full of iron spikes. It is usually hung by a rope, and fastened to a moulinct, which is cut in case of a surprise, or when the first gate is forced by a petard, so that it may fall like a portcullis and stop the passage of a gate or other entrance of a fortress. Hersillon. A strong beam, whose sides are stuck full of spikes, which is thrown across the breach made by an enemy to ren- der it impassable. Hertford. The capital of Hertfordshire, England, on the Lee. It is a very ancient town: the castle was founded in 90!t. In the reign of John it was seized by the French dauphin, and under Edward III. the kings of F" ranee and Scotland were secured in it. Heruli. An ancient German tribe, first mentioned among the Gothic nations when these latter had established themselves on the north coast of the Euxine, in the reigns of Gallienus and Claudius. In the reign of Valentinian they are mentioned as being in the service of Rome, fighting against the Alemanni. In the 5th century they allied themselves with the other German tribes, and under Odoacer, in 47*3, they overthrew the Western empire. Hesse. A territory in Western Germany, the seat of the Catti ; formed part of the em- pire of Charlemagne ; from the rulers of it in his time the present are descended. It Mras joined to Thuringia till about 12(53, when Henry I. became landgrave of Hesse. The most remarkable of his successors was Philip, who signed the Augsburg Confession in 1530, and the League of Sinalcakl in 1531. At his death Ilesse was divided in Hesse- Cassel and Hesse-Darmstadt, and in 1803 the former became an electorate, and the hitter a grand duchy. Hesse-Cassel was in- corporated with Prussia in 18fif>, and Hesse- Diirnistadt became a part of the North Ger- miin Confederation in 1867, and as such it took part in the Franco-Prussian war in 1870. Hessians. Troops belonging to Hesse- C»s..). An iron shoe, sometimes called prifinijr, attached to the greaves of • ncient armor, having an iron sole, and the Upper comjiosed of tnail. Hexagonal Powder. See GrNPOWPKR. Hexham. A town of England, in North- umberland, situated a little below the con- fluence of the north and south Tyne, 21 miles west from Newcastle. This town is chiefly remarkable for the antiquities with which it is surrounded, and the historical events connected with it. The neighbor- hood abounds with ruined castles, monu- ments of battles and heroes ; with Roman relics, altars, inscriptions, etc. The cathe- dral, or priory church of Hexham, wa.s founded in G74, and was destroyed by the Danes. In 14f)3, a battle was fought in the neighborhood between the houses of York and Lancaster, in which the Yorkists gained the victory. As an interesting historical event, it may be remarked tliat it was in fly- ing from tbis field that Queen Margaret threw herself on the protection of a robber, and the cave in which she concealed herself and the Prince of Wales is still pointed out. Hibernia, Ibernia, Ivernia, and lerne. The names by which Ireland is designated in the classical writers. See Ireland. Hibernian Royal School. A scIkjoI es- tablished in (ireat Britain for the mainte- nance of 350 children of military officers who are supported and educated at this school, at an expense of £7000 per annum to the country. Hierarchy, Military. The essential ele- ment for the government and service of an army is a military hierarchy, or the creation of difl'erent grades of rank, to which difler- ent functions and powers are assigned, the lower in regular subordination to the next higher in the ascending scale. It should be founded on the principle that every one acts in an army under the orders of a superior, who exercises his authority only within the limits established by law. This authority of the superior should be greater or less ac- cording to rank and position, and be pro- portioned to his responsibilities. Orders should be executed without hesitation ; but responsibilities should be confined to him who gives orders in virtue of the superior authority with which he is invented; to him who takes the initiative in an order ; to him who does not execute an order that he has received ; and to him who usurps a com- numd, or continues illegally to exercise its functions. The military hierarchy is deter- mined and consecrated within its sphere of action by grades of rank created by military laws, by other laws regulating the exorcise of rank, by military insignia, by military honors, and by the military oath. High Treason. Treason against the state, being the highest civil ollense. See Tkkason-. Highlanders. Properly speaking, are the Celtic inhabitants of the Highlands of Scot- land. In the army of Great Britain, it de- notes the eight regiments who are uniformed in the Highland dress, including a distinctive tartan, and are as follows: 42d (see HLxrK Watch), 71st, 72d, 74th, 78th, 70th. 92d, and 03d. These regiments are recruited in the Highlands. HILT 224 HOHENSTAUFEN Hilt. The handle of anythins^, efspecially of a cutting instrument, as a knife or sword. Hiked. Havingahilt. Also a term used in heraldry to indicate the tincture of the handle of a sword. Hilton Head. A village on an island of the same name, forming part of Beaufort District, S. C, at the mouth of Broad Kiver. It was taken from the Confederates by the U. S. forces after a severe naval engagement in November, 1861. Himera. A celebrated city on the north coast of Sicily. Here the Carthaginians were defeated with great slaughter by the united forces of Theron and Gelon of Syr- acuse, 480 B.C. It assisted Syracuse against the Athenians in 415 B.C. In 409 b.c. it was taken by Hannibal, the son of Gisco, who, to revenge the great defeat which the Car- thaginians had suflered before the town, leveled it to the ground, and destroyed al- most all the inhabitants. Hindostan. See India. Hircarrah, or Hircarra. An Indian term for a messenger, guide, footman, or spy. Hiring of Duty. See Appendix, Arti- cles OF War, 36, 37. Hirpini. An inland people of Italy who inhabited the southern portion of Samnium. In the early history of Rome the Hirpini are found identifying themselves with their Samnite neighbors against their common foes. They seem to have been subdued in the early part of the 3d century B.C. They appear as an independent people in the sec- ond Punic year. Kevolting from their old conquerors, they joined the Carthaginian invaders, and, though they were unable to recapture their stronghold of Beneventum, they remained faithful to Hannibal till the defeat at the Metaurus restored the empire of Italy to his opponents. In the year of that event the Hirpini made their peace with their old masters by betraying into their hands the garrisons of their allies. From this time till the outbreak of the Social war, the Hirpini seem to have continued stead- fast m their allegiance. On that occasion, however, they set the example of revolt to the allies, and might have become formid- able enemies, had not the rapid successes of Sulla induced them to repair their error by complete submission. After the close of the war the Hirpini do not appear in history as an independent people. Hispalis. See Seville. Histiaea. An ancient city of Euboea. It was taken by the Athenians during the Per- sian wars, but they revolted from that people, and was again subdued, the old inhabitants of the city were expelled, and 2000 Athenian colonists "settled in their stead, and its name changed to Oreus. In the war between Philip and the Greeks, Oreus was frequently contested, and in 200 B.C. it was stormed by the Romans. History, Military. A narrative of mili- tary transactions, campaigns, battles, sieges, marches, etc., of an army. It likewise means a relation of the heroic actions of great generals, etc. Hit. To reach with a stroke or blow ; es- pecially, to reach or touch an object aimed at, as a mark ; to strike or touch, usually with force. Also a striking against; the collision of one body against another ; the stroke or blow that touches anything. Hitch. A knot or noose in a rope for fastening it to a ring or other object; as, a clove hitch, a timber hitch. Hivites. A Canaanitish people, who in the time of Jacob are found occupying the uplands of Ephraim, and later the slopes of Hermon and region westward towards Tyre. They were conquered by the Hebrews, and they became menial subjects of Solomon. Hobeliers. In the Middle Ages, a species of light horsemen, chiefly intended for re- connoitring, carrying intelligence, harassing troops on a march, intercepting convoys, and pursuing a routed army; the smallness of their horses rendering them unfit to stand the shock of a charge. Spelman derives the name from hobby, a small horse. Camden used the word Hoblers for certain light liorse- men, who were bound by the tenure of their lands to maintain a light horse, for giving notice of any invasion made by enemies, or such like peril towards the sea-side. Hobits. Small mortars of 6 or 8 inches bore mounted on gun-carriages ; they were in use before the howitzer. Hochebos {Fr.). Certain soldiers among the ancients, who were so called from their brandishing the pike. This word has like- wise been applied to the pike itself. Hochkirch. A village of Saxony, 7 miles southeast of Bautzen. Here Frederick the Great was completely defeated by the Aus- trians under Daun, October 14, 1758. A conflict between the Russians and Prussians and the French, in which the latter were vic- torious, took place here May 22, 1813. Hochstadt. A town of Bavaria, situated on the left bank of the Danube. It is noted for a battle, generally known as the battle of Blenheim (which see), in which the French and Bavarians were defeated by the Duke of Marlborough and Prince Eugene, and which took place between this town and Blenheim in 1704. In 1800, the French under Moreau totally defeated the Austrians near here. Hohenlinden. A village of Bavaria. It is noted for the defeat of the Austrian army in 1800, by the French under Moreau. Hohenstaufen. A celebrated family of German princes, which kept possession of the imperial throne from 1138 to 1254, and died out in 1268. The first of the line was Friedrich von Biiren, who received the name on account of having removed his dwell- ing from a valley auf den Staufen (" up the hill" or "mountain"). His son Friedrich von Staufen, or Hohenstaufen, served under Henry IV., and distinguished himself greatly in the battle of Merseburg, for which the king awarded him the duchy of Swabia. He also fought against the pope in Italy, HOHENZOLLERN 225 HOLY while holdintj the position of regent of Ger- many. Died in 1105. HohenzoUern. The nume of an ancient Crinceiy (Jerinan family, from which the ins;s of Prussia are descended. The name is derived from the castle of Zollern, in Swa- bia, which is said to have been built by Tas- sillnn or Thasilio about 800. Hoist. To raise; to lift, or bear upward by means of tackle, as a flag, etc. The per- pendicular height of a flag, as opposed to the fu, or breadth from the staff to the outer edge. Hold. A place of security; a fortified place; a fort ; a castle; often called a «9sessions, but in 180»), on the forma- tion of the Confederation of the Rhine, this privilege was lost; but in 1815 he was ad- mitted into the Germanic Confederation. In 1848 this duchy, with Schleswig, at- tempted to gain its independence; but, after •ome severe fighting, it was reduced to obe- dience in 1850. In 18G3 the struggle was renewed ; and, under the pretext of sepa- rating this duchy, together with that of Schleswig, from Denmark, and of annex- ing it to the Germanic Confederation, an allied Austrian and Prussian army invaded the country and drove out the Dunes, after a short but desperate struggle. It was an- nexed to Prussia after the Pru.ssian- Austrian war (18';i>), and now forms a part of the North German Confederation. Holsters. Leathern cases for pistols, aflBxfd to the pommel of the saddle. They are frequently covered with wool or fur, to prevent injury to the rider in the event of his being thrown forward upon them. They are also worn on a belt. Holstered. Bearing holsters ; as, a bol- stered steed. Holy Alliance. A league formed after the fall of Napoleon by the sovereigns of Russia, Austria, and Prussia, nominally to regujate the relations of the states of Chris- tendom by the princij>les of Christian char- ity, but really to preserve the j>ower and influence of the existing dynasties. Most of the other European rulers acceded to it, and the treaty was made public February 2, 1816. A special article of the treaty ex- cluded forever the members of the Bona- parte family from any European throne. But after the secession of England and France the alliance became practicalh' ob- solete. Holy Ghost, Order of the. A Roman Catholic orderconsisting of hospital knights, which was founded in the I'Jth century, and ceased to exist as a kniirhtly order in 1700. Holy Island, or Lindisfarne. An island off the coast of Northumberland, 8 miles southeast from Berwick-on-Tweed, and i3 connected with the mainland by a narrow isthmus or neck of sand. On the south of the island lies the town, and near it are the ruins of an old abbey which the Danes de- stroyed in 900. Holy League. A name applied to sev- eral combinations of sovereigns or princes of Europe fi>r warlike or defensive pur- poses. The first was organized in 1510 by the pope, Venice and Spain against Louis XII. of France. But the most important of all was Ihe h<>hi Icnffiie, so called by way of eminence, which was organized at Per- rone in 1576, and lasted till 159.3, to prevent the accession of Ilenry IV. of France to the throne. Holy Sepulchre, Knights of the. An order of knighthood instituted probably by Pope Alexander VI., for the guardianship of the Holy Sepulchre, and the relief and protection of pilgrims. The pope was orig- inally the grand master, but he subsequently ceded his rights to the Guardian Father of the Holy Sepulchre. The knights must, by the rules of the order, be all of noble de- scent ; thev were bound to hear mass daily, to fight, to" live, and to die for the Christian faith, etc. In return for these duties, the HOLY 226 HONVfiD knights had the most unusual and extraor- dinary privileges conferred on them ; they were exempt from taxation, could marry, and yet possess church property, legitimize bastards, cut down and bury the bodies of criminals who had been hanged. On the recapture of Jerusalem by the Turks, the knights retired to Italy, and settled at Pe- rugia. After a temporary union with the Hospitallers, the order was reconstructed in 1814 both in France and in Poland, and is still in existence within a very small circle of knights elected by the Guardian Father from the most respectable pilgrims who come to Jorusalem. Holy Wars. See Crusade. Homelden. In Northumberland, Eng- land, where the Scots, headed by the Earl of Douglas, were defeated by the Percies (among them Hotspur), September 14, 1402. Home-service. Consists in military op- erations and arrangements for the immediate defense of our own country, should it be threatened by invasion, or by domestic broils or insurrections. Homme d'Armes (Fr.). A military phrase among the French, signifying a gentleman or cavalier who belonged to one of the old companies, was armed cap-a-pie, and always fought on horseback. In an- cient times, every man of this description was accompanied by two horsemen inde- pendent of his servants. One of the mounted attendants was armed with a cross-bow, and the other with a common bow or battle-axe; so that 100 homines d'a7-mes composed a body of 300 horse. It was a species of cavalry which existed from the reign of Louis XI. until the reign of Henry II. Honduras, A republican state of the confederation of Central America; being bounded north by the Caribbean Sea and Bay of Honduras, southeast by the Mos- quito Territory and Nicaragua, south by San Salvador and the Bay of Conchagua, on the Pacific, and west by Guatemala. Honeycomb. A defect in guns resem- bling the cells of wax in which the bee stores her honey. These flaws in the metal arise either from careless or imperfect casting, or from long disuse of a gun and exposure to damp. A honeycombed gun- is liable to burst in firing. Hong-Kong. An island off the coast of China; was taken by Capt. Elliott, August 23, 1839, and ceded to Great Britain, Jan- uary 20, 1841. Honi Soit Qui Mai y Pense (Fr.). See Garter, Order of the. Honor. In a general acceptation may be properly called a consciousness of worth and virtue in the individual, and a lively desire to preserve the reputation of virtue. As a term, it is variously used in military life. As a quality of the mind, it cannot be too much encouraged or too much cultivated among military men of all ranks and de- scriptions. The possession of it is a guar- antee for good conduct, a bond of fidelity, and a certain barrier against military cor- ruption. Men are excited to deeds of valor and enterprise by a sense of honor, who would otherwise remain inactive, or only perform the mere drudgery of service. This term may likewise be considered as esteem, reputation, the glory which is attached by mankind to talents and virtues. Honor, Affair of. A transaction con- nected with a duel, or a challenge to fight a duel ; a duel itself. Honor, Court of. Is a species of board of inquiry, which has not onlj' the power of ascertaining the degree of guilt which may be attached to misconduct, but of pro- nouncing an opinion which may or may not entail ignominy upon the guilty persons. See Court of Honor. Honor, Debt of. An obligation which among honorable men, especially ofBcers, is more binding than those engagements or contracts that are guaranteed by law. The reason is manifest. Honor, Point of. A nice discrimination in matters affecting one's honor. A delicacy of feeling, which is generally acquired by education, and strengthened by intercourse with men of strict integrity and good con- duct. It is likewise very frequently the ofl- spring of peculiar habits, received notions, and established etiquettes ; also, a minute distinction ; a punctilio. Honor, Signatures upon. Are instru- ments, such as declarations of officers on vouchers for allowances, pay, etc., that are guaranteed by the names of individuals, without oath. Honor, Word of. A promise or engage- ment that is made or entered into by word of mouth, the breach of which entails dis- grace upon the violator. To die iqyon the bed of honor, is a term particularly applied to military men, who die in battle fighting in their country's cause. Honors of War. A compliment granted on capitulation to a garrison which has made a gallant defense. The exact nature of the honors accorded have varied in different ages and on different occasions. Ordinarily they are as follows : The garrison marches out through the gap in the breach, if there is one, with arms and personal baggage. The drums beat, the colors fly, officers carry their swords drawn, and the men their bayonets fixed. A certain number of guns — ordinarily two — accompany the force, and formerly the gunners carried lighted matches. On reach- ing the glacis the garrison— unless it is one of the stipulations that it is to join the main army — forms up and grounds arms, only the officers retaining their swords, and is marched off under escort. Honved. The name given in Hungary under the earlier kings to the national champions. With the disappearance of these, the word too disappeared ; but in the summer of 1848 it was revived, and applied first to those Hungarian volunteers dis- patched to the south against the Servians, HOOD 227 HORSE and subsequently, when the war with Aus- tria really commenced, to the wh<>le |)atriotic army. Still, in common parlance, the term honved i.s used only with reference to the Ilunfjarian infantry. Hood (Sp. tdpndera). A leather cover for the stiiTU|) of a saddle. Hooghly. A town of BenG;al, and the capital of a district of the same name, situ- ated on the west bank of the Hooj^hly Uiver, 27 miles north from Calcutta. This place is supposed to have been founded by the Portu- puese about 1;>58, and after their expulsion in lt;32 by the Mo° ; and in all other positions the horizontal range would be as the sine of twice the angle of elevation. In a resisting medium the maximum hori- zontal range requires the elevation to be less than 4o°. It is found by experience that, with the ordinary velocity, a cannon-shot ranges the farthest when the elevation of the piece is about 30°. Hornwork. A kind of work in advance of a fortification, akin to a crown-work, but consisting of only one curtain and two half- bastions. Hors de Combat. A French military phrase, signifying that an individual or body of men are so completely beaten as not to be able to maintain the field of battle. Meftre hors de combed, to drive your ojipo- nent before you ; to press him so closely that he cannot make a stand against you ; to put him out of the lists of contests. To be wounded or incapable of individual eflbrt, is also being hors de combat. Horse. A military term for a body of cavalry. Horse Artillery. Is that portion of the artillery which usually serves with cavalry, and in which the cannoneers are mounted on horseback, to enable them to conform with the rapid movements of that arm of the service. Possessing, from their lighter con- struction and mounted detachments, much greater locomotive powers than other field- batteries, they are especially adapted for fol- lowing the rapid evolutions of cavalry, for sudden attacks upon particular points, and for sujiporting the advance, or covering the retreat of an army. Horse, Associated. A body of cavalry so called in the days of Cromwell. At the famous battle of Nascby (June 14, lt;4.>), which decided the fate of Charles I., the Associated Horse were posted in the rear of the right wing of the Republican army, and formed a part of the reserve. Cromwell commanded the cavalry on the right of the whole, and the Associated Horse were under j his immediate orders. 1 Horse, Cavalry and Artillery. Horses ■ generally nuike in a minute, at ordinary ] pace, 120 steps, and they cover 110 yards; at a trot, 180 steps, covering 220 yards ; and j at a gallop, 100 steps or strides, covering .S 52 yards ; from which it would appear that the length of the stride at the ordinary pace is about 0.917 yard, and that the velocity I corresponds to about 1.74 yards per second; ' and at a trot the stride isabout 1.23 yards I and the speed about 3.t')8 yards per second; I and at a gallop the stride is ab.). A spacious building which was erected by Louis XIV. in Paris, upon the river Seine, as a public monument of his charity and munificence. All disabled, infirm, and wounded officers and soldiers were received, lodged, and sub- sisted during the remainder of their lives within its walls. Hotte (/-v.). Asort of hand-basket, which is often made use of in the construction of batteries and other works, and serves to carry earth from one place to another. Hence the word hod, a, well-known machine for carry- ing bricks. Hougines (Fr.). Parts of ancient armor covering the thighs, legs, and arms. Hounds. Are pieces of wood used in the construction of limbers for gun-carriages to connect the splinter-bar with the axle. Hours of Sitting (Courts-martial). Seo Ari'KNDix, Aktui.es of Wak, 94. Household Troops. See Guakds. Housing. Ci)ver or cloth over or under a horses saddle used for cleanliness, or as an ornamental or military appendage ; a saddle- cloth ; a horse-cloth. Howitzer (derived by Grimm and Littre from the Bohemian haujnicc, "catapult'"). A short, light cannon, having a chamber intended to throw large projeitile.s with com- t)aratively small charges. A liowitzer is of argcr caliber than a gun of like weight; is mounted in a similar manmr, and is used for shorter ranges. It is said to have been HUALPAIS 230 HUNS first introduced by the Dutch in the early part of the 17th century, and soon afterward came into almost general use. The Russians in 1777 introduced the licorne, an improved howitzer. Howitzers project larger shells than guns with which they are associated ; are well adapted for ricochet fire, the de- struction of field-works, breaking down palisades, and setting fire to buildings ; and the projectiles used are shells, spherical-case, canister, grape, and carcasses. Howitzers, except for siege and mountain service, are no longer manufactured in the United States, as our present guns are equally suitable for shell-firing in field or garrison service. The ones now in use in the U. S. service are 8-inch and 24-pounder mountain howitzers. The former is used for siege purposes, and for the defense of ditches in fortifications. The 24-pounder flank defense howitzer, now out of use, was formerly employed for this purpose. The 8-inch howitzer has, strictly speaking, no chamber ; the bore is, however, terminated by a semi-ellipsoid, the axis being 6 inches in length. This piece weighs 2600 pounds, and the shell (not filled) 45 pounds. The mountain howitzer (12-pounder) is a small, light, bronze piece about 3 feet long, weighing 220 pounds, capable of being easily removed from its carriage, and transported upon the back of a mule. The shell weighs, when strapped and charged, 9.35 pounds, and the maximum range of the piece is about 1000 yards. There are two distinct kinds of carriage used with it, one similar to the carriage of the ordinary field-piece, but smaller and lighter, the other having four wheels and called the prairie carriage. This piece has been extensively employed in our numerous Indian wars upon the plains and mountains of the West, and has done good service. Hualpais, or Hualapais Indians. A tribe of aborigines who are located on the Colorado River near the Mojaves. Hub. The hilt of a weapon ; as, to drive a dagger into a body up to the hub. Hubbardton. A village of Rutland Co., Vt., about 46 miles south-southwest of Montpelier. Here an American force of three regiments of Warner, Francis, and Hale, numbering about 1300, were defeated by the British under Col. Eraser, July 7, 1777. Hubert, St., Order of. The highest Ba- varian order of knighthood, founded in 1444. Hubertsberg. A village of Saxony, 24 miles east from Leipsic. The treaty of peace, by which the Seven Years' War was ended, was signed in the royal castle of this place in 1763. Hue and Cry. In Great Britain, an ofli- cial gazette, which serves to advertise de- serters from her majesty's service. Huguenots. A term (derived by some from the German Eidgenossen, " confeder- ates," by others from Hugues, a Genevese Calvinist) applied to the Reformed party in France, followers of Calvin. They took up arms against their persecutors in 1561. After a delusive edict of toleration, a great num- ber were massacred at Vassy, March 1, 1562, when the civil wars began, which lasted with some intermission till the edict of Nantes in 1598 (revoked in 1685). The mas- sacre of St. Bartholomew's day, August 24, 1572, occurred during a truce. Huissier d'Armes(Fr.). TipstaflT; an offi- cer formerl}^ so called in France, who was attached to the royal household. They were at first distinguished by the name of se7-g ens d'armes, or sergeants-at-arms. Some were directed to bear the mace before the king during the day, and obtained on that ac- count the appellation of huissie7-s d'armes; in later times they were called the huissiers, or tipstafl's of the king's chamber. Others kept watch in the king's bed-chamber during the night, and were sworn to expose their lives for the safety of his person, whence they obtained the name of archers de la garde, which term was changed to gardes du corps, or body-guards. Hulan. See Uhlan. Hull, or Kingston-upon-HuU. A sea- port town of England, in Yorkshire, situ- ated on the great inlet of the Humber, at the point where it is entered by the river Hull. It is a very ancient town ; during the civil war it declared for the Parliament, ' and sustained two severe sieges by the roy- alists. Humaiti. A strong post on the river Paraguay, defended by a battery of 300 can- non, and believed to be impregnable by Lo- pez, the president of Paraguay ; was forced by the Brazilian ironclads February 17, 1868. On the 19th, Caxias, the Brazilian general, stormed a work to the north of Humaita, and captured many stores. Hungary. A portion of the Austrian em- pire. It was a part of the ancient Pannonia and Dacia; was subjected to the Romans about 106, and retained by them till the 3d century, when it was seized by the Goths, who were expelled about 376 by the Huns, under Attila. After his death in 453, the Gepidae, and in 500 the Lombards held the country. It was acquired by the Avars about 568, and retained by them till their destruction by Charlemagne in 799. About 890 the country was settled by a Scythian tribe, named Vingours, or Ungri (whence the German name Ungarn), and the Mag- yars of Finnish origin. The progress of the Magyars westward was checked by their de- feat by the emperor Henry the Fowler, 934. After various changes of rulers it came per- manently under the dominion of Austria in 1526. A revolution took place in Hungary in 1848 under the leadership of Kossuth. Huns. The name of a considerable na- tion of antiquity, which from time to time made incursions on the Roman dominions, and which eventually, under Attila, the most renowned of its leaders, brought in the 5th century the Eastern and Western em- HUNTERS 231 HYDRAULIC pires to the verpe of destruction. They were originally ot" Asiatic origin, iind prob- ably akin to the Scythians and Turks. In the latter part of the 4th century they set- tled along the Danube, in the territory aban- doned by the Goths, and subsequently they fressed onward towards further conquests, n the 5th century they had acquired con- Biderable power, but after Attila's death it was broken. Many of them afterwards took service with the Romans ; others jt)ined the invaders from the north and east that were attacking the moribund Roman empire. Hunters, Death-. Followers of an army, who, after an engagement, look for dead bodies in order to strip them. Hurdices. Ramjiart-s, scatfolds, fortifica- tions, etc. Hurdles. In fortification, twigs of wil- low or osiers, interwoven close together, and sustained by long stakes. They are made in the figure of a parallelogram, in length 5 or 6 feet, in breadth 3 or 3i. The closer they are wattled together the better. They serve to revet, or render batteries firm, or to con- solidate the passage over muddy ditches ; or to cover traverses and lodgments for the defense of the workmen against the fire- works. Hurdles arc constructed in nearly the same manner as gabions, excepting that the pickets are placed in a straight line in- stead of a circle. Hurkaru. A messenger ; one who brings intelligence ; a scout. Hurl. To send whirling or whizzing through the air; to throw with violence; to drive with great force ; as, to hurl a lance, «tc. Huron Indians (also called Wyandots). A tribe of aborigines now almost extinct, who were settled in Canada and in a part of the United States. Thev fought against the United States in the war of 1812-io. Hurst. A charge in heraldry represent- ing a small group of trees, generally borne upon a mount in liase. Hurter, or Heurtoir. A square beam placed at the foot of a parapet where there 18 an embrasure to prevent the wheels of the ^un, when the latter is run up, from in- juring the interior slope. A short fascine or military fagot is sometimes substituted for a beam. A hurter is placed on the front part of a siege platform, under the wheels. The motion of gun-carriages is checked, front and rear, by pieces of wood or iron bolted to the top' rails called hurters and counter-hurters. Hussar. A name given to the national cavalry of Hungary aird Croatia. They were first raised in l4o8" and received their name either from the method in which they were called out, or from the Tartar //sirnr, "which signifies cavalry. In the armies of modern Europe hussars are light horse, and difler from light dragoons only in some peculiari- ties of dress and equipments. Hussites. Is the name of the followers of Huss. Immediately after his martyrdom : they arose in Bohemia, and took a frightful 1 revenge on the priests, monks, and ))relates of the Roman Catholic Church. M'ences- [ laus succeeded, however, in ai)peasing the storm by granting them religious freedom. But when the king died in"l419, and the pope issued an order for the conversion of the Hussites by force, a civil war began. j They assembled under the leadership of John : Ziska, on ilount Tabor, captured Prague, pillaged and burnt the momisteries, and de- feated at Deutchbrod in 1422, and in several other minor encounters, the troops of Sigis- mund, the German emperor and heir of Wenceslaus. Ziska died in 1424, but his successor, Procopius, a former monk, was still more succe.-sful. He defeated Sii^is- mund at Miess and Tachau, and carried the war into Austria, Bavaria, Franconia, and Saxony. Meanwhile, the Hussites had sep- arated into two j)arties, the Taborites and Calixtines. In the beginning they acted in perfect concert with each other. But in 1433 the Council of Basle succeeded in com- ing to an agreement with the Calixtines and in drawing them out of the conte.-t; the I result of which was that the Taborites were j totally defeated at Bomishbrod in 1434. Tol- I eration was granted, and Sigismund entered Prague, August 23, 1430. The Hussites opposed his successor, Albert of Austria, and called Casiniir of Poland to the throne, but were defeated in 1438. A portion of the Hussites existed in the time of Luther, and were called " Bohemian Brethren." Hut. Is a wooden structure, more or less rough in details, for the housing of troops. It is substituted very often for the tent, when the sojourn in a camp or cantonment is likely to be of consideration, as, for in- stance, through a winter, — a hut, however rude, which is wind- and water-tight, being as superior in comfort to a tent as the latter is to the open air. Huts may be made of almost any size, and are sometimes for one officer; at others for as many as 100 men. The quarters occupied by U. S. troops on the American frontiers are very frequently huts made by the troops. Huy. A town of Belgium, 18 miles southwest from Liege. This tt)wn has with- stood several sieges. Its fortifications were dismantled in 1718, but in 1815 its castle was rebuilt. Hyccara (now Murodi Carini). A town of Sicani, on the north coast of Sicily, west of Panormus. It was taken by the Athe- nians and plundered, and its inhabitants sold as slaves, 415 B.C. Hydaspes. A river in India, where Alexander the Great defeated Porus, after a severely contested engagement, in 327 n.r. Hyd'er. The Arabic term for lion. This title is frequently given to men of rank in India. Hydraulic Jack. A powerful portable apparatus for moving heavy weights through short distances, by an application of the principles of the hydrostatic press. There HYDKAULIC 232 HTGROMETEK are two forms, the lifting- and piiUing-^&ck. Those used in the American military service are of 30 tons capacity. Hydraulic Loading Apparatus. The apparatus used in manoeuvring heavy turret- guns in the English navy, invented by Mr. George Eendel (a member of Sir William Armstrong's firm), and first tested in the working of a 38-ton gun on the "Thun- derer." It was determined to similarly equip the "Inflexible," with her 80-ton armament. The apparatus was thoroughly tested, in working the 100-ton guns delivered to the Italian government, in experiments at Spezzia, 1876. The working of the gun, including all the operations of loading and sponging, is efl"ected by means of hydraulic pumps, which are all operated by one small steam-engine. The gun is placed with its trunnions resting on two heavy blocks of metal, which, being retained by guides, slide on large beams or girders built in the floor of the turret. In front and rear of the blocks are pistons, working in cylinders in the direction of the floor-beams. These pistons, under the influence of water-pressure, move the gun in and out of battery. The breech is raised and lowered by similar means. When the gun and trunnion-blocks rush back under the impulse of the recoil from firing, the water in the rear cylinders is forced out through escape-valves, which are held down by springs under a tension of 50 atmospheres. The recoil is thus checked in the space of 3 or 4 feet. If a larger charge is used the tension of the springs can be increased. The springs only come into play in resisting the desperate force of recoil. The water pumped into the cylinders (a valve at the rear opening outwards being raised) is sufficient to run the gun forward without displacing the recoil-valves, the working-pressure required being less than 50 atmospheres. When the gun is to be loaded, it is run forward and the muzzle depressed till it is in front of an armored hood, which shields an iron door in the main deck. The door slides back, a sponge appears on the end of a stalf, which enters the bore and lengthens itself like a telescope till the bottom is reached, when, in obedience to the touch of a valve, a flood of water is ejected from the sponge to extinguish fire and wash the bore. The shot and cartridge next appear, lifted from below on a small truck, which is run out on a trap-door. The cartridge is lifted in front of the muzzle, the sponge — now converted into a rammer — pushes it a short distance into the gun, is then withdrawn, and when the shot rises pushes both to the bot- tom of the bore. The sponge is then with- drawn below deck and the trap closes. Each of these movements is effected entirely by water-pressure, the course of the water and the corresponding operation being deter- mined by manipulating the proper valve. The power is supplied by a small steam- engine specially designed for the purpose. When no manoeuvre is to be performed, the engine occupies itself in pumping water from the tank against the recoil-valves. When the pressure rises above 50 atmos- pheres these valves allow a small quantity to escape, which runs back into the tank. The engine barely moves in this work. When any manoeuvre is to be performed, such as running the gun forward, a handle is touched, the cylinder-valves open a passage to the water, and, the enormous resistance being removed, the engine rattles with energy, and the gun moves forward as by magic. The valve being closed by the oper- ator, the engine returns to its sisyphean labor of pumping water against the loaded valves till some new outlet gives it a specific task. Every part of this apparatus, notwith- standing its provisional mounting, worked perfectly in the experiments at Spezzia. The only defect in the principle was de- veloped by the bursting of one, the 38-ton gun of the " Thunderer" (January 2, 1879), which was worked by this apparatus. The disaster has been generally attributed to the presence in the gun of a double charge of both shot and powder. This could hardly have occurred in hand-loading. Steps have been taken to remedy the apparatus in this regard. Hygrometer. An instrument for meas- uring the degree of moisture of the atmos- phere. Hygrometer, Daniell's. A form of hy- grometer consisting of a bent glass tube ter- minating in two bulbs, the one covered with muslin, the other of black glass, and con- taining ether and a thermometer. Ether being poured on the muslin, the black ball, cooled by the evaporation of the ether within, is soon covered with dew, at which moment the receding of the inclosed thermometer, compared with that of another in the air, gives the dew point. lAPYDES 233 ILERDA I. lapydes. A warlike and biirbarous peo- ple iti the iiurth of Illyricuiii, between the rivers Arsia and Tedanius ; were a mixed race, partly Illyrian and partly Celtic, who tattooed their bodies. Thcj' were subdued by Augustus. Their country was called laiydia. lazyges. A powerful Sarmatian people, who orii^inally dwelt on the coast of the Pontus Euxinus and the Palus M»otis ; but in the reign of Claudius settled near the Quadi in Dacia, in the country bounded by the Danube, the Theiss, and the Sarmatian Mountains. The lazyges wore in close alli- ance with the Quadi, along with whom they frequently attacked the liomun dominions, especially Mcesia and Pannonia. In the Gth century they were conquered by the Goths. Ice. In high latitudes, during the win- ter, rivers arc frequently covered with ice of sufficiuit thickness to sustain the heaviest loads.'This means of communication should be used with great circumspection. A change of temperature may not only sud- | denly destroy this natural bridge, but ren- der the river impassable by any method for a considerable time in consequence of the floating ice. The thickness of ice should be, to allow fc'the passage of infantry in single file on a line of planks, and 2 yards apart, 2 inches ; cavalry or light guns, with intervals, 4 inches; 12-pounder field-pieces, unlimbercd and on sleds, 5 inehes ; 12-poundcr field- pieces, limbered and drawn by horses, with intervals between pieces, to 7 inches. Ice when 10 to 12 inches thick bears the heaviest loads. Two tracks of planks laid on the ice for the carriage-wheels to run on, may be employed when there is any doubt as to its strength, or the wagon may be transformed into a sort of sled by fastening two planks under the wheels. The thickness of the ice may be increased, when the temperature is low enough, by throwing water on it. When the river is frozen on each side, but open in the middle in consequence of the velocity of the current, a boom stretched across the open space will often check the velocity sufficiently to cause the water to freeze. Iceni. A British tribe which inhabited chiefly Suff'olk and Norfolk. In 61, headed by Boadicea, their queen, they marched southwards and destroyed Venilam, Lon- don, and other places, with great slaughter of the Komans, but were defeated by Sueto- nius near London, and their queen slain. 16 Ich Dien. I serve; the motto under the plume of ostrich feathers found in the hel- met of the king of Bohemia after he was slain at the battle of Crecy, at which he served as a volunteer in the French army, August 2(j, 1340. Edward the Black Prince, in veneration of his father, J^dward III., who commanded that day, though the prince won the battle, adopted this motto, which has since been borne with the featliers by the heirs to the crown of England ; but not as prince of Wales, which many have erro- neously maintained. Ichnae, or Ischnse. A Greek city in the north of Mesopotamia, founded by the Mace- donians ; was the scene of the first battle between Crassus and the Parthians, in which the former gained the victory. According to Appian, the Parthians soon after defeated the Komans near the same spot. Ichnography. The plan or representa- tion of the length and breadth of a fortifica- tion, the distinct parts of which are marked out either on the ground itself, or on paper. A plan upon the correct principles of ich- nography represents a work as it would ap- pear if it were leveled to its foundations, and shows only the expanse of ground on which it had been erected. The science docs not represent either the elevation or the differ- ent parts belonging to a fortification. This properly comes under the title " profile," which does not, however, include length. Iconium (now Konieh). A town of Asia Minor, situated on the shores of the Lake Trogitis, about 120 miles inland from the Mediterranean. In ancient times it was fa- mous as the capital of Lycaonia, and from 1087 to 1229 it was the sea't of a Soljuk sul- tanate. In December, 1832, a battle was fought here, in which Ibrahim Pasha com- pletely defeated the Turkish army. Idaho. A Territory of the United States, bounded on the north by the British posses- sions, on the cast by Montana and Dakota, and on the south by Nevada and Utah. It was organized in 1803, and has frequently been the scene of Indian troubles. Idsted. A village of Selswick. A battle was fought here in 1850, between the Danes and Schleswig-Holstcincrs, in which the latter were defeated. Ignition (Lat. i(jnis, "fire"'). The act of setting fire to, or of taking fire ; as opposed to combustion or burning, which is a conse- quence of ignition. By ignition of gun- powder is understood the setting on fire of a particular point of the charge. Ilerda (now Lerida). A town of the Ilcr- ILLINOIS 234 IMPEDIMENTA getes, in Hispania Tarraconensis, situated on a height above the river Sicoris (now Segre). It was afterwards a Roman colony, but in the time of Ausonius had ceased to be a place of importance. It v^as here that Africanus and Petreius, the legates of Pom- pey, were defeated by Ciesar, 49 B.C. Illinois. One of the Central States of the United States, in the valley of the Upper Mississippi, and one of the most fertile in the Union, having scarcely any soil which is uncultivable. It was originally settled by the French, but fell into the hands of the English in 1763, becoming the property of the United States at the Pievolution. It was organized as a State December 3, 1818, and during the civil war was a staunch supporter of the Union. Illinois Indians. A confederacy of Indian tribes, mostly of Algonkin stock, who for- merly inhabited the State now known by their name. Very few relics of these tribes now exist. Illustrious. Conferring lustre or honor ; brilliant ; renowned ; as, illustrious deeds or titles. Illyricum, or Illyria. Is the Eoman name of a country whose limits in ancient times varied considerably. It was inhabited by a savage tribe, who were much addicted to piracy and robbery. In 359 B.C. Philip of Macedon conquered the eastern portion of the country, now Albania, and it was incor- porated with Macedonia. The Illyrians were brought into a collision with the Ro- mans on account of their piracy, which led to their subjugation about two centuries be- fore the Christian era. They made numer- ous eftbrts to shake off the Eoman yoke, but were always defeated, and the country be- came a most important province of the Ro- man empire, comprising the territory repre- sented in modern times by Croatia, Dalma- tia, Herzegovina, Montenegro, nearly all Bosnia, and a part of Albania. On the di- vision of the Roman empire, it shared in the vicissitudes that followed that act. Adecree of Napoleon, on October 14, 1809, gave the name of lUyrian provinces to Carniola, Dalmatia, and other countries from the Adriatic Sea to the Save, then belonging to the French empire. At his fall these pro- vinces were united as a kingdom to the Aus- trian empire, and some alterations were made in its boundaries, especially by the restoration to Hungary of what had formerly belonged to it, and the annexation of the whole of Carinthia. Ilmenau. A town of Saxe-Weimar, on the Ilm, 18 miles west from Weimar. A battle was fought by the united forces of the Russians and Saxons against the Swedes near this town in 1706. Imbannered. Furnished with banners. Imbellic. Not warlike or martial. This term is now obsolete. Imbody. See Embody. Imbrued, or Embrued. An expression used in hei-aldry to signify bloody, or drop- ping with blood. Weapons thus blazoned ] are drawn with drops of blood falling from them. Imeritia. Formerly an independent Transcaucasian territory, now part of the government of Kutais. Its history as an in- dependent dominion commenced from about the beginning of the 15th century, and was long marked by internal dissensions. In 1745, Solomon I. was proclaimed, but his nobles revolting shortly after, and aided by the Turks, dethroned him. Solomon ap- plied for help to Russia, and in 1769, Count Todtlen, at the head of a Russian force, entered Emeritia, restored the king, and drove back the Turks. The civil dissensions of this province, however, continued, and at last, in 1810, after having long acknowl- edged allegiance to Russia, it was formally incorporated in, and proclaimed a province of that empire. Immailed. Wearing mail or armor; clad in armor. This term is now obsolete. Immartial. Not martial; not warlike. This term is now obsolete. Immortals. In antiquity, the name of a body of 10,000 troops, constituting the guard of the king of Persia ; so called because they were always of the same number ; for as soon as any of them died, the vacancy was im- mediately filled up. They were distin- ; guished from all the other troops by the I richness of their armor, and still more by ! their braverj'. The same term was applied to the life-guards of the Roman emperors. Imola. A fortified town of Ravenna, a province of Italy, on a small island in the river Santerno ; it is defended by a strong castle. This town was founded by the Lom- bards on the ruins of Forum Cornelii, de- stroyed by Justinian, and was afterwards successively held by ditterent chiefs who ruled in Central Italy. Julius II. annexed it to the States of the Church, but it was delivered from the papal yoke when Ra- venna declared for annexation to Sardinia in 1859. Impact. In gunnery, the single instan- taneous blow or stroke of a body in motion against another either in motion or at rest. Impale. In heraldry, to arrange two coats of arms side by side in one shield di- vided per pale. It is usual thus to exhibit the conjoined coats of husband and wife, the husband's arms occupj'ing the dexter, or right side, and the wife's the sinister, or left side, of the escutcheon. Impedimenta. The accompaniments to an army received from the Romans the name of impedimenta. They consist in transportation of munitions, equipments, provisions, hospital supplies, tents, engineer- ing tools, bridge equipage, and boats, bag- gage, cooking utensils, etc., necessary for the use of an army moving against an enemy. This requires the use of large numbers of wagons and of draught animals, or sliip- ping, and necessarily impedes the movement of an army. See Baggage. IMPENETRABLE 235 IMPLEMENTS Impenetrable. Incapable of bein^ pene- trated or pierced, not admitting- the passage of otlicr l)i)dies, not to be entered ; as, an ini- peiu'trabie shield. Imperator. An old Roman title signify- ing cuimnander, which was applied to the rulers of provinces, consuls, pro-consuls, etc., or to anybody who had an imprrinm as- sigrled him. After a victory the Roman soldiers frequently saluted their commander by this tith;. Imperial Guards. See Guards, Im- rKlUAI.. Imperialists. This word was chiefly ap- plied to the subjects of, or forces employed by the house of Austria, when opposed to the troops of other German powers. Imperil. To bring into peril, to endanger. Impetuous. Rushing with force and vio- lence, moving with impetus, furious, forcible; as, the troops went pouring forward with im- petuous speed. Impetus. In gunnery, the altitude through which a heavy body must fall to acquire a velocity equal to that with which a ball is discharged from a piece. Implement. Whatever may supply a want, especially an instrument or utensil as supplying a requisite to an end ; as, the im- plements of war. Implements, Equipments, and Ma- chines. In artillery, tin; two former are employed in loading, jiointing, and tiring cannon, and in the mechanical manceuvres of artillery carriages, the latter to mount and dismount cannon from their carriages, and to transport artillery material from one part of a work to another. The implements for loading cannon are, (1) The rammer- heiul, a short cylindrical piece of beech or other tough wood, fixed to the end of a long stick of ash, called a staff, employed to push the charge to its place in the bore or chamber of a cannon. (2) The sponije, a woolen brush attached to the end of a statt", for the pur- pose of cleaning the interior of cannon and extinguishing any burning frajjjmcnts of the cartridge that may remain after tiring. In the field and mountain services, the rammer- head and sponge are attached to the opposite ends of the same shaft; in the siege and sea-coast services, they are attached to sepa- rate staves, except for howitzers, in which they are combined. (3) The ladle, a copper scoop attached to the end of a staff' for the purpose of withdrawing the projectile of a loaded piece. (4) The ivorm, a species of double cork-screw attached to a start", used in field and siege cannon to withdraw a car- tridge. (5) The fliinner's haversack (which sec). (0) The pass-liox, a wooden box closed with a lid and carried by a handle attached to one end. In siege and sea-coast service, where the cartridge is large, it takes the place of the haversack. (7) The iube-pouch or vrimer-pouch, a small leather pouch at- tached to the cannoneer bv a waistbelt. It contains the friction-tubes, lanyard, priming- Wire, thumb-stall, etc. (8) The bmlje-barrcl (which see). (9) The priminff-wire, used to pick a hole in a cartridge for the passage of the Hume from the vent. (10) The tfaimb- stull, a buckskin cushion attached to the thumb or finger to close the vent in sponging and loading. (11) The fuze-setter, a brass drift for driving a wooden fuze into a shell. (12) Thefuze-mallef, made of hard wood, and used in connection with the setter. (13) The fuze-saiv, a 10-inch tenon saw for cutting wooden or paper fuzes to the required length. (14) The fuzc-c/iinlet, sometimes employed in place of the saw to open a communication with the fuze composition, (lo) The fuze- aiif/rr, an instrument for regulating the time of burning of a fuze by removing a certain portion of the composition from the exterior. For this purpose it has a movable graduated scale, which regulates the depth to which the auger should penetrate. (10) The fuze- rasp, a coarse file employed in fitting a fuze- plug to a shell. (17) The /uze-pluf/ reamer, used to enlarge the cavity of a fuze-plug after it has been driven into a projectile, to enable it to receive a ])aper fuze. (18) The shell-plug screw, a wood screw with a handle, used to extract a plug from a fuze-hole. (19) The fuze-extractor, worked by a screw, and is a more powerful instrument than the preceding; it is used for extracting wooden fuzes from loaded shells. (20) The fuze- rcrcnch, made in the form of a cross or T- shaped, to unscrew percussion fuzes. (21) The mortar-scraper, a slender piece of iron with a spoon at one end and a scraper at the other, for cleaning the chamber of a mortar. (22) The gunner's sleeves, made of flannel or serge ; they are drawn over the coat- sleeves of the gunner to prevent them from being soiled while loading a mortar. (23) The fuutu'l, made of copper, and used in pouring the bursting charge into a shell. (24) The powdcr-nicasnrcs, made of copper, of cylindrical form, and of various sizes, for the purpose of determining the charges of shells and cannon by measurement. (25) The lani/anl, a cord, one end of which has a small iron hook, and the other a wooden handle. It is used to explode the friction- tubes with which cannon for the land ser- vice are now fired. (2(5) The gunner's gimlet and vent-punch, used in boring out the vent when it becomes foul. (27) Gunner's pin- cers (which see). (28) The shell-hooks, an instrument made to fasten into the ears of a shell, for the purpose of lifting it to the muzzle of the piece. (29) The itpw-hook, in field service, used in unpacking ammunition and taking projectiles from the chest. The implements for pointing are: the gunner's level, gunner's quadrant, the breech-sight, the prndutuni-hausse, and elevating arc. (See appropriate headings.) The tangent-scaU, a brass plate, the lower edge of which is cut to the curve of the base-ring of the piece, and the up]>or fi>rmed into olTscts which cor- respond to diflferenccs of elevation of a quar- ter of a degree." It is used in pointing by placing the curved edge on the base-ring, IMPLEMENTS 236 INCENDIAEY with the radius of the oflset corresponding with the highest point of the ring, and sighting over the centre of the offset, and the highest point of the swell of the muzzle. The principal manoeuvring implements are: the trail handspike, the vianamvring hand- spike, the shod handspike, the truck hand- spike, the roller handsj^ike (see Handspike) ; the prolo7ige, a stout rope used to connect the lunette of the carriage and pintle-hook of the limber to move the piece short dis- tances without limber; the sponge-bucket, made of sheet-iron, for washing the bore of the piece ; the tar-bucket, also made of sheet- iron, for carrying grease for the wheels ; the ivatering bucket, made of sole-leather, for watering the horses ; the vjnter-buckets, made of wood and bound with iron hoops. These are of two kinds,— one for the traveling- forge, and the other for the service of gar- rison batteries. The drag-rope, used when necessary to employ a number of men in hauling loads, or extricating a carriage from a difficult part of the road. It has a hook at one end, a loop at the other, and six wooden handles placed about 4 feet apart. The men's harness, similar to the drag-rope, except that the rope is stouter, and the handles are replaced by leather loops which pass over the shoulders of the men, to en- able them to exert their strength to advan- tage. The bill-hook, or hand-bill, used for cutting twigs. The screw-jack, a lifting- machine composed of a screw worked bj' a movable 7iut supported on a cast-ii'on stand. It is used in greasing carriage-wheels. Ar- tillery machines comprise ihe gin (see Gin), the sling-cart (see Hand-sling-cart), the caseynate truck, the hand-cart (see Hand- cart), the lifting-jack, and the lever-jack. The casemate truck is composed of a stout frame of wood mounted on three barbette traverse-wheels, and is employed to move cannon and carriages through posterns and along casemate galleries. The lifting-jack is a small but powerful screw, worked by a geared nut. It is useful when the space for manoeuvring is small, and the number of men limited. If the weight to be raised is sv^fficiently high, the lifting power is applied at the top ; if it be low, it is applied at the foot. The lever-jack is another but less powerful apparatus for lifting. It consists of a lever of wood resting on a bolt, which passes through holes in two uprights. The height of the bolt is varied by passing it through diflerent holes in the uprights (eight in number), and the power of the lever is regulated by a notched piece of cast iron screwed to the under side of the lever. Implements, Re-loading, See Ke-load- ■ING Implements. Impregnable. Not to be stormed, or taken by assault; incapable of being reduced by force ; able successfully to resist attack ; as, an impregnable fortress. Impregnably. In an impregnable man- ner ; in a manner to defy force ; as, a place impregnably fortified. Impress. To compel any person to serve. Impression. The effect of an attack upon any place or body of soldiers. imprisonment. Officers may be sentenced to imprisonment by a general court-martial in any case where the court may have discre- tionary authority. General, garrison, and regimental courts-martial may sentence sol- diers to imprisonment, solitary or otherwise, with or without hard labor, for various of- fenses enumerated in the Articles of War. A garrison or regimental court-martial, in awarding imprisonment, is limited to a pe- riod not exceeding thirty days. When a court awards solitary imprisonment as a pun- ishment, it is necessary that the words "soli- tary confinement" should be expressed in the sentence. The legal imprisonment in the United States is confinement, solitary con- finement, and confinement on bread and water ; confinement on bread and water shall not extend over fourteen days at a time, with intervals between the periods of such con- finement not less than such periods, and not exceeding eighty-four days in any one year. Impulse. The act of impelling, or driv- ing onward with sudden force; impulsion; the action of a force so as to produce motion suddenly, or without appreciable loss of time. Also sudden motion exciting to action ; hasty inclination ; infiuence acting unexpectedly, or with momentary force ; impression ; in- stigation ; as, the troops moved forward with one impulse. In Battery. The position of field-guns when unlimbered and prepared for action. Also applied to heavy guns when in the firing position ; also the command for the movement in both cases. Heavy guns are "from battery" when in the loading posi- tion. In Gear. A command in the service of heavy guns, to cause the eccentrics of the truck-wheels to be thrown in gear. Also refers to the position of the eccentrics when the command is executed. In Line. Kefers to the formation of troops when posted, or marching, with ex- tended front. Inaccessible. A general term for any distance or height which cannot be ap- proached for any military purposes. Inactive. Not disposed to action or effort ; not diligent or industrious ; not busy; idle; as, an inactive officer. Inca. A king or prince of Peru, before the conquest of that country by the Span- iards. Incapable. A term of disgrace, frequently annexed to military sentences, when an offi- cer has been cashiered by the sentence of a general court-martial, and rendered incapa- ble of ever serving his country in either a civil or military capacity. Incendiary Compositions. Used to set fire to buildings, shipping, etc., Jiave been known and used from the earliest times. Greek fire (which see) was extensively used in the 7th century. Among modern incen- INCENDIARY 237 INDIAN diary compositions are fire stone, sometimes culled rock fire, and Valenciennes composition (which sec). Incendiary Shells. Are shells containing inceiKliiiry coin]i<).-,itions. Sec Carcass for modern example. Incensed, or Anim6. An epithet applred ill heraldry to panthers or other wild beasts borne with flames issuing from their mouth and tais. Incidence, Angle of. In projectiles, the angle which the line of direction of the pro- jectile makes with the surface of the obstacle on which it impinges. Inclination. In gunnery, the inclination of a plane is the angle it makes with the hori/.tin either above or below. Inclination of the Grooves. In a rifle is the angle which the tangent to the groove at any jioiiit makes witli the element of the bore passing through the point. The tan- gent of the angle, which may be taken as a measure of the inclination, is equal to the circumference of the bore divided b)' the length of bore corresponding to one revolu- tion of the spiral. See Twist. Incline. To gain ground to the flank, as well as to the front. Inclining is of great use in the marching of tlie line in front, to correct any irregularities that may happen. It is c(|uivalent to the quarter facing and to the oblique marching of the infantry. It enables you to gain the enemy's flank with- out exposing your own, or without wheel- ing or altering the parallel front of the com- pany. Inclose. To surround; to shut in; to eontine on all sides; to include; to shut up ; to encompass; as, to incK)se a ft>rt or an army with troops ; to inclose a town with walls. Incommoder I'Ennemi (Fr.). To get possession of a fort, eminence, etc., from which the enemy may be harassed, or which is necessary to his security. Incompetent. Incapable; unfit; unequal. No officer, be bis situation what it may, can be said to bs of the United States of America, on .luly 4, ITTtJ, by which they formally renounced their subjection to the government of Great Britain. Independent. In a military sense, is a term which distinguishes from the rest of the army those companies which have been raised by individuals for rank, and were afterwards drafted into corps that were short of their complement of men. Independent compaui/ or troop, is one that is not incorpo- rated into any regiment. India, or Hindostan. An extensive region of Southern Asia, celebrated during many ages for its riches and natural productions. The Hindoo histories ascribe the origin of the people to a period ages before the ordi- nary chronologies. A race of kings is men- tioned as reigning 2300 n.c. Several ancient nations, particularly the Tyrians and Egypt- ians, carried on commerce with India. It was partially conquered by Darius Hystas- pes, who formed an Indian satrapy, 512 H.c, and by Alexander, 327 n.c The authentic history of Hindostan commences with the conquests of Mahmoud Ghu/.ni, 1004. For further history of India, see Bengal, Cal- cutta. ^Iadras, etc. Indian File. Single file; arrangement of persons in a row following one after another ; the usual way among Indians of traversing woods, etc. INDIAN 238 INDIANS Indian Fortification. The entrance into an East Indian fortification is through a large and complicated pile of buildings, pro- jecting in the form of a parallelogram from the main rampart; and, if the city has two walls, it projects beyond them both. This building consists of several continued ter- races, which are of the same height as the main rampart, and communicate with it ; the inward walls of these terraces form the .^ides of an intricate passage, about 20 feet broad, which leads by various short turn- ings, at right angles, through the whole pile to the principal gate that stands in the main rampart. This is the general outline of the old Indian fortifications. Indian Military Force. The East Indian military service, like the civil service, has been undergoing a thorough reorganization, consequent on the great mutiny, and the transfer of the government of the country from the East India Company to the crown. In 1857, at the outbreak of the mutiny, the Indian army consisted of about 277.000 men, of whom 45,000 were Europeans and 232,000 natives. During the mutiny the native army of Bengal was almost entirely broken up. Fifteen regiments of regular native infantry, the local infantry, the Gurka and irregular line regiments, eight regiments of irregular cavalry, and the sappers and miners, were all that remained at the close of 18G0 of the old native army of Bengal. The Indian army in 1867 numbered 183,148 men ; 61,498 being Europeans, and 121,650 Indian forces. The police, civil and military, forms an im- portant force, and is to a great extent taking the place of the regular army. In Bengal, for instance, the military police includes ten battalions of infsmtry, each 700strong ; three squadrons of cavalry, and some local levies ; in all about 10,000 men, of various races, with 40 European officers. The whole police force of India has been reorganized on one uniform system, with a central organization of its own in each presidency. Indian Territory. A large extent of ter- ritory,, which originally belonged to the Louisiana purchase, lying north by west of that State. It was set apart for the use of Indians, many tribes of whom have from time to time been removed to it, and have wonderfully improved in the arts of civil- ized life. Indiana. One of the Western States, and a portion of the great Mississippi Valley country. It was settled in the early part of the 18th century by the French ; was subse- quently ceded to the English, and after the lievolution passed into the possession of the United States. The early settlers were for a long time troubled by the incursions of the Indians ; but after their signal defeat by Gen. Harrison at Tippecanoe, November 7, 1811, they were soon afterwards subdued, and became peaceable. Indiana was admitted as a State in 1816, and during the civil war contributed its full quota of troops to the support of the Union. Indians. The name by which the various tribes of aborigines scattered over the exten- sive continent of America are distinguished. They are divided into numerous tribes and nations, all in a state more or less savage, and having all the peculiar characteristics of that kind of life. They generally decline as the civilized population advances into the I country ; though reservations of land have always been set apart by the U. S. govern- ment for the support of tribes within its territory. (See Indians and their Agen- cies.) A short description of the most im- I portant tribes will be found under appro- ' priate headings in this work. Indians and their Agencies. The follow- ing are the distribution and population of the Indians in the United States, taken from the Keport of the Commissioner of Indian Affiiirs, 1876 : Arizona, Colorado River Agency: Mo- javes, 820; Chemehuevis, 320; Hualapais (not on reservation), 620; Coahuilas (not on reservation), 150; Cocopas (not on res- ervation), 180. Moquis Pueblo Agency : Mo- quis Pueblos, 1700. Puna and Maricopa Agency : Papagos, about 5000 ; Pimas, 4100 ; Maricopas, 400. Snn Carlos Agency : Pinal and Aribaipa Apaches, 1051 ; Chiricahua Apaches, 297 ; Mojave Apaches, 618 ; Yuma Apaches, 352; Tonto Apaches, 629 ; Coyo- tero Apaches, 1612. Indians in Arizona not under an agent : Yumas, 930 ; Mojaves, 700. California, Hoopa Valley Agency : Hoo- pas, 511; Kedwoods, 12; Siahs, 13; Kla- maths, 44. Round Valley Agency (192 not on reservation) : Potter Vallej', 307 ; Ukie, 197; Pitt Eiver, 60; Bed Wood, 94; Wy- lackie, 172; Con Cowe, 148 ; Little Lake, 166. Tide River Agency: Tules, Tejons, Wach- amnis, Kweahs, King's Kiver, and Mana- ches, 1200. Indians in California not under an agent : Mission, Coahuila, Temecula, and other Indians, 4375; Klamaths, 1125. Colorado, Los Pinos Agency: Tabequa- che-Muache, Capote, and Weminuche bands of Utes, 2000. Whiie River Agency: Grand River, Yampa, Uintah, and Pah bands of Utes, 900. Dakota, Cheyemie River Agency: Two Kettle Sioux, Sans-Arc Sioux, Minneconjou Sioux, Blackfeet Sioux, 2280. Crow Creek Agency: Lower Yanctonais Sioux, 1213. Devil's Lake Agency: Sisseton Sioux, 391; Wahpeton Sioux, 477 ; Cut-Head Sioux, 203. Flandrcan Agency: Flandreau Sioux, 361. Fort Berthold Aqency : Arickarees, 692; Gros Ventres, 414; Mandans, 241; Gros Ventres (seceders), 100. Lower Brule Agency: Lower Brule Sioux, 1800. Ponea Agency: Poncas, 730. Red Cloud Agency: Ogallalla Sioux, Northern Chey- ennes. Northern Arapahoes, 6000. Spotted Tail Agency: Upper Brule and Ogallalla Sioux, Lower Brule Sioux, Northern Brule Sioux, and others, 2315. Sisseton Agency: Sisseton and Wahpeton Sioux, 1745. Stand- ing Rock Agency: Upper Yanctonais Sioux, Lower Yanctonais Sioux, Uncpapa Sioux, INDIANS 239 INDIANS Blackfeet Sioux, 2315. YnnJdon Agency: Yankton Sioux, 1992. Indians in Dakota not under an agent, or absent from agencies, 15,000. Idaho, Fort Hall Agency: Bnnnack.?, 648; Shoshones, 964. Lemhi Agency: Sheepeatcrs, 300; Bannack.s, 190; Slio- shoncs, 4o0. Nez Pcrces Agency : Nez Perces, 2800. Indians in Idalio not under an agent: Cocur d'Alenes, Pend d'Oreilles, and Kootcnays, 1000. Indian Tkkritory, Cheyenne and Ara- pahoe Agency: Cheyennes, 2029; Arapa- ooes, 1703 ; Apaches, 48 ; Chcyonnes absent from reservation, 180; held as prisoners by liiilitary, 32. Kiowa and Comanche Agency: Kiowas, 1090 ; Comanches, 1570; Apaches, .■;2'). Osage Agency: Osage, 2G79 ; Kaws, 413. 7Vnr/)re J f/c/ir;/.' Pawnees, 202G. Q'/w- paw Agency: Quapaws, 235; confederated Kaskaskias, PianUeshaws, Weas, Peorias, and Mianiis, 202; Ottawas, 140; Eastern Shawnees, 97; Wvandottes, 2-58; Senecas, 240; Modocs, 117'; Straggling Black Bob Shawnees and Pottawatoniies, 100. Sue and Fox Agency: Sacs and Fo.xes of Mississippi, 417 ; absentee Shawnees, 047 ; Mexican Kickapoos, 312. Union Aqenci/ : Cherokees, 18,672; Creeks, 14,000; Choctaws, 10,000; Chickasaws, 5800 ; Seminoles, 2553. Wich- ita Agency: Caddos and Delawares, 580; Comanches, 108; Kecchies and Wacos, 155; Tawacanies, 100; AVichitas, 217. In- dians in Indian Territory not under an agent: Citizen Pottawatomics, 131. Iowa, .Sac and Fox Agency: Sacs and Poxes, 341. Kansas, Kansas Agency: Pottawatomics (prairie band), 497; Kickapoos, 252. In- dians in Kansas without an agency: Chip- pewas, of Swan Creek, and Munsees, 01 ; ilokohoko band of Sacs and Foxes, 200. Michigan, Mackinac Agency: Chippcwas of Lake Superior, 1200; Chippewas of Sag- inaw, Swan Creek, and Black River, 2000 ; Chippewas and Ottawas of Lake Michigan, 7000; Pottawatoniies of Huron, 60. Minnesota, Leech Lake Agency : Pillager and Lake Winnebagoshish Chippewas, 1010; Chippewas of Mississippi, 790. lied Lake Agency: Bed Lake Chippewas, 1178. White Earth Agency : Mississippi Chippewas, 1768; Pembina Chippewas, 452 ; Otter-Tail Chip- pewas, 485. Montana, Blackfeet Agency: Blackfeet, Blow Vork Af/ency: Senecas, 3017; Oneidas, 250; Onondagas, 453; Ca- vugas, 161; Tuscaroras, 412; St. Kegis, 741. Nevada, Nevada Agency: Pah-Utes on Pah-Ute reservation, 400; Pah-l'tes in Northern Arizona (not on reservation), 284; Pah-Utes in Utah (not on reservation), 528 ; Pah-Utes in Southern Nevada (not on reser- vation), 031 ; Pah-Utes in California (not on reservation), 184; Pah-Utes on Pyramid Lake reserve, 1500; Shoshones, 500; Tah- Utes on AV'alker Kiver reserve, 500. Western Shoshone Agency: Goship L'tes (not on res- ervation), 204; Western Shoshones (not on reservation), 1945; Indians in Nevada not under an agent: Pah-Utes (not on reserva- tion), 1000. North Carolina, Eastern Cherokee Agency: Eastern Cherokees, 1000; other Eastern Cherokees scattered through Geor- gia, South Carolina, and Tennessee, 800. Oregon, Grand Jiimde Agency: Molels, Clackamas, Rogue River, and other bands, 755. Klamath Agency: Klaniaths, 070; Mo- docs, 100; Pah- lite Snakes, 100; Wollpahpe Snakes, 174. Malheur Agency: Pah-Utes, 402; Snakes, 300. Siletz Agency: Rogue River, Shasta Scoton, and thirteen other bands, 1100; Alseas, Sinselaws, Coosas, and Umpquas, 325. Umatilla Aqency : "Walla AValla, 128; Cayuse, 385; Umatilla, 109. Warm Springs Agency : Wascoes, 263; Teni- noes, 50; Warm Springs, 187; Indians roaming on Columbia River, renegades and others, 2000. Utah, Uintah Valley Agency: Uintah Utes, 050; Indians in L'tah not under an agent. Pah Vents, 134; Goship Utes, 256. Washington Territory, Colville Agen- cy : Colvilles, 050; Spokancs, 085; Lakes, 242; Calispels, 395; Okinakanes, 330; San Poels and Nespeel urns, 500 ; Methows, 315. Neah Bay Agency: Makahs, 538. Puyallup Agency : Muckleshoot, 130; Puyallups, 525; Nisquallies, 205; Squaxons, 50; Chehalis, 240; Shoal Water Bay, 00; Grape Harbor. 100; Cowlitz, 25. Qninairlt Agency: Qui- naielts, 122; Queets, 114; Hobs, 80; Quil- lehutes, 260. SKnkomish Agency: SKlal- lanis, 550; Towanas, 275. Tulalip Agency : Snohomish, 900; Lummi. 000; Etakmur, 550; Swinomish, 700; Muckle.mntio7i, and its velocity the relocitij of inflammation. It is nuich greater than that of combustion, and it should not be confounded with it. The velocity of inflammation of powder com- pressed by pounding is about .(54 inch, while that of mealed powder in the same condi- tion is only .45 inch. Intlanunation, in the study of gunpowder, is the spread of the flame from one grain to another — as opposed to ignition ; the setting on tire of a certain point of the charge. Informant. In case a civil person is the complainant, he becomes the principal wit- ness before a court-martial, and after giv- ing his evidence may renuiin in court, in order that the judge-advocate may refer to bim. Informers. In the British .service, were soldiers who gave information of false mus- ters, or of pay illegally detained ; and were, for said services, entitled to their discharge. Ingauni. A Ligurian tribe who formerly inhabited the sea-coast and adjoining moun- tains at the foot of the ilaritime Alps, on the west side of the Gulf of Genoa. They are mentioned as being engaged in hostili- ties with a neighboring tribe, the Epanterii, on the occasion of the landing of Mago, the brother of Hannibal, h.c. 205. They were several times engaged in wars with the Romans, but were finallv defeated by the pro-consul, .^Emilius PauUus, in a deci- sive engagement (losing 15,000 killed and 2500 prisoners), which resulted in their ulti- mate submission to the Roman sway. Inglorious. Shameful; disgraceful; igno- minious ; as, he charged his troops with inglorious flight. Inimical. Hostile. Initial Velocity. In England the term muzzle velocity is fref)uently used. In gun- nery, the initial velocity of a projectile is the velocity at the muzzle of the j)iece, and is determined by the use of the ballistic pen- dulum, the gun pendulum, the electro-bal- listic machines, the Schultz chronoseope, or the Le iJoulenge chronograph ; the two last being now generally used in the U. S. ser- vice. Tbe various plans in use difl'er only in the manner of recording and keeping the time of flight. The initial velocity of a shot may be ascertained by firing the gun, the axis being horizontal, at a target and measuring the distance of the point struck below the point where the axis of the gun produced would pierce the target. This is the vertical distance fallen through by the ball in the time of passage from the muzzle to the target, and the time in which it falls through this distance is given by the formula ^1 in which t represents the time, fthc vertical space fallen through, and g the force of gravity. The distance to the target divided "by this time gives the initial velocity ap- proximately. Practically, this method is only applicable to largo breech-loading can- non, which havo.neither windage nor vibra- tion in the barrel to aflect the angle of de- parture of the projectile. Smooth-bores^ or muzzle-loading riHes are subject to the first cause of error; the first- named guns in « great degree, and small-arms to vibrations not yet'' fully investigated, which cause a sensible diflerence between the axis of the piece as pointed and the line of fire. The causes that atlcct initial velocity arc the weight of the charge, the size and position of the vent, the windage, the length of the bore, the form of the chamber, tbe diame- ter and density of the projectile, the wind- age of the cartridge ; the form, size, dens- ity, and dryness of the grains of powder ; and the barometric, thermometric, and hygrometric states of the atmosphere. Sec Velocity. Injuries to Cannon. Brass cannon are little subject to external injury caused by service, except from the bending of the 1 trunnions sometimes, after long service or I heavv charges. Internal injuries are caused by tile action of the elastic fluids developed I iii the combustion of the powder, or by the I a.'tion of the shot in passing out of the bore. These eflects generally increase with the cal- I iber of the piece. The principal injury of ' the first kind is the cutting away of the INKERMAN 244 INSCONCED metal of the upper surface of the bore over the seat of the shot. The injuries of the second kind are, tlie lodgment of the shot, — a compression of tlie metal on the lower side of the bore, at the seat of the shot, which is caused by the pressure of the gas in escaping over the top of the shot. There is a corre- sponding bu7-r ill front of the lodgment, and the motion therefore given to the shot causes it to strike alternately on the top and bottom of the bore, producing other enlnrr/e- ments, generally th?-ee in number, the first on the upper side a little in advance of the trunnions, the second on the lower side about the astragal, the third in the upper part of the muzzle. It is chiefly from this cause that brass guns become unserviceable. Scratches, caused by the fragments of a broken shot, or the roughness of an imper- fect one. A piece is said to be honeycombed when the surface of the bore is full of small holes and cavities. This is due to the melt- ing and volatilization of a portion of tin in the alloy, tin being much more fusible than copper. Iron cannon are subject to the above defects in a less degree than brass, except the corrosion of the metal, by which the vent is rendered unserviceable from en- largement. The one cause of injury to iron cannon is the rusting of the metal, pro- ducing a roughness and enlargement of the bore and an increase of any cavities or honeycombs which may exist in the metal. Iron cannon, however, are subject to a peculiar erosion by the gases, which Prof. Horsford explains by supposing that under the enormous tension and heat the sulphur in the gases unites with the iron, producing a friable sulphide of iron, which is success- ively formed and swept off by the gases. Wrought-iron guns are peculiarly' subject to this erosion, cast-iron and steel less so. The amount of erosion is dependent upon the ve- locity with which the gases pass over the surface of the bore. In rifled wrought-iron guns having windage this action is fully il- lustrated, and the gun is soon disabled. The strong preference in many countries for steel as a bore lining is thus explained. By the use of expanding projectiles this action is largely prevented, the sabot acting as a gas- check. This system of projectiles is rapidly gaining favor for this and other reasons. Inkerman. A small Tartar village in the Crimea, situated near the eastern extremity of the harbor of Sebastopol. It was once a celebrated city, and has numerous caverns cut in the rock, supposed to be the work of the monks in the Middle Ages. Near this place, November 5, 1854, was fought a battle between the allied English and French forces on the one side, and the Russians on the other, the former amounting to 2-5, 000 or 80,000, the latter about GO,ObO. The Rus- sians began the attack at dawn of day upon the intrenched lines of the English ; but af- ter a fierce and sanguinary contest of many hours, inflicting great loss on both sides, the Russians were finally driven from the field. Inlist. See Enlistment. Inlying Picket. A body of infantry or cavalry in campaign, detailed to march, if called upon, and held ready for that purpose in camp or quarters. Inner. One of the circular rings on the Creedmoor target; a shot striking in this space counts three. Inniskilliners, or Enniskilliners. In the British service, the officers and soldiers of the 6th Dragoons and the 27th Foot are so called, from the two regiments having been originally raised at Enniskillen (or Innis- kilTen), a town of Ulster, where the inhab- itants distinguished themselves in favor of King William against James II. Innuit. A name given by some ethnol- ogists to the Indian races inhabiting the northwestern coast of North America. They differ in many respects from the Indians of the interior and farther south. The Aleuts and Esquimos are not included in the term. Inofficial. Not ofl5cial ; not proceeding from the proper officer; not clothed with the usual forms of authority, or not done in an official character ; not required by or appropriate to the duties of any office ; as, inofficial intelligence. Inquiry, Board of. A term used in con- tradistinction to a court-martial, to signify the meeting of a certain number of officers (who are not sworn) for the purpose of as- certaining facts that may afterwards become a matter of investigation on oath. There are also courts of inquiry ; such courts in the armies of Europe, it would seem, de- rived their origin from the prerogative of the sovereign, and became part of the mili- tary judicature by custom and not by ex- press law. From this fact it has been con- sidered that the exercise of this authority, instead of being regarded as an assumption of power, is a favor to the accused, and it is thus stated by Capt. Simmons in his work on courts-martial. For the army of the United States, courts of inquiry have been specially authorized by legal enactment. (See Appkndix, Articles of War, 115 to 121.) The origin and purposes of such courts would naturally lead to the conclu- sion that they are of the essence of high command ; and therefore the right to con- voke them, under all the legal restrictions, is properly confined to the President of the United States, a general commanding an army, or a colonel commanding a depart- ment; and in the cases of enlisted men, the commanding officer of the regiment. See Court of Inquiry. Inroad. The entrance of an enemy into a country with purposes of hostility ; a sudden or desultory incursion or invasion ; attack ; encroachment. Inroll. See Enroll. Insconced. In the military art, when any part of an army has fortified itself with a sconce, or small work, in order to defend some pass, etc., it is said to be insconced. See Ensconce. INSCRIBE 245 INSPECTION Inscribe. To mark with letters, charac- ters, or words, as, to inscribe the name of the battle on their colors. Insecure. Not eft'ectually guarded or t)r<)tected ; unsafe ; exposed to danger or OSS. Inspect. To view and examine officially; as, troops, arms, etc. Inspection. A strict examination ; a close survey. It is of various kinds, and embraces general, regimental, and troop or company duties. A general inspection is made from time to time by inspectors-general designated by the comnuinding generals of military divisions or departments. Every regiment on this occasion is minutely looked into, and a faithful account is delivered by each commanding officer of the actual state of his regiment. The interior economy of the corps is not only investigated, but the discipline of the men is likewise examined. Inspection of Cannon, Instruments for. These are used to verify the dimensions of cannon, and to detect the presence and measure the size of cavities in the metal. The star-gnKgr, is an instrument for meas- uring the diameter of the bore at any point. The niiindcrstdff is used to measure the length of the bore. It is supported by a rest of a T-form at the muzzle, and the ex- tremity inserted in the gun is armed with a meanHving-poiiit and a guide-plate. The cylinder-gauge is a cylinder of cast iron, turned to the exact or true diameter of the bore. "When used it is attached to the end of the cylinder-staff. The searcher consists of four flat springs turned up at the end, and attached to a socket which is screwed on to the end of the cylinder-staff. It is used to feel for cavities in the surface of the bore. The trunnio7i-gauge verifies the di- ameters of the trunnions and rimbases. Tbe trunnion-square is used to verify the position of the trunnions with regard to the bore. The tnoinion-rule measures the dis- tance of the trunnions from the rear of the base-ring. Calipers, for measuring exterior diameters. A standard-rule, for verifying other instruments. The vent-gauges are two pointed pieces of steel wire, 6.005 inch greater and less than the true diameter of the vent, to verify its size. The vent-searcher is a hooked wire, used to detect cavities in the vent. A ramvierhcad, shaped to the form of tbe bottom of the bore, and furnished with a staff, is used to ascertain the interior position of the vent. A wooden rule, to measure exterior lengths. A mirror, a v:a.r j taper, beeswaj- ; rammer, sponge, and prim- ing-wire. Figure and letter-stamps, to affix i the required marks. The objects of inspect- I ing cannon are to verify their dimensions, j particularly those which "affect tbe accuracy of the tire, and the relation of the piece to I its carriage, and to detect any defects of i metal and workmanship that would be likely to impair their strength and endurance. I Inspection of Projectiles. The principal | points to bo observed in inspecting shot and i shells are, to see that they are of proper size in all their parts; that they are made of suitable metal ; and that they have no de- fects, concealed or otherwise, which will en- danger their use or impair the accuracy of their tire. Inspection of Shot. — The instruments are one large and one small gauge, and one cyl- inder-gauge; the cylinder-gauge has the same diameter as the large gauge ; it is made of cast iron, and is 5 calibers long. There are also, one hammer with a conical point, six steel punches, and one searcher made of wire. The shot should be inspected before they become rusty ; after being well cleaned each shot is placed on a table and examined by the eye, to see that its surface is smooth and that the metal is sound and free from seams, flaws, and blisters. If cavities or small holes apfiear on the surface, strike the point of the hammer or punch into them, and ascertain their depth with the searcher ; if the depth of the cavity exceeds 0.2 inch, the shot is rejected ; and also if it appears that an attempt has been made to conceal such defects by filling them up with nails, cement, etc. The shot must pass in every direction through the large gauge, and not at all through the small one; the founder should endeavor to bring the shot up as near as possible to the large gauge, or to the true diameter. After having been thus exam- ined the shot are passed through the cylin- der-gauge, which is placed in an inclined position, and turned from time to time to prevent its being worn into furrows; shot which slide or stick in the cylinder are re- jected. Shot are proved by dropping them from a height of 20 feet oii a block of iron, or rolling them down an inclined j)lane of that height against another shot at the bot- tom of the plane. The average weight of the shot is deduced from that of three par- cels of 20 to 50 each, taken indiscriminately from the pile ; some of those which appear to be the smallest should also be weighed, and they are rejected if they fall short of the weight expressed by their caliber more than one-thirty-second part. They almost inva- riably exceed that weight. Inspection of Grape- and Canister-shot. — The dimensions are verified by means of a large and small gauge attached to the same handle. The surface of the shot should bo smooth and free from seams. Inspection of Hollow Projectiles. — The in- specting instruments are a large and small gauge for each caliber, and a cylinder-gauge. for shells of 8 inches and under. Calipers for measuring the thickness of shells at tho sides. Calipers to measure the thickness at the bottom. Gauges to verify the dimen- sions of the fuze-hole and the thickness of the metal at the fuze-hole. A pair of hand- bellows; a wooden plug to fit the fuze-hole, and bored through to fit the nozzle of the bellows. A hammer, i\ .learchcr, a cold chisel, steel punches. Inspection. — The surface of the shell and INSPECTOR-GENERAL 246 INSULT its exterior dimensions are examined as in the case of shot. The shell is next struck with the hammer, to judge by the sound whether it is free from cracks; the position and dimensions of the ears are verified ; the thickness of the metal is then measured at several points on the great circle perpendic- ular to the axis of the fuze-hole. The diam- eter of the fuzerhole, which should be accu- rately reamed, is then verified, and the soundness of the metal about the inside of the hole is ascertained by inserting the fin- ger. The shell is now placed on a trivet, in a tub containing water deep enough to cover it nearly to the fuze-hole; the bellows and plug are inserted into the fuze-hole, and the air forced into the shell ; if there be any holes in the shell, the air will rise in bubbles through the water. This test gives another indication of the soundness .of the metal, as the parts containing cavities will dry more slowly than other parts. The mean weight of shells is ascertained in the same manner as that of shot. Shot and shells rejected in the inspection are marked with an X made with a cold chisel, — on shot near the gate, and on shells near the fuze-hole. Inspector-General. A staff-oflScer of an army, whose duties are those of inspection, and'embrace everything relative to organi- zation, recruiting, discharge, administration, accountability for money and property, in- struction, po'lice, and discipline. In the French army, a certain number of general officers are annually designated to make in- spections. Inspector-General of the Cavalry. In the British service, a general officer whose particular duty is to inspect all cavalry regi- ments, to report the state of the horses, and to receive specific accounts from the different corps of their actual state. He communi- cates directly and confidentially with the commander-in-chief. Inspector-general of the recruiting service is an officer of rank, through whom the field-officers of districts, and colonels of regiments (when they per- sonally manage the recruiting service of their own corps), transmit their several re- turns to the adjutant-general's office. Inspector-General's Department. In the United States, the law provides for one in- spector-general, with the rank of bi-igadier- general ; two inspectors-general, with the rank of lieutenant-colonel ; and two with the rank of major. Also, that the Secretary of War may, in addition, detail oflicers of the line, not to exceed four, to act as inspectors- general. Installation. The act of investing any one with a military order. Instruction. The education or training of soldiers in military duties. In the U. S. service the colonel has general charge of the instruction of his regiment. Instructions. Militarv directions or or- ders. Instruments, Military Musical. The in- struments which are peculiar to the cavalry of most nations are the trumpet and bugle. In France, dragoon regiments in general formerly adopted the drum in common with the infantry ; they now use the trumpet for garrison, and the bugle for field service. A certain number of fifers are likewise allowed in foot regiments. In the U. S. army, the drum, fife, and bugle are used by foot, and the trumpet by mounted troops. There is allowed a band of musicians to each regi- ment, which usually serve at regimental headquarters, and is partly maintained by the regimental fund. (See Fund.) There is also a band employed at the West Point Military Academy, which is maintained by the government. In the U. S. navy there is a band allowed to each commander-in- chief of a fieet, which is also maintained by the general government. Instruments, Warlike Musical. The Turks made use of wind and clashing instru- ments of different shapes and sizes ; all, ex- cept one wind instrument, are better calcu- lated for pomp and ceremony, than adapted to military service. The chishing instru- ments, which the French call instrumens a choc, consist of two sorts of drums, and an instrument which is made of two plates of metal. Their wind instruments consist of a winding or crooked trumpet, and of a wooden fife. The big drum which they call dnul, stands 8 feet high. It is carried by a mounted drummer, who makes use of a thick stick, with which he strikes the upper part, and a small one, with which he plays upon the lower part ; these he applies alternately, with much dexterity of hand and great gravity of countenance. This is the only instrument which the Turks use in military exercises or manoeuvres, and is constantly beaten when the enemy is near, and round all the outposts, in order to keep the senti- nels on the alert. On these occasions the drummer exclaims with a loud voice, Jagda Allah! that is, " God is good !" Insubjection. Want of subjection ; state of disobedience to government. Insubmission. Want of submission ; dis- obedience. Insubordinate. Not submissive ; not sub- mitting to authority. Insubordination. The quality of being insubordinate; want of subordination ; dis- order ; disobedience to lawful authority ; a serious military ofl'ense. Insubres. A Gallic people, who crossed the Alps, and settled in Gallia Transpadana, in the north of Italy. Next to the Boii, they were the most powerful and warlike of the" Gallic tribes in Cisalpine Gaul. They were conquered by the Romans shorth' be- fore the commencement of the second Punic war. Insufficiency. The quality of being in- sufficient; want of sufficiency; deficiency; inadequateness ; as, the insufficiency of pro- visions for a garrison. Insult, To. In a military sense, is to at- tack boldly and in open day, without going INSURGENTS 247 INUNDATION through the slow operations of trenches, working by mines and sujis, or liiiving re- course to those usual forms of war, by ad- vancing gradually towards the object in view. An enemy is said to insult a coast wlien he suddenly appears upon it, and de- barks troops with an immediate purpose to attack. Insurgents. Soldiers or people generally in a state of insurrection. The term, how- ever, admits of one exception. Hungarian insurtcents {ItiHurrjenicn die Uiif/cn'isc/ien) mean the Hungarian militia, called out or summoned by general proclamation, as under the old feudal .system. Insurrection. A rising against civil or political authority ; the open and active op- jiosition of a number of persons to the exe- cution of law in a city or state ; a rebellion ; a revolt. Intenable. Incapable of being held ; un- tenable; not defensible; as, an intenable fortress. Intendant, or Intendant Militaire. An oflBcer in the French army charged with the organization and direction of all the civil services attending a force in the field. The oflScers acting under his orders are those in charge of all the finance services, the pro- visions, stores, hospitals, artillery train, and transport departments, besides the interpre- ters, guides, and such like temporary ser- vices. The i ntrnilant-rn-c/u'f of an army is the representative of the minister of war; and, short of superseding the general's orders, can exercise, in case of need, all the functions of that high officer of state. The intendance is divided into iiitendants, ranking with general officers, sub-intendants with colonels, and assistant-intcndants with majors; besides these there are cadets, who receive no pay, and constitute a probationary grade. Intercept. To interrupt communication with, or jirogress towards; to cut off; as, to intercept the march of an army. Intcrcombat. A combat between. Interior. A word of varied ai)})lication ; as, the intcriur flankiug nn(/le is formed by the curtain and line of defense. Interior rwtiiis is that part of an oblique radius ex- tending from the centre of the polygon to the centre of the bastion. Interior side is the line of the curtain produced to the two oblitpie radii of the front, or a line drawn from the centre of one bastion to that of the next. Interior Form of Cannon. The interior of cannon may be divided into three distinct parts: 1st, the rent, or channel which com- municates fire to the charge ; 2d, t/te seat of the charge, or chamber, if its diameter be different fnmi the rest of the bore ; 3d, the cylinder, or that portion of the bore passed over by the projectile. Sec also Grooves for RtFLK Cannon. Interior Guards. Are police guards, gtnirds of property, etc., who are liable to Come in contact with the enemv. Interior Slope. Is the inclination to- wards the inner part of a work which is given to the earth forming the rampart or parapet. Interior crest is the crest of the interior slope. Interval. In military disposition.s and manoiuvres, any given distance or space. In tactics the term is used to signify taken paral- lel to the front, as opposed to distance or space perpendicularly to the front. Interval between two battalions is the s]>iice which sep- arates them when they are drawn up for ac- tion or when they are encamped. This space is generally wide enough to admit the march of another regiment; that is to say, it is equal to the extent of its front when in line. Interval between the line and the camp com- prehends the space which lies between the camp and the line of intrenchments. It is generally from 180 to 200 toises in breadth ; so that the different sections of troops which are necessary for the security of the camp, may have room to move in, while sufficient ground is left in rear for troops to pass and repass as occasion may require. The same observation holds good with respect to con- travallation. Intrench. Is to make secure against the attack of an enemy by digging a ditch or trench, etc. Ti) intrench upon, to invade, to make encroachments upon the property or territories of another. Intrenched Camp. A large space capa- ble of containing an entire army, sur- rounded by works of fortification. Fre- quently an intrenched camp joins a fortress, in which case it is )>rotected by permanent works of considerable strength — detached forts, for instance. Intrenching Tool. An implement used for intrenching. In view of the deadly fire of modern small-arms it is a matter of great importance that the soldier should be able to get cover. For this reason it has been pro- ])osed to make an intrenching tool a }mrt of the soldier's equipment. In the I'nitod States army a combination bayonet and in- trenching tool is used. See Troavel Bay- onet. Intrenchment. Is generally a ditch or trench with a parapet. The earth removed to form the ditch is used to construct the parapet. Fascines, with earth thrown over them, gabions, hogsheads, or bags tilled with earth, are often employed to revet or strengthen the work when the earth is loose or sandy. Intrenchments of armies are the whole works or obstacles by which an army or large body of troops cover tliemselvcs for their defense. Intrepidity. An unqualified contempt of death ; an indifference to fortune as far as it regards personal safety ; a fearlessness of heart, and a daring enterprise of mind. Inundation. The act of letting water into a country so that it shall be overflowed, to prevent the approach of an enemy. It is among the most considerable of the various methods which have been devised for ini- INVADE 248 IPSWICH peding the approach to a field-work, or in- deed, any fortification. Invade, To. To make a forcible or clan- destine entry into the territory of another state; to pass the regular line of frontier of any country, in order to take possession of the interior. Invalid. A soldier who has been wounded, or has suffered in his health, and in conse- quence of his good conduct has been recom- mended to a certain provision for life. Chelsea Hospital is the place allotted for the reception of such objects of public gratitude and benevolence in England ; the Soldiers' Home, in Washington, D. C, in the United States, and the Hotel des Invalides, at Paris, France. In England numbers of invalids are, however, allowed to reside where they choose, and are then known as "out-pen- sioners." Invalides. Wounded veterans of the French army, maintained at the expense of the State. See Hotel des Invalides. Invaliding. Signifies the return home, or to a more healthy climate, of soldiers or sailors whom wounds or the severity of for- eign service has rendered incapable of active duty. The man invalided returns to his duty as soon as his restored health justifies the step. Invasion. In war, is the entrance or at- tack of an enemy on the dominions of an- other. Inventory of Effects of Deceased Offi- cers and Soldiers. See Appendix, Arti- cles or War, 125, 126. Inverness. A royal burgh of Scotland, capital of a county of the same name, situated on both sides of the river Ness. It was a city of the Picts up to 843 ; taken by Edward I.; retaken by Bruce, 1313; burnt by the Lord of the Isles, 1411 ; taken by Cromwell, 1649; and by Prince Charles Edward in 1746. The latter was defeated at Cullo- den, about 5 miles from Inverness, April 16, 1746. Inversion. A movement in tactics by which the order of companies in line is in- verted, the right being on the left, the left on the right, and so on. Invest. To invest a place is to seize upon all the avenues leading to a town or fortress. On the occasion of an investment, the hostile troops are distributed on the principal com- mands, to prevent any succor from bping received by the garrison, and to keep the ground until the rest of the army, with the artillery, can arrive to form a regular siege. To invest a place is, in fact, to take pre- paratory measures for a blockade or close siege. Invincible. Incapable of being conquered or overcome ; unconquerable ; insuperable ; as, an invincible army, etc. Inwall. To inclose or fortify with a wall. lona, Icolmkill, or Hii. The most famous of the Hebrides, in Argyle Co., Scotland. It is about 3 miles long, and varies in breadth from a mile to a mile and a half. It was founded by Saint Columba, a native of Ireland, in the 6th century, and long re- mained the chief seat of learning and the centre of missionary enterprises undertaken by the Culdees. In 795, 802, 806, 825, and 986 the island was ravaged by Norsemen, by whom its monks were martyred in the three latter dates. Ionia. In Asia Minor. About 1040 B.C., the lones, a Pelasgic race, emigrated from Greece, and settled here and on the adjoining islands. They were conquered by the great Cyrus about 548 B.C. ; revolted in 504, but were again subdued. After the victories of Cimon, Ionia became independent and re- mained so till 387, when it was once more subjected to Persia. It formed part of the dominions of Alexander and his successors; was annexed to the lloman empire, and con- quered by the Turks. Ionian Islands. A group of islands run- ning round the west coast of Epirus, and west and south of Greece. After the di- vision of the Roman empire these islands were included in the eastern half, and so continued till 1081, when the Duke of Cala- bria took possession of them. From this time they underwent a continual change of masters till the commencement of the 15th century, when they by degrees came into possession of the Venetians, who in 1797 ceded them to France. They were seized by Russia and Turkey in 1800, by France in 1807, by Great Britain in 1809, and Novem- ber 15, 1815, they were formed into a re- public under the protectorate of the latter power. In May, 1864, they were formally annexed to Greece. lonie Indians. A tribe of aborigines allied to the Caddos, who resided in Texas, and were generally peaceable and friendly. Iowa, One of the Central States of the United States, lying between the Mississippi and Missouri Rivers. It originally formed a portion of the Louisiana Territory; and permanent settlements commenced to be formed in it about 1833 ; organized as a Ter- ritory in 1838, and admitted as a State in 1846. During the civil war it contributed its full quota of troops to the cause of the Union. Iowa Indians. A tribe of aborigines of Dakota stock, who inhabited the State which now bears their name. They were closely allied to the Sacs and Foxes. Ipsara, or Psara. A small island in the Grecian Archipelago, west of Scio ; belongs to Turkey. It was taken by the Turks in 1824. Ipsus. A town of Phrygia, in Asia Mi- nor. Here in 301 B.C., a "battle was fought between Antigonus, king of Asia, and the forces of Cassander, Lysimachus, Ptolemy, and Seleucus, which resulted in the defeat and death of Antigonus. Ipswich. The chief town of the county of Suffolk, England, situated on the Orwell. This town was destroyed by the Danes about 1000. IRELAND 249 IRON Ireland. Anciently named Icrnc and Hi- her)ti(i, is said to have been first colonized liy Pho'nicians. Some assert that Partho- liiiii landed in Ireland about 2048 h.c. ; that the descent of the Damnonii was made about 14(13 no.; and that this was f'ullowed by the descent of Ilcrber and Ileremon, Mile- sian princes, from (ialicia, Spain, who con- quered Ireland, and gave to the throne 171 kinijs. The Danes and Normans invaded Ireland in 795; but were totally defeated by Brian Horiombe at C'lontarf, April 23, 1014. In 1172, King Henry II. of Eng- land invaded Ireland with a formidable armament, and received homage from sev- eral of the minor native chiefs, and from tlie chief Norman adventurers, granting to the latter ciiarters authorizing them, as his subjects, to take possession of the entire island in his name; which they jiartially succeeded in accomjilishing. Subsequently the au- thority of the English crown became limited to a few towns on the coast, and the district termed " the Pale," comprising a small cir- cuit about Dublin and Drogheda. Henry II. received the title of "king of Ireland" in l.'')41, b\' an act passed by the Anglo-Irish Parliament in Dublin ; and about the same Seriod, some of the native princes were in- uced to acknowledge him as their sover- eign, and to accept peerages. The attempts of the English government to introduce the reformed faith stirred up dissensions in Ire- land. Among the first to revolt was the Earl of Desmond, after whose death, in 1583, his vast estates in Munstcr were parceled out to English settlers. Soon after the chief clans of Ulster took up arms ; and in oppos- ing them, the forces of Queen Elizabeth, commanded by officers of high military rep- utation, encountered many reverses, the most serious of which was that in 1598 at the battle of the Yellow P\)rd, where the English army was routed and its general slain. Philip III. of Spain, at the solicita- tion of the Irish chief, dispatched a body of troops to their assistance in KJOl, which landed in the extreme south, instead of in the north, as bad been expected, were unable to effect anything, and were constrained, to surrender. Although Elizabeth was sup- ported bv numbers of native Irish, the northern 'chiefs, ONcill and ODonnell, held out till the queen's government came to terms with them in 1^03, recognizing them as earls of Tyrone and Tirconnell. In H>08 these noblemen having apprehensions for their personal safety quitted Ireland, and re- tired to the continent. Tlieir withdrawal enabled James I. to carry out that project of parceling out the north of Ireland to Protestant Scotch and English settlers. Tiie Irish took advantage of the contentions in England to rise in insurrection (1(541) and massacre the Pr.)testants. It is believed that nearly 40,000 fell victims to their fury. The country continued in a state of anarchy till 1G49. when Cromwell overran it. At the rcvolutifm the native Irish generally 17 took the part of James II., the English and Scotch "colonists' that of William and Marv ; and the war was kept up for four years ( l(;8H-lf;92). The Iri.sh again reb.-lled in 1798, and were not suppressed until 1800. Ireland was incorjiorated with England and Scotland in 1801. Several insurrections have taken place since the latter date but were quickh' suppres.sed. For imjiortant military events in Ireland, see separate ar- ticles. Irish Brigade. A body of men who fol- lowed the fortunes of James II., and were formed into regiments under the monarchy of France. Iron Cross. A Prussian order of knight- hood, instituted on March 10, 1813, by Frederick William III., and conferred for distinguished services in tlie war which was then being carried on. The decoration is an iron cross with silver mounting. The grand cross, a cross of double the size, was pre- sented exclusively for the gaining of a deci- sive battle, or the capture or brave defense of a fortress. It was revived by William I. in the Franco-Prussian war, and awarded by him to his son for his victor}' at Weissem- bourg, August 4, 1870. Iron Crown. The crown of the ancient Lombard kings ; is a broad band of gold set with jewels, within which is a thin plate or fillet of iron, and is declared by tradition to have been hammered from one of the nails of the true cross. It has been used at the coronation of 34 different monarchs, includ- ing Charlemagne, Henry VII. of (Germany, Charles V., and Napoleon. After the peace of ^'ienna in 180(), the crown was presented by the emperor of Austria to Victor Em- manuel, king of Italy. Iron Ores. Characier of Pig-iron. — Ores suitable for "gun-metal" should be reduced in the smelting-furnace, with charcoal and the warm blast, varying from 125° to 300° Fahr., depending upon the ore used. Iron thus made, or pig-iron, should be soft, yield- ing easily to the file and chisel ; the appear- ance of the fracture should be uniform, with i a brilliant aspect, dark gray color, and I medium-sized crystals. Clmracfer uf Guu- mctal. — When remelted and cast into can- : non, it should approach that degree of hard- , ness which resists the file and cjiisel, but not so hard as to be bored and turned with much ! difficulty. Its color should be a bright, j lively gray ; crj'stals small, with acute an- I glos, and sharp to the touch ; structure uni- 1 form, close, and compact. M(X(jnetite. — Oc- 1 tahrdral Iron Ore. — Color iron-black. Streak I black. Brittle. The black streak and mag- j netic properties distinguish this species from ' the following : Specular Iron Ore. — Ilema- 1 iitc. — Often massive granular ; sometimes ! lamellar or micaceous. Also pulverulent j and earthy. Color, dark steel-gray or iron- '' black, and often when crystallized having a j highly splendid lustre ; streak-powder cherry- I red or reddish-brown. The metallic varie- . ties pass into an earthy ore of a red color, IRONS 250 ISSUES having none of the external characters of the crystals, but perfectly corresponding to them when they are pulverized, the powder they yield being of a deep red color, and earthy or without lustre. Sometimes slightly attracted by the magnet. Limonite. — Brown Iron Ore. — Usually massive, and often with a smooth botryoidal or stalactitic surface, having a compact fibrous structure within. Also earthy. Color, dark brown to ochre- yellow ; streak, yellowish-brown to dull yel- low. Lustre, sometimes sub-metallic; often dull and earthy ; on a surface of fracture frequently silky. Spathic Iron. — Carbonate of Iron. — Chalyb'ite. — Usually massive, with a foliated structure, somewhat curving. Sometimes in globular concretions or im- planted globules. Color, light grayish to brown ; often dark brownish-red, or nearly black on exposure. Streak, uncolored. Lus- tre, pearly to vitreous ; translucent to nearly opaque. Irons. Tetters or instruments made of iron, with which a prisoner is shackled. To be put in irons, is to be handcuffed and con- fined in fetters. Ironsides. A strong man. A cuirassier ; — applied also to Cromwell's cavalrj'. Iroquois, or Six Nations. The name given by the French to the Indian con- federacy of the Mohawks, Oneidas, Ononda- gas, Cayugas, and Senecas, to which were afterwards added the Tuscaroras, after being driven from their hunting-grounds in North Carolina. This once formidable confederacy is now nearly extinguished, but remnants of it are still found scattered through the State of New York. Irregular. Not regular ; not according to common form or rules; as, an irregular building or fortification. See Fortifica- tion, Irregular. Irregular Cavalry. A term now almost obsolete. It applied a few years ago to regi- ments of horsemen raised under certain con- ditions in the East Indies. These conditions were that each man should provide his own horse, arms, accoutrements, and clothing, receiving in return a monthly sum, which also included his pay. To these regiments only three English officers were appointed, the other officers being natives. These regi- ments are still paid in the same way, but they are clothed, armed, and equipped in a uniform manner ; the number of British officers is increased, and they are no longer styled irregular cavalry. Irregularity. A violation of the customs of service, — a delinquency which is subject to censure but not serious enough to be brought before a court-martial. Irun. A town of Spain, near the left bank of the Bidassoa. It is a place of great an- tiquity, having been in existence in the time of the Romans. The Carlists were defeated by the British Legion, under Gen. Sir de Lacy Evans, in the battle of Irun, May 16, 1837. Isabella the Catholic, Order of. A Span- ish order of knighthood, founded by Ferdi- nand VII., March 24, 1815, as a reward of loyalty, for the defense of the possessions of Spanish America. At present, it is conferred for all kinds of merit. The sovereign is the head of the order, which is divided into the three classes of Grand Crosses, Commanders, and Knights. Isauria. A province in Asia Minor, the inhabitants of which were a wild and semi- barbarous race, who lived by rapine and plunder. The Romans surrounded Isauria with a chain of fortresses, but the Isaurians broke through them and remained as un- tamable as before. Under the empire, army after army was sent against Isauria, which stood to Rome, and afterwards to Constanti- nople, very much in the relation that Cir- cassia now does to Russia. In the 8th cen- tury their national vanity was gratified by a countryman of their own being appointed to the throne. From this date they gradually ceased to be formidable. Ischia. An island in the Gulf of Naples, 6 miles from the coast, and 17 miles west from Naples. In 1807, Ischia was taken by a British and Sicilian force. Isernia. A place in Southern Italy, on the west slope of the Apennines, where the Sar- dinian general Cialdini defeated the Nea- politans, October 17, 1860. Isle of France. See Mauritius. Ismail, or Ismailov. A strong town of Turkey in Europe, on the north side of the Kilia arm of the Danube. This place was long in the possession of the Turks ; it was stormed by the Russians, under Suwarrow, in 1790. It remained in the possession of Russia until 1856, when it was restored to Turkey by the removal of the Russian fron- tier. Isole {Fr.). This word is used among the French, to express any body or thing which is detached from another. It is variously applied in fortification. Thus a pavilion or a barrack which is not joiried to any other wall or building is called isole, because it stands alone, and a person may walk en- tirely round it. A parapet is also said to be \ isole when there is an interval of 4 or 5 feet i existing between the rampart and its wall; which interval serves as a path for the rounds. Ispahan. A famous city of Persia, capi- tal of the province of Ira'k-Ajemi, situated : on the Zendarud. In 1722 it was taken by j the Afghans, and in 1729 was retaken by Nadir Shah. It has fallen gradually into decay. Issue. Event; consequence; the ultimate result of any undertaking ; the termination of any contest. A term also applied to the distribution of supplies; as, issue of rations, issue of clothing, etc., to troops. Issues. In the British service, are cer- tain sums of money which are, at stated pe- riods, given to public accountants fur public service; and for the honest distribution of which, every individual so intrusted is re- ISSUS 251 JACK sponsible to Parliament. Regimental issues are moneys paid by regimental agents, acting under tlie authority of their respective colo- nels, fur regimental purposes. Issus. An ancient city and seaport in Cilicia, in Asia Minor, close to the frontier of Syria, on or near the head of the Sinus Issicus, now the Gulf of Scanderoon. It was in the neigliborhood of this city that Alexander the (ireat annihilated the Persian army under Darius in 383 u.c. Hero too wasfouglit (1'J4 A.D.), the bloody battle be- tween Sej)tinuis Severus and Pescennius Niger, by virtue of which the former be- came sole master of the Konuin emj)ire. The exact site of Issus has not yet been dis- covered. Istalif. A town of Afghanistan, province of Cabul ( Cabool ). It was taken and partly destroyed by the British in 1842. Italy. A peninsula in the south of Eu- rope. The invading Pelasgians from Greece, and the aborigines ( Umbrians, Oscans, and Etruscans ), combined, formed the renowned Latin race still possessing the southern part of Europe. The history of Italy is soon ab- sorbed into that of Rome, founded 753 B.C. Previous to the loth century it was desolated by intestine wars and the interference of the German emperors; since then, Spain, France, and Germany have struggled for the posses- sion of the country, which has been divided among them several times. Spain predomi- nated in Italy during the IGth and 17th cen- turies ; but was compelled to yield to the house of Austria at the beginning of the 18th century. The victories of Bonaparte in 17'J7- 98 changed the government of Italy ; but the Austrian rule was re-established at the peace of 1814. In 1848 the Mihmeso and Venetians revolted and joined Piedmont, but were subdued by Kadetzky. The hostile feeling between Austria and Piedmont gradually increased till war broke out in April, 1859, in which the Austrians were de- feated, and the kingdom of Italy was re- established in 18(Jl. Another war with Aus- tria was declared in June, 18G(J, but peace was signed in October, same year, and Ve- netia was ceded to Italy. For other details, see Ko.ME and the various Italian cities throughout thi.s volume. Ithome. A mountain fortress of Me.ssenia, memorable for the defense there made for many years against the Spartan.s in the first Messenian war. It was afterwards the cita- del of Messene, when that city was founded by Epaminondas. Itinerairies { Fr.). Itinerary movements or days of march. A technical phrase among the French to denote the order and the dis- position which a body of men or an army is directed to observe in its march from "one camp to another, or to any particular quarter or destination. Itzehoe. An ancient town in the duchy of Holstein. The original castle around which Itzehoe was built by Charlemagfie in SO'J. This town was twice taken by Tilly in the Thirty Years' "War, and in 1G57 a great portion of it was burned down by the Swedes. Ivry-la-Bataille. A town of Franco, department of Eure, 40 miles west of Paris. It is celebrated for the decisive victory which was gained by Henry IV. of Navarre over the forces under the Duke of Mayenne in 1590. Ixcaquixtla. A town in the southern part of the state of Puobla, Mexico. It is noted in 3Iexican history as the scene of a sharp battle fought January 1, 1817, between Mexican insurgents under Gen. Mier of Teran, and the Spanish troops under La Madrid. Izucar. A city of the state of Puehla, Mexico. Near here Gen. Matamoros, light- ing for the independence of his country, gained a victory over the Spaniards, Febru- ary 24, 1812. Jaca, or Jacca. A fortified town of Spain, in the province of Aragon, situated at the foot of the Pyrin ?es, on the river Aragon. It ia ft town of great antiquity, and, from its position, has been the scene of many sanguinary contests. Its occupation was eagerly coveted by every invader of the Peninsula, from Cato and Julius Ciesar to the generals of Napoleon. Jack. See Implements. Jack (Fr. jncque). A coat of defensive armor, quilted and covered with leather, worn particularly by horsemen ; a bulT- jcrkin ; rarely, a coat of mail. Jack. Hydraulic. See Hydkaulic Jack. Jack in the Box. A very handy engine, consisting of a large wooden male-screw turning in a female one. which forms tho upper part of a strong wooden box, sluipcd like the frustum of a pyramid. It is used by means of levers pa^^sing through holes in it as a press in packing, and for other purposes. Jack Wambasium. A sort of coat ar- JACK-BOOTS 252 JAMAICA mor, formerly worn by horsemen, not of solid iron but of many plates fastened to- gether, which some persons by tenure were bound to furnish upon any invasion. Jack-boots. Cavalry boots, made of thick, firm leather, hardened in a peculiar manner. They were sometimes lined with plates of iron. Jacket. A short, close garment, extend- ing downward to the hips ; a short military coat is so called. In the manufacture of ordnance a tube inclosing and reinforcing another tube is called a jacket. Jack-man. One wearing a jack ; a horse- soldier; a retainer. Jack-screw. See Implements. Jacob, St. A Swiss hamlet, about a mile south of Basle, on the Bienne road, and the scene of a great battle fought in 1444, be- tween 1600 Swiss and a vastly more numer- ous French force, under the dauphin, after- wards Louis XI. The Swiss fought for ten hours, slew three times their number of the enemy, but were themselves cut oif to 10 men. This battle is known as the " Swiss Thermopylae." Jacobins. One of those clubs which played so conspicuous a part in the first French revolution. In 1792 they took the name of "The Society of the Friends of Liberty and Equality." Immediately after the fall of the king, the Jacobins began that struggle against the Girondists which ended in the destruction of the latter. After the fall of Eobespierre during the Convention they rapidly lost influence, and were at last suppressed. Jacobites. This name was given to those who, at the English revolution in 1688, ad- hered to the cause of the dethroned James II. In Ireland the adherents of the Stuarts rose in rebellion, but were vanquished by force of arms. In Scotland attempts were made in 1715 and 1745 by the descendants and adherents of James II. to expel the house of Hanover. Both were unsuccessful, and involved the ruin of many noble fami- lies. Jacob's-staff. A mathematical instru- ment for taking heights and distances, used by military engineers. Jacquerie, Insurrection of the. The name given to the war of the French peas- antry, which broke out in 1358. The im- mediate occasion of it was the enormities perpetrated by Charles the Bad, king of Navarre, and his adherents ; but it was really caused by long-continued oppression on the part of the nobles. Suddenly rising against their lords, the peasants laid hundreds of castles in ruins, murdered the nobles, and violated their wives and daughters, practicing every enormity, and acting, as they said, on the principle of doing as had been done to them. For some weeks they were successful ; but the magnitude of the danger induced the .nobles to make common cause against them, and on June 9 the peasants were de- feated with great slaughter near Meaux by Captal de Buch and Count of Foix. This put an end to the insurrection. Jade (Fr.). A very hard stone, of an olive color, from which the handles of swords and sabres are manufactured in Poland and Turkey. Jaen. Formerly an independent Moorish kingdom ; is now a province of Spain. It was conquered by the Moors on their en- trance into Spain. Jaen maintained its in- dependence as a Moorish state till 1234, when it fell into the hands of Ferdinand III., and was added to the kingdom of Cas- tile. Jaffa, Yafa, or Joppa. A town of Asiatic Turkey, in the province of Syria, on the Mediterranean. This place attained its greatest prosperity in the times of the Cru- saders, when it became the principal landing- place of the warriors of Christendom. In 1799 it was stormed by the French under Bonaparte, and here was perpetrated his shameful massacre of Turkish prisoners. In 1832, Mohammed Ali made himself master of it; but the Turks, with the assistance of the British and Austrians, took it from him again in 1840. Jaffna, or Jaffnapatam. The capital of the district of Jaftnapatam, in Ceylon. The town is fortified, and possesses a good cita- del ; but it was taken, after a short resist- ance, by the British troops in 1795. Jaghire. An Indian term, signifying the assignment of the revenues of a district to a servant or dependant of government, who is hence called Jaghirdar. Jaghires are frequently given in India to persons as a reward and compensation for their military services. Jaghire Asham. An Indian term, signi- I fying land granted for the support of the troops. Jahpoor. A town of Hindostan, in the presidency of Bengal, 15 miles from Agra. This place has been the scene of two decisive battles ; the first fought in 1688, between Aurungzebe and his brother Darah Sheeoh ; and the second, in 1707, between Alum and Azain Ushaum, all Indian princes. Jalapa. A city of the Mexican confed- eration, 60 miles west-northwest of Vera Cruz. In 1847-48 the American troops occu- pied it. Jalet {Fr.). See Galet. • Jalons (Fr.). Long poles with a wisp of straw at the top. They are fixed at different places and in diff'erent roads, to serve as sig- nals of observation to advancing columns, when the country is inclosed, etc. They are likewise used as camp colors to mark out the ground on days of exercise. Jamaica. One'of the West India Islands, or Greater Antilles, which belongs to Great Britain, and forms the most considerable and valuable of its possessions in that quarter. It was discovered by Columbus in 1494, and colonized by the Spaniards in the early part of the 16th century. In 1655 it was taken bv the English, when 3000 British soldiers JAMB 253 JAUTS who had served in the Parliamentary army settled there. In 18G6 a revolt of a large portion of the negro population took pluee, wliicii was promptly suppressed. Jamb. To squeeze tiglit. Jambeaux, or Jambes (Fr.). Greaves; nriiior for the legs, made of waxed leather or metal ; much used in the Middle Ages. James of the Sword, St. A military order in Spain, instituti'd in 1170 under the reign of Ferdinand II., king of Leon and Galicia. Its ohject was to put a .stop to the incursions of the Moors ; these knights obliging themselves by a vow to secure the roads. The highest dignity in that order is that of grand master, which has been united to the crown of Spain. The knights were obliged to give proof of their descent from families that had been noble for four genera- tions on both sides ; they were also required to make it appear that their ancestors were neither Jews, Saracens, nor heretics, nor had ever been called into question by the Inquisi- tion. James Island. One of the sea islands of Charleston Co., S. C, having Charleston harbor and Ashley River on the north. The battle of Secessionville (June 11, 18G3) and several other spirited engagements occurred upon this island during the late civil war. James Projectile. See Pkojectiles. James Rifle. An American sporting rifle, which was popular many years ago. James, St. A town of France, in the department of Manche. William the Con- queror built a strong fortress here, which remained in possession of the English till 1448. Jamestown. A former village of James City Co., Va., on the north bank of the James Kiver. The first English settlement in the United States was made at this place in 1G08, but nothing now remains but a few ruins. The forces of Wayne and Lord Cornwallis had an engagement near here in 1781. Jangar. A kind of ponton constructed of two boats with a platform laid across then^ which is used by the natives in the East Indies to convoy horses, cattle, etc., across rivers. Janissar-Agasi. Commander-in-chief of the Janissaries. Janissaries (Turk, icni ichrri, " new sol- diers ' ). An order of infantry in the Turkish army : originally prisoners trained to arms; were first organized by Orcan, about LS.'iO, and remodeled by his son Amurath I., 1300; their numbers being increased by following sultans. In later days they degenerated iscipii 1. Di deposed the sultan. During an insurrectn)n, June 14-1.5, IS'iG, when nearly 8000 of thenj were killed, the Ottoman army was reorgan- ized, and a firman was issued on June 17 •bolishing the Janissaries. Januarius, Order of St. An order of knighthood founded by King Charles of Sicily (afterwards Charles III. of Spain) on July 6, 1738. It was abolished after the French invasion of 1806, and re-introduced in 1814. The badge is a gold octagonal white and red enameled cross, with gold lilies in the upper and side angles. The ob- verse represents St. Januarius in episco|)al robes with an open book. The round mid- dle of the reverse shows a golden open book, and two j)hials partly filled with blood. The kniglits arc either Cttvnlieri di Giitsiizia, who must count four noble generations, or C'livnlieri di Grazia. Japan. An Asiatic empire, composed of Japan, or Niphon, and 3850 isles, with nearly 40,000,000 inhabitants. For military events in Japan, see separate articles in this book. Jargeau. A town of France, in the de- partment Loiret, 10 miles from Orleans. This place was taken, after a short siege, by the Earl of Salisbury, in 1428. Jarnac. A town of France, situated on the Charente. The Protestants under Co- ligny and the Prince of Conde were defeated near Jarnac in 1G59, when the latter was slain. Jassy, or Yassy. The chief town of Mol- davia, and the residence of the hospodar or prince of that country. Jassy has been fre- quently taken by the Russians, but it has always been restored at the conclusion of each war with Turkey. In 1822 it was burned by the Janissaries, from which dis- aster it has never recovered. Jauts, or Jats. A people of Hindostan, who have at ditl'eront times made some fig- ure in its annals. The first historical men- tion of them occurs in the beginning of the 11th century, on the invasion of India by Mahmoud the Gaznevide, when they were completely defeated and driven into the mountainous districts of the interior of India. A\"e find them afterwards, under the growing imbecility of Aurungzebe's succes- sors, continually extending their conquests. They sutfercd a reverse, however, at the hands of Ahmed Shah, the sovereign of Cabul, who invaded Northern India, and overran a great portion of their territory. The Jaut chief afterwards became an ally of Ahmed Shah, having treacherously betrayed his former allies, the Mahrattas, at the bat- tle of Paniput, January 14, 1761. When the British power became predominant, the rajah of the Jauts, Rungeet Sing, sought se- curity by concluding a treaty by which he agreed to assist England against all enemies, and by this means he retained the government of his" territories. In 1808, however, on the defeat of Holkar by the British, he received into Bhurtpore the discomfited army. The city was besieged, and cost the British an immense number of lives ; but at length, despairing of eflectual resistance, the rajah agreed to" compel Holkar to quit the place. For this breach of the terms of the treaty he was compelled by the English to pay a heavy fine. Disputes about the succession to the throne afterwards led to the inter- JAVA 254 JIDDAH feronce of the British, and the hitherto im- pregnable fortress of Bhurtpore was taken by Lord Combermere, January 18, 1826, after a desperate resistance on the part of the Jauts. Java. A hirge island in the Eastern Archipelago; is said to have been reached by the Portuguese in 1511, and by the Dutch in 1595. The latter, who now pos- sess it, built Batavia, the capital, about 1619. The atrocious massacre of 20,000 of the un- armed natives by the Dutch, sparing neither women nor children, to possess their effects, took place in 1740. The island capitulated to the British, September 18, 1811 ; but it was restored to Holland in 1814. Javelin {'Lat. pUu))i). A short and light spear used for darting against an enemy. In the ancient Eoman legions, the first and second lines were armed with them, and in those days they were considered excellent offensive weapons. Je Maintiendrai ("I will maintain"). The motto of the house of Nassau. When Wil- liam III. came to the throne of England, he continued this, but added " the liberties of England and the Protestant religion," at the same time ordering that the old motto of the royal arms, " Z>ie?6 ct mon d7-oit" should be retained on the great seal, 1689. Jean de Pied de Port, St. A town of France, in the department of the Lower Pyrenees, on the Nive. Near this place is the pass of Eoncevaux, or Koncesvalles, where, in 778, the army of Charlemagne was defeated, and Holland, the distinguished Paladin, mortally wounded. Jelalabad. A town of Afghanistan ; capital of a province of the same name, 75 miles southeast from Cabul (Cabool). It is memorable for the successful resistance made there in 1841-42 by Sir Kobert Sale, with a handful of British troops against a large besieging force of Afghans. Its forti- fications were destroyed by the British in 1842, when they evacuated the country. Jeloudar. An East Indian term, signify- ing to belong to the train or equipage. Jemadar. A native lieutenant in an Indian native infantry or cavalry regiment. Jemappes. A village and commune of Belgium, in the province of Hainault, 2 miles west from Mons. In 1792, the French under Dumouriez gained a great victory over the Austrians near this place. Jemaulabad. A town and fortress in the south of India, province of Canara, which was originally called Narasingha Augady. The first, which was built by Tippoo, stands on the summit of an immense rock, which may be deemed impregnable, as it is wholly inaccessible except by one narrow way. After the fall of Seringapatam, it sustained a siege of six weeks from the British, when being bombarded, it was taken, and the commander having poisoned himself, his principal officers were hanged. It was afterwards surprised and taken by a band of insurgents or plunderers, when it was re- duced, after a blockade of three months, and all that did not escape were summarily exe- cuted. Jena. A town of Germany, in the grand duchy Saxe- Weimar-Eisenach, situated in a romantic valley at the confluence of the Leutra with the Saale. In this vicinity was fought the great battle of Jena, October 14, 1806, between the French and Prussian armies, in which the latter was totally de- feated. Jenizer-effendi. An appointment among the Turks, which in some degree resembles that of provost-marshal in European armies. The only functions which this olScer is per- mitted to exercise are those of judge to the company. He sits on particular days for the purpose of hearing the complaints of the soldiers, and of settling their difierences. If a case of peculiar difiiculty should occur, he reports the case to the Aga, whose opinion and determination are final. Jericho. Once one of the most flourish- ing cities of Palestine, situated a few miles northeast of Jerusalem. The Israelites cap- tured and destroyed it on their first entry into Canaan. In the time of Herod it was rebuilt, but was destroyed in the reign of Vespasian, and again rebuilt under Hadrian. During the Crusades, it was repeatedly cap- tured, and at last destroyed. At the present day its place is occupied by a miserable vil- lage called Richa. Jersey. One of the Channel Islands, and the largest and most southerly of the group, situated about 15 miles west from the coast of France, and belonging to Great Britain. Various attempts have been made by the French to possess themselves of this island, but without success. The most remarkable was in 1781, when they were repulsed by the local militia. Jerusalem. A celebrated city of Syria, the capital of the ancient Judaja and the modern Palestine. This city was called Salem in 1913 B.C. ; its king was slain by Joshua, 1451 B.C. It was taken by David, 1048 B.C., who dwelt in the fort, calling it the City of David. Jerusalem was taken by the Persians in 614 ; retaken by the em- peror Heraclius, 628; by the Saracens, 637; and by the Crusaders, when 70,000 infidels were put to the sword ; taken by Saladin, 1187; by the Turks, who drove away the Saracens, 1217 and 1239. It was held by the French under Bonaparte, February, 1799. Jet (Fr.). A term signifying the motion of any body that is urged forward by main force; it likewise means the space which is gone over by any propelled body ; and some- times the instrument from which anything is thrown or shot ; as, the cross-bow, etc. Jet des bomhes is a phrase adopted instead of tlr, which formerly expressed the course that a shell took when it was thrown out of a mortar by the power of gunpowder. Jets. See Pyrotechny. Jiddah, or Jeddah. A trading town of the Iledjaz, Arabia, about GO miles west from JINGAL 255 JUDGE-ADVOCATE Mecca. On June 15, 1808, the inhabitants ruse against the Christians resident amonj; them, and massacred a considerable number of them. In Aui^just of the same year the town was bombarded by the British, and satisfaction rendered. Jingal, or Jingall. A small, portable piece of ordnance, to be fired from the ground or on u wall, resting on a long, slender butt- end, and two legs. This piece was used in India. See Gingals. Joar, An East Indian term, signifying a general massacre of the women and children, which is sometimes performed by the Hin- doos, when they find they cannot prevent the enemy from taking the town. When this dreadful and unnatural ceremony is to take place, a spot is selected which is filled with wood, straw, oil, etc. The victims are inclosed and the whole is set on tire. John (St.) of Jerusalem, Knights of. See Saint John of Jkiusai.km, Tiik Order of thk Knight.s 1Iosi>italler.s of. Join. A technical word used in the Brit- ish service, signifying to effect the junction of one military bod}' with another. In a more limited sense, it means the accession of an individual, voluntary or otherwise, to a corps or army. If an officer, on being or- dered to join, omits to do so willfully, he is liable to be tried by a general court-martial, or to be peremiitorily suspended for being absent without leave. Jooday Perraput. An East Indian term, •ignifying a slave taken in war. Jour (Fr.). The tour of duty which is done in the course of a day and night. Eire de jour, to be officer of the day, or to command a body of troops at a siege or otherwise in the capacity of a general offi- cer, etc. Journal {Fr.). A public record or gen- eral orderly book, kept in the French ser- vice, and in which every transaction that occurred during a siege is entered by the governor of the town, for the inspection of n superior authority. The general officer who carried on the siege of a place likewise kept a document of the same kind, and mi- nuted down everything that ha])pened under his command. So that the journal which was kept in this manner was a circumstan- tial detail of what occurred, day after da}', during the attack and defense of a town. Journals of Defense. In the American service during war, the commander of a place, and the chiefs of engineers and of artillery, shall keep journals of defense, in which shall be entered, in order of date, without blank or interlineatiroi)het, attacked Grahams- j town, but were repulsed with much slaugh- ter in 1819; again defeated in 1828, 1831, and 1834. After a series of engagements, they were attacked by Governor-General Cathcart, and completely defeated, Decem- ber 20, 18')2, and jieace was restored in the following March. Kagosima. A town of Japan, which was bombarded by tho English in 18(i3, in retal- iation for the murder of one of their subjects. Kahlenberg. A hill in Austria, on the Danube, a little northwest of Vienna. 0\\ ita side the army of Sobieski arrived to the rescue of Vienna, when besieged by the Turks in 1G83. Kaiffa. A seaport town of Syria, situated on the south siae of the Bay of Acre. It w»8 captured by the French in 1799. Kainardji. In Bulgaria ; liere a treaty was signed, 1774, between the Turks and Russians, which opened the Black Sea, and gave Crimea to the latter. Kaiser (from Lat. Caaai-). Tho German word for emjieror, which has been so exten- sively known and used in every language since the year 1871, when AVilliam, king of Prussia, was crowned at Versailles, France, as emperor of Germany. Thus was revived the old Teutonic appellation of kaiser, which applied formerly, and especially in the Mid- dle Ages, to the German emperors, who in- herited this title from the lioman Cwsars, themselves succeeded by Charlemagne, who is considered by the Germans as the first em- fieror of the Vaterland, as William is tho atest one. Kaiserslautern. A fortified town of the jialatinate of the Rhine, which belongs to Bavaria, 33 miles west from Spires. It was the scene of nuich hard fighting between tho French and Gernnms in 1792 and 1793. Kak Towda [Ltd.). A term applied in the East Indies to the fine mold used in makinL; butts for archery practice. Kalafat. A town of Wallachia, situated on the ii'ft bank of the Danube, nearly ojipo- site Widdin. It is strongly fortified, and conunands the approach to the Danube. The battle of Citate was fought here on Jan- uary G, 1854, and three following days, be- tween the Turks under Omar Pasha and the Russians under Gortschakott'. Kalai (/•>.). A Turkish fortress; more particularly applied to stockades. EALISCH 258 KASTA.MOUNI Kalisch, or Kalice. A town of Poland, l)eloni:;ing to Russia, and situated on the frontier of the Prussian territory. The Swedes were defeated by the Poles in its vicinity in 1706; another battle was fought here between the Russians and Saxons in 1813. Kalispels, or Calispels. See Pend d'Oreilles. Kalmar, or Calmar. A fortified town of Sweden, and the capital of a province, on the sound or strait of the same name, in tlie Baltic, opposite the island of Oland. In 1397, the treaty of Kalmar, by which Den- mark, Norway, and Sweden were united, was signed here. Kalmucks, or Calnnucks. Called by the Tartars A'Aa^tmicA; (" renegades"), the largest of the Mongolian peoples, inhabiting large regions of the Chinese, and also Russian dominions. They are divided into four tribes : the Choshots, ruled by descendants of Genghis Khan ; the Soongars, in the 17th and the 18th centuries the masters of the other races ; oppressed by the Chinese, they migrated in great numbers, in 1758, to Rus- sia, but returned in 1770 to Soongaria ; the Derbets, who dwell in the valleys of the Don and Hi ; the Torgots, formerly united with the Soongars. The Kalmucks are a nomad, predatory, and warlike race, and pass the greater part of their lives in the saddle. Kalsa Cutcherry {IiuL). The room of business, where matters pertaining to the army are transacted, and all matters of liti- gation on that branch of service are deter- mined. Kaluga. Chief town of the government of the same name in Russia, on the right bank of the Oka. From the 14th to the 18th century, its stronghold was a great protec- tion against the invasions of the Lithua- nians, the Tartars of the Great Horde, and especially against the Crimean Tartars. It is at present the residence of Schamj'l, the Circassian chief. Kalunga Fort, In the East Indies ; it was attacked unsuccessfully by the com- pany's forces, and Gen. Gillespie killed, Oc- tober 31, 1814; and again unsuccessfully on November 25. It was evacuated by the Nepaulese, November 30, same year. Kaminietz. A town of Russian Poland, situated on the river Smotriza, and the capi- tal of the government of Podolia. The for- tifications of this place were razed in 1812, but have since been rebuilt. Kamtschatka, A peninsula on the east coast of Asia ; was discovered by Morosco, a Cossack chief, and was taken possession of by Russia in 1697. Kanauts. A term used in India to des- ignate the walls of a canvas tent. Kangiar. A Turkish sabre, the blade of which is bent contrary to other swords, gen- erally ornamented with diamonds and other precious stones. Kansas. One.of the States of the United States, the thirty-fourth in order of admis- sion. It lies between 37° and 40° N. lat., and between 25th meridian of long, and the western boundary of the State of Missouri, and is, geographically, the central State of the Union. It was organized as a Terri- tory in 1854, and admitted into the Union January 29, 1861 ; and though it remained loyal during the civil war, yet many of its inhabitants took the field for the Confederate cause. Kapigi-Bachi. Officer in charge of the gates of the sultan's palace ; a warrior. Kaponier. See Caponiere. Karauls. Military posts ; sultan's body- guards. Karki-Mesrac. A Turkish lance. Karmathians. So called from Abu Said Al-Jenabia, surnamed Al-Karmata, a Mo- hammedan sect which sprang up in the 9th century, and was originally a branch of the Ismail'is. The sect was very powerful for a time. They conquered Arabia, Persia, and Syria, which they ruled with a despotic power, and their armies gained great vic- tories of those of the caliphs. In 928 they threatened Bagdad, and in 930, under their leader, Abu "Takir, entered Mecca, which was full of pilgrims, when a massacre of the most fearful description ensued, dese- crated the holy places, and carried away the supreme palladium, the black stone, which Avas only restored to Mecca at an immense ransom after twenty years. From that time their power declined, and after the 11th century they are not mentioned in history, although some traces of them still exist at Hasa, their former stronghold. Karrack. See Carrack. Kars. A fortified town of Asiatic Tur- key, in the province of Armenia, situated on a table-land between 6000 and 7000 feet above the level of the sea. In 1828 it was taken from the Turks by the Russians under Paskievitsch. In 1855, its fortifications hav- ing been strengthened, it sustained a long siege by the Russians. Their attempt at taking "it by storm (September 29) failed, but it was compelled by famine to surren- der, November 30. Kars again surrendered to the Russians in 1877, having been cap- tured by storming in a night attack, — one of the most brilliant feats of arms in the annals of history. Kaschau. A town of Hungary ; is situ- ated in the beautiful valley of the Hernad, 130 miles northeast from Pesth. Two bat- tles were fought near Kaschau during the Hungarian revolution, both of which the Austrians gained. Kaskaskia Indians. A tribe which for- merly inhabited Illinois, but are now located with other tribes on the Quapaw agency, Indian Territory. See Indians and their Agencies. Kastamouni, or CostambOne. A town in Anatolia, Asia Minor. It stands in a dreary hollow, from which rises a solitary rock surmounted by a fortress in ruins. During the Greek empire, the fortress was KATAN 259 KENILWORTH in ptissession of the Comneni. It was taken by Bajazet, retaken by Tiniour, and lastly, ct)nqiK'red by Mohammed I. Katan. A Japanese sword, otherwise cat i 'til. Katsbach, or Katzbach. A river in Prussia, in tlic province of Silesia, near whii'li (Jen. Biiiciier defeated the French under Mucdonald and Ney, August 20, 1813. He received the title <>f I'rinte of Wahl- statt, the name of a neiujliborinp village. K^tsena. A town of Central Africa, in tlie eiMpir(! of Sokoto. In J807 tiie con- quering Fiilbes assailed it, and a war was commenced, which lasted for upwards of seven years. The capture of the town was achieved only through its destruction. Kavass. In Turkey, an armed constable ; also a government servant or courier. Kazan. A tt)wn of lius.sia, capital of the government, and ancient capital of the king- dom of tlie same name; is situated on the river Kazanka, 4 miles from the north bank of the Volga. It was founded in 120? by a Tartar tribe, and after various vicissitudes, was made the capital of an independent kingdom of the khan of the Golden Horde, which nourished in the loth century. In 1552 the Russians, under Ivan the Terrible, carried the town after a bloody siege, and put an end to the existence of the kingdom. Kecherklechi. Are guards attached to the jierson of the king of Persia; they are armed with a musket of an extraordinary size and caliber. They were raised and formed into a regular corps about the middle of the 18th century. Keechies. A small tribe of Indians re- siding with others on the Wichita Agency, Indian Territory. See Indians and tukir AOKXCIES. Keen. Sharp ; having a fine cutting edge ; as, a keen blade. Keep. To maintain hold upon ; not to let go of; not to lose; to retain; as, if we lose the field, we cannot keep the town. Keep. In ancient military history, a kind of strong tower, which was built in the centre of a castle or fort, to which the be- sieged retreated, and made their last ett'orts of defense. In the Norman keeps there ap- pear to have been three stories, the lowest lor stores, the second for a guard-room, and the upper, or finlariinn, for the family. The keep was similar to what the cla.ssical an- cients called the citadel, or inner fort, — a term generally applied to modern fortifica- tion on the continent. Kim/'s Krrp, a fort built by King Henry II. in the inner part of Dover Castle is so called. Keep Off. To deter an enemy from ap- proaching close to the lines or fortifications, Dy inducing him to suspect a superior force, an ambuscade, or a mine, or by openly gall- ing his advanced posts in such a manner as to beat liim in detail. Infantry may keep off cavalry by hot firing, or by a bristling hedge of bayonets, when in square. Keep On. To go forward ; to proceed ; to continue to advance; as, to keep on ad- vancing into the enemy's country. Keep Up. In military movements, is to ))reserve that regular pace by which a line or column on a march, or in manteuvring, ad- vances towards any given point without any chasms or fluctuations. When a regiment marches by files, it is almost impossible for the rear to keep up. Un this account, di- visions, sub-divisions, and even sectis in 1839. Kherson. An ancient Dorian colony, which came under the sway of the great Mithridates about 120 B.C., and afterwards of that of Rome in .30. It continued impor- tant, and its possession was long disputed by the Russians and Greeks. It was taken by Vladimir, grand duke of Russia, in 088. The city was destroyed by the Lithuanians ; and the Turks found it deserted when they took possession of the Crimea in 1475. Khiva (anc. ('/torns7nia), Khaurezm, Kharasm, or Urgunge. A khanate of Tur- kestan, in Central Asia. In ancient times it was nominally subject to the Selucida> ; subsequently it formed jiart of the kingdoms of Bactria, Parthia, Persia, and the Calijth- ate, and became an independent monarchy in lOO'J under a Seljuk dynasty. The Khi- vans, or as they were then called, the Khau- rozmians, after conquering the whole of Persia and Afghanistan, were obliged to succumb to the Moguls, under Genghis Khan, in 1'221. In 1370 it came into the hands of Timur. Timur's descendants were subdued in loll by Shahy Beg, chief of the Uzbeks, a Turkish tribe, and liis successors still rule over Khiva. In 1717, Peter the Great attempted to conquer it, but his army was totally defeated; the attempt was re- newed in 183'J by the czar Nicliolas, with the same result ; the greater part of the Rus- sian army perished in the desert. From 1873 to 1870, however, it was continually invaded by the armies of Russia, who in the latter year occupied a portion of the princi- pality, which is now ruled by the Russian government under the name of the Trans- Caspian Territory. Khodadaud Sircar (Tiifl.). The govern- ment or ruler blessed or beloved of God ; it was a title assunied by Tippoo Sahib, the sovereign of the kingdom of Mysore, who fell in defense of his cajiital, Seringapatam, when it was stormed. May 4, 17'.t<.l, by the British forces under Lieut. -Gen. Harris. Khoi. A walled town of Persia, ]irovince of Azcrbijan, on a tributary of the Khar. In the plain of Khoi, Shah Ismael signally defeated the Turks under Selim I. in 1514. Khurd-Cabul. A village of Afghanistan, situated I'i miles southeast of Cabul. Here, in 1841, the British troops retreating from Cabul to Jehilabad became totally disorgan- ized, and were murdered without resistance by the Afghans ; and here, in 1842, Gen. Pol- lock encam|>ed after the decisive defeat of the Afghans at Terzecn. Khyber Pass. The most practicable of all the ojienings through the Khyber Moun- tains, is the only one by which cannon can be conveyed between the jilain of Peshawur, on the right bank of the upper Indus, and the plain of Jelalabad, in Northern Afghan- istan. It is 30 miles in length, being here and there merely a narrow ravine between almost perpendicular rocks of at least fiOO feet in lieight. It may be said to have been the key of the adjacent regions in either di- rection from the davs of Alexander the Great to the Afghan wars of 1839-42. Hero a British army, on its retreat from Cabul in January, 1842, was absolutely annihilated. Kibee. A flaw produced in the bore of a gun by a shot striking against it. Kick. To recoil ; — said of a musket, I)iece of ordnance, and the like. Kickapoos. A tribe of Indians who formerly lived on the AV'isconsin River, and were for a long time hostile to the white settlers, but after Wayne's victory over the tribes in Ohio in 1794 submitted, and con- cluded a treaty of peace in 1795. In 1811 and 1812, however, they again renewed hos- tilities, and attacked Port Harrison in the latter year. Being repulsed, they surprised and murdered 20 persons at the mouth of AVhite River. For this and similar atroci- ties they were punished by the burning of some of their villages. After a desultory warfare, treaties of peace were again con- cluded with them, and after the treaty of 1819 they sold their lands and moved beyond the Mississippi River. A few settled down to airriculture, and their descendants now exhibit considerable indications of civiliza- tion ; but the greater numlter roamed over the country committing depredations. Some of them are now settled on the Kansas agency, Kansas, and others on the Sac and Fox agency, in Indian Territory. See In- dians .\NI) THKIK ACJENCIKS. Kidnapper. Parties were formerly so called, who by improper means decoyed the unwary into the army. Kiel". Chief tmvn'of Holstein, a seaport, and a member of the Hanseatie Leagiio in 1300. By a treaty between (ireat Britain, Sweden, and Deimiark, signed here January 14, 1814, Norway was ceded to Sweden. An extraordinary assembly of the revolted provinces, Schloswig and Holstein, met hero September 9, 1850. By the convention of Gastein between Austria and Prussia, Au- gust 14. 18t)5, the former was to govern Holstein, but Kiel to be held by Prussia as a German federal port. This was annulled in 18tj(j by the issue of the war. Kiev, or Kief. The chief town of the KILCULLEX 2G2 KINGSTON government of that name, on the west bank of the Dnieper ; is one of the oldest of the Eussian towns, and was formerly the capital. In 864 it was taken from the Khazars by- two Norman chiefs, companions of Kuric, and conquered from them by Oleg, Kuric's successor, who made it his capitat. It was nearly destroyed by Batu, khan of Kiptchak. In the 14th century it was seized by Gedi- min, grand duke of Lithuania, and annexed to Poland in 1569, but in 1686 was restored to Eussia. Kilcullen. In Kildare, Ireland. Here a large body of the insurgent Irish defeated the British forces commanded by Gen. Dundas, May 23, 1798. The general in a subsequent engagement overthrew the rebels near Kilcullen bridge, when 300 were slain. Kildare. A county of Ireland, in the province of Leinster. The insurrection in Ireland which swelled into the rebellion, commenced in Kildare, May 23, 1798. On that night Lieut. Gifl'ord of Dublin, and a number of other gentlemen, were murdered by the insurgents. This rebellion was quelled in 1799. Kilkenny. Capital of a county of the same name in Ireland, on the Nore. After a siege the town surrendered to Cromwell, March 28, 1650, on honorable terms. Killa (Iiid.). A castle, fort, or fortress. Killadar. The governor, or commandant of a fort in India. Killala. A small seaport town of Ireland, in the county of Mayo. It was invaded by a French force landing from three frigates, under Gen. Humbert, August 22, 1798': The invaders were joined by the Irish insurgents, and the battles of Castlebar and Colooney fol- lowed ; and the French were defeated at Ballinamuck, September 8 of the same year. Killaloe. A town of Ireland, in the county Clare, 12 miles northeast of Limerick. This town was long the royal seat of the O'Briens; and at Kincora, about a mile to the north, are pointed out some remains of the residence. At Killaloe, in 1691, Gen. Sarsfield intercepted the artillery of William III. on its way to Limerick. Killese. The groove in a cross-bow. Killiecrankie. A famous pass through the Grampian Mountains, in Perthshire, Scot- land, 15 miles northwest of Dunkeld. At the northwest extremity of this pass a battle was fought in 1689, between the revolution- ary army under Gen. Mackay, and the roy- alists under J. C. Graham of Claverhouse, viscount Dundee, in which the former was defeated. Kilmainham Hospital. An asylum in Dublin, Ireland, for aged and disabled sol- diers. It was founded by Arthur, earl of Granard, marshal-general of the army in Ireland, 1675. The appointments to this place are in the gift of the commander-in- chief of the army, who selects them from the old half-pay officers. The expense of the in- stitution to the country is £8000 per annum. Kilmallock. A town of Ireland, in the county Limerick. It was invested by the Irish forces in 1598, but tlie siege was raised by the Duke of Ormond. There was much fighting done here in 1641 and 1642. Kil- mallock police barrack was attacked by 200 armed Fenians on March 5, 1867 ; the barrack was defended for three hours by 14 police constables, who finally drove oti" the Fenians, with loss, by a sally. Kilsyth. A village of Scotland, in Stir- lingshire, 13 miles southwest from Stirling. Montrose gainW a victory over the Cove- nanters, commanded by Gen. Baillie, near Kilsyth in 1687. Kinburn. A fort at the confluence of the rivers Bug and Dnieper, which was taken by the English and French, October 17, 185-1 Three floating French batteries, on the princi- ple of horizontal shell-firing, said to be the invention of the emperor, were very effective. On October 18, the Eussians blew up Ocza- koff", a fort opposite. Kindle. In a military sense, to kindle is to excite to arms ; to excite military ardor. Kineton. A town of England, in War- wickshire, 11 miles southeast from Warwick, in the vicinity of which the famous battle of Edgehill was fought between the royalist and Parliamentary armies in 1642. Kinghorn. A small burgh of Scotland, in the county of Fife, situated on the Frith of Forth. In early Scottish history it was a place of importance. Here Macbeth is said to have routed the Northmen. King-of-Arms, or King-at-Arms. The principal herald of England was at first designated king of the heralds, a title ex- changed for king-of-arms about the reign of Henrj' IV. There are four kings-of-arms in England, named respectively Garter, Clarencieux, Norroy, and Bath ; but the first three only are members of the College of Arms. Scotland has a heraldic officer called Lj'on king-of-arms, or Lord Lyon king-at- arms. Ireland has one king-of-arms, named Ulster. See Herald. King's Mountain. A range of mountains in North and South Carolina, about 16 miles from north to south, with several spurs spreading laterally. About a mile and a half south of the North Carolina line, in this range, on October 7, 1780, the British forces about 1100 strong, under Lieut. -Col. Ferguson, were surprised and attacked by the American militia under Cols. Cleave- land, Shelby, and Campbell, and, after an obstinate and bloody contest, their leader being among the slain, the British were made prisoners. Kingsland. A parish of England, in Herefordshire, 4 miles west from Leominster. The battle of Mortimer's Cross, which fixed Edward IV. on the throne, was fought here in 1461. Kingston. A city in Ulster Co., N. T., 90 miles north of New York City. It was burnt by a British force under Sir Henry Clinton, October 7, 1777; it was afterwards rebuilt and incorporated as a village in 1805. KINGSTON 263 KNIGHT Kingston. A village and township of Lu/.'iiKi Co., Pa. In this township the nmssacrL' of W'voininii; took place, on July 3, 177«. Sue Wyoming Vallky. Kingston-upon-Thames. A town in Surrt'V, Eiii^laiid, on the Thames, 10 miles southwest of London. The first armed foix-e of the Parliamentary army assembled in this town, and here the last attempt in favor of Charles I. was made. Kinsale. A town of Ireland, in the county of Cork. This place was taken by the Spaniards in lljOl, and in 1G08 King James II. landed here. Kioge. A seaport of Denmark, near Co- Iieiihii^^en, where the Danes in 1807 were signally defeated by the JJritish. Kiowas. A warlike and powerful tribe of Indians, who formerly roamed over Kan- sas, Colorado, and Northern Te.xas, robbing and murdering settlers. They are now lo- cated, to the nuniber of about 2000, with the Comanchcs, on a reservation in Indian Territory. In 1870, in violation of the terms of their treaty, they made a raid into Texas, where they killed several people. For this two of their principal chiefs, Satanta and Big Tree, were sentenced to be hung; but their sentence was commuted to imprison- ment for life, and they were subsequently pardoned. Of late years they have been peaceable. Kiptchak, or Kipchak. A term which, in the Middle Ages, designated that vast terri- tory stretching north of the Caspian Sea, from the Don to Turkestan, and occupied by the Kunnxns and Polovises. This tract formed one of the four empires into which the huge dominion of Genghis Khan was divided, and was the portion of his eldest son Jujy, under who.se son and successor, Batu Klian, it became the terror of Western Eu- rope, and held Russia in iron subjection from 1236 till 13(;2. IJatu also conquered Bulgaria, and invaded Hungary, Austria, and Eastern Germany, but made no perma- nent conquests in this direction. This ex- tensive empire was dismembered towards the end of the l.>th century, and gave rise to the khanates of Kazan, Astrakhan, and Crim- Tartary. The Mongols of Kiptchak were also known as the Golden Horde. Kirkee. A village of Hindostan, near Poona, in the Deccaii, memorable for a battle fought there in 1817 between the Anglo- Indian forces and the Mahrattas, who, al- though gri'atly su)ierior in number, were conijx'lled to retreat with severe loss. Kisselbaches. Soldiers are so called in India. Kissingen. A town of Bavaria, on the Saalc, 30 miles north-northeast of "Wiir/.- burg. It was taken by storm on July 10, 1866, after a severe engagement between the Bavarians and Pru.ssians, in which the latter were victorious. Kit. A small wooden pail or bucket, wherewith boats are bailed out. Kit. In military language, the equipment in necessaries, such as shirts, boots, brushes, etc., of a solaier, but not applicable to his uniform, arms, or accoutrements. Kitchen. The building or room used by soldiers for cooking |iurpi>se^«. Klagenfurth, or Clagenfurt. A town of I Aiistriii, the cii].ital of llie duchy of Carin- thia, on tlie (ihiii. In IM/J theFronch en- teretl this jilace, and distroyed the fortiticu- tions wiiich surrounded it. ' Klamaths, or Clamets. A tribe of North- ern California Indians, who lived in South- ern Oregon and Northern California, near Klamath Lake, and on Klamath and lioguo Kivers. They are generally peaceable, and nuniber about 700. They are now located on a reservation, and have an agency in Southern Oregon known by their name. Klicket. A small gate in a pali.sade for the pur|)ose of sallying forth. Kliketats, or Kliktats. A tribe of Indians who resided in Washington Territory, in the country between the Cascade Range and the Columbia River, north of the Dalles. They were reduced to complete subjection in l8oo, and are now located with kii\dred tribes to the number of about 4000, on the Yakima reservation, Washington Territory. Klinket. A term used in fortification, signifying a small postern or gate in a pali- sade. Knapsack. A bag of canvas or skin, con- taining a soldier's necessaries, and worn suspended by straps between his shoulders. Those used in the British army arc ordi- narily of black painted canvas, but a new sort of knapsack, called the valise equip- ment, has been issued to some regiments. Some other nations, as the Swiss, make theni of thick goat-skin, dressed with the hair on. Knight. From the Saxon cniht, a servant or attendant, was originally a man-at-arms bound to the performance of certain duties, among others to attend his sovereign or feu- dal superior on horseback in time of war. The institution of knighthood, as conferred by investiture, and with certain oaths and ceremonies, arose gradually throughout Europe as an adjunct of the feudal system. The character of the knight was at once military and religious ; the defense of the Holy Sepulchre and the protection of pil- grims being the objects to which, in early times of the institution, heespecially devoted himself The system of knight-service in- troduced into England by William the Con- queror empowered the king, or even a su- perior lord who was a subject, to compel every holder of a certain extent of land, called a knight's fee, to become a member of the knightly order; his investiture being accounted jjroof that he possessed the requi- site knightly arms, and was sutliciently trained in their use. After the long war be- tween France and England, it btHnnne the practice for the sovereign to receive money compensations from subjects who were un- willing to receive knighthood, a system out of which grew a series of grievances, leading KNIGHT 264 KNOUT eventually to the total abolition of knight- service in the reign of Charles II. Since the abolition of knight-service, knighthood has been conferred, without any regard to property, as a mark of the sovereign's es- teem, or a reward for services of any kind, civil or military. The ceremonies practiced in conferring knighthood have varied at dif- ferent periods. In general, some religious ceremonies were performed, the sword and spurs were bound on the candidate ; after which a blow was dealt him on the cheek or shoulder, as the last aflVont which he was to receive unrequited. He then took an oath to protect the distressed, maintain right against might, and never by word or deed to stain his character as a knight and a Chris- tian. A knight might be degraded for the infringement of any part of his oath, in ■which case his spurs were chopped off with a hatchet, his sword was broken, his es- cutcheon reversed, and some religious ob- servances were added, during which each piece of armor was taken off in succession, and cast from the recreant knight. For the different orders.of knighthood, see separate articles, under their appropriate headings, in this work. Knight, To. To dub or create a knight, "which in modern times is done by the sov- ereign, who gives the person kneeling a blow ■with a sword, and says, " Kise, Sir ." Knight Baronet, or Baronet. A dignity or degree of honor next below a baron and above a knight, having precedency of all orders of knights except those of the garter, and being the onlj"^ knighthood that is hered- itary. The order was founded by James I. in Kill, and is given by patent. The word, however, in the sense of lesser baron, was in use long before the time of James I. Knightage. The body of knights taken collectively. Knight-bachelor. One of the lowest or- der of knights, who were expected to remain unmarried until they had gained some re- nown by their achievements. Knight-banneret. A knight who carried a banner, who possessed liefs to a greater amount than the knight-bachelor, and who ■was obliged to serve in war with a greater number of attendants. He was created by the sovereign in person on the field of battle. Knight-errant. A wandering knight; a knight who traveled in search of adventures, for the purpose of exhibiting military skill, prowess, and generosity. Knight-errantry. The practice of wan- dering in quest of adventures ; the manners of wandering knights ; a quixotic or roman- tic adventure or scheme. Knight-erratic. Pertaining to knight- errantry. Knighthood. Originally a military dis- tinction, came, in the 16th century, to be oc- casionally conferred on civilians, as a reward for valuable services rendered to the crown or community. The first civil knight in England was Sir William Walworth, lord mayor of London, who won that distinction by slaying the rebel Wat Tyler in presence of the king. In recent times, it has been bestowed at least as often on scholars, law- yers, artists, or citizens, as on soldiers, and in many cases for no weightier service than carrying a congratulatory address to court. Knighthood. The character, dignity, or condition of a knight. Knightliness. Duties of a knight. Knightly. Pertaining to a knight; be- coming a knight; as, a knightly combat. Knights, Military. An institution of military knights at Windsor, England, for- merly called " Poor Knights," which owes its origin to Edward III., and is a provision for a limited number of old officers. These officers consist of a governor and 12 knights on the upper foundation, and 5 on the lower, together 18, and are composed of officers se- lected from every grade, from a colonel to a subaltern, chiefly veterans, or on half-pay. They are allowed three rooms each in Wind- sor iPalace, and 2 shillings per diem for their sustenance, besides other small allowances. Knights of St. George. See Garter, Order of tiik. Knights Templar. See Templar, Knights. Knight-service. A tenure of lands held by knights on condition of performing mili- tary service. It was abolished in the time of Charles II. of England. Knob of a Cascabel. See Cascabel. Knot. A twist or loop in a rope or cord, so made that the motion of one piece of the line over the other shall be stopped. The knot owes its power of passive resistance to the friction of the rope. The three elemen- tary knots, which every one should know, are the timber-hitch, the bow-line, and the clove-hitch. The virtues of the timber-hitch are, that, so long as the strain upon it is kept up, it will never give ; when the strain is taken off, it is cast loose immediately. The bow-line makes a knot difficult to un- do ; with it the ends of two strings are tied together, or a loop made at the end of a sin- gle piece of string. For slip nooses, use the bowline to make the draw-loop. The clove-hitch binds with excessive force, and by it, and it alone, can a weight be hung to a smooth pole, as to a tent-pole. A kind of double clove-hitch is generally used, but the simple one suffices, and is more easily recollected. There are other knots very useful in the artillery service and indispensable aboard ship, viz. : single knot, weaver^ s knot,figure- eiflht knot, artijicer's knot, mooring knots, hitches, capstan, or prolonge knot, square knot, loops, becker knot, and anchor knot. Knot, Shoulder-. See Shoulder-kxot. Knout. A scourge composed of many thongs of skin, plaited, and interwoven with wire, which was till lately the favorite in- strument of punishment in Kussia for all classes and degrees of criminals. The of- KOLIN 265 KRUPP fender was tied to two stakes, stripped, and received on the back the j^pecified number of lushes; 100 or 120 were equivalent to sen- tence of death, but in many cases the victim i died under the operation long before this number was completed. This punishment | is at present only intlicted upon ordinary criminals, such as incendiaries or assassins. It is no longer in use in the army, except when a soldier is dismissed for ill conduct, in which case 3 to 10 lashes are given, in order to disgrace the soldier, rather than punish him. Kolin. A town of Bohemia, on the left bank of the Elbe. Here the Austrians un- der Daun defeated the Prussians under Fred- erick the Great, June 18, 1757. Koloshes. The Russian name for the Indians of the coast of Alaska. Komom. Sec C'omokx. Koniagas, or Kadiaks. The names by which tlio various tribes of aborigines living along the coast of Alaska for over 1500 miles, are known. Konieh (anc. Iconitim). A town of Asi- atic Turkey, the capital of the province of Karamania, Asia Minor. Here the Turkish army was defeated by the pasha of Egypt, after a long, sanguinary fight, December 21, 1832. See"lcoNiu.M. KoniggrStz. A town and fortress of Bo- hemia, on the left bank of the Elbe. On July 2, 18fiiecc of ordnance. Its action was satisfactory in every respect, and so slight was the shock communicated to the gun that the gunner did not deem it neces- sary to dismount, but kept his seat astride of it during the firing. Krupp's Steel Works. On account of the wide-spread reputation which the steel pro- duced in the great works of Krupp at Essen, in Rhenish Prussia, has obtained, it is necessary that these works should receive a brief notice. They were founded by Fried- rich Krupp in 1810, and were continued by his sons after his death in 1820. For the last fifty years they have been increasing annually from onc-si.\th to one-third in size, until now they cover about 500 acres, and eive employment to about 20,000 persons, including those engaged in building, and in the mines and smelting-houses. For large metallurgical works Essen is favorably situated, being in the centre of a coal-bear- ing area, where coal of the best quality can be procured cheaply, and near rrjines of niunganiferous iron ore, which has been found e.xcellently adapted for the manufac- ture of steel ; but it is believed that the admirable organization of every part of his manufactory has conduced as much as any- thing to the great success of Krupp. The articles manufactured consist principally of rails, tires, crank-axles, shafts, mining pump-rods, gun-carriages and guns, the pro- portion of ordnance being about two-fifths of the whole. Guns have been made at Essen for the Prussians, Austrians, Bel- gians, Dutch, Italians, Turks, Japanese, and also for the English, although not directly ordered by the government. Since 1872 a field-gun invented by Krupp has been adopted by the Prussian government, and supplied to the whole army. The establish- ment possesses 28(5 steam-engines from 2 to 1000 horse-power, 1100 furnaces of various kinds, 71 steam-hammers, 2<)4 smith's forges, 276 coke-ovens, and lOoti planing, cutting, and boring nuichines. It burns over 1000 tonsofcottl daily, and has over 11,000 gas- i burners, consuming in twentv-four hours 400,000 cubic feet of gas. It has, besides, a complete telegraph system, 800 cars, 15 loco- motives, 33 miles of railway, over 3000 dwelling-houses, hospitals, chemical labora- tory, a photographic and lithographic estab- lishment, over 400 mines, 11 blast-furnaces and several smelting-houses which produce annually about 20,000 tons of pig-iron. These works have already produced over 18,000 heavy guns. Kshatriya. The second or military caste in the social system of the Brahmanical Hindus. Ku-Klux-Klan. A secret organization of ex-Confederate soldiers, who, for several years after the close of the civil war, by their murders and other crimes disturbed the tranquillity of the Southern States. Their victims were chiefly freedmen, and persons suspected of favoring the policy of the gov- ernment. Stringent measures were taken against them by Congress in 1871, and they soon after ceased their disturbances. Kul. The Turkish word for slave to the prince. The grand vizier, the bachas, the beiglerbeys, and all persons who receive pay or subsistence from situations dependent upon the crown, are so called. This title is in high estimation among the Turkish military, as it authorizes all who are invested with it to insult, strike, and otherwise ill use the com- mon people, without being responsible for the most flagrant breach of humanity. Kulm. A small village of Bohemia, 16 miles north-northwest of Leitmeritz, was the scene of two bloody conflicts between the French and allied Russian-Austrian ar- mies on August 2ii-30, 1813. The French, numbering 30,000 men, were commanded by Gen. Vandamme ; the Russians, during the first days conflict, were 17,000, and were commanded by Gen. Ostermann-Tolstoi. During the night, the latter were heavily reinforced, and on the second day Barclay de Tolly assumed the command with GO, 000 troops. The result was the complete wreck of the French army, which lost in these two days little short of 20,000 men, while the allies did not lose half of that number. Kunnersdorf. See Cunnkksdork. Kunobitza. In the Balkan, where John llunniuilcs, the Hungarian, defeated the Turks, December 24, 1443. Kupele. Straits so called in India, through which the Ganges disembogues itself into Hindostan. They are distant from Delhi about 30 leagues. It was at these strait.s that the East Indians made some show of resistance when the famous Tamerlane (Ti- mur) invaded India. The field of this vic- tory is the most distant point of that em- peror s conquest in India, and on the globe. Kurrol (Ind.). The advanced-guard of a main army. Kurtchi'. A militia is so called in Persia. It consists of one body of cavalry, which is composed of the first" nobility of the king- dom, and of the lineal descendants of the KURTCHI-BASCHI 268 LABORATOEY Turkish conquerors, who placed Ismael Sophi on the throne. They wear a red turban of twelve folds, which is made of particular stuff. This turban was originally given them by Ismael, in consideration of their attachment to the religion and family of Ali. In consequence of their wearing this turban, the Persians are always called by the Tusks kifllbaschi, or red-heads. The Kurtchi form a body of nearly 18,000 men. Kurtchi-baschi. The chief or command- ing officer of the Kurtchi. This was for- merly the most distinguished situation in the kingdom, and the authority annexed to it was equal to what the constable of France originally possessed. At present his power does not extend beyond the Kurtchis. Kush-bash (Ind.). Persons who enjoy lands rent free, upon condition of serving the government in a military capacity when called upon. Kustrin, or Custrin. A fortified town of Prussia, in the province of Brandenburg, at the union of the Wartha with the Oder, 48 miles east from Berlin. In 1758 it was bombarded by the liussians, and in 1806 taken by the French. It has a large powder- magazine. Kutchin. A family of Alaska Indians, which is divided into a number of petty tribes, who occupy the valley of the Yukon River. Kyanizing. A process for preserving timber from decay, — so named from the inventor Kyan. The process consists in saturating the wood with a solution of cor- rosive sublimate. Kythul. A town of India, and the cap- ital of a district of the same name. The district fell into the possession of the Brit- ish in 1843, from the failure of heirs to the last rajah. L. Labarum. A military standard of the Roman empire. It consis"ted of a long lance crossed at right angles near the top by a staff, from which hung a small flag or streamer of purple cloth inwrought with gold and precious stones, and bearing the effigy of the emperor. Constantine the Ureat, when he embraced Christianity, sub- stituted for that device a crown, a cross,' and the initial letters of the name of Christ, and made it the imperial standard. Labeates. A warlike people in Dalmatia, whose chief town was Scodra, and in whose territory was the Labeatis Palus (now Lake of Scutari), through which the river Bar- ban a (now Bogana) runs. Label, Lanibel, or File. In heraldry, is the mark of cadency which distinguishes the eldest son in his father's lifetime. It consists of a horizontal stripe or fillet, with three points depending from it. "When the mark of cadency itself is designated a file, its points are called labels. Labicum, Labici, Lavicum, Lavici (now Colonna). An ancient town in Latium, on one of the hills of the Alban Mountain, 15 miles southeast from Rome. It was an ally of the ^qui ; taken and colonized by the Romans, 418 B.C. Laboratory. A department which is in- trusted with the manufacture of combustible and other substances for military purposes, such as blank and ball cartridges for small- arms, cartridges for every description of ord- nance, rockets, and all stores of similar character. This department is likewise in- trusted with the conservation, packing, re- storing, and supply of all gunpowder to the several military and naval departments, and in the British service is under the manage- ment of officers of the royal artillery es- pecially appointed to that duty; in the U. S. service it is under the officers of the ordnance department. In the latter service officers of artillery, as well as non-commis- sioned officers and privates, are instructed at the artillery school, Fort Monroe, Va., in laboratory duties, and carefully taught the manipulation and manufacture of labo- ratory stores. At the West Point Military Academy, the cadets are thoroughly in- structed in the above duties, as are also the naval cadets at the Naval Academy, An- napolis, Md. In the British service officers of artillery, as well as non-commissioned officers and gunners, are instructed in lab- oratory duties. Officers and non-commis- sioned officers of artillery in Germany, France, and Austria are required to possess a knowledge of the manufacture and care of laboratory stores. Laboratory, Roj'al. An extensive mili- tary manufacturing department in Woolwich Arsenal, England. Although it has existed for many years, it was only in 1855 that the present very large establishment was organ- ized. Here are foundries for the casting of shot, shell, grape, etc.; apparatus for the manufacture of percussion-caps, which are formed — hundreds at a time — out of the copper sheet; presses where rifle-bullets are squeezed into shape; fuzes in all stages of manufacture ; and a thousand other instances of combined ingenuity and power. The LABORATORY 2C9 LABORATORY British government grants permission to in- spect the factory. There are also labora- tories — though on a comparatively small scale — at Portsmouth and Davenport, Eng- land. Laboratory Stores. The following are anions the laboratory stores used in service: The time-fuze, the percussion-fuze, and the concuss ion-fuze (which see). The wooden fuze consists of a conical plug of wood of the proper size for the fuze-hole of the shell with which it is to be fired. The axis of this plug is bored out cylindric- allv from the large, down to within a short distance of the small end, which is left solid. At the large end a cup is hollowed out, and the outside of the plug is divided into inches and parts, generally tenths, commencing at the bottom of the cup. The cylindrical space is filled with composition, pounded hard, and as regularly as possible, and the cup tilled with meal powder moistened with whisky or alcohol. The rate of burning is determined by experiment, and marked on a waterproof cap, which is tied over the cup. Knowing the time any shell is to occupy in its flight, the fuze is cut off with a saw at the proper division, and firmly set in the fuze-hole with a fuze-set and mallet. The disadvantage of this fuze is its irregularity, it being very difficult to pound the composi- tion so that equal lengths will burn equal times. The shell may either burst too soon, «nd a great part of its eti'ect lost, or it may burst after burying itself in the ground, or it may burst after passing the proper point. This irregularity of burning is common to all fuzes where the composition is driven in successive layers in a column which burns in the same direction. This fuze is used with mortar shells. The composition of mortar-fuzes is, nitre 2 parts, sulphur 1 part, and meal powder 3 parts ; the quantities of meal powder vary in fuzes for mortars of different calibers. Generally these fuzes are cut before being inserted in the shell ; but they are sometimes bored through at the proper positions instead of being sawed. They are also cut obliquely, when the fuze is 80 long as to render it likely that it will reach the bottom of the shell ; for by cutting it perpendicular to the axis, the whole base of the wood might be driven in contact with the bottom of the shell, and prevent the lighted composition from setting fire to the bursting charge. The paper time-fuze consists of a cylindri- cal column of burning composition packed in a paper case, gradually increasing in thickness from its lower to its upper or outer extremity ; to insure ignition, it is primed with rifle-powder at the larger end. It is inserted at the time of loading the piece into a brass or wooden plug previously driven into the fuze-hole of the shell. The composition has the same ingredients as gun- powder, the proportions being varied to suit the required rate of combustion ; pure meal powder gives the quickest composition; by adding certain proportions of sulphur and nitre, the composition burns more slowly. The rate of burning also depends upon the density of the composition and the purity and thorough mi.xture of the ingreaients. These fuzes vary in length, burning from 4 to 40 seconds ; they are graduated in seconds on the outside of the case, and can be cut to a length corresponding to any intermediate time of flight. Belgian, or Bormann-fuze. See Bormann- FUZE. The Wright-fuze, a modification of the Bormann-fuze, extends the time of burning to 12 or 14 seconds. United States sea-coast fuze. The paper case fits in a fuze-plug of bronze instead of wood. It fits the fuze-hole of the shell in the same way as the wooden plug, and is re- tained by the force of friction. A safety- cap and primer combined have been adopted to prevent ricochets, especially over water, from extinguishing the fuze. A recess in the top, filled with priming composition, is covered until the fuze is required for use, with a disk of lead or paper fitting accu- rately the opening. The fire is conveyed to the fuze composition through a crooked pas- sage which is tilled with priming, and pre- vents water from entering in sufficient quan- tity to extinguish the fuze. For security a small leaden plug is placed in the inner end of the fuze-plug, where it remains until it is driven out by the shock of the explosion. "When the shell is placed in the piece, nothing more is necessary than to remove the disk which covers the recess in the top. Paper- fuzes are inserted at the moment of loading the gun, and into wooden or brass fuze-plugs previously driven into the shell. Port-fire consists of a small paper case, filled with a highly inflammable but slow- burning composition, the flame of which is very intense and penetrating, and cannot be extinguished by water. It is principally used as an incendiary material in loading shells, and for communicating fire to the priming of guns when proving them. Port-fire composition consists of nitre, sul- phur, and meal powder, in different propor- tions. One kind is composed of nitre, G'> parts; sulphur, 22. -3 parts; and meal-pow- der, 12.5 parts. A port-fire case, 18 inches in length, filled with this composition, burns 10 minutes. Priming-tubes are small pipes having a cup on one end, and filled with a composi- tion for firing cannon. Tie tube in general use in the U. S. serviceis the //•ie^'on-/;ri»irr (which see). Shw-tnatch is a slow-burning match pre- pared from hemp or flax slightly twisted, soiiked in strong lye, or in water holding in solution sugar of lead. Cotton rope well twisted forms a good match without any preparation. Slow-match prepared from hemp or flax burns 4 to 5 inches to the hour ; it is used principally for the purpose of re- taining fire in the shape of a hard-pointed LABOKEK 270 LADDEKS coal, to be used in firing cannon, fireworks, etc. It was formerly used in field-batteries for lighting the port-fires with which the pieces wei-e discharged ; but both are now entirely superseded by the friction-primer. Qidck-jnatch is a match made of threads of cotton, or cotton-wick, steeped in gummed brandy or whisky, then soaked in a paste of meal powder and gummed spirits, and after- wards strewed over with meal powder ; one yard of it burns in the open air 13 seconds. The quick-match is used to fire mortars, and sometimes in proving pieces. It is exten- sively used in priming all kinds of fireworks, such as fire and light balls, carcasses, rock- ets, priming-tubes, etc., and in conveying fire very rapidly from one portion of a piece of firework to another. "When used for dis- charging cannon, the quick-match is set fire to by a slow-match, port-fire, or any other convenient material. "When used to prime carcasses, etc , it is set on fire by the flame from the piece. The Valenciennes composition is a com- pound of 50 parts of nitre, 28 of sulphur, 18 of antimony, and 6 of rosin ; it is used as an incendiary composition, in charging shells for the purpose of increasing their destruc- tive property, by setting fire to buildings, shipping, etc. For manufacture of ammu- nition for small-arms, see " U. S. Ordnance Memorandum," No. 21, 1878. Laborer {Fr.). In a military sense, ex- presses any direct and concentrated effort which is made to destroy a fortification. It likewise applies to the working of a bomb or shell, which excavates, plows up, and scatters the earth about wherever it bursts. Laborer un rampart, signifies to bring sev- eral pieces of ordnance discharged from two oblique directions to bear upon one centre. Shells are generally used on these occa- sions, and tiie chief design is to second the operations of the miner in some particular part from which the explosion is to take place. Labuan Pulo. An island of the Malay Archipelago, lying oft* the northwest coast of Borneo. The British took possession of this island in 1846, and it was formally ceded to the British crown by the sultan of Borneo in 1848. Lacandones. A tribe of Indians in Cen- tral America, who for more than three cen- turies maintained a hostile attitude to the Spaniards. They are nominally subject to Guatemala, but are in reality quite inde- pendent. Lacay, or Laquet {Fr.). An old French militia was formerly so called. The name is found among the public documents which were kept by the treasurers belonging to the dukes of Brittany in the 15th century. Lacerne {Fr.). The short woolen military cloak of the Romans. Lachete {Fr.). An opprobrious term which is frequently used among the French, and is applied in all instances of cowardice, want of spirit, or dishonorable conduct. La traJiison est une lachctc ; treason is infamous in its nature. Lachish. A city of Southern Palestine. It was taken after a two days' siege by Joshua, and, in later times, is repeatedly mentioned as a place strongly fortified. After a siege, conducted by Sennacherib in person, it was taken and plundered, with the customary massacre of its inhabitants. It was taken by Nebuchadnezzar at the downfall of the kingdom of Judaea, and was reoccupied by the Jews after the Keturn. Lacker. A composition made use of for preserving iron cannon, carriages, shot, etc. The following are the proportional parts of compositions made use of for preserving iron cannon: (1) Pulverized black lead, 12; red lead, 12 ; litharge, 5 ; lampblack, 5 ; lin- seed oil, 66. This composition is to be boiled gently about twenty minutes, during which time it must be constantly stirred. (2) Ground umber, 3.75; pulverized gum shellac, 3.75; ivory-black, 3.75; litharge, 3.75; linseed oil, 78 ; spirits of turpentine, 7.25. The oil must be first boiled half an hour ; the mixture is then boiled twenty-four hours, poured oft* from the sediment, and put in jugs, corked. (3) Coal-tar (of good quality), 2 gallons, and spirits of turpentine, 1 pint. In applying lacker, the surface of the iron must be first cleaned with a scraper and a wire brush, if necessary, and the lacker applied hot, in two thin coats, with a paint-brush. It is better to do it in summer. Old lacker should be removed with a scraper, or by scouring, and not by heating the guns or balls, by which the metal is injured. About 5 gallons of lacker are required for 100 field-guns and 1000 shot; about one quart for a sea-coast gun. Before the lacker is applied every particle of rust is removed from the gun, and the vent cleaned out. Lacs d'Amour. In heraldry, a cord of running knots used as an external decora- tion to surround the arms of widows and unmarried women ; the cordelier, which dif- fers but slightly from it, being used simi- larly with the shields of married women. Lacunette {Fr.). A term in fortification. A small fosse or ditch was formerly so called. The word cunette (which see) has since been adopted. Ladder Bridge. Used for crossing streams, etc. It is formed by running a cart or gun- limber into the stream and securing it there, with the shafts in a vertical position, by ropes from both sides of the river ; one end of a ladder from each bank resting upon it, and covering the steps or rungs with planks. Ladders, Scaling (Fr. eschelles de siege). Are used in scaling when a place is to be taken by surprise. They are made several ways ; sometimes of flat staves, so as to move about their pins and shut like a parallel ruler, for conveniently carrying them. The French make them of several pieces, so as to be joined together, and to be capable of any necessary length. Sometimes they are made LADLE 271 LAIDLEY'S of single ropes, knotted at proper distances, with iron hooks at each end, one to fasten them upon the wall above, and the other in the ground ; and sometimes they are made of two ropes, with staves between thom to keep the ropes at a proper distance, and to tread upon. When they are used in the action of scaling walls, they ought to be rather too long than too short, and to be fiven in charge only to the stoutest of the etachment. The soldiers should carry these ladders with the left artn passed through the second step, taking care to hold them up- right close to their sides, and very short below, to prevent any accident in leaping into the ditch. Ladle. See Implements. Lady of Mercy, Our. A Spanish order of knighthood, founded in 1218 by James I. of Aragon, in fulfillment of a vow made to the Virgin during his captivity in France. The object for which the order was instituted was the redemption of Christian captives from among the Moors, each knight at his in- auguration vowing that if necessary for their ransom he would remain himself a captive in their stead. "Within the lirst six years of the e.xistence of the order no fewer than 400 captives are said to have been ransomed by its means. On the expulsion of the Moors from Spain, the labors of the knights were transferred to Africa. The order was ex- tended to ladies in 1261. Their badge is a shield party per fess gules and or, in chief a cross pattee argent, in base four pellets gules for Aragon, the shield crowned with a ducal coronet. Lady of Montesa, Our. An order of knighthood, founded in 1317 by King James II. of Aragon, who, on the abroga- tion of the order of Templars, urged Pope Clement V. to allow him to emploj' all their estates within his territory in founding a new knightly order for the protection of the Christians against the Moors. His request was acceded to by the following pope, John XXII., who granted him for this purpose all the estates of the Templars and of the knights of St. John situated in Valencia. The order is now conferred merely as a mark of royal favor. The badge is a red cross edged with gold, the costume a long white woolen mantle, decorated with a cross on the left breast, and tied with very long white cords. Lagos. A city and seaport of Portugal, in the province of Algarve, about 23 miles east-northeast from the extremity of Cape St. Vincent. In the Bay of Liigos, Ad- miral IJoscawen obtained a signal victory over the French Toulon fleet, August 18, 1769. Lag:os. In the Bight of Benin, Africa; this place was assaulted and taken by the boats of a British squadron, under Commo- dore Bruce, December 2tJ-27, 1851. In 1862 the place wjis ceded to the i3ritish gov- ernment, and created a settlement. Lahore. Tho capital of the Punjab, in British India, standing on the Ravee, 270 miles northwest from Delhi. It was taken by Baber about 1520, and was long the cap- ital of the Mongol empire. It fell into the power of the Sikhs in 1798; was occupied by Sir Hugh Gough, February 22, 184C, who in March concluded a treaty of peace. Laibach, or Laybach. A town of Austria, capital of the duchy of Carniola, 44 miles northeast from Trieste. This place was taken in 1799 by Bernadotte, and in 1809 by Macdonald. It is well known from the congress which was held in it in 1821, the object of which was the extinction of con- stitutional government, as established in Naples after the insurrection in 1820. Laidley's Practice Musket. This gun is made out of an old smooth-bore musket, reamed out for a length of 11 inches, for the reception of a coil ribbon spring, on one end of which a closely-fitting piston is placed, having a stem of about 5 inches attached to its centre ; a hole is bored through the breech-screw and a cut made on its un- der side to receive a spring; a circular disk with a flaring hole through its centre is secured in the barrel just in front of the end of the breech-screw ; a short lever crosses the end of the barrel just in front of this disk, and is held in position by the spring already referred to; the hole in the cone is enlarged and receives a small sjiindle with a collar at its middle, which prevents it from coming out. About 12 inches froni the breech a horizontal cut is made through the top of the barrel, leaving an opening of 2 inches in length ; a cylindrical plug having a hole through its axis is inserted in the barrel at this place, and a handle screwed in. An inner barrel, having a bore of .22 inch and a length of 17 inches, its upper end counter-bored, is inserted in the barrel and secured by a screw ; the length of the block is such as to close the space between the chambered recess and the end of the inner barrel. A hole is bored through the side of the stock to communicate with the hole through the breech-screw. A dart is fired from this musket, which when fired into the target is extracted with a claw-tool. The men in firing stand at a distance of 15 paces from the target ; and two men use tho gun, firing alternately. This is a very use- ful musket to practice the soldier in rifle- firing. The soldier can also be practiced at long ranges with this gun in the following manner : Place a target at 500 or GOO yards distant, or as far oflT as convenient, so that it can be seen through the open window ; place a target (16 inches .«quare, with a bull's- eye of .75 inch) 15 paces from the firing- stand, at such a height that the distant tar- get may be seen 4 or 6 inches below tho middle of its lower edge; mark on the floor the position for the feet of the man when firing, raise the longer leaf of the sight, aim at the distant bull's-eye, and fire; the shots will strike the near target if correctly placed, and the accuracy of aim will be LAIKD 272 LANCE shown by the score thus made. The height of the target may have to be adjusted after the first few shots. Laird. A leader or captain. Laisches (i*^/-.). "Were thin metal plates which the ancient Gauls placed upon the buff-coats of infantry, between the buff and the lining. Lake Champlain. See Champlain, Lak?:. Lake Ontario. See Ontario, Lake. Lake Regillus. In Italy, where tradi- tion states the llomans defeated the Latin auxiliaries of the expelled Tarquins about 499 B.C. Lama. See Pack and Draught Ani- mals. Lambrequin. Leathern strap or flap hanging from a cuirass, often highly orna- mented. Also ribbon of different colors for fastening a helmet, twisted round its crest, the knot forming an ornament. Lamia (now Zeltun, or Zetuni). A town in Phthiotis, in Thessaly, situated on the small river Achelous. It has given its name to the war which was carried on by the confederate Greeks against Antipater, after the death of Alexander, 323 B.C. The confederates under the command of Leos- thenes, the Athenian, defeated Antipater, who took refuge in Lamia, where he was besieged for some months. Leosthenes was killed during the siege ; and the confederates were obliged to raise it in the following year (822), in consequence of the approach of Leomatus. The confederates under the command of Antiphilus defeated Leomatus, who was slain in the action. Soon after- wards Antipater was joined by Craterus ; and thus strengthened, he gained a decisive victory over the confederates at the battle of Cranon (322), which put an end to the La- mian war. Lamian War. See Lamia. Lampion de Parapet {Fr.). A lamp generally used on a parapet or elsewhere in a besieged place. It was a small iron vessel filled with pitch and tar, which was lighted by the troops as occasion required. Lancaster. The chief town of Lanca- shire, England, situated on the river Lune. It is supposed to have been the^lc? Alaunam of the Ivomans. It was granted by William I. or II. to Pioger de Poitou, who erected a castle upon its hill. It was taken by the Jacobites, November, 1715, and November, 1745. Lancaster Gun. See Ordnance, Con- struction OF. Lancaster Herald. One of the six heralds of England, ranking second in seniority. His oflBce is said to have been instituted by Edward III., when he created his son, John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster. Henry IV. raised Lancaster to the dignity of king-at- arms. Edward IV., after reducing him back to the status of a herald, abolished his oflice, which was revived by Henry VII. Lancaster Rifle. See Small-arms. Lancastrians. See Roses, Wars of the. Lance. A weapon of war, consisting of a long shaft or handle, and metal point, now usually adorned with a small flag, and gen- erally used by horsemen to transfix an enemy, but formerly used sometimes as a javelin. This offensive weapon was much used by the Erench in former times, partic- ularly by that class of military gentlemen called chevaliers, and by the gendarmes. Before the reign of Philip de Valois, the chevaliers and gendarmes fought on foot, armed with lances only, both in battles and at sieges. On these occasions they .shortened their lances, which were then said to be re- taillees, or cut again. Lance (Fr.). Means likewise an iron rod which is fixed across the earthen mold of a shell, and which keeps it suspended in the air when it is cast. As soon as the shell is formed, this rod must be broken, and care- fully taken out with instruments made for that purpose. Shells ought to be scrupu- lously examined with respect to this article, as they could not be charged were the lance or any part of it to remain within. This is also the name of an instrument which con- veys the charge of a piece of ordnance and forces it home to the bore. Lance. A soldier armed with a spear ; a lancer. Lance. To pierce with a lance, or any similar weapon ; to throw in the manner of a lance. See Lanch. Lance a Feu (Fr.). A squib. A species of artificial firework which is made in the shape of a fuze, and is used for various pur- poses. The composition of the la)ice a feu consists of 3 parts of the best refined salt- petre, 2 parts of flour of sulphur, and 2 of antimony ; the whole being pounded and mixed together. The chief use of the lance a feu is to throw occasional light across the platform, whilst artificial fireworks are pre- paring. They likewise serve to set fire to fuzes, as they can be taken hold of without danger. Lance a Feu Puant (Fr.). Stink-fire lances prepared in the same manner that stink-pots are, and particularly useful to miners. When a sapper or miner has so far penetrated towards the enemy as to hear the voices of persons in any places contiguous to his own excavation, he first of all bores a hole with his probe, then fires ofl' several pis- tols through the aperture, and lastly forces in a lance a feu puant, taking care to close up the hole on his side to prevent the smoke from returning towards himself. The ex- halation and stinking hot vapor which issue from the lance, and remain confined on the side of the enemy, infest the air so much, that it is impossible to approach the quarter for three or four daj'S. Sometimes, indeed, they have had so instantaneous an eft'ect, that in order to save their lives, miners, who would persevere, have been dragged out by the legs in an apparent state of suffocation. Lance de Feu (Fr.). A species of squib, LANCE 273 LANGUEDOC wliieh is used by the garrison of a besieged town aijainst a scaling party. Lance, Free. See Frek Lance. Lance Socket. A leather socket which 8U))i)<>rt.s llie butt of the lance when carried on liorseback ; called also lance bucket. Lance-Corporal. An assistant to a cor- poral ; ii [(riviitc performing the duties of a corporal; u lancc-pesade. See CoRroRAL, Lanci:-. Lance-gaye (Fr.). See Arch-gate. Lance-head. The head of a lance. Lance-knight. A common or foot-sol- JIit; a lan^quiMiet. See Lansquknet. Lance-pesade. See An'spe.s.sade. Lance-rest. A projection like a bracket, on tin- right side of a breastplate in armor, to aid in hearing a lance. Lancers. A description of cavalry sol- diers in ditl'erent armies of Europe, who are and pc of lancers are the Russian Cossacks, whose armed with lances. The type »crfection long lances enable them to combat with en- emies at a distance from which they them- .sclves take little harm. The lancers were brought into European notice by Napoleon, who greatly relied upon some Polish regi- ments. After the peace of 1815, the arm was adopted in the English service, but it is thought by many that Uie British lancer has a weapon too short to enable him to charge an infantry square with any chance of suc- cess. Lances Levees (Fr.). L'^plifted lances, indicating that the enemy was beaten, and that the chevaliers or gendarmes should close the day by giving a final blow to the dis- ordered ranks. Lanch. To throw, as a lance; to dart ; to let lly. To pierce with a lance, or as with a lance; to wound. Written also /aM?ic/i. Land Batteries. Batteries used on land, fts distingui.-hod from floating batteries, etc., employed in the defense of harbors. Landau. A strong town of Bavaria, in the Palatinate of the Rhine, situated on the Qucich, 18 miles from Carlsruhe. This place was held alternately by the French and Austrians from 1680 to 1815, when it was assigned to the Germanic Confederation, under the protection of Bavaria. Landen. See Neerwindex. Land-force. A military force, army, or body of troops serving on land, as dis- tinguished from a naval force. Landgrave. A German nobleman of a rank corresponding to an English earl. Landgravine. The wife of a landgrave. Landing. In fortification, is the portion of the floor of the gallery between the frames that bound the entrance to a return. The landing is in all cases horizontal. Landing of Troops. See Disembarka- tion. Landshut. A town of Prussian Silesia. In Juno. ITOO, the Austrians gained a de- cisive victory over the Prussians in this place. Landsturm. A local militia of Prussia, formed of men above forty years of age, which never leaves its own district, and is only called out in case of actual invasion. Landwehr. The militia of a country. Austria has a landwehr — bei den Oestrei- chern ; and Prussia — hei den Prcussen. The former are a sort (>f a reserve to each regi- ment of the line; they are under the same colonel, and are drilled once a year with the line regiment. The Prussian' landwehr is more completely national. Every Prussian subject commences military service in the standing army, a force composed of the youth of the nation from twenty to twenty-tive years old. After two or three years of ser- vice, the soldier proceeds to his home, but is liable to be called upon to join his regiment. During this period he is called a reservist. At the expiration of five years from the date of enlistment, the men are transferred into the first class or levy of the landwehr, re- maining in it until their thirty-second year. In time of war they are liable to be called upon to serve with the regiment of the line of a corresponding number, — in fact, they form the reserve of that regiment whence re- inforcements aredrawn. From their thirty- second to their thirty-ninth year the men belong to the second levy, and are only called out occasionally in time of peace, but in war they garrison fortresses. Lane. The term applied to a body of soldiers in two ranks standing face to face, forming, in fact, a street, passage, or lane. The French call this formation /laie, or hedge. It is used when troops form a guard of honor for persons of rank to pass through. Langensalza. A town of Prussian Sax- ony, on the Salza, 20 miles northwest of Erfurt. The French and Saxons were hero defeated by the Prussians in 1750; in 1761 the Prussians and English defeated the Ger- man imperial army; in 1813 the Prussians were defeated by the Bavarians ; and in 1866, a bloody contest took place between the Prussians and Hanoverians, resulting in the capture of the Hanoverian army as pris- oners of war. Langrel, or Langrage. A villainous kind of shot, consisting t>f various fragments of iron bound together, so as to fit the bore of the cannon from which it is to be discharged. It is seldom used but by privateers. Languedoc (anc. yarboucn.tis Prima). An old province of the south of France, bounded cast by the river Rhone, and south by the Mediterranean. As a Roman prov- ince it enjoyed the freedom of Italy. It formed part of Gallia Narboncnsis, but, in the Middle Ages, was known as Sr}>ti- mania, from the seven cathedral churches which it contained. From the hands of the Romans it passed into the possession of the Goths ; and being wrested from them, it was occupied by the Saracens till 725, when they were expelled by Charles Martel. It after- wards came under the sway of Philin the Bold, and became a part of the French King- dom in 1.301. LANGUET 274 LASHES Languet. A small slip of metal on the liilt of a sword, which overhangs the scab- bard ; the ear of a sword. Lansdown. In Somersetshire, England. The Parliamentary army under Sir William Waller was defeated here July 5, 1G43. Lansquenet. A German foot-soldier ; originally one of the serfs who followed the camp in the service of the common soldiers ; afterward one of the independent troops who hired themselves to those willing to pay highest for their services. Lanterne (Fr.). Sometimes called c.uUler, or ladle, serves to convey gunpowder into a piece of ordnance. It is made of copper, and resembles a round spoon or ladle, which is fixed to a long pole. Lanuvium (now Civita Lavinia). An old and important city of Latium, on the Ap- pian Way, 20 miles south of Kome. Tradi- tion describes it as a colony from Alba ; but it first rose to importance in the 5th century B.C., when it took part against Rome as one of the thirty cities of the Latin League. Its name again appears in the long wars be- tween Rome and the ^qui and Volsci, sid- ing with the former; it changed sides in 383 B.C., but was leniently treated by its old ally at the end of the war. In the great Latin war, 340 B.C., it again took part against Rome, and in the general settlement at the close of hostilities, it obtained the Roman civitas. Lanyards. See Implements. Laodicea ad Mare (now Ladikiyeh). A city on the coast of Syria, about 50 miles south from Antioch ; was built by Seleucus I. on the site of an earlier city, called Ra- mitha. It was severely punished by Cassius for its adherence to Dolabella, and again suffered in the Parthian invasion of Syria. It was taken and destroyed by the Arabs in 1188. Laon. A town of France, in the depart- ment of the Aisne, 75 miles northeast from Paris. It was besieged by the barbarians in 407; taken and sacked by Gelimer in G82 ; unsuccessfully besieged by the Normans in 882 ; taken by Eudes, count of Paris, in 892, by Charles the Simple in 895, and by Robert of France, who held it till 923. It was taken by the Duke of Burgundy in 1411 ; by the royal troops in 1414 ; surrendered in 1419 by Philip the Good to the English, who were dispossessed in 1429. It was unsuc- cessfully besieged by the Calvinists in 1567, and was taken by Henry IV. in 1594. On March 10, 1814, an indecisive battle was fought here between the French troops un- der Napoleon, and the Prussians under Bliicher. Lapelle, or Lapel. The facings of uni- form coats were formerly so termed. Until the introduction of epaulettes in 1812, the white lapelle was synonymous with a lieu- tenant's commission in the British service. Lapithae. A wild race, inhabiting, in ancient times, the mountains of Thessaly. They derived their name from a mythical ancestor, Lapithes, a son of Apollo, and the brother of Centauros, the equally mythical ancestor of the Centaurs. A bloody war is said to have been waged between the kindred races in prehistoric times, which ended in the defeat of the Centaurs, but the Lapitha3 were in their turn defeated by Hercules. Laplander. An inhabitant of Lapland, a country of Northern Europe. Lapse. To fall in, or belong to. This expression was formerly used in the British army to signify the reversion of any mili- tary property. Thus, upon the sale or pur- chase of one commission at the regulated difference, another (where there are two) is said to lapse to government. Commissions lapse, or fall into the patronage of govern- ment, when vacancies happen by death, by officers being superseded, or where officers apply to sell who have only purchased a part of their commissions, and have not served long enough to be entitled to sell the whole; in which case they are only permitted to sell what they actually purchased, and the re- mainder is in the gift of the government. Lap-weld. A weld in which the welding edges are made thin, lapped one over the other and welded. Laranda (now Lare7ida, or Caraman). A considerable town in the south of Lycaonia. It was taken by storm by Perdiccas, but af- terwards restored. It was used by the Isau- rian robbers as one of their strongholds. Largs. A seaport of Scotland, in Ayr- shire, 23 miles southwest from Glasgow. Here, in 1263, Alexander III. of Scotland gained a victory over Haco, king of Norway. Lariat. The lasso, a long cord or thong of leather with a noose, used in catching wild horses and other animals. The term is now applied to a rope 1^ inches in circum- ference and 30 feet long, made of Italian hemp, which is used in the U. S. cavalry service to picket horses while grazing. La Roda. A town of Spain, in the prov- ince of Murcia, 22 miles northwest from Albacete. This place is famous for the de- fense it made against the Carlists in 1840. La Rothiere"(France), Battle of. Took place between the French, commanded by Napoleon, and the Prussian and Russian armies, which were defeated with great loss after a desperate engagement, February 1, 1814. This was one of Napoleon's last vic- tories. Lascar. In the East Indies, signifies properly a camp-follower, but is generally applied to native sailors on board of British ships. The Lascars make good seamen, but being of an excessively irritable and re- vengeful nature, are generally kept in the minority in a ship's crew. Lash. To tie or bind with a rope or cord ; to secure or fasten by a string. Lashes. Formerly a general court-mar- tial could sentence a soldier to receive a cer- tain number of lashes. This mode of pun- ishment is prohibited in the U. S. service. See Appendix, Articles of War, 98. LASHING-RINGS 275 LAWS Lashing-rings. Are fixed on the sides of Hitillery traveling-carrisiges, to hish the tarpaulin, as also to tie the sponge, rammer, and ladle. Lasso. A rope or cord with a running noose, used by men on horseback in Spani^-h America, Texas, and Southern California for catching cattle, wild horses, grizzly bears, etc. It is said that the lasso was used by the ancient Sarmatians and Parthians. Cer- tain Patagonians use a lasso with a stone tied to the end, — instead of a noose. Laswarree. A town of Hindostan, in Delhi, whirh was the scene of the defeat of the Mahrattas by Lord Lake, November, 1803. Latham House. In Lancashire, England ; it was heroically defended for three months against the Parliamentarians, by Charlotte, countess of Derby. She was relieved by Prince Rupert, May, 1044. The house was, however, surrendered December 4, 1G45, and dismantled. Lathe. In the manufacture of ordnance, lathes are machines for turning cannon, gun- barrels, etc. Latrines. Conveniences for soldiers in camps and barracks. !Much attention has of late been devoted to their construction ; a large percentage of the army sickness hav- ing been traced to their defective and impure condition. Lauenberg. A duchy of Northern Ger- many, but fiirmcrly united with the crown of Denmark ; was conquered from the AVends by Henry the Lion of Saxony about 1152; ceded to Hanover, 1G80, and seized along with Hanover by the French in 1803. It was afterwards, with some change of boun- dary, made over to Prussia, and by Prussia transferred to Denmark in 1815, with reser- vation of rights. In 1870 it was re-annexed to Prussia. Laufach. In Bavaria, Southwestern Ger- many ; it was taken by the Prussians, under "Wrangel, July, 180(), after a sharp action, in which the Hessians were defeated. Launch. To throw as a spear or dart ; to send forth. AVritten also lunch. Laundresses. Camp- women, usually the wives of soldiers, employed to wash soldiers' clothing. Laurel. An evergreen shrub, selected for the brows of heroes and conquerors, and em- blematic of their unfading reputation. Lauterburg. A town of France, in the department of the Lower llhine, 33 miles northeast from Strasburg. In 1793 the French forced the famous lines of Lauter- burg, and took this place. Laval. A town of France, in the depart- ment of the Mayenne, situated on the Ma- yenne, 42 miles east from Kennes. This place suffered greatly in the Vcndean war, towards the close of the last centurv. La Vendee (West France). The French royalists of La Vendee took arms in March, 1793, and were successful in a number of hard-fought battles with the republicans, be- tween July 12, 1793, and January 1, 1794, when they experienced a severe reverse. Their leader Henri, comte de Larochejaque- lein, was killed March 4, 1794. A short peace was made at La Jaunay, February 17, 1795. The war was terminated by Gen. Hoche in 1 790. A treaty of peace was signed at Lu<,'on, January 17, 1800. Lavure (Fr.). The grains, dust, or de- tached pieces of metal wliiuh fall in casting cannon. Law, Martial. See Martial Law. Law, Military. A branch of the general municipal law, consisting of rules ordained for the government of the military forces of a state or government, and those voluntarily serving with them, equally in peace and war, and administered by tribunals of special and limited jurisdiction. See Appexdi.v, Akticlks of War. Law of Arms. Certain acknowledged rules, regulations, and precepts, which re- late to war ; and are observed by all civil- ized nations. The laws of arms also show how to proclaim war, to attack the enemy, and to ]iunish offenders in the camp, etc. Law of Nations. Such general rules as regard the embassies, reception and enter- tainment of strangers, intercourse of mer- chants, exchange of prisoners, suspension of arms, etc. Laws, Execution of. On all occasions when the troops are employed in restoring or maintaining public order among their fellow- citizens, the use of arms, and particularly fire-arms, is obviously attended with loss of life or limb to private individuals ; and for these consequences, a military man may be called to stand at the bar of a criminal court. A private soldier also may occasionally be detached on special duty, with the necessity of exercising discretion as to the use of his arms ; and in such cases he is responsible, like an officer, for the right use or exercise of such discretion. Some years ago, the public journals of London recorded the meritorious behavior of a private sentry, upon the occasion of a riotous mob assembled at the entrance of Downing-Street with the intention of attack- ing the government offices in that quarter of the town. This man standing alone pre- sented his musket, and threatened to firo upon the crowd, if the slightest attempt were made to approach the particular office for the defense of which he was placed on duty, and succeeded by the terror thus cre- ated, though at a great risk of consequences to himself, in keeping the rioters at bay until a larger force arrived to a>sist him. The soldier's conduct was publicly much a|>- proved. It was also clearly legal according to Macadam's case {a soldier tried before the courts of Scotland in 1735) ; and if after the announcement of his intentions the mob had pressed forward to execute their purpose, he would have been held justified at law in firing at the rioters upon his own responsi- bilitv. The Duke of Wellington, as Con- LAWS 276 LECH stable of the Tower, testified his marked approbation of this man's conduct, by pro- moting him at once to a wardership at that fortress. The right of officers or soldiers to inter- fere in quelling a felonious riot, whether with or without superior military orders, or the direction of a civil magistrate, is quite clear, and beyond the possibility of mistake. This subject, however, was formerly little understood ; and military men failed in their public duty through excess of caution. But notwithstanding the existence of a clear right and duty on the part of military men voluntarily to aid in the suppression of a riot, it would be the height of imprudence to intrude with military force, except upon the requisition of the proper authority, un- less in those cases where the civil power is obviously overcome, or on the point of being overcome, by the rioters. When the civil officer may not deem it safe to wait for the orders of government, he should address his requisition for troops, not to any subordinate military officer, but to the highest authority, to whom he should communicate his object in making it, and all the information he may possess regarding the strength and designs of those by whom the public peace is menaced or disturbed. His duty is confined to these points. He has no authority in directing 7nilitary operations. The officer commanding the troops has alone authority to determine the number and na- ture of those to be employed; the time and manner of making the attack, and every other operation for the reduction of the enemy. Under no circumstances can U. S. troops be called into service at the " polls." In the United States, regular troops can be ordered only to serve against rioters, or other lawless bands of citizens, under the orders of the President to co-operate with the civil authorities. It should ever be the aim of military men to attain the desired end by the exercise of passive interposition. Laws of War. The recognized rules for the conduct of civilized warfare. These rules relate to the treatment of prisoners, non-combatants, spies, traitors, etc. ; the dis- position of private property, the rights of capture, occupation and conquest, the estab- lishment of blockades, the rights and obliga- tions of neutrals, etc. Lay. To quit; to surrender the use of; as, lay down one's arms. To lay for, is to attempt something by ambuscade. Lay. To point or aim ; as, to lay a gun. See Pointing. Lay About, To. To strike, or throw the arms on all sides ; to act with vigor. Layette {Fr.). Three-sided tray or box without a cover, used to carry powder from one mortar to another in powder-mills. Lazarus. A military order instituted at Jerusalem by the Christians of the West, ■when they wei-e masters of the Holy Land. They received pilgrims under their care, and guarded them on the roads from the insults of the Mohammedans. This order was in- stituted in the year 1119, and was confirmed by a bull of Pope Alexander IV. in 1255, who gave it the rule of St. Augustine. Lazzaro, St. In Northern Italy, where the king of Sardinia and the Imperialists de- feated the French and Spaniards after a long and severe conflict, June 4, 1746. Lead. To conduct as a chief or com- mander ; as, let the troops follow where their general leads. Lead Balls. Are now generally made by compression, by means of machinery, either at arsenals or at private establishments. Lead Out. A command in the mounted service to cause the horses to be taken from the stable or picket line preparatory to mounting or harnessing. Leader. A chief, a commander ; a cap- tain. Also the directing musician of a band. Leadership. The state or condition of a leader. Leading. The clogging of the grooves of a rifle with lead from the bullet, — one of the principal obstacles against continuous accu- rate shooting. It is obviated by covering the bullet with a paper patch or by using a lubricant in the canellures. See Bullets. Leading Column. The first column that advances from the right, left, or centre of any army or battalion. Leading File. The first two men of a battalion or company that marches from right, left, or centre, by files. See File- leader. Leading Guide. The foremost guide of a column. Leading Question. In the proceedings of military tribunals, is a question to a wit- ness which suggests the desired answer. Such questions are objectionable except under cer- tain conditions. Leaf Sight. A form of elevating rear sights, consisting of several hinged leaves of different heights. See Sight. League. A measure of length or distance, equal, in England and the United States, to three geographical miles. League. See Holy League. League, Achaean. See Ach.ean League. League, First Suabian. See Suabia. League, Great Suabian. See Suabia. League, Holy. See Holy League. League of Marbach. See Suabia. Leaguer. A camp, generally of an in- vesting army. Leaguer.' One who unites in a league; a confederate. Leaguerer. One who belongs to or is eqgaged in a league ; a leaguer. Leave of Absence. See Absence, Leave or. Lech. A river in Southern Germany, near which the cruel Gen. Tilly was defeated by the Swedes, under Gustavus Adolphus, April 18, 1632. Tilly died of his wounds soon , after. LEEK 277 LEIPSIC Leek. The Welsh emblem, in conse- quence of a command from Dewi, or David, | afterwards archbishop of St. David's, in 519. | On the day that King Arthur won a great 1 victory over the Saxons, Dewi is said to | have t>rdered the soldiers to place a leek in j their caps. | Leesburg. See Ball's Bluff. Legatus. Among the Komans, an am- i bassador, or lifuteiumt-gencral. Legati were j of three kinds: (1) Those sent by foreign ' nations on an embassy to Kome. (2) Those ; sent from Kome on an embassy to foreign countries or the provinces. (3) Those who served under Roman generals during war, or under the pro-consuls and praetors in the provinces. The hitter kind was generally a person of high military skill, and was ap- pointed by the consul, prsetor, or dictator, under wbom he was ititcnded to serve. His nomination, however, was not legal until sanctioned by the senate. His duty was to aid his superior officer, by advising him in all great emergencies, by acting as his sub- stitute, both in civil and military affairs, and by assuming his insignia as well as authority during his absence. In the last case, he was called tepatus pro prcctore. The number of legati under one superior differed in propor- tion to the importance of the war or the ex- tent of the province. Leghorn (It. Livarno). A large maritime town in Central Italy, in the province of Leghorn. It was entered by the French | army Julv 27, 1790; evacuated by the French in" 1799, and retaken in 1800. It was unsuccessfully attacked by the British and Italian forces in December, 1813. The Austrians took the city from the insurgents May 12 and 13, 1849, and quelled a slight insurrection, July, 1857. Legion (Lat. Irfio). A corps of soldiers in the Roman armies, first formed by Romulus, about 750 n.c, when it consisted of 3000 foot and 300 horse. When Hannibal was in Italy, 216 B.C., the legion consisted of 6200 Soldiers ; and under .Marius, in 88 B.C., it was 6200 foot besides 700 horse. There were 10, and sometimes as many as 18 legions kept at Rome. Augustus had a standing army of 45 legions," together with 25,000 horse and 37,0(10 light-armed troops, about 5 B.C. ; and the peace establishment of Adrian was 30 of these formidable brigades. A legion was divided into 10 cohorts, and every cohort into 6 centuries, with a vexil- lum, or standard, guarded by 10 men. The peace of Britain was protected by 3 legions. The French army was divided into legions subsequent to the reign of Francis I. See Thundkrino Lkcjions. Legion of Honor, Order of the. An order of merit institutid under the French republic in May, 1802, by the first consul, Napoleon Bonaparte. The order originally comprised three classes, — grand officers, com- manders, and legionaries. The class of grand oflBcers was, on the coronation of Napoleon I., divided into Knights of the Grand Eagle | and grand officers. On the restoration of the Bourbons the Legion was remodeled so as to consist of four classes, — viz., grand officers, grand crosses, commanders, and knights, but the order lost much of its origi- nal character. The order confers its distinc- tion for civil and military valor, but espe- cially for the hitter. The college of the Legion is in nossession of considerable means, which have been augmented by the addition of property belonging to Lo'uis Philippe. Out of this fund pensions are paid to certain members of the order who have been wounded or who have undergone the ampu- tation of a limb in service. These pensions have sometimes amounted to as large a sum as 6,000,000 of francs annually. Legionary. Relating to or consisting of a legise of self-defense, or to answer the intention of its governing powers. Level. In mining, is a horizontal passage or gallery. Level," Gunner's. Sec Gunnkr's Level. Level, Horizontal. Free from obstructions or declivities. Level, James's. An instrument to find the highes^t points of the breech and muzzle of a cannon, when the carriage-wheels stand on uneven ground. Plumb-level, one in which the horizontal arm is j)laced in true position by means of a plummet or plumb- line, to whii'h it is at right angles. Spirit- level, one in which the adjustment to the horizon depends on the position of a bubble, or small vacant space, in the upper side of a glass tube, which is slightl}' curved and nearly filled with alcohol or ether. Sur- veyor's level, or leveling itistru>neni, a tele- scope with a spirit-level attached, and with suitable screws, etc., for accurate adjustment, the whole mounted on a tripod for use in K-vcling. Levellers. A fanatical party in Germany, headed by Muncer and Storck in the IGth century, who taught that all distinctions of rank were usurpations on the rights of man- kind. At the head of 40,000 men Muncer commanded the sovereign princes of Germany and the magistrates of cities to resign their authority; and on his march his followers ravaged the country. The landgrave of Hesse at last defeated him ; 7000 of the enthusiasts fell in battle, and the rest fled; their leader was taken and beheaded at Mul- hausen in 1525. The English "Levellers," Sowerful in Parliameiit in 1047, were put own by Cromwell in 1(349, and their leader, Lilburn, imprisoned. Lever-jack. See Implemknts. Level. A blast of a trumpet, — probably that by which soldiers are called in the morning. This term is obsolete. L,cvy (Ft. levee). Is the compulsory rais- ing of a body of troops from any specified class in the community for purposes of gen- eral defense or ottense. AVhen a country is in danger of instant invasion, a levee en tnaaae is sometimes made, — i.e., every man capable of bearing arms is required to con- triouto in person towards the common de- fense, (^n loss urgent occasions, the levy may be restricted to a class, as to men be- tween eighteen and forty years of age. At other times, a levy of 'so many thousand men of a certain age is decreed, and the dis- trict* concerned draw them by lot from among their eligible male population. In armies sustained by volunteering, the levy, which is a remnant of barbarous times, is unnecessary ; but the system was frequently resorted to in France before the enactment of the conscription laws. In 1802-04 there were great levies in the United States of America; and in any country where great danger is apparent, and volunteers are not sufficiently numerous, recourse must at all times be had to a levy of the people. This term is also ayifilied to the assessment of taxes, tolls, or contributions. Levy. To raise or collect troops or funds by a levy. The word has also other mean- ings ; as, to levy war, to make war, to be- gin hostilities ; to levy a siege, to desist from, to raise the siege. In this latter sense it is nearly obsolete. Lewes. A town of England, in Sussex, on the Ouse, 7 miles northeast from Brighton. Near this town, in 1204, Henry III. was de- feated by Simon de Montfort, and impris- oned in the castle. Lewis. A device for lifting stones, con- sisting of two wedge-shaped pieces of iron, which are inserted butt foremost into a dovetail mortise in the stone, and keyed by inserting a piece between them. All three are then shackled to the lifting-chain by a bolt passing through them. Lexington. A township of Middlesex Co., Mass., 11 miles northwest from Boston. The fii-st battle in the war between Great Britain and her revolted colonies in North America was fought here on April 19, 1775, and ended disastrously for the British. Lexington. A village of Lafayette town- ship, Mo., on the right bank of the Missouri Kiver. In September, 1801, a body of Fed- eral troops under Col. Jlulligan were hero captured by the Confederate general Price. The town was retaken by the Federals in October following. In October, 1804, an indecisive engagement took place here be- tween the armies of Gens. Price and Blunt. Leydan (anc. Lugdumwi Batuvurum). An important city of the Netherlands, in the province of South Holland, on the Old Bhine, C miles from its outlet in the North Sea. It was once a strong fortress, and the siege which it sustained from the Spaniards in 1573-74 made it famous. For seven weeks there was no bread within its walls, but the burghers still resisted, though the hunger became almost unbearable. At last the Prince of Orange came to their rescue. Tl.e dykes were opened, and the waters, which drowned a great number of the besiegers, carried a fleet of 200 boats loaded with pro- visions to the city. As a reward for the valor the city evinced during this siege, the Prince of Orange founded a university here. Liburnia. In ancient times was a portion of Northern Illyricum, in the neighborhood of the Sinus Flanaticus, now the present Croa- tia and Dalmatia. It was inhabited by the Pelasgic race, who were daring seamen and noted pirates. Their privateers, with large lateen-sails, were for centuries the terror of the seas, and during the second Macedonian war the Romans adopted them. LIBYANS 280 LIGHT-AEMED Libyans, The name formerly given to the inhabitants of the northern portion of Africa, with the exception of the delta of the Nile. They fell under the sway of the Ro- mans, and subsequently relapsed into bar- barism. Licorne. See Howitzer. Lictor. A Roman officer who bore an axe and fasces as insignia of his office. His duty was to attend the chief magistrates when they appeared in public, to clear the way and enforce respect for them. In addi- tion, he performed constabulary duties. Lid, or Roof. See Ordnanck. Lide (Fr-)- A warlike machine which was formerly used to throw large stones against a fortified place, or upon an enemy. Lie. To be situated ; to occupy a fixed place ; as, the troops lie encamped at Wash- ington. To lie in ambush, to be posted in such a manner as to be able to surprise your enemy, should he presume to advance with- out having previously cleared the woods, hedges, etc. To lie in wait, to take a posi- tion unobserved by the enemy, and to re- main under arms, in the expectation of sud- denly falling upon his flanks or rear. To lie under cover, to be under the protection of a battery, or to be sheltered by a wood, etc. To lie under arms, to remain in a state ready for action. Liebenau. A town of Bohemia. Here was fought the first action of the Seven Weeks' "War, June 26, 18G6, when the Austrians were compelled to retreat by the Prussians under Gen. von Home. Liegnitz. A town of Prussian Silesia, at the conflux of the Katzbach, the Schwarz- wasser, and the Neisse, 35 miles northwest from Breslau. The Austrian army was totally defeated before Liegnitz in 1760 by the Prussians under the command of Fred- erick the Great. Lieutenancy. The office or commission of a lieutenant. Lieutenant. From the French, lieu ten- ant, " holding the place," in a general sense is an officer performing the duties of his superior. The rank was abolished by Charles IX. in the French army, and re-established by Henry IV. In companjr organizations the lieutenant comes next after the captain, and supplies his place during temporary ab- sence. There are two grades of lieutenants, first and second. A lieutenant in the navy is an officer ranking with a captain in the army, holding rank above a master and below a lieutenant-commander. Lieutenant de la Colonelle {Fr.). The second officer, or what was formerly styled the captain-lieutenant of the colonel's com- pany of everj^ infantry regiment in France. Lieutenant du Roi {Fr.). During the monarchy of France there was a deputy governor in every fortified place, or strong town, who commanded in the absence of the governor, and was a check upon his conduct when present. This person was called lieu- tenant du roi. Lieutenants des Gardes Fran- coises et Suisses ; lieutenants belonging to the French and Swiss guards. During the existence of the monarchy in France they bore the rank of lieutenant-colonel, and took precedence of all captains. Lieutenants Provinciaux d^ Ar tiller ie were certain offi- cers belonging to the old French service, and immediately attached to the artillery, who bore the title or name of the particular province in which they were stationed. Several of these lieutenants, who had mili- tary employment under the board of ord- nance, received the rank of lieutenant-gen- eral in the army from the king, and could rise to the most exalted stations in common with other officers. Lieutenant-Colonel. His rank corre- sponds with that of commanders in the navy. See Colonel, Lieutenant-. Lieutenant-General. His rank is equiva- lent to that of a vice-admiral. See Gen- eral, Lieutenant-. Life-guard. A guard of the life or per- son ; a guard that attends the person of a prince, or other high officer or dignitary ; a body-guard. See Guards. Light Battery. A mounted battery of field-guns. Light Bobs. In the British service, a familiar term used for the light infantry. Light Horse. All mounted soldiers that are lightly armed and accoutred for active and desultory service, may be considered under this term. Thus light dragoons, hus- sars, mounted riflemen, etc., are strictly speaking light horse. Light Infantry. A body of armed men selected and trained for rapid evolutions; often employed to cover and assist other troops. See Infantry, Light. Light Infantry Company. In the British service, a company of active, strong men, carefully selected from the rest of the regi- ment. It always occupies its place on the left of the battalion until called for. When the call sounds, the light company orders arms and unfixes bayonets without word of command, and remains in readiness to move. Light Marching Order. A soldier pa- raded with arms, ammunition, canteen, and haversack, is said to be in light marching order. Light Troops. By this term is generally meant all troops which are lightly accoutred for detached service. Light, Velocity of. It has been proven by astronomers that light travels through space with the prodigious, though finite, velocity of 192,500, or nearly 200^000 miles in a second of time, and consequently would pass round the earth in the eighth part of a second. It is also proved, by the phenom- ena of aberration, that the light of the sun, planets, and all the fixed stars, travels with the same velocity. Light-armed. Not heavily armed, or armed with light weapons ; as, light troops; a troop of light horse. See Infantry, Light-armed. LIGHT-BALL 281 LINE Light-ball. See Pyrotechny. Light-barrel. 8ee Pyrotkchny. Ligny. A village in Belgium, in the jiruvinie of Natnur, about 10 miles north- cast of Charleroi, famous on account of the battle fought here by the French under Napoleon, and the Prussians under Blucher, •hiiio 10, 1815, in which the latter was de- feat cd. Liguria. In ancient geography, a region of Northern Italy, the land of the Ligu- rians It is first mentioned by the early Greek authors as extending as far westward as the mouths of the lilione, while accord- ing to Polybius, its eastern boundary was I'isie, and its northern the country of the Arretincs. The Ligurians, so often praised by ancient authors for tlieir hardihood and bravery, are generally understood to be those on the south side of the Apennines exclusively. In the time of Strabo these eked out the scanty produce of tlieir st1 it was taken by Ireton, the son-in- law of Cromwell ; in Itl'JO it was unsuccess- fully besieged by King William III. in Eerson ; in IfitU it surrendered to Gen. Gin- el, afterwards carl of Alhione. Before the Conquest it was the seat of the kings of Thomond. Limitary. A guard or superintendent, t laced at the confines or boundaries of any in;;dom or state. Limitation of Time of Prosecution, See AlM-KN|)|\. AkTK I.KS OF WaK, 103. Limites Romani. The name of a con- tinuous series of fortifications, consisting of castles, walls, earthen ramparts, and the like, which the Romans erected along the Rhine I'J and the Danube, to protect their possessions from tlie attacks of the Germans. Limits. In a military sense, is that which bounds or confines ; as, the limits of a senti- nel's post ; tlie limits of a garrison. An ofllicer in arrest may have his limits extended. Limoges. A town of France, in the de- partment of the Upper Vienne, on the Vienne. It was besieged and taken by the English in 1370. Limonite. An iron ore (which see). Lincelles. In Northern France, where the allied English and Dutch armies defeated the French, August 18, 1793 Linch-pin. A pin through the end of an axle-arm of an artillery carriage to keep the wheel on. A hook attached to the head of the pin and embracing the axle-arm j)re- vents the pin from being jolted out. Linch-pin Washer. A ring against which the liiicli pin rubs. Lincoln (anc. Lindum Colonia). A city of England, the capital of Lincolnshire, on the Witham. It was at the period of the Conquest rich and populous. It was taken several times by Saxons and Danes. With- out Newport-gate, upon Lincoln plain, was fought the battle between the partisans of the empress Maud, commanded by the Earl of Gloucester, and the army of Stephen, in which the king was defeated and taken pris- oner, February 2, 1141. Lincoln was the scene of important operations during the civil wars in the reign of King John ; and here the party of the Dauphin was completely overthrown by the Earl of Pembroke during the minority of Henry III. During the great civil war the royalists obtained pos- session of the city, but it was stormed by the Parliamentary army under the Earl of Man- chester, May 5, 1044. Linden-tree. The wood used in artificial firewt)rks, etc. Lindisfarne. See Holy Island. Line. Various opinions have been given as to what portion of the military establish- ment should constitute the line of the army, and in the absence of legislation, which should settle the question, it will continue to be a subject of controversy, and some dif- ficulty has arisen from the vague and un- certain meaning of the words " line of the army," which neither in the English service nor in the United States have a wcll-defim^ meaning. The opinion that the words are intended to distinguish the regular army from the militia, or discriminate between officers by brevet and those by ordinary commissions, as understood by some, would seem to be erroneous. Though the words " line of the army'" may sometimes be used in a dirterent sense, the (qiinion prevails that in the 122d Article of War they are used to designate those officers of the army who do not belong to the stafl^, in contradistinction to those who do. It is now generally con- ceded that the law contemplates that the fighting portion of the army; as cavalry, artillery, infantry, and engineers, or that LINE 282 LINES part of the service organized or subdivided into units for command, as well as the com- manders thereof, constitutes the "line of the army." The four arms of the service above mentioned form the principal part of a mobilized army, and as they are always formed into a line of battle to resist the attack of an enemy, or to make an attack, they are generally known as the " line of the armj^," or " troops of the line," to distinguish them from other bodies of men who form parts of an army. Line. In the British service, the regular infantry of an army, as distinguished from militia, volunteer corps, artiUery, cavalry, etc. Line. In tactics, a body of men in either one or two ranks ; generally a body of troops drawn up with an extended front. To line, is to place troops in line (see Align) ; thus, to Ihie hedges or walls, is to place troops behind them. To form the line, in land tactics, is to arrange the troops in order of battle, or battle array. To break the line, to change the direction from that of a straight line, in order to obtain a cross-iire, and for other purposes. To line a street or road, is to draw up any number of men on each side of the street or road, and to face them in- wards. This is frequently practiced on days of ceremony, when some distinguished person is received with military honors on his way through places where troops are stationed. This is the usage also in funerals, when the corps under arms form a line facing inwards. Line, In fencing, an imaginary line op- posite to the fencer, wherein the shoulders, right arm, and the sword should always be found, and wherein are also to be placed the two feet at the distance of 18 inches apart. In which sense a man is said to be in his line, or to go out of his line, etc. Line. A cord or rope ; as, a picket line, side lines (which see). Line, Horizontal. A line parallel to the plane of the horizon ; as, any line in the level surfiice of a plane. Line, Inclined. Is a line which is oblique to the plane of the horizon. Line, Magistral. See Magistral Line. Line, Oblique. A straight line which is neither parallel nor perpendicular to another line ; also a line of troops posted or march- ing obliquely. Line of Battle. The position of troops drawn up in their usual order without any determined manoeuvre. Line of Counter-approach. A .sort of trench which the besieged make, and push forward from the glacis, for the purpose of counteracting the enemy's works. Line of Defense. See Defense, Line of. Line of Demarcation. A line which is drawn by consent, to ascertain the limits of lands or territories belonging to diflerent powers. Line of Direction. In gunnery, was a line formerly marked upon guns, by a short point upon the muzzle, and a cavity on the base-ring, to direct the eye in pointing the gun. Line of Duty. An otBcer or soldier dis- abled while performing properly authorized duty is said to be injured in line of duty, and as such is entitled to the allowances fixed by law. Line of Fire. In gunnery, the axis of the gun produced. Line of Fire. In fortification, this term admits of two distinct acceptations: first, when it is found necessary to give an idea of the manner in which a rampart or an in- trenchment covers any space of ground by the discharge of ordnance or musketry, lines must be drawn to express the distances trav- ersed by the shot, etc. These lines are called lines of fire, being representations of the ac- tual ranges ; second, all that extent of a rampart or intrenchment from which the projectiles of ordnance or musketry are dis- charged, is understood to be the line of fire. Line of Least Resistance. The .shortest distance from the centre of the charge of a mine to the open air. Line of March. Arrangement for march- ing. Course or direction taken by an army. Line of Metal. Or natural line of sight, is a line drawn from the highest point of the base-ring or base-line to the highest point of the swell of the muzzle, or to the top of the sight, if there be one. The line of sight nearest to the axis of the piece is the natui-al line of sight, the others are artificial lines of sight. See Artificial Line of Sight. Line of Sight. See Line of Metal and Pointing. Line of the Bastion, Capital. Is a line which bisects the salient angle of a bastion. See Capital. Line, Retiring. A line of troops in or- derly retreat.* Line, Tangent. A straight line, which meets a curve at one point and touches with- out cutting it. Line, Vertical. A line which is perpen- dicular to the horizon. Of this description are all lines that express height or depth. Lineal, or Linear. Pertaining to length; pertaining to the line of an army. Lineal Rank. Is the rank of a line-oflScer in his arm of the service. Linear Promotion. Is promotion of line- officers according to seniority in the arm of service, as opposed to promotion in the regiment. Line-firings. This term is used when troops fire by line. Lines. A series of field-works, either con- tinuous or at intervals. The former are con- nected by means of curtains or straight walls. . The rule in constructing the other is, that the works shall be within cannon- or musket- shot range of each other, according to their . armament. i Lines, Close and Open. Formerly when troops were drawn up in order of battle with intervals between the battalions and squad- rons, the lines were said to be close and open. LINES 283 LINES Lines, Continued. A continued lirtf^of field-works constructed for the defense of ii position. Lines Cremaillere. Are composed of al- ternate sliort and long faces ut right angles to each ollnT. Lines, Full or Close. Are lines of men drawn up without leaving intervals between them. Lines, Inside. Are a kind of ditches to- wards ihi.' place, to prevent sallies, etc. Lines of Bastion. As the name indicates, are fornu-d of ii succession of bastion-shaped parai)i'ts, each consisting of two faces and two flaiilcs, connected by a curtain. Lines of Circumvallation. The defensive works by which a besieging army covers its rear and Hanks against a relieving force. Lines of Communication. Are trenches that unite one work to another, so that men may pass between them without being ex- posed to the enemy's fire; hence, the whole intrenchmcnt round any place is sometimes called a line of communication, because it leads to all the works. Lines of Communication. This term is applied lo all the practicable routes and roads connecting the ditlerent parts of an army occupying the theatre of war. There- fore, as the army moves from its base, the lines of operations become lines of communi- cation, and since these "lines of operations" nre generally the longest and most important lines of communication, it is to them that the ."iinple term "communications" generally refers. All the routes used by the trains employed in provisioning an army, form a ■ part of the communications. The most im- portant, safest, and most convenient of these routes, all other things being equal, will be the central one, or the one leading from the centre of the army back to its base. This particular route is sometimes designated as the " line of supplies. "—/Vo/. J. b7 Wheeler. Lines of Contravallation. See Coxtra- VAI,I..\T1(>X. Lines of Operations. The roads or routes by which an army moves from its base towards its objective-point have been desig- nated by the term "lines of operations." Lines of operations are classified from their number into sin;;lc, dnuhle, or multiple lines ; from their positions with respect to the lines of operations of the enemy into interior or rrterior lines; and from their position with respect to each other into convergent or rfi- vergent lines. Other classifications are some- times used descriptive of the nature or other quality of the line. Sinfflr Line of Operations. — An army moving in a given direction with all its parts united, or with those parts so situated that thev can be readily joined when required, is •aid to use a "single line of operations." Sometimes tliis line is called a .liwple line. A single line of operations docs not mean a tingle i-oar Knights of St. Louis. The name of a military order in France, insti- tuted by Louis XlV. in 1»J93. Their collars were of a flame color, and pivssed from left to right. The king was always grand master. Louisburg. A famous fortress built by the French soon after the peace of Utrecht (1713) upon the eastern coast of Cape Breton Island. Since the existence of so strong a LOUISIANA 290 LUCKNOW place threatened the colonial and English tisheries, it was determined in 1745 by the Legislature of Massachusetts Bay (France and Great Britain being then at war) to strike a blow at the town. Accordingly, a force of colonists consisting of 3250 Massa- chusetts militia, aided by 516 men from Con- necticut and 304 from New Hampshire, set sail in 100 vessels, and landed near the town, April 30, 1745. An active but irregular siege (though the men were without tents and the proper means of conducting such operations) was terminated June 17, 1745, by the capitulation of the French under Duchambon. But the peace of Aix-la- Chapelle (1748) gave back all Cape Breton to France. The town was invested in 1758 by Gen. Amherst with 14,000 British troops, 20 line ships, 18 frigates and other vessels. After a tremendous bombardment, which quite destroyed the town, and breached the walls badlv, the garrison and French fleet surrendered July 26, 1758. The English overthrew the fortifications at an expense of $50,000. The first cost was one hundred times that sum. Louisiana. One of the Southern or Gulf States of the United States, lying between Arkansas and Mississippi on the north and east, the Gulf of Mexico on the south, and Texas on the west. The country was vis- ited by La Salle, and the mouth of the Mississippi discovered in 1691, and though Iberville attempted to found a colony in 1699, his efforts were not successful. The country was transferred to Spain by France in 1762; restored to France in 1800; and purchased by the United States in 1803. That part of the Territory now known as the State of that name was admitted into the Union in 1812, and was within three years afterwards the scene of the great battle of New Orleans, fought January 8, 1815, between the British troops under Gen. Pak- enham, and the Americans under Gen. Jack- son, in which the former were defeated with great loss. The State seceded, and was the theatre of many important events during the civil war (1861-65). Loup des Anciens (Fr.). "Was an iron instrument, made in the shape of a tenaille, by means of which they grappled the bat- tering-rams, and broke them in the middle. Louviers. A town of France, in the de- partment of the Eure, sitjiated on the Eure. It was sacked both by Edward III. and Henry V. of England. Lover's VJar. In French history, a name given to a civil war in the year 1580, during the reign of Henry IV. It was so called because it arose from the jealousies and rival- ries of the leaders, who were invited to meet at the palace of the queen-mother. Loyalist. A person who adheres to his sovereign, or to the constituted authority ; especially one who maintains his allegiance to his prince or government, and defends his cause in times of revolt. Lozenge. In heraldrj', a charge generally enumerated among the sub-ordinaries, in the shape of a rhombus placed with the acute angles at top and bottom. The hori- zontal diameter must be at least equal to the sides, otherwise it is not a lozenge, but a fusil. The term lozengy is applied to a field divided by diagonal lines crossing one an- other at regular intervals, so as to form a diamond pattern, the compartments being of alternate tinctures. Lubeck. One of the three cities of the German empire, situated on the river Trave, about 14 miles from the Baltic. Lubeck has existed since the 11th century, and received important privileges from the German em- perors in the 12th century, which were con- firmed by the Danes, into whose power it fell in 1201. It was declared a free city of the empire in 1226, and thereafter main- tained its independence against the Danes, and joined the other towns in the great Han- seatic League (which see). With the de- cline of the Hanseatic League, it lost its his- toric importance, but continued to flourish as an independent city, till it was taken and plundered by the French, November 6, 1806. In 1810 it was incorporated with the French empire, and in 1813 the Russians compelled the French to deliver it to its rightful own- ers ; but the "French again occupied it, until it was liberated by Sweden. In 1871 it was annexed to the German empire. Lubny, or Lubnu. A town of European Russia, government of Poltava, or Pultowa, on the Sulla. Charles XII. of Sweden be- sieged this place for a considerable time, but he did not succeed in taking it. Lubricant. A greasy substance or mix- ture of substances placed on the surface or in the cannelures of bullets to lessen friction in the bore. Bayberry tallow, beeswax, Japan wax, stearine, graphite, soapstone, etc., are some of the substances used. Lucanians. A warlike people of South- ern Italy ; defeated Alexander of Epirus at Pandosia, 332 B.C. ; were subdued by the Romans, 227 ; revolted after the battle of Cannae, 216 ; were reduced by Scipio, 201 ; again revolted, 90 ; admitted as Roman citi- zens in 88. Luceria (now Lucera). Sometimes called Nuceria, a town in Apulia, on the borders of Samnium. In the war between Rome and Samnium, it was taken by the Samnites, 321 B.C., and next by the Romans, 319 ; but having revolted to the Samnites in 314, all the inhabitants were massacred by the Ro- mans, and their place supplied by Roman colonists. Lucknow (Hind. Lahsmanavate). A city of British India, capital of Oude, situated on the right bank of the Goomty, 610 miles from Calcutta. In 1857, during the Indian mutiny, this place was besieged by the rebels, i but was bravely defended by the troops' under Sir Henry Lawrence, and afterwards' by Gens. Outram and Havelock. The long- suffering troops and English residents were, finally relieved by Sir Colin Campbell, who LUCON 291 LUXEMBURG then effected one of the most masterly re- treats on record in the annuls of Indian war- fare. The British regained possession of it in 18r,8. Lucon. A town of France, in the dcpart- niciit of Vcndi-e, situated on the edge of a Miar>liy plain. The Ki-publicans siistaiiied a defeat under the walls of Lucon in 1703, and the insurgent Vendeans besieged the place some months afterwards, but without success. Ludlow. A municipal and Parliamentary borough of England, in the county of Salop, at the confluence of the Corve and Temc. The castle, now a magnificent ruin, was at one time one of the most important strong- holds against the Welsh. Lugo. A town of Italy, in the province of Kavcnna. It was sacked and nearly de- stroyed by the French in 179G. Lugs. The cars of a bombshell, to which the hooks arc ajiplicd in lifting it. Luncarty. A village of Scotland, 4 miles nortii from Perth, where the Danes were defeated in '.100 by Kenneth III. Lundy's Lane, Battle of. Called also the battle of Niagara, and of Hridgewater, was fought on the Canadian frontier within sight and hearing of the Falls, July 25, 1814. In this contest the American troops, numbering about 4oOO, commanded by Gen. Brown, succeeded, after a display of desperate valor and perseverance, in repulsing about mid- night a body of 7000 British, and capturing one of their generals, liiall, and 7 pieces of cannon. The losses on both sides were nearly equal (about 8')0 killed, wounded, and missing). During the night the Americans fell back to Chi|)|iewa, being unable to con- vey their trophies with them for want of means of trans})ortation, and in the morning when they advanced to Bridgewater Mills they found the enemy again occupying the battle-ground, in pos.se.ssion of their captured cannon, and having been reinforced too strong to be again dislodged. The Ameri- cans thus lost all the substantial fruits of the victory. Lunge (a corruption of allonge). A pass or thrust with a sword; a shove with a boarding-pike. Lunette. A field-work consisting of two faces forming a salient angle, or one pro- jecting towards the enemy, and two Hanks parallel, or nearly so, to the capital or im- aginary line bisecting the salient angle. In shape it is like the gable end of a house. It IS intended for the defense of avenues, farm-hou.ses, bridges, and the curtains of field-works. Lunette. An iron ring at the end of the trail of a field-piece, which is placed over the pintle-hook of the limber in limbering up the gun. The term is also applied to the bole through an iron plate on the under side of the stock of a siege-piece, into which the pintle of the limber passes when the piece is limbered. Lunettons. A smaller sort of lunettes. Luntville. A well-built town of France, in the department of the Meurthe. The palace was for many years the residence of Stanislas, king of I'oland. The first treaty of Austria and the French republic was signed in this town in 1801. Lunge. In fencing and bayonet exercise, an extended thrust. Lunt. The match-cord used for firing cannon. Lusitania. A district of ancient Ilis- pania, c(msidered in its original meaning a.s the country of the Lusitani. It now com- prises Portugal south of the river Douro, and a large number of provinces in .Spain. The Lusitanians, especially those that in- habited the mountains, were much addicted to plunder, were the bravest of all the Iberians, and oflered most resistance to the Komans. Lustration (Lat. lustratio). Sacrifices or ceremonies by which the ancients purified their cities, fields, armies, or people, defiled by -any crime or impurity. There were sev- eral \vays of performing' lustration, viz., by fire, by sulphur, by water, and by air. The Roman people underwent a lustration in the Campus Martins, after the census, which was taken every five years (lustnmi), had been completed. In the armies, some chosen soldiers, crowned with laurel, led the vic- tims — a cow, a sheep, and a bull — thrico round the army ranged in battle-array in the field of Mars, to vvhich deity the victims were subsequently sacrificed, after many im- precations had been invoked upon the ene- mies of the Romans. The Gothic kings aboli.shed these ceremonies when they be- came masters of Rome. Lutter. A town of Germany, 23 miles southwest from Brunswick, in the Hartz district. Christian IV., king of Denmark, was defeated near this town by Tilly in 1626. Lutzen. A small town of Prussia, prov- ince of Sa.vony, famous for two great battles foue;ht in its vicinity. The first took placo on November 16, 1632, between the Swedi.«h army under Gustavus Adolphus and the Imperialists under AVallenstcin ; Gustavus Adolphus was killed, but the victory was sained bv the Swedes. The second great , Wittle was fought on May 2, 1813, some- I what farther to the .south, at the village of j Groszgorschen. It was the first great con- flict o( the united Russian and Prus.-ian I armies with the army of Napoleon in that decisive campaign. The allies gained at first great successes ; but the French were left in possession of the field at the close of the dav. Luxemburg. The capital of the grand duchv of Luxemburg, situated on the Else, or Alzette. The Spaniards, Austrians, French, and Dutch, who successively held |x>ssession of the town, so increased and strengthened its fortifications that in the beginning of the l!)th century it was considered to be, with the exception of GibralUir, the strongest LYCANIENS 292 MACCABEES fortress in Europe. In 18G7 it was declared neutral ground. Lycaniens {Fy.), Hungarian light in- fantry are so called. Lydda. An ancient town of Palestine, which stood in the fertile plain of Sharon, ahout 9 miles from Joppa. It was rebuilt by Hadrian, and its name changed to Dioso- polis^ " the city of Zeus." It was destroyed by a Mongol tribe in 1271. The modern village of Ludd occupies its site. Lyers, Out-. See Out-lyers. Lying. To be actually stationed or quar- tered in a given place. In-lying and out- lying pickets. See Picket. Lying Out of Quarters. See Appendix, Articles of War, 31. Lyman Gun. See Multi-charge Guns. Lyon, or Lord Lyon King-at-Arms. The chief heraldic officer for Scotland, whose title is derived from the lion rampant in the royal escutcheon. The Scottish king-at- arms has, unlike his brother-kings of Eng- land, from an early period exercised juris- diction independently of the constable and marshal, holding office directly from the sovereign by commission under the Great Seal. In early times he was occasionally designated the Lord Lyon ; but the now prevalent custom of so calling him seems to have arisen from the circumstance that, since 179G, the office has been held by a peer. According to Nesbet, the Lyon has precedence of all knights and gentlemen not being officers of state, or senators of the College of Justice. Since the Union, he has ranked next to Garter; Clarencieux and Norroy follow ; then Ulster ; but it has sometimes been maintained that within Ire- land, Ulster has place next after Lyon. The Lyon is king-at-arms to ,the order of the Thistle. Lyons, or Lyon (anc. Lugdtmuin). A city of Prance, capital of the department of the Khone, situated at the confluence of the Rhone and Saone. A Roman colony is said to have been established here in 43 b.c. The city was destroyed by fire in the time of Seneca, but was shortly after restored by Nero to its former splendor. It was plun- dered and again burnt by the soldiers of Septimius Severus, after the defeat of Albi- nus near it in 197 a.d. In 1793, the city having refused to submit to the Convention, sustained a memorable siege from August 8 to October 9, on which date it was taken, and sutfered severely at the hands of the republicans. M. McAllister, Fort. A formidable case- mated earthwork, with bombproofs, mount- ing 9 guns, on Genesis Point, about 6 miles above the mouth of Great Ogeechee River, Georgia, which was erected by the Confed- erates during the civil war. On January 27, 18G3, it was attacked by the ironclad " Montauk," under the command of Capt. John L. Worden, three gunboats, and a mortar-schooner ; but after a bombardment of many hours' duration, they failed to re- duce it. Another attack was made with like results on February 1, the " Montauk" again participating in it. A third attack was made on March 8, and after a bombard- ment of eight hours by a fleet of ironclad monitors and mortar-schooners, under the command of Capt. Drayton, they again failed to reduce it. After the naval attacks the fort received additions in armament and garrison, and in 1864 comprised three half- bastions and two curtains, mounted 21 guns, several of which were 8-inch and 10-inch pieces, and was garrisoned by 250 men. On December 13, 18G4, it was taken by assault by a division of Gen. Sherman's army under Gen. Hazen, and its entire garrison and stores captured. Communication by water being thus opened, the capture of Savannah followed on December 21. Macadamized. A term applied to roads covered with broken stone,— from McAdam, a Scotch engineer, who first introduced this method of road-making. Macana. The war-club of the South American Indians. Macassar, or Mankasser. The chief set- tlement of the Dutch in the island of Celebes, and is defended by Fort Rotterdam. In 1810 it surrendered to "the British, but was restored to tlie Dutch in 1814. Maccabees. A family of patriotic Jews, who commenced their career during the per- secutions of Antiochus Epiphanes, 167 B.C., when Mattathias, a priest, i-esisted the tyr- anny of the governor. His son, Judas Mac- caba3us, defeated the Syrians in three battles, 166 and 165 B.C., but fell in an ambush, 161 B.C. His brother Jonathan made a league with the Romans and Lacedaemonians, and after an able administration was treacher- : ously killed at Ptolemais by Tryphon, 143 i B.C. His brother and successor, Simon, was ; also murdered. The history of the Macca- bees is contained in five books bearing that MACE 293 MACHINES Mace. A strong, short, wooden staff, with a spiked metal ball for a head. It was a fix- vorite weapon with knijijhts, with the cavalry iintnediately succcedinf; them, and at all times with fighting priests, whom a canon of the church forbade to wield the sword. No armor could resist the force of a well-deliv- ered blow from the mace. The mace is Tiow borne before magistrates as an ensign of nulhnrity. Macedonia. Anciently the name of a country lying north of Thcssaly, which was originally of small extent. The history of 3Iacedonia is involved in much obscurity till about 400 n.c, when the Persians sub- dued it, so that the Macedonian king, Alex- ander I., was compelled to take part with Xerxes in his invasion of Greece. It again regained its independence upon the retreat of the Persians after the battle of Platiea in 479 B.C. After a period of civil wars Philip II. ascended the throne in 3;j9 u.c, and his sun Alexander III., surnamed Alexander the Great, brought half the then known world under his empire; but after his death the Macedonian empire was broken up, and, at the end of a period of twenty-two years of incessant wars, formed into four principal kingdoms under his greatest generals. Ma- cedonia itself fell to the lot of Antipater, after whose death ensued another period of civil wars and contests for the throne. The Macedonians were defeated by the Romans in the great battle of Cynocephalaj, 197 B.C., and their country became subject to the Ko- man power. After the time of Constantino the country was ravaged by Slavic tribes, and bv the 7th century the old semi-Greek Macedonians were extinct, and in the latter ages of the Byzantine empire their place was supplied by colonies from Asia, many of them of Turkish descent. Macedonian Pike, or Sarissa. A spear or lance of great length used in warfare by the (irceks. Macerata. A town of Central Italy, in a province (formerly a delegation) of the same name, situated on an eminence between the rivers Potenza and Chienti, 21 miles southwest of Ancona. The place was taken by assault and sacked by the French, in 1799. Machete (Sp.). A large, heavy knife re- sembling a broadsword, often 2 or 3 feet in length, used by the inhabitants of Spanish America as a hatchet, to cut their way through thickets, and for various other pur- poses. Machicolation. The act of hurling mis- siles or pouring various burning or melted substances upon assailants through machi- colations. Machicolations. The apertures between the corbels or brackets supporting a pro- jecting parapet; the term is applied also to the parapets. The apertures are for the purpose of allowing projectiles to be hurled at an enemy when he approaches near the wall, as in scaling, undermining, etc. Such defenses are very common in castellated ar- chitecture, esfjeeially over gateways, towers, etc. Machicoulis. The same as machicola- tion. Machine Guns. See Battery Guns. Machine, Infernal. This term has been applied to various deadly contrivances, for instance, to the battery gun with which the attempt to assassinate Louis Philippe was made, as well as to the devices used on sim- ilar historical occasions ; also to the fire-ship used b)' the English at St. Malo. This was a three-decker charged with powder on the first deck; shells, carcasses, etc., on the second ; and with barrels filled with com- bustibles on the third ; the gun-deck was covered with old guns overloaded. It was intended to destroy ships, bridges, etc. Machines, Artillery. See Implemext.s. Machines of War, Ancient. Under this head is comprehended every kind of machine or engine made use of before the invention of gunpowder, for overthrowing, destroy- ing, and burning the defenses of an enemy. Tlioy were of three kinds, — the first for pro- jecting arrows, darts, stones, javelins, and fire-arrows; the second for battering and breaching walls, etc. ; and the third for cov- ering the troops thus engaged. Tlic}- are as follows : Mitscule, arbalest, ballLiia, bcl/ry, belier. (Sec appropriate headings.) Bricole, machine for projecting quarrels or darts. Cnrreau, caiapiiUa (which see). Chat, or cat, a covered shed, occasionally fixed on wheels, for protecting soldiers em- ployed in tilling up the ditch, preparing the way for the hclepole, or wooden tower, or for mining the wall. Chat ec/iine, prickly cat, beam bristling with oaken teeth, for the defense of a town, by being let down on the besiegers. ' Curbrau, long pole armed with a strong iron harpoon or scythe at one end, sus- pended in a frame placed on a cart ; by manoeuvring the other end they tore away the machines with which the besieged en- deavored to seize the head of the battering- ram. Corbeau a griffe, pole with strong nippers or pincers, with which any object was seized and lifted up, and afterwards broken, if possible. Couillard, elide, jaudide, machine for throwing stones. Cranequin, large stirruped cross-bow or latch. (See Akbalest.) Esprinrjal, fnlarique, harpe (which see). Frondibale, long beam moving in a ver- tical plane between two uprights on an axle (not in the middle) ; the longer arm was provided with a bag or case containing stones, and sometimes a sling; the other was heavily loaded, the beam being placed horizontally, and suddenly disengaged ; the weight on "the shorter limb forceil up the other, and projected the stones forward. MACIEJOVICE 294 MAGAZINE Helepole. (See Helepolls.) Hei-se. (See Herse.) Hourdcis, hurdles emploj'ed by the he- sieged to protect their walls from the ma- chines of the enemy. Lyonnois, machine for defending a breach, with a head like a treble Jleur-de-lis on wheels. Mangona, machine similar to the ballista, generic term signifying all kinds of ma- chines. Mangonel, diminutive of the above, ap- plied to small machines. For the following machines of war, see appropriate headings: Mantelet, Manu- BALLISTE, MaTAFUNDA, MaTE-GRIFFON, MucHETT.E, Onagre, Pluteus, Polibole, KiBAUDEQUIN, SaMBUQUE, ScORPION, Ta- RIERE, TeSTUDE, ToLENON, TrEBUCHET, Trepied, Vione, Vireton. Maciejovice. Near Warsaw, Poland. Here the Poles were totally defeated, and their general, Kosciusko, taken prisoner, October 10, 1794, after a murderous action. Kosciusko strenuously endeavored to pre- vent the junction of the Kussian and the Austrian armies. Mackay Gun. This gun is made of wrought iron, and distinguished from the "VVhitworth and Lancaster guns by the fol- lowing characteristics : The Whitworth has a hexagonal bore in a tube of homogeneous iron, strengthened with hoops forced on by hydraulic pressure; the Lancaster is without grooves, but the bore is oval ; the Mackay has numerous grooves, but the projectile docs not, as in other guns, fit into them, its rotation being imparted by the rush of gases through the spiral grooves around it. In every case the groove or oval takes one turn, or-portion of a turn, within the gun. Mackinaw, or Mackinac, Formerly called Michilimackinac, " the great turtle." A town and fort on an island of the same name in Lake Huron, about 320 miles by water north-northwest of Detroit, Mich. It fell into the hands of the English on the conquest of Canada from the French ; but the Indians in its neighborhood remained hostile to their new masters. The fort was captured by a ruse, and the inhabitants mas- sacred by the Chippewas under Pontiac, June 4, 1763. It was again garrisoned by the British in the following year. The island came into possession of the United States in 1796, and was captured by the British and Indians July 17, 1812. The Americans attempted its recapture, August 14, 1814, but without success. Macrones. A powerful and warlike Cau- casian people on the northeastern shore of the Pontus Euxinus. Madagascar. An island of the Indian Ocean, situated at some distance from the east coast of Africa, being separated from that continent by the channel of Mozam- bique. The French formed several settle- ments in different parts of the island in 1GG5, but they were repeatedly driven out by the natives. The English were also driven out of the island in 1836, and the old sj^stem of Fetichism was restored. Mada- gascar is at present governed by Kanavalona, a Christian. Made. A professional term for having obtained a commission, or being promoted. Madras. Called by the natives Chenna- patain, a maritime city and fortress of Brit- ish India, and capital of the presidency of the same name. It was taken by the French in 1744 ; restored to the English at the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, in 1749, and was vainly besieged by the French under Lally, Decem- ber, 1758-59. It is now considered one of the strongest fortresses in India. Madrid. The capital of Spain, in New Castile, on the left bank of the river Man- zanares. It is mentioned in history as Maje- rit, a Moorish castle. Madrid was sacked by the Moors in 1109; retaken and fortified by Henry III. about 1400; taken by Lord Galway in 1706 ; and by the French in March, 1808. The citizens of Madrid at- tempted to expel the French, and were de- feated with much slaughter, May 2, 1808: the French were compelled to retire, but the place was retaken by them December 2, 1808, and retained until Wellington and his army entered it, August 12, 1812. Madriers. Are long planks of broad wood, used for supporting the earth in mining, carrying on a sap, making coffers, caponiers, galleries, and for various other purposes at a siege ; also to cover the mouth of petards after they are loaded, and are fixed with the petards to the gates or other places designed to be forced open. When the planks are not strong enough they are doubled with plates of iron. Madura. An island of the Malay Archi- pelago, situated off the northeast coast of the island of Java, from which it is sepa- rated by a narrow channel. The Dutch in- vaded this island about the year 1747, and made slaves of a great number of the inhab- itants. Maestricht. A town of Holland, and capital of the province of Limburg, on the Maas, 110 miles southeast from Amsterdam. This town was taken by the French in 1794; and from 1795 till 1814 it was the capital of the French department of the Lower Meuse. Magazine. A word derived from the Arabic, makhzan, " store-house," means any place where stores are kept ; but as a mili- tary expression, it always means a store- ' house for powder, although arms may at ' times be kept in it. In military structures , the magazines must be bomb-proof, and ; therefore necessitate very thick walls ; they must be quite free from damp, and should admit sufficient daylight to render the use of lanterns within generally unnecessary. The entrance is protected by shot-proof traverses, lest an opening should" be forced by ricochet shots. Magazine Guns. Are breech-loading MAGDALA 295 MAHKATTAS sninll-arms having a magazine capable of hoidingseveral cartridges which may be Jired in qiiici< succession, — the empty shell being ejected and another cartridge conveyed into the breech from the magazine by working the mechanism of the piece. Among Amer- ican magazine guns, the Spencer was one of the first that proved successful, and was extensively used during the war of the Re- bellion, I8'n-G5. The magazine was a tube in the stock. The Spencer is no longer made. The Henry was a contemporary, and used a tube under the barrel, — this gun as now im- proved is known as the Winchester, and is sold in every part of the globe. The W^o0. A city of Lower P^gypt, near the nortlieast- ern frontier, about 12 miles southwest of Pelusium, where Pharaoh Necho defeated the Syrians, according to Herodotus. Magenta. A tow nCf Italy, in Lombardy, 15 miles west from .Milan. " A great battle was fought here in June, ISoO, between the French and Austrians, in which the latter were defeated. The French were commanded by Gen. MacMahon, who received the title of Duke of .Magenta. Magetobria (now Moigte de Broie, on the Shdne). A town on the western frontiers of theScquani, near which the Gauls were de- feated by the Germans shortly before Cajsar's arrival in (Jaul. Magistral Line. The tracing or guiding line in fortilication,— the first laid down on the \york or on paper, — and from which the poeilion of all the other works is determined. In field fortification the crest line of the parapet is the tnagistral ; in permanent for- tifi'?,, but was again taken in 1793. It was restored to the Frciu'h in 1815. Mahrattas. A people of Hindoo (Hindu) race, inhabiting Central India, south of the Ganges, from Gwalior to Goa, and supposed by nuiny to be the descendants of a Persian or North Indian people. They are first men- tioned in history about the middle of the 17th century. Under the leadership of Sevaji, a freebooter or adventurer, they overran and subdued a large portion of the emperor of Delhi's territory. They subsequently were divided into tribes under powerful leaders, and endeavored to overcome the Mogul ; but thcv sustained a frightful defeat in Januarv, 17tn, at the hands of Ahmed Shah Abdalli, the ruler of Afghanistan, on th(> field of Paniput, where they lost 50,(KH) men, and all their chiefs except Holkar. They still, how- ever, continued to bo the hired mercenaries of the Delhi emperor, till the growing influ- ence of the British compelled them to look MAIDA 29G MAISON-DU-EOI to their own safety. After many long and bloody contests with the British and their allies, in which sometimes the whole, hut more frequently a portion of the Mahrattas joined, they were one by one, with the ex- ception of Scindiah, reduced to a state of de- pendence. This last-mentioned chief having raised a powerful army, officered by French- men and disciplined after the "European method, continued the contest for a number of years, till his power was finally broivcn in 1843. The Mahratta chiefs still possess extensive dominions under British protec- tion. Maida. A town of Naples, in Calabria Ulta, 9 miles south from Nicastra. It is noted for the defeat of the French under Kegnier by the British under Sir John Stuart, in an action that took place in the plains near the town in 1806. Maiden. An instrument resembling the guillotine, formerly used in Scotland for be- heading criminals. Also, a fortress which has never been taken. Maidstone. A town of England, in Kent, 29 miles southeast from London, on the JVIed- \vay. In 1648 this town was stormed by the Parliamentary troops. Mail (Fr. maille, It. maglia; from the Lat. macula, a "spot, hole, or mesh of a net"). Signifies a metal net-work, and is ordinarily applied to such net-work when used as body defensive armor. Well-made mail formed an admirable defense against all weapons except tire-arms, and its pliability and com- parative lightness gave it favor over the more cumbrous plate-armor. Mail. To put a coat of "mail or armor upon ; to arm defensively. Maillet {Fr.). A mallet. The French formerly made use of this instrument as an offensive weapon in their engagements. In 1351 the mallet was used at the famous battle "des Trente" (of thirty), which derived its name from the number of combatants that fought on each side. This extraordinary combat holds a distinguished place in the history of Brittany, and was entered into by the partisans of Charles of Blois and the king of France on one side, and by the Count Montfort and the king of England on the other. Under the reign of Charles VI. a Pa- risian mob forced the arsenal, and took out a large quantity of mallets, with which they armed themselves for the purpose of murder- ing the custom-house officers. The persons who assembled on this occasion were after- wards called MaiUofins. In the days of Louis XII. the English archers carried mal- lets as offensive weapons. Maillotin {Fr.). An old French term which signified an ancient weapon that was used to attack men who wore helmets and cuirasses. A faction in Prance was also dis- tinguished by this appellation. See Mail- let. Mainade {Fr.). A body of marauders commanded by a chief. Main Body. The line or corps of an army which marches between the advance- and rear-guard ; in camp, the body which lies between the two wings. Main Guard. See Guard, Main. Main Work. In fortification, is the prin- cipal wprk as distinguished from the out- \ works. j Maine, The largest of the New England I States, and the most easterly of the United States. The first settlement was made in it at Phippsburg, in 1607, but was subse- quently abandoned. Settlements from New Hampshire gradually extended themselves into it, and it was afterwards annexed to r Massachusetts, as far as the Kennebec River, In the latter part of the 17th century it suf- fered much from the incursions of the sav- ages and the French, many of the towns being laid waste and the inhabitants slaugh- tered. This state of affairs was terminated by the treaty of Utrecht in 1712. During the Revolutionary war Portland was bom- barded by the British in 1775, and much property destroyed. Maine was admitted into the Union as a State in 1820. Its north- ern boundary formed a subject of contro- versy with Great Britain, which threatened a war, but was settled by compromise in 1842. During the civil war, Maine was one of the most active of the Northern States in the cause of the Union. Mainotes. The inhabitants of the moun- tainous district of Maina, a peninsula be- tween the bays of the Kolokythia and Koron, forming part of the province of Laeonia, in Greece. They number about 60,000, and are a wild and brave race, but addicted to robbery. While the Turks held possession of Greece, the Mainotes were almost com- pletely independent, and when not engaged in a common struggle against the Turks their chiefs were at war with each other. The Mainotes, under their principal chief or bey, took a prominent part in the war for the liberation of Greece ; but subsequently their independence was destroyed. Maintain. When any body of men de- fend a place or post against the attacks of an adverse party, they are said to maintain it. Maintenance, Cap of. Sometimes called Cap of Dignity, a cap of crimson velvet lined with ermine, with two points turned to the back, originally only worn by dukes, but afterwards assigned to various families of distinction. According to Sir John | Fearne, " the wearing of the cap had a be- , ginning from the duke or general of an army, who, having gotten victory, caused ' the chiefest of the subdued enemies whom | he led to follow him in his triumph, bear- \ ing his hat or cap after him, in token of) subjection and captivity." Most of the reigning dukes of Germany, and various families belonging to the peerage both of j England and Scotland, bear their crests on, a cap of maintenance. i Maison-du-Roi {Fr.). The king's house- 1 hold. Certain select bodies of troops were so called during the monarchy of France, MAITRE 297 MALINGERER find consisted of the gardes-du-corps, or body- ffuards, the gendarmes, chevauxlcgers, or liijht-horse, mousquetaires, or musketeers, la qendarmcrie, grenadiers a c/ieval, or horsc- frrenadiers, the regiments beloHL^ing to the Frencli and Swiss guards, and the ce7it Suis- se.«, or hundred Swiss guards. The maison- dit-roi, or king's household, was not con- sidered a separate establish mont from the rest of the army until the reign of Louis IV. This cstalili-hmont was successively formed by ilirt'iri'iit kings out of militia companies, which they took into their body-guard. Maitre d'Armes (Fr.). A term in general use among the French, signif\'ing a fencing- master. Every regiment has a jnaitre d'annrs attached to it. Majesty. A title applied to sovereigns ; as, Her IJritannic Majesty. Major. An otficer ne.vt in rank above a captain and below a lieutenant-colonel; the lowest tield-otliccr. Major, Aid- (i^r.). See Aid-Major. Major, Brigade-. See Brigade-Major. Major, Drum-. See Drum^Major. Major, Etat- {Fr.). See Etat- .Major. Major, Farrier-. See Farrikii-Major. Major, Fife-. See Fife-Major. Major, Sergeant-. See Serge ant-Major. Major, Town-. See Town-Major. Major, Trumpet-. See Trumpet-Major. Majorate. The office or rank of major. Majorca. The principal of the Balearic Isles, in the Mediterranean, lying about 120 miles to the east of Spain. Majorca rebelled against Philip Y. of Spain in 1714 ; but sub- mitted July 14, 1715. Major-General. See General, Major-, and Gen KRAI, Offk-eu. Majority. High rank ; specifically, the military rank of a major. Make Good. A phrase used sometimes in the wording of sentences in proceedings of courts-martial in the case of deserters ; as, he will niuke good the time lost by desertion. Make Ready. See Ready. Malabar. An extensive province of Hin- dostan, in the presidency of Madras. It is supposed that Malabar was, at a very early S^riod, confiuered by a king from above the hauts. It was invaded by Ilyder Ali in 1760, and subdued by him in 1701. On the downfall of Tippoo Sahib, this country was annexed to th.; iJritish dominions. Malabar Guns. Heavy pieces of ord- nance, which were made in the Malabar country, and were formed by means of iron bars joined together with hoops. Tiicy were very long, and extremely unwieldy. Malacca. A British'settlemcnt situated on the west coast of the Malay Peninsula, about KM) miles northwest from the settle- ment of Singapore. This district was an- nexed to the Portuguese dominions about 1611, taken bv the Dutch in 1()40. and given by the Dutch to the English in IB-J.^i. Malacca. The capital of the above coun- trv, is situated on the coast, upon the strait which hears its name. In 1507 this town i 20 was visited by the Portuguese, and after- wards stormed by them. It was subsequently taken by the Dutch, who retained po.ssession of it till 17H5, when it was occupied by a British force. Malaga. A city of Spain, in Granada, on the coast of the Mediterranean, 00 miles northeast from Gibraltar. It fell into the hands of the Moors in 714, and was not wrested from them until 1487, when it was taken by Ferdinand the Catholic. In 1810 it was occupied by the Fretich, and remained in their possession till 1812. Malakoff. A hill near Sebastopol, on which was situated an old tower strongl}* fortilied bv the Russians during the siege of 1854-55. "^The allied French "and English attacked it on June 17-18, 1855, and af^ter a conflict of forty-eight hours were repulsed with severe loss. On September 8, the French again attacked the Malakofl'; at 8 o'clock the first mine was sprung, and at noon the Fren<'h flag floated over the con- quered redoubt. In the Malakofi'and Redan were found COOO jiieces of cannon of every caliber, and rj(),000 pounds of gunpowder. Malandrins, or Tard-venus (Fr.). Com- panies of banditti, who chose their own chief, and overran France and Italy in the 14th century. Malatesta. A noble Italian family, which acquired the lordship of Rimini in the I3th century, and furnished several leaders of the Guelph party. Malatesta II. and Galeotto Malatesta, sons of Pandolfo I., began to reign over Rimini in 1355. They had a great mil- itary reputation, and next to the Visconti were perhaps the most powerful princes of Italy. The former died in 13(54, and Gale- otto in 1385, leaving two sons, Carlo and Pandolfo III. These two became able gen- erals, and commanded the armv of Visconti, duke of ]\Iilan, from 1393 to 'l408. Carlo, who was lord of Rimini, died without issue in 1429. The descendants of Pandolfo III. possessed Rimini until 1528, when it w: s added to the papal dominions. Malavilly. A town of Hindostan, in the province of Mysore, where the English troops under Gen. Harris defeated Tippoo Sahib's army in 1799. Maldon. A town of England, in the county of Essex, which was built in 28 B.C. It is supposed to have been the first Roman colony in Britain ; was burnt by Queen Boa- dicea, and rebuilt by the Romans. It was burnt by the Danes' in 991, and rebuilt by the Saxons. Malignant. In English history, one of the adherents of the house of Stuart ; a cavalier; so called by the opposite party. Malinger. To feign illness', or to protract disease ill order to avoid duty. Malingerer. A soldier who feigns him- self sick. Any soldier convicted of malin- gering, feigning or pnxlucing disease, or of intentionally protracting his cure or aggra- vating his disease, is lialile to be tried by a court-martial for "conduct prejudicial to MALINGERY 298 MAMELUKES good order and military discipline," and to suffer the punishment attached to that oifense. Malingery. A feigning of illness, or pro- tracting of disease in order to escape duty. Malkin. A sponge with a jointed staff for cannon. Malleable Iron. Iron which can be worked under the hammer. The term is specifically applied to cast iron which has hud a part of its carbon extracted by cemen- tation with an oxide. Mallet. A wooden hammer, to drive into the ground the pegs by which a tent is fastened ; it is likewise used on various other occasions, especially in fortification and artillery. Malmesbury. A town of England, in "Wiltshire. This town was taken from the royalists by Sir William Walter in 1643, but it was soon recovered, and again taken a short time after. Malo, St. A seaport of France, in the department of lUe-et-Vilaine, on the small island of Aron. This port sustained a tre- mendous bombardment by the English under Admiral Benbow in 1C93, and under Lord Berkely in July, 1695. In 1758 the British landed in considerable force in Cancalle Bay, and went up to the harbor, where they burnt upwards of a hundred ships, and did great damage to the town, making a number of prisoners. Maloi-Jaroslavitz. A town of Eussia, in the government of Kaluga. It is noted for being the scene of a most sanguinary action between the French and Russians, in Octo- ber, 1812, in which the former were defeated. Malplaquet. A village of France, in the department of the North. It was the scene of a sanguinary battle in 1709, between the French under Marshal Villars, and the allies commanded by the Duke of Marlbor- ough and the Prince Eugene, in which the latter were victorious. Malta. An island belonging to Great Britain, situated in the Mediterranean, 54 miles from the Sicilian coast, and about 200 from Cape Bon, on the African coast. It is strongly fortified around the capital, Valetta, which was bui,ltby the Knights of St. John. Malta was colonized by the Carthaginians about 500 B.C., and as early as the first Punic war it was plundered by the Romans, but did not come finally into their posses- sion until 242 B.C. During the 5th century it fell successively under the sway of the Yandals and Goths. The Romans, however, regained it under Belisarius in 533 a.d., and kept possession of it till it was conquered by the Arabs in 870. In 1090, Count Roger of Sicily drove out the Arabs, and established a popular council for the government of the island. Charles of Anjou, after overrun- ning Sicily, made himself master of it ; but after a time, the houses of Aragon and Castile successively held the island. Subse- quentlj"-, the emperor Charles V. took posses- sion of Malta, and in 1530 granted it to the KnightsofSt. John of Jerusalem, from whom the Turks had recently captured their great stronghold at Rhodes. The knights raised by degrees the stupendous fortifications, and, moreover, spent their large income in beau- tifying the island in every way. Mean- while they rendered incessant services to Christendom in the chastisement of the fero- cious Barbary pirates. To revenge these acts, the Turks brought immense forces against Malta in 1557, and again in 15G5. The siege in the latter year was carried on by the sultan Solyman himself, with the flower of the Ottoman army ; but the grand master. La Valette, opposed a heroic resist- ance, and he was forced to re-embark, with the loss of more than 25,000 of his best troops. The defenders lost 260 knights and 7000 Maltese soldiers ; and their gallantry was the theme of admiration throughout the world. After this siege the knights built Valetta. In 1571, they, with the Maltese, behaved most courageously at the battle of Lepanto, where the Turks lost 30,000 men. Though waging perpetual war with the Turks, the knights continued in possession of Malta until 1798, when it surrendered to Napoleon, and received a French garrison. In 1800 it was blockaded by a British squad- ron, and was forced to surrender to the English, in whose possession it has remained as a dependency. Malta, Knights of. See St. John of Jerusalem, Kniguts of. Maltese Cross. A cross of eight points, of the form worn as a decoration by the Hospitallers and other orders of knight- hood. Malvern Hill. Near the James River, in Virginia. Here, on the night of June 30, 1862, all the divisions of the Army of the Potomac, under Gen. McClellan, were united in a strong position, after five days of inces- sant marching and fighting. About 4 a.m. on July 1 the Confederate forces advanced to storm this position, but were mowed down by a destructive fire of grape from the land batteries, and were obliged to seek shelter in the woods. The gunboats, also, which were within range, opened a destructive fire of shells on the enemy. The attack was a com- ; plete failure, the loss of the Confederates I being considerable, while that of the Federals was insignificant. After this repulse, the '; Confederates retired to Richmond, and Mc- ' Clellan pursued his way to the James, ar- ,' riving at Harrison's Landing on July 3. i Mameliere {Fr.). Armor for the breast, ' from which depended two chains, one at- | tached to the pommel, and the other to the i scabbard of the sword. ! Mamelukes (Arabic, mamluk, a " slave"). The name given to the slaves of the be3-s, brought from the Caucasus, and who formed their armed forces. When Genghis Khan, desolated a great part of Asia in the 13th: century, and carried away a multitude of the inhabitants for slaves, the sultan of Egypt bought 12,000 of them, partly Min-j i MAMERTINI 299 MANDARIN preliiins and Tartars, but mostly Turks, and formed them into a body of troops. But tlicy soon found tlieir own power so great that, in 12.')4, they made one tif their own number sultan of P^gypt, foundinj' the dy- nasty of the Baharites, which gave\ilace to another Mameluke dynasty in 1382. The Caucasian element predominated in the first dynasty, the Tartar element in the second. Selim I., who overthrew the Mameluke kingdom in 1517, was compelled to j)crmit the continuance of the 24 Mameluke beys ns governors of the provinces ; but in the middle of the 18th century they re- gained such a preponderance of power in Egypt that the pasha named by the Porte was reduced to a iiomiiuil ruler. The num- ber of them scattered throughout all Egvpt was between 10,000 and 12,000 men. Their number was kept up chiefly by slaves brought from the Caucasus, from among whom the beys and other officers of state were exclusively chosen. Their last bril- liant achievements were on the occasion of the French invasion of Egypt, and during the time immediately following the retire- ment of the French. At this time Murad Bey stood at their head. But in 1811 they were foully massacred by Mehemet Ali. Mamertini. Sons of Mamers, or Mars, were Campanian soldiers of Agathocles. They feized Messina, in Sicily, in 281 u.c, and when closely besieged by the Cartha- ginians and Hiero of Syracuse in 264, they implored the help of the llomans, which led to the first Punic war. Mammoth Powder. See Gunpowder. Man. To supply with men ; to furnish with a sufficient force or complement of men, as for management, service, defense, or the like. Also, to supply with strength for ac- tion ; to prepare for efficiency ; to fortify. Man, Isle of. An island of Great Britain, in the Iri.-li Sea, nearly equidistant from the coasts of England, Scotland, and Ireland. It was subdued by the king of Northumber- land, 021; by Magnus of Norwav, 1092; ceded to the'Scots^ 1260, and taken from them in 1314 by Montacute, afterwards earl of Salisbury ; it subsequently fell to the Earl of Derby. " The brave Countess of Derby held this island against the troops of the Parliament in 1651, after her husband had b«cn beheaded at Bt)lton, England, in the •anie year for his devotion to the royal oausc. Manassas. A town in Prince William Co., Va., which was an important military position during the civil war, and where the Alexandria and Manassas (iap Kailways meet, near a creek called Bull Run ; it was held by the Confederates in 1861, when they were attacked by the Federal general Irviii McDowell. He began his march from Washington on July 16, and gained some •dvantagc on the 18th at Centreville. On the 2l8t was fought the first battle of Bull Run. The Federals, who began the fight, had the advantage till about 3 o'clock p.m., when the Confederate general Johnston brought up reinforcements, which at first the Federals took for their own troops. After a brief resistance, the latter were seized with sudden jjanic, and in spite of the utmost efforts of their officers, fied in disgraceful rout, abandoning a large quan- tity of arms, ammunition, and baggage. The Confederate generals, Johnston and Beauregard, did not think it prudent to pur- sue the fugitives, who did uol halt till they reached Washington. The -Federal army is said to have had 481 killed, 1011 wounded, and 1216 missing. The loss of the Confed- erates was stated to be about 1500. In March, 1862, when the Army of the Poto- mac under Gen. McClellan marched into Virginia, they found that the Confederates had quietly retreated from the camp at Manassas. " On August 30, 1862, this place was the site of another great battle between the Northern and Southern armies. In August, Gen. "Stonewall" Jackson, after compelling the Federal general Pope to re-- treat, defeated him at Cedar Mountain on the 9th, turned his flank on the 22d, and arriving at Manassas repulsed his attacks on the 29th. On the 30th, Gen. R. E. Lee (who had defeated Gen. McClellan and the invading Northern army before Richmond, June 26 to July 1) joined Jackson with his army, and Pope received reinforcements from Washington. A desperate ct)nflict ensued, which ended in the Confederates gaining a decisive victory, compelling the Federals to a hasty retreat to Centreville, where they were once more muted, Septem- ber 1. The remains of their army took ref- uge behind the lines of Washington on September 2. Pope was at once super- seded, and McClellan resumed the command to march against the Confederates, who bad crossed the Potomac and entered Maryland. Manch, or Maunch. A charge frequently used in heraldry to represent a sleeve with long pendent ends, of the form worn by ladies in the reign of Henry I. Manchester. A city of England, in Lancashire, on the Irwell. In the time of the Druids, it was one of their principal stations. It was one of the seats of the Brigantes, who had a castle or stronghold called Mancenion ; and was, about 79, se- lected by the Romans as a station, and called Mancunium. Called by the Saxons Manceasire. Taken from the "Britons, 488; captured by Edwin of Northumbria, 620; taken by the Danes, 877; retaken, 923. Mandans. A tribe of Indians of the Dakota family, who are located with the Arickarees and Gros Ventres on a reserva- tion near Fort Bcrthold, Dakota. They were hostile to the Sioux, and more friendly to the whites than the neighboring tribes. They number about 250. Mandarin. A general term applied to Chinese officers of every grade by foreign- ers. It is derived from the Portuguese mandar, " to command"; the Chinese equiv- MANDILION 300 MANNITE alent is kwan. There are nine ranks, each distinguished by a diiferent-colored ball or button placed on the apex of the cap, by a peculiar emblazonry on the breast, and a different clasp of the girdle. The military mandarins are selected by the emperor of China to superintend and command the militia of the country. Mandilion. A soldier's loose coat ; an outer garment without sleeves. Mandrel. In forging, is a rod used to preserve the interior form of hollow-work. Also, the spindle upon which an article is placed in shaping it in a lathe. Manduria (now Casal Nova). A town in Calabria, on the road from Tarentum to Hydruntum, and near a small lake. Here Archidamus III., king of Sparta, was de- feated and slain in battle by the Messapians and Lucanians, 338 B.C. Manege. The art of horsemanship or of training horses. Also, a school for teaching horsemanship, and for training horses ; a riding-school. Mangalore. A seaport town and fortress of Hindostan, on the eastern shore of the Indian Ocean, in the province of Canara. The Portuguese had a factory here, which was destroyed by the Arabians. In 1793 the town was taken by Hyder Ali, then the Mysore general ; in 1768 it was captured by a detachment from Bombay ; but was shortly afterwards retaken by Hyder. In 1783 Man- galore again surrendered to a force from Bombay ; and after the destruction of Gen. Matthews's army, sustained a long siege from Tippoo Sahib, and was gallantly defended by Col. Campbell. Upon the conclusion of peace in 1784, it was restored, and the forti- fications were dismantled. In 1799, on the overthrow of Tippoo, it was finally taken possession of by the British. Mangan [Fr.). This word is sometimes written mangon, a warlike machine formerly used. The term itself was generally adopted to signify any species of warlike machine. But it more particularly meant the largest and most powerful machine that could be used for warlike purposes ; whether it was practiced to throw enormous stones against besieged places, or to cast javelins, etc. It was likewise called ballista, from the Greek, tormentum, from the Latin, torquendo, and sometimes petraria, because stones weighing upwards of 360 pounds were thrown from it. This machine answered the double purpose of defending or attacking fortified places, and it was sometimes used at sea. Mangonel (Fr. mangonel, mangoneau). A very strong and powerful cross-bow, from 15 to 20 feet long, for throwing arrows, darts, or stones. The irebachet^ribaudequin, etc., were only a variety of the above. Manheim, or Mannheim. A town of Germany, in the grand duchy of Baden, at the confluence of the Neckar and the Rhine. It surrendered to the French, under com- mand of Pichegru, September 20, 1795. On October 31, the Austrians under Wurmser defeated the French near the city. Several battles were fought with various success in the neighborhood during the late wars. Manifesto, or Manifest. A public declar- ation, usually of a prince or sovereign, show- ing his Intentions, or proclaiming his opin- ions and motives in reference to some act done or contemplated by him ; as, a mani- festo declaring the purpose of a prince to be- gin war, and explaining his motives. Maniglions. The two handles on the back of a piece of ordnance. Manilla, or Manila. A town of the island of Luzon, and the capital of the Spanish set- tlements in the Philippine Islands. It was taken by the English in 1757 ; and again in Qctober, 1762, by storm. Manipularis (Fr. numlpulaire). The chief officer in a part of the Roman infantry called manijmlus, was so called. This officer was likewise ordinary (Fr. ordinaire). Manipulus. So called from its standard or flag, which was made of cloth, and hung suspended on a staff with a hand. The manipulus was distinguished in this manner from the chief standard of each legion, which was an eagle of massive metal. Manipulus (Fr. numipule). A small body of infantry originally, so called among the Romans during the reign of Romulus. Their ensign was a hand on the end of a staff. The manipulus consisted of 100 men, and in the days of the consuls and first Caesars, of 200. Three manipuli constituted a Roman cohort. Each manipulus was commanded by two ofiicers called centurions, one of whom acted as lieutenant to the other. Every manipu- lus made two centuries, or ordines. This, however, cannot be said to have been the uniform establishment or formation of the manipulus ; for according to Varro and Vege- tius, it was the smallest body of men em- ployed in the Roman armies, and composed the tenth part of a century. Spartian says, "it consisted of only ten soldiers." Some authorities assert that it takes its name from ■manipulns, " a handful of straw," the latter having been fixed to a long pole to serve as a rallying signal, before the eagles were adopted. This circumstance has given rise to the modern expression, a handful of men, une poignee de gens. Vegetius, on the other hand, says it comes from manus, which sig- nified a small body or handful of men col- i lected together, and following the same j standard ; and Modestus as well as Varro ■ state it to have been so called because, when ' they went into action, they took each other j by the hand, or fought all together. A ] French writer conceives that the manipulus ; may be considered as one of those parts of a ' modern battalion which are distributed in , different rooms, etc., and which is called tcne chambree, or a company that messes to- i gether. \ Manly. Having qualities becoming a man; firm; brave; undaunted; noble, etc. Mannite, Nitro-. A high explosive re- sembling nitro-glycerine in its properties, MANCEUVRE 301 MANTUA and made in an analogous manner by the action of nitric and sulphuric acids upon niannitc, a form of sugar. Manoeuvre, or Maneuver. Management; dexterous movement ; specifically, an evo- lution, movement, or change of position among military or naval bodies. To per- form a movement in military or naval tac- tics; to make an evolution. Also, to change the positions of, as troops or ships. Manceuvring-wheels. See Okdnance, Cakkiaoks fuk, Sea-coast Cakkiaqks. Manresa. A town of Spain, in Catalo- nia, .30 miles northwest from JJarcelona. It suffered nmch in the war of independence; and in ^larch, 1811, it was almost completely burnt to the ground by Marshal Macdonald. Mans, Le. A city of France, formerly capital of the province of Maine, now of the department of Sarthe. The final struggle between the Vendean troops and the French republicans took place here in 1793, in which the latter were victorious; and in 1871, another battle took place between the Ger- mans and French, in which the former were victorious. Mansoura, or Mansourah. A town of Lower Egypt, 34 miles southwest from Dal- mietta. Here Louis IX. was defeated by the Saracens and taken prisoner, April 5, 1250. Some French troops which occupied the garrison were massacred here in 1798. Manteau (Fr.). This word, which liter- ally signifies a cloak, is frequently used among the French to express the covering that" hussars or ^ight infantry troops carry for the double purpose of shielding their bodies from the inclemencies of the weather in outposts, etc., and for spreading over their heads, by means of poles, when they occa- sionally halt, and take a position. Mantelet {Fr.). A large osier buckler ■which was used in ancient times ; it was held upright, under cover of which archers shot their arrows. Also a circular frame upon wheels covered with osier or horse-hair, used for the same purpose. Mantes. A town of France, in the de- partment of Seine-et-Oise, 30 miles west- northwest of Paris. It was taken and re- duced to ashes by William the Conqueror in 1087. Mantillis. A kind of shield, anciently fixed upon the tops of ships as a cover for archers. Mantinea,orMantinoea. Anciently acity of the Morca, 9 miles m.rth from Tripolitza. It is now the modern (Jrook village of Pal- espoli. It was famous as being the scene of several battles, of which the most important ■was that fought between the Spartans and the Thobans under Epaminondas (362 B.C.), in which the former were defeated. Mantle. A long flowing robe, worn in the Middle Ages over the armor, and fast- ened hy a fihiila in front, or at the right shoulder. The mantle is an important part of the official insignia of the various orders of knighthood. Mantlet. A sort of temporary fortifica- tion intended to protect the men working guns in embrasures, casemates, or port-holes from the bullets of sharpshooters. The mantlet is usually made to be hoisted up while the gunner takes aim, and then low- ered to cover the whole o])eiiing except a circular aperture for the muzzle of the can- non. With every increase in the range and precision of small-arms, mantlets become more essential for the safety of gunners. Mantlets are made of thick fir, of solid oak l)lanks, or of iron plates, the last being pref- erable, as the lightest. At Sebastopol, the Russians eftectively blocked their embra- sures by thick mantlets of plaited rope sus- pended freely. A mantlet of ])lanks or iron plates, about 5 feet high, and occasionally mounted on small wheels, is also used to protect sappers working at the end of a sap, although a rolling gabion is preferred for this purpose by many engineers. Mantling, or Lambrequin. A heraldic ornunient dcj^icted as hanging down from the helmet, and behind the escutcheon. It is considered to represent either the cointiso (an ornamental scarf which passed round the body and over the shoulder) or the military mantle or robe of estate. When intended for the cointise, it is cut into irregular strips and curls of the most capricious forms, whose contortions are supposed to indicate that it has been torn into that ragged condition in the field of battle. When the mantling is treated as a robe of estate, the bearings of the shield are sometimes embroidered on it. A mantling adjusted so as to form a back- ground for the shield and its accessories con- stitutes an .4(-/nVir»(rH«s. In British heraldry, the mantling of the sovereign is of gold lined with ermine; that of peers, of crimson velvet lined with ermine. Knights and gentlemen have generally crimson vel- vet lined with white satin ; but sometimes the livery colors are adopted instead, as is generally the practice in continental her- aldry. Mantonet (Fr.). A small piece of wood or iron, which is notched, for the purpose of hanging anything upon it. The pegs in soldiers' rooms are sometimes so called. Mantua. A fortified city of Northern Italy, 22 miles southwest from Verona. Mantua is both by nature and art one of the strongest places in Europe. It can boast of an antiquity almost equal to that of Home, and experienced all the vicissitudes of the Middle Ages, and, like other Italian cities, emerged from them into liberty and inde- pendence. It surrendered to the French, February 2, 1797, after a siege of eight months ; wi\s retaken by the Austrian and Russian army, July 30^ 1799, after a short siege. In 1800, after the battle of Marengo, the French again obtained possession of it. It was included in the kingdom of Italy till 1814, when it was restored to the Austrians, who surrendered it to the Italians, October 11, IBOG, after the peace. MANUAL 302 MAKCHER Manual. Book of reference ; as, ordnance manual, etc. Manual. A prescribed exercise by means of which soldiers are taught to handle and use their weapons. The tnanual of arms is the exercise with the musket ; the manual of the piece, the exercise with the field-gun. There are also 'manuals for the sabre, j^istol, etc. Manuballiste (i^r.). A cross-bow. There were two kinds in the reign of Henry VII., viz., the latch which was used for quarrels, and ihaprodd for bullets. Manufacture of Ordnance. See Ord- nance, Manufacture of. Manufacture of Powder. See Gunpow- der. Manx. Pertaining to the Isle of Man. Maoris. A New Zealand word signify- ing tiative, is the name given to themselves by the inhabitants of New Zealand, and that by which they are now usually designated. In 1861 war broke out between them and the British, terminating in favor of the lat- ter in 1802; but in 1863 the Maoris recom- menced hostilities, and a formidable con- spiracy was formed to expel the British troops. In 1868 they massacred many set- tlers and offered a desperate resistance, and were not subdued until the following year. They numbered at that time about 40,000. They are now comparatively peaceable. Map. In a military and geographical sense, is a plane figure, representing the surface of the earth, or a part thereof, ac- cording to the law of the particular kind of projection used ; distinguishing the situation of cities, mountains, rivers, roads, etc. Marathon. A village on the east shore of Attica, 20 miles northeast from Athens. Here on September 28 and 29, 490 B.C., the Greeks, only 10,000 strong, defeated the Persian army amounting to 200,000, who had 6400 kil'led. The Greek loss was 192 Athenians killed, besides some Platteans and slaves. The Greeks were commanded by Miltiades, Aristides, and Themistocles. Among the slain was Hippias, the instigator of the war. The Persian army was forced to retreat to Asia. Marathus. An important city on the coast of Phoenicia, opposite to Aradus. It was destroyed by the people of Aradus in the time of the Syrian king, Alexander Balas, a little before' 150 B.C. Maraud. To rove in quest of plunder; to make an excursion for booty; to plunder. Marauder. A rover in quest of booty or plunder ; a plunderer. Marauding. Is irregular plunder or vio- lence ofl'ered to the inhabitants of a country by the individuals of an army. In all ar- mies where discipline is maintained, maraud- ing is, at least professedly, punished by death ; the provost-marshal having power to inflict that penalty summarily on all offend- ers taken in the act. Marauding is also applied to plundering at sea ; as, the Barbary corsairs are svstematic marauders. Marburg. A town of Germany, in Hesse- Cassel, situated on the Lahn. It suflTered much during the Seven Years' War, 1753-60. March. The movement of a body of men from one place to another. In marching it cannot be too strongly inculcated that every just movement and manoeuvre depends upon the correct equality of march established and practiced by all the troops of the same army, and that when this is not attended to confu- sion must follow on the junction of several battalions. Also, the distance marched over ; as, a march of 20 miles. March. To cause to move in military array ; to push forward, as troops ; to cause to advance in a steady, regular, or stately manner. March. The military signal for soldiers to move; a piece of music, designed or fitted to accompany and guide the movement of troops ; or a piece of music composed after the measure of a march. Also, the command for soldiers to move. March, The length of a day's march for troops of any arm depends, to a great extent, upon the condition of the roads, the supply of water, forage, etc. ; also upon the advan- tages to be gained over an enemy. Infantry marches at the rate in common time of 90 steps = 70 yards in one minute, or 2 miles 680 yards in an hour ; in quick time, 110 steps = 86 yards in one minute, or 2 miles 1613 yards in an hour; in double time, 165 steps = 151|^ yards in one minute, or 5 miles 275 yards in an hour. Under or- dinary circumstances infantry should march from 15 to 20 miles a day, halting about ten minutes every hour. Cavalry should march about 20 miles a day, and be kept at a walk, halting several times during the day, when the men should dismount and permit the horses to refresh themselves by giving them a few mouthfuls of grass and water. On a forced march the horses should not be halted, but they should be relieved fifteen minutes every hour by dismounting the men and requiring them to march. For selection of cavalry horses, rate of speed at a trot, gallop, etc., see Horse. The march of artillery should be governed by the movements of the arms of the service to which it is assigned for duty. The care of men and horses is a combination of what has been laid down for cavalry and infantry. For the rates of march of, and loads carried by, artillery horses, see Pack and Draught Horses. Marchands (Fr.). Slop-sellers, petty sut- lers. Men of this description always flock round and follow an army on its march. As they generally deal in articles which are re- quired by the ofiicers and soldiers, it is the business of every general to see them prop- erly treated, to insure their safety, and to permit them, under certain regulations, to have access to the camp. Marcher. One who marches. In ancient times tlie lord or officer who defended the marches or borders of a territory. MARCHES 303 MARCHES Marches. A frontier, a border. In Eng- 'h history, the boundar\'iet\veen Enghmd ind Wales, also between Eiiglund and Scot- Marches, Combined. When the move- ments of the divisions or corps are made in- dependent of each other, but having the same object in common, they are known as combined marches. They are arranged with the intention of having the several columns arrive at a given position but coming from ditferent directions.— /Vo/. J. li. Wheeler. Marches, Flank. Are marches made j)ar- allel or obliquely to the enemy's position. They are used when it is desired to turn the eneniv's position or attack him on the flank. —I'ruf. J. li. Wfircler. Marches, Manoeuvre. Marches are some- times iiiadi' by wiiicli an army gains a posi- tion, the possession of which compels the enemy to leave the position he is occupying. If these marches are under the observation of the enemy, they are termed " manceuvres" ; but if made out of his sight, they are called mamrttrre inarches. — Prof. J. B. Wheeler. Marches of Concentration. The marches wliicli are made by several bodies t)f troti]>s, starting from points separated from each other, for the purpose of bringing these troops together at some stated place, are termed marches of concentration. Forced marches are much used in concentrating troops, especially before a battle. Many examples are given in military history. Friant's division of Davoust's corps inarched over 80 miles in forty-eight hours in 1805, to join Napoleon in the battle of Austerlitz. Craufurd's brigade marched, so Napier says, G2 miles in twenty-si.x hours, to join Wellington at Talavera,'in 1809. Na- TKjleon marched an army to the relief of Dresden, in 1813, by forced marches of over 80 miles a day for three consecutive days. The marches of the different corps of the Army of the Potomac on the 30th of June and the 1st of July, 1803, by means of which the army was concentrated at Gettysburg, are good examples of marches of concentra- tion. The (ith Corps under Gen. Sedgwick made on this occasion a march over 30 miles. —Prof. J. R. Whreler. Marches, Route. Route marches are used by troops both during war and in peace. They are used in peace to conduct a bodv of troops from one station or post to anotlier. Thev are used in war for the purpose of as- sembling the fractions of an army on its base of operations ; of conducting troops through a district or country where there is no enemy, etc. There are three kinds of route marches, according to the manner in which they are made, viz. : ordinary, forced, and inarches by rail. Ordinary route marches are those made along ordinary roads and where the length of the march in any one day is not greater than 20 miles. Twenty miles is a long march, especially if the body of troops is large, and this distance is taken as the limit for an ordinary march. If the distance marched in any one day is greater than 20 miles, the march is forced. Forced marches are extremely exhausting upon the troops and should not exceed 30 miles per daj', although greater distances have been overcome by good troops. The number of forced marches made in succession must be few, only two or three, even for the best of troops. They are used but rarely in time of peace, and then only under pressing circumstances. They are much used in war, when a rapid concentration of troops is to be made ; when a strategical combination is to be effected, etc. Polite marches by rail are employed both in peace and war. This kind of n'larch in- cludes all those in which the troops do not actually march, but are transported bodily to their destination. Railroads have become in recent years the great factor in rapid and cheap means of moving troops, and the term " rail" is therefore applied to this method of conducting troops from one place to another. This method is of especial service when the time given to the troops to reach their destination is short, and the distance is great. It is especially used in the case of assembling armies and forwarding the reserves and re- cruits to the theatre of war. The late war in the United States, the war in 1859 in Italy, the Franco-Prussian war in 1870, etc., all furnish examjilcs. — Prof. J. B. Wheeler. Marches, Strategical. JIarclies which made in the theatre of war, near an enemy whose position is not exactly known, hav- ing in general for their object the comple- tion of some strategical combination, are designated strategical marches. They are used to conduct an army to a position from which an attack can be made on the enemy, or to a position in which the army can re- main and receive an attack ; in other words, to a position immediately in the presence of the enemy. Strategical marches are either ordinary or forced marches, and are used principally to mass troops at some stated point on the theatre of operations before the enemy can make arrangements to prevent it or can pre- pare counter-movements to weaken or nullify the effect of the movement. Secrecy, celerity, and good order are therefore indispensable requisites for success in marches of this kind. —Prof. J. B. Wheeler. Marches, Tactical. Marches made in the immediate vicinit}- of the enemy, and so near that they may be observed by him, are called tactical marches. Since these marches are made very near the enemy, greater precau- tions are required to guard against an attack than are necessary in strategical marches. Tactical marches differ from route and strategical marches in one material particu- lar, and that is in the number and sizes of the wagon-trains accompanying the tr(x>ps on the march. Both in route and strategical MAECHFELD 304 MARECHAL marches the troops are cumbered with long and unwieldy wagon-trains carrying the baggage and supplies of the army, whereas in a tactical march there are none, or the trains are reduced to a minimum. Since the enemy may attack the moving columns at any minute, everything is sacrificed to the important one of being ready to fight at a minute's notice, and the army carries with it only supplies enough for two or three days, and little or no baggage. Everything not essential for feeding the troops and not neces- sary for fighting is therefore left behind the army while it is making a tactical march. — Prof. J. B. Wheeler. Marchfeld. In Austria, where Ottocar II. of Bohemia was defeated and slain by his rival, the emperor Rodolph of Haps- burg, August 26, 1278. Marching. One of the first necessities to distinguish a body of disciplined troops from a mere crowd, of men is a regular cadenced step, taken by every individual at the same time, and with the same foot. When troops are to marcli a long distance the route step is employed, the men keeping the same dis- tance and their places in the ranks as when marching on drills, parades, reviews, mus- ters, etc., where the cadenced step in com- mon, quick, or double time is employed. In the U. S. service the length of the step in common and quick time is 28 inches, and the cadence is at the rate of 90 steps per minute for common time and 110 for quick time ; in double time the length of the step is 33 inches and the cadence at the rate of 165 steps per minute, but it may be increased to 180. In the feudal ages, when infantry fell into disrepute, cadenced marching was unattended to, and seems only to have been thoroughly revived by Marshal Saxe. Marching Money. The additional pay which officers and soldiers receive for the purpose of covering the expense necessarily incurred when marching from one jilace to another. Marching Order. In the British service a soldier is said to be in marching order when he is. fully equipped with arms, am- munition, and a portion of his kit, which weighs from 30 to 35 pounds. In service marching order, by the addition of provis- ions and some campaigning necessaries, he carries nearly 50 pounds. But heavy march- ing order, which was yoi heavier, is now happily abolished. See Heavy Marching Order, and Light Marching Order. Marching Orders. The orders issued preparatory to troops marching ; and in the British service signifies six days' journey at least. Marching Regiments. A term given in England to those who had not any perma- nent quarters, but were liable to be sent not only from one end of Great Britain to an- other, but to the most distant of her pos- sessions abroad. Although the word march- ing is insensibly confounded with those of line and regulars, it was originally meant to convey something more than a mere liability to be ordered unon any service ; for by marching the regfilar troops from one town to another, the inhabitants, who from time immemorial have been jealous of a standing army, lost their antipathy to real soldiers, by the occasional absence of regular troops. At present the English guards, infantry, etc., may be considered more or less as marching regiments. The marines and vol- unteers have stationary quarters. Marcomanni. A powerful confederacy of ancient Germans, who were resident, as their name imports, on the borders. They are first mentioned in history by Csesar, and seem at that time to have dwelt upon the banks of the Rhine. From Tacitus and several others we learn that they soon after- wards moved westward, under their king Maroboduus, drove the Boii out of Bohemia, and settled in that country. After organiz- ing a government, Maroboduus formed a league with the neighboring tribes, for the purpose of defending Germany against the Romans. He was thus enabled to muster 70,000 disciplined soldiers, and to conclude an honorable treaty with the emperor Tibe- rius in 6 A.D. In 17 he was defeated by tUe Cherusci, and in two years afterwards he was expelled from his throne by the Goth Catualda, and forced to seek refuge in Italy. The same fate soon afterwards befell his de- throner and successor, and the Marcomanni once more came under the sway of native kings. After this they gradually extended their dominions, until they had reached the Danube, and had provoked the jealousy of the Romans in the time of Domitian. Then began hostilities between the Romans and the jVEarcomanni, which led to the pro- tracted struggle of the Marcomannic war, during the reign of Marcus Aurelius, but was finally quelled by the peace of Commo- dus, in 180. Favored, however, by the fee- ble rule of Commodus, they continued their predatory inroads into the Roman provinces of Noricum and Rhoetia, and ventured some- times as far as the defiles of the Alps. In 270, in the reign of Aurelian, they pushed forward into Italy, and penetrated even to Ancona, spreading consternation around them. After this period they disappear gradually, and are mentioned for the last time among the hordes of Attila. Marcouf, St. Two small islands of France, in the department Manche, and which pro- tect the roadstead oil' Cape La Hogue. They were taken by the British in 1795, but re- stored to France at the peace of Amiens. Marechal [Fr.). Major-general. Marechal de Bataille {Fr.). A military rank which once existed in France, but was suppressed before the revolution, or rather confined to the body-guards. An officer be- longing to that corps received it as an hon- orary title. Its original functions,^ etc , with respect to general service, sunk in the appointments oi marechal de camp and major- general. It was first created by Louis Xlll. MAllECIIAL 305 MARINE Mnreclial-gcneral des logis de la cavalei-ie, this appointment took j)liice under Charles IX. in 1694. He had the chief direction of everything which related to tlie French cav- alrv. Marcchal des Ivgi.H pour les vivrcs, a person belonging to the quartermaster- general's department was so called in the old Fn-noh service. Marechal de Camp (Fr.). A military rank wliich existed during the French mon- archy. The person invested with it was a general officer, and ranked next to a lieu- tenant-general. It was his duty to .see the ariny properly disposed of in camp or quar- ters, to hv present at ail the movements that were made ; to be the first to mount his charger, and the last to quit him. He com- nujnded the left in all attacks. The ap- iit;intM)ont under this distinction was first cieat.'d l)y Henry IV. in l.J!i8. Marechal-General des Camps et Armees du Roi I /•'/■.). A jiost of iiigh dignity and trust, which during the French monarchy wa.s anne.\r mounted policemen. These companies first formed for the pur[)0se of preserving public tranquillitj', and were dis- tributed in the ditlerent provinces of the kingdom. This useful body of men was first formeil under Thilip I. in lOflO ; they were afterwards suppressed, and again re- established in 1720, as constituting a part of the gendarmerie of France. There were other conjpanics of marie liaussees, who were particularly distinguished from the 31 above mentioned ; such, for instance, as that of the constables, called the gendarmerie. Marengo. A village of Italy, in Pied- mont, near the Bormida, 2 miles southeast from Alessandria. Here the French army, commanded by Bonaparte, attacked the Austrians, June 14, 18(X>; his army was re- treating, when the arrival of Gen. Dessaix turned the fortunes of the day. The •laughter on both sides was dreadful. By this victory Bonaparte gained 12 strong fortresses, and became master of Italy. Margarita. An island in the Caribbean Sea lies t)tl' the coa.st of Venezuela, of which republic it forms a province. This island was first visited by Columbus in 1498, and has in more recent times (181C) been the scene of a bloody warfare between the revo- lutionists and the Spanish troops under Gen. iliirillo, in which the latter were defeated. Margrave. A German nobleman corre- sponding in rank to the English marquis. Margraclite is the wife of a margrave. Margum, or Margus. A fortified place in Mcesia Superior, west of Viminacium, situated on the river Margus (now yiorava)^ at its confluence with the Danube. Here Diocletian gained a decisive victory over Carinus. Maricopa Indians. A tribe of aborigines, numbering about 400, who are located with the Fimas on a reservation rovince of Namur. This place was occupied by the French from lt;.V.» till 181'). Marignano (now Malepnano). A village of Northern Italy, near Milan. Three bat- tles have been fought near here: (1) Fran- cis I. of France defeated the Duke of Milan and the Swi-ss, September 13-14, 1515; above 20,000 men were slain ; this conflict has been called the " battle of the giants." (2) Near here was fought the battle of Pavia. (See Pavia.) (3) ""After the battle of Ma- genta, June 4, 185!), the Austrians intrenched themselves at Malegnano. Marshal Bara- guay d'Hilliers with li5,000 men was sent to dislodge them, which lie did, on June 8, with a loss of about 850 killed and wounded. The Austrians suftered severely. Marine. A soldier serving on ship-board ; a sea-soldier ; one of a body of troops trained to do duty on vesst'ls of war. , Marine Fortification. This kind of for- tification diflers from land fortification in that the approaches of the enemy which are to be resisted take place on the level of the sea, so that he can come near without having to overcome the dangerous slope of the glacis. The combat is simply one between two pow- erful batteries, and the question to be de- cided is, whether the ship or the fort will first be placed hur.'i de co»ibat ; the ship having ordinarily the largest number of guns, while the fort has more solid battle- ments, and its fewer guns of great caliber can be fired with a steadiness unattainable on so shifting a base jis the ocean. Under these circumstances, the less relief a sea- fortress has the better, the less likely is it to be hit from shipping. Its walls are usually built perpendicular, or nearly so. The magazines and quarters for the men are bomb-proof, as also are the caseniates, from which the guns are usually fired, although sometimes, as in the martello tower, the gun is worked on top of the structure. Sea fortifications may be of various importance, the simplest being the battery consisting of a mere parapet formed in a clitt'or on a hill, and mounted with guns to command the MAKINE3 306 MARKSMANSHIP sea ; these are generally built in such con- cealed sit-uations, that it is hoped the hostile ship will not perceive them until they actu- ally open fire. These are numerous all around the British coast. Next greater in importance is the martello tower (which see). More powerful still are the breach- forts, such as those which on either shore defend the entrance to Portsmouth harbor, England. These are constructed of the most solid masonry, and armed with guns of the heaviest caliber, sweeping the very surface of the sea so as to strike an approach- ing ship between wind and water. The guns are usually in bomb-proof casemates, and the fort is often defended on the land side, if the coast be level ; if, however, higher ground be behind, this would be useless, and then the sea-front alone is de- fensible. Most terrible of all sea-forts, how- ever, are the completely isolated forts with perpendicular faces and two and three tiers of heavy guns. Such are the tremendous batteries which render Cronstadt almost un- approachable, and by which Spithead and Plymouth Sound, England, are now being fortified. These forts are generally large, with all the requisites for a garrison to maintain itself; against them wooden ships stand no chance, and in the American civil war. Fort Sumter, at Charleston, has shown itself no mean antagonist for ironsides. In the new forts, as Spithead, etc., iron is to be employed as the facing, in plates of such vast thickness and weight that it is sup- posed no ship can ever possess any compar- able power ; and as they are to be armed with guns the smallest of which will prob- ably be 300-pounders, it is expected that they will be able to destroy any fleet that could be s^nt against them. At the present day, the value of sea fortifications is dis- puted, as iron-plated vessels may pass them with impunity, unless the artillery in the fort be so heavy as to destroy the armor of the ships. In the long run, however, it is apparent that the fort can command the greater power ; for its armor may be of any thickness, while that of the ship must be limited by her floating powers, and on the other hand, the limit to the size of artillery must be sooner reached in a ship than in a solid and stationary fortress. Marines, Corps of. In the U. S. service is a body of troops who serve at the ditferent naval stations, and on board ships of war. The men are drilled in all respects as infan- try, and therefore, when on shore, are ordi- nary land forces. On board ship, their ordi- nary functions are as sharpshooters in time of action, and at other times to furnish sen- tries for guarding the stores, gangways, etc. ; and they are useful as exercising a good con- trol over the less rigidly disciplined sailors. They are also instructed as guns' crews, and when not on guard, are subject to the orders of the naval ofl[icers in the same manner as the seamen. The corps was first established in the United States in 1775, and was per- manently organized by act of Congress in 1798. By this act, marines were made liable to do duty at the call of the President in any of the forts or posts of the United States, and were placed on the footing of infantry soldiers, as far as regards pay and allowances. When detached for duty with the army, marines are subject to the Articles of War ; at all other times they are subject to the laws and regulations for the govern- ment of the navy. The corps numbers about 2000 men commanded by a colonel. The corps has undergone many changes in re- spect of numbers, equipment, drill, and methods of recruiting since its organization, and was never in a better state of discipline and efl[iciency than now. No man is en- listed who is unable to read and write, under 5 feet 6 inches high, or over thirty-five years of age. It is organized into battalions for duty on shore, and into "guards," or com- panies, for service afloat, each having its proper complement of officers, non-commis- sioned officers, musicians, and privates, and is considered an indispensable auxiliary to the navy. Civilians between twenty and twenty-five years of age are eligible at present to appointment as lieutenants in line of promotion, and are stationed at the head- quarters of the corps in Washington for their preliminary instruction. In the Brit- ish service, besides the infantry, there is a division of marine artillery. In rank, ma- rine ofiicers correspond with army officers of the same grade, according to seniority; they are usually appointed from civil life. Maritime. Bordering on, or situated near, the ocean ; connected with the sea by site, interest, or power. Mark. That toward which a missile is directed ; a thing aimed at ; what one seeks to hit or reach. Mark, St., Knights of. An order of knighthood which formerly existed in the republic of Venice, under the protection of St. Mark the Evangelist. Mark Time. To mark time is to move each leg alternately in quick or ordinary time, without gaining ground. This is fre- quently practiced when a front file or column has opened too much, in order to afford the rear an opportunity of getting up ; and some- times to let the head of a column disengage itself, or a body of troops file by, etc. Marker. The soldier who forms the pivot of a wheeling column, or marks the direc- tion of an alignment. Also, the one who re- cords the number of hits and misses made by soldiers at target practice. Marks, Inspection. Are certain marks cut on cannon to show the number of the gun, the name of the founder, name of in- spector, weight of the piece, etc. Condemned shot are also marked. See Inspection of Projkctilks. Marksman. One who is skillful to hit a mark ; one who shoots well. Marksmanship. The skill of a marks- man. MARLINS 307 MARSUAL Marlins. Are tarred white skeins or ioiii? wrouths or lines uf untwisted hemp, dipped in pitch or tar, with which tables and other r()|)es arc wrapped round, to pre- vent their frettincj and rubbing in the blocks or pulleys through which they pass. The same serves in artiller}' upon ropes used for rigging gins, usually put up in small parcels called skeins. Maron (/•'/•.). A piece of brass or copper, about tiie size of a crown, on which the hours for going the rounds were marked in the t>ld French service. Several of these were put into a small bag, and deposited in the hands of the major of the regiment, out of wiiich they were regularly drawn by the sergeants of companies, for the officers be- longing to them. The hours and half hours were engraved on each maron. These pieces were numbered one, two, etc., to corres|)ond with the several periods of the night; so that the officer, for instance, who was to go to the 10 o'clock rounds, had as many ma- rons marked ten as there were posts or guard-houses which he was directed to visit. Thus on reacliing the first, after having given the mot, or watch-word, to the cor- poral, he delivers into his hands the maron marked one. These marons being pierced in the middle are successively strung by the different corporals upon a piece of wire, from which they slide into a bo.K called Iwitc mix rondes, or bo.x belonging to the rounds. This box is carried next morning to the major, who keeps the key ; and who on opening it can easily ascertain whether the rounds have been regularly gone by count- ing the ditlerent marons, and seeing them successively strung. Maroons. A name given to runaway negroes in Jamaica. When the island was conquered from the Spaniards a number of their negroes fled to the hills and became very troublesome to the colonists. A war of eight years' duration ensued, when the Maroons capitulated on being permitted to retain their free settlements, about 1730. In IT'.t-j tlicy again took arms, but they were speedily suppressed. Marquee, or Markee. An outer fly, or roof-clotli of a tent ; also, a large lield-tent Marquis, or Marquess. The degree of nobility wliich in tlic peerage of England ranks next to a duke. Marquises were orig- inally commanders on the borders or fron- tiers of countries, or on the sea-coast, which they were bound to protect. In England, the title of marquis was used in this sense as early as the reign of Henry III., when there were marquises or lords-marchers of the borders of Scotland and Wales ; and the foreign equivalent of niarkgraj was common on the continent. Marrons. In jiyrotechny, arc small paper shells filli'd with grained jiowder and primed with short pieces of quick-match. They form piirt of the decorations of signaf- rpckcts. Marrucini. A brave and warlike people in Italy of the Sabellian race, occui)ying a narrow slip of country along the right bank of the river Atermus. Along with the Marsi, Peligni, and otiier Sabellian tribes, they fougiit against Rome; and, togetlier with them, they submitted to the Romans, 304 B.C., and concluded a peace with the repub- lic. Marsacii. A people in Gallia Belgicu, on one of the islands formed by the Rhine, which first became known to the Romans througli the war with Civilis. Marsaglia. Near Turin, in Italy. A battle took place here on September 24, 1093, in which Catinat defeated Prince Eu- gene and the Duke of Savoy. This battle and place are memorable for being the first at wiiich bayonets were used at the ends of muskets, and to this the French owed the victory. Marsala (Arab. Marsa Alia, "the port of God"). A maritime town of Sicily, in the province of Trapani, about 19 miles south- southwest of the port of Trapani. Marsala has recently acquired historic interest as the point where Garibaldi, eluding the vigilance of the Neapolitan fleet, landed with his he- roic thousand, and began the romantic cam- paign which terminated the kingdom of the two Sicilies so ignominiously. Marseillaise. The name by which the grand soni,' of the first French revolution is known. Tiic circumstances which led to its composition are as folb^ws. In the begin- ning of 1792, when a column of volunteers was about to leave Strasburg, the mayor of the city, who gave a bantjuet on the occa- sion, asked an officer of artillery, named Rouget de Lisle, to compose a song in their honor. His request was complied with, and the result was the Marseillaise, — both verse and music being the work of one night. De Lisle entitled the piece ^'■Chnnt de Guerre de VAnnee da J{/ti>i." Next day it was sung with that rapturous enthusiasm that only Frenchmen can exhibit, and instead of 600 volunteers, 1000 marched out of Strasburg. Soon from the whole army of the North re- sounded the thrilling and fiery words, Aux amies! Au.rarrncs ! Nevertheless, the song was still unknown in Paris, and was first in- troduced there by Barbiiroux, when he sum- moned the youth of Marseilles to the capital in July, 1792. It was received with transports by the Parisians, who — ignorant of its real authorship — named it '■'■ Ili/mne des Marseil- lai.s," which name it has borne ever since. Marseilles (anc. Massiiia). A city in the south of France, the capital of the depart- ment of the Mouths-of-the-Rhone, situated on the Mediterranean Sea. It was founded bv the Phocajans about «tK» n.c. ; was an ally of Rome, 218 B c. ; taken by Julius Caesar after a long siege, 49 n.r. "; by Euric the Visigoth, 470; sacked by the Saracens, 839; united to the crown of France, 1482. Mar- seilles opposed the revolutitmary govern- ment, and was reduced August 23, 1793. Marshal (^Fr. rnarichal). A term which MAKSHAL 308 MARTIAL originally meant a groom or manager of the horse, though eventually the king's marshal became one of the principal officers of state in England. The royal farrier rose in dignity with the increasing importance of the cheva- lerie, till he became conjointly with the con- stable the judge in the Curice Martiales, or courts of chivalry. "When the king headed his army in feudal times, the assembled troops were inspected by the constable and marshal, who fixed the spot for the encamp- ment of each noble, and examined the num- ber, arms, and condition of his retainers. "With these duties was naturally combined the regulation of all matters connected with armorial bearing standards, and ensigns. The constable's functions were virtually abolished in the time of Henry VIII., and the marshal became thenceforth the sole judge in questions of honor and arms. (See Earl Marshal.) In France, the highest military officer is called a marshal, a dignity which originated early in the 13th century. There was at first only one marcchal de France, and there were but two till the time of James I. Their number afterwards be- came unlimited. Originally, the marshal was the esquire of the king, and commanded the vanguard in war ; in later times, the command became supreme, and the rank of the highest military importance. See Field- Marshal. Marshal. To dispose in order ; to ar- range in a suitable manner ; as, to marshal troops or an army. Marshal of Scotland, Earl. An officer who had command of the cavalry under the constable. This office was held hy the family of Keith, but forfeited by rebellion in 1715. Marshal, Provost-. See Provost-Mar- shal. Marshaler (written also marshaller). One who marshals. Marshaling of Arms. In heraldry, is the combining of different coats of arms in one escutcheon, for the purpose of indicating family alliance or office. Marsi. A brave people of Southern Italy, who, after several contests, yielded to the Romans about 301 B.C. During the civil wars they and their allies rebelled, having demanded and been refused the rights of Roman citizenship, 91 B.C. After many suc- cesses and reverses, they sued for and ob- tained peace and the rights they required, 87 B.C. The Marsi being Socii of the Ro- mans, this was called the Social war. Marsilly Carriage. A naval gun-carriage having but one set of trucks, one of the transoms resting directly on the deck. It is used in the U. S. navy for mounting the 9-inch Dahlgren in broadside. Marston Moor. Near the city of York, England. The Scots and Parliamentary army were besieging York, when Prince Rupert, joined by the Marquis of Newcastle, determined to raise the siege. Both sides drew up on Marston Moor, July 2, 1644, and the contest was long undecided. Rupert, commanding the right wing of the royalists, was opposed by Oliver Cromwell, at the head of troops disciplined by himself. Cromwell was victorious ; he drove his opponents off the field, followed the vanquished, returned to a second engagement and a second vic- tor}'. The prince's artillery was taken and the royalists never recovered the blow. Marta, or Martha Santa. A town of New Granada, South America, capital of a province of the same name in the depart- ment of Magdalena. It was repeatedly sacked by pirates during the 16th and 17th centuries; and in 1672 was completely pil- laged by a French and an English vessel. It suffered much from the attacks of the In- dians during the revolutionary war, and does not appear to have regained its former importance. Marteau d'Armes (F?-.). An offensive weapon, so called from its resemblance to a hammer. Martel-de-fer. A hammer and pick con- joined, used by horse-soldiers in the Middle Ages to break and destroy armor. Martello Towers. Are round towers for coast defense, about 40 feet high, built most solidly, and situated on the beach. They occur in several places round the coast of Great Britain ; but principally opposite to the French coast, along the southern shore of Kent and Sussex, where, for many miles, they are within easy range of each other. They were mostly erected during the French war, as a defen.se against invasion. Each had walls of 5J feet thickness and was sup- posed to be bomb-proof. The base formed the magazine ; above were two rooms for the garrison, and over the upper of these the flat roof, with a 4J feet brick parapet all round. On this roof a heavy swivel-gun was to be placed to command shipping, while howitzers on each side were to form a flanking defense in connection with the neighboring towers. Although the cost of these little forts was very great, they are generally considered to have been a failure. The name is said to be taken from Italian towers built near the sea, during the period when piracy was common in the Mediterra- nean, for the purpose of keeping watch and giving warning if a pirate-ship was seen ap- proaching. This warning was given by striking on a bell with a hammer (Ital. 7nar- tello), and hence these towers were called tari-i da martello. Martial. Pertaining to war ; suited- to war; military, as, martial music; a martial appearance; given to war; warlike; brave, as, a martial nation or people ; belonging to war, or to an army and navy ; opposed to civil ; as, martial law ; a court-martial. Martial Law. An arbitrary law, pro- ceeding directly from the military power, and having no immediate constitutional or legislative sanction. When it is imposed upon any specified district, all the inhab- itants, and all their actions, are brought within its dominion. It is founded on para- MARTIALIZE 309 MASK mount necessity, extends to matters of civil as well as of criminal jurisdiction, and is jirociainied only in times of war, insurrec- tion, rebellion, or other threat emer<;ency. It is so far distinct from military law, which atl'ects only the troops and forces. Martial law may, in fact, be termed a subjection to the Articles of War. In a hostile country it consists in the suspension, by the occupy- ing military authority, of the civil and crim- inal law, and of the domestic administration and government in the occupied jiiace or ter- ritory, and in the substitution of military rule and force for the same, as well as in the dictation of general laws, as far sis military lU'ces^ity requires this suspension, substitu- tion, or dictation, and is simply military au- thority exercised in accordance with the laws and usages of war. Military oppression is not martial law, it is the abuse of the power wliidi tliat law confers. As martial law is executed by military force, it is incumbent u|ion those who administer it to be strictly guided by the principles of justice, honor, and humanity, — virtues adorning a soldier even more than other men, for the very rea- son that he possesses the power or his arms against the unarmed. Martial law atl'ects chiefly the police and collection of public revenue and taxes, whether imposed by the expelled government or by the invader, and t refers mainly to the supjiort and efficiency I of the army, its safety, and the safety of its I operations. I Martialize. To render warlike ; as, to I martialize a people. Martinet (so called from an officer of that I name in the French army under Louis XIV.). A strict disciplinarian ; one who lays stress on the rigid adherence to the details of dis- cipline, or to forms and fixed methods. Martinetism. Kigid adherence to disci- pline. Martini-Henry Rifle. See Small-arms. Martinique. An island in the West In- dies, the must northern and one of the larg- est of tlio NN'indward group. It was taken , from the French by the British in February, 17fi2; restored to France at the peace of the I following year ; again taken March 10, 1 71>4 ; restored at the peace of Amiens in 1802; and was again captured February 23, 1801). I It reverted to its French masters in 1815. Martin's Shell. A hollow spherical pro- I jcctile lined witli loam and fllled with molten j iron, — used for incendiary purposes. Martlet. In heraldry, a bird resembling j a swallow, with long wings, very short beak j and tliighs, and no visible legs, borne on the 1 shield as « mark of cadency by tiie fourth son. Maryland. One of the thirteen original SuUes of the United States, and one of the Central Atlantic States. Maryland was first settled in lti;Jl, by a party from Virginia, and in I«;82 by a colony of" Koman C'atliolic gentry from England, "under a grant to the second Lord Baltimore, when it received its present name in honor of the English queen, Henrietta Maria. From 1G42 to 1043 the Virginian and English colonies were at per- petual warfare, and the governor of the English colony, Philip Calvert, was obliged to leave, but in lti4t; he returned, the rebel- lion having ended. Maryland took a promi- nent part in the two French wars, the Kevo- lution, and the war of 1812-14, when it was twice invaded by the Briti.'ih, who were gal- lantly repulsed from North Point, near Baltimore, Se{>tember 13, 1814, although they had gained a temporary triumjih a few weeks before at Bladensburg. In the war of 18t)l-tj0, its sympathies were with the South, and the first blood of the war was shed in Baltimore, several Massachusetts volunteers having been killed on their way to Washington. The State was the scene of several battles during the civil war, and suf- fered greatly from the contending armies. Maryland was organized as a State in IIH). Masada. A fortress on the shore of the Dead Sea, built by Jonathan Maccabieus, and afterwards greatly strengthened by Herod, as a i)lace of refuge for himself. It fell into the hands of the liomans after the capture of Jerusalem, the garrison having devoted themselves to self-destruction. Mascara. A town of Algeria, 48 miles southeast from Oran. The town was taken and nearly destroyed by the French in 1835, and occupied a second time by Gen. Bugeaud in 1841, sincewhich timeagarrisonof French troops has been constantly maintained there. Mascat, or Muscat. A large seaport of Arabia, standing on a peninsula on the north- east coast of the province of Oman. In 1507 it was taken by Albuquerque. For nearly 150 years after, it continued in the possession of the Portuguese. About the year 1648, however, it was retaken by the natives, who have ever since retained it. Mascled Armor. A kind of armor some- times worn by the Norman soldiers, com- posed of small lozenge-shaped plates of metal fastened on a leathern or quilted under-coat. Mascoutins. A tribe of Indians of Al- gonkin stock, wlio formerly inhabited the region of the Upper Lakes. They after- wards moved to the Wisconsin River, and subsequenth- settled on the Ohio. In 17'>5 they fought against Col. Croghan on the Wabash River, and attacked Col. Clarke in 1777. Their name is now lost among the numerous petty tribes that reside in Kansas. Mask. A military expression used in several senses. A masked battery is one so constructed with grassy glacis, etc., as to be hidden from the view of the enemy, until, to his surprise, it suddenly opens fire upon him, — on his flank, perhaps. The fire of a battery is masked when some other work, or body of friendly troops, intervener in the line of fire, and precludes the use of the guns. A fortress or an army is masked when a superior force of the enemy holds it in check, while some hostile evolution is being carried out. Mask. A wire cage to protect the face in fencing. MASK 310 MASSACRE Mask Wall. In permanent fortification, is the scarp wall of casemates. Mason and Dixon's Line. The line which divides Pennsylvania from Maryland, running on the parallel of 39° 43^ 26^^. The boundary between the colonial posses- sions of the lords Baltimore and of the Penn family had been a subject of almost contin- ual dispute from the first settlement of the country. At length, in 1760, the contend- ing parties having agreed upon a compro- mise, appointed commissioners to settle de- finitively the limits between the two terri- tories. Surveyors were employed by both sides, but their progress appeared rather slow; the proprietors who resided in England de- cided to send Charles Mason and Jeremiah Dixon, two distinguished mathematicians and astronomers, to complete the work. They arrived in Philadelphia in November, 1768, and by the autumn of 17G7 had care- fully surveyed and marked a line of nearly 250 miles, extending for the most part through a dense forest and passing over a number of mountain ridges. This line, dividing as it does the free State of Pennsyl- vania from Maryland, which was formerly a slave State, has been often referred to, in popular language, as the boundary between freedom and slavery in the United States. Mass. In statics, is the amount of mat- ter contained in a body. In dijnnmics, is that measure of the matter in a body which determines its relation to force. The ac- cepted measure is the weight divided by the force of gravity. See Force or Gravity. Mass. A word signifying the concentra- tion of troops ; the formation of troops in column at less than half distance. To jnass troops, is to concentrate them by this ar- rangement on a certain point. A column is closed in mass when the sub-divisions have less than half distance. Massachusetts. One of the thirteen original States of the American Union, and oldest of the New England States. It was discovered by the Cabots in 1497. In 1614 it was visited by Capt. John Smith. In 1620 the "Mayflower" sailed from South- ampton with 102 Puritan settlers, and landed at Plymouth December 22. One half of them died from cold and hardship the first year. In 1637, the colony suft'ered from Indian massacres; and in King Philip's war (1675) 12 towns and 600 houses were burned. The war of the Revolution of 1776 began in Massachusetts with the battles of Lexington and Bunker Hill. It adopted the Constitution of the United States, 1788. Massachusetts Indians. A general name given to all the tribes of aborigines inhabiting the country in which the colonies of Plymouth and Massachusetts Bay were founded. The five principal tribes were the Nausets, Pokanokets, or Wampanoags, Massachusetts, Pennacobks, and Nipmucks. They were nearly all exterminated in King Philip's war (1675). At present about 1500 Indians reside in Massachusetts. Massacre. The killing of human beings by indiscriminate slaughter, murder of numbers with cruelty or atrocity, or con- trary to the usages of civilized people ; cold- blooded destruction of life ; butchery ; car- nage. The following are among the most remarkable : Before Christ. — Of all the Carthaginians in Sicily, 397 ; 2000 Tyrians crucified and 8000 put to the sword for not surrendering Tyre to Alexander, 331 ; 2000 Capuans, friends of Hannibal, by Gracchus, 211; dreadful slaughter of the Teutones and Ambrones near Aix, by Marius, the Roman general, 200,000 being left dead on the spot, 102 ; the Romans throughout Asia, women and children not excepted, massacred in one day, by order of Mithridates, king of Pon- tus, 88 ; great number of Roman senators massacred by Cinna, Marius, and Sertorius, 87 ; again, under Sylla and Catiline, his minister of vengeance, 82 ; at Perusia, Octavianus Caesar ordered 300 Roman sena- tors and other persons of distinction to be sacrificed to the manes of Julius Caesar, 40. After Ch7-ist. — At the destruction of Jeru- salem 1,100,000 Jews are said to have been put to the sword, 70; the Jews, headed by one Andrse, put to death many Greeks and Romans in and near Cyrene, 115 ; Cas- sius, a Roman general under the emperor M. Aurelius, put to death 300,000 of the inhabitants of Seleucia, 165; at Alexandria, many thousands of citizens were massacred by order of Antoninus, 215 ; the emperor P'robus is said to have put to death 400,000 of the barbarian invaders of Gaul, 277 ; massa- cre of the Gothic hostages by Valens, 378; of Thessalonica, when 7000 persons invited into the circus were put to the sword by order of Theodosius, 390 ; of the circus fac- tions at Constantinople, 532 ; massacre of i the Latins at Constantinople by order of Andronicus, 1184; of the Albigenses and "VValdenses, commenced at Toulouse, 1208; thousands perished by the sword and gibbet of the French in Sicily, 1282 (see Siciliant Vespers); at Paris, of the Armagnacs, at the instance of John, duke of Burgundy, 1418; of the Swedish nobility at a feast, by order of Christian II., 1520; of Protestants at Vassy, March 1, 1562; of 70,000 Hugue- nots, or French Protestants, in France, August 24, 1572 (see Bartholomew, St.); of the Christians in Croatia by the Turks, when 65,000 were slain, 1592; of the pre- tender Demetrius and his Polish adherents, May 27, 1606 ; of the Protestants in the Valteline, Northern Italy, July 19, 1620; of the Protestants at Thorn, put to death under a pretended legal sentence of the chancellor of Poland for being concerned in a tumult occasioned by a Roman Catholic procession, 1724; all the Protestant powers in Europe interceded to have this unjust sentence revoked, but unavailingly ; at Batavia, 12,000 Chinese were massacred by the natives, October, 1740, under the pretext of an intended insurrection ; at the taking MASSACRE 311 MASSELOTTE of Ismail by the Russians, 30,000 old and vount( were slain, December, 1790; of i'rench royalists (see Septembrizers), Sep- tember 2, 1792 ; of Poles at Praga, 1794 ; in St. Domingo, where Dessalines made proc- lamation for the massacre of uU the whites, March 29, 1804, and many thousands perished ; insurrection at iSIadrid, and mas- sacre of the French, May 2, 1808; massacre of the Mamelukes in the citadel of Cairo, March 1, 1811 ; massacre of Protestants at Nismes, perpetrated by the Catholics, May, 1815; massacre at Scio, April 22, 1822; de- struction of tlie Janissaries at Constanti- nople, June 14, 1820; above 500 Kabyles surtocated in a cave in Algeria, June 18, 1845 (see Dahra); massacre of Christians at Aleppo, October Hi, 1850; of Maronites bv Druses in Lebanon, June, 1800; and of Christians at Damascus, July 9-11, 18G0. See Dkuses and Damascus. In British Ifi.^ton/.—Of^OO English nobles on Salisbury Plain by Hengist, about 450; of the monks of Bangor, to the nuraber of 1200, by Ethelfrid, king of Bernicia, G07 or 612; of the Danes in the southern counties of England in the night of November 13, 1002, and the 23d, by Ethelred II. At London it was most bloody, the churches being no sanctuarj'. Among the rest was Gunilda, sister of Swein, king of Denmark, left in hostage for the performance of a treaty but newly concluded. Of the Jews in England ; some few pressing into West- minster Hall at Richard I.'s coronation, •were put to death by the people, and a false alarm being given that the king had ordered a general massacre of them, the people in many parts of England slew all they met. In York, 500 who had taken shelter in the castle killed themselves rather than fall into the hands of the multitude, 1189. Of the Bristol colonists, at CuUen's Wood, Ireland (see CuLLENs Woou), 1209; of the Eng- lish factory at Amboyna, in order to di.s- mssess its members of the Spice Islands, February, 1G24; massacre of the Protestants in Ireland, in O'Neill's rebellion, October 28, 1641. Upwards of 30,000 British were killed in the commencement of this rebellion. In the first three or four days of it, 40,000 or 50,000 of the Protestants were destroyed. Before the rebellion was entirely suppressed, 154,0(X) Protestants were massacred ; of the Ifacdonalds of Glencoe (see Glencoe), Feb- ruarv 13, 1092; of 184 men, women, and children, chiefly Protestants, burnt, shot, or pierced to death by pikes, perpetrated by the insurgent Irish, lU the barn of ScuUabogue, Ireland, in 1798; of Europeans at Meerut, Delhi, etc., by mutineers of the native In- dian army. May and June, 1857; of Euro- peans at Kalangan, on the south coast of Borneo, May 1, 1859; of the Europeans at Morant Bay, Jamaica, bv the infuriated negroes, October 11-12, 18fi"5. See Jamaica. In American History. — Massacre of about 900 French Protestants (soldiers, women, children, the aged and sick) in Florida, by the Spaniards under Melendcz de Aviles, on September 21, 1505; of about 347 English on March 22, 1022, and of 300 English on April 18, 1044, by Indians in Virginia; of about 100 Algonkin Indians, in the neigh- borhood of Manhattan, bv the Dutch, on February 25-20, 1043; of 200 people at La Chine, Isle of M(jntreal, by Iroquois, Au- gust 25, 1089; of a large number of the in- habitants at Haverhill, Mass., by the; French under Des Chaillons and Uertel de Rouville, assisted by 100 picked Canadians and a number of Algonkin Indians, August 29, 1708; of the English at Pocotaligo, Caro- lina, by the Yamassees and their confeder- ates, on April 15, 1715; of a colony of French, in the southwest, near the banks of the Mississippi, by the Natchez Indians, No- vember 28, 1729; of about 30 English sol- diers, by Indians, allies of the French, after the cajjitulation of Fort William Henry, August 19, 1757; of some 3(J0 settlers, chiefly boys and old men, by British soldiers, Seneca Indians, and Tories, in W)'oming Valley, Pa., on June 30, 1778 (sec Wyoming Valley) ; of a party of emigrants, by In- dians in Mountain Meadows, Utah, 1857; of about 1000 settlers in Western Minne- sota, by Sioux Indians in 1802; of the gar- rison of Fort Pillow, Tcnn., bv the Confed- erates, April 13, 1804; of' part of the garrison of Fort Phil Kearney (near the fort), by Indians, December, 18G0; of five companies of the 7th U. S. Cavalry under Gon. Custer, by Sioux Indians, June 25, 1S70. Massacrer. One who massacres. Massagetae. An ancient Scythian people (probably the ancestors of the Goths), who invaded Asia about 035. In a conflict with them Cyrus the Great was killed, 529 n.c. Massa-Lubrenze, or Massa-de-Sorrento. A town of Na])les, on the gulf of the same name, 19 miles south of the city of Naples. It was sacked by the Turks in 1558. Masse (Fr.). A species of stock-purse, which, during the French monarchy, was lodged in the hands of the regimental treas- urer or paymaster, for every sergeant, corporal, drummer, and soldier. The amount retained for each sergeant was rinpt deniers per day, and dix deniers for eacli of the other ranks, according to the es- tablishment, not the effective number of each battalion. Out of these stoppages a settled and regular masse, or stock-purse, was made up, and at the end of every month it was paid into the hands of the major or officer intrusted with the interior manage- ment of the corps, and was then appropri- ated to defray the expense of clothing the diflerent regiments, and lodged in the hands of the directors or inspector-general of clothing. Masse d'Armes (Fr.). A warlike weapon, which was formerly u^ed. It consisted of a long pole with a large iron head. Masselotte {/■>.). A French term which is used in foundery, signifying that superfluous MASSIE 312 MATTIACI metal which remains after a cannon or mor- tar has been cast, and which is saved or filed off, to give the piece its proper form. Massie (Fr.). A short stick or rod, used by artificers in making cartridges. Master, Baggage-. An inspector of roads, formerly an appointment in the Eritish service. Master, Barrack-. Sec Barrack-Mas- ter. Master-General. See Ordnance Board. Master-General, Barrack-. Formerly an officer with the rank of major-general, in the British service, who was vested with considerable powers. His duties consisted in keeping all barracks in repair, and all supplies of barrack furniture, utensils, and other stores for the troops, were furnished by him, as also a proper quantity of good and sufficient firing, candles, and other stores. He also supplied forage to the cavalry. Master-General, Scout-. See Scout- Mastkr-General. Master-Gunners. In the British service are pensioned sergeants of artillery, who are placed in charge of the stores in small tow- ers or forts ; they are divided into three classes, of which those in the first class re- ceive 5 shillings, in the second, 3 shillings and 6 pence, and in the third, 3 shillings per day. They are now borne in the Coast Brigade of Koyal Artillery, but the office has much degenerated in importance since it was first created, at least as early as the time of Henry VIII. Mastery. Victory in war. Matafunda. An ancient machine of war, which was used for throwing stones, prob- ably by means of a sling. Matagorda. A small fort and militarj' post in the south of Spain, contiguous to Cadiz. On February 22, 1810, Capt. (after- wards Lieut. -Gen. Sir Archibald) Maclaine was posted here with a force of about 140 men. The French cannonaded the work with field artillery all the next day ; but the garrison were immovable. On March 21, the fire of 48 guns and mortars was directed on the little fort for thirty hours; when 64 men out of the 140 having fallen. Gen. Graham sent boats to carry off the survivors, and the fort was surrendered. Matan. One of the Philippine Islands, lying to the east of Zebu, where Magellan was killed in a skirmish with the natives in 1520. Matarieh. A village of Lower Egypt, in the province of Ghizeh, which stands on the site of the ancient Heliopolis, 5 miles north- east from Cairo. The Turks were defeated here by the French in 1800. Match. A preparation invented to retain fire for the service of artillery, mines, fire- works, etc. For different kinds in use and their composition, see Laboratory Stores. Match. A bringing together of two par- ties suited to one another, as for a trial of skill or force, a contest, or the like ; as, spe- cifically, a contest to try strength or skill ; an emulous struggle. Matchlock. The lock of a musket con- taining a match for firing it ; hence, a mus- ket fired by means of a match. Mate-griffon. An ancient machine, the destroyer and terror of the Greeks, which projected both stones and darts. Materiel. All cannon, small-arms, car- riages, implements, ammunition, etc., neces- sary for war purposes, used in contradis- tinction to personnel. See Personnel. Mathematics. That science, or class of sciences, which treats of the exact relations existing between the quantities or magni- tudes, and of the methods by which, in ac- cordance with these relations, quantities sought are deducible from other quantities known or supposed. It is usually divided into pure, which considers magnitude or quantity abstractly, without relation to mat- ter ; and mixed, which treats of magnitude as subsisting in material bodies, and is con- sequently interwoven with physical consider- ations ; and to this branch may be referred astronomy, geography, hydrography, hy- drostatics, mechanics, fortification, gunnery, mining, and engineering. The knowledge of military mathematics is applicable to all the operations of war, where everything con- sists in proportion, measure, and motion, bringing into play the several important sciences already enumerated, a certain pro- ficiency in most of which is absolutely req- uisite to the formation of a good and skill- ful officer. Matras {Fr.). A sort of dart which was anciently used, and which was not sufficiently pointed to occasion anything more than a bruise. Matron. A woman, generally the wife of some well-behaved and good soldier, who is employed to assist in the hospital, do the washing, etc., and is under the direction of the surgeon, by whom she is originally ap- pointed to the situation. Matrosses. Were soldiers in the royal regiment of artillery in the British service, who assisted the gunners in loading, firing, and sponging the great guns. The term is now obsolete in the service, and "the duty is done by the gunners. Matter. That with regard to which any- thing takes place, — the subject of action, complaint, discussion, legal action, or the like. A word used in reference to courts- martial. The specific charges which are brought against a prisoner, and to which the court must strictly confine itself. Also applied to the evidence before a legal tri- bunal. Neil) matter is new evidence not be- fore considered. Mattiaci. A people in Germany, whodwelt on the eastern bank of the Khine, between the Main and the Lahn, and were a branch of the Chatti. They were subdued by the llomans, who, in the reign of Claudius, had fortresses and silver mines in their country. After the death of Nero they revolted against MATTOCK 313 MECHANICAL thfi Romans, and took part with the Chatti and otlier German tribes in tlie siege of Mo- guntiaciini. From this time they disappear from liistnry; and their country was subse- quently inhabited l»y the Aiemanni. Mattock. A pioneer tool, resembling a pickaxe, but having two broad sharp edges instead of points. Mattress. A quilted bed ; a bed stuffed with hair, moss, or other soft material, and qnillcd. Mattresses are much used by offi- cers on carupaigns. Mattucashlash. An ancient Scotch wea- pon sometimes called armpit dagger, which was worn under thearm|>it, ready to be used on coming to close quarters. This, with a broad sword and shield, completely armed the Highlanders. Maubenge. A town of France, in the d(partm(,'ntver the needle- gun, the weapon used in the Franco-German war, arc numerous. It is lighter, weighing 21 j about two pounds less, and carrying a heavier charge of powder and a lighter ball, is of longer range, being effective at 1300 yards; the manner of loading it is simpler, and it can be fired with greater rapidity. Maximum Charge. See CnAKCiK. Maya. A gorge in the Pyrenees, between BidasMju and Nivelle, the scene of an action in July, 181.3, in wliich the French were worsted by the English, under Gen. Stewart. Mayaguez. A town and port of the island of Pocto Rico. An adventurer named Du- condray took this town in 1822, and made an attempt to establish an independent republic. Maynard's Primer. Consisted of a coil of paper tape containing small charges of percussion-powder placed at certain intervals. The coil was placed in a circular cavity on the outside of the lock-plate. The cocking of the piece, by unwinding the coil, brought successive charges over the nipple, when they were ex])loded by the fall f)f the hammer. Maynard's Rifle. One of the first, if not the first rifle in which a metallic cartridge was used. It was describetl in an official re- port to the U. S. Chief of Ordnance in 185G. This, as well as the primer mentioned above, was the invention of Dr. E. Maynard. This ritle in imj. roved form is still in the market. Meal Powder. Sec (Junpowdkr. Measure. To compute or ascertain the extent, quantity, dimensions, or capacity of, by a certain rule fir standard. Measure of Velocity. In projectiles and mechanics, is the space passed over by a moving body in any given time. The space therefore must be divided into as many equal parts as the time is conceived to be divided into: the quantity of space answer- ing to such jwrtion of time is the measure of the velocity. Measures. For powder arc cylindrical copper vessels of various sizes for determin- ing the charges of shells, cannon, etc. Meaux. A town of France, in the de- partment of the Seine-ot-Marne, 23 miles northeast from Paris. After a siege of sev- eral months, this place was taken bv the English in 1520. Mecca. A city of Arabia, capital of the province of Ilejaz, and of the district Belud- el-IIaram. This was the birthplace of Mo- hammed, and the cradle of the Mu.ssulman creed. In 1804 and 1807, it was taken by the Wahabees, and in 1818, bv Ibrahim Pasha. Mechanical Manoeuvres. The applica- tion of the nieehatiical jxiwers in mounting, di.-mounting, shifting, and transporting ar- tillery. Mechanical Powers. Certain simple ma- chines, such as the lever and its modifica- tions, the wheel and axle, the pulley, the in- clined plane with its modifications, the screw, and the wedge, which convert a snuiU force acting through a great space into a great force acting through a small space, or vice versa, and arc used separately or in combina- tion. MECHANICS 314 MEDIA Mechanics. That science, or branch of applied mathematics, which treats of motion, and develops the effects of powers or mov- inn; forces, so far as they are applied to ma- chines. Mechanicsville. In Henrico Co., Va. Near here, on the left bank of the Chicka- hominy, on the east side of Beaver Dam Creek, a battle was fought on June 26, 1862, between the Confederate forces, under Gen. Lee, and the Federal troops, under Gen. McClellan, in which the former were com- pelled to retreat with great lo.ss. The fight was mainly sustained on the Federal side by the brigades of Gens. Reynolds and Seymour, and lasted about seven hours, during the greater part of which time the Federal ar- tillery kept up a destructive fire on the enemy as they essayed to charge the lines, each suc- cessive attempt only ending in renewed di.s- aster. Their loss was said to be about 3000, while that of the Federals did not exceed 300. Mechlin, or Malines. A town of Bel- gium, in the province of Antwerp, situated on the Dyle. It was founded in the 6th century ; destroyed by the Normans in 884; sacked by the Spaniards, 1572 ; taken by the Prince of Orange, 1578, and by the English, 1580; frequently captured in the 17th and 18th centuries, partaking in the evil fortunes of the country. Mecklenburg. Formerly a principality in Lower Saxony, now independent as the two grand duchies of Mecklenburg-Schwerin and Mecklenburg-Strelitz. The house of Mecklenburg claims to be descended from Genseric the Vandal, who ravaged the West- ern empire in the 5th century, and died, 477. During the Thirty Years' War, Meck- lenburg was conquered by Wallenstein, who became its duke, 1628 ; it was restored to its own duke, 1630. After several changes, the government was settled in 1701 as it now exists in the two branches of Schwerin and Strelitz. In 1815 the dukes were made grand dukes, and they joined the new North German Confederation by treatv, August 21, 1866. Medal. Is a piece of metal in the form of a coin, struck to commemorate some re- markable event, or in honor of some distin- guished person, but having no place in the currency. Medals belong to two periods, ancient and modern, separated by u wide interval. To the former belong those pieces issued in ancient Rome, known as medal- iions, and made of gold, silver, or copper. They are generally supposed to have been struck on occasions similar to those on which medals are coined in modern times, on the accession of an emperor, on the achievement of an important victory, or as specimens of workmanship. Modern medals date from the 14th century, but few were struck prior to the 15th. In more recent times, it has become customary to confer medals as marks of distinction for eminent worth or noble conduct, but more particularly for naval or military services. Such medals of honor are seldom of great intrinsic value, their worth depending on the associations connected with them. During the Revolutionary war Congress conferred these marks of honor on several military and naval heroes, who dis- tinguished themselves by their valor or achievements during that eventful period. In the U. S. service, at present, bronze medals of honor are conferred on enlisted men in the army, navy, and marine corps for gallantry in action, or extraordinary heroism in the line of their duties. In the English military service, similar medals are granted. They are generally of silver, and have ribbons attached, with clasps or small bars, each of which bears the name of a par- i ticular engagement. Good-service medals of silver are also distributed among meri- torious soldiers, sailors, and marines. Medals of Honor. See Medals. Medeah, or Medeyah. A fortified town of Algeria, 40 miles southwest from Algiers. This town was taken by the French in 1820. Media. In ancient times, the name of the northwestern part of Iran, which was bounded by the Caspian Sea on the north, Persia on the south, Parthia on the east, and Assyria on the west. The Medians were in language, religion, and manners very nearly allied to the Persians. After they had shaken off the yoke of the Assyrians, their tribes united about 708 B.C., chose Dejoces for their chief, and made Ecbatana their capital. His son Phraortes, or Arphaxad, subdued the Persians. Cyaxares, the son of Phraortes, in alliance with Nabopolassar, king of Babylon, overthrew the Assyrian empire about 604 B.C., spread the terror of his arms as far as Egypt and the farthest bounds of Asia Minor, and vanquished the brigand hordes of Scythia, who had carried their ravages as far as Syria. He was suc- ceeded by his son Astyage, who was deposed (560 B.C.) by his own grandson Cyrus, king of Persia ; and from this time the two na- tions are spoken of as one people. After the death of Alexander the Great (324 B.C.), the northwest portion of Media became a sepa- rate kingdom, and existed till the time of Augustus ; the other portion, under the name of Great Media, forming a part of the i Syrian monarchy. Media was on several .! occasions separated from Persia. In 152 B.C., Mithridates I. took Great Media from the Syrians, and annexed it to the Parthian empire, and about 30 B.C., it had a king of its own, named Artavasdes, against whom Mark Antony made war. Under the Sassa- nian dynasty, the whole of Media was united to Persia. It became, during the 14th and : 15th centuries, the stronghold of the Turko- ' man tribes. In early times the Medes were a warlike race, and were distinguished for their skill with the bow. They were also ■ celebrated for their horsemanship, and it I was from them that the Persians adopted | this and other favorite exercises and ac- ' quirements. In subsequent times, they ap- pear to have become efl'eminated by luxury. : MEDIATOR 315 MEER Mediator. Any state or power which in- tcTferos to Jidjust ii quarrol between any two or ninrL- pcwcrs, is called a mediator. Medical Department. This department of an army, next to the tomniissariat, i.s tlie mo.st important of all the non-combatant sections. The suri^ical treatment of the wounded in actual lii^hting, and still more the combat with disease engendered by crowdint^, unhealthy stations, and the reck- less liabits of the soldiery, necessitate a larj^e medical stafl"; for, on an average of the whole army, it is found that the rate of sick- ness is at least quadruple that for the civil population. In tlie IJrilish army every bat- talion, when at home or in the temperate zone, has a surgeon and an assistant-surgeon ; when in India or the tropics, another assist- ant-surgeon is added. The medical depart- ment is governed by a director-general, who is a member of the AV^ar Oflice, and has charge of the surgical, medical, and sanitary arrangements of the army. In the United States every military post has at least one medical officer and sometimes two, as the nature of tlie climate or the strength of the command demands, all of whom are under the command of a surgeon-general, who ranks as brigadier-general, and is perma- nently established at Washington, D. C. He has full control over everything that pertains to the medical department of the army. Officers of the medical department are assistant-surgeons, with the rank of tirst lieutenants of cavalry the first five years of their service thereafter, till promoted to the gradeof surgeon, when they receive the rank, pa)', and emoluments of captain. Medical Director. In the U. S. service, an officer who is placed on duty at the head- quarters of a military geograjiiiical division or department, and who, under the super- vision of the surgeon-general, has control of the medical department within the limits of the command in which he is serving. Medical School. At Netley, England, an instilutiiui is established for the technical education of medical officers for the British and Indian military service. Candidates are examined competitively in the ordinary sub- jects of professional knowledge; and, pass- ing satisfactorily through that ordeal, are then re(|uired to attend for six months at the Military Medical School. As the school is attached to the Royal Victoria Hospital, wliich is the great invalid depot for the whole army, the students have ample opportunity of seeing theorv exemplified in practice. Medical Staff. This branch of the Brit- ish army is under the control of an expe- rienced officer, stationed at headquarters, under the denomination of '"director-gen- eral." Immediately under his command are a number of inspectors-general, deputy in- spectors-general, and a corps of statl'-sur- Koons. The locality of all the officers su]K)r- ainate to the director-general is determined by the force to which they may be attached. All the regimental surgeons and assistant- surgeons make their reports to and consult the stat^'-officer who is placed in their district. The director-general is paid from the civil department of the government. A deputy inspector-general of hosi)itals must have served five years at home, or three years abroad in this rank, before he shall bo eligi- ble to the highest rank of inspector-general. The medical board consists of three or four medical officers, who may be convened by an order through the Secretary of AVar, for the inspection of wounded officers, in order to secure them a provision for life, according to the regulations regarding pensions, etc. Medicine-chest. Is composed of all sorts of medicines necessary for a campaign, to- gether with such chirurgical instruments as are useful, fitted up in chests and portable. The army is supplied with these at the ex- pense of the government. Medina. Or more fully, Medinat Al Nabi (City of the Prophet),' the holiest city throughout Mohammedanism next to Mecca, and second capital and stronghold of Hedjaz in Western Arabia. In this city Mohammed was protected when he fled from Mecca, September 13, G22, others say July 15, 022. (See Hkoika.) Medina was taken by the Wahabees in 1804; retaken by the pasha of Egypt in 1818. Medina de Rio Seco. A town of Spain, 25 miles northwest of Valladolid, on the Se- guillo, an atlluent oi the Douro. Here Bessi- eres defeated the Spaniards, July 15, 1808. Medjidie. A Turkish order, instituted in 1852, and conferred after the Crimean cam- paign, to a considerable extent, on British officers. It has five classes ; and the decora- tion, which dilfers in size for the difi'erent classes, is a silver sun of seven tri|)le rays, with the device of the crescent and star al- ternating with the rays. On a circle of red enamel, in the centre of the decoration, is the legend in Turkish, whose signification is "zeal, honor, and loyalty," and the date 12(38, the Mohammedan year corresponding to 1852 ; the sultan's name is inscribed ^n a gold field within this circle. The first three classes suspend the badge round the neck from a red ribbon having green borders, and the fourth and fifth classes wear it attached to a similar ribbon on the left breast. A star, in design closely resembling the badge, is worn on the left breast by the first class, and on the right breast by the second class. Meeanee, or Miyani. A village in Sinde, Hindostan, on the Indus, (J miles north of Hyderabad, is celebrated as the scene of a great battle between Sir Charles Napier and the ameers of Sinde, February 17, 1848. Sir Charles's force, composed partly of Euro- peans, and partly of natives, amounted to only '2Sm men ; 'that of his foes to 22,000, yet" the latter were totally routed, losing in killed and wounded 5000, while Sir Charles's loss was only 25tJ. The result of this victory was the conquest and annexation of Sinde. Meer Bukshy. In the East Indies, a. chief paymaster. MEER m MEMBERS Meet Tozuk. In the East Indies, a mar- shal whose business is to preserve order in a procession or line of march, and to report absentees. Meerut, Merut, or Mirut. The chief town of a district of the same name in British India, on the Kali Nuddi, about 42 miles northeast from Delhi. Here on May 10, 1857, the native troops revolted, shooting their own European officers, and massacring the European inmates without respect to age or sex. Megalopolis (now Sinano, or Sinanu). The most recent, but the most important of the cities of Arcadia, was founded on the advice of Epaminondas, after the battle of Leuctra, 371 B.C., and was formed out of the inhabitants of 38 villages. It was situated near the frontiers of Messenia, on the river Helisson. It was for a time subject to the Macedonians, but soon after the death of Alexander the Great, it was governed by a series of native tyrants, the last of whom united the city to the Achcean League, 234 B.C. It became, in consequence, opposed to Sparta, and was taken by Cleomenes, who destroyed a great part of the city, 222. After the battle of Sellasia in the following year it was restored by Philopcemen. Megara. An ancient city of Greece, capi- tal of the territorj' Megaris, was situated 8 stadia (1 mile) from the sea, opposite the island of Salamis, about 26 miles from Athens and 31 miles from Corinth. In 461-445 B.C. the Athenians had possession of the country, but it subsequently became annexed to At- tica, and Megaris formed one of the four ancient divisions of Attica. It was next conquered by the Dorians, and was for a time subject to Corinth ; but it finally asserted its independence, and rapidly became a wealthy and powerful city. The government was originally an aristocracy, as in most of the Doric cities ; but Theagenes, one of the com- mon people, put himself at the head of the popular party, and obtained the supreme power about 620 B.C. Theagenes was after- ward expelled, and a democratical form of government established. After the Persian wars, Megara was for some time at war with Corinth, and was thus led to form an alli- ance with Athens, and to receive an Athenian garrison in the city, 461 ; but they were ex- pelled in 441. The city was taken and its walls destroyed by Demetrius Poliorcetes ; it was again taken by the Romans under Q. Metellus ; and in the time of Augustus it had ceased to be a place of importance. Meggheteriarque (Fr.). The command- ing officer of a body of men ; who formerly did duty at Constantinople, and were called Heterienyies, being composed of soldiers who were enlisted in the allied nations. Mehadpore, Mehidpoor, Mahedpore, or Maheidpoor. A town of Hindostan, Gwalior dominions, 22 miles north of Odjein. Here Sir Thomas Hislop and Sir John Malcolm defeated the Ma,hrattas under Holkar, De- cember 21, 1817. Meigs Gun. See Magazine Guns. Melanippus. The name of four Trojan warriors, who fought valiantly in the wars of their native country. Melazzo (West Sicily). Here Garibaldi, on July 20-21, 1860, defeated the Neapoli- tans under Gen. Bosco, who lost about 600 men ; Garibaldi's loss being 167. The latter entered Messina; and on July 30 a conven- tion was signed by which it was settled that the Neapolitan troops were to quit Sicily. They held the citadel of Messina till March 13, 1861. Melee {Fr.). A military term, which is used among the French to express the hurry and confusion of a battle. Melee corre- sponds with the English expression " thick of the fight." Melegnano. See Marignano. Melfi. A town of Naples, province of Basilicata (Potenza), 75 miles east-north- east of Naples, and 34 south of Foggia. It was formerly the capital of the Norman pos- sessions in Southern Ital}', and was defended by walls, now in a ruinous condition, and by an ancient Norman castle. The town was taken, and 18,000 of its inhabitants massa- cred bv the French, under Lautrec de Foix, in 1528. Meloria, or Melora. A small island in the Mediterranean, oft' the coast of Tuscany, 4 miles west of Leghorn. Near Meloria the Pisan fleet defeated the Genoese in 1241, capturing many bishops going with much treasure to a council. The total destruction of the Pisan fleet on August 6, 1284, by the Genoese near the same place, after a most sanguinary conflict, was considered to be the just punishment of impiety. Melos (now Milo). One of the Cyclades in the ^gean Sea, colonized by the Spar- tans about 1116 B.C.; it was captured during the Peloponnesian war, after a seven months' siege, by the Athenians, who massacred all the men and sold the women and children as slaves, 416 B.C. Melrose. A village at the foot of the Eildon Hills, on the south bank of the Tweed. It is famous for the ruins of its noble abbey founded by King David I. in 1136, its original pile having been destroyed during the Wars of the Succession. Mel- rose was burned by Kenneth, king of Scots, in 839. Melton-Mowbray. A town of England, in Leicestershire, situated at the confluence of the Wreak and Eye. It is remarkable as the scene of a defeat of the Parliamentary troops by the royalists in 1644. Melun. An ancient town of France, capital of the department of Seine-et-Marne, 28 miles southeast from Paris. It was the Melodutiujn of the Romans ; was taken by Clovis in 494 ; was stormed five times during the 9th century by the Northmen, and fell into the hands of "the English after a siege of six months in 1419, and was held by them for ten years. Members. Officers are so called who are MEMBERS 317 MENTANA detailed by orders to sit on general or garri- son courts-martial. Members, Supernumerary. In case su- permunorary members are detailed for a "court-martial, they are sworn, and it is right that they should sit and be present at all de- liberations even when the court is cleared, in order to be prepared to take the place of any absent member. Until then they have no voice. Memel. A town and seaport of East Prussia, on the small river Dange, adjacent to the Ciirische Half, 74 miles northeast from KiJiiigsberg. It is strongly fortified. It was taken by Teutonic knights about 1328. Memmingen. A town of Bavaria, circle of Swabia, situated on a tributary of the I Her. It is noted as the scene of a victory gained by the French under Moreau over the Austrians, May 10, 1800. Memoir. Is the title given by military officers to those plans which they offer to their government or commanders on sub- jects ri'lating to war or military economy. Memoirs. In military literature, a spe- cies of history, written by persons who had Bome share in the transactions they relate, answering in some measure to what the Romans c»\\ co7)i7ne}itarii, "commentaries." Hence Cicsar's Commentaries, or the mem- oirs of his campaigns. Memorial. An address to the govern- ment on anv matter of public service. I Memphis. A celebrated Egyptian city, situated in the Delta, or Lower Egypt. During the attempts of the native rulers to throw otf the Persian rule, Memphis was an important strategic point. Ochus inflicted severe injury on this town, having plun- dered the temples and thrown down the walls after he had driven out Nectanebus. Ptolemy VIII. destroyed the city. It fell with the rest of Egypt under the Roman rule, and afterwards w^as conquered by Amru Ben Abas (639-40). Memphis. A flourishing city and port of entry of Shelby Co., Tenn. During the civil war, it fell into the hands of the Union forces, after a short naval tight, Juno (3, 18(J2, and in 1804, Gen. Forrest made a raid upon it, capturing a great number of pris- oners. Men, Battalion. All the soldiers belong- ing to the different companies of an infan- try regiment were so called, except those of the two Hank companies. Men, Camp-color. Soldiers under the immediate command and direction of the quartermaster of a regiment. Their busi- ness is to assist in marking out the lines of an encampment, etc. ; to carry the camp colors to the field on days of exercise, and fix them occasionally for the purpose of en- abling the troops to take up correct points in marching, etc. So that in this respect they frequently, indeed almost always, act as guides, or what the French call jalon- neurs. They are likewise employed in the trenches, and in all fatigue duties. Menace. A hostile threat. Menacing words used in the presence of a court-mar- tial are punishable in accordance with Ar- ticle of War 8G. See Apfendi.x. Menai Strait (between the Welsh coast and the isle of Anglesey). Suetonius Pau- linus, when he invaded Anglesey, trans- ported his troops across this strait in flat- bottomed boats, while the cavalry swam over on horseback, and attacked the Druids in their last retreat. Their horrid practice of sacrificing their captives, and the oppo- sition he met with so incensed the Roman general, that he gave the Britons no quar- ter, throwing all that escaped from that bat- tle inta fires which they had prepared for thedestructionof himself and his army in 61. Menapii. A powerful people in the north of Gallia Belgica, who originally dwelt on both banks of the Rhine, but were after- wards driven out of their possessions on the right bank by the Usipetes and Tenchteri, and inhabited only the left bank near its mouth, and west of the Mosa. Mendavia. A town of Spain, province of Navarre, 37 miles southwest from Pam- plona. Cajsar Borgia, the infamous .son of Pope Alexander VI., was killed here in a skirmish in 1507. Mende. A town of France, capital of an arrondissement of the same name, on the left bank of the Lot. This town was forti- fied in 1151 ; it suflered much in the civil wars of the Reformation, and was taken no less than seven times. Menehould, St. A town of France, in the department of the Marne, situated on the Aisne, 2(3 miles northeast of Chalons ; it was taken by Louis XIV. in 1653. Menin. A fortified town of Belgium, province of West Flanders, on the Lys, 31 miles southwest of Ghent. It has under- gone a great number of sieges, and in the 17th and 18th centuries was frequently taken by the French. Menomonees. A tribe of Indians, of Algonkin stock. They number about 1500, are partially civilized, and reside on a reser- vation near Green Bay, Wis. Men's-harness. See Implements. Mensuration. That branch of applied geometry which gives rules for finding the length of lines, the areas of surfaces, or the volumes of solids, from certain simple data of lines and angles. Every military officer should be acquainted with mensuration. Mentana. A small village, 13 miles from Rome. Here Garibaldi and his volunteers, numbering between 3000 and 4(HX», after having intrenched his positions at Montero- tondo and Mentana on their march towards Tivoli, on November 3, 1867, were totally defeated by the papal and French troops, under Gens. Kanzler and Polhos, after a se- vere conflict, in which Gen. Failly said " the Chassepot rifles did wonders." There were about 5000 men on each side, but the Garibaldians were very badly armed. The loss of the papal and French troops wa* MENTONNIERE 318 MESS about 200 killed and wounded ; that of Garibaldi about 800. Garibaldi crossed the Italian frontier, and was arrested at Cor- rese, and eventually sent to Caprera. Mentonniere (/>.). Chin-piece; chin- strap ; chin-piece of a helmet is so called. Mentz (Ger. Mainz, Fr. Mai/ence, anc. Moguniiaciun). A city of Germany, in the grand duchy of Hesse-Darmstadt, on the left bank of the Rhine. Mentz was founded by the Romans in the 2d century, and in 406 was destroyed by the Vandals ; but after lying in ruins for some centuries it was re- stored by Charlemagne, and attained great prosperity after the time of Bonifacius. In the Thirty Years' War, it was taken by the Swedes, and in 1688 by the French, but was restored at the subsequent peace. At the end of 1792, it surrendered to the French. Next year it was taken by the Austrians. By the peace of Luneville, concluded in 1801, it was formally ceded to France, and in 1815 it was assigned to Hesse-Darmstadt. The town is strongly fortified, and is one of the strongest places in Europe, serving as a defense for Germany on the side of France. On the other side of the Rhine stands the suburb of Castel, which is also fortified. Mequinenza. A town and port of Spain, on the Ebro, in the province of Huesca, Aragon, 64 miles southeast from Huesca. It is defended by a fortress, which was taken by the French in 1810. Mercara. A town and fortress in the south of India. It was built by Hyder Ali in 1773, after he had conquered the country. Tippoo Sahib gave it up to the rajah of Coorg in 1792. It was taken pos- session of by the British in 1834. Mercenaries. Soldiers serving for pay in a foreign service. Mercia. One of the largest of the seven kingdoms of the Heptarchy (which see). It comprised the counties from the Thames to Yorkshire, and is said to have been founded by Crida in 585. Three-quarters of a century later, Mercia was conquered for a time by Northumbria ; but it recovered its independence, which it retained until Egbert subdued it, when it was included in the kingdom of Wessex. Merida. A town of Spain, province of Estremadura, on the Guadiana, 35 miles east from Badajos. It was built by the Romans ; taken by the Moors in 713 ; taken from them in 1229; taken by the French, January, 1811. Near this town, at Arroyas Molinos, the British army under Gen. (af- terwards Lord) Hill defeated the French under Gen. Girard, after a severe engage- ment, October 28, 1811. The British took Merida from the French in 1812, Gen. Hill leading the combined forces of Eng- lish and Spanish troops. Merionethshire. The most southern countj' of North Wales, situated at the middle of the Welsh coast. Here Owen Gwynedd defeated Henry II., and brave Glyndwr rose in arms at the call of friend- ship and patriotism to resist the usurper of the throne of gentle Henry, and the en- slaver of his loved Wales. Tradition and records tell of bloody deeds done here in those and later days by freebooters, daring' and cruel. Merit. To earn by active service, or by any valuable performance ; to have a right to claim as reward ; to deserve. Also, the quality or relation of deserving well or ill. Merit, Certificate of. In the U. S. army a certificate which is given by the President, upon the recommendation of commanding officers, to enlisted men who have distin- guished themselves in the service. The holder of each certificate is entitled to ?2 per month. Merit, Order of. A military distinction given to officers or soldiers for some signal service, the badge of which is generally expressive of the service. Such was the medal, or order of merit, presented by the Austrian emperor to the olficers of the 15th British Light Dragoons for their bravery in the affair of Villers en Couche in 1794. Meritorious. Possessing merit or desert ; deserving of reward or honor. Merkin. A mop to clean a cannon. See Malkin. Merlin. A handspike. Merlon. The mass of earth of the par- apet between two embrasures, generally from 15 to 18 feet in length. Also, the pro- jection on the top of a crenellated wall. Merovingians. The first Frankish dy- nasty in Gaul. The name is derived from Merwig, or Merovasus, who ruled about the middle of the 5th century, having united a few tribes under his sway. His grandson, Clovis, or Clodwig, greatly extended his dominions, and on his death divided his kingdom among his four sons, one of whom, Chlotar, or Chlotaire I., reunited them under his own sway in 558. On his death, in 561, the kingdom was again divided into four parts, — ^Aquitaine, Burgundy, Neustria, and Austrasia. His grandson, Clotaire II., again united them in 613 ; but after his death, in 628, two kingdoms, Neustria and Austrasia, were formed, in both of which the Merovin- gian kings retained a merely nominal power, the real power having passed into the hands of the mayors of the palace. The dynasty of the Merovingians terminated with the de- position of Childoric IV., in 752, and gave place to that of the Carlovingians. Merseburg. A town of Prussian Saxony, capital of a circle of the same name, on the Saale. It was near this town that the em- peror Henry the Fowler gained his famous victor}' over the Hungarians in 934. Rudolf of Swabia was here defeated and slain by Henry IV. in 1080. Mesolonghi. See Missolonghi. Mess. The law is silent with regard to messes in the army. Executive regulations have been made on the subject, but without law it is impossible to put messes on a proper MESSAGE 319 METIER footing. In En2;land, an allowance is granted by the soveroiuin in aid of the ex- jiense of officers' messes ; and every officer on appointment to a corps subscribes one month's pay to the mess-fnnd. All the offi- cers of the corps mess together. (See Guard Mkss. ) In France, the several grades mess separately ; lieutenants and sub-lieutenants forming two tables, ca|)tains another, and field-officers of different grades generally eating separately also. Generals and colo- nels of the French service receive an allow- ance for table expenses, not sufficient to keep open house, but enough to enable them to entertain guests. In the British navy there are generally three messes, namely, the ward-room mess, the gun-room mess, and the engineers' mess; in the U. S. navy there are two: the ward-room and steerage messes. Enlisted soldiers and seamen, in the army and navy respectively, mess together in tables comprising a certain number, accord- ing to squads or rating ; but this has no ref- erence to the technical meaning of messing as applied to officers, and is merely for the purpose of economy of fuel and labor in the cooking of their rations. Message. Word sent ; more especially a dispatch sii^'naled or telegraphed. Messenia. A district in the southwest of the Peloponnesus. At an early period after the Doric conquest, it rose to power and opu- lence. It is chiefly noted for its two wars with Sparta, known as the Messenian Wars, the first of which lasted from 74.] to 724 B.C., and the second from 685 to ti^H i? c. In both instances the Athenians we;-e defeated, and in consequence, a great part of them emi- grated to Sicily, where they took possession of Zancle, which then received the name of Messana, the present Messina (which see). Messina. A city in the northeast of the island of Sicily, situated on a strait called the Faro di Messina, which separates Italy from Calabria. It is 9 miles northwest from Reggio, in Calabria. The town is entirely surrounded with walls and protected by de- tached forts and a citadel, which stands on the neck of the curved promontory that forms the harbor. It was seized by the Mamertini about 281 u.o. It belonged for many ages to the Roman empire ; was taken by the Sara- cens about 829. Roger the Norman took it from them by surprise about 1072. It revolted against Charles of Anjou. and was succored by Peter of Aragon, 1282; revolted in favor of Louis XIV. of France, l(;7r.; the Spaniards punished it severely, 1(578; headquarters of British forces in Sicily prior to 1814; an in- surrection took place here which was sub- dued vSeptember 7, 184.^. (iaribaldi entered Messina after his victory at Malazzo, July 20-21, 1800; the citadel surrendered to Cialdini, March 13, 1801. Mestre de Camp General ( Fr.). The next officer in rank, in tlio old French cav- alry si-rvio', to the colonel-general. This appointment was created under Henry II. in 1552. Mestre de camp gcniral ilea dra- gonns, an appointment which first took place "under Louis XIV. in 1(;84. Metal. Broken stone, etc., used as a road cover. Metal. In heraldry, the metals in use arc gold and silver, known as or and argent. The field of the escutcheon and the charges which it bears may be of metal as well as of color. It is a rule of blazon that metal should not be placed on metal, or color on color. Metals for Cannon. See Ordnaxce, Mktai.s fou. Metapontum, or Metapontium. A city of Magna (Jn.-ria; was siiuiUcd on the Tar- entiiie (Julf, 14 niili^s tVom Ileraclea, and 24 from Tarentum. The Metaj>ontines a^sjitcd the Athenians in their Sicilian exjicdition (41.5 B.C.); they embraced the side of Pyr- rhus in his war with the Romans, and after its conclusion fell under the Roman yoke. When Hannibal invaded Italy, the Metu- pontines after the battle of Canute were well disposed to him ; but, on account of a gar- rison of Romans, were unable openly to desert to him till 212 B.C., when the city was occupied by a Carthaginian garrison. When Hannibal was compelled to leave Italy he removed, along with his own troops, the in- liabitants of Metapontum ; and from that time the city disa]>pears from history. Metaurus (now Meiauro). A river in Central Italy, where Hasdrubal, brother of Hannibal, was defeated and slain, 207 B.C., when marching with abundant reinforce- ments for the latter. The Romans were led by Livius and Claudius Nero, the consuls. The latter commanded the head of Has- drubal to be thrown into his brother's camp. This victory saved Rome. Meter, or Metre. The French standard of linear measure, intended to be the ten- millionth part of the earths quadrant, from the equator to the pole. It is equal to 39..']70 Hriti.sh, or 39.309 American inches. Methone (Modon). An ancient city of Messenia; was situated on the southwest coast. At the close of the second Messenian war it was given by the victorious Lace- daemonians to the exiled Nauplians, but was restored to its rightful owners by Epami- nondas. An unsuccessful attack was made upon Methone by the Athenians in 413 B.C. It was made a free city by the emperor Trajan, Metier (Fr.). Literally means any calling or business. In a military sense, it is pecul- iarly applicable to those nations which keep up large standing armies, and make war their principal object and pursuit. Cheva- lier Folard gives the fidlowing definition rela- tive to the question which is often discussed on the subject of war, namely, whether war be a trade or a science. The English call it a profession. Folard, however, distin- guishes it in this manner : Ln purrrc est une metier pour les igimrans, et une science pour les habilea grns, '* war in the apprehension, and under the management of ignorant per- METRIC 320 MEXICO sons is certainly a mere trade or business, but among able men it becomes an impor- tant branch of science." Metric System. The French system of measures, founded upon the metre. The system is decimal, and includes measures of length, area, volume, and weight. Metulum. The chief town of the lapydes in Illyricum ; was near the frontier of Li- burnia, and was situated on two peaks of a steep mountain. Augustus nearly lost his life in reducing this place, the inhabitants of which fought against him with desperate courage. Metz (anc. Divodiirum). A city and for- tress of Alsace-Lorraine, situated on the Mo- selle. It was the Roman Dlvodicricm, or Metl, capital of the Mediomatrici, a powerful Gaulish tribe (whose name it took at a later date), and of the kingdom of Austrasia, or Metz, in the 6th century ; but in 985, Otho II. made it a free imperial city, and there- after it was used by the German emperors as a barrier against France. It was besieged by Charles VII. in 1444, and could only preserve its freedom by the payment of 100,000 crowns. At length Henry II. ob- tained possession of it in 1-552 ; and although it was besieged by Charles V. with an army of 100,000 men, his efforts were completely baffled by the skill and energy of the Duke of Guise, and by the courage and constancy of the townsmen ; so that the French con- tinued in possession of the town till it, along with Toul and Verdun, was formally secured to them by the peace of Westphalia in 1G48. During the Franco-German war (1870-71) the emperor Napoleon III. arrived at Metz, and assumed the chief command, July 28, 1870. After the disastrous defeats at Worth and Forbach, August 6, the whole French army, except the corps of MacMahon, De Failly, and Douay, was concentrated here, August 10, 11, and by delay was hemmed in by the Germans. Marshal Bazaine assumed the chief command on August 8, and on August 14 he was attacked at Courcelles, a little east of Metz. On August 16, Bazaine advanced from the fortress, but was attacked by the second army, under command of Prince Frederick Charles, at Vionville, and was compelled to retreat to Metz. But on August 17, Bazaine massed his troops for a decisive conflict, and on August 18 he gave battle at Gravelotte (which see), but was compelled to retreat again, and was shut up in the city. Prince Frederick Charles now surrounded the city, and then began one of the greatest sieges of history. After many brilliant sallies Bazaine was compelled to surrender, October 27, on account of starva- tion and sickness, with an army including 3 marshals, 66 generals, 173,000 men, in- cluding the imperial guard, 400 pieces of artillery, 100 mitrailleuses, and 53 eagles and standards ; and on October 29 the Ger- mans entered Metz. All the army that sur- rendered was compelled to go to Germany as prisoners of war. In May, 1871, Metz was ceded to the German empire by the peace of Frankfort, and its fortifications greatly strengthened. Meurtrieres ( Fr. ) . Small loop-holes, suf- ficiently large to admit the barrel of a rifle or musket, through which soldiers may fire, under cover, against an enemy. They like- wise mean the cavities that are made in the walls of a fortified town or place. Mexico. A federal republic of North America, next to the United States. It was conquered by the Spaniards under Cortez in 1521, and remained as a Spanish dependency for 300 years ; and after a long struggle with the mother-country, which commenced in 1810, it shook oft" the Spanish yoke in 1821, and declared its independence. In 1824 the country was declared a federal republic, with a constitution similar to that of the United States, and its independence was acknowl- edged by Spain in 1836. About this time Texas, which was then the most northeastern of the Mexican states, withdrew from the federal league and became an independent republic. The Mexican general, Santa Anna, was sent to reduce them to subjection, but he was defeated and taken prisoner by the Tex- ans. In 1845, Texas was annexed to the United States and admitted into the Union as a State. This led to a war between Mex- ico and the United States, by which the former lost all her northern provinces, con- sisting of Utah, California, and New Mexico, which were ceded to the United States in 1848. From this time the history of Mexico consists, for the most part, of a long series of insurrections, revolutions, and political changes, which followed each other in rapid succession. Santa Anna, who had been driven into exile shortly after his disgrace in Texas, was recalled and made dictator in 1853. He was succeeded in power by Gens. Carera, Alveraz, Comonfort, and Zulagoa. When the last named was made dictator in 1858, Benito Juarez, the Indian statesman, , was declared constitutional president by the j liberal party ; a civil war ensued, anarchy j and confusion reigned supreme in the coun- ' try ; but Juarez, taking advantage of the dissensions between Zulagoa and Miramon, the leaders of two opposite sections of the party that was hostile to his government, at last gained the ascendency, and entered the capital as president of the Mexican republic in January, 1861. In the same year, in con- sequence of the enormities practiced by Juarez and his partisans, and the outrages committed on European merchants resident in the country, the governments of England, France, and Spain formed a triple alliance, and sent an expedition to Mexico to demand ' satisfaction for the injuries inflicted on the subjects of their respective countries, and to endeavor to bring about a more settled state ; of aflairs. Vera Cruz was occupied by the i allied forces, and this event was followed ; soon after by the convention of Soledad, signed in February, 1862, in which the gov- ernment of Juarez engaged to comply with \ Mi:ZIERES 321 MILAN the requisitions of tlie allies. But the French governnu-nt disapproved of the convention, and although the forces of Kngland and iSpiiin were withdrawn in compliance with its terms, Napoleon III. determined to ad- vance on the capital, with the view of effect- ing the overthrow of Juarez and placing the government of the country on a settled basis. The French troops were, however, delayed for some months before Puebla, which caj)it- ulated on May 18, 18G3, and entered Mexico on the 8th of the following month, amid the acclamations of the people, who had become weary of the intestine strife that had so long convulsed the land, and which had been pro- duced by the jealousy and rivalry of the party loaders who had aspired to the direc- tion of the government. This event was fol- lowed by the proclamation of the empire and the nomination of Maximilian, the brother of the presentomj)eror of Austria, as the first em- peror of Mexico under the new regime. The republican leaders were violently opposed to this measure, and Maximilian by his sever- ity towards them alienated the affections of many of his original supporters. At length, on the withdrawal of the French troops at the demand of the United States, the re- publicans advanced into Central Mexico. Muximiliiin with a Mexican force vainly attempted to oppose them, and was captured and shot at Queretaro, June 19, 18(57. Mezidres. An ancient and well-built town of France, the cajiital of the depart- ment of Ardennes, situated on a peninsula formed by the Meuse. In 1520, the Cheva- lier Bayard successfully defended this place against 40,000 Spaniards under the Count of Nassau, and in 1815 it held out for two months against the Prussians, but was at length obliged to capitulate. Miami Indians. A tribe of aborigines, of Algoiikin stock, who formerly resided in Ohio and Indiana. In the war of 1812, they fought against the United States as allies of the British. In 1840 the majority of the tribe removed to Kansas, on a reser- vation in which State a remmint still resides. Michigan. One of the Northern Central States of the United States. It was colo- nized by the French, near Detroit, in the latter half of the 17th century, but, like other French colonies in America, did not progress rapidly. At the peace of 17(33, it came, with the other French possessions in North America, under the dominion of Great Britain, and so remained till the breaking out of the American Kevolution, when it passed to the United States. On the expul- sion of the French, the celebrated Indian chief Pontiac seized the occasion to rid the country of the hated whites by a general up- rising, and simultaneous attacks On all the forts of the English on the lakes. :Mackinaw was taken by stratagem, and the garrison mercilessly butchered. Detroit was besieged for some months by Pontiac, with (iOO In- dians; but it held o"ut till the Indian allies, becoming weary of the siege, retired and left I Pontiac no choice but to make peace. Tho British surrendered Detntit to the United States in 179(5. In 1805, Michigan, which up to that jtcriod had been a part of the Northwest Territory, was formed into a sep- arate government. In 1812, it became the scene of some stirring events in the war with Great Britain. Lying contiguous to Canada, it was invaded in the very com- mencement of that struggle, and its capital (Detroit) surrendered August 15, 1812, by Gen. Hull, under circumstances which led to his displacement from his command. Pre- vious to this Fort Mackinaw had been taken by the enemy. In January, 1813, a cruel massacre by the savages of a party of Amer- ican prisoners took place at Freiichtown, but soon after, Gen. Harrison drove the enemy out of the Territory of Michigan, and re- moved the seat of war into Canada. Michi- gan became an independent member of tho American Confederacy in 1837. During tho civil war, she contributed greatly to the cause of the Union, and sent over 90,000 men to the field. Micmacs. A tribe of Indians numbering about 4000, who reside principally in New Foundland, Prince Edward Island, and Nova Scotia. They were formerly faithful allies of the French in their wars with the New England colonies, and with the Eng- lish, against whom they maintained a hostile attitude until about 17G0. Middle Ages. The ages or period of time about equally distant from the decline of the Roman empire and the revival of letters in EurojM', or from the 8th to the 15th century of the Christian era. Middle Assembling-bar. SeeORDXANCE, Cakkiaoes kok, Thk Caisson. Middle-chest. The front ammunition- chest on the body of the caisson, — so called because it is between the hind chest and the limber-chest when the caisson is limbered. Middle-man. The man who occupies a central pcjsition in a file of soldiers. Midea. A town in Argolis, of uncertain site; is said to have been originally called Persepolis, because it had been fortified by Perseus. It was destroyed by the Argives. Midianites. An Arab race, descended, according to Scripture, from Midian, the son of Abraham by Keturah. They occupied the greater part of the country between the north side of the Arabian Gulf and Arabia Felix as far as the Plains of Moab. Tho Midianites were very troublesome neighbors to the Israelites till Gideon's victory over them (about 1249 «.c.), after which they gradually disappeared. Mignon (Fr.). Picked soldier, now called ilife. Milan {Mediolaniim, capital of the ancient Liguria). A city of Italy, the capital of the province of Lombardy, 78 nules northeast from Turin; is reputed to have been built by tho Gauls about 408 n.c. It was conquered by the Roman consul Marcellus,222 B.C. It was the seat of government of tho Western MILAZZO 322 MILITARY empire in 286; plundered by Attila in 452; taken by the emperor Frederick I., 1158; it rebelled" and was taken by Frederick and its fortifications destroyed in 1102; but was re- built and fortified in 1169. The Milanese were defeated by the emperor Frederick II. in 1237 ; and the city was conquered by Louis XII. of France in "1499. The French were expelled by the Spaniards in 1525, and the city annexed to the crown of Spain in 1540; ceded to Austria, 1714. It was conquered by the French and Spaniai-ds in 1743; re- verted to Austria upon Sicily and Naples being ceded to Spain in 1748; seized by the Freiich, June 30, 1796, retaken by the Aus- trians, 1799; regained by the French, May 31, 1800. The Milanese revolted against the Austrians, March 18, 1848, but submitted August 5, 1848. Another insurrection was at- tempted in 1853, but with disastrous results. On June 8, 1859, by the peace of Villa Franca, Lombardy was annexed to Piedmont, and Victor Emmanuel became sovereign of Milan. Milazzo (anc. Mylff). A fortified seaport on the north coast of Sicily, 18 miles west of Messina. It was founded about 700 B.C., and has been the scene of manj' battles. It was taken bj' Laches in 427 B.C. It was off Mylaj that the Romans, under their consul Duilius, gained their first naval victory over the Carthaginians, and took 50 of their ships, 260 B.C. Here also Agrippa defeated the fleet of Sextus Pompeius, 36 B.C. On July 20, 1860, Garibaldi with 2500 men defeated 7000 Neapolitans, at Milazzo, and compelled the garrison to evacuate the fortress. Mileage. An allowance for traveling, as so much by the mile; especially in the United State.«, an allowance made to military officers to defray the expenses of their journeys on duty when not traveling with troops. Milesian. A native or inhabitant of Ire- land, descended according to the legendary history of the country from King Milesius of Spain, whose two sons conquered the island 1300 B.C., and established a new order of nobility. Milesian. Pertaining to Ireland, from the tradition that King Milesius of Spain once conquered the country. Miletus. A flourishing Greek city of Ionia, in Asia Minor, was situated on the north side of the peninsula of Mt. Grion, at the entrance of the Gulf of Latmus, nearly opposite the mouth of the Meander. At the time of the Ionian emigration to Asia Minor it existed as a town, but when the lonians arrived in Asia, Neleu's and a company of his followers seized Miletus, put to death all the male inhabitants, who were Carians or Leleges, and took the women for their wives. Miletus became for a time a prosperous city under the rule of Lydia and Persia, but in 500 B.C. it revolted against Persia, and after repeated defeats in the field, the city was be- sieged by land and by sea, and finally taken by storm in 494 B.C. The city was plun- dered and its inhabitants massacred, and the survivors Avere transplanted to a place called Ampe, near the mouth of the Tigris. The town itself was given up to the Carians. Towards the end of the Peloponnesian war, Miletus threw oft' the yoke imposed upon her by Athens, and in a battle fought under the very walls of the city, the Milesians de- feated their opponents ; the Athenian admi- ral, Phrynichus, abandoned the enterprise. In 334 B.C., Alexander the Great took the city by assault, and destroyed a part of it, but it continued to flourish, until it was de- stroyed by the Turks and other barbarians. Milford Haven. A town of Wales, in Pembrokeshire, 6 miles northwest from Pem- broke. Here the Earl of Richmond, after- wards Henry VII., landed on his way to en- counter Richard III., whom he defeated at Bosworth, 1485. Milice. An old term for militia. Militancy. Warfare. This term is obso- lete. Militant. Engaged in warfare ; fighting ; combating ; serving as a soldier. Militantly. In a militant manner. This term is rarely used. Militar. Military. This term is obsolete. Militarily. In a military or soldierly manner. Militarist. One devoted to military pur- suits. Military. Pertaining to soldiers, to arms, or to war ; having to do with the afTairs of war; as, a military parade or appearance; military discipline. Engaged in the service of soldiers or arms ; as, a military man. Warlike; becoming a soldier ; as, military bravery, military virtue. Derived from the service or exploits of a soldier; as, military renown. Conformable to the customs or rules of armies or militia ; as, the conduct of the officer was not military. Performed or made by soldiers ; as, a military election. Military. The whole body of soldiers; soldiery; militia; the army. Military Academies. The great improve- ments made in the art of war in modern times, in weapons, drill, discipline, etc., has made warfare more of a science and less of a trial of brute force than formerly, and hence the necessity for a body of trained ofiicers capable of moving, directing, and bringing into effective operation all the appliances of war with which modern armies are furnished. As this special training cannot be obtained at ordinary educational establishments, spe- cial schools for the purpose have been estab- lished in all civilized countries. A few of them are here noted. Great Britain. — The Royal Military Academy, an establishment at Woolwich, through which must pass all candidates for the artillery and engineers. It was insti- tuted in 1741, but the present structure was not erected until 1805. It usually contains about 200 cadets. The age of admission is sixteen, and the vacancies are open to public competition. The parents or guardians have to make annual payments for the support of MILITARY 323 MILITARY the cadets as long as they remain at the academy, the amount being greater for the son of a civilian than of a military or naval officer. "When the term of instruction — which comprises the subjects of a thorough general education, the higher mathematics, fortification, gunnery, and military duty — is completed, the cadets compete for vacan- cies in the engineers and artillery, those who pass the best examination being allowed a choice of either branch of the service. All who obtain commissions in the engineers proceed to Chatham for further instruction in their professional duties ; the artillery cadets at once join the artillery as lieutenants. lioj/nl Milifnri/ College, Sand/iur.if, is an institution for the training of candidates for coniniissions in the cavalry and infantry. The course is limited to one year immediately before entering the army, and the subjects of instruction confined to the higher mathe- matics, modern languages, and military sci- ence. Entrance is on the nomination of the commander-in-chief; and the payment by the cadets' parents or guardians varies ac- cording to their circumstances and rank. No jtayment is made for what are called "Queen's Cadets," who must be orphans. Commissions in the cavalry and infantry are given to the cadets in the order of merit at the end of the year. The Stnf Cullcfjc was founded in 1858, about 2 miles from Sandhurst, for the purpose of giving higher instruction to 30 officers aspiring to appointments on the stall". To be entitled to compete for entrance, an officer must have been three years in active service, must have passed the qualifying examination for a captaincy, and must have the recom- mendation of his commanding officer. A very strict examination decides which among the competitors shall be admitted to the col- lege, one only being eligible from any bat- talion. The course lasts two j'cars. At the end of each year there is an examina- tion ; that of the second fixing the order of the candidates' choice for stall' employment. After passing the Stutf College the officer is attached for duty, for a short period, to each of the arms with which he may not have already served. He then becomes eligible for appointment to the stall', as opportunity mav occur. There are also the Koyal School of Military Engineers at Chatham, for the instruction of engineer officers, the Koyal Military School at Dublin, and professional schools for officers and enlisted men, as the School of Musketry at Hy the, and the School of Gunnery at Shoeburyness. Franck' — The celebrated Pulyfcchnic School hi Paris was established by the Na- tional Convention, September 28, 1704. Bv a decree of July IC, 1804, Nan.iloon placed it under a military regime. No attempt be- ing made to impart a general education, candidates are required to have a thorough genenil knowledge before they are admitted. The preliminary examination of candidates for admission comprises mathematics, phys- ics, chemistry, history, German, etc. ; in fact, the candidate to be successful should have the degree of Bachelor of Science. Ad- mission is open to competition ; a board of examiners passes through the country once every year, and examines all who present themselves, possessing the requii-ite qualifi- cations of age, etc. A list is made out from the proceedings of the board, and the num- ber of candidates highest in order of merit for whom there are vacancies admitted. The age of admission is from sixteen to twenty years, or if the candidate is in the army, to twenty-five. This school prepares students for various branches of the public service, for the staff, engineers, artillery, for the corps of hydrographical engineers, engineers of roads and bridges and of mines, the de- partment of powder and saltpetre, etc. The number of cadets is usually about 350, and the course of instruction two years. After the final examination the first 30 or 40 can- didates usually select civil emjdoyment un- der the government, those next in merit choose the artillery and engineers, and are sent to the School of Application, to pass through a technical course. The remaining students either fail to qualify, and leave the school, or receive commissions in the line, subordinate situations in the government service, civil or colonial, or they retire into civil life altogether. The Special Militari/ School at St. Cyr, near Versailles, was established for the instruc- tion of candidates for commissions in cavalry and infantry. The age of admission is the same as for the Polytechnic School, and pupils are entitled to partial or entire state aid if they need it, as are also those of the Polytechnic. The course of instruction is two years, at the end of which time the more promising students pass to the Staff School, and thence, after a thorough course, to the etat-major of the army ; the remaining stu- dents pass as subalterns into the cavalry and infantry, selecting the arm of the service in which they desire to serve according to the order of merit in which they graduate. There are also the School of Application for Engineers and Artillery, the Scliool of Ap- plication for the Staff, the Cavalry School at Saumur, fi>r one year's instruction to officers of that arm, and the School of Musketry at Vincennes. Prussia. — The Prussian system of mili- tary education differs from that of France, in that competition is but sparingly resorted to, the object being to give a good general and professional education to all theofficers, rather than a specially excellent training to a select few. For this purpose there are established seven cadet schools, one senior, at Berlin, and six junior, situated at Hen>burg, Culm, Oranicnstein, Ploen, Potsdam, and Wahlstatt. The ago of admission to tho junior schools is frt)m ten to eleven years, and tho usual course of instruction is for four years, and two or three at the senior school, followed by the finishing term of MILITARY 324 MILITARY nine months at a division school, when grad- uates are eligible to commissions. Some, however, are sent to the army to earn their commissions as other candidates. Others pass an additional j-ear at the senior cadet school, in which case the term at the division school is dispensed with. After completing their course at the junior schools, students pass to the senior school without examina- tion. They may also be admitted to the senior school without passing through the junior grade, provided they come up to the required standard of qualification. Aspir- ants for commissions must enter the ranks, and within six months pass a good examina- tion in general and liberal knowledge if they are not graduates of a cadet school. Those who are graduates are not examined. After some further service the candidate goes for nine months to one of the division schools, which are eight in number, situated at An- clam, Cassel, Engers, Erfurt, Hanover, Metz, Neisse, and Potsdam Here he com- pletes his professional education, and if he passes the final examination, is eligible for the next vacancy in the line, but cannot be commissioned unless the officers of the corps are willing to accept him as a comrade. Candidates for commissions in the artillery and engineer corps, after graduating from the cadet school or passing an examination from the army, must pass nine months at the Ar- tillery and Engineer School, after which they receive a provisional appointment as sub- lieutenants. Upon graduating, after two more terms of nine months each, they are commissioned as lieutenants. But the cul- mination of Prussian military education is the Statf School, or War Academy, which presents the highest prizes in the profession, and competition for which is open to all ofii- cers of the army who have had three years' service, and can produce testimonials of good conduct, ability, etc., from their superi- ors. Admission is by competitive examina- tion, usually about 40 of the applicants be- ing selected. The course of study lasts three years. During three months of each year the officers are sent to do military duty with arms of service or corps not their own. Of the 40 who pass through the Staff' School each year, 8 or 10 only are sent to the topographi- cal department of the stafl*. There they serve two or three years, at the expiration of which time two are selected from the number, and appointed captains on the staflT. The remainder return to their regiments or corps, sometimes receiving appointments in the division schools. Austria. — The Austrian military system of training is very elaborate, and commences at an early age, — boys intended for military service beginning their professional almost contemporaneously with their general edu- cation. There are schools of various orders for training non-commissioned officers and for officers, and senior departments for im- parting more extended instruction to both classes. Candidates for appointment as non- commissioned officers pass by competition through the lower houses, where they remain till eleven years old, the upper houses, which detain them till fifteen, and the school com- panies, whence, after actual apprenticeship to service, a few pupils pass to the academies as aspirants for commissions, and the others are drafted into the service as non-commis- sioned officers. For the education of officers there are four cadet houses, each containing 200 pupils. The boys are pledged to the service by their parents at the age of eleven, after which the state takes charge of them. At fifteen they pass according to qualifica- tion to the academy for the line, the engineer or artillery academy, and four years later receive their commissions in the arms of the service for which they have graduated. The young officer's chance of entering the Staff School — and therefore the staff — depends upon his place at the final academic exami- nation. The Staff School consists of 30 pupils se- lected by competitive examination from all arms of the service, 15 entering each year. The course of instruction is two years. To be qualified for admission a candidate must have served two years with his regiment, and be over twenty-one and under twenty- six years of age. The students receive ap- pointments in the staff corps according to the order of merit, immediately after the final examination, if there are vacancies; if there are none, they return to their regiments until vacancies occur. If the successful candidate is a second lieutenant, he is pro- I moted to the rank of first lieutenant ; if a first lieutenant, he is promoted captain after three j'ears' service. j Russia. — Has 22 military colleges for the ' guards and line, containing over 7000 cadets, a school of ensigns for the guards, an artil- lery and an engineer school, averaging over 8000 military students. There is also an imperial staff school, into which 20 or 25 officers enter each year after examination. The term of instruction is for two years. Upon graduation, the most distinguished scholar is at once promoted to the rank of captain on the stall", and all the graduates are, from time to time, as vacancies occur, attached to the staff, but not immediately j proijioted in it. | Italy, Spain, and other powers have also ' their military academies, but those already given may be considered a fair type of all. It need only be stated that the educational status of* the Italian officers is considered very high. The United States. — The Military , Academy at West Point is the only govern- j ment institution in the United States for j the military training of cadets and their preparation for the duties of officers. The necessity for such an institution Avas recog- ; nized at an early date in the history of the country. A committee of Congress which had visited the Continental army at New York recommended the establishment of a MILITARY 325 MILITARY military academy in their report, October 3, 1776. 'The subject was subsequently brought to the notice of Congress on several occa- sions, but without result until 1794, when provision was made for the establishment of 4 battalions of engineers and artillerists, 8 cadets to be attached to each battalion. The number was increased to 5*5 in 1798, and provision made for procuring books and ap- paratus for their instruction. By the act of March KJ, 1802, determining the military peace establishment, the artillerists and en- gineers were made two distinct corps ; 40 cadets were attached to one regiment of artillery, and 10 to the corps of engineers, said corps to be stationed at "West Point, and to constitute a military academy. The act also provided that the senior engineer officer present should be superintendent of the academy, and authorized the Secretary of War to procure the necessary books, ap- paratus, etc., for the institution. Another act, dated February 28, 1803, authorized the President to appoint teachers of French and drawing. At the expiration of live years, however, further legislation was deemed necessary, and on April 12, 1808, a bill was passed which added 15(i members to the corps of cadets. By the act of April 19, 1812, it was declared that the Military Academy should consist of the corps of en- gineers, the teachers of French and drawing already provided for, a professor of natural philosophy, a professor of mathematics, and a professor of engineering, with an assistant for each professor. Provision was also made for a chaplain, who was to officiate as pro- fessor of geography, physics, and history. The number of cadets was limited to 200; the requirements for admission, terms of study and service, and rate of pay and emoluments were also prescribed. But the commencement of its great success as an educational institution, and the reputation which the academy possesses for its elevat- ing and disciplinary government, dates from July, 1817, when Brevet Maj. Sylvanus Thayer, of the engineer corps, assumed command as superintendent. He was an early gradvuite of the academy, had served with distinction in the war of 1812, and having studied in the military schools of France, had acquired matured views fc?r the government of such an institution. He or- ganized and perfected a system of manage- ment, which he carried into successful opera- tion for sixteen years, and which, with but little modification, is followed to-day. In 1818 the department of geograiiby, history, and ethics was organized, and the chaplain appointed professor ; the clerical and secu- lar duties tlius combined have ever since re- mained inseparable. A professorship of chemistry, mineralogy, and geology was created by act of July 5, 1838"^ andean as- sistant authorized, " to be taken from the officers of the line, or cadets." In May, 1846, the teachers of French and drawing were styled professors, and the appointment of assistants was authorized. In 1857 a professorship of the Spanish language was established. By act of Congress approved June 23, 1879, whenever a vacancy occurs in the office of professor of the French or Spanish language, both these offices shall cease, and the remaining one of the two professors shall be professor of modern lan- guages. A professorship of law has also been established, which is held by an officer of the bureau of military justice. Tho academic staff consist of the superintendent; the commandant of cadets, who is instructor of artillery, cavalry, and infantry tactics, and is charged with the disciftline of the cadets, having usually 8 officers detailed from the line of the army as assistants ; and of the pro- fessors of civil and military engineering and science of war, of natural and experimental philosophy, of mathematics, of history, geog- raphy, and ethics (chaplain), of chemistry, mineralogy, and geology, of drawing, of French, of Spanish, and of law, all of whom have one or more commissioned officers as as- sistants. There are also detailed on duty several officers of the engineer and ordnance corps as instructors in practical military en- gineering, military signals and telegraphing, and in ordnance and gunnery. A sword- master is also employed. The military statf consists of an adjutant; a treasurer, quarter- master and commissary, of the battalion of cadets; a quartermaster, surgeon, and assist- ant surgeon. In 1843 the custom which had prevailed of appointing one cadet from each Congressional district received the sanction of law, and thus the number was limited to the number of Representatives. But as the Dis- trict of Columbia and the army and navy were not represented, the President was cm- powered to appoint 1 cadet from the former and 10 cadets "at large," the latter to bo selected annually from the army or navy, or any other quarter at his option, without re- gard to Congressional districts. The age for admission is from seventeen to twenty-two years, except when the candidate has served one year in the war of the Rebellion, in which case he may be admitted up to twenty-four, and the course of instruction is fixed at four years. Candidates must be able to read and write well, have a good knowledge of grammar, of geography, and history, particularly of the United States, and of arithmetic, including vulgar and decimal fractions. Examinations arc held annually on January 1 and June 1. All newly-appointed cadets must report for ex- amination by June 25, and none are exam- ined after September 1, unless detained by sickness or other unavoidable cause, when they may be examined with the fourth class vn January 1, and if fouiul competent may proceed with that class. Each cadet on ad- mission takes the oath of allegiance and binds himself to serve the United States for eight years, unless sooner discharged. For purposes of instruction, the cadets are di- vided into four classes, the fourth being tho MILITARY 326 MILITARY junior class, and for matters of discipline the permanent organization is that of a battalion of infantry composed of four com- panies. During their academic course cadets receive $500 a year and one ration a day. Upon graduating, the cadets highest in merit are usually commissioned as second lieuten- ants and appointed to the engineer corps, those next in order of merit to the artillery, and the remainder to the cavalry and in- fantry. Those for whom no vacancies exist at graduation are attached to regiments or corps as additional second lieutenants, and promoted second lieutenants as soon as a vacancy occurs in the arm to which they are attached. By act of Congress approved June 23, 1879, each member of the gradu- ating classes of 1879-80 may elect, with the assent of the Secretary of War, to receive the sum of $750 and mileage to the place of his residence in lieu of an appointment in . the army, except in the event of war, until two years after his graduation. There is also an artillery school at Fort Monroe, Ya., for the training of officers and enlisted men. The school is entirely conducted by commissioned officers, and the course of instruction is one year. Military Asylum. See Soldier's Home. Military Asylum, Royal. See Asylum, Royal Military. Military College. See Military- Acad- emies (Sandhurst). Military Column. See Column, Mili- tary. Military Discipline. Next to the forming of troops, military discipline is the first ob- ject that presents itself to our notice: it is the soul of all armies ; and unless it be es- tablished among them with great prudence, and supported with unshaken resolution, soldiers become a contemptible rabble, and are more dangerous to the very state that maintains them than even its declared ene- mies. See Discipline. Military Execution. The ravaging or destroying of a country or town that refuses to pay the contribution inflicted upon them. Also, the punishment inflicted by the sen- tence of a court-martial. Military First Principles. Is the bodily training for a soldier, to make him hardy, robust, and capable of preserving health amidst fatigue, bad weather, and change of climate ; to march at such possible pace, for such length of time, and with such burden, as without training he would not be able to do. Military Frontier, The. A crown-land of the Austrian empire, bounded on the north by Croatia, Slavonia, and theWojwodschaft, on the east by Transylvania and Wallachia, on the south by Turkey and Dalmatia, and on the west by the Adriatic, comprising an area of 12,800 square miles. The military frontier owes its origin as a crown-land to the necessity of having a permanent body of defenders on the borders during former wars, and especially during wars with the Turks. In the 15th century the Austrians had gained from the Turks certain tracts of territory on the banks of the Save and Danube. These tracts they colonized, making it, however, a condition that the colonists must render military service against the Turks. The Warasdin frontier originated in the same manner under Ferdinand I. In the 17th century the Petrinier frontier, which at a later period received the name of the Banat frontier, was erected. The military stations along the frontier serve a threefold purpose, — the defense of the country, the prevention of smuggling, and the prevention of the spread of contagious disease into the terri- tories of the Austrian empire. The inhabit- ants of this crown-land enjoy peculiar privi- leges. Their immigrant ancestors received only the temporary use of lands consigned to them ; but in 1850 a law was passed making over the land to the occupiers as their own property. This right of property does not belong, however, to individuals, but to the family in a united sense. The oldest member of a family is intrusted with the management of the land ; his partner ranks equal with hrm, and they each receive a double share of the profits. All who are able to bear arms are sworn to the service from their twentieth year. The soldier of the frontier, who is clothed as well as armed and supplied with ammunition by govern- ment, finds it his duty not only to watch and protect the frontier, but to preserve peace and order in the interior, and to go on foreign service when required. Only the smaller portion of the forces of the military frontier is retained in readiness for active service, while the remainder pursue their ordinary employments. To facilitate the accomplishment of the purposes aimed at by the military frontier, the cordon, a series of guard-houses along the whole frontier, af- fording accommodation to from 4 to 8 men, as well as larger ones, accommodating 12 men and a junior officer, has been instituted. Within this line are the officers' posts. Without announcing himself at the posts, no one is allowed to pass the boundary ; and after permission is given the passenger must remain a longer or shorter time at the quar- antine establishment, in order that all in- trodftction of disease may be prevented. Military Indications. Officers should study attentively the customs of their enemy, their hours for dining, commen- cing their marches, etc., and the many indications of intended movements which an enemy may unwittingly afford. The collection of boats, heavy guns, scaling- ladders, gabions, etc., at particular places, are indications that must always precede the passage of rivers, sieges, etc. If large magazines of stores or provisions are col- lected anywhere, it is clear that no retreat is contemplated ; if, on the other hand, the parks of heavy, or spare guns, ammunition, engineer stores, etc., are being sent to the rear, a retreat is imminent, or being pre- MILITARY 327 MILITARY pared for. The dust raised by coliimns is a fair guide iu some countries as to the num- bers and composition of th(! force marching. That raised by cavalry forms a high, ligiit cloud, by infantry, a lower and dense one, by parks and baggage, one more dense still. With a good glass you can sometimes learn from the manner in which troops move, and from their dress, whetlier they are regulars or militia, or if tiicy belong to any special corps. The manner and bearing of peof)le in a liostile country is usually a fair indica- tion of the public spirit and feeling ; if they are gloomy and anxious, it is an indication of want of confidence in their cause, and that their troops are distant ; whilst if they are excited and insolent, it shows that they rely upon assistance near at hand, and an- ticipate success from the number and etR- ciency of their army. In following a re- treating army much can be learned from its trail; if the debris of arms, accoutrements, etc., lie about, there is a want of transport, and it is a sign of demoralization, according to the extent to which it is the case ; a large number of graves indicates the existence of disease in the enemy's army. The places where they lialted for the night should be carefully examined ; and all indications carefully noted. Did they bivouac or pitch tents; was their camp laid out with regu- larity; were their cooking-places neatly made. Is their track strewn with dead or dying transport animals; have they plundered the inhabitants or burnt their crops or houses; have they effectually or only partially destroyed the bridges, etc. The most insignificant circumstance al!brds sometimes whole pages of information to officers who, having studied the manners and customs of an enemy, know liow to interpret thorn aright. Officers command- ing small detached parties sent out on rec- onnoitring duties may many times avoid falling into the hands of strong patrols or detachments by learning their proximity from their track if crossed anywhere ; the number and composition of such detach- ments may easily lio estimated from it. Military Knights. See Knights, Mili- tary. Military Law. Sec Law, Military. Military Mines. See Mines, Military. Military Necessity. As understood by modern civili/.cd nations, consists in the necessity of those measures which are indis- pensable for securing the ends of war, and which are lawful according to the modern law and usages of war. Military necessity admits of all direct destruction" of life oV limb of armed enemies, and of other persons whose destruction is incidentally unavoidable in the armed contests of war;" it allows of the capturing of every armed enemy, and every enemy of importance to the hostile government, or of peculiar danger to the captor; it allows of all destruction of prop- erty, and obstruction of the ways and chan- nels of traffic, travel, or communication, and of all withholding of sustenance or means of life from the enemy ; of the appropriation of whatever an enemy'.s country affords necessary for the subsistence and safety of the army, and of such deception as does not involve the breaking of good faith, either positively pledged, regarding agreements entered into during the war, or sujiposed by the modern law of war to exist. Men who take up arms against one another in public war do not cease on this account to be moral beings, responsible to one another, and to God. Military necessity does not admit of cruelty, that is, the infliction of suffering for the sake of sufiering, or for revenge, or of maiming or wounding, except in fight, or of tt)rture to extort confessions. It does not admit of the use of poison in any way, or of the wanton devastation of a district. " It ad- mits of deception, but disclaims acts of per- fidy; and in general, military necessity does not inwlude any act of hostility which makes the return to peace unnecessarily difficult. Military Orders. Keligious associations which arose from the mixture of the reli- gious enthusiasm and the chivalrous love of arms which almost etiually formed the characteristic of mediaeval society. The first origin of such associations may be traced to the necessities of the Christian residents of the Hr)ly Land, in which the monks, whose first duty had been to serve the jiilgrims in the hospital at Jerusalem, were compelled by the necessity of self-defense to assume the character of soldiers as well as of monks. (See Saint John of Jerusalem.) The order of the Templars (see Templar, Knights) was of singular origin. Those of Alcan- tara and Calatrava (which see), in Spain, had for their immediate object the defense of their country against the Moors. These orders as well as that of Avis in Portugal, which was instituted with a similar view, followed the Cistercian rule, and all three ditf'ercd from the Templars and the Knights of St. John in being permitted by their in- stitute to marry once. The same privilege was enjoyed in the Savoyard order of Knights of St. Maurice, and the Flemish order of St. Hubert. Un the contrary, the Teutonic Knights, who had their origin in the Crusades (see Grand Master), were bound by an absolute vow of chastity. AVith the varying conditions of society, these religious associations have at various times been abolished or fallen into disuse ; but most of them still subsist in the form of orders of knighthood, and in some of them, attempts have recently been made to revive, with certain modifications, the monastic character which they originally possessed. Military Positions. See Positions, Mil- ITAHV. Military Punishment. See Punishment, Mll.l I AKY. Military Regulations. The rules and regulations by which the discipline, fornm- tions, field-exercise, and movements of the whole armv are directed, to be observed in MILITAET 328 MILITIA one uniform system. See Army Regula- tions. Military Science. See Logistics, Strat- agem, Strategy, Tactics, and War. Military Secretary. An officer on the personal stafl" of generals in high command. His duties are to conduct the correspondence of his chief, and to transact a great amount of confidential business, which would dan- gerously occupy the time of the general himself. In the British service the military secretary to the commander-in-chief is usu- ally a general officer. To a commander-in- chief in the field, he is for most part below that rank, while to a general commanding a division only, an assistant military secre- tary is allowed. His staflf pay is of course additional to the officer's regimental or unattached pay. Military Service. In the feudal ages, a tenure of lands by knight's service, accord- ing to which the tenant was bound to per- form service in war unto the king, or the mesne lord, of whom he held by that tenure. As the king gave to the great nobles, his immediate tenants, large possessions forever, to hold of him for this or that service or rent, so they in time parceled out to such others as they liked, the same lands for rents and services as they thought good. And these services were divided into two sorts, chivalry and socage ; the first whereof was martial and military, whereby the tenant was obliged to perform some noble or militarj'' office unto his lord. This was of two kinds : either regal, that is, held only by the king, or common, when held of a common person. That which was held only of the king was called servitium, or serjeantia, and was again divided into grand and petit serjeantry. The grand serjeantry was where one held lands of the king by service, which he ought to do in his own person; as, to bear the king's banner or spear, to lead his horse, or to find a man-at-arms to fight, etc. Petit serjeantry was when a man held lands of the king, to yield him annually some small thing towards his wars, as a sword, dagger, bow, etc. Chivalry that might be holden of a common person was termed scutapium, or escunge; that is, service of the shield, which was either uncertain or certain. Es- cuage uncertain was likewise twofold : first, where the tenant was bound to follow his lord, by going in person to the king's wars, or sending a sufficient man in his place, there to be maintained at his cost so long as was agreed upon between the lord and his first tenant at the granting of the fee. The days of such service seem to have been rated by the quantity'' of land so holden ; as, if it ex- tended to a whole knight's fee, then the knight was to follow his lord forty days ; if but a half a knight's fee, then twenty days ; and if a fourth part, then ten days, etc. 'The other kind of this escuage was called castle- ward, where the tenant was obliged by him- self or some other, to defend a castle as often as it should come to his turn. Military Stores. See Stores, Military. Military Tenure. Tenure of land, on condition of performing military service. Military Train. A h ighly important corps of the army of Great Britain, of which the function is to transport the provisions, am- munition, and all other material, together with the wounded in time of battle. It was formed after the Crimean war, on the disso- lution of the Land-Transport Corps. In the year 1863 it comprised 6 battalions, in all 1840 officers and men. The corps ranks after the Royal Engineers, and is classed as Mounted Infantry, the officers receiving in- fantry rates, and the men cavalry rates of pay. The men are armed with carbine and sword, but rather for defensive than aggres- sive purposes. Attached to each battalion are 166 horses, with proportionate wagons and ambulances. It is proper to observethat the Military Train constitutes the nucleus of a transport service for a large army, and that in time of war it would be expanded by the addition of thousands of horses or mules, and the incorporation of many hundred drivers, etc. The advantage of possessing even a few men ready trained and capable of directing the movements of others was amply demonstrated by the failures of the Crimea in 1854-56 ; so that Parliament votes un- grudgingly the expense of this corps, al- though in time of peace it is comparatively without employment. It is now termed the Army Service Corps. Military Ways. The large Roman roads which Agrippa caused to be made through the empire in the reign of Augustus for the marching of troops and conveying of car- riages. They were paved from the gates of Rome to the utmost limits of the empire. The British have constructed a military road throughout India, with wells and other ac- commodations at certain distances. Militia. From the Latin miles, a "sol- dier," a term which was formerly synony- mous with " military," or the whole fighting force of a country, but in modern times has come to signify the domestic force for the de- fense of a nation, as distinguished from the regular army, which can be employed at home or abroad in either aggressive or defen- sive operations. Every nation has a reserve, under its law military, upon which its de- fense would fall on the discomfiture of the regular army ; but the system ditfers in each country. France has her Gardes Nationaux, Prussia the La7idwehr and Landsturm, and ^ similar organizations exist in other European | states. It also comprehends the volunteer \ organizations of Great Britain and the United : States. The laws of the United States re- ^ quire the enrollment into the militia of all able-bodied males between the ages of eigh- ^ teen and forty-five years, with certain ex- . ceptions specified in general and State laws. | The militia of each State is required to be | arranged into companies, battalions, regi- ; ments, brigades, and divisions, as the Legis- lature of the State may direct, and it shall ; MILITIA-MAN 329 MINIE be subject to military duty and shall serve a definite time. These organizations are to be ofKcered by the respective States, the {grades and number of officers beiny named in the laws requirin£x enrollment. The Constitu- tion of tlie United States has given the power to Congress to j)rovide for " calling forth the militia to execute the laws of the Union, suppress insurrections, and repel invasions." (Congress by legislation has given the Presi- dent, the authority to call forth the militia under certain exigencies, as has been fre- quently done. When called into actual ser- vice of the United States, the militia receive jmy from the government, and are subject to the Kulesand Articles of War. The militia is therefore a part and parcel of the army of th>! United States, although in common use the term is limited to mean the regular army alone. The organized militia of the United States numbers r_'.'),OOG men, the number of men available for military duty unorganized, is 0,508,105. Militia-man. One who belongs to the militia. Mill, Gunpowder-. Is a machine used for mixing or incdrpurating the ingredients of which gunpowder is composed. The opera- tion was formerly effected as follows : The ingredients being duly proportioned and put into the mortars of the mills, which are hol- low pieces of wood, each capable of holding 20 pounds of paste, are incorporated by means of the pestle and spindle. There are I 24 mortars in each mill, where are made each day 480 pounds of gunpowder, care being I taken to sprinkle the ingredients in the mor- I tars with water from time to time, lest they ! should take fire. The pestle is a piece of I wood 10 feet high, and 4.} inches broad, I armed at the bottom with a round piece of I metal. It weighs about 60 pounds. For more modern methods of incorporation, see GUNl'OWUKK. Mill Springs. A village of Wayne Co., Ky., about 100 miles south of Frankfort. Near here a Federal force under Gen. Geo. H. Thomas defeated a Confederate army I under Gen. G. B. Crittenden, January 19, I 18G2. In this engagement the Confederate I general F. K. Zollicoffer was killed. Mill-cake. The incorpf>rated materials for guiipiiwder, in the form of a dense mass I or cake, ready to be subjected to the process ; of gramilaticm. Milliken's Bend. A village of Madison Parish, La., on the right bank of the Mis- sissippi River, about 2.") miles above Vicks- burg. On June G, 18G8, the Confederates I under Gen. McCuUough made an attack on I this place, which was defended by a body of colored troops and part of an Iowa regiment, and were repulsed after a severe engagement. Mim Bashy. In the East Indies, a com- maiulvr of KHK) Imrse. Minas, Sabbatha. A fort in Babylonia, built in ilu time of the later Roman empire on the site of Seleucia, which the Romans had destroyed. 22 ■ Mincio. A river of Lombardy, Italy. Here the Austrians were repulsed by the French under Brune, December 25-27,1800, and by Eugene Beauharnais, February 8, 1814, near Valeggio. Minden. A strongly fortified town of Prussia, in Westphalia, situated on the Weser, 35 miles southwest from Hanover. In its neighborhood the battle of Minden was fought, on August 1, 1759, between the English, Hessians, and Hanoverians (under Prince Ferdinand of Brunswick), and the French were beaten and driven to the ram- parts of Minden. Lord George Sackvillo (afterwards Lord Germaine), who com- manded the British and Hanoverian horse, for some disobedience of orders was tried by a court-martial on his return to England, found guilty, and dismissed April 22, 17G0. He was afterwards restored to favor, and became secretary of state, 1776. Mines, Military. Constitute one of the nK)St important departments in military en- gineering, and a very formidable accessory both in the attack and defense of fortresses. A military mine consists of a gallery of greater or less length, run from some point of safety under an opposing work, or under an area over which an attacking force must pass, and terminating in a chamber, which, being stored with gunpowder, can bo ex- ploded at the critical moment. Mines are of use to the besiegers in the overthrow of ramparts and formation of a breach ; the co««i'er?rti«f.s of the besieged in undermining the glacis over which the assaulting column must charge, and blowing them into the air, or in destroying batteries erected for breaching, are equally serviceable. But far above the actual mischief wrought by the mine — often very great — is its moral influ- ence on the troops, and especially on the assailants. Mines are either vertical, — when they are called shafts, — horizontal, or in- clined, in either of which ca..). An instrument employed in coast batteries for ascertaining wliether the enemy's ships are within the range of the guns, and thus to prevent the gunners from expending their shot unnecessarily. Mirmillones. A class of Koman gladia- tors ; said to have been so called from their liaving tlu; image of a fish on their helmets. Tlieir arms were like those of the Gauls; hence we find that they were also called Galli. They were usually matched with the retiarli or Thracians. Mirror. See Inspection of Cannon ; also LOOKINO-GLASS SlONALINO. Misbehavior before the Enemy. See Ari-KNDix, Articlks OK Wau, 42. Miscellaneous. An item or charge in the estimates of the British army, so distin- guished as yniscellnneous services; the same as our contingent expenditures. Misconduct at Divine Service. See Ap- PK.vDi.v, Akticles of War, 52. Misconduct in Time of War. See Ap- PENi>i.\, Articles of War, 55, 56,57, and 58. Misericorde (Fr.). A short dagger, which the cavalry formerly used, for the purpose of dispatching an enemy who would not ask quarter or mercy. Misnomer. The mistaking of the true name of a person ; the using of one name for another. If a prisoner plead a misnomer before a court-martial, the court may ask the prisoner what is his real name, and call upon him to plead to the amended charge. — Hough. Miss. To fail to hit ; to fly wide ; as, the bullet missed its mark. Missile. Capable of being thrown; adapted for hurling, or to bo projected from the hand, or from any instrument or engine ; as, to wing the missile dart. Missile. A weapon thrown or intended to be thrown, for doing execution; as, a lance, an arrow, or a bullet. Missing. Wanting ; not present when called or looked for; lost; as, 100 soldiers are wounded and missing. Mississagas. A tribe of Indians of Al- gonkin stock, who formerly resided on the north shore of Lake Huron, but are now found to the number of 700 in Ontario. They were one of the Confederate tribes of the " Seven Nations," fought as allies of the French against the English (1743-48), sided with the English in the seven years' war against the French and in the war against Pontiac, and aided the Canadian forces against the United States in the war of 1812. Mississippi. One of the Southwestern States of tlio American Confederacy. It Was first visited by Europeans about the year 1540, when De'Soto, with 10(X) follow- ers, crossed the State on an expli>ring expe- dition from Florida, and remained in it for nearly a year. This party having su tiered •everely by attacks from the aborigines, no other attempt was made to establish a per- manent colony till 1(;82, when La Salle de- scended the Mississippi and visited this re- gion, lie returned in two years with a party which he intended to settle in Mississippi, but meeting with misfortunes, the colony never reached its destination. The next attempt at settlement was made by Iberville, but with no successful result. The settle- ment at Fort Rosalie (now Natchez) in 1710, by some Frenchmen under Bienville, was generally considered the first permanent colony. A general massacre of the white inhabitants by the savages took place in 1728, but, as in every other contest oetween the Indians and the whites, victory ulti- mately rested with the latter. Other con- flicts in 173t], 173'J, and 1752, though carried on for a time with varying success, had the same result. At the peace of Paris, in 17G3, Mississippi became a part of the English ter- ritory. Soon after a portion of the French, so inhumanly driven by the English from Nova Scotia, settled in Mississippi ; and in 1768 commenced an emigration from the Eastern colonies by way of the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers. In 17'J8 the United States having attained the rights of the British government in this region, erected it into a Territory, and in 1817 it was admitted into the Union as an independent State. Mississippi was one of the first of the South- ern States to secede from the Union, and it suffered severely during the civil war. It was the scene of several engagements, raids, etc., the most important being the battles of luka, Corinth, siege and capture of Vicks- burg, and raids to Meridian. Missive. Intended to be thrown, hurled, or ejected ; missile. " The missive weapons fly." Missolonghi, or Mesolonghi. A town of Greece, in the government of yEtolia, is separated from the sea by a large lake. It is noted for the memorable siege it sustained in 1825-2G. In the beginning of 1825 it was garrisoned by 5000 Greeks, who were com- manded by Nothi Bozzaris ; and on April 25 of the same year a Turkish force of 20,000 under Reshid Pasha appeared before Misso- longhi, which was poorly fortified. On May 11, the first bombardment began, and for the space of two months afterwards the town was exposed to numerous bombardments and assaults ; but the defenders were not less active in answering the enemy's fire, and making sallies from their defenses, by which means they succeeded in repelling their assailants, and inflicting on them considera- ble loss. During this time they were supplied with ammunition and provisions by the fleet which was stationed at the entrance of the lake; but on July 10. a superior Turkish fleet, after compelling the ships of Greece to retire, succeeded in landing a strong reinforce- ment to the besiegers. The assaults on the town were then renewed with increased fury, and the cannonade of the Turks carried de- struction to iU frail ramparta and death MISSOUKI 332 MOABITES among the ranks of its brave defenders. Yet the garrison, though reduced to the number of 4000, continued to maintain their ground until, in the month of August, the Greek fleet appeared in the offing, and by defeating the Turkish squadron relieved Missolonghi for a time from the blockade. But the sultan was resolved at all hazards to reduce this stronghold of liberty ; and in the end of November the Greek ships were again driven off, and the blockade renewed by the com- bined Turkish, Egyptian, and Barbary fleets. In the beginning of 182G the besieging army was reinforced by the arrival of 14,000 troops under Ibrahim Pasha, who took command of all the besieging forces. On January 25, a bombardment was commenced, which lasted for three days, and reduced the town to ruins, but could not shake the resolute courage of the Greeks. The repeated assaults of the enemy were still repulsed with great loss. At last, reduced to the utmost ex- tremities by famine, and seeing on all sides nothing but the ships and tents of the enemy, yet never entertaining any thought of sur- render, the Greeks determined to force their way through the opposing ranks. Although by treachery the enemy was made aware of their design, and thus prepared to meet them, they were not able to prevent nearly 2000 of the besieged from making their way to the mountains. Many prisoners fell into the hands of the Turks, and the remainder, who were unable from their wounds or weariness to accompany their fellows, continued to defend themselves among the ruins until the explosion of a powder-magazine, destroying alike friends and foes, put an end to the bloody conflict. Such was the siege of Mis- s )longhi, which attracted, during its con- tinuance, the eyes of all Europe, and in which the Greeks showed themselves the worthy sons of the heroes of Marathon and Thermopylae. Missouri. One of the Central States of the Mississippi Valley, and the first organized wholly west of the Mississippi River. The French were the earliest settlers in the country, having built a fort there in 1719. By the treaty of 1763 it was ceded to Spain, with all the territory west of the Mississippi. Spain being at war with England during the American Revolution, her colonies were harassed by the English and their Indians allies. In 1780, a body of British and Indians attacked and besieged St. Louis, killing 60 of its defenders. The siege was raised by Col. Clark, an American, who came to the relief of the place with 500 men. In 1800 Spainrestoredtheterritory to France, and it passed to the United States by pur- chase in 1803. After the admission of Lou- isiana as a State in 1812, the remaining portion of the territory received the name of Missouri, from which was separated the State of that name in 1821. Though the State officially declared itself in favor of the Union in 1861, many of its prominent citi- zens sided with the Confederates. It was the scene of several engagements during the civil war. Missouria Indians. A tribe of Dakota stock, who reside at the Otoe agency, Ne- braska. They number about 200, and are progressing favorably in the arts of civili- zation. Mithridatic War. The name of the cele- brated contest carried on for a long series of years by the Romans against Mithri- dates VI., king of Pontus. It was caused by the massacre of about 100,000 Romans by Mithridates, 88 B.C., and remarkable for its duration, its many sanguinary battles, and the cruelties of its commanders. Mith- ridates having taken the consul Aquilius, made him ride on an ass through a great part of Asia, crying out as he rode, "I am Aquilius, consul of the Romans." He is said to have killed him by causing melted gold to be poured down his throat, in derision of his avarice, 85 B.C. Mitigate. To diminish the severity of ; as, to mitigate punishment; to reduce in amount of severity, as a penalty. See Ap- PK>-Dix, Articles of War, 112. Mitraille [Fi-.). Small pieces of old iron, such as heads of nails, etc., with which pieces of ordnance are sometimes loaded. Mitrailleur. A gun in which several bar- rels are combined in order to produce a greater effect by the rapid succession of a number of shots. Mitrailleures existed as early as the 14th century. They were called killing-organs at that time. The Scaligers at the end of the 14th century, the Protest- ant princes of Germany in the Smalkaldian war, and Austria in the war against Turkey, used this kind of gun. But the ancient mitrailleur differs from the modern both in dimensions and in the positions of the bar- rels. A peculiar kind of mitrailleur was the espingol, each barrel being loaded with several shots, which, by a slowly-burning charge, were discharged one after the other. The espingol was used not only in the Mid- dle Ages, but also recently, — by the Danes in 184V50, and 1863-64. At the storming of Diippel the Prussians took about thirty such guns. In modern times the term has been specifically applied to certain battery guns employed by the French in the Franco- Prussian war. (See Battkry Gun.) In the U. S. Light Artillery Tactics the term mi- i trailleur is applied to the Gatling gun. | Mitylene, or Midulu (anc. Lesbos). An | island of the Grecian Archipelago, belong- ing to Turkey, and lying off the west coast ' of Asia Minor. Mitylene sufiered much in | the Greek war of independence, in the j course of which it lost nearly the half of its I inhabitants. (See Mytilene.) Moabites. A tribe descended from Moab, the son of Lot, and consequently related to j the Hebrews; they inhabited the moun- ! tainous country east of the lower part of the Jordan and of the Dead Sea. In the time of the Judges, the Jews were for eigh- teen years under the yoke of the Moabites, | MOAT 333 MOGADOR ■who were afterwards made tributary by David, but about 900 }}.c. shook off their allegiance to the Jewish kings, and after the Assyrians invaded the land of Judah, took part with the Chaldeans against the Jews. Moat. The ditch round the ramparts of a fortress may be either wet — i.e., full of water — or dry. In the latter, which is the com- moner case, the depth should not be less than 12 feet, nor the width under 24. The more perjtendicular the walls, so much the frcater will be the obstruction to the enemy, n regular works the walls are usually revetcd with masonry, that at the foot of the rampart being the scarp or escarp, and that below the covered way the counterscarp. Sec Ditch. Mobile, A city and capital of Mobile Co., Ala., situated on the west bank of the Jlobile Kiver, immediately above its en- trance into the bay of the same name. It was founded by Bienville in 1711, passed into the hands of the English in ITfJ'J, was taken by the Spani.sh general Galvez in 1780, and was confirmed to Sj)ain by the treaty of 1783. Mobile was blockaded by the Federal fleet in May, 18G1. In 18»J4 the Confederates constructed several ironclads and gunboats, and threatened to raise the blockade. On August 5, Admiral Farragut with his fleet passed Forts Morgan and Gaines, the Confederate fortifications guard- ing the entrance to Mobile Bay, captured the ram "Tennessee" and the gunboat "Selma," and efl'cctually crippled the "Gaines." "With the co-operation of the land forces, the forts were soon captured, and the city was effectually cut off from ex- ternal commerce. Mobile was evacuated by the Confederates, and surrendered to Gen. Canbv and Kear-Admiral Thatcher, April 12, 180.5, about KXK) prisoners, 150 guns, and a large quantity of ammunition and supplies falling into the hands of the Federals. Mobilization. The calling into active service troops not previously on the war establishment. Mobilize. To call into active service ; — applied to troops which, though enrolled, were not previously on the war establish- ment. Moccasin (Algonkin, makisin). A shoe or Cover for the foot, made of deer-skin or soft leather, without a sole, and ornamented on the upper side ; the customary shoe worn by the American Indians. Mbckern. A town of Prussian Saxony, 13 miles ea.«t of Madgcburg, on the Ehlo. Here the French army under Eugene Beau- harnais was defeated hy the Prussians under York, April, 1813, and here Bliicher de- feated the French, October Ki, 1813. Modena (anc. Muiimi). A fortified city of Northern Italy, 24 miles west-northwes"t of Bologna, capital of the former duchy of the same name. In ancient times Mutina •was an important town of Gallia Cispadana, situated on the Via ^Emilia ; it fell into the hands of the Romans in 218 B.C., who estab- lifthed a colony here thirty-five years later ; in 117 B.C. the settlers were disturbed by an incursion of the Ligurians, who for a short time held possession of the town, but were ultimately e.xpelled by Consul Claudius ; it was held by M. Brutus against the victori- ous Pompcy ; sustained a siege of about four months against the trooiis of Mark Antony ; besieged and taken by Constan- tino in 312 ; was laid waste by Attila in 452. The modern town is surrounded with walls, and defended by bastions and a citadel ; was governed by the house of Este from 1288 till 1700, when the last male of that house, the reigning duke, Hercules III., was expelled by the French. By the treaty of Campo Formio the Modenese po-ssessions were in- corporated with the Cisalpine republic, 1797, and with the kingdom of Italy, 1805. The Archduke Francis of Este, son of the Arch- duke Ferdinand of Austria, and of Mary, the heiress of the last duke, was restored in 1814. Modena was annexed to Sardinia March 18, 1800. Modocs. A treacherous tribe of Indians of the Klamath nation. In 1872 they left the Klamath reservation under the leader- ship of their chief. Captain Jack, and re- fused to return. Military aid was invoked to compel them, and the troops were fired upon by the Indians, who retreated to the almost inaccessible fastnesses of the lava- beds. Here they lield out until June 5, 1873, by which time nearly all were killed or captured. Captain Jack and some of the principal men of his tribe were tried by military commission for the murder of Gen. Canby and Mr. Thomas, Indian peace com- missioner, who were treacherously slain in April while attending a conference with the Indians outside the camp. Captain Jack and three others were hanged October 3, 1873, and the remainder of the tribe deported to Indian Territorj*. Moesia. A Roman province in Europe. It was invaded by the Romans, when C. Scribonius Curio gained a victory over the Moesians (75 B.C.), but not until the reign of Augustus was it finally subdued, 29 B.C. A line of fortresses was then planted for its defense along the southern bank of the Danube. The principal of these were after- wards known as Singidunum (Belgrade), Viminacium, and Axiopolis. It was suc- cessfully invaded by the Goths, numbers of whom eventually settled here. In the 7th century invading hordes of liulgarians and Sclavonians founded the kingdoms of Bul- garia and Scrvia, which now comprise the territory of ancient Mre>sin. Mogador, Mogodor, or Suerrah. A sea- port town of .Morocco, on the Atlantic. 132 miles southwest from Morocco. Mogador is walled and fortified; but its defenses, which are the work of Genoese engineers, arc of no great strength ; its harbor, although much exposed, is considered the best on the coast. MOGNIONS 334 MOLDAVIA Mogador was bombarded in 1844 by a French fleet under the Prince de Joinville, on which occasion it suffered severely. Mognions {F?:). A sort of armor for the shoulders. Mograbian. A soldier of a branch of the Turkish infantry composed of the peasants of the northern part of Africa, who sought to better their condition by entering foreign service. Mogul Empire, The. An empire which at one time extended over the greater part of Northern India. It was founded by Sul- tan Baber, a descendant of Tihiur (or Tamer- lane), in 1526, and lasted until 1749, when the Mogul army was totally defeated by the liohillas, and the empire was broken up into a number of petty sovereignties. In 1857, Mohammed Bahadur, the last king of Delhi and head of the Mogul empire, joined in the Indian mutiny, and was transported to Kangoon (1858), where he soon after died. Mohacs. A town of Southern Hungary, on the western arm of the Danube. It owes its historical importance to the great battle fought here, August 29, 1526, between Louis 11. of Hungary, with 25,000 Hungarians, and the sultan Solyman, at the head of about 200,000 Turks, the battle resulted in the disastrous defeat of the Hungarians, who lost their king, seven bishops, many nobles and dignitaries, and upwards of 22,000 men. A second battle was fought here on August 12, 1687, when the Turks in their turn were defeated by an Austro-Hungarian army under Charles of Lorraine. Mohammerah. A Persian town near the Euphrates ; captured, after two hours' can- nonading, by Sir James Outram, during the Persian war, March 2G, 1857. Mohawks, or Maquas. A warlike tribe of Indians who formerly inhabited the val- ley in the State of New York which bears their name. They were allied with the Onondagas, Oneidas, Senecas, Cayugas, and Tuscaroras, the confederation constituting what was known as the " Five Nations." They were allies of the English in their wars with the French, and in the Kevolutionary war. After the peace of 1788 they removed to Upper Canada, and settled on Grand Kiver upon lands procured for them by their chief. Brant. Mohegans, or Mohicans. A tribe of In- dians of Algonkin stock, who formerly in- habited a considerable part of New England, and a part of New York. The town oif Nor- wich, Conn., called Mohegan bj^ the Indians, is situated about the centre of their ancient country. When the English first settled at Hartford, Uncas, the chief of the tribe, formed a treaty of amity with them, which appears to have been generally observed. The Mohegans were long the sworn foes of the Narragansetts. The latter, under their chief, Miantonomoh, invaded the Mohegan country in 1643, but were defeated by Un- cas, who captured Miantonomoh and put him to death in September of that year. In 1645, the Narragansetts, under Passacus, the brother of Miantonomoh, burning to avenge the death of that chief, again invaded the Mohegan territory. On this occasion they were more successful. They laid waste the country in all directions, and compelled Uncas and his warriors to take refuge in his strong fortress at Shantock, which they would probably have become masters of but for the timely assistance of the English, who furnished a supply of provisions to the be- sieged. The invasion was again repeated, and with almost fatal effect to Uncas. The English again saved him, however, and after nearly twenty years of strife the hatchet was at length buried between these tribes. Mohilow. A town in Russia, where the Russian army under Prince Bagration was signallj- defeated by the French under Mar- shal Davoust, prince of Eckmiihl, July 23, 1812. Mohrungen. A town of East Prussia, 62 miles south-southwest of Konigsberg. The French defeated the Russians here in 1807. Moienne (Fr.). A piece of ordnance, which is now called a 4-pounder, and which is 10 feet long, was formerly so called. Moineau. A small, flat bastion, raised in front of an intended fortification, to defend it against attacks from small-arms. Mojave Indians. A tribe of aborigines, of Apache stock, residing in Arizona. They number about 2100, of whom about one- third are located on a reservation on the Colorado River, and about an equal number (known as Mojave Apaches) at the San Car- los agency, Arizona. Moldavia. A province in the northeast- ern part of Turkey in Europe. The princes of Moldavia were formerly called voyvodes, or military leaders, a name which was after- wards changed by the Turks to that of hos- podars, which is still retained. In the 13th century Moldavia was frequently disturbed by civil war, occasioned by rival claimants for the crown, and these dissensions rose to such a height that the country was divided into two parts, one of which acknowledged the sovereignty of Poland, and the other that of Hungary. A union was, however, soon after effected, and Moldavia became subject to Hungary, paying at the same time a tribute to the Poles. In 1536 Moldavia came under the protection of the sultan ; for a considerable time after this period, it was the scene of constant wars between the Poles and Turks, until the claims of the former to the sovereignty of the state were finally abandoned in 1621, and peace concluded be- tween Turkey and Poland; in 1738, during the war of Austria and Russia against Tur- key, Moldavia was invaded by a Russian force, and occupied for two years, but was evacuated after the peace of Belgrade; in 1769 it was again occupied by the Russians, and became for a short time subject to the czar, but was restored to Turkey in 1774; in 1789 this unfortunate principality was again MOLDED 335 MONGOLIA the scene of contest between Russia and Turkey, until the peace of Jassy in 1792, when the Russian frontier was fixed bj' the Dneister; in the war of 1807-12, Moldavia again fell into the hands of the Russians, who, by the treaty of Hucharest, acquired possession of Bessarabia, and thus extended their frontier to the Pruth. At the com- mencement of the Greek war in 1820 an in- surrection broke out in the Danubian prin- cipalities, but it was suppressed by the Turks ; in 1828 another war between Turkey and Russia broke out, and Moldavia was occu- pied by the Russians without opposition until peace was established by the treaty of Adrianople in 1829. A conspiracy was formed in 1810, to unite the principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia into one state, but without success. In 1848 the influence of revolutionarj' sentiments was felt in Molda- via ; the peojile of Jassy demanded a new constitution, and, although the hospodar successfully resisted this movement, he laid down his authority in the same year. In 1853 a Russian army took possession of Mol- davia and Wallachia; after attempting in vain to cross the Danube in Walhichia, the Russians, in the spring of 1854, crtissed that river at Galatz, and seized the fortresses in the Dubrudscha ; they then proceeded to lay siege to ISilistria, but this town was so vigor- ously defended that they were obliged to ■raise the siege, and the British and French troops having arrived at Varna, the Russian army evacuated the principalities in the au- tumn of 18o4 ; the hospodars then returned to their respective governments, and the principalities were occupied by an Austrian army. At a conference at Paris, August 19, 1858, it was decided that the principalities should thenceforth be called the United Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia, and should have in common a central com- mission and court of appeal, but be governed by ditVercnt hospodars, to be elected by the people, and ccinlirmcd by the Porte. Molded Powder. See Gunpowder. Mole. A mound or massive work formed of large stones laid in the sea, extended cither in a right line or an arc of a circle before a port, which it serves to defend from the violence of the waves, thus protecting ships in harbor ; also, sometimes the harbor itself. Molino del Rey. A range of massive stone buildings, about 500 yards long, form- ing the western side of an inclosure which surrounds the rock and castle, groves and fields of Chapultepec, 2 miles southwest of the city of Mexico. These buildings were occupied by the troops of Santa Anna in September, 1847, to intercept the march of the American army under command of Gen. Scott upon the city of Mexico. They were attacked on the morning of the 8th by Gen. "Worth's division, and, after a severe con- test, the buildings were captured, with a loss to the Americans of 787 killed and wounded (including 59 officers), out of 3147, the whole number engaged. The Mexican forces num- bered about 10,000 men. Mollwitz. A village of Pru.ssian Silesia; to the east of it lies the celebrated battle- field where Frederick II. of Prussia gained his first victory over the Austrians, April 10, 1741. Moluccas, or Spice Islands. A numer- ous group of islands in the Asiatic Archi- pelago, situated between Celebes on the west, and New Guinea on the east, and stretching from lat. 2° N. to lat. 9° S. They were dis- covered by the Portuguese about 1510; be- came dependencies of Holland, 1795; during the French war of 179(i, however, they were taken by the British, wlio held po.ssession of them tiil 1800, when they were returned to Holland. The islands were again occupied by the British in 1810, but were finally re- stored to the Dutch in 1814, by the treaty of Paris. Molycrium. A town in the most south- erly part of ^Ktolia ; it was founded by the Corinthians, but was afterwards taken pos- session of by the yEtoiians. Mombas. A seaport town of Africa, on a small island, in a bay on the coast of Zan- zibar. It was first visited by the Portuguese under Vasco de Gama in 1498. In 1505, Francisco de Almeida, the Portuguese vice- roy of India, took and burnt the town ; in 1529 the Portuguese returned and repeated their work of destruction, and retained the city from that date to 1720, when Mombas fell into the hands of the imam of Muscat, but he was soon dispos.sessed by a rebellion of the inhabitants. It was under British protection from 1824 to 1820, and is now governed by an Arab sheikh. Momentum. Is that force possessed by a body in motion; and is measured by the product of the mass of the body into its ve- locity. Mona (now Anrjleacy). An island off the coast of the Ordovices, in Britain ; it was invaded by Suetonius Paulinus, 61, and was conquered by Agricola, 78. Moncontour. A town near Poitiers, in Frftnee. Here Admiral Coligny and the French Protestants were defecated by the Duke of Anjou, October 3, 1509. Mondovi. A town of Northern Italy, near tiie river Ellero, about 47 miles south from Turin. Tlie town is defended by walls and a small citadel, and contain? a great number of religious hs, under Colli, near this town in 1790, and in 1799 the town was sacked by the French under Soult. Monghir. A town of Hindostan, East Indies, situated on the southern bank of the Ganges. It was an object of contention be- tween the kings of Behar and Bengal in the earlv part of the IGth century ; taken by the British in 1703. Mongolia. A vast district in Asia. Its present boundaries east and north are Man- churia and Siberia, respectively, and on the MONGOLS 33G MONTENEGRO south and west Thibet and Turkestan ; but these boundaries have varied sjreatly at dif- ferent periods of history. The whole of what is now usually recognized as Mongolia is considered to belong to the Chinese em- pire. See Taktary. Mongols. See Taktary. Monmouth, Battle of. Was fought June 28, 1778, between the Revolutionary forces under Gen. Washington and the British under Sir Henry Clinton. Gen. Washing- ton, whose army of about 12,000 men was encamped at Valley Forge, being informed of the intention of the enemy to evacuate Philadelphia and proceed to New York, placed his forces in a condition to march im- mediately in pursuit. Accordingly, when intelligence of the evacuation reached him, he broke up his encampment, and detaching a small force under Gen. Arnold to take pos- session of Philadelphia, marched rapidly with his whole army toward the Delaware. On the morning of June 28 the advance of the Colonial army, under Gen. Leo, became engaged with the enemy's rear on the plain near Monmouth Court-house, in New Jersey; but the English line being soon reinforced, the Americans were compelled to give way, upon which Lee ordered a retreat. Gen. Washington, who was riding ahead of the main body of his army, met the retreating force, and peremptorily ordered Lee to re- form his troops and hold his position. This he for a time partially effected, but was being again driven back, when the main body of the army arrived to his assistance. The battle now became general, and under the inspiring influence of their commander-in- chief the Americans fought with such des- perate resolution that the British were at length obliged to give waj'. Washington made preparations to follow up his advan- tage, but owing to the broken character of the ground, and twilight coming on be- fore a proper disposition of his troops could be made, the attack was postponed until next morning. When morning dawned, how- ever, it was found that Sir Henry Clinton with his whole force had retreated during the darkne.ss of the night toward Sandy Hook, and Washington, on account of the heat of the weather and the fatigue of his men, did not pursue them. This was one of the most severely contested battles of the war. The American loss was 227 killed and wounded, the English was a little greater. Monomachy (Fr. moncnnachie). A single combat, or the fighting of two, hand to hand. It is derived from the Greek. A duel may properly be called a monomachy. Mons (Flemish, Berghen). A strongly- fortified town of Belgium, in the province of Hainault, on the Trouille, 33 miles south- west from Brussels. It has been frequently besieged and taken; in 1709 it was taken by the allies under Marlborough and Eugene; in 1746 by Marshal Saxe ; and in the wars of the French revolution in 1792-94 it was taken alternately by the French and the allies, the former of whom held the town from 1784 to 1814. Monsoon. A wind blowing half the year in one direction, and the other half in the opposite; — a term applied particularly to certain winds of the Indian Ocean, which blow from the southwest from April to Octo- ber, and from the northeast the rest of the year. The term is sometimes used to desig- nate similar winds in other parts of the globe. Mont St. Jean. A village of Belgium ; it is near the scene of the battle of Waterloo, called by the French the battle of Mont St. Jean. Montana Territory. A Territory of the United States, which is bounded on the north by the British possessions, east by Dakota, south by Wyoming and Idaho, and west by Idaho. This Territory has been overrun by hostile Indians, who, under the manage- ment of the military, are being rapidly sub- jugated. It was formed into a separate Territory in May, 1864, before which time it formed part of Idaho. Montauban. A town of France, capital of the department of Tarn-et-Garonne, 342 miles south by west from Paris. At the Reformation the people embraced the Prot- estant cause ; and the town was ineffectually besieged by the adverse party in 1580. It afterwards, in 1621, resisted for three months the assaults of Louis XIII., and did not yield till after the fall of Rochelle in 1629. The fortifications were soon after destroyed. Montbeliard, or Montbelliard. A town of France, in the department of Doubs, 48 miles northeast from BesanQon. It was in former times a place of some strength, and the capital of a county that originally formed part of the kingdom of Burgundy, but was transferred to the Wiirtemberg family in 1395. Although twice taken by the French in the 17th century, it was not finally ceded to them till 1796. Monte Aperto, Battle of. See Siena. Monte-Baldo. A mountain of Lombardy ; the Austrians were defeated in its vicinity by the French in 1797. Montebello Casteggio. A village of Northern Italy, in the province of Voghera; here the Austrians were defeated by a French army under Gen. Lannes, after a desperate conflict, June 9, 1800; in the last Italian war the Austrians were again defeated here by the united armies of the French and Piedmontese in May, 1859. , Montemaggiore Belsito. A town of the island of Sicily, 31 miles southeast of Pa- lermo. It was occupied by the Saracens when they first took possession of the coun- try. Montenegro. A principality of Europe, situated between the Turkish eyalets of Bosnia and Albania, and separated from the Adriatic by the narrow strip of land known as the circle of Cattaro, in Austrian Dalma- tia. The Montenegrins are Slavs of the Servian race, knit "together in clans and MONTENOTTE 337 MONT-PAGNOTE families, and have many flights amonij tliem- selves, which are perpetuated by the heredi- tary obi illation of avengint; blood. Monte- negro belonged in the Middle Ages to the great Servian kingdom, but after the dis- memberment of the latter, and its conquest by the Turks at the battle of Kossovo (1380), the Montenegrins, under their prince, who was of the royal blood of Servia, maintained their independence, though compelled to re- linquish the level tracts of land, and confine themselves to the mountains, in 1485. The Turks continued to assert their claims to ^Montenegro, but they were only defeated in their plans, and in 1710 the Montenegrins .sought and obtained the protection of Kus- sia, the c/.ar agreeing to grant an annual subsidy on condition of their harassing the Turks by inroads. In 1860 the Montene- grins excited an insurrection against the Turkish rule in Herzegovina, which was soon suppressed, and in return they them- selves were so hard pressed by the Turks that they were glad to agree to a treaty (September 8, 1862) by which the sover- eignty of the Porte over Montenegro was recognized. Montenotte. A small village of North- ern Italy ; here the Austrians were defeated bv the French under Bonaparte, April 12, ITOC. Monter (Fr.). This word means to rise from one rank to another in the way of pro- motion, as from lieutenant to captain, etc., or from having the command of the young- est company to be promoted to that of the oldest. Montereau. A town of France, in the department of Seine-et-Marne. In its im- mediate vicinity Napoleon, on February 18, 1814, gained his last victory over the allies. Morjterey. A city of Mexico, capital of the state of Nucvo Leon, about 85 miles east by north of Saltillo. Gen. Taylor with an army of about tKXH) men, the first division under Gen. Worth, appeared before this place, September 21, 184ti. It was defended by a force of about lO.UOO 3Iexicans under Gen. Ampudia. In a)>proaching the city the first obstacles to be overcome were two batteries, which were in a commanding posi- tion. These were soon taken and their guns turned on a third battery erected in a large stone building, called the Bishop's Palace. This was stormed on the morning of the 22d, and a vigorous sortie of the garrison having been repulsed, the Americans entered the city witn the flying Mexicans. During the day a feigned attack on the defenses in front was soon converted into a real one, and after a severe contest the Americans entered the city, though with great sacrifice of life ; for every street was barricaded, and guns were pointed from almost every wall. On the morning of the 28d, the defenses on the op- posite side wore assaulted and carried by the division of Gen. Worth, and the garrison soon after surrendered. Monterey. A port of entry and capital of tliecounty of the same name in California, about 'J5 miles south-southeast of San Fran- cisco. It wius once a populous and thriving city, but has greatly declined since the rise of San Francisco. Being led to suppose that war existed between the United States and Mexico, Commod.). The bastions which are constructed on the angles are called royal bastions. Some engineers have distinguished those bastions by the name of moyens roy- ttux, or medium royals, whose flanks con- tain from 90 to lOO'toises. Moyenne (i'V.). An ancient 4-pounder, 10 feet long, weighing 1300 pounds. In the time of Charles IX. (1572) it was a 2^- pounder. Moyenne Ville (F?-.). A term formerly given by the French to any town in which the garrison was equal to a third of the in- habitants, and which was not deemed sutli- ciently important to bear the expense of a citadel ; more especially so because it was not in the power of the inhabitants to form seditious meetings without the knowledge of the soldiers who were quartered on them. Moyens C6tes (Fr.). In fortification, are those sides which contain from 80 to 120 toises in extent. They are always fortified with bastions on their angles. The moyens cbtia&Tfi generally found along the extent of irregular places, and each one of these is individually subdivided into small, mean, and great sides. Mozyr. A town in the southeast of the government of Minsk, in European Russia, situated on the Pripet, a tributary of the Dnieper. It is a town of considerable an- tiquity, and played a rather important part in the wars between the various Russian princes previous to the Tartar invasion. It was unsuccessfully besieged by the Tartars in 1240. Muff and Collar. See Ordnance, Car- KIAUKS FOR LiMHER. Muffle. To wrap with something that dulls or renders sound inaudible; to deaden the sound of; as, to muffle a drum. Mufti. The civilian dress of a military officer when otT duty; hence, a citizen's dress, as distinguished from military uni- form. Muhlagis. Turkish cavalry composed of exp(;rt hor.-emen, who generally attend the beglierbeys. They are not very numerous. Muhlberg . A town of Prussian Saxony, situated on the Elbe. Here, on April 24, 1547, a battle was fought between Johann- Friedrich, elector of Saxony, and the em- peror Charles V., a battle fraught with the most imyiortant results to the cause of Prot- estantism in Germany. The battle was soon decided in favor of the emperor; the elector was taken prisoner, and stri])ped of his territories. From this time till 1552, the Catholics were triumphant in Germany. Muhldorf. In Bavaria, near which place Frederick, duke of Austria, was defeated and taken prisoner by Louis of Bavaria, September 28, 1322. Mulct. A soldier is said to be mulcted of liis pay when put under fine or stojipages for necessaries, or to make good some dilapi- dations committed by him on the property of the people or the government. Mule. See Pack and Dkaugut Ani- MAL.S. Mullet. In heraldry, is a charge in the form of a star, generally with five points, intended to represent a spur-rowel. It is a mark of cadency assigned to tlie third son. Multan.or Mooltan. An ancient and im- portant city of India, in the Punjab, 200 miles southwest from Lahore. Multan is a military station, with a small redoubt in the rear of the cantonment. In 1849 it was taken by the British troops under Gen. "VVhish, and annexed with its territory to the Briti.-li possessions. Multi-charge Gun. Many attempts have been made by inventors to utilize the ac- celerating efi'ect on the projectile of several charges successively fired in a gun. Lyman's multi-charge gun has aseries of pockets along the bore, the charges in which are succes- sively fired as the projectile passes them. BetiKcmer proposed plan is to use a gun of great length. The charges are placed sepa- rately in holes at the breech, to be fired in succession by electricity. Multiple Lines. In fortification, several lines of detached walls for tlie defense of a position. Munchengftatz. A town of Bohemia, on the Iser, 8 miles northeast from Jungbunz- lau ; it was taken by the Pru.«sians under Prince Frederick Charles, after a severe ac- tion, June 28, 180(3. The Austrians lost about 300 killed and UXK) prisoners, and the prince gained about 12 miles of country. There is a palace here, in which the emperors of Austria and Russia and the king of Prus- sia met in 1833. Munda. A Roman colony and an im- portant town in Hispania Bnetica, situated on a small river, and celebrated on account of two battles fought in it-« neighborhood, the victory of Cn. Scipio over the Cartha- I ginians in 216 h.c, and the important vic- j tory of Julius C«5sar over the sons of Pom- I pey in 45. MUNICH 342 MUSKET Munich (Ger. Miinchen). The capital of the kingdom of Bavaria, situated on the Iser, 117 miles southeast from Stuttgart. It was taken by Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden in 1632 ; by the Austrians in 1704, 1741, and 1743; and by the French under Moreau, July 2, 1800. Munifice (Lat. munifex), Fr. A Eoman soldier who was subje'cted to every kind of drudgery-work in camp. Munimell. A stronghold, fortification, etc. Munition. Whatever materials are used in war for defense, or for annoying an enemy ; ammunition ; also, stores and provisions ; military stores of all kinds. Munkacs. A market-town of East Hun- gary, 80 miles northeast from Debreczin. It was taken by the Imperialists in 1687, after a siege of three years. Munsees, or Minsees. A tribe of Indians of Algonkin stock, who were closely allied to the Delavvares. Man}^ of them became converts to Christianity. A few of them now reside on the reservation of the Stock- bridge Indians in Wisconsin, and about 60 are settled in Kansas. Miinster. A city of Germany, on the small river Aa, 77 miles northeast from Co- logne. It is the capital of a government of the same name in Prussian Westphalia. It was seized by the French in 1806; part of the duchy of Berg, 1809 ; annexed to France, 1810; ceded to Prussia, 1815. It was the headquarters of the Anabaptists under John Leyden, who defended it against the bishop of Munster, 1534-35. Here was signed the treaty of Westphalia or Munster, October 24, 1648. Munsterthal. Two valleys of Switzer- land, one in the canton Grisons, the other in Berne, where, in 1444, the battle of St. Jacob was fought between the French and Swiss, when the latter were nearly annihilated. Muotta Valley. A secluded valley of Switzerland, canton of Schwytz, traversed by the river Muotta, an affluent of Lake Lucerne. . Here a sanguinary struggle took place in 1799, between the French under Lecourbe, Mortier, and Massena, and the Eussians under Suwarrow. The latter was hemmed in on all sides, but by a desperate onslaught he cut his way through the French lines, and made a masterly retreat. Muradal, Battle of. See Tolosa. Murage. Money appropriated to the re- pair of military works; anciently so called. Mural Crown. In Roman antiquity, a golden crown, or circlet of gold, indented so as to resemble a battlement ; bestowed on him who first mounted the wall of a besieged place, and there lodged a standard. Murcia. An old kingdom in the south- east of Spain, now divided into the modern provinces of Murcia and Albacete. It was conquered by the Arabs in 711 (712, 713) ; after the fall of the caliphate of Cordova, it became an independent Arab kingdom, but six years afterward was subjugated by King Ferdinand II. of Castile. Murcia. A city of Spain, capital of tho ancient kingdom and modern province of its own name, 30 miles north-northwest of Car- thagena. It was taken by the Moors in 713 ; wrested from them by Ferdinand of Castile. In 1810 it was taken and sacked by the French. Murderer. A great piece of artillery. Among the ordnance given up to Monk with Edinburgh Castle in 16.50 is mentioned " The great iron murderer, Muckle Meg." Murdresses. In ancient fortification, a sort of battlement with interstices, raised on the tops of towers in order to fire through. Muret (Southern France). Here the Al- bigenses under the Count of Toulouse were defeated by Simon de Montfort, and their ally, Peter of Aragon, killed, September 12, 1213. Murfreesboro'. A town and capital of ;^utherford Co., Tenn., about 30 miles south- east of Nashville. A Federal force which occupied this place in 1862 was surprised and captured by a body of Confederates under Gen. Forrest. Near here, on December 31, 1862, the Army of the Ohio under Gen. Rosecrans encountered the Confederates un- der Gen. Bragg, and a desperate battle en- sued, continuing at intervals and with vary- ing success until January 3, 1863, when the Confederate army retreated, and Gen. Eose- crans occupied Murfreesboro'. The Federal loss was about 8500 killed and wounded, and 3600 missing ; the Confederates represented their loss at 10,000, of which 9000 were killed and wounded. This battle is known as the battle of Murfreesboro', or of Stone River. Murviedro. A fortified town of Spain in the province of Valencia, 17 miles north from Valencia. It was taken by Hannibal 219 B.C. Muscule, or Testude. In ancient times, a machine of war; a mantelet; shed; low, long, and sharp-roofed shed, which enabled the besiegers to advance to and sap the wall of the besieged. Music. A general term for the musicians of a regimental band. Music, Phrygian. A martial sort of an- cient music, which excited men to rage and battle; by this mode Timotheus stirred up Alexander to arms. Musicians. See Band, Drummer, Fif- ER, and Trumpeter. Musket, or Musquet (Fr. tnousquet). The fire-arm for infantry soldiers, which suc- ceeded the clumsy arquebuse, and has itself given way before the rifie (which see). The first muskets were matchlocks ; after which came wheel-locks, asnaphans or snaphance muskets, and lastly percussion muskets, which were a vast improvement both for accuracy and lightness on all which had gone before. Compared, however, to the present rifle, the musket was a heavy, ugly, and ineffective weapon. Musket Baskets. These are about a foot or a foot and a half high, 8 or 10 inches diameter at bottom, and a foot at the top, so that being filled with earth there is room to MUSKETEER 343 M YL JC lav a musket between them at the bottom, bJiii!; sot on low breastworks, or parapets, or upon such as are beaten down. Musketeer. A soldier armed with a mus- ket. Musketoon. An f)bsolete weapon ; was a sliort musket of very wide bore, carrying u ball of ;j ounces, and sometimes bell- muulhed like a blunderbuss. Also one who was armed with such a weapon. Musket-proof. Capable of resisting the effects of iiiuskct-balls. Musketry. Muskets in general or collec- tively. " The rattle of musketry." Musselburgh. A royal burgh of Scot- land, county of Mid- Lothian, at the mouth of the Esk,"o miles east of Edinburgh. The town is historically important on account of the battle of Pinkie, which was fought in tlie neighborhood in 1547, when the Scottish army was defeated by the English under the Earl of Somerset. Mustang. The wild horse of the prairies in .Mexico, California, etc. It is small, Lardy, and easily sustained. Muster. A review of troops under arms, fully equipped, in order to take an account of their numbers, inspect their arms and ac- coutrements, and examine their condition. In the U. S. service troops are mustered bi-monthly. During the civil war, the mus- tering in and mustering out of troops (into or out of the U. S. service) were performed by 8taff-ofBcei"s, called commissaries of musters. Muster-book. A book in which military forces are registered. Muster-fiie. A muster-roll. Muster-master. One who takes an ac- count of troops, and of their arms and other military apparatus. This title is not known in the U. S. army. The person who per- forms these duties is called a mustering offi- cer, or an in-spcctinq otHcer. Muster-roll. A roll or register of the men in each company, troop, or regiment. Muta (Syria). Hero Mohammed and his followers defeated the Christians in his first conflict with them, 0:20. Mutilated. In a military sense, signifies wounded in such a manner as to lose the use of a limb. A battalion is said to be muti- lated when its divisions, etc., stand unequal. Mutina. See M(JI>ena. Mutine. To mutiny; a mutineer. This term is obsolete. Mutineer. One guilty of mutiny ; a per- son in military or naval service, who rises in opposition to the authority of the officers, vrho openly resists the government of the army or navy, or attempts to destroy due suborili nation. Mutinous. Disposed to mutiny or resist the authority of laws and regulations, espe- cially in an army, or openly resisting such authority ; tiirbu'lent ; seclitfous. Mutinously. In a mutinous manner. Mutinousness. The quality or state of being mutinous; seditiousness. ' Mutiny. Insurrection against constituted authority, particularly military authority ; open and violent resistance to the authority of officers ; concerted revolt against the rules of discipline ; hence, generally, forcible re- sistance to rightful uuthorit}' on the part of subordinates. Violent commotion ; tumult ; uproar; strife. Mutiny. To ri.se against lawful authority in the military service; to excite, or to be guilty of mutiny, or mutinous conduct; to revolt against one's superior officer or right- ful authority. Mutiny Act. In Great Britain, an annual act of Parliament fixing the strength of the army for the military year, which com- mences April 1, and ends March ;51, and im- posing certain penalties fur ofienses con- nected with the army. It also authorizes the sovereign to issue Articles of War. Muzzle. See Ordnance, Nomkncla- TUKE. Muzzle Velocity. Velocity at the muzzle. See Initial A'ki.ocity. Muzzle-ring. The metallic ring or circle that surrounds the mouth of a cannon or other ]Mece. Muzzle-sight. A front sight placed on or near the muzzle. Mycale (now Samsum). A mountain in the south of Ionia, in Asia Minor, north of the mouth of the Meander. It forms the western extremity of Mcjunt Mcssogis, and runs far out into the sea, opposite to Samos, forming a sharp promontory, which was called Mycale, or Trogilium (now Cape St. Maria). This cape and the southeast prom- ontory of Samos (Posidonium) overlap one another, and the two tongues of land are separated by a strait only about three- fourths of a mile in width, which is re- nowned in Greek history as the scene of the victory gained over the Persian fleet by Leotychides and Xanthippus, 479 B.C. Mycalessus. An ancient and important city in Bfeotia, mentioned by Ilomer, situ- ated on the road from Aulis to Thebes. In 413 B.C., some Thracian mercenaries in the pay of Athens surprised and sacked the town and butchered the inhabitants. From this blow it never recovered, and was in ruins in the time of Pausanias. Mycenae, sometimes Mycene (now Kar- x-af(i). An ancient town in Argolis, about () miles northeast of Argos ; it is said to have been founded by Perseus in 2 n.c. After the conquest of Peloponnesus by the Dorians, it ceased to be a place of importance. It still, however, continued an independent town till 4(38 B.C., when it was attacked by the Argives, whose haired the Mycen:i?an3 are said to have incurred by the part they took in the Persian war in favor of the Greek cause. The massive walls of Mycenie resisted all the attacks of the Argives ; but the in- habitants were at length compelled by famine to abandon their town. They effected their escape and took refuge, some at Cleon», some in Achaia, and others in ^lucedonia. Mylae. See Milazzo. MAYONNESUS 344 NAGPORE Myonnesus (now Cajte Hypsili). A promontory of Ionia, with a town and a lit- tle island of the same name, forming the northern headland of the Gulf of Ephesus. Here the Komans, under the prastor L. jEmilius, gained a great naval victory over Antiochus the Great, 190 B.C. Myriarch. A captain or commander of 10,000 men. Myrmidons. The soldiers who accompa- nied Achilles in the expedition against Troy. Rough, desperate characters banded under a leader. Mysore, Maheshasoora, or Maisur. A raj or native principality of Southern India. It was ruled by Hyder Ali, who acquired the sovereignty in 1761, and afterwards by his son Tippoo Sahib, who was slain when Seringapatam (May 4, 1799) was stormed and taken, and the country occupied by the British, who set up, in the same year, an heir of the ancient Hindoo royal family of Mysore to rule in his stead. The state is now subsidiary to the British. Mytilene, Mitylene, or Metelin. The city of Lesbos. At the beginning of the 7th cen- tury B.C., the possession of its colony, Sigeum, at the mouth of the Hellespont, was disputed in war between the Mytileneans and Athe- nians, and assigned to the latter by the award of Periander, tyrant of Corinth. Mytilene submitted to the Persians after the conquest of Ionia and ^olis, and fur- nished contingents to the expeditions of Cambyses against Egypt and of -Darius against Scythia ; it was active in the Ionian revolt; became again subject to Persia, and took part in the expedition of Xerxes against Greece. After the Persian war it formed an alliance with Athens, and remained one of the most important members of the Athe- nian confederacy. In 428 B.C. it headed a revolt of the greater part of Lesbos, the progress and suppression of which forms one of the most interesting episodes in the his- tory of the Peloponnesian war. Mytilene fell under the power of the Romans after the Mithridatic war. *^ N. Naas. A town of Ireland, in the county of Kildare, 18 miles southwest from Dublin. Here the insurgent Irish were defeated by a body of the king's forces, May 24, 1798; the insurgents lost about 300 killed and many wounded. Nabataei, or Nabathae (in the Old Testa- ment Nebaioth). An Arabian people, de- scended from the eldest son of Ishmael, had their original abodes in the northwestern part of the Arabian peninsula, east and southeast of the Moabites and Edomites. After the Babylonian conquest of Judisa, the Nabathteans extended west into the Sinaitic peninsula and the territory of the Edomites. They resisted all the attacks of the Greek kings of Syria. Under Au- gustus the Nabathaeans are found, as nom- inal subjects of the Roman empire, assisting uElius Gallius in his expedition into Arabia Felix ; under Trajan they were conquered by A. Cornelius Palma, and Arabia Petraaa became a Roman province, 105-107. The Mohammedan conquest finally overthrew the power of the Nabathseans. Nachod. A town of Bohemia, near where the Prussians, under their crown prince, defeated the Austrians after a severe conflict, June 27, 1866. In this battle, the superiority of the Prussian Uhlans over the Austrian cavalry was demonstrated. Nafels. A small town of Switzerland, in the canton of Glarus, 4 miles north from Glarus. Here in 1388, 1500 men of Glarus, under Matthias am Buhl, overthrew an Austrian force of from 6000 to 8000 men. The event is still celebrated yearly. Nagarkana. In the East Indies, the place where all the drums and war-music are kept, is so called. Naggur (Ind.). The principal drum in Asiatic armies, commonly allowed only to persons of high dignity ; the bass drum. Nagpore, Nagpur, or Nagpoor. A city of British India, capital of the province of the same name, 430 miles in a direct line east-northeast from Bombay. The rajahs of Nagpore, now an extinct dynasty, were the rulers of a state which was a branch of the great Mahratta confederacy. Its founder was Parsojee, originally a private soldier. Ragojee, one of the successors of Parsojee, united his forces in 1803 with those of Scindia in the war against the British con- > sequent on the treaty of Bassein. The \ victories of Assaye and Argaum compelled | him to sue for peace, and by a treaty con- cluded in 1804, he surrendered the province of Cuttack. Appa Sahib, his successor, concluded a treaty with the British gov- ernment, but on November 26, 1817, he , made an attack on the British troops^ at ( Seetabuldee, an eminence on the outskirts j of the town of Nagpore. The British force only 1400 strong, under Col. Scott, was op- posed to a body of 20,000 native troops; ■ NAIGUE 345 NAPLES but the best dispositions which the sudden- ness of the attack allowed were promptly made. A noble cliarc^e, headed vy Capt. Fitzgerald with a small ])arty of cavalry, upon a large body of the enemy's horse, decided the fortune of the day, which ended in the defeat of the natives. Naigue, Naick, or Naik. A native non- commissioned officer among Indian and Anglo-Asiatic troops, whose functions are Bomewhat analogous to those performed among European troops by the drill-ser- geant. Nail Cannon, To. See Spike Cannon, To. Nail-ball. A round projectile with an iron i)iii protruding from it, to prevent its turning in the bore of the piece. Nairs. A native military tribe of the Malabar coast. They affirm that they are the oldest nobility in the world. Their pride on this supposition is greater than that of the Rajpoots. In 1755, the kingof Trav- ancore, with the assistance of a French offi- cer called Launoy, disciplined 10,000 Nairs in the method of European infantry. Najera. A town of Spain in the prov- ince of Logrono. Near this ])lace Edward the Black Prince defeated Henry de Trasta- mere, and re-established Peter the Cruel on the throne of Castile, April 3, 13(J7. Naked Bullet. Grooved or cnnnchired bullet as distinguished from the^jn^cAc^/ 6m/- let. Namur. A city of Belgium, capital of the province of the same name, 33 miles southwest from Liege. It has been fortified from the earliest period of its history ; in 1692 its defensive works were repaired and strengthened by Coehorn ; was taken in the following year by Louis XIV. and Vauban, the latter of whom added considerable to its original strength ; in 1695 it sustained a long siege against "William III. of England, and was taken ; seized by the French in the beginning of the 18th century, but ceded to Austria in 1713. In 1781 the emperor Jo- seph expelled the Dutch garrison. In 1792 it was occupied by the French, but retaken by the Austrians'in 1793. In 1794 it was again occupied by the French, who kept it till the Netherlands were given up by the French government in 1814 ; and after hav- ing been gallantly defended by its French conquerors in 1815, against the Prussians under Pirch, it was finally restored to the Netherlands after the battle of Waterloo, and at once put into thorough repair. The works were demolished again in 18(3G with the exception of the citadel. Nana. In the East Indies, the title which is given to a chief of the :Mahrattas. It more properly signifies the acting head of the government, and general of the forces. Nancy. A city of France, the capital of the department of the Meurthc, situated on the Meurthe, 30 miles soiith from Met/. ; it was the capital of Lorraine and the residence of the dukes of that country in the 13lh cen- tury. After taking Nancy, November 29, 1475, and losing it, October 5, 1470, Charles the Bold of Burgundy was defeated and slain beneath its walls l)y Rene II., duke of Lorraine, and the Swiss, January 5, 1477. Nancy on the retreat of MacMahon's army, and expecting the German armv, surren- dered to four Uhlans, August 12, "1870. Nankin, Nanking, Kianning-Foo, or Kiangning-Fu. The ancient capital of China, now the chief town of the prcnince of Kiangsu, is situated about 3 miles from the south bank of the river Yang-tse-Kiang, about 100 miles from its mouth. On Aug- ust 4, 1842, the British ships arrived at Nankin, and were kept before this place till the final treaty of August 29, between China and Great Britain, was signed and ratified. The rebel Tae-pings (Taipings) took it on March 19-20, 1853. It was recaptured by the imperialists, July 19, 1804. Nantes (anc. Condivicnum, afterwards Namnete.i, or Nannetes). An important commercial town of France, capital of the department of Loire-Inferieure, on the right bank of the Loire, about 30 miles from its mouth, 208 miles southwest of Paris. The history of Nantes reaches back to the time of the Romans, in whose hands it seems to have remained until the beginning of the 5th century, when they were driven from the town. In 445 it valiantly withstood a siege of sixty days by the Huns. It was captured by the Normans in 853 and 859, and held in possession by them for nearly a century, after which the town suffered many sieges, — in 1343 by the English ; in 1380 by the Earl of Buckingham, when it was re- lieved by Oliver of Clisson ; and again in 1491 by Charles VIII. It suffered much froni the Vendean civil war of 1793. In June of that year the Vendean army, 50,000 strong, under Cathelineau, laid siege to the city, then defended by Gens. Beysser and Canclaux, but were repulsed with great loss, — their general being among the slain. Here took place the wholesale drowning (termed Noyades) of the royalists in the Loire, by command of the brutal Carrier, one of the leaders of the republicans, No- vember, 1793. It was from Nantes that Prince Charles Edward embarked for Scot- land in 1745. Nantes, Edict of. The name given to the famous decree published in that citv by Ilenry IV. of France, April 13, 1598, which secured to the Protestant portion of his sub- jects freedom of religion. Naples. A province of Italy, occupying the southern part of the Italian peninsula, formerly the continental division of the old kingdom of the Two Sicilies. It began with a (ireek colony named Parthenope (about 1000 B.C.), wliich wi\s afterwards divided into Pahepolis (the old) and Neapolis (the nexv city), from which latter the present name isderived. The colony was ctmquered br the Romans in the Samnito war, 326 b!c. Naples, after resisting the power of NAPLES 346 NAEBONNE the Lombards, Franks, and Germans, was subjugated by the Normans, under Roger Guiscard, king of Sicily, in 1131. Naples was conquered by Theodoric the Goth in 493 ; retaken by Belisarius in 536 ; taken again by Totila in 543 ; retaken by Narses in 542; conquered, and the kingdom of the Two Sicilies founded by lloger Guiscard II. in 1131. Here occurred the massacre called the Sicilian Vespers (which see), March 30, 1282. The territory' was invaded by Louis, king of Hungary, in 1349; seized by Al- phonso V. of Aragon in 1435; conquered by Charles VIII. of France in 1494; and by Louis XII. of France and Ferdinand of Spain, who divided it in 1501. The French were expelled from Naples in 1504; insur- rection of Masaniello, occasioned by the extortions of the Spanish viceroys, July, 1647 ; Masaniello slain by his own followers a few daj's later ; another insurrection sup- pressed by Don John of Austria, October, 1647. Naples was conquered by Prince Eugene of Savoy for the emperor in 1706 ; the king flies on the approach of the French republicans, who establish the Parthenopean republic, January 14, 1799; Nelson appears ; Naples retaken June, 1799; the Neapolitans occupy Eome, September 30, 1799. Ferdi- nand is compelled to fly to Sicily, January 23, 1806; the French enter Naples, and Joseph Bonaparte made king, February, 1806 ; Joachim Murat made king, July 15, 1808 ; Joachim declares war against Austria, March 15, 1815; defeated atTolentino, May 8, 1815 ; successful insurrection of the Car- bonari under Gen. Pepe, July 13, 1820 ; the Austrians invade the kingdom ; Gen. Pepe defeated, March 7, 1821 ; insurrection of the Carbonari suppressed, August, 1828 ; great lighting in Naples; the liberals and the national guard almost annihilated by the royal troops, aided by the lazzaroni, May 15, 1848; a martial anarchy prevails, 1849; Italian refugees, under Count Pisacane, land in Calabria, are defeated, and their leader killed, June 27-July 2, 1857 ; insubordina- tion among the Swiss troops at Naples, many shot, July 7, 1859 ; Garibaldi lands in Sicily, May 11, 1860, and defeats the Neapolitan army at Calatafimi, May 15, 1860; state of siege proclaimed at Naples, June 28, 1800; Garibaldi defeats Neapol- itans at Melazzo, July 20; enters Messina, July 21, and the Neapolitans agree to evac- uate Sicily, July 30, 1860; the army pro- claim Count de Trani king, July 10, 1860; Garibaldi lands at Melito, August 18, 1860; takes Reggio, August 21, 1860; he enters Naples without troops, September 7, 1860; Garibaldi gives up the Neapolitan fleet to the Sardinian admiral Persano, September 11, 1860; repulses the Neapolitans at Ca- jazzo. September 19, 1860, and defeats them at the Volturno, October 1, 1860; the king of Sardinia enters the kingdom of Naples, and takes command of his army, which combines with Garibaldi's, October 11, 1860; Cialdini defeats the Neapolitans at Isernia, October 17, and at Venafro, October 18, 1860; Garibaldi meets Victor Emmanuel, and salutes him as king of Italy, October 26, 1860. Naples (Lat. Nenpolis, It. Napoli). A city of Italy, the capital of the province of Naples, situated on the Bay of Naples, near the foot of Mount Vesuvius. In 1799 it was taken by the French, who evacuated it shortly after, but again occupied it in 1806. In 1848 it was plundered by the lazzaroni, of whom 1500 lost their lives. The history of this city is nearly identical with that of the province of the same name (which see). Napoleon Gun. In 1856 it was proposed to increase the power of the light, and di- minish the weight of the heavy field artillery, by the introduction of a single piece of me- dium weight and caliber ; such is the new field or Napoleon gun. It has no chamber, and should therefore be classed as a gun. Its exterior is characterized by the entire ab- sence of molding and ornament, and in this respect may be at once distinguished from the.old field-cannon. The first reinforce is cylindrical, and it has no second reinforce, as the exterior tapers uniformly with the chase from the extremity of the first reinforce. The size of the trunnions and the distance between the rimbases are the same as in the 24-pounder howitzer, in order that pieces maj' be transported on the same kind of carriage. The diameter of the bore is that of a 12-pounder, the length of bore is 16 calibers. The weight is 100 times the pro- jectile, or 1200 pounds. The charge of pow- der is the same as for the heavy 12-pounders (pattern of 1840), or 2^ pounds for solid and case-shot, and 2 pounds for canister-shot. It has, therefore, nearly as great range and accuracj'^ as the heaviest gun of the old sys- tem, and, at the same time, the recoil and strain on the carriage are not too severe. The new gun and carriage weigh about 500 pounds more than the 6-pounder and car- riage, still it has been found to possess suffi- cient mobility for the general purposes of light artillery. It is proposed to retain the 12-pounder howitzer in service, to be em- ployed in cases where great celerity of move- ment is indispensable. The eftect of this change is to simplify the materiel of field ar- tillery, and to increase its ability to cope with the rifle-musket, principally by the use of larger and more powerful spherical case-shot. The principal objection to an increased cali- ber for light field-guns is the increased weight of the ammunition, and consequent reduction of the number of rounds that can be carried in the ammunition-chests. Narbonne. A city of France, in the de- partment of the Aude, 32 miles east of Car- cassonne. The modern town of Narbonne occupies the site of the ancient Narho Mar- iiua^ a Roman colony founded in 118 B.C. After the first colonization of Narbo, many of the soldiers of Ctesar's Tenth Legion were settled here, from whom the town derived NARISCI 347 NATCHEZ the name of Decumatiorum Colonia. It was taken by the Visigoths in 4G2, by the Bur- gundians in 508, by the Frani\S in 531, b}' thi' Saracens in 719, and by tlie Moors in 779. Charlas Martel defeated the Moors under its walls, but the town held out until it was taken by Pepin in 759. In 859 it fell to the arms of the Northmen. Narisci. A small but brave people in tlie Bouth of Germany, of the Suevic race, dwelt we.->t of tiie Marcomanni and east of the Ilernmiiduri. Their country extended from the Sudeti Montes on the north to the Dan- ube on the south. Narni (anc. Narnin). A town of Cen- tral Italy, on the Nera, or Nar, about 45 miles northeast of Rome. During the second Punic war an army was posted here to op- pose the threatened advance of ilasdrubal upon Rome. The town bore an important part in the civil war between Vitellius and Ve.-ipasian. It was occupied by the generals of the former to check the advance of Ves- pasian's army, but the increasing disaffection towards Vitellius caused the troops at Nar- nia to lay down their arms without resist- ance. Its natural strength and commanding position rendered it also of great importance during the Gothic wars of Belisarius and Narses. The town was sacked by the Vene- tians and its garrison put to the sword in the 16th century, since which time it has been a place of little importance. Narragansetts. A tribe of Algonki a In- dians who formerly inhabited a tract of country nearly corresponding to the present State of Rhode Island. They were gener- ally friendly to the early white settlers, and were sworn enemies of tlie Mohegans (which see). In 1()37, when the Pequots were at- tempting to induce them to join in a general war upon the whites, they were dissuaded from doing so by Roger Williams, who had great influence with their chief, Canonicus. In King Philip's war (1075) they were sus- pected of playing false to the settlers, and of sheltering the enemy that wasted their set- tlements. It was accordingly resolved to treat them as enemies, and 1000 colonists marched against their chief fort, which was situatcnl on a swamp island near what is now the village of Kingston, R. I. The fort was taken by storm and burned, all the winter supplies of the Indians and many of the aged and lielpless, it is said, perishing in the flames. Hunger and distress followed ; but the Narragansetts still maintained the con- test under their chief, Canonchet, until he was taken prisoner and j)Ut to death. They subsequently merged into the dominant race, and only a few of the tribe now exist. Narva. A town of Russia in Europe, in the government of St. I'etersburg, on the Narova, 8 miles from its mouth, and 90 miles southwest from St. Petersburg. Near this town on November 30, 1700, Charles XII. at the head of 8000 Swedes, defeated Peter the Great with about 80,(K)0 Russians. It was taken by Peter in 1804. Nasamones. A powerful but savage Libyan people, who dwelt originally on the shores of the Great Syrtis, but were driven inland by the Greek settlers of Cyrenaica, and afterward by the Romans. Naseby. A parish and village of Eng- land, in the county of Northampton, 12 miles north of the town of that name. The battle of Naseby, between Charles I. and the Parliamentary army under Fairfax and Cromwell, took place here, June 14, l(i4o. It resulted in the total defeat of the royalists, the king being compelled to flee, after" losing his cannon and baggage, and nearly 5000 of his army as prisoners. Nashville. A city and capital of the State of Tennessee, situated on the left bank of the Cumberland River, about 200 miles from its mouth. During the civil war, after the fall of Fort Donelson, it was occupied by the Union forces, February 24, 1802. Within a few miles of the city was fought the memorable battle which bears its name, between the Confederate forces under Gen. Hood and the Union troops under Gen. George H. Thomas, December 15-10, 1864. The battle commenced by a feint on Hood's right and a real attack on his left, which re- sulted in driving it a distance of 8 miles, and the capture of over 1000 prisoners, 20 wagons, and 16 pieces of artillery. During the ensuing night. Gen. Hood contracted his lines, and ne.vt day tlie battle was renewed with vigor, towards the afternoon becoming close and obstinate. Near dusk the Confed- erates gave way, and a total rout soon fol- lowed. Some 4000 pri.soners were captured, over 50 pieces of artillery, and an immense number of small-arms. On the 17th the pursuit of the enemy was continued and many more prisoners captured. Hood es- caped with a mere wreck of his army, and was soon after relieved of ctmimand. Nasir-Jung (Ind.). Victorious, or tri- umphant in war. Nassau, House of, A noble family of German origin, which produced man}- great men, and derived its title from Nassau, on the Rhino. In the lOtli century the family acquired the principality of Orange, in the southeast of France ; after which the counts of Nassau took the title of Prince of Orange. Natchez, or Natches. A tribe of Indians who formerly occupied four or live villages situated east of the Alississippi in a tract of country which embraced the site of the city of that name. They were generally friendly to the early French settlers ; but in 1729, be- ing enraged by the brutal avarice of Cho- purt, the commander of the garrison, who demanded as a plantation the very site of their principal village, they concerted a general massacre of the French, wliich they eflected November 28, killing about 200 and holding the women and children captives. Tlie French took a bloody and terrible re- venge. Under the leadership of Le Sueur, ft Frenchman, 700 Choctnws broke upon the slumbers of the Natchez on the night of NATCHITOCHES 348 NAVAL January 28, 1730, liberated the captives, and ■with a loss ofbut two of th(!ir number, brought off 60 scalps and 18 prisoners. On February 8 following the French under Loubois com- pleted the ruin of the tribe. Some fled to the neighboring tribes and some crossed the Mississippi to the vicinity of the Natchi- toches. They were pursued and their places of refuge talcen. Of the scattered remnants some remained with the Chickasaws, others settled with the Muskogees, and about 400 were shipped to San Domingo and sold as slaves. Thus perished the Natchez as an in- dependent tribe. Natchitoches. A tribe of Indians allied to the Caddos, who formerly lived on Red Kiver, La. They were dispossessed of their territory by the fugitive Natchez in 1731, and settled permanently with the Caddos, with which tribe a few still exist. National Armory. See Armory, Na- tional. National Cemeteries. In the United States, are the burial-places for soldiers. They are called national because they belong to and are cared for by the general govern- ment. National Flag. See Flag. National Guards. The militia organiza- tions of several States of the United States and of some foreign countries are so called. In the United States they are authorized by State laws, and may be called into the service of the general government. After the destruction of the Bastile, a similar or- ganization, called the (yarde natio7iale, was formed in Paris from the bourgeois class in 1789, under Lafayette as colonel-general. Napoleon subsequently defeated and dis- persed it, but it was again organized by him in 1814. The national guard was adopted as an institution under the Restoration, and the Comte d'Artois appointed colonel-gen- eral. By decree of 1852 the government re- served the right of organizing or suppressing the national guard in communes, and also of nominating all the oflicers, who up to this time had been elected. The French national guard fought in the war of 1870-71, and also participated in the Communist struggles. National Military Homes. See Soldiers' HOME.S. National Salute. In the United States, a salute of one gun for each State in the Union. National Troops. Are those raised under the authority of Congress, in contradistinc- tion to the militia, which may be called State troops, being organized by the several States. Native Cavalry. A body of natives in the East Indian army, formed into light dragoons. Native Infantry. A body of native troops in the East Indian army. Natural Angle of Sight. The angle which the natural line of sight makes with the axis of the piece. Natural Fortification. See Fortifica- tion. Natural Line of Sight. See Line of Metal. Natural Steel. See Ordnance, Metals FOR Steel. Naumburg. A town of Prussia, province of Saxony, 18 miles south-southwest from Merseburg. It was besieged in 1482 by the Hussites under Procopius ; but they were induced to raise the siege by the entreaties of the children of the town. Naumburg was a place of importance in the Thirty Years' War, as well as in the campaigns of 1806 and 1813. Nauplia. A small fortified town and sea- port in the Morea, Greece. At an early period it was the port and arsenal of Argos ; occupied by the Venetians in the 13th century; taken by the Turks in 1540, and again in 1715. The Turks lost it on the outbreak of the Greek insurrection. Navajo Indians. A numerous and war- like tribe of the Shoshone family, who are located to the number of about 12,000 on a large reservation in New Mexico. They were for a long time at war with the whites, but have at length been thoroughly subdued, and are gradually adopting semi-civilized habits. They are famous for the manufacture of a peculiar blanket of excellent quality which bears their name. Naval Camp. In military antiquities, a fortification, consisting of a ditch and para- pet on the land side, or a wall built in the form of a semicircle, and extended from one point of the sea to the other. This was beautified with gates, and sometimes de- fended with towers, through which they issued forth to attack their enemies. Towards the sea, or within it, they fixed great piles of wood, like those in their artificial harbors ; before these the vessels of burden were placed in such order, that they might serve instead of a wall, and give protection to those without ; in this manner Nicias is re- ported by Thucydides to have encamped himself. " When their fortifications were thought strong enough to defend them from the assaults of enemies, the ancients fre- quently dragged theirships on shore. Around these ships the soldiers disposed their tents, as appears everywhere in Homer. But this seems only to have been practiced in winter, Avhen their enemy's fleet was laid up, and could not assault them ; or in long sieges, and when they lay. in no danger from their enemies by sea, as in the Trojan war, where the defenders of Troy never once attempted to encounter the Grecians in a sea-fight. Naval Crown. In heraldry, a rim of gold, round which are placed alternately prows of galleys and square-sails. A naval crown supporting the crest in place of the wreath, occurs in various grants of arms in the early part of the present century to naval heroes. The crest of the Earl of St. Vincent, bestowed on him after his victory over the Spanish fleet in 1797, is issuing out of a naval crown or, enwrapped by a wreath of laurel vert, a demi-pegasus argent muned NAVARRE 349 NEEMUCH «nd hoofed of the first, and winired azure, chiiPtjed in the wini? with a fleur-do-lis or. Navarre. A province, and formerly a kinfrdorn, of Spain, is bounded on the north by France, on the south and east by Ara- gon, and on the west by the Biscays. It was occupied in ancient times by the Vas- cones, who were subdued by the Goths in the 5th century. After havini^ become gradually amalgamated with their conquer- ors, the people continued to enjoy a species of turbulent independence under military leaders until the 8th century, when they were almost annihilated by the hordes of Arabs who were rapidly spreading their do- minion to all parts of the peninsula. Na- varre was conquered from the Saracens by Charlemagne, 778. In 1070, Sancho Ka- moTCz of Aragon seized Navarre. During the war of independence and the civil war, the province produced bands of formidable guerrilleros. Nave. In gun-carriages, that part of a wheel in which the arms of the axle-tree move, and in which the spokes are driven and supported. Nave-boxes. Are boxes which are placed in the naves ; they were formerly made of brass, but experience has shown that those of cast iron cause less friction, and are much cheaper. There are two, one at each end, to diminish the friction of the axle-tree against the nave. Nave-hoops. Are flat iron rings to bind the nave ; there are generally three on each nave. Navel. A lug with a hole through it on the under side of a carronade, used to con- nect it with its carriage. Naxos, or Naxia. An island in the .^gean Sea, and the largest of the Cyclades ; is situated nearly half-way between the coasts of Greece and Asia Minor. It was con- ouered by Pisistratus, who established Ly- damis as tyrant of the island about 540 b.c. The Persians in 501 attempted, at the sug- gestion of Aristagoras, to subdue Naxos, but failed; Aristagoras, fearing punishment, in- duced the Ionian cities to revolt from Persia. In 4!tO the Persians, under Datis and Ar- tapherncs, conquered Naxos, and reduced the inhabitants to slavery. The Naxians recovered their independence after the bat- tle of Salamis (480). They were the first of the allied states whom the Athenians re- duced to subjection, 471. After the capture of Constantinople by the Latins in 1204, the .^gean Sea fell to the lot of the Venetians ; and Marco Sanudo in 11207 took possession of Nuxos, and founded there a powerful Btate under the title of duchy of the vEgean Sea. His dynasty ruled over the greater part of the Cyclades for 300 years, and was at length overthrown by the Turks in loOC. Naxos now belongs to the kingdom of Greece. Naxos. A Greek city on the eastern coast of Sicily, south of Mount Taurus; was founded' 735 B.C. by the Chakidians of Eu- beea, and was the first Greek colony estab- lished in the island. It carried on a success- ful war against Messina, and was subse- quently an ally of the Athenians against Syracuse. In 403 the town was taken by Dionysius of Syracuse, and destroyed. Nebraska. One of the Central States of the United States, lying west of the Mis- souri River. Nebraska formed a part of the great grant of the Mississippi Valley to Cro- zart in 1712, and was part of the territory included in Law's celebrated Mississippi scheme. It came into possession of the United States in- 1803, as a portion of the Louisiana purchase. In 1804, Lewis and Clarke explored the interior and western parts of the State. In 1854 it was erected into a Territory, and in 1807 admitted as u State. Necessaries. The articles issued to the British soldier, such as boots, shirts, stock- ings, razor, etc., which are requisite for his comfort and cleanliness, are technically termed regimental necessaries. Non-com- missioned oflScers are not allowed to sell regimental necessaries to the soldiers. Every article is directed by the regulations to be marked with the owner's name, the letter of his company, and the number of his regi- ment; and the sale or injury of them ren- ders him liable to be tried by court-martial and punished. Neck. The elbow or part connecting the blade and socket of a bayonet. Neck Line. An old term in fortification signifying the gorge. Neck of a Cascabel. The part joining the knob to the base of the breech. Neck of a Gun. The small part of the piece in front of the chase. Needle. A slender bar of steel, usually pointed, and resting on a vertical pivot, in a mariner's, or other compass, so as to turn freely towards the magnetic poles of the earth by virtue of the magnetic polarity witli which it has been artificially endued ; called also the mnpnetic needle. Needle-Gun (Ger. Zuurinadelfjevehj-]. Is a breech-loading gun, so constructed that by pulling the trigger a stout needle or wire is thrust through the base of the cartridge, par- allel with its axis, into the detonating charge behind the ball, causing explosion and the ignition of the cartridge. This gun was the regulation arm of the German infantry un- til it was replaced by the Mauser, a gun somewhat similar. The gun was invented by Nicolaus Dreyse, of Sommerda, Prussia, where it is manufactured. It was first ustnl by the Prussians in 1848, and again in the Italian war of 1806, when it proved a fear- ful instrument of destruction, and to it may ' bo ascribed in a great measure the success of j its em|)lovers. I Neemiich. In Hindostan, a town with a I British cantonment, in the territory of Gwa- i lior, or possessions of Scindia. The native I troops stationed at this place participated in j the general mutiny of the Bengal army. I The rising took place on the night of June NEEKWINDEN 350 NETHERLANDS 3, 1857, when a general massacre of the Eu- ropeans took place. The work of shvughter was commenced by the artillery, and all the native troops joined heartily in it. A native officer opened the gate of the fort and gave entrance to the rebels. Having committed the most frightful enormities, and outraged every law of humanity, a large body of the miscreants marched in the direction of Agra. Neerwinden. A village of Belgium, in the province of Liege. "William III. of England was defeated by the Duke of Lux- emburg between this place and Landen in 1693 ; the French were also defeated here in 1793 by the Austrians. Neeshungpat (Ind.). A violent assault without bloodshed. Negapatam. A considerable seaport in the south of India, and province of Tanjore. In 1660 it was taken from the Portuguese by the Dutch. It was a very flourishing city in 1781, when it was besieged and taken by the British with about 4000 troops, and linalh^ ceded to them at the peace of 1783. Negative. This term is sometimes used to express the result of measures or enter- prises which, though not entirely successful, are not productive of serious or mischievous consequences. Hence the British expeditions to Spain and Walcheren may be considered as having had negative success. Negative Penalty. Deprived of com- mand ; a bar to indulgence ; a reprimand ; etc. Neglect of Duty. Is total omission or disregard of any prescribed service, or un- soldier-like execution, which is punishable at the discretion of a court-martial. See Appendix, Articles of War, 62. Negrais. An island, harbor, and cape of the Eastern Peninsula, situated on the south- west extremity of the kingdom of Pegu. In 1687 a settlement was founded here by the British ; it was soon after abandoned ; again occupied by the British in 1751 ; it was at- tacked by the Burmese in 1759, and nearly all the inhabitants were put to death. Negropont. See Chalcis. Nelli-Cotah. A fort situated about 40 miles to the south of Tinnevelly, East Indies. This fort has been rendered memorable by the manner in which it was carried by the English in 1755, and the barbarity Avith which the garrison was treated which had not killed a man and had called for quarter, and yet men, women, and children, to the number of about 400, were massacred. Nepaul, or Nipal. An extensive country of Hindostan. It is said to have been com- pletely subdued in 1323 by Hurr Singh, one of the princes of Oude, who was driven out of his own possessions by the Patans. Run- jeet Mull was the last of the Surya Bansi race that reigned in Nepaul. He formed an alliance with Purthi Nirain, which ended in the loss of his dominions, of which he was stripped by his ally in 1768. It was in his reign that Capt. Kinloch with a British force endeavored to penetrate into Nepaul, but from the sickness of the troops, and the ditficulty of the country, the enterprise wa3 abandoned. In 1790 the Nepaul govern- ment became involved in a war with the emperor of China, who sent against them an army of 70,000 men, and defeated the N( paulese in repeated battles. A peace was at last concluded, though on terms ignomini- ous to the Nepaulese, who were compelled to become tributaries to the Chinese. In the year 1814 the British commenced a war against the Nepaulese, and, after a long and arduous struggle, during which the British suffered a number of reverses, the Nepaulese were compelled to sue for peace. Nervii. A nation of Gallia Belgica, whose territory was situated north of the Ambiani. On receiving intelligence that Ccesar was ad- vancing into their country, the inhabitants sent away their old men, women, and chil- dren to a place of refuge among the marshes by the sea-shore, and posted themselves in ambush on the banks of the Sabis (Sambre). The invaders had approached to the place of concealment, and, unsuspicious of any dan- ger, were engaged in forming a camp, when they suddenly found themselves attacked by 60,000 fierce barbarians. The Romans would have been immediately routed, had not the invincible genius of Ctesar been there to i sway and turn the tide of battle. After a i hard-fought contest, the Nervian forces were . almost annihilated ; but the Nervii were not yet subdued. In 54 B.C. they assisted the Eburones in the unsuccessful attack upon the camp of Quintus Cicero ; and it was not- until the following year that they final submitted to the Romans. Neshaumburdar (Ind.). An ensign. Netherlands, Kingdom of the. A coun try in the northwest of Europe. The nam* of the Netherlands was, for several centuries applied to the countries which now form th( kingdoms of Belgium and the Netherlands and part of the north of France. The greate portion of this territory was held by th( Spaniards until Marlborough, the general il command of the allied forces, gained th< memorable victory of Ramilies in 1706 After this, Brussels, the capital, and grea part of these provinces acknowledged Charle VI., afterwards emperor of Germany, foi! their sovereign. They were held by tb German house until the war of 1741, w" the French made an entire conquest of them except part of the province of Luxemburg They were restored, however, by the peac« of Aix-la-Chapelle, in the year 1748. Ii 1794 Holland was overrun by the troops of the French republic, and annexed to the French empire in 1810, after having been formed into the Batavian republic, and sub- sequently into a kingdom under Louis Bona- parte, in 1814 the royal family of Holland was restored, and two years after Holland and Belgium were once more reunited under the common title of the Netherlands ; but in 1830 Belgium became a distinct kingdom. See Belgium, Holland, and Flanders. NETLEY 351 NEWCASTLE Netley, Royal Victoria Hospital at. Is n superb building on the shore of Southiimp- ton Water, Hants, England, for the reception of invalids from the army on foreign service, and from among the troops serving in the adjoining military districts. In times of peace, it is only necessary to use a portion of the vast structure; hut in the event of a European war, in which the British army should take part, tl)e exigencies of the ser- vice would probably tax its accommodation to the utmost. There is provision for 1000 patients, with j)ower to increase the number. The establislimcnt lias a complete medical 8taft". Netley is also the headquarters of the female nurses of the army, who arc under the control of a lady stationed here as super- intendent-general. Complete arrangements have been made for the landing of wounded men in front of the hospital, and for convey- ing them thither with the least disturbance. See Mkdicai, .School. Nettoyer les Magazins (/'>.). In artil- lery, signilies to remove the ditlcrcnt i)ieces of ordnance, for tlie purpose of having them carefully examined, etc., and to have the stores and ammunition so arranged as not to receive damage. Nettoyer les Tranchees (Fr.). To scour or dear the trenches. This is effected by means of a vigorous sally which the garri- son of a besieged place make upon the be- siegers ; when they beat in the guard, drive off the workmen, level the parapet, break up and choke the line of circumvallation, and spike or nail the cannon. Neusatz. A town of Hungary, on the Danube, opposite Peterwardein. On June 11, 1849, it was taken from the Hungarian insurgents by tlie imperial troops, and was almost wholly destroyed. Neutral. Not engaged on either side; not taking part with either of contending parties ; neuter. Neutral. A person or nation that takes no part in a contest between others. Neutral Powers. By the treaty of Paris, signed by the representatives of Great Brit- ain, France, Austria, Russia, Prussia, Tur- key, and Sardinia, on April 16, 18.30, it was determined that privateering should be abolished ; that neutrals might carry an enemy's goods not contraband of war ; that neutral goods not contraband were free even under an enemy's flag ; and that blockades to be binding must be effective. The Presi- dent of the United States acceded to these provisions in 1861. Neutrality. In international law, the state of a nation which takes no part be- tween two or more other nations at war ■with each other. Neutrality consists in tlio observance of a strict and honest impartial- ity, so ivs not to afford advantage in tiie war to cither party ; and particularly in so far restraining itstradetothe accustomed course, which is held in time of peace, as not to render assistance to one of the belligerents in escaping the effects of the other's hostili- ties. Even a loan of raonej' to one of the belligerent parties is considered a violation of neutrality. A fraudulent neutrality is considered as no neutrality. Neutrality, Armed. See Armed. Nevada. One of the Pacific States of the United States. Nevada is a part of the ter- ritory ceded to the United States by Mexico in 1848. It was at first a j)art of California Territory ; it was subsequently attached to Utah ; in March, 1801, was organi/.ed as a Territory; and on October 31, 1804, was admitted as a State. Nevers. A town of France, the capital of the department of Nievre, situated on the right bank of the Loire, 153 miles south- southeast from Paris. The town is ancient, and is mentioned by Cicsar under the name of Noviodunum. Here that general, in 52 U.C., fixed his headquarters, and here he left his hostages, supplies, baggage, and militarj"- chest. After his defeat at Gergovia, the people of Noviodunum rose against the Romans, massacred all of them who were in the town, and plundered the stores. Neville's Cross (or Durham), Battle of. Fought between the Scots under King David Bruce, and tlie English under Pliilippa, consort of Edward III., and Lord Percy, October 12 or 17, 1340. More than 15,000 of the Scots were slain, and their king taken prisoner. Nevis, or Nievis. One of the West In- dia Islands, belonging to Great Britain, and separated from the soutli extremity of St. Christopher by a channel about 2 miles in width. It was taken by the French Febru- ary 14, 1782; restored to the English in 1783. Newark. A town of England, in Not- tingliamshire, on the Newark River, 16 miles northeast from Nottingham. Here, in the midst of troubles, died King John, October 9, 1210 ; here the royal army under Prince Rupert repulsed the army of the Parliament, besieging the town, March 21, 1044; and here. May 5, 1040, Charles I., after his defeat at Naseby, put himself into the hands of the Scotch army, who after- wards gave him up to his enemies. Newbury. A town of England, in Berk- shire, on the Kennet, 15 miles southwest from Reading. Near here were fought two des- perate battles : (1) On September 20, 1043, between the army of Charles I. and that of the Parliament under Essex ; it terminated somewhat favorably for the king. (2) A second battle of dubious result was fought between the royalists and the Parliamenta- rians, October 27, 1044. New Caledonia. An island of the South Pacific Ocean, discovered by Cook on Sep- tember 4. 1774; seized by the French Sep- tember 20, 1853. The French g(»vernment in December, 1804, redressed the outrages committed on British missionaries at a station established hero in 1854. Newcastle-upon-Tyne. A river-port and the chief town of the county of North- NEW ENGLAND 352 NEW MATTER umberland, England, 14 miles north from Durham. The Romans had a stationary camp here, called Pons ^lii, one of the chain of forts by which the AVall of Hadrian was fortified. Newcastle surrendered to the Scotch in 1646, who here gave up Charles 1. to the Parliament in 1646. The town occu- pied by Gen. Wade in 1745. New England. The name given by Capt. John Smith, in 1614, to the territory granted by James I. to the Plymouth Company for colonization, which now comprises the States of Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massa- chusetts, Rhode Island, and Connecticut. For history of New England, see these States under appropriate headings. Newfoundland. A large island of British North America, at the mouth of the Gulf of St. Lawrence. Newfoundland is supposed to have been discovered by the Norwegians, or Northmen, about the year 1000; it was rediscovered by John Cabot on June 24, 1497 ; a settlement was subsequently formed here by some Portuguese adventurers, who were in their turn expelled by Sir Francis Drake in the reign of Elizabeth. After this period numerous English colonies were es- tablished from time to time along the east coast, and several French along the south coast, in the Bay of Placentia. The French often tried to conquer the island, and during the French and English wars it was the scene of many bloody events. In 1713, New- foundland and its dependencies were declared, by the treaty of Utrecht, to belong wholly to Great Britain ; the French reserving a right to fish on certain parts of the coast. In 1728 the island was made a province of Great Britain. New Grenada (now United States of Co- lombia). A republic in the northwest of South America, discovered by Ojeda in 1499, and settled by the Spaniards in 1536. It formed a part of the new republic of Bogota, established in 1811, and combined with Ca- racas, formed the republic of Colombia, De- cember 17, 1819. (See Colombia, United States of.) A struggle took place between the conservative partisans of the old govern- ment and the liberals, January, 1861, and Gen. Mosquera (liberal) deposed Ospina and seized the government, July 18, 1861. Mos- quera invited Venezuela and Ecuador to join the confederation, August, 1863; Ecuador declined, which resulted in a war, which com- menced November 20, 1863. The troops of Ecuador were defeated, December 6 ; peace ensued, and Ecuador remained independent, December 30, 1863; Mosquera declared him- self dictator, by a coup d'etat, March 11, 1866 ; he was deposed by Santos Acosta, May 23, 1867 ; Gen. Ponce was made pro- visional president, July, 1868, and was suc- ceeded by Correoso, August 29, who defeated his opponents, November 12, 1868. New Hampshire. One of the Eastern States, and one of the original thirteen of the American Confederacy. New Hamp- shire was first visited in 1614, and was settled near Portsmouth in 1623. It was several times connected with Massachusetts up to 1679, when it became a royal province, but renewed its connections with Massachu- setts in 1689, and was for a short time attached to New York; finally, in 1741, it became an entirely separate province, and so remained till the Revolution. New Hamp- shire was much harassed by the Indians, and in 1689 a party of them sacked Dover, killed many of the whites, and burnt the town. No important action took place on the soil of this State, either in the war of the Revo- lution or that of 1812. The State contributed greatly to the cause of the Union in the late civil war. New Jersey. One of the Middle Atlantic States, and one of the original thirteen of the American Confederacy. Settlements were made at Bergen, in New Jersey, soon after their arrival in New York, by the Dutch, between the years 1614 and 1624. The whole of the region lying between the Delaware and the Hudson was claimed by them, al- though the Swedes had made some settle- ments in the western part of the same coun- try. These claims, however, were disregarded by the British ; and in 1664, Charles II. granted to the Duke of York the whole of this country, and in the same year the duke sold it to Lord Berkeley and Sir George Carteret, in honor of the latter of whom, a native of Jersey, it received the name which it still bears. The Dutch again got posses- sion of it in 1673, but resigned it on the con- clusion of peace in the following year. New Jersey escaped the inroads oi the savage tribes which desolated and afflicted most of the older colonies ; but in the war of the Revolution it suffered greatly, and was the scene of many important battles, such as Trenton, Princeton, Millstone, Red Bank, and Monmouth. In the late civil war, New Jersey contributed greatly to the cause of the Union, and her regiments were dis- tinguished on many important battle-fields. New Matter (in military courts). Should either party, in the course of their examina- tion of witnesses, or by bringing forward new ones for that purpose, introduce new matter, the opposite one has the right of calling other witnesses to rebut such new matter. A prose- cutor, however, cannot be allowed to bring forward evidence to rebut what has been elicited by his own cross-examination, but must be confined to new matter introduced by the accused, and supported by the exami- nation-in-chief of the accused. The court should be very circumspect to see and pre- vent new matter from being introduced, either in the prosecution or defense. But the accused may urge in his defense mitigat- ing circumstances, or examine witnesses as to character or service, and produce testimo- nials of such facts, without its being con- sidered new matter ; and if any point of law be raised, or any matter requiring explana- tion, the judge-advocate may explain; no other reply is admitted. NEW MEXICO 353 NEW YORK New Mexico. A Territory of the United Stiiti's, bounded on the north by Colorado, eiist by Texiis, south by Texas and Mexico, and west by Arizona. The eoiintry was ex- plored by the Spaniards in ir)87, and was taiy King Nico- Diedes I., 264 B.C., at the northeast corner of the Sinus Astaccnus (now Gulf oj Izmid). Like its neighbor and rival Niciea, it oc- cupied an important place in the wars against the Turks; it is memorable in history as the scene of Hannibal's death. It surrendered to the Seljukian Turks, 1078, and to Orchan and the Ottoman Turks in 1338. Nicopolis, or Nikopoli. A town of Tur- key in Eur(>i)e, in Bulgaria, situated on the Danube. Tlio Hungarians under Sigis- raund were defeated here in 139G by tlio Turks. Nicosia, or Lefkosia. The capital of Cyprus, stands near the centre of the island, on the right bank of the Pedia. In 1570 it was stormed by the Turks, who on that oc- casion put to the sword about 20,000 of the inhabitants. Niemen, or Memel. A large river of Litiiuania, which rises a few miles south of Minsk. Napoleon I. and Alexander of Kussiii held an interview on the waters of this river in 1807. Nieuport. A forti6ed town of Belgium, in the province of West Flanders, 11 miles southwest from Ostend. This place has often been besieged and taken and retaken by the French and English. Nigher {Ind.). Any fortified city meas- uring at lea^t 8 coss, or 8 English miles, in lenirtli and breadth. Night-firing. When a fixed object is to be tired at by night, the piece should be di- rected during the day, and two narrow and well-dressed strips of woi>d (to prevent injury to the strips from the recoil, they should be nailed at such a distance from the carriage that the space can be filled up with a strip that can be removed before firing) laid on the inside of the wheels, and two others out- side of the trail of a siege carriage, and nailed or screwed to the platform. In case of a barbette carriage, the traverse wheels should be chocked in the proper position. To preserve the elevation, measure the height of the elevating-screw above its box, or take the measure between a point on the gun and another on the stock ; cut a stick to this length and adjust the gun on it at each fire. Direction of tire may be secured at night with mortars by nailing or screwing two boards to the platform outside of the cheeks, and the elevation by drawing a line across one of the trunnions, or by inserting a wedge-shaped block of the projjer inclination below the mortar and the front transom or step. Night-firing with guns should be limited to a small number of rounds, as it consumes ammunition to little advantage. Night-signaling. An impn the right division of Wellington's «rmy under Lord Hill, a good deal of work, however, being done by the left division under Sir John Hope. Hill's success was complete, and af- ter five days' fighting (December 9-13), the passage of the Nive had been eflfected, with the loss on the part of the British of 650 killed and 34o!) wounded. Nivelle. A small river which rises in Spain, and, after a short course, falls into the Bay of Biscay at St. Jean-de-Luz, in the French department of the Lower Pyre- nees, near which the Duke of Wellington crossed the river in 1812, after carrying the French posts. Nizam's Dominions, or Hyderabad. An extensive territory in the interior of South- ern India, lying to the northwest of the Presidencv of Madras. In 1G87 the terri- tory now known as the Nizam's Dominions, became a province of the Mogul empire ; but in 1719 the governor or viceroy of the Dec- can, Azoph Jah, made himself independent, and took the title of yizrtm-ool-Moolk ( Reg- ulator of the State). After his death, in 1748, two claimants appeared for the throne, — his son Na/.ir Jung, and his grandson Mirzapha Jung. The cause of the former was espoused by the East India Company, and that of the latter by a party of French adventurers under Gen. Dupleix! Then fol- lowed a period of strife and anarchy. In 1761, Nizam Ali obtained thesnpreme power, and after some vacillation signed a treatv of alliance with the English in i7t)8. He aided them in the war with Tippoo Sahib, sultan of Mysore, and at the termination of that war, in 1799, a new treaty was formed, by which, in return for certain territorial concessions, the East India comj>any bound itself to main- tain a subsidiary force' of 8000 men for the defense of the Nizam's dominions. The Ni- zam or ruler, Afzul-ul-Duwlah, remained faithful to the British during the mutiny of 1857-08 Nizza-Montferrato. A town of northern Italy, y)rovince of Alessandria, on the Belbo. It was a strongly-fortified place during the Middle Ages, was besieged unsuccessfully for forty days by Charles of Anjou, and af- terwards sutfered severely from the Spanish and French armies. Noblesse Militaire (Fr.). Military no- bility. Although most of the orders may be considered as appendages which confer a species of military nobility, especially that of the British " Garter," wliich was insti- tuted by King Edward III. on January 19, 1344, yet the British cannot be strictly said to have among them that species of military nobility or distinction that was peculiarly known in France under the immediate title of noblesse militaire. In order to reward military merit, an edict was issued by the French court at Fontainebleau, in Novem- ber, 1750, and enregistered on the 25th of the same month by the Parliament of Paris, whereby a noblesse militnirc, or military no- bility, was created ; the acquisition of which depended wholly upon martial character, but did not require any letters patent for the purpose of ennobling the individual. By the first article of this perpetual and irre- vocable edict, as it was then stated, it was decreed that no person serving in the ca- pacity and quality of officer in any of the king's troops, should be liable to the land- or poll-tax, so long as he continued in that sit- uation. (2) 'iliat by virtue of this edict, and from the date thereof, all general offi- cers, not being otherwise ennobled, but being actually and bona tide in the service, should be considered as noble, and remain so, to- gether with their children, born or to be born in lawful wedlock. (3) That in future the rank of geneml officer should of itself be sufficient to confer the full right of nobility upon all those who should arrive at that de- gree of military promotion ; and that their heirs and successors, as well as their chil- dren, actually born and lawfully begotten, should be entitled to the same distinction ; and that all general officers should enjoy all the rights and privileges of nobility from tho date of their commissions. In Articles IV., v., VI., and VII., it was specifically pro- vided upon what conditions those officers, who were not noble, and were inferior in rank to that of marechal-de-camp, but who had been chevaliers or knights of the royal and military order of St. Louis, and who should retire from the service after having been in the army during thirty years without intremission, were to be exempted from the payment of the land- and poll-tax, and how NOBLESSE 358 NON-COMBATANT the same privileges were to' be transferred to their sons, provided they were in the ser- vice. By Article VIII. it was enacted, that those officers who had risen to the rank of captain, and were chevaliers or knights of the order of St. Louis, but who were disabled by wounds, or diseases contracted in the ser- vice, should not be obliged to fill up the period of thirty years as prescribed by the recited ar- ticles. By Article IX. it was provided that when any officer, not under the rank of cap- tain, died in the actual exercise of the func- tions or bearing the commission of captain, the services he had already rendered should be of use to his sons, lawfully begotten, who were either in the service or were intended for it. It was specified in Articles X. and XI. that every oflflcer born in wedlock, whose father and grandfather had been exempted from the land- or poll-tax, should be noble in his own right, provided he got created a chevalier or knight of St. Louis, had served the prescribed period, or was entitled to the exemption mentioned in Article VIII. ; that if he should die in the service, he would be considered as having acquired the rank of nobility, and that the title so obtained should descend, as a matter of right, to the children, lawfully begotten, of such officers as had acquired it. It further specified, that even those who should have been born previous to their fathers being ennobled, were en- titled to the same privilege. Article XII. pointed out the method by which proofs of military nobility were to be exhibited in conformity to the then existing edict. Ar- ticles XIII. and XIV. provided for those oflScers, who were actually in the service at the promulgation of the edict, in proportion as the prescribed periods were filled up. This provision related wholly to the personal services of officers ; as no proof was ac- knowledged relative to services done by their fathers or grandfathers, who might have re- tired from the army, or have died prior to the publication of the edict. The XVth or last Article was a sort of register, in which were preserved the diflferent titles that en- abled individuals to lay claim to military nobility. The whole of this edict may be seen, page 206, in the 3d volume " Des Ele- mens Militaires." The French emperor Bonaparte instituted an order of nobility called the " Legion of Honor," the' political influence of which appears to be greater than any order ever established, even than that of the Jesuits. He also adopted the ancient military title of duke, which was conferred only on men who had merited re- nown by their military greatness. The title of count was also established, and all the members of the Legion of Honor held a rank corresponding with the knights of feudal institution. Private soldiers and tradesmen, for acts of public virtue, have been created members of the Legion of Honor. Noblesse Oblige. A French phrase, — rank has its obligations. Nocera dei Pagani (anc. Nuccrla Alfa- terna). A town of Southern Italy, province and 8 miles northwest of Salerno. During the second Samnite war (315 B.C.) the Nu- cerians, who were on friendly terms with the Itomans, were induced to abandon their al- liance and make common cause with the Samnites, for which they were punished in 308 by the Koman consul Fabius, who in- vaded their territory, laid siege to their city, and compelled them to unqualified submis- sion. In the second Punic war the city was besieged by Hannibal, and after a vigorous resistance was compelled by famine to sur- render ; it was given up to plunder and totally destroyed, while the surviving inhab- itants took refuge in the other cities of Cam- pania. It again became a flourishing town, and its territory was ravaged in the Social war, 90 B.C. The decisive battle between Narses and Teias, which put an end to the Gothic monarchy in Italy (533 a.d. 1, was fought in its neighborhood. Its modern ap- pellation is derived from the circumstance that in the 13th century a body of Saracens were established there by the emperor Fred- erick II. Nogent-le-Rotrou. A parish and town of France, in the department of the Eure and Loire, 33 miles southwest from Chartres. Taken by the English in 1428. Nola. A city of Italy, province of Terra di Lavoro, 14 miles east-northeast of Naples. The ancient Nola was founded by the Au- sonians, but afterwards fell into the hands of the Tyrrheni (Etruscans). In 327 B.C. it was sufficiently powerful to send 2000 soldiers to the assistance of Neapolis. In 313 the town was taken by the Romans. It remained faithful to the Romans even after the battle of Canna;, when the other Campanian towns revolted to Hannibal ; and in consequence retained its own constitution as aii ally of the Romans. In the Social war it fell into the hands of the confederates, and when taken by Sulla it was burnt to the ground by the Samnite garrison. Nolan's Range-finder. See Raxgb- riNDER. Nolle Prosequi {Practice). An entry made on the record of courts-martial, by which the prosecutor or plaintiff' declares that he will proceed no further. The effect of a nolle prosequi, when obtained, is to put the defendant without day, but it does not operate as an acquittal ; for he may be after- wards re-indicted, and even upon the same indictment fresh process may be awarded. Nomenclature. Technical designation, j For nomenclature of ordnance, see appro- priate headings in this work. Nominal. By name, hence nominal call, which corresponds with the French appe.l nominatif ; and, in a military sense, with our roll-call. Non-combatant. Any person connected with an army, or within the lines of an army, who does not make it his business to fight, as any one of the medical officers and their assistants, chaplains, and others, also any of NON-COMMISSIONED 359 NORMANS the citizens of a place occupied by an army ; also, any one holding a similar position with respect to the navv. Non-commissioned Officers (Fr. aous- opiccrs, Ger. unter-otfizkren). Are the sub- ordinate officers of the general staff, regi- ments, and companies who are appointed, not by commission, but by the secretary of war or commanding officers of regiments; and they are usually selected on account of good conduct or superior abilities. Non-effective. Signifies men not fit or avaihiljlc for duty, in contradistinction to efleetive (which see). Noose. A running knot, which binds the closer the more it is drawn. Nootkas, or Ahts. The generic name of the Indians residing on Vancouver Island and the shore of the mainland along the sound of the same name. They are sub- divided into many tribes and number about 14,000, some of whom are partially civilized. Nora. A mountain fortress of Cappadocia, on the borders of Lycaonia, on the northern side of the Taurus, noted for the siege sus- tained in it by Eumenes against Antigonus for a whole winter. Norba, or Norbanus (now Normn). A strongly fortified town in Latium, on the slope oV the Volscian Mountains, and near the sources of the Nympha?us, originally be- longed to the Latin and subsequently to the Volscian league. The Romans founded a colony at Korba in 492 B.C. It espoused the cause of Marius in the civil war, and was destroyed by fire by its own inhabitants when it was taken by one of Sulla's generals. Nordlingen. A walled town of Bavaria, in the circle of Swabia, 48 miles southwest from Nuremberg. Here the Swedes under Count Horn were defeated by the Austrians, August 27, 1034; and the Austrians and allies by Turenne in 1645. Noreia(nowAV«»iflf;-A7, in Styria, Austria). The ancient capital of the Taurisci, or Norici, in Noricum. It was situated in the centre of Noricum, a little south of the river Mu- rius, and on the road from Virunum to Ovi- laba. It is celebrated as the place where Carbo was defeated by the Cimbri, 113 B.C. It was besieged by the Boii in the time of Julius Ciesar. Norfolk. A city and capital of Norfolk Co., Va., on the Elizabeth River, an arm of Chesapeake Bay. about 18 miles from Fortress Monroe, has a tine harbor, safe, commodious, and of sufficient depth to admit the largest vessels. It is the largest naval station in the United States. Its navy-yard was de- stroyed on April 21, 1801, by "the Federals, to prevent the ships of war and naval stores that were there from being appropriated and used by the seceding States. Noricum. A Roman province south of .the Danube, was bounded on the north by the Danube, on the west by lUuetia and Vindelicia, on the east by Pannonia, and on the south by Pannonia and Italy. Its in- habitants, the most important of which were the Taurisci, also called Norici, were con- quered by the Romans toward the end of the reign of Augustus, after the subjugation of Rha^tia by Tiberius and Drusus, and their country was furmed into a Roman colony. Normandy (Fr. Normandie). Formerly a province in tlic north of France, bordering on the English Channel; now divided into the departments of Seine-Inferieure, Eure, Orne, Calvados, and Manche. In the time of the Romans, the country bore the name of Gallia Lngduiietisia II. Under the Frank- ish monarchs it formed a part of Neustria. From the beginning of the 9th century it was continually devastated by the Scandi- navians, termed Northmen, or Normans, from whose irruptions Charles the Simple of France purchased immunity by ceding the duchy to their leader, Rollo,*90o. Rollo, the first duke, and several of his successors held it as a fief of the crown of France, until AV'illiam, the seventh duke, acquired Eng- land in 1006; it was reunited to France in 1204; was reconquered by Henry V. 1418, and held by England partially till 1450. Normans (the Northmen). Toward the end of the 8th century Western Europe be- gan to be scourged by the inroads of Scandi- navian pirates, known to the inhabitants of the British Isles as "East-men" and "Danes," — to thoseof the continent as " North-men." These Northmen were of Germanic stock, a vigorous, seafaring race, not yet Christian- ized, peopling the coasts of the Baltic and of the two peninsulas which form the Norway and Sweden and the Denmark of to-day. Need and the national thirst for adventure and for strife drove forth from the thicken- ing population, down upon the sunnier, richer, weaker South, swarms of vikings, — i.e. warriors, — who scourged the coasts of England, Germany, and France, pressed with their small, sharp, open vessels up the narrowest streams, burned, slew, and plun- dered, and sailed away laden with booty and with slaves. About the middle of the 9th century these raids began to assume an alto- gether new character and importance. The consolidation of the three great Scandinavian kingdoms broke the power of the petty king- lets and independent nobles, and drove many a jarl forth with his followers to seek a freer life in sinne new home. Northmen threw themselves in larger bands u|)on England, which the AVessex kings had not yet tairly centralized; upon the Frankish kingiloms, fast falling asunder under the later Karl- ings; harried the country, hosicgi^d and sacked the cities, wintered at the mouths of the rivers, and by the end of the century had wrested from Alfred half his kingdom, and begun to plant colonies on the coasts of France. Northmen ravaged Spain and the shores of the Mediterranean, fell upon West- ern Italy, penetrated Greece and Asia Minor, and there met others of their countrymen, who had pressed down through Russia. For in the Russia of that day, under the name of Verangians, Northmen had become the rul- NOETHALLERTON 360 NORWICH ing class, a military aristocracy ; while those who made their way still farther south had formed the famous Verangian body-guard of the Byzantine emperors, which maintained its existence and its distinctive character for live centuries. During the latter half of the 9th century, also, Scandinavians, sailing westward, found and settled Iceland. With the establishment, early in the 10th century, of settlements upon the continent, with the occupation Scandivanian energy now found at home in wars between the three new kingdoms, and with the gradual triumph of Christianity in the North, Europe gained, at last, comparative rest. England's period of misery and humiliation under Ethelred the Unready (979-1016), ended by the es- tablishment of a Danish dynasty (1017-42), marks the last great outburst of the pent-up heathenism. Northallerton. A town of Yorkshire, England, 31 miles northwest from York. Near here was fought the "battle of the Standard," where the English under the Earls of Albemarle and Ferrers totally de- feated the Scotch armies, August 22, 1138. The archbishop of York brought forth a con- secrated standard on a carriage at the mo- ment when they were hotly pressed by the invaders, headed by King David. Northampton. The chief town of North- amptonshire, situated on the Nen, or Nene, 60 miles northwest from London. It was held by the Danes at the beginning of the 10th century, and was burnt by them in 1010. Its castle was besieged by the barons in 1215, during the civil wars of King John. On July 10, 1460, a conflict took place be- tween the Duke of York and Henry VI. of England, in which the king was defeated, and made prisoner (the second time) after a sanguinary fight which took place in the meadows below the town. It was seized and fortified by the Parliamentary forces in 1642. On March 30, 1645, Cromwell marched from it with 1500 horse and two regiments of foot to Rugby. After the restoration, October 17, 1661, the walls of Northampton were demolished, it having taken the side of the Parliament. North Carolina. One of the Southern Atlantic States, and one of the original thirteen of the American Confederacy. At- tempts were made under the auspices of Sir Walter Raleigh to settle North Carolina as early as between 1585 and 1589, but in one year after no trace of the colony could be found. The first permanent settlement was made on the banks of the Roanoke and Chowan, by some emigrants from Virginia, in 1653. John Culpepper rebelled against the arbitrary government of Miller in 1678, and held the government for two years. In 1693, North and South Carolina were sepa- rated. In 1711 the Tuscaroras, Corees, and other savages attacked and massacred 112 settlers, principally of the Roanoke and Chowan settlements; but the following year the united forces of the two Carolinas com- pletely routed them, killing 300 savages. In 1729 the proprietors sold their rights to the crown. A party of malcontents, in 1771, rose against the royal governor, but after two hours' contest, fled with considerable loss. A severe conflict with the Northwest Indians occurred in 1774, on the Kanawha River, which resulted in the abandonment of the ground by the savages. North Carolina took an early and active part in the events of the Revolution, and within her borders took place sanguinary conflicts at Guilford Court-house, Brier Creek Springs, Fishing Creek, and other places. The Mecklenburg Declaration of Independence was made May 20, 1775: so North Carolina has the honor to have first proposed a separation from Great Britain. In the second war with Great Britain she also played a prominent part, although she had no serious losses on her territory. During the late civil war North Carolina suffered greatly, and was the scene of many important engagements, among which were the capture of Forts Hatteras and Clark in 1861, Roanoke Island and Newbern in February, 1862, and Fort Fisher in January, 1865. " In March, 1865, the battles of Averysboro' and Bentonville were fought by the armies of Geji. Sherman and J. E. Johnston, which ended in the final surrender of the latter, at Durham Station, April 26, 1865. Norwich. A city of England, and the capital of the county of Norfolk, on the river Wensum, 108 miles from London. In 1549 the city was the scene of an insurrection resembling that of the Jacquerie in France and the Peasant's war in Germany. The poor objected to the inclosure of certain commons and waste lands in the neighbor- hood of Attleborough and Wymondham ; fences were thrown down ; Robert, alias Knight, a tanner, a bold and resolute man, headed the rebels, aided by his brother Wil- liam, a butcher. Their numbers increased, and, marching towards Norwich, they en- camped on Mousehold Heath, took possession of the mansion of the Earl of Surrey, and thence proceeded to lay siege to the city. Having augmented their number to 16,000, and strongly fortified their camp, they sum- moned the city to surrender. For months they maintained hostilities, and the country round was pillaged and laid waste, until at length they gained an entrance to the city. A strong force was sent down for the defense of the city, under the Marquis of Northamp- ton, who was defeated on St. Martin's Palace plain ; the rebels plundered and set fire to the city in many parts. The Earl of War- wick, assisted by his son Robert Dudley, earl of Leicester, was then sent to the relief of the citizens. The city was stormed by the king's troops, and the rebels forced to retreat after a two days' sharp conflict, during which upwards of 3000 were killed, and the insurgents subdued. About 300 of the ringleaders, including the two Ketts, were executed. NOSE-BAG 361 NUREMBERG Nose-bag. A bat^ <>f stout canvas with a leather bottom, and straps by which it can be huns^ 32, dur- ing the blockade which Gustavus Adolphus endured from the imperial forces under Wal- lenstein. The city was occupied by the NURSE 362 OBEDIENCE Prussians in 1866, and its fortifications de- molished. Nurse. A person whose whole business is to attend the sick in hospital. In the U. S. service, nurses are detailed in post hospitals from the companies who are serv- ing at the post, and are exempt from other duty, but have to attend the parades for weekly inspections and the musters of their companies, unless especially excused by the commanding otScer. Ordinarily one nurse is allowed to every ten persons sick in hospital. In the British service there are sergeants, orderly men, and nurses (generally women) in hospitals of regiments of the line. Nuthall's Rifle. See Small-arms. Nykoping. A seaport of Sweden, pleas- antly situated on the Baltic, about 60 miles southwest of Stockholm. In 1317 the castle of Nykoping was seized and sacked by the people, who demolished its keep and don- jons. In 1719 the town was taken and dis- mantled by the Russians. Nystadt. A town of Finland, on the eastern coast of the Gulf of Bothnia, 50 miles south of Biorneborg. Here, in 1721, a treaty was agreed to between Russia and Sweden, by virtue of which all the conquests of Peter the Great along the coasts of the Gulf of Finland were annexed to Russia. ■e-o- o. Oakum. A tangled mass of tarred hem- pen fibres, is made from old rope by untwist- ing the strands and rubbing the fibres free from each other. Its principal use is in calking the seams between planks, the space round rivets, bolts, etc., for the purpose of preventing water from penetrating. Oaths, "Military. The taking of the oath of fidelity to government and obedience to superior officers, was, among ancient armies, a very solemn affair. A whole corps took the oath together, and sometimes an entire army. The tribunes of every legion chose out one whom they thought the fittest person, and gave him a solemn oath at large, the substance of which was, that he should oblige himself to obey the commanders in all things to the utmost of his power, be ready to attend whenever they ordered his appearance, and never to leave the army but by their consent. After he had ended, the whole legion, pass- ing one by one, every man, in short, swore to the same efiect, crying, as he went by, Idem in me, " the same by me. " In modern times when so many other checks are used in maintaining discipline, the oath has be- come little more than a form. A recruit enlisting in the army or navy, or a volun- teer enrolling himself, swears to be faithful to the government, and obedient to all or any of his superior officers. The members of a court-martial take an oath to try the cases brought before them justly, according to the evidence, to keep secret the finding and sen- tence of the court, until they shall be pub- lished by the proper authority, and to keep secret the votes or opinions given by the members individually. The judge-advocate swears that he will not reveal the individual opinions or votes of the members nor the sentence of the court to any but the proper authority. There is also an oath for the members and an oath for the recorder of a court of inquiry. The only other military oath is the common oath of a witness before a court-martial, to tell the truth, the whole truth, and nothing but the truth. See Ap- pendix, Articles op War. Obedience (Fr. obeissance). Submission to the orders of a superior. The first prin- ciple which ought to be inculcated and im- pressed upon the mind of every officer and soldier is obedience to all lawful commands. It is the mainspring, the soul and essence of military duty. It is evident that if all ofli- cers and soldiers are to judge when an order is lawful and when not, the captious and mutinous would never be at loss for a plea to justify their insubordination. It is, there- fore, an established principle, that unless an order is so manifestly against law that the question does not admit of dispute, the order must first be obeyed by the inferior, and he must subsequently seek such redress against his superior as the laws allow. If the infe- rior disputes the legality before obedience, error of judgment is never admitted in miti- gation of the oft'ense. The redress now af- forded by the laws to inferiors is not, how- ever, sufficient ; for doubtful questions of the construction of statutes, instead of being re- ferred to the Federal courts of law for their true exposition, have received variable expo- sitions from the executive, and left the army in an unfortunate state of uncertainty as to the true meaning of certain laws ; and this uncertainty has been most unfavorable to discipline. Again, while the punishment of death is meted to officers and soldiers for disobedience of lawful commands, the law does not protect officers and soldiers for obey- ing urilawful commands. Instances have occurred iii the United States, where oflicers and soldiers have been subjected to vexatious OBEDIENCE 363 OBSERVE prosecutions, simply for obeyintj orders ac- cording to their oath of office. Would it not be just if the law, instead of requiring offi- cers and soldiers thus nicely to steer between Scylla and Charybdis, should hold the supe- rior who gives an illegal order alone respon- sible for its execution ? Obedience to Orders. An unequivocal performance of the several duties which are directed to be discharged by military men. All officers and soldiers are to pay obe- dience to the lawful orders of their superior officers. Obey, To. In a military sense, is without question or hesitation to conform zealously to all orders and instructions which are legally issued. It .sometimes happens that individuals are called upon (by mistake, or from the exigency of the service) out of what is called the regular roster. In either case they must cheerfully obey, and after tRey have performed their duty they may remonstrate. Obidos. A town of Portugal, in the prov- ince of Estremadura, situated on the Aniaya, 45 miles northwest from Lisbon. An en- gagement took place here between the French and English in 1808. Object. A word in military movements and evolutions, synonymous with point. Thus, in marching forward in line, etc., the guide of a squacl, company, or battalion, must take two objects at least to fix his line of march by which the whole body is regu- lated. As he advances he selects succession objects or points to prolong the line. Object. The mark aimed at in the fire of small-arms or artillery. Objective-points. The point to be reached or gained by an army in executing a move- ment, has been termed the "objective- point." There are two classes of objectives, viz., natural and acr'ulcntal. The term geographical is frequently used to designate the first of these. A natural objective may be an important position, strong naturally, or made so by fortifications, the possession of which gives control over a tract of country, and furnishes good points of support or good lines of de- fense for other military operations. Or, it may bo a great business centre, or a capital of a country, the possession of which has the effect of discouraging the enemy and making him willing to sue for peace. Aceulental ohjcctires are dependent upon the military operations which have for their object the destruction or disintegration of the enemy's forces. These objectives are ■ometimcs called " objective-points of 7nan(vu- vre." The position of the enemy determines their location. Thus, if the enemy's forces are greatly scattered, or his front much extended, the central point of his position would be a good objective-point, since the possession of it would divide the enemy's forces, and allow his detachments to be attacked separately. Or, if the enemy has his forces well supported, a good objective would be on that flank, the possessicm of which would allow his communications with his base to be threatened. It is well to remark that the term " point" used in this connection is not to be considered merely in its geometrical sense, but is used to apply to the object which the army desires to atttain, whether it be a position, a place, a line, or even a section of countrv. — Fro/. J. B. Wheeler. OblatfFr.). Disabled soldier formerly maintuiiied by abbeys. Oblique. In tactics, indicates a direction which is neither parallel nor perpendicular to the front, but more or less diagonal. It is a command of warning in the tactics for the movement. It is used in referring to diagonal alignments, attacks, orders of bat- tles, squares against cavalry, changes of front, tires, etc. Oblique Deployments. When the com- ponent parts of a column that is extending into line, deviate to the right or left, for the purpose of taking up an oblique position, its movomonts are called oblique deployments. Oblique Fire. See Fire, Obliqce. Oblique Flank. See Flank, Oblique. Oblique Order of Battle. See Order of Battlk, Uhliuue. Oblique Percussion. Is that wherein the striking body is not perpendicular to the body struck, or is not in line with its centre of gravity. Oblique Position. Is a jiosition taken in an oblique direction from the original line of formation. Oblique Projection. Is that wherein the direction of the s^triking body is not perpen- dicular to the biKly struck, which makes an oblique angle with the horizontal line. Oblique Radius. Is a line extending from the centre to the exterior side of a polygon. Oblique Step. Is a step or movement in marching, in which the soldier, while ad- vancing, gradually takes ground to the right or left at an angle of about 25°. It is not now practiced. Oblique, To. In a military sense, is to move forward to the right or left, by obliqu- ing in either of those directions, according to the words of command. Oblong Projectiles. See Projectiles. Obsequies. See Fuxkral Honor.-*. Observation, Army of. An armv as- signed to the duty of observing and check- ing the movements of an enemy. Observer Sergeants. In the United States, are sergeants in the signal service, stationed in large towns and imjiortant com- mercial centres, to give timely warning of the approach tif storms, rise of rivers, and all other important weather news for the guidance of merchants and others. Observe, To. To watch closely, etc. Hence, to observe the motions of an enemy, is to keep a good lookout by means of small corps of armed men, or of intelligent and steady spies and scouts, and to be constantly OBSESSION" 364 ODOMETEE in possession of information regarding his different movements. Obsession. The act of besieging. Obsidional. Belonging to a siege. Obsidional Crown (Fr. couro7i7ie obsidi- onale). A crown so called among the an- cient Romans, which was bestowed upon a governor or general, who by his skill and exertions, either held out or caused the siege to be raised of any town belonging to the republic. It was made from the grass which grew on the spot, and was therefore caUed fframineus (Lat. gramen, "grass"). Obsidionale Monnaie {Fr.). Any sub- stitute for coin which has a value put upon it that is greater than its intrinsic worth ; and a currency given to answer the conve- nience of the inhabitants of a besieged place. Obstacles. Are narrow passes, woods, bridges, or any other impediments which present themselves when a battalion is marching to front or rear ; or abatis, crows- feet, palisades, etc., which, being placed in the glacis of a fortress, obstruct the opera- tions of an assaulting party. Obstinate. In a military sense, means determined ; fixed in resolution ; as, an ob- stinate resistance. Obstruct. To block up ; to stop up or close, as a way or passage ; to fill with ob- stacles or impediments that prevent passing ; as, to obstruct a road, highway, channel, etc. Obstruction. The act of obstructing, or the state of being obstructed. Also, that which obstructs or impedes; obstacle; im- pediment ; hindrance. Obtain. To get hold of by effort ; to gain possession of. Obus, or Obusier {Fr.). A species of small mortar, resembling a mortar in every- thing but the carriage, which was made in the form of that belonging to a gun, only shorter. It has been frequently used at sieges ; and was well calculated to sweep the covert way, and to fire ricochet shots. They were usually loaded with cartouches. Obusier {Fr.). Howitzer, called hanhitz by the Dutch. In 1434 it was known under the name of husenicze. Oc. A Turkish arrow. Ocana. A town of Spain, in New Cas- tile, 33 miles southeast from Madrid. Near here the Spaniards were defeated by the French, commanded by Mortier and Soult, November 19, 1809. Occasion {Fr.). Has the same significa- tion in military matters that affair bears among the French. Une occasion bien chaiide, a warm contest, battle, or engagement ; it further means, as with us, the source from whence consequences ensue. Les malheurs die peuple sont arrives a, I'occasion de la guerre, " the misfortunes of the people have been occasioned by the war," or " the war has been the occasion of the peo- ple's misfortunes." The French make a nice distinction wliich may hold good in our language, between cause and occasion, viz. ; II n^en est pas la cause, — il n'e?i est que I'oc- casion, I'occasion innocente, — "He is not the cause, he is only the occasion, the innocent occasion of it." Occupation. The state of occupying or taking possession. Also, the state of being occupied or possessed ; possession. Occupation, Army of. An army which invades an enemy's country and establishes itself in it either temporarily or perma- nently, is termed an army of occupation. Occupy. Is a military phrase for taking possession of a work or fort, or to remain stationary in any place. Octagon. A figure or polygon that has eight equal sides, which likewise form eight equal angles. The octagon in fortification is well calculated in its ground for the con- struction of large towns, or for such as have the advantage of neighboring rivers, espe- cially if the engineer can so place the bas- tions, that the entrances and outlets of the rivers may be in some of the curtains. By means of this disposition no person could come in or go out of the garrison without the commandant's permission, as the senti- nels must have a full view from the flanks of the neighboring bastions. Oczakov, or Otshakov. A town of Rus- sia in Europe, in the government of Cher- son, near the mouth of the Dnieper. This place was once the object of obstinate con- tests between the Turks and Russians. Oda. The different corps or companies into which the Janissaries were divided bore this appellation. The word itself means a room, and the companies were so called from messing separately. Oda-Bachi. Captain superintending the gunners at Constantinople. Odas. Company of soldiers. Odessa. A fortified seaport of European Russia, in the government of Cherson, on a small bay of the Black Sea between the Dnies- ter and Dnieper, 85 miles west from Kherson. In the beginning of the 15th century the Turks constructed a fortress here, which was taken by the Russians in 1789. On the outbreak of the Crimean war, April, 1854, the British steamer "Furious" went to Odessa for the purpose of bringing away the British consul. While under a flag of truce, she was fired upon by the batteries of the city. On the failure of the written message from the admiral in command of the fleet to obtain explanations, 12 war-steamers invested Odessa, April 22, and in a few hours destroyed the fortifications, blew up the powder-magazines, and took a number of Russian vessels. On May 12, the Eng- lish frigate " Tiger" stranded here, and was destroyed by Russian artillery. The cap- tain, Giffard, and many of his men were killed, and the rest made prisoners. Odius. A herald in the camp of the Greeks before Troy. Odometer. An instrument attached to the wheel of a carriage to measure dis- tances in traveling, indicating on a dial ODRTS^ 305 OFFICER the number of revolutions made by the wheel. Odrysse. The most powerful people in Thrace, dwelt, accordini^ to Herodotus, f)n both sides of the river Artiscus, a tributary of the Hebrus, but also spread farther west over the whole plain of the Hebrus. Their king Teres retained his independence of the Persians 508 n.c. Sitalces, his son, enlart^ed Ills dominions, and in 42!) aided the Athe- jiians a<;ainst Perdiccas II. of Macedon with an army of 150,000 men. Sitalces was killed in battle with the Triballi, 424. Cotys, another kins; (382-353), disputed the po.ssession of the Thracian Chersonesus with Athens ; after nine or ten years' warfare, Philip II. of Macedon reduced the Odrysse to tributaries. CEniadse (now Tritjanion, or Trik hay-do). An ancient town of Acarnania, situated on the Achelous, near its mouth. GSniadie es- Iyoused the cause of the Spartans in the Pe- oponnesian war. At the time of Alexander the Great, the town was taken by the ^iito- lians, who expelled the inhabitants ; but the ^■Etolians were expelled in their turn by Philip v., kins; of Macedonia, who sur- rounded the place with fortifications. The Romans captured and restored' the town to the Acarnanians 211 B.C. CEnophyta (now Inia). A town in BuH)ti!i, (III the left bank of the Asopus, and on the road from Tanajjra to Oropus, memorable for the victory piined here by the Athenians over the Bffiotians, 456 B.C. Oesel. An island belontjing to Russia, stretches across the mouth of the Gulf of Riga. It at one time belonged to the Teu- tonic knights, but was seized by the Danes at an early period, and ceded by them to Sweden in l()45. In the beginning of the 18th century it was taken possession of by Russia, to which power it was finally ceded in 1721. Ofanto (anc. Aufidus). A river of Naples, which rises in the province of Principati> Ultra, and after a course of 75 miles flows into the Adriatic, 4 miles from Barletta. Near its mouth was fought the famous battle of Canine, in which the Romans were de- feated by Hannibal. Off, To Go. To be discharged, as a gun. Off, To March. To quit the ground on which you are regularly drawn up, for the purpose of going upon detachment, relieving I a guard, or doing any other military duty, j Off, To Tell. T<) count the men com- posing a battalion or company, so as to \ pave them readily and distinctly thrown j into such proportions as suit military move- I ments or evolutions. j Offa's Dyke. An intrenchment from the j Wye to the Dee, Kngland, made by Offti, | king of Mcroia, to defend his country from j the incursions of the "Welsh, 77S>. Offense, Weapons of. Those which are ' used in attack, in distinction from those of i deffn.te, which are used to repel. | Offenses. All acts that are contrary to i good order and discipline, omissions of duty, etc., may be called military offenses. The princi|)al ones arc specified In the Articles of AV'ar (which see). No officer or soldier can be tried twice for the same offense, unless in the case of an appeal ; nor can any officer or soldier be tried for any offense committed more than two years before the date of the order for trial, unless in cases where through some manifest impediment the offenders were not amenable to justice in that period, when they may be brought to trial any time within two years after the impediment has ceased. Offensive, Used in attack ; assailant ; opposed to defensive ; as, an offensive weapon or engine. Making the first attack ; a.ssail- ant; invading: opposed to rfe/fc-««jt;«; as, an offensive war. Offensive and Defensive Fireworks. See Pykotkchny. Offensive and Defensive Leag^ue. A league that requires both or all parties to make war together against a nation, and each party to defend the other in case of being attacked. Offensive and Defensive Operations. Are operations the object of which is not only to prevent the enemy's advance, but to attack him whenever there is a favorable opportunity which promises success. Offensive Fortification. See Fortifica- tion. Offensive War. Military acts of aggres- sion constitute what is called an offensive vjnr. Those who assail an opposite or ad- verse army, or invade the dominions of another power, are said to wage an offensive war. Office. Any place or department ap- pointed for the olBoers and clerks to attend in, for the discharge of their respective em- ployments ; as, the adjutant-general's office, etc. Office of Ordnance. See Board of Ord- XANiK and Ordnance Office. Officer, Brevet. See Bkevkt. Officer, Field-. See Field-officer. Officer, General. See General Officer. Officer in Waiting. In the British ser- vice, the officer next for duty is so called. He is also mentioned in orders, and ought to be ready for the service specitied at a min- ute's warning. Ho must not on this account quit the camp, garrison, or cantonment. Officer, Non-commissioned. See Non- com miss ion kh Okfkek. Officer of the Day. Is an officer whose immediate duty is to attend to the interior economy of the corps or garrison to which ho belongs, or of those with which he may be doing duty. The officer of the day has charge of the guard, prisoners, and police of the garrison, inspects the soldiers' barracks, messes, hospital, etc. Officer of the Guard. An officer detailed daily for service with the guard. It is his duty, under the officer of the day, to see that the non-commissioned officers and men OFFICER 366 OHIO of his guard are well instructed in all their duties, he inspects the reliefs, visits the sen- tinels, is responsible for the prisoners and the property' used by them and the guard ; lie is also responsible for good order, alert- ness, and discipline, and should never quit his guard duty unless properly relieved. Officer, To. To furnish with officers ; to appoint officers over. Officers. Commissioned officers are all those officers of a government who receive their commissions from the executive, and are of various grades from the ensign to the marshal, all of which see under their re- spective headings. See Appointing Power and Commissions. Officers, Marine. All those who com- mand in that body of troops employed in the sea service. Officers, Staff-. Are all those officers who are not attached to regiments, whose duties extend over the whole, or a large section, such as a brigade or a division ; such as the adjutant-general, the quartermaster-general, etc., and their subordinates, together with brigade-majors and aides-de-camp. The regimental staif-officers are those who are not attached to companies ; they are the ad- jutant and quartermaster, in the U. S. ser- vice, and in European armies the surgeon, paymaster, adjutant, assistant-surgeon, and quartermaster. See Staff. Officers, Subaltern. Are all those offi- cers below the grade of captain. Officers, Warrant-. Are those who have no commissions, but only warrants from such boards or persons as are authorized by law to grant them. The only warrant-offi- cers in the British service are master-gun- ners and schoolmasters. Technically the non-commissioned officers of the U. S. army are not warrant-officers, though they are ap- pointed by warrants. Official. All orders, reports, applications, memorials, etc., which pass through the regular channels of communication, are called official. Official Courtesies. The interchange of official compliments and visits between for- eign military or naval officers and the au- thorities of a military post are international in character. In all cases it is the duty of the commandant of a military post, without regard to his rank, to send a suitable officer to ofler civilities and assistance to a vessel of war (foreign or otherwise) recently ar- rived. After such offer it is the duty of the commanding officer of the vessel to send a suitable officer to acknowledge such civili- ties, and request that a time be specified for his reception by the commanding officer of the post. The commanding officer of the post, after the usual offer of civilities, is always to receive the first visit without re- gard to rank. The return visit by the com- manding officer of the military post is made the following day, or as soon thereafter as practicable. When a military commander officially visits a vessel of war he gives notice of his visit to the vessel previously thereto, or sends a suitable officer (or an orderly) to the gang- i way to announce his presence, if such notice | has not been given. He is then received at the gangway by the commander of the ves- sel, and is accompanied there on leaving by the same officer. The officer who is sent with the customary offer of civilities is met at the gangway of a vessel of war by the officer of the deck ; through the latter he is presented to the commander of the vessel, with whom i it is his duty to communicate. When a civil functionary entitled to a salute arrives at a military post, the com- manding officer meets or calls upon him as soon as practicable. The commanding officer tenders a review, provided the garrison of the place is not less than four companies of troops. When an officer entitled to a salute visits a post within his own command, the troops are paraded and he receives the honor of a review, unless he directs otherwise. When a salute is to be given an officer junior to another present at a post, the senior will be notified to that effect by the commanding officer. Military or naval officers of what- ever rank, arriving at a military post or station, are expected to call upon the com- manding officer. Under no circumstances is the flag of a militar}' post dijjped by way of salute or compliment. Officially. By the proper officer ; by vir- tue of the proper authority ; in pursuance of the special powers vested ; as, accounts or reports officially verified or rendered ; letters officially communicated ; persons officially notified. Off-reckonings. A specific account was so called which existed between the govern- ment and colonels of British regiments for the clothing of the men. Ogee, or Ogive. In pieces of ordnance, an ornamental molding on guns, mortars, and howitzers. Ogival. The form given the head of ob- long projectiles. It was found by Borda that this shape experienced less resistance from the air than any other. Ohio. One of the Western States of the American Confederacy, lying between Lakes Michigan, Erie, and the Ohio River. In 1680, La Salle explored the State, and built a military post on the Ohio, which the French claimed ; but in 1763 they relin- quished it. The first settlement was made subsequent to the Revolution, a company of New Englanders having settled at Marietta in April," 1788. The early inhabitants were much annoyed by incursions of the Indians, who had successively defeated Gens. Harmar and St. Clair (the latter with great slaughter of his troops, leaving scarcely one-fourth) in 1791 and 1792, but were themselves in turn utterly routed by Gen. Wayne in August, 1794. Ohio was admitted as a State in 1802. In the second war with Great Britain, Ohio suffered greatly from raids by the British and Indians. "Fort Sandusky was attacked OILLETS 367 ONAGRE by Gen. Proctor, with 500 regulars and as niany Indians, and was successfully defended by Maj. Crophan, a youth of twenty-one years, with IfjQ men. But the most impor- tant action which occurred was the naval engagement on Lake Erie, fought at Put-in- Bay, September 10, 1813, in which Commo- dore O. II. Perry defeated a superior Brit- ish fleet under command of Barclay. Ohio contributed greatly to the cause of the Union in the late civil war ; she sent her full quotas of troops to the field, and the women at- tended to the sick and wounded with un- tiring zeal. The State was twice invaded by Confederate guerrillas, but suffered no material damage. Oillets, or C£illets. Apertures for firing through in the walls of a fort. Ojibways. See Chippkwas. Okanagans, or Cutsanim. A semi-civ- ili/.ccl tritx' of Indians who, to the number of about oOO, reside to the oast of the Cas- cade Mountains, in Washington Territory. Olcades. An ancient people in Hispania Tarraconensis, north of Carthago Nova, nearer the sources of the Anas, in a part of the ctiuntry afterwards inhabited by the Oretani. They are mentioned only in the wars of the Carthaginians with the inhabit- ants of Spain. Oldensworth (Denmark). A conference was held hfre in 1713, between Peter the Great and Frederick IV. of Denmark. Olifant, or Oliphant ( Fr. ). A horn which a paladin or knight .sounded in token of de- fiance, f>r as a challenge. Olinde. A sort of sword-blade. Olivenza. A fortified town of Spain, in Estremadura, situated on the Guadiana, 1(5 miles southwest from Badajos. This town was ceded by Portugal to Spain in 1801 ; and for having arranged this cession, Crodoy received his title of "Prince of Peace." In 1811 it was taken bv the French. Olmiitz. The cliief fortress of Moravia, in the district of the same name, in Austria, 40 miles north-northeast from Briinn. Ol- mutz was taken by the Swedes during the Thirty Years' War ; but was besieged in vain for .seven weeks by Frederick the Great in 1758. Lafayette was confined here in 1794. A conference was held here November 29, 1850, under the czar Nicholas, when the difficulties between Austria and Prussia re- specting the affairs of Ues.se-Cassel were ar- ranged. Olot. A town of Spain, in the province of Gerona, 85 miles from Barcelona. It figured and suffered much in the war of in- depeiulence, being a strong point, and passed alternately into the hands of French and Spaniards, until the latter dismantled the fortifications. In the civil war of 18.V) and 1867 it was much coveted and frequently attacked by the Carlist.*. but unsuccessfully. Olteniua. A fortified village of Turkey in Europe, in Wallachia, situated on the DanulK>, 2 miles north from Turtukai. A Turkish force having crossed the Danube under Omar Pasha, established themselves at Oltenitza in spite of the vigorous attacks of the Kussians, who were repulsed with loss November 2-3, 1853. On November 4, a desperate attempt to dislodge the Turks by Gen. Danneberg with 9000 men, was de- feated with great loss. Olympic Games. Were instituted by Hercults a.m. 2Ho6, in honor of Jupiter Olympus, at Olympia, a citv of Elis, in Peloponnesus. They were ceiebnited about every four years, about the summer solstice. The design of them was to accustom the young military men to running, leaping, and every other military exercise. Olynthus. A town of Chalcidice, sttod at the head of the Toronaio Gulf, between the headlandsof Sithonia and Pallene. about CO stadia from Potidiea. During the second Persian invasion of Greece, Artabazus, the general of Xerxes, captured the town, slaughtered its Bottia?an inhabitants, and gave it to the Chalcidians. It was subdued in war by Sparta in .382-379 b.c. It resisted Philip of Macedon 350 B.C., by whom it was destroyed in 347. Omagh (Irish, Oiffh magh, " seat of the chiefs"). An ancient town, capital of the countv of Tyrone, in Ireland, 34 miles south from Londonderry. Omagh grew up around an abbej' founded in the year 792, but is first heard of as a fortress of Art O'Nial in the end of the 15th century, about which time it was forced to surrender to the English, although its possession long continued to al- ternate between Irish and English hands. It formed part of James I.'s " Plantation grants," and was strongly garrisoned by Mountjoy. On its being evacuated by the troops of James II. in 1689, it was partialh' burned. Omaha Indians. A tribe of aborigines, of Dakota stock, who, to the number of 10(X), inhabit a reservation in Nebraska. They are generally peaceful and industrious. Omer, St. A fortified town of France, in the department of Pas-de-Calais, 24 miles southeast from Calais. This place was taken by Louis XIV. in 1677. It suffered severely during the revolution of 1830. Omra, or Omhra (plural of ameer, a "lord") Ind. They were persons of con- siderable consequence in the dominions of the (ireat Mogul. Some of them had com- mand of 100(1 horse, others of 2000, and so onto20,0(W; their pay being regulated ac- cording to their commands. The governors and great officers of state were generally chosen out of this body. On. A preposition frequently used in military exercise. It precedes the word of command which directs the change or forma- tion of bodies of men upon points that are fixed ; as, form on the centre company. On the Alert. In a state of vigilance or activity. Onagre (Fr.). A warlike machine, which was used by the ancients to throw stones of different sizes. It is mentioned by Vegetius. ONEIDAS 368 OPPENHEIM Oneidas. A tribe of Indians forming one of the Five Nations of the Iroquois Con- federacy, who resided in the county and near the lake which bears their name. They were continually at war with the early French settlers in Canada, and took sides with the colonists against the British in the war of the Revolution. For this the}' suf- fered severely. Their castle, church, and villages were destroyed by the Tories in 1780, and they were compelled to flee to the white settlements for protection. In 1788 they ceded most of their lands to the State and moved to Canada ; subsequently some of the tribe settled in Wisconsin, where they are still comfortably located on a reservation ; and a remnant still resides near Rome, Oneida Co., N. Y. They are well advanced in the arts of civilization, and, contrary to the usual fate of Indian tribes, have increased in numbers. Onein. An offensive weapon of mediaeval times, consisting of a staff with a hooked iron head. Onondagas. One of the confederate tribes of Indians known as the Five Nations. They resided in the State of New York, in the county which bears their name. They were long the enemies of the Canadian French, with whom, and with the Hurons, they were continually at war. They were allies of the English in the French war, 1756-63, fought against the colonists in the Revolutionary war, and suffered severely in the contest. In 1788 they ceded their lands to the State and moved to Ontario, Canada, where about 400 of them now reside. Onset. A rushing or setting upon ; a violent attack; assault; a storming; espe- cially the assault of an army or body of troops upon an enemy or a fort. Onsetting. A rushing upon or assault- ing. Onslaught. Attack ; onset ; aggression ; assault. " By storm and onslaught to pro- ceed." Onward. Toward the point before or in front ; forward ; as, to move onward. Oodeypoor, or Mewar. A Rajpoot state in India. It became tributary to the Brit- ish government by the treaty of 1818. A corps of Bheels was raised in 1841 at the joint expense of the British and Oodeypoor governments, in order to reduce to subjection the Bheel districts of the country. Oojein, or Oojain. A city of India, in the territory of Gwalior, 152 miles south- west from Goonah. It fell into the power of the Mohammedans in 1310. At this time it was the capital of Malwa ; and along with this country it afterwards came under the power of the Patans, but was recovered by Akbar in 1561. In the middle of the 18th century it was conquered by the Mahrattas. Opatas, or Yakis. An Indian people who reside in the state of Sonora, Mexico. They number about 25,000, and are generally peace- able and industrious. Open. In military movements and dis- positions, this term is frequently u.sed in contradistinction to close ; as, open column, open distance, open order, etc. It also c(mstitutes part of a word of command ; as, rear rank take open order. By open distance in columyi is meant that the intervals are always equal in depth to the extent in front of the different component parts of the column. Open Flank. In fortification, is that part of the flank which is covered by the orillon. Opening of Trenches. Is the first break- ing of ground by the besiegers, in order to carry on their approaches towards the place. Operations, Lines of. See Lines of Operations. Operations, Military. Consist in the reso- lute application of preconcerted measures in secrecy, dispatch, regular movements, occa- sional encampments, and desultory combats or pitched battles. Opinion. In military proceedings that regard the interior government of an army, this word signifies decision, determination, judgment formed upon matters that have been laid before a court-martial or court of inquiry. Opinion. OflBcers on courts-martial give their opinion by seniority, beginning with the youngest in rank. Oporto. A city of Portugal, in the prov- ince of Entre-Douro-e-Minho, about 2 miles from the mouth of the Douro, and 175 miles north from Lisbon. It was attacked by the Moors under Abderrahman in 820. In 1092 certain knights of Gascony, commanded by Don Alfonso Fredrico, captured it from the Moors. It was famous for the strength of its fortifications during the Middle Ages, its walls being 3000 paces in circumference, 30 feet in height, and flanked with towers. From the 17th to the present century, Oporto has been the scene of an unusual number of popular insurrections. In 1808 it was taken by the French. The French, under Marshal Soult, were surprised here by Lord Wel- lington, and defeated in an action fought May 11, 1809. It was besieged in 1832 and 1833 by Dom Miguel, and successfully de- fended by Dom Pedro with 7500 men. In this siege, the city suffered severely, and more than 16,000 of the inhabitants were killed. It has since been the scene of civil war. The insurgents entered Oporto Janu- ary 7, 1847 ; a Spanish force entered Oporto, and the Junto capitulated, June 26, 1847. Oppenheim. A town of the grand duchy of Hesse-Darmstadt, on the left bank of the Rhine, 10 miles southeast of Mayence. It occupies the site of the Roman castle of Baucoiia, and was made a royal palatinate under the Carlovingians. It afterwards be- came one of the most important free towns of the empire. It was taken in 1218 by Adalbert, archbishop of Mayence, in 1620 by the Spaniards, in 1631 by the Swedes under Gustavus Adolphus, and in 1634 by the Imperialists, suffering much upon all these occasions. In 1689 the French under Melac almost entirely destroyed it. OPPONENT 369 ORDER Opponent. One who oppones, or opposes ; an adversary ; an antagonist; a foe. Oppose. To act as an adversary a^jainst ari(jtlier ; to resist, etc. It likewise signilies to place as an obstacle. Oppugn. To fight against, whether in attack, resistance, or simple opposition; to attack ; to oppose ; to resist. Oppugnant. Tending to awaken hos- tility ; hostile; opposing. Or. In heraldry the metal gold, repre- sented in heraldic engravings by an un- limited number of dots. Oran. A seaport town of Algeria, about 220 miles west-south we.st of Algiers ; it is defended by strongly armed forts. The town of Oran was built by the Moors. It was taken by the Spaniards in 1509, by the Turks in 1708, and again by the Spaniards in 1732. It was taken by the French in 1831, and has since remained in their hands. Orb. In tactics, is the disposing of a number of soldiers in circular form of de- fense. The orb has been thought of con- sequence enough to employ the attention of the famous Marshal de Puysegur, in his " Art of War," who prefers this position to throw a body of infantry in an open coun- try to resist cavalry, or even a superior force of infantry ; because it is regular, and equally strong, and gives an enemy no reason to expect better success by attacking one place than another. Ctesar drew up his whole army in this form when he fought against Labienus. The whole army of the Gauls was formed into an orb, under the command of Sabinus and Cotta, when fighting against the Ronuins. The orb was generally formed six deep. Orchonnenus. A city of Boeotia, and the capital of the powerful tribe of the Minyaj, •was situated near the western shore of Lake Copaic, on a hill which overlooked the windings of the Cejihissus. Its original inhabitants are said to have been Thessa- lian emigrants, and its name was derived from Urchomenus, one of the kings of the Minyans. Homer compares its treasures to those of Egyptian Thebes, and tells us that it sent 30 ships to the Trojan war. Some time after this event it became a member of the Boeotian confederacy. Dur- ing the Persian war, like the other towns of Bceotia, it abandoned the national cause. Its government was thoroughly aristocratic, and after the Peloponnesian war, when Thebes became a democracy, Urchomenus took part with Sparta, and shared in its first triumph over Thebes ; but the victory of Epaminondas at Leuctra (371 u.c.) placed it at the mercy of the Thebans, who soon after destroyed it by fire, and sold its in- habitants as slaves. It was again rebuilt during the Phocian war, but was a second time destroyed in the reign of Philip of Macedon, wlio, however, once more rebuilt it; but it never again became prominent in history. The site is now occupied by the modern village of Skripii. Orchomenus. An ancient city of Arca- dia, stood in a plain surrounded by hills, which separated its territory from that of Mantinea on the south and those of Pheneus and Stymphalus on the north. Its founder is said to liave been Urchomenus, the son of Lycaon, and several of its kings are said to have spread their rule over all Arcadia. During the Peloponnesian war, when its acropolis had fallen into ruins, and its last king, Pisistratus, had been murdered by an oligarchical faction, Urchomenus began to decline. About 3G7 B.C. three of its tribu- tary towns were depopulated to furnish inhabitants to the newly-founded city of Megalopolis ; in 313 B.C. it was taken by the Macedonian general Cassander ; and ever afterwards it continued to be bandied about between ditferent belligerent powers. At the time of Pausanias it was still inhabited, and at the present day its ruins are seen near the village of Kalpaki. Order. This term, considered in its rela- tion to the army, embraces divers subjects. It gives an idea of harmony in the accom- plishment of duties; a classification of corps or men ; injunctions emanating from author- ity ; measures which regulate service, and many tactical details. In tactics, the natural order is when troops coming upon ordinary ground are ranged in line of battle by the prescribed tactical means, and when they are formed in column, right in front. The (ibiKjue order is contradistinguished from the parallel, and in general means every tactical combination, the aim of which is to produce an eti'ect upon two points of an enemy's line by bringing a superior force to bear down on these two points. Such combinations consti- tute the oblique order, whatever manoeuvres may be used to accomplish the object. The parallel order operates, on the contrary, against tlie whole front of an enemy. Tu- renne and Conde fought habitually in parallel order, although they sometimes made a skill- ful use of oblique attacks. Guibert well says that a contiguous and regular parallel order can be of no use in war. Order Arms. A word of command direct- ing that the musket be brought down to the right side of the soldier, the butt resting on the ground. • Order, Beating. In the British service, is an authority given to an individual em- powering him to raise men by beat of drum for any particular regiment, or for general service. It consists of a warrant which is signed by the secretary at war, or issued in his name by the adjutant-general. Order Book. Every company in the ser- vice has such a book, in which orders are written for the information of officers and men. Order books are also kept at all mili- tary headquarters. Order, Close. In tactics, comprehends space of about one-half pace between ranks. Order, Entire. When applied to rank, means a straiglit lino composed of half-files. Order, Extended. Is preparatory to rank ORDER 370 ORDER entire, and is frequently practiced in light infantry manoeuvres. It comprehends the opening of files of a battalion or company standing two deep, so as to have just space enough for one man between each two. The battalion or company, after it has obtained all its relative distances and been halted, is fronted, and each rear rank man springs into the vacancy when the word of command is given. Order of Alcantara. A Spanish military order. It was established by Ferdinand II., king of Leon and Castile, in 1170. The knights wore a green cross upon their gar- ments. See Alcantara. Order of Amaranth. An order of mili- tary knighthood, instituted in Sweden by Queen Christina in 1645, at the close of an annual feast celebrated in that country, and called wirtschaft. Their device was the cipher of amarante, composed of two A"s, the one erect, the other inverted, and interwoven together ; the whole inclosed by a laurel crown, with the motto, Dolce nella memoria. Order of Argonauts of St. Nicholas. "Was the name of a military order instituted by Charles III., king of Naples, in 1382, for the advancement of navigation, or, as some authors say, merely for preserving amity among the nobles. They wore a collar of shells inclosed in a silver crescent, from which hung a ship with the device, Non credo tempori. Order of Battle. The arrangement or disposition of the different component parts of an army in one or more lines, according to the nature of the ground, for the purpose of engaging an enemy by giving or receiving an attack, or in order to be reviewed, etc. Order of Battle, Concave. If the attack is made simultaneously on both wings, and the centre is refused, it is plain that "the at- tacking army will assume a line of battle which will be concave towards the enemy's line. Order of Battle, Convex. If the attack is made in the centre of the enemy's line, refusing both wings, the general direction of the line of battle of the attacking army will be convex towards the enemy's line, and the term '■'■convex order of battle'^ is applied to it. Other orders of battle are named by military writers. Their names will gener- ally describe the direction of the hostile lines of battle and the particular formation adopted by the attacking army. Order of Battle, Oblique. An arrange- ment of an army for battle with one wing advanced beyond the other, or a movement which brings the line in contact with an enemy's flank ; in general, any combination which brings a preponderating force upon any point of the enemy's line. See Order. Order of Calatrava. See Calatrava, Order of. Order of Knights of St. Stephen. In- stituted in 1561, by Cosmo, duke of Flor- ence. They wear a red cross with a border of gold. Order of Knights of the Band. Insti- tuted by Alphonso, king of Spain, in 1268. Their name proceeded from the knights wearing a red scarf, or lace of silk, the breadth of 3 inches, which hung on their left shoulder. Order of Knights of the Bath. A mili- tary order in Great Britain, deriving its name from the ceremony of bathing, which was performed at the initiation of the knights. The earliest authentic instance of this ceremony was at the coronation of Henry IV. (1399). The last occasion on which this ceremony was used was the coro- nation of Charles II., in 1660, after which the order fell into oblivion until it was re- vived by George I., in 1725. It is now the second in rank among the orders of Eng- land, the order of the Garter being the highest. The order of the Bath comprises three classes : first class. Knights Grand Cross (K.G.C.), the number of whom is limited to 50 military men and 25 civilians, besides the royal family ; second class. Knights Commanders (K.C.B.), = 102 mili- tary and 50 civil ; these and the first have the title of Sir ; third class, Companions (C.B.), = 525 military and 200 civil. Order of Knights of the Redemption. Instituted in the kingdom of Aragon by King James, who conquered the island of Majorca, in 1212. Their garments are white, with a black cross thereon. Order of Knights Templar. See Templar, Knights. Order of Maria Theresa. This order was instituted in June, 1757, by the empress queen of Hungary. In 1765 an interme- diate class, styled knights commanders, was added to the two classes that originally com- posed the order. Order of Merit. Instituted by Frederick III., king of Prussia, as a reward to those officers whose behavior deserved some marks of distinction. The ensign of this order is a golden star of eight rays, enameled with blue, which is worn appendant to a black ribbon edged with silver. The motto is Pour le tnerite. Order of Mount Carmel. Instituted by Henry IV. in 1608. Order of St. Alexander Newski. Or the Red Ribbon, which was institutefl by Peter I., emperor of Russia ; but the czarina Cath- erine I. conferred it in 1725. Order of St. Hubert. See Hubert, St., Order of. Order of St. James. See James of the Sword, St. Order of St. Lazarus. See Lazarus. Order of St. Louis. See Louis. Order of St. Mark. See Mark, St., Knights of. Order of St. Michael. Instituted in 1469 by Louis XII. in honor of the important services done to France by that archangel at the siege of Orleans, where he is supposed to have appeared at the head of the French troops, disputing the passage of a bridge, ORDER 371 ORDINARY and to have repulsed the attack of tlie Eng- lish, whose affairs ever after declined in that kingdom. The order is a rich collar, witlj the imafje of that saint pendent thereto ; with the inscription, hnmenxi fremnr oreani. Order of St. Michael and St. George. This order of kni<^hthu<>d, founded fur the Ionian Isles and Malta, April 27, 1818, was reorjjanized in March, 18G9, in order to ad- mit servants of the crown of England con- nected with the colonics. Order of St. Patrick. See Patrick, St., Ordkr ok. Order of Teutonic Knights. Established towards the dose of the I'Jth century, and thus called, as chiefly consisting of Germans, anciently called Teutons. Order of the Annunciation. See Anndjt- CIADA. Order of the Bear. See Bear, Order of. Order of the Black Eagle. See Eagle, Black. Order of the Crescent. See Crescent. Order of the Golden Fleece. See Golden Flekck, Urdkr ok the. Order of the Golden Stole. A Venetian military order, so called from a golden stole, which those knights wore over their shoul- der, reaching to the knee both before and behind, a palm and a half broad. None are raised to tliis order but patricians, or noble Venetians. It is uncertain when this order was instituted. Order of the Holy Ghost. See Holy Ghost. Ordku ok tiik. Order of the Knights of the Garter. See Gartkk, Order ok the. Order of the Knights of Malta. See St. John of Jerisalkm. Order of the Knights of St. Jago. In- stituted by the king Rainico of Spain, in commemoration of a victory obtained against the M(K)rs, 1030. Their ensign is a red cross in the form of a sword. Order of the Seraphim. Sec Seraphim, Obdeu of thk. Order of the Sword. See Sword, Order OF the. Order of the White Eagle. See White Eaole, Order ok the. Order, Open. In tactics, comprehends an interval of about 3 j-ards between each rank. Order, Parade. When a regiment of horse or foot, a troop, or company, is drawn up with the ranks open and the oflicers in front, it is said to be in parade order. Orderlies. Non-commissioned officers and soldiers appointed to wait upon generals and other officers, to communicate orders and carry messages. Orderlies, Standing. Are soldiers who perinanrntly iicrform orderly duty. Orderly Book. A book for the sergeants to insert the orders which arc issued from time to time. Orderly Drum. The drummer that beats the orders, and gives notice of the hour for messing, etc., is so called. Orderly Officer. The officer of the day ; especially tlieotiicer of the day about an army heatl(|UHrttrs in the field. Orderly Room. A r(X)m in the barracks, used as the office of a company. Orderly Sergeant. The first sergeant of u company is so calletl in the U. 8. army. Orders. Are the instructions, injunctions, or commands issued by superiorofficers. The orders of commanders of armies, divisions, brigades, regiments, are denominated orders of such army, division, etc., and are either general or special. They are numbered, general and special in separate series, each beginning with the year. In Great Britain and other European countries, and in the United States, orders generally take the des- ignation of the headquarters from which they are issued. Orders, General. Are orders that are is- sued to announce the hours for roll-calls and duties; the number and kind of order- lies, and the time when they shall be re- lieved ; police regulations, and the prohibi- tions required bj- circumstances and localities ; returns to be made and their forms ; laws and regulations for the army ; promotions and appointments ; eulogies or censures to corps or individuals, and generally, whatever may be important to make known to the whole command. Orders, Military. Companies of knights, instituted Ity kings and princes either for defense of the faith, or to confer marks of honor on their military subjects. See KNiGHT.s,and names of orders under appro- priate headings. Orders, Regimental. Are such orders and instructions as grow out of general or special orders from superior authority, or proceed immediately from the commanding officer of a regiment. Orders, Special. Are such as do not con- cern the troops generally, and need not be published to the whole command ; such as those that relate to the march of some par- ticular corps, the detaching of individuals, the granting requests, etc. Orders, Standing. Are certain general r\ilcs and instructions, which are to be inva- riably followed, and are not subject to the temporary intervention of rank. Of this description are those orders which the per- manent commander may judge fit to have inserted in the order books, and which are not to be altered by the temporary com- mander. Ordinaire (Fr.). The soldiers' mess is so called among the French. Ordinary of Arms. In heraldry, an in- dex or dictionary of armorial coats, arranged, not according to names, like an armory, but according to the leading charges in the re- spective shields, so as to enable any one con- versant with heraldic language, on seeing a shield of arms, to tell to whom it belonged. Ordinary Time. In the V. S. army is quick time, which is 110 steps, or 86 yards in one minute, or 2 miles 1013 vards in an hour. OKDNANCE 372 ORDNANCE Ordnance. A general name for all kinds of weapons employed in war, and the appli- ances necessary for their use. Under the general term ordnance and ordnance stores are included all guns, howitzers, mortars, rockets, and projectiles of every description, the explosives used in warfare, all gun-car- riages, limbers, caissons, mortar-beds, bat- tery-wagons, and traveling- forges with their equipments, and all other apparatus and machines required for the service and ma- noeuvres of artillery at sieges or in the field ; together with the materials for their con- struction, preservation, and repair. Also all small-arms, side-arms, and accoutrements for artillery, cavalry, and infantr}'^, all am- munition for cannon and small-arms ; and all stores of expenditures for the service of the various arms, materials for the construc- tion and repair of ordnance buildings, uten- sils and stores for laboratories, including standing weights, gauges, and measures, and all other tools and utensils required for the performance of ordnance duty. Harness and horse equipments are also furnished by the ordnance department. This general ap- plication of the word is not the purport of the present article ; it is its special significa- tion as used by the artillery with which we have to do. Technically speaking, ordnance is a term applied to all heavy fire-arms which are discharged from carriages. History — Although the battering-rams and the engines for projecting missiles em- ployed by the ancients and during the Mid- dle Ages are regarded as artillery, yet the military weapons in use before the invention of fire-arms cannot fairly come under this designation. At what exact date cannon were first used is not known, but guns called " Crakys of War" were employed by Ed- ward ill. against the Scots in 1327, by the French at the siege of Puy Guillaume in 1338, and by Edward III. at Crecy, and at Calais in 1346. The first cannon, or bombards, were clumsy, wider at the mouth than at the chamber, and made of iron bars hooped to- gether with iron rings. Ancient cannon were also made of wood wound with rope or wire, and in some instances were even occasionally constructed of leather. The balls fired from these bombards were first made of stone, which was afterwards superseded by iron. In the 15th century various kinds were known by the names of cannon, bombards, culverins, serpentines, etc. Bombards of great length and power were employed by Louis XI. during his Flemish campaign in 1477, some with stone balls and some with iron. About this time cannon began to be made of cast iron instead of hooped bars ; and bronze or brass as material began to be used as well as iron, and projectiles were also made of cast iron instead of stone. The in- troduction of cast-iron projectiles led to the invention of culverins, which corresponded very nearly in construction and appearance to the guns of the present day ; these were in some instances made of enormous lengths from the erroneous idea that the range in- creased with the length of the piece. A re- markable gun of this description still exists at Dover, England, familiarly known as "Queen Anne's pocket-piece ;" while it carries a ball weighing only 18 pounds, it is more than 28 feet in length. From the earliest days of ar- tillery there existed short-chambered pieces, which projected stone balls under great angles of elevation ; and in 1478 hollow projectiles filled with powder began to be employed ; but it is probable that the acci- dents which accompanied their use caused them to be abandoned for the time. In 1G34, however, this difiiculty was overcome, and these pieces were introduced into the French service, forming the class of cannon now known as mortars. Early attempts were also made to throw hollow projectiles from culverins and other long guns, but great diflSculties were experienced in loading them, and the accidents to which they were liable caused them to be abandoned. Sub- sequently, however, the Dutch artillerists reduced their length so that the projectile could be inserted in its place by hand, and thus improved these cannon rapidly came into use under the name of howitzers, from the German Haubitz. A short cannon of large caliber for naval service was invented by Mr. Gascoigne in 1799, and called a car- ronade, after the Carron Iron- Works, Scot- land, where it was first made. It was not for many years after hollow projectiles had been used that it was accidentally discovered that the firing of the gun-charge could be re- lied upon to light the fuze. Prior to this a long fuze lighted from the outside had been used. The difl5culties and danger in- curred in loading long guns with hollow projectiles delayed their application to shell- firing, and it was not until 1812 that they were used for firing both solid shot and shell at low angles. In this year a gun of this class, which was invented by Col. Bomford, Chief of Ordnance, U.S.A., was adopted by the United States, and a number of these guns were used in the war with England, 1812-15. About 1814 this invention of Col. Bomford's was improved upon by himself, and the gun thus improved was called a columbiad. The columbiad gave way about 18-59 to the gun invented by Gen. Kodman. (See Rodman Gun.) The dimensions of the columbiads were first taken to Europe by a young French oflScer, and thus fell into the hands of Gen. Paixhans, who introduced them, with certain modifications, into the French service about 1822. They were by this means first made known to the rest of Europe by the name of Paixhan gun, and small calibers were afterwards used in the U. S. service under that name. Cannon up to this time were constructed on the smooth- bore principle ; the rifle principle, although employed by the Russians in 1615, by the Prussians in 1661, and by the Germans in 1696, had not been brought into general use on account of its imperfectness. From 1696 ORDNANCE 373 ORDNANCE to 1833 rrniny attempts were made to rifle cannon with more or less success ; but al- though the firing of smooth-bore guns was as aberrant as that of smooth-bore muskets, and from greater range even more so, yet, since the gunners were safe from musketry lire at 200 yards, and the cannon could be directed against masses of men with tolerable certainty up to three times that distance, there was no special inducement to improve their powers. But the introductif)n of rifled small-arms changed the relative advantages ; for a rifled sniull-arm might jiick off the gunners of a smooth-bore cannon before their weapon could come into eft'ective play. The Crimean war set inventors vigorously to work, and many admirable guns have re- sulted from their attempts, the gr«at diffi- culty of the day being to decide which is most effective. Rifled guns have nearly superseded smooth-bored cannon, except in the United States, which still gives the pref- erence to the latter. Ordnance, Modern, History of. Heavy modern ordnance dates properly from the casting of the great Rodman smooth-bores in the United States. To the impetus thus given may be ascribed the origin of the powerful guns of the present day. In Rod- man's study of gunpowder and the improve- ments introduced by him lay the germ of all subsequent progress in ordnance. His most important iuvention, perfoi-ated cake potvde>\ was transplanted bodily to the continent of Europe, where, under the name of prismatic powder, it has been used ever since. So per- fect is the theory of this powder that inven- tion and science toiling over the subject for twenty years has produced nothing better. Since 'the first half of the decade— 1860-70— the United States has fallen behind the nations of Europe in the power of her arma- ment. Having been committed by her two great inventors, Rodman and Dahlgren, to cast-iron smooth-bores, which were fabricated in great numbers, her attitude has been that of Micawber, — waiting for something to turn up. England occupies tlie other extreme, — of all the powers she has ventured the greatest Bums upon the theories of her gun-makers. Her private manufacturers have received «uch cncotiragement at home or abroad that they are now able to supply the whole world. Their only great rival on the continent is Krupp, who finds his market principally in Germany, Russia, and Turkey. The early adoption of the rifle principle by all European powers placed them at once on a plane of advancement. The vexed questions of breech- and muzzle-loading and of gun construction have been decided by each nation in the manner most satisfactory to itself. Opinions differ widely, and it is probable that many changes may be made in these matters. ' Still, they all possess powerful guns which hnvo certain features m con>mon, essential to hiavy ordnance in the present stage of its development. Large- grained powder, the first of these requisites, is universally used (for varieties, see Gw- powdkr). Gr.-at length of bore, to utilize the whole force of the powder, is another characteristic. Great power is secured by immense charges of powder and weight of shot. A caliber of at least VI inches, giving an oblong shot of about 700 peen con- tinually added to by the Italians in their 100-ton Armstrong monsters and the vital air-space reduced till a charge of 552 pounds of powder has recently (1880) burst one of these magnificent guns. Nomenclature of Ordnance. — For compo- nent parts of cannon and their description, see Cascabel, Base of thk Breech, Base- line, Base-ring, Breech, Chase, Astra- gal AND Fillets, Neck, Swell of the Muzzle, Face, Trunnions, Rimhases, Bore, and Reinforce. For recent modifi- cations in the external form of cannon, seo Ordnance, Strains upon. United States. — Smooth-bored. — Tho official system for the land service compri.«es the following smooth-bored cannon : Tho Napoleon gun for field service (see Napo- leon Gun) and the mountain howitzer for mountain and prairie service. (See How- itzer.) For siege purposes, the 8-iiich how- itzer, 8- and l6-inch and 24-pounder Coe- horn mortars, — and for sea-coast defense, 18-, 15-, and 20-inch (Rodman) and 10-, 13- and 15-inch mortars. No 15-inch mortars have been yet cast. The 24-pounder flank defense howitzer, as well as the S- and 10- inch smooth-bored Rodman and ihe 10-inch sea-coast mortar, no longer belong to the system, and are no more to be ca.st. The 13-inch smooth-bore is an experimental gun, not more than two or three of which have been cast. The smooth-bored gun Erincipally used in the naval service is the >ahlgren." (See Ordnance, Constbvc- ORDNANCE 374 ORDNANCE TiON OF.) The carronade is now little em- ployed. Rifled Cannon. — The rifled cannon adopted for the land service of the United States at the present time (1880) are, for the field service a 3- and 3^-inch rifle, having the exterior shape of Rodman guns, but made of wrought iron, — the former adopted in 1861; the 3.}- inch gun has never been made — the model was adopted in 1870, — and tliree niitrailleurs, viz., 1-inch and- |-inch (Gatling), adopted in 1868, and a .45-inch Gatling, adopted in 1874, intended to replace the ^-inch, and to use the service cartridge of the rifle musket. In the siege service there is but one rifle gun properly belonging to the system of the United States, viz., 4|-inch, of casting, hav- ing the Rodman shape, but cast solid. The 30-pounder (4.2-inch) Parrott so extensively used is not a regulation gun. (See Ordnance, Construction of.) the weight of the 4i- inch is 3570 pounds. It has an extreme length of 133 inches. The twist is uniform, and the weight of the solid projectile 32i pounds, and of the charge 3} pounds. The piece is loaded at the muzzle. The rifled sea-coast guns belonging to the system are a 10- and 12-inch, made of cast iron, and weighing 40,681 and 52,000 pounds respect- ively. The extreme length of the 10-inch is 180, and of the 12-inch 192 inches; the weight of the solid shot, 292 and 620 pounds respectively ; the twist in each is uniform, and both are muzzle-loaders. Such is the official system of the United States. All the large guns are cast iron and are now useless as an armament to cope with modern armed iron- clads. We have, however, a number of ex- perimental guns, the models of which must be our immediate reliance in case of foreign war. In making these experimental rifles it has been hold in view to utilize as far as possible the cast-iron ordnance now on hand. They are all made of cast-iron cases fitted with internal tubes of wrought iron (steel has also been used) after the plans of Parsons and Palliser. (See Ordnance, Construc- tion OF.) The 12^-inch rifle, muzzle-loader, is an original construction, the case required being larger than the 15-inch smooth-bored. The weight of gun is 40 tons; charge, 110 \)0\xnAs, hexagonal powder ; shot, 700 pounds. The others are converted guns, — the 10-inch rifle, muzzle-loader, converted from 13-inch smooth-bore by inserting wrought-iron tube ; two patterns of 8-inch rifle, breech- and muzzle-loaders, converted from 10-inch smooth-bores by muzzle and breech inser- tion of tubes. Quite a number of the muz- zle-loaders have been made and mounted. A similar gun has been made for the naval service by converting the 11-inch Dahlgren. Parrott 100-pounders have also been con- verted into 6.4-inch breech-loaders for the navy. Although the Parrott gun does not be- long to the system adopted by the United States, it has been much employed for both siege and sea-coast purposes, almost to the ex- clusion of other rifled cannon. They are also very generally used in the naval service. There are eight of these guns employed in the service of the United States, viz. : a 300- pounder (10-inch), 200-pounder (8-inch), and 100-pounder (6.4-inch), in use by both land and naval forces; a 60-pounder (5.3-inch) and 30-pounder (4.2-inch), used exclusively by the navy, and a 80-pounder (4.2-inch), 20-pounder (3.67-inch), and 10-pounder (3-inch), employed exclusively by the land forces. The Parrott cannon are all muzzle- loading and made of cast iron, reinforced with a wrought-iron jacket. See Ordnance, Construction of. Great Britain. — The cannon employed in the British service are all rifled, and nearly all muzzle-loaders. Royal Arsenal, Woolwich. — The guns be- longing to the British system, and made at the Royal Arsenal, Woolwich, are : for land service, an 11-inch gun, wrought iron, muzzle-loading, weighing 25 tons ; two 7- inch, weighing 7 tons, and differing slightly in length and details of construction ; a 16- pounder (3.6-inch), weighing 12 cwt. ; and a 9-pounder (3-inch), weighing 8 cwt. These guns are all made of wrought iron. There are also an 8-inch howitzer weighing 46 cwt., also of wrought iron, and two con- verted guns, viz., a 64-pounder (6.29-inch) converted from 32-pounder, and an 80- pounder converted from 68-pounder smooth- bore. Both of these guns are of cast iron, with wrought-iron tubes, and were con- verted according to the Palliser method. For the Woolwich 38-ton gun, see Arm- strong Cannon. For sea service exclu- sively, there are made at the Woolwich Ar- senal a 12-inch, weighing 35 tons ; two 8-inch, weighing 9 tons respectively, of the same length, one having no preponderance, and ditfering in other details of their con- struction; two 7-inch, weighing 6.5 tons respectively, differing slightly in length and details; a 7-inch, weighing 4.5 tons; and 9-pounder (3-inch), weighing 6 cwt. These guns are all made of wrought iron, and are muzzle-loading. For both land and sea service, there are made at the Royal Arsenal a 12-inch, weighing 25 tons; a 10-inch, weighing 18 tons ; two 9-inch, one of which has no preponderance, the other a prepon- derance of 5 cwt. ; three 64-pounders (6.3- inch), each weighing 64 cwt., but differing in length and construction. These guns are all made of wrought iron ; for both ser- vices is used a 64-pounder (6.29 inch), con- verted from 8-inch smooth-bored according to the Palliser method. There are besides two bronze guns, one called the " boat gun," a 7-pounder (3-inch) weighing 200 pounds; the other a 9-pounder (3-inch), used in the Indian service, and weighing 8 cwt. ; also a 7-pounder (.3-inch mountain gun of steel, and weighing 150 pounds; these are all muzzle-loaders. The 9-, 10-, 11-, and 12-inch calibers have all steel tubes; one 7-ton and one 6.5-ton gun have tubes of wrought iron. ORDNANCE 375 ORDNANCE Armstrong Catmon. — The guns used in the British service made by Sir William Armstrong are — for the land service — a 12-inch weighing 38 tons (some of these guns are bored to 12.} inches), an 11-inch weighing 25 tons, a 7-inch weighing 7 tons, a 4U-]K)under (4.75-inch) weighing 35cwt., a 25-pounder (4-inch), and a IG-pounder (3.0 inch) weighing 18 and 12 cwt. respec- tively, a 9-pounder (3-inch) weighing 6 cwt., a 10-inch weighing 6 ton.'*, having no pre- ponderance. These guns are all of wrought iron and muzzle-loading. There are also used in the land service, and of the same make, a 7-poundcr (3-inch) muzzle-loading steel gun weighing 150 pounds, an 8-inch muzzle-loading howitzer made of wrought iron and weighing 46 cwt., a tJ4-pounder (G.20-inch) converted from 32-pounder, and an 80-pounder (0.20-inch) converted by Pal- liser method from 68pounder muzzle-load- ing, made of cast iron with wrought-iron tubes. The other guns manufactured by Sir William Armstrong, and used in the land service, are all breech-loading, viz. : a 7-inch (screw) weighing 72 cwt., a 20- pounder (3.7<3-inch screw) weighing 16 cwt., a 64-pounder (6. 4-inch wedge) weighing 64 cwt., and a Catling gun (0.45) weighing 3 cwt. 84 pound.«i. The guns used in the sea service of this make are a 12-inch weighing 85 tons, an 8-inch weighing 9 tons, two 7-inch weighing 6 tons 10 cwt. and 90 cwt. respectively, and a 9-pounder (3-inch) weigh- ing 6 cwt. These are all muzzle-loading, and made of wrought iron. There is an- other muzzle loading gun used for sea ser- vice, viz., a 64-pounder (6.29-inch) con- verted from 8-inch, and weighing 71 cwt.; this gun is of cast iron with a wrought iron tube. The breech-loaders used for sea ser- vice are two 20-i)ounders (3.75-inch screw) weighing 15 and 13 cwt. respectively, 40- pounder (4.75-inch) wedge weighing 32 cwt., and a Gatling gun (0.ii5-inch) weighing 7 cwt. 35 pounds ; these guns are all of wrought iron. For land and sea service are con- structed a 12-inch weighing 25 tons, a 10- and 0-incli weighing 18 and 12 tons respec- tively, a 64-pounder (6 3-inch) weighing 64 cwt., a 9-nounder (3-inch) weighing 8 cwt., a 7-jK)unaer (3-inch) weighing 200 pounds, and made of steel ; the others are of wrought iron, and all are muzzle-loading. The breech-loading guns of this manufacture used in both land and sea service are a 7-inch (screw) weighing 82 cwt., two 40- pounders (4.75-inch) screw weigliing 35 and 82 cwt., respectively, a 12-pounder (3-inch), 9-pounder (3-inch),'and 6- pounder (2.5 inch) screw weighing 8, 6, and 3 cwt. respectively. They are all made of wrought iron. See Armstrong Gin. Grrmany. — In Germany the Krupp gun is almost entirely employed; tliey are all breech-loading and constructed of steel. (For girticular construction, see Okdnance, ONSTRUcTioN OF.) Thosc used in the Ger- man land service are a 28-centimetre how- itzer weighing 9.82 tons, caliber in inches 11.023, a long 21-centimetre weighing 9.84 tons, caliber 8.241 inches, a short 21-centi- metre weighing 8.84, caliber 8 241 inches, a short 15-centimetre weighing 2.9 tons, caliber 5 869 inches, u 12-, 9-, 8-, and 6-cen- timetre, whose calibers are 4.735, 3.602, 3.090, and 2.362 inches, and who.se weights are 1.37 tons, and 935,649,235 pounds respec- tively. In the sea service are used a 30i- centimetre weighing 35.3 tons, caliber 12.007 inches, a short 26-centimetre weighing 17.67 tons, caliber 10,236 inches, a long 24-centi- metre weighing 14.38 tons, caliber 9.267 inches, and a short 24-centimetre. For both land and sea service are employed a long 17-centimetre weighing 5.5 tons, caliber 6.771 inches, a short 17-centimetre, a long 16-centimetre weighing 3.03 tons, caliber 5.869 inches, and a long 15-centimetre weigh- ing 3.09 tons. France. — The guns adopted in the French service are both breech- and muzzle-h>ading, and are, for the land service, a siege-gun, 24-])ounder rilled breech-loading, weigliing 40.55 tons, caliber 6.01 inches, for fortress guns a 24- and 12-pounder rifled muzzle- toading, weighing 5953 and 3307 pounds, and having calibers of 6.01 and 4.77 inches respectively. For siege-guns a 24- and 12- pounder rifled weighing 4409 and 1940 jKninds, whose respective calibers are 6.01 and 4.77 inches and muzzle-loading. For fleld artillery a 12-, 8-, and 4-pounder rifled, weighing respectively 1367, 1234.6, and 727.55 pounds, and whose calibers are 4.77, 4.17, and 3.40 inches respectively, all muz- zle-loading. There is also a 4-pounder rifled muzzle-loading mountain piece weighing 220.5 pounds, whose caliber is 3.40 inches. In the sea-coast service there are a 30-pounder (muzzle-loader) not hooped, weighing 61 cwt., caliber 6.48 inches, a 30-pounder (muz- zle-loader or breech-loader) hooped, weigh- ing 70.86 cwt., caliber 5.46 inches, a howitzer 22-centimetre rifled and hooped, caliber 8.66 inches. In the French sea-service are a 32- centimetre weighing 34.5 tons, caliber 12.599 inches, and a 27-centimetre weighing 21.7 tons, caliber 10.803 inches. Both of these guns are breech-loading. Vot both land and sea service are used a 24-centimetre weigh- ing 13.8 tons, caliber 9.499 inches, a 19-cen- timetre weighing 7.9 tons, caliber 7.638 inches, a 16-ccntimetre weighing 98.42 cwt., caliber 6.484 inches, a 14-centimetro weigh- ing 52.26 cwt., caliber 5.456 inches. The guns used for sea service only, or for both land and sea service, are all nuide of cast iron, tubed with steel nearly to the trunnions, and strengthened near the breech by steel rings heated and shrunk on. The fortress guns, most of the siege, and all the lield- guns are made of bronze. The large breech- loaders use the solid broeih-screw /Vrj/K-^i/re. The term " pounder" iu< applied to certain guns has no reference to the weight of the oblong projix-tile used, but to the weight of the corresponding spherical solid shot. ORDNANCE 376 ORDNANCE Russia. — In the Russian service the Krupp gun is rapidly taking the place of all others; there are, however, still used fur sea service, a 12-inch and 6-inch breech-loader weighing 40 tons and 3.92 tons respectively ; also a 12.2-pounder boat-gun weighing 792 pounds, and for both land and sea service an 8-inch breech-loader weighing 8.754 tons, and an 8-inch breech-loading mortar, weigh- ing 3.21 tons. These guns are all made of steel. Ordnance, Ammunition for. For con- venience in loading and safety in transpor- tation, cannon ammunition is prepared in a peculiar manner and with great care. The ammunition so prepared is classified into Held and mountain, siege and sea-coast am- munition. Ammunition for Field Serviceis composed of solid shot, shells, spherical case-shot, and canister-shot (see headings). In mountain service solid shot are omitted. A stand of ammunition is composed of the projectile, sabot, straps, cartridge-bag, cylinder, and cap. The projectile is secured by two tin straps, fastened at the ends with tacks driven into the sabot. The straps cross each other at right angles ; for solid shot, one strap passing through a slit in the other ; for hol- low projectiles, both straps are fastened to a tin ring which surrounds the fuze-hole. A round of canister for the field service consists of a tin cylinder filled with cast-iron shot, which slips over the end of the sabot, to which it is secured with small nails. The materials of which cartridge-bags are made are flannel, wildbore, or serge ; the fabric should be soft and closely woven, to prevent the powder sifting out. Fabrics of cotton and flax are not used, because the powder sifts through them, and they are more apt to leave fire in the gun than woolen stutFs. A cartridge-bag for the field service is made of two pieces, — a rectangular piece for the sides, and a circular piece for the bottom. The charge is determined by measurement. The cylinder and cap are made of stout paper. The cylinder is used to give stift'ness to the cartridge at the junc- tion of the sabot and bag ; the cap covers the exposed portion of the bag, is drawn oft' before loading, and placed over the projec- tile, or thrown away. The cartridge-bag is attached to the projectile by tying it around the grooves of the sabot with twine. Fixed Ammunition. — Ammunition thus prepared is called fixed ammunition. It is used in the field and mountain service for smooth-bore guns and howitzers. For rifled guns the bag and projectile are car- ried separately. The term strapped ammu- nition is applied when the projectile is at- tached to a sabot without grooves ; and to give a proper form to the cartridge-bag, the mouth is closed with a cartridge-block, which resembles a sabot ; hence the name strapped ammunition. This kind of car- tridge is pearly obsolete. Packing., etc. — As soon as ammunition is finished it should be gauged, to see that it is of the proper caliber ; it is afterwards packed in boxes containing 10 rounds each. Siege and Sea-coast Ammunition. — On ac- count of the great weight of siege and sea- coast ammunition, the cartridge-bag and projectile are carried separately. The car- tridge-bags for large charges of powder are made of two pieces of woolen stuff", or of a paper tube with a woolen cloth bottom. The former are preferred for rapid firing. For sea-coast howitzers the bag should till the chamber ; if the piece be fired with a re- duced charge, a cartridge-block should be inserted into the bag to give it proper size. For mortars the bag is only used to carry the powder, and when the piece is loaded, the powder is poured into the chamber; bags of any suitable size will answer for this service. For hot-shot cartridges bags are made double, by putting one bag within another. Care should be taken to see that the bags are free from holes. For ricochet firing, or other occasions when very small charges are required, a cartridge-bag of inferior caliber may be used. In the siege and sea-coast services, solid shot are trans- ported and loaded loosely, but hollow pro- jectiles are strapped to sabots, to prevent the fuze from coming in contact with the pow- der of the charge. The sabots are made from thick plank, and the straps are fastened as in the field service. Ordnance, Carriages for. The carriages for cannon may be classified from their use into field, mountain, prairie, and sea-coast carriages, and mortar-beds. (See particular headings.) They may be further divided into those required for the immediate service and transportation of cannon, as gun-car- riages and mortar-beds, and those employed for the transportation of ammunition, im- plements and materials for repairs, as cais- sons, mortar-wagons, forges, and battery- wagons. The field-, mountain-, prairie-, and siege-carriages being required for the trans- portation of their pieces are similar in their construction ; those for sea-coast purposes diff"er materially from the others. Nomenclature of Artillery Carriage. — The principal parts of the field-carriage and of all artillery carriages, other than the sea- coast, are: stock, of squared wood in two pieces, which serves to connect the gun-car- riage with the limber, and to direct the piece; it includes the head, to which the sponge-bucket ring is attached ; groove, trail, or curved part of the stock, which rest on the ground when the piece is unlimbered; rounding of the trail, trail-plate, a piece of iron fastened to the end of the trail and ter- minated b}' a very strong ring, called the lunette, which receives the pintle-hook by which the limber is attached ; pointing-rings, large and small, which receive the hand- spike ; trail-handles, on each side of the stock for the purpose of raising it; prolonge- hooks, on wh'ch the prolonge is coiled ; wheel-guard plates, lock-chain, used to keep ORDNANCE 377 ORDNANCE tlie wheel from turning; it is on the side of the carriage, and has an eye-plate and bolt; sponge and rammer stop, sponge-chain and hasp, ear-plate for sponge-chain and hasp; ear-plate to support worm ; key-chain and key ; elevating-screw ; the latter has a handle with four prongs; elevating-screw box, ele- vating-screw bed, rondelles, which connect cheeks and stock ; cheeks, two pieces of wood between wliich the gun rests ; washer-hooks for handsjiike, washer-hook for lock-chain, undi-r-strap, riglit sponge-hook, sponge and worm-hook, handspike-rings, trunnion- jihitcs, into the beds or depressions of which the trunnions tit; cap-scjuares, cap-square chain, key-chain and key. Axle, including axle-body, of wood; axle-tree, of iron, axle- arm, the rounded extremities of the axle- tree on which the wheels revolve ; linch-pin, linch-pin washer and hook. Wiieels ; each includes nave, nave-bands, nave-box, spokes, felloes, tire. In the new model for field service, cannoneers' seats arc on the axle be- tween the cheeks and wheels ; each consists of an iron chair supported on a rectangular bar inserted in a vertical iron socket, and resting on a strong steel spring; the socket is supported by two brass braces fastened to the axle by axle-straps ; to an iron cross- piece at the top of the socket are attached two iron braces, which help to support the iron foot-rest attached to the brass braces. The chair has arms and faces to the trail. This refers to the carriage proper, considered only in relation to the tire of the piece, or as a two-wheeled carriage. To suit it to the easy and rapid transportation of its load it must be converted into a four-wheeled car- riage, which is done by attaching it to an- other two- wheeled carriage called a limber. The limber consists of a similar axle-body, axle, and two wheels, and on these rests a frame-work, to receive the tongue. On top of the whole is an ammunition-box, the top of which forms a seat for three cannoneers. In rear of the axle-tree is a pintle-hook to receive the lunette of the trail. Connected I with the frame- work in front is a fixed splin- j ter-bar with four hooks, to which arc at- tached the traces of the wheel horses. At j the extremity of the tongue are placed two I pole-chains, by which the tongue or pole is I held up, and a pole-yoke with two movable I branches, to prevent, as much as po.ssible, the ?5le from oscillating and striking the horses. he principal parts of a field-limber are: pole, including pole-pad; pole-straps, by which the pole is guided when the team is i hitched ; pole-strap iron, pole-yoke, mutl" and 1 collar, pole-yoke branches, to which arc at- tache-inch mitraillcur. Thecorresponding parts of these carriages difler only in their dimen- sions. All limbers are similar. Mountain-Carriage. — The mountain-car- riage differs in construction from the field- carriage inasmuch as the stocks and cheeks are formed of the same piece by holhtwing out the head of the stock, the wheels are smaller and the axle-tree is made of wood, the arms being protected from wear by skeans. It is arranged for draught by attaching a pair of shafts to the trail. The pack-saddle and its harness are constructed to carry sev- erally the howitzer and shafts, the carriage, or two ammunition-chests; or it enables an animal to draw the carriage with the howit- zer mounted upon it. Prairie-Carriage. — The prairie-carriage is designed to carry the mountain howitzer, and is similar to the mountain-carriage in form ; but being exclusively for draught, the axle-tree is of iron, and the wheels are made higher and the distance between them greater than in the mountain-carriage. It has a lim- ber and is drawn by two horses abreast, as in field-carriages. The ammunition is packed in mountain ammunition-chests, two of which are carried on the limber. Siege-Carriages. — There are three different kinds of siege-carriages used in the U. S. service, one for the 4i-inch rifle, another on which the 30-pounder Parrott is mounted, and a third for the 8-inch howitzer, being the old 12-pounder, 18-pounder, and 24-pounder siege-carriages modified ; these are all con- structed in the same manner, and ditfer only in their dimensions. Siege-carriages are simi- lar to the field-carriage in construction (see Field-f the gun- carriage, and connected in a similar way by a wooden stock and lunette. On the axle- body of the rear part and parallel to the stock are placed three rails, upon which are fastened two ammunition-chests, one behind the other, and similar to the one on the lim- ber ; so that the caisson has three ammuni- tion-chests, which will seat 9 cannoneers. The interior compartments of the ammuni- tion-chests vary according to the nature of the ammunition with which they are loaded. In rear of the last chest is placed a spare- wheel axle of iron, with a chain and toggle at the end of it. On the rear end of the middle rail is placed a carriage hook similar to a pintle-hook, to which the lunette of a gun-carriage whose limber has become dis- abled may be attached, and the gun carried oft" the field. The caisson has the same turning capacity and mobility as the gun- carriage, so that it can follow the piece in all its manoeuvres, if necessary. It also carries a spare-wheel, spare-pole, etc. The princi- pal parts of the caisson are: stock, or mid- dle-rail; it has an iron lunette on its front end ; side-rails, front foot-board, rear foot- board, middle-chest, rear-chest, spare-wheel axle; it has a body, two ribs, and a chain and toggle to secure the wheel ; there are also two stays for the axle ; lock-chains, fas- tened to lock-chain bridles under the front ends of the side-rails, and held up by lock- chain hooks fastened to the outside of the side-rails ; spare-pole, spare-pole key, key- plate, chain, and pin : the key-plate is fas- tened to the under slide of the lunette; the key is attached to the left side of the stock by a chain and eye-pin ; carriage-hook, for attaching a carriage that has lost its limber; wheel-guard plates, spare-pole ring, held by the axle-strap; ring-bolt for spare hand- spike, key-rilate and key, on the right side of the middle-rail; key-plate, chain, and key for the shovel-handle, on the inside of the right side-rail ; middle assembling-bar, of iron ; it has two ears in the middle to serve as stay-plates for the middle-chests, and a slot for the axe on the right of the middle-rail; rear assembling-bar; it sup- ports the spare-wheel axle, and has a slot for the pickaxe on the left of the middle-rail. ORDNANCE 380 ORDNANCE Axle, the axle-body, being notched to re- ceive the middle-rail and tenoned to fit into the notches in the side-rails; staples for tool- handles ; they are driven into the top of the axle-body in front of the iron axle-tree, one for the shovel-handle near the right side- rail, the other for the handle of the pickaxe on the left of the middle-rail. Wheels of all artillery carriages are similarly constructed ; they differ, however, in the size and strength of certain parts, depending on the size of the carriage to which they are attached. The principal parts are : the nave, the nave- bands, the nave-box, the spokes, the felloes, and the tire. The nave constitutes the cen- tral portion of the wheel, and distributes the pressure of the axle-arm to the spokes. It is generally made of a single piece of wood, and strengthened by four iron bands called the nave-bands. It is also pierced with a conical hole for the axle-arm ; and to diminish wear and friction, it is lined with a box of brass or cast iron, called the nave- box. The spokes serve to transmit the press- ure of the load to the rim of the wheel. In all artillery carriages there are seven felloes and fourteen spokes. The felloes are the wooden segments which form the rim, and are joined together at their ends by wooden pins, or dowels. The tire is a strong band of iron, shrunk tightly around the felloes, to hold them together, and protect the rim from wearing away by contact with the ground. Mortar-wagons are designed for the trans- portation of siege-mortars and their beds, or of guns or large shot, and shells. A limber similar to the one for siege-gun carriages is used with it. The body consists of a plat- form of rails and transoms resting on an axle-tree. The stock is formed by prolong- ing the two middle-rails. The side-rails projecting to the rear form supports for the pivots of a windlass-roller. This roller is used to load guns and mortars on the wagon by drawing them up the stock. A muzzle- bolster on the stock near the limber, and a breech-hurter near the hind part of the wagon, are provided and used when long pieces are transported on it. Mortars are usually carried mounted on their beds. The traveling-forge is a complete black- smith's establishment, which accompanies a battery for the purpose of making repairs and shoeing horses. It consists of a body, upon which is constructed the bellows-house, etc., and the limber, which supports the stock in transportation. The body is com- posed of two rails, a stock, and an axle- tree. The bellows-house is divided into the bellows-room and iron-room. Attached to the back of the house is the coal-box, and in front of it is the fireplace. From the upper and front part of the bellows an air- pipe proceeds in a downward direction to the air-box, which is placed behind the fireplace. The vise is permanently attached to the stock, and the anvil, when in use, is sup- ported on a stone or log of wood, and when transported is carried on the hearth of the fireplace. The remaining tools are carried in the limber-chest. When in working order the point of the stock is supported by a prop. Nomenclature of the traveling- forge body: Lunette, prop, vise, stock, wheel- guard plates, stock-stirrup, fireplace, back of fireplace, air-bacli^ wind-pipe, bellows, ribs, hinges, hook, fulcrum, hook and staple, roof of bellows-house, bows, studs, girders, end- boards, bottom-boards, side-rail, lock-chain hook, coal-box, lid or roof, handles, hinges, turnbuckle, and hasp. A new pattern of field-forge has been propo.sed by Col. Laid- ley, U. S. Ordnance Corps. The battery-wagon is employed to trans- port the tools and materials for repairs. Among the tools are those for carriage- makers, saddlers, armorers, and laborato- rians' use, scythes and sickles for cutting forage, and spare implements for the service of the piece. The body of the battery- wagon is a large, rectangular box, covered with a roof of painted canvas ; and to the back part is attached a rack for carrying forage. The bottom of the body is formed of one middle- and two side-rails, resting on a stock and axle-tree, as in the traveling- forge. The tools and materials of the battery- wagon are carefully packed in the manner prescribed by the Ordnance Manual, in order that no difficulty may be experienced in finding a particular article when wanted. The smaller articles are carried in boxes properly lettered and numbered. The trav- eling-forge and' batterj'-wagon are not con- fined to the service of field-batteries, but are used with siege and sea-coast carriages as occasion may require. Nomenclature of the battery-wagon body : Lunette, stock, wheel- guard plate, lock-chain, lock-chain bridle, lock-chain hook, studs, side-rails, upper rails, hinges, bows, cover-boards, cover- strap and turnbuckle, hasp, side-boards, stays, bottom-rails, bottom-boards, cross- bars, forage-rack, including chains, sides, and bars. Ordnance, Construction of. The present condition of gun construction is mainly ex- perimental. Iron in one form or another is the only material used for heavy artillery, but the particular form in which it is to be used, whether as cast, wrought, or steel, or whether in bars, coils, or ingots, or in com- bination, — as, for instance, steel or wrought iron interior and cast iron or wire-wrapped or hooped exterior, — is still undecided, and it is left for experiments which are still in progress, or to be made hereafter, to decide which is best. In the United States, cast iron is used for smooth-bore guns, and also for rifle guns, but as its use for the latter has not proved satisfactory, experiments are now being made with wrought iron lined and with wire-wrapped and other built-up guns, with fair prospect of success. In Eng- land, modern gun construction at one period inclined to the use of a steel or wrought iron interior tube, strengthened by an exte- ORDNANCE 381 ORDNANCE rior castincj of iron, which is the system of rallii-or and Parsons. Rut the preference for the inventions of Sir ^Viiliam Arm- strong, improved by those of Eraser, have resulted in the exclusive use, in that coun- try at present, of the system of these two in- ventors. This method of gun construction is, in brief, a steel core (o* body of the gun) strengthened by three or more exterior tubes of coiled wrought iron. This system is at pres- ent popularly known as the "Woolwich," but sometimes called the " Elswick," from the place where Sir William Armstrong's works are now located. In Germany and Russia, and sonie other European luitions, the Krupp system of heavy forgings of steel ingots is preferred. This last is by far the most ex- pensive, and does not always produce the most durable guns. The question of breeeh- or muzzle-loading is still an undecided one. (See Breech-loadino and Breech-mech- anism.) The Germans prefer the first named, as do the French, Austrians, and Russians, for large calibers and for most small guns, while the English, after several years' trial of the first, have of late abandoned its use and re- turned to the muzzle-loader, though the ?uestion has again been recently agitated, n the United States, experiments still going on have not yet demonstrated which princi- ple is the best suited to the gun construction used in America. The advantages of load- ing at the breech with heavy guns are numerous and great; but the serious me- chanical ditlicuities (see Breech-mechan- ism) of ])erfecting the movable breech attachment have militated against its adop- tion, especially in a country committed like the United States to the use of cast iron. During the half-decade (1855-GO), and the succeeding decade (18(30-70), enormous strides were made in gun construction and in that of carriages and projectiles, and the manufacture of gunpowder. Cast Mrfnl Guns. — The principles which govern the construction of homogeneous cast metal guns as established by long prac- tice will be considered under the following heads : Exterior Form. — The exterior of cannon is generally divided into five principal parts, •viz. : the breech, the tirst reinforce, the sec- ond reinforce, the chase, and the swell of the muzzle. The breech (see Breech) is the thickness of metal in the prolongation of the axis of the bore, and should be at least equal to one and a quarter times the diameter of the bore; a less thickness has been found in- sufficient for heavy iron guns. The fir.st reinforce (.see Reinforce) ex- tends from the base-ring to the seat of the ball, and is the thickest part of the piece, for the reason that the pressure of the pow- der is found to be greatest before the projec- tile is moved fur from its place. In shape this reinforce was formerly made slightly conical, under the impression that the press- ure was greater at the vent than at the seat of the projectile; but it is now made cylin- drical throughout. The thickness of bronze cannon at the seat of the charge is less than for iron guns. The second reinforce (see Reinforce) connects the first reinforce with the chase. It is made considerably thicker than is necessary to resist the action of the powder, in order to serve as a jiroper point of sup- port for the trunnions, and to compensate for certain defects of metal liable to occur in the vicinity of the trunni force of I the charge, and to be least injurious to the j piece. The size of the vent should be as 1 small as possible, in order to diminish the ! escape of the gas and the erosion of the ORDNANCE 382 OEDNANCE metal which results from it. In the U. S. service all vents are 0.2 inch in diameter. Experiment has, ho.wever, shown that the actual loss of force hy the escape of the gas through the vent, as compared to that of the entire charge, is inconsiderable, and in prac- tice may be neglected. In the U. S. service some pieces are made with two unbushed vents which are situated in two vertical planes on opposite sides of and parallel to the axis of the bore, and at a distance from it of one-half the radius of the bore. The left vent is bored entirely through, the other stops one inch short of the surface of the bore. When the open vent is too much en- larged by wear for further use, it is closed with melted zinc, and the other is bored out. Each vent is calculated to endure at least five hundred service rounds. In Eng- lish guns of old model, the vent is placed four-tenths of the length of the cartridge from the bottom of the bore. In most breech- loaders, as well as many large modern muz- zle-loaders, the vent is in the axis of the piece through the breech. Seat of the Cha7-c/e. — The form of the seat of the charge, or that part of the bore of a fire-arm which contains the powder, will have an effect on the force of the charge and the strength of the piece to resist it. The considerations most likelj' to affect the force of the powder are the form of the surface and its extent compared with the inclosed volume. To obtain the full force of the charge it is necessary that the inflammation be nearly completed before the gas begins to escape through the windage, and the pro- jectile is sensibly moved from its place, and as the tension depends much upon the heat evolved by the combustion, the absorbing surface should be a minimum compared with the volume. In cannon where the charge of powder is large, the form of the seat of the charge is simply that of the bore pro- longed ; this arrangement, when compared with the chamber, makes the absorbing sur- face of the metal a minimum and reduces the length of the charge, so that its inflam- mation will be as complete as possible before the gas escapes and the projectile is moved. To give additional strength to the breech, and to prevent the angle formed by the plane of the bottom and sides of the bore from becoming a receptacle for dirt and burning fragments of the cartridge-bag, it is rounded with the arc of a circle, whose radius is one-fourth the diameter of the bore at this point. Instead of being a plane bot- tom it is sometimes made hemispherical, tangent to the surface of the bore. In all United States cannon of the most recent model, the bottom of the bore is a semi-ellip- soid ; this is thought to fulfill the condition of strength more fully than the hemisphere. With light pieces, in which it is necessary to use small charges of powder, if the charge were made into a cartridge of a form to fit the bore its length would be less than its diameter, and being ignited at the top, a considerable portion of the gas generated in the first instance of inflammation would pass through the windage, and a part of the force of the charge would be lost. To obviate this defect, to give the cartridge a more manageable form in loading, and to make the surface a minimum as regards the volume, the diameter of this part of the bore is reduced so as to form a chamber. The shape of the chambers of fire-arms is either cylindrical, conical, or spherical ; the effect of these different forms of chambers on the velocity of the projectile will be modified by the size of the charge and the length of the bore. Up to a charge of pow- der equal to one-seventh of the weight of the projectile, and a length of bore equal to 9 or 10 calibers, experience shows that the presence of a chamber is advantageous, but beyond these it possesses no advantages to compensate for its inconvenience. For very small charges of powder and short lengths of bore, the cylindrical chamber gives better results than the conical chamber. For the same capacity, the conical chamber gives a shorter cartridge, and is therefore better suited to the rapid inflammation of a large charge of powder than the cylindrical cham- ber. The Gomer chamber belongs to this class. (See Gomer Chamber.) The spherical chamber was formerly used particularly in mortars, but owing to the inconveniences which attend its construction and use, and its liability to deterioration, it is now entirely abandoned. In all the regulation guns of the U. S. land service, the bottom of the bore is a semi-ellipsoid. The adoption of this form simplifies the whole subject of chambers, and it is found to give increased ranges for small charges. No very careful experiments have been made to determine in a general way the effect of chambers on the strength of cannon ; but late experience in- dicates that cylindrical chambers in heavy iron guns have an injurious effect on their endurance, and they have consequently been abandoned in these pieces. The Bore (see Bore).— The length of the bore has an impo^-tant effect on the velocity of the projectile, and it was formerly sup- posed that the longest pieces gave the great- est ranges ; this belief was in a great measure due to the slow rate of burning of mealed powder, which was originally used in can- non, but was entertained even after gun- powder received its granular form. When a gun is discharged, the accelerating force is due to the expansive effort of the inflamed powder, which reaches its maximum when the grains of the charge are completely con- verted into vapor and gas. This event de- pends on the size of the charge, and the size and velocity of combustion of the grains. With the same accelerating force, the point at which a projectile reaches its maximum velocitj' depends on its density, or the time necessary to overcome its inertia. The re- tarding forces are : ORDNANCE 383 ORDNANCE (1) The friction of the projectile against the sides of the l)f)re ; tliis is the same for all velocities, but different for different metals. (2) The shocks of the projectile striking against the sides of the bore ; these will vary with the angle of incidence, which depends on the windage and the extent of the injury due to the lodgment and balloting of the projectile. (3) The resistance offered by the column of air in front of the projectile ; this force will increase in a certain ratio to the velocity of the projectile and length of the bore. As the accelerating force of the charge increases up to a certain point, after which it rapidly diminishes as the space in rear of the pro- jectile increases ; and as the retarding forces are constantly opposed to its motion, it fol- lows that there is a point where these forces are equal, and the projectile moves with its greatest velocity ; it also follows that after the projectile passes this point its velocity decreases, until it is finally brought to a state of rest, which would be the case in a gun of great length. Elaborate experiments have been made in this country and abroad to de- termine accurately the influence which the length of the piece exercises on the velocity of its projectile. The experiments made by Maj. Mordecai of the U. S. Ordnance De- partment with a 1'2-pounder gun, show that the velocity increases with the length of the bore up to 25 calibers ; but that the entire gain beyond 10 calibers, or an addition of more than one-half to the length of the gun, gives an increase of only one-eighteenth to the effect of a charge of four pounds. It fol- lows from the foregoing that the length of bore which corresponds to a maximum ve- locity depends upon the projectile, charge of powder, and material of which the piece is made, and taking the caliber as a unit of measure, it is found that this length is greater for small-arms which fire leaden projectiles than for guns which fire solid iron shot, and greater for guns than for howitzers and mortars, which fire hollow projectiles. For the same charge of powder it may be said that the initial velocity of a projectile varies nearly with the fourth root of the length of the bore, provided the variation in length be small. Matvifachire of Cannon. — Cannon for the U. S. service are made by private founders. The material and product of the casting are under the supervision of an ordnance officer, who receives the pieces only after thev have satisfied all the conditions imposed by the regulations of the service. There are several foundries for making cast-iron cannon. "Wrought-iron field cannon are principally made at the PhoMiixville Iron-AVorks, Pa. There are also several private establishments where special cannon arc made. The several operations of manufacturing cannon are, molding, casting, cooling, and finishing. Moldiuf/, in general terms, is the process by which the cavity of the form of the gun is obtained by imbedding a wooden model in sand, and then withdrawing it. The wooden model is technically called the pat- tern, and the sand is confined in u box, which is divided into two or more parts for convenience in withdrawing the pattern. The pattern of the piece to be cast, some- what enlarged in its different dimensions, is composed of several pieces of hard wood, well seasoned, or, for greater durability, of cast iron. The first piece of the model com- prises the body of the piece from the base- ring to the chase-ring; the swell of the muzzle, and the sprue, or dead-head, are formed of the second piece ; the breech, of the third; and the trunnions, of the fourth and fifth pieces. The sj)rue, usually called the " head," is an additional lengtli given to the piece, for the purpose of receiving the scoria of the melted metal as it rises to the surface, and furnishing the extra metal needed to feed the shrinkage. Its weight also increases the density of the lower por- tion of the piece. The breech is slightly lengthened in the direction of the knob of the cascabel, to form a square projection by which the piece can be held when being turned and bored. The best material for the mold is dry, hard, angular, and refrac- tory sand, which must be moistened with water in which strong clay has been stirred, to make it sufficiently adhesive ; when not suflSciently refractory, the sand is vitrified by the high temperature of the melted metal, and protuberances — not easily removed — are formed on the casting. When not suflB- ciently coarse and angular, the materials cannot be so united as to preserve the form of the molds. The mold is formed in a case of cast iron, and termed the " box," or the "flask," consisting of several pieces, each of which has flanires perforated with holes for screw-bolts and nuts, to unite the parts firmly. To form the mold, the pattern for the sprue and muzzle, previously coated with pulverized charcoal or coke, moistened with clay-water to prevent adhesion, is placed vertically on the ground, muzzle part up, and carefully surrounded by the corresponding parts of the jacket. AVhen properly adjusted, the sand, prepared as above, is rammed around it. The model for the body of the piece is then placed on the topof this, and the corresponding parts of the jacket correctly secured, and filled in successitm with the molding composition. The patterns for the trunnions and rimbases are bolted to the model of the piece, and when the sand is rammed firmly around these, the bolts are withdrawn, this part of the mold completed, and the end-plates screwed on. After completing the mold for the body of the piece, the model for the cas- cabel is properly adjusted and the mold completed. Care is taken to cover each por- tion of the model with the coke-wa.-h men- tioned above, and to sprinkle dry sand upoling the casting from the exterior. Gen. Rodman of the U. S. Ordnance Department developed a theory of the strains produced by cooling a casting like that of a cannon (see Ordnance, Strains UPOK), and as a remedy for them proposed that cannon should be cast with a hollow core and cooled by a stream of water or air passing through it. This new mode of cast- ing was afterwards adopted by the War De- partment. By this system of casting, guns of greatly-increased size and endurance are fabricated. The largest guns employed in the U. S. service (20-inch) are made on the Rodman plan, as well as the LS-inch, 13-, 10-, 8-inch, etc. The external form of Rod- man guns is striking, as they are much larger at the seat of the charge than else- where. Their outline is made up of curved lines. This form has been almost univer- sally adopted for U. S. guns. The Dahlgren, which preceded it, has nearly the same shape. The great power demanded at the present day in heavy ordnance, however, cannot be attained by the use of cast iron alone. The difficulties of constructing homogeneous guns of the stronger metals — wrought iron and steel — have given birth in modern times to Built-up Guns. — The term "built-up"' is • applied to those cannon in which the princi- pal parts are formed separately, and then united together in a peculiar manner. One object of this mode of manufacture is to cor- rect tlie defects of one material by introduc- ing another of opposite qualities, as for in- stance, trials have been made to increase the hardness, and therefore endurance, of bronze cannon by casting them around a core of steel which formed the surface of the bore. Built-up cannon are not necessarily com- posed of more than one kind of metal. Some of the most noted are made of steel or wrought iron alone. In this case the defects which we have seen accompany the working of large masses of wrought iron (crystalline structure, cracks, false welds) are obviated by first forming them in small masses, as rings, tubes, etc., of good quality, and then uniting them separately. The mode of unit- ing a built gun may be by welding the parts, by shrinking, or forcing one over the other, or by screwing them together. In the constfucfion of built-up fjun.'<, makers have aimed at the ideal gun which has its strength proportioned to the strain it is called upon to bear in all its parts. All parts of the sides of a cannon are not strained equally, and are therefore not brought to the break- ing-point at the same time. Any arrange- ment of the parU by which the explosive strain is distributed equally over the entire thickness of the piece, necessarily brings a greater amount of resistance into play to pre- vent rupture. There are two general plans for accomplishing this, viz. : First, by pro- ducing a strain of compression on the metal nearest the surface of the bore. This ia ORDNANCE 386 ORDNANCE termed an " initial strain," and is broujjjht about by shrinking heated bands or tubes around the part to be compressed, or by slipping a tube into the bore, which has been slightly enlarged by heat. In either case it is apparent that the extent of the strain de- pends on the relative size of the fitting sur- faces, and the amount of heat used to produce expansion. Sometimes the parts are forced together bj?^ hydraulic pressure after they have been carefully bored and turned to the proper size. The second plan is based on " varying elasticity," and is accomplished by placing that metal which stretches most within its elastic limit around the surface of the bore, so that by its enlargement the explosive strain is transmitted to the outer parts. By the selection of suitable materials and their proper management, both of these plans may be combined in the same gun, and thereby give it increased strength. See Ord- KANCE, Construction of. The best-known cannon of the built-up class are : Ames Gun. — The rifled guns made by Mr. Horatio Ames, of Falls Village, Conn., are made of wrought iron on the built-up prin- ciple. The wrought iron is in the form of rings, made by bending a bar around a man- drel and welding the ends. After turning them in a lathe, two or more of these rings are fitted one within another to form a disk.- These disks are welded in succession to a concave breech-piece. Some of these guns have shown remarkable endurance. They are weakest against longitudinal strains. Armstrong Gun. — Is so much like the Woolwich, which it pi-eceded, that a separate description is unnecessary. See Woolwich Gun. Blakely Gun. — The most approved pattern of the gun invented by Capt. Blakely com- bines in its construction the principles of "initial tension" and "varying elasticity," the object of which is to bring the strength of all the metal of the piece into simultane- ous play to resist explosion. It is made of several tubes or barrels, the inner one of which is of low steel, having considerable but not quite enough elasticity. The next tube is made of high steel with less elasticity, and is shrunk on the barrel with just suf- ficient tension to compensate for the insuf- ficient difference of elasticity between the two tubes. The outer cast jacket, to which the trunnions are attached, is the least elastic of all, and is put on with only the shrinkage by warming it over a fii-e. The steel tubes are cast hollow and hammered over steel mandrels under steam-hammers ; by this pro- cess they are elongated, and at the same time the tenacity of the metal is increased, all the steel parts are annealed. Other combina- tions of iron and steel are used, except wrought iron, which is regarded as objection- able on account of its tendency to stretch permanently. Blakely guns were rifled with one-sided grooves, and are fired with expand- ing projectiles. This gun is no longer made under that name. As now made it is called the Vavasseur Gun, and is manufactured by Messrs. J. Vavasseur & Co. of the London Ordnance-AVorks. It is made entirely of the best Sheflield cast steel, except the trunnions, which are wrought iron, and consists of an interior tube and outer tube and a number of hoops. The inner tube is forged from a solid ingot. It is rough bored and turned and then oil tempered. The outer tube and rings are cast hollow and hammered over steel mandrels. They are heated and shrunk on. Theoretically, it is difiicult to pick a flaw in the construction of this gun. The rifling used is anomalous. It consists of three ribs instead of grooves projecting into the bore. The projectile has corresponding grooves. These guns have found quite a market in the South American republics. Brooke Gun. — This gun was made after the plan of Capt. Brooke for the Confederate service; it resembles Parrott's in shape find construction, except that the reinforcing band is made up of iron rings not welded together. The rifling is similar to that used in the Blakely guns. Eraser Gun. — See Woolwich Gun. Gatling Gun. — See Gatling Gun. Krupj) Gun. — See Krupp Gun. Lancaster Gun. — This gun is now little used ; it was made of wrought iron. The bore was cut in a spiral form with an ellip- tical cross-section, and the projectile shaped to fit it, by which means a rotary motion was imparted. Palliser Gun. — Maj. Palliser of the British service is the inventor of a system which has been successfully applied in England to utilize smooth-bore cast-iron guns by con- verting them into wfles. By his plan the gun is first bored to a cylinder or finely ta- pering cone, then lined with a tube of coiled wrought iron, the breech end of which is shrunk on ; the exterior of the barrel has a uniform diameter throughout. The tube is double at this part to obtain the benefit of the tension and to enable any fracture of the inner layer to be made known without burst- ing the gun. The bottom of the barrel^ is closed by a wrought-iron cup screwed in. The tube is inserred into the gun from the muzzle without the application of heat. A small amount of play is allowed between the barrel and the cast-iron body; this disap- pears, or is much reduced by a "setting up charge," which expands the barrel against the cast iron. The end of the barrel is made to bear accurately against the cast-iron breech. A collar screwed into the muzzle secures the tube in position, and prevents it from being thrust forward by the compres- sion of the metal by repeated firing. In front of the trunnions a pin is screwed in through the cast iron, to resist the tendency of the tube to be turned by the bearing of the projectile in the grooves. On the exte- rior of that portion of the inner tube that is covered by the second tube is cut a spiral gas ORDNANCE 387 ORDNANCE ohiinnel ; this communicates with a tell-tale hole drilled through the cast-iron breech, by which gas can escape and announce the frac- ture of the inner tube. The venting and rilling are similar to those employed in the Woolwich guns. In the larger guns Maj. Palliser proposes to use two or more concen- tric tubes, in some the exterior one to be of steel. This system is being applied in the United States with the most promising re- sults in the conversion of 10-inch Rodman guns into 8-inch rifles. The rifles thus ob- tained, though giving to a projectile a less tnuz/.le velocity than does the 10-inch smooth-bore, has, on account of the increased weight of shot, greater penetrating power at all ranges, being doubled- at some and trebled at others. Its accuracy is three times greater, and the capacity of its shell twice that of the original gun. Parsons Gun. — The system upon which Mr. Parsons makes his guns is similar to that of Maj. Palliser. (See PalmsekGun.) It depends upon the principle of varying elasticities, and is based upon the fact that wrought iron may bo stretched three times OS much as cast iron, and will off'er three and a half to six times the resistance within the limit of its elasticity. These well-known gun constructions, known as converting sys- tems, both consist in lining a cast-iron case with a wrought-iron or steel tube. In the Palliser or English method the tube is in- serted from the muzzle. In the Parsons or American method, through the breech. In both nearly the whole of the longitudinal strain is transferred to the cast-iron case. Both systems were first perfected in England. Col. Crispin (U. S. Ordnance Corps) de- serves the credit of introducing them into the U. S. service in constrflcting the new cvprri- mental riffes. The Parsons system is better adapted to constructing breech-loaders. Parrott Gun. — The Parrott rifled gun is a cast-iron piece of about the usual dimen- sions, strengthened by shrinking a coiled band or barrel of wrought iron over that portion of the reinforce which surrounds the charge. The body of the larger Parrott guns are cast hollow, and cooled from the interior on the Rodman plan. The barrel is formed by bonding a rectangular bar of wrought iron spirally around a mandrel, and then welding the mass together by hammer- ing it in a strong cast-iron cylinder, or tube. In bending the bar, the outer side being more elongated than the inner one, is dimin- ished in thickness, giving the cross-section of the bar a wedge shape, which possesses the advantage of allowing the cinders to es- cape through the opening, thereby securing a more perfect weld. The barrel is shrunk on by the aid of boat, and for this purpose the reinforce of the gun is carefully turned to a cylindrical shape, and about one-six- teenth of an inch to the foot larger than the interior diameter of the barrel in a cold state. To prevent the cast iron from ex- panding when the barrel is slipped on to its place, a stream of cold water is allowed to run through the bore. At the same time, and while the band hangs loosely upon it, the body of the gun is rotated around its axis to render the cooling uniform over the whole surface of the barrel. The proof of the Parrott guns consists in firing each piece 10 rounds with service charges. Rodman Gun. — The j)rincipal difl5culty formerly experienced in manufacturing very large cast-iron cannon was the injurious strain produced by cooling the casting from the exterior. Gen. Rodman of the U. S. Ordnance Department develojied a theory of the strains produced by cooling a casting like that of a cannon (soc'Okdnance, Strains upon), and as a remedy for them proposed that cannon should be cast on a hollow core and cooled by a stream of water or air pass- ing through it. This new mode of casting was afterwards adopted by the "War Depart- ment. By this system of casting, guns of greatly increased size and endurance are fabricated. The largest guns employed in the U. S. service (20-inch) are made on the Rodman plan, as well as many of the guns emjiloyod in the field service. Wliltworth Gun. — These guns are made of a species of low steel ; the smaller are forged solid, the larger are built up with coils or hoops; the hoops are forced on by hydraulic pressure, and f'>r this purpose are made with a slight taper and with the design to secure initial tension. The ends of the hoops are joined by screw-threads. The hoops are first cast hollow, and then hammered out over a steel mandrel. Before receiving their final finish they are subject to an annealing for some three or four weeks, which makes the metal very ductile, but at the same time slightly impairs its tenacity. The system differs from Krupp's in the smaller masses used and the greater number of hoops. The process for making the hoops is better calcu- lated to develop their tensile strength. The breech-pin is made with offsets in such a way as to screw into the end of the barrel and the next two surrounding hoops. The cross-section of the bore of the Whitworth gun is a hexagon with rounded corners. The twist is very rapid and the projectiles are made very long. M'oodhridqc Gun (invented bv Dr. Wood- bridge, of Little Falls, New York).— The system of construction consist.* essentially of a thin steel barrel over which wire is wound, barrel and wire being subsequently consoli- dated into one mass by a brazing solder melted and poured into the interstices. The following brief description is extracted from one of tile inventor's letters to the chief of ordnance: "Square wire is wound upon a steel core somewhat longer than the intended bore of the gun, a sufticient number of wires being wound at once side by side to produce the required obliquity of "the turns. The successive layers have opposite twists. When the mass has reached the required dimensions, it is inclosed in an air-tight case ORDNANCE 388 ORDNANCE to protect it from oxidation, and is heated therein to a temperature somewhat above that required for the fusion of the soldering metal. The soldering metal having been melted is run in, filling all the interstices of the mass. When cooled the gun is bored and finished as usual." The invention dates back to about 1850. A small gun made in this way was tested by Maj. Laidley (U. S. Ordnance Corps) in 1865. It endured 1327 rounds with excessive charges, when the at- tempt to burst it was abandoned on account of the breaking off of the trunnions. The only large gun ever made — a 10-inch gun — was fabricated at Frankford Arsenal. It was not entirely finished till April, 1876, soon after which it was displayed at the Centen- nial Exhibition in Philadelphia. Certain defects in its manufacture prevent it from fairly representing the Woodbridge system. Woolwich Gim. — The Woolwich or Fraser gun is in its construction a modification of the Armstrong plan, Avhich latter had been previously used in Great Britain ; the prin- cipal difference is in substituting for a num- ber of single coils and a forged breech-piece a few long double and triple coils, and in using a cheaper quality of wrought iron. The number of pieces employed in the con- struction depends upon the size of the gun ; an 8-inch rifled gun is composed of the inner tube (barrel) of steel, the muzzle-coil (trou- sers), the breech-coil (jacket), and the cas- cabel-screw. The barrel is made from a solid forged cylinder of cast steel, drawn by heating and hammering ; it is turned, bored, and chambered; then heated to a uniform temperature in a vertical furnace and plunged into a covered tank of rape-oil, where it cools and soaks. The muzzle-coil is constructed of two single coils welded to- gether endways. Each coil is formed by heating a long bar and wrapping it about a mandrel ; this is next heated in a reverbera- tory furnace and welded under a steam- hammer. Before being united the two cylin- ders are turned and bored. The breech-coil is composed of a triple coil, a trunnion-ring, and a double coil welded together. The double coil is formed by placing a single coil, when cold, on a mandrel and winding over it, but in the reverse directions to break joints, a second bar ; if over this a third bar is immediately wound in the same direction as the first, a triple coil will result. These coils are welded by being heated and ham- mered on the end and on the sides. The trunnion-ring is made by welding slabs of iron together on the flat end of a bar, and graduafiy forming a ring by driving through the centre wedges and mandrels increasing in size; the trunnions, one of which comes from the bar, are at the same time hammered into shape. The coils and the ring having been turned and bored, the latter is placed on a shoulder of the triple coil, the double coil is dropped through the trunnion-ring on the triple coil, and the joints welded in this position. The cascabel is forged of good scrap-iron ; the different parts having been formed are accurately turned and bored with a slight taper. The muzzle-coil tube being heated is dropped over the barrel, which is stood in a pit, a stream of cold water circu- lating through the bore. The half-formed gun is then placed on its muzzle, water forced through the bore, and the breech-coil heated and slipped into position. The cascabel is , screwed into the breech-coil abutting against the barrel, great care being taken that the contact is perfect. A tell-tale hole is cut along the thread on the cascabel to give warning by the escape of gas should the barrel break in firing. The vent is bored through hardened copper ; it enters near the centre of the service cartridge. This gives greater velocity, but also greater pressure. The large guns have from seven to ten grooves. The twist is uniformly increasing ; the shape of the grooves is circular, with curved edges. ', Sutdijfe Gim.— This invention, by E. A. Sutclifte of New York City, relates to a breech-mechanism for cannon. See Breech Mechanism. Griffin Gun. — Name sometimes given to the 3-inch rifled field-piece in the U. S. service. It is made of wrought iron. The method of fabrication is to wrap boiler-plate around a mandrel and to weld it. Ordnance, Metals for. The only metals ordinarily used for cannon are cast and wrought iron, steel, and an alloy of copper and tin, or a combination of these metals. Cannon metals should be able to resist the corroding action of the atmosphere, the. heat and the products of combustion of the pow- der ; should be susceptible of being easily bored and turned, and should not be too costly. The qualities necessary in cannon metals are strength to resist the explosion of the charge, weight to overcome severe recoil, and hardness to endure the bounding of the projectile along the bore. The shape of the bore would otherwise be rapidly altered by the action of the projectile. This quality is particularly necessary in rifled cannon. The term strength as applied to cannon metal is not confined to tensile strength alone, but embraces also elasticity, ductility, and crys- talline structure, which affect its power to resist the enormous and oft-repeated force of gunpowder. (See Ordnance, Strains UPON.) Each discharge of a cannon, how- ever small, impairs its strength, and repeated a suflicient number of times, will burst it; this arises from the fact that the feeblest strains produce a permanent elongation or compression of iron ; this is technically known as the permanent set, and the same is probably true of all other metals. The property of ductility is of importance in en- abling a metal to resist rupture after it has passed its elastic limit. The size and ar- rangement of the crystals of a metal have an important influence in its strength to re- sist a particular force. A metal will be strongest when its crystals are small, and ORDNANCE 389 ORDNANCE the principal faces parallel to the straining force, if it be one of extension, and perpen- dicular to it, if it be one of compression. The size of the crystals of a particular metal depends on the rate of cooling ; the most rapid cooling giving the smallest crystals. Cast iron is very generally employed, no- tably in the United States, in the fabrication of heavy cannon for siege and sea-coast pur- poses. It possesses the very important quali- ties of tenacity, hardness, and cheapness, and with proper care is not seriously affected by rust. Its })rincipal defect is an almost entire want of elasticity, in consequence of which its tenacity is destroyed after a cer- tain number of applications of the straining force. But little is known of the causes which affect the quality of the cast iron used for cannon metal. The amount of carbon, the state of its combination, together with the ore, fuel, and fluxes, and the process of manufacture, all materially affect the quality of the iron. All that is known is, that cer- tain ores treated in a certain way make cast iron suitable for cannon, and the fitness of a particular kind of cast iron for artillery purposes can only be determined by submit- ting it to the tests of the service. After this is known, a knowledge of certain' physical properties, such as tenacity, hardness, den- sity, and color, form and size of crystals presented in a freshly fractured surface, will be useful in keeping the metal up to the re- quired standard. The pig-iron from which cannon are made should be soft, yielding easily to the file and chisel ; the appearance of the fracture should be uniform, with a brilliant aspect, dark gray color, and medium- sized crystals. AV'hen remelted and cast into cannon, it should have about sufficient hard- ness to resist the file and chisel, but not to be so hard as to be bored and turned with much difficulty ; its color should be a bright gray, crystals small, structure uniform, close, and compact. The density of gun metal should be about 7.25, and its tenacity about 80,000. There are several varieties of cast iron differing from each other by almost in- sensible shades. The principal divisions are, however, graj' and white. Gray iron is softer and less brittle than the white, is slightly malleable and flexible, and does not resist the file. It has a brilliant fracture of a gray or bluish-gray color. This iron melts at a lower temperature than white iron and becomes more fluid, contracts less and con- tains fewer cavities; it tills the mold well, the edges of a casting are short, and the surface smooth, convex, and covered with carburet of iron. Gray iron is the only kind suitable for making castings which require great strength, such as cannon. "White iron 18 very brittle, resists the file and chisel, and is susceptible of high polish, the surface of a casting is concave, the fracttire presents a silvery appearance. Its qualities arc the reverse of those of gray iron ; it is therefore unsuitable for ordnance purposes. Mottled iron is a mixture of white and gray ; it has a spotted appearance, and flows well. The casting has a plane surface with edges slightly rounded. It is suitable for making shot and shells. Besides these general divisions, there are several other varieties of iron whose qualities depend upon the proportion of car- bon, and the state in which it is found in the metal. The color and texture of cast iron depend greatly on the size of the casting and the rapidity of cooling. See Okunan<;e, Strains upon. Wrought iron was among the earliest metals employed in the construction of cannf)n, but in consequence of the defects which almost invariably accompany the forging of large masses, it was suj)erseded by bronze and cast iron to a great extent. Wrought iron is softer than cast iron, and, being pure iron, is more liable to be cor- roded by the action of the atmosphere and products of combustion of the powder; it possesses also considerable ductility. The tensile strength of wrought iron, which under the most favorable circumstances is double that of the best cast iron, depends on the character of the crystalline struc- ture, and the manner of applying the ten- sile force, or in other words, wrought iron offers the greatest resistance to a force of extension when the structure is fibrous, and the force acts in the direction of the fibres. The practical difficulties of rapidly cooling large masses so as to form small crystals, and compressing them by hammering, roll- ing, or otherwise to develop and give a particular direction to the fibre, have not thus far been wholly surmounted. On the contrary, large masses are generally found to contain such internal defects as false welds, cracks, and a spongy and irregularly crj'stalline structure, arising from the more rapid cooling of the exterior surface. Steel is a compound of iron and carbon, in which the proportion of the latter seldom exceeds 1.7 per cent. It may be distin- guished from iron by its fine grain, its sus- ceptibility of hardening by immersing it when hot in cold water, and with certainty bj' the action of diluted nitric acid, which leaves a black spot on steel, and on iron a spot which is lighter colored in proportion as the iron contains less carbon. For the construction of cannon, steel may be di- vided into high and low steel, the difference being that the former contains more carbon than the latter. High steel is very hard and has great ultimate tenacity. It ha.s but littlecxtensibility within or without the elastic limit, and is therefore too brittle for use in cannon, unless used in such large masses that the elastic limit will not be ex- ceeded by the explosive force of the powder. It melts at a lower temperature than wrou<;ht iron and is difficult to weld, as its welding temperature is but little less than that at which it melts. Low steel is often known as "mild steel," "soft steel," "homogene- ous metal,' and "homogeneous iron." and is made by fusing wrought iron with carbon OKDNANCE 390 OKDNANCE in a crucible ; after which it is cast into an ingot and worked under a hammer. As it contains less carbon than high steel, it has greater specific gravity. It can be welded without difficulty, although overheating in- jures it. It more nearly resembles wrought iron in all its properties, although it has much greater hardness and ultimate tenacity, and a lower range of ductility depending on its proportion of carbon. It has less ex- tensibility within the elastic limit than high steel, but greater beyond it, or in other words, greater ductility. Its great advantage over wrought iron for general purposes is that it can be melted at a prac- ticable heat, and run into large masses pos- sessing soundness and tenacity. Its advan- tages for cannon are greater elasticity, te- nacity, and hardness. Its tenacity when suitable for cannon is three times as much as cast gun iron, and one-half more than the best wrought iron. The principal va- rieties of steel are : Natural Steel. — This is made principally in Germany, and is used for making liles and other tools. It is obtained by reducing the rich and pure kinds of iron ore with charcoal, and re-fusing the cast iron so as to bring it to a malleable state. The India steel, or Wootz, is a natural steel containing a small proportion of other metals. Blistered Steel. — This is prepared by ex- posing alternate layers of bar-iron and char- coal in a close furnace for several days. "When taken out the bars are brittle in quality and crystalline in appearance. The purpose for which the steel is to be used de- termines the degree of carbonization. The best qualities of iron (Russian and Swedish) are used for the finest kind of steel. Tilted Steel. — This is blistered steel moder- ately heated and subjected to the action of a tilt-hammer, by which means its density and tenacity are increased. Shear Steel. — A blistered or natural steel refined by piling thin bars into fagots, and then rolling or hammering them into bars, after they have been brought to a welding heat in a reverberatory furnace. The quality is improved by a repetition of this process, and the steel is known accordingly by the names, half shear, single shear, double shear, etc. Cast Steel. — This is made by breaking blistered steel into small pieces, and melting it in close crucibles from which it is poured into iron molds. The ingot is then reduced to a bar by hammering or rolling with great care. Cast steel is the finest kind of steel, and is best adapted for most purposes ; it is known by a very fine, even, and close grain, and a silvery homogeneous fracture. The most remarkable specimen of cast steel for tenacity which is on record was manufac- tured at Pittsburgh, Pa. It was tested at the Washington Navy- Yard, and found to sustain 242,000 pounds to the square inch. The strength of cast steel usually runs from 70 to 140,000 pounds. Bessemer Steel. — This steel is produced by forcing air into melted iron, by means of which the carbon and silicon of the crude cast iron is oxidized. The essential differ- ence between this process and the ordinary puddling is mechanical, and consists in the intense and violent stirring of the Bessemer- ized iron, to which alone is due the produc- tion and maintenance of a temperature, without any other fuel than the carbon and silicon contained, that keeps the metal fluid so that it can be cast into homogeneous mal- leable ingots. When decarbu ration has been carried far enough, the current of air is stopped, and a small quantity of white pig- iron containing a large amount of manganese is dropped into the liquid metal. No very large cannon have yet been made wholly of Bessemer steel, but several small ones have, which have shown great endurance. Ex- periments at the Woolwich Arsenal have shown that the tenacity of this steel is more than doubled by hammering. Sie7nens-Martin. — In this process the in- gredients of cast steel are melted together on the open hearth of a reverberatory furnace of special construction, and a certain propor- tion of manganese necessary to make a sound and practically malleable steel added. This steel is, however, little used in gun construc- tion. Semi-Steel. — If in the process of puddling or decarbonizing cast iron the process be stopped at a particular time, determined by indications given by the metal to an experi- enced eye, an iron is obtained of greater hardness and strength than ordinary iron, to which the name of semi-steel, or puddled steel, has been given. The principal difli- culty in its manufacture is that of obtaining uniformity in the product, homogeneity and solidity throughout the entire mass. It is much improved by reheating and ham- mering under a heavy hammer; but it has not been found a reliable material for even cannon of small caliber. The celebrated guns made by Mr. Krupp of Germany are of cast steel, made from puddled steel, and of peculiar character, combining great tensile strength with the property of stretching to a great extent without breaking. Sir Joseph Whitworth improves the qualities of steel for his more recent guns by casting it under hydraulic pressure. Chrojne Steel. — An alloy of iron and chro- mium, which is not steel in the ordinary sense, but which possesses many of its char- acteristics. The tensile strength and resist- ance to crushing is much higher than ordi- nary cast steel. This material has been largely used in bridge-building, but has not yetTbeen applied to cannon-making. Bronze for cannon (commonly called brass) consists of 90 parts of copper and 10 of tin, allowing a variation of one part of tin more or less ; by increasing the proportion of tin, bronze becomes harder, but more brittle and fusible; by diminishing it it becomes too soft for cannon, and at the same time loses a part ORDNANCE 391 ORDNANCE of its elasticity. Bronze is more fusible than coj)per, much less so than tin. It is harder, less susceptible of oxidation, and niucli less ductile than either of its constituents. Its fracture is of a yellowish color, with little lustre, a coarse grain, irregular, and often exhibiting spots of tin which are of a whitish color. The density and tenacity of bronze when cast intotiie form of cannon, are found to depend upon the pressure and mode of cooling. In consequence of the difference of fusibility of tin and copper, the perfection of the alloy depends much on the nature of the furnace and the treatment of the melted metal. By these means alone the tenacity of bronze has been carried up to (50,000 founds. Bronze is but slightly corroded y the action of the gases evolved from gun- powder, or by atmospheric causes ; but its tin is liable to be melted away at the sharp corners by the great heat generated in rapid firing. It is soft, and therefore liable to serious injury by the bounding of the pro- jectile in the bore. This injury is augmented as the force of the rebound is increased by the elasticity of the metal. It was established by experiments of Maj. "Wade of the U. S. Ordnance Corps more than twenty years ago that the tensile strength of bronze is related to its density. It has been discovered since that this density can be produced by artificial compression. Two men claim the honors of the invention — Gen. Uchutius of the Aus- trian army, and S. B. Dean, an American inventor. The methods are essentially the same. After the gun is cast, steel mandrels slightly conical in shape are driven through the bore by hydraulic pressure, — each being succeeded by one slightly larger, — thus en- larging the bore and compressing the metal surrounding it. It is claimed that the bronze is thus rendered harder and stronger, and the defects above cited in a large measure obviated. The term "steel bronze" or •'bronze steel" has been applied to the metal so treated. Many guns have been made of it for the Austrian service, — the largest of which is a G-inch breech-loader throwing a projectile of 80 pounds. This gun has proved Itself slightly superior in power to the same sized Krupp gun of steel. Aluminium Brovze — An alloy of 90 parts of copper and 10 of aluminium. It is harder than ordinary bronze ; much stronger, being 100,000 pounds to the square inch ; it does not tarnish readily. Its jtroperties would seem to especially tit it for a gun metal. P/tosp/ior In'mize is an alloy with very similar projier- ties. Comhinrd Mrtals. — Numerous trials have been made to improve the strength of can- non by combining two or more metals in such a way that the good qiuilities of one will counteract the defects of the others. But the only metals used to any extent are those described above. iSteel is constantly gain- ing in favor as a cannon metal. It is now almost exclusively employed throughout Europe, and wherever the Krupp gun is used. The great perfection arrived at by Krupp and others in the manufacture of steel seems to place that metal above all others for gun construction, whilst the dilfi- culty of handling large masses has been overcome by the enormous power of the machinery used. Steel is also sparingly employed both in the United States and England for converting smooth-bore guns into rifles according to the Palliser method, but experiments in tlie United States have shown that it is inferior to wrought iron for this jiurpose. See Ordnance, Construo- TIOX OF. Wrought and cast iron are much used in this way for cannon in both the United States and in England. In the former, all the larger cannon belonging to the official system (both siege and .sea-coast) are nuido of the cast metal, whereas the Parrott gun and the new rifled pieces are a combination of both. (Sec Okunanck, Cox.struction OF.) The metal chiefly employed in Eng- land is wrought iron, in conibination wilii steel ; the largest guns made at the Wool- wich Arsenal are of this nature. Bronze, except as modified by the Austrians, has now nearly entirely gone out of use as a cannon metal. In France and the United States, field-pieces, mortars, and howitzers arc still made oi this material. Ordnance, Strains Upon. The exterior form of cannon is determined by the varia- ble thickness of the metal which surrounds the bore at different points of its length. In general terms, the thickness is greatest at the seat of the charge, and least at or near the muzzle. This arrangement is made on account of the variable action of the pow- der and projectile along the bore, and the necessity of disposing the metal in the saf- est and most economical manner. The pressure at difterent points may be approxi- mately determined by calculation, or, more accurately, by experiment. In the latter method, the plan generally employed con- sists in boring a scries of small holes through the side of a gun at right angles to its axis at known distances apart. A steel ball is projected from each hole in succession into a target, or ballistic pendulum, by the force of the charge acting through it, and the pressure at the various points is deduced from the velocities communicated to these balls. This method was adopted by Col. Bomford. Instead of the projectile a steel punch may be emj)loyed, which is pressed by the force of the charge into a piece of soft copper. (See Pressure-oauoe.) Tho weight necessary to make an equal indenta- tion in the same piece is then ascertained by a testing machine. The strains to which all fire-arms are subjected may be classified as follows: (1) The tangential strain which tends to split the piece open longitudinally, and is similar in its action to the force which bursts the hoops of a barrel. (2) The longitudinal strain which acts to pull the piece apart in the direction of OKDNANCE 392 OKDNANCE its length. Its action is greatest at or near the bottom of the bore, and least at the muzzle, where it is nothing ; these two strains increase the volume of the metal to which they are applied. (3) A strain of compression which acts from the axis out- ward to crush the truncated wedges of which a unit of length of the piece may be sup- posed to consist ; this strain compresses the metal and enlarges the bore. (4) A trans- verse strain which acts to break transversely by bending outward the staves of which the piece may be supposed to consist. This strain compresses the metal on the inner and extends it on the outer surface. It is known that rupture will take place due to the tangential strain alone, when three times the pressure upon a unit of surface of the bore is greater than twice the tensile strength. Due to the longitudinal strain alone, rupture will take place in the direction of the length, when the pressure is greater than twice the tensile strength ; and if the transverse strain alone is considered, rupture will take place "when twice the pressure is greater than three times the tensile strength. It therefore ap- pears that the tendency to rupture is greater from the action of the tangential force than from any other, and for lengths above two, or perhaps three calibers, the tangential re- sistance may be said to act alone, as the aid derived from the transverse resistance will be but trifling for greater lengths of bore; but for lengths of bore less than two calibers, this resistance will be aided by both the transverse and the longitudinal resistance. Every piece should therefore have sufficient thickness of breech to prevent splitting through the latter ; after this point has been attained, any additional thickness of breech adds nothing to the strength of the piece. It therefore appears that a tire-arm is strong- est at or near the bottom of the bore, and that its strength is diminished rapidly as the length of the bore increases to a certain point (probably not more than three calibers from the bottom); after which, for equal thickness of metal, its strength becomes sen- sibly uniform. The metals of which cannon are made being crystalline in structure, the size and arrangement of the crystals have an important influence on its strength to resist a particular force ; and a metal will have the greatest strength with reference to a par- ticular force when its crystals are small, and the principal faces are parallel to the strain- ing force, if it be one of extension, and per- pendicular to it, if it be one of compression. The position of the principal crystalline faces of a cooling solid is found to be perpen- dicular to the cooling surface ; the result of this arrangement of crystals is to create planes of weakness where the different systems of crystals intersect. The eftect of this law upon cannons, it has been discovered, is to render radial specimens more tenacious than those cut tangentially from the same gun. The manner and rapidity of cooling have also a great effect upon the ability of cannon to resist strains, and as all solid bodies contract their size in the operation of cooling, it follows that if the different parts of a cannon cool unequally, it will change its form, provided it be not restrained by the presence of a superior force. If it be so restrained, the contractile force will diminish the adhesion of the parts by an amount which depends on the rate of cool- ing of the different parts, and the contrac- tibility of the metal. This is an important consideration in estimating the strength and endurance of cannon, particularly those made of cast iron. All such cannon cooled from the exterior (see Ordnance, Con- struction of) are affected by two straining forces ; the outer portion of the metal being compressed, and the interior extended, in pro[)ortion to their distances from the neu- tral axis or line composed of particles which are neither extended nor compressed by the cooling process. The effect of this unequal contraction may be so great as to crack the interior metal of cast iron even before it has been subjected to the force of gunpowder. The strain produced by the explosion of guhpowder is not distributed equally over the thickness of metal, but it varies inversely as the square of the distance from the centre; it therefore follows that the sides of a cannon are not rent asunder as by a simple tensile force, but they are torn apart like a piece of cloth, commencing at the surface of the bore. Hence it is that the effect of ordinary cool- ing is to diminish the strength and hardness of the metal of cannon at or near a point where the greatest strength and hardness are required, i.e., at the surface of the bore. The strains produced by unequal cooling increase with the diameter of the casting and the irregularity of its form. This ex- plains the great difficulty found in making large cast-iron cannon proportionally as strong as small ones, and also how projec- tions like bands, moldings, etc., injure the strength of cannon. It also explains why cannon made of "light" cast iron, or cast iron made more tenacious by partial decar- bonization, are not so strong as cannon made of weaker iron ; for it is well known that such iron contracts more than the latter in cooling, and therefore produces a greater strain of extension on the surface of the bore. Capt. Eodman of the U. S. Ordnance De- partment has proposed a plan for cooling cannon from the interior (see Ordnance, Construction of), thereby reversing the strains produced by external cooling, and making them contribute to the endurance rather "than to the injury of the piece. It is likely, however, that the strains produced by unequal cooling are modified by time, which probablj^ allows the particles to ac- commodate themselves to a certain extent to their constrained position. In confirma- tion of this, great endurance has been fre- quently found in old solid cast guns, as in the old 42-pounders tested about the begin- ning of the war, 18G1-G5. ORDNANCE 393 OREGON Ordnance Department. In the United States, was lii>t i"stal)lished May 14, 1812, and was not jtrovidcd for in tiic reduction of the army in 1815, but continued in the service. In 1821 the dcpurtinent was merged into the artillery, attaching to each regiment of ar- tillery 1 supernumerary captain, and giving to eacli coMijiany 4 subaltern officers. The corps of ordnance was re-established April 5, 1832. The department consists of 1 briga- dier-general, 3 colonels, 4 lieutenant-colo- nels, 10 majors, 20 captains, l(j first lieuten- ants, and 350 enlisted men. It is the duty of the senior officer of the ordnance depart- ment to direct the inspection and proving of all pieces of ordnance, shot, shells, small- arms, and equipments procured for the use of the armies of the United States ; and to direct the construction of all cannon and carriages, and every implement and appa- ratus for ordnance, and all ammunition- wagons, traveling-forges, and artificers' wagons ; the inspection and proving of pow- der, and the preparation of all kinds of am- munition and ordnance stores. It is also the duty of the senior officer of the ordnance department to furnish estimates, and, under the direction of the Secretary of War, to make contracts and purchases for procuring the necessary supplies of arms, ordnance, and ordnance stores, etc. In the British service, the ordnance department was a dis- tinct branch of the war department, origi- nally for the supply of all warlike stores used in the naval or military service. The first nuister of ordnance was created in the time of Henry VIII., and the Tower of London was probably the depot of arms and military stores ; Robert, earl of Essex, is said to have been the first master-general, in 159<). It does not appear that the ord- nance department of the i^ritish service be- I came especially military until the early part of the 18th century, after the organization of the Royal Artillery, in 1743, under the Duke of Montague as master-general. From this time the ordnance department was ad- 1 ministered by a master-general and board, the latter being composed of a lieutenant- I general of ordnance, surveyor-general, clerk I of the ordnance, principal store-keeper, clerk j <)f the deliveries, and treasurer. About 1703 the department became a construction board, ' with charge of all forts and fortresses, and directed the construction of all the fortifica- I tions and military store-houses, and barracks I for the ordminco corps. The board was I finally abolished as a separate department, j the duties carried on by the commander-in- I chief, and the various civil branches by sep- arate oflices under the secretary of state for war. Ordnance Office. Before the invention of guns, this (iffice was supplied b}' officers under the following names : the bowyer, the cross-bowyer, the galeater, or purveyor of helmets, the armorer, and the keeper of the tents. Henry VIII. placed under the noHnagement of a master-general, a lieuten- ant, surveyor, etc. The master-general was chosen from among the first generals in the service of the sovereign. The appointment was formerly for life ; but since the restora- tion, was held durante bene placito, and not i unfrequently by a cabinet minister. The let- i ters patent for this office were revoked May j 25, 1855, and its duties vested in the minis- i tcr of war. The last master-general was I Lord Fitzroy Somerset, afterwards Lord Raglan. Ordnance Projectile. See Pkojectile. Ordnance Sergeants. In the U. S. ser- vice, are stafl" sergeants who are selected from the sergeants of the lino of the arm\'. Their duties consist in receiving and pre- serving the ordnance, arms, ammunition, and other ordnance stores at posts, under the direction of the commanding officer of the same. They must not be confounded with sergeants of ordnance, who are sergeants in the ordnance detachments at arsenals, etc. Ordnance Store-keeper. In the I3ritish service, is a civil officer in the artillery who has charge of all the stores, for which he is accountable to the office of ordnance. Ordnance Store-keeper. In the U. S. army, an officer of the ordnance department who holds the rank of captain. The grade has been abolished by act of Congress, and the duties appertaining to the office will be performed by other offecers of the ordnance department. Ordnance Stores. See Ordxance. Oregon. One of the Pacific States of the American Confederacy. Oregon was the name formerly given to the whole territory north of the Rocky Mountains, and was ! first claimed by the Spanish government, I and next by the government of the United I States, as far as lat. 54° 40' N. This latter ; claim was resisted by the British govern- ment, which asserted a right to the entire ' territory, and in 1818 a treaty was made, I and renewed in 1827, giving joint occupa- ; tion to the disputed territory. In 1846 a [ treaty was concluded, by which the bound- ; ary was settled on the 49th parallel. Pre- ' vious to this latter treaty (1839) emigration \ from the I'nited States, for the purpose of settlement, commenced, and it continued j steadily until the opening of the gold mines I in California, which attracted a great many j emigrants. In 1840 it formed a Territorial government, and in 1859 it was admitted : into the Union as a State. This State has been troubled greatly by Indians, and has been the scene of several wars in earlier days, notably, in 1853, on Rogue River; in 1855, when a general outbreak took place, of which the following is a brief summary : j In 1855 a war broke out between the whites , and the Indians of Washington Territory. The head and front of the outbreak on the part of the Indians was Kam-ai-a-kin. He took this stand from a fixed principle : that 1 of resisting all encroachments on the part of the whites. He had seen the fate of the I Indian race in the Willamette Valley, and OREILLEEE 394 ORGANIZATION he determined to anticipate such a result with regard to his own people, and, if possi- ble, to "prevent it. When Gov. Stevens made his arbitrary treaties with him, and left him no discretion but to sell his land; and when the miners began to traverse his country, he concluded that the hour had arrived to fight, and he called to his aid as many of the adjoining tribes as he could persuade into it. The manner in which the treaties on Puget Sound were conducted cre- ated great dissatisfaction among the Indi- ans, and they were quite ready to join Kam- ai-a-kin. The war commenced by the kill- ing of miners, who were picked off in the Yakama country as they were going to Fort Oolville, scarcely a month after the council which was held at Walla Walla. The killing of the agent Bolen set the war in a blaze. The small detachment of troops sent to chastise them was driven back. This success on the part of the Klickatats en- couraged the Sound Indians, who also took up arms, and- in the absence of troops, fell upon and killed the inhabitants of White Eiver ; but the wholesale slaughter of women and children by a party under the command of Major Lupton on October 8, 1855, drove the Indians to desperation and caused them to commence the war in earnest ; hostilities continued until the summer of 1856. Also, in later years, the Modoc war (1872), the Nez Perces (1877), and the Bannock war (1878). Oreillere (Fr.). Oreillet, ear-piece of an ancient helmet, shaped like an oyster-shell, for protecting the ear and cheek. Oreillon (Fr.). Ear of a sword, languet, or small slip of metal on the hilt, which, when the sword is sheathed, extends along the scabbard. Organization. The act of assigning and putting troops into such uniform state of discipline as may fit them to co-operate on an}"- service. Orgaiiization may be said to be begun by grouping those combatants who have the same mode of action. These groups are known as "arms of service." An arm of service may be defined to be "a union of combatants having the same mode of action. " There are four of these arms in modern ar- mies, viz. : Infantry, Cavalry, Artillery, and Engineers. These four arms form the prin- cipal part of a mobilized army, and as they or their representatives are always formed into a line of battle to resist the attack of an enemy, or to make an attack, they are gen- erally known as the "line of the army" or "troops of the line," to distinguish them from other bodies of men who form parts of an army. These arms are subdivided into fractions for the purpose of instruction and of supply. The unit for instruction and the unit for supply may be the same or difl'erent. The unit of supply, as a general rule, is con- stant, and is also usually the unit of instruc- tion in discipline. The unit of instruction in tactics will depend upon circumstances, and upon the kind of movements the com- mander desires to make. The common unit for the four arms, for supplying the men's wants and for instruction in discipline, is the "company." This unit receives, at other times, other names, depending upon circum- stances. For instance, a battery of artillery is the same as company ; the term squadron of cavalry frequently means a company, etc. A company consists of a given number of men commanded by a commissioned officer who has the rank of captain. Two, some- times three, and even more commissioned officers of a grade below that of captain are appointed to assist the captain in the dis- charge of his duties. These officers have the grade of lieutenant. Their number and the number of men forming a company are fixed by law. A certain number are selected from the men and appointed non-commissioned officers, with the rank of sergeant or of cor- poral. These non-commissioned officers are used to instruct the men in their military duties and in discipline. The whole com- pany should be divided into squads of equal numbers, and each squad placed under the charge of a non-commissioned officer, who should be held responsible for the cleanliness of the men of his squad, not only as to their persons, clothing, and arms, but as to their tents or quarters. The company, with its size based on the theory that it must not be larger than one man on foot can thoroughly command in person, is the unit of organiza- tion. Two or three or more companies form a battalioji. Four, and at the outside, five companies placed in line form, in these times, so extended a line that a single person in immediate and personal command of them will find difficulty in making himself heard and understood throughout the entire line. For this reason the battalion should not, as a rule, contain more than four companies. The battalio7i is the tactical unit, both for instruction in tactics and in the execution of its movements. The battalion is sometimes made a vinit of administration, and forms 51 complete organization under the command of a commissioned officer of the grade of major or lieutenant-colonel. The more usual rule is to increase the number of companies so as to have enough to form at least two battalions, and with these companies to form the organization known as a regiment. The regiment is always an administrative unit, and is commanded by a commissioned officer who has the grade of coloiiel. The colonel is charged with the proper adminis- tration of the supplies for the regiment, and with preserving good order and promoting discipline. He takes every opportunity to instruct both the officers and men in the principles and details of all movements that ought in any case to be made by a battaliDii. Upon the organization of a regiment, the company officers are assigned to companies, and each company is designated by a letter of the alphabet. Upon the recommendation of the captains, the colonel appoints the non- commissioned officers of the companies. He appoints an adjutant from the lieutenants of ORGANIZATION 395 ORGANIZATION the repjiment, and a non-commissioned staff from tlie enlisred men, to assist him in his duties. Ho selects from tlic lieutenants a quartermaster, whose appointment is con- firmed by the Secretary of AVar. The elements of ori^anizution for the other three arms of service are practically the same, being that of a company or similar body of men under the command of a captain, and these units grouped together into a battalion or regimental organization for administra- tive purposes. This subdivision into compa- nies and into regiments is most essential for instruction in discipline. Discipline is an indispensable condition for the existence of a good army. It imparts cohesion and thxibilifi/ to the armed mass. Without discipline an army is only an armed mob over which a commander would have no control, and upon which he could not rely in the execution of his plans. When the army is to be mobilized the regiments are brought together and organized into hrif/fides and (lirlsiuns. Two or more regiments form ft brigade ; two or more brigades form a di- vision. A general officer of the grade of brigadier-ijnirrnl is assigned to the comnumd of a brigade, and one of the grade of )najor- general to the command of a division. These divisions and brigades may be composed en- tirely of one arm, or they may be composed of troops belonging to all four of the arms. The division is the unit of organization and administration of a mobilized army, and is also the tnrtiad unit of the general in com- mand. When the army is very large, three or four divisions are joined together and form an army corps. The officer command- ing an army corps should be of a higher grade than he who commands a division. This grade in the U. S. army would be that of lieuienanf-gcneral. An army corps is most generally composed of all arms of^service, and is, to all intents and purposes, an army complete in itself. Two or more army corps or armies would be under the command of the general, or of a "general-in-chief. " There has arisen an or- ganization forming an essential part of every army, known as the general staff, and di- vided into corps and departments to which are assigned special duties. In some cases, the term "general stafl"" is limited to include only those officers who are used by the gen- eral to communicate his orders, and to inform him of the general and particular conditions of the troops; and the term "staff depart- ment" or "supply department'' is used to include those officers whose duties are con- fined to distinct branches of service having for their object the supply of troops. If the army is one of very great size, the general ordinarily attaches to his headquarters a representative of the three arms of artillery, cavalry, and engineers, giving them the po- sition of staff-officers with the mime of" chief of artillery," " chief of cavalry,' etc. They are required to keep the general informed of the state of supplies, and whatever concerns their particular arm, in a similar manner to that required by the other officers of the staff. The general also appoints from the subordi- nate officers belonging to his command a certain number of aides-de-camp. These officers are e.c officio adjutants-general, and receive orders from the general himself. They are confidential officers, who are sup- posed to be used only in delicate and difficult duties, where they may in a degree represent the general. Hence, they are intrusted to deliver verbal orders which cannot be in- trusted with propriety to enlisted men or to the ordinary means of communication. Proportion of Ai-ms of Service. — The mass of a modern army is compt>sed of infantry. The amount of cavalry will depend upon the topographical features of the country, being in some cases as much as one-fourth of the infantry, and in others as little as one- tenth. The amount of light artillery de- jH'nds upon the character of the country. There should be at least two guns to every thousand men. The quantity of heavy- artillery, or number of siege-batteries, which enter the composition of an army, will de- pend to a great extent upon the plan of campaign and the probable use for which they may be intended. The circumstances of the case in each campaign will therefore decide as to the proportion to be employed. The number of engineer troops will depend both on the nature of the country and on the probable amount of work which will be required from this class of troops. Each division should contain at least one com- pany of engineer troops. It is usual, if there be none, to detail one or more companies of infantry to act as engineer soldiers ; the\^ are designated as "picmeers."' These engineer troops, or troops acting in that capacity, marching in the advance, make the roads practicable for the command by repairing them, removing obstructions, etc. At the crossing of streams, where bridges are to be made, or where existing bridges are to bo repaired to an extent requiring more knowl- edge of bridge construction than that usually possessed by the pioneer, another detach- ment of troops belonging to the engineer arm is brought forward to do the work. These troops are known as pontoniers, and have special charge of bridge construction for the army. They may be divided into two parts : one to have charge of construc- tion of temporary bridges, esjiecially of floating and trestle bridges, and construction of ferries ; the other to have charge of re- pairs of bridges which have been broken or injured by the enemy, and where quick re- pair is of importance to an army's move- ments. These troops charged with bridge construction usually form a part of the reserve, and are only attached to a division under peculiar circumstances. There should be also in the reserve several companies of sappers and miners; their numl>er, like the heavy artillery, being dependent upon the nature of the campaign. OEGANIZE 396 OKKNEY The arimjy as a machine, is now ready to be used by the general. The next step is to keep it in a condition so thut it can be used ; in other words, io preserve the fighting con- dition of the army. The discipline and drill have been cared for, and with the organization just sketched out, the general can move the whole mass as a unit in accord- ance with his will. The army can be kept ready for use only by supplying all the ac- tual and necessary wants of the soldier, and by keeping him in comfort and good health. To do this there must be ammunition, cloth- ing, food, shelter, medicines, surgical attend- ance, hospital comforts, etc., provided for his use. Also a good system of recruiting must be adopted, by means of which the natural losses due to sickness and death may be made good. The tra7isporiation of the munitions, equip- ments, provisions, hospital supplies, tents, engineering tools, bridge equipage and boats, baggage, cooking utensils, etc., necessary' for the use of an army moving against an enemy, requires the use of large numbers of wagons and a great number of draught animals, which of course should not exceed the abso- lute necessity of the service. These accom- paniments to the army received from the Komans the name of impedimenta, for the reason that they hindered the movement of the army. These supply departments form important parts of the composition of a modern army, and the method of executing the duties assigned them constitutes an im- portant branch of the "science and art of \war." — Prof. J. B. Wheeler. Organize. To arrange or constitute in parts, each having a special function, act, office, or relation ; as, to organize an army, etc. Orgue (Fr. un orguc). A term used to express that arrangement or disposition of a certain quantity of rnusket-barrels in a row, which, by means of a priming train of gun- powder, may be subjected to one general explosion. This machine has been found extremely serviceable in the defense of a low flank, a tenaille, or to prevent an enemy from crossing the ditch of a fortified place. Orgues. Are beams of wood hanging perpendicularly over the entrance of a forti- fied town, which were formerly used as a portcullis, to be dropped in case of any emergency. They are not now used. Orient. The east or eastern part of the horizon. In surveying, io orie^it a plan sig- nifies to make its situation or bearing with respect to the four cardinal points. Oriflamme, or Auriflamme. A banner which originally belonged to the abbey of St. Denis, and was borne by the counts of Vexin, patrons of that church, but which, after the country of Vexin fell into the hands of the French crown, became the principal banner of the kingdom. It was charged with a saltire wavy or, with rays issuing from the centre crossways. In later timee the oriflamme became the insignia of the French infantry. The name seems also to have been given to other flags ; the ori- flamme borne at Agincourt was an oblong red flag split into five parts. Orihuela. A town of Spain, in Valencia, on the Segura, 31 miles southwest from Ali- cante. It was a place of some importance in the Moorish invasion, and was held in 713 successfully by Theodoric against Abd-el- Aziz after the battle of the Guadalete. It was conquered in 1205 by Don Jaime of Aragon for his father-in-law, Don Alonso, king of Castile. The city was sacked in 1520 in the civil war at that time raging, and again in the War of the Succession, 1706. It was held for some time in 1837 by the Carlist general Forcadell. Orillon. This may be described as a pro- jection at the shoulder of a bastion beyond the ordinary flank of a curved portion of rampart and parapet, the curve being con- vex to the ditch. The orillon, introduced during the 17th century, was generally used in conjunction with a retired flank, made ordinarily with a curve concave to the ditch. Both orillon and retired flank are now obsolete. Orissa. An extensive province of Hin- dostan, in the Deccan. A race of Hindoo princes governed the country till 1592, when they were conquered by the viceroy of Ak- bar. The French, who had taken possession of a part of the country long known as the Northern Circars, attempted to drive the English (who had formed commercial settle- ments on the coast) out of India. The result of the contest for supremacy in India between the French and English is well known. The Mahrattas, who had seized a portion of Orissa in 1740, were forced to surrender it to the English in 1803. The soldiers of the East India Company were marched into Orissa at the commencement of the present century, and an engagement was subsequently entered into between the Company and the native chiefs and princes, by which the former bound themselves to perform certain services for the country (as maintaining the river-banks in good repair), while the latter engaged to pay a yearly tribute. Orizaba. A town of Mexico, in the de- partment of Vera Cruz, 60 miles southwest from Vera Cruz. It was occupied by Gen. Prim, in command of the Spanish troops that formed part of the expedition sent by England, France, and Spain to Mexico in March, 1862. A conference was held here shortly after the occupation of the town be- tween the plenipotentiaries of the three powers, when the English and Spanish com- missioners determined to withdraw their con- tingents from Mexico, in accordance with the terms of the treaty of Soledad, while the French on the other hand resolved to push on to the capital, to establish a settled government in the country in lieu of that of Juarez. Orkney Islands (anc. Orcades). A clus- ORLE 397 OSNABRUCK ter of islands in the North Soa, separated from the north coast of Scotland by the Pentland Firth. From an early period the Norsemen resorted to these islands as a con- venient spot from which to make a descent on the Scotch and Knijlish coasts. In 87»; Ilarald Ilaarfatjcr conquered both them and the Hebrides; they were conquered by Mag- nus III. of Norway in 1499, and were ceded to James III. in 14()9. Orle. In heraldry, one of the charges known under the charge of sub-ordinaries, m\d to be the diminutive of a bordure, but difiering from it in being detached from the sides of the shield. Or an orle gules was the coat borne by John Baliol. An orle of heraldic charges of any kind denotes a cer- tain number (generally eight) of these charges placed in orle, as in the coat of the old Scottish family of Gladstancs of that Ilk ; argent, a savage's head couped, distill- ing drops of blood proper, thereon a bonnet composed of bay and holly leave5 all proper, within an orle of eight martlets sable. Orleans. An important town of France, capital of the department of Loiret, 75 miles south-south west from Paris by railway. Or- leans, originally called Genabum, afterwards Aureliaui (probably from the emperor Au- relian), was besieged by Attila in 451, but relieved by the Romans, who here defeated Attila. It afterwards passed into the hands of the Franks, was taken by the Northmen in 855, and again in 865. In 1428 it was be- sieged by the English under the Duke of Bedford," but was delivered from the be- siegers by the inspiriting exertions of Joan of Arc, who on this account is also named the Maid of Orleans. In the civil wars of the ir.th century it was besieged in 15G3 by the Duke of Guise, who was assassinated be- fore the walls. During the Franco-Prus- sian war, 1870-71, Orleans was occupied by the Germans, September 27, and evacu- ated November 10, 1870. Ormskirk. A town of England, county of Lancaster, 12 miles north by east from Liverpool. Near this place, in 1044, the royalists were defeated by the Parliamentary troops with great slaughter. Ormus, or Ormuz. A small island in the strait of the same name, at the entrance of the Persian Gulf, and within 10 miles of the Persian coast. It is about 12 miles in cir- cumference, and belongs to the sultan of Muscat. It was occupied by the Portuguese in the Ifith century. The town was demol- ished in lt;22 by Shah Abbas, assisted by the English, and its trade was removed to Gom- broon. Ornamental Fireworks. See Ptro- TECHNY. Ornaments, Military. Are those parts of the dress of a soldier which are more for ap- pearance or distinction than for absolute use, as plates for belts, trimmings, etc. Omeae. An ancient town in Argolis, near the frontiers of the territory of- Phi- lius, and 120 stadia from Argus. It was originally independent of Argos, but was subdued by the Argives in the Peloponne- sian war, 415 U.c. Orteil. See Bkk.mk. Ortelsburg. A town of East Prussia, in the government of Konigsberg, 80 miles southeast of Konigsberg. Several engage- ments took place here between the French and Russians in 1807. Orthez, or Orthes. A town of France, in the department of the Lower Pyrenees, situated on the Gave de Pau, 25 miles north- west from Pau. It suft'ered much during the civil wars in France after the PkCvolu- tion. Near this town the British and Span- ish armies commanded by Wellington de- feated the French under Soult, February 27, 1814. Ortona. An ancient city of Latium, sit- uated on the confines of the ^quian terri- tory. It is twice mentioned during the wars of the Romans with the latter people: first in 481 iJ.f'., when it was besieged and taken by the yEquians; and again in 457 B.C., when the J*]quians by a sudden attack took Corbio, and after putting to the sword the Roman garrison there, made themselves i masters of Ortona also ; but the consul j Horatius engaged and defeated them at i Mount Algidus, and after driving them I from that position, recovered possession both of Corbio and Ortona. No mention of it is found in later times, and it probably ceased to e.\ist. Orvieto. Called in the time of the Longo- bards Vrbs Veins, of which its present name is a corruption, a city of Italy, province of Perugia; is of Etruscan origin, but of its early history nothing is known. It has been a place of residence and retreat in turbulent times of upwards of thirty jiopes. Osage Indians. A tribe of aborigines of Dakota stock who are located, to the num- ber of about 2500, on a reservati\vn ]:ini,'iiage I'skns. Osnabruck, or Osnaburg. A town in Hanover, 71 mile.s Iruni Hanover. Here was concluded the peace of Westphalia in 1648. OSSUN 398 OTTERBURN Ossun. A town of France, in the de- partment of the Upper Pyrenees, 7 miles southwest from Tarbes. A trreat buttle was fought with the Saracens, in the 8th century, in its neighborhood. Ostend. A fortified seaport town of Bel- gium, province of West Flanders, situated on the coast of the North Sea, 67 miles northwest from Brussels. During the war of the Dutch against Spain, Ostend sustained a memorable siege for more than three years (1601-4). So tremendous was the bom- bardment that the noise of the Spanish ar- tillery is said to have been occasionally heard at London. At last, after a loss of 50,000 men on the part of the garrison, and 80,000 on that of the Spaniards, the town surren- dered on honorable terms, and the Spanish general Spinola was put in possession of Ostend, now reduced to heaps of ruin. On the death of Charles II. of Spain, the French seized Ostend; but in 1706, after the battle of Ramilies, it was retaken by tlie allies. It was again taken by the French in 1745, but restored in 1748. In 1756 the Fnench garri- soned this town for the empress queen Maria Theresa. In 1792 the French once more took Ostend, which they evacuated in 1793, but regained in 1794. The English de- stroyed the works of the Bruges Canal ; but the wind shifting before they could re-em- bark, they surrendered to the French, May 19, 1798. Ostrolenka. A town of Poland, on the Narew. Near here the French repulsed the Russians under Essen, February 16, 1807, and an indecisive and bloody engagement took place between the Poles vinder Skrzy- necki and the Russians under Diebitsch, May 26, 1831. bstrovno. A village of Ru.ssia, in the government of Mohilev, 90 miles northwest from Mohilev. The Russians were defeated here in 1812 by the French. Oswego, Fort. See Fort Ontario. Oswestry. A town of England, in Shrop- shire, 15 miles northwest from Shrewsbury. Oswestry is said to derive its name (origi- nally Oswaldstree) from Oswald, the king of Northumbria, who was slain here in the early part of the 7th century, in a battle fought with the ferocious Penda, king of Mercia. Otaheite, or Tahiti. The largest of a cluster of islands in the South Pacific Ocean, that were frequently visited by Capt. Cook, and named by him the Society Islands. In 1799, King Pomare ceded the district of Ma- tavai to some English missionaries. Queen Pomare was compelled to put herself under the protection of France, September 7, 1843. She retracted, and Otaheite and the neigh- boring islands were taken possession of by Admiral Dupetit-Thuars in the name of the French king, November, 1843. The French imprisoned Mr. Prichard, the English con- sul, March 5, 1844, but the act was censured in France. Otchakow. A small town and seaport of South Russia, in the government of Kher- son, 40 miles east-northeast from (Odessa. During the Russian wars with Turkey in the 18th century, Otchakow was alternately the property of each, until it was taken by Potemkin in 1788, and definitively annexed to the Russian dominions. Otoes. A tribe of Indians of Dakota stock who reside with the Missourias on a reservation in Nebraska. They are generally peaceful and industrious, and number with their kindred tribe about 450. Otomis, or Othomis. An ancient tribe of Indians who are said to have inhabited the Valley of Mexico before the Aztecs. They are now scattered through different parts of the country, and having lost all tribal distinctions are become amalgamated with other Mexican races. Otricoli. A town of Italy, 37 miles north of Rome. The Neapolitans were defeated by the French in its neighborhood in 1798. Ottawas. A tribe of Algonkin Indians, who formerly resided on the shores of Lake Erie. They subsequently moved to Kansas, and in 1870 settled in Indian Territory, where they now prosper. They are well ad- vanced in civilization. A number of this tribe settled in Canada, where their descend- ants may yet be found ; some are also settled on Lake Michigan with the Chippewas. Otterburn (or Chevy Chase), Battle of. Was fought in August, 1388; a fight which Froissart declares to have been the bravest and most chivalrous which was fought in his day. According to the ballad (named Chevy Chase) Percy vowed that he would enter Scotland and take his pleasure for three days in the woods of his rival, and slay the deer therein at will. Douglas, when he heard the vaunt, exclaimed, " Tell him he will find one day more than enough." Accordingly, at the time of the hay harvest, Percy, with stag-hounds and archers, passed into the domains of his foe, and slew a " hun- dred fallow deer and harts of grice." When the English had hastily cooked their game and were about to retire. Earl Douglas, clad in armor and heading his Scottish spears, came on the scene. Haughty challenge and defiance passed between the potentates, and the battle joined. In the centre of the fray the two leaders met. " Yield thee, Percy !" cried Douglas. "I will yield to no Scot that was ever born of a woman!" cried Percy. During this colloquy, an English arrow struck Douglas to the heart. " Fight on, my merry men!" cried he, as he died. Percy, with all the chivalrous feeling of his race, took the dead man by the hand, and vowed that he would have given all his lands to save him, for a braver knight never fell by such a chance. Sir Hugh Montgom- ery having seen the fall of Douglas, clapped spurs to his horse, dashed on Percy, and struck his spear through his body, a long cloth-yard and more. Although the leaders on both sides had fallen, the battle, which had begun at break of day, continued till OUDE 399 OUTWARD the ringing of the curfew-bell. Scotsmen and Englishmen claim the victory. When the battle ended, representatives of every noble fiiinily on either side of the border lay on the blodily greensward. Oude, or Oudh. A province of British India, separated on the north from Nepaiil by the lower ranges of the Himalaya, whenee it gradually slopes to the Ganges, which forms its boundary on the south and south- west. The people of this i>rovince are of a decidedly warlike disposition ; they mainly supply the famous (or infamous) Sepoys of the Bengal army. Oude is believed by San- scrit scholars to be the ancient Kosala, the oldest seat of civilization in India. The country was conquered by a Mohammedan army in ll'.lo, and made a province of the Mogul empire. In 1753 the vi/.icr of Oudo, Sull'dur Jung, rebelled against his imperial master, Ahmed Shah, and forced the latter to make the governorship hereditary in his family. When the mutiny of 1857 broke out, Oude became one of the great centres of rebellion. The country was subdued by the British. Oudenarde (Fr. Audenarde). A town of Belgium, in East Flanders, 14 miles .south- west from Ghent. The town was taken by the Frcncii, aided by an English force, in 1C58; it was atrain besieged in l(j74 by the stadtliolder William (HI. of England) of Orange; and in 170G it was taken by Marl- borough. An attempt made by the French to retake it brought on the famous battle of Oudenarde, one of Marlborough's most c(de- brated victories, which was gained on July 11, 1708, with the aid of Prince Eugene, over a French army under the Duke of Bur- gundy and Marshal Villars. After this battle the French king made offers of peace, which were not accepted. Oulart (Southeast Ireland). Hero 5000 Irish insurgents attacked the king's troops in snnill number. May 27, 1798. The North Cork militia, after great feats of bravery, were cut to pieces, 5 men only escaping. Ourique. A town of Portugal, province of Alcmtijo, 30 miles southwest of 33eja. Hero Alfonso, count or duke of Portugal, is said to have encountered and signally de- feated five Saracen kings and a prodigious army of Moors, July 25, 1139, and to have been hailed king on the spot. Lisbon, the capital, was taken, and he soon after was here crowned as the first king, the Moorish dominion being overthrown. Outbar. To shut out by fortification. Outbrave. To excel in bravery or bold- ness ; to defy. Outfit. In the British service, is the ne- cessaries, uniform, etc., whicli an officer pro- vides when he is gazetted to a regiment, or M proceeding to India. No allowance is made for an outfit, excepting in case of offi- cers first promoted from the ranks, when XlOO is granted to infantry and £150 to cav- tlry officers. Outflank. To go beyond on the flank or side; to get the better of, as by extending one's lines beyond or around that of ones enemy. Outgeneral. To exceed in generalship; to gain advantage over by superior military skill. Outguard. A guard at a distance from the main body of an army; or a guard at the farthest distance; hence, anything for defense j)laced at a distance from the thing to be defended. Outline, or Tracing. Is the succession of lines that siiow the figure of the works, and indicate the direction in which the defensive masses are laid out, in order to obtain a proper defense. Outlyers. In the British service, for- merly this term applied to men who were permitted to work, on condition that the whole of their pay was left in the hands of their captain for the time they were so em- ployed. This sum the officer appropriated to his own use, to enable him to increase his pay and to keep a handsome table when he mounted guard. It was also a common practice to place on the muster-rolls the names of officers' children, and instances have occurred of girls receiving men's pay as outlyers. Outlying. Lying or being at a distance from the main body; as, outlying pickets. Also, being on the exterior or frontier. OutmancEuvre. To surpass in mancsuv- ring. Outmarch. To march faster than ; to march so as to leave behind ; as, the horse outmarched the foot. Outnumber. To exceed in number; as, the French were outnumbered. Outpart. At a distance from the main body. Out-pensioner. A pensioner attached to a hospital, as Greenwich or Chelsea, England, who has liberty to live where he pleases. Outpost. A post or station without the limits of a camp, or at a distance from the main body of an army. The troops placed at such a station. Outposts. The term, outposts, is used at the present time to designate the particular detachments of troops and the method of arranging them, by means of which an army when in bivouac, in camp, or in cantonment, is protected /V«»i surprise hy an enemy. Outrank. To take the precedence of, or be sujterior to, in rank ; to rank. Out-sentry. A sentry who guards the entrance or approach to a i)lace ; an out- guard. Outside. In fencing, that part which is to the right of the line of defense. Outside Guard. A guard used with the broadsword and sabre, to defend the outside of the position. Outwall. The exterior wall of a building or fortress. Outward Face. A word of command for troops to face to the right and left from their centre. OUTWING 400 OXFORD Outwing, To. To extend the flanks of an army or line in action, so as to gain an ad- vantageous position against the right or left wing of an enemy. Outworks. In fortification, are minor defenses constructed beyond the main body of a work, for the purpose of keeping the enemy at a distance, or commanding certain salient points which it is undesirable that he should occupy. Such works are ravelins, lunettes, horn works, crown-works, demi- lunes, tenailles, etc. They occur in certain necessary order, as a ravelin before the curtain and tenaille, a hornwork before a ravelin, and so on. Ovation. See Triumph. Ovens. Are always provided in garri- sons, so that the troops may bake their own bread. A large saving of flour is thus made, which is the most considerable ele- ment of the post fund. A brick oven large enough to bake 500 rations can be con- structed in less than twenty-four hours. The cylindrical form is greatly to be pre- ferred, as it is more easily made and requires less material than the ordinary' forms. The want of brick for the arch and fireplace of ovens may be supplied in the field by two gabions of semicircular or semi-elliptical form. They are placed one above the other on the flat side, and form a cradle. The interior and exterior is plastered with clay, which must penetrate the interstices of the basket-work. The front and back parts are shut in the same manner, or with sods. The cradle is then covered with earth to retain the heat; and in order that the superincumbent weight may not cause it to give way, withes are attached to the top of the basket-work, passed vertically through the embankment, and then fastened to the longitudinal beam of a wooden horse strad- dled against the exterior curve. Ovens may also be made of wood or earth. To con- struct rapidly an earthen oven, dig a slope with a step, and on its prolongation dig the length of the oven in a trench separated from the step by a mass of earth, to be pierced later as the mouth of the oven. Then dig laterally portions of an elliptical arch so as to make the arch a given breadth. This work finished, pierce the mouth, and cover the trench with from three to five sods as arch stones, leaving a chimnev-place at the bottom. Ovens for from 100 to 250 rations may be thus made. In some Euro- pean armies they have very convenient portable ovens. Over. Above in place, position, or au- thority ; as, he was placed in command over Lord Monkton. Overcharge. An excessive charge, as of a gun. Overcharge. To fill with too much pow- der and ball, as a gun. Overcharged Mine. A mine whose crater is wider at top than it is deep. Overlap. Is to overspread any preceding object. In marching by echelon for the purpose of forming upon any given point, but particularly in wheeling from column into line, troops may lose their relative dis- tances by not taking ground enough ; when this occurs, the rear division, company, or section, unavoidably crowds upon its pre- ceding o'he, and is then said to overlap. Overmarch. To fatigue or wear out by too much marching. Overmatch. To be too powerful for ; to conquer ; to subdue ; to suppress by superior force. Also, one superior in power ; one able to overcome. Overpower, To vanquish by force ; to subdue ; to defeat. Overrun. In a military sense, to ravage, to lay waste. A country which is harassed by incursions is said to be overrun. Overseer. An officer in the ordnance de- partment, who superintends the artificers in the construction of works, etc. He is also called a superintendent. Overshoot. To shoot beyond the mark. Overslaugh. To hinder or stop ; as, by an overslaugh or unexpected impediment; as, to overslaugh a military officer, that is, to hinder or stop his promotion or employment by the appointment of another to his rank or duties. Overthrow. Total defeat ; discomfiture ; rout. Overturn. To overthrow ; to conquer. Oviedo. A town of Spain, capital of the province of the same name, 55 miles north- northwest of Leon. This city was twice plundered of its ecclesiastical and other treasures during the war of independence, first by Soult, and subsequently by Bonnet. Own, King's or Queen's. A term which has been attached to some British regiments since the revolution in 1688. Thus the 4th Foot, which landed with William III., was called the 4th King's Own. Owyhee, or Hawaii. An island in the North Pacific Ocean, the most eastern, and by far the largest of the Sandwich Islands. It was on this island that the celebrated Capt. Cook fell a sacrifice to a misunder- standing, or sudden impulse of revenge on the part of the natives, on Sunday, Febru- ary 14, 1779. Ox. See Bullock. Oxford. An ancient and famous city in England, the chief town of the county of Oxford, 55 miles west-northwest from Lon- don. The townsmen closed their gates against William the Conqueror, who stormed the town in 1067, and gave it to one of his followers, Robert d'Oyley, who built a castle here to overawe the disaffected Saxons. The paction that terminated the strife between Stephen and Henry II. was drawn up at Oxford. During the great civil war of the 17th century, it was for a while the headquarters of the royalist forces, and was conspicuous for its adherence to the cause of Charles I. Oxford Blues. See Hor.se Guards, Royal. 1 PACE 401 PACK P. Pace (Lat. passn/t). In its modern ac- ceptation, is the distance, when the legs are extended in walking, between the heel of one foot and that of the other. Among dis- ciplined men the pace becomes one of con- stant length, and as such is of the utmost value in determining military' movements, the relative distances of corps and men being lixed by the number of paces marched, and so on. The pace varies in ditferent coun- tries; in the United States it is 28 inches direct step, and 33 double step; in Great Britain 30 inches direct step, and 33 dou])le step. "With the Romans the pace had a dif- ferent signification ; the single extension of the legs was not with them a pace (passiis), but a step {gradus) ; their pace being the interval between the mark of a heel and the next mark of the same heel, or a double step. This 1 acwas equivalent to 4.84 English feet. Pack and Draught Animals. All ani- mals which arc used as beasts of burden and of draught, and all artillery horses are con- sidered under this head. Taking the usual cfl'ect of a man's daily labor as unity, a horse can carry a load on a horizontal plane 4.8 to i). 1 times, and a mule, 7.6 times greater than a man. Taking a man with a wheel- barrow as unity, a horse in a four-wheel wagon can draw 17.5, and in a cart, 24.3, and a mule in a cart, 23.3 times greater bur- den. On account of the peculiar build of a mule he is a superior pack-animal to the horse. There arc from 91 to 130 draught horses required for a field-battery ; for siege- train about 1900 (see Siege-train) ; and 8 for a siege-gun. The load alK)tted to a light artillery horse is 700 pounds ; to a heavy field artillery horse, 800 pounds; and to a siege artillery horse, 1000 pounds, including weight of carriages. It is less than that drawn by a horse of commerce, in conse- quence of bad roads, bad forage, rapid move- ments, and forced marches. A team of four horses can draw, with useful effect, includ- ing the weight of carriage, 2400 pounds ; six horses, 3000 pounds ; eight horses, 3000 founds; and twelve horses, 4800 pounds, t is usual to estimate the weight of a car- riage exceeding 1200 pounds as part of the load. A pack-horse can carry 250 to 300 pounds 20 miles a day; and a draught horse, 1600 pounds 23 miles a day, weight of car- riage included. Usually a horse can draw seven times as much as ho ran carry. An ordinary march is about 15 miles at 2Jj mile.s per hour for six hours; this must depend upon the condition of the horses, state of the roads, and various other circumstances. Horses starting fresh, and resting after their work, may, on tolerable roads, perform 2 i miles in half an hour; 4 miles in one and ! a half hours ; 8 in four, and 16 in ten hours. j The daily allowance of water fur a horse is j four gallons. For the daily ration of forage ', supplied to animals in the U. S. service, see i Forage. An army requires to be accom- i panied by several thousand pack-animals, ; .sometimes horses, but preferably mules; and ! in Asia, commonly camels, or even ele- I phants. In battle, the immediate reserves of small-arm ammunition are borne in the rear of divisions by pack-animals ; the heavy reserves being in wagons between the army I and its base of operations. j Bnffalo. — An animal of the ox tribe, very important and useful to man. It is a native of the East Indies, where it has long been domesticated, and from which it was carried to Egypt and the south of Europe. It was introduced into Italy about the close of the 6th century .\.d., is now very generally used as a beast of draught and of burden in that country, as it is al.rmv in- dependence, Padua in 1337 fell iinder the sway of tlie house of Carrara, who lield it till the year 1405, when it was taken by the republic of Venice, with which, in 17".)7, it passed into the hands of Austria, by tho treaty of Campo Formic. In 1866 it was ceded to Napoleon III., and by hira trans- ferred to the kingdom of Italy. Pseones. A powerful Thracian people, who in early times were spread over a great part of Macedonia and Thrace. Their coun- try was called Paonia. The Pa-onian tribes on the lower course of the Strymon were subdued by the Persians, -313 \i.v. ; but the tribes in the north of the country maintained their independence. They frequently in- vaded and plundered the territories of the ilacedonian monanhs ; but they were event- ually subdued by Philip, the father of Alex- ander the Great. After the conquest of Macedonia by the Eomans, 168, the jiart of Pa?onia east of the Axius formed the second, and the part of Pa-onia we.-t of the Axius formed the third of the four districts into which Macedonia was divided by tho Komans. Paestum (anc. Posidonia, It. Pesto). An- ciently a Greek city of Lucania, in the pres- ent Neapolitan province of Principato Cite- riore, on the Sinus Ptcstanns, now the Gulf of Salerno. It was founded by the Trceze- nians and the Sybarites some time between 650 and 610 u.c. It was subdued by tho Samnites of Lucania, who named it Piestum, and slowly declined in prosperity after it fell into the hands of the Romans, who estab- lished a colony here about 273 n.c. In 210 li.c. it furnished ships to the squadron with which D. Quintus repaired to the siege of Tarentum ; and in the following year it was among the eighteen colonies which still pro- fessed readiness to furnish supplies to tho Roman armies. In the 10th century it was burnt by the Saracens, and the site is now occupied by the modern village of Pesto. Pageant. In ancient military history, a triumphal car, chariot, or arch, variously adorned with colors, flags, etc., carried about in public shows, processions, etc. Also gor- geous show or spectacle. Pagrse (now Pa0 the inhabitants Hocked to the stand- ard of Garibaldi, and in the same year the city was annexed to the new kingdom of Italy. Palestine, or Holy Land. A country of Asia, lying along the east coast of the Medi- terranean Sea, and occupying the southwest- ern part of Syria, which is included within the limits of the Turkish empire. It now forms the modern pashalic of Beirut or Bey- rout, and part of the pashalic of Damascus, This is the country in which the ])rincii)al events recorded in Scripture took place. When it was conquered by the Israelites, Joshua divided this and a f>ortion <»f the country to the east of the Jordan among the twelve tribes. It was conquered, however, by the kings of Assyria, who carried cai>tive, first Israel and then Judah, into the eastern provinces of their empire. After the con- quest of Babylon by Cyrus, the Jews were allowed to return to their country, to rebuild their temple, and re-establish their ecclesias- tical constitution. Juda;a thus continued a province of Persia until Asia was invaded by Alexander the Great, to whom it sub- mitted without resistance. The Jews were again exposed to oppression from some of the Ptolemies, who attempted to enforce the adoption of the idolatrous worship of the Greeks on the Jewish people. The Jews, however, under the guidance of the Macca- bees, oflered a most determined resistance to the Egyptian monarch who sought to deprive them of the exercise of their own religion, and Judaja once more became an independent country. It subsequently fell under the do- minion of Home, which established the Iler- ods as tributary kings. It was at this crisis that Judaea became the theatre of those great events which form the foundation of the Christian faith. The Jews, however, hav- ing repeatedly rebelled against the authority of" the Romans, Titus entered Judica with a large force in 70, and after a long siege, during which the Jews endured terrible hardships and privations, he took Jerusalem, and razed it to the ground. The temple which had been twice rebuilt, after having been burnt by Nebuchadnezzar and plun- dered bv Antiochus, was again destroyed. More than 1,100,000 Jews peri.shed in" the siege and destruction of the city, and about sixty-five years after the Jewish people were banished from Juda-a by a decree of the em- peror Hadrian. The country continued to form a part of the Roman empire until it was divided into the Eastern and "Western empires, when Palestine became a province of the former. Although it was frequently invaded by the Partlnans, Persians, and Saracens, "it was held by the emperors of Constantinople until it was wrested from them by the last-named people in 638. It then fell under the sway of the Mohammed- ans, in whose power the land remained until 1099, when the Holy Land was recovered by the Crusaders, and erected into a Latin kincdom under Godfrey de Bouillon. Tiiis kingdom lasted till 1187, when it was con- quered by Saladin, on the decline of whose kingdom' it passed through various hands, till,"'in 1517, it was finally swallowed up in the Turkish empire. PALESTEINA 406 PAMPHYLIA Palestrina (anc. Prceneste). An episcopal city of the present kingdom of Italy, built upon the site of one of the most ancient as well as powerful cities of Latium. We first hear of Prteneste as member of the Latin League ; but in 499 B.C. it quitted the con- federacy and joined the cause of the Romans. In 380 B.C. the Prsenestines, having rejoined their ancient allies, waged war against Rome ; but were completely routed on tlie Allia by T. Quintus Cincinnatus, and beaten back to their own gates. They took a promi- nent part in the famous Latin war, 340 B.C. Having given shelter to the younger Marius in the year 82 B.C., this city was besieged by the forces of Sulla, and on its being taken, all the inhabitants were put to the sword A military colony was then established in their place, and soon the city began to flourish anew. The town became the strong- hold of the family of Colonna in the Middle Ages ; but was given to the Barberini family by Urban VIII. Palestro. A village of Piedmont, 12 miles southwest from Novara. It is famous as the scene of a battle between the Sardini- ans and Austrians in May, 18-59. On May 30 the Piedmontese drove the Austrians from this village, and on May 31 defended it with great bravery against an Austrian attack. The Piedmontese in the battle of May 31 were assisted hy 3000 French Zouaves, and on that occasion the Austrians lost 2100 men killed and wounded, 950 prisoners, and 6 pieces of cannon. On July 1 the allies en- tered Novara. Palgaut. A city of India, in the south of Hindostan, captured by the British in 1790. Palisade. To surround, inclose, or fortifj with stakes or posts. Palisades. Are strong palings 6 or 7 inches broad on each side, having about one foot of their summits sharpened in a pj'ra- midal form. They are frequently placed at the foot of slopes as an obstacle tothe enemy. A large beam or lintel, sunk about 2 or 3 feet, is often used to unite them more firmly. Their tops should be a foot above the crest of the parapet behind which thej^ stand, and in field fortifications the}^ form a very good obstruction, if protected from artillery. An expeditious mode of planting them is to sink a small ditch, about 2 feet 6 inches deep and the same breadth, and to nail the ends of the palisades to a piece of timber, or the trunk of a tree laid on the bottom of it, and then fill in the earth, and ram it well. The palisades should be 9 or 10 feet long, so that when finished, the ends shall be at least 7 feet above the ground. They may be made out of the stems of young trees of 6 or 8 inches diameter; but stout rails, gates with the ends knocked oft", planks split in half, cart-shafts, ladders, and a variety of such things will come into play, where more regular palisades are not to be had. If the materials are weak, a cross-piece must be nailed to them near the top, to prevent their being broken down, and they must not be placed so close together as to cover an enemy. Palliser Gun. See Ordnance, Con- struction OF. Palmyra. The name given by the Greeks to an ancient city of Upper Syria. It occu- pied a fertile oasis, 140 miles east-northeast from Damascus. Palmyra was, in the time of Solomon, a bulwark of the Hebrew king- dom against the wandering hordes of Bed- ouins. After the fall of Seleucia, it became a great commercial centre, and greatly in- creased both in wealth and magnificence after the time of Trajan, who subjected the whole country to the Roman empire. In the 3d century, Odonathus, a Syrian, founded here an empire, which, after his murder, rose to great prosperity under his wife, Zenobia, and included both Syria and Meso- potamia ; but this was not of" long duration, for the Roman emperor Aurelian conquered it in the year 275, and the city was soon after almost entirely destroyed in revenge for the slaughter of a Roman garrison. It never recovered from this blow, although Justinian fortified it anew. The Saracens destroyed it in 774, and in 1400 it was plun- dered by Tamerlane. A village called Ted- mor, inhabited by a few Arab families, now occupies its site. Palo Alto. A noted battle-field, situ- ated near the southern extremity of Texas, between Point Isabel and Matamoras, about 9 miles northeast of the latter. Here, on May 8, 1846, the Americans, numbering 2111, under Gen. Taylor, defeated 6000 Mexicans, commanded by Gen. Arista. The loss of the former was 32 killed (among whom was the brave Maj. Ringgold), and 47 wounded ; that of the latter, 252 killed. Paludamentum. Was a garment worn by the Romans, and ditfering little, if at all, from the chlamys. It was worn by the ofli- cers and principal men in time of war, who were therefore called paludati, and this distinguished them from the common sol- diers, who, because they wore the saffum, were called the sagati. The jmludamentum, which was generally white or red, came down to the knees, or lower, was open in front, hung loosely over the shoulders, and was fastened across the chest by a clasp. Paly, In heraldry, divided into four or more equal parts by perpendicular lines, and of two different tinctures disposed alter- nately. Pamphylia. An ancient district on the south coast of Asia Minor, with Cilicia on the east and Lycia on the west. It was originally bounded on the inland or north- ern side by Mount Taurus, but was after- wards enlarged, so as to reach the confines of Phrygia. The inhabitants — a mixed race of aborigines, Cilicians and Greek col- onists — spoke a language the basis of which was probably Greek, but which was disfig- ured and corrupted by the infusion of bar- baric elements. Along with Phrygia and Lvcia, it fell to the share of Antigonus on / PAMPLO^'A 407 PANIPUT the partition of the Mncedoniiin empire. It afterwards passed successively into the hands of the Gra'co-Syrian princes, the kings of Perj^anuis, and the Kcunans. Pamplona, or Pampeluna. A fortified town of I?pain, the capital of the province of Navarre, on the Arga, 39 miles southeast from ISt. Sebastian. Paniplona was called by the ancients Pumpeiopoils, from the cir- cumstance of its having been rebuilt by the sons of Pompey in *i8 u.c. It was taken by Euric the Goth in 4(5(3, by the Franks under Childebert in 542, and again under Charle- magne in 778, who dismantled it. It was subsecpiently for a time in possession of the Moors, who corrupted the name Pompei- opolis into Bambilonah, whence the modern Pamplona. In the 11 th century the three districts of the town were separately forti- fied. The continual intestine contests of these three fortresses caused Carlos III., in the beginning of the 15th century, to de- stroy the interior walls and strengthen the common bulwarks ; he also erected a cita- del, in the defense of which, against Andre de Foix, in 1521, St. Ignacio was wounded. It was taken by a stratagem by the French under D'Armagnac, and remained in their pi>wer until recaptured after a blockade by AVellintrton in 1813. In the civil war that followed Ihe death of Ferdinand VII., Pam- ]ilona was the strong place of the liberals. The citadel was sei/.ed and held for a short time by UDonnell in September, 1841. Pan. That part of the lock of a musket, pistol, etc., which holds the priming powder, the necessity of which is superseded by the use of percussion-caps. Pan. The distance which is comprised between tl)e angle of the epaul and the flanked angle in a fortification. Pan. A name well known among the shepherds of antiquity, and frequently used by modern writers in their rural fictions. In military history it signifies a man who was lieutenant-general to Bacchus and his Indian expedition. He is recorded to have been the first autlior of a general shout, which the Grecians practiced in the begin- ning of their onsets in battle. Pan Coupe. The short length of parapet by wliicii the salient angle of a work is sometimes cut otf. Panache (Fr.). A plume worn upon the crest of an ancient helmet; military plume or feather. Pancarte (F?-.). An ancient exercise or tournament, which was performed in the Konuui amphitheatre, when strong athletic men were opposed to all sorts of enraged animals. Pandoor. See Panpoi-r. Pandosia (now Canfel Franco). A town in Hruttium ^whioh see) near the frontiers of Lucania. Laninus, the Roman consul, was defeated at Pandosia by Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, 280 n.c. Pandour (from Pandiir, a mountainous district of Hungary). The name has been applied to that portion of the light-armed infantrj- in the Austrian service which is raised in the Slavonian districts on the Turkish frontier. The Pandours originally fought under the orders of their own proper chief, who was called Hariin-Basha, and rendered essential service to the Austrians during the Spanish War of Succession, and afterwards in the Seven Years' War. They originally fought after the fashion of the "free lances," and were a terror to tho enemy, whom they annoyed incessantly. Their appearance was exceedingly pictur- esque, being somewhat oriental in character, and their arms consisted of a musket, pistol, a Hungarian sabre, and two Turkish pon- iards. Their habits of brigandage and cruelty rendered them, however, as much a terror to the people they defended as to the enemy. Since 1750 they have been grad- ually put under a stricter discipline, and arc now incorporated with the Austrian frontier regiments. Panic. A sudden fright ; especially, a sudden fright without real cause, or terror inspired by a trifling cause, or misapprehen- sion of danger; as, the troops were seized with a panic ; they fled in a panic. These terrors are attributed to Pan, as some say, because when Osiris was bound by Typho, Pan and the satyrs appearing, cast him into a fright ; or because he frightened all the giants that waged war against Jupiter; or, as others say, that when Pan was Bacchuss lieutenant-general in his Indian expedition, being encomjiassed in a valley by an army of enemies far superior to them in number, he advised the god to order his men to give a general shout, which so surprised the enemy that they immediately fled from their camp. And hence it came to pass that all sudden fears impressed upon men's spirits without any just reason were, by the Greeks and Komans, called panic terrors. Panic-stricken. Struck with a panic or I sudden fear ; as, the troops were panic- I stricken. Paniput, or Paneeput. A town of Brit- I ish India, cajiital of a district of the same I name in the territorial division of Delhi, 1 Northwest Provinces, 78 miles north of j Delhi, and 9f)5 miles northwest of Calcutta. I The neighborhood of Panij)ut, lying in the j great military highway between Eastern India and Afghanistan, has been at various times the field of great battles. The first 1 great battle of Paniput was fought in 152(3, I and gained by Mirza Baber, the ex-ruler of Ferghana, at' the head of 12,0(X) Mongols, over Ibrahim, the emperor of Delhi, wliose I unwarlike array numbered KKtARtO men, with 1000 elephants. This victory seated Baber on the throne of Ilindostan as the first of the " Great Mogul" dynasty. The second great battle was fought in 155<3 by tho Mongols under Akbar, grandson of Baber, and third of the Alogul emperors, against Uemu, an Indian prince, who had usurped the throne of Delhi. Uemu's army was de- PANNELS 408 PAPAL feated with great slaughter, and himself slain. The third battle was fought on Jan- uary 14, 1761, between Ahmed Abdalli, ruler of Afghanistan, and the till then in- vineible Mahrattas. The Jats, who had been forced to join the Mahrattas, deserted to the Afghans at a time when victory seemed to be declaring for the former ; and this act of treachery, together with the loss of their leaders, threw the Mahrattas into confusion, and in spite of their most resolute valor they suffered a total defeat. They left 50,000 slain on the field of battle, in- cluding all their leaders except Holkar, and 30,000 men were killed in the pursuit, which was continued for four days. It was at Kur- iiaul, a town a little to the north of Paniput, that Nadir Shah of Persia, in 1739, won the celebrated battle over the Mogul emperor, which placed Northwestern India at his feet. Pannels. Are the carriages upon which mortars and their beds are conveyed upon a march. Pannier. A shield of basket-work for- merly used by archers, who set them up in their front. Also a basket, usually slung in pairs over the back of a beast of burden to carry a load. The term is also applied to leather bags to be used in the same way, and especially to cases for carrying medicines. Pannonia. A province of the ancient Koman empire, bounded on the north and east by the Danube, on the west by the mountains of Noricum, and on the south reaching a little way across the Save; and thus including part of modern Hungary, Slavonia, parts of Bosnia, of Croatia, and of Carniola, Stj'ria, and Lower Austria. The Pannonians (Pannonii) were a brave, warlike people. They maintained their in- dependence of Kome till Augustus, after his conquest of the Illyrians (35 B.C.), turned his arms against them ; they were shortly afterwards subdued by his general Vibius. In 7, the Pannonians joined the Dalmatians and the other lllyrian tribes in their revolt from Rome, and were with difficulty con- quered by Tiberius, after a desperate strug- gle, which lasted three years (7-9). The dangerous mutiny (14) of the Roman troops which were garrisoned in Pannonia was with difficulty quelled by Drusus. Fifteen legions had to be assembled against the Pan- nonians, who mustered 200,000 warriors. Great numbers of the Pannonian youth were drafted into the Roman legions, and proved, when disciplined, among the bravest and most efiective soldiers in the imperial armj'. Pannonia was subsequently divided into Upper and Lower Pannonia. Upper Pan- nonia was the scene of the Marcomannic war in the 2d century. In the 5th century it was transferred from the Western to the Eastern empire, and afterwards given up to the Huns. After Attila's death, in 453, the Ostrogoths obtained possession of it. The Longobards under Alboin made themselves masters of it in 527, and relinquished it to the Avari upon commencing their expedi- tion to Italy. The Magyars, or Hungarians, took it in the end of the 9th century. Panonceau {Fr.). An ancient name for an ensign or banner. Panoply. Complete armor, or harness. Papagos. A tribe of Indians closely al- lied to the Pimas, who reside on a reserva- tion on the Santa Cruz River, in Arizona. They were converted to Christianity by Spanish missionaries at an early date, and are a peaceable and industrious race. Papal States, or States of the Church. A territory, or rather group of states in Central Italy, formerly united into one sov- ereignty, with the pope for its head. The Papal States were bounded on the north by the Po, on the south by Naples, on the east by the Gulf of Venice and Naples, and on the west by Modena, Tuscany, and the Tyr- rhenian Sea. Detached portions, as Bene- vento and Pontecorvo, lay within the Nea- politan territory. About 720, Gregory III. having quarreled with the emperor Leo the Isaurian, declared the independence of Rome. In 726, Pepin le Bref compelled the Lombard king to hand over Ravenna, Ri- mini, Pesaro, Fano, Cesena, Urbino, Forli, Comacchio, and fifteen other towns to the pope, who now assumed the state of a tem- poral sovereign. Pepin's example was fol- lowed by his son Charlemagne. In the 11th century the Normans greatly aided to in- crease the papal temporal authority, and in 1053 the duchy of Benevento was annexed. In 1278 the emperor Rodolf I. confirmed the popes in the acquisitions thus obtained, de- fined the boundaries of the Papal States, and absolved their inhabitants from their oath of allegiance to the empire. Sixtus IV. in the end of the 15th century annexed the Romagna to his dominions. By the victory of the French at Marignan (1515), the very existence of the papal power was threatened. In 1598 the possessions of the house of Este, viz. : Ferrara, Comacchio, and a part of the Romagna, were seized by Pope Clement VIII. ; and the Papal States received their final additions in Urbino (1623), Ronciglione, and the duchy of Castro (1G50). The Ro- magna was seized by Napoleon in 1797, and incorporated in the Cisalpine Republic ; and in the following year Rome was taken by the French, and the Papal States erected into the Roman Republic. Pius VII., in 1800, obtained possession of his states, but they were almost immediately retaken by the French. In 1814, the pope returned to his dominions, and was formally reinstated by the treaty of Vienna. In 1830, the people of Ancona and Bologna rose in rebellion ; they were put down by the aid of an Aus- trian army. The Bolognese again rebelled ; and this revolt supplied Austria with a pre- text for occupying the northern Legations, and the French at the same time garrisoned Ancona. Occasional risings took place from time to time up to 1846. In 1848, the people rose, and Pius IX. fled to Gaeta, whilst Rome was proclaimed a republic. He was I PAPEGAI 409 PARAGUAY restored and his subjects reduced to submis- sion by the arms of France, Austria, Na- ples, and Spain. The Austrians held the Legations in subjection to the pope's au- thority till ISo'J ; the French occupied Rome in his behalf till 1870. In July, 185t», the four northern Legations (the Komagna) taking advantage of the witlidrawal of the Austrian troops, threw otf the j>apal au- tln)rity, and proclaimed their annexation to Sardinia, which was formally acknowledged by Victor Emmanuel in March, IBtiO. The pope now raised a large body of troo|)S, ap- pointing Lamoriciere, an eminent French general, to command them, for the purpose of resisting any further encroachments on his dominions ; but the news of Garibaldi's success in Sicily and Naples produced re- volt in the Legation of U rhino and in the Marches, the people proclaiming Vic- tor Emmanuel. The Sardinians accordingly marched into the Papal Slates, defeated Lamoriciere, who retired into Ancona, wlierc he was compelled to surrender with his whole army. The revolted provinces of Umbria, Urbino, and the Marches, and part of Fro- sinone were annexed to Sardinia. In Sep- tember, 1870, the remaining states were oc- cupied by the Italian troops, and the pope was removed from temporal power. On Oc- tober 2, 1870, the people pronounced tlieir annexation to the kingdom of Italy, with which the territory of the- States of the Church was incorporated by decree of Octo- ber 9, and Gen. Marmora appointed gover- nor of the new provinces. Papegai(F/-.). A popinjay; a bird made of wood or pasteboard, stuck upon a lance, and used as a mark when practicing with the bow, cross-bow, musket, etc. Paper Shell. See Pyroteciiny. Paper Time-fuze. See Laboratory Stokks. Paphlagonia. Was a country of Asia Minor, separatcfd from Pontus on the east by the river Ilalys {Kiz'd Ermak), and from Bithynia on the west by the river Parthcnius (Bartan-Su), and bounded on the north by the Euxine, and on the south by (Jalatia. Its limits, however, were somewhat ditlVrent at ditt'erent times. The Paphlagonians are supposed to have been of Syrian, or at least of Semitic origin, and were a wild and war- like people. Crojsus made Paphlagonia a })art of the kingdom of Lydia, and Cyrus united it to Persia; it subsequently became part of the empire of Alexander tlio Great, and afterwards of the kingdom of Pontus, was included in the Roman province of Ga- latia, and in the 4th century of the Christian era was nuide a separate })rovince by Con- stantinc. Papilio (/•''•.). A square Roman tent for eiirht men. Parachute Light Ball. A thin shell, the upper half of wtiiih is blown otV by the charge at a certain height. The lower half tilled with composition, which is kindled by the explosion, is kept floating in the air by 27 means of a small parachute, which is set free when the upper half of the shell flies ort". Parade. Signifies in its original sense a prepared ground, and was applied to the court-yard of a castle, or to any inclosed and level plain. From the practice of reviewing troops at such a spot, the review itself has acquired the name of parade. Parade. To assemble troops in a uniform manner for the purpose of regular muster, exercise, and inspection. The parades are general, regimental, or private (troop, bat- tery, or company), according to the strength of the force assembled. Parade. In camp, is that spot of ground in the front of each encampment, between the camp colors, on the right and left wings. Parade, Dress. A parade which takes place in the U. S. army at the troop or re- treat on each evening, when the soldiers appear in full uniform and under arms. Parade, Evening. The hour generally fixed for the evening parade is at sunset. When troops are encaniped, the signal for evening parade is given from the park of ar- tillery, by the discharge of a piece of ord- nance called the evening <;un. Parade Guard Mounting. The parading of the soldiers who iirc to go on guard. Parade, Morning. In every garrison town, fortiliod place, and camp, as well as in every town through which soldiers pass, or occasionally halt, a certain hour in the morning is fixed for the assembling of tlie different corps, troops, or companies, in reg- ular order. Parade Officer. An oflScer who attends to the minuti;e of regimental duty, but who is not remarkable for military science. Parade Rest. A position of rest for sol- diers, in which, however, they are required to be silent and motionless, used specially at parade ; also, the command for the position. Parade, Troop. Morning parade (which see). Parade-ground. The piece of ground on which soldiers are paraded. Parados. \n elevation of earth which is etfected behind fortified places, to secure them from any sudden attack that may be made in reverse. Paraetonium, or Ammonia. Formerly an imjiortant city on the northeast coast of Africa. It was a strong fortress ; restored by Justinian, and continued a place of some consequence till its complete destruction by Mehemet Ali in 1820. Paraguay. A republic in South America, discovered by .'Sebastian Cabot in l'>2t); con- quered by Alvarez Nunez in 153.'(, and civ- ilized by the Je^^uits, who in 1(>08 com- menced their missions there, and established I an exclusive government, which they held until their expulsion in 17*»8. Paraguay rose against the Spanish yoke in 1811, and achieved its independence. Paraguay was I recognized as an independent state by the Argentine Confederation in 1832, and by PARALLELS 410 PARBUCKLES Great Britain in 1853. On November 11, 1864, hostilities between Paraguay and Bra- zil began, when a Brazilian steamer was captured as an intruder on Paraguayan waters ; in the same year Brazil was invaded by the Paraguayans, and on April 14, 1865, Lopez (president of the republic) invaded the territories of the Argentine Republic, which immediately made alliance with Bra- zil. In September, 1865, the army of Lopez was defeated. The war continued almost without intermission until 1870, when Lopez was killed. Since that time Paraguay, though nominally independent, has been almost completely under control of Brazil. Parallels. Are trenches cut in the ground before a fortress, roughly parallel to its de- fenses, for the purpose of giving cover to the besiegers from the guns of the place. The parallels are usually three, with zigzag trenches leading from one to another. The old rule used to be to dig the first at 600 yards' distance ; but the improvements in artillery have rendered a greater distance necessary, and at Sebastopol the allies made their first trench 2000 yards from the walls. The third trench is very near to the besieged works, and from it saps and zigzag ap- proaches are directed to the covert way. See Siege. Paramount. The highest in rank or order ; the chief. Parapets (Ital. pm-apetto, " breast- guard"). In fortifications, are breastworks, walls, or bulwarks of earth, brick, wood, iron, stone, or other material. The battle- ment around a flat roof, or the railing of a bridge is also called a parapet. The para- pets of field-works are always made of earth, which is also largely used in permanent for- tifications. Earth has great advantages for this purpose, being readily obtained, easily handled, and aff'ords good cover on account of the absence of splinters and flying frag- ments when struck by a shot. The presence of rock or large gravel in the earth is objec- tionable for this reason. Of the diiferent earths, sand, hard clay, tufa, etc., resist pen- etration better than rich soils. The profile of the parapet is determined by its location and purpose. The earth to form it is taken from the ditch, which is sometimes in front and sometimes in rear. In inclosed works, or works built at leisure, the ditch is always on the outside, leaving the natural surface for the parade. Works built hastily, or under fire, have the ditch on the inside. In this way cover is more rapidly obtained. This form of parapet is used in all the trenches in siege operations and the tem- porary lines thrown up on the field of battle. The command of a parapet is the height of the interior crest above the site. For isolated works the command should be at least 8 feet, as the chances of a successful resistance in- crease with the command. The profile of a parapet is a section taken at right angles to its length. In infantry parapets the banquette is the bank of earth in rear of the parapet. on which the troops stand to deliver their fire. This is usually about 4 feet wide, and about 4 feet 3 inches below the interior crest. The height of the banquette depends upon the command of the parapet. The interior slope of the parapet, against which the sol- dier leans in firing, has a slope of 3 on 1. To support the earth at this inclination a revetment of sand-bags, fascines, gabions, sod, pisa, or plank, is used. The superior slope of the parapet is usually 1 on 6. It should be steep enough to give a fire just above the farther edge of the ditch, but not so steep as to weaken the parapet. The ex- terior slope is 1 on 1, or the natural slope of the earth. If it is made steeper than this it will be beaten down by the projectiles of the enemy ; if less steep, it will offer a less obstacle to open assault. The berme^ or space between the foot of the exterior slope and the edge of the ditch, is objectionable, in offering a breathing-place to the enemy in the assault, but it is usually necessary to pre- vent the weight of the parapet from crush- ing in the scarp. The dimensions of the ditch are regulated by the amount of earth neces- sary to form the parapet. The scarp and counterscarp are made as steep as the stifl'ness of the soil will allow. As a general rule, the depth of the ditch should not be less than 6 feet, and its width should not be less than 12. The greatest width is regulated by the superior scope of the parapet, the line of which produced should not pass be- low the crest of the counterscarp. In exca- vating near a salient it will be found that more earth is furnished than in re-enterings. On this account the width of the ditch is usually made variable, being less at the salients than elsewhere. The thickness of a parapet is the hori- zontal distance between the interior and ex- terior crests. This thickness should be one- half greater than the penetration of the pro- jectiles it is designed to resist. As the rifled guns now in use have much greater penetra- tion than the smooth-bores of former times, a proportionate increase in the dimensions of parapets has become necessary. The parapets of semi-permanent field-works are usually calculated to resist the fire of siege- guns; those of permanent works to resist the most powerful ordnance in use. The trenches so much used in modern times to cover operations of armies in the field are shallow ditches, with the earth thrown out- wards. Parasang. A Persian military measure, sometimes assumed as a league, but equal to about 4 English miles. Parbuckle. To hoist or lower by means of a parbuckle. Parbuckles. Are 4-inch ropes, 12 feet long, with a hook at one end and a loop at the other. To parbuckle a gun, is to roll it in either direction from the spot in which it rests. To do this, place the gun on skids, and if it is to be moved up or down a slope, two 4.>-inch ropes are made fast to PARCOURIR '411 PARIS some place on the upppr part of the slope, the ends are carried under the chase and breech of the gun respectively, round it and up the slope. If the running ends of these mpes arc hauled upon, the gun ascends; if eased oft', it descends. If the ground is horizontal, handspii.). In a military sense, to run over the ground during an action. This word is particularly applicable to those movements which are made by general offi- cers, officers commanding brigades, etc., for the purpose of encouraging their soldiers in the licat of an ciiiiugeineiit. Pardon and Mitigation of Sentences. Sec AiM'KNmx, Article.s of War, 112. Parga. A town of European Turkey, eyalct of Yanina, stands on a rocky penin- sula on the shore of the Mediterranean, and is defended by a citadel which is nearly im- pregnable, it has played a part of some importance in history since the beginning of the lotii century. It maintained its inde- pendence, under the protection of Venice, from this period till the fall of the Venetian power in 1797, when it was for a short time garrisoned by the French. Ali Pasha, the governor of Yanina, obtained command of it in 1800, and in 1814 besieged it, on ac- count of the inhabitants refusing to submit to his rule; and as the French would not defend them, the inhabitants applied for aid to the British, who took possession of the citadel. Parga was finally given up to Tur- key by the treaty of 1819; but the inhabit- ant«, not wishing to come under the Ottoman sway, migrated to the Ionian Islands, and the town was then occupied by the Turks. Paris (anc. Lutctia I'nrisiorum). The metropolis of France, and after London, the most populous city in Christendom, is situ- ated on both sides of the Seine, and is sur- rounded by walls and a strong line of forti- fications. When Cicsar conquered Gaul, he rebuilt Lutetia, which had been nearly de- stroyed through the obstinacy of the Celtic tribe who here had their stronghold, and it rose to be a place of considerable importance during the 5(X> years of Roman dominion. In the beginning of the 5th century it suf- fered much from the northern hordes, and ultimately fell into the hands of the Franks, lieadcd by Clovis, who, having embraced Christianity, made it his residence in 508. In 845 the city was ravaged by the Nor- mans, and in 845 and 9'JO suffered from famine; in 885 it was gallantly defended by the C'ount Kudes and the Bishop Goslin against the Danes; in 1281 it was rebuilt; and in 1411-18 sutfcred by the factions of the Armagmics and iiurgundians ; taken bv the Kiigiish in 1420, an- lltj, seized certain portions of tlie country, the Romans were soon compelled to abandon them. In 214, during the reign of Arta- banus IV., the last of the Arsacidse, a re- volt headed by Ardshir, son of Babegan, hrfike out in Persia, and the Parthian mon- arch, beaten in three engagements, lost his throne and life, while the victor substituted the Persian dynasty of the Sassanida; for that of the Arsacidie. Some scions of the Parthian royal family continued for several centuries to rule over the mountainous dis- trict of Armenia, under the protection of the Romans, and made frequent descent* upon Assyria and Babylcmia. Partiality. An unequal state of judg- ment or leaning in fiivor of one of two parties. Every member of a court-martial is sworn to do justice, without partiality, favor, or aflcction. A previous opinion ex- pressed by a member, before the court is sworn, is deemed a good and sufficient cause of challenge by either the prisoner or prose- cutor, and the individual cannot sit on the trial and judgment of the case. Partisan. The name given to small corps detached from the main body of an army, and acting independently against the enemy. In partisan warfare much lilierty is allowed to partisans. Continually an- j noying the flanks and rear of columns, they 1 intercept convoys, cut oft" communications, ' attack detachments, and endeavor to spread I terror everywhere. This kind of warfare is ! advantageously pursued only in mountain- I ous or thickiy-woodiHl districts. In an open ! country, cavalry very readily destroys par- I tisans. The Spanish race make active par- tisans. The party is called giurrilta, the partisan a (juerrillero. I Partisan. A term formerly applied to a I pike or halbert. Partition Lines. In heraldry, lines di- viding the shield in directions corresjxmd- ing to the ordinaries. According to the i direction of the partition lines, a shield is PARTRIDGES 414 PASSAROWITZ said to be party or parted per fess, per pale, per bend, per chevron, per saltire ; a shield divided by lines in the direction of a cross is said to be quartered ; and a shield parted at once per cross and per saltire is said to be gironne of eight. The partition lines are not always plain ; they may be engrailed, invected, embattled, wavy, nebuly, indented, dancette, or raguly. Partridges. In artillery, were very large bombards, formerly in use at sieges and in defensive works. Parts, Bridges By. See Pontons. Party. A small detachment of men, horse or foot, sent upon any kind of duty ; as, into an enemy's country, to pillage, to take pris- oners, and oblige the country to come under contribution. Party. In heraldry, parted or divided ; — used with reference to any division of a field or charge. Party, Firing. Are those who are se- lected to fire over the grave of any one interred with military honors. Party, Recruiting. Is a certain number of men, under an officer or non-commis- sioned officer, detached from their respective regiments for the purpose of enlisting men. Party, Working. See Working JParty. Pas de Sours {Fr.). Steps leading from the bottom to the top of a ditch in perma- nent fortification. Pasha, or Bashaw (from the Persian padishah, "powerful ruler"). A title ap- plied in the Ottoman empire to governors of provinces, or military and naval com- manders of high rank. The distinctive badge of a pasha is a horse-tail, waving from the end of a staff crowned with a gilt ball; in war, this badge is always carried before him when he goes abroad, and is at other times planted in front of his tent. There are three grades of pashas, which are distinguished by the number of horse- tails on their standards ; those of the high- est rank are pashas of three tails, and in- clude, in general, the highest functionaries, civil and military. All pashas of this class have the title of vizier. The pashas of two tails are the governors of provinces, who are generally called by the simple title "pasha." The pashas of one tail, the lowest rank of pashas, are provincial gov- ernors. See Horse-tail. Pass, A straight, difficult, and narrow passage, which, well defended, shuts up the entrance to a country. Pass. A certificate of leave of absence given to a soldier for a short period. Pass of Arms. In ancient chivalry, a bridge, road, etc., which the knights under- took" to defend, and which was not to be passed without fighting the person who kept it. He who was disposed to dispute the pass touched one of the armories of the other knight who held the pass, that were hung on pales, columns, etc., erected for the purpose; and this was a challenge which the other was obliged to accept. The van- quished gave the conqueror such prize as was agreed on. Pass, To. Is to march in review by open order of columns, for the purpose of saluting. Passable. Capable of being passed, trav- eled, traversed, or the like; as, the roads are not passable for troops. Passade, or Passado. In fencing, a push or thrust ; also, a sudden movement to the front. Passage. A pass or encounter ; as, a passage at arms. Passage of Ditches. In siege operations the passage of a dry ditch consists in the descent (which is bj' a blindage, if the ditch is not too deep, or a blindage and gallery for deep ditches) and a full sap, which leads from the outlet of the descent to the bottom of the breach. The passage of a wet ditch is more difficult, and specially perilous if the besieged can produce sudden freshets by flood-gates or other contrivance. The method usually followed is to build a dike or bridge of fascines and hurdles across the ditch. The abutment for this bridge is formed by excavating a grand gallery be- hind the counterscarp and throwing the earth taken from it into the ditch through the outlet of the descent. The dike is car- ried forward from this abutment by sappers, who work on a raft carrying a musket-proof mask on the side of the enemy. A gabion- ade parapet on the exposed side of the dike serves to protect the men in bringing for- ward the fascines, hurdles, etc., to extend the dike. Passage of Rivers. The passage is effected by surprise or by main force, and detach- ments are thrown by one means or the other upon the enemy's bank of the river before proceeding to the construction of bridges. The passage by force ought always to be favored by diversions upon other points. Infantry cross bridges without keeping step. Cavalry dismount in crossing, leading their horses. Wagons heavily loaded pass at a galop. _ Passages. Are openmgs cut in the para- pet of the covered wa}', close to the traverses, in order to continue the communication through all parts of the covered way. See Traverses. Passandeau (Fr.). An ancient 8-pounder gun, which was 15 feet long, and weighed about 3500 pounds. Passant. A heraldic term, used to ex- press the attitude of an animal in a walk- ing position, with his head straight before him. Passarowitz. A well-built town of Eu- ropean Turkey, in the province of Servia, 5 miles south of the Danube, and 15 miles east of Semendria. The town is chiefly noteworthy for the treaty which was signed here by Prince Eugene and the grand viziers, July 21, 1718. By this treaty, which put an end to the war undertaken by the Turks against Venice in 1714 for the conquest of the Morea, a truce of twenty-five years was PASSAU 415 PATNA established, and the Banat of Temesvars, the western portion of Walhichia and Ser- via, the town and territory of Belgrade, and a part of Bosnia, were secured to the lionsc of Austria. Passau. A picturesque, fortified, frontier town of Bavaria, at the confluence of tlie Inn and the Ilz with the Danuhp, 90 miles east-northeast from Munich. Fort Ober- haus, on the left bank of the Danube, stands on steep wooded cliti's, at an elevation of upwards of 4(K) feet, and commands the pas- saire of both the Inn and Danube, besides wiiich the town is further defended by the castle of Niederhause, and by ten detached forts. The treaty whereb}' relii;ious free- dom was established, was ratified here be- tween the emperor Charles V. and the Prot- estant princes of Germany, -luly 31, 1552. Pass-box. See Implements. Passegardes. In ancient armor, were ridi^es on tht; shoulder-pieces to turn the blow of a lance. Passe-Mur. An ancient IG-pounder gun, 18 feet loiiir, weighinix 4200 pounds. Passes-Balles (/"'/•.). Boards or ma- chines made of iron or brass, used in dis- parting cannon, and fitted to every species of caliber. Passion Cross. A cross of the form on which our Saviour suft'ercd, with a long stem and a short traverse near the top. It is of occasional occurrence as a heraldic charge, though less frequent than many other varieties of cross. A passion cross, when elevated on three steps or degrees (which have been said by heralds to repre- sent the virtues of Faith, Hope, and Char- ity), is called a Cross Calvary. Passive Operations. Are operations the object of which is solely to repel an attack of the enemy and thus prevent his advance. Pass-parole. An order passed from front to rear of an army by word of mouth. Passport. A document given by the competent officer of a state, which permits the person therein named to pass or travel from place to place by land or water. Also a license granted in time of war for the re- moval of persons and eflects from a hostile country ; a safe-conduct. Pataremo. A sort of small swivel artil- lery, having a movable chamber. Patavium (now Padorn, or Padua). An ancient town of the Veneti in the north of Italy, on the Medoacus Minor, and on the road from Mutina to Altinum. In .302 n.c. it was powerful enough to drive back the Spartan king Cleoinenes with great loss when he attcujpted to plunder the surrounding country. It was jtlundered by Attila; and in consequence of a revolt of its citizens, it was subsequently destroyed by Agilolf, king of the Longobards, and ra/.ed to the ground. Patay. A town of France, department of Loiret, 14 miles northwest of Orleans, where John of Arc, the Maid of Orleans, was present, when the Earl of Richemont signally defeated the English, June 18, 1429. Talbot was taken prisoner, and the valiant Fastolfe was forced to fly. In consequence, Charles VII. of France entered Kheims in triumph, and was crowned July 17, follow- ing year, Joan of Arc assisting in the cere- 'mony in full armor, and holding the sword of state. Patched-up Peace, The. In French his- tory, the iiaiiK- <,'ivfii to a tnaty of jieace between the Duke of (Jrleans and John of Burgundy, in 14t»9. Pat6 [Fr.]. In fortification, a sort of horseshoe, that is, a platform or terre-plein, irregularly built, yet generally constructed in an oval form. It is surrounded by a parapet, without anything to flank it, and having no other defense than what is front or fore right. Pates are usually erected in marshy grounds to cover the r Pattana. A town of British \ India, capital of a district of the same name, ! in the presidency of Bengal, on the right ' bank of the Ganges, 10 miles east of Dina- pore, and 377 miles northwest of Calcutta. Factories were established here at an early Eeriod by the British. In 17H3 disputes egan to arise between Meer Cossim, the nawaub of Bengal and Behar, and the ser- vants of the East India Company, about the transit dues levied on native traders, from which the English claimed exemption. The nawaub for some time refused to accede to these demands; but finally he aK^lished j all the imposts, both on British and native I goods, a step which was not desired by the ! Company, and which must have greatly I diminished his revenues. In revenge for this injury, he proceeded in various ways to annoy the British ; and at length went so far as to seize some of their Iniats on the Ganges. On this Mr. Ellis, the chief of the factory at Patna. made an attack on the city and took po.ssession of it. although Meer Cossim soon afterwards recovered it, and PATOMEMETER 416 PATTERN forced the British to take refuge in the fac- tory. For four months liostilities continued between the two parties, in the course of which the nawaub was several times de- feated, until he became so exasperated at the loss of the city of Monghyr, that he ordered the murder in cold blood of 200 prisoners. On November 6, in the same year, Patna ■was taken by the British ; and in May, 1764, Meer Cossim's troops were totally de- feated under the walls. Since that time the place has remained undisturbed in the hands of the British. Patomemeter. An instrument for meas- uring the force of currents. Patonce, Cross. In heraldry (Lat. pa- tens, "expanding"), a cross with its termi- nations expanding like early vegetation or an opening blossom. Patoo-patoo. A formidable weapon with sharp edges, used by the Polynesian Island- ers and New Zealanders as a sort of battle- axe to cleave the skulls of their enemies. Patrae (now Patras). One of the twelve cities of Achaia, was situated west of Rhium, near the opening of the Corinthian Gulf. The town was chiefly of importance as the place from which the Peloponnesians di- rected their attacks against the opposite coast of -^tolia. Patrse was one of the four towns which took the leading part in found- ing the second Achiean League. Patra? as- sisted the ^Etolians against the Gauls in 279 B.C. Patriarchal Cross. A cross which, like the patriarchal crosier, has its upright part crossed by two horizontal bars, the upper shorter than the lower. A cross patriarchal fimbriated or was a badge of the Knights Templar. Patrick, St., Order of. A national order of knighthood for Ireland, established by George III. on February 5, 1783, and en- larged in 1833. As originally constituted, it consisted of the sovereign, the grand master (who was always the lord-lieutenant of Ireland for the time being), and 15 knights. By the statutes of 1833 the num- ber of knights was increased to 22. The collar of the order (of gold) is composed of roses alternating with harps, tied together with a knot of gold, the roses being enam- eled alternately white within red, and red within white, and in the centre is an impe- rial crown surmounting a harp of gold, from which the badge is suspended. The badge ov jewel is of gold, and oval ; surrounding it is a wreath of shamrock proper on a gold field ; within this is a band of sky-blue enamel charged with the motto of the order, quis Separabit MDCCLXXXIII. in gold letters ; and within this band a saltire gules (the cross of St. Patrick) surmounted by a shamrock or trefoil slipped vert, having on each of its leaves an imperial crown or. The field of the cross is either argent or pierced, and left open. A sky-blue ribbon, worn over the right shoulder, sustains the badge when the collar is not worn. The star, worn on the left side, diff'ers from the badge only in being circular in place of oval, and in substi- tuting for the exterior wreath of shamrocks eight rays of silver, four rays of which are larger than the other four. The mantle is of rich sky-blue tabinet, lined with white silk, and fastened by a cordon of blue silk and gold with tassels. On the right shoulder is the hood, of the same materials as the mantle. The order is indicated by the ini- tials K.P. Patriot. A sincere and unbiased friend to his country ; an advocate for general civil- ization, uniting in his conduct through life, moral rectitude with political integrity. Such a character is seldom found in any country ; but the specious appearance of it is to be seen everywhere, most especially in Europe. It is ditficult to say how far the term can be used in a military sense, although it is not uncommon to read of a citizen soldier, and a patriot soldier. Indi- vidually considered the term may be just, but it is hardly to be understood collectively. Patrol. To go the rounds in a camp or garrison ; to march about and observe what passes as a guard. To pass round as a senti- nel ; as, to patrol the city. Patrolling. Performing the duties of a patrol. Patrols. A patrol is a detachment which is employed to obtain information respecting the enemy's movements and position, and relating to the nature of the country over which the army has to move, and to keep open the communications between thedifter- ent portions of a command. Patrols are generally composed entirely of cavalry, al- though they are sometimes composed of in- fantry and cavalry ; and in very much broken and obstructed ground, it might be necessarj' that they contain only infantry. Patte {Fr.). A term used in mining; when a well or excavation is made in loose or crumbling earth, and it becomes neces- sary to frame it in, the rafters must be laid horizontally to support the boai-ds in pro- portion as the workmen gain depth. The ends of the rafters that are first laid run 10 or 12 inches beyond the border of the well, for the purpose of sustaining the platform. These supports are called oreilles ; conse- quently, that every frame may be supported the second is attached or made firm to the first by means of the ends of boards which are nailed together. In this manner the third is joined to the second, and the fourth to the third. These ends are called j^o-Ucs, or handles. Pattee, Cross, or Cross Formee (Lat. patidus, "spreading"). In heraldry, a cross Avith its arms expanding towards the ends, and flat at their outer edges. Patte d'Oie (Fr.). A term used in mining to describe three small branches which are run out at the extremity of a gallery. They are so called from their resemblance to the foot of a goose. Pattern Regiment. A phrase of distinc- PAULUS 417 PAY-ROLL tiou which is applied to a corps of officers and soldiers who are remarkable for tlieir observance of ^ood order and discif)line. Paulus Hook. A point <>n the Jersey shore which ran into the Hudson River near where the Pavonia ferries now are. The first settlement was Tiiade here in 1033. A British fort erected at this puint was taken on the morninfj of An<;ust 1',), 1779, by the Americans under ilaj. Harry Lee, who made a descent on it by way of the Point of Rocks, and captured 179 i)risoners, a num- ber of fTuns, and a quantity of stores. Pavade. Formerly a short dagger was so called in Scotland. Pavecheur, or Pavesier. An ancient militia who carried the (parois) shield. Pavia (anc. TU-inuui). A city of North- ern Italy, capital of the province of the same name, on the left bank of the Ticino, 20 miles south of Milan, and 3 miles above the confluence of the Ticino and the Po. Pavia was founded by the Ligurii ; it was sacked by Hrennus and by Hannibal ; burned by the Huns ; conquered by the Romans, and became a place of considerable impor- tance at the end of the Ronuin empire. Then it came into the possession of the Goths and Lombards, and the kings of the latter made it the capital of the kingdom of Italy. It became independent in the 12th century, then, weakened by civil wars, it was con- quered b.rMatthew Visconti in 13-lo. Since that period, its history is merged in that of the conquerors of Lombardy. Here, in 1525, the French were defeated by the Imperial- ists, and their king taken prisoner; but in 1527, and again in the following year it was taken and laid waste by the French. It was stormed and pillaged by Napoleon in 179(5, and came into the possession of Aus- tria by the peace of 1814. Since 1859 it has been included within the reorganized king- dom of Italy. Pavilion. A tent raised on posts ; a flag, colors, ensign, or banner; in heraldry, a covering in form of a tent, investing the armories of kings. Pavilion, To. To furnish or cover with tents ; to shelter with a tent. Pavise (written also I'arnis, Pnvr.ie, and P(iresse). A large shield covering the whole body, having an inward curve, man- aged by a puvisor, who with it screened an archer. Pavisor. In military antiquity, a sol- dier who nuinaged a pavise. Pavon. An ancient military flag shaped like a right-angled triangle. Pawnees. A warlike tribe of Indians who formerly resided in Nebraska, but are now located in Indian Territory. Their numbers have been greatly reduced, owing to their wars with the Sioux, with whom they maintained a hereditary warfare. They now number about 2000 souls, and are di- vided in four bands. Pay. Is the stipend or salary allowed for each individual serving in the armv. Pay Bills. In the British service, ac- counts regularly tendered by captains of troops or companies of the money required by them for the effectives of such troop or company. Pay, Colonial. In the British service is a certain allowance which is made to troops serving in the colonies. Pay Department. Is that department of a governnieiit which takes charge of all mat- ters relating to the, pay of the army. In the U. S. army the pay department consists of 1 paymaster-general, with the rank, pay, and emoluments of a brigadier-general; 2 as- sistant paymaster-generals, with the rank, pay, and emoluments of colonels of cav- alry ; 2 deputy paymaster-generals, with the rank, pay, and emoluments of lieutenant- colonels of cavalry ; and 50 paymasters, with the rank, pay, and emoluments of majors of cavalry. Pay, Half-. Sec Half-pay. Pay, Full. See Full Pay. Pay, Staff. Is the pay and allowances which are made to officers serving on the start" of an army, or in any particular di- vision or department. Paymaster-General. In the U. S. army, is the chief officer of the pay department, with the rank of brigadier-general. Under the direction of the Secretary of War, the paymaster-general assigns jiaymasters to dis- tricts ; he receives from the treasurer all the moneys which are intrusted to him for the purpose of paying the pay, the arrears of pay, etc., apjiertaining to the army. He is also charged with all necessary instructions to his subordinates in reference to the supply and distribution of funds for the payment of the army, and all other things appertaining to the financial duties of his department and the accountability of its officers. In these and all other matters having relation spe- cially to the internal administration of the pay department, the correspondence and or- ders is direct between the paymaster-general and his subordinates, and between the de- partment and district chiefs and their suD- ordi nates. Paymasters. Are officers appointed in the army for the purpose of keeping its pay accounts, and the disbursing of moneys in payment of troops. In the U. S. service it is the duty of paymasters to pay all the reg- ular and other troops ; and to insure punctu- ality and responsibility, correct reports shall be made to the paymaster-general once in two months, showing the disposition of the funds previously transmitted, with accurate esti- mates for the next payment of such regi- ment, garrison, or department, as may do assigned to each. In the British service a payuuister is attiuhed to each regiment. iPaymaster-Sergeant. In the English army, a non-commissioned officer who assists the paymaster. Pay-roll. A roll or list of persons entitled to payment, with the sums which are to be paid on them. In the U. S. army, com- PAY-SERGEANT 418 PEEL-TOWERS manders of companies are required to pre- pare at each regular muster, beside one mus- ter-roll, three copies of the ''muster- and pay-roll," two for the paymaster, and one to be retained in the company files. "When the paymaster's rolls have been computed and returned to the company for examina- tion and signature, the calculations thereon will be transcribed on the triplicate muster- and pay-roll, under the direction of or by the company commander, who is responsible for the correct performance of this duty. Pay-Sergeant. In the British service, a sergeant who, on the responsibility of the captain of a troop, battery, or company, keeps the men's accounts. He is generally, but not invariably, the color-sergeant in the infantry, or the troop or battery sergeant- major in the cavalry or artillery. Pea Ridge. A range of hills in Benton Co., Ark., which gives its name to the battle fought here March 6-8, 1862, between the Union forces under Gen. Curtis and the Confederates under Van Dorn, in which the latter were defeated with loss of over 2500 killed, wounded, and captured. Peabody-Martini Rifle. A breech-load- ing rifle invented by an American — Pea- body — and improved by a Swiss. It is called Mariini-Henry in England, in which country it is the official arm. More than half a million of these rifles were manu- factured for the Turkish government during the late Russo-Turkish war by the Provi- dence Tool Company of Rhodelsland. The gun has a great reputation on account of its long range. Peace. Freedom from war, exemption from, or cessation of, hostilities. This condi- tion of affairs is effected and maintained by treaties between independent powers. Peace Establishment. The reduced num- ber of effective men in the army during a period of peace. Peal. A long sound, or a succession of long sounds, as of cannon, etc. Pean (Old Fr. jmnnes, "furs"). One of the furs borne in heraldry, differing from ermine only in the tinctures, — the ground being sable and the spots of gold. Pea-rifle. A rifle of small bore carrying a ball of the size of a pea. Peasants' War. In German history, the name given to that great insurrection of the peasantry which broke out in the beginning of the year 1525. The oppression of the peasants had gradually increased in severity, as the nobility became more extravagant aiid the clergy more sensual and degenerate. The example of Switzerland encouraged the hope of success, and from 1476 to 1517 there were risings here and there among the peas- ants of the south of Gernniny. A peasant rebellion, called from its cognizance, the Bundschuh (laced shoe), took place in the Rhine countries in 1502, and another called the " League of Poor Conrad," in Wurtem- berg, in 1514, both of which were put down without any abatement of the grievances which occasioned them. The Reformation, by the mental awakening which it produced, and the diffusion of sentiments favorable to freedom, must be reckoned among the causes of the great insurrection itself. The Ana- baptists, and in particular Munzer, encour- aged and excited them, and a peasant insur- rection took place in the Hegau in 1522. Another known as the " Latin War" arose in 1523 in Salzburg, against an unpopular archbishop, but these were quickly sup- pressed. On January 1, 1525, the peasantry of the abbacy of Kempten, along with the towns-people, suddenly assailed and plun- dered the convent; this event proved the signal for a general rising of the peasantry on all sides throughout Uie south of Ger- many. They organized themselves into bands of from 9000 to 30,000, and destroyed convents and castles, murdered, pillaged, and were guilty of the greatest excesses, which must indeed be regarded as partly in revenge for the cruelties practiced against them. In May and June, 1525, they sus- tained a number of severe defeats from the regular forces under Truchsess von Wald- burg, in which large bodies of them were destroyed. The landgraf Philip of Hesse was also successful against them in the north of Germany. The peasants after they had been subjiigated were everywhere treated with terrible cruelty ; a great body of them were massacred ; multitudes were hanged in the streets, and many were put to death with the greatest tortures. It is supposed that more than 150,000 persons lost their lives in this war. The lot of the defeated insurgents became harder than ever. Pebble Powder. See Gunpowder. Pecq, Le. A village of France, on the right bank of the Seine, about half a mile east from St. Germain en Laye. The allied forces crossed the Seine at this spot in 1815. Pectoral (Fr. pectorale). A breastplate. Among the Romans the poorer soldiers, who were rated under 1000 drachmas, in- stead of the lorica, or brigantine (a leathern coat of mail) wore a pectoral, or breastplate of thin brass, about twelve fingers square. Some modern troops, such as the cuirassiers, etc., wear pectorals for the direct purposes of defense and bodily protection ; but in general small ornamental plates with clasps have been substituted. Peculation. A term used in a military sense for embezzling public moneys, stores, arms, or ammunition. See Appendix, Ar- ticles OF War, 60. Pedro. An early gun of large caliber for throwing stone balls. Peel. To strip; to plunder; to pillage; as, to peel a province or conquered people. Peel. A small tower or fort. Peel-house. A small fortified place. Peel-towers. The name given to the towers erected on the Scottish borders for defense. They are square, with turrets at the angles, and the door is sometimes at a height'from the ground. The lower story PEEP 419 PELOPONNESIAN is usually vaulted, and forms a stable for liorses, cattle, etc. Peep o' Day Boys. Were insurgents in Ireland, who visited the houses of their antagonists ut break of day, in search of arms. They first appeared .July 4, 1784, and for a long period were the terror of the country. Pegu. A British province of Eastern India, is bounded on the north by the Bur- mese empire, east by the Tenasserini prov- inces, south by the Gulf of Martaban, and west by the Bay of Bengal and the province of Arracan. It was discovered by the Por- tuguese in 1520. The early history of Pegu consists of little more than a narrative of barbarous and cruel contests between that country and the kingdom of Ava, in which the latter was tinally successful, and re- duced Pegu to a province of that kingdom, or, as it is generally called, the Burinan empire. Pegu, the capital, was taken by Maj. Cotton, with 300 men, in June, 1852, without loss ; and afterwards abandoned. It was again occupied by the Burmese and strongly fortified, with a garrison of 4000 men. It was recaptured by Gen. Godwin with 1200 men and 2 guns, in two hours, with the loss of tj killed and 82 wounded. The province was annexed to the British possessions, by proclamation, December 20, 1852, and has since prospered. In Febru- ary, 18(J2, it was united with Arracan and Tenasserim as Britisli Burmah. Pei-ho. A river of China, which rising on the confines of Tartary, traverses the northern part of the province of Chih-le or Pe-chih-le, and falls into the Gulf of Pe- chih-le, in about 38° 30' N. lat. The at- tack on the escort of the British and French ambassadors whilst ascending the Pei-ho to Pekin (June, 1859), led to the war with China of 18t)0, in which year the Taku forts on this river were taken by the British. Peishwa. The title of the military gov- ernor of the Mahrattas, whose olfice became hereditary in the family of Balajee Bis- wanath, its first possessor, who fixed his residence at Poonah. Peking, or Pekin. The capital of the Chinese empire, situated between the Pei-ho and Iloon-ho, 100 miles northwest from the mouth of the Pei-ho River. About 5 miles north from tlie city the famous Yuen-ming- yuen palaces are situated, which were sacked and de-^troyed by the allies in October, 1800; these were 30 in number. Here had been lieaped up for centuries all the movable riches and presents of the emperors of China. At the approach of the allies Hicn-fung tied in haste; and when Lord Elgin learned that it was in those grounds that the British and French prisoners, captured by treachery, had been tortured, he gave the order to sack and destroy this favorite residence of the emperor's, as it could not fail to be a blow to his pride as well as his feelings ; and it became a solemn act of retribution. Peking has thus been rendered memorable by this march of the British and French forces {I860) to the walls of the city, on which the British and French flags were raised. The provisions of the treaty of Tien-tsin (1858) were subsequently ratified and sujiplementcd by the convention of Peking, which was signed in the English and French languages at Peking, October 24, 1800. Pelican. An ancient name for a 6- pounder culverin, 'J feet long and weighing 2400 pounds. Pelican. In heraldry, the pelican is drawn with her wings endorsed, and wound- ing her breast with her beak. When repre- sented in her nest feeding her young with her blood, she is called a pelican in her piety. Peligni. A brave and warlike people of Sabine origin, in Central Italy, bounded southeast by the Marsi, north by the Mar- rucini, south by Samium and the Frentani, and east by the Frentani likewise. They ofl'ered a brave resistance to the liomans, but concluded a peace with the republic along with their neighbors the 3Iarsi, Marrucini, and Frentani, in 304 B.C. They took an ac- tive part in the Social war (<.>6, 89). They were subdued by Pompeius Strabo, after which time they are rarely mentioned. Pelinna, or more commonly Pelinnaeum (now Oanl/ii/d). A town of Thessaly, in Hestiieotis, on the left bank of the Peneus, was taken by the Uonnms in their war with Antiochus. Pellene. A city in Achaia, bordering on Sicyonia, the most easterly of the twelve Achaean cities, was situated on a hill 60 stadia from the sea, and was stnmgly forti- fied. Its port-town was Aristonautie. In the Peloponnesian war Pellene sided with Sparta. In the later wars of Greece between the Achajan and ^Etolian leagues, the town was several times taken by the contending parties. Pellet. An old word for shot or bullet. Pellet, or Ogress. In English heraldry, a roundle sable. Pell-mell. In utter confusion ; with dis- orderly mixture; with conl"used violence; as, the battle was a confused heap, the ground UMe(|ual, men, horses, chariots, crowded j»ell-inoll. Peloponnesian War. One of the most celebrated and imi)ortantof the wars carried on between the difi'erent states of Greece; the particulars of which are related in the writings of Xenophon and Thucydides. It existed for twenty-seven years, during which time the Athenians and" the inhabitants of the Peloponnesus, the most southern penin- sula of Greece, were the principal belliger- ents. After the Athenians had sustained immense lo.sses, it was at last agreed that to establish the peace the fortifications of the Athenian harbors should be demolished, and all their ships, except twelve, be surrendered to the enemy. They were to resign every pretension to their dominions abroad ; to follow the Spartans in war, and in time of peace to frame their constitutions according PELTA 420 PENETRATION to the will and prescription of their Pelopon- nesian conquerors. Their walls and fortifi- cations were instantly leveled to the ground ; and the conquerors observed that in the demolition of Athens, succeeding ages would fix the era of Grecian freedom. This mem- orable event happened about 404 years be- fore the Christian era ; and thirty " tyrants" were appointed by Lysander over the gov- ernment of the city. Pelta. A small light shield, sometimes attributed to the Amazons, but used by nu- merous nations of antiquity, such as the in- habitants of Thrace, Spain, and Mauritania, before its general introduction among the Greeks. It consisted mainly of a frame of wood or wicker-work covered with skin or leather, without the metallic rim, and of a great variety of shapes. It was sometimes round, as in the special case of the cetra^ sometimes elliptical, sometimes variously situated round the rim, sometimes even quadrangular, but most commonly crescent- shaped or lunated, as alluded to in the ^'Amazonidum lunatls agminapeltis" of Vir- gil. Soldiers bearing the pelta were called 2yeltasta'. Pelusium. The Greek name of an an- cient Egyptian city situated on the north- eastern angle of the Delta, and important as the key of Egypt on the Asiatic side. Pe- lusium is called S'm in the Old Testament. It first figures in semi-authentic history as the scene of Sennacherib's defeat, when (ac- cording to the Egyptian tradition, as re- ported by Herodotus) the camp of the As- syrians was invaded at night by a host of field-mice, who gnawed their bow-strings and shield-straps, so that in the morning, when the Egyptians fell upon them, they were defenseless. In 525 B.C., Cambyses overthrew, near Pelusium, the forces of Pharaoh-Psanimetichus. It surrendered to Alexander in 333 B.C. The city was also taken by the Persians in 809 B.C. ; and in 173 B.C., it was the scene of the defeat of Ptolemy Philometor by Antiochus Epipha- nes. Mark Antony captured it 55 B.C., and it opened its gates to Octavian after his vic- tory at Actium, 31 B.C. It was taken after a protracted resistance by Amrou, the Saracen, in 618. Pembroke. A seaport town of South "Wales, on a navigable creek of Milford Haven, 210 miles west of London. In 1648 its castle was beleaguered by Cromwell, and taken after a siege of six weeks. Penalba, or Penalva. A village of Spain, province of Huesca, 18 miles northwest of Mequinenza. During the War of the Suc- cession the troops of Philip V. were here defeated in a bloody battle bj'^ the armj' of the Archduke Charles, August 15, 1710. Penalty. In a military sense, signifies forfeiture for non-performance, likewise pun- ishment for embezzlement, etc. Pencel. A small flag ot streamer which was formerly carried at the top of a lance ; — called also pejmoncel. Pend d'Oreilles, or Kalispels (Cnlispels). A tribe of partially civilized Indians, di- vided into several bands aggregating about 2000, who reside in Washington, Idaho, and Montana Territories. A few of this tribe are also to be found in British Columbia. Pendant. In heraldry, a part hanging from the label, resembling the drops in the Doric frieze. Pendulum, Ballistic. See Ballistic Pendulum. Pendulum Hausse. See Hausse, Pen- dulum. Penetrating. Having the power of en- tering or jiiercing another body. Penetration of Spherical Projectiles. Their penetration when of the same size, with difterent velocities or charges, is nearly as the squares of the velocities ; when of dif- ferent sizes the penetration will be propor- tionate to their diameters multiplied by the density, and inversely as the tenacity of the medium. The depth of penetration of a projectile fired from field-pieces at the dis- tance of 500 or 600 yards, is from 4^ to 6 feet in parapets recently constructed, and will traverse walls of ordinary construction ; but a 12-pounder is necessary to make a breach in walls of good masonry and of 4 feet in thickness, and in this case the position of the battery must be favorable, and the oper- ation a slow one. The depth of penetration of projectiles fired from the 4^-inch siege- gun, is about the same as that of projectiles fired from the 30-pounder Parrott gun, namely, 12 feet. Sand, sandy earth mixed with gravel, small stones, chalk, and tufa, resist shot better than the productive earths. Shells may be considered as round shot of a lower specific gravity, and their penetrations are therefore proportionally less. A bank of earth, to afford a secure cover from heavy guns, will require a thickness from 18 to 24 feet. In guns below 18-pounders, if the number of the feet in thickness of the ank be made equal to the number of pounds in the weight of the shot by which it is to be assailed, the requisite protection will be ob- tained. Earth possesses advantages over every other material. It is easily obtained, regains its position after displacement, and the injury done to an earthen battery by day can be readily repaired at night. Where masonry is liable to be breached, it should be covered with earth. Wrought-iron plates 4.} inches in thickness will withstand the ef- fects of 32-pound shots, and of all inferior calibers at short ranges, as 400 yards. Plates of this thickness, however, are soon destroyed by 68-pound shots, and aflbrd little protec- tion from the elongated shots of the new rifled ordnance. To resist successfully the fall of heavy shells, buildings must be cov- ered with arches of good masonry, not less than 3 feet thick, having bearings not greater than 25 feet, and these must be again pro- tected by a covering of several feet of earth. Iron plates half an inch thick, oak planks 4 inches thick, or a 9-inch brick wall, are PENINSULAR 421 PENSIONER proof against musketry or canister at a range of 100 yards. Iron plates 1 inch illicit, oak from 8 to 10 inches thick, a good wall a foot thick or a firm hank of earth 4 feet thick, will aflbrd secure cover from grape-shot, from any hut the largest guns at short ranges. The common musket will drive its hullet about a foot and a half into well-rammed earth, or it will penetrate from (J to 10 half- inch elm boards placed at intervals of an inch. Th(! penetration of the rifled musket is about twice that of the common musket. A rope matting or mantlet 3A inches thick is found to resist small-arm j)rojectiles at ail distances ; it may therefore be eujployed as a screen against riflemen. Peninsular War. A war which had for its theatre the kingdoms of Spain and Portu- gal, and in which England, Spain, and Portugal fought against France. It lasted from March,' 1808,' until May, 1,814, when the former powers were completely victori- ous. Penneti^re, or Panetifere (Fr.). A pocket or small bag in which slingers carried stones and leaden halls. Pennon (Fr.). Formerly a copper wing of a long, light arrow {vireton), substituted for a feather. Pennon. In former times was something like a banner, but with the addition of a triangular point, charged with arms, and borne before knights-bachelors. Pennsylvania. One of the Middle States of the Atlantic slope, the second in popula- tion in the Union, and one of the thirteen of the original confederacy. The earliest settlements were made in ltj27 by a colony of Swedes and P'inns, who established them- selves on the Delaware River, going as far northward as the locality of Pliiladelphia. In IG'jo a Dutch expedition from New Am- sterdam took formal possession of the coun- try. The Dutch in their turn were super- seded by the English after the capture of New York in \W)4 ; and in 1(581 the territory was granted by Charles II. to William Penn, who with his co-religionists of the Society of Friends established a Christian government "founded on jieace, reason, and right." Having purchased the lands of the Indians, and conciliated them by kindness and good will, he secured their friendship during sev- enty years. Previous to the French and Indian war in 1755, the contests waged be- tween the French and English colonists had not reached Pennsylvania; but in that year oi'curred the disastrous defeat of Braddock, near Pittsburgh, in which Washington, then a young man, distinguished himself. Penn- svlvania took an active part in the Revolu- tionary contest, and on her soil occurred the battles of Hrandywine and (iermantown, September and October, 1777, the massacres of Wyiuuing and J'aoli, and the sutlering winter encamjiment at Valley Forge in 1777-78. The most prosperous of the colo- nies, and in a central position, it became the seat of the congress held by the colonies both before and after tlie decision of the struggle. Independence was proclaimed here, and it retiiaiiied the seat of the general government until 1800. No State in the confederacy has been more loyal to the Constitution. During the war of 1812 she promjitly furnished her quota of troops, and during the civil war she sent nearly 400,000 men into the field. During this trying period her territory was three times invaded: in 18<>2, when Cham- bersburg (which see) was caj>tured, and in 18ij4, when it was burned; and in 18»»8, when it was invaded by Lee, and the battle of Gettysburg fijught on its soil. Penobscots. A tribe of Indians, of Al- gonkin stock (numbering about 5(J0), who reside on an island in the Penobscot Uiver, about 8 miles north of Bangor, Me. They were allies of the colonists in the war of the Revolution, and received lor their services a large tract of hind, the greater part of which has been from time to time disposed of. Penon de Velez. A fortified town, built on a high and steep rock, lying oft' the north coa.st of Morocco, 75 miles southeast from Ceuta. It belongs to Spain, and was founded by Pedro of Navarre in 1508. It was taken by the Moors in 1522; but recovered by the Spaniards in 1004. Penrith. A town of England, county of Cumberland, 282 miles north-northwest of London. On a knoll to the west of the town stand the ruins of a castle, which was built by the Nevilles during the wars of the Roses, and dismantled in the civil war by the Par- liamentary party. The town is a place of considerable antiquity,, and it formerly played a conspicuous part in the border war- fare. It was taken by the Scots several times in'the 14th century, and in 1715 and 1745 was occupied by the insurgents. Pensacola. City and capital of Escambia Co., Fia., situated on the west shore of Pen- sacola Bay, about 10 miles from the Gulf of Mexico, has an excellent harbor, and is one of the safest in the Gulf. Pensacola was settled by the Spaniards, occupied by the British in 1814, and acquired by the United States in 1821. It contains a navy-yard, and is defended by Forts Pickens and" ^IcRae. During the civil war, 1801-r)5, it was the scene of several military and naval opera- tions. The navy-yard was surrendered to the Confederates" in 18tJl, but was recovered by the Union forces in the following year. Pension. Specifically, a stated allowance to a person in consideration of past services ; j payment made to one retired from service, for age, disability, or other cause ; espe- j cially a yearly stipend jiaid by government to retired officers, disabled soldiers, the I families of soldiers killed, etc. Pensioner. In the British army, is a soldier nuiintained in Chelsea Hospital. Pensioner, Out-. In the British army, is a soldier receiving a pension, but not main- tained in Chelsea Hospital. Those who are capable of bearing arms are available for i military service wjien required. PENSIONERS 422 PERIGUEUX Pensioners, Gentlemen. See Gkntle- MEN-AT-ARMS. Penstock. A machine composed of tim- ber, whicli, by means of a movable board, enables the defenders of a fortress to allow such a rush of water from the batardeaux as to inundate and destroy the works which the enemy may have constructed in the ditch. Pentagon. In fortification, a figure bounded by five sides, which form so many angles, capable of being fortified with an equal number of bastions. It also denotes a fort with five bastions. Pentathlon. The five exercises performed in the Grecian games, namely, leaping, run- ning, quoiting, darting, and wrestling. Penthouse. A shed hanging forward in a sloping direction from the main wall of a place. Pentland Hills. A range of hills in Scotland, commencing about 4 miles west from Edinburgh. Here the Scotch Presby- terians, since called Cameronians, who hsid risen against the government, on account of the establishment of Episcopacy, were defeated by the royal troops, November 28, 1G66. Pentri. One of the most important of the tribes in Samnium ; were conquered by the Romans along with the other Samnites, and were the only one of the Samnite tribes who remained faithful to the Romans when the rest of the nation revolted to Hannibal in the second Punic war. Peons. East Indian municipal foot-sol- diers. These men are chiefly employed to assist in collecting the revenues, and carry a pike or staff. Most persons in India keep servants, who wear a belt with their mas- ter's name on it. These are called peadahs. Peoria Indians. A tribe of aborigines who formerly resided in Illinois, but are now settled on the Quapaw agency, in In- dian Territory, in confederation with the Kaskaskias and other tribes. They are but few in number, the northern tribes having nearly exterminated them in 1769, in re- venge for the murder of Pontiac. Pequots, or Pequods. A tribe of Indians of Algonkin stock, closely allied to the Mo- hegans, who resided in Eastern Connecti- cut The tribe was nearly exterminated by the colonists in the Pequot war (1637). Perclose, or Demi-Garter. In heraldry, the lower half of a garter with the buckle. Percussion. Is the impression which a body makes in falling or striking against another, or the shock of two moving bodies. It is either direct or oblique. Percussion, Centre of. That point wherein the shock of the percutient bodies is the greatest. Percussion, Direct. Is where the impulse is given in the direction of a right line per- pendicular to the point of contact. Percussion, Oblique. Is where the im- pulse is given in the direction of a line ob- lique to the point of contact. Percussion-bullet. A bullet made by placing a small quantity of percussion pow- der in a copper envelope in the point of an ordinary rifled-musket bullet. Percussion-caps. See Caps, Percus- sion-. Percussion-fuze. See Fuze. Percussion-lock. A lock of a gun in which gunpowder is exploded by fire ob- tained from the percussion of fulminating powder. Percussion-match. A match which ig- nites by percussion. Percussion-powder. Powder composed of such materials as to ignite by slight per- cussion ; fulminating powder. Percutient. That which strikes or has power to strike. Perdu. A word adopted from the French, signifying to lie flat and closely in wait. It likewise means employed on desperate pur- poses ; accustomed to desperate enterprises. Pered (Hungary). Here the Hungarians under Gorgey were defeated by Wohlge- muth and the Russians, June 21, 1849. Perekop. An isthmus 5 miles broad, con- necting the Crimea with the mainland. It was called by the Tartars Orkapou, "gate of the Isthmus," which the Russians changed to its present name, which signifies a bar- ren ditch. The Tartar fortress of the same name, which was situated on this isthmus, was taken and destroyed by the Russian marshal Miinich in 1736, by assault, although it was defended by 1000 Janissaries and 100,000 Tartars. It was again strongly for- tified by the khan, but was again taken by the Russians in 1771, who have since re- tained it. Peremptory. Whatever is absolute and final, not to be altered, renewed, or re- strained. Peremptory execution^ what takes place immediately. Perfidious. Treacherous ; false to trust ; guilty of violated faith ; hence a perfidious foe. War, however melancholy in its ef- fects, and frequently unjustifiable in its cause and progress, is nevertheless, among civilized nations, so far governed by certain principles of honor as to render the obser- vance of established laws and customs an object of general acquiescence. When two or more countries are engaged in a hostile contest, whatever belligerent party grossly deviates from those rules is deservedly stamped with infamy, and justly called a perfidious foe. Perfidy. Want of faith ; treachery. Perforated Cake Pow^der. See Gunpow- der. Perigueux. A town of France, capital of the department of Dordogne, 296 miles south-southwest from Paris. Perigueux oc- cupies the site of the ancient Yesunna, which was at the time of the Roman inva- sion the capital of the Petrocorii. Under the empire, it was a place of no small im- portance, as it stood at the junction of five roads, and was strongly fortified. It was PERIL 423 PERPIGNAN ceded, alonpj with Aquitaine, to the English by Louis IX. After having been recovered by the French, the town was again lost ; but it was finally taken from the English by Charles V. During the civil wars of the Keformation, it was a stronghold of the Protestants till the year 1581 ; and it was not till 1653 that it came into the power of the crown. Peril. Instant or impending danger ; risk ; hazard ; jot)pardy ; exposure to in- jury, loss, or destruction. Peril. To expose to danger ; to hazard ; to risk, etc. Perim. A small island belonging to Great Britain, situated in the strait of Bub-ol- Mandcl), at the entrance to the Ked Sea, about 1 mile distant from the Arabian, and about 13 miles from the African coast. On its southwest side is an excellent harbor, capable of accommodating 40 men-of-war. Fortifications have been erected on the island, and the guns command the strait on both sides. It was first occupied by the English in 1799, and held by them as a check upon the designs of the French, who were then in Egypt. It was abandoned in 1801, but was reofcupied by Great Britain in February, 1857, with a view to the pro- tection of her Indian possessions, which were thought to bo exposed to some chance of danger from the opening of the Suez Canal. Perjury. False swearing ; the act or crime of willfully nuiking a false oath, when lawfully administered; or the crime committed when a lawful oath is adminis- tered, in some judicial proceeding, to a per- son who swears willfully, absolutely, and falsely in a matter material to the issue. For punishment of persons convicted of perjury, see Appendix, Articles of War, GO and «)2. Perkernucka. Petty officers are so called in India. Perm. A government of Russia, situated partly in Russia in Europe and partly in Russia in Asia. It was invaded and ruined by tile Mongols in the 13th century. Permanent Fortification. See Fortifi- cation. Permanent Rank. A rank in the military service which does not cease with any par- ticular service, or locality of circumstimces ; in opposition to local or temporary rank. Peronne. A town of France, in the de- tartment of Somme, 30 miles east of Amiens, (ouis XL of France, having placed himself in the power of the Duke of Burgundy, was forced to sign the treaty of Peronne, contirm- ing those of Arras and Conllans, with several humiliating stipulations, October 14, 1468. Louis XL had promised Champagne and Brie as ap|)anages to his brother Charles, duke of Berry, not intending to keep his word, apprehending that those provinces, being so near4iurgundy, would prove a fresh source of broils and disputes. Peronne was a place of much importance in the Middle Ages, and bore the name of La Pucelle ("The Maiden City"), as it was never cap- tured till Wellington took it eight davs after the battle of Waterloo. Perpendicular Direction. In the march of a line, is the direction at right angles to the line which each man should take in a direct movement to the front. Without the strictest attention is piiid to tliis essential princijjle in all movements, the greatest irregularity, and ultimately the greatest confusion, must ensue. Perpendicular and parallel movements constitute, indeed, the whole system of good marching. When several columns, divisions, or companies ad- vance, the lines and directions of marching must be strictly perpendicular and parallel to each other, otherwise the distance will be lost, and the ultiniiite obji'd of forming a correct line niu>t be d. Irnird. Perpendicular Fortification. Owes its origin to the Marquis de Montalembert, a distinguished French general, who published his works upon the subject in 1776. Vauban had, it was admitted, rendered the art of attack superior to that of defense. Montalem- bert strove to reverse this relation, and in his endeavors, rejected entirely the bastion sy.s- tem of the older engineers. Instead of the oc- casional bastions, with intervening curtains, with which they surrounded their enceinte, he broke the whole polygon into salient and re-entering angles, tlie latter being generally at right angles. Before the connected redans thus formed were counterguards of low ele- vation and ravelins, to which the approaches were through casemated rapon)iierfii. In the salient angle of each redan he built a brick tower, 40 feet in diameter, twelve-sided, and four stories high. The second and third tiers were built for heavy guns, and the upper loop-holed for musketry. In the centre of the tower was a circular rcduit, intended as a last refuge for the garrison. Montalembert maintained that from these towers every possible approadi could be com- manded, which to a great extent is true; but it must be also remembered that the greater space a gun commands, by so much the more is it raised above the plain, and rendered visible. These towers would have little chance against the ritlcd ordnance of the I present day. Montalembert's system was I violently attacked by the French engineers, j but Carnot subsequently adopted it, with some modifications, and it enters largely into the modern German defensive works. The system has never, however, found favor with British engineers. Perpendicular, Gunner's. See Gunner's Lkvkl. Perpignan. A town of France, in the de- \ partment of the Ea.stern Pyrenees, situated I on the Tet, 35 miles from Narb<»nne. It ' commands the passage by the Eastern Pyre- . nees from Spain into France, and is defended on the south by a citadel and by ramparts flanked with bastions, and protected by , raised works. Perpignan now ranks as one PERRH^BI 424 PERTH of the first strongholds in France. In 1474 the town was taken by Louis XI. of France, but having been restored to Spain, it was again taken by Louis XIII. in 1642, and, along with the province of Roussillon, finally ceded to France by the treaty of the Pyre- nees in 1659. In 1793 a battle was fought in its neighborhood between the Spaniards and the French, in which the former were defeated. Perrhaebi. A powerful and warlike Pe- lasgis people, who, according to Strabo, mi- grated from Eubcea to the mainland, and settled in the districts of Hestitetos and Pe- lasgiotis in Thessaly. The Perrhaebi were members of the Amphictyonic League. At an early period they were subdued by the Lapith.-e ; at the time of the Peloponnesian war they were subject to the Thessalians, and subsequently to Philip of Macedon ; but at the time of the Roman wars in Greece they appear independent of Macedonia. Perrieres. A kind of short mortars for- merly much used for throwing stone shot. Persepolis. An ancient city, the capital of Persia at the time of the invasion of Alexander the Great, and the seat of the chief palaces of the Persian kings. The city is said to have been burned by Alex- ander, and is not subsequently mentioned in history except in tlie second book of the Maccabees, where it is stated that Antiochus Epiphanes made a fruitless efl'ort to plunder its temples. In the later times of the Mo- hammedan rule, the fortress of Istakhr seems to have occupied the place of Persepolis. Persia (Per. Iran). A country of Asia, which may be considered as the most opu- lent and powerful of any that lie to the west of India ; it is bounded on the west by Tur- key in Asia, north by Caucasus, the Cas- pian Sea, and Asiatic Russia, east by Afghan- istan and Beloochistan, and south by the Persian Gulf and Arabian Sea. The Per- sians, as a nation, first rose into notice on the ruins of the great empires founded on the Euphrates. Babylon was taken by Cyrus in 638 B.C., and soon after he extended it more widely than any that had been previ- ously established in the world. It com- prised, on one side, the west of India, and on the other, Asia Minor, Syria, and Egypt; and the valor, indeed, with which the Greeks defended their small territory, alone pre- vented him from annexing a considerable part of Eui-ope to his domains. After a feeble struggle, it succumbed to the brave and disciplined armies of Alexander, who won the entire empire of Darius Codomanus for his own by force of arms, in 381. After his death, his immense possessions were di- vided among his generals ; but Greeks and Greek sovereigns continued during several centuries to reign over Western Asia. About 2 B.C. Artaxerxes founded the mon- archy of the Parthians; and in 3 a.d. the dynasty of the Sassanidae arose, who restored the name, with the religion and laws, of ancient Persia. They were overthrown by the Mohammedan invaders, who suffered in their turn from the successive invasions of the country by the descendants of Gen- ghis Khan, Tamerlane, and the Turks, who entirely changed the aspect of Western Asia. At length, in 1501, a native dynasty again arose, under Ismael Shah, who placed him- self on the throne. After the reign of Abbas the Great, who died in 1628, the princes of the Safi dynasty became enervated by lux- ury and dissipation, and Persia, in the be- ginning of the last century, was overrun by the Afghans, who carried fire and sword throughout the whole country, and reduced its proudest capitals to ashes. The atrocities of the Afghans were avenged, and the inde- pendence of Persia vindicated, by Nadir Shah ; but though the victories of this daring chief threw a lustre on his country, it was almost torn to pieces after his death by civil war, till the fortune of arms gave a decided superiority to Kerim Khan. His death gave rise to another disputed succession, with civil wars as furious as" before. At length Aga-Mohammed, a eunuch, raised himself in 1795 by crimes and daring to the sover- eignty, and not only held it during his life- time, but transmitted it to his nephew, who assumed the title of Feth Ali Shah, and subdued the rebellious tribes in Khorassan, but was dragged into a war with Russia, in which he lost the power of Derbend and several districts on the Kur. In 1848, Nasr-ed-Din, the great-grandson of Feth Ali, succeeded to the throne, and in consequence of the capture of Herat by the Persians in 1856, war was declared against them by Great Britain. Bushire was occupied, and the Persian troops were twice defeated by Gen. Outram at Kooshab and Mohammerah in the following year. These victories were followed by the conclusion of a treaty of peace, April, 1857, and the evacuation of Herat by the Persians in the month of July. Personnel (Fr.). All the officers and men, military and civil, composing an army, or any part of one, as opposed to matcfiel. Personnel of a Battery. All officers and men necessary for the manceuvre, manage- ment, and care of a battery. Perspective. Is the art of drawing the resemblance of objects on a plane surface, as the objects themselves appear to the eye, etc. Perth. The principal town of Perthshire, and formerly the metropolis of Scotland, sit- uated on the Tay, which is crossed here by a fine stone bridge, 33 miles from Edinburgh. It is one of the most ancient towns of Scot- land. It is a generally received opinion that Perth was built and fortified by Agricola, who erected a citadel to maintain his con- quests, and check the wild spirit of the sav- age natives. In 1298, after the battle of Falkirk, Edward I. fortified Perth and re- built the walls in the strongest manner. The worthy burgesses of this town seem to have been men of mettle in those days, and on various occasions sallying forth from behind PERU '425 PERU their walls, set fire to the castles of their hiiiijjhty neighbors, when the latter had for- bidden their vassals to carry jjrovisions to the city. In the year 1311, li«)bert Bruce laid siege to the town, but was obliged to withdraw his troops, after various unsuccess- ful attempts to take it ; but subsequently, choosing a dark night, he led a selected band of determined men against it, scaled the walls, and carried the town sword in hand, the king himself being the second man who entered the place. About the beginning of the 14th century, the famous ccmibat between the Clan Chattan and the Clan Quhele, or Clan Kay, took place on the North Inch, and was decided in favor of the former, partly by the bravery of a citizen or bur- gess called Harry Wind, whom the chief of the Clan Chattan had engaged on the spot to supply the place of one of his men who had failed to a)»pear. In 1544, the regent, at the instigation of Cardinal Bethune, turned Lord Ituthveii, provost of the town, out of his ofTice, and conferred it upon Chartres of Kinfauns. The citizens, however, resisted the attempt, and repulsed, in a smart skir- mish, the cardinal's nominee, who came to enter upon his duties at the head of an armed force. In 1'j59, after a riotous insur- rection, during which the Catholic churches Avere demolished, the queen determined to inflict the severest vengeance on the Re- formers. Both parties took the field ; nego- tiations ensued ; Perth was thrown open to the queen, and occupied by a French garri- son. Relief from the insolence and exac- tions of the garrison was only obtained after a regular siege by the Reformers. On June 20, Lord Ruthvcn attacked the town on the west, and Provost Ilalyburton of Dundee fired into it from the bridge, and speedily obliged the garrison to capitulate. Subse- quently, Argyle, and Stewart, prior of St. Andrews, marched out of Perth with 300 citizens, resolved to prosecute the Reforma- tion, or perish in the attempt. The people joined them everywhere as they proceeded, and before they reached Stirling their num- bers had increased to 5000. The gates of Stirling and every other town in their way were thrown open to receive them. They, without violence, took possession of Edin- burgh, cast the images out of its churches, and placed in them ministers of the Refor- mation. Peru. A republic of South America, formed out of the former Spanish viceroyalty of the sanie name. The first information received of the country by the Spaniards •was obtained from a young cacique in the neighborhood of the Isthmus of Darien about the year loll. In lol3, Viu-co Nunez de Balboa crossed the mountains which separated the two oceans, and tt>ok possession of the Pacilic in the name of the king of Castile. He extended his discoveries many leagues southward, but appears not to have reached the territory of Peru. In l.)2o, Franci>f> I'izarro, a soldier of mean birth but of daring spirit, who had accompanied Balboa in the previous expedition, embark- ing at Panama with about 100 men, landed in Peru, and spent three years in exploring the country-. Having returned to Spain with presents of gold and jewels for the king, he was sent out with orders to eflect the conquest of the newly-discovered country. Recrossing the ocean with 180 men and 27 horses, he again set sail from Panama, and receiving some furtlier reinforcements at Puerto Viejo and Puna, now considered him.self in a fit position to enter upon the proper scene of his labors. He accordingly cro.ssed over to Tunibez, and there learned that the country had for sometime been dis- tracted by a civil war between liuascar and Atahuallpa, two sons of the late inca. Pizarro saw at once the^mportance to him and his oause of this state of the country. After some time spent in reconnoitring, he fixed upcm a fertile spot in the rich valley of Tangarala as a site for a set- tlement. Here he established a town which he called San Miguel. On September 24, 1532, leaving 60 men as a guard for this new settlement, he started out with 167 men, 07 of whom were cavalry, to meet the inca Atahuallpa, who now victorious over his brother was encamped with his army about ten or twelve days' journey oft'. His force was everywhere received with kindness; an envoy from the inca was sent with presents to meet and invite him to an interview at Caxamarca. The Spaniards arrived here November 15, 1532, and treach- erously prepared to use the unsuspecting kindness of the Peruvians as the means of their destruction. When at the appointed time the inca accompanied by his nobles and retinue was proceeding to the place of interview, he and his followers were assailed by the Spaniards who were concealed in the neighboring buildings, thousands of the un- suspecting and unarmed natives were slain, and Atahuallpa himself taken prisoner. An immense ransom was off'ercd for him ; it was accepted by Pizarro, who, however, basely refused to give up his prisoner, but after a mockery of a trial put him to death. For many years the country was in a state of war and anarchy, resulting finally in Pizarrobecoming master of Peru in 1540, and it became a viceroyalty of Spain-. In its subsequent history there is matter of little interest till the war of inde|tendence, which was proclaimed in 1821 by (Jen. San Martin, and successfully terminated by Bolivar, who, after a succession of engagements, the most notable of which was thatof Ayacucho ^which see), finally drove the Spaniards from Callao, their "last stronghold, July 29, 1820. The country has since on several oc- casions been the scene of those insurrections to which the states of Spanish America have been subject. In IHT'.t war was proclaimed between Peru and Chili, which has recently terminated in a complete victory for the latter. PEPvUGIA 426 PETEKSBUKG Perugia (anc. Pei-usia). A city of Central Italy, 10 miles east of the lake of the same name, and 85 north of Kome. It formed in ancient times one of the twelve Etrurian re- publics. In conjunction with other cities of Etruria, it long resisted the power of the Komans, but was finally ruined by the lat- ter, having been defeated in two engage- ments, 309 and 295 B.C., and becoming sub- ject to Rome in 294. It is memorable in the civil wars as the refuge of L. Antonius, the brother of the triumvir, when unable to oppose the progress of Octavianus. It was held by the latter for some months and was compelled to surrender through famine, and burned to the ground in 40 B.C. It was afterwards rebuilt by Augustus, and was captured by the Goths under Totila at the fall of the Western empire. It was afterwards united to tlie Papal States, and in 1860 became part of the kingdom of Italy. Perugia, Lake of. See Tkasimbnus La- CTJS. Perusia. See Perugia. Pescara. A town of Italy, province of Chieti. It was formerly strongly fortified, and has stood many sieges. Peschiera. A frontier town and fortress of Italy, in Lombardy, at the south extrem- ity of "the Lake of Garda, 20 miles north- northwest from Mantua. Peschiera com- mands the right bank of the river Mincio. During the French republican war, it was a simple pentagon. Its fortifications, however, have been greatly strengthened by the Aus- trians. It is defended by walls and by forts, lunettes, fosses, and a covered way ; and the purpose which it is mainly intended to serve, besides that of forming an intrenched camp capable of accommodating a considerable number of troops, is to harass an army at- tempting to cross the Mincio by Goito or Valeggio. It has been taken frequently by siege, by the French in 1796; by the Aus- trians and Russians, 1799 ; by the French again, 1801 ; given up by them, 1814 ; taken by the Sardinian troops under Charles Al- bert, May 30, 1848 ; retaken by Radetzky, 1849. It was invested by the Sardinians in June, 1859, after the battle of Solferino. The conclusion of the treaty of Villafranca, however (July 11, 1859), relieved Peschiera from a siege, and it was included in the kingdom of Italy by treaty of Vienna, 1866. Peshawur. A city of British India, cap- ital of the province of Peshawur (or Pe- shawer), about 18 miles east of the eastern extremity of the Khyber Pass. It was founded by the Mogul emperor Akbar. Run- jeet Singh took it after his victory over the Afghans at Noushera, and destroyed many of its finest buildings. Pesth. A city of Hungary, situated on the Danube, opposite to Buda, with which it is connected by a bridge of boats three- quarters of a m'ile in length. It was re- peatedly taken and besieged in the wars of Hungary, particularly in the long contests with the Turks. The great insurrection broke out here September 28, 1848. Buda- Pesth was taken by the Imperialists, Janu- ary 5, 1849. The Hungarians afterwards defeated the Austrians, who were obliged to evacuate it April 18, 1849; but the latter, under Gen. Hentzi, occupied Buda, and a severe contest began between the two parties. On May 4, Gorgei, with an army of 40,000 Hungarians, occupied the heights above Buda, and began to bombard that town ; while the Austrians in their turn directed their artillery against the lower city of Pesth. On May 16, the Hungarians made an unsuc- cessful attack on Buda, but on the 20th the place was taken by assault, after an obstinate and bloody struggle. Pestle. An instrument used in the fab- rication of gunpowder. Petards. Are instruments used for blow- ing open gates, demolishing palisades, etc. They consist of a half-cone of thick iron, filled with powder and ball ; they are usually fastened to a ])lank, and the latter is pro- vided with hooks to alloAV of its being at- tached securely to a gate, etc. The petard has been almost universally superseded by the use of powder-bags. Petardeer, or Petardier. One who man- ages petards. Petelia, or Petilia (now Strongoli). An ancient Greek town on the eastern coast of Bruttium; founded, according to tradition, by Philoctetes. It was situated north of Croton, to whose territory it originallj'^ be- longed, but it was afterward conquered by the Lucanians. It remained faithful to the Romans when the other cities of Bruttium revolted to Hannibal, and it was not till after a long and desperate resistance that it was taken by one of Hannibal's generals. Peterero, or Pedrero. A short piece of chambered ordnance was formerly so called. Petersburg. A city of Dinwiddie Co., Va., on the south bank of the Appomattox River, about 25 miles from Richmond. The city is one of historic interest. It was twice occupied by the British forces as headquar- ters during the Revolutionary war ; but it is principally noted as the scene of several sanguinary encounters during the civil war, and for the obstinate and bloody defense which it made. On June 15-16, 'l864, two formidable assaults were made on it by the Army of the Potomac under Gen. Grant, but they were repulsed with heavy loss. It was then determined to invest the city, which was done a few days later. On July 30, another attempt was made to take it by storm, but without success. The siege wa8 prolonged with many indecisive operations until April 3, 1865, after a week's bombard- ment it was evacuated by Gen. Lee, who surrendered six days later. Petersburg, St. The capital and most populous city of the Russian empire, at the mouth of the Neva in the Gulf of Finland, 16 miles east of Cronstadt, and 400 miles northwest of Moscow. It was founded by Peter the Great, May 27, 1703. The peace PETERWALDEN 427 PHARAX of St. Petersburg, between Russia and Prus- Kiu, tlie former restoring all her conquests to tiic latter, was signed May 5, 1702. Treaty of St. Petersburg for the partition of Poland, August 5, 1772. Treaty of St. Petersburg, let to a coalition against France, September 8, 1805. Treaty of Alliance, signed at St. Petersburg, between Bernadotte, prince royal of Sweden, and the emperor Alex- ander; the former agreeing to join in the campaign against France, in return for which Sweden was to receive Norway, March 24, 1812. Peterwalden (Germany), Convention of. Bi'twocii (ircat Britain and Russia, by which a firm and decisive alliance between these powers was made against France and the course of action against Napoleon Bonaparte was planned, signed July 8, 1813. This al- liance led to the overthrow of Bonaparte in the next year. Peterwardein, or Varadin, The capital town of Slavonia, Austria, and the strongest fortress on the Danube, is situated on a scarped rock, on the right bank of the Dan- ube, opposite Neusatz, with which town it is connected by a bridge of boats, defended by a strong tcte-de-pont, 44 miles northwest of Belgrade. It is the residence of the gen- eral commandant of the Slavonian military frontier, and of several subordinate military authorities. It derives its present name from Peter the Hermit, who here marshaled the soldiers of the first Crusade. Peter- wardein was taken by the Turks, July, 152(). In 1()88, the fortifications were blown up by the Imperialists, and the town was soon after burned to the ground by the Turks ; but at the peace of Passarowitz, on July 21, 1718, it remained in the possession of the emperor. It was here that, on August 5, 171t!, the Austrians, under Prince Eugene, obtained a great victory over the Turks under Grand Vizer Ali ; the latter then lost their last footing in Central Europe. PetVa. The Srla of the Old Testament, the chief town of Arabia Petra>a, once the capital of the Idumeans, and subsequently of the Nabata'i. It was subdued by A. Cor- nelius Pahiui, a lieutenant of Trajan's, and remained under the dominion of the Romans a considerable time, and its destruction is supposed at length to have been wrought by the .Mohammedans. Petra. An ancient town of Colchis, in the land of the Lazi, founded by Joannes Tzibus, a general of Justinian, to keep these people in subjection. It was situated on a rock near the coast, and was very strongly fortified. It was taken by Chosroes in 541 A.D., and its subsequent siege by the Ro- mans is described by Gibbon as "one of the most remarkable actions of the age. The first siege was relieved; but it was again at- Uicked by the Romans, and was at length taken by assault, after a long protracted re- sistance, in 551 A.u. It was then destroyed by the Romans, and from that time disap- pears from history. Petra. An ancient and strong fortress in Sogdiana, held by Arimazes when Alexander attacked it. Petronel (Fr. jictrinal, or poiironal). A piece between a carbine and a pistol (with a wheel-lock), which was used by the French during the reign of Francis I. ; it was held against the breast when fired. To prevent any injury from its recoil, the soldier who used it was jirovided with a jiad. Petropaulovski. A fortified town on the east coast of Kamtschatka, was attacked bv an English and French squadron August •SO, 1854. They destroyed the batteries, and a party of 700 sailors aiid marines landed to assault the place, but fell into an anibuscade, and many were killed. After this the Rus- sians greatly strengthened their defenses, but on May 30, 1855, the allied squadron in the Pacific arriving here found the place de- serted. The fortifications were destroyed, but the town was spared. Pettah. In Southern India, a term ap- plied to the enceinte of a town, as distin- guished from the fortress by which it is pro- tected. Pettman Fuze. See FuzK. Pfaffendorf and Liegnitz. See Lieonitz. Pfedersheim. A town of Germany, in Ilesse-Darnistadt, 4 miles northwest from Worms. A battle was fought here, in 1555, which brought the " PeaWnts' war" to a termination. Phalanx. The ancient Greek formation for heavy infantry, which won for itself a reputation of invincibility. It may be de- scribed as a line of parallel columns, ren- dered by its depth and solidity capable of penetrating any line of troops. The oldest {)halanx was the Laced;emonian, or Spartan, in which the soldiers stood 8 deep, but this was reduced to 4 men by Miltiades, in order to increase his front at the battle of Mara- thon, 480 B.C. The Macedonian phalanx, as the latest form that organizatinii assumed, and as the shape in which the phalanx en- countered the military skill of the West, is deserving of description. The line was Itj deep : a grand-phalanx comprising If!, 384 men, composed of four phalanxes or divis- ions, each under a general officer, called a plinlancjarch ; his command was divided into two brigades, or merarchies, each of these comprising two regiments, or chiliarc/ict, of four battalions, or si/nfapmafa, each, and each syntagma of IG men each way, making a per- fect square. The Roman legion was far su- perior to the phuhmx. Phalsbourg. A strong town of Alsace, de- partment of La Meurthe, Northeast France. It was ceded to France in 1G61, and its for- tress erected by Vauban, 1<)79. It checked the progress of the victorious allies both in 1814 and 1815, and withstotnl the Germans from August KJ to December 12, 1870, when it capitulated unconditionally. Pharax. One of the council of ten ap- pointed by the Spartans in 418 n.c. to con- trol Agis! At the battle of Mantinea in PHAKSALUS PIACENZA that year, he restrained the Laccdiemonians from pressing too much on the defeated en- emy, and so running the risk of driving tliem to despair. In 39G iJ.c. he laid siege with 120 ships to Caunus, where Conon was stationed, but was compelled to withdraw by the approach of a large force. Pharsalus (now Fersala, or PharsaUn). Anciently a town of Thessaly, to the south of Larissa, on the river Enipeus, a branch of the Peneus (now the Salambria), and his- torically notable mainly for the great battle fought here between Csesar and Pompey, August 9, 48 B.C. Pompey had about 45,000 legionaries, 7000 cavalry, and a great number oflight-armed auxiliaries. Caesar had 22,000 legionaries and 1000 German and Gallic cav- alry. The battle-cry of Caesar's army was '■'■Venus victrix," i\\&i of Pompey's "Her- cules invictus." Caesar's right wing began the battle by an attack on the left wing of Pompey, which was speedily routed. Pompey fled into the camp, and his army broke up ; Caesar's troop stormed his camp about mid-day, and he himself, awaking as from stupefaction, fled to Larissa, whither Caesar followed him next day. Caesar lost about 1200 men. On Pompey's side about 6000 legionaries fell in battle, and more than 24,000 who had fled, were taken, whom Ca?- sar pardoned and distributed among his troops. Pheon. In heraldry, the barbed iron head of a dart ; used also as a royal mark, to de- note crown property, and termed the broad, or broad ai'row. Philadelphia. A city and metropolis of Pennsylvania, situated between the Dela- Avare and Schuylkill Rivers. The city was settled and planned by William Penn in 1682, and its name (City of Brotherly Love) given through the Society of Friends, of whom he was the great leader in America. It had a prominent position in the Kevolu- tion, and was in possession of the British troops after the disastrous battles of Brandy- wine and Germantown, until 1778. Being the second city of the United States in wealth and importance, it has been ever for- ward in promoting her interests. Philibeg. SeeFiLLiBEO. Philiphaugh. Near Selkirk, Southern Scotland, where the Marquis of Montrose and the royalists were defeated by David Leslie and the Scotch Covenanters, Septem- ber 13, 1645. Philippi. A city of Macedonia. It was named after Philip II. of Macedon, who conquered it from Thrace. Here Antony and Octavianus, in two battles, defeated the republican forces of Cassius and Brutus, who both committed suicide, October, 42 B.C. ; this ended the republican government of Rome. Phocsea. The most northern of the cities of Ionia, was situated about 25 miles north- west from Smyrna. It was founded by a colony of Phocians, led by two Athenians, Philogenes and Damon. Its citizens are said to have been the first among the Greeks who extended their commercial voyages to great distances ; and its inhabitants abandoned their city rather than submit to the Persians, 644 B.C. They settled in Italy, and founded Velia. Massilia in France, and Alalia in Corsica, were colonies of the Phocseans. Phocis. A province of Greece Proper, or Hellas, bounded on the north bj- the Ozo- lian Lokri, on the north by Doris, on the east by the Opuntian Lokri, and on the south by the Gulf of Corinth. During the Pelo- p'onnesian war, the Phocians were close allies of the Athenians. In 357 B.C. they seized Delphi, and commenced the second Sacred war. They were opposed by Thebes and other states, and were utterly subdued by Philip II. of Macedon in 846. Phoenicia. Is the name given by the Greeks and Romans to a certain territory situated about 34°-36° N. lat., bounded by the Mediterranean on the west, by Syria to the north and east, and Judaea to the south. Its length may be .said to have been about 200 miles, while its breadth never exceeded 20 miles. The natives were the most emi- nent navigators and traders of antiquity; their cities or allied states being Tyre, Sidon, Berytus, Tripolis, Byblos, and Ptolemais, or Acre. From the 19th to the 13th century B.C., they established colonies on the shores or isles of the Mediterranean, Carthage, Hippo, Utica, Gades, Panormus, and are said to have visited the British Isles. Phoe- nicia was conquered by Cyrus, 537 B.C. ; by Alexander, 332 ; by the Romans, 47 ; and after partaking of the fortunes of Palestine, was added to the Ottoman empire, 1516. Phous-dan. An East Indian term for a commander of a large body of forces. Phrygia. A country of Asia Minor. According to the division of the provinces under the Roman empire, Phrygia formed the eastern part of the province of Asia, and was bounded on the west by Mysia, Lydia, and Caria, on the south by Lycia and Pisidia, on the east by Lycaonia (which is often reckoned as a part of Phrygia) and Galatia (which formerly belonged to Phrygia), and on the north by Bithynia. The kingdom of Phrygia was conquered by Croesus, and formed part of the Persian, Macedonian, and Syro-Grecian empires ; but, under the last, the northwestern part was conquered by the Gauls ; and a part west of this was subjected by the kings of Bithynia; this last portion was the object of a contest be- tween the kings of Bithynia and Pergamus. The whole of Phrygia was assigned by the Romans to the kingdom of Pergamus, after the overthrow of Antiochus the Great in 190 B.C. Piacenza (anc. Placentia). A city of Northern Italy, in the province of the same name, on the right bank of the Po, 2 miles below the confluence of the Trebbia. It is of an oblong form, surrounded by ancient walls and ditches, and defended by a citadel, which was garrisoned by the Austrians till PIANOSA 429 PICTS 1859. Piacenza is first mentioned in 219 B.C., when a Roman colony was settled there. In 200 n.c. it was piundored and burned by the Gauls, but rapidly recovered its prosperity, and was lonj; an important military station. It was the western terminus of the great yEmilian road, which began at Ariminum on the Adriatic. In later history, it plays an important {)art as one of the in- dependent Lombard cities. Pianosa. An island in the Mediterra- nean, aln)ut 10 miles south-southwest of Elba. Pianosa was annexed to Elba and granted to Napoleon I. after his first abdi- cation. Pibroch (Gael. piobaireacM). A wild, irregular species of music, peculiar to the Ilighlands of Scotland. It is performed on a bagpipe, and adapted to e.xcite or assuage passion, and particularly to rouse a martial spirit among troops going to battle. Picador (Sp.). A horseman armed with a lanco, who commences the exercises of a bull-tight by attacking the animal without attempting to kill him. Picardy. An ancient province in the north of France, was bounded on the west by the English Channel, and on the east by Champagne. The name does not occur till the 13th centurv. It was conquered by the English in 134(>, and by the Duke of Bur- gundy in 1417, to whom it was ceded by the treaty of Arras, September 21, 1435, and an- nexed to France by Louis XI., 1403. Picaroon. A pillager, one who plunders ; one who violates the laws. Picentia {Picentinua ; now Acei^no). A town in the south of Campania, at the head of the Sinus Piestanus, and between Saler- num and the frontiers of Lucania, the in- habitants of which were compelled by the Romans, in consequence of their revolt to Hannihal, to abandon their town and live in the neighboring villages. Between the town and the frontiers of Lucania, there was an ancient temple of the Argive Juno, said to have been founded by Jason, the Argonaut. The name of Picentia was not confined to the inhabitants of Picentia, but was given to the inhabitants of the whole coast of the Sinus Pajstanus, from the promontory of Minerva to the river Silarus. They were a portion of the Sabine Picentes, who were transplanted by the Romans to this part of Campania after the conquest of Picenum, 2t)8 H.c, at which time they founded the town of Picentia. Picentines (Picentes). A Sabine tribe, subdued by the Romans, and their capital, Asculum, takt-n, 2G8 n.c. They began the So<.ial war in IH), and were conquered in 89 B.C. Picenum. An ancient province of Italy, was bounded on the north by the Galli Se- nones, on the west by the Umhrians and Sabines, on the south by the Vestini, and on the east by the Adriatic Sea. The Picentes, its inhahitant.s, remained long in undis- turbed tranquillity, while the neighboring tribes were vainly struggling against the all-usurping ambition of Rome. That power condescended in 299 B.C. to enter into an alliance with them. Even when they were at length obliged, in 208 n.c., to bow before the resistless destinies of the Romans, they sutfered little injury. It was not until the outbreak of the Social war, in 90 B.c , that the Picentes appear to have experienced the toils and calamities of a great struggle. Then they assumed an active and zealous part in the general revolt against Rome. Their capital city, Asculum, gave the signal of insurrection, by assassinating the Roman proconsul. Their armies kept the Roman general Cn. Pompeius Strabo for a long time at bay. Nor when the tide of battle began to turn against them did their cour- age waver. They continued to fight until 89 iJ.c, and were put down by sheer force. Pichegru's Conspiracy. See Georges Conspiracy. Pickeer. To pillage ; to pirate. To skir- mish, as soldiers on the outpost of an army, or in pillaging parties. Picker. A small, pointed brass wire, which was formerly supplied to every infan- try soldier for the purpose of cleaning the vent of his musket. Picket. A detachment composed of cav- alry or infantry, whose principal duty is to guard an army from surprise and oppose such small parties as the enemy may push forward for the purpo.se of reconnoitring. Picket. A sharp stake used for securing the fascines of a battery, or fastening the tent-ropes of a camp, etc. Picket. To fortify with pickets or pointed stakes. Also, to fasten to a picket, as a horse while grazing. Picket, Inlying. See Inlying Picket. Picket, Outlying. Is a detachment of troops, sometimes with light guns, posted on the front and flanks of an army in the field, in order to guard against surprise, and to keep reconnoitring parties at a proper dis- tance. Picket-guard. A guard of horse and foot, always in readiness in case of alarm. Picket-line. A rope to which horses are secured when groomed. Picket-line. A position held and guarded by small bodies of men placed at intervals. Picket-pin. An iron j)in with a rinsr at the top. It is driven in the ground and the lariat is attached to it to secure a horse while grazing. Pickets, Tracing. See Tracing Pick- ets. Picqueering, Pickering, or Pickerooning. A little flying skirmish, which marauders make when detached for pillage, or before a main battle. Picrate. See Explosives. Picric Acid. See Explosive.s. Picric Powder. See E.kplosivks. Picts I Picii). The ancient inhabitants of the northeast provinces of Scotland. The 1 Pictish territory extended along the whole PICTS 430 PILE sea-coast from theFirth of Forth to the Pent- land Firth. It was bounded on the west by the country of the Scots, which extended along the western coast from the Firth of Clyde to the modern Eoss-shire ; but the precise line between the two nations cannot be ascertained. The country of the Picts was bounded on the south by the Firth of Forth and the province of Lothian, then possessed by the English ; while the country of the Scots had for its southern boundaries the Firth of Clyde and the Idngdom of Cum- bria, held by the independent Britons. In the middle of the 7th century, a portion of the southern province of the Pictish territo- ries was subdued by Oswy, king of North- umbria. Egfrid, Oswy's son and successor, seems to have contemplated the subjugation of the whole Pictish kingdom. He advanced northwards with his army ; Brude, son of Bili, king of the Picts, retreating before him. The English sovereign pa.ssed the Tay, and the Picts made a stand at Nechtansmere, supposed to be Dunnichen, in Anchus ; the English were utterly' defeated, and their king slain, May 20, 685. The most active of all the Pictish sovereigns was Hungus, son of Urgust, who succeeded, in 730, and reigned for thirty years. He was in constant wars with the Scots, the Britons, and the English, in which he was generally victorious. After his death the kingdom began to decline. Between 838 and 842, the Scots under Ken- neth II. totally subdued the Picts, and seized all their kingdom. Their incursions in Eng- land led to the Saxon invasion. Picts' \Vall. One of the barriers erected by the Eomans across the northern part of England to restrain the incursions of the Picts (which see). Piece. A general name for any kind of ordnance or musket. Piece. In heraldry, an ordinary or charge ; as, the fesse, the bend, the pale, the bar, the cross, the saltire, the chevron, are called honorable pieces. Piece, Battering-. See Battering- pieces. Piece, Field-. See Field-piece. Piedmont. An Italian principality, which now forms the northwest part of the king- dom of Italy. In 1796 it was seized by the French, and parceled out into six depart- ments, five being incorporated with France, and one with the kingdom of Italy, but after the fall of Napoleon, the house of Savoy recovered possession of it. Since 1860 the name Piedmont, as a provincial designation, has been disused ; and in the new division of Italy into provinces, the boundaries of Pied- mont as a distinct country have been disre- garded. Piegans. A tribe of Blackfeet Indians, numbering about 2000, who reside in Mon- tana, and were frequently at war with the Shoshones, Flat Heads, and Gros Ventres. Like the majority of nomadic tribes, they at A'arious times make raids on the settlers, and as a natural result require the correctionary discipline of the military forces. In 1870 they were severely punished by Col. Baker, and, owing to disease and pestilence, they will probably soon cease to exist. Pierced. In heraldry, a term used to in- dicate that a charge is perforated so as to show the field beneath it. The aperture is presumed to be circular, unless some other form, as square-pierced or lozenge-pierced, be specified in the blazon. Piercer. See Ordnance, Constrttction OF, Boring and Turning. Pieria. A narrow slip of country on the southeastern coast of Macedonia, extending from the mouth of the Peneus in Thessaly to the Haliacmon, and bounded on the west by Mount Olympus and its oftshoots. The inhabitants of this country, the Pieres, were a Thracian people, and are celebrated in the early history of Greek poetry and music. After the establishment of the Macedonian kingdom in Emathia in the 7th century B.C., Pieria was conquered by the Macedonians, and the inhabitants were driven out of the country. Pierrier. Was a term originally applied to an engine for casting stones ; then to a small kind of cannon ; now to a mortar for discharging stones, etc. Piers. The columns upon which a bridge is erected. Pies (Fr.). Counts palatine who were created in 1560, by Pope Pius IV., and who had precedence at Rome over knights of the Teutonic order and order of Malta. Pike, Pikeman. Previously to the use of the bayonet, infantry of the line — that is, the heavy-armed troops — were from the earl- iest times armed with pikes or spears. The Macedonians carried pikes 24 feet long ; those of modern warfare averaged 12 or 14 feet. They were of stout wood, and tipped with a flat iron spear-head, which sometimes had cutting edges. As a defense against cavalry, the pike, from its length and rigiditj', was of great value ; but though it long sur- vived the introduction of gunpowder, that event was really fatal to it. For success with the pike, especially in offensive war, a depth of several men Avas essential, and this depth rendered the fire of artillery peculiarly fatal. The pike is now superseded by the bayonet on the end of the musket. Pikestaff. The wooden pole or handle of a pike. Pile. A beam of wood driven into the ground to form a solid foundation for build- ing. Also a heap, as a pile of balls. Balls are piled according to kind and caliber, under cover if practicable, in a place where there is a free circulation of air, to facilitate which the piles should be made narrow if the locality permits ; the width of the bot- tom tier may be from twelve to fourteen balls, according to the caliber. Prepare the ground for the base of the pile by raising it above the surrounding ground so as to throw ofl' the water ; level it, ram it well, and" cover it with a layer of screened sand. Make the PILE 431 PINTLE bottom of the pile with a tier of unservice- uble balls buried about two-thirds of their diameter in the sand ; this base may be made jiermaneiit ; clean the base well and form the pile, j)Uttint; the fuze-holes of shells downwards, in the intervals, and not restinff on the shells below. Each pile is marked with the number of serviceable balls it contains. The base may be made of bricks, concrete, stone, or with borders and braces of iron. Grape- and canister-shot should be oiled or lackered, put in piles, or in strong bo.\es, on the ground-floor, or in dry cellars ; each parcel marked with its kind, caliber, and number. Pile. In heraldry, one of the lesser ordi- naries, having the form of a wedge, usually placed j)ale-wise, with the broadest end up- permost, resembling a pile used in laying the foundations of buildings in watery places, whence it has its name. Pile. The head of an arrow was for- merly SCI called. Pile Arms, To. To place three guns together in such a manner that they may stand upright stcJidily. Also called stack arms. Pile-bridge. A bridge of which the piers are built with piles. These may be either temporary wooden structures, in which wooden piles, driven into the ground, serve also as piers, or they may be permanent bridges, with iron cylinders forming the piles below the surface, and piers above. Piletus. A kind of arrow formerly used, having a knob upon the shaft, near the head, to prevent it from j)enetrating the object aimed at too deeply. Piling Balls. See Pile. Pillage. The act of plundering. Also that which is taken from another by open force, particularly and chietiy from enemies in war; plunder; spoil. Pillage. To strip of money or goods by open violence; to plunder; to spoil; as, troops pillage the camp or towns of an enemy. Pilinitz, or Pilnitz. A palace and ordi- nary summer residence of the royal family of Sa.xony, in a beautiful situation 7 miles southeast of Dresden. Pillnitx acquires a historic interest from the meeting of princes held in the castle in August, 1791, when the Declaration of Pilinitz was framed, according to which Austria and Prussia agreed to declare the circumstances of the king of France (then a prisoner in the Tuil- eries, after his ineft'ective flight to Varenncs) to be a matter of common interest to the .sovereigns of Europe, and to exj^ress the hope that common cause would be made for his restoration. The convention of Pilinitz took place between the emper«>r Leopold and the king of Prussia, July 20, 17111. On August 27, 1701. the treaty'of Pilinitz, or as some style it, the Partition Treaty, was finally agreed upon at Pavia by the courts in concert. It was to the efl'ect "that the emperor should retake all that Louis XIV. had conquered in the Austrian Netherlands, and uniting these provinces to the Nether- lands, give them to his serene highness the elector palatine, to be added to the palati- nate; Bavaria to be added to Austrian pos- sessions," etc. Pillow, Fort. See P'ort Pillow. Pilon (/•'/•.). A half-pike, 7 feet long ex- clusive of the iron, which was 18 inches. It consisted of a fir tube covered with parch- ment and varnished. Marshal Saxe pro- posed to draw up un army four deep, the two front ranks armed with muskets, and the two rear with pilons and muskets too. Pilum. A missile weapon, used by the Koman soldiers, and in a charge darted upon the enemy. Each man of the legionary sol- diers carried two of these pila. Pimas, or Nevomes. A tribe of aborig- ines, about 4000 in number, who are located on a reservation along the Gila Kiver, in Pima and Maricopa Counties, Arizona. They are an active, athletic race, cultivate the soil and pursue a few crude industries, and are at hereditary enmity with the Apaches. Pin. See Ordnance. Pincers, Gunner's. See Gunners Pin- cers. Pindarees. In the East Indies, are plun- derers and marauders, who accompany a Mahratta army. The name is properly that of persons who travel with grain and mer- I chandise ; but war affording so many op- portunities and creating so many necessities, the merchants, as it is all over the world, become plunderers and the worst of ene- mies. Pinerolo, or Pignerol. A town of North- ern Italy, province of Turin. It is sur- rounded by a wall of no great strength, and though originally a part of Piedmont, was in possession of France from 1G31 till the peace of Utrecht in 1713. It was once very strongly fortified ; but its defenses were blown up by the French in 1713. Ping. The whistle of a shot, especially the ritle-bullets in their flight. Pinion. To bind the hands or arms of a person so as to prevent his having the free use of them. Pinkney (near Edinburgh). Here the English under the Earl of Hertford, protec- tor^ totallv defeated the Scots, September 10, 1547. About 10,000 of the Scots were slain, and about 1500 taken prisoners. The Eng- lish loss was scarcely 200. Pintle. In artillery, is the vertical bolt around which the chassis is traversed. In the centre-pintle carriage it is the centre of the chassis, but in the front-pintle carriage it is in the centre of the front transom. It is a stout cvlinder of wrought iron inserted in a block of stone, if the battery be a fixed one; or it is secured to cross-pieces of tim- ber bolted to a platform firmly imbedded in the ground, if it be of a temjKjrary nature. In casemate batteries the pintle is placed immediatelv under the throat of the embra- PINTLE-HOLE 432 PISTOL-GKIP sure, and the chassis is connected with it by a stout strap of iron, called the tongue. Pintle-hole. An oval-shaped aperture made in the trail transom of a tield-carriage, wider above than below, to leave room for the pintle to play in. Pintle-hook. See Ordnance, Car- riages FOR, Nomenclature of Artil- lery Carriage. Pintle-plate. Is a flat iron through which the pintle passes, and is nailed to both sides of the bolster. Pintle-washer. An iron ring thi-ough which the pintle passes, placed close to the bolster for the trail to move upon. Piombino. A town of Italy, province of Pisa, opposite the island of Elba. Here is a large metallurgic establishment for the manufacture of Bessemer steel and military projectiles of great hardness and perfection. Pioneer Sergeant. In the British ser- vice, the non-commissioned otHcer who com- mands the pioneers. Pioneers. Are soldiers sometimes detailed from the different companies of a regiment and formed under a non-commissioned offi- cer, furnished with saws, felling axes, spades, mattocks, pickaxes, and bill-hooks. Their services are very important, and no regi- ment is well fitted for service without pio- neers completely equipped. In European armies there are a certain number of pio- neers to each regiment. Pipe of Peace. See Calumet. Pipe-clay. A composition wliich soldiers use for the purpose of keeping their buff cross-belts, etc., clean. Piquichins (Fr.). Irregular and ill-armed soldiers, of which mention is made in the history of the reign of Philip Augustus. They were attached to the infantry. "PiquieT (F?-.). A pikeman, or one who is armed with a pike. Pirmasens, or Pirmasenz. A town of Rhenish Bavaria. Here Moreau and the Prench were defeated by the Duke of Bruns- wick and the Prussians, September 14, 1793. Pirogue. American Indian canoe, dug out, formed out of the trunk of a tree; or two canoes united. A term also applied in the United States to a narrow ferry-boat carrying two masts and a leeboard. Pisa (anc. Pisce). One of the oldest and most beautiful cities of Italy, and, till lately, the capital of the now extinct grand duchy of Tuscany, on the banks of the river Arno. Pisis was one of the twelve cities of Etruria ; it is frequently mentioned in the Ligurian wars as the headquarters of the Roman le- gions. Early in the 11th century, Pisa had risen to the rank of a powerful republic. Its troops took part in all the great events of the Holy Land ; and its fleet in turn gave aid to the pope in Southern Italy, to the emperor in Northern France, chastised the Moors, and exacted its own terms from the Eastern emperors. In their wars with the Saracens of Sardinia, the Pisans had conquered Sar- dinia, Corsica, and the Balearic Islands, and for a time maintained their ground against their hereditary enemies, the Genoese ; but having sided with the Gbibellines in the long wars which desolated the empire, Pisa sufl'ered severely at the hands of the victori- ous Guelphic party. Indeed, the rivalry of the Guelphic cities of Florence, Lucca, and Siena nearly brought Pisa to the brink of ruin at the close of the 13th century; and after struggling for more than a hundred years against external foes and the internal dissensions between the democratic mob and the Ghibelline nobles, without losing their character for indomitable valor, the Pisans finally threw themselves under the protec- tion of Galeazzo Visconti of Milan. It be- came subject to Florence after a long siege, 1405-6. In 1494, Pisa became independent under the protection of Charles VIII. of France. When the French left Italy, the old struggle was renewed ; and after offering a desperate resistance, the Pisans, in 1509, were compelled by hunger to surrender the city to the Florentine army besieging the walls. Pisidia. A district of Asia Minor, origi- nally included within Pamphylia, or Phry- gia, was constituted a separate province in the division of the Roman empire under Constant! ne the Great. It was bounded north and west by Phrygia and Lycia, and south by Pamphylia, and east by Cilicia and Isauria. The inhabitants were a lawless and freebooting people, spurning the ad- vance of civilization, and daring any in- vader to follow them into their rugged fast- nesses. Rome conquered them only to find that their spirit of independence was not broken. They would not brook the estab- lishment of a single garrison or colony. It was only their towns that paid tribute. They carried their invincible dispositions down to modern times ; and under the appellation of Karamanians they still continue to be wild, rapacious, and suspicious of strangers. Pistol. Is the smallest description of fire- arm, and is intended to be used with one hand only. Pistols were first used by the cavalry of England about 1544. They vary in size from the delicate saloon-pistol, often not 6 inches long, to the horse-pistol, which may measure 18 inches, and sometimes even 2 feet. They are carried in holsters at the saddle-bow, in the belt, or in the pocket. Every cavalry soldier should have pistols, for a fire-arm is often of great service for personal defense, and almost indispensable in giving an alarm or signal. Of late years pistols have been made with revolving cyl- inder breeches, in which are formed several chambers for receiving cartridges, and bring- ing them in succession into a line with the barrel ready for firing. See Revolvers. Pistol-carbine. A horeman's pistol with a detachable gun-stock. Pistolet. A little pistol. Pistol-grip. A shape given to the small of the stock in shot-guns and rifles, to give a better hold for the hand. PISTOLIER 433 PLANE Pistolier {Fr.). Soldier armed with a pistol ; a i^nod pistol shot. Pitan Nabobs. Certain chiefs in India are so culk-d, namely, of Cudapa, Carroul, and Savanare. Pitans, or Patans. A tribe in the East Indies, who are supj)osod to be the descend- ants of the northern Indians, and wlio were early converted to Mohammedanism. They are very fierce, and have been reckoned anion!,' the best troops in India. Pitaux (Fr.). This word is sometimes written petaux, and was formerly used to distinguish those peasants that were pressed into the service, in contradistinction to sol- diers who were regularly enlisted. Pitch. To Hx tirmly ; to plant ; to set in array; as, to pitch a tent; to pitch a camp. Pitched Battle. A battle in which the hostile forces have firm or fixed positions, in distinction tVoni a skirmish. Pitched Fascines. See Pyrotechny. Pitch-field. A pitched battle. Pittsburgh. A city and port of entry of Alleghany Co., Pa. Pittsburgh was first set- tled in 1754, a stockade having been erected here whiih was occupied by the French as a trading-post, and given the name of Fort Duquesne. An English expedition against this fort under Gen. Hraddock was defeated by the French and Indians, July 0, 1755. In 1758 another English expedi- tion marched against this post, which was then regarded by the youthful Washington as the key of the West. An advanced detach- ment under Capt. Grant having encamped on what is still called Grant's Hill, was attacked and defeated by a party of French and Indians from Fort Duque.sne. But on the approach of Gen. Forbes, with a force of 6200 men, the disheartened garrison set fire to the fort and descended the Ohio Kiver. The victorious troops, on entering, Novem- ber 25, by general acclamation called the place Pittsburgh, in honor of William Pitt, then prime minister of England. The town of Pittsburgh was incorporated as a borough in 18U4. and chartered as a city in 1810. Pivot. That otticer or soldier upon whom the company wheels. The pivot fank in a column is that which when wheeled up preserves the proper front of divisions of the line in their natural order. The opposite flank of the column is called the reverse flank. Pivot-gun. A cannon which turns on a pivot in any direction. Pivot-man. The same as pivot (which see). Pizzo. A city of Italy, in the Neapolitan province of Calabria Ultra II., situated on the Gulf of Santa Euphemia, 6 miles north- east from Monteleone. It was at Pizzo that Murat. the ex-king of Naples, landed with a few followers, October 8, 1815, with the view of recovering his kingdom. He was immediately taken prisoner and shot in the castle of PiV.zo on the 13th. In IS'SO it was taken bj' Garibaldi. Placage (Fr.). In fortification, a kind of revetment, which is made of thick plastic earth laid along the talus of such parapets as have no mason-work, and which is covered with turf. Place. In fortification, signifies, in gen- eral terms, a fortified town, a fortress ; hence we say it is a strong place. Place Basse (Fr.). In fortification, the lower Hanks according to certain systems are so called. Placed, To be. This expression is fre- quently used in military matters, to signify the appointment or reduction of officers. Hence, io be placnl ujion full or half-pay. It is more generally applicable to the latter. Placentia. See Pi.\roportion to the resistance made by the besieged. See Ke-enterin'g Places ok Ar.ms. Plain. A field of battle. Plan. A scheme devised ; a method of action or procedure expressed or described in language; a project. A plan of cam- paign (says Napoleon) should anticipate all that an enemy may do, and combine within itself the means necessary to bafHe it. Plans of campaign are modified by circumstances, the genius of the chief, the nature of the troops, and topography. There are good and bad plans of campaign, but sometimes' the good fail from misfortune or misman- agement, while the bad succeed by caprices of fortune. Plan of a Work. A plan shows the tracing ; also the horizontal lengths and breadths of the works ; the thickness of the ramparts and parajtets ; the width of the ditches, etc. It exhibits the extent, division, and distribuficm of the works; but the depth of the ditches and the height of the works arc imt rcprosciited in a plan. Plane of Comparison. In the plan of a fortress, and of the surrounding country, are expressed the distances of the principal points from a horizontal plane, imagined to pass through the highest or lowest points of ground, in the survt-y. This imaginary plane is called a plnue of comparison. Plane of Defilade. Is a plane supposed to pass throiii;h the summit or crest of a work, and parallel to the plane of site. PLANE 434 PLATFORM Plane of Fire. See Pointing. Plane of Sight. See Pointing. Plane of Site. The general level of the ground or ground line, upon which the works are constructed, is called the plane of site, whether that plane be horizontal or oblique to the horizon. Plane Table. A surveying instrument, consisting of a table or board and arrange- ments for leveling and traversing it. It is much used in military surveys and in gun- nery in getting the ranges of projectiles by the method of intersections. Plant, To. In a military sense, to place ; to iix ; as, to plant a standard. It likewise signifies to arrange different pieces of ord- nance for the purpose of doing execution against an enemy or his works ; hence, to plant a battery. Some authors apply this word to the act of directing a cannon properly. Plantagenet. The surname of a dynasty of English kings who ruled from 1154 to 1485. Henry II. was the founder, and llichard III.', who was killed at Bosworth, the last of the line. They were generally warlike and ambitious rulers, being engaged in contests at home (see Roses, Wars of the) and in France. The name belonged to the house of Anjou, and is said to have been de- rived from the circumstance of the first count of this house having caused himself to be scourged with branches of broom {planta (fenisia) as a penance for some crime. The name passed to the English line of kings through the extinction of the old Norman dynasty in the male line in the person of Henry II., and the marriage of Matilda, his daughter, to Geotfrey, count of Anjou, their son succeeding to the throne. Plassey. A village of British India, in the district of Nuddea, presidency of Ben- gal, on the left bank of the Hooghly, 9G miles north of Calcutta. It is memorable as the scene of the victory that laid the foundation of the British-Indian empire. On June 23, 1757, Clive, with a force of 900 Europeans and 2100 Sepoys, crossed the river to attack 68,000 men under Sooraj-oo- Dowlah, soubahdar of Bengal. After much cannonading on both sides, Meer Jaflaer, who was in the interest of the British, ad- vised the soubahdar to retreat. Clive im- mediately advanced, routed the army, and took the camp of the soubahdar, who was dethroned to make way for the traitor Meer JafSer. Plastron (i^r.). Stuffed pad or cushion, formerly worn at the shoulder to sustain the recoil of heavy muskets and other fire-arms, still used by fencers upon the right side ; also a breastplate or half cuirass. In the old French service, the gens d'armes, the heavy cavalry, the light horse, etc., were obliged to wear them on all occasions, at reviews, etc. Platsea (more commonly Platcece). An ancient city of Bceotia, on the northern slope of Mount Cithasron, on the frontiers of Attica. At an early period, the Plataeans deserted the Boeotian confederacy, and placed themselves under the protection of Athens ; and when the Persians invaded Attica in 490 B.C., they sent 1000 men to the assist- ance of the Athenians, and had the honor of fighting on their side at the battle of Mara- thon. Ten years afterwards (480 B.C.) their city was destroyed by the Persian army un- der Xerxes at the instigation of the The- bans. It was the site of the battle between Mardonius, commander of the army of Xer- xes of Persia, and Pausanias, commanding the Lacedfemonians and Athenians, 479 B.C. ; the same day as the battle of Mycale. Of 300,000 Persians, scarce 3000 escaped with their lives. The Grecian army, about 110,- 000, lost but few men. The Greeks obtained immense plunder, and were henceforth de- livered from the fear of .Persian invasions. In the third year of the Peloponnesian war (429), the Thebans persuaded the Spartans to attack Platsea, and after a siege of two years at length succeeded in obtaining pos- session of the place (427). Platfea was then razed to the ground, but was again rebuilt after the peace of Antalcidas (387 B.C.). It was destroyed the third time by its inveter- ate enemies, the Thebans, in 374 B.C. It was rebuilt by Philip II. of Macedon, after his victory at Ch^ronea, 338 B.C. Plate. Metallic armor composed of broad pieces, and thus distinguished from mail. Plate. To arm with plate or metal for defense. " Why plated in habiliments of war ?" Plate-armor. Armor of strong metal plates for protecting fortifications and the like ; also mail consisting entirely of me- tallic plates, formerly worn to protect the person. Platform. Is a strong flooring upon which a piece of ordnance, mounted on its carriage, is manceuvred when in batterj'. Its object is to facilitate the service of heavy guns and mortars, and to insure accuracy of fire. Fixed platforms are used for casemate and barbette batteries in fortifications, and are constructed with the works ; siege-platforms for guns and howitzers ; and siege-platforms for mortars ; the other kinds are the rail- platform, the ricochet-platform, and the platforms for sea-coast mortars. Platforms should possess strength and portability, and the pieces composing them should be con- structed of the same dimensions, viz. : 9 feet long, 5 inches wide, and 3^- inches thick. The weight of each piece in a platform is about 50 pounds ; and in a siege-platform for guns and howitzers, there are 49 pieces, 1 being used as a hurter on the front part of the platform to prevent the carriage from running too far forward, and 12 for sleepers. The weight of this platform complete is 260U pounds. This platfurm is laid with an elevation to the rear, of H inches to the yard, or 4^ inches in the whole length. This elevation is given to diminish the re- coil of the piece and to permit the water to PLATFORM 435 PLYMOUTH run off. The lent^th of tliis platform is 15 feet by 9 feet. The pliitfonn for a siepe- mortiir is composed of only (> sleepers and 21 deck-planks. It is laid level, and the front and rear deck-planks are connected by eye- bolts to every sleeper. This platform is about y feet deep by 9 feet wide, and weighs 1220 pounds. The rail-platform for sietce- mortars consists of 3 sleepers and 2 rails for the cheeks of the mortar-bed to slide on, in- stead of the deck-plank, and is very strong, and easily constructed and laid. For method of laying platforms for siege-gun or howit- zer, and for mortars, sec "Hand-book of Artillery," by Koberts, pages 143-47. Platform Wagon. A sort of wagon used fur truii^porting heavy ordnance. Platoon. Probably from the French pe- loitm, a "ball of thread," a "knot," was a term formerly used in the English service to designate a body of men who fired to- gether. In IT. S. tactics, it is now a recog- nized subdivision of a company, being one- half. Plattsburg. A township and capital of Clinton Co., N. Y., situated on both banks of the Saranac Kiver, at its entrance into Lake Champlain. In the bay was fought the naval battle of Champlain, in which the British flotilla, under Commodore Downie, was defeated by the American commodore McDonough, September 11, 1814; while the land forces amounting to 14,000 men, under 8ir George Provost, were defeated by Gen. ilacomb. Play, Is occasionally applied to a military action ; as, the guns played upon the enemy. Plea, That which is alleged by a party in support of his cause; in a stricter sense, an allegation of fact in a cause, as distin- guished from a demurrer; in a still more limited sense, and in modern practice, the defendant's answer to the plaintitl''s declara- tion and demand. That which the plaintifi' alleges in his declaration is answered and repelled or justified by the defendant's p/cfir. Plevna. A town of Bulgaria, which be- came important in a military sense through the battles which took place around it during the Russo-Turkish war. The first battle took place July 15-1»), 1877, resulting in the cap- ture of Nikopolis. The second took place July 80, with considerable loss to both sides, but without any decisive results. The third took place September 11. Plombie (Fr.). An ancient war-club, whose head was loaded with lead. Plongee. In artillery and fortification, means a slope toward the front. Thus, in sneaking of the course of a shell through the air, its plongee is from the point of great- est altitude to the point at which it strikes the earth. So, iti fortification, the j)longee is the top of the parapet, sloping gently to- ward the front. Tliis depression varies from one-fourth to one-sixth of the thickness of the parapet. Ploy. To form n column from a line of battle on some designated subdivision. Ployments. A general terra for all tacti- cal movements by which a column is formed from line upon a designated subdivision. Pluck. Spirit ; perseverance under oppo- sition or discouragement; indomitablencss ; courage. Plume. A large and handsome feather worn as an ornament on a helmet, on a mil- itary hat, and the like. Plummet. In gunnery, is a simple line and bob for jxiinting mortars. A plummet is also used for regulating the march of in- fantry. It is made by means of a musket- ball, suspended by a silk string, upon which the required lengths are marked ; the length is measured from the point of suspension to the centre of the ball. The difl'erent lengths of these plummets are as follows : for com- mon time, 90 steps in a minute, 17.37 inches ; quick time, llOsteps in a minute, 11.6 inches; double time, 1G5 steps in a minute, 5.17 inches. Plunder. To take the goods of another by force; to take from by robbery; to spoil ; to strip ; to rob ; as, to plunder a place. Also to take by pillage or open force ; as, the enemy plundered all the goods they found. Plunder. That which is taken from an enemy; pillagf; spoil. Plunging Fire. See Fikk, Pi.unoino. Pluteus. A kind of wicker helmet covered with raw o.\-hide, worn by the ancient Greeks when engaged in sapping walls. Others were made of hurdles, covered in the same way, running upon three wheels, and affording cover to 7 or 8 miners. Plymouth. A seaport town in England, county of Devon, on the east side of a penin- sula, between the rivers Plym and Tamar, at the head of Plymouth Sound, 37 miles southwest of Exeter. Prior to the time of the Norman conquest it was called South Toivn, or Sutton ; under the Saxon dynasty it was called Tntucrweorth. The growing prosperity of the town excited the jealousy of France; and in 1339 a force from thence landed, and attempted to burn it. They succeeded in burning a portion, but were ultimately repulsed, with the loss of 500 men, by Hugh Courtenay, earl of Devon, aided by a number of " knights and men of the countrie." A similar attein})t was made in 1377, but with no great result ; and after each, the lortitications wore extended and strengthened. In 1335 the Black Prince embarked from Plynn)Uth for France, and on his return to England he landed here with his prisoner. King John of France, who had been captured at the famous battle of Poi- tiers, During the civil war between Charles I. and the Parliament, Plymouth was held by the troops of the latter party, who, though besieged, and almost reduced by famine, re- sisted for three years every eflbrt of the royalists. After the restoration the citadel was erected, and in the reign of William III. the dock-yard and the naval arsenal were established toward the west, upon the eastern shore of Ilamoaze. PLYMOUTH 436 POINTING Plymouth. A town of Washington Co., N. C, on the south bank of Koanoke Eiver about 8 miles from its mouth, where it emp- ties into Albemarle Sound. During the civil war it was held for some time by the Union troops as a key to the river, and was strongly fortified. On April 17, 1864, a Confederate force under Gen. Hoke attacked this place, and after four days' severe fight- ing, being five times repulsed with great slaughter, succeeded in capturing it, by the powerful assistance of an ironclad ram and a floating sharpshooter battery. Pocket Ledger. In the British service, is a small book in the possession of each soldier, containing the result of the monthly settlement of pay, the state of his savings- bank account, the date of his enlistment, his services, wounds, decorations, date of birth, next of kin, a summary of the regulations which aflect him, and many other useful particulars. PodoU (Bohemia). The site of a severe conflict between the Austrians and a part of the army of Prince Frederick Charles of Prussia, June 26, 1866, in Avhich the latter had the advantage. Point. In heraldry, a triangular figure issuing from the dexter and sinister base of the shield. It is common in French and German heraldry, and occurs in the shield of Hanover, which was a part of the royal arms of Great Britain from the accession of George I. till that of the present sovereign. A shield charged with a point is in heraldic drawing hardly distinguishable from one parted per chevron. Point d'Appui. Any particular given point or body, upon which troops are formed, or by which they are marched, in line or column. Points d'appiii also signify the different advantageous posts, such as castles, fortified villages, etc., which the general of an army takes possession of in order to secure his natural position. Point of Alignment. The point which troops form upon and dress by. Point of Formation. A point taken, upon which troops are formed in military order. Perpendicular points, the points upon which troops march in a straight-forward direction. Relative points, the points by which the parallelism of a march is preserved. Point of Honor. See Honor, Point of. Point of War. A loud and impressive beat of the drum, the perfect execution of which requires great skill and activity. The point of war is beat when a battalion charges. Point-blank. The second point at which the line of sight intersects the trajectory of a projectile. See Pointing. Point-blank. Directed in a line toward the object aimed at; aimed directly toward the mark. Point-blank Range. Is the distance from the muzzle of the piece to that point in a projectile's trajectory where it cuts the pro- longation of the natural line of sight, a second time, the natural line of sight being horizontal. The British define point-blank range as, " the distance from the muzzle to the first graze when the axis of the piece is parallel to the horizontal plane upon which the carriage stands." This definition is being adopted in the U. S. service.- See Pointing. Point-blank Shot. The shot of a gun pointed directly toward the object to be hit. Pointing. To point or aim a fire-arm is, to give it such direction and elevation that theprojectile shall strike the object. Definitions. — The axis of the piece is the centre line of the bore. The line of fire is the axis of the piece prolonged. T\\Q plane of fire is a vertical plane through the line of fire. The line of sight is the right line from the eye to "the object to be hit, passing through the front and rear sights. The plane of sight is a vertical plane through the line of sight. Thb angle of sight, or the elevation, is the vertical angle included between the line of sight and the plane containing the axis of the piece and a horizontal line at right an- gles to it. The natural line of sight is the line of sight nearest to the axis of the piece. In guns without rear sights it is the right line through the highest point of the base-ring and swell of the muzzle or top of the front sight when there is one. It is sometimes called the line of metal, as in mortars. For convenience and accuracy the natural line of sight is usually parallel to the axis of the piece. When special breech-sights are used, it passes through the zero of the scale, which in ihQ ])endulum hausse and other vibrating scales coincides with the axis of vibration. All other lines of sight are called artificial lines of sight. Point-blank, in small-arms, is the second point in which the natural line of sight (when horizontal) cuts the trajectory. In artillery, it is the point where the projectile first strikes the horizontal plane on which the gun stands, the axis of the piece being horizontal. Pointing Guns and Howitzers. — In point- ing old model guns and howitzers under ordinary angles of elevation, the piece is first directed toward the object, and then elevated to suit the distance. The accuracy of the aim depends : (1) On the fact that the object is situated in the plane of sight; (2) That the projectile moves in the plane of fire, and that the planes of sight and fire coincide, or are parallel and near to each other; and (3) On the accuracy of the ele- vation. The first of these conditions de- pends on the eye of the gunner, and the accuracy and delicacy of the sights ; the errors under this head are of but little prac- I POINTING 437 POINTING tioal importance. "VVlicn the trunnions of the piece are horizontal, and the sights are properly placed on the surface of tlie piece, the planes of sight and fire will coincide ; but when the axis of the trunnions is inclined, and the natural line of sight is oblique to the axis of the bore, the planes are neitlier }>arallel nf>r coincident, but will intersect at a short distance from the muzzle, and the aim will be incorrect. If the natural line of sight be made parallel -to the line of fire, by making the height of the front sight equal to the dispart of the piece, the planes of sight and lire will be parallel. Field-gun's of the jiresent day have special breech-sights or peiululum-sigiits. The zero of the scale and top of front sight are in a line parallel to the axis of the piece, and in pendulum- sights this zero coincides with the pivot at which the scale vibrates. Siege and sea- coast cannon are generally fired from fixed ]ilatforms, which renders the axis of the trunnions horizontal; they arc, therefore, not furnished with pendulum-sights, but usually with breech-sights set in sockets at the breech. In the absence of a breech- sight the piece can be pointed with a natu- ral line of sight so as to strike objects not situated at point-blank distance. Owing to the shape and size of the reinforce of sea- coast cannon, the natural line of sight is formed by alfixing a front sight to the muz- zle, or to a projection cast on the piece be- tween the trunnions. Although tlie latter arrangement does not give quite so long a distance between the sights i\s is desirable, it permits the use of a shorter breech-sight, and the front sight does not interfere with the roof of the embrasure, when the piece is tired under high elevation. Errors in Po'uiiinp. — When the platform or ground upon which the gun stands is not level there is an error in pointing (except when compensating sights such as i\\G pendu- lum /lausse are used), which varies in direc- tion with the circumstances of the pointing and in amount with the elevation of the piece. • If the natural line of sight is pointed upon the object and the elevation then given by a gunner's quadrant or other device, the shot will go to the side of the lower wheel. If the gun be depressed, it will go to the side of the upper wheel. If the tanijent scale or old pattern breech- sight is used with the ordinary fixed muzzle- sight, and it be placed on a chalk-mark just determined, the shot will fall on the side of the upper wheel. If the scale Ls placed on the permanent mark, the contrary will hold. If a siickrt or fiu-eii breech-sight is used, the shot will fall on the lower or upper side according as the gun is elevated or depressed. Pointing Mortars. — In pointing mortars, the piece is first given the elevation, and then the direction necessary to attjiin the object. Mortars are generally firetl from behind epaulemenfs, which screen the object fr(nn the eye of the gunner. The elevation is first given by a gunner's quadrant, and the di- rection is given by moving tlie mortar-bed with a handspike, .so as to bring the line of metal into the plane of sight, which passes through the object and the centre of the platform. The plane of sight may be de- termined in several ways; the method pre- scribed is to plant two stakes, one on the crest of the epaulement, and the other a lit- tle in advance of the fir.-t, so that the two shall be in a line with the object, and the gunner standing in the middle of the rear edge of the platform ; a cord is attached to the second stake and held so as to touch the first stake; a third stake is driven in a line with the cord, in rear of the platform, and a plummet is attached to this cord so as to fall a little in rear of the mortar. Tlie cord and plummet determine the required plane of sight into which the line of metal of the mortar must be brought. With the 13-inch mortar mounted upon centre-pintle chassis, the plane of sight must be so determined as to pass through the pintle to obtain perfect accuracy. One of the best methods of point- ing mortars so mounted, is to place on the crest of the parapet in line with the axis of the platform a goniometer, the alidade of which can be directed upon the object, — the angle is read from the vertical plane con- taining the axis of the platform. The tra- verse circle is similarly graduated from the axis of the platform. A pointer attached to I the chassis enables tlie gunner to lay the mortar very nearly in the vertical plane passing through the object, — the error being the perpendicular distance from the pintle to the plane of sight. This is the method of Lieut. A. B. Dyer, 4th U. S. Artillery. Gen. Abbot of the U. S. Engineer Corps used a similar principle during the late war, 1801-(J5. The usual angle of fire of mortars is 45°, which corresponds nearly with the maximum range. "The advantages of the angle of greatest range are : ( 1 ) Economy of powder ; (2) Diminished recoil, and strain on the piece, bed, and platform ; (3) More uniform ranges. AVhen the distance is not great, and the object is to penetrate the roofs of magazines, buildings, etc., the force of fall may be increased by firing under an angle of 60°. The ranges obtained under an angle of (50° are about one-tenth less than those obtained with an angle of 4-3°. If the object be to produce eflVct by the bursting of the projectile, the penetration should be di- minished by firing under an angle of 30°. AV'lien the object is not on a level with the piece, the angle of greatest range is consid- I ered in practice to be 45° incrwised or dimin- I islifd by one-half the angle of elevation or ; depression of the object. The angle of fire ' being fixed at 45° for objects on the same I levei with the piece, the range is varied by varying the charge of powder. Stone-mor- tars are pointed in the same manner as com- I mon mortars ; the angli- of fire for stones is ; from tiO° to 7"J°, in order that they may have 1 great force in falling ; the angle for grenades POINTING-BOAED 438 POITOU is about 33°, in order that their bursting effect may not be destroyed by their penetra- tion into the earth. Night-firing. — Cannon are pointed at night by means of certain marlcs, or measure- ments, on the carriage and platform, which are accurately determined during the day. PoinUng Sma.ll-ai'niH. — The rear-sights of small-arms are graduated with elevation marks for certain distances, generally every hundred yards; in aiming with these as with all other arms, it is first necessary to know the distance of the object. This being known and the slider being placed opposite the mark corresponding to this distance, the bottom of the rear-sight notch, and the top of the front-sight, are brought into a line joining the object and the eye of the marks- man. The term coarse-sight is used when a considerable portion of the front-sight is seen above the bottom of the rear-sight notch; and the tavm fine-sight, when but a small portion of it is seen. The graduation marks being determined for a fine-sight, the effect of a coarse-sight is to increase the true range of the projectile. Graduation of Rear-sights. — If the form of the trajectory be known, the rear-sight of a fire-arm can be graduated by calculation ; the more accurate and reliable method, how- ever, is bj' trial. Distance of Objects. — Various instruments have been devised to determine the distance of objects, based on the measurement of the visual angles subtended by a foot or cavalry soldier, of mean height, at different dis- tances, and upon other principles. (See Eange-finder.) The range being known, the proper elevation (or charge of powder in mortars) and length of fuze is given by tables of tire obtained from calculation or experiment. The ranges for guns of posi- tion are determined by thorough surveys of the surrounding country or harbor channels, by which the distances of all prominent points in the route of an approaching enemy are fixed beforehand. The ranges in field artillery are usually obtained by trial shots at the enemy. For small-arm and field-gun firing, the importance of at once getting the range cannot be overvalued ; hence the im- portance of estimating distances without instrumental aid. The soldier is guided by his experience of aerial perspective, by the apparent size of known objects, and numer- ous other aids too delicate for enunciation. The art can be acquired to a high degree of perfection by practice, which now forms a very important part of the soldier's training. Pointing-board. See Board, Pointing. Pointing-cord. Cord used in pointing mortars ( which see). See Pointing-stakes. Pointing-rings. See Ordnance. Pointing-stakes. Are used in pointing mortars, and by them one of the fixed points is established upon the crest of the parapet or at the foot of the interior slope, and an- other in rear of the piece. Then by a cord called the pointing-cord, stretched between these two points, with the plummet sus- pended from it, a vertical plane is detemined with which the line of metal is made to coin- cide. Mortars are also pointed by means of pointing-wires. Pointing-virires. Are wires which are used in directing mortars. The two fixed points required in directing a mortar are determined by planting two wires upon the epaulement, one upon its crest, and the other about a yard in advance of it, both as nearly as possible in the vertical plane passing through the centre of the platform and the object. The points being thus established, the direction is thus given to the mortar, by causing a plummet held in rear of it to cover the wires and the line of metal. This method is defective both in accuracy of aim and the liabilit}'- of the wires being deranged by the shots of the enemy or by other causes. Points of Passing. The ground on which one or more bodies of armed men march by a reviewing general. Points of the Escutcheon. In heraldry, in order to facilitate the description of a coat of arms, it is the practice to suppose the shield to be divided into nine points, which are known by the following names : The dexter chief point, the middle chief, the sinister chief, the collar, or honor point, the fess point, the nombril, or navel point, the dexter base point, the middle base point, and the sinister base point. The dexter and sin- ister sides of the shield are so called, not in relation to the eye of the spectator, but from the right and left sides of the supposed bearer of the shield. Poitiers, or Poictiers. A town of France, capital of the department of Yienne, on the Clain, 58 miles south-southwest of Tours. In the vicinity of Poitiers, Alaric II., the Visigoth, was defeated and slain by Clovis in 507. Somewhere between Poitiers and Tours a great battle took place on October 10, 732, between the Franks under Charles Martel and the Saracens under Abder- Rahman. The Saraceils were routed with enormous slaughter, — 357,000 of them (ac- cording to one old chronicler, and supposed to be exaggerated) being left dead on the field. Near here was fought the battle be- tween Edward the Black Prince and John, king of France, September 19, 1356, in which Edward, with some 12,000 or 14,000 Englishmen and Gascons, defeated 60,000 of the troops of King John, and took tlie mon- arch himself and one of his sons prisoners. See Tours. Poitou. A former province of Western France, now mainly comprised in the de- partments of Deux Sevres, Vendee, and Vienne. It became an English possession in 1152. In 1204, Philip Augustus regained it by conquest from England, and in 1295 it was formally ceded to France. It again re- verted to England in 1360 by the peace of Bretigny, but was retaken by Charles V., and incorporated with the French crown. POITREL 439 POLAND Poitrel (/*>.). Armor for tho breast of a horse. Pokanokets. See Massachusetts In- dians. Poland. Called by the natives Pnlska, " a plain," a former kingdom of Europe, — re- newed, in mediieval history, as the sole cham- pion of Christendom against the Turks, and more recently, and at present, an object of general and profound sympathy throughout Western Europe, from its unprecedented misfortunes. The natives belong to the groat Shivonic family. The word Pole is not older than the* lOth century. Poland first took rank as one of the political powers f>f Europe, when Micislas I. (902-91*2) occupied the tlirone and became a convert to Chris- tianity. Boleslas I. (992-1025) surnamed " the Great," reunited the separate portions of the kingdom (which had been divided by Micislas among his sons) and extended it beyond the Oder, the Carpathians, and the Dniester, and sustained a successful war with the emperor Henry II. of Germany, comjuering Cracovia, Moravia, Lu.satia, and Misnia. He also took part in the dissensions among the petty Russian princes. ^Boleslas was recognized as " king" by the German emperors. After a period of anarchy he was succeeded by his .son, Casimir (1040-1058), whose reign, and that of his warlike son, Boleslas 11. (1058-1081), though brilliant, were of little real profit to the country. Boleslas III. (1102-1189), an energetic monarch, annexed Pomerania, defeated the pagan Prussians, and defended Silesia against the German emperors. A division of the kingdom among his sons was produc- tive of much internal dissensions, under cover of which Sile.sia was severed from Po- land ; ultimately, Casimir II. (1177-1194) reunited the severed portions, with the ex- ception of Silesia. His death was the signal for a contest among the various claimants for the throne, which was speedily followed, as usual, by a division of the country, and during this disturbance Pomerania emanci- pated itself from Polish rule. About the same time the Teutonic Knights were sum- moned by the Duke of Masovia to aid him against the pagan Prussians, but they soon became as formidable enemies to Poland as the Prussians; and conquered a great part of Podlachia and Lithuania. The Mongols swept over the country in 1241, reducing it to the verge of ruin, and defeating the Poles in a groat battle near "Wahlstatt. From this time Polnnd began to decline ; various districts were cededi to the markgrafs of Brandenburg, while many districts began to be colonized by (Germans. Ladislaus (1805- 1838), surnamed Lokirtck, "the Short," again restored unity to the country. In conjunction with (todymin, grand duke of Lithuania, a vigonms war was carried on against the Teutonic Knights, on returning from which the aged monarch (ho was now seventy year3 old) experienced a tri- umphant reception from his subjects, who hailed him as the " father of liis country." His son, Casimir IIL the Great (1883- 1370), greatly increased the power and prosperity of Poland. In the latter part of his reign he' was compelled to defend sundry new acquisitions against the Tar- tars, Lithuanians, and Wallachians, which he did successfully. With Casimir, the Piast dynasty became extinct. Jagello (Ladislaus IV.), grand duke of Lithuania, the son-in-law of Louis the Great, king of Hungary, founded the dynasty of the Jagel- lons (1880-1572, and for the first time united Lithuania and Poland. Casimir IV. (1444- 1492) recovered West Prussia fr-1021), along with a part of Prussia (1029) by Sweden; and Brandenburg established it.self in complete independence. The Cossacks rose in rebel- lion to a man, put themselves under the pro- POLAND ^440 POLEAXE tection of Russia, and ever afterwards proved themselves the most inveterate ene- mies of the Poles. In the reign of John Casimir, Poland was attacked simultane- ously by Russia, Sweden, Brandenburg, the Transylvanians and the Cossacks; the coun- try was entirely overrun ; Warsaw, Wilna, and Lemburg taken; but Czarniecki, after defeating Poland's enemies in detail, igno- miniously expelled them from the country. But in subsequent treaties Ducal or East Prussia was given up to Brandenburg ; al- most all Livonia to Sweden, and Smolensk, Severia, or Tchernigov, and the Ukraine beyond the Dnieper were given to Russia. During the reign of Michael Wisniowiecki (1G68-1674) a war with Turkey, concluded by an ignominious peace, was the chief event. But the senate rejected the shameful treaty, the Polish army was reinforced, the Polish monarch resigned the command to John Sobieski, and the Turks were routed with great slaughter at Choczim (1673). After the reign of Sobieski, Augustus II. of Saxony entered Poland at the head of a Saxon army, and succeeded in obtaining the throne. His war with the Turks restored to Poland part of the Ukraine and the for- tress of Kaminiec ; but that with Charles XII. brought nothing but misfortune. Augustus returned after the battle of Pol- tava ; his rival retired without a contest ; a close alliance was formed with Russia, and the Russian troops which had campaigned in Poland against the Swedes were, along with his Saxon army, retained. The Poles demanded their extradition, but in vain ; and the Russian cabinet interfered (1717) between the king and his subjects, compel- ling both parties to sign a treaty of peace. This was the commencement of Poland's de- pendence on Russia nnd her consequent de- cline. By the instigation of Peter the Great, the Polish army was reduced from 80,000 to 18,000. For the massacre of Protestants at Thorn see Massacre. Civil war so weakened the kingdom that it fell an easy prey to Russia, Austria, and Prussia, in 1772, when the first partition was ef- fected. Catherine II. of Russia, on various pretexts, advanced her army into Poland (1792), and the fruitless resistance to the united Prussians and Russians, headed by Joseph Antony Poniatowski and Kosciusko, was followed by a second partition (1793) between Russia and Prussia, which the diet were forced to sanction at the point of the bayonet. A general rising took place (1794) ; the Prussians were compelled to retreat to their own country ; the Russians were sev- eral times routed; but an Austrian army advanced, compelling the Poles to retreat ; and fresh hordes ofthe Russians arriving, Kosciusko at the head of the last patriot army, was defeated ; and the sack of Praga, follo'wed by the capture of Warsaw, finally annihilated the Polish monarchy. The third and last partition (1795) distributed the re- mainder of the country between Russia, Prussia, and Austria. King Stanislaus re- signed the crown, and died broken-hearted at St. Petersburg in 1798. Napoleon I. established the duchy of Warsaw (1807), chiefly out of the Prussian share of Poland, with the elector of Saxony at its head. The division of Poland was re-arranged by the Congress of Vienna in 1815. On Novem- ber 30, 1830, Constantine (brother of the czar and military governor) and his Rus- sians were driven out of Warsaw, and a general insurrection of the people, headed by the aristocracy, took place; and military leaders, as Radzivil, Dembinski, Bem, etc., were soon found. From January, 1831, till September 8 of the same year, a series of bloody conflicts were fought, in which the Prussians and Austrians, with pitiable sub- servience, aided the czar. At first, the Poles were successful ; but the taking of the cap- ital by Paskievitch soon ended the war, which was followed, as a matter of course, by imprisonment, banishment, confiscation, and enforced service in the Russian army. From this time, the independence of Poland was suppressed, and in 1832 it was declared to be an integral part of the Russian empire, and the most severe and arbitrary measures taken to Russianize the people. The out- breaks of 1833 and 1846 were punished by the gallows. Simultaneous disturbances (1846) in the Prussian and Austrian por- tions of Poland were summarily suppressed ; their leaders in Prussia were imprisoned, and only saved from death by the revolu- tion of March, 1848, at Berlin; and those in Austria were butchered by the peasantry, who preferred the Austrian to a national government. On November 6, 1846, the republic of Cracow was incorporated with Austria. In 1861 another insurrection broke out, and Poland was declared (in October) in a state of siege; the country continued in a state of commotion without any verj"- decided outbreak ; and on January 13, 1863, Lithuania and Volhynia were also put in a state of siege. In February, 1863, Miero- slavski raised the standard of insurrection in the northwest, on the Posen frontier, and many districts of Augustovo, Radom, Lublin, Volhynia, and Lithuania, were speedily in insurrection. It was a mere guerrilla war, and no great or decisive conflicts took place, but the whole popula- tions of villages were put to the sword by the Russians ; while murders and assassina- tions marked the reign of terror of the National Committee. At last, with the officious assistance of Prussia, and the se- cret sympathy and support of Austria, the czar's troops succeeded in trampling out (1864) the last embers of insurrection. In 1868 the government of Poland was abso- lutely incorporated with that of Russia. Polans. Knee-pieces in armor. Pole, See Ordnance, Carriages for. Nomenclature of Artillery Carriage. Poleaxe. An axe fixed to a pole or handle ; or rather, a sort of hatchet with a handle I POLEMARCH 441 roNcno about 15 inches in length, and often a point or claw bending downward, or projecting from the bacl< of its head. It was formerly used by mounted soldiers. Polemarch. In Grecian antiquity, was origiiiiilly the commander-in-chief, but after- wards, a civil magistrate who had under his care all strangers and sojourners in the city. Pole-pad. A pad placed on the end of the j)ol(! in field-gun carriages to prevent injury to tiie horses. Poie-prop. A short stick attached to the under side of the pole in field-gun carriages. Pole-strap. See Okdn'anck, Li.mhkr. Pole-yoke. See Okunanck, Limukr. Pole-yoke Branches. See Ordnance, LiMItKK. Poliabole, or Palintonne (Fr.). A ballista which was capable of throwing both arrows and stones. Police. The cleaning of a camp or garri- son ; the state of a camp in regard to cleanli- ness. Police Guard. An interior guard having care of the arms, property, and prisoners of the regiment; also charged with the regula- tion of the camp in regard to order and cleanliness. A guard for prisoners occupied in cleaning the camp. Police, Military. This word has two sig- nifications: (1) The organized body em- ployed within an army to preserve civil order, as distinct from military discipline. (2) A civil police with a military organiza- tion. The police of an army commonly con- sists of steady intelligent soldiers, who act under the orders of the provost-marshal, and arrest all persons out of bounds, civilians not authorized to pass the lines, disorderly soldiers, etc. ; they also attend to sanitary arrangements. As in all military matters, the police of an arm}' possess summary powers, and a sentence of the provost-mar- shal is carried out immediately after it is pronounced. Of civil police with luilitary organization may be instanced, as speci- mens, the gendarmerie of France, the sbirri of Italy, and, in an eminent degree, the Irish constabulary. Police Party. A working party engaged in cleaning the camp or garrison. Police Sergeant. A sergeant specially charged with cleaning the camp. Polkownick. Colonel of a Polish regi- ment. Pollentia (now Polrnza, Northern Italy). A town of the Statielli in Liguria, at the confluence of the Sturia and the Tanarus, and subse, and again in 1055. The French uiuler Marshal C)ndinot were here defeated bv the Russians under Gen. 29 Wittgenstein, July 30-31,1812, the next day the Russians were defeated. After several smaller actions with various results, Polotzk was stormed by the Russians, and retaken October, 1812. Polron. That part of the armor which covered the neck and shoulders. Poltava, or Pultowa. A town of Russia, capital of the government of the same name, situated on the Vorskla, about 934 milea south-southeast from St. Petersburg. Here Charles XII. of Sweden was defeated by Peter the Great of Russia, July 8, 1700. Polygars, or Paleagas. Chiefs of moun- tainous and woody districts in the peninsula of India, who pay onl}' a temporary hom- age. Polygon. The name applied to thelnany- anglcd forms in which the outer walls of all. fortified places are built. Polygon. A school of practice for artil- lery is so called in Japan. Polyorcetes. Taker of cities; a name applied by the Greeks to a very successful general. Polytechnic School. See Military ACAr)EMlK.S. Pomada. An exercise of vaulting the wooden horse, by laying one hand over the pommel of the saddle. Pomerania. A province of Prussia, bounded north by the Rallic, east by West Prussia, south by Brandenburg, and west by the Mecklenburg duchies. It was held by the Poles, 980, and by Denmark, 1210; made an independent duchy, 1479 ; occupied by the Swedes in the Thirty Years' War, and divided between Sweden and Brandenburg, 1048. The Swedish part, awarded to Den- mark in 1814, was given up to Prussia for Lauenburg, 1815. Pomerium. In ancient architecture, that space of ground which lay between the walls of a fortified town and the inhabitants' houses. The term is still used among mod- ern architects, particularly by the Italians, to describe the breadth of the terre-plcin of the rampart, its inward talus, and the va- cant space which is usually left between this talus and the houses of the town. Pomfret. See Pontefract. Pomme. In heraldry, a bearing or de- vice representing, or in the form of, an apple. Pommee. In heraldry, having the ends terminating in rounded protuberances re- sembling apples ; — said of crosses. Pommel. The knob on the hilt of a sword. Also the protuberant part of a sad- dle-bow. Pommeled, or Pommelled. In heraldry, furnished or mounte.l, with one or more pommels, as a sword, dagger, or the like. Pommelion. The cascabel, or hindmost knob of a cannon. Pompon. A tuft of wool, sometimes worn by soldiers on the top of the hat in front, instead of a feather. Poncho. A Spanish-American garment^ PONDICHERRY 442 PONTONS consisting of a piece of woolen cloth, 5 to 7 feet long, 3 to 4 feet broad, having in the middle a slit through which the wearer passes his head, so that the poncho rests upon the shoulders and hangs down before and behind. In the U. S. army mounted troops are issued a waterproof poncho, con- sisting of painted cotton or rubber cloth. Pondicherry. A maritime town, and the capital of the French settlements in India, on the Coromandel coast, 83 miles south- southwest from Madras. Pondicherry was first settled by the French in 1674, they having purchased the town two years before from the rajah of Bejapoor. The Dutch toolt the town in 1693 ; but by the treaty of Ryswick it was restored to the French in 1697. In 1748 it was besieged by the Eng- lish under Admiral Boscawen, who, two months later, was compelled to raise the siege. In 1758, Count de Lally became governor-general, and attacked the English settlement of Fort St. David, which sur- rendered, and was totally destroyed. In 1761 it was taken by the English, under Col. Coote. By the peace of Paris, Pondi- cherry was restored to the French in 1763 with reduced territory. It was again taken by the English under Sir Hector Monro in 1778, and restored in 1783. In 1793 the English again repossessed themselves of Pon- dicherry, but the treaty of Amiens in 1802 again restored it, but only till the following year. From this time it was held by the English till, by the treaties of 1814 and 1815, it was for the last time restored to France, reduced to the narrow limits as- signed by the treaty of 1783. Poniard. A pointed instrument for stab- bing; borne in the hand, or at the girdle, or in the pocket; a small dagger. Poniard. To pierce with a poniard ; to stab. Pont a Noyelles. At this place near Amiens, France, took place a fierce inde- cisive conflict lasting from 11 a.m. to 6 p.m. between the Germans under Manteutfel and the French Army of the North under Faid- herbe, December 23, 1870. Both sides claimed a victory. Pontefract, or Pomfret. A town of Eng- land, in the West Biding of Yorkshire, near the river Aire, and 21 miles southwest from York. Its castle, which was finished in 1080, was taken after three successive and desperate sieges, by jthie Parliamentarj' army, and demolished by order of the Parliament. Pontia (now Ponza).. A rocky island oft' the coast of Latium, opposjta Formiaj, which was taken by the Romaics from the Vol- scians, and colonized, §13 s:.,e. Under the Romans it was used as a jplaoe off banishment for state criminals. There i£ * group of smaller islands round Pontia .wlijicjj are sometimes called In&uliE Pontiae. Pontianak. The capital of -the ,ki,ngd.om of the same name ok tbe west coa^t of Bor- neo, is situated near the junction of the Landak and Kapuas. There has been con- stant war on the 6outhefts,t cQa3.t .of the kingdom since 1859. The interior of the kingdom was very much disturbed in 1864. Pontifical States. See Papal States. Pontones. Ancient square-built ferry- boats for passing rivers, as described by Ca3sar and Aulus Gellius. Pontonier, or Pontonnier. A soldier having the charge of constructing bridges. Pontons. A kind of portable boats specially adapted for the formation of floating bridges required by armies. They are con- structed in various ways, of wood, metal, or prepared canvas, stretched over frames made for the purpose (the latter it is said are much in favor), and have the necessary gear placed with them for transport. The ponton used in the U. S. army is constructed as follows : The ponton frame is composed of two side frames, of twelve narrow and of two wide transoms. The former are strengthened at the ends by iron straps, which are counter- sunk and perfectly smooth ; all the edges of tlie frame and transoms are well rounded to pre- vent chafing the canvas. The wide transoms are of 10-inch by H-inch plank, provided with tenons to fit the mortises in the frame. The narrow transoms are of 4-inch by 2i-inch scantling. The articles of each of the above classes are made exactly alike, so that they may be interchanged. Two of the narrow transoms are provided with an iron mooring becket. The frame when assembled is held together by a rope passed through the rings in the ends of the side frame, and tightened with a rack-stick. The ponton cover is of 0000 cotton duck, double-seamed, with the border double for 1^ inches in width. The clew-line eyelets are of metal. The lashings are of 1-inch rope 18 feet in length, and looped atone end, and the cable used is of 3-inch Manilla rope, 30 fathoms long. Bridge Equipage. — The United States bridge equipage is composed of reserve and of advance-guard trains. The former are intended to accompany large bodies of troops in the field, and are provided with the mate- rial necessary for the construction of bridges of sufficient capacity to pass large armies with their heaviest trains over rivers of any size and rapidity. The advance-guard equipage is intended for the use of light troops, such as advance- gqards, cavalry expeditions, etc. It is or- ganized, both as regards material and car- riages, with a view to rapidity of movement. At the same time, it is capable of furnishing a bridge which will fulfill all the require- ments of troops engaged on such service. Organization. — The reserve equipage is divided into trains, each of which is com- posed of four ponton divisions and one sup- ply division. Each division is accompanied by tool-wagon and traveling-forge. Each ponton division is complete in itself, containing all the material necessary for constructing a bridge of eleven bays, or 225 fee.t i* length. PONTONS 443 PONTONS Each of these divisions is subdivided into four sections, two of vviiioh iire ponton and two abutment sections ; the former contain three ponton-wagons and one chess-wagon ; the latter, one ponton-, one chess-, and one trestle-wagon each. The ponton section contains the material for three bays, and should never be subdi- vided. The division may be increased or diminished at pleasure, by the changing the number of its ponton sections. The carriages are loaded as follows : Each ponton-wagon contains 1 ponton, 7 long tiulks, 1 anchor, 1 cable, 5oars, 2 boat-hooks, 20 lashings, 6 rack-sticks, 1 scoop-shovel, 2 small scoo])s, 1 a.\c, 1 hatchet, 1 bucket, and 20 pounds (jf spun yarn. Each trestle- wagon (identical with ponton- wagon) contains 7 long balks, 7 trestle balks, 1 trestle complete, 2 abutment sills, 2 coils of 3-inch rope. Each chess-wagon contains CO chess. The forge is identical with forge A fur- nished by the ordnance department. Each tool-wagon contains 50 axes, 20 shovels, 20 spades, 15 picks, 25 hatchets, 4 broad-axes, 4 adzes, 4 cross-cut saws, 12 au- gers (assorted), 2 crow-bars, 2 calking- irons, 12 tin lanterns, 2 monkey-wrenches, 1 sledge, 1 steel square, 1 grindstone, 1 spirit- level, 1 coil telegraph wire, 1 coil 3-inch rope, 1 coil 1-inch rope, 1 coil spun yarn, 50 pounds iron (assorted), 25 pounds paint, paint-brushes, 1 dozen chalk lines, 1 pound red chalk, 4 pounds white chalk, sail- needles, 1 palm, balls twine, 50 pounds (J-inch spikes, 100 pounds (>-, 8-, 10» and 20-penny nails, 2 sets blocks and falls, 2 gross each of 1-, 2- and 5-inch screws, 1 roll canvas, 20 pounds calking cotton. Also 4 boxes of carpenters' and saddlers' tools nearly identical with those furnisiied by the ordnance department for battery. wagon C. If desirable, extra stores to the amount of 500 pounds may be added to the load. The supply divi.iio7i is prvivided with ar- ticles necessary to replace material lost or ■worn out, such as balk, chess, spare parts of carriages, a few complete carriages, etc. Thecarriagesof this division consist of pon- ton-, chess-, and tool-wagons, and of forges. Their number and proportion will be deter- mined by the nature of the country in which the army is operating, and by the pro.\imity of the nmin depot. The ponton-wagon contains 17 long «nd 7 trestle balks. The chess-wagQ chess. Tool. wagon No. 1 carries the same Joad as that attached to a ponton divisioHr T(U)l- wagon No. 2 contains 80 rack-collars ; of G-, 8-, 10-, and 20-penny nails, 2 kegs each i of 4- and (5-inch spikes, 2* kegs each ;"of 1-, 2-, and 6-inch screws, 4 gross each ; of 1- and S-^^ch rope, 2 coils each. The loads may be increased to the «octcnt that circumstunces will permit, by adding spare parts of carriages. The forges are of the patterns A and B issued by the ordnance department. Advatife-giinrd Equipage. — The trains of this equipage are composed of 4 ponton di- visions, each of which consists of 8 ponton-, 2 chess-, and 2 trestle-wagons. The load of the ponton-tcngon consists of 7 balks, IG chejs, 2 side frames, 1 cable, 1 anchor, and a ponton-chest containing 1 ponton cover, 14 transoms, 5 paddles, 2 scoops, 2 mallets, 20 lashings, 2 boat-hooks, 1 scoop-shovel, and 8 rack-sticks. The c/iess-wagoti contains 50 chess and 2 spare ponton covers. The trestle-wagon carries 14 balks, 1 trestle complete, 1 abutment sill, and 1 coil of 3-inch rope and 1 of 1-inch rope. The forge is forge A of the ordnance de- partment. "NVhen necessary, this load maybe reduced by transferring a part of the tools and coal to a forage-wagon. The ponton-wagon carries all the material necessary for constructing a complete bay. The division may, therefore, be increased or diminished by one or more ponton-wagons without disorganizing it. when a forced march is to be made, and it is desirable to lighten the loads, the chess may be removed from the ponton-wagons, the rope from the trestle-wagons, and the load of the chess- wagons may be reduced to 40 chess. Tho number of the latter wagons in this case must be increased to live. The tool-wagon is loadetl with the neces- sary tools, materials, etc., suitable to the ad- vance-guard equipage. There are four methods of constructing a ponton-bridge: by successive pontons; by parts ; by rafts ; and by conversion. Bi/ Succe.'isive Vviitons. — The location of the bridge having been selected, the ponton- wagons are brought as near the river-bank as practicable, with the rear of the carriage toward the stream. The pontons are un- lashed and slid from the wagon-bed into the water ; cables are attached to the anchors ; one of the former is coiled in the bow of each ponton with its anchor on the top, the flukes projecting over the gunwale. Those }>ontons which cast up-stream an- chors are moored above the approach to tho bridge, and the others below. A trench about 1 foot in width and depth is o.xcavatiMi to receive the abutment sill ; this should be laid horizontally, and exactly perpendicular to the axis of the bridge j >t is secured by four pickets, two drives in front and two in rear, about 8 inches from each end. A ponton is btiSAJgbt up opposite to the abutment, and c!(0!«e to the shore. The ponton is then pu.-k«d ofl" and adjusted in its place by lusans *.vf shore- lines, which are niade f»tst ta m<><>rir»g-p4>sts. As soon as the lirst se» of balks is Lnid, a chess is placed on od^i* ia the trench above mentioned, uud iu cwivtact with the ends of the bal^s. its wpper edge should be H inches a,bovt> the L»lks. Earth is rammei behind it, crowding it firmly against tU^ bull^s^ The chess i,» thvij laid on,. PONTONS 444 PONTONS The ponton which has cast the first up- stream anchor, having dropped down to the head of the bridge, is entered by the pon- toniers. Five balks are then brought up and delivered to the lashers in the second ponton, which is puslied off"; the shore ends of the balks are delivered to the lashers in the first ponton, who place them on the down-stream side, and in contact with those of the first set, their cleats against the out- side of the interior gunwale. They lash the balks firmly together and to the lashing- hooks at both gunwales, and then step into the third ponton. "When a bay is covered with chess, the side-rails are laid. They are placed directly over the outside balks, to which they are lashed at three points, — at the middle and immediately over the axis of each ponton, at which point the two side-rails and balks of two bays lap and are all lashed together. In constructing a ponton-bridge there are two points that require particular attention : the anchorage, and the lashing; the men who are intrusted with their execution should be selected from the most intelligent and experienced poiitoniers in the command. The Anchorage. — The distance of the an- chor from the bridge should be at least ten times the depth of the stream ; with a less distance the bows of the ponton would sink too deeply in the water. The direction of the cable when made fast to the bridge must coincide with that of the current, — i.e., a ponton in the bridge must have the same position which it would assume if riding freely at anchor. It will be remembered that the cable is not finally made fast to the ponton which casts its an- chor, but to the one following it in the bridge ; and due allowance must be made for this in selecting the place for casting anchor. The number of anchors required will de- pend somewhat on the strength of the cur- rent. It is generally sutficient to cast an anchor up-stream for every alternate ponton, and half that number down-stream ; but where the current is very rapid it may be necessary to anchor every up-stream boat, especially near the middle of the bridge. The number of anchors cannot be much di- minished, however moderate the current, as the anchorage has a very marked effect in checking the horizontal oscillation to which bridges are subject when troops are march- ing over them. The Lasldngs. — "With respect to the lash- ings, the corresponding balks of adjacent bays lap each other by G feet, and are lashed together and to the gunwales at two points about 5 feet apart. Thus a strong splice is formed, making five continuous beams run- ning the entire length of the brjd-e. The stability of the bridge is further increased by the manner of placing and securing the side-rails. By Parts. — The abutment bay is formed as in the previous method. The parts are con- structed at suitable points along the shore above the bridge, and for each is required the material for three bays. They are con- structed as follows : A ponton is moored bow and stern close to the shore, and five chess are temporarily liiid from the bank to its interior gunwale, for the convenience of the pontoniers during the construction of the part. The other two pontons are brought up in succession, and two bays are constructed in the ordinary manner, except that six chess are omitted from the roadway at both ends. Twenty-six chess and seven balks are loaded on the parts thus formed, which is then pushed oif and conducted to the line of up- stream anchors, where it casts its anchor and drops down to its place in the bridge. The first part is connected with the abut- ment bay by the pontoniers on shore, who construct one length of bridge flooring in the usual manner, to join the abutment pon- ton with the first ponton of the part. The other parts are united as they come in position, by bays formed from the balks and chess with which they are loaded. The down-stream anchors are cast by sep- arate pontons provided for the purpose ; and it may sometimes be necessary to cast the up-stream anchors in the same way, as the parts are not easily managed in a rapid cur- rent. "When the current is moderate, the parts may be constructed below as well as above the bridge. By Rafts. — The abutment bay is laid in the same manner as in the last method, and the rafts differ from the parts only in having the roadway completed, — that is, the six chess at each end are not omitted. The rafts are not loaded with extra balks and chess, but are provided with two false balks, 6 feet 9 inches by 5 feet 5 inches, and with four rack-collars and wedges. The rafts cast their up-stream anchors, and drop down to their places in the bridge. The outer pontons of the adjacent rafts are in contact, and are lashed together bow and stern by their mooring-posts. False balks are laid over the side-rails of the two rafts at their junction ; and two rack-collars em- brace each false balk, and the side-rails and balks under them. These collars are placed on each side, and 2 feet frona, the junction of the side-rails. The wedges are driven between the false balks and the tops of the collars. By Conversion. — The position of the bridge having been determined, and the width of the stream accurately measured, a suitable place at some distance above the position of the abutment is selected for the construction of the bridge. This place may be at a con- siderable distance from that which the bridge is to occupy ; it is frequently on some tribu- tary of the stream to be bridged, out of sight of the enemy's shore. The bridge is constructed parallel to the shore ; side-rails are lashed on all except the i 1 PONTONS 445 PONTONS extreme bays. The balks, chess, etc., for the abutment bay on the enemy's side, arc embarked on the next to the last bay of the bridije ; a ponton is hislied to the hist ponton in the brid<(e ; this contains, in udditif the Peloponnesian war. It was taken by the Athenians in 4'JO, after a siege of more than two years, its iuhabitanta expelled, and their place supplied by Athe- nian colonists. In 356 it was taken by Philip of Macedon, who destroyed the city, and sold the inhabitants into slavery. Cas- sander, however, built a new city on the same site, to which he gave the name of Cassandria, and which he peopled with the remains of the old po[iulation, and the in- habitants of the surrounding town*. It was taken and plundered by the Huns, but was restored by Justinian. Potomac. A river of the United States, formed by two branches, which rise in the Alleghany Mountains, and unite 20 miles southeast of Cumberland, Md., from which point the river flows in a generally .south- easterly course, 400 miles, and falls into Chesapeake Bay, where it is to 8 miles I broad, 75 miles from the ocean. Line-of- battle ships ascend to Washington, 120 miles I from its mouth. Tlie Potomac forms the greater pnrt of the boundary between Vir- : giiiia and Maryland. During the civil war, both Federal and Confederate armies crossed '• several times the fords of the Upper Poto- i mac, and severe actions were fouglit upon its ] banks. The largest army of the Union was nanicd after it. I Pottawatomies. A tribe of Indians of I Algonkin stock, who formerly occupied a I great part of ^lichigan, where a few still , remain. They fought against the settlers in I the Pontiac war, and against the Americans in the war of tlie Revolution ; and were al- lies of the British in the war of 1812, soon after which they removed to Kansas, where they now reside in a partial state of civiliza- tion, only about 500 of what is known as I the Prairie band being located on a reserva- tion. j Pouch. A case of strong leather, lined with tin divisions, for the purpose of carry- ing a soldier's ammunition. It is covered by a flap to preserve the cartridges from wet. The leather cases containing primers, lan- yard, etc., in field and heavy artillery, and those containing a gunner's level, vent- punch, gimlet, etc., in heavy artillery, are also called pouches. Pounder. The term used in describing the force of a cannon em(iloyed in firing solid shot ; as, a O-poundor field-gun, a 300- poundcr .Vrmstrong, etc. Powder. See Gunpowder. Powder-cart. A two-wheeled carriage covered with an angular roof of boards. To prevent the powder from getting damp, a ! tarred canvas is put over the roof; and on 1 each side are lockers to hold shot, in propor- j tion to the quantity of powder. I Powdered, or Semee. In heraldry, j strewn with an indefinite number of small ! charges. ' Powder-magazine. See Magazine. j Powder-measure. See Implements. i Powder-mill. Sec Mill, Gunpowder-. ! Power. In military atl'airs as well as in , all others, is knowledge — of luunan passions I —of arms — of distance— of the skill and POWERFUL 450 PREFECT numbers of an enemy. To be in the power of an enemy, is to have taken up, injudi- ciously, such a position as to expose you to a defeat whenever the enemy may think proper to attack you. Powerful. Full of power; capable of producing great effects of any kind; as, a powerful army or navy. Powldi'on. In heraldrj', that part of armor which covers the shoulders. Powwow. A priest or conjurer among the North American Indians. Also conju- rations performed for the cure of diseases and other purposes, attended with great noise and confusion, and often with dancing. Poynado. A poniard was formerly so called. Pozzuoli. A city of Southern Italy, at the east of the Bay of Naples. It is iirst mentioned in history during the second Punic war, when it was surrounded by strong walls. In 214 B.C. it repulsed Han- nibal, and subsequently became a place of importance. It was destroyed by Alaric, Genseric, and Totila. It was afterwards re- built by the Byzantine Greeks, but being exposed to new devastations, to earthquakes, and volcanic eruptions, it sank into decay. Practicable. A word frequently used in military matters to express the possible ac- complishment of any object. Hence, a prac- ticable breach. Practice, To. In a military sense, to go through the manual and platoon exercises, or through the various manoeuvres, etc., for the purpose of becoming thoroughly master of military movements. Practice is likewise used to signify the act of effecting or exe- cuting any military operation. Prseliares. Among the Romans, fighting days, on which thej^ thought it lawful to engage in acts of hostility ; for during the time of some particular feasts, they reckoned it a piece of impiety to raise, march, or ex- ercise men for war, or to encounter the enemy, unless first attacked. Praetorians. Was, during the Roman republic, a select cohort that attended the praetor or commander of an army. They frequently decided the fate of battles. After the overthrow of the republic, Augustus formed them into nine cohorts, and fixed their station in the capital as body-guards. They became, in short, under the emperors, what "the guards" are to the monarchies of Europe. They, in addition to their military duties, frequently had the charge of state prisoners, and often acted the part of execu- tioners. They were all picked men, chosen for the most part from Italy. Their power increased greatly under the empire until they frequently determined the fate of an emperor. Diocletian reduced their number, and Constantine disbanded them. Praetorium. See Pretobium. Praga. A town of Poland, on the Vis- tula, opposite to Warsaw, with which it communicates by a bridge of boats. In 1794 the Polish insurgents took refuge here, and it was stormed by Suwarrow, and given up to pillage and massacre, when about 20,000 were 'slain. In 1830 the Grand Duke Constantine of Russia was forced to retreat from this town with his troops, at the begin- ning of the Polish revolution in that year, which unfortunately proved unsuccessful. Prague. A city of Austria, the capital of Bohemia, situated on the Moldau. Prague was conquered and almost destroyed by the Hussites in 1424; but after the subsequent defeat and submission of the Hussites, the city was rebuilt. In the Thirty Years' War it sufierod severely, and in 1620 the battle was fought at the White Mountain, near the city, in which Frederick V. (the " Win- ter King"), son-in-law of James I. of Eng- land, was completely defeated, and compelled to renounce his assumed crown, and to give up the town into the power of the emperor of Austria. Swedes and Imperialists success- ively gained possession of it during the war ; and a century later, during the Seven Years' War, it again fell into the hands of different victors, being compelled, in 1744, to capitu- late to Frederick the Great of Prussia; but he was obliged to abandon it the same year. In 1757 the king of Prussia again besieged it, but his efforts to reduce it proved inef- fectual. In 1848 it was bombarded, the in- habitants having risen against the Austrian government, when great cruelties were per- petrated by the Austrian troops. A treaty of peace between Austria and Prussia was signed at Prague, August 2-3, 1866. Praguerie, War of (so named from Prague, then celebrated for its civil disor- ders). Was the name given to the revolt of the dauphin, afterwards Louis XL, against his father, Charles VII., aided by Alexan- der, the bastard, of Bourbon, and other no- bles. It was soon quelled; Louis was ex- iled, and Alexander put to death by drown- ing, July, 1440. Prairie Raft. See Pontoxs. Prairie-carriage. See Ordnance, Car- riages FOR. Prance. To spring or bound, as a horse in high mettle. To walk or strut about in a showy manner, or with warlike parade. Precedence. Priority in rank or pre- cedence in military life, is regulated by the date of an officer's commission, or the stand- ing in the corps to which he may belong. Precedent. Any act which can be inter- preted into an example for future times, is called a precedent. Persons in high office are extremely scrupulous with respect to precedents, especially in military matters. Precision. Exact limitation, scrupulous observance of certain given rules. Predal, or Predatory War. A war car- ried on by plunder and rapine. Prefect {hat. p7-cefertus). A Roman offi- cer who was over, or who superintended, a particular command, charge, department, and the like. Of this class there were several, as the prefect of a camp, of a fleet, of the city guards, etc. PREFECT 451 PRESSURE-GAUGE Prefect Pretorian. In Roman antiquity, was tlio (.oniinaiKlorof tho pretorian guard.*. Preferment. Thcstatc of being advanced to a hiu,liiT post. Prejudice. An opinion or decision of mind formed without due examination ; prejudc;mcnt ; a bias or leaning toward one side or the otiier of a question from other considerations than tliose belonging toil; an unreasonable predilection or pre- possession for or against anything; espc- cially, an opinion or leaning adverse to any- thing formed without proper grounds, or before suitable knowledge. Prejudicial to Military Discipline, Con- duct. See Appendix, Articlks ok War, 02. Prenzlow. A town of Prussia, in the proviiu'e of Brandenburg, 71 miles north- northeast from Berlin. Here, in October, 180(;, a body of Pru,«sians, 1G,()00 strong, under the Prince of Hohenlohe, surrendered, after the defeat of Jena, to the French under Murat. Prepare for Action. A word of command used in the artillery. Preponderance. In gunnery, is the ex- cess of weight of the part in rear of the trunnions over that in front; it is measured by the lifting force in pounds, which must be applied at the rear of the base-ring, at the base-line, or at the bottom of the ratchet, to balance the piece when suspended freely on the axis of the trunnions. Preponder- ance was given to prevent the sudden dip- j)ing of the muzzle, in tiring, and violent concussion on the carriage at the breech. Most of the heavy pieces of the late models have no preponderance, the axis of the trunnions intersecting the axis of the piece, at the centre of gravity. Presburg. A town of Hungary, situated on the Danube, StJ miles east from Vienna. This town was once the capital of Hungary, and the emperors t>f Austria are still crowned here as kings of Hungary. It is noted for the treaty concluded there between France and Austria in 1805, when the Tyrol was given to Bavaria, and Venice to the French. Prescott (Upper Canada). On Novem- ber 17, 1S:]S, tli(> Canadian rebels were at- tacked by the British under Maj. Young, and (on the IHth) by Lieut. -Col. Dundas, who dispersed the insurgents, several of whom were killed, and many taken prisoners, the remainder surrendering. The troops also sutfered considerably. Presence of Mind. Ready conceptions of expedient, producing prom|>titude of ac- tion under ditlicult and alarming cireum- staiues. A quality indispensable in a gen- oral. Present. In the British service, means to level; to aim; to bring the musket to a horizontal position, the butt resting against the right shoulder A)r the purpose of dis- charLrimr its contents at a given ttbject. Present. To ofler openly ; to exhibit; to give in ceremony ; as, to present the colors. Present Arms, To. In tactics i.s to bring the musket to u certain prescribed position, for the purpose of paying a military com- j)liment. Preservation of Cannon and Ammuni- tion. See i^ACKKK. President. The President of the United States is commander-in-chief of the army, navy, and militia, called itito service. His functions as such are assigned by Congress, but embrace of course whatever authority may be assigned to any military commander, on the principle that the authority of the greater includes that of the less. For the command, government, and regulation of the army, however, Congress has created a military hierarchy or range of subordiiuition in the army with rights and duties regulated by Congress, and the commander-in-chief cannot make use of any other agents in ex- ercising his command ; and all orders i.ssued by him must be according to the rules and articles made by Congress for the govern- ment of the army. In his capacity of chief magistrate of the Union, Congress has also invested the President with many adminis- trative functions relating to military affairs ; and for the performance of the latter duties the secretary of the department of war has been made his minister, upon matters con- nected with 7nafcrie(, accounts, returns, the support of troops, and the raising of troops. President. The president of a court- martial is the senior member. He j>reserve3 order in court; administers the oath taken by the judge-advocate, and the proceeilings of the court are authenticated by his signa- ture and that of the judge-advocate. Presidio [Sp.). A place of defense; a garrison or guard-house. Pressure-gauge. Called also pi-r.tsiirr- pliiq. An apparatus invented by Gen. Rod- man for measuring the pressure exerted by the gases of exploded powder. It consist"? essentially of a steel plunger, on the head of which the pressure is exerted. The other end of the plunger is widened out into two cutting edges which meet at an obtuse angle. This point rests on a disk of copper, into which the cutter is driven by the jiressure. The pressure is deduced from the length of the cut. Two forms of the instrument are used, — one is placed in a hole bored throutrh the side of the gun. The other is complete in itself and is placed at the bottom of the car- tridge-bag. Lieut. :Metcalfo's (U. S. Ord- nance Corps) modification of the pressure- gauge has a cutter with a helicoidal edge. To measure the cut he uses a circular scale with a hole in the centre (in which the inducted copper is placed), and a radial arm to show the extent of the spiral cut. The English modification of Rodman's instrument is called the crn.iher-f>n ".'?'' <—''^ short cylinder of copper is substituted for the disk,— tbo reduction in its length gives a measure of the pressure. The crusher-gauge is fre- quently attached to the base of the shot. A similar moditicaiion is used to tost the power PRESTON 452 PRINCETON of the liigh explosives, such as dynamite, dualin, etc. A lead cylinder is crushed in this case. A very small charge is used. The reaction is obtained by placing a heavy cyl- indrical shot over the charge, which rests di- rectly in a cavity on the top of the plunger. Preston. A town of England, in Lan- cashire, on the north bank of the Kibble. This town was partially destroyed by Bruce in 1322; and after declaring for the king, it was taken by the forces of the Parliament under Gen. Fairfax. Here also ended the ill-fated Jacobite rising of 1715, when, after a brave resistance, the insurgents were com- pelled to surrender. Prestonpans. A village of Haddington- shire, 8 miles east of Edinburgh. In the vicinity, on September 21, 1745, was fought the famous battle of Prestonpans, between the royal troops under Sir John Cope and the Jacobites under Prince Charles, in which the latter, with a loss of only about 10 offi- cers and 120 men in killed and wounded, routed the royal forces with great slaughter, and captured their cannon, bgiggage, and militar}^ chest. Pretence, Escutcheon of, or Escutcheon Surtout. In heraldry, a small shield placed in the centre of the field of luiother shield. The husband of an heiress may bear the arms of his wife in an escutcheon of pretence, instead of impaling them. Feudal arms are also sometimes placed on an escutcheon of pretence, particularly in the insignia of elec- tive sovereigns, who have been in use of bearing their own proper arms in surtout over those of the dominions to wliich they are entitled. Pretorian. Appertaining to pretor; also the general's guard among the ancient Ro- mans. Pretorium. The hall or court where the pretor lived and administered justice. It also denoted the tent of the Roman general, in which councils of war were held. The place where the pretorian guards were quar- tered or lodged, was likewise called preto- rium. Prevesa. A fortified town of European Turkey, in Albania, on the north shore of the Gulf of Arta, 58 miles south-southwest of Yanina. Prevesa belonged to the Vene- tians from 1684 until the fall of that repub- lic in 1797. It was thou held by the French for a time, but was afterwards taken by the Turks. Prey, Anything, as goods, etc., taken by force from an enemy in war ; spoil ; booty ; plunder. Pricker, A light horseman was formerly so called. Pricker. A priuiing-wiro (which see). Pride. In heraldry, a peacock or other bird, when the tail is spread out in a circu- lar form, and the wings drooped, is said to be " in his pride." Priest-cap. In fortification, a work so named from its shape ; culled also sioalloio^ tail. See Hedan. Prime. To charge with the powder, per- cussion-cap, or other device for communi- cating fire to the charge, as a fire-arm. Primer. A wafer, cap, tube, or other de- vice for communicating fire to the charge of powder in a cannon. The cap or tube usu- ally contains a friction- or percussion-pow- der. The friction-primer is generally used in the land'service. (See Friction-primer.) For service on shipboard, a quill filled with rifle-powder, having on the top a capsule of fulminate of mercury, is generally employed. The capsule is exploded by ft blow from the lock-hammer. The tape-primer^ used some- times in blasting, is formed of long, flexible strips of paper or fabric containing fulmi- nate or other quick-burning substance. The electric primer is used to fire simultaneous discharges, both in ordnance and blasting. In firing wet gun-cotton, the small charge of dry gun-cotton used in conjunction with the detonating exploder is called a primer. In S7nall-arms the term is specially applied, at the present time, to the percussion-caps used in reloading metallic cartridge-cases. The cap is set in a recess in the head of the shell. When the firing-pin strikes the out- side end of the cap, the fulminate is exploded by being driven against a perforated cone call-ed the nnvil. This anvil is usually a part of the shell. In the Winchester pi'imer, re- cently invented, the anvil is a part of the primer itself, being inserted upon the fulmi- nate. A shoulder in the recess holds the anvil when the cap is struck. Priming. The powder, percussion-cap, or other device used to communicate fire to the charge in a fire-arm. Priming-tubes. See Laboratory Stores. Priming-wire. A pointed wire, used to penetrate the vent of a piece, for examining the powder of the charge, or for piercing the cartridge. Prirnipilarii, Primopilarii, or Primipila- res. Among the Romans, were such as had formerly borne the office of primipulus of a legion. The banner was intrusted to his care. Among other privileges which the primipilarii enjoyed, they became heirs to what little property was left by the soldiers who died in the campaign. Primipilus. The centurion belonging to the first cohort of a legion. He had charge of tlio Roman eagle, Princeton, A town of Mercer Co., N. J., about 40 miles northeast of Philadelphia. This place was the scene of an important en- gagenient during the Revolutionary strug- gle, although the numbers engaged were comparatively small. On hearing of the English reverse at Trenton (which see), Gen. Howe immediately ordered Cornwallis, who was in New York, to proceed with his forces to Princeton. Leaving a part cf his troops at this place, he proceeded towards Trenton with the intention of giving battle to the Americans, and arrived with his vanguard on January 1, 1777. Washington, learning that only three regiments "were left at PRINCIPES 453 PRIZE-MONEY Princeton, by a circuitous night march ar- rived thoro by duybrcaii of Januiiry 3, sur- prised and c()inj)lct(;ly routed the enemy with a loss of 200 killed and wounded, and as many prisoners. The American loss did not exceed 30. This event greatly aroused the drooping spirits of the colonists, who had been previously disheartened by a series of reverses. Principes. Tn the Roman armies, were the iiiluntry, who formed the second line in the order df l)attle. They were armed like the hasfaii, with this difterence, that the former had half-pikes instead of whole ones. Principles, Military. The basis orground- work upon which every military movement is made, and by which every operation is conducted. Prismatic Compass. A surveying instru- ment, nnich used on account of its conve- nient size and form in military sketching, and for tilling up the details of a map where great accuracy is not required. Prismatic Powder. See Gunpowder. Prisoners. Are persons under arrest or in custody, whether in prison or not. When- over any otficer is charged with a crime, ho is to be arrested and deprived of his sword by the commanding otficer; and soldiers charged with crimes are to be confined until tried by a court-martial, or released by proper authority. (See Appendix, Arti- (U,Ks OK AVar, Go and G6.) When brought into court, a prisoirer should be without irons, or any numner of shackles or bands, unless there is danger of an escape, and then he may be secured with irons. — lildckstone. Prisoners of War. Are soldiers captured during ai\ engagement, siege, or continu- ance of hostilities, who are deprived of their liberty until regularly e.'cchanged. Prisons, Military. Are buildings con- structed for the retention of prisoners of war, or for the safe-keeping and punishment of olfenders against military law. Some- times during war forts and other strong buildings are utilized for these purposes. The following were noted prisons during the civil war, IStil-Go, for the retention of Fed- eral prisoners of war: AnderHonviUe (which see). Ihllr Jsle. — An island in the James River near the city of Richmond, Va. The un- fortunate prisoners taken were placed on tiiis island without shelter of any kind to protect tiioin from the scorching rays of the sun during the day or the chilly cold mists of the night, until death or exchange re- leased tlie?u from their sulVerings. Castle Thnndcr. — A fort in Charleston harbor, S. C, which was used for the same purpose. Lihby. — An old tobacco warehouse' in Richmond, Va., which was temporarily con- verted into a military prison ; and for cruelty and torture to the Union prisoners this place was second only to Andersonville. . Snlishiirjf. — A town in North Carolina, which had another depot for prisoners. There were also prisons established for the retention of Confederate prisoners at Camp Douglas, Chicago, Camp Chase, Ohio, El- mira, N. Y., Point Lookout, Md., and Rock Island. III. At Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, a perma- nent military prison was established in ac- cordance with an act of Congress passed March 3, 1873, in which soldiers of the U. S. army are confined for serious offenses against military law. At Dartmoor, a desolate region in Eng- land, a prison was constructed in 1809 for the confinement of French prisoners of war which deserves a passing notice, inasmuch as Americans were confined there during the war of 1812. It comprised 30 acres, in- closed with double walls, with seven distinct prison-houses with inclosures. In 1812 there were (JOOO American prisoners of war within its walls who were treated with much cruelty, and, in consequence of the appear- ance of mutinous intentions of some of the prisoners on account of the tardiness of the English officials in releasing them after the treaty of peace was ratified, they were fired upon by the English soldiers, which resulted in the killing of 5 and wounding of 33 pris- oners. This act was regarded in America as a wanton massacre. Privas. A town of France, capital of the department of Ardoche, 26 miles southwest from Valence. In the civil wars of the IGth and 17th centuries in France, Privas, which was then a strongly-fortified town, played a conspicuous part, being always favoradle to the Protestant party. In 1G2'.) it was bravely defended by a small garrison under St. Andre de Montbrun against Louis XIIL, but after a siege of two months had to be abandoned. Montbrun being soon afterwards taken was lianged, and the fortifications of Privas were leveled to the ground. Private. The title applied in the British army to a common soldier of the cavalry and infantry ; the corresponding rank in the artillery being gunner or driver, and in the engineers, the sapper. A private in the cavalry is sometimes called a trooper. In the U. S. army all the soldiers who are below ^he grade of non-commissioned officers are called privates. Privy-coat. A light coat or defense of mail, concealed under the ordinary dress. Prize. That which is taken from another ; a thing seized by force, stratagem, orsuperior power. Hence, specifically, anything cap- tured by a belligerent using the right of war. Prize. The application of a lever to move any weighty body, as a cask, cannon, or the like. Prize Agent. In the British service, a person appointed for the distribution of such shares of money as may become due to oflS- cersand soldiers after battle, siege, or capture. Prize-bolt. A mana;uvring-boU of a mortar-bed. Prize-money. The proportion which is PRIZING 454 PROJECTILE paid to the troops who are present at the capture or surrender of a place, etc., which yields booty. Prizing. The same as prize^ which see. Proclamation. The act of publishing abroad ; conspicuous announcements ; ofKcial or general notice ; publication ; that which is put forth by way of public notice ; an of- ticial public announcement or declaration ; a published ordinance ; as, the proclamation of a king. A proclamation may be issued to declare the intention of the head of a gov- ernment to exercise some prerogative or en- force some law which has for a long time been dormant or suspended. In time of war, the head of the government by a proclama- tion may lay an embargo on shipping, and order the ports to be shut. But the most usual class of proclamations are admonitory notices for the prevention of offenses, con- sisting of formal declarations of existing laws and penalties, and of the intention to enforce them. Proclamations are only bind- ing when they do not contradict existing laws, or tend to establish new ones, but only enforce the execution of those which are al- ready in being, in such manner as the liead of the government judges necessary. Proconsul. In Roman antiquity, an offi- cer who discharged the duties of a consul without being himself consul ; a governor of a province, or a military commander under a governor. He was usual I3' one who had previously been consul, and his power was nearly equal to that of a regular consul. Prodd. A cross-bow, used for throwing bullets in ancient times. Profile. A section of a parapet or other work in fortification. Projectile. A body projected or impelled forward by force, especially through the air. In a limited military sense the term is ap- plied to a body intended to be projected from a cannon by the force of gunpowder, or other explosive agent, to reach, strike, pass through, or destroy a distant object. The materials of which projectiles are usually composed are lead, wrought or cast iron, each possessing advantages according to the circumstances under which they are fired. But the material which combines in a greater degree than any other the essential qualities of hardness, strength, densit.y, and cheap- ness, is cast iron, which is exclusively used in the U. S. service for large projectiles. Compound projectiles are sometimes made, so as to combine the good and correct the bad qualities of different metals. To obviate the serious results that may arise from the wedging of the flanges of a cast-iron projec- tile in the grooves of a rifle-cannon, it is fre- quently covered with a coating of lead or other soft metal. Cast and wrought iron have also been combined with success, and also cast iron and soft metal in such a man- ner as to attain the strength of one metal and the softness and expansibility of the other. Other metals, such as brass, are also used in projectiles of special construction. Projectiles are generally classified, according to their form, into spherical, or smooth-bore, and oblong, or rifle projectiles. Spherical Projectiles are tired mainly from smooth-bore guns. They are solid shot, shells, spherical case or shrapnel, grape, canister, carcasses, grenades, light- and fire- balls. The advantages which they possess over the oblong are their uniformity of re- sistance to the air, presenting the least ex- tent of surface for a given weight, the coin- cidence of their centres of form and inertia ; they are less liable to wedge in the bore, as they touch the surface at only one point; and they are best adapted for rolling and ricochet tire on account of the regularity of their rebounds. Solid shot are usually made of cast iron, and are designated by the di- ameter of the bore of the piece in which they are to be used, or by their weight. Shells are cast with a core of sand (greater or less according to the thickness required), which is afterwards removed. The mortar-shell has the thinnest walls, and contains the greatest bursting charge for the same cali- ber ; the gun-shell is thicker, and the batter- ing-shell is nearly as strong as the solid shot. Shells are usually designated by the weight of the solid shot of the same diameter. Oblong Projectiles are fired principally from rifled pieces, and have been adopted on account of the increase of range and accu- racy which can be obtained with them. For this purpose it is necessary that tlie projectile should move through the air in the direction of its length. Though experience would seem to show that the only sure method of effecting this is to give it a rapid rotary mo- tion round its axis by the grooves of the rifle, numerous trials have been and are now being made to produce the same effect with smooth-bored guns. One of the simplest plans for this purpose is to place the centre of gravity or inertia in advance of the centre of figure. Another is to make the projectile very long, with its rear portion of wood, and its point of lead or iron, somewhat after the manner of an arrow ; but these plans do not seem to be of much practical utility. The system by which the desired result is obtained with the greatest certainty is the rifle system. Rifle Si/stem. — Spiral grooves are cut into the bore of the y)iece, or it is ribbed with spiral bands, and the projectile is so formed or prepared as to follow them as it passes along the bore of the piece. The principal question which now occupies the attention of those engaged in improving this species of cannon is to obtain the safest and surest means of eflTecting this object. A^'arious plans have been tried to obtain the proposed ob- ject ; nearly all may be ranged under the fol- lowing heads : 1. The Flanged System. — This comprises all projectiles which have certain flanges or projections to tit into the grooves of the gun in loading. These are usually deep and few in number, rounded at their bottom edges PROJECTILE 455 PROJECTILE so as to cause the flanges or studs to pass up the inclined side when rotation is imparled. This is the system at present adopted in England. Tliouund to work satisfactorily in breech-load- ing guns. The rifling should be shallow and consist of numerous grooves, slightly nar- rowing towards the muzzle. Large guns usually have from 20 to 7U, from .05 to .08 inch deep. Experiments are now being made, with prospects of success, to substitute bands of soft copper encircling the projec- tile for the load coating. 3. The Expansive System. — This system has been so exclusively used in the United States that it has frequently been called the American system. It embraces all projec- tiles which are loaded without regard to the rifling, but which are fitted with an expand- ing portion of some softer metal, as pew- ter, copper, wrought iron, or papier-mache, which is forced into the grooves by the dis- charge. This system requires for its rifling fewer grooves than the cs of this de- scription now used in the L'niled Slates con- sist of the usual cast-iron body having a sab()t, or ring of brass or cop[ier either cast or screwed to its base. This ring is divided into an upper and lower flange or lip by an annular gro(»ve. When the gun is fired, the gases enter this groove, forcing the lower flange down ujion the projectile and the up- per or outer into the rilling of the gun, where it is kept during its passage through the bore. ArmstrdtHf Prajeriile. — But one kind of projectile is used in the Armstrong breech- loading guns for the field service, and this is so constructed as to act as a shot, shell, or case-shot at pleasure. It consists of a very thin cast-iron shell, inclosing 42 segment- shaped pieces of cast iron built up so as to form a cylindrical cavity in the centre, which contains the bursting charge and the concussion-fuze. The exterior of the shell is thinly coated with lead, which is applied by placing the shell in a mold and pouring it in a melted state. The lead is also allowed to percolate among the segments, so as to fill up the interstices, the central cavity being kept open by the insertion of a steel core. In this state the projectile is so com- pact that it may be fired without injury, while its resistance to a bursting charge R so small that less than one ounce of powder is required to burst it. When the projectile is to be fired as a shot, it requires no prepara- tion ; but the expediency of using it other- wise than as a shell is doubted. To make it available as a shell, the bursting tube, the concussion- and time-fuzes, are all t() be in- serted ; the bursting tube entering first and the time-fuze being screwed in at the apex. If the time-fuze be correctly adjusted, the shell will burst when it reaches within a few yards of the object ; or failing in this, it will burst by the ci>ncussion-fuze when it strikes the object, or grazes the ground near it. If it be required to act as a canister-shot upon an enemy close to the gun, the regulation of the time-fuze must be turned to the zero of the scale, and then the shell will burst on leaving the gun. The Armstrong projectiles for the nuizzle-loading guns have rows of brass or copjier studs projecting from their sides to fit into the grooves of the gun, which are constructed on the shunt princi- ple. The projectile is made of wrought iron, or low steel, with very thick sides. There is no fuze, the explosion resulting from the heat generated by the impact, and the crushing in of the thin cap which closes the mouth of the powder-chamber. The sides and bottom of the shell being thick enough to resist crushing by the impact, and also to resist the explosive force of the burst- ing charge, iU effect will, after penetration, be expended on the backing of the armor, or the decks which the armor is intended to screen. Such pn>Jcctilcs are called " blind shells.' lilakf.ly Projrciile. — Capt. Blakely 's pro- jectile has an expanding cap attached to its base by means of a single tap-boll in the centre. It is prevented from turning by PROJECTILE 456 PEOJECTILE radial grooves cast on the surfoce of the bot- tom of the projectile, into which the cup is jiressed by the charge. The angle between the curved sides of the cup and the bottom of the projectile is filled with a lubricating material. On the forward part of the body are soft metal studs, more numerous than the grooves of the bore of the piece, that some of them may always form a bearing .surface for the projectile against the lands. The driving sides of the grooves ai-e deeper than the others. Dyei- Projectile. — The Dyer projectile is composed of a cast-iron body, and a soft metal expanding cup, attached to its base. The adhesion of the cup is effected by tin- ning the bottom of the projectile, and then casting the cup on to it. The cup is com- posed of an alloy of lead, tin, and copper, in certain proportions. This projectile, as improved by Mr. Taylor at the Washington Arsenal, gives good results for even as large a caliber as 12 inches. French Projectile. — The projectile used in the French field service is made of cast iron, and has 12 zinc studs on its sides, arranged in pairs, so as to tit the 6 grooves of the gun. For the larger cannon projectiles, but 3 studs are used, and these are cast on the projectile, nearly opposite to its centre of gravity ; the bearing sides of the studs are faced with white metal to diminish friction against the grooves of the bore. The shape of the grooves is such as to centre the projectile. The latter projectile is used with increasing, the former with grooves of uniform twist. Russian, Austrian, and Spanish artillery projectiles belong to the studded, or button class, but differ from each other in the de- tails of their construction. Hotchkiss Projectile. — The Hotchkiss pro- jectile is composed of three parts: the body, the expanding ring of lead, and the cast-iron cup. The action of the charge is to crowd the cup against the soft metal ring, thereby expanding it into the rifling of the gun. The time-fuze projectile has deep longitud- inal grooves cut on its sides to allow the tlame to pass over and ignite the fuze. The last rifle projectile submitted by Mr. Hotch- kiss has an expanding cup of brass attached to its base in a peculiar manner. The cup is divided into four parts by thin projections on the base of the projectile. This arrange- ment is intended to facilitate the expansion of the cup and to allow the flame to pass over to ignite the fuze. James Projectile. — The expanding part of the James projectile consists of a hollow formed in the base of the projectile, and eight radial openings, which extend from this hollow to the surface for the passage of the flame of the charge, which presses against and expands into the grooves of the bore, an envelope or patch, composed of paper, canvas, and lead. In a later pattern of this projectile, the internal cavity and radial openings are omitted, and the outside is fur- rowed with longitudinal grooves which in- crease in depth towards the base of the pro- jectile, forming inclined planes, up which the outer covering of lead and canvas is moved by the force of the charge and expanded into the rifling of the piece. Tlie first projectile used in Parrott guns was invented by Dr. Reed of Alabama, in 1856 or 1857, and was made at Parrott's foundry. It consisted of a soft wrought- iron cup, slightly swedged to fit the grooves, upon which was cast the body of the shot. Palliser Projectile. — This is the most for- midable armor-piercing projectile in use. It owes its eificiency to the material used, — chilled cast iron. In the later forms the head only is chilled, the body being cast in sand. Both shot and shell are cast with a core. The shell is "blind." The curve of the ogival head is struck with a radius of one and one-half times the diameter of the projectile. Parrott Projectile. — Capt. Parrott's pro- jectile, as now made, is composed of a cast- iron body with a brass ring cast into a rab- bet formed around its base. The flame presses against the bottom of the ring and underneath it so as to expand it into the grooves of the gun. To prevent the ring from turning in the rabbet, the latter is recessed at several points of its circumfer- ence. ParrotVs incendiary shell has two compartments formed by a partition at right angles to its length. The lower and larger space is filled with a burning composition, the upper one is filled with a bursting charge of powder, which is fired by a time- or concussion-fuze. The burning compo- sition is introduced through a hole in the bottom of the shell, which is stopped up with a screw-plug. Sawyer Projectile. — The Sawyer projectile has upon its sides six rectangular flanges or ribs to fit into corresponding grooves of the bore. To soften the contact with the sur- face of the bore, the entire surface of the projectile is covered with a coating of lead and brass-foil. The soft metal at the corner of the base is made thicker than at the sides to admit of being expanded into the grooves, and thereby closing the windage. In the latest pattern of Sawyer pi-ojectiles, the flanges are omitted, and the projectiles are made to take the grooves by the expansion of the soft metal at the base, which is pecu- liarly shaped for this purpose. Schenkle Projectile. — Schenkle's projectile is composed of a cast-iron body, the poste- rior portion of which is a cone. The ex- panding portion is a papier-mache sabot or ring, which is expanded into the rifling of the bore by being forced on to the cone by the action of the charge. On issuing from the bore the wad is blown to pieces, leaving the projectile unencumbered in its flight. A great difliculty has been found in prac- tice in always getting a proper quality of material for the sabot, and in consequence, these projectiles have not been found to be reliable. PROJECTILE 457 PROJECTILE Scott Projectile. — The shell devised b}' Commander Scott of the British navy, for firing niolten iron, has three ribs cast upon it, which fit grooves so constructed as to centre it in the bore of the gun when fired. The interior of this shell is lined with loam to prevent the heat of the charge from pen- etrating through to the bursting charge. It is supposed to be broken and its contents diffused on striiting the object. Whit worth Projectile. — The cross-section of the bore of the Whitworth gun is a hex- agon with the corners slightly rounded. The projectile is first formed so that its cross-section is a circle, and its sides taper towards both ends. The middle portion is then carefully planed off to fit the bore of the gun. The AVhitworth blind shell for firing against armor-plates, is made of tem- pered steel, and each end is closed with a screw. To prevent the heat of impact from acting too soon on the bursting charge, it is surrounded by one or more thicknesses of fiannel. A 7-inch shell of this kind has been found to have sufficient strength and etiftncss to penetrate 5 inches of wrought iron before bursting. Confederate Projectiles — The rifle projec- tiles used by the Confederates in the late war belonged, with a few exceptions, to the expanding class. Besides the above there are three kinds of projectiles much used in the U. S. service, viz. : Absterdnm Projectile. — The best form is cast in a single piece, and has an expanding ring of brass which projects three-eighths of an inch beyond the base of the projectile. Eureka Projectile. — Consists of a cast-iron body in one piece, with a brass sabot ; the eabot is an annular disk intended to move on the frustum of a cone with an expanding cup in rear to take the grooves. Ordnance Projectile. — Consists of a cast- iron body, with a sabot composed of an alloy of lead and tin, which is cast on the base of the projectile, and is held in position by undercuts and dovetails, the action of the charge being to force tiie sabot on the cast-iron body and to make it take the grooves. Projectiles of special construction were formerly much used for particular purposes, as: Bar-shot, which consisted of two hemi- spheres or spheres connected by a bar of iron either rigidly or in such a manner as to traverse its length ; these were useful in cutting the masts and rigging of ships. Chain-shot. — This difi'ered from bar-shot only in the mode of connection, which was a chain instead of a bar. Chain-ball. — To arrest the motion of rota- tion of an oblong projectile thrown under high angles, and with a moderate velocity, it has been proposed to attach a light body to its posterior portion by means of a cord, or chain, which will offer a resistance to the flight of the projectile, and cause it to move with its point foremost. 80 Nnil-hall. — A round projectile, having a projecting pin to prevent it from turning in the bore of the piece. . Grooved linll. — An oblong projectile, hav- ing spiral grooves cut along its base, by means of which the action of the charge pro- duces rotation about the longer axis of the projectile. Sometimes these grooves are cut in the forward part of the projectile for the action of the air. Neither of these plans has succeeded in practice. Bullets. — A bullet is a leaden projectile discharged from a musket, fowling-piece, pistol, or similar weapon. Spherical Bullets. — When smooth-bore muskets alone were used the bullets were chiefly spherical in form and made by cast- ing; at present, however, spherical bullets are manufactured by a compressing machine invented by Mr. George Napier. They are denominated by the number contained in a pound. In consequence of the great im- provements that have been made of late in small-arms, the spherical bullet is now very little employed for military purposes, its use being chiefly confined to case-shot. Oblonci Bullets. — Are denominated by their diameter and weight. About IGOO, when rifles began to be used as a military weapon, spherical bullets were fired ; in the early part of the 18th century, however, it was found that good results could be obtained by the use of oblong projectiles of elliptical form. The great difficulty, however, of loading the rifle, which was ordinarily accomplished by the blows of a mallet on a stout iron ramrod, prevented it from being generally used in regular warfare. The foregoing plan was afterwards improved by making the projec- tile a little smaller than the bore, and wraf>- ping it with a patch of cloth greased to diminish the friction in loading. The im- provements which have been made in the last thirty years have entirely overcome this difficulty, and rifles are now almost univer- sally employed, although until 185o the mass of the American infantry was armed with smooth-bored muskets. The first person to overcome the ditfioilty of loading rifles was M. Delavigne, an oflicer of the French in- fantry. His plan, proposed in 1827, was to make the projectile small enough to enter the bore easily and to attach it to a sabot, which, when in position, rested upon th's shoulder of a cylindrical chamber formed ai the bottom of the bore to contain the pow- der. In this position the projectile wsis struck two or three times with the ramrod, which expanded the lead into the grooves of the barrel. The method of Delavigne was afterwards improved by Thouvenin and Minio, both officers of the French service. The projectiles suggested by them were elongated in form and the metal of the pri>- jectile was forced into the grooves of the rifling by means of a plug or cup driven into the base of the projectile, which was cast hollow for that purpose. The cup used in the Minio bullet was made of sheet-iron. PROJECTILES 458 PROJECTILES Mr. Greener of England appears to have been the first person to utilize this expanding or dilating action. Various other bullets have been invented, of greater or less use- fulness, as the Whitworth, Pritchett or En- field, and those used in the French, Austrian, and Swiss services. In the British service, the Enfield bullet is employed ; this has a perfectly smooth exterior, and a conical box- wood plug inserted into a cavity at the base ; they are made by machinery which draws in a coil of leaden rod, unwmds it, cuts it to the required length, stamps out the bullets with steel dies, drops them into boxes, and conveys them away. United States Bullets. — The bullets used in the U. S. service are of two kinds, one for the rifle and carbine ball-cartridge weighing 405 grains, the other for the revolver car- tridge weighing 230 grains. The metal used is an alloy of 16 parts of lead and 1 part of tin. The bullet in shape is a cylinder sur- mounted by a conical frustum tCTminating in a spherical segment. It has three rec- tangular cannelures which contain the lubri- cant. This latter is protected by the case which covers more than half the length of the bullet. A dished cavity is made in the base of the bullet to bring it to the proper weight. Projectiles, Theory of. Is the investiga- tion of the path, or tr-ajectory as it is called, of a body which is projected into space. A body thus projected is acted upon by two forces, the force of 2^)'ojection, which, if act- ing alone, would carry the body onwards forever in the same direction and at the same rate ; and the force of gravity, which tends to draw the body downwards towards the earth. The force of projection acts only at the commencement of the body's motion; the force of gravity, on the contrary, con- tinues to act effectively during the whole time of the body's motion, drawing it far- ther and farther from its original direction, and causing it to describe a curved path, which, if the body moved in a vacuum, would be accurately a parabola. Trajectory in Vacuo. — This general theory is not the object of the present discussion, but simply the theory of projectiles as far as it relates to fire-arms. The path that the centre of gravity of a projectile would de- scribe in vacuo would be a parabola, and the greatest range given by an angle of fire of 45°. Under the same angles of fire the range would be proportional to the squares of the velocities, the velocity least at the summit of the trajectory, and the velocities at the two points in which the trajectory cuts the horizontal plane equal. The time of flight would be given for an angle of 45° by the formula : In which T represents the time of flight, and X the range expressed in feet. These results are found to answer in practice for projectiles which exjoerience slight resist- ance from the air, or for heavy projectiles moving with low velocities, as is usually the case with those of mortars and howitzers, for which, within certain limits, the above results are sufficiently accurate in practice. Trajectory in Air. — A body moving in air experiences a resistance which diminishes the velocity with which it is animated. Thus it has been shown that certain cannon- balls do not range one-eighth as far in the air, as they would if they did not meet with this resistance to their motion, and small- arm projectiles which have but little mass are still more affected by it. This resistance is expressed by the formula : in which P represents the resistance in the terms of the unit of weight, v the velocity, and ]iR'^ the area of a cross-section of the projectile, A the resistance in pounds on a square foot of the cross-section of a projec- tile moving with a velocity of one foot, r is a linear quantity depending on the velocity of the projectile. For all service spherical projectiles A is .000514, and for all service velocities r is 1.427 feet ; the value of A for the rifle-musket bullet is .000358 ; hence, the resistance of the air is about one-third less on the ogival than on the spherical form of projectile. A being a function of the density of air, its value depends on the temperature, pressure, and hygrometric con- dition. It has been demonstrated that the final velocity of a projectile falling in the air is directly proportional to the product of its diameter and density, and inversely pro- portional to the density of the air ; the re- tarding eflfect of the air is less on the larger and denser projectiles, and for the same cali- ber an oblong projectile will be less retarded by the air than one of spherical form and consequently with an equal, perhaps less, initial velocity, its range will be greater. It has also been shown that great advantage in point of range is obtained by using large projectiles instead of small ones, solid pro- jectiles instead of hollow ones, leaden pro- jectiles instead of iron ones, and oblong projectiles instead of round ones. The ogi- val form, or the form of the present rifle- musket bullet, experiences less resistance in passing through the air than any other known. In consequence of the variable nature of the resistance of the air, it has been found impossible to find an accurate expression for the trajector3^ Capt. Didion, of Metz, has, however, found an approxi- mate solution ; he states that all cases of the movement of a projectile may be divided into three classes : 1st. When the angle of projection is slight or does not exceed 3°, as in the ordinary fire of guns, howitzers, and small-arms, — for slight variations of the angle of projection above or below the hori- zontal, the form of the trajectory may be considered constant, and when the object is but slightly raised above or depressed below PROJECTILES 459 PROJECTILES the horizontal plane, it may be considered as in this plane. 2d. When antfles of pro- jection do not exceed 10° or lo°, as in the ricochet lire of guns, howitzers, and mor- tars. 3d. When the an^le of projection ex- ceeds 15°, as is the case in mortar fire. For each of these cases he has deduced formula}, by means of which tlie range, time of fiight, etc., can be determined. As a projectile rises in the ascending branch of its trajec- tory, its velocity is diminishcid by the re- tarding effect of the air, and the force of gravity, in consequence of the resistance of the air alone, the velocity continues to di- minish to a point a little beyond the sum- mit of the trajectory, wiiereit is a minimum, and from this point it increases, as it de- scends, under the influence of the force of gravity, until it becomes uniform, which event depends on the diameter and weight of the projectile, and the density of the air. The inclination of the trajectory decreases from the origin to the summit, where it is nothing, it increases in the descending branch from the summit to its termination, and if the ground did not interpose an obstacle, it would become vertical at an infinite dis- tance. An element of the trajectory in the descending branch has a greater inclinatii)n than the corresponding element of the as- cending branch. Strictly speaixing, there- fore, the trajectory of a projectile in air is not a parabola, but is an exponential curve with two asymptotes, the first the axis of the piece, which is tangent to the trajectory when the initial velocity is infinite, the sec- ond a vertical line toward which the tra- jectory approaches, as the horizontal com- ponent of the velocity diminishes and the eflect of the force of gravity increases. Tlie curvature of the trajectory increases in the ascending branch to a point a little be- yond the summit. The point of greatest curvature is situated nearer the summit than the point of minimum velocity. In the fire of mt)rtar-shells, under great angles of pro- jection, the trajectory may be considered as an arc, in which the angle of fall is slightly greater than the angle of projection. In the fornuiUu deduced by Uidion, in conse- quence of considering the inclination of the trajectory as constant, the resistance of the air is slightly underestimated in the more inclined portions of the trajectory or at the beginning and end, and slightly overesti- mated in the less inclined portions or about the summit. It follows tluit the calculated trajectory will at first rise above tlie true one, then pass below it and again ])ass above it; the calculated ranges are therefore slightly in exce.ss of the true ones. Trnjectori/ of Oblung Projectiles. — From the law of inertia, a rifle projectile moves through the air with its axis of rotation parallel to the axis of the bore. Hence it follows that an oblong projectile, fired under alow angle of projection, presents a greater surface toward the earth, and les.s parallel to it, than a round projectile of the same weight, consequently the vertical component of the resistance of the air is greater, and the horizontal component less, in the first case than in the second. The effect of this will be to give an oblong projectile a flatter trajectory and longer range than a round one. Decintion of Projectiles. — The path de- scribed by the ttntre of inertia of a projectile, moving under the influences of gravity and the tangential resistance of the air, is called the nornud tnijectory. In practice, various causes are constantly at work to deflect a projectile from its normal path. All devia- ting causas may be divided into two classes, — those which act while the projectile is in the bore of the piece, and those which act after the projectile has left it. The first class includes all the causes which alTect the initial velocity, and give rotation to the projectile; the second includes the action of the air. Causes which affect Initial Velocity. — The principal causeg which affect initial velocity are variations in the weights of the powder and projectile, the manner of loading, the temperature of the piece, and the balloting of the projectile along the bore. Rotation. The principal cause of the deviation of a projectile is its rotation combined with the resistance of the air. By balloting. If the projectile be spherical and homogeneous, rotation is produced by the bounding or balloting of the ball in the bore, arising from the windage. In this case the axis of rotation is horizontal, and passes through the centre of the ball ; the direction of rota- tion depends on the side of the projectile which strikes the surface of the bore last. The velocity of rotation from this cause de- pends on the windage, or depth of the in- dentations in the bore, the charge being the same. By ecccntriciti/. If, from the struc- ture of the ball, or from some defect of manu- facture, the centre of gravity does not coin- cide with the centre of figure, rotation gen- erally takes place around the centre of gravity. This arises from the fact that the resultant of the charge acts at the centre of figure, while inertia, or resistance to motii>n, acts at the centre of gravity. For the same charge the velocity of rotation passes through the centre of gravity, and is per- pendicular to a plane containing the result- ant of the charge and the centres of figure and gravity. For the same charge, the velocity of rotation is proportional to the lever arm, or the per|>endicular, let fall from the centre of gravity to the resultant of the charge. Knowing the position of the centre of gravity of the ball in the Ixire, it is easy to foretell the direction and velocity of rotation. In general terms the front sur- face of the projectile moves toward the side of the bore on which the centre of gravity is situated, and the velocity of rotation is greatest when the line joining the centres of gravity and figure is perpendicular to the axis ot' the bore. PROJECTILES 460 PROJECTILES The Effect of Rotation.— Tho effect of ro- tation in producing deviation may be dis- cussed under three heads : 1st. When the projectile is spherical and concentric; 2d. When it is spherical and eccentric ; and, 3d. When it is oblong. If a projectile be spherical and concentric, rotation takes place from contact with the surface of the bore around a horizontal axis, and the effect will be to shorten or lengthen the range, as the motion of the front surface is downward or upward. If the projectile be eccentric, the motion of the front surface is generally to- ward the side on which the centre of gravity is situated, and the deviation takes place in this direction. The extent of the deviation for the same charge depends on the position of the centre of gravity ; the horizontal de- viation being the greatest when the centres of gravity and figure are in a horizontal plane, and the line which joins them is at right angles to the axis of the piece ; the vertical deviation will be the greatest when these centres are in a vertical plane, and the line which joins them is at right angles to the axis of the piece. If the axis of rotation coincide with the tangent to the trajectory throughout the flight, all points of the sur- face have the same velocity in the direction of the motion of translation, and there will be no deviation. This explains why it is that a rifle projectile moves through the air more accurately than a projectile from a emooth-bored gun. In accurate firing, there- fore, it is important to know the true posi- tion of the centre of gravity. In ricochet firing over smooth water, the number of grazes may be increased or diminished by placing, in loading, the centre of gravity above or below the centre of figure. Deviatio?i of Oblong Projectiles. — The cause of the deviation of an oblong rifle projectile is quite difterent from one of spherical form. An oblong projectile moving in the air is acted upon by two rotary forces, viz. : one which gives it its normal rotary motion around its axis of progression, and another the resistance of the air, which, in conse- quence of the deflection of the axis of pro- gression from the tangent to the trajectory by the action of gravity, does not pass through the centre of inertia, but above or below it ; depending on the shape of the pro- jectile. From a law of mechanics, a body thus circumstanced will not yield full}^ to cither of the forces that thus act upon it, but its apex will move off with a slow uniform motion to the right or left of the vertical plane, depending on the relative direction of the two rotary forces. If the action of these forces be continued sufBciently long, it will be seen that the axis of the projectile before referred to describes a cone around a line passing through the centre of inertia and ■parallel to the direction of the resistance of the air. Owing to the short duration of the flight of an ordinary projectile, it is only necessary to consider the first part of this conical motion. If the projectile rotates in the direction of the hands of a watch to the eye of the marksman, and the resultant of the resistance of the air pass above the centre of inertia, as it does in the service bullet with a conoidal point, then the point of the pro- jectile will move to the right, which brings the left side of the projectile obliquely in contact with the current of the air. The eftect of this position with reference to the air will be to generate a component force that will urge the projectile to the right of the plane of fire. This peculiar deviation was called by the French officers that first observed it, ^' de7-ivation," or "(/?-i/7. " Sionmary of Deviating Causes. — The fol- lowing summary may be considered as em- bracing nearly all the causes of deviation of cannon and small-arm projectiles : 1st. Froin the con.struction of the piece. These causes are, wrong position of the sight ; bore not of the true size ; windage, etc. 2d. From the charge of powder. Improper weight; form of grain and variable quality of the powder, etc. 3d. From the projectile. Not of the exact size, shape, or weight; disfigur- ation in loading, or on leaving the bore; eccentricity. 4th. From the atmosphere, etc. The effect of wind ; variations in the tem- perature, moisture, and density of the air; position of the sun as regards the effect on the aim ; diflerence of level between the ob- ject and the piece ; and rotation of the earth. It is found that a projectile will deviate to the right of the object in the northern hemi- sphere whatever may be the direction of the line of fire, and at a distance from it, de- pending on the latitude of the place, and on the time of flight and the range of the pro- jectile. Projectiles, Effects of. The effects of projectiles, and particularly that of penetra- tion, depend on the nature of the projectile, its initial velocitj'^, and the distance of the object. The effects of the various kinds of projectiles upon iron and steel plates are not yet thoroughly understood, and experiments are still being made, particularly in Eng- land, to determine the best combinations of wrought and cast iron, and steel, to resist the penetration of the enormous projectiles of the present day. Their effects upon wood, earth, etc., are, however, better understood. Effect on Wood. — The effect of a projectile fired against wood varies with the nature of the wood and the direction of the penetra- tion. If the projectile strikes perpendicular to the fibres, and the fibres be tough and elastic, as in the case of oak, a portion of them are crushed, and others are bent under the pressure of the projectile, but regain their form as soon as it has passed by them. In consequence of the softness of white pine, nearly all the fibres struck are broken, and the orifice is nearly the size of the projectile ; for the same reason the effects of the pro- jectile do not extend much beyond the ori- fice ; pine is therefore to be preferred to oak for structures that are not intended to resist cannon projectiles, as block-houses, etc. PROJECTILES 461 PROMOTION Effect on Earth. — Earth possesses advan- tages over all other materials as a covering against projectiles; it is cheap and easily obtained, it offers considerable resistance to penetration, and to a certain extent regains its position after displacement. It is found by experience that a projectile has very little effect on an earthen fiarapet unless it passes completely through it. Wherever masonry is liable to be breached, it should be masked by earthworks with natural slopes. Gen. Gillmore states that the powers of resistance of pure, compact, quartz sand to the pene- tration of projectiles very much exceed that of ordinary earth, or mixture of several earths. The size of the openings formed by the passage of a projectile into the earth is about one-third larger than the projectile, in- creasing, however, towards the outer orifice. Rifle projectiles especially are easily deflected from their course in earth, hence their pene- tration is variable. Unless a shell be very large in proportion to the mass of earth penetrated, its explosion will produce but little displacement, — generally, a small open- ing is formed around an exploded shell by I the action of the gas in pressing back the \ earth. Time-fuzes, being liable to be extin- guished by the pressure of the earth, are in- ferior to percussion-fuzes, which produce explosion when the projectile has made about three-fourths of its proper penetration. The penetration in earth of oblong, compared to round projectiles, when lired with service charges, and at a distance of about 400 yards, is at least one-fourth greater. This ditler- ence, however, is less at short and greater at long distances. The penetrations of simi- lar projectiles into a given substance, are proportional to the squares of the velocities of impact and to the diameters and densities of the projectiles. Penetration in Water. — The penetration of a rifle projectile in water depends much on the direction of its axis with respect to penetration ; for instance, penetration rapidly diminishes at long distances, as the axis of the projectile strikes the surface of the water under a diminished angle. Effect on Ma.ionn/. — The effect of a pro- jectile against mjisonry is to form a trun- cated conical hole, terminated by another of a cylindrical form. The nuiter'ial in front of and around the projectile is broken and shattered, and the end of the cylindrical hole even reduced to powder. The exterior | opening varies from four to five times the diameter of the projectile, and the depth I varies with the size and density of the pro- jectile, and its velocity. When a projectile Btrikes against a surface of oak, as the side of a ship, it will not stick if the angle of in- cidence be less than 15°, and if it do not penetrate to a depth nearly equal to its di- ameter. Solid cast-iron shot break against granite, hut not against freestone or brick. Shells are broken into small fragments against ei^ch of those materials. Breaching. — Formerly stone projectiles were much used for breaching, but from the want of sufficient hardness in these projec- tiles, the besiegers were forced to commence battering at the top of the wall where the least resistance was offered, and gradually to lower the shot until the breach reached the wrecks already formed at the base of the wall. Iron projectiles superseded stone, and then more rapid modes of effecting a prac- ticable breach were suggested. The easiest nutnner of making the cut is to direct the shots upon the same line, and form a serie* of holes a little greater than a diameter ajiart, and then to fire a second series of shots, directed at the intervals between the first, and so on, until an opening is made completely through the wall. If the portion of the wail between the vertical cuts should not be overthrown by the pressure of the earth behind, it must be deUtched by a few volleys of solid shot, fired at its centre. Breaching with Rijle-cannon. — The fore- going has reference particularly to breach- ing masonry with smooth-bored guns. The same principle is applicable to rifled guns, the only difference being that, from their suj)erior penetration and accuracy, the latter are effective at much longer distances. The most destructive projectile against masonry is the elongated percussion shell. Effect of Bnlletf. — From experiments made in Denmark, the following relations were found between the penetration of a bul- let in pine and its eftects on the body of a living horse, viz. : 1st. When the force of the bullet is sufficient to penetrate 0.81 inch into pine, it is only sufficient to produce a slight contusion of the skin. 2d. When the force of penetration is equal to 0.63 inch, the wound begins to be dangerous, but does not disable. 3d. AVIicn the force of penetration is equal to 1.2 inch, the wound is very dan- gerous. A plate of wrought iron three-six- teenths of an inch thick, is sufficient to re.«ist a rifle-musket bullet at distances varying from 20 to 200 yards. Iron of thickiiess, however, will not resist bullets of the pres- ent day. That a rope mantlet may give full protection against rifle-musket bullets, it should be composed of five layers (three vertical and two horizontal) of 4^-inch rope. Projection. In mathematics, the action of giving a projectile its motion. It is also used to signify a scheme, plan, or delinea- tion. Proking-spit. A large Spanish rapier. Prolongation. An extension of leave of absence, or a continuation of service. Prolongation of the Line. Is effected by parallel movements at the right or left of any given number of men on a front division. Prolonge. Sie Imi-lkmknts. Prolonge-hooks. See Ordnanck, Car- RiAQK-s FOR, NoMKNCLATURK OF Artillery Carriaqk. Promotion.* This word signifies, in mili- tary matters, the elevation of an individual to some appointment of greater rank and trust to the one he holds. PROMULGATION 4G2 PRUSSIA . Promulgation. The act of promulgating ; publication; open declaration; as, the pro- mulgation of the sentence of a court-mar- tial. Proof. A term applied to the testing of powder, and also of ordnance, which are al- ways fired with a regulated charge of pow- der and shot, to test their strength and soundness. Proof. Conclusive evidence. Proof. Capable of withstanding ; as, bomb-proof, shot-proof. Propel. To drive forward ; to urge or press onward by force ; to move or cause to move ; balls are propelled by the force of gunpowder. Proper. A term which serves to mark out a thing more especially and formally. Thus, the proper form of a battalion is the visual continuity of line given to the forma- tion of a battalion, and which remains unal- tered by the wheelings of its divisions ; or if altered, is restored by the same operation. Proper right, is the right of a battalion, company, or subdivision, when it is drawn up according to its natural formation. Proper pivot jiank, in column, is that which, when wheeled up to, preserves the division of the line in the natural order, and to their proper front. The other may be called the reverse flank. Proper. In heraldry, a charge borne of its natural color, is said to be proper. An object whose color varies at diflerent times and in different examples, as a rose which may be white or red cannot be borne proper. Prosecute. To carry on ; to continue ; as, to prosecute the war. Also, to accuse of some crime or breach of law, or to pursue for punishment before a legal tribunal ; to proceed against judicially. Prosecutor. In courts-martial the judge- advocate is usually the prosecutor; but if an officer prefers a charge, he sometimes ap- pears to sustain the prosecution. No person can appear as prosecutor not subject to the articles of war, except the judge-advocate. — Hough. Proveditor. One employed to procure supplies for an army ; a purveyor. Proving-ground. Ground used for test- ing powder or ordnance. Provision. Properly to victual ; to fur- nish with provisions. Provost. The temporary prison in which the military police confine prisoners till thej'^ are disposed of. Provost Cells. Also called regimental or garrison cells, in the British service are those certified cells under a provost or acting provost-sergeant, in which court-martial prisoners may be imprisoned up to forty-two days. Provost-Marshal. In the army, is an officer appointed to superintend the preser- vation of order, and to be, as it were, the head of the police of any particular camp, town, or district. He has cognizance of all camp-followers, as well as members of the army. His power is summary, and he can punish an offender, taken flagrante delicto, on the spot, according to the articles of war. Provost-Sergeant. Is a sergeant who is charged with the military police of a corps. He is generally given one or two non-com- missioned officers as assistants. In the Brit- ish service he also is charged with the cus- tody of all prisoners in the cells. Prowess. Valor; bravery in the field-; military gallantry. Prowlers. Are persons who steal within the lines of a hostile army for the purpose of robbing, killing; or destroying bridges, roads, mails, or other means of communica- tion. Such persons are not entitled to the privileges usually accorded to prisoners of war. Prussia. A kingdom of the new German empire. The people of Prussia first appear in history in the 10th century, under the name of Borussi ; from these the country derives its name. Some historians, however, derive the name from Po, signifying near, and Russia. The Prussians were subjected by Boleslaus of Poland in 1018 ; they made a successful stand against Boleslaus IV. of Poland in 1161, and for a time maintained a rude and savage kind of independence. The Teutonic Knights were engaged in war for half a century with the people, — win- ning lands and souls by hard fighting, — until at length, in 1283, they found them- selves undisputed masters of the country, having almost exterminated the pagan pop- ulation. During this period the knights founded many cities and repeopled tlie coun- try with German colonists. In 1454 the municipal and noble classes, with the co- operation of Poland, rose in open rebellion against the knights, who were forced to cede West Prussia and Ermland to Poland. Albert (or Albrecht) of Brandenburg was acknowledged duke of East Prussia in 1525; his son-in-law, John Sigismund, created elector of Brandenburg and duke of Prussia in 1608. The reign of John Sigismund's successor, Georg-Wilhelm (1619-1640), was distracted by fhe miseries of the Thirty Years' War, and the country was alternately the prey of Swedish and imperial armies. The electorate was raised by the genius of Frederick William, the great elector, to the rank of a great European power. His successor, Frederick III. (1688-1713), was proclaimed king of Prussia by the title of Frederick I. m 1701. During the reign of Frederick William IV., Prussia co- operated powerfully in putting down the insurrections in Poland and Baden. In the war of the Schleswig-Holstein duchies, the Prussians acted in concert with the disaf- fected against their sovereign, the king of Denmark, occupying the ducal provinces in the name and on behalf of the diet. A treaty of peace was concluded between Prussia and Denmark, on July 2, 1850. In 1863 the allied Prussian and Austrian armies entered the duchies of Schleswig-Holstein and de- PKUTII 463 PUNISHMENT feated the Danes ; the duchies were separated from Denmark. Warm disputes with Aus- tria respecting Schlr;swig-Hr)lstein arose in the beginning of ISOfi. The vote of the majority of the diet of the Germanic Con- federation supported Austria; Prussia an- nounced her witlulrawal from the confeder- ation, and its dissolution ; the diet dechired itself indissoluble, and continued its func- tions, June 14, 1860. War was declared by Prussia, June 18, 1806, which ended in the total defeat of Austria and her allies. A treaty of peace between Austria and Prussia was signed at Prague on August 23, 1866. IJy its articles Austria consented to the breaking up of the Germanic Confederation, and to Prussia's annexing Hanover, Hesse- Cassel, Nassau, and Frankfort-on-the-Main, and gave up Holstein and her political in- fluence in North Germany. For further history, see Fkanco-Prus.s'ian AVar. Pruth. A river of Europe, which rises in the Carpathian Mountains. It forms a portion of the boundary-line between Rus- sia and Turkey, and by crossing it, in 1853, the Russians gave rise to the war with Tur- key and the subsequent Crimean war. Psiloi. Among the Greeks, were light- armed men who fought with arrows and darts, or stones and slings, but were unfit for close fight. Tliey were in honor and dig- nity inferior to the heavy-armed soldiers. Publish. To make known. In a garri- son orders are published by being read at parade. Orders are also published by circu- lating written copies. Piiebla, or La Puebla de los Angeles. Capital of the department of Puebla, in Mexico, 80 miles southeast from the city of Mexico. It was taken by the French on May 17, 1863, after a siege of several weeks' duration, the Mexican general Ortega, with 18,000 men, surrendering to Gen. Forey. This event threw open the road to Mexico, and was the immediate precursor of the overthrow of the government of Juarez. Pueblo Indians (Sp. pitrblo, "village"). An inttTosiing class of semi-civilized In- dians in New Mexico and Arizona, so called from their remarkable residences, a descrip- tion of some of which may be found under Moqi:is Indians. They are divided into several tribes speaking ditforent languages. Their internal administration is patriarchal, each pueblo or village being ruled by its governor and council of three elders. Pulk. A tribe; a particular body of men. This word is chiefly used in Russia ; as, a pulk of Cossacks. Pultowa. See Poltava. Pultusk. A town of Poland in the gov- ernment of Plock, situated on the Narew. 35 miles north-northeast from Warsaw. Here on December 26, 1806, was fought one of the battles of the campaign of Eylau, between the Russians and the French. The field was most obstinately ctmtested, but the victory, which, however, was claimed by both ar- mies, inclined in favor of the French. Pummel. The hilt of a sword, the end of a tcun, etc. Puncto. The point in fencing. Punic Wars. The name of three cele- brated contests, in which the Romans and Carthaginians were eni;iiged from the year 264 to 146 B.C., and which finally terminated with the destruction of Carthage. It was in the second war, which began in 218, that the Carthaginian commander Hannil>al ren- dered himself so distinguished by his victo- ries over the Romans. The illustrious Scipio was eventually tlie conqueror of Hannibal and the victor of Carthage. Punic faith is a reproachful term in frequent use, derived from Punici, or Carthaginians, because they were considered by the Romans a perfidious race. Punishment, Military. In a military sense, is the execution of a sentence pro- nounced by a court-martial upon any delin- quent. The Romans famished crimes com- mitted by the soldiery with the utmost rigor. On the occurrence of a mutiny, every tenth, twentieth, or hundredth man was sometimes chosen by lot, but generally only the ring- leaders were selected for punishment. De- serters and seditious persons were frequently, after being scourged, sold for slaves ; and occasionally the otfender was made to lose his right hand, or was bled nearly to death. Among the nations of Western Europe, the punishments for military offenses were, till lately, no less severe than they were among the Romans. Resides the infliction of a cer- tain number of lashes with cords, soldiers convicted of theft, marauding, or any other breach of discipline which was not punish- able with death, were sentenced to run the gantlope. (See Gantlope.) In Russia the knout was extensively used. (See Knout.) It is often necessary to punish to maintain discipline, and the rules and articles of war provide ample means of punishment, but not sufllicient rewards and guards against er- rors of judgment. In the French army de- grading punishments are illegal, but soldiers may be confined to quarters or deprived of the liberty of leaving the garrison ; confined in the guard-room, in prison, or in dungeon ; required to walk or to perform hard labor; and officers may be subjected to simple or rigorous arrests. Every officer who inflicts a punishment, must account for it to his su- perior, who approves or disapproves, con- firms, augments, or diminishes it. If an inferior is confined to the guard-room, he cannot be liberated except upon application to a superior. Any officer who has been subjected to punishment, must, when re- lieved, make a visit to him who ordered it. The French code has, in a word, been care- ful to provide for both the security of its citizens and thestrencth of authority. The punishments established by law or custom for U. S. soldiers by sentence of court-mar- tial, are embodied "in the Articles of War. (See Appkndix. Articles ok War.) It is regarded as inhuman to punish by soli- PUNITZ 464 PYRENEES tary confinement, or confinement on bread and water exceeding fourteen days at a time, or for more than eighty-four days in a year, at intervals of fourteen days. Punitz. A town of Prussia in the prov- ince of Posen. A battle was fought here in 1706, between the Saxons and the Swedes, in which the latter were victorious. Punjab, or Five Rivers. An extensive river of Hindostan, situated chiefly in the province of Lahore, but including Moultan, and comprising the country traversed bj' the " five great waters," or rivers, of which the Indus is the most westerly, and the Sutlej the most easterly. This region was traversed by Alexander the Great in 327 B.C. ; and again by Tamerlane in 1398. The wars with the Sikhs began here on March 29, 1849, when the Punjab was annexed to the British possessions in India. Punkah. A swinging fan used in the hot districts of India. Purchasing. Anj'^ person purchasing from any soldier his arms, uniform, cloth- ing, or any part thereof, may be punished by any civil court having cognizance of the same, by fine in any sum not exceeding $300, or by imprisonment not exceeding one j^ear. —Act of March 16, 1802. Purpure. In heraldry, the color purple, expressed in engravings by lines in bend sinister. It is of unfrequent occurrence in British heraldry. Pursuit. The act of following or going after ; a following with haste, either for sport or hostility ; as, the pursuit of an enemy. Pursuivant, The third and lowest order of heraldic otHcers. The office was insti- tuted as a novitiate, or state of probation, through which the ofl5ces of herald and king-at-arms were ordinarily to be attained, though it has been held that a herald or king-at-arms may be made^jer saltum. For the present titles of the several British pur- suivants, see Herald. In ancient times any great noljleman might institute his own pur- suivant with his own hands and by his single authority. The dukes of Norfolk had a pur- suivant called Blanch-lyon, from the white lion in their arms ; the pursuivant of the dukes of Northumberland was styled Es- perance from the Percy motto, and liichard Nevil, earl of Salisbury, had a pursuivant called Egle ve>'t. Purveyor. A person employed to make purchases, or to provide food, medicines, and necessaries for the sick. Push. To press against with force ; to drive or impel by pressure ; as, to push back an enemy. Push. An assault or attack ; a forcible onset ; a vigorous effort. Put to the Sword, To. To kill with the Bword ; to slay. Puteoli (the modern Puzzuoli). A cele- brated seaport town of Campania, was situ- ated on the eastern shore of the Gulf of Baiae. A colony from the neighboring Greek city of Cuma3 founded it in 521 B.C., under the name of Dicsearchia. In the second Punic war the Romans fortified it, and changed its name into that of Puteoli. It was destroyed by Alaric in 410, by Genseric in 455, and also by Totila in 545, but was on each occasion speedily rebuilt. In the 9th century the Lombard dukes of Benevento reduced it. Putteeala. A town of British India, capital of a dependent native state of the same name, in Sirhind, on the Kosilla, 1028 miles northwest of Calcutta. It was taken possession of by the British in 1809, but the rajah retains the sovereignty, on condition of furnishing a certain number of troops in case of war to the British government. Puzzuoli, or Pozzuoli. "See Putkoli. Pydna (now Kitron). A town of Mace- donia, in the district Pieria, was situated at a small distance west of the Thermaic Gulf, on which it had a harbor. It was originally a Greek colony, but was subdued by the Macedonian kings, from whom, however, it frequently revolted. Toward the end of the Peloponnesian war it was taken after a long siege by Archelaus. It again revolted from the Macedonians, and was subdued by Philip, who enlarged and fortified the place. It was here that Olympias sustained a long siege against Cassander, 317-16 B.C. It is es- pecially memorable on account of the vic- tory gained under its walls by ^Emilius Paulus over Perseus, the last king of Mace- donia, 168 B.C. Pylos, or Pilus. In the southwest of Messenia, was situated at the foot of Mount ^galeos on a promontory at the northern entrance of the basin, now called the Bay of Navarino, the largest and safest harbor of Greece. In the second Messenian war the inhabitants of Pylos otiered a long and brave resistance to the Spartans ; but after the cap- ture of Ira, they were obliged to quit their native country with the rest of the Mes- senians. It again became memorable in the Peloponnesian war, when the Athenians under Demosthenes built a fort on the pro- montory Coryphasium, a little south of the ancient city, and just within the northern entrance of the harbor (425 B.C.). The at- tempts of the Spartans to dislodge the Athe- nians proved unavailing; and the capture by Cleon of the Spartans, who had landed in the island of Sphacteria, was one of the most important events in the whole war. Pyramids, Battle of the. So called from having taken place close to the large pyra- mids in the plain of Mummies, at Waar- dam, within a few miles of Grand Cairo. A previous engagement had been fought on July 15, 1799, between the Mamelukes under Murad Bey and the French army, com- manded by Bonaparte in person. On July 21, 1799, the second battle, called the " battle of the Pyramids," was fought, when Bona- parte defeated the Mamelukes under Murad Bey and thus subdued Lower Egypt. Pyrenees, Battle of the. The Pyrenees PYRGI 465 PYROTECHNT are a chain of mountains which separate Spain from France, and arc nearly 75 miles broad. Towards the close of the Peninsular war, in 1813, thcs-e mountains were the scene of many severe conflicts between the IJritish troops under the Duke of Wellington and the French forces under Marshal Soult. After the defeat of Joseph Bonaparte at Vit- toria, Soult tot)k the command of the French armies as lieutenant de I'etnpereur ; and after addressini;; the beaten soldiery in language that proved fatally unprophetic, he hastened to relieve the beleaguered fortresses, and the result was "the battles of the Pyrenees." Pampeluna, Koncesvalles, Maya, Orthez, etc., were the seats of the princii)al struggles. For nine days the armies had been in each other's presence; and in severe operations and desperate lighting these days were un- exampled. The allied casualties exceeded 7000 men, — and those of the French might be safely set down at 15,000. Pyrgi. Movable towers, used by the (ireeks in scaling the walls of besieged towns. They were driven forward upon wheels, and were divided into difterent stories, capable of carrying a great number of soldiers and military engines. Pyroboli. Fireballs, used both by the Greeks and Komans. They seem to have been the very same as the malleoli. Pyrometer. An instrument for deter- mining the pressure of lired gunpowder by the registered compression of oil, — invented by Dr. W. E. Woodbridge, and used by him and Maj. Mordecai (U. S. Ordnance Depart- ment) in experiments at Washington Arse- nal, 1854-55. It consists of a small hollow steel cylinder tilled with oil and a piston wliich is pressed inwards upon the oil by the powder gases. The piston has a small stem projecting inwards, which is guided by a tube in the bottom of the cylinder. A steel point presses against the stem and scratches a line upon it, when the piston is moved. The pyrometer is received by a hollow screw- plug placed in the side of the gun at the point where the pressure is to bo taken. This instrument is probably the most accu- rate and delicate one ever invented for the purpose. In the experiments it recorded certain vibrations in the column of gases, which have been generally neglected by theorists on the subject, but which are (if great importance to the life of the gun. It seems unfortunate that an instrument which promised so much should have been allowed l to fall into disuse, if not almost oblivion. I Pyrotechny. Is the art of preparing I ammunition and fireworks for military and | ornamental purposes. (See Ammunition.) j Military tireworks comprise preparations for the service of cannon ammunition, and for siffnal, lip/tt, incendiary, and defensive and offensive purposes. The term composi- I tion is applied to all mechanical mixtures which, by combustion, produce the effects , Bought to be attained in pyrotechny. The ' preparations for the service of ammunition i are slow-match, quick-match, port-fifes, fric- tion-tubes, aud fuzes. Sloic-7natch is used to preserve fire. It may be made of hemp or cotton rope ; if made of hemp, the rope is saturated with acetate of lead, or the lye of wood-ashes ; if made of cotton, it is only necessary that tiie strands be well twisted. Slow-match burns from 4 to 5 inches in an hour. Qitick-nuitch is made of cotton-yarn (can- dle-wick) saturated with a composition of mealed powder and gummed spirits ; after saturation, the yarn is wound on a reel, sprinkled (dredged) with mealed powder and left to dry. It is used to communicate fire, and burns at the rate of one yard in thirteen seconds. The rate of burning may be much increased by inclosing it in a thin paper tube called a lender. Purt-fire is a paper case containing a com- position, the flame of which is capable of quickly igniting primers, quick-match, etc. A port-fire is about 22 inches long, and burns with an intense flame for ten minutes. Friction-tube is at present the principal preparation for firing cannon ; it has the ad- vantage of portability and certainty of fire. It is composed of two brass tubes soldered at right angles. The upper, or short tube contains a charge of friction-powder, and the roughed extremity of a wire loop, the long tube is filled with rifle-powder, and is in- serted in the vent of the piece. When the extremity of the loop is violently pulled by means of a lanyard, through its hole in the long tube, sufficient heat is generated to ig- nite the friction-powder which surrounds it, and this communicates with the grained powder in the long tube. The charge of grained powder has sutficient force to pass through the longest vent, and penetrate sev- eral thicknesses of cartridge-cloth. Fuzes. — See Fi'ZK. Fireworks for Signals. — The preparations for signals are rockets and blue-lights. Signal- Rockets. — The principal parts of a signal-rocket are the case, the composition, the;)o^, the decorations, and the stick. The case is made by rolling stout paper around a former. The vent is formed by choking one end of the case. Composition. — A variety of compositions are employed for signal-rockets; a mixture of nitre 12 parts, sulphur 2 parts, charcoal 2 parts, is frequently used. The pot is formed of a paper cylinder, slipped over and pasted to the top of the case ; it is surmounted with a pajier cone, filled with tow. The ob- ject of the pot is to contain the decorations which are scattered through the air by tiio explosion which takes place when the rocket reaches the summit of its trajectory ; the explosion is produced by a small charge of mealed powder. The decoratmna of rockets are stars, serpents, tnan-otis, gold rain, rain of fire, etc. Stars. — The composflions for stars are, for white: nitre 7 parts, sulphur 3 parts, mealed powder 2 parts ; for rai: cblorule of potassa PTKOTECHNY 4G6 PYPvOTECHNT 7 parts, sulphur 4 parts, lampblack 1 part, nitrate of strontia 12 parts; blue: chlorate of potassa 3 parts, sulphur 1 part, ammonia- cal sulphate of copper 1 part ; yellow : chlo- rate of potassa 4 parts, sulphur 2 parts, sul- phate of strontia 1 part, bicarbonate of soda 1 part. Serpents. — The case of a serpent is similar to that of a rocket ; the composition is driven in, and the top is closed with moist plaster of Paris. The composition is nitre 3 parts, sulphur 3 parts, mealed powder 16 parts, charcoal \ part. Marrons. — Marrons are small paper shells, or cubes, filled with grained powder, and primed with a short piece of quick-match. Stick. — The stick is a tapering piece of pine, about nine times the length of the case. Blue Ligli.t. — A very brilliant bluish light may be made of the following ingredients, viz.: nitre 14 parts, sulphur 8.7 parts, real- gar 1 part, mealed powder 1 part ; the bril- liancy depends on the purity and thorough incorporation of the ingredients. Incendiary Fireworks. — Incendiary prep- arations &V& fire-stone, carcasses, incendiary- match, and hot shot. < Fire-stone is a composition that burns slowly, but intensely ; it is placed in a shell, along with the bursting charge, for the pur- pose of setting fire to ships, buildings, etc. It is composed of nitre 10 parts, sulphur 4 parts, antimony 1 part, rosin 3 parts. Carcass. — A common shell may be loaded as a carcass by placing the bursting charge at the bottom of the cavity, and covering it with carcass composition, driven in until the shell is nearly full, and then inserting four or five strands of quick-match. This projectile, after burning as a carcass, ex- plodes as a shell. See Carcass. lyicendiary-match. — Is made by boiling slow-match in a saturated solution of nitre, drying it, cutting it into pieces, and plung- ing it into melted fire-stone. It is princi- pally used in loaded shells. Hot Shot. — See Hot Shot. Fireworks for Light. — The preparations for producing light are fire-halls, light-balls, tarred-links, pitched-fascines, and torches. Fire-ball. — A fire-ball is an oval-shaped canvas sack filled with combustible compo- sition. It is intended to be thrown from a mortar to light up the works of an enemy, and is loaded with a shell to prevent it from being approached and extinguished. The composition for a fire-ball consists of nitre 8 parts, sulphur 2 parts, antimony 1 part. The bottom of the sack is protected from the force of the charge by an iron cup called a culob, and the whole is covered and strength- ened with a net-work of spun-yarn or wire, and then overlaid with a composition of pitch, rosin, etc. Light-ball. — These are made in the same manner as fire-balls, the shell being omitted. Tarred-links. — Tarred links are used for lighting up a rampart, defile, etc., or for in- cendiary purposes. They consist of coils of soft rope placed on top of each other, and loosely tied together; they are immersed in a composition of 20 parts of pitch, and one of tallow ; when dry, they are plunged into a composition of equal parts of pitch and rosin, and rolled in tow or sawdust. Pitched-fascines. — Fagots of vine twigs or other very combustible wood, about 20 inches long and 4 inches in diameter, tied in three places with iron wire. They may be treated in the same manner and used for the same purposes as tarred-links. Torches. — A torch is a ball of rope im- pregnated with an inflammable composition, and is fastened to the end of a stick, which is carried in the hand. Offensive and Defensive Fireworks. — The princiyjal preparations of this class, em- ployed in modern warfare, are bags of pow- der and light-bai-rels. Bags of Powder. — Bags or cases of powder may be used to blow down gates, stockades, or form breaches in thin walls. The petard was formerly employed for these purposes, but it is now generally thrown aside. The effect of the explosion may be much in- creased by making three sides of the bag of leather, and the fourth of canvas, which should rest against the object. Light-barrel. — A light barrel is a common powder barrel pierced with numerous holes, and filled with shavings that have been soaked in a composition of pitch and rosin ; it serves to light up a breach, or the bottom of a ditch. Fireworks. — Ornamental fireworks are di- vided into fixed pieces, movable pieces, decorative pieces, and preparations for com- municating fire from one part of a piece to another. The different effects are produced by modifying the proportions of the ingre- dients of the burning composition, so as to quicken or retard combustion, or by intro- ducing substances that give color and bril- liancy to the flame. The fixed pieces are lances, petards, gerbes, flames, etc. Lances. — These are small paper tubes filled with a composition which emits a bril- liant light in burning. See Lance a Feu. Petard. — Petards are small paper car- tridges filled with powder. Gerbe. — Gerbes are strong paper tubes or cases filled with a burning composition. The ends are tamped with moist plaster of Paris or clay. The movable pieces are sky- rockets, tourbillions, Saxons, jets, Roman candles, paper shells, etc. Sky-rocket. — Skj'-roekets are the same as the signal-rockets before described, except that the composition is arranged to give out a more brilliant train of fire. Composition : 122 parts mealed powder, 80 parts nitre, 40 parts sulphur, and 40 parts cast-iron filings. Tourbillion. — The tourbillion is a case filled with sky-rocket composition, and which moves with an upward spiral motion. Saxo7i. — The Saxon is similar to the tour- billion ; it has the appearance of a revolving sun. PYROTECUNY 467 QUADRUPLE Jets. — Jets are rocket-cases filled with a burning composition; tliey are attached to the circumference of a wheel, or the end of a movable arm, to set it in motion. Roman candles. — A Roman catidle is a strong paper tube containing stars, which are successively thrown out by a small charge of powder placed under each star. A slow-burning composition is placed over each star to prevent its taking fire at once. Paper S/iell. — This piece is a paper shell filled with decorative pieces, and fired from a common mortar. It contains a small bursting charge of powder, and has a fuze regulated to ignite it when the shell reaches the summit of its trajectory. Decortiiive Pieces. — Decorative pieces are stars, serpenis, marroiis, etc., described un- der the head of Rockets. Prepctruiions for coinmunicatinfi fire from one piece to another are quick-match, leaders, port-fires, and mortar-fuzes. The leader is a thin paper tube contiiining a strand of quick-match. Sci.' (^in k-match, etc. Pyroxyline, or Pyroxyle, Gun-cotton (which see). Pyrrhic Dance. The most famous of all the war-dances of antiquity ; is said to have received its name from Pyrrhus, or Neoptol- emus, the son of Achillc.--, and was a Doric invention. According to Plato, it aimed to represent the nimble motions of a warrior either avoiding missiles and blows, orassault- ing the enemy ; and in the Doric states it was as much a piece of military training as an amusement. Elsewhere in Greece, it was purely a mimetic dance, in which the parts were sometimes represented by women. It formed part of the public entertainments at the Panathenaic festivals. Julius Ca'sur introduced it at Rome, where it became a great favorite. ■*r«^ Q. Quadi. A powerful and warlike German tribe, belonging to the Suevic race, whose territories were situated between the Danube, the Bohemian mountains, and the river Ma- rus. They make their first appearance in history in the 1st century as formidable foes of the Romans. Their bodies were covered with mail, consisting of plates of horn ; their weapons were long spears ; and each man had three swift horses for his use in battle. Thus equipped, they commenced the jiractice of making rapid and sweeping raids into Pan- nonia, Nicosia, and other neighboring prov- inces. Sometimes they routed the imperial forces which tried to check their inroads. At all times they returned home with their predatory spirit unbroken. Mo reverses in fact, however frequent, could daunt those wild border troopers of the Danube. The emperor Marcus Aurelius, Probus, Carus, and Valontiiiian I., defeated them without subduing or crushing them. The last glimpse that we get of them in history shows them in company with other barbaric hordes, in 407, overrunning Gaul, and reveling in boundless havoc and slaughter. Quadrant. An instrument for measuring altitudes, variously constructed and mounted for ditl'erent specific uses in astront)my, sur- veying, gunnery, etc., consisting commonly of a graduated arc of 00°, with an inde.x or vernier, and either plain or telescopic sights, together with a plumb-line or snirit-level for fixing the vortical or horizontal direction. Quadrant, Gunner's. See Gunner's Quadrant. I Quadrat. Or to quadrat a gun, is to see I it duly placed on its carriage, and that the wheels be of an equal height. Quadriga. In antiquity, a car or chariot, drawn by four horses harnessed abreast. This chariot was used in battle and in tri- umphal processions. Quadrilateral. In military language, an expression designating a combination of four fortresses, not necessarily connected together, but mutually supporting each other; and from the fact that if one be attacked, the garrisons of the others, unless carefully ob- served, will harass the besiegers, rendering I it nece-ssary that a very large army should , be employed to turn the combined position. As a remarkable instance, and a very power- 1 ful one, may be cited the celebrated quadri- j lateral in Venetia, c(miprising the four strong i posts of Mantua, A'erona, Pesohiera, and i Legnago. These form a sort of outwork to I the bastion which the southern mountains I of the Tyrol constitute, and divide the north i plain of the Po into two sections by a most • powerful barrier. Napoleon III., in 1850, even after the victories of Magenta and I Solferino, hesitated to attack this quadri- ' lateral. Quadrille {Fr.). Small parties of- horse i richly caparisoned, etc., in tournaments and at public festivals. The quadrilles were dis- I tinguished from one anotlier by the shape or color of the coats whiih the riders wore. Quadruple Alliance. Hetween Groat Britain, Fr.ince, and the emperor of Ger- many (signed at London, July 22, 1718; ; it QUADRUPLE 468 QUARTERS obtained its name on the accession of the states of Holland, February 8, 1719. It guaranteed the succession of the reigning families of Great Britain and France, set- tled the partition of the Spanish monarchy, and led to war. Quadruple Treaty. Concluded in Lon- don, April 22, 1834, by the representatives of Great Britain, France, Spain, and Portu- gal, which guaranteed the possession of her throne to Isabella II., the young queen of Spain. Quaker-guns (Fr. passe-volans). Were wooden pieces of ordnance which were made to resemble real artillery. They subse- quently were used in other countries, and placed in the embrasures of forts, in order to deceive an enemy. Quarrel, or Quarry. An arrow with a square head, for a cross-bow, was so called. Quarrels. See Appendix, Articles of War, 24. Quarte. In tactics, a word of command given in the bayonet exercise; as, quarte parry, to thrust in quarte. Quarter. A fourth part of anything. Quarter. To furnish with shelter or en- tertainment ; to supply with the means of living for a time ; especially to furnish shel- ter to ; as, to quarter soldiers. Quarter. In heraldry, one of the divis- ions of a shield, when it is divided into four portions by horizontal and perpendicular lines meeting in the fesse point; especially either of the two divisions thus made. Also, to bear as an appendage to the hereditary arms. "The coatof Beauchanip . . . quar- tered by the Earl of Hertford." Quarter. In war, signifies the sparing of the life of a vanquished enemy, which by the laws of war is forfeit to the victor. The expression^ seems to be derived from the use of the word "quarter" to designate the lodging of the particular warrior; to give quarter to a prisoner being to send him to his captor's quarter for liberation, ransom, or slavery. The refusal of quarter is a ter- rible aggravation of the horrors of war, and is only at all justifiable towards an enemy who has been guilty of atrocious cruelty himself, or of some flagrant breach of faith. Quarter Arms, To. In heraldi-y, to place the arms of other families in the compart- ments of a shield, which is divided into four quarters, the family arms being placed in the first quarter. When more than three other arms are to be quartered with the family arms, it is usual to divide the shield into a suitable number of compartments; and still the arms are said to be quartered. Quarter Guard. The guard which is stationed in front of the centre of the camp of each corps, at about 80 paces from it. Quarter of Assembly. The place where the troops meet to march from in a body, and is the same as the place of rendezvous. Quarter Upon, To. Is to oblige persons to receive soldiers, etc., into their dwelling- houses, and to provide for them. In the United States no soldier shall, in time of peace, be quartered in any house without the consent of the owner; nor in time of war, but in a manner to be prescribed by law. Quarter-block. See Implements. Quartering. In heraldry, the division of a shield containing many coats. See Quar- ter. Quarterly. In heraldry, in quarters or quarter! ngs ; as, to bear arms quarterly. Quartermaster. A regimental statf-oiB- cer, of the relative rank of lieutenant, whose duty is to look after the assignment of quar- ters, the provision of clothing, forage, fuel, and all other quartermaster's supplies; and when on the march he sees to the marking out of the camp. He is appointed by the colonel of the regiment, subject to the ap- proval of the Secretary of War. He vacates his staff position when promoted to the rank of captain, or at the discretion of the colo- nel. In the British service the regimental quartermaster rises, with scarcely any ex- ception, from the ranks. He has no further promotion to look forward to ; but after thirty years' service in all — including ten as an officer — he may retire with the honorary rank of captain. Quartermaster-General. A staff-oflScer in the U. S. armj', who has the rank of brigadier-general, and is at the head of the quartermaster's department. Quartermaster's Department. This de- partment provides the quarters and trans- portation of the army, except that, when practicable, wagons and their equipment are provided by the ordnance department; storage and transportation for all army sup- plies ; army clotlaing : camp and garrison equipage ; cavalry and artillery horses ; fuel, forage, straw, and stationery. The inci- dental expenses of the array (also paid through the quartermaster's department) include per diem to extra-duty men ; of the pursuit and apprehension of deserters ; of the burials of officers and soldiers ; of hired escorts ; of expresses, interpreters, spies, and guides ; medicines for horses ; and of sup- plying posts with water ; and, generally, the proper and authorized expenses for the movements and operations of an army not expressly assigned to any other department. The present organization of the quarter- master's department consists of 1 quarter- master-general, with the rank of brigadier- general ; 3 assistant quartermaster-generals, with the rank of colonels ; 8 deputy quarter- master-generals, with the rank of lieuten- ant-colonels ; 14 quartermasters, with the rank of majors ; and 30 assistant quarter- masters, with the rank of captains. Quartermaster-Sergeant. A non-com- missioned officer who assists the quarter- master. He ranks among the regimental non-commissioned staff, and is appointed by the colonel of a regiment upon the recom- mendation of the quartermaster. Quarters. In military affairs, are, gen- I QUARTERS 469 QUEUE erally, the positions assigned to persons or bodies of men. In a more special sense, the quarters in the army are the places of lodjjing assigned to officers or men when not actually on duty. Quarters. The encampment on one of the principal passages round a place be- sieged, to prevent relief and intercept con- voys. Quarters, Choice of. In the U. S. ser- vice, when officers arrive in a garrison they shall have choice of quarters according to rank ; but the commanding officer may di- rect the officers to be stationed near their troops. The commanding officer of a post cannot be displaced by his senior who does not command, though assigned to the same post. An officer who has made his choice of quarters cannot again displace a junior, unless himself displaced by a senior. Quarters, Intrenched. A place fortified with a ditch and parapet to secure a body of troops. Quarters of Refreshment. The place where the troops that have been much harassed are put to recover themselves, during some part of the campaign. Quarters, Out of. Beyond the prescribed limits. For punishment of soldiers sleeping out of quarters, see Appendix, Articlks OK Wak, 'M. Quarter-sights. In gunnery, are divis- ions marked on the upper quarters of the base-ring, commencing where it would be intersected by a plane parallel to the axis of the piece, and tangent to the upper surface of the trunnions. These sights are used for giving elevations up to three degrees ; but especially for pointing a piece at a less ele- vation than the natural angle of sight. Quarter-sights are not used in the U. S. service. Quarter-staff. Formerly a favorite weapon with the English for hand-to- hand encounters ; was a stout pole of heavj' wood, about (U feet long, shod with iron on both ends. It was ed in the middle by one hand, and the attack was made by giv- ing it a rapid circular motion, which brought the loaded ends on the adversary at unex- pected |)oints. Quasi Officers. Sec Surqeons, Acting- Assistant. Quatre Bras. See Waterloo. Quatrefoil. A heraldic bearing meant to represent a llower with four leaves. It is not represent<'d with a stalk unless blazoned as slipped, in which case the stalk joins the lower leaf. Quebec. The capital of the province of Quebec, formerly Canada East, is situated on a steep promontory at the junction of the rivers St. Lawrence and St. Charles, and its citadel is the m(»st impregnable for- tre.ss on the continent of America. The site of Quebec, originally occupied by an Indian village named Stadacona, was discovered by Jacques Carlier in 15;}.3; but the city was founded by Champlain in 1GU8. It was taken from the French by the English in 1(520, restored in 1G32, and fortified in 1G90. It renuiinetl in the possession of the French till 1759, when in consecpience of the victory of Wolfe, it was surrendered to the British, and finally confirmed to them by the treaty of Paris in 17, 1794. It surrendered to Prince Frederick of the Netherlands, June 29, 1815, after the battle of Waterloo. Queue. A tail-like twist of hair formerly worn at the back of the head by soldiers. QUEUES 470 EAFT Queues d'Hironde {Fr.). In fortification, lines composed of projecting tenailles, or works, which, from the facility with which an enemy can enfihide their long branches, are considered extremely defective, and con- sequently are seldom employed. Quiberon. A town of France, in the de- partment of Morbihan, situated on a long and narrow peninsula of the same name, which, with some islands, forms one of the largest bays in Europe, 20 miles southwest from Vannes. A body of French emigrant royalists, under D'Hervilly and Puisaye, landed here from an English fleet, on June 27, 1795, and endeavored to rouse the people of Brittany and La Vendee against the Con- vention, but were defeated, in July, and driven into the sea by Gen. Hoche. A large number of prisoners taken were shot, by order of the Convention. During the war of the Austrian Succession, an English force attempted a landing here (1746), but was repulsed. Qui Vive ? Qui va La ? Qui est La ? {Fr. ) Literally means. Who is alive? Who goes there? and Who is there ? These terms are used by the French sentinels when they challenge, and are equivalent to the English challenge, Who comes there? Quick Time. In tactics, the length of the direct step in quick time is 28 inches, measured from heel to heel ; the cadence is at the rate of 110 steps per minute, or 2 miles 1613 yards in an hour. Quick-match. See Laboratory Stores. Quickstep. A lively, spirited march gen- erally played by military bands. Quiloa, or Keelwa. A seaport town of Zanguebar, on the east coast of Africa, 225 miles north of Mozambique. It was taken and burned by the Portuguese, in 1505, but abandoned by them soon after. Quincunx. Forming a body of men checkerwise. Quintain, or Quintin. An instrument used in the ancient practice of tilting. It consisted of an upright post, on the top of which a cross post turned upon a pivot; at one end of the cross post was a broad board, and at the other a bag of sand. The prac- tice was to ride against the board with a lance, at such speed as to pass by before the sand-bag could strike the tilter on the back. Quinte. The fifth guard in fencing. Quirites. In ancient Eome the citizens were so called as distinguished from the soldiery. Quischens. The old term for cuisses, the pieces of armor which protected the thighs. Quit. To leave ; to abandon. To quit your post or ranks, is to retire, without hav- ing received any previous order for that pur- pose, from a station intrusted to your care, or a position in which you may be. For punishment inflicted upon persons quitting their posts, see Appendix, Articles of War, 40. Quiver. A case or sheath for arrows. Quoin. In gunnery, is a wedge used to lay under the breech of a gun to elevate or depress it. Quota. A proportional part or share ; or the share, part, or proportion assigned to each. " Quota of troops and money." R Raab, or Nagy-Gyor. A town of Hun- gary, 67 miles west-northwest of Buda. A battle was fought under its walls in June, 1809, in which Napoleon totally defeated the disorderly force of the Hungarian nobles. Rabinet. A small piece of ordnance for- merly in use. It weighed but 300 pounds, and fired a small ball of If inch diameter; with a very limited range. Rachat des Cloches [Fr.). Redemption of bells. Formerly in France when a forti- fied place was taken, the bells became the ])roperty of the master-general of artillery, which were usually redeemed by the inhab- itants at a certain price; it was necessary that the place should be attacked by artil- lery in order to secure this right over the bells. Rack, Forage. See Ordnance, Car- riages FOR, BaTTKRY-WAQON. Rack-stick and Lashing. Consist of a piece of two-inch rope, about 6 feet long, fastened to a picket about 15 inches long, having a ifole in its head to receive the rope. Rack lashings are used for securing the planks of a gun or mortar platform, between the ribbons and the sleepers. Radius. In fortification, a term applied to a line drawn from the centre of the poly- gon to the extremity of the exterior side. There are the exterior., the interior., and the right radii. Radstadt. See Rastadt. Raft. A species of floating bridge for the passage of rivers, on which the soldiers and light artillery may be safely conveyed. "Raft of Casks. This raft may be con- structed by forming a frame of timber to contain the casks. The frame consists of four longitudinal RAFT 471 RAISE pieces halved into four transoms. The lonej pieces must be tit least 20 feet long, and their distance apart be a little less thun the head diameter of the casks. The under edges are beveled so as to give them a good bearing on the casks. In default of square timber, poles may bo used in the construction of the frame. The string-pieces and transoms may be spiked or lashed at their points of junction. The four exterior casks in the raft should be lashed to the frame, otherwise they may be carried oft' by the current when the raft lurches. For other kinds of rafts, see Pon- tons. Raft, Prairie. See Pontons. Rafts, Timber. Employ the largest and longest timber, giving at least 85 feet length to the raft. Sliorter than this it will not have sufficient stability, but will be subject to dangerous oscillatii>ns, especially in a rapid stream. Squaring the timber will be worse than useless. Any irregularities, such as branches and knots, should be trimmed oft". The raft must be built in the water. Select a place where there is little current, and where the bank slopes gently to the water. The timber is then arranged in the posi- tion it is to have in the raft, — the butts al- ternately up and down the stream, — the up- stream ends forming a right angle, salient up-stream. Suppose the case of a raft to be composed of 20 logs, 47 feet long, and averaging 12 inches in diameter. The first log is brought alongside the shore, and the end of a plank or small trunk of a tree is spiked to it, about 3 feet from each end ; it is pushed oft' a little, and a second log is brought up, under the tran- soms and in close contact with the first. The second log is spiked like the first, and so on for each of the renuiining logs; care being taken to alternate the butts, placing the whistle ends up-stream with the bevel underneath, and to spike the transoms per- pendicular to the logs. When the current of the river in which the raft is to be used is very gentle, the up-stream ends may be on a line parallel to the transom ; but if rapid, they should form a right-angle salient up- stream, the vertex being in the middle log. When the bank is too steep to admit of this construction, the trees niaj' be floated into their proper positions, lashed together, and the transoms spiked on ; if the logs are nearly of the same size, the centre of gravity will be near the centre of the raft. Tw^) additional transoms are spiked at equal distances from the centre of gravity of the raft, and at a distance apart equal to the ■width of the roadway or nlatform. The transoms should be about 8 inches wide by 6 inches thick, and should have a bearing on all the logs forming the raft. When a platform is to be constructed on the raft, ititormediate transoms are laid, and at a distance apart depending on the strength of the planking. The size of the platform must be regulated by the buoyant power of the raft. A single course of logs will not have sufficient power to sustai n troops enough to cover its whole surface. When the raft is to be used in a bridge the two intermediate transoms are separated by a distance a little less than the length of the chess, and placed at equal distances from a point somewhat astern of the centre of gravity of the raft, in order to correct the downward action of the cable on the bow. For use in a bridge, a raft should be able to sustain at least 15,(X)0 pounds. The same expedients are employed for the anchorage of rafts as boats. Rafts are sometimes constructed for flying- bridges in the form of a lozenge, the acute angles being about 55°, — so that when two of the sides are parallel to the action of the current, the up-stream side, which in this form is the only one acted on by the current, ; is in the most favorable position. I Raguled,orRagguld. In heraldry, jagged ; or notched in an irregular manner. Raguled, Cross. One made of two trunks of trees without their branches, of which only the stumps appear. Raguly. In heraldry, a term applied to an ordinary whose bounding lines are fur- nished with serrated projections. Ragusa. A town of Austria, formerly the capital of an independent republic which now forms part of the kingdom of Dalmatia, on a peninsula on the east side of the Adri- atic, and built in terraces on the side of Mount Sergio, the upper streets communi- cating with the lower by a flight of steps. It is strongly fortified with citadels, forts, and walls. It was taken by the Venetians in 1171, but became an independent repub- lic, 1358 ; was taken by the French in 180t), and given up to Austria in 1814. Rahmanieh. A town of Lower Egypt, situated at the junction of the Nile with the canal of Alexandria, 25 miles southeast from Rosetta. The French, during their occupa- tion of Egyjit, made it a fortified station. It was taken from them bv the British in 1801. Raid. A hostile or predatory incursion, especially an inroad or incursion of mounted men ; a sudden and rajiid invasion by a cavalry force. Raiilon (/'>.). A quarrel ; a short ar- row. Rail-platform. See Platform. Rails. See Orpnanck, Carriages for, Sea-coast Cakriacjes. Rain, or Rhain. A town of Bavaria, 22 miles north from Augsburg, where the Aus- trian general Tilly received his mortal wound in 1(532. Raise. Armies are rahed in two ways: cither by voluntary engagements, or by lot or conscription. The Greek and Roman levies were the result of a rigid system of conscription. The Visigoths practiced a general conscription ; poverty, old age, and KAISE 472 RAMNUGGUR sickness, were the only reasons admitted for exemption. "Subsequently" (says Hallam), " the feudal military tenures had superseded that earlier system of public defense, which called upon every man, and especially upon every land-holder, to protect his country. The relations of a vassal came in place of those of a subject and a citizen. This was the revolution of the 9th century. In the 12th and 13th another innovation rather more gradually prevailed, and marks the third period in the military history of Eu- rope. Mercenary troops were substituted for the feudal militia These military ad- venturers played a more remarkable part in Italy than in France, though not a little troublesome to the latter country." A necessary effect of the formation of merce- naries was the centralization of authority. Money became the sinews of war. The in- vention of tire-arms caused it to be acknowl- edged that skill was no less essential for warlike operations than strength and valor. Towards the end of the Middle Ages, the power (jf princes was calculated by the num- ber and quality of paid troops they could support. France first set the example of keeping troops in peace. Charles VII., for- seeing the danger of invasion, authorized the assemblage of armed mercenaries called compagnies (Vordonnance. Louis XI. dis- missed these troops but enrolled new ones, composed of French, Swiss, and Scotch. Under Charles VIII., Germans were ad- mitted in the French army, and the highest and most illustrious nobles of France re- garded it as an honor to serve in the gens d'armes. Moral qualifications not being exacted for admission to the ranks, the re- straints of a barbarous discipline became necessary, and this discipline divided widely the soldier from the people. The French revolution overturned this system. "Now'" (says Decker) " mercenary troops have com- pletely disappeared from continental Europe. England only now raises armies by the sys- tem of recruiters. The last wars of Europe have been wars of the people, and have been fought by nationalities. After peace armies remain national, for their elements are taken from the people by legal liberations. The institution of conscription is evidently the most important of modern times. Among other advantages, it has bridged the other- wise impassable gulf between the citizen and soldier, who, children of the same fam- ily, are now united in defense of their country. Permanent armies have ceased to be the personal guard of kings, but their sympathies are always with the people, and their just title is tliat of skillful warriors maintained as a nucleus for the instruction of their countrymen in the highest school of art." Raise a Blockade, To. To remove or break up a blockade, either by withdrawing the ships or forces employed in enforcing it, or by driving them away or dispersing them. Raise a Purchase, To. To dispose in- struments or machines in such a manner as to exert any mechanical force required. Raise a Siege, To. To relinquish an at- tempt to take a place by besieging it, or to cause the attempt to be relinquished. Rajah, or Raja. A hereditary prince among the Hindus belonging to the warrior caste, or the Kshattriya. In later times it became a title given by the British govern- ment to Hindus of rank, and is now not uncommonly assumed by the zemindars, or land-holders ; the title of Maharajah, or "great Rajah," being in these days gen- erally reserved to the more or less inde- pendent native princes. Rajpoots, or Rajputs. Is the name of various tribes in India which are of Aryan origin, and either descended from the old royal races of the Hindus, or from their Kshattriya, or warrior caste. They attained a high degree of power and renown just be- fore the Mohammedan conquests in the 12th century. In 1193 and 1194 the Rajpoot chiefs sustained more than one defeat at the hands of the Mohammedans, and were de- prived of all their possessions except the regions they now occupy. They came under the protection of the English, from about the beginning of this century, when the Rajpoots proved unable to defend their country against the Mahrattas. Rake. To enfilade; to fire in a direction with the length of; as, to rake the enemy's ranks. Rally. To bring back to order troops that may have been dispersed, or have retreated in a panic. Rally. To come into orderly arrange- ment ; to renew order, as troops scattered or put to flight; to assemble; to unite. Ram. To push home the charge of a gun ; also, the corresponding word of com- mand. Ram, Battering-. See Battering-ram. Ram Home, To. To drive home the am- munition in a gun. Ramillies. A village of Brabant, Bel- gium, 28 miles southeast of Brussels, is memorable as the place near which one of the most important battles of the War of the Spanish Succession was fought. May 23, 1706. In this conflict the French forces were under the command of Marshal de Vil- leroy and the elector of Bavaria, while the Duke of Marlborough led the troops of the allies. Villeroy, after a battle of three hours and a half, was defeated, with the loss of all his cannon, the whole of his baggage, and 13,000 men in killed and wounded. The great result of this victory was that the French were compelled to give up the whole of the Spanish Netherlands. About 4000 of _ the allies were slain in the engagement. Rammer. See Implements, and In- spection OF Cannon. Rammer-head. See Implements, and Inspection of Cannon. Ramnuggur. A walled town of the Pun- RAMP 473 RANGE-FINDER jab, on the Chenaub, 02 miles northwest of Lahoro. Here the Sikh army was defeated by tiio British, October, 1848. Ramp. An oblique or sloping interior road to iiMiiiiit the t('rre-})lein of llie rampart. Rampant (/•'/•., literally, " raj^ing''). In heraldry, an epithet applied to a lion or other beast of prey when placed erect on the two hind-legs, with only one of the fore-legs elevated, tiie head being seen in profile. When the face is turned toward the specta- tor, the attitude is called rampant (/arilant, and when the head is turned backwards, rampant rrt/ardant. A Vitm counter-rampant is one rami)ant towards the sinister, instead of towards the dexter, the usual attitude. Two lions rampant contrariwise in saltire, are sometimes also said to be counicr-ram- jm/if. Rampart. To fortify with ramparts. Rampart-grenades. Grenades used to defend a rampart. Shells of large size may be used, being rolled down the parapet. Sec Grknadk. Rampart-gun. A large gun fitted for rampnf t use, and not used for lield purposes. Ramparts. In fortification, are broad embankments or masses of earth which sur- round fortified places. A rampart forms the enreinfe, or body of the place, and on its ex- terior edge tlie parapet is placed, while to- wards the place it is terminated by the in- terior slope of the ramjmrt, on which ramps are made for the easy sv^cent of the troops and material. See Bulwark. Rampier. The same as rampart. Rampire. The same as ramj)art, — seldt)m used except in poetry. Ramps. Are inclined planes of earth serving as a means of communication be- tween two levels. A ramp for a field-gun is 8 feet wide, and for short distances it has a slope of one- fourth to one-sixth. When the distance is long the slope is increased to as much as one-twelfth. Ramrod. The rod of iron formerly used in loading a ])iece to drive homo a charge; but now used to clean the rifle. Ram's Horns. In fortification, a kind of low works made in the ditch of a circular arc, which serves instead of tenailles. Rancheros (from the Spanish rancho, "comradeship"). Is the name given in Mexico to a mixed breed of Spanish and Indian blood, who inhabit the country, and may almost be said to live in the saddle from their youth ; are splendid riders and hunters, and form the bravest part of the Mexican army, — its irregular cavalrj'. The impor- tance of their services was seen in the wars between Mexico and the United States. The rancheros are lank in frame, with brown, weather-stained faces and muscular limbs, hardy, temperate, and always ready for the boldest enterprises. Rancon (/•'/•.). The name of an old wea- pon, consisting of a long stake with a sharp iron point at one end, and two blades or wings bent backwards, and extremely keen. 31 Random. Distance to which a missile is thrown or projected ; range; reach; as, the farthest random of a missile weapon. Random Shot. A shot not directed or aimed towards any particular object, or when the piece is elevated at an angle of 4o° upon a level plane. Range. In artillery, is tl>e horizontal distance from the muzzle of the piece to the first graze of the projectile. The extreme range is the distance from the muzzle to where the projectile finally rests. The range of a projectile may be extended without in- creasing the charge of powder, in the modes, viz. : 1st, by raising the piece to a higher level; 2d, by giving its axis greater eleva- tion ; 3d, by eccentric projectiles. Experi- ments haveshown that if the centre of gravity be placed directly above the centre of figure, the range is greatly increased. The range in- creases with the angle of fire up to a certain limit, beyond which it diminishes. The greatest range in vacuo is at an angle of 45^. A mortar is usually fired at an angle of 45°, and the charge is varied according to the range required. Mortars are sometimes fired at an angle of 60°, when the battery is situ- ated very near the object assailed, and it is desired that the shells may fall upon the magazines of the besieged. It is evident that the higher projectiles are thrown, the greater the velocity they acquire in falling; besides, they strike the object more directly and with increased violence. Stone-mortars were sometimes fired at an angle of 75°, that, in falling from a great height, the stone might have the maximum force of percus- sion. Grenades should be thrown from mor- tars at an angle of 33° ; otherwise they will be buried in the earth, and their fragments will not be suflBciently destructive. For tables of ranges, see Roberts's " Hand-book of Artillery." Range, Point-blank. See Poikt-blaxk RANCiE. Range-finder. An instrument for deter- mining ranges. There are several difterent principles which may be used. The distance may be measured, 1st, by the visual angle subtended by objects of known height ; 2d, by the velocity of sound ; 3d, the instrument may furnish a base-line in itself and solve a triangle in which the base and two adjacent angles are given. The term is also aiiplied to instruments used to solve a triangle, the base of which is obtained by outside means. Range-finders constructed on the visual angle princijile have been known for many years. Jioulatif/cr's instrument uses the 2d princi- file. It consists of a glass tube closed at )oth ends filled with a liquid in which a small umbrella-shaped piece of metal is sul - merged. The tube is held verticallv in the hand, the metal slowly sinks to the lM)ttom. When the flash of the enemy's gun is seen, the tube is inverted and the metal moves towards the other end. When the sound is heard, the tube is brought to the horizontal. The distance through' which the piece of EANGE-FINDEK 474 RANK metal has moved gives the range by means of a scale on the side of the tube. Berdon^s range-finder is an expensive instrument using the 3d principle. It is mounted on a wagon, and intended to accompany either foot-troops or artillery. It has found great favor in Germany. Nolmi's range-finder consists of an instrument for automatically solving tri- angles. A similar thing was devised about 1870 by two American officers, Maj. Morgan of the 4th Artillery, and Capt. Lorain of the 3d Artillery. The most ingenious, com- plete range-finder has been proposed by Lieut. Gordon of the 4th Artillery. He uses two fixed angles and a variable base- line supplied by the instrument itself. The principal parts of Nolan's range-finder are: Two instruments for measuring angles, one tape-line, and one reckoning cylinder. Each of the two instruments consist of two tele- scopes, which lie crosswise one above the other under an angle of about 90° ; the smaller of the two has a long arm, with a vernier at one end ; to the other a sector is fastened, which is divided up into degrees. By means of a screw, an angle of about 20° can be described by the upper or smaller telescope. The reckoning cylinder consists of a solid body and two rotating rings. The lower ring and the lower edge of the body are divided into 100 equal parts. On the upper ring are the logarithms of the figures, and on the upper edge of the body are the logarithms of the signs, from 6^^ up to 2° 15^ To find the range, the instruments on their tripods are arranged at the end of the as- sumed base-line, which is perpendicular to the range; or the instruments may be attached to the right and left guns of a battery. The long telescopes are turned toward the object whose distance is to be found ; the smaller ones upon each other, and the cross-threads of each made to cover the cross-lines on the leather disk through which each small tele- scope points. The coincidence obtained by directing the longer telescope on the object, the two angles at the base are determined ; the base-line being measured, one side and two angles of the triangle are obtained. With this data recourse is then had to the reckon- ing cylinder. The arrow marked "band" is set on the figure that corresponds with the distance between the instruments or base- line, — say 34 yards ; then set the arrow on the lower ring on the figure corresponding with the angle found through the instru- ment, — say 18° ; then find the figure for the number of degrees of the other angle, — say 42° on the lower ring. Just above that is the figure 60 on the other division of the lower ring ; coinciding with this on the lower edge of the upper ring is the distance, 1320 yai-ds. The bases used are from 30 to 40 yards for a range of 2000 yards and over. Wafkins's range-finder and Gautier's tele- meter are instruments which require a meas- ured base-line. See Telemeter. Ranger. One of a body of mounted troops, who were formerly armed with short muskets, and who ranged over the country around, and often fought on foot. Ranging. The disposal of troops in proper order for an engagement, manoeuvres, or march, etc. Rank. Range of subordination, degree of authority. The relative situations which oflicers hold with respect to each other, or to military things in general. Questions as to the positive or relative rank of officers may often be of the greatest importance at law, in consequence of the rule, that every person who justifies his own acts on the ground of obedience to superior authority must estab- lish, by clear evidence, the sufficiency of the authority on which he so relies. There may also be many occasions on which the pro- priety of an officer's assumption of com- mand, or his exercise of particular functions, or his right to share with a particular class of officers in prize-money, bounties, grants, and other allowances, may depend on the correctness of the view taken by himself or others of his rights to a specific rank or com- mand ; and an error in this respect may ex- pose him to personal loss and damage in suits before the civil tribunals. The regulation of military rank is vested absolutely in Con- gress, which confers or varies it at pleasure. The will of Congress in this respect is signi- fied by the creation of different grades of rank ; by making rules of appointment and promotion ; by other rules of government and regulation ; or is by fair deduction to be inferred from the nature of the functions assigned to each officer ; for every man who is intrusted with an employment is presumed to be invested with all the powers necessary for the efiective discharge of the duties an- nexed to his office. Rank and grade are synonymous, and in their military accepta- tion indicate rights, powers, and duties, de- termined by laws, creating the difi'erent degrees of rank, and specifying fixed forms for passing from grade to grade and when rank in one body shall give command in another body ; and also when rank in the army at large shall not be exercised. Rank is a right of which an officer cannot be de- prived, except through forms prescribed by law. When an officer is on duty, the rank itself indicates his relative position to other officers of the body in which it is created. It is not, however, a perpetual right to exer- cise command, because the President may, under the 62d article of war, at any time relieve an officer from duty ; or an officer may be so relieved by arrest duly made according to law ; or by inability to perform duty from sickness, or by being placed by competent authority on some other duty. But whenever an officer is on duty his rank indicates his command. Rank. A line of soldiers ; a row of troops reckoned from side to side, or in breadth ; — opposed to file. The ranks, the order of com- mon soldiers: as, to reduce a non-commis- BANK 475 RASSOVA sinned officer to the ranks. Tu fill the ranks, to supplj' the whole number, or a competent number. Tu take rank of, to enjoy prece- dence over, or to have the right of taking a liiirli.T place than. Rank and File. The body of soldiers c()nstituting the mjiss of the army, and in- cluding corporals and privates. In a more e.xtended sense, it includes sergeants also, e.vccptiiii:; the non-coniniissioned stall". Rank, Brevet. See Hkkvkt. Rank, Double. A rank composed of front and rear lilcs. Rank, Honorary. That which merely gives a title and |)recedence, without any command iKMiig attached to that rank. Rank, Insignia of. Are badges or dis- tinguishing marks of office of honor. In the army of the United States the rank of officers is determined by the insignia on the epaulettes and shoulder-straps, and is as fol- lows: "For the general commanding the army, two gold-embroidered stars of five rays, one on each side equidistant between the centre and the outer edge of the strap, and a gold-embroidered shield in the centre. For the lieutenant-general, three silver-em- broidered stars of five rays, one star on the centre of the strap, and one on each side equidistant between the centre and outer edge of the strap ; the centre star to be the largest. For the major-generals, two silver- embroidered stars, the centre of each star to be one inch from the outer edge of the gold embroidery on the outer ends of the straps, both stars of the same size. For a brigadier- general, the same as for a major-general, ex- cept that there will be but one star instead of two. For a colonel, the same as for a major- general, omitting the stars and introducing a silver-embroidered eagle ; cloth of the strap as follows: for the general staff and staff corps — dark blue ; artillery — scarlet ; in- fantr}' — light or sky-blue; cavalry — yellow. For a lieutenant-colonel, the same as for a colonel, according to corps, omitting the eagle, and introducing a silver-embroidered leaf at each end. For a major, the same as for a colonel, according to corps, omitting the eagle, and introducing a gold-embroidered leaf at each end. For a captain, the same as for a colonel, according to corps, omitting the eagle, and introducing at each end two gold-embroidered bars. For a first lieuten- ant, the -same as for a colonel, according to corps, omitting the eagle, and introducing at each end one gold-embroidered bar. For a second lieutenant, the same as for a colo- nel, according to corps, omitting the eagle. For a brevet second lieutenant, the same as for a second lieutenant.' Rank, Local. See Local Rank. Rank, Relative. See Kklativk Raxk. Rank, Single. A rank of single files. Rank, Substantive. Is genuine rank, with all the command and authority, as well as precedence, attaching to the title. For instance, a regimental major possesses the substantive rank of major, while a captain and brevet major i« only a substantive cap- tain. It may be briefly described as being the reverse of brevet rank. Ranker. One who ranks, or disposes in ranks ; and one who arranges. Ransack. To plunder; to pillage com- pletely; to ravage; as, to ransack a city. Ransom of Prisoners. A prisoner of war, being a public enemy, is the prisoner of the government, and not of the captor. No ransom can be paid by a prisoner of war to his individual cajitor, or to any officer in command. The government alone releases captives, according to rules prescribed by itself. Rapier. Is said to have had distinct mean- ings at different times, and in ancient fencing to have been a long cutting broadsword; but for the last century, at least, the rapier has been a light, highl)'-tempercd, edgeless, thrusting weapon, finely pointed and about 3 feet in length. At present, it is worn only on occasions of court ceremonial, and answers no other purpose than to incommode the wearer. In war a rapier could never have been of any service. Rapine. The act of plundering ; the seiz- ing and carrying away of things by force; spoliation; pillage; plunder. Violence; force; also, to'])lunder. Rappahannock. A river of Virginia, formed by the union of the North Fork and the Kapidan, 40 miles above Fredericksburg. On the Rappahannock and the Kapidan oc- curred some of the most sanguinary battles of the war of Secession, at Fredericksburg, Chancellorsville, and the Wilderness. Rapparee. A wild Irish plunderer, so called from his being generally armed with a rapary, or half-pike. The term was in common use in the 17th century. Rappel. The beat of the drum to call soldiers to arms. Rarefaction. The extension of the parts of a gas, by which it is made to take up more room than it did before. Rasaldar. In the East Indies, the name applied to the commander of rasallah, which is 10,000 armed horsemen. Rasante. A French term, applied to a style of fortification in which the command of the works over each other, and over the country, is kept very low, in order that the shot may more eft'ectually sweep or graze the ground before them. Ras-el-Kyma. A fortress in the Persian Gulf, and formerly the principal strongh(dd of the Joasmee pirates. This fortress was destroyed and the pirates thoroughly sub- dued bvan P^nglish force under Sir W. Kier Gmnt in 1817.^ Rasgrad, or Hesarorad. A town of Tur- key in Eurt)pe, in Bulgaria, and al>)ut 215 miles northwest from Constantinople. The Turks were defeated here bv the Russians in 1810. Rassova. A fortified town of Turkey in Europe, on the right bank of the Danube, RASTADT 476 EATION 38 miles east by north of Silistria. Rassova was occupied by the Kussians for a short time in 1854. Rastadt, Radstadt, or Rastall. A forti- fied town of the grand duchy of Baden, on the Murg, not far from its confluence with the Khine. The peace of 1714, which put an end to the War of the Spanish Succes- sion, was signed in the palace by Prince Eu- gene and Marshal Villars. A congress was held here in 1797-99, to negotiate a peace between France and the empire, after which the French ambassadors, Roberjot and Bon- nier, were murdered on their return, only a short distance from the town. At Rastadt the insurrection in Baden in 1849 first broke out ; and the insurgents, after a three weeks' siege, were obliged to surrender at discretion to the Prussians. Ratchet-post. A cast-iron post at the head of large Rodman guns to serve as a fulcrum for" the bar used in elevating the gun. See Fulcrum. Ratchet-wheel. A wheel with pointed and angular teeth, against which a ratchet abuts, used either for converting a recipro- cating into a rotatory motion on the shaft to which it is fixed, or for admitting of its mo- tion in one direction only. Rate of March. See Horses, Pack and Draught Horses, and Quick Time. Rathenow, or Rathenau. A town of Prussia, in the province of Brandenburg, 45 miles west of Berlin. A victory was gained here in 1675 by the troops of Bran- denburg under the elector Frederick Wil- liam, over the Swedes. Rathlin, Island of. An island off the north coast of Ireland, 3 miles northwest of Fairhead. It was the scene of more than one struggle in the Danish wars, and it af- forded shelter, after his defeat in Scotland, to Robert Bruce. In 1558, the Scottish colony which then inhabited the island was attacked by the lord-deputy Sussex, and ex- pelled from it with much slaughter. Rathmines. A suburb of Dublin, on its south side, H miles south of Dublin Castle. It is the site of a battle-field, where Col. Jones, governor of Dublin Castle, making a sally out, routed the Marquis of Ormond, killed 4000 men, and took 2517 prisoners, with their cannon, baggage, and ammuni- tion, August 2, 1649. Ration. A portion or fixed allowance of provisions, drink, and forage, assigned to a soldier in the army, or a sailor in the navy, for his daily subsistence, and for the subsist- ence of horses, etc. The soldier's ration in Europe is as fol- lows : AUSTRIA. Peace Ration. Bread 31. ounces. Meat without bone 6.6 " Suet 62 ounce. Vegetables 2.48 ounces. Bait 6 ounce. 22.37 ounces anhydrous food. War Ration. Fresh pork 6.5 ounces. Or salt pork 6. " Or fresh beef 6. " Or bacon 6. " Butter 14 ounce. Biscuit 3.5 Flour 25.2 Fresh vegetables 2.1 Beans 1.5 ounce. Beer and wine variable. 38.6 ounces anhydrous food. ENGLAND. In the home service the soldier receives from the government : Bread 1 pound. Meat y^, " The soldier buys Potatoes 16. ounces. Other vegetables 8. " Milk 3.25 " Sugar 1.33 ounce. Salt 25 " Coffee 33 " The whole being equivalent to 23.4 ounces of anhy- drous food. In time of war the ration is varied accord- ing to location, climate, and kind of service. FRANCE. During peace the soldier buys from the government his ration, paying 43 out of the 48 centimes which he receives per day, ex- cept in Paris, where he pays 51 out of 58 centimes. Meat is furnished 35 per cent. below market rates. Munition bread 26.5 ounces. White bread 8.8 Meat 106 " Vegetables, green 3.5 " Beans 1.1 ounce. Siilt and pepper 43 " If meat is salt beef 8.8 ounces. Tf meat is salt pork 7. " Biscuit in lieu of bread 19.4 " Being equal to 24 ounces of anhydrous food. War Ration. Meat without bone 8.4 ounces. Bread 35 3 Or biscuit 26.5 " Beans '2.12 " Salt 5 ounce. Sugar 7 " Coffee 6 " Or in lieu of coffee, wine ; 9. Or brandy 2.i Being 21.56 ounces of anhydrous food. PRUSSIA. About one-half the daily pay is retained by the government for the soldier's food. Peace Ration. Garrison. Marching or Fatigue. Bread 26.5 ounces... 26.5 ounces. Meat 6. " ... 8.2 Kice 3.2 « ... 4.22 " Or groats 4.21 « ... 6.28 " Or peas or beans.. 8 22 " ... 10.6 " Or potatoes 53.8 " ... 70.5 " Salt 87 ounce 87 ounce. Coffee 468 " ... .468 26.57 oz. of anhydrous food. 28.26 oz. of anhydrous food. RATISBON 477 REAR-LINE War Ration. Brea'l 26.5 ounces. Orl.Ucuit 17. " One (Fresh beef. 13. " of -{salt beef. 0. these. (Uacon 6.75 " Kice 4.4 One (Oroata 4.4 " of -^BeunH 8.8 " thew. (.Flour 8.8 Potatoes 60. " Suit 8.7 Oiftee, pure 7 ounce. Coffee, roasted 1. 40.2 ounces anhydrous food. Rrs.SIA. lf)9 Fast Days, inr, Moat Pays 117 days 62 days uiili 8chUohi scht sell! and peas and and gruel. gruel. gruel. Meat 7. or Itread „ 42. oz 42. oz 42. oz. S.ur-krout 14.5 fl. oz 14.5 fl. oz Chervil 1.1 oz I'eaB 2.3.3 oz. Buckwheat 1.87fl.oz 1.87 fl. oz 1 87 fl. oz. Oats „ .5 fl. oz 7 fl. oz .28 fl. oz. Flour 7 fl. oz 7 fl. oz Onions 2 fl. oz 3 fl. oz 6 fl. oz. VeKelal.le oil 25 fl. oz Butter 6 OZ. Lard # 5 oz 5 oz. Salt 1.86 oz _ I.8C0Z I.8G0Z. Pepper 07 oz 07 oz 07 oz. Bav leaves. 07 oz. 07 oz 07 oz. Vater 70. fl. oz 70. fl. oz 70. fl. oz. (Buckwheat cooked into gniel.) Sepoy Ration. Flour 16. ounces. Rice 16. Butter or vegetable oil 2. " Peas 4.25 Salt 1.33 ounce. 34.9 ouncee of anhydrous food. Ratisbon, or Regensburg. A town of Biivaria, on the riglit bank of the DanuLe, G7 miles nortli-nortlica.^t of Munitli. In 1524 the Roman Catholic powers of Ger- many assembled here, and formed a league against the Protestants; and near it, in 1809, Napoleon I. was wounded in a battle in which he forced the Austrians to retreat. Raucoux (Belgium). Here Marshal Saxe and the French armv totally defeated the allies, October 11, 174<]. Ravage. Desolation by violence ; violent ruin or destruction; devastation; havoc; waste; ruin; as, the ravages of an army. Also, to lay waste by force; to desolate vio- lently ; to commit havoc or devastation upon ; to plunder. Ravelin. In fortification, is the work constriuted beyond the main ditch, opposite the curtain, composed of two faces, forming K salient angle, and two demi-gorges, formed by the counterscarp. It is separated from the covered way by a ditch which runs into the main ditch. See Demi-LI'NK. Ravenna (anc. Rarrmin). An important city of Central Italy, 43 miles east-southeast from Bologna, A\ miles from the Adriatic. Augustus made it a lirst-chiss seap* KOU. TlIK CaISSON. Rear Foot-board. See Ord.vavce, Car- RIAtiKS FOR. TlIK CaISSOK. Rear Open Order. An open order taken by moving the rear rank backwards. " Rear-chest. See Ordnance, Carriages FOR, The CAI.S.SON. Rear-front. The rear rank of a body of troops when faced about and standing in that position. Rear-guard. A detachment of troops whose duty it is to protect the rear of an armv. Rear-line. The line in the rear of an army. EEARWARD 478 RECONNOISSANCE Rearward. The last troop ; the rear- guaid. Rebel. One who rebels ; one who revolts from the government to which he owes alle- giance, either by openly renouncing the au- thority of that government, or by taking arms and openly opposing it ; one who defies and seeks to overthrow the authority to which he is rightfully subject; a revolter; an insurgent. Rebel. Acting in revolt; rebellious; as, reb(!l troops. Rebel. To revolt ; to take up arms trai- torously against the state or government ; to renounce the authority of the laws and gov- ernment to which one owes allegiance. Rebellion. The act of rebelling ; open and avowed renunciation of the authority of the government to which one owes allegi- ance; the taking of arms traitorously to re- sist the authority of lawful government ; revolt; insurrection. Rebellious. Engaged in or marked by rebellion ; traitorously renouncing the au- thority and dominion of the government to which allegiance is due ; violently resisting government or lawful authority ; as, rebel- lious troops. Rebounding-lock. A gun-lock in which the hammer rebounds to half-cock after striking the cap; specially used in sporting arms. Rebuffo (F/:). A bastard cannon, or three-fourth carthoum (or karthaune), a 36- pounder of 15 calibers long; according to Ufano a 45-pounder. Recall. A call on the trumpet, bugle, or drum, by which the soldiers are recalled from duty, labor, etc. Recaptor. One who retakes ; one who takes a prize which had been previously taken. Recapture. The act of retaking ; especi- ally the retaking of a prize or goods from a captor. That which is captured back; a prize retaken. Recast. To mold anew ; to cast anew ; to throw into a new form or shape; to re- construct ; as, to recast cannon. Receipt. A voucher or acknowledgment, which should always bo given when official papers are received. When flags of truce are the bearers of a parcel or a letter, the officer commanding an outpost should give a receipt for it, and require the party to de- part forthwith. Receive. In a military sense, to await the approach of a friend or foe. To receive an enem.y, is to make the best disposition possible of your troops, for the purpose of meeting the attack of an advancing enemy. Recharge. A renewal of the charge or attack. Rechaud [Fr.). A chafing-dish, or pan used for various purposes, particularly dur- ing a siege. Rechauds are filled with burn- ing materials and hung in different parts of the walls, so as to throw light into the ditches, and to prevent surprises. Rechute [Fr.]. Literally means a second fall ; but in fortification it signifies a greater elevation of the rampart in those parts where it is likely to be commanded. Recoil. In gunnery, is the retrograde motion impressed upon cannon by the dis- charge. The gas produced by the ignition of the charge in the bore, expanding with equal force in every direction, finds only two ways of escape (the muzzle and the vent) ; the pressure upon these points will therefore cease while it will be proportionally increased upon the parts directly opposite, that is, the bottom of the bore and that portion directly opposite the vent, producing in the first case the recoil, and in the other, indirectly, the dipping of the muzzle. The distance of the recoil depends entirely upon the nature and inclination of the ground upon which the carriage stands, the situation of the trun- nions, angle of elevation, comparative weight of the gun and carriage, and upon Uie strength of the charge. The recoil has no appreciable effect upon the flight of a pro- jectile, the latter being expelled from the gun before it has recoiled a fraction of an inch. The recoil of heavj' guns fired with large charges is a serious consideration in gun- nery. The recoil must be checked in a com- paratively short space, and yet checked too suddenly the shock destroys the carriage as well as platform. Various methods have been tried. The truck-wheels upon which the top carriage runs in and out of battery are provided with eccentrics, which are thrown out of gear to produce sliding fric- tion, — but this alone is not sufficient in most cases. Counter-mortars are sometimes clamped on the chassis-rail against the car- riage, but this is objectionable, as it tends to destroy the chassis. Eriction-plates, with clamping attachments to the carriage between them, and extending full length of the chas- sis, have also been tried, but the buckling of the plates soon ruined them. This plan has been recently revived, and the buckling pre- vented by interposing india-rubber between the rear ends of the plates and the transom of the chassis. For the most approved methods, see Air-cylinders and Hy- draulic Loading Apparatus. Recommend. To commend to the favor- able notice of another. Non-commissioned officers of companies are appointed by the colonel upon the recommendation of com- pany commanders. Recommendation of members of a court-martial in favor of the person being tried, is introduced after the finding and sentence are closed and authen- ticated. The recommendation should dis- tinctly set forth the reasons which prompt it. — Hough. Reconnoissance. The reconnoitring or examination of any tract of country pre- paratory to the march of an army, in order either to take up quarters for the season, or comiuence operations against an opposing enemy. The military reconnoissance of a country RECONNOITRE 479 RED is generally performed under the protection of an armed force. It is considered as one of the most essential oponitions connected with the tactics of the tield, and serves as the basis of every movement or combina- tion which it may be proposed to make Those who are charged with this duty should be habituated to the performance of topo- graphical surveys; in the first place, by the most accurate methods, and with the best instruments ; and, secondly, by such meth- ods as admit of being practiced rapidly, on foot or on horseback. In these cases a com- pass held in the hand must be used for ob- serving the angles, and the distances must be obtained by pacing, or be merely esti- mated by the eye. The nature of the roads should be described with indications denoting that they are passable for artillery, for cavalry, or merely for infantry ; and if defective, estimates should be made of the materials and time requisite for repairing them. In contemplating rivers and marshes as means of retarding an advance of the enemy, it should be ascertained and reported whether by being dry in summer, or frozen in winter, they may not at times cease to be obstacles. It should be also stated how, on a retreat, the roads may be blocked uj), the fords rendered impassable, or the bridges destroyed. Reconnoitre. To make oneself acquainted by personal inspection, as far as may be practicable, with the enemy's position and movements ; also, to survey, and draw in a rapid manner, ground of importance to operations of war, not represented in exist- ing maps, with sufficient accuracy or mi- nuteness ; and likewise to particularize the banks of rivers, canals, streams, mountains, passes, positions, villages, forts, and re- doubts. Record. To preserve by committing to writing; to make official note of; as, to re- cord the proceedings of a court. Record. An authentic copy ; a state- ment of the proceedings of a court or board ; a written history ; an official account or register. Recorder. One who keeps a record ; spe- cifically, the officer who registers the pro- ceedings of a board or niinor court. Recover. In tactics, a word of command in firing whereby the piece is brought from the position of aim to that of ready. Recreant. Crying for mercy, as a com- batant in the trial of battle; yielding; cowardly. Also, one who yields in combat, and cries craven ; one who begs for mercy ; a nican-spirited, cowardly wretch. Recruit. To supply with new men, as an army ; to fill up or make up by enlistment. Also, a person enlisted to make up defi- ciency in an army ; a newly-enlisted sol- dier. Recruiting. The act of obtaining men for service. The people of the United States and (ireat Hritain resemble each other in their jealousy of largo standing armies and their abhorrence of a system of universal service, as well as in their warlike spirit and self-sacrificing patriotism. The organization of the English army, based upon voluntary enlistment, ha.^ been pro- n(»unced by f'oreign officers of thorough education and acute observation as un- worthy of scientific study, — that is, for home application, although the United States have borrowed a great deal from it, — in the writer's opinitm, to their detri- ment. In Great Britain the whole recruit- ing has been placed under the immediate direction of the adjutant-general since 1802. For this purpose, the country has been di- vided into recruiting districts, at the head of which is placed an inspecting field-officer with the duty of superintending all recruit- ing parties in his district, and of approving the recruits brought. Statt'-officers and ser- geants of the Pensioner Force are also occa- sionally intrusted with the obtaining of re- cruits. The United States recruiting service is conducted by the adjutant-general, under the direction of the Secretary of War. Re- cruiting officers consist generally of captains and lieutenants of the line, who must not permit any man to be deceived or inveigled into the service by false representations. If the recruit is a minor, his parents or guar- dians must, if possible, be informed of the minor's wish to enlist, and their written consent obtained therefor. Any male per- son above the age of eighteen, and under thirty-five years, Deing effective, able-bodied, Sober, free from diseixse, of good character and habits, with a competent knowledge of the P^nglish language, may be enlisted. No man having a wife or child can be enlisted in time of peace without special authority from the adjutant-general's office. The Prussian system is based upon the theory that military service is not a trade or craft, to be followed by a portion of the popula- tion, but a duty owed by every male citi- zen to his country. For further particulars of this system, see Laxdwkhr. The Prus- sian system has been adopted by all other states of the German empire, and also by most of the other European nations. Recruiting Flag. See Flag, Storm. Recruitment. The act or business of recruiting or raising new supplies of men for an army. Recursant. In heraldry, moving or coursing backward ; — said of an eagle dis- plaved with the back towards the spectator's face. Red Hand. In heraldry, a sinister hand erect, open, and couped, or the wrist gules, being the arms of the province of Ulster, was granted to the baronets of England and of Ireland as their distinguishing badge, on the institution of that order in Itill, and is borne by tln" baronets of Great Britain and of the United Kingdom. It is assumed into the armorial coat, and may be borne upon a canton, or on an escutcheon, which may be phued either in the middle chief or in the EED 480 REDUCED fess point, so as least to interfere with the charges composing the family arms. Red River Settlement. Is in British North America, between Lakes Superior and Winnepeg. AVhile the proposed transfer to the crown (18r39-70) of the rights of the Hudson's Bay Company was pending, it was the scene of much contention and violence. The hasty action of the Canadian authori- ties incensed the French-speaiting popula- tion, who, led by Louis Kiel, organized a force, imprisoned their opponents (English and Scotch), seized on Fort Garry, estab- lished a provisional government, robbed the strong-box, and dictated terms to the gover- nor of the Hudson's Bay Company, who was obliged to submit to them. In July, 1870, a military force suddenly appeared in the province, and Kiel fearing capture, escaped, and thus closed the insurrection. Red Tape. The tape used in public offices for tying up documents, etc. ; hence, official formality. Redan. Is the simplest work in field fortification. It consists of two parapets whose faces join in forming a salient angle toward the enemy, like a letter V, in which the apex is to the front. Regarded by itself, the redan is a work of very little strength, s-ince there is no flanking fire to protect its faces, and nothing to prevent an enemy from forcing an entrance at the gorge : but redans are useful in many positions, and the rapidity with which they may be constructed renders them favorites with engineers and generals. A row of redans along an ex-' posed front of an army adds much to its strength, the troops behind protecting the gorge, and the redans flanking each other. It forms an excellent defense for a bridge- head, the gorge being covered by the river. Redans figured largely in Wellington's works for defending Lisbon in 1810. The redan of Sebastopol in 1855 was the prin- cipal point of the English attack, and the scene of two bloody repulses by the Russians in June and September. Redcoat. A soldier who wears a red coat ; an English soldier. Red-hot Shot. Are cannon-balls heated to redness, and fired from cannon at ship- ping, magazines, wooden buildings, etc., to combine destruction by fire with battering by concussion. In modern warfare, shells containing molten iron are intended to be used in lieu of red-hot shot ; but they have not yet been tested in actual practice, al- though a similar" device was attempted un- successfully in 1863 by the U. S. forces when besieging Charleston. Redinha. A village of Portugal, province of Estremadura, the scene of an affair be- tween the British under Lord Wellington, and the French retreating army under Mar- shal Massena, in 1811. Redoubt. Is a small fort of varying shape, constructed for a temporary purpose, and usually without flanking defenses. The term is vague in its acceptation, being ap- plied equally to detached posts and to a strong position within another fortress. Re- doubts are made square, pentagonal, and even circular. Each redoubt has parapet, ditch, scarps, banquette, etc., as in regular fortification; but it is commonly rather roughly constructed, haste and unprofes- sional labor precluding mathematical accu- racy. The entrance may be by a cutting through the parapet, the cutting being cov- ered within by a traverse, or, preferably, by an excavated gallery leading into the ditch, and thence by a ramp through the counter- scarp. For the sake of flanking the ditch, and preventing an assaulting party from forming in it, caponnieres of timber, loop- holed, are sometimes formed; or, if the soil be stiff or chalky, a gallery may be cut be- hind the counterscarp, and loop-holed to- wards the ditch. In some modern redoubts, the line of each side is broken to afford flanking defense. Redoubts have the weak feature of not defending their own ditches, and of being approached at their salient an- gles with comparative impunity. They are therefore not adapted to a protracted defense, but as temporary field-works, or in war of posts, they are often of incalculable impor- tance. Troops whose stability in open field is doubtful are especially strengthened by redoubts in their line. Redoubts are partic- ularly useful in fortifying the tops of hills, or commanding passes, or where the object is to occupy a hostile territory, or to feel the way gradually through a wooded country. Redoubtable. Formidable ; to be dread- ed ; terrible to foes ; as, a redoubtable hero ; hence, valiant ; often in contempt or bur- lesque. Redout Kale, or Redoot Kale. A flour- ishing, fortified seaport of Russia, in Trans- Caucasia, stands on the eastern shore of the Black Sea, about 15 miles north of Poti. During the Crimean war, the Russian gar- rison at Redout Kale, finding the fort in- vested by Sir Edmund Lyons, with several men-of-war, set fire to the town. May 19, 1854. Redressing Wrongs. See Appendix, Articlks of War, 29, 30. Reduce a Place. Is to oblige the com- mander to surrender it to the besiegers, by capitulation. To reduce the square^ is to re- store or bring back a battalion or battalions, which have been formed in a hollow or ob- long square, to their natural situation in line or column. To reduce to the ranks, is to de- grade, as to reduce a non-commissioned offi- cer, for misconduct, to the station of a pri- vate soldier. Reduce, To. To degrade to a lower rank. Reduced. In a military sense, is to be taken off the establishment, and to cease to receive pay as soldiers. When a regiment is reduced, the officers are generally put upon half-pay. Sometimes the corps are re- duced, and the officers remain upon full pay. This happens at the close of a war, when the standing army of the country is con- EEDUIT 481 REGIMENT fined to a certain number of battalions. Hence is derived the expression, in and out of tlie break. In the break, is the liability of beini^ reduced. Out of the break, is tlie cer- tainty of beinii; ltnu'nt so long as he shall remain con- tinuously in the army. Re-enlistment. A renewed enlistment. Re-entering Angle. Sec Angi.k. Re-entering Place of Arms. In fortifi- cation, is an enlargement of the covered way of the fortress, between a bastion and a rav- elin ; its rear coinciding with the counter- scarp of the ditch, and its front consisting usually of two faces of the glacis, which are disposed at angles of about 100° with the glacis before the neighboring bastion and ravelin. It serves as a place for assembling troops previously to making sorties ; and the fire from its faces serves to defend the a})- proaches to the salient parts in front of the ci>l lateral works. Rees. A town of Rhenish Prussia, 12 miles southeast from Clevcs. This town was taken by the Diltch in 1614, and by the French in KITS. Reflection, Angle of. "Whether the in- stance be a ray of light or a cannon-ball, the angle of refiection will always be found equal to the angle of incidence. Re-form, To. In a military sense is, after some mana>uvre or evolution, to bring a line to its natural order by aligning it on some given point. Also, to restore order among broken troops. Reformado. An officer was formerlj' so called, who for some disgrace was deprived of his command, but retained his rank, and perhaps his pay. Reformed Officer. In the Rritish army, one whose troop or company being broken up, is continued on full or half-pay. He preserves the right of seniority, and con- tinues in the way of preferment by brevet. Re-fortification. A fortifying anew, or a second time. Re-fortify. To f.rtify anew. Refusal to Receive Prisoners. See Ap- rKNDix, Aktk LKs OK AVak, «»7. Refuse, To. In a military sense, is to re- fuse ii wing, to throw it back, or to keep it out of that regular alignment which is formed when troops are upon the i>oint of engaging an enemy. To refuse anu part of the line in battle, as the centre or a wing, to keep that part retired, while the remainder is advanced to fight. Regardant. A term used in heraldry, with reference to an animal whose head is turned backwards. See Passant and Ram- pant. Regensburg. See Ratisbon. Reggio (anc. lihee/ium, which see). A city in Southern Italv which was taken by GaVibaldi, August, 1800. Regillus Lacus. A lake in Latium, memorable for the victory gained on its banks by the Romans over the Latins, 498 B.C. Regiment. In all modern armies, is a colonel '^command, and the largest perma- nent association of soldiers. Regiments may be combined into brigades, brigades into di- visions, and divisions into corps and armies ; but these combinations are but temporary, while in the regiment the same officers servo continually, and in command of the same body of men. The strength of a regiment may vary greatly even in the same army, as each may comprise any number of battal- ions. French and Austrian regiments have ordinarily four to six battalions. Among British infantry the smallest regiments arc those numbered from the 2'jth upwards (ex- cept the 00th), which, unless serving in India, have lOCiO men each, composing one battalion. Regiments in India have 1200 to a battalion. The largest regiment is the Royal Artillery, comprising 34,713 officers and men. The strength of a regiment, how- ever, is changed from time to time ; usually by the addition or withdrawal of private soldiers. In the U. S. service the strength of cavalry regiments is about 1200men each, artillery about 000, and infantry about 500 each. The regimental system could only ex- ist where standing armies were maintained. Accordingly the Macedonian .syntagmata and the Roman cohorts were evidently regi- ments in a strict sense. During the Middle Ages, feudal organization jirechuled the sys- .tem, and its first appearance was in Franco. Francis I. formed legions of 0000 men each, which were divided into independent com- panies, the latter being, in fact, battalions, and each legion a regiment. The word regi- ment began to be applied to bodies of Brit- ish troops in Elizabeth's reign ; regiments are spoken of at the time of the Armada, 1588, and as composing the force in Ireland, 1508. From that time fr)rward the army and militia of Britain have been organized in regiments. REGIMENTAL 482 EEINFORCE Regimental. Anything belonging to a regiment. Regimental Colors. See Colors. Regimental Court-martial. Is a legal tribunal convened for the punishmentof oft'enders in the army. It is composed of three members and a judge-advocate. See Court-martial, Judge-Advocate, and Trial. Regimental Courts-martial. See Court- martial. Regimental Inspection. See Inspec- tion. Regimental Necessaries. See Neces- saries. Regimental Orders. See Orders, Regi- mental. Regimental Schools. In Great Britain, are educational establishments maintained by the state in every regiment, for the in- struction of soldiers and soldiers' children. There is a schoolmaster for the soldiers and elder boys, and a trained schoolmistress — usually the schoolmaster's wife — to teach the girls and infants of both sexes. Attend- ance at the schools is compulsory for the sol- diers and optional for the children. Religious instruction takes place on Monday mornings, when children can be kept from school if their parents object to the instruction im- parted. The girls' school comprises an "in- dustrial" section for needle-work, etc. In France, ccoles primaires or regimen- taires, "primary or regimental schools," were founded in 1818, in which the soldiers were taught writing, reading, and arithmetic. In Prussia, there are established garrison schools (Garnlsons Schnlen) for the instruc- tion of soldiers' children ; and battalion schools {Bataillons Schiden), in which non- commissioned otficers and privates are in- structed in writing, reading, orthography, and arithmetic; also in making out reports and other official papers. Regimentals. The uniform worn by the troops of a regiment. Register. A list or roll ; as, the army register ; which is a list of the officers, with rank and date of commission, etc. Regulars. Are those troops whose condi- tions of enrollment are not limited to time or place, in contradistinction to militia or volunteer corps ; troops permanently in ser- vice. Regulation Sword. A sword of the kind or quality prescribed by the official regula- tions. Also regulation cap, uniform, etc. Regulations. Under the Constitution of the United States, rules for the government and regulation of the army must be made by Congress. Regulation implies regularity ; it signifies fixed forms; a certain order; method ; precise determination of functions, rights, and duties. (See Military Regu- lations.) A " regulation" of an executive department is a rule by the head of such department for its action, under a statute conferring such power, and has the force of law ; a mere order of the President, or of the Secretary of the department, is not a regula- tion. The power of the Executive to estab- lish rules and regulations for the government of the army is undoubted. The power to establish implies necessarily the power to modify or repeal, or to create anew. The Secretary of War is the regular constitu- tional organ of the President for the admin- istration of the military establishment of the nation ; and rules and orders publicly promiilgated through him must be received as the act of the Executive, and as such be binding upon all within the sphere of his legal and constitutional authority. Such regulations cannot be questioned or defied, because they may be thought unwise or mistaken. JBut as it sometimes occurs that rights of rank, command, and pay, concern- ing -which Congress has legislated, are sub- jects of dispute, and variable expositions of laws regulating those essentials of good gov- ernment have been by different Executives, with an increasing tendencj' to invalidate rank created by Congress ; there should be a law passed by Congress to enable cases to be brought before the Federal civil courts, in order that the true exposition of military statutes and authorities in dispute may be determined. With such a remedy, laws, however defective they may be, would at least be known, and rights, powers, and duties, established by law would be well determined. Regulators. The popular name of a party in North Carolina, which arose in 1768, and had for its object the forcible redress of pub- lic grievances. Reigate. A town of England, in the county of Surrey. Its castle was destroyed in 1648. Its church contains the tomb of Lord Howard, who commanded the English fleet against the Armada. Reign of Terror. A term applied to a period of anarchy, bloodshed, and confisca- tion, in the history of the French revolution, during which the country was under the sway of the actual terror inspired by the ferocious measures of its governors, who had established it avowedly as the principle of their authority. It commenced after the fall of the Girondists, May 31, 1793, and extended to the overthrow of Robespierre and his accomplices, July 27, 1794. Thou- sands of persons were put to death during this short time. Reims. See Rheims. Rein. A crack or vein in a musket-barrel. Reinforce. In gunnery, is the thickest part of the body of the gun, in front of the base-ring or base-line ; if there be more than one reinforce, that which is next the base- ring or base-line is called the^?-s^ 7-einforce ; the other the second reinforce. See Ord- nance, Construction of. Molding. Reinforce. To strengthen with new force, assistance, or support ; especially, to strengthen, as an army or a fort, with ad- ditional troops, or a navy with additional ships. REINFORCE 483 REMOUNT Reinforce Band. Is at the junction of the first ami .second reinforces. Reinforcement. Tiie act of reinforcing. That which reinforces; additional force; especially additional troops or force to aug- ment the strength of an army, or ships to strengthen a navy. Reitres (/'V.).' A body of armed horse- men, who came out of (Jermany and entered the French service during the reign of Henry HI. They were incorporated with the carabineers. Rejoin. To join again; to return ; as, the oftici'r rejoined his regiment. Rejoinder. In military law, the defend- ant's answer to the i)laintirt''s replication. The weight of authority is against permit- ting a rejoinder on the part of the prisoner, unless evidence has heen adduced in the reply of the prosecutor. But such evidence .should not be permitted in reply, and there should bono rejoinder. — HoiKjk'n ^^ Military Law Aut/ioriiir.'^." Relais (/•>.). A term used in fortifica- tion to signify a space, containing some feet in breadth, which is between the foot of the rampart and tlie scarp of the fosse. It serves as a convenient receptacle for the earth that occasionally crumbles oft". Relative" Rank. Signifies the compara- tive rank, as regards precedence, etc. The following is the relative rank of officers in the army and navy of the United States : Army. Nnvy. General Admiral. Lieu tenant-general... Vice-admiral. Major-general Rear-admiral. Brigadier-general Commodore. Colonel Captain. Lieutenant-colonel... .Commander. Major Lieut. -commander. Captain Lieutenant. First lieutenant Master. Second lieutenant Ensign. The officers of the marine corps are of rank corresponding to that of those of the same titles in the army. Release of Prisoners. See Appendix, Aktui.ks ok War, (19. Relief. A fresh detachment of troops, ordered to replace those already upon duty. Also, the body of men jiroceeding to take the places of, or rclirrc, the existing senti- nels, (iuards are usually divided into three 7-rlir/s. See Guard, Riinnino. Relief. In fortification, is the height to which works are raised above the bottom of the ditch. If the works are high and com- manding, they are said to have a bold rrlirf ; but if the reverse, they are said to have a low relief. The relirf should ])rovide the requisite elevations for the musketry and artillery, to insure a good defense. Relieve. To. Is to take a man or a body of men oil" any kind of duty ; as, to relieve a sentinel ; to relieve the guard, etc.; also to succor, to deliver ; as, to relieve a besieged town. Reliever. An iron ring fixed to a handle, by means of a socket, so as to be at right angles to it. It serves to disengage the searcher of a gun, when one of its points is retained in a hole, and cannot be extracted otherwise. Relieving the Enemy. See Appendix, ARTiir,K.s OF War, 45. Reload. To load anew, as a gun, etc. Reloading Implements. Are imple- ments used in reloading cartridge-shells, — to perform the various operations of meas- uring the powder, setting home the bullet or charge, removing exploded primer, recap- ping, etc. Remaining Velocity. In gunnery, is the velocity of the projectile at any point of the flight. Remand. To send back ; as when a soldier who has been discharged from prison or the guard-house, for the ])urpose of being e.vaiuined or tried, is sent back to await the final decision t>f his case. Remarks. Army returns, regimental re- turns, guard reports, etc., have a column allotted for observations relative to extra- ordinary occurrences, and these are headed "remarks." The word is also applied with reference to a reviewing oflScers observations on the verdict of a court-martial. Remblai. Is the quantity of earth in the mass of rampart, jiarapet, and banquette. Remedy. The rules and articles for the government of the army are defective in not providing sufficient remedies for wrongs. The army of the United States is governed bylaw. The law should therefore provide a sufficient remedy for cases in which the rights of officers are wrested from them by illegal regulations, purporting to interpret the true meaning of acts of Congress. In cases arising in the land and naval forces of the United States, where the true construc- tion of any act of Congress is in dispute, legislation is wanted to enable an officer who thinks himself wronged by an illegal execu- tive decision, to bring the matter before the Federal civil courts to determine the true exposition of the statute or authority in dis- pute. Remi, or Rhemi. One of the most pow- erful people in Gallia Belgica. They formed an alliance with C;esar when the rest of the Belgic made war against him, -37 n.i". Remington Rifle. See Small-arms. Remit, To lessen ; as, to remit a part of a soldier's sentence. Remonstrate. To make a representation of a case or cases wherein one or more nmy consider themselves to be aggrieved. Mili- tary men may remonstrate through their superior oflicers ; but where the duty of the service is ccnicerned, that duty must be first performed with cheerfulness and fidelity. Remount. A supply of good and" ser- viceable horses for the cavalry. To remount ihe cnvalnj, is to furnish them with horses in the room of those which have been either killed, disabled, or cast. RENCHEN 484 EEQUISITIONS Renchen, A town of Baden, on the Eench, 8 miles northeast from Otfenburgj. The French defeated the Austrians here in 1796, and entered Suabia. Rendezvous. A phice appointed for a meeting; especially, the appointed place for troops, or for the ships of a fleet, to assemble ; sometimes a place for enlistment. Also, to assemble or meet at a particular place, as troops, ships, etc. Rendsburg. A fortifled town of Holstein, on an island in the Eyder, at the commence- ment of the Kiel Canal. It was taken by the Imperialists in 1627; by the Swedes in 1643; and by the Prussians and confederate troops in 1848. It was reoccupied by the Danes in 1852, and taken by the Prussians after a serious conflict, July 21, 1864. Renegade. One who deserts from a mili- tary or naval post ; a deserter. Rennes (anc. Condate). A town of France, capital of the department of Ille- et-Vilaine, 60 miles north of Nantes. After the fall of the Roman empire it fell into the hands of the Franks. In 1357, Rennes was unsuccessfully besieged by the Duke of Lan- caster; and at the time of the revolution was the scene of some conflicts, being always firmly attached to the popular cause. Reorganize. To organize anew ; to re- duce again to an organized condition; to cause to assume wonted or regular functions ; as, to reorganize an army. Repair of Arms. The keeping in con- stant good order the diflerent fire-arms be- longing to a troop or company, such as rifles, etc. In the British army, a half-yearly allowance is made to captains of troops and companies for this purpose. In the U. S. service the cost of repairs of damage done to arms, equipments, etc., through negligence of an officer or soldier, is deducted from the pay of said officer or soldier. Repeater. A fire-arm that may be dis- charged many times in quick succession ; especially, a form of fire-arm so constructed that the charges are successively introduced, by an action of the lock, from a chamber containing them, into the breech, and fired or are discharged from a revolving chamber at the breech. See Revolver and Maga- zine Gun. Repel. To drive back ; to force to return ; to check the advance of ; to repulse; as, to repel an enemy or an assailant. Reply. It is the duty of a court to pre- vent new matter from being introduced into the prosecution or defense, but a prisoner maj' urge in his defense mitigating circum- stances, or examine witnesses as to character or services, and produce testimonials of such facts, without its being considered new mat- ter. If any point of law be raised, or any matter requiring explanation, the judge- ndvocate may explain. No other reply to be admitted. — Hough. Report. Sound ; loud noise, as that made by the discharge of a rifle or a cannon. Report. A specific statement of any par- ticular occurrences. OflScers making writ- ten reports are required to sign them, speci- fying the regiment to which they belong, and their ranlf. Reporting Prisoners. See Appendix, Articles of War, 68. Repose, In (Fr. en repos). This term, which is manifestly taken from the French, applies to troops that are allowed to be sta- tionary for any given period during an ac- tive campaign, either through sickness or from some other cause. Thus, the 5th regi- ment being in repose, the 24th was ordered to the front. Repository. A place, or repertory, in which anything is preserved. Thus, the British repository at Woolwich contains models of every sort of warlike stores, wea- pons, and fortifications ; whether invented by officers of the army or civilians, as well of other nations as of Britain, receipts being given to preserve the title to the inventor. Repress. To press back or down effect- ually ; to crush down or out ; to quell ; to subdue ; as, to repress rebellion. Reprimand. A reproof for some error or misconduct. A reprimand is sometimes pub- licly conveyed to officers, either in orders or at the head of a regiment, by direction of the President or a general officer in command. Non-commissioned officers and privates are sometimes reprimanded. See Appendix, Articles of War, 52. Reprisal. Is the retaking, from an enemy, goods which he has seized, or the capture from him of other goods, as an equivalent for the damage he has wrought. Reproachful or Provoking Speeches. See Appendix, Articles of War, 25. Repulse. To repel ; to beat or drive back. The condition of being repelled or driven back. Also, the act of repelling or driving back. Requisitions. Are forms prescribed for the demand of certain allowances, as forage, rations, etc. It also signifies the act of ex- acting either men or things for the public service. Requisitions are, however, an un- certain and unequal means of suppl^^ and only enable an army to live from hand to mouth, and although practicable in off"en- sive wars, are only justifiable in rapid move- ments, where time does not admit the em- ployment of more certain means of supply. The system is less odious than pillage. Bona- parte skillfully adopted another method, in harmony with the spirit of wars of invasion, and also more reliable as a means of support. He substituted himself in place of the su- preme authorities of the invaded country, and exacted pecimia.ry contributions, paying, or promising to pay, for all provisions and other supplies needed for his army. This sj'stem was well executed by Marshal Suchet in Spain, and a similar system was also ma- tured and published in orders by Gen. Scott while in Mexico. A treaty of peace, how- ever, soon after was made, which put an end to military operations, and the system was EEREWARD 485 RETIRED tlicicfiiro only partially executed. But with a sufficient army in a fertile country, the experience of the world has shown that if the inhabitants are protected from injuries, they will very generally sell to the best pay- masters. It is therefore the interest of an invading army not to interfere with the or- dinary avocations of citizens, and such is the modern usage. Rereward. The part of an army that marches in the rear, as the guard ; the rear- guard. Resaca de la Palma. A ravine which cros.-^L's tin- -Matainuras road about 3 miles north of that place; the position taken by ' the Mexican general Arista to resist the further advance of Gen. Taylor's army. Although the latter was outnumbered three to one, the Mexicans were routed after a short conflict (May 9, 184»j)and driven across the Rio Grande. Rescue. The retaking by a party cap- tured of a prize made by the enemy. Reservation, Military. Land set aside from the public domain by the President of the United States for military purposes. Reserve. In army atiuirs, is a body of troops held somewhere in the rear, generally out of fire, and kept fresh, in order that they may interfere with decisive force at any point where yielding troops require support, or an advantage gained needs powerful following up. The reserve of ammunition is a maga- zine of warlike stores, situated between an army and its base of operations, sufficiently retired from the front to be safe from sudden raids of the enemy, and at the same time advanced enough to allow of the supply actually in the field being speedily replen- ished. Reserve, Army. In Great Britain, is di- vided into first and second class reserves. The first class consists of men who are serv- ing or have served in the regular army, and whose past service has not exceeded their first term of enlistment. These men are liable to be called out for training for a period not longer than twelve days in a year, and to be permanently embodied for general service in case of imminent national danger or great emergency. The second class consists of out- pensioners of Chelsea Hospital, and persons enrolled in the force under the provisions of the 6th, 7th, 9th, and 10th Victoria. The members of this force may be called out for training as if tiiey were in the first class, but can only be permanently embodied in case of national danger or gr(?at emergency, for ser- vice in the United Kingdom. For army reserve in Prussia, see Laxdwehr. Reserve Equipage. See Pontons, Bridge Eqimi-aok. Ressaldar. In the East Indies, is a na- tive officer in a native cavalry regiment. He commands the right trmip of a sijuadron, and on parade loads the squadron. Ressaldar Major. In the East Indies, is the native commandant of a native cavalry i regiment. j Rest. In tactics, a word of command whereby the men are brought to a position of rest ; as, piirade rest, in place rest. Rest on Arms. A word of command which is used at military funerals. Retained Pay. In the U. S. army, is pay that is retained from the soldier until the expiration of his term of service. Retainers. See Ai'I'Endix, Articles of War, 03. Retaliation. This should never be re- sorted to as a measure of mere revenge, but only as a means of protective retribution, and, moreover, cautiously and unavoidably ; that is to say, retaliation is only to be re- sorted to after careful inquiry into the real occurrence and the character of the misdeeds that may demand retribution. Retiarius. A kind of gladiator who fought in the amphitheatre during the time of the Romans. He was dressed in a short coat, having afiiscina, or trident, in his left hand, and a net, from which he derived his name, in his right. "With this he endeavored to entangle his adversary, that he might then with his trident easily dispatch him. On his head he wore only a hat tied under his chin with a broad ribbon. Retinue. Applied strictly to the admiral's suite or followers, though it means an accom- panying train in general ; whether military, naval, or civil. Retirade. In fortification, a retrench- ment, which is generally made with two faces, forming a re-entrant angle, and is thrown up in the body of a work, for the purpose of receiving troops, who may dis- pute the ground inch by inch. Retire. Signifies to fall back a short dis- tance. Also, a bugle-sound intimating to skirmishers that they are to fall back. This bugle-sound in the U. S. service is termed " to the rear." Retired Flank. In fortification, a flank having an arc of a circle with its convexity turned toward the place. Retired Full Pay. See Full Pat, Re- tt ukd. Retired List. Is a list of officers retired from the army or navy. In every service, to maintain a reasonably low age among the persons actively employed, it is essential that some scale should be fixed for retirement of old and worn-out officers. In the British army, medical officers are allowed to retire after twenty-five years full-pay service ; other officers after thirty vears on full pav, or twenty-five years on lialf-pay. In the navy, officers are placed on the retired list at sixty years of age, with the rank they then hold. " In most cases, in both services, the retiring officer is allowed a step of honorary rank ; hut this higher rank carries neither present nor prospective advantage. Officers of the U. S. army nuiy be retired on their own application "after thirty years' service. If an officer has been borne on the army register for forty-five years, or if he has at- tained the age of sixtv-two vears, he may be KETREAT 486 EEVETMENT retired at the discretion of the President. Officers retired from active service receive 75 per cent, of the pay of the rank upon whieli they were retired. Retired officers of the army may be assigned to duty as profes- sors of colleges and at the Soldier's Home, and shall not be assignable to any other duty. Any officer may be retired on account of disability contracted in the line of duty. "When an officer has served forty years as a commissioned officer he shall, if he makes application therefor, be placed on the retired list. Officers retired shall be withdrawn from command and promotion. Officers may be wholly retired for disability not in- cident to the service and dropped from the rolls of the army with one year's pay. Offi- cers of the marine corps shall be retired in the same manner and with the same relative conditions as are provided for officers of the army. Retreat. The retrograde movement of any army or body of men who retire from the enemy. It signifies a more prolonged and systematic movement to the rear than retire. Full retreat is when an army retires with all expedition before a conquering enemy. The retreat is also a beat of the in- fantry drums, or sounding of the bugles or trumpets, which takes place everj-^ day at sunset, and at which troops fiiU in and the roll is called ; the details for duty the follow- ing day, and orders, are published. To re- treat is to make a retrograde movement. An army or body of men are said to retreat when they turn their backs upon the enemy, or are retiring from the ground they occu- pied ; hence, every march in withdrawing from an enemy is called a retreat. Retreat of the Ten Thousand Greeks. The 10,000 Greeks who had joined the army of the Younger Cyrus in his revolt against his brother, Artaxerxes Mnemon, were vic- tors, but Cyrus was defeated and slain at Cunaxa, 401 B.C. Artaxerxes having en- ticed the Greek leaders into his power and killed them, Xenophon was called to the command of his countrymen. Under con- tinual alarms from sudden attacks, he led them across rapid rivers, through vast des- erts, over the tops of mountains, till he reached the sea. The Greeks returned home after a march of 1155 parasangs, or leagues (3465 miles), which was performed in 215 days, after an absence of fifteen months. Retrench. To furnish with a retrench- ment ; as, to retrench bastions. Retrenchment. In fortification, is a de- fensive work, comprising at least ditch and parapet, within some other work of a fortress, and intended as a place of retreat for the defenders, whence they may prolong the defense, or capitulate after the faces of the work itself have fallen into the enemy's hands. The retrenchment bears a consider- able resemblance to the rcduit, except that it is almost always of earth. Retrenchments are made in ravelins, and the re-entering place d'armes at the time of constructing the works. A retrenchment is thrown across the gorge of a redan or bastion, or from shoulder to shoulder, when it is apprehended that the salient angle will fall into the pos- session of the besiegers ; these retrenchments are usually made when wanted. Such a re- trenchment across the interior of the Redan at Sebastopol catised the sanguinary repulse of the British on September 8, 1855. Return. An official account, report, or statement, rendered to the commander or other superior ; as, the return of men fit for duty ; the return of the number of the sick ; the return of provisions, etc. For punish- ment of officers making false returns, see Appendix, Articles of War, 8. Returns of a Mine. Are the turnings and windings of the gallery leading to the mine. Returns of a Trench. Are the various turnings and windings which form the lines of the trench, and are, as near as they can be, made parallel to the place attacked, to avoid being enfiladed. Reveille. The beat of the drum about break of day, to give notice that it is time for the soldiers to rise, and for the sentinels to forbear challenging. Reveil-matin [Fr.). A double cannon; an ancient 96-pounder. Revel, or Reval. A strongly fortified seaport town of Russia, government of Es- thonia, on a small bay on the south side of the Gulf of Finland, 200 miles west-south- west from St. Petersburg. It was long held by the Teutonic Knights ; was made over to Sweden in 1562; bombarded by the Dan- ish and Liibeck fleets in 1569 ; besieged by Peter the Great, and annexed to the Russian empire in 1710. In 1713 a naval harbor, in addition' to the commercial harbor, was founded. Reverse. A change for the worse, or partial defeat. Reverse Fire. See Fire, Reverse. Reverse Flank. See Flank, Outward. Reversed. Upside down ; as, arms re- versed. Arms are said to be reversed when the butts of the pieces are slung, or held up- wards. Reversed. In heraldry, a term applied to a charge turned upside down. Revet. In fortification, to face with ma- sonry, wood, or material, as an embank- ment. Revetment. In permanent fortification, is a retaining wall of masonry built for the purpose of holding back the earth of which works' are composed. The most ordinary position of revetments is for the escarp and counterscarp of the ditch. The most im- portant of these two is the escarp, which has to hold back the great mass of earth repre- sented by the rampart, parapet, banquette, etc. It is usually of solid brick-work or stone, 5 feet thick at the top, and sloping outwards as it descends (on the ditch side only) to the extent of 1 in 6. Prior to Vau- ban's time, the escarp revetment was com- < REVIEW 487 KEVOLUTIONARY monly raised to the top of the parapet ; but as in this case the artillery of a bosieirer played on the top of the wall, and ruined it soon after t^e siepe conunenced, that eni^i- neer adopted the principle — thenceforth fol- lowed — of raising it no higher than the crest of the glacis, or about 7 feet above the natu- ral ground, leaving the parapet above of sloped earth only. When the main ditch is 24 feet deep, the scarp revetment will be about 30 feet high. Additional strength is imparted to the revetment wall by massive buttresses at every 15 feet, called counter- forts, and these again are sometimes con- nected and strengthened by masonry arches outside the revetment. The revetment forms a terrible barrier to an assaulting party. In field-works temporary revetments maj' be made of timber, turf, hurdles, or any other materials on hand. Review. An examination or inspection of troops under arms, by a general or com- mander, for the purpose of ascertaining the state of their discipline, equipments, etc. Revision. A re-examination for correc- tion. AVhere an oflicer, who orders a court- martial, does not approve their proceedings, he may, by the custom of war, return them to the'court for revision, and no additional evidence can be taken on such revision. — Revocable. That may be recalled. Nom- inations for appointments in the army are made by the President of the United States, subject' to the concurrence of the Senate, who, if they disagree, revoke the appoint- ment. Revolt. To renounce allegiance or sub- jection ; to rise against the government in declared rebellion. Revolution. In politics, any extensive change in the constitution of a country sud- denly brought about. The most important events in history known under this name are : The destruction of the Assyrian em- pire, and the foundation of that of the Medes and Persians by Cyrus the Great, 530 B.C. ; the foundation of the Macedonian em- pire on the destruction of the Persian, by the defeat of Darius Codomanus, by Alex- ander the Great, 331 b.c. ; the establishment of the Roman empire on the ruins of the re- fiublic by Julius Caesar, 47 B.C. ; the estab- ishmcnt of the empire of the Western Franks under Charlemagne, 800; the revo- lution in Portugal, by which the Portuguese threw otl" the Spanish yoke and placed John, duke of Braganza, on the throne, 1040; the English revolution of the 17th century, which began in the early part of the reign of Charles I., with the struggle between that king and his Parliament. In 1642, the struggle became a civil war, in which the Parliament obtained the ascendency, and brought Charles to the block in 1«)40. A republic followed, under the protectorate of Oliver Cromwell, which was succeeded in llJtiO by the restoration of monarchy in the person of Charles II.; but the arbitrary rule of James II. brought the king and people again into antagonism, and James liaviiig ticfd the country, William III. was called to the throne under such conditions and safeguards as secured the balance of the constitution. The revolutictns in Russia, 1730 and 1702. The French revolution was a violent reaction against that absolutism which had come in the course of time to supplant the old feudal institutions of the country. It began with an outbreak of in- surrectionary movements at Paris in July, 1789, including the destruction of the Bas- tile. On January 21, 1793, King Louis XVI. was beheaded. A disastrous reign of terror followed (see Rkion ok Tkrror), which was brought to an end in 1704. The revolution in Sweden, 1772 and 1809; in Holland, 1795, and counter-revolution in 1813; in Poland, 1704, 1795, and 1830. The American Revolution of 1775, by which the United States threw oft" their dependence on Great Britain. The French revolution of 1830, which drove Charles X. into exile, and raised Louis Philippe, duke of Orleans, to the throne by the will of the people; as also the revolution of 1848, when France rose against Louis Philippe and adopted for a time a republican form of government ; which was followed by the revolution of 1851. The revolutions in the Netherlands, and in Brunswick, 1830; in Brazil, 1831; in Hungary, 1848 ; in Rome. 1798 and 1848 ; I in Italy, 1859-00, when the various minor sovereigns were driven into exile, and the whole of the peninsula, with the exception of the Roman and Venetian territory, be- came subject to the constitutional sway of Victor Emmanuel; in the United States, 1800-65; in the Danubian principalities, 1809 ; and the Papal States, suppressed, Oc- tober, 1807. Revolutionary. Tending or pertaining to a revolution in government; as, a revo- lutionary war. Revolutionary Tribunal. The name spe- cially given to the infamous court of judg- ment — the most extreme republican will scarcely afiirm that it was a court of justice — instituted by the French Convention in March, 1793, on a motion made by Danton, who considered that such a court had be- come necessary, inasmuch as the recent dis- asters that had befallen the national armies on the frontiers had led to dangerous con- spiracies against the revolutionary govern- ment. Its members were chosen from the various departments, and their appointment was ratified by the Convention. Their func- tion was to sit in judgment on all persons accused of crimes against the state, and from their sentence, delivered with appalling promptitude, there was no appeal. JDuring I the "Reign of Terror" (which sec), when j Fouquicr-Tinville was " public accuser,"' it I acquired a horrible notoriety, abolishing I soon almost all forms of justice, neither hearing witnesses on behalf of the accused, I nor allowing him an opportunity of defense, EE VOL VERS 488 EHODES but blindly executing the orders of the "Committee of Public Safety," which was merely a tool in the hands of Robespierre. In the provinces, similar tribunals, under the name of " Revolutionary Committees," were established, the commissaries-general of which, as, for instance, Carrier, shot or drowned suspects in crowds. Revolvers. See Small-arms, Revol- VKR. Revolving Light. A light or lamp in a light-house so arranged as to appear and disappear at fixed intervals, either by being turned about an axis so as to show light only at intervals, or by having its light occasionally intercepted by a revolving screen. Reward. A recompense given for the performance of a meritorious or gallant act; as, the soldiers were rewarded with medals for their gallantry. In the U. S. service a reward of )^30 is paid for the apprehension of a deserter. Rezonville. See Gravelotte. Rhagae (ruins at Red, southeast of Teh- 7-an). The greatest city of Media, lay in the extreme north of Great Media, at the southern foot of the mountains (Caspius Mons) which border the southern shores of the Caspian Sea. It was destroyed in the Parthian wars, but rebuilt by Arsaces ; it was finally destroyed by the Tartars in the 12th century. Rhegium (now Reggio). A celebrated Greek town on the coast of Bruttium, on the south of Italy, was situated on the straits which separate Italy and Sicily. Rhegium was founded about the beginning of the first Messenian war, 743 B.C., by ^olian Chal- cidians from Eubcea, and by Doric Messe- nians, who had quitted their native country on the commencement of hostilities between Sparta and Messenia. Even before the Per- sian war Rhegium was sufficiently powerful to send 3000 of its citizens to the assistance of the Tarentines. Dionysius carried on war against the city for a long time, and after two or three unsuccessful attempts he at length took the place, which he treated with the greatest severity. The Rhegians having applied to Rome for assistance when Pyrrhus was in the south of Italy, the Ro- mans placed in the town a garrison of 4000 soldiers, who had been levied among the Latin colonies in Campania. These troops seized the town in 279, killed or expelled the male inhabitants, and took possession of their wives and children. When Pyrrhus was driven out of Italy, the Romans took signal vengeance upon these Campanians, and restored the surviving Rhegians to their city. Rheims, or Reims. A town of France, in the department of Marne, 82 miles east- northeast from Paris. The town was taken by the Russians in 1814, but before they had been in possession many hours Napoleon came down upon them, and gained here one of his last successes before victory deserted his standards. Gen. MacMahon was at Rheims with his army, including the re- mains of the corps of Failly and Canrobert, and marched from here in hopes of joining Bazaine ; the crown-prince of Prussia started in pursuit, August 23, 1870. It was occu- pied by the Germans and the king, Septem- ber .5, 1870. Rhin, Bas and Haut (Lower and Upper Rhine). Recently departments of France, which formed the former French province of Alsace. See Elsass. Rhine (anc. Rhenus, Ger. Rhein). An important river in Germany, and one of the most noted in Europe, takes its rise in the Swiss canton of Grisons, and after a north- northwest course of about 800 miles, falls in the German Ocean. Caesar was the first Roman general who crossed the Rhine; he threw a bridge of boats across it. It was fortified as the frontier of the Roman em- pire 298 and 3G9, and became the boundary of the French republic in 177G. Rhode Island. One of the original thir- teen United States of America, and the smallest, on the southern coast of New Eng- land, is about 47 miles from north to south, and 37 miles from east to west. It is bounded north and east by Massachusetts, south by the Atlantic, and west by Connec- ticut. Rhode Island is believed to have been the Vineland of the Norsemen, who are supposed by some antiquarians to have explored this coast in the 10th century. It was settled in 1036 by Roger Williams and his companions. Baptists, who were expelled for their religious opinions from the Puritan colony of Plymouth. The colony suffered from the Indian wars until the defeat and death of Philip, king of the W^ampanoags. Rhode Island took a prominent part in the Revolutionary war, and in the late civil war (1861-65) she filled her quotas cheer- fully for the cause of the Union, her sol- diers winning distinction and honor in the field, Rhodes (Lat. Rhodus, Gr. Rhodos.). An island of Asiatic Turkey, in the Mediter- ranean, ofl:' the southwest coast of Asia Minor, long an important, wealthy, and independent state of ancient' Greece. At the beginning of the Peloponnesian war, Rhodes was one of those maritime states which were subject to Athens ; but in the twentieth year of the war (412), it joined the Spartan alliance, and the oligarchal party, which had been depressed, and their leaders, the Eratidte, expelled, recovered their former power under Dories. In 408 the capital, called Rhodus, was built. The history of the island now presents a series of conflicts between the democratical and oli- garchal parties, and of subjection to Athens and Sparta in turn, till the end of the Social war, 35.5, when its independence was ac- knowledged. Then followed a conflict with the princes of Caria, during which the island was for a time subject to Artemisia. At the Macedonian conquest, they submitted to RHOXOLANI 489 RIDING-MASTER Alexander; but upon his death they^ ex- pelled the Macedonian garrison. In the en- suing wars they formed an alliance with Ptolemy, the son of Lagus, and their city, Rhodus, endured a most famous siege by the forces of Demetrius Poliorcetes, who at length, in admiration of the valor of the besieged, presented them with the engines he had used against the city, from the sale of which Ihey defrayed the cost of the cele- brated Colossus. The state now for a long time flourished with great maritime power. At length they came into connection with the Romans, whose alliance tiiey joined in the war against Philip HI. of Macedon. In the ensuing war with Antiochus, the Ilho- dians gave the Romans great aid with their fleet. A temporary interruption of their alliance with Rome was caused by their es- pousing the cause of Perseus, for which they were severely punished, 108; but they re- covered the favor of Rome by the important naval aid they rendered in the Mithridatic war. In the civil wars they took part with Cassar, and sutt'ered in consequence from Cassius, 42. They were at length deprived of their independence by Claudius. In 1309 the island came into the possession of the Knights of St. John (see Saint John of Jerusalem), who baflled every effort made by Mahomet II., the conqueror of Constan- tinople, to drive them from the island, and held it until they were compelled to evacu- ate it by Solyman the Great in 1522, after one of the most memorable sieges recorded in history. Rhoxolani, or Roxolani. A warlike peo- ple in European Sarmatia, on the coast of the Palus Micotis, and between the Borys- thenes and the Tanais, usually supposed to be the ancestors of the modern Russians. They frequently attacked and plundered the Roman provinces south of the Danube; and Hadrian was even obliged to pay them tribute. They arc mentioned as late as the 11th century. They fought with lances, and with long swords wielded with both hands ; and their armies were composed chiefly of cavalry. Ribadoquin. An ancient 1-or IJ-pounder gun. Also, a powerful cross-bow for throw- ing long darts. Ribaud (/->.). A soldier of the foot- guards of Philip Augustus ('f France ; but afterwards this term was applied only to the most infamous characters. Ribaudaille (Fr.). A term of reproach formerly applied to cowardly soldiers. Philip of Valois thus called his (Jenoese mercenaries, who he thought had betrayed him. Ribaudequin (Fr.). A warlike machine or instrument which the French formerly used. It was made in the form of a bow, containing 12 or lo feet in its curve, and was lixcd upon the wall of a fortified town, for the purpose of casting out a prodigious jave- lin, which sometimes killed several men at once. According to Monstrelct, a French 32 writer, ribaudequin, or ribauderin, signified a sort of garment which wits worn by the soldiers when they took the field. Ribbon. In heraldry, a diminutive of the ordinary called the bend, of which it is one-eighth in width. Ribbon Cockades. In the British ser- vice, the cockades which are given to re- cruits, and are commonly called the colors. Richmond. The capital of \'irginia, on the left bank of the James River, at the head of the tide- water, 150 miles from its mouth, and 100 miles south of Washington. In June, 1861, it was selected as the Confeder- ate capital, and from that pericxl was the objective-point of a series of formidable mili- tarv expeditions for its capture, under (iens. McDowell, McClellan, Burnside, Hooker, Meade, and Grant, and defended by Gen. Lee with a large army and formidable lines of fortifications, until the seizure of the lines of supply by Gens. Grant and Sheridan com- pelled its evacuation after a series of san- guinary battles, April .3, 1805. A consider- able portion of the city was destroyed by the retreating Confederates. Rickarees, Arickarees, or Rees. A tribe of Indians of the Pawnee stock living at Fort Berthold agency, on the Upper Mis- souri River; they warred with the Dakota tribes for a number of years, and were hos- tile to the whites; but were defeated and dispersed by U. S. troops in 1823 ; made a treaty in 1825; were driven up the Platte Valley, 1831 ; returned to the Missouri some vears later. Thev numbered in 187G about 700 souls. Ricochet. In gunnery, the repeated re- bounding of round-shot. By firing at a slight elevation, with small charges, in a direction enfilading the face of a work, shot are pitched over the parapet, and bound along the rampart from end to end, with most destructive effect on the guns and gun- ners occupying it. Ricochet Battery. See Battery. Ricochet Firing. See Fire, Ricochet. Rideau. Is a rising ground, or eminence, commanding a plain, sometimes almost par- allel to the works of a place. It is a great disadvantage to have rideaus near a fortifi- cation, which terminate on the counterscarp, especially when the enemy fire from afar ; they not only command the place, but facili- tate the enemy's approaches. Rider. In artillery carriages, a piece of wood, which has more height than breadth ; the length being equal to that of the XxxXy of the axle-tree, upon which the .«ide-pieces rest in a four-wheel carriage, such as the ammu- nition-wagon, block-carriage, and sling- wagon. Ridge. In fortification, is the highest part of the glacis proceeding from the salient angle of the covered way. Riding-Master. In 'the British service, in cavalry, artillery, and the army service corps, is an officer whose duty it is to in- struct the officers and men in the manage- RIFF 490 RIFLING ment of their horses. He is most commonly selected from the ranks. The riding-master has the relative rank of lieutenant, and, after an aggregate service of thirty years, includ- ing at least fifteen years as riding-master, he has the right to retire on 10 shillings a day, with the honorary rank of captain. He is as- sisted in his duties by rough riders. (See Rough Rider.) Riff, The. A portion of the coast of Mo- rocco which extends from Tangier on the west, to near the western frontier of Algeria. The name in the Berber language, which is that of the inhabitants, signifies a mountain- ous and rugged coast. The inhabitants of the Rift" were formerly engaged in piracy. On account of the injuries inflicted by them on merchant vessels, most of the maritime states of Europe agreed to pay an annual sum of quit-money. However, in 1828, Austria declined further payment of the tax. A Venetian vessel was seized by the pirates in the harbor of Rabat, but the arrival of an Austrian fleet off the port produced restitu- tion of the ship and its cargo, as well as the formal renunciation of all further claims. France followed the same course by declar- ing war against the sultan of Morocco, and obtained compensation in 1844, since which period piracy has much diminished. Its ex- ample was followed by the Spaniards in 1859. Rifle. A fire-arm having a number of spiral grooves cut into the surface of its bore, for the purpose of giving the projectile a motion about a line coinciding with the direction of its flight. See Ordnance, Small-arms, Magazine Guns, and Ly- man's Multi-charge Gun. Rifle Projectile. See Projectile. Rifled Cannon, or Rifle-cannon. A can- non of which the bore is rifled. Rifled Musket. A musket of which the bore is rifled. Riflemen. A peculiar kind of light in- fantry, consisting of experienced marksmen, armed with the most improved rifles. In the British army there are two battalions of the rifle brigade and of the 60th Rifles, the Ceylon Rifles, and the Cape Mounted Rifle- men. Rifle-pit. A pit dug for the shelter of sharpshooters. Rifling. The yielding nature of lead ren- ders the application of the rifle principle of easy accomplishment in the case of rifle- muskets, but such is not the case with rifle-cannon where the projectiles are made of iron. The object of the most recent ex- periments is to determine the safest and surest means of causing the projectile to fol- low the spiral grooves as it passes along the bore of a rifled piece. For description of the manner of doing this, see Projectile. Form of Groove. — The form of a rifle groove is determined by the angle which the tangent at any point makes with the corre- sponding element of the bore. If the angles be equal at all points the groove is uniform. If the increase from the breech to the muz- zle, the grooves are called increasing ; if the reverse, decreasing. The inclination of a rifle groove at any point is measured, accu- rately, by the tangent of the angle which it makes with the axis of thie bore, which is always equal to the circumference of the bore divided by the length of a single revo- lution of the spiral, measured in the direc- tion of the axis. Grooves are of two kinds, — unifonn and variable. Uniform Groove. — The comparative ad- vantages of uniform and variable grooves depend on the means used to connect them with the projectiles. If the bearing of the projectile in the grooves be long, and the metal of which it is made be unyielding, it will be unsafe, if not impracticable, to em- ploy variable grooves, and if the metal be partially yielding, a portion of the force of the charge will be expended in changing the form of that part of the projectile which projects into the grooves, as it moves along the bore. Variable Groove. — The variable groove may be used to advantage when the portion of the projectile in the grooves is so short that its form will undergo but slight altera- tion ; the variable groove diminishes the friction of the projectile when it is first set in motion, and thereby relieves the breech of the piece of a portion of the enormous strain which is thrown upon it. If the twist be too rapid towards the muzzle there will be danger of bursting the piece in the chase. Width of Groove. — The width of a groove depends on the diameter of the bore and the peculiar manner in which the groove re- ceives and holds the projectile. Wide and shallow grooves are more easily filled by the expanding portion of the projectile than those which are narrow and deep ; and the same holds true of circular-shaped grooves when compared to those of angular form. Number of Grooves. — An increase in the number of grooves increases the firmness with which a projectile is held, by adding to the number of points which bear upon it. A large number of grooves, however, in- crease the difficulties of loading. For ex- panding projectiles an odd numberof grooves is generall}' employed, for as this places a groove opposite to a land, less expansion will be required to fill them. Inclinnfio7i of Grooves. — Experience has shown that, as the velocity of rotation de- pends upon the form and initial velocity of the projectile, the causes which retard it, and the time of flight, there is a particular inclination of grooves which is best suited to each caliber, form of projectile, charge of powder, and angle of fire. The farther the centre of gravity of a projectile is in rear of the centre of figure, or resistance of the air, the greater must be the inclination of the grooves to resist deviation. It therefore follows that a conical projectile of the same length and diameter, requires a greater in- clination of grooves than a cylindrical pro- RIGA 491 ROANOKE jettile, and the same will hold true for other forms as they approach one or the other of these extreme cases. The friction of the projectile as it passes along the prooves, in- creases with their inclination ; ils cttect will be U> diminish the rani^e and increase the strain on the piece, and the inclination may bo carried so far as to break the projectile, or rupture the piece. Ceiitrinp. — In consequence of the windajjc necessary in all muzzle-loading guns, the axis of the projectile does not always coin- cide with that of the bore in firing. This leads to inaccuracy of fire. A firojectile is said to be centred when the grooves of the rifling are so constructed as to bring the axis of the projectile on a line with that of the bore when the piece is fired. There are sev- eral ways of accomplishing this, among them Armstrong's method called "Shunt rifling." See Armstrong Gun under Oku- NANCE, Construction of, the Krupp, and others. Riga. An important seaport of Russia, cajiitul of Livonia, on the Diina, 312 miles southwest frtim St. Petersburg. Riga was founded in the beginning of the 13th cen- tury. The Teutonic Knights possessed it in the 10th century. In 1021 it was taken by Gustavus Adoiphus, and in 1710, after a vigorous resistance, by I'eter the Groat. On the latter occasion more than half of the town was destroyed. In 1812 a French force was repulsed from the town. Rigodon ( Fr.). Formerly a beat of drum while men who were shelled (a French pun- ishment, the severest next to death) were paraded up and down the ranks previous to their being sent to their destiiuition. Rimbases. In gunnery, are short cylin- ders uniting the trunnions with the body of the gun. The ends of the ritn bases, or the shouiUers of the trunnions, are planes per- pendicular to the axis of the trunnions. Rimbases are for the purpose of strengthen- ing the trunnions at their junction with the piece, and by forming shoulders, to prevent the piece from moving sideways in the trun- nion-beds. Rimer. A palisade in fortification. Rimini (anc. Arim'mum). A city of Cen- tral Italy, on the* Adriatic Sea, about 28 miles east-southeast from Forli. It was founded by the Umbri ; was conquered by the Romans; sacked by Sulla; plundered and destroyed several times by the barbarians; then given by Charlemagne to the churcii. Rimnik. A towi^ of Wallacliia, on the Rimnik, tlo miles northeast from Bucharest. Here the Austrians and Kussians, under Prince Coburg and (ien. Suwarrow, gained a great victory over the Turks, September 22. 1789. Ring-armor. Armor composed of rings of metal. Ringleader. The leader of a ring; es- pecially, the leader of an assdoiation of men engaged in violation «»f law or an illegal en- terprise, as rioters, mutineers, and the like. Ring-mail. A kind of mail composed of small rings of steel sewed edgewise upositie froyn the raiifiS, is to obtain a commission by degrees, after having been in the ranks as a private soldier. Rising. In heraldry, a term applied to a bird when represented opening his wings as if about to take flight. Riveting-plates. In gun-carriages, are small, square, thin pieces of iron, through which the ends of the bolts pass, and are riveted upon them. Rivoli. A town of Italy on the right of the river Dora, and 8 miles west of Turin. It possesses a royal castle, which was sacked by the French in 1090. In 1797 a battle was fought here between the French and Austri- ans, in which the former were victorious. Rizamedar. In the Fast Indies, is an officer commanding a small body of horse. Roanoke. A river of ^'irgini.H and North Carolina; empties into Albemarle Sound. In 1801, Albemarle Island, at its EOBINET 492 EOCKET mouth, and Plymouth were taken by the Federal gunboats. Robinet. An ancient military machine for throwing darts and stones. Rochelle, La. A fortified seaport of France, capital of the department of Cba- rente-Inforieure, on an inlet of the Bay of Biscay, 300 miles southwest of Paris by rail- way. It was taken from the English "by the troops of the French king Louis XIII. in 1224 ; was ceded to England at the treaty of Bretigny in 1860; in the subsequent wars it was retaken by France, under whose sway it has remained since 1372. As a stronghold of the Huguenot party, it underwent various attacks and sieges during the religious wars of the Henries, in the latter half of the 16th century ; and on its final and unconditional surrender to the royal troops in the time of Louis XIII., its old fortifications were de- stroyed, and new lines of defenses subse- quently erected by the great Vauban. Rock Island. An island in the Missis- sippi River, the southern extremity of which ii nearly opposite the town of Kock Island, 111. This island is about 3 miles in length, and presents a perpendicular front of lime- stone 20 or 30 feet high. During the Black- hawk war a garrison was kept on Eock Isl- and, and a part of it was used during the late civil war (1861-65) as a military prison. The U. S. government has a splendid arsenal and armory here. Rocket. A rocket is a projectile which is set in motion by a force residing within itself; it therefore performs the twofold function of piece and projectile. See Pyro- TECHNY. History. — Eockets were used in India and China for war purposes before the discovery of gunpowder; some writers fix the date of their invention about the close of the 9th century. Their inferior force and accuracy limited the sphere of their operations to in- cendiary purposes, until the year 1804, when Sir William Congreve turned his attention to their improvement. This oflicer substi- tuted sheet-iron cases for those made of paper, which enabled him to use a more powerful composition; he made the guide- stick shorter and lighter, and removed a source of inaccui-acy of flight by attaching the stick to the centre of the base instead of the side of the case. The advantages claimed •for rockets over cannon are, unlimited size of projectile, portability, freedom from re- coil, rapidity of discharge, and the terror which their noise and fiery trail produce on mounted troops. Structure. — A rocket is essentially com- posed of a strong case of paper or wrought iron, inclosing a composition of nitre, char- coal, and sulphur, — the same as gunpowder, except that the ingredients are proportioned for a slower rate of combustion. If pene- tration and range be required, its head is surmounted by a solid shot; if explosion and incendiary eftect, by a shell or spherical case-shot, to which is attached a fuze, which is set on fire when it is reached by the flame of the burning composition. The base is perforated by one or more vents for the es- cajie of the gas generated within, and some- times with a screw-hole to which a guide- stick is fastened. Motion. — A rocket is set in motion by the reaction of a rapid stream of gas escaping through its vents. If it be surrounded by a resisting medium, the atmosphere, for in- stance, the particles of gas as they issue from the vent will impinge against and set in motion certain particles of air, and the force expended on the inertia of these particles will react and increase the propelling force of the rocket. It follows, therefore, that, though a rocket will move in vacuo, its pro- pelling force will be increased by the pres- ence of a resisting medium. Whether the efl'ect will be to accelerate the rocket depends upon the relation between the resistance which the medium offers to the motion of the gas and that which it offers to the motion of the rocket. Vent. — As the rate of combustion of the composition is independent of the pressure of the gas in the bore, it follows, that if the size of the vent be contracted, the flow of gas through it will be accelerated. The strength of the case, and the friction of the gas, which increases as the vent diminishes, alone limit the reduction of the size of the vent. For vents of the same size, but of diflerent shapes, that one which allows the gas to escape most freely will be most favor- able to the flight of the rocket. A conical form of vent, with the larger orifice next to the bore, will allow the gas to escape more rapidly than one of cylindrical form. Bore. — As the composition of a rocket burns in parallel layers of uniform thick- ness, the amount of gas generated in a given time, or the velocity of its exit from the case, depends on the extent of the inflamed surface. Experience shows that to obtain the required surface of inflammation, it is necessary to form a long cavity in the mass of the composition. This cavity is called the bore. In all rockets the bore should be concentric with the case ; its shape should be made conical to diminish the strain on the case near its head, by reducing the amount of surface where the pressure on the unit of surface is greatest. Nature of Muvemetit. — Suppose the rocket in a state of rest, and the composition ig- nited ; the flame immediately spreads over the surface of the bore, forming gas which issues from the vent. The escape is slow in the first moments, as the density of the gas is slight; but as the surface of inflamma- tion is large compared to the size of the vent, the gas accumulates rapidly, and its density is increased until the velocity of the escape is suflicientto overcome the resistance which the rocket offers to motion. These resistances are, inertia, friction, the compo- nent of weight in the direction of motion, ' and, after motion takes place, the resistance KOCKET 493 ROCKET of the !iir. The constant pressure on the head of the hore uccelerutes the motion of the rocket until the resis-timce of the air equals the propelling force ; after this, it will remain constant until the hurning sur- face is sensibly diminished. AV'hen the gas ceases to flow, the rocket loses its distinctive character, and becomes, so far as its move- ment is concerned, an ordinary projectile. The increase in the surface of combustion whereby more gas is developed in the same time, and the diminution in the weight of the remaining com|)osition, cause the point of maximum velocity to be reached with increased rapidity. If the weight of the rocket be increased, the instant of maximum velocity will be prolonged, but the amount will remain the same. A change in the form of the rocket which increases the resistance of the air, will have the etlect to diminish the maximum velocity. Gtiidlng Principle. — The propelling force of a rocket changes its directit)n with the axis along which it acts; it follows, there- fore, that without some means of giving sta- bility to this axis, the path described will be very irregular, so much so, at times, as to fold upon itself; and instances have been known where these projectiles have returned to the point whence they started. The two means now used to give steadiness to the flight of a rocket are, rotation, as in the case of a rifle-ball, and the resistance of the air, as in an arrow. Jlnlc's Sj/.stem. — The first is exemplified in Half's rocket, where rotation is produced around the long axis by the escape of the gas through five small vents situated ob- liquely to it. In his first arrangement, the inventor placed the small vents in the base, surrounding the central vent, so that the resultant of the tangential forces acted around the posterior extremity of the axis of rotation. In 1855, this arrangement was changed by reducing the number of the small vents to three, and placing them at the base of the head of the rocket. The rocket thus modified is the one now used by the U. S. government for war purposes. A still later improvement in Hale's rocket con- sists in screwing a cast-iron piece into the bott(mi of the case, which is perforated with three vents. A corresponding side of each vent is surrounded with a fence, the oppo- site sides being open. The gas in its ettbrts to expand after issuing from the vents, presses against the fences and rotates the rocket around its long axis. Coiiffrcvc's Si/.stcm. — A Congreve rocket is puideil by a long wooden stick attached to its base. If any cause act to turn it from its proper direction, it will be opposed by re- sistances equal to its moment of inertia and the lateral action of the air against the stick. The etfect of these resistances will bo in- creased by placing the centre of gravity near the head of the rocket, and by increasing the surface of the stick. In signal-rockets, where the case is made of paper, the stick is attached to the side, and there is but one large vent, which is in the centre of the case. In war-rockets the stick is attached to the centre of the base, and the large central vent is replaced by several small ones near its circumference. The former arrangement is not so favorable to accuracy as the latter, inasmuch as rotation will be produced if the force of propulsion and the resistance of the air do not act in the same line. Hoio Fired. — Rockets are generally fired from tubes or gutters ; but should occasion require it, they may be tired directly from the ground, care being taken to raise the forward end by propjting it u|> with a stick or stone. As the motion is slow in the first moments of its flight, it is more liable to bo deviated from its proper direction at this time than any other ; for this reason the conducting-tube should be as long as practi- cable. Form of Trajectory. — Take that portion of the trajectory where the velocity is uniform. The weight of the rocket applied at its cen- tre of gravity, and acting in a vertical direc- tion, and the propelling force acting in the direction of its length, are two forces the oblique resultant of which moves the rocket parallel to itself; but the resistance of the air is oblique to this direction, and acting at the centre of figure, a point situated be- tween the centre of gravity and extremity of the guide-stick, produces a rotation which raises the stick, and thereby changes the di- rection in which the gas acts. As these forces are constantly acting, it follows that each element of the trajectory has less incli- nation to the horizon than the element of an ordinary trajectory in which the velocity is equal. "When the velocity is not uniform, the position of the centre of gravity has a certain influence on the form of the trajec- tory. To understand this, it is necessary to consider that the component of the resist- ance of the air which acts on the head of the rocket is greater than that which acts on the side of the stick. It is also necessary to consider that the pressure of the inflamed gas acts in a direction opposite to the resist- ance of the air, that is to say, from the rear to the front, and that the centre of gravity is near the rear extremity of the case. At the beginning of the trajectory, when the motion of the rocket is accelerated, its in- ertia is opposed to motion, and being ap- plied at the centre of gravity, which is in rear of the vent, the point of application of the moving force, it acts to prevent the rocket from turning over in its flight. But when the composition is consumed, the cen- tre of gravity is thrown farther to the rear, I and the velocity of the rocket is retarded, j the inertia acts in the opposite direction, and the eflect will be, if the centre of gravity or inertia is sufliciently far to the I rear, to cAUse it to turn over in the direc- 1 tion of its length. If the rocket be directed I toward the earth, this turning over will be 1 counteracted by the acceleration of velocity KOCEOY 494 EOLLING-HITCH due to the weight, and the form of the tra- jectory will be preserved. Effect of Wind. — When the wind acts obliqiiely to the plane of lire, its component perpendicular to this flame acting at the centre of figure Avill cause the rocket to rotate around its centre of gravity. As the centre of figure is situated in rear of the centre of gravity, the point will be thrown toward the wind, and the propelling force acting always in the direction of the axis, the rocket will be urged toward the direc- tion of the wind. To make an allowance for the wind in firing rockets, they should be pointed toward the opposite side from ■which the wind comes, or with the wind instead of against it. If the wind act in the plane of fire from front to rear, it will have the effect to depress the point, and with it the elements of the trajectory in the ascend- ing branch, and elevate them in the de- scending branch ; as the latter is shorter than the former, the effect of a front wind will be to diminish the range. The converse ■will be true for a rear -wind. Kind Used. — The two sizes of Hale's rock- ets in use in the American service are, the 2-inch (interior diameter of case), weighing 6 pounds, and 3-inch (interior diameter of case), weighing 16 pounds. Under an angle of from 4° to 5° the range of these rockets is from 500 to 600 yards. Under an angle of 47° the ransar Borgia heldit as a duchy in 1501, but lost it in 1503. In 1859 the Romagna threw oflT the temporal authority of the pope, and declared itself subject to the king of Sardinia, who accej)ted it in March, 18fiO." It now forms part of the kingdom of Italy. Romainville and Belleville. Heights near Paris, where Josej)h Bonaparte, Mortier, and Marmont were defeated by the allies after a vigorous resistance, March 30, 1814. The next dav Paris cajiitulated. Roman Candles. Sec Pvrotechny. Roman Walls. One was erected by Ag- ricola {7'J to 85) to defend Britain from the incursions of the Picts and Scots; the first wall extended from the Tyne to the Solway Frith (SO miles) ; the second from the Frith of Forth, near Edinburgh, to the Frith of Clyde, near Dumbarton (30 miles). The former was renewed and strengthened by the emperor Adrian (121) and by Septimus Scverus (208). It commenced at Bowness, near Carlisle, and ended at Wallsend, near Newcastle. It had battlements and towers to contain soldiers. The more northern wall was renewed by Lollius Urbicus in the reign of Antoninus Pius, about 140. Many re- mains of these walls still exist, particularly of the southern one. Romans. See Rome. Rome (anc. Roma). The most celebrated city of the wt)rld, either in ancient or mod- ern times, the capital of the Pontifical States, and the ecclesiastical metropolis of Catholic Christendom, is situated on the Tiber, 17 miles northeast of its mouth in the Mediterranean. Rome is said to have been a colony from Alba Longa and to have been founded by Romulus about 753 n.c. ; it grew rapidly in size and power. Regal Rome ruled the whole Latin coast, and the treaties made with powerful Carthage, with Massilia, and with the Greeks of Southern Italv bear witness to the respect it enjoyed aliroad. Royalty was abolished, and an aristocratical commonwealth established by the patricians, 501) H.c. ; the Latins and the Tarquins de- clared war against the republic, 501 ; were defeated at the Lake Regillus, 496 n.c. Mil- itary tribunes were first created in 444 B.C. Rome was engaged in war with the Tuscans, 434 H.c. ; the ^Equi and Volsci were de- feated by Tubertus, 431 u.c. ; Veil was taken by Camillus after ten years' siege, 390 n.c. In 300 !».(;. Rome was captured and burned by the Gauls ; the vigilance of Marcus Man- lius saved the Capitol. Again and again in the course of the 4th century u.c. the Gallic hordes repeated their incursions, but never again returned victorious. In 307 n.r. Ca- millus defeated them at Alba; in 300 n.c. they were routed at the Colline Gate ; in 358 B.C. by the dictator G. Sul|)icius Peticus ; and in 350 B.C. by Lucius Furius Camillus. By the middle of the 4th century B.C. the whole of Southern Etruria had submitted to the supremacy of Rome, and wa.s kept in check by a Roman garrison ; as was also the land of the Volsci. Becoming alarmed at the increasing power of Rome, the Latins and Ilernicans withdrew from their league with Rome, and a severe and protracted struggle took place between them and their former ally. Nearly thirty years elapsed before the Romans succeeded in crushing the malcontents, and restoring the league of Spurius Cassius. In the course of this war the old Latin confederacy of the "Thirty Cities" was broken up, 384 B.C. Rome made a treaty with Carthage to repress Greek pi- racy, 348 B.C. Now commenced a tremen- dous struggle between the Samnites and the Romans ; the former fighting heroically for the preservation of their national freedom, — the latter warring with superb valor for do- minion. The Samnite wars, of which three are reckoned, extended over 53 years (343- 290). The victory of the Romans at Senti- num (295 B.C.) virtually ended the struggle. At the close of the first Samnite war, an in- surrection burst out among the Latins and Volscians, but the defeat inflicted on the in- surgents at Trifanum (340 B.C.), by the Ro- man consul Titus Manlius Imperiosus Tor- quatos, almost instantly crushed it, and in two years almost the last spark of rebellion was extinguished. The famous Latin League was now dissolved. A mighty coalition was formed against Rome, consisting of Etrus- cans, Umbrians, and Gauls, in the north, and of Lucanians, Bruttians, and Samnites, in the south, with a sort of tacit understand- ing on the part of the Tarentines that they would render assistance by and by. In the course of a single year the whole north was in arms, and once more the power and even the existence of Rome were in deadly peril. An entire Roman army of 13,000 men was annihilated at Arrptium'(284 B.C.) ; but Pub- lius Cornelius Dolabella marched into the country of theSenones at the head of a large force, and literally extirpated the whole nation, which henceforth disappears from history. Shortly afterwards, the bloody overthrow of the Etrusco-Boiun horde at Lake Vadimo (283 B.r.) shattered to pieces the northern confederacy. The Lu- canians were quickly overpowered (282 n.c); Samnium, by its long and luckless struggle, and overawed by the proximity of a Roman army, could do nothing. The Tarentines invited Pyrrhus over from Epirus, and ap- pointed him commander of their mercena- ries ; he arrived in Italy with a small army of his own, 280 n.c. The war between Pyr- rhus and the Romans, which lasted only six years, ended in his being obliged to return to Epirus without accomplishing anything ; this war led to the complete subjugation of Peninsular Italy by Rome. In 204 B.C. war was formally declared between Rome and Carthage, aiid it was incomparably the most terrible contest in which Rome was ever EOME 496 EOME engaged. For details of the Punic wars, see Carthage, Numidia, and Punic Wars. The leading feature of the /?rs< was the creation of a Roman navy, which, after repeated and tremendous misfortune, finally wrested from Carthage the sovereignty of the seas. A lapse of twenty-three years oc- curred before the second Punic war, during which interval the Romans bullied their weak and exhausted rival into surrendering Sardinia and Corsica. In addition they had carried on a series of Gallic wars in Northern Italy (231-222 b.c), the result of which was the extension of Italy to the Alps. The Romans vigorously suppressed Illyrian piracy, 219 B.C. The grand events of the second Punic war were the crossing of the Alps by Hannibal, the terrible disasters of the Romans at Lake Trasimene (see Trasi- MENUS Lacus) andCannffi (which see), and the final overthrow of Hannibal at Zama (which see), 202 B.C., by Scipio. The second war virtually sealed the fate of Carthage, and the third displayed only the frantic heroism of despair. The imperial supremacy of Rome was now as unconditional in the western Mediterranean as on the mainland of Italy. During 201-196 B.C. the Celts in the valley of the Po were thoroughly subju- gated. The Boii were finally extirpated about 193 B.C.; the Ligurians were subdued 180-177 B.C.; and the interior of Corsica and Sardinia about the same time. The wars in Spain were troublesome and of longer dura- tion, but they were not at all serious. The Romans suffered frequent defeats, but in the end the superior discipline of the legions always prevailed. The Romans felt it necessary to hold Spain by military occu- pation, and hence arose the first Roman standing armies. The most distinguished successes were those achieved by Scipio him- self, by Marcus Cato, by Lucius ^^milius Paulus, by Caius Calpurnius, by Quintus Fulvius Flaccus, and by Tiberius Gracchus. The Macedonian wars were owing imme- diately to the alliance formed by Plailip V. of Macedon with Hannibal after the battle of Cannae. The Macedonian wars were three in number. The_^;-s!! (214-205 B.C. ) was barren in results ; but the second (200-197 B.c.)taught Philip that another, not he, must rule in Greece. The battle of Cynoscephalse was followed by a treaty which compelled him to withdraw his garrisons from the Greek cities, to surrender his fleet, and pay 1000 talents toward the expenses of the war. A similar fate befell Antiochus of Syria. Next the ^tolians were crushed, and a little later the quarrels between the Achai- ans and Spartans led to a general Roman protectorate over the whole of Greece. The third and last Macedonian war began 172 B.C.; the result of which, after four years' fighting, was the utter destruction of the Macedonian army at Pydna (168 B.C.), and the dismemberment of the Macedonian em- pire. The last Greek and Punic wars came to an end in the same year (146 B.C.). The for- mer was virtually closed on the destruction of Corinth by the consul Mummius. For the results of the former, see Carthage. The Celtiberian and Numantine war began 1.53 B.C., and ended in the final overthrow of the undisciplined and uncivilized combat- ants, 133 B.C. Toward the conclusion of the Numantine war occurred the first of those horrible Social outbreaks known as "servile" or "slave" wars, which marked the later ages of the republic. The first slave insurrection broke out in Sicily, 134 B.C. The slaves overran the island, like demoniacs let loose, and routed one Roman army after another. In 132 B.C., the consul Publius Rupilius restored order. After a fierce struggle, the Romans obtained the kingdom of Perganins, and formed it into the province of Asia, 129 B.C. In Africa, the overthrow of Jugurtha by the consul Marius added further to the renown and strength of the republic. In 105 B.C. a Roman army of 80,000 was annihilated at Arausio on the Rhone, by the Cimbri (see Arausio and Cimbri). Marius nearly ex- terminated the Teutones at Aqua-Sextisa (Aix, in Dauphin), 102 B.C., and in 101 B.C. the Cimbri at the Campi Raudii near Vercellffi. (See Cimbri and Teutonic.) In the same year a second insurrection of the slaves in Sicily was suppressed by the consul Marius Aquillius. Now followed the Social war, 90-88 B.C. Then followed the fearful years of the " civil wars" between the two chiefs, Sulla and Marius. In 87 B.C. Rome was besieged by four armies (viz. : those of Marius, Cinna, Carbo, and Serto- rius) and taken. In 88 B.C. broke out the " Mithridatic wars," which were three in number; begun by Sulla 88 B.C., they were brought to a successful close by Pompey, 65 B.C., although the general that had really broken the power of Mithridates was Lu- cullus. (See Mithridatic War.) The result was the annexation of the sultanate of Pontus, which was formed into a Roman province. Then Pompej' conquered Syria; reduced to a state of dependence Phoenicia, Cajle-Syria, and Palestine, 63 B.C. In the same year the conspiracy of Catiline was crushed by the consul Cicero. Then came the campaigns of Cassar in Gaul (58-50 B.C.), by which the whole of the country was reduced to subjection ; his rupture with Pompey ; his defiance of the senate ; the civil wars ; his victory, dictatorship, and assassination ; the second triumvirate, com- posed of Antony, Lepidus, and Octavian ; the overthrow of the oligarchy at Philippi ; the struggle between Antony and Octavian ; the triumph of the latter, and his invest- ment with absolute power for life as Au- gustus Cffisar, which put an end at least to civil dissensions that had raged so long. To keep the now enormous territory quiet which . contained so many diflPerent races, an army of forty-seven legions and as many cohorts was maintained. The most notable inci- dent during the reign of Tiberius was prob- ROME 497 ROMPU ably the concentration of the Praetorian guards in the vicinity of Rome, who, until their dissolution by Diocletian, were the real sovereigns of the empire. In Nero's time Armenia was wrested from the Par- thians; the Koman authority in Kngland was likewise extended as far north as the Trent, and a great rebellion in Gau), against Nero, headed by Julius V index, was crushed by T. Virginius Kufus, the commander of the Germanic legions. The chief military events from the days of Vespasian to those of Marcus Aurelius, are final conquests of- Britain by Agricola, tlie final conquest of the Dacian monarchy, the victorious inva- sion of Parthia and Northern Arabia ; and the conquest of the valley of the Nile, as far south as Upper Nubia, by Trajan; the chu.s- tisement iA' the Marcomanni, Quadi, Chatti, etc., by Marcus Aurelius. The reign of Alex- ander iSeverus is marked by the downfall of the Parthian dynasty of Persian kings, and the rise of the native Sassanidae (which sfic), which proved far more formidable ene- mies than the Parthian rulers. After the assassination of Severus (23") a.d.) followed a period of confusion, bloodshed, and gen- eral mismanagement. The names of Max- imin, Maximus, Balbinus, Gordianus, and Philip recall nothing but wretched quarrels, often ending in assassination. Tiien fol- lowed the "beginning of the end."' The whole of Europe beyond the Pioman fron- tier — the mysterious North — began to fer- ment. The Franks apjieared on the Lower Phirte, the Siuibians on the Maine; while the Goths burst through Dacia, routed the forces of Decius, slew the emperor himself at Mount Hiemus, crossed the Euxine, and ravaged the whole northern coast of Asia Minor. A little later — during the reigns of Valerian, Gallienus, and the so-called Thirty Tyrants — the empire was nothing but a wild distracted chaos ; Franks, Alemanni, Goths, and Persians rushing from their respective quarters like vultures scenting i)rey. The Goths swept over the whole of Achaia, while the Asiatic hordes of Sapor com- mitted even greater havoc in Syria and Asia Jlinor. By Claudius Gothicus (2(38- 270), and his successors, Aurelian, Probus, and Garus, the barbarians of the north and northwest, as well as the Persians in the East, were severely chastised. The division of the empire into East and AVcst by Dio- cletian led to those labyrinthine confusions and civil wars, in wliich figure the names of Maximian, Constantius, Galerius, Maxen- tius, Maximin, Licinius, and Constantino, which were only brought to a close by the surpassing genius of the last mentiecome one great nation. After a brief resistance from the foreign papal troops, stopped by order of the pope^ the Italian troops under Cadorna made a breach, and entered Rome amid en- thusiastic acclamation of the people, Sep- tember 20, 1870. Rompu. In heraldry, a term applied to KONCESVALLES 498 ROSTER !i chevron when the upper part is taken off, and remains above it in the lield. Roncesvalles (Fr. Eoncevcmx). A small Spanish village, province of Navarre, in a narrow valley inclosed by lofty mountains, through which one of the principal roads leads from France across the Pyrenees into Spain. Here Charlemagne was attacked in 778 by the Basques, and his whole rear- guard destroyed. In honor of those who had fallen he built a chapel on the spot where the battle took place, and among the names enumerated in the inscription was that of Roland. In the modern French- Spanish wars, several bloody encounters (in 1793, 1794, and 1813) occurred in the same valley, and in 1833, Don Carlos was first proclaimed king here. Rondache (Fr.). In ancient armory, a circular shield carried by foot-soldiers to protect the upper part of the person, having a slit in the upper part for seeing through, and another at the side for the point of the sword to pass through. Rondel. In fortification, a round tower, sometimes erected at the foot of a bastion. Rondelle [Fr.). A small round shield which was formerly used by light-armed infantry. Rondellier (Fr.). Archer or pikeman who carried the rondelle. Rondells. See Ordnance, Carriages FOR, Nomenclature of Artillery Car- KIAGE. Ronfleurs {Fr.). Frederick the Great applied this name to some I'i-pounders of 22 calibers, weighing 3200 pounds, which, be- fore the battle of Leuthen, he had drawn from the neighboring fortress of Glogau. The charge for this gun was 5 pounds. Rope. A large, stout, twisted cord, of not less, usually, than an inch in circumfer- ence. It differs from corcl^ line, and string only in its size. Ropes are ranked under two descriptions, cahle-laid and hawser-laid ; the former composed of nine strands, or three great strands, each consisting of three small ones ; the latter made with three strands, each composed of a certain number of rope-yarns. Rope," Drag-. See Drag- ROPE. Rope-ferries. See Pontons. Rose. In heraldry, is drawn in a con- ventional form, and never with a stalk, ex- cept when expressly directed by the words of blazon. Being sometimes argent and sometimes gules, it cannot be designated proper; but when blazoned "barbed and seeded proper," it is meant that the barbs are to be green, and the seeds gold and yel- low. The rose gules was the badge of the Plantagenets of the house of Lancaster, and the rose argent of that of York. The York rose was sometimes surrounded with rays as of the sun, and termed rose en soleil. As a mark of cadency, the rose has been used as the difference of the seventh son. Roses, Wars of the. A disastrous civil contest which desolated England during thirty years, from 1455 to 1485, sacrificing 80 princes of the blood, and the larger pro- portion of the ancient nobility of the coun- try. It was so called because the two fac- tions into which the country was divided upheld the two several claims to the houses of York and Lancaster, whose badges were the white and red roses, respectively. After the house of Lancaster had possessed the throne for three generations (see Planta- genet), Richard, duke of York, whose title was superior to that of Henry VI., began to advance, at first somewhat covertly, his claim to the throne. In 1454, he was ap- pointed protectorof the realm during Henry's illness, and on the king's recovery he de- clined to give up his power, and levied an army to maintain it. The accession of Henry VII. may be said to have terminated the " wars of the roses," although the reign of Henry was from time to time disturbed by the pretensions of Yorkist impostors. Rosetta. A seaport city of Egypt, near the mouth of a branch of the Nile. It was built by one of the Saracen caliphs in the 9th century. In 1798 this place was taken by the French, and in 1807 it was besieged by the British, who were repulsed by the Turks. The battle of the Nile was fought near Rosetta, August 1, 1798. Rosettes. Two small bunches of ribbons, that were attached to the loops by which the gorget of an officer was suspended on his chest. Roslin. A village of Scotland, 7 miles south of Edinburgh, on the Esk. In. this neighborhood the Scots gained three victories over the English on the same day in 1302. Ross, New. A town of Ireland, situated partly in the county of Wexford, and partly in the county of Kilkenny, 27 miles north- west from Wexford. New Ross was taken by Cromwell in 1649, and in 1798 a severe battle was fought here between the king's troops and the Irish insurgents. Rossbach. A village of Prussian Saxony, in the government of Merseburg, celebrated for the victory here gained by the Prussians under Frederick the Great over the allied French and Austrian armies, November 5, 1757. The Prussians lost (according to a French account) only 300 men, while the loss of the allies was more than 1200 slain, 6000 prisoners, among whom were 11 gen- erals and 300 officers, and 72 cannon, with many other trophies. Roster, or Rollster. List of oflScers for duty. The principle which governs details for duty is from the eldest down ; longest off duty first on duty. If an officer's tour of duty for armed service, court-martial, or fatigue, happen when he is upon either duty, he is credited therewith. An officer return- ing from duty after sickness, takes the same place he had on the post roster before report- ing sick ; that being sick on the day of detail he gets the credit of the tour and awaits the return of his day, when, if well, he is again detailed. An officer returning from leave KOTTERDAM 499 ROUTE of absence is at once subject for detail. Customarily, an officer wlio returns from de- tached service is placed at the foot of tlie roster. The .same rules should apply to non- commissioned officers and privates. A retji- ment or detachment detailed for any duty, receives credit for the duty when it marches off parade to perform the duty, but not if it is dismissed on parade. Officers on inlying Sickets are subject to all details. In the Iritish service, regiments proceed on foreign service according to the roster. Rotterdam. An important commercial city in llollund, in the province of Southern Holland. Its importance dates from the 13th century; taken by the Spaniards by stratagem in 1572, and cruelly treated. It suffered much from the French revolutionary wars. Rouen. A city in the north of France, the chief town of the department of the Lower Seine, and formerly the capital of Normandy, 68 miles northwest from Paris. It was he'ld by the English till 1204; and was retaken by Henry V., January 10, 1419. Joan of Arc was burnt here, May 30, 1431. It was taken by Charles VII. of France in 1449; and by the Duke of Guise from the Huguenots, (October, 1552, and in 1591. Rough Rider. A non-commissioned offi- cer in tiie British cavalry regiments, whose business it is to break in refractory horses, and ixssist the riding-master when required. Rouleaux. Are round bundles of fascines, which are tied together. They serve to cover men when the works are pushed clo.se to a besieged town, or to mask the head of a work. Round. A general discharge of fire-arms by a body of troops, in which each soldier fires once. Round of cartridf/es, one car- tridge to each man ; as, to supply a regiment with a single round, or with twelve rounds. Round, Gentleman of the. A gentleman soldier, but of low rank, only above the lance-pesadc, whose office it was to visit and inspect the sentinels and advanced guards; also, one of a number of disbanded soldiers who had betaken themselves to the trade of begi^ing. Round Robin. This term is a corruption of rutjiDt ronil, which signifies a round rib- bon. It was usual among French officers, when they signed a remonstrance, to write their names in a circular form, so that it was impossible to ascertain who signed first. Hence to sign a round robin against any person, was for any specific number of men to sign, one and all, a remonstrance against him. Round Table, Knights of. Known in early Knglish liisiory us knights belonging to a ccl.'Kr.itcd order instituted by King Arthur, and whose exploits and adventures form the subjects of many ballads, and much of the early romantic poetry of England. The members of the order are said to have been 40 in nuniber, and to have derived their name from their custom of sitting about a large, round, marble table, in order to avoid all distinctiun of rank. Roundel, or Roundelle. "Was a shield used by thi; Norman soldi(^s. The word is also ajiplied to the semicircular bastions in early fortification, as introduced by Albert Diirer. This bastion consisted of a semicircle of masonry about 300 feet in diameter, con- taining roomy ca.semates for the troops, and for artillery and musketry, with which the ditch and curtains were flanked. Roundheads, The. In English histori', a nickname given, in the reign of Charles 1., to the Puritans, or Parliamentary party, who were accustomed to wear their hair cut close to the head. They were so called in opprl)ach, which was captured and has given a name to the second conflict. The loss was great on both sides. The French general PVan(;ois was killed, and the 2d Corps under Frossard nearly destroyed. Tlie French retreated to Met/.. They were greatly superior in numbers at the beginning of the fight, but were badly commanded. Sabander. The familiar of ahah-bander, SABANTINES 502 SACK an Eastern title for captain or governor of a post. Sabantines. Steel coverings for the feet ; sometimes slippers or clogs. Sabbatons. A round-toed armed cover- ing for the feet, worn during a part of the IGth century. Sabini. An ancient people of Central Italy, were generally supposed to have de- rived their name from Sabus, their chief tutelary deity. Their antiquity was very great. They were the parent-stock of many of the neighboring tribes, such as the Sam- nites, thePeligni, and the Picentes. The Sabini inhabited the mountain region lying to the northeast of Rome. They were a valiant warlike race, and at an early age of authentic history they issued from their mountain fastness and began a system of warlike aggression upon their neighbors. Gradually and by repeated attacks, their invadinghordes subdued the aborigines, and advanced southward, occupying the land. At length, pushing their outposts to the very gates of Rome,"they commenced to interfere with the afl'airs 3f that rising city. By vic- tory or by compromise they gained admit- tance into" the state upon very advantageous terms. They were not satisfied, but per- sisted in their encroachments upon the Ro- man territory, until defeated by TuUus lios- tilius and by Tarquinius Prisons; however, they continued their raids until 449 B.C., when M. Horatius gave them a defeat which kept them quiet for more than a century and a half. They recovered in 290 B.C., only to be overthrown by Manlius Curius Dentatus with greater completeness than ever. They finally became a part of the Roman empire. Sable. One of the tinctures in heraldry, implying black. In heraldic engravings, it is represented by perpendicular and horizon- tal lines crossing each other. Sabot. Is a thick, circular disk of wood, to which, in fixed ammunition, the cartridge- bag and projectile are attached. For a spherical projectile, the sabot has a spherical cavit}', and circular groove to which the cartridge-bag is tied; m the canister-sabot, the spherical cavity is omitted, and a cir- cular oflset is added. The effects of a sabot are: (1) To prevent the formation of a lodgment in the bore. (2) To moderate the action of the powder on the projectile ; and, (3) To prevent the projectile from moving from its place. In consequence of the scat- tering of the fragments, it is dangerous to use the sabot in firing over the heads of one's own men. The term is also applied to the soft metal device attached to the base of rifled projectiles to take the grooves of the bore. Sabre. A long curved or straight cavalry sword, with a broad and heavy blade, used for cutting and thrusting. Sabre. To strike, cut, or kill with a sabre. Sabretache (Ger. Sabeltasche, "sword- pocket"). A square pocket or pouch sus- pended from the sword-belt on the left side, by three slings to correspond with the belt. It is usually scolloped at the bottom, has a device in the centre, and a broad lace round the edge. The color of it always corresponds with that of the uniform. The sabretache is an appointment or part of accoutrement of hussars in European armies. Sabreur (Ft-.). A blood-thirsty soldier; brave soldier. Sabugal. A town of Portugal, on the Spanish frontier, where an affair took place between an English light division and the French, April 3, 1811, in which the latter were defeated. Sac and Fox Indians. Two Algonkin tribes, who have always associated. They formerly dwelt in Canada, but afterward occupied a large tract of land on both sides of the Mississippi. The Sacs and Foxes often engaged in wars with the English, French, and Indians. They were gradually removed southwestward prior to 1849. The're are now in the Indian Territory about 400 Sacs and Foxes. There are also about 200 Sacs and Foxes in Kansas, about 100 in Nebraska, and about 300 Sacs and Foxes in Iowa. See Fox Indians. Sacae. One of the most numerous and powerful of the Scythian nomad tribes, had their abodes in the steppes of Central Asia, which are now peopled by the Kirghiz Kha- saks. They were very warlike, and excelled especially as cavalry, and as archers, both on horse and foot. Their women shared in their military spirit; and according to .zElian, they had the custom of settling before mar- riage whether the man or woman should rule the house, by the result of a combat between them. In early times they extended their predatory incursions as far west as Armenia and Cappadocia. They were made tributary to the Persian empire, to the army of which they furnished a large force of cavalry and archers, who were among the best troops that the kings of Persia had. Saccatoo, or Socoto. A kingdom of Soodan, in Central Africa. Its inhabitants, the Fellatas, first made their appearance as conquerors, coming from the west, apparently from the Senegal ; they profess the Moham- medan religion. Othman, or Danfodio, one of the Fellata chieftains, marshaled his countrymen under his colors for a crusade against the unbelievers. Though at first de- feated in almost every encounter, yet the warlike spirit of fanaticism grew so high that Othman obtained for himself an extensive empire. Under Alin, who ascended the throne in 1887, great internal disturbance took place, which brought the country into a wretched condition. Sachem. A chief of a tribe of the Ameri- can Indians ; a sagamore. See Sagamore. Sack. The pillage or plunder, as of a town or city ; the storm and plunder of a town ; devastation ; ravage. Also, to plun- der or pillage, as a tosvn or city ; to devas- tate ; to ravage. SACKAGE 503 SAGITTARII Sackage. The act of taking by storm and pillitpe ; suck. Sacker. One who sacks; one who cap- tures and plunders a town. Sackett's Harbor. A town in Jefferson C(»., N. Y., on the south shore of Hhick Kiver Buy, 8 miles east of Luke Ontario and 170 miles west-northwest of Albarn', having a navy-yard, barracks, etc. In the war of 1812-15 it was an important jwrt, where the frigate "Superior," of (jd guns, was built in eighty' days, und the " Madison" in forty- five days, from timber standing in the forest. It is a military post of the United States named Madison Harnioks, which is generally garrisoned l)y artillery. Sacramento, St. A Portuguese settle- ment in South America, claimed by Spain in 1680; but relinquished in 1713; was sev- eral times seized; ceded in 1777; acquired by Brazil in 18*2-). Sacramentum Militare (Lnt.). The oath formerly taken by the lloiiian soldiers when they were enrolled. This oath was pro- nounced at the head of the legion, in an au- dible voice, by a soldier who was chosen by tlie tribune for that purpose. He thereby pledged himself before the gods to expose his life for the good and safety of the repub- lic, to obey his superior olhcers, and never to absent himself without leave. The ag- gregate of the legion assented to the oath without going through the formal declara- tion fif it. Sacred Battalion. A band of infantry composed of 800 young Thebans, united in strict friendship and affection, who were en- gaged, under a particular oath, never to lly, but to defend each other to the last drop of their blood. At the famous battle of Leuc- tra, in which the Spartans were signally de- feated bj' P^paminondas, the Sacred Battal- ion was commanded by Pelo]>idas, and mainly contributed to the success of the day. Sacred Wars. (1) Declared by the Am- phictyons against Cirrha, near Delphi, for robbery and outrage to the visitors to the oracle, 595 n.c. Cirrha was razed to the ground, 58(5 B.C. (2) JJetween the Phocians and Delphians for the possession of the tem- ple at Delphi, 448, 447 u.c. (8) The Phocians, on being fined for cultivating the sacred lands, seized the temple, 357. They were conquered by Philip of Macedon, and their citi<'s depopulated, 34(j n.r. Sacriportus. A small place in Latium, of uiieertain site, memorable for the victory of Sulla over the younger Marius, 82 n.c. Sacs and Foxes. See Sac and Fo.x In- PtANS. Saddle. The sent which is put upon a horse for the accomnnxlation of the rider. In the earlier ages the Romans used neither saddles nor stirrups. Saddles were in use in the 3d century, and are mentioned as made of leather in 804 ; they were known in Kng- land about t')0(». Hoofs and sntldlf.i, is a sound on the trumpet which is the first sig- nal for mounted drill, and for all other for- mations mounted ; it is also the signal for the trumpeters to ussemble. Saddle-bags. Bags, usually of leather, united by straps, for transportation on horseback, one bag being placed on each side. In the U. S. service saddle-bugs are issued to the cavalry as a part of the horse equipments. Saddle-cloth. In the military service is a cloth under a saddle, and extending out behind ; the housing. Saddler. One whose occupation is to mak(! and repair saddles. Each company of cavalry in tlu! U. S. service is allowed one saddler. Saddlers are also employed in the cavalry service of Kuropean countries. Saddler Corporal. In the British service, is a non-commissioned officer who lias charge of the saddlers in the Household Cavalry. Saddler Sergeant. Is a sergeant in the cavalry who has charge of the saddlers. In the U. S. service, saddler sergeants are non- commissioned staff-officers, and one is al- lowed to each cavalry regiment. Saddle-Tree Maker. An artificer in the cavalry who makes and repairs saddle-trees. Sadowa. A village of Bohemia, about 8 miles from Koniggratz. Here, on the morn- ing of July 3, 18(j';, the Prussians attacked the Austrians, and after a desperate struggle of seven hours, the latter were defeated and driven from the village by the 7th division of the Prussian infantry. This engagement formed the prelude to the decisive battle of Koniggratz. Safe-conduct. A passport granted, on honor, to a foe, enabling him to pass where it would otherwise be impossible for him to go with impunity. Safe-conducts are granted in war for tlie purposes of conference, etc. ; and to violate the provisions of such a pass has always been esteemed a disgraceful breach of the laws of honor. Safeguard. A protection granted by the general of an army for the safety of an enemy's lands or persons, to preserve them from being insulted or plundered. For pun- ishment of persons forcing a safeguard, see Api'kndix, Akthi.k.s ok War, 57. Sagaie, or Zagie. A dart or javelin used by the inhabicants of Madagascar. Sagamore. The head oi' a tribe among the American Indians, — generally used as synonymous with sac/tfm, but S(Uiie writers distinguished between them, making the sa- chem a chief of the first rank, und a sagamore one of the second rank. Sagette {Fr.). An arrow ; a bolt used in ancient times. Sagittarii. In the Roman army, under the emperors, were young men armed with bows and arrows, who, together with the/i surrender Rhodes to the sultan Solyman, and retired first to Candia, and afterward to Viterho. In 1530, Charles V. assiij;ned them the island of Malta, with Tripolia andGnzo. The knii^hts cotitinued for sted by a body of English troops, and the French, in which the latter were severely defeated. A battle took phue here between the French under Faidherbe aid the Ger- 83 mans under Von Goeben on January 19, i 1871, in which the former were defeated, and the latter occupied Saint-Quentin. Saint Regis. Situated partly in Bombay township, Franklin Co., N. Y', and partly in St. Regis township, Huntingdon Co., Quebec, Canada, on the St. Lawrence River, opposite Cornwall, with which it is con- nected by ferry. It is inhabited by the St. Regis Indians, an Iroquois tribe "speaking the Mohawk dialect. They are divided into two parties, the British and the Ameri- can, and owe their alh^giance not according to residence, but according to descent in the female line. Their reservation in the United States is 14,000 acres, and that in Canada rather larger. Their ancestors settled here in 17G0. The American party number about 700 souls, and the British about 800. Saint Vincent, Cape. See Cape St. ViNC'K.VT. Saintes. A town of France, in the de- partment of the Lower Charente, situated on the left bank of the Charente. The Eng- lish were defeated here in 1242, by the French king Louis IX., afterwards Saint Louis. Saker (Fr. sncre, sacret). An ancient 4- or 5-pounder of 13 feet, weighing from 2500 to 2800 fiounds. According to Tartaglia, the sacre, in 1546, was a 12-pounder of 9 feet, and weighing 2150 pounds ; it was similar to the «s;nc, but longer. Salade (Fr.). Helmet or kind of iron hat with a grated, movable visor, which was worn during the 15th century by foot- soldiers. Saladin. At first the coat of arms was so called, because the Christians who con- quered Palestine a.ssumed it in imitation of the Turks, whose chief was at that time Saladin. Salahieh (written also Sehi/iieh). A town of Lower Egypt, 37 miles northeast of Bel- beys. It was taken by the French in 1798, and again in 1800. Salamanca (anc. Salmanfira). A famous town of Spain, capital of the modern prov- ince of the same name, on the right bank of the Tormes, 50 miles east-northeast from Ciudad Rodrigo. It was taken by Hanni- bal. It was almost totally destroyed by the French in 1812. In its vicinity was won one of the most famous victories of the Peninsular war, by the British under Wel- lington against the Frencli under Marmont, July 22,1812. Salapia {Salapinus ; now Sfilpi). An an- cient town of Apulia, was situated south of Sipontum. During the second Punic war it revolted to Hannibal after the battle of Can- nae, but it subsequently surrendered to the Romans and delivered to the latter the Car- thagini.m garrison. Salassi. A brave and warlike people in Gallia Transpadana, in the valley of the Duria, at the foot of the Graian a'nd Pen- nine Alps. They defended the passes of the Alps in their territory with such obstinacy I and courage that it was long before the Ro- SALENCKEMEN 506 SALUTE man? were able to subdue tbem. At length in the reign of Augustus, the country was permanently occupied by Terrentius Varro with a powerful Roman force; most of the Salassi were destroyed in battle and the rest, amounting to 36,000, were sold as slaves. Salenckemen. On the Danube ; here a victory was gained by the Imperialists, under Prince Louis of Baden, over the Turks, commanded by the grand vizier Mustapha Kiuprigli, August 19, 1G9L Salentini, or Sallentini. A people in the southern part of Calabria, who dwelt around the promontory of lapygium. They were subdued by the Komans at the conclusion of their war with Pyrrhus, and haying revolted in the second Punic war, were again easily reduced to subjection. Salerno (anc. Salerniim). A town of Naples, capital of the province of Princi- pato Citra, 30 miles southeast from Naples. It was captured during the Social war by the Samnite general Papius. After the fall of the Western empire Salerno rose to its height. It passed first into the hands of the Goths, then into those of the Lombards, from whom it was taken by the Saracens in 905 ; but fifteen years after, it was recovered by the Greek emperor, and subsequently re- verted to the Lombards. In 1070 Salerno was taken, after a siege of eight months, by Ilobert Guiscard ; and" thenceforward became the capital of the Norman possessions south of the Apennines. In 1193 the town was destroyed by the emperor Henry VI. Salient. In heraldry, an attitude of a lion or other beast, differing but slightly from rampant. He is supposed to be in the act of springing on his prey, and both paws are elevated. Two animals counter-snlient are represented as leaping in opposite direc- tions. Salient Places of Arms. In fortification, that part of the covered way which is oppo- site a salient of a bastion or demi-lune. Sallet. The same as salade (which see). Sally. A sudden offensive movement by the garrison of a fortified place, directed against the troops or works of the besiegers. Sally-port. A gate or passage, by which the garrison of a fortress may make a sally or sudden attack on the besiegers. The name is applied to the postern leading froni under the rampart into the ditch; but its more modern application is to a cutting through the glacis, by which a sally may be made from the covert way. "When not in use, sally-ports are closed by massive gates of timber and iron. Salsette. An island on the west coast of Hindostan, formerly separated from Bombay by a narrow channel 200 yards wide, across which a causeway was carried in 1805. Sal- sette formed part of the province of Aurun- gabad under the Mogul emperors', but fell into the hands of the Portuguese soon after their settlem,ent in India. In 1739 it was conquered by tbe Mahrattas, and in 1774 it lyas taken by the Britisji. Saltant. In heraldry, in a leaping posi- tion, springing forward ; — applied especially to the squirrel, weasel, rat, and also to the cat, greyhound, monkey, etc. Saltillo. A city of Mexico, capital of the state of Coahuila, 250 miles west-southwest of Matamoras. Seven miles south is Buena Vista, famous for the battle fought there, February, 1847, when the Mexican forces were repulsed by an inferior U. S. army. Salting-boxes. Were boxes of about 4 inches high, and 2.V inches in diameter, for holding mealed powder, to sprinkle the fuzes of shells, that they might take fire from the blast of the powder in the cham- ber. Saltire. One of the ordinaries in her- aldry. Its name is of uncertain etymology, representing a bend sinister conjoined with a bend dexter, or a cross placed transversely like the letter X. Like the other ordinaries, it probably originated, as Planche suggests, in the clamps and braces of the shield. The form of the saltire has been assigned to the cross on which St. Andrew is said to have been crucified ; hence the frequency of this ordinary in Scotch heraldry. A saltire is subject to the variations of being engrailed, invected, etc., and may be couped. When two or more saltires are borne in a shield, they are couped, not at right angles, but horizontally ; and as they are always so treated, it is considered superfluous to blazon them as couped. Charges disposed in the form of a saltire are described as placed sal- tireioays, or in saltire. The former term is more properly applied to two long charges, as swords or keys, placed across one another (in which case the rule is, that the sword in bend sinister should be uppermost, unless otherwise blazoned) ; and the latter to five charges placed two, one, and two. Saltpetre. Nitre, or nitrate of potassa, is composed of 54 parts nitric acid and 48 parts of potassa. It is spontaneously gener- ated in the soil, and is a necessary ingredient of powder. It has occasionally been pro- duced artificially in nitre-beds, formed of a mixture of calcareous soil with animal mat- ter ; in these, nitrate of lime is slowly formed, which is extracted by lixiviation and carbonate of potash added to the solu- tion, which gives rise to the formation of nitrate of potassa and carbonate of lime; the latter is precipitated ; the former re- mains in solution and is obtained in crystals by evaporation. Its great use is in the man- ufacture of gunpowder, and in the produc- tion of nitric acid. See Gunpowder. Sdlute. A discharge of artillery in com- pliment to some individual; beating of drums and dropping of colors for the same purpose ; or by carrj'ing or presenting arms according to the rank and position of an officer. A salute with cannon is a certain number of arms fired in succession with blank cartridges, in honor of a person, to celebrate an event, or to show respect to the flag of a country. The rapidity with which SALUTE 607 SAMARIA the pieces are discharged depends upon their caliber. Field-guns should have intervals of five seconds between discharges ; siege- guns, eight; and guns of heavier caliber, ten. The minimum number of pieces with which salutes can be tired is 2 for field, 4 for siege, and 6 for sea coast guns. Personages entitled to salutes, if passing a military post, as also foreign ships of war, are saluted with guns of heavy caliber, the most suitable being the 10-inch smooth-bore. The United States national salute is one for each State composing the Union ; and thei«- ternationul salute, or salute to the national flag, is 21 guns. The President of the United States and the sovereign or chief magistrate of a foreign state receive a salute of 21 guns, both upon arrival and final departure from a military post. Members of the royal fam- ily, — i.e., the heir-apparent and consort of the reigning sovereign of a foreign state, — 21 guns. The Vice-President of the United States receives a salute of 19 guns. The following civil and diplomatic authorities receive salutes as follows : members of the Cabinet, tlie chief justice, the Speaker of the House of Kepresentatives, the governors within their respective States or Territories, a committee of Congress officially visiting a military post or station, the viceroy, gov- ernor-general, or governors of provinces be- longing to foreign states, ambassadors ex- traordinary and plenipotentiary, 17 guns; envoys extraordinary and ministers pleni- potentiary, 15 guns; ministers resident ac- credited to the United States, 18 guns; charges d'affaires, or subordinate diplomatic agents loft in charge of missions in the United States, 11 guns. A general-in-chief, field-marshal, or admiral receives a salute of 17 guns; a lieutenant-general, or vice- admiral, 15 guns; a major-general, or rear- admiral, 13 guns; a brigadier-general, or commodore, 11 guns. The officers of vol- unteers and militia, when in the service of the United States, receive the salute speci- fied for their rank. Officers of foreign ser- vices visiting any military post, are saluted in accordance with their rank. Salutes are fired only between suyirise and sunset, and, as a rule, never on Sunday. A national salute is to be tired at noon on the anniver- sary of the independence of the United States at each military post and camp pro- vided with artillery and ammunition. The international salute is the only salute that is returned, and this should be done as soon as possible; foreign ships of war, in return for a similar compliment, gun for gun on notice being officially received of such in- tention. If there be several forts in sight of or within miles of each other, the prin- cipal only shall reciprocate compliments with ships in passing. The President of the United States, the sovereign or chief magis- trate of a foreign country traveling in a public capacity, is saluted when pa.tsinp in the vicinity of a military post. Personal ealutes at the same place and in compliment to the same person, whether civil, diplo- matic, military, or naval, are never to be fired oftener than once in twelve months, unless such person has, in the mean time, been ad- vanced in rank. Salvo. Is a concentrated fire from a greater or less number of pieces of artillery. Against a body of men, a salvo is generally useless, as the moral effect is greater in pro- portion to the area over which devastation is spread ; but with fortifications the case ig otherwise. For the purpose of breaching, the simultaneous concussion of a number of cannon-balls on masonry, or even earth- work, produces a very destructive result. The eftect of a salvo of modern artillery, with its enormous steel shot, against iron- plated ramparts, has never yet been tried in act\uil war. The concentrated tire of a ship's broadside forms a powerful salvo. Samanide Dynasty. Began with Ismail Samani, who overcame the army of the Safterides, and established himself in the government of Persia, 'J02 ; his descendants ruled till '.m. Samarcand, or Samarkand (anc. Maza- cajida). The most celebrated city of Cen- tral Asia, khanate of Bokhara, but an- nexed to the dominions of the czar in 1808. It is situated at the foot of Mount Cho- banata, and is 145 miles nearly east by north from Bokhara. It was seized by the Arabs, 707, and from this time belonged either to the califate or to some of the dy- nasties which were ofishoots from it, till 1219, when it was taken by Genghis Khan. In 1359 it was captured by Timour, and ten years afterward became the capital of his empire. On the division of his empire after his death, it continued the capital of Turk- estan till 14G8, when the attacks of the Uzbeks put an end to its prosperity. Samaria. Anciently a city of Palestine, the chief seat of the Ephraimitic Baal-wor- ship, and, from the seventh year of Omri's reign, the capital of the kingdom of Israel. It was twice besieged by the Syrians (901 and 892 n.c), under Ahnb and Joram, on both occasions unsuccessfully ; but in 721 (720) B.C., it was stormed by Shalmancser, king of Assyria, after a three years' siege, and the inhabitants carried ofll" into captiv- ity. Their place was supplied by colonists from Babylon and other places. It was subsequently captured by Alexander the Great, when the "Samaritan" inhabitants were driven out, and their place supplied by Syro-Macedonians. It was again taken (i09*n.c.) by John Hyrcanus. who com- pletely destroyed it. Soon rebuilt, it re- mained for fifty years in possession of the Jews ; but Ponipey, in his victorious march, restored it to the descendants of the ex- pelled Samaritans, who had settled in the neighborhood, and it was re-fortified by Gabinius. Its name was changed to Se- baste by Ilenxl the (Jrcat. In the 3d cen- tury it became a Koman colony ; but ita prosperity perished with the Mohammedan SAMBAS 508 SAN JACINTO conquest of Palestine, and is at present only a small village called Sebustieh, an Arab corruption of Sebaste. Sambas. A town on the west coast of Borneo. It was attacked in 1812 and 1813 by the British, who were repulsed in their first attempt, but succeeded in capturing the town at the second attack. Sambre. A river of French Flanders, which has been the scene of many sangui- nary conflicts at different periods. It arises in the Ardennes, between La Capelle and Chateaux-Cambressis; runs from southwest to northeast ; washes Landrecy, a fortified town, which was taken by the Imperialists in 1793. In its vicinity is Troisville, where, in 1794, the French were defeated by the British under the Duke of York. Mau- beuge is situated in advance of the forest of Mormal. It was fortified by Vauban, and has a manufactory of fire-arms, and a garri- son of infantry and cavalry. It was vainly besieged by the allies in 181-1. Near it is Wattignies, where Jourdan beat the Aus- trians in 1813, and compelled them to raise the siege of Maubeuge. From hence the Sambre flows out of France, and passing into Belgium, washes Charleroi, a fortified place, captured by the French in 1672, 1677, 1693, 1736, 1792, and 1794. It leaves upon the heights on its right bank, Fleurus, a place rendered famous by four remarkable battles, — that of 1622, gained by the Span- iards over the Protestants of Germany ; that of 1690, gained by Luxemburg over the Imperialists ; the battle of 1794, gained by Jourdan over the allies ; and the battle of 1815 (also designated the battle of Ligny), gained bj' Napoleon over the Prussians. The battle of 1794 was preceded by the siege of Charleroi, during which the French had six times crossed the Sambre in vain, and had been repulsed in six battles, the most celebrated of which are those of Grandreng, of the Pechant, and of Mar- chienne. Sambuque (Fr.) An ancient musical instrument of the wind kind, resembling a flute. It was also the name of an ancient engine of war used by Marcellus in besieg- ing Syracuse. Plutarch relates that two ships were required to carry it. A minute description of this engine may be seen in Polybius. Same, or Samos (anc. Cephallenia). A town situated on the eastern coast, opposite Ithaca; was taken and destroyed by the Komans, 189 B.C. Samnites. The people of ancient Sam- nium, a country of Central Italy. They were an offshoot of the Sabines, who emi- grated from their country between the Nar and Tiber, ;and the Anio, before the founda- tion of Pioti>3, and settled in Samnium. This country was at the time of their mi- gration inhabited by Opicans, whom the Samnites conquered, and whose language they adopted. The Samnites were distin- guished for their hra,very and love of free- dom. Issuing from their mountain fast- nesses, the}' overran a great part of Cam- pania; and it was in consequence of Capua applying to the Romans for assistance against the Samnites that war broke out be- tween the two nations in 343 B.C. The Ro- mans found the Samnites the most warlike and formidable enemies whom they had yet encountered in Ital}', and the war, which commenced in 343, was continued with few interruptions for the space of fifty-three years. It was not until 290, when all their bravest troops had fallen, and their country had been repeatedly ravaged in every direc- tion by the Roman legions, that the Sam- nites sued for peace and submitted to the supremacy of Rome. They, never, how- ever, lost their love of freedom ; and, ac- cordingly, they not only joined the other Italian allies in the war against Rome (90), but, even after the other allies had submit- ted, they still continued in arms. The civil war between Marius and Sulla gave them hopes of recovering their independence; but they were defeated before the gates of Rome (82), the greater part of their troops fell in battle, and the remainder were put to death. Their towns were laid waste, the inhabitants sold as slaves, and their place supplied by Roman colonists. Samos. An island on the west coast of Asia Minor, which was colonized by lonians about 1043 B.C. Samos was taken by the Athenians, 440 ; and, with Greece, became subject to Rome, 146. It was taken by the Venetians, 1125; taken by the emperor Leo in the 13th century, and then success- ively fell into the hands of the Venetians, Genoese, and Turks. At the time of the Greek insurrection the Samians zealously embraced the side of liberty. They expelled the Turks from the island, which they put into a state of defense, establishing an inde- pendent government. Various attempts were made by the Turks to regain the island, but they were all foiled by the courage of the people and the vigilance of the Greek fleet. In the treaty, however, which secured the independence and defined the limits of Greece, Samos was still left to Turkey, and the subsequent efforts that she has made have only secured a partial freedom. San Antonio, called also San Antonio de Bexar. A city of Texas, U. S., is built near the sources of the San Antonio River, 110 miles southwest of Austin. It is one of the oldest Spanish towns on the continent, and in the Texan revolution of 1836 was the scene of the massacre of the Alamo, when a garrison of 150 men, led by Col. Travis, and including David Crockett, was sur- rounded by several thousand Mexicans, and after a heroic resistance killed to the last man. It contains a national arsenal. San Jacinto. A small viUage of Harris Co., Texas, on Buffalo Bayou, near its en- trance into Galveston Bav, about 18 miles east of Houston. On A*pril 21, 1836, the main Texan army under Gen. Houston met SAN SALVADOR 509 SAPPERS the Mexicans, who were double their num- ber, near San Jacinto. Furiously theTexans rushed to battle, with the cry, " Renioniber the Alamo I" They fought at less than halt- rifle distance, and in It-ss than half an hour wholly routed the ilexicans, killing and wounding u number greater than the whole Texan force. Among the prisoners taken after the battle was Santa Anna himself. The result of this battle was the undisputed inde|icndfnce of Texas. San Salvador. The smallest of the Cen- tral American republics, and consists of a strip of territory stretching along between Honduras and the Pacific, and bounded on the west by Guatemala, and on the east by Fonseca Bay. It was conciuercd after a long and obstinate contest by Pedro de Alvarado, a lieutenant of Corte/,. In 1821 it threw otf the yoke, and joined the Mexican Confedera- tion, from which, however, it seceded in 18*23. In 1803, a war broke out between San Salvador and Guatenuila, in which Honduras joined the former and Nicaragua the latter. The result was the defeat of San Salvador. San Sebastian. A seaport of Spain, cap- ital of Guipuzcoa, one of the Basque prov- inces, on the shore of the Bay of Biscay, 42 miles north-northwest of Pampeluna. From its position and strength, it has long been a place of much importance, and has sustained several sieges. The most memo- rable of these was in 1813, when the British under Wellington took it by storm. San Severe. A town of Naples, capital of a district in the province of Capitanata. The inhabitants in 17911 made a gallant but vain resistance to the French under Du- hesme, in revenge for which an indiscrimi- nate slaughter was begun, and the town was only saved from total destruction by the he- roism of the women, who threw themselves between the victorious soldiery and their victims. Sandhurst Military College. See Mili- tary Ac'ADKMiKs (Great Bkitaix). Sangiac. A situation or appointment of dignity in Turkey. The sangiacs are gov- ernors of towns or cantons, and take rank immediately after the bctilerhegH. (See Beo.) The name is also applied to the banner which he is authorized to display, and has been mis- taken for Saint Jacques. Sanjak. A Turkish word signifying "a standard," is employed to denote a subdivis- ion of an eyalet, because the ruler of such a subdivision, called sanjak-heg, is entitled to carry in war a standard of one horse-tail. The sanjak is frequently called liva, and its ruler a minnivain. Sanjak-Sherif. See Flag of the Proimiet. Sansculottes {i.e., " without breeches'"). "Was the name given in scorn, at the begin- ning of the French revolution, by the court party to the democratic " proleta ires'' of Paris. The latter accepted this superfine reproach with sardonic pride, and the term soon became the distinctive appellation of a "good patriot," more especially as such a one often made a j)oint of showing his con- tempt fur the rich by neglecting his apparel, and cultivating rough and cynical manners. Toward the close of the Convention, the name, connected as it had been with all the sanguinary excesses of the period, naturally fell into bad odor, and soon after totally disappeared. Santa Fe. City and capital of the Ter- ritory of New Mexico, built among the Rocky Mountains, on a plain 7047 feet above the sea. It is an old Spanish Mexican town, about 20 miles east of the Rio Grande del Norte. The Sjtaniards were driven out of Santa Fe in 1*580 by the Pueblo Indians; but it was recaptured by the former in 1094, and held by them till the occupation by Americans in 1840. It was occupied by the Confederates for several days in 1802. Santiago de Compostella. An impor- tant and once famous city of Spain, formerly the capital of Galicia. It was sacked by the Moors in 995, and held by them till it was taken by Ferdinand III. in 1235. It Was taken by' the French in 1809, and held till 1814. Sap. In military engineering, is a nar- row ditch or trench, by which approach is made from the foremost parallel towards the glacis or covert way of a besieged place. "The sap is usually made by four sappers, the leading man of whom rolls a large gabion before him, and excavates as he pro- gresses, filling smaller gabions with the earth dug out, and erecting them on one or both sides to form a parapet. The other sappers widen and deepen the sap, throwing more earth on to the parapet. A sap is considered to advance in average ground about 8 feet per hour. From the nearness of the enemy's works, running a sap is an extremely dan- gerous operation. AVhen possible, therefore, it is carried on at night ; in any case, the sappers are relieved at least every hour. When a sap is enlarged to the dimensions of a trench, it bears that name. AVhen the fire of the enemy is slack, so that many gabions may be placed and filled at the same time, it is called ajfi/itig sap. If two parapets, one on each side of the trench, be formed, it is then called a double sap. Sap. To pierce with saps; to execute saps. Also, to proceed by mining or secretly undermining. Sap-fagots. Are fascines 3 feet long, placed vertically between two gabions, for the protection of the sappers before the parapet is thrown over. Sappers and Miners. Are soldiers be- longing to the engineer corps, and now called engineers, whose business it is to make ga- bions, fascines, hurdles, etc., to trace lines and trenches, to drive the various kinds of saps, to descend into and pass the ditch, to destroy the enemy's obstacles, to drain the trenches, to put up the various kinds of re- vetments, to post and superintend working SAPPING 510 SARBACANE parties, and to serve in the mines when re- quired. They are also taught to adjust and sod the slopes, to erect palisades, fraises, etc., and to repair the defenses of a place, as also to erect bridges, and throw pontons over rivers, to plant torpedoes, and in fact to per- form all the duties appertaining to engineer soldiers. In marching near an enemy, every column should have with its advance- guaid a detachment of sappers, furnished with tools to open the way or repair the road. Bonaparte considered the proper pro- portion of engineer soldiers to an army to be 1:40; but now in France it is 1:33; in England 1 : 34 ; in Prussia 1 : 36 ; and in the United States 1 : 60. Sapping. The art of excavating trenches of approach, under the musketry-fire of the besieged. Sap-roller. Consists of two large con- centric gabions, 6 feet in length, the outer one having a diameter of 4 feet, the inner one a diameter of 2 feet 8 inches, the space between them being stutfed with pickets or small billets of hard wood, to make them musket-shot proof. Its use is to protect the squad of sappers in their approach from the fire of the place. Saracens. A name variously employed by mediaeval writers to designate the Mo- hammedans of Syria and Palestine, the Arabs generally, or the Arab-Berber races of Northern Africa, who conquered Spain and Sicily, and invaded France. At a later date it was employed as a synonym for all infidel nations against which crusades were preached, and was thus applied to the Sel- juks of Iconium, the Turks, and even to the pagan Prussians. Saracen's Head. A not unfrequent bear- ing in l]i3raldry. It is represented as the head of an old man with a savage counte- nance. Saragossa, or Zaragoza. A city of Spain, the capital of a province of the same name, and formerly of the kingdom of Aragon. It is situated on the Ebro, which divides the city into two parts. It was a place of importance under the Eomans, but there are few remains of the Roman city. It was taken by the Moors in the 8th century, and recovered from them in 1118, after a siege of five years, during which a great part of the inhabitants died of hunger. It was taken by the French in 1809, after a siege of eight months, and one of the most heroic defenses recorded in the history of modern warfare. Saratoga. A township of Saratoga Co., N. Y., situated on the Hudson, 28 miles north from Albany. It is remarkable in American history as the place where Bur- goyne surrendered to the Americans in 1777. From September 19 to October 7 frequent animated skirmishes occurred between the British and the Americans, but on tlie latter date the battle of Saratoga began. Gen. Gates drew up his army on the brow of a hill, near the river, his camp being in the segment of a large circle, the convex side towards the enemy. Gen. Burgoyne's troops were drawn up with his left resting on the river, liis right extending at right angles to it across the low grounds, about 200 yards, to a range of steep heights. The Americans attacked the British along their whole line, when the action became general. The ef- forts of the combatants were desperate. Burgoyne and his oflBcers fought like men who were defending, at the last cast, their military reputation ; Gates and his army like those who were deciding whether them- selves and their children should be freedmen or slaves. The invading army gave way in the short space of fifty-two minutes. The defenders of the soil followed them to their intrenchments, forced the guard and killed its commander. The works of the British were stormed, but darkness coming on, the Americans desisted, and rested on their arms upon the field which they had so bravely won, determined to pursue their victory with returning light. But Burgoyne, aware of the advantage which the Americans had gained, efiected with admirable order a change of his ground. His entire camp was removed before morning to the heights. Gates was too wise to attack his enemy in his new position, but made arrangements to inclose them, which Burgoyne perceiving, put his army in motion at 9 o'clock at night and removed to Saratoga, 6 miles up the river, abandoning his sick and wounded to the humanity of the Americans. Burgoyne now made several efforts to eff'ect a retreat ; but in every way he had been anticipated. He found himself in a foreign and hostile country, hemmed in by a foe whose army, constantly increasing, already amounted to four times his own wasted numbers. His boats laden with supplies were taken, and his provisions were failing, and when he found he could not hold out any longer, his troops being in the utmost distress, he sur- rendered on October 17. The whole num- ber surrendered amounted to 5752 men, which, together with the troops lost before by various disasters, made up the whole British loss to 9213 men. There also fell into the hands of the Americans 35 field- pieces and 5000 muskets. It was stipulated that the British should pile their arms at the word of command, given by their own oflii- cers, march out of their camp with the honors of war, and have free passage across the Atlantic; they, on their part, agreeing not to serve again in North America during the war. Sarawak. A town and province of Bor- neo, on the northeast coast of the island. The Chinese inhabitants of this place rose in insurrection and massacred a number of Eu- ropeans, February 17 and 18, 1857; the rajah. Sir J. Brooke, raised a force and speedily chastised the insurgents, of whom 2000 were killed. Sarbacane (Fr.). A blow-pipe, or long tube of wood or metal, through which poi- SAIICELED 611 SASSANID.E soned arrows were shot by blowing with the mo nth. Sarceled. In lieruldry, cut througli the iiii.kllr. Sardar. In the East Indies, a chief or Ifitdi-r is so called. Sardinia. A former kini!;dom in the south of Europe, composed of the island of Sardinia, Piedmont, Savoy, and the terri- tories of Genoa and Nice. It takes its name from the island of Sardinia, and was, in 1800, merged in the new kingdom of Italy. From 1798 to 1814 the continental part of Sardinia formed a portion of the French empire. In 1848, Charles Alhert, the reigning monarch, encouraged the in- hahitants of the Lomhardo- Venetian king- dom, or Austrian Italy, in their attempts to throw oft" the Austrian yoke, and marched to their assistance, when they broke into open revolt. He gained many victories at first over the Austrians, but he was subse- quently defeated by Radetzky, and resigned his crown to his son, Victor Emmanuel. In 1855 Sardinia took part with Britain and France against Russia. In 1850 a war broke out between Austria on the one hand, and France and Sardinia on the other, which re- sulted in the defeat of the Austrians and the annexation of Lombardy to the Sardinian crown. Sardinia, Island of. The largest after Sitily, of the islands of the Mediterranean, lies directly south of Corsica, from which it is separated by the Strait of Bonefacio. It was called Sardo by the Romans, and was colonized at a very early period. The first really historical event is its conquest, about 480 H.c, by the Carthaginians. They were forced to abandon it to the Romans (2."58 B.C.), who gradually subdued the rebellious natives, and made it a province of the re- public; but on three several occasions, for- midable outbreaks required the presence of a consul with a large army to restore the authority of Rome. It fell into the hands of the Vandals and other barbarians, and was recovered b}' the Eastern empire in 534, but was finally separated from the Roman empire by the Saracens. They were driven out in their turn by the Pisans. Pope Boni- face took upon him to transfer it to the king of Aragon, who subdued the Genoese, Pi- sans, and the rest of the inhabitants, and annexed it to his own dominions in 1324. It remained united to the crown of Spain till the allies made a conquest of it in 1708. It was allotted to the emperor of (Tcrmany at the peace of Utrecht, in 1713. The Span- iards recovered it in 1717, but were obliged to abandon it two years after, when it was conferred on the duke of Savov in lieu of the kingdom of Sicily, in 1720. " From 17ft8 to 1814 it was the only portion of the Sardi- nian dominions left in the power of its sov- ereign, the French occupying the other por- tion of the kingdom. Sardis, or Sardes. .\nciently the capital of Lydia, in Asiu Minor, stood at the foot of Mount Tmolus, now called Bozdag, about 50 miles northeast from Smyrna ; the citadel on a steep rock was almost impregnable, being fortified by three walls. It was thus enabled to hold out when the lower town was taken by the Cimmerians in the reign of Ardys. During the Ionian revolt, 501 B.C., the insurgents, aided by the Athenians, took the city. It was taken by the Turks in the 11th century, and suffered a severe blow from Tamerlane, who almost entirely destroyed it about 200 years later. Sarmatia. The ancient name of the coun- try in Asia and Europe, between the Caspian Sea and the Vistula, including Russia and Poland. The Sarmatffi, or Sauromatae, troubled the early Roman empire by incur- sions ; after subduing the Scythians, they were subjugated by the Goths in the 3d and 4th centuries. They joined the Huns and other barbarians in invading Western Eu- rope in the olh century. Sarno. A city of Southern Italy, in the province of Principato Citra, on the river of the same name, 13 miles northwest of Salerno. In the plain near Sarno, Teias, king of the Goths, in a desperate battle with the Greeks, commanded by Narses, in 653, was vanquished and slain, and the reign of the Goths in Italy brought to a close. Sarrazine. A rough portcullis. Sarre (/•'/•.). When artillery was first in- vented, this name was given to a long gun, of smaller dimensions than the bombnrde. Sasbach. A village of Baden, 28 miles southwest from Carlsruhe. Marshal Tu- renne was killed here by a random shot in 1G75. Sash. In the British army, is a military distinction worn on duty or parade by offi- cers and non-commissioned officers. For the former, it is of crimson silk ; ior the latter, of crimson cotton. It is tied on the right side by the cavalry, and on the left side by the infantry. In Highland regi- ment*, the sash is worn over the left shoulder and across the body. The sashes for the Austrian army are of crimson and gold ; the Prussian army, black silk and silver; the Hanoverian wears yellow silk ; the Por- tuguese, crimson silk, with blue tassels ; the French have their sashes made of three colors, — white, pink, and light blue, — to cor- respond with the national fiag In the U. S. army, all general officers above the rank of brigadier-general may wear a sash of buff silk and gold-thread worn across the body ; and for brigadier-generals, .«ashe.s of bufl""silk net, with silk bullion fringe ends, are worn around the waist. Sassanidse. A famous dynasty of Persia, which reigned from 22ti to ()51. They were the de.scendant.s of Artaxerxes or Ardi.-hir, whose father, Babek, was the son of Sassan. Ardishir revolted against Artabanus. king of Parthia, and defeated him on the plain of Hormuz, 22f), and re-established the Persian monarchy. The Roman armies could make no impression on the Persians under the SATELLITES 512 SAXONS Sassanidse ; but from time to time had to re- turn defeated and humiliated from the Per- sian frontiers. Their last monarch, Yezde- jerd, was defeated and the dynasty expelled in G52. Satellites. Were certain armed men, of ■whom mention is made in the history of Philip Augustus, king of France. The sat- ellites of Philip Augustus were men selected from the militia of the country, who fought on foot and horseback. The servants or bat- men who attended the military knights when they went into action were likewise called sat- ellites, and fought in their defense mounted or on foot. Sattara. A town and capital of the prov- ince of the same name, in British India, in the Presidency of Bombay. In 1700 its fort offered a vigorous resistance for two months to Aurungzebe, who besieged it in person, but it was reduced by blockade ; and in 1818 a few bomb-shells procured its surrender to the British. Saturn. In heraldry, the black color in blazoning arms ; sable. Saucisson, or Sausage. Is a fascine of more than the usual length ; but the princi- pal application of the term is to the appara- tus for tiring a military mine. This consists of a long bag or pipe of linen, cloth, or leather, from 1 inch to IJ inch in diameter, and charged with gunpowder. One end is laid in the mine to be exploded ; the other is conducted to the galleries to a place where the engineers can fire in safety. The electric spark is now preferred to the saucisson. Saumur. A town of France, in the de- partment of Maine-et-Loire, 28 miles south- east of Angers. A striking event in the history of the town was its brilliant capture by Larochejaquelein and the Vendeans, June 10, 1793. In this action, the victors, with but a slight loss, captured 60 cannon, 10,000 muskets, and 11,000 republicans; it was a stronghold of the Protestants during the reign of Henry IV. Savages, or Wild Men. In heraldry, are of frequent occurrence as supporters. The}'^ are represented naked, and also, particularly in the later heraldry, are usually wreathed about the head and middle with laurel, and often furnished with a club in the exterior hand. Savages are especially prevalent in the heraldry of Scotland. In more than one of the Douglas seals of the first half of the ISth century, the shield is borne in one hand by a single savage, who acts as sole supporter. Savan Droog, or Savendroog. A strong hill fort of India, in the territory of Mysore, 19 miles west from Bangalore. It was stormed by the British in 1791 ; and after the fall of Tippoo Sahib in 1799, it was garri- soned by a native force. Savannah. A city and port of Georgia, U. S., on the right bank of the Savannah Kiver, 18 miles from its mouth. The city is surrounded by marshes and islands, and was defended by Fort Pulaski and Fort Jackson. Savannah was founded in 1733, by the Eng- lish general Oglethorpe. In 1776 a British fleet, attempting to take the town, was re- pulsed after a severe action ; but it was taken in 1778, and held in 1779 against the combined French and American forces. In the war of Secession, after many unsuccess- ful attacks by sea, it was taken by Gen. Sherman in February, 1865. Saverne (anc. Taberna). A town of France, in the department of Bas-Bhin, on the Zorn, 19 miles northwest of Strasburg. It is a very ancient place, and was formerly fortified. It suflfered very much during the Thirty Years' War; and its fortifications were destroyed in 1696. Savigliano. A fortified town of Northern Italy, in Piedmont, 28 miles south from Turin. The French defeated the Austrians here in 1799. Savona. A maritime city of Northern Italy, in the province of Genoa, and 25 miles southwest from the city of that name. It is a very ancient city, and in the time of the Romans was called Sava ; was destroyed by Ilotharis (639), rebuilt by Ludovic the Pious (981), and was afterwards laid waste by the Saracens. Savoy. Formerly a province in Northern Italy, east of Piedmont. It became a Ro- man province about 118 B.C. The Alemanni seized it in 395, and the Franks in 490. It shared the revolutions of Switzerland till about 1048. The French subdued Savoy in 1792, and made it a department of France under the name of Mont Blanc in 1800; it was restored to the king of Sardinia in 1814; but was once more annexed to France in 1860. Sawunt Warree. A native state of India, in the Presidency of Bombay. The first treaty between Sawunt Warre and the Brit- ish took place in 1730, and had for its object to suppress the piracies of the Angria family in the island of Kolabah. But the chief- tains of Sawunt Warree, being themselves addicted to piracy, drew upon them the hos- tility of the British in 1765. A series of wars, treaties, and negotiations ensued, which ended in the subjugation of the state in 1819 by a British force. The sea-coast was then ceded to the British, and the na- tive government restored. Rebellions were raised against the chiefs in 1828, 1832, and 1838. The most important event that has since occurred, was the dangerous rebellion which began in the autumn of 1844, and was put down after some months of hard fighting by Lieut. -Col. Outram in the be- ginning of the following year. Sawyer Projectile. See Projectile. Saxons. A German people whose name is usually derived from an old German word, sahs, " a knife," and are first mentioned by Ptolemy, who makes them inhabit a district south of the Cimbrian Peninsula. They are mentioned as brave and skillful sailors who often joined the Chauci in piratical expedi- tions against the coast of Gaul. In the 3d SAXONY 613 SCALING-LADDEKS century thej' appear in England under Ca- rausius, u Belijic admiral in the Konuin ser- vice, who made him.*cif " Au«r (ier- nian states, and a state of the new German empire. The earliest inhabitants of U[)per Saxony, since the Christian era, were the Hermunduri ; in the beginning of the Glh century their settlements were taken posses- sion of by the Sorbs, a Slavic race. The Carlovingian rulers, dissatisfied with the in- gress of those non-German tribes, erected "marks" to bar their progress; and Duke Otho the Illustrious of Saxony, and his celebrated son, Henry the Fowler, warred against them, the latter — subduing the Ile- veller, the Daleminzer, and the Milt/.er — founded in their country the marks of Bran- denburg Misnia (Meissen), and Lusatia (Lausitz), and planted colonies of Germans among the Sorbs. In 10!)0 the mark was bestowed on the house of "VVettin, and was confirmed as a hereditary possession to that family in 1127. Frederick the Warlike (1381-1428) succeeded in uniting the severed portions of Saxony, to which were added various districts in Franconia, and in 1423 the electorate of Saxony. The Saxon elector was now one of the most powerful princes of Germany, but unfortunately the fatal prac- tice of subdividing the father's territories among his sons still continued ; and during the reign of the elector, Frederick the Mild (1428-14ti4), a civil war broke 6ut and was carried on for years. By a separate treaty of peace (KJSo), John George I. ob- tained Upper and Lower Lusatia, accjuisi- tions confirmed by the treaty of Westplialia il648). The reign of Frederick Augustus . (lt;'.)4-1733) well-nigh ruined the hitherto I)rosperous electorate. Frederick Augustus lad been chosen king of Poland ; and his at- tempt, in company with the czar and the king of Denmark, to dismember Sweden, brought down upon him and his two states the vengeance of the northern " fire-king." Poland was utterly devastated, and Saxony exhausted in money and troops ; the king was forced to sell many important portions of territory ; Frederick Augustus II. (1733- 1703), also king of Poland, took part in the war of the Austrian Succession against Maria Theresa, but finding tlie treaty of Berlin (1742) not so satisfactory for himself as he expected, he joined the empress in 1745. The country was atrociously ravaged during the Seven Years' War, and a- long time elapsed before it recovered its previous peaceful and prosperous state. In the con- flict of 18tj6 the king of Saxony took the side of Austria, and his army ff small plates of steel riveted together in a manner resem- bling the scales of a fish. From the small size of the plates, it possessed considerable pliability, and was therefore a favorite pro- tection for the neck, in the form of a curtain hanging from the helmet. Scale-armor is now obsolete, except, perhaps, among some Eastern potentates. Scaling. Scaling a piece of artillerj-, is the flashing off of a small quantity of pow- der to clean out the bore ; about onctwelfth of the shot's weight. The practice is dis- continued. Scaling-ladders (Fr. rchellrs dc siege). Are ladders used in scaling when a place is to be taken by surprise. They arc made several ways ; 'sometimes of flat stave.*, so as to move about their pins, and shut like a parallel ruler, for conveniently carrying them. SCAMPER 514 SCHOOLMASTER Scamper, To run away precipitately ; said of troops. Scandinavia. The ancient name of Swe- den, Norway, and a great part of Denmarlv, whence proceeded tlie Northmen, or Nor- mans, who conquered Normandy (ahout 900), and eventually England (1066). See Normans. Scarf. In heraldry, a small ecclesiastical banner suspended from the top of a crozier. Scarp, To. To cut down a slope so as to render it inaccessible. See Counterscarp, and Escarp. Scarpa. In heraldry, a diminutive of the bend sinister, being half the breadth of that ordinary. Sceptre. Originally a staff or walking- stick, hence in course of time, also a weapon of assault and of defense. At a very early period the privilege of carrying it came to be connected with the idea of authority and station. The sceptre of the kings of Rome, which was afterwards borne by the consuls, was of ivory, and surmounted by an eagle. Since that time there has been considerable variety in its form. The English sceptre now in use dates from Charles II. 's time, and is cruciform. Schaife, In the Middle Ages, a quiver or bundle of arrows was so called. Schellenberg. A village in the south- east of Upper Bavaria, 6 miles southwest from the Austrian town of Salzburg, near which occurred the first battle of the War of the Spanish Succession, in which the English took part. Maximilian Emmanuel, elector of Bavaria, had fortified the hill of Schellenberg to resist the progress of Marl- borough ; but on July 4, 1704, the work was attacked by the English, led on by Prince Ludwig, of Baden, and carried by storm after a bloody fight. Schenkle Projectile. See Projectile. Schierling. A town of Germany, in Ba- varia, 12 miles south from Ratisbon. The Austrians were defeated by the French in its vicinity in 1809. Schieswig, or Sleswick. Formerly a duchy of Denmark. Its history is identical with that of Holstein (which see). Schliengen. A town of Baden, 22 miles southwest from Mulheim. The Archduke Charles of Austria defeated the French near this place in 1796. Schmalkald, League of. The name given to the defensive alliance concluded provis- ionally for nine years at Schmalkalden, Feb- ruary 27, 1531, between nine Protestant princes and eleven imperial cities, with whom other five princes and ten imperial cities subsequently made common cause ; and the elector of Saxony and the landgrave of Hesse were appointed chiefs of the league, and empowered to manage its aflfairs. The object of this formidable alliance, which in- cluded the whole of Northern Germany, Denmark, Saxony, and Wiirtemberg, and portions of Bavaria and Switzerland, was for the common defense of the religious and political freedom of the Protestants against the emperor Charles V. and the Catholic states. The league was not rendered super- fluous by the religious peace of Niirnberg in 1532, and on the rumor that the emperor was meditating new hostile measures against the Protestants, another meeting of the con- federates was held December 24, 1535, which resolved to raise a permanent army of 10,000 foot and 2000 cavalry, and to prolong the league for ten years. The confederation was further consolidated by articles of guaran- tee, which were drawn up by Luther at Wittenberg in 1536, and being subscribed by the theologians present at the meeting of the league at Schmalkalden in February, 1537, were called the Articles of Schmalkald. Against the league the emperor, engaged as he was at the time in contests with the Turks and French, found himself unable to con- tend, though supported by the Holy League, a Catholic coiifederation formed in 1538, in opposition to the Protestant one. But im- politic management, mutual jealousies, and conflicting petty interests dissipated their energies, and prevented united action. The " War of Schmalkald" commenced by the advance of the army of the league, under Sebastian Schanlin, in Suabia, to bar the approach of the imperial army from Italy, Schartlin forced his way to the banks of the Danube, but the miserable jealousy of the Saxon princes paralyzed his action. The emperor, by a proclamation bearing date July 20, 1546, put the two chiefs of the league under the ban of the empire ; Mau- rice, duke of Saxony, took possession of the electorate, by virtue of an imperial decree; and the Protestant army was forced to re- treat. The elector of Saxony reconquered his electorate in the autumn of 1546, but meantime the imperial army subdued the northern members of the League of Schmal- kald and advanced into Franconia to meet the combined armies of Saxony and Hesse. The latter were totally routed at Miihlberg, April 24, 1547, and both chiefs fell into the emperor's hands. This defeat, which has been ascribed to treason, and was perhaps as much owing to this cause as to weakness, finished the war. The object of the league, the guarantee of the liberty of religion to the Protestants, was subsequently effected by Maurice, now elector of Saxony, who, by a brilliant feat of diplomacy and general- ship, compelled the emperor to grant the treaty of Passau, Jul}' 31, 1552, by which this freedom was secured. Schoolmaster, Army. In the English army, the schoolmaster is a non-commis- sioned officer of the first class, ranking next to a sergeant-major. His pay varies with length of service. He has an advantage over other non-commissioned oflticers in quar- ters and certain allowances. To become an army schoolmaster, it is necessary either to be a certificated schoohnaster, or to have served the apprenticeship as a pupil-teacher, and to pass through a course of training for one SCHOOLMISTRESS 515 SCIO year at the Royal Military Asylum, Chelsea. After the completion of the training, the candidate is required to enlist as a ooinnion soldier for ten years' general service, where- upon he is immediately promoted to the rank of schoolmaster. A few of the most deserv- ing schoolmasters are promoted to he super- intending schoolmasters, when they rank as ensigns. The duties of the schoolmaster arc to teach the soldiers and their children the rudiments of general knowledge, to examine the girl's school, and to deliver lectures to the soldiers. Ti)ere were in 18G5 214 army schoolmasters in the Hritish service. Schoolmistress, Army. In the British service, is a person attached to each regiment or corps for the purpose of instructing the daughters of soldiers and their sons, under eight years old, in the rudiments of English and in plain needle-work. She must be a certified .schoolmistress, or a pupil-teacher who has served her apprenticeship. After admission to the service, she is speciall} trained for six months atone of four training institutions. This training is at the expense of the government. Proper provision is made for the quarters and su)>plics of the schoolmistress, whose somewhat anomalous position among rough men calls for the most circumspect behavior on her part. Schools of Artillery. See Artillery, Schools of. Schultz's Powder. A powder for fire- arms invented by Capt. Schultz of the Prussian army, sometimes called white pim- poicdtr, though this term is also a[)plied to other [lowder. It is made by treating grains of wood with a mixture of nitric and sul- phuric acids, by means of which a low form of nitro-cellulose is produced. The exjilo- slve power is heightened by steeping the pre- parea grains in a solution of nitre. Ditf man's sportinfj powder, manufactured in America, is believed to be a similar powder. Schumla, Shoomla, or Shumla. A large fortified town of Turkey in Europe, in tlie province of IJulgaria, about 58 miles .south- west from Silistria. The Russians have made several unsuccessful attempts to take it in their ditlercnt wars with Turkey. Schuwalov^r Gun (Fr.). A gun named after the inventor, a Russian general. It diflered from a common gun in having an oval bore; the greater diameter lay in a horizontal direction; it had also a long C3lintlrical chamber. Schweidnitz. A town of Prussian Silesia, on the left bank of the Weistritz, 42 miles southeast of I^iegnitz. It is in part fortified, and was besieged and taken four times within fifty years, the last time by the French in 1807, when the defenses were in great part destroyed. Schwytz. One of the cantons of Switzer- land. It was one of the three original can- tons that formed the Confederation in 1308 against the Austrian power; and from its name the modern appelhition of the entire country has been derived. Sciathus (now Skiatho). A small island in tiie yEgean Sea, east of the Magnesian coast of Thessaly. It is frequently men- tioned in the history of the invasion of Greece by Xerxes. It subsequently became one of the subject allies of Athens. Its chief town was destroyed by the last Philip of Macedonia. Science, Military. See LoaiSTics, Strat- AOKM, Stratkgy, Tactu's, and War. Scillus. A town of Elis, on the river Se- linus, south of 01ym])ia. It was destroyed by the Eleans in the war which they carried on against the Pisa-ans, whose cause had been espoused by the inhabitants of Scillus. The Lacediemonians subsequently took pos- session of the territory of Scillus ; they gave it to Xenophon after his banishment from Athens. Scimeter. See Cimetkk. Scio, Chio, or Khio (anc. C/tio.i). An island belonging to Asiatic Turkey, lying in the Grecian Archipelago, ofi" the coast of Asia Minor. Chios became a member of the Ionian confederation of twelve states on the Asiatic islands and coast. Its insular posi- tion protected it against the Lydian, and for a time against the Persian power. But in the Ionian revolt the Chians lent their as- sistance to their fellow-countrymen by fur- nishing ships to the fleet, which was totally defeated by the Persians off Miletus, 4^4 B.C. The conquerors in consequence landed on the island, and ravaged it with fire and sword. The battle of Mycale, in 47'J, liber- ated Chios from the Persian yoke, but only to become a dependency of Athens. To this ix)wer it remained faithful till after the out- break of the Peloponncsian war ; but as that disastrous contest proceeded, and the fortune of war began to prove adverse to Athens, the Chians attempted to assert their liberty. They sufl'ered several defeats from the Athenians, who laid waste the island, but could not conquer the capital. At a later period (])hios was again subject to Athens, and again revolted, and seems to have main- tained its independence for some time. It gave assistance to the Romans in their war with Antiochus, 190 u.c. ; and afterwards, when allied with Mithridates, that monarch, suspecting the people of a bearing towards the Romans, sent a lieutenant, wln> carried the inhabitants away from the i-land, S(\ B.C. They were restored by the Romans ; and, in consideration of this calamity, the island was made a free state and an ally of Rome. Early in the 14lh century, the Turks con- quered the capital, and perjictrated a general massacre of its inhabitants; but from 1346 to 15GG Scio was held by tlie Genoese. In the latter year it was conquered by Solyman the Magnificent ; and since that time, with the exception of a short period when the Venetians possessed it, the island has be- longed to the Ottoman empire. In 1822, during the Greek insurrection, a number of Samians landed in .'^cio, and persuaded or forced its peaceful inhabitants to rise against SCIONE 516 SCOTLAND the Turks. They did not succeed in mas- tering the castle', and soon an army was hinded from Asia, who renewed the ancient calamities of the island. The plunder and massacre that ensued was so unsparing that in a short time only 2000 Christians were left out of a population of 110,000. Scione. The chief town in the Macedo- nian peninsula of Pallene, on the western coast. It revolted from the Athenians in the Peloponnesian war, but was retaken by Cleon, whereupon all the men were put to death, the women and children sold as slaves, and the town given to the Platajans. Scirtis. A wild and mountainous district in the north of Laconia, on the borders^ of Arcadia, with a town called Scirus, which originally belonged to Arcadia. Its inhab- itants, the Sciritse, formed a special division of the Lacedajmonian army. This body, which, in the time of the Peloponnesian war, was 600 in number, was stationed in battle at the extreme left of the line, formed on march the vanguard, and was usually em- ployed on the most dangerous kinds of service. Sconce. In fortification, is a term applied to any small redoubt or fort, detached from the main works for some local object, as the defense of a pass or fort, etc. The word is not now often used. Scopetin [Fi:). A rifleman was formerly so called who was armed with the escopette. Scordisci. A people in Pannonia Supe- rior, who are sometimes classed among the lUyrians, but were the remains of an ancient and powerful Celtic tribe. They dwelt be- tween the Savus and Dravus. Scorpion {Fr.). A small kind of catapult, or large cross-bow, which threw heavy ar- rows by means of a steel bow, which was bent by a double-handed roller turned by one man. Scorpion {Fr.). An ancient gun, whose dolphins represented the scorpion. Also the name of an implement used by the ancients for laying hold of the enemy's battering ram. Scotch Brigade. A brigade of Scotch- men, gentlemen, and others, who served under the elector of Bavaria in the reign of James I., and subsequently under Gustavus Adolphus in the Thirty Years' War. Scotland. The northern division of the island of Great Britain. An account has been given under the article Picts (which see) of the early inhabitants of the country which has long been known by the name of Scotland. The original Scotia, or Scotland, was Ireland, and the Scoti, or Scots, at their first appearance in history were the people of Ireland. The original seat of the Scots in Northern Britain was in Argyle, which they acquired by colonization and conquest before the end of the 5th century, and from whence they spread themselves along the western coast from the Firth of Clyde to the modern Koss. The first prince of the Brit- ish Scots mentioned in authentic annals was Fergus, son of Eric, who crossed over to Britain about the year 503. His great- grandson, Conal, was king of the British Scots when Columba began the conversion of the Northern Picts. His nephew, Aidan, who succeeded him was a powerful prince, and more than once successfully invaded the English border, but toward the end of his reign he received a severe defeat from the Northumbrian sovereign Ethelfrid at the battle of Degsestan. The history of Aidan's successors is obscure. Their kingdom was overshadowed by the more powerful mon- archy of the Picts, with which, as well as with its neighbors in the south, — the Britons of Cumbria, — it was engaged in almost unceas- ing conflict. The Scots were for some time under some sort of subjection to the English of Northumbria, but recovered their inde- pendence on the defeat and death of King Egfried in battle with the Picts at Nechtans- mere in 685. In the middle of the 9th cen- tury, the Scots acquired a predominance in Northern Britain. Kenneth, son of Alpin, succeeded his father as king of the Scots. The Pictish kingdom was weakened by civil dissensions and a disputed claim to the crown. The Picts and Scots, each speaking a dialect of the Celtic tongue, gradually coalesced into one people. The reign of Constantine, son of Aodh, who succeeded in 904, was a remarkable one. Even before the establish- ment of the kingdom of the Picts and Scots in the person of Kenneth, Northern Britain had experienced the attacks of a new enemy, the Scandinavian invaders, generally spoken of under the name of Danes. Constantine resisted them bravely, but towards the end of his reign, he entered into an alliance with them in opposition to the English. A pow- erful army, composed of Scots, Picts, Brit- ons, and Danes, disembarked on the Humber, and was encountered at Brunanburgh by Athelstan, king of England. A battle was fought there, the first of a series of unfortu- nate combats by Scottish princes on English ground. The confederate army was defeated, but Constantine escaped, and died 953. Dur- ing the reign of Malcolm I., a portion of the Cumbrian "kingdom was bestowed by Ed- mund, king of England, on the Scottish sovereign. The northern kingdom was still further increased in the reign of Kenneth, son of Malcolm, by the acquisition of Lothian and of Northern Cumbria, or Strathclyde. Alexander III. employed the period of his reign well ; by a treaty with the king of Norway, he added to his kingdom Man and the other islands of the Western Sea. The reigns of David II. and his successors, Robert II. and liobert III., were the most wretched period of Scottish history. In the year 1411, half of the kingdom would have become barbarous if the invasion of the Lord of the Isles had not been repulsed at Ilarlaw (which see). The vigorous rule of James I. had restored a tranquillity to which his kingdom had long been unaccus- tomed : but strife and discord were again I SCOTS 517 SEA-COAST brought back on his assassination. The reigns of Charles II. and James VII. were more corrupt and oppressive than any wliieh Scotland hud experienced since the regencies in the minority of James VI.; the natural result was tlio revolution, which seated "William and Mary on the throne. Under James VI., who succeeded to the throne of England, the kingdoms became united, from which j)eriod (HiO;}) the annals of the two kingdoms became almost identical, though they both n-tainod their independence, and continued to be ruled by separate titles till the Act of Union in 1707. Scots Fusileer Guards. See Guards. Scots Grays. The 2d regiment of dra- goons in the British service is so named. They are considered a superior body of cav- alry, and bear as their motto " Second to Kone." Scott Projectile. See Prciectile. Scotussa. A very ancient town of Thes- saly, ill the district 'of Pclasgiotis, near the source of the Cynoscephahe, where Flamini- nus gained his celebrated victory over Philip, 197 ii.c. Scour, To. This term is frequently used to express the act of discharging ordnance or musketry, rapidly and heavily, for the purpose of dislodging an enemy. Hence, to scour the rampart, or the covert way. It likewise signifies to clear, to drive away ; as, to scour the seas ; also to run about in a loose desultory manner; as, to scour the country. To scoio- a line, is to flank it, so as to see di- rectly along it, that a niuskct-ball entering at one end may fly to the other, leaving no place of security. Scout. A person sent out in the front or on the flank of an army to observe the force and movements of the enemy. He should be a keen observer, and withal fleet of foot, or well mounted. Scout-master-General. A person, for- merly so called, under whose direction all the scouts and army messengers were placed. Screw. See Elkvatino Screw. Screw-jack. See Implements. Scribe (lleb. Sofer). Among the Jews, originally a kind of military officer, whose business appears to have been the recruiting and organizing of troops, the levying of war-taxes, and the like. At a later period, especially at the time of Christ, it had come to desigmite a learned man, a doctor of the law. Scutari. A town of Asiatic Turkey, op- posite Constantinople. It was anciently called C/iri/sopolis, "golden city," in conse- quence, it is said, of tlie Persians having es- tablished a treasury here when they at- tempted the conquest of Greece. Near hero Constantine finally defeated Licinius, 323. Scutari Hos|)ital was occupied by the sick and wounded of the Anglo-French army in 1854-05, whose sutVerings were much alle- viated by the kind exertions of Miss Flo- rence Nightingale and a band of nurses under her. Scutum. A Komun buckler made of wood, the parts being joined together with little plates of iron, and the whole covered with a bull's hide. In the middle was an umbo, or boss of iron, which jutted out, and was useful to glance ott' stones or darts. The scuta, in general, were 4 feet long, and dif- ferent in size frijm the clypei, which were less, and quite round. Scythed. Armed or furnished with scythes, as some of the ancient chariots were. Scythia. A name employed in ancient times to denote a vast, indefinite, and almost unknown territory north and east of the Black Sea, the Caspian, and the Sea t)f Aral. This country was inhabited by a race of peo- ple who were called Scytlne, but who called themselves Scoloti. Only two important events in Scythian history are mentioned by Herodotus ; the one is the invasion of Media by the Scythians, and the other that of Scythia by' Darius. In G24 B.C. the Scyth- ians entered Media, defeated Cyaxares, the reigning monarch, and occupied the land for twenty-eight years before they were expelled. It was at least ostensibly in revenge for this incursion that Darius Ilystaspis determined to invade Scythia about ol3 it.c. He formed a bridge across the Danube, and crossing that river obtained some advantages over the Scythians. But he was unable to effect any real conquest over these nonuid tribes, and narrowly escaped having his retreat cut off by the destruction of the bridge. Sea-coast Carriage. See Ordnance, CAUKIAIiKS KOK. Sea-coast Artillery. Is a species of ar- tillery which is used for the defense of the sea-coast. In the United States it consists of 15-inch and 20-inch smooth-bores, 12- inch rifles, and 10-inch and 13-inch mortars. (See Ordnance.) The 24-pounder flank- defense howitzer, although no longer be- longing to the system, is still employed in several of the forts on the sea-board. Sea- coast pieces are mounted on barbette, case- mate, and flank-casemate carriages ; and the carriage upim which the mortar is mounted is called its bed. These carriages do not subserve the purpose of transportation. The heaviest rifle-cannon should be placed on the salients and flunks of a fortification, having an enfilading fire on a channel. Heavy smooth-bore pieces should occupy the curtains and faces which bear, directly on the channel. The 24-pounder flank-de- fense howitzer is employed in the defense of ditches. Single- or double-shotted canister should be tired from it. The Calling gun has been recommended as a desirable auxil- iary in special cases. A 12-pounder field- piece may be usefully employed to prevent a landing, or to fire in close engagements at the rigging and boats of vessels. There are three kinds of fire generally employed, — dirrct, incochci, and pluntjiuff. The first should be used when the surface of the water is rough, and the accuracy of the rebound cannot be depended on. In aiming ut a SEA-COAST 518 SECRECY vessel with direct fire, the piece should be pointed at the water-line. The effective range of direct lire is about one mile and a quarter. The intended eifect of sea-coast mortars is to strike the decks of vessels, pen- etrating to the bottom and causing them to sink. Sea-coast Howitzer. See Sea-coast Artillery. Sea-horse. In heraldry, a fabulous ani- mal, consisting of the upper part of a horse with webbed feet, united to the tail of a fish. A scalloped fin is carried down the back. The arms of the town of Cambridge are supported by two sea-horses, proper finned and maned or. Sea-lion. In heraldry, a monster con- sisting of the upper part of a lion combined with the tail of a fish. Sealkote. A town in the Punjab, near the left bank of the Chenab, 65 miles north- northeast from Lahore. All the European troops had been removed in July, 1857, to repress disturbances that had broken out elsewhere, and on the 9th of that month the native troops fired on their ofiicers. A considerable number of Europeans were killed, and the survivors suflered great pri- vations until the Sepoys, having plundered the station, started oli" in the direction of Delhi. Search a Country, To. Is to examine minutely all the inlets and outlets, woods, rivers, etc., of a country through which an army is to advance. Searcher. See Inspection of Cannon. Seasoned Troops. Are troops that have been accustomed to climate, and are not so liable to become the victims of any endemi- cal disorder as raw men unavoidably are. Seat of War. The country in which a war is being carried on. Sebastopol, or Sevastopol. A Eussian seaport, fortress, and arsenal in the Crimea, in the government of Taurida. It is situ- ated near the southwest extremity of the Cri- mea, on the southern side of the magnifi- cent harbor or roadstead of Sebastopol, one of the finest natural harbors in the world. The siege of Sebastopol by the allied Eng- lish and French armies will rank among the most famous sieges in history ; it lasted for eleven months, from October, 1854, to Sep- tember, 1855. Immediatelj' after the battle of the Alma, September 20, 1854, the allied army marched to Sebastopol, and took up its position on the plateau between it and Balaklava, and the grand attack and bom- bardment commenced October 17, 1854, without success. After many sanguinary encounters by day and night, and repeated bombardments, a grand assault was made on September 8, 1855, upon the Malakoft' tower and the redans, the most important fortifi- cations to the south of the town. The French succeeded in capturing and retaining the MalakofT. The attacks of the English on the great redan and of the French upon the little redan were successful, but the assail- ants were compelled to retire after a desper- ate struggle with great loss of life. The French lost 1646 killed, of whom 5 were generals, 24 superior and 116 inferior offi- cers, 4500 wounded, and 1400 missing. The English lost 885 killed, 1886 wounded, and 176 inissing. In the night the Russians abandoned the southern and principal part of the town and fortifications, after destroy- ing as much as possible, and crossed to the northern forts. They also sank or burnt the remainder of their fleet. The allies found a very great amount of stores when they entered the place, September 9. The works were utterly destroyed in April, 1856, and the town was restored to the Russians in July. Second. The next in order to the first ; the next in place or station ; as, a second lieutenant of the artillery service. Second Covert Way. In fortification, is that beyond the second ditch. Second Ditch. In fortification, is that made on the outside of the glacis, when the ground is low. and there is plenty of water. Second Flank. See Flank, Oblique. Second, To. To aid or assist ; to support. Secondary Bases. The bases established at the beginning of a campaign and from which the first advances are made, are known as primary bases. An army carries with it ammunition only sufficient for one battle, and but a few days' supply of food. Other supplies of ammunition and provisions must be brought from the base ; and as an army advances, the difficulty of keeping it sup- plied increases. Unless some additional provision be made for its supply, the army cannot advance and is then said to be " tied to its base." As the necessary supplies can- not be obtained in the theatre of operations in sufficient quantities for the daily needs of an army, depots and magazines must be or- ganized near the army from which these supplies can be procured, and these together form what is known as a secondary base. Seconding. In Great Britain, is a tempo- rary retirement to which officers of Royal Artillery and Roj'al Engineers are subjected when they accept civil employment under the crown. After six months of such employ- ment the officer is seconded, by which he loses military pay, but retains his rank, seniority, and promotion in his corps. After being seconded for ten years, he must elect to return to military duty or to retire alto- gether. Secrecy. In military economy this qual- ity is peculiarly requisite. It signifies fidel- ity to a secret; taciturnity inviolate; close silence. Officers, in particular, should be well aware of the importance of it, as the divulging of what has been confidentially intrusted to them, especially on expeditions, might render the whole project abortive. The slightest deviation from it is very justly considered a breach of honor, as scandalous conduct unbecoming an officer and a gentle- man. In official matters the person so of- I SECRETARY 519 SEDAN finding is liable to tlie severest punishment and peniilty. Secretary of War. Is an officer of the executive department and member of the Cabinet, appointed by the President and confirmed by the Senate, and has charge of all duties connected with the army of the United States, fortifications, etc., issues of commissions, movement of troops, payment, commissary, etc., and engineering. The following is extracted from the law of the United States: " There shall be at the seat of government an executive department to be known as the Department of War, and a Secretary of War, •who shall be the head thereof. "The Secretary of War shall perform such duties as shall from time to time be enjoined on or intrusted to him by the President relative to military commissions, the mili- tary forces, the warlike stores of the United States, or to other matters respecting military affairs, and he shall conduct the business of the department in such manner as the Presi- dent shall direct. "The Secretary of War shall have the custody and charge of all the books, records, papers, furniture, fixtures, and other prop- erty appertaining to the defmrtment. " The Secretary of War shall from time to time cause to be collected and transmitted to him, at the seat of government, all such flags, standards, and colors as are taken by the army from enemies of the United States. " The'Secretary of War shall from time to time define and prescribe the kinds as well as the amount of supplies to be purchased by the subsistence and quartermaster depart- ments of the army, and the duties and powers thereof respecting such purchases, and shall prescribe general regulations for the transportation of the articles or supply from the place of purchase to the several armies, garrisons, posts, and recruiting-places, for the safe-keeping of such articles, and for the distribution of an adequate and timely supply of the same to the regimental quarter- masters, and to such other officers as may by virtue of such regulations be intrusted with the same, and shall fi.x and make reasonable allowances for the store rent and storage necessary for the safe-keeping of all military stores and supplies. " The transportation of troops, munitions of war, equipments, military property, and stores, thrnughi>ut the United States, shall be under the immediate control and super- vision of the Secretary of War and such agents as he may appoint." The British secretary of war was formerly a high officer of the British ministry, having control of the financial arnmgements of the army, and being the responsible medium for parliamentary supervision in military atfairs. The formation of a war-office proper took place about lU'iO, the secretary of state hav- ing previt)usly performed its duties. It was, however, limited to financial authority, neither the commander-in-chief nor the muster-general of the ordnance being sub- ject to it. During the Russian war the evils of this divided authority led to the creation of a secretary of state for war, to control all the military departments. Thesecretary- ship-at-war was merged in the superior office in 1855, and aboli.shed by act of Parliament in 18153. See Minister. Section. A certain proportion of a bat- talion or company, when it is told otT for military nioviriicrits and evolutions. Sector of Explosion. At the moment that a gun is fired, there is a sort of spherical sector of fire formed in front of the piece, whose extremity presses against the bottom of the bore, while the external portion of it terminates in the air, which this sector com- presses and drives in every direction ; the air thus forming a support, the sector reacLs with its full force upon the bottom of the bore and causes the recoil of the piece. Secure, To. In a military sense, is to preserve, to keej), to make certain ; as, to secure a plan ; to secure a conquest. In the management of a musket, it signifies to bring it to a certain position, by which the lock is secured against rain. Hence, secure arms is a word of command which is given to troops who are under arms in wet weather. I Secuteur (/•>.). A gladiator who was armed with a helmet, shield, and sword, or leaden club, and who fought with the Re- tiaire. Sedan. A town of France, department of Ardennes, on the Meuse ; it is fortified, and contains an arsenal and several magazines. On July 6, 1641, a victory was gained at La Marfee, near Sedan, by the Count of 1 Soissons and the troops oi" Bouillon and I other French princes over the royal army I supporting Richelieu. On August *29-31, 1870, a series of desj)erate conflicts took place here between the French Army of the North under ^MacMahon (about 150,000 men), and the greater part of the three German armies, under the king and crown-prince of Pru-ssia I and the crown-prince of Saxony (about U50,- i 000 men), and was brought to a close on Sep- tember 1, 1870. The battle began with attacks on the French right and left, about 5 a.m., and was very severe at 2 p.m. At 4 r.M. the Germans remained masters of the field, and the crown-prince of Prussia announced a complete victory, thechief j)art of the French army retreating into Sedan. The empen)r Napoleon was present during the battle, and, it is said, stood at Iges, near Sedan, exposed for four hours to the German grenades. The impossibility of further resistance was then evident. The Gernuins had contracted their circle close around Sedan ; their formidable artillery held all the heights, from which they C()uld at pleasure wholly destroy the town and the army, and only UtHX) men were inacondition to respond totheircommander's call, and to make a supreme ctfort to break through the enemy with the emperor, and escape to Montmttly. At first. Gen. de Wimpften (called to the command when SEDGEMOOR 520 SELJUKS MacMalion was wounded), indignantly re- jected the terms offered by the victor, and the emperor had a fruitless interview with Count Bismarck to endeavor to mitigate them. On September 2, 1870, a capitulation of Sedan and the whole army therein was signed by Gens, von Moltke and de Wimp- fl'en, at the chateau of Bellevue, near Fre- nois. The conflict was principally carried on by the artillery, in which the Germans had the advantage, not only in number (600 to 500), but also in weight, range, and pre- cision. The carnage was awful, and the field the next day was a mass of shattered bones, torn flesh, and colored rags. About 25,000 French prisoners were taken in the battle, and 83,000 surrendered the next day, together with 70 mitrailleures, 400 field- pieces, and 150 fortress guns. About 14,000 French wounded were found lying in the neighborhood, and about 3000 escaped into Belgium and laid down their arms. The great Army of the North ceased to exist. On September 1, the village of Bazeilles was stormed by the Bavarians and burnt, it was said, because the inhabitants fired on the ambulances ; many women and children perished. The French denied the provoca- tion. The place had been previously twice bombarded and stormed by the maddened combatants. Sedgemoor. A wild tract of England, in Somersetshire, between Bridgewater and King-s Weston, where the Duke of Mon- mouth (the natural son of Charles II. by Lucy Walters), who had risen in rebellion on the accession of James II., was com- pletely defeated by the royal army, July 6, 1685. The duke was made a prisoner in the disguise of a peasant, at the bottom of a ditch, overcome with hunger, fatigue, and anxiety. Sedition. In a military sense, is to dis- obey orders, to cabal or form factions against the officer or officers in command ; to loosen confidence; to resist or oppose orders, or to stir up mutiny. It is an offense in military law of the most fatal character, and always punished in a most exemplary manner. Sedusii. A German people, forming part of the army of Ariovistus when he invaded Gaul, 58 B.C. ; they are not mentioned at a later period, and consequently their site can- not be determined. See, To. In a military sense, is to have practical knowledge of a thing; as, to see service. To have seen a shot fired is a figura- tive expression in the British service, signi- fying to have been in action ; also, to have been under fire. Seetabuldee. A strong military position in Hindostan, near Nagpore, where a severe contest took place during the Mahratta war between the Boosla rajah and a small num- ber of the British troops, in which the for- mer were defeated. Segbans. Are horsemen among the Turks who have care of the baggage belong- ing to cavalry regiments. Segesta. A town situated in the north- west of Sicily, near the coast, between Pa- normus and Drepanum. Its inhabitants were constantly engaged in hostilities with Selinus ; and it was at their solicitation that the Athenians were led to embark in their unfortunate expedition against Sicily. The town was taken by Agathocles, who de- stroyed or sold as slaves all its inhabitants, peopled the city with a body of deserters, and changed its name into that of Dicaio- polis ; but after the death of this tyrant, the remainder of the ancient inhabitants re- turned to the city, and it resumed its former name. Seistan (formerly called Segestan). A khanat or principality of Asia, forming the southwest portion of Afghanistan. It was devastated by Tamerlane in 1383. Sejant, or Assis. In heraldry, is the term of blazon applied to a beast in his usual sitting posture. A lion borne in full face, with his forepaws extended sideways, is blazoned sejant affronte, as in the crest of Scotland. Sejour {Fr.). In a military sense, signi- fies a halting day. Selection. The act of choosing in pref- erence to others ; hence, selection of officers to act upon the staff', etc. ; to select quar- ters, etc. See Quarters, Choice of. Seleucia ad Tigrin (also called Seleucia Babijlonia^ Seleucia Assyrice, and Seleucia Parthorum). A great city on the confines of Assyria and Babylonia, and for a long time the capital of Western Asia. It commanded the navigation of the Tigris and Euphrates. It was burned by Trajlm in his Parthian expedition, and again by L. Verus, the col- league of M. Aurelius Antoninus. It was again taken by Se verus. Seleucia Pieria (ruins, called Seleiikeh, or Kcpse, near Suadeia.h). A great city and fortress in Syria, founded by Seleucus in April, 300 b!c. In the war with Egypt, which ensued upon the murder of Antiochus II., Seleucia surrendered to Ptolemy III. Euergetes (246 B.C.). It was afterwards re- covered by Antiochus the Great (219). In the war between Antiochus VIII. and IX., the people of Seleucia made themselves in- dependent (109 or 108) ; afterwards they successfully resisted the attacks of Tigranes for fourteen years (84-70). The city bad fallen entirely into decay by the 6th century of our era. Selictar. A Turkish sabre. Seljuks, or Seljuk-Turks. A small Turk- ish tribe which, at an early date, took pos- session of Bokhara and the surrounding country. They attracted the notice of Sultan Mahmoud, the founder of the dj-nasty of the Ghuznevides, who had advanced into Bokhara with his army, and was so im- pressed with the fine military qualities of their chief, that he induced them to cross the Oxus and to occupy the country of Klioras- san. He had soon reason to repent of this fatal error. Like all those wandering hordes. SELKIRKSHIRE 521 SEMINOLES tl)c Turkomans were sliepherds or robbers. Tlie^' cither molested the neighboring states by petty inroads, or, with tlie whole united force of the nation, they practiced robbery on a great scale, seizing on kingdoms and despoiling nations. The first migrations of these Eastern Turkomans is generally lixed in the lOlh century. They became formid- able to Mahmuud, and more especially to his successor, Massoud, who, from inability to resist their progress, was forced to grant them lands. Ue was afterwards defeated by them in a great battle; and the victorious Turks, under their leader, Togrul Beg, whom they now elected king, invaded Khorassan, an(l finally exjielled the Ghuznevides, the descendants of Mahmoud, from the eastern provinces of Persia. They fled eastwards towards the Indus, and established the Ghuznian empire in the northwestern prov- inces of India. This empire was maintained with various success till about the year 1184, under the Glmznian emperors, when they were su})erseded by that of the Afghan or Patan emj)erors, who completed the conquest of the greatest part of llindostan Proper about 1210. Togrul Beg hastened to im- prove bis victory over the Persian monarch. Turning his arms to the west, he invaded Irak, in the centre of Persia, and advancing westward of the Caspian Sea into Azerbijan, the ancient Media, he made his first ap- proaches to the confines of the Roman em- pire. He afterwards proceeded to Bagdad, and by his conquest of that place, gained possession of the caliph. His successors Alp Arslan and Jlalek Shah extended the empire transmitted to them by Togrul Beg. Tliej' subdued the fairest portions of Asia. Jeru- salem and the Holy Land were taken and pillaged by the Seljuks, and it was the vexa- tion and rapine to which the Chris'ian pil- grims were exposed in their journey to Jeru- salem, that gave rise to those wild and warlike expeditions for the recovery of the Holy Land, known under the name of the Cru- sades. The empire under Malek Shah ex- tended from the Mediterranean to the Chi- nese frontier, and from the Caspian to the Arai)ian Sea. Upon the death of Malek Shah the empire was divided up into petty sultanates, which finally caused the over- throw of the Seljuk empire. The Turkish dynasty of the Seljuks continued for 215 years, and with the overthrow of its dynasty in 1299, and on its ruins, arose the Turkish empire. Selkirkshire (formerly called the Ef/rir.k Forfsf ). A small inland county of Scotland, in the Lowlands. Among the interesting liistt>rical scenes this county contains is the field of Philiphaugh, where the great Mar- quis of Montrose was defeated by the Cove- nanters under Gen. Leslie. Sell Out. In the British service, was n term geiuTally used when an officer was per- mitted to retire from the service, selling or disposing of his commission or commissions. It was the correlative word to buy in. Offi- 34 cers whopurchased commissions were usually allowed to sell out. Sellasia. A town in Laconia, north of Sparta, situated near the River (Enus, and commanded one of the principal passes lead- ing to Sparta. Here the celebrated battle was fought between Cleomencs III. and Antigonus Doson, 221 B.C., in which the former was defeated. Selling Ammunition. See Appendix, Aktici.ks nl- Wak, lO. Selymbria, i)r Selybria (now SeltTrin). An important town in Thrace, on the Pro- fontis. It was a colony of the Megarians. t was conquered by Philip, father of Alex- ander. Semaphore. A machine for facilitating the internal communications of the country by means of telegraphic signals, especially between the government and the military or naval functionaries of the outposts ; but its use has been entirely superseded by the in- troduction of the railways and the electric telegraph. Seme. In heraldry, when a cliarge is re- l)eated an indefinite number of times so as to produce the appearance of a pattern, the term seme (sometimes aspersed or powdered) is applied to it. When a field is seme, it is treated as if it were cut out of a larger ex- tent of surface, some of the charges being divided by the outline of the shield. The term c.rusilly denotes seme of cross crosslets, and billetfi/ seme of billets. Semendria. A frontier fortress of the principality of Servia, on the right bank of the Danube, 28 miles southeast of Belgrade. It has frequently been stormed by the na- tions who have contended for the Danube from the Middle Ages to the present cen- tury. Seminara. A town of Naples, province of Calabria Ultra II. Near here Gonsalvo de Cordova, the great captain, was defeated bv the French, in 1495; but defeated them April 21, 1503. Seminoles. A tribe of Indians who for- merly inliabited Central Florida, but now located on a reservation in the Indian Ter- ritory. During the time they were in Flor- ida they became allies of the British in their incursions into Georgia during the Revolu- tionary war. They commenced a series of border-foraj-s in 1794, when their numbers were largely increased by fugitive slaves and negroes ; their force was also augmented by the Creeks in 1808. They invaded the fron- tiers of Georgia in 1812 and 1817, when they massacred a number of persons ; but were speedily punished by Gen Gaines and sub- sequently by Gen. Jackson. Florida was purchased by the United States in 1819, and the Seminoles nnide treaties with the United Suites a few years afterwards. The govern- ment resolveil to move the Seminoles to a reservation beyond the Mississippi, in con- formity with atreaty signed in 1832, but the Indians, beaded by'<.)sce«>la, their chief, re- sisted, which gave rise to a prolonged bloody SEMI-STEEL 522 SENT war, which hegan in December, 1835. This war cost the U. S. government §)10,000,000 and 1500 lives. The greater portion of the Seminoles were subdued and transported be- yond the Mississippi in 1842, only about 300 remaining in the Everglades of Florida, un- der their chief, Billy Bowlegs. The Semi- noles on their new reservation in Indian Territory were divided in their sentiments during the civil war, some of them taking up arms for the South ; a civil contest en- sued, in which those remaining loyal to the Union were defeated with great slaughter in December, 1861. After the civil war the two bands were reunited and purchased a reservation from the Creeks, where they are now industrious and prosperous. In 1870 they numbered 2553. Semi-steel. See Ordnance, Metals FOR, Steel. Sempach. A small town of Switzerland, in the canton of Lucerne, situated on the eastern shore of the Lake of Sempach. It was one of the outposts of the confederate cantons against their Suabian and Austrian assailants in the 14th century. Under the walls of Sempach took place the second great conflict of the confederate Swiss cantons with Austria, in which the nobles of Austria, in spite of their valor and overwhelming numbers, were slaughtered like sheep by the Swiss. The Swiss lost but 200 men, while the loss of the Austrians was ten times as great. The anniversary of this great vic- tory is still celebrated by prayer and thanks- giving on the tield of battle. Sena. A town on the coast of Umbria, at the mouth of the small river Sena, was founded by the Senones, a Gallic people, and was made a colony by the llomans after the conquest of the Senones, 283 B.C. In the civil war it espoused the Marian party, and was taken and sacked by Pompey. Seneca Indians. One of the tribes of the Six Nations, and the most numerous and warlike of that confederation. When they first became known they were located in the region between the Lakes of Cayuga, Sen- eca, Canandaigua, and Ontario. In the 17th century they waged successful wars against the Hurons and other tribes to the westward, and finally the defeated tribes were adopted by the Senecas, who by this means of re- cruiting their ranks became a powerful peo- ple. They were firm allies of the English, as was attested in several battles against the French, and took a valiant part in the memorable battle wherein Gen. Braddock was killed ; they again sufl'ered severely in the campaign led by Gen. Sullivan in 1779. They removed to Lake Erie in 1784. The Senecas were allies of the Americans in the war of 1812-14. In 1870 there were 240 Senecas on a reservation in Indian Territory, and 3017 on a reservation in the State of New York. Seneffe, or Senef. A town in the prov- ince of Hainault, Belgium, about 11 miles northwest of Charleroi. Seneft'e is notable for its proximity to the battle-field on which William of Orange (III. of England), at the head of the forces of the coalition against France, fought the French army under the great Conde, August 11, 1674. In William's army there were four lieutenants, — Monte- cuculi, Duke Charles of Lorraine, the Prince of Waldeck, and the Prince of Vaudemont, the first three of whom subsequently at- tained prominence as military commanders. Of the allied forces of 60,000 men, the Dutch lost from 5000 to 6000 men, the Spaniards 3000, and the Imperialists 600; while the French army, which entered into the conflict 30,000 strong, could scarcely muster 20,000 after the battle. Under the walls of Seneft'e, Moreau, in 1794, defeated the Austrians. Senegal. French colonies on the river of that name in Senegambia, West Africa, set- tled about 1626 ; several times taken by the British, but recovered by the French, to whom they were finally restored in 1814. Seneschal. In the origin of the office, probably an attendant of the servile class, who had the superintendence of the house- hold of the Prankish kings. In the course of time, however, the seneschalship rose to be a position of dignity, held no longer by per- sons of servile race, but by military com- manders, who were also invested with ju- dicial authority. The lieutenants of the great feudatories often took the title of senes- chal. A similar oflice in England and Scot- land was designated steward. Seniority. Priority of rank and standing in the army. As regards regiments, this precedence is regulated by the number of the corps; among individuals, it is decided by the date of the commission. Where commissions of the same date interfere, ref- erence is to be had to the dates of former commissions. Senones. A powerful people in Gallia Lugdunensis, dwelt along the upper course of the Sequana (now Seine). A portion of this people crossed the Alps about 40 B.C., in order to settle in Italy ; but the greater part of Upper Italy being already occupied by other Celtic tribes, the Senones were obliged to penetrate a considerable distance to the south, and took up their abode on the Adri- atic Sea, between the modern Kavenna and Ancona. They extended their ravages into Etruria ; and it was in consequence of the interference of the Komans while they were laj'ing siege to Clusium, that thej' marched against Kome and took the city, 390 B.C. They were defeated by Camillus, 367 B.C. They defeated Metellu's, the consul, at Ar- retium, 284, but were almost exterminated by Dolabella, 283. They invaded Greece in 279; were defeated by Antigonus Gonatus, 278, and sued for peace. See Rome. Sent to the Front. A term applied to bodies of troops or individual soldiers when ordered from camp or garrison to the scene of active hostilities. Sent to the Rear. A term applied to bodies of troops or individual soldiers when SENTENCE 623 SEREGNO ordered from the immediate scene of active hostilities to the rear of the command in which they are serving, so as to be out of immediate danijer. Sentence. Decision, determination, final judgment. There is an appeal allowed from the sentonec of a regimental court-martial to the opinion of a general one. Sentinel, or Sentry ( from the Lat. seniire, "to feel or perceive," through the Ital. sentinrlla). A private soldier, marine, or | sailor, posted at a point of trust, with the duty of watching the approach of an enemy, or any person suspected of hostile intentions. Sentinels mount giuird over de|)ots of arms, the tents of commanding officers, etc. Dur- ing the night, each sentinel is intrusted with the " word," or countersign ; and no person, however exalted in position, may attempt to approach or pass him without giving that as a signal. In such case, the sentinel is bound to arrest the intruder, and if neces- sary to shoot him. It has happened before now that the commander-in-chief of an army has been prisoner in the hands of one of his own sentinels. When an army is in the field, the sentinels are its eyes, for they guard the approaches in every direction some distance in front of the main body of troops. In the event of an attack, they give the alarm, and retire slowly on their suppcjrts. There is usually an agreement, tacit or expressed, be- tween commanders that their outlying sen- tinels shall not fire upon one another, which would only be productive of useless blood- shed. Under martial law, death is the pen- alty to a sentinel sleeping on post. Senti- nels will present arms to general and field- officers, to the officer of the day, and the commanding officer of a post; to all other officers they will carry arms. Stafi'-officers above the rank of captain are entitled to the same compliments from sentinels as are given to field-officers. Sentinum, Battle of. See Rome. Sentry. The .same as sentinel. " Sentry go," is the warning given by the sentry at the guard-room or tent that it is time to relieve sentries. Sentry-box. A box to cover a sentinel at his \w<\., and shelter him from the weather. Sepadar. Is an East Indian term for an ofiicer of the rank of brigadier-general. Sepahi. An East Indian term for a feud- atory chief, or military tenant; a soldier. Sepoy. Corrupted from the Indian word sipa/ii, "a soldier." This word sipahi, in its more familiar form of spnfiia, is known in most Eastern armies ; and is itself de- rived from nip, "a bow and arrow," the ordinary armament of an Indian soldier in ancient times. The word Sepoy now denotes a native Hindoo soldier in the British army in India. The Sepoys consist of Moham- medans, Rajpoots, Brahmans, and men of other ca.stes, besides Sikhs, (ihoorkas, and men of various hill-tribes. They are gener- ally officered by Europeans. Septembrizers. In the French revolu- tion a dreadful ma-s-sacre took place in Paris, September 2-5, 17'J2. The prisons were broken open and the prisoners butchered, among them an ex-bishop, and nearly 100 non-juring priests. Some accounts state the number of persons slain at 1200, others at 4000. The agents in this slaughter were named .""^i-ptemhri/.crs. Sepulchre, Knights of the Holy. A mil- itary order, established in Palestine about the year 1114. Those of this class chose Philip II., king of Spain, for tlieir master, in 1558, and afterwards his son ; but the grand master of the order of Malta pre- vailed on him to resiijn ; and when after- wards the Duke de Nevers assumed the same quality in France, the same grand master, by his interest and credit, procured a like renunciation by him, and a confirmation of the union of this order to that of Malta. Sequani. A Celtic nation of ancient Gaul. Before the conquest of Gaul by Ciesar, the Arverni and ^Edui, the two most powerful nations of that country, were in a state of hostility; and the Sequani allied themselves with the former. In order more efl'ectually to crush their enemies, these two nations hired a large body of Germans, under Ario- vistus, from over the Rhine. With their assistance they totally defeated the vEdui ; but the Germans seized for themselves a third part of the territory of the Sequani, and would have made further encroach- meuts, had not Cicsar defeated them, and expelled them frcmi the land. Serakhur, Serang. In the East Indies are non-commissioned officers who are em- ployed in the artillery and on board ships of war. In the artillery the former title an- swers to that of sergeant ; in the naval ser- vice the latter to that of boatswain. Seraphim, or Jesus, Order of The. An ancient Swedish order of knighthood, in- stituted in 1334; but dormant from the pe- riod of the Reformation until 1748. The number of knights, besides the king and members of the roval family, is limited to 24. Seraskier, or Seri-Asker (Pers. "head of the army '). The name given by the Turks to every general having the com- mand of a separate army, and, in partic- ular, to the commander-in-chief or min- ister of war. The sera*kier, in the latter sense, possesses most extensive authority, being subordinate only to the sultan and grand vizier. He is selected by the mon- arch from among the pashas of two or three tails. Seraskur (huL). This word is sometimes written scrnskirr, and signifies the com- mander-in-chief of a Turkish army. Serdans. Colonels in the Turkish ser- vice are so called. Seregno. A town in the province of Milan, Italy, 13 miles north from Milan. It is noted for the heroic resistance which the women of the city made against the conscription, and which ultimately induced SERGEANT 52i SERRE-FILE Bonaparte to rescind his order for the hom- bardment of the place. The Austrians, in 1848, severely chastised Seregno for its patriotism. Sergeant. A non-commissioned officer in a company, battery, or troop, usually selected from among the corporals on ac- count of his general intelligence and good conduct. He is vested with the command of small detachments, and sometimes with his company in the absence of his superior officers. Sergeant, Armorer-. In the British ser- vice, is a trained artificer who repairs the arms of a corps. Sergeant, Band-. In the British service, is a non-commissioned officer who is respon- sible for the discipline of the band, as is the bandmaster for instruction. In the United States service a principal musician performs this duty. Sergeant, Color-. See Color-Sergeant. Sergeant, Cook. In the British service, is a non-commissioned olKcer who superin- tends the cooking for the corps. Sergeant, Covering. Is a non-commis- sioned officer, who, during the e.\ercise of a battalion, regularly stands or moves behind each officer commanding or acting with a platoon or company. Sergeant d'Armes (sergeant of arms), Fr. Philip Augustus, fearing to be assassi- nated on the instigation of the sheik of the mountain, during his stay in Palestine, or- ganized for the protection of his person a corps of sergeants d'armes, consisting of gentlemen, which he armed with bronze war-clubs, and bows and arrows, whose duty it was to accompany him everywhere. Sergeant, Drill-. See Drill-Skrgeant. Sergeant, Hospital. In the British ser- vice, is a non-commissioned officer who car- ries out the orders of the surgeon as regards discipline in a hospital. Sergeant Instructor in Fencing. In the British service, is a sergeant who performs the duties implied by his title in regiments of cavalry. Sergeant Instructor in Gunnery. A ser- geant of artillery who aids the officer in- structor in teaching gunnery. Sergeant, Lance-. Is a corporal who acts as a sergeant in a company, but only re- ceives the pay of a corporal. Sergeant-Major. The chief non-com- missioned officer in a regiment, and, from the nature of his duties, in a great degree an assistant to the adjutant. He must be master of every point connected with the drill, interior economy, and discipline of a regiment. It is his duty, on receiving the orders from the adjutant, to assemble the orderly sergeants, and issue the orders and details correctly. He is to keep a regular duty roster of the sergeants and corporals, and to proportion the number of men to be furnished for duty according to the strength of their respective companies. Finally, it is always expected that he should set an ex- ample to the non-commissioned officers by his activity, zeal, and personal appearance. In the British cavalry service this non-com- missioned officer is termed regimental ser- geant-major, the chief non commissioned officer of a troop being styled troop ser- geant-major. Similarly in the artillery there are the brigade sergeant-major and the batter}' sergeant-major. Sergeant, Orderly. See Orderly Ser- geant. Sergeant, Pay-. See Pay-Skrgeant. Sergeant, Paymaster-. See Paymaster- Sergeant. Sergeant, Pioneer. See Pioneer Ser- geant. Sergeant, Quartermaster. See Quar- termaster Sergeant. Sergeant, White. Is a term of ridicule in the British service, applied to those ladies who, taking advantage of the weakness of their husbands, neglect their domestic con- cerns to interfere in military matters. Seringapatam (anc. Srl-Ru7)ffaputtun, "City of Vishnu"). A celebrated fortress of South India, and under Hyder Ali and Tippoo Sahib, the capital of Mysore, at the west angle of the island of the Cavery (Kaveri). Seringapatam was besieged by Lord Cornwallis in 1791, and again in 1792, when Tippoo purchased a peace by ceding half his dominions and paying 330 lacs of rupees to the British and their allies. It was again besieged in 1799 and taken by storm on May 3 (4), on which occasion Tip- poo was killed, and the dynasty of Hyder terminated ; the ancient Rajpoot line being restored to the sovereignty of Mysore. Serjeant. See Sergeant. Serpenteau (Fr.). A round iron circle, with small spikes, and squibs attached to them. It is frequently used in the attack and defense of a breach. It likewise means a fusee, which is filled with gunpowder, and is bent in such a manner, that when it takes fire, it obtains a circular rapid motion, and throws out sparks of light iu various direc- tions. Serpentine (Fr.). An ancient wall-piece, with a matchlock, carrying an 8-ounce leaden ball, with a charge of 4 ounces of powder. It was 6 or 7 feet long, and weighed from one to two hundred-weight. Serpentix {Fr.). Cock of the ancient matchlock, also the lock itself. Also, an ancient 24-pounder gun, of 13 feet, weigh- ing 4360 pounds, whose dolphins represented the figures of serpents. Serre-demi File (Fr.). That rank in a battalion which determines the half of its depth, and which marches before the demi- file. Thus a battalion standing six deep, has its serre-doni file in the third rank, which determines its depth. Serre-file (Fr.). The last rank of a bat- talion, by which its depth is ascertained, and which always forms its rear. When ranks are doubled, the battalion resumes its natural formation by means of the serrc- SERVANS 525 SESSION files. Serre-file literally signifies a " bringer up." Servans d'Armes, or Chevaliers Ser- vans (Fr.). Were persons bcloniriiig to tlic third class of the order of Miiltn. They were not noblemen, although they wore the sword and the cross. Servants. In the British service, regi- mental and staff officers are allowed the in- dulgence of a steady and well-drilled soldier for a servant; and field-officers, keeping horses, two each. These soldiers are to take their share of any duty on which the officer to whom they are attached is employed, and they must fall in with their respective troops and companies at all reviews, inspections, and field-days. In the U. S. service, offi- cers are not permitted to employ soldiers as servants. Serve. To be in service ; to do duty ; to discharge the requirements of an office or employment; and, specifically, to act as a soldier, seaman, etc. To serve a piece, in the artillery, is to load and fire with promptitude and correctness. To sej^ve the vent, to stop it with the thumb. Servia. One of the Danubian principali- ties, nominally included in the Ottoman empire, but in reality only tributary to that power. It is bounded on the north by Aus- tria, on the east by Wallachia and Bulgaria, on the south by Kumli and Bosnia, and on the west by Bosnia. In the earliest times of which we have any record, Servia was inhabited by Thracian or Illyrian races ; shortly before Christ it was subjugated by the Romans, and formed part of the province of Illyricum, whose fortunes it shared during the vicissitudes of the empire. Overrun successively by the Huns, Ostrogoths, Lon- gobards, etc., it reverted to the Byzantine rulers about the middle of the (1th century, but was wrested from them by the Avars in the 7th century, who in turn were routed by the Serbs, and compelled to give up the country. They were converted to Chris- tianity in the 9th century, but this did not in the least abate their ardor for battle, and for nearly 200 years they were almost con- stantly at war with the neighboring Bul- garians, — the inveterate enemies of their Byzantine liege lord. In 1043, however, the roj'al governors were expelled, and they became an independent kingdom. For the ne.\t 100 years the Serbs hadl to fight hard to maintain their independence, and the strug- gle terminated in their favor; and in llfio, Stephen Nemanja founded a dynasty which lasted for two centuries, during which period the kingdom of Servia attained the acme of its power and prosperity. Eventually the progress of the Turks, however, was fatal to its welfare, and in 1389 King Lazar fell in the disastrous battle at Kossovapolje. Sultan Bajazet divided the country between Lazar's son and son-in-law. compelled them to pay tribute and follow him in war. Grad- ually the Serbs sunk more and more under the Turkish voke, until, in 1453, Servia was thoroughly subjugated by the sultan Mah- moud. It was uniformly the theatre of the bloody wars between Hungary and Turkey, and frequently suffered the uttermost horrors of devastation. Prince Eugene's brilliant successes for a moment flashed a ray of hope into the miserable hearts of the long-suffer- ing Serbs, and by the treaty of Passarowitz (1718), a considerable portion of the country was made over to Austria; but in 1739 it reverted to Turkey, and for the next sixty years the cruelty and opjiressions of the pashas and their .Janissaries surpass all belief. At length the unhappy people could endure the tyranny of their foreign masters no longer, and in 1801 an insurrection broke out, headed by George Czerny, which, by the help of Russia, ended in the triumph of the patriots, and in the election of Czerny by the people as prince of Servia. The in- vasion of Russia by France, however, left the Serbs at the mercy of their late rulers and the war again broke out. Czerny was forced to flee, and the tyranny of the Turks became more ferocious than ever. Again the people flew to arms under the leadership of Milosch Obrenovitch, and were a second time suc- cessful in winning back their liberties. Mil- osch ruled as prince of Servia until 1839, when he was forced to abdicate ; but in 1858 he was restored to his former dignity. In the war between Russia and Turkey in 1876, the .Servians took the side of the former, but were not actively engaged. Service. In a military sense is the art of serving the state in war. All studies, acts, and efforts of the profession of arms have this end in view. To belong to the army and to belong to the land service, are the same thipg. In a more restricted sense, ser- vice is the performance of military duty. In its general sense, service embraces all details of the military art. But in its restricted sense, actual service is the exercise of mili- tary functions. To sec service, is a common expression denoting actual collision with an enemy. To retire from service, to quit the army, or resiijn. Service, Foreign. See Foreign Ser- vice. Service, Home. See Home Service. Service, Secret. Any service performed by an individual in a clandestine secret manner. It likewise means intelligence or information, given by spies when countries are engaged in war, for which they receive pecuniary compensation. Serviceable. Capable of performing all military duty, or of being used in the mili- tary service. Servile or Slave War. See Rome. Session. Tl;o actual sitting of a court, council, etc., or thi' actual assembly of the members of such a body for the transaction of business. Hence, also the time, period, or term during which a court, council, and the like, meet daily for business ; or the space of time between the first meeting and prorogation or adjournment. SESTUS 526 SHARPS Sestus. A town in Thrace, situated at the narrowest part of the Hellespont, oppo- site Abydos in Asia, from which it was only seven stadia distant. It was always reck- oned a place of importance in consequence of its commanding, to a great extent, the passage of the Hellespont. It was for some time in possession of the Persians, but was retaken by the Greeks, 478 B.C., after a long siege. It subsequently formed part of the Athenian empire. Set. A word used in a military sense in various combinations ; as, to set a sentinel, is to place a soldier at any particular spot for its security. To set oji, is to attack. To set at defiance, is to defy, to dare to combat, etc. To set up, is to make a man fit for military movements and parade. Seteef, or Setif (anc. Sitipka, or Sitifi). A town of Algeria, distinguished by the obsti- nate resistance it made against the Saracens, when Northern Africa was overrun by that fierce and warlike people. The old city is now in ruins. Setendy. In the East Indies, the militia is so called. Setia. An ancient town of Latium, in the east of the Pontine Marshes; originally belonged to the Volscian confederacy, but was subsequently taken by the Romans and colonized. It was here that the Romans kept the Carthaginian hostages. Setter. In gunnery, a round stick, to drive fuzes, or any other compositions, into cases of paper. Sevastopol. See Sebastofol. Seven Weeks' War. The war declared by Prussia, on June 18, 1866, which ended in the total defeat of Austria and her allies. See Prussia. Seven Years' War. This was the third, last, and by far the longest and most terrible of the contests for the possession of Silesia. This long and desperate war was maintained by Frederick II. of Prussia against Austria, Russia, and France, from 1756 to 1763. It made no change in the territorial distribu- tion of Europe, but it increased tenfold the moral power of Prussia, and gave its army a prestige it retained till the battle of Jena. It cost Europe 1,000,000 lives, and pros- trated the strength of almost all the powers who had engaged in it. Seville, or Sevilla (anc. Hispalis, or His- paL). A famous city of Spain, capital of the province of the same name, on the left bank of the Guadalquiver, 60 miles north- northeast of Cadiz. It was captured by Julius Caesar, 45 B.C. It surrendered to the Moors at once, after the defeat of Don Rod- erick on the Guadalete, and it continued its allegiance to the caliph of Damascus until 756; it surrendered to Ferdinand III. of Castile on November 23, 1248, when 300,000 Moors left for Granada and Africa. In 1810 it was taken and ravaged by Soult. It was taken by assault by the British and Span- iards, August 27, 1812. It capitulated to Espartero'in 1843. The peace of Seville be- tween England, France, and Spain, and also a defensive alliance to which Holland ac- ceded, was signed November 9, 1729. Sevir. A captain of cavalry among the Romans was so called. Sextant. An instrument of reflection for measuring angular distances between ob- jects. It is constructed on the same optical principle as Hadley's quadrant, but usually of metal, with a nicer graduation, telescopic sight, and its arc the sixth, and sometimes the third part of a circle. Seymeny-bassy. Appellation given to the lieutenant-general of Janissaries in the Turkish service. Shabrack, or Shabraque. A Hungarian term, generally used among cavalry ofiRcers, to signify the cloth furniture of a troop- horse. Shaft. A body of a long, cylindrical shape; a stem, stalk, trunk, or the like. Hence, the stem of an arrow, upon which the feather and head are inserted ; hence, an arrow ; a missile weapon. Also, the handle of a weapon ; as, the shaft of a spear. It likewise means a perpendicular excavation into the earth for the purpose of mining. Shafted. In heraldry, borne on a shaft ; — applied to a spear-head. Shaftesbury. A town of England, in Dorsetshire, 95 miles southwest of London. It was destroyed by the Danes both before and after 888, but each time it was after- wards restored. Shag-bush. An old term for a hand-gun. Shahporee, or Shapuree. An island of British Burmah, lying ofl" the coast of Ara- can. The capture of this island by the Bur- mese led to the first British war with that nation, in 1824. Sham. False; counterfeit; pretended; as, a sham fight. Shamaka, Shamachi, or Shemakha. A town of Russia in Asia, Transcaucasia, 207 miles east-southeast from Tiflis. It was taken and sacked by Nadir Shah in 1734. Shambrie. In the manege, is a long thong of leather, made fast to the end of a cane or stick, for the purpose of animating a horse, or of punishing him if he refuses to obey the rider. Shang-hae, or Shanghai. A seaport city of China, in the province of Kiangsu, on the river Woo-sung, one of the five ports opened for European commerce. It was captured by the British, June 19, 1842, by the Tae- ping rebels, September, 1853 ; retaken by the imperialists, 1855. The rebels were de- feated near here by the English and French, allies of the emperor, March 1, 1862. Sharp. Fierce ; ardent ; fiery ; violent ; impetuous. " In sharp contest of battle." Sharps Rifle. One of the oldest of suc- cessful breech-loading rifles. The chamber of this piece is fixed, and the barrel closed by a vertical sliding breech-piece, which moves nearly at right angles to the axis of the piece. The fire-arm is loaded by depress- ing the lever, or trigger-guard, which with- SHARPSBURG 527 SHELTER draws the slide and opens the breoch for the insertidn of the cartridf^e. Orij^inally a paper cartridge was used, the rear end of ■which was broken open by the breech-piece inclosing; this was superseded by a linen cloth cylinder to contain the powder, one end of which overlaps and is guninied to the base of the bullet; the other is closed with a layer of thin bank-note paper. Tlie flame of the percussinn-<'ap penetrates through this paper and ignites the powder. The linen case is carried out with the bullet and drops to the ground a short distance in front of the piece. A metallic cartridge is now used. Sharpsburg. See Antiktam Ckeek. Snarpshooters. An old term applied in the army to rillcmen. Sharp-shooting. A shooting with great prt'ii>iiin and cll'ect. Shawnees. A tribe of American Indians, which were first known on the banks of Fox River, Wisconsin, in HUH. They were a warlike tribe, and waged war with the Iro- quois. The Shawnees eventually became a scattered race, and disjiersed to several f)arts of the country ; we find a part of them after- wards taking part with the French in their wars in America; joined in Pontiac's con- spiracy, but were subdued by Col. Boquet. They took a prominent part in the Western wars, especially against the expeditions of Ilarmer, Wayne, etc. ; but made peace at Greenville in 1795. They afterwards ef- fected an alliance with some tribes of North- western Indians, and under th(;ir celebrated leader Tecumsch gave battle to the whites under Gen. Harrison, at Tippecanoe, but were defeated. Tecumseh, with a band of Shawnees, proceeded to Canada at the out- break of the war of 1812, and made an alli- ance with the English, who gave him a brigadier-general's commission; he was kilted while leading the right wing at the battle of the Thames in 1813. Since then the Shawnees have again reunited and are now upon reservations in Indian Territory, and luimbered in 1870 about 800. Sheaf. A bundle of arrows. Sheathe. To put into a sheath, case, or scabbard ; to inclose or cover with a sheath or case. To sheathe the sicord, to put an end to war or enmity ; to make peace. Sheeting. The term sheeting is applied to the coarse hempen cloth used for making tarpaulins Sheffield. A large town of England in the West Riding of Yorkshire, at the con- fluence of the Sheaf and Don, 43 miles southwest from York. During the civil ■wars in the time of Charles I., the castle sustained a long siege for the king, but scarcely a vestige of it can now be dis- cerned. Shell. To throw shells or bombs upon ; to bombard ; as, to shell a tpressors, the French, and put to the sword I every man, woman, and cliild, and did not even spare those Italians and Sicilians who had married Frenchmen. Tliis example was followed by Messina and other tosvns, and the massacre soon became general over the island. The French were hunted like wild beasts, and dragged even from the churches, where they vainly thought themselves secure. More than 80(K) of tliem were slain by the Palermitans alone. This event was the final overthrow of Charles of Anjou's domination in Sicily. Sicily (anc. Sicilia). The largest island in the Mediterranean Sea, situated between Italy and the coast of Africa, and separated on the northeast from Naples by the Strait of Messina ; it is a province of the kingdom of Italy. It was successively occupied by the Pliccnicians, Greeks, Carthaginians, and Romans. For history of the Carthaginians in Sicily, see Caktuaoe. The western part of Sicily was made a Roman province in 241 B.C. ; but after the revolt of Syracuse in the second Punic war, and the ci>nquest of that city by Marcellus, the whole island was made a" Roman province. On the downfall of the Roman empire, Sicily formed part of the kingdom of tlie Ostrogoths ; but it was taken I'rom them by Beiisarius in 530, •nd annexed to the Byzantine empire. In the 8th and 9th centuries the Saracens succeeded in conquering it. The Normans cr Znaim. A town of Austria, situated on the Thaya, 34 miles southwest from Hrunn. A conflict took place here in 1800. between the Austrians and the French. Zoarque. A .soldier who had charge of an elephant among the ancients. Zone of Defense. A term used in forti- fication, signifying the belt of ground in front of the general contour of the works within crtVctive range of the defenders. Zone of Operations. The strip of terri- tory which contains the lines of operations — or lines on which an army advances — between the base and the ulterior object. See Stratkoy. Zorndorf. A village of Prussia, province of JJrandenburg, 4 miles north of Kustrin, and was the scene of the bloodiest of the many desperate conflicts of the Seven Years' AV'ar. The Russians having for the sec, and are divided into four regiments. They are recruited from the veterans of the ordinarv infantry regiments who are distinguished for their fine -'physique" and tried courage and hardi- ZULICHAU 642 ZUYPER SLUYS hood. Their uniform is very picturesque. There is one regiment of zouaves incorporated in the Guards. The name was also given to several regiments of volunteers in the Union army during the American civil war (1861- 65), who were clad in zouave uniform. Zullichau (Prussia). Here the Russians under Soltikow severely defeated the Prus- sians under Wedel, July 23, 1759. Zululand. The country lying northeast of the colony of Natal, between its east boundary, the Umtugola and Umzimyati Rivers, lat. 29° 10^ E., and Delagoa Bay, lat. 26° S., long. 32° 40^ E., is generally known under the name of Zululand, or the Zulu country, inhabited by independent tribes of Zulu Kaffirs. The Zulu is by nature social, light of heart, and cheerful ; his passions are, however, strong, and called out when in a state of war. He is hospita- ble and honest, yet greedy and stingy ; and whatever the better nature of his impulses may be, yet when his great chief commands ■war, he is converted into a demon. It is from the Zulu country, however, that those terrible tyrants who so long devastated Southeastern Africa, the chiefs Chaka, Din- gaan, Moselikatze, etc„ issued. The train- ing of their subjects to a peculiar mode of warfare spread desolation and havoc for many years among the Betjuana and other tribes of the interior. These chiefs with their thousands of followers, lighting, like Homer's heroes, hand to hand, armed with stabbing assagais and shields of ox-hide, the colors of which distinguished the different regiments they were formed into, melted away with broken power into comparative insignificance before the terrible rifles of a few hundred emigrant Dutch Boers, who, in their turn, gave way to the energetic action of the British authorities. The Zulus often have serious intestine wars among themselves. The principal Zulu tribes are the Amazulu, the Amahute, Amaz- ■wazi, and Amatabele. The last, under the chief Moselikatze, have emigrated far to the north, where, among the mountains which separate the valley of the Limpopo from the basin of the Zambesi, they still issue forth, and carry their depredations as far north as the Lake Nyassa, where they "were found by Dr. Livingstone. A war broke out in the latter part of 1878, or be- ginning of 1879, between the British and the Zulus, and on January 22, 1879, the British were defeated with terrible slaughter about 10 miles in front of Rorke's drift ; their loss in killed being put down at 30 officers, about 500 enl^ted men of the Im- perial troops, and 700 enlisted men of the Colonial troops. It seems that the troops were enticed away from their camp, as the action took place about one mile and a quar- ter from it. The camp containing surplus ammunition, etc., of the British force was taken by the Zulus, but was occupied after dark the same night by British troops. About the same time Rorke's drift was attacked by some 3000 or 4000 Zulus ; its defense by some 80 men of the 24th Regi- ment was most gallant, 370 bodies lay close around the post ; the loss of the Zulus was estimated at 1000 here alone. At the camp where the disaster occurred, the loss of the Zulus was computed at over 2000. The Zulus are even more formidable than the military authorities expected ; they are well drilled, great numbers are armed with breech-loaders, and they fight courageously. It is now known but too well how large a force they can mass at one point. Lord Chelmsford, the commander of the English forces in Zululand, after suffering some ad- ditional reverses, was superseded in June, 1879, by Sir Garnet Wolesley. Eugene Louis Jean Napoleon, prince imperial of France, participated as a volunteer with the British forces against the Zulus, and was killed (about the end of May or the beginning of June) while on a reconnois- sance under the command of Col. Wood ; he was suddenly beset by Zulus and assa- gaied, receiving no less than seventeen wounds. Prince Napoleon was born in Paris on March 16, 1856. He received his " Baptism of Fire" at tlie battle of Saarbruck, August 2, 1870, during the Franco-German war, in company with his father, the emperor. After the fall of the empire and the death of his father he re- sided in England, and graduated with high honors at the Military Academy at Woolwich . The war was terminated in the latter part of 1879, by the total defeat of the Zulus and the capture of the king Cetawayo. Zumbooruks (Pers. Zumboor, "wasp"). Diminutive swivel artillery, carried on the backs of camels. Zurich. A town of Switzerland, capital of the canton of the same name, at the northern extremity of the Lake of Zurich, 60 miles northeast from Berne. The Swiss defeated the Austrians near this town in 1443, and in 1799 the French defeated the Russians and Austrians before it. In 1859 a treaty between Austria, France, and Sardi- nia was signed here, and Lombardy sold bv Austria to the king of Sardinia for £10,000,000. Zutphen. An inland town of Holland, in the province of Gelderland, on the Yssel, 16 miles northeast from Arnheim. It is for- tified and rendered peculiarly strong by its situation, which is in the midst of drained fens. It formerly belonged to the Hanseatic League, and was taken by Don Frederick of Toledo in 1572 ; by Prince Maurice in 1591 ; and by the French in 1672. The gallant and accomplished Sir Philip Sidney, author of " Arcadia," was mortally wounded in the battle fought here on September 22, 1586, between the Spaniards and the Dutch. He was serving with the English auxiliaries, commanded by the Earl of Leicester. Zuyper Sluys (Holland). Here Sir Ralph Abercromby defeated an attack of the French under Brune, September 9, 1799. APPENDIX. EMBRACING WOKDS CASUALLY OMITTED IN THE BODY OF THE WORK, AND THE ARTICLES OF AVAR. A. Acanzi. In military history, the name of the Turkish iitjht-horse who lonned the vanguard of the sultan's army. Adoni, or Adonani. A city in Hindo- stan, formerly stronLcly fortified; captured hy Tippoo Sahib in 1787; sold to England after his death in 1800. Afabuar (Fr.). Color-bearer of the an- cient Icelanders. Every war-vessel had one of these ofhcers aboard, who commanded the soldiers. These officers were selected for this duty for their bravery. Alains {Fr.). People of ancient Snrma- tia ; they followed the lluns in their inva- sions, and penetrated as far as Spain in the Cth century. Alexandria. A port in Egypt, where, on March l!l, 1801, the French army destined by Napolet>n Bona|)arte to conquer Egypt, and afterwards proceed to India with hostile designs, was routed by the British under Sir Ralph Abercromby. Tlie town capitu- lated to Hutchinson on September 2, 1801 ; and surreinlered uj)on a subseijuent occasion to Gen. Eraser, on March 20, 1807. AUezoir. A frame of timber tirmly sus- pended in the air with strong cordage, on which is placed a niece of ordnance with the muzzle downwards. In this situation the bore is rounded and enlarged by means of an instrument which has a very sharp and strong edge made to traverse the bore by force of machinery, or horses, and in a hori- zontal direction. Allezures. The metal taken from the cannon by boring. Ancient. A term formerly used to express the grand ensign or standard of an army. Anspessade (Fr.). This term was origi- nally used to denote dismounted horsemen, who were obliged to servo temporarily in the infantry, and who broke otl" the t(»ps of their lances so as to reduce their length to that of tiie halberds of the sergeants. Also, a non-commissioned othcer who acis subor- dinate to a corporal ; a lance-corporal. Antoninus, Wall of. Was a rampart or defense (the remains of which still exist un- der the name of Ora/xiDis Dyke), which was erected in Scotland in 139 by the Romans against the incursions of the North Britons. Aquileia {I.itrin). Made a Roman cobmy about 180 H.C., and fortified a.d. lt;8. Con- stantine II. was slain in a battle with Con- stans, fought at Aquileia towards the close of March, 340. Maximus was defeated and slain by Theodosius, near Aquileia, July 28, 388. Theodosius defeated Eugenius and Arbogastes, the Gaul, near Acpiileia, and re- I mained sole emperor, September 6, 3'J4. I Eugenius was put to death, and Arbogastes i died bj' his own hand, mortified by his over- ] throw. In 452 Aquileia was almost totally destroyed by Attila the Hun, and near it in 1 489 Theodoric and the Ostrogoths totally de- j feated Odoacer, the king of Italy. Auberoche, Guicnne. In Southern I France. The Earl of Derby defeated the ■ French, besieging this place, August 19,1344. I Auray (Northwest France). Hereon Sep- tember 29, 1364, the English under John Chandos defeated the French and captured : their leader, Du Gucsclin. Charles of Blois, made duke of Brittany by the king of France, was slain, and a peace was made in j April, 1305. ! ^- ' Band, Military.* Consists of n body of musicians attached to each army regiment or battalion. The law provides for a band at the Military Acadeniy at "West Point. And for each artillery, cavalry, and infantry regiment a chief musician, who shall be in- ; structor of musje; and for each artillery I and infantry regiment two principal musi- i cians ; each cavalry regiment to have one I chief trumpeter. Musicians for n\gimental I bands are enlisted as soldiers, and formed I under the direction of the adjutant, but are j not permanently detached from their compa- nies, and are instructed in all the duties of a soldier. Incorrectly printpJ in th« l>odj of the work. 643 644 APPENDIX. Bander (Fr.). To unite; to intrigue to- gethor for the purpose of insurrection. Barry. In heraldry, the term applied to a shield which i^ divided transversely into four, six, or more equal parts, and consisting of two or more tinctures interchangeably disposed. Barry-bendy is where the shield is divided into four, six, or more equal parts, by diagonal lines, the tincture of which it consists being varied interchangeably. Bar- ry-pily is where the shield is divided by di- agonal lines, the different colors being inter- changed. Bassinet [Fr.]. The pan of a musket. Bautzen. A town in Saxony, near which desperate battles were fought May 20-22, 1818, between the French, commanded by Napoleon, and the allies under the emperor of Kussia and the king of Prussia. The struggle commenced on the 19th, with aeon- test on the outposts, which cost each army a loss of above 2000 men. On the 20th (at Bautzen), the French were more successful ; and on the 21st (at Murschen), the allies were compelled to retire; but Napoleon obtained no permanent advantages from these san- guinary engagements. Duroc was killed at Kachenbach by a cannon-ball on May 22, to the great sorrow of the emperor and the French army. Beaver, or Bever. That part of a helmet covering the lower part of the face, which shifted on pivots to allow the wearer to drink. The word is derived from the Latin word bcvpve, to drink. Bethune. A town of France, in the de- partment Pas-de-Calais ; it is strongly forti- fied, part of the works and the citadel having been constructed by Vauban ; taken by the French in 1645 ; retaken by the allies in 1710, but was restored to France by the treaty of Utrecht, 1714. Biset (Fr.). Was a member of the na- tional guard who performed his duty in civil- ian's dress, before the wearing of uniform on duty was made obligatory. Blackstock's Hill. A hill situated in South Carolina, United States, memorable for the victory the Americans gained over the English in 1780. Blakemere. A village of England, near where a memorable battle was fought be- tween the Scots and the troops of Edward II. of England, in which the latter were defeated. Blumenau. In Lower Austria ; on July 22, 1866, the Austrians in possession of this place were attacked by the Prussians on their march towards Vienna, a severe conflict was interrupted by the news of the armistice agreed to at Nikolsburg ; and the same even- ing Austrians and Prussians bivouacked to- gether. Brabant. Part of Holland and Belgium, an ancient duchy, part of Charlemagne's empire, fell to the share of his son Charles. In the 17th century it was held by Holland and Austria, as Dutch Brabrant and the Walloon provinces, and underwent many changes through the wars in Europe. The Austrian division was taken by the French in 174G and 1794. It was united to the Netherlands in 1814, but South Brabant was given to the kingdom of Belgium, under Leopold, 1830. The heir of the throne of Belgium is styled Duke of Brabant. Braquemart, or Jacquemart (Fr.). In antiquity, a two-edged broadsword. Breda. A strongly fortified town of Hol- land ; taken by Prince Maurice of Nassau in 1590; by the Spaniards under Spinola in 1625, and by the Dutch in 1G37 ; taken by the French in 1793. The French garrison was expelled by the burgesses in 1813. Briche [Fr.). A machine of war form"erly used to throw stones. Broad Arrow. A mark for goods belong- ing to the royal dock-yards or navy, Eng- land ; is said to have been ordered to be used in 1698, in consequence of robberies. Brussels. Once capital of Austrian Bra- bant, now of Belgium (since 1831), was founded by St. Gery, of Cambray, in the 7th century. It was bombarded and captured by Marshal Villeroi in 1695 ; taken by the French in 1701 at the beginning of the War of Succession ; captured by the Duke of Marlborough in 1706 ; by the French under Marshal Saxe in 1747, and by Gen. Du- mouriez in 1794,-' the revolution commenced in 1880. c. Cabacle (Fr.). Military coat of the mod- ern Grecians. Cabas {Fr.). A large shield or buckler, which served to protect the archers who attacked in intrenchments. Cage de la Bascule (Fr.). A space into which one part of a draw-bridge falls, whilst the other rises and conceals the gate. Calosiers. Soldiers of ancient Egypt, who with the Hcrmotybes composed the particular guard of the king. Calotte (Fr.). The back plate of a sword- handle ; the cap of a pistol ; species of skull- cap worn by French cavalry, sabre-proof, made of iron or dressed leather. Candjiar, or Canjar. A kind of crooked Turkish sabre. Carcas (Fr.). The name given to a quiver during the Middle Ages. Chadd's Ford. A village in Delaware Co., Pa., on the Brandy wine Creek. Near here was fought the battle of Brandywine, September 11, 1777. Charlestown. A former city and seaport of Middlesex Co., Mass. ; is now a northern suburb of Boston. Was burnt by the Brit- ish forces under Gen. Gage, June 17, 1775. On Bunker's Hill a monument is erected commemorating the battle of that name, which was fought June 17, 1775. Charlestowri. A village of Jefferson Co., West Va. In this place John Brown was tried and executed, December, 1859. On October 18, 1863, a Confederate force of 1200 or 1400 men, under Gen. Imboden, sur- WORDS CASUALLY OMITTED. 645 rounded the place at daylight, and attacked 1 the Union troojjs statio.'ied there. Ueinj; ', surprised, thoy were panic-stricken, and, i flying in confusion, were nearly all captured. I The place was recaptured within an hour by ; a force of U. S. troops under Col. George D. "Wells, and the Confederates driven from the } town. Chateau Cambresis. A fortified town of French Flanders, on the Selle, where the French republican armv was defeated by the Duke of York in April, 171t4. Cherry Valley. A village of Otsego Co., N. Y. It was the scene of a dreadful massa- cre l>y the Tories and Indians in the British service, October 11, 1778. Thirty-two in- habitants, nearly all women and children, were murdered, besides si.xteen soldiers of the Continental army. The rest of the citi- zens were made prisoners and taken away, and ail the buildings were burned. Chickasaw Bluffs, Battle of. Before Yicksburg, Miss. Tiie U. S. forces under Gen. AV. T. Sherman assaulted this strongly fortified positit)n, December 2'J, 18G2, but, though the head of the assaulting column reached the works, the severe fire from the ritle-pits and batteries caused them to fall back to the point of starting, leaving many dead, wounded, and prisoners on the field. The Confederate loss was but light. Clipeadus. So were called, in ancient times, the soldiers who were armed with the Grecian buckler, which was large and round. By clipeadus chlamyde was understood com- batants, who, in place of the shield, wound their coats (chlamyde) around their left arms. Clunaculum. A poniard carried by cer- tain Koman troops in ancient times. It was so called because it was carried on the back of the soldier. Cnemidas. A kind of leggings, made of bronze, which were worn by Grecian sol- diers. Cnidos (now Crio). A town of Anatolia, in Asia Minor; in its neighborhood a battle was fought between the Lacedaemonian and Persian'floets in 31)4 b.c. ; the latter gained the victnry. Colismarde (Fr.). A long, slender sword. Colletin ( Fr.). So was called, in ancient time.-, that jirtrt of an armor wliich protected the neck and upper part of the breast. Custozza. Near Verona, Northern Italy. Here the Italians were defeated by Jfarshal Kadet/.ky, July 2.3, 1848; and here they were again defeated, June 24, 1806, after a series of desperate attacks on the Austrian army. The Italians were commanded by their king, Yictor Emmanuel, and the Aus- trians by the Archduke Albrecht. D. Davids Island. An island of 100 acres in Long Island Sound, within the township limits of New Kochelle, "Westchester Co., N. Y. It was purchased in 1807 by the U. S. government, to be used for military purposes. Dinkelsbuhl. A town of Bavaria, sur- rounded with a high wall, flanked with tow- ers and ditches. It suttered much during the Thirty Years' War. Dorylaeum [Fhry;iia). Soliman, the Turkish sultan of Iconium, having retired from the defense of Nica.-a, his capital, was here defeated with great loss by the Cru- saders, July 1, 10'J7. Douglas. An ancient noble family of Scotland. The earls of Douglas, the earls of Angus, and the earls of Morton belonged to this family. Sir James Douglas, sur- named "The Good," was the founder <>f their fame and grandeur. He commanded the left wing at Bannockburn in 1.314, and was killed by the Saracens in .'3 and 1582, but recovered by Abbas the (ireat, lf>04; after being several times cap- tured, it was ceded to Persia, 170'.». The Russians blockaded this place during six months in 1808, and were repulsed, with freat slaughter, in an attempt to storm it. n 1827, however, it was Utken by them. Ermin. An order of knights" instituted in 14.J0. by Francis I., duke of Bretagne, and which formerly subsisted in France. The collar of this o'rder was of gold, com- posed of cars of corn in saltirc, at the end of which hung the ermine, with the in- 646 APPENDIX. scription a ma vie. But the order expired when the dukedom of Bretagne was an- nexed to France. Erouad, or Erroad. A town of Hindos- tan, in the province of Coimhetoor. This town was reduced in size during the reign of Tippoo Sahib ; and during the invasion of Gen. Meadows the town was destroyed. It was taken by the British in 1790, and retaken by Tippoo; but it came into the final possession of the British, along with the province, in 1799. Evans Rifle. See Magazine Guns. F. Fabian. Delaying ; dilatory ; avoiding battle, in imitation of Quintus Fabius Maxi- mus Verrucosus, a Eoman general who con- ducted military operations against Hannibal, by declining to risk a battle in the open field, but harassing the enemy by marches, coun- termarches, and ambuscades. G. Gad. The first-born of Zilpah, Leah's maid, was the seventh son of Jacob. The tribe of Gad numbered in the wilderness of Sinai more than 40,000 fighting-men. No- madic by nature, they preferred to remain on the east side of Jordan, and were reluctantly allowed to do so by Joshua, on condition of assisting their countrymen in the conquest and subjugation o'f Canaan. The men of Gad — if we may judge from the eleven war- riors who joined David in his extremity — were a race of stalwart heroes ; " men of might, and men of war, fit for the battle, that could handle shield and buckler, whose faces were like the faces of lions, and were as swift as the roes upon the mountains." Gomer Chamber. Chamber of the 24- pounder Coehorn mortar; it is in the form of a frustum of a cone, superior diameter 3 inches, and inferior, 2 inches. Gore. In heraldry, a charge consisting of one-third of the shield cut otf by two arched lines, one drawn from the dexter or sinister chief, and the other from the bottom of the escutcheon, meeting in the fess point. A gore sinister is enumerated by heralds as one of the abatements or marks of dishonor borne for unknightly conduct. See Gusset. Guelf, Guelph, or Welf. The name of a noble family in Germany, the founder of which lived in the time of Charlemacrne. H. Half Merlons. The merlons at the ends of the parapet. Harrow. In a military sense, means to lay waste ; to ravage ; to destroy. Here. Is a word used by soldiers at a regimental roll-call, to intimate their pres- ence. M. Magnano. In Northern Italy ; here Scherer and a French army were defeated by the Austrians under Kray, April 5, 1799. Mars. The name of the Koman god of war, was a contraction of Mavors. He was supposed to be a son of Jupiter and Juno, and was identified with the Ares of Greek my- thology. According to Ovid he was a son of Juno, but had no father. Homer and other poets relate that Mars fought for the Trojans at the siege of Troy, and was wounded by Diomede. Mars was believed to love war for its own sake, and to dejight in carnage. He is usually represented as a grim soldier in full armor, — sometimes as driving furiously in a war-chariot. Moliones, or Molionidae. Regarded as the sons of Neptune (Poseidon) ; according to Homer the Moliones, when yet boys, took part in an expedition of the Epeans against Neleus and the Pylians. When Hercules marched against Augeas, the latter intrusted the conduct of the war to the Moliones ; but as Hercules was taken ill, he concluded peace with Augeas, whereupon his army was at- tacked and defeated by the Molionidas. In order to take vengeance, he afterwards slew them near Cleonffi, on the frontiers of Ar- golis. Their sons, Amphimachus and Thal- pius, led the Epeans to Troy. N. Nugent. The name of a noble family, originally from Normandy, who settled in Ireland in the 12th century. Richard Nu- gent was created by King James I. earl of Westmeath in 1621. George Thomas John Nugent, born in 1785, became marquis of Westmeath in 1822. Sir George Nugent, grandson of Viscount Clare, born in 1757, served in America and the Netherlands. He was successively appointed governor of Ja- maica and commander-in-chief of the army in the West Indies, and in 1846 field-mar- shal. Died in 1849. His brother. Sir Charles Edmund Nugent, served with distinction under Rodnev, and was created admiral of the blue in 1808. In 1833 he received the title of admiral of the fleet. Died in 1844. P. Paneas, or Panius (Syria). Here Antio- chus the Great defeated Scopas, the Egyptian general, and his Greek allies, 198 b.c. Percy. The name of an ancient and noble English family, descended from William de Percy, who, in the reign of William the Conqueror, possessed several manors in the counties of Lincoln and York. He was probably a Norman. In the reign of Edward I. a Henry de Percy acquired Alnwick and other estates in Northumberland. Another Henry de Percy, in the reign of Edward III., married Mary Plantagenet, a great- ARTICLES OF WAR. 647 granddaughter of King Henry III., and hud two sons, Henry, earl of Northiimbor- hind, and Tlumias, earl of Worcester. Henry Perey, surnained Hotspur, u sou of Henry last named, rebelled against Henry IV., and was killed at the battle of Shrewsbury (1403). A son of Hotspur was restored to the earl- dom, fought for the hou.se of Lancaster, and fell at Saint Albans, in 14/J5, leaving .several suns, who were killed in the war of the Koses. In the reign of Elizabeth, a Percy, earl of Northumberland, was executed for rebellion (1572). Pharaoh. The term applied in the Bible to the kings of Egypt, of whicli many ex- planations have been proposed, as pa-ra, "the sun;" pi-ouro, "the king;" per-aa, "the great house," "court;" pa-rn-anh, or " the living sun." None of these etymolo- gies are altogether satisfactory, some not being found at an early period. It is still less possible to connect it with the name of any Egyptian monarch, and it must have been a common appellation like khan, arsar, or czn?-. Pharaoli is the one under whom the Israelites were in bondage, and who compelled them to build the treasure-cities of Pithom and Kameses of bricks ; and it was under him or his successor that Egypt was afHicted with the ten plagues, and that Moses and Aaron led the Israelites out of Egypt, and the Egyptian army in its pur- suit of the retreating Israelites was drowned in the sea, although it is doubtful if Pharaoh perished with them. The identical Egyptian monarch who was the Pharaoh of the Exo- dus has been a subject of dispute, but it is principally confined to the period of the eighteenth and nineteenth dynasties. The other Pharaohs mentioned in the Bible are the father of Hadad the Edomite, supposed to be a king of the twentj'-second dynasty ; the father-in-law of Solomon ; one of the prede- cessors of Sheshanka or Shishak ; that mon- arch himself, who overran the Holy Land and pillaged Jerusalem ; Tirhakah the Ethio- pian, who for a time wrested Egypt from the Assyrians; Nekau or Nccho ll., who in- vaded Palestine to reduce it to subjection, then in alliance with the As.syrians, but was tiiuilly defeated at C'archcniish by Nebuchad- nezzar, then at a youthful age, GOO H.c. ; and Uah-pa-ru, Hophraor Aprie:*, of the twenty- ! sixth dynasty, who marched to relieve tno , siege of Jerusalem, causing the Babylonians to retire for a while, althougii it was tinally taken by Nebuchadnezzar, 588 H.c. It is remarkable that the Etliioi.iau Kings Zerah and so mentioned in the Bible are not styled I Pharaohs, like the Egyptian rulers, as if for I some rea.son thev hatiHot the same title or I were recognized as lawful rulers of the country. ; Phyiarque (Fr.). A Grecian cavalry I officer who commanded the cavalry of his ; tribe. i ^' Reichenbach (Prussia). Here was signed a subsidy treaty between Kussia, Prus.-ia, and England, whereby the last engaged to provide means for carrying on the war against Napoleon I. on certain conditions, June 14-15, 1813. Austria joined the alli- ance soon after. Here Duroc was killed during the conflicts between the French and the allies, May 22, 1813. S. Shako. A kind of military cap. Tesserae Militares. Military watchwords, or countersigns, among the ancient Romans. V. Viana. A town of Portugal, in the prov- ince of Minho, situated on the Lima, 38 miles north from Oporto. This place sur- rendered to Admiral Sir Charles Napier in the civil war which deprived Don Miguel of the throne of Portugal. ARTICLES OF WAR. Section 1342. The armies of the I'nited States shall be governed by the following rules and articles. The word officer, as used therein, shall be understood to desig- nate commissioned officers ; the word sol- dier shall be understood to include non- commissioned officers, niu.oicians, artillocrs, and jirivatcs, and other enlisted men, and the convictions mentioned therein shall be un- derstood to be convictii>ns by court-martial. Article 1. Every officer now in the Army of the United States shall, within six months from the passing of this act, and every officer hereafter ap|K>inted shall, before he enters upon the duties of his office, subscribe these rules and articles. Art. 2. These rules and articles shall be read to every enlisted man at the time of, or within six days after, his enlistment, and he shall thereupon take an oath or affirma- tion, in the following form: •'!, A B, do solemnly swear (or affirm j that 1 will bear 648 APPENDIX. true faith and allegiance to the United States of America; that I will serve them honestly and faithfully against all their enemies whomsoever; and that I will obey the orders of the President of the United States, and the orders of the officers ap- pointed over me, according to the Rules and Articles of War." This oath may be taken before any commissioned officer of the Army. Art. 3. Every officer who knowingly enlists or musters into the military service any minor over the age of sixteen years without the written consent of his parents or guardians, or any minor under the age of sixteen years, or any insane or intoxi- cated persons, or any deserter from the mili- tary or naval service of the United States, or any person who has been convicted of any infamous criminal offense, shall, upon conviction, be dismissed from the service, or suffer such other punishment as a court- martial may direct. Art. 4. No enlisted man, duly sworn, shall be discharged from the service without a discharge in writing, signed by a field- officer of the regiment to which he belongs, or by the commanding officer, when no field- officer is present ; and no discharge shall be given to any enlisted man before his term of service has expired, except by order of ' the President, the Secretary of War, the commanding officer of a department, or by sentence of a general court-martial. Art. 5. Any officer who knowingly musters as a soldier a person who is not a soldier shall be deemed guilty of knowingly making a false muster, and punished accord- ingly. Art. 6. Any officer who takes money, or other thing, by way of gratification, on mustering any regiment, troop, battery, or company, or on signing muster-rolls, shall be dismissed from the service, and shall thereby be disabled to hold any office or employment in the service of the United States. Art. 7. Every officer commanding a regiment, an independent troop, battery, or company, or a garrison, shall, in the begin- ning of every month, transmit through the proper channels, to the Department of War, an exact return of the same, specifying the names of the officers then absent from their posts, with the reasons for and the time of their absence. And any officer who, through neglect or design, omits to send such returns, shall, on conviction thereof, be punished as a court-martial may di- rect. Art. 8. Every officer who knowingly makes a false return to the Department of War, or to any of his superior officers, authorized to call for such returns, of the state of the regiment, troop or company, or garrison under his command ; or of the arms, ammunition, clothing, or other stores thereunto belonging, shall, on conviction thereof before a court-martial, be cashiered. Art. 9. All public stores taken from the enemy shall be secured for the service of the United States ; and for neglect thereof the commanding officer shall be answerable. Art. 10. Every officer commanding a troop, battery, or company, is charged with the arms, accoutrements, ammunition, cloth- ing, or other military stores belonging to his command, and is accountable to his colonel in case of their being lost, spoiled, or damaged otherwise than by unavoidable accident, or on actual service. Art. 11. Every officer commanding a regiment or an independent troop, battery, or company, not in the field, may, when actually quartered with such command, grant furloughs to the enlisted men, in such numbers and for such time as he shall deem consistent with the good of the service. Every officer commanding a regiment, or an independent troop, battery, or company, in the field, may grant furloughs not ex- ceeding thirty days at one time, to five per centum of the enlisted men, for good con- duct in the line of duty, but subject to the approval of the commander of the forces of which said enlisted men form a part. Every company officer of a regiment, commanding any troop, battery, or companj^ not in the field, or commanding in any garrison, fort, post, or barrack, may, in the absence of his field-officer, grant furloughs to the enlisted men, for a time not exceeding twenty days in six months, and not to more than two persons to be absent at the same time. Art. 12. At every muster of a regiment, troop, battery, or company, the command- ing officer thereof shall give to the muster- ing officer certificates, signed by himself, stating how long absent officers have been absent and the reasons of their absence. And the commanding officer of every troop, battery, or company shall give like certifi- cates, stating how long absent non-commis- sioned officers and private soldiers have been absent and the reasons of their absence. Such reasons and time of absence shall be inserted in the muster-rolls opposite the names of the respective absent officers and soldiers ; and the certificates, together with the muster-rolls, shall be transmitted by the mustering officer to the Department of War, as speedily as the distance of the place and muster will admit. Art. 13. Every officer who signs a false certificate, relating to the absence or pay of an officer or soldier, shall be dismissed from the service. Art. 14. Any officer who knowingly makes a false muster of man or horse, or who signs, or directs, or allows the signing of any muster-roll, knowing the same to contain a false muster, shall, upon proof thereof by two witnesses, before a court- martial, be dismissed from the service, and shall thereby be disabled to hold any office or employment in the service of the United States. Art. 15. Any officer who, willfully or ARTICLES OP WAR. 649 llirougli net;lect, suflers to be lost, spoiled, or daiiiaiijcd, uny military stores belonging to the United States, shall make good the loss or damage, and be dismissed from the service. Art. 16. Any enlisted man who sells, or willfully or through neglect wastes the ammunition delivered out to him, shall be punished as a court-martial may direct. Art. 17. Any soldier who sells or, through neglect, loses or spoils his horse, arms, clothing, or accoutrements, shall suf- fer such stoppages, not exceeding one-half of his current pay, as a court-martial may deem sufficient for repairing the loss <>r damage, and shall be punished by confine- ment or such other corporal punishment as the court may direct. Art. 18. Any officer commanding in any garrison, fort, or barracks of the United States who, for his private advantage, lays any duty or imposition upon, or is inter- ested in, the sale of any victuals, liquors, or other necessaries of life, brought into such garrison, fort, or barracks, for the use of the soldiers, shall be dismissed from the service. Art. 19. Any officer who uses contempt- uous or disrespectful words against the President, the Vice-President, the Congress of the United States, or the chief magistrate or legislature of any of the United States in which he is quartered, shall be dismissed from the service, or otherwise punished as a court-martial may direct. Any soldier who so offends shall be punished as a court-mar- tial may direct. Art. 20. Any officer or soldier who be- haves himself with disrespect towards his commanding officer shall be punished as a court-martial may direct. Art. 21. Any officer or soldier who, on any pretense whatsoever, strikes his supe- rior officer, or draws or lifts up any weapon, or offers any vit)lence against him, being in the execution of his ofhce, or disobeys any lawful command of his superior officer, shall suffer death, or such other punishment as a court-martial may direct. Art. 22. Any officer or soldier who be- gins, excites, causes, or joins in any mutiny or sedition, in any troop, battery, company, n, post, detachment, or guard, shall suf- eath, or such other punishment as a court-martial may direct. Art. 23. Any officer or soldier who, being present at any mutiny or sedition, does not use his utmost endeavor to suppress the same, or having knowledge of any in- tended mutiny or sedition, does not, without delay, give information thereof to his com- manding officer, shall suffer death, or such other punishment as a court-martial may direct. Art. 24. All officers, of what condition soever, have power to part and quell all quarrels, frays, and disorders, whether among persons belonging to his own or to another corps, regiment, troop, battery, or 42 company, and to order officers into arrest, and non-commissioned officers and soldiers into confinement, who take part in the same, until their proper sujK-rior officer is ac- quainted therewith. And whosoever, being so ordered, refuses to obey such officer or non-commissioned officer, or draws a weapon upon him, shall be punished as a court-martial may direct. Art. 25. No officer or soldier shall use any reproachful or provoking 8|>eeche8 or gestures to another. Any officer who so offends shall be jiut in arrest. Any soldier who so offends shall be confined, and re- quired to ask pardon of the party offended, in the presence of the commanding officer. Art. 26. No officer or soldier shall send a challenge to another officer or soldier to fight a duel, or accept a challenge so sent. Any officer who so offends shall be dismissed from the service. Any soldier who so offends shall sutt'er such corporal punishment as a court-martial may direct. Art. 27. Any officer or non-commis- sioned officer, commanding a guard, who, knowingly and willingly, suffers any person to go forth to fight a duel, shall be punished as a challenger ; and all seconds or pro- moters of duels, and carriers of challenges to fight duels, shall be deemed principals, and punished accordingly. It shall be the duty of any officer commanding an army, regiment, troop, battery, company, post, or detachment, who knows or has retison to believe that a challenge has been given or accepted by any officer or enlisted man under his command, immediately to arrest the offender and bring him to trial. Art. 28. Any officer or soldier who up- braids another officer or soldier for refusing a challenge shall himself bo punished as a challenger ; and all officers and soldiers are hereby discharged from any disgrace or opinion of disadvantage which might arise from their having refused to acrt-pt chal- lenges, as they will only have acted in obe- dience to the law, and have done their duty as good soldiers, who subject themselves to discipline. Art. 29. Any officer who thinks himself wronged bj' the commanding officer of his regiment, and, upon due application to such commander, is refused retlress. may com- plain to the general commanding in the State or Territory where such regiment is stationed. The general shall examine into said complaint and Uike proper measures for redressing the wrong complained of; and ho shall, as soon as j)ossible, transmit to the Department of War a true statement of such complaint, with the prvx^eedinga had thereon. Art. 30. Any soldier who thinks himself wronged by any officer may complain to the commanding officer of his regiment, who shall summon a regimental court-martial for the doing of justice to the complainant. Either party may ap|)eal from such regi- mental court-martial to a general court- martial ; but if, upon such second hearing, 650 APPENDIX. the appeal appears to be groundless and vexatious, the party appealing shall be pun- ished at the discretion of said general court- martial. Art. 31. Any officer or soldier who lies out of his quarters, garrison, or camp, with- out leave from his superior officer, shall be punished as a court-martial may direct. Art. 32. Any soldier who absents him- self from his troop, battery, company, or de- tachment, without leave from his command- ing officer, shall be punished as a court- martial may direct. Art. 83. Any officer or soldier who fails, except when prevented by sickness or other necessity, to repair, at the fixed time, to the place of parade, exercise, or other rendez- vous appointed by his commanding officer, or goes from the same, without leave from his commanding officer, before he is dis- missed or relieved, shall be punished as a court-martial may direct. Art. 34. Any soldier who is found one mile from camp, without leave in writing from his commanding officer, shall be pun- ished as a court-martuil may direct. Art. 35. Any soldier who fails to retire to his quarters or tent at the beating of re- treat, shall be punished according to the nature of his offense. Art. 36. No soldier belonging to any regiment, troop, battery, or company shall hire another to do his duty for him, or be excused from duty, except in cases of sick- ness, disability, or leave of absence. _ Every such soldier found guilty of hiring his duty, and the person so hired to do another's duty, shall be punished as a court-martial may direct. _ Art. 37. Every non-commissioned officer who connives at such hiring of duty shall be reduced. Every officer who knows and allows such practices shall be punished as a court-martial may direct. Art. 38. Any officer who is found drunk on his guard, party, or other duty, shall be dismissed from the service. Any soldier who so offends shall suffer such punishment as a court-martial may direct. No court- martial shall sentence any soldier to be branded, marked, or tattooed. Art. 39. Any sentinel who is found sleeping upon his post, or who leaves it be- fore he is regularly relieved, shall suffer death, or such other punishment as a court- martial may direct. Art. 40. Any officer or soldier who quits his guard, platoon, or division, without leave from his superior officer, except in a case of urgent necessity, shall be punished as a court-martial may direct. Art. 41. Any officer who, by any means whatsoever, occasions false alarms in camp, garrison, or quarters, shall suffer death, or such other punishment as a court-martial may direct. Art. 42. Any officer or soldier who mis- behaves himself before the enemy, runs away, or shamefully abandons any fort, post, or guard, which he is commanded to defend, or speaks words inducing others to do the like, or casts away his arms or am- munition, or quits his post or colors to plun- der or pillage, shall suffer death, or such other punishment as a court-martial may direct. Art. 43. If any commander of any gar- rison, fortress, or post is compelled, by the officers and soldiers under his command, to give up to the enemy or to abandon it, the officers or soldiers so offending shall suffer death, or such other punishment as a court- martial may direct. Art. 44. Any person belonging to the armies of the United States who makes known the watch-word to any person not en- titled to receive it, according to the rules and discipline of war, or presumes to give a parole or watch-word different from that which he received, shall suffer death, or such other punishment as a court-martial may direct. Art. 45. Whosoever relieves the enemy with money, victuals, or ammunition, or knowingly harbors or protects an enemy, shall suffer death, or such other punishment as a court-martial may direct. Art. 46. Whosoever holds correspond- ence with, or gives intelligence to, the ene- my, either directly or indirectly, shall suffer death, or such other punishment as a court- martial may direct. Art. 47. Any officer or soldier who, having received pay, or having been duly enlisted in the service of the United States, deserts the same, shall, in time of war, suffer death, or such other punishment as a court- martial may direct; and in time of peace, any punishment, excepting death, which a court-martial may direct. Art. 48. Every soldier who deserts the service of the United States shall be liable to serve for such period as shall, with the time he may have served previous to his de- sertion, amount to the full term of his en- listment ; and such soldier shall be tried by a court-martial and punished, although the term of his enlistment may have elapsed previous to his being apprehended and tried. Art. 49. Any officer who, having tendered his resignation, quits his post or proper duties, without leave, and with intent to re- main permanently absent therefrom, prior to due notice of the acceptance of the same, shall be deemed and punished as a de- serter. Art. 50. No non-commissioned officer or soldier shall enlist himself in anj' other regi- ment, troop, or company, without a regular discharge from the regiment, troop, or com- pany in which he last served, on a penalty of being reputed a deserter, and suffering accordingly. And in case any officer shall knowingly receive and entertain such non- commissioned officer or soldier, or shall not, after his being discovered to be a deserter, immediately confine him and give notice thereof to the corps in which he last served, ARTICLES OP WAR. 661 > the said officer shall, by a court martial, be cashiered. Akt. 51. Any officer or soldier who ad- vises or persuades any other officer or soldier to desert the service of the United Stales, shall, in time of war, suffer death, or such other punishment as a court-martial may direct; and in time of peace, any punish- ment, excepting death, which a court-mar- tiiil may direct. Art. .'J2. It is earnestly recommended to all officers and soldiers diligently to attend divine service. Any officer who behaves in- decently or irreverently at any place of divine worship shall be brought before a general court-martial, there to be publicly and severely reprimanded by the president thereof. Any .soldier who so offends shall, for his first offense, forfeit one-sixth of a dollar; for each further offense he shall for- feit a like sum, and shall be confined twenty- four hours. The money so forfeited shall be deducted from his next pay, and shall bo applied, bv the captain or senior officer of his troop, battery, or company, to the use of the sick soldiers of the same. Art. 53. Any officer who uses any pro- fane oath or execration shall, for each offense, forfeit and pay one dollar. Any soldier who so offends shall incvir the penalties provided in the preceding article ; and all moneys for- feited for such offense shall be applied as therein provided. Art. 54. Every officer commanding in quarters, garrison, or on the march, shall keep good order, and, to the utmost of his power, redress all abuses or disorders which may be committed by any officer or soldier under his command ; and if, upon complaint made to him of officers or soldiers beating or otherwise ill-treating any person, disturb- ' ing fairs or markets, or ct)mmitting any kind j of riot, to the disquieting of the citizens of the United States, he refuses or omits to see i justice done to the offender, and reparation made to the party injured, so far as part of 1 the ofl'ender's pay shall go towards such '• reparation, he shall be dismissed from the ' service, or otherwise punished, as a court- martial maj' direct. Art. 55. All officers and soldiers are to behave themselves orderly in quarters and on the march ; and whoever commits any waste or spoil, either in walks or trees, parks, warrens, fish-ponds, houses, gardens, grain- fields, inclosures, or meadows, or maliciously destroys any property whatsoever belonging to inhabitants of the United States (unless by order of a general officer commanding a separate army in the field), shall, besides such penalties as he may be liable to by law, be punished as a court-martial may direct. Art. 56. Any officer or soldier who does violence to any person bringing provisions or other necessaries to the camp, garrison, or quarters of the forces of the United States in foreign parts, shall suffer death, or such other punishment as a court-nuirtial may direct. Art. 57. Whosoever, belonging to the armies of the United States in foreign parts, or at any place within the United States or their Territories during rebellion against the sui>reme authority of the United States, forces a safeguard, »hall suffer death. Art. 58. In time of war, insurrection, or rebellion, larcony, robbery, burglary, ar- son, mayhem, manslaughter, murder, a.ssault and battery with an intent to kill, wound- ing, by shooting or stabbing, with an intent to commit murder, rafio, or assault and bat- tery with an intent to cointnit rape, shall be punishable by the sentence of a general court-martial, when committed by persons in the military service of the United States, and the punishment in any such ca.oso of obtaining, or aiding others to obtain, the anjiroval, allow- ance, or payment of any claim against the United States or any officer thereof, makes, 652 APPENDIX. or procures or advises tlie making of, any oath to any fact, or to any writing or other paper, knowing such oath to be false ; or Who, for the purpose of obtaining, or aiding others to obtain, the approval, allow- ance, or payment of anj' claim against the United States or any officer thereof, forges or counterfeits, or procures or advises the forging or counterfeiting of, any signature upon any writing or other paper, or uses, or procures or advises the use of, any such sig- nature, knowing the same to be forged or counterfeited ; or Who, having charge, possession, custody, or control of any money or other property of the United States, furnished or intended for the military service thereof, knowingly delivers, or caxises to be delivered, to any person having authority to receive the same, any amount thereof less than that for which he receives a certificate or receipt ; or Who, being authorized to make or deliver any paper certifying the receipt of any property of the United States, furnished or intended for the military service thereof, makes, or delivers to any person, such writ- ing, without having full knowledge of the truth of the statements therein contained, and with intent to defraud the United States ; or Who steals, embezzles, knowingly and willfully misappropriates, applies to his own use or benefit, or wrongfully or knowingly sells or disposes of any ordnance, arms, equipments, ammunition, clothing, subsist- ence stores, money, or other property of the United States, furnished or intended for the military service thereof ; or Who knowingly purchases, or receives in pledge for any obligation or indebtedness, from any soldier, officer, or other person who is a part of or employed in said forces or service, any ordnance, arms, equipments, ammunition, clothing, subsistence stores, or other property of the United States, such soldier, officer, or other person not having lawful right to sell or pledge the same. Shall, on conviction thereof, be punished by fine or imprisonment, or by such other punishment as a court-martial may adjudge. And if any person, being guilty of any of the offenses aforesaid, while in the military service of the United States, receives his discharge, or is dismissed from the service, he shall continue to be liable to be arrested and held for trial and sentence by a court- martial, in the same manner and to the same extent as if he had not received such dis- charge nor been dismissed. Art. 61. Any officer who is convicted of conduct unbecoming an officer and a gentle- man shall be dismissed from the service. Art. 62. All crimes not capital, and all disorders and neglects, which officers and soldiers may be guilty of, to the prejudice of good order and military discipline, though not mentioned in the foregoing Articles of War, are to be taken cognizance of by a general, or a regimental, garrison, or field- officers' court-marshal,* according to the nature and degree of the offense, and pun- ished at the discretion of said court. Art. 63. All retainers to the camp, and all persons serving with the armies of the United States in the field, though not en- listed soldiers, are to be subject to orders, according to the rules and discipline of war. Art. 64. The officers and soldiers of any troops, whether militia or others, mustered and in pay of the United States, shall, at all times and in all places, be governed by the Articles of War, and shall be subject to be tried by courts-martial. Art. 65. Officers charged with crime shall be arrested and confined in their bar- racks, quarters, or tents, and deprived of their swords by the commanding officer. And any officer who leaves his confinement before he is set at liberty by his command- ing officer shall be dismissed from the ser- vice. Art. 66. Soldiers charged with crimes shall be confined until tried by court-mar- tial, or released by proper authority. Art. 67. No provost-marshal, or officer commanding a guard, shall refuse to receive or keep anj' prisoner committed to his charge by an officer belonging to the forces of the United States ; provided the officer commit- ting shall, at the same time, deliver an ac- count in writing, signed by himself, of the crime charged against the prisoner. Art. 68. Every officer to whose charge a prisoner is committed shall, within twenty- four hours after such commitment, or as soon as he is relieved from his guard, report in writing, to the commanding officer, the name of such prisoner, the crime charged against him, and the name of the officer committing him ; and if he fails to make such report, he shall be punished as a court- martial may direct. Art. 69. Any officer who presumes, without proper authority, to release any prisoner committed to his charge, or suffers any prisoner so committed to escape, shall be punished as a court-martial may direct. Art. 70. No officer or soldier put in arrest shall be continued in confinement more than eight days, or until such time as a court-martial can be assembled. Art. 71. When an officer is put in arrest for the purpose of trial, except at remote military posts or stations, the officer by whose order he is arrested shall see that a copy of the charges on which he is to be tried is served upon him within eight da\'3 after his arrest, and that he is brought to trial within ten days thereafter, unless the necessities of the service prevent such trial ; and then he shall be brought to trial within thirty days after the expiration of said ten days. If a copy of the charges be not served, or the arrested officer be not brought to trial, as herein required, the arrest shall 1= Court-martial. ARTICLES OP WAR. 053 cease. But officers released from arrest, under the provisions of this article, may be tried, whenever the exigencies of the service shall permit, within twelve months after such release from arrest. Art. 72. Any general officer, command- ing the army of the United States, a sepa- rate army, or a separate department, shall be competent to appoint a general court- martial, either in time of peace or in time of war. But when any such commander is the accuser or prosecutor of any officer under his command, the court shall be ap- pointed by the President, and its proceed- ings and sentence shall be sent directly to the Secretary of War, by whom they shall be laid before the President, for his approval or orders in the case. Art. 73. In time of war the commander of a division, or of a separate brigade of troops, shall be competent to appoint a gen- era! court-martial. But when such com- mander is the accuser or prosecutor of any person under his command, the court shall DC appointed by the next higher commander. Art. 74. Officers who may appoint a court-martial shall be competent to appoint a judge-advocate for the same. Art. 75. General courts-martial may consist of any number of officers from live to thirteen, inclusive; but they shall not consist of less than thirteen when that num- ber can be convened without manifest injury to the service. Art. 7G. When the requisite number of officers to form a general court-martial is not present in any post or detachment, the commanding officer shall, in cases which require the cognizance of such a court, report to the commanding officer of the department, who shall, thereupon, order a court to be assembled at the nearest post or department at which there may be such a requisite number of officers, and shall order the party accused, with necessary witnesses, to be transported to the place where the said court shall be assembled. Art. 77. Officers of the Regular Army shall not be competent to sit on courts-mar- tial to try the officers or soldiers of other forces, except as provided in Article 78. Art. 78. Officers of the Marine Corps, detached for service with the Army oy order of the President, may be associated •with officers of the Regular Army on courts-martial for the trial of ofTendcrs be- longing to the Regular Army, or to forces of the Marino Corps so detached; and in such cases the orders of the senior officer of cither corps who may be present and duly authorized, shall be obeyed. Art. 70. Officers shall be tried only by general courts-martial ; and no officer shall, when it can be avoided, be tried by officers inferior to him in rank. Art. 80. In time of war a field-officer may l)e detailed in every regiment, to try soldiers thereof for otlenses not capital ; and no soldier, serving with his regiment, shall be tried by a regimental* garrison court- martial when a field-officer of his regiment mav be so detailed. Art. 81. Every officer commanding a regiment or corps shall, subject to the pro- visions of article eighty, be competent to appoint, for his own regiment or corps, courts-martial, consisting of three officers, to try oflenscs not capital. Art. 82. Every officer commanding a garrison, fort, or other place, where the troops consist of diflferent corps, shall, 8ul>- ject to the provisions of article eighty, be competent to appoint, for such garrison or other place, courts-martial, consisting of three officers, to try ofl^enses not capital. Art. 83. Regimental and garrison courts- martial, and field-officers detailed to try offenders, shall not have power to try cap- ital cases or commissioned officers, or to inflict a fine exceeding one month's pay, or to imprison or put to hard labor anv non- commissioned officer or soldier for a longer time than one month. Art. 84. The judge-advocate shall ad- minister to each member of the court, be- fore they proceed upon any trial, the follow- ing oath, which shall also be taken by all members of regimental and garrison court-- martial: "You, A B, do swear that you will well and truly try and determine, ac- cording to evidence, the matter now before you, between the United States of America and the prisoner to be tried, and that you will duly administer justice, without par- tiality, favor, or affection, according to the provisions of the rules and articles for the government of the armies of the United States, and if any doubt should arise, not explained l)y said articles, then according to your conscience, the best of your under- standing, and the custom of war in like ca.ses ; and you do further swear that you will not divulge the sentence of the court until it shall be published by the proper authorities ; neither will you disclose or discover the vote or opinion of any jiartic- ular member of the court-martial, unless required to give evidence thereof, as a wit- ness, by a court of justice, in a due course of law. So help you God.'" Art. 85. When the onth has been ad- ministered to the members of a court-mar- tial, the president of the court shall admin- ister to the judge-advocate, or person officia- ting as such, an oath in the following form : " You, A B, do swear that you will not dis- close or discover the vote or opinion of any particular member of the court-martial, un- less required to give evidence thereof, as a witness, by a court of justice, in due course of law ; nor divulge the sentence of the court to any but the proner authority, until it shall be'duly discloseu by the same. So help vou God." Art. 86. A court-martial may punish, at discretion, any person who uses any •The word or omitted fmni the roll. 654 APPENDIX. menacing words, signs or gestures, in its presence, or who disturbs its proceedings by any riot or disorder. Art. 87. All members of a court-martial are to behave with decency and calmness. Art. 88. Members of a court-martial may be challenged by a prisoner, but only for cause stated to the court. The court shall determine the relevancy and validity thereof, and shall not receive a challenge to more than one member at a time. Art. 89. When a prisoner, arraigned be- fore a general court-martial, from obstinacy and deliberate design, stands mute, or an- swers foreign to the purpose, the court may proceed to trial and judgment, as if the prisoner had pleaded not guilty. Art. 90. The judge-advocate, or some person deputed by him, or by the general or officer commanding the army, detachment, or garrison, shall prosecute in the name of the United States, but when the prisoner has made his plea, he shall so far consider himself counsel for the prisoner as to object to any leading question to any of the wit- nesses, and to any question to the prisoner the answer to which might tend to criminate himself. Art. 91. The depositions of witnesses re- siding beyond the limits of the State, Terri- tory, or District in which any military court may be ordered to sit, if taken on reasonable notice to the opposite party and duly au- thenticated, may be read in evidence before such court in cases not capital. Art. 92. All persons who give evidence before a court-martial shall be examined on oath, or affirmation, in the following form : " You swear (or alBrm) that the evidence you shall give, in the case now in hearing, shall be the truth, the whole truth, and nothing but the truth. So help you God." Art. 93. A court-martial shall, for rea- sonable cause, grant a continuance to either party, for such time, and as often, as may appear to be just: Provided, That if the prisoner be in close confinement, the trial shall not be delayed for a period longer than sixty days. Art. 94. Proceedings of trials shall be carried on only between the hours of eight in the morning and three in the afternoon, excepting in cases which, in the opinion of the officer appointing the court, require im- mediate example. Art. 95. Members of a court-martial, in giving their votes, shall begin with the youngest in commission. Art. 96. No person shall be sentenced to suffer death, except by the concurrence of two-thirds of the members of a general court- martial, and in the cases herein expressly mentioned. Art. 97. No person in the military ser- vice shall, under the sentence of a court- martial, be punished by confinement in a penitentiary, unless the offense of which he may be convicted would, by some statute of the United States, or by some statute of the State, Territory, or District in which such offense maj' be committed, or by the common law, as the same exists in such State, Terri- tory, or District, subject such convict to such punishment. Art. 98. No person in the military ser- vice shall be punished by flogging, or by branding, marking, or tattooing on the body. Art. 99. No officer shall be discharged or dismissed from the service, except by order of the President, or by sentence of a general court-martial ; and in time of peace no officer shall be dismissed, except in pursuance of the sentence of a court-martial, or in mitigation thereof. Art. 100. "When an officer is dismissed from the service for cowardice or fraud, the sentence shall further direct that the crime, punishment, name, and place of abode of the delinquent shall be published in the newspapers in and about the camp, and in the State from which the offender came, or where he usually resides ; and after such publication it shall be scandalous for an offi- cer to associate with him. Art. 101. When a court-martial sus- pends an officer from command, it may also suspend his pay and emoluments for the same time, according to the nature of his oflense. Art. 102. No person shall be tried a sec- ond time for the same offense. Art. 103. No person shall be liable to be tried and punished by a general court-mar- tial for any oflense which appears to have been committed more than two years before the issuing of the order for such trial, unless, by reason of having absented himself, or of some other manifest impediment, he shall not have been amenable to justice within that period. Art. 104. No sentence of a court-mar- tial shall be carried into execution until the whole proceedings shall have been approved by the officer ordering the court, or by the officer commanding for the time being. Art. 105. No sentence of a court-mar- tial, inflicting the punishment of death, shall be carried into execution until it shall have been confirmed by the President ; except in the cases of persons convicted, in time of war, as spies, mutineers, deserters, or mur- derers, and in the cases of guerilla maraud- ers, convicted, in time of war, of robbery, burglary, arson, rape, assault with intent to commit rape, or of violation of the laws and customs of war ; and in such excepted cases the sentence of death may be carried into execution upon confirmation by the com- manding general in the field, or the com- mander of the department, as the case may be. Art. 106. In time of peace no sentence of a court-martial, directing the dismissal of an officer, shall be carried into execution, until it shall have been confirmed by the President. Art. 107. No sentence of a court-mar- ARTICLES OP WAR. 655 tial appointed by the coniinnnder of a di- vision or of a eeparate brigade of troops, directing the dismissal of an oftiocr, shall bo carried into execution until it (shall have been confirmed by the general connnanding the army in the field to which the division or brigade belongs. Akt. 108. No sentence of a court-mar- tial, either in time of peace or in time of war, respecting a general officer, shall be carried into execution, until it shall have been confirmed by the President. Art. 109. Alf sentences of a court-mar- tial may be confirmed and carried into exe- i cution by the officer ordering the court, or ' by the officer commanding for the time being, where confirmation by the President, or by the commanding general in the field, or com- mander of the department, is not required by these articles. Art. 110. No sentence of a field-officer, detailed to try soldiers of his regiment, shall be carried into execution, until the whole proceedings shall have been approved by the j brigade commander, or, in case there be no brigade commander, by the commanding officer of the post. Art. 111. Any officer who has authority to carry into execution the sentence of death, or of dismissal of an officer, may suspend the same until the pleasure of the President shall be known ; and, in such case, he shall immediately transmit to the President a copy of the order of suspension, together with a copy of the proceedings of the court. Art. 112. Every officer who is author- ized to order a general court-martial shall have power to pardon or mitigate any pun- ishment adjudged by it, except the punish- ment of death, or of dismissal of an officer. Every officer commanding a regiment or garrison in which a regimental or garrison court-martial may be held, shall have power to pardon or mitigate any punishment which such court may adjudge. Art. 113. Every judge-advocate, or per- son acting as such, at any general court- martial, shall, with as much expedition as the opportunity of time and distance of place may admit, forward the original pro- ceedings and sentence of such court to the Judge-Advocate General of the Army, in whose office they shall be carefully preserved. Art. 114. Every party tried by a general officer or soldier whose conduct is to bo inquired of. Art. 110. A court of inquiry shall con- sist of one or more officers, not exceeding three, and a recorder, to reduce the proceed- ings and evidence to writing. Art. 117. The recorder of a court of in- quiry shall administer to the members the following oath : " You shall well and truly examine and inquire, according to the evi- dence, into the matter now before you, with- out partiality, favor, attuction, prejudice, or hope of reward. So help you God." After which the president of the court shall ad- minister to the recorder the following oath : " You, A H, do swear that you will, accord- ing to your best abilities, accurately and impartially record the proceedings of the court and the evidence to be given in the case in hearing. So help you God.' court-martial shall, upon demand thereof, made by himself, or by any person in his behalf, be entitled to a copy of the proceed- ings and sentence of such court. Art. 115. A court of inquiry, to examine into the nature of any transaction of, or accusation or imputation against, any officer or soldier, may bo ordered by tho President or by any commanding ofllcer ; but, as courts of inquiry may be perverted to dishonorable purposes, and may be employed, in the hands of weak and envious commandants, as en- gines for tho destruction of military merit, they shall never bo ordered by any command- ing officer, except upon a demand by tho Art. 118. A court of inquiry, and the recorder thereof, shall have tlie same jn>wer to summon and examine witnesses as is given to courts-martial and the judge-advocates thereof. Such witnesses shall take the same oath which is taken by witnesses before courts-martials,* and the party accused shall be permitted to examine and cross- examine them, so as fully to investigate tho circumstances in question. Art. 119. A court of inquiry shall not give an opinion on the merits of the case inquired of unless specially ordered to do so. Art. 120. The proceedings of a court of inquiry must be authenticated by tho signa- tures of the recorder and tho president thereof, and delivered to the commanding officer. Art. 121. The proceedings of a court of inquiry may be admitted as evidence by a court-martial, in cases not capital, nor ex- tending to the dismissal of an officer : Pro- vided, That the circumstances are such that oral testimony caniH>t be obtained. Art. 122. If, upon marches, guards, or in quarters, different corps of the Army happen to join or do duty together, the offi- cer liighest in rank of the line of the Army, Marino Corps, or militia, by commission, there on duty or in quarters, shall command the whole, and give orders for what is needful to the service, unless otherwise spe- cially directed by tho President, according to the nature of the case. Art. 123. In all matters relating to tho rank, duties, and rights of officers, the same rules and regulations shall apply to officers of the Regular Army and to' volunteers commissioned in, or mustered into said ser- vice, under the laws of the United States, for a limited period. Art. 124. Officers of the militia of the several States, when called into the service of the United StJttes, shall on all detach- ments, courts-martial, and other duty wherein they may be omploved in conjunc- tion with the regular or volunteer forces of • Sic in the rolL 656 APPENDIX. the United States, take rank next after all officers of the like grade in said regular or volunteer forces, notwithstanding the com- missions of such militia officers may be older than the commissions of the said officers of the regular or volunteer forces of the United States. Art. 125. In case of the death of any officer, the major of his regiment, or the officer doing the major's duty, or the second officer in command at any post or garrison, as the case may be, shall immediately se- cure all his effects then in camp or quarters, and shall make, and transmit to the office of the Department of War, an inventory thereof. Art. 126. In case of the death of any soldier, the commanding officer of his troop, battery, or company shall immediately se- cure all his effects then in camp or quarters, and shall, in the presence of two other offi- cers, make an inventory thereof, which he shall transmit to the office of the Depart- ment of War. Art. 127. Officers charged with the care of the effects of deceased officers or soldiers shall account for and deliver the same, or the proceeds thereof, to the legal representa- tives of such deceased officers or soldiers. And no officer so charged shall be permitted to quit the regiment or post until he has de- posited in the hands of the commanding officer all the effects of such deceased officers or soldiers not so accounted for and deliv- ered. Art. 128. The foregoing articles shall be read and published, once in everj' six months, to every garrison, regiment, troop, or company in the service of the United States, and shall be duly observed and obeyed by all officers and soldiers in said service. Sec. 1343. All persons who, in time of war, or of rebellion against the supreme authority of the United States, shall be found lurking or acting as spies, in or about any of the fortifications, posts, quarters, or encampments of any of the armies of the United States, or elsewhere, shall be triable by a general court-martial, or by a military commission, and shall, on conviction there- of, suffer death. INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS. {For description of Illustrations, see body of work.) PIATB Abntis 1 Acinace 1 Allleltes 1 Aiminii; kneeling 1 Aiming, Hitii an overhead rest... 1 Aiming, aiind-bog rest 1 Alman-riveti 1 Amazon 29 Ambulance 1 American Indians 28 Amiisutte 1 Aniacc 1 Apiircjo 1 Aqueduct 1 Arbalest - 1 ArbnlcRt „ 1 Arbaletricr 26 Arch 1 Arcliors, 1470 (France) 27 Argoulet 29 Arquebuse 1 Artificer of Artillery, 175C (France) 20 Back-plate _ 3 Bagpipe 1 Bal.lrick 3 Ballieta 3 Balloon 3 Ban, Arrlt^re (France) 31 Banduuliere 3 Bonnert 3 Barbacan 3 Baril-foudruyant 3 Barricade 2 Bar-shut 3 Barti7.an 3 Ba.scule Bridge 1 Btt.-tinado 3 Btistion 2 Battering-ram 1 Battery- wngun 3 Battle-axe 1 Battlement 1 BayonoU, 17th, 18th, 19tli Centu- ries 3 Beaver 1 Bemie 2 Bcrsaglleri _ _ „.. 20 Bill-hook 2 Blind, Gulling 2 HI.KTk-house 1 Block-house 2 Block-house ~«....^ 2 Blocks and TiicklM- 3 Blood-hound 3 Blunderbuss 1 Bonilis 3 Boml>-proof. 3 Boomerang 3 Boiirguignote 3 Brnc.inniere _ 3 Braqiiemart 3 BrH8s:ird 3 PIATK Breech-siglit 3 Bridge (read Bateau bridge) 3 Bridge.Trestle 2 Bridge, Triatle 2 Bridge, Trestle 2 Bridge, Losliing for Trealle 2 Bridge, Frame 2 Bridge, Frame » 2 Bridge, Sling 2 Bridge, Tension 2 Bridge, Suspension '2 Bridge, Suspension 2 Bridges, Holdltksts for 2 Bridle 2 Brigantes _ 26 Broadsword 1 Bucklers 2 Bugle „ 3 Bullet-proof Oato 2 Busby ~ 1 Buskin 3 Oabasset .5 <>iligffi 4 Caltrop .5 Calumet, or Pipe of Peace 19 Candjiar Turc 5 Canister „ 6 Canonnier (Louis XIV.) 26 Canteen 5 Caparison 29 Carabineer (Louis XIV.), France.. 3i Carabineer. Itoly 28 Carbine, 17th Century 4 Carreau 6 Cartridge 6 Cartridge-box 5 Casemate 8-4 Casque 6 Lacedaemonian 6 Boetiao 5 Athenian 6 Of the Dacia 6 Of the DacIa (Infantry) 5 Of the Dacia (Cavalry) 6 French (Cuirassier of the Guard) 6 French (Carabineer) 6 French (Dragoon of the Line) 5 , Oasse-tete 4 I Castellated :> Castle 4 , CaUpult 5 I Catepulta 5 Oit-o'-nine-Uils 5 Cavalry, 18th Century (France)... 3i Bavaria 32 United States 31 Greek (Ancient) 31 Regular (China) 31 Roman 29 Chnln-«hot 5 Chapeau Bras 5 PLATK rii.ipoan (Henry II.) „ 5 Cliapeuu (Hcnrv HI.) _ 5 ChiipeHu (Fruncois I.) 5 Cb«l>eau (l^.uis XV.) 5 Cliapeiiu (Louis XIV.) 5 Chupeau (I-ouis XIII.) 5 Chasseur, Bavaria 28 Chasseur, Tyrolean (Austria) 28 Foot, 1»62 (France) _... 27 Foot (Lonis XV.) 27 Algerian „ ....„ 3U Of the Guanl, Mounted (Fmiice. 1862) 31 Cheval-de-frlso „ „ Cimeterre Cimier „ Claymore _ Clunaculum _ „_ Cnc-mides „ Coat of Mail Co.it of Mall Collelin 5 Colors 4 Corium 5 Cornet, Light Cavalry (Lools XIII.) 30 Corselet 6 Cossack „.. 30 Cr^aneaux .....^ «.. 4 Cros.'t-bow „ _ 6 Crown, Mural _ „.. 5 Crows-foot 6 Cuirass 6 Cuirassier (Pnissia) 32 Cutlass _ 5 Dagger 4 I>aggora _ 4 Diiguee (cut next to DtTic*)„ 4 Ihingcrous Space - 4 Dart „ 4 Decoration 4 Device _........ 4 Diameter 4 Donjon ™ ^ 4 Dragoon, Sepoy „.... ..... S7 Swiiivrbuid „... 32 Austria 32 Drawbridge 4 Drum _ _. 4 Dnim-Major, Francb GuarUs (I'VJ) S7 Of the Grenadirn uf ihe Gnanl, France. 1813 27 KaRlee, lloman _.._..._ _., 6 Kchaugettc „. 4 »u _. 4 Kinbrosura* 4 Knibrasures „ 6 Knidnunro Lining _ 6 KnUiiglrmcnl, Wire 6 K|Mulelte __ 4 K-carp „ 6 EspaJon _ „ 6 657 658 INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS. PLATE Espingole 4 Falariqiie 6 FantasBin (Japan) 28 Fautassin of the Kizam 28 Japan 28 Fasces 6 Fascino 6 Fascine Blind 6 Fascine Choker 7 Fascine Trestle 7 Fascine, Withe for 7 Fire-arrow 6 Fire-ball 6 Fleaux d'Armes 23 Fleches 9 Foil 6 Foot Artillery, Line (France) 27 Fortification — Trenches 6 Gun Pit 6 Military Pits 6 Defense (Hedges) 6 Defense (Screen) 6 Defense (Walls) 6 Defense (Wall) 7 Defense (Stockades) 7 Fraises C Fascine Revetment 6 Fascine Revetment 7 Gabion Revetment 6 Gabion Revetment 7 Sod Revetment 7 Brushwood Revetment 7 Sand-bag Revetment 7 Fascine Stockade 7 Log Stockade 7 Log Loop-hole 7 Brnshwood Loop-hole 7 Sand-bag Loop-hole 7 Breastwork 7 Hurdles 7 Fascines 7 Logs 7 Gun or Gatling-port in Stock- ade 7 Palisades 7 Palisade 18 Profile 7 Lunette 7 Shell-proof 9 Field-works 7 Field-works 8 Ditch, Glacis, Parapet, and Trench 8 Bastioned Fort 8 Star Fort 8 Cremaillere 8 Lunette (Defense of Bridge). 8 Splinter-proof 8 Traverse 8 One gun " en barbette" on straight parapet 8 Keep 8 Gabionnade 23 Gun-bank 8 Field Casemate 8 Earthen Retrenchment 9 Tambour 9 Tambour 9 Caponniere 9 Shoulder Caponniere 8 Machicolation 13 Machicolation 23 Magazine 8 Magazine, Plan of 8 Magazine in a Traverse 9 Escarp Gallery 8 Parallels 23 Francisques 6 Friction Tube 6 Fusileor, Mounted (Louis XIIL). 31 Fusils, Indien 9 Fusils, Marocian 9 Fuze, Bormann- 6 Fuze, German Time- 6 Fuze, Percussion- 6 Fuze, Percussion- (English G. S.) 6 Fuze, Percussion- (Knglish G. S.) 6 Fuze, Swiss Combination 6 Fuze, Time- 6 Fuze, Time- G Gabion 7 PLATE Gabion Knife 7 Gabionnade 23 Gadling 9 Garter, Collar of 9 Garter, Starof 9 Gauntlet 9 Gendarme, 1453 29 Gendarme, Foot, 1824 (France)... 27 Gladiator 9 Gong 9 Gorget 9 Grape 9 Grenade and Fuze 9 Grenaiiier 9 Grenadier, Belgium 28 England, 1690 26 Guide, Belgium 32 Guillotine 9 Guisarme 9 Haches d'Armes 9 Halberdier, 1534 26 Halberds 10 Hand Sling-cart 23 Handspike, Manceuvring 9 Hauberk 9 Hausse, Pendulum 18 Haversack 9 Head-piece 6 Helmet, Barred 6 Helmet, U. S 5 Heraldry 10 Eagle Recursant 10 Fanciful variations of the Shield 10 Fleur-de-lis 10 Inescutcheon 10 Lion Statant 11 Lozenge 11 Norman Shield 11 Pale 10 Paly 10 Party per Pale 10 Passant 10 Patee 10 Pheon 10 Pile 10 Pomme 10 Quartered Arms 10 Raguled 10 Rampant 10 Rampant Gardant 10 Rampant Regardant 10 Regardant 10 Respectant 10 Roundel 10 Sa le 10 Salient 10 Saltire 11 Sejant H Spread eagle 11 Supporters 11 Surmounted 11 Treasure 11 Herison 9 Herse 10 Heuses 10 Highlander, Scots (England) 28 Holdfasts 19 Homme d'Armes, Lancer (1610)... 29 Hoplitai 25 Hoqueton 10 Horse 10 Horse and Harness, Artillery 10 Horse Guard (England) 32 Hulans, 1745 31 Hurdle 7 Hussar, Belgium 30 France, 1796 (Chamborin's).. 32 Implements, Artillery 11 Ladle 11 Lifting-jack 11 Lifting-jack 11 Lifting-jacks 11 Pass-box 11 Rammer 11 Sponge and Rammer 11 Springhead (Sponge) 11 Worm 11 Infantry, 1572 (Charles IX.) 25 Louis XIV 25 Negro (Brazil) 28 PLATE Infantry. Of the Line (Austria) 28 Of the Line (Russia) 28 Of the Guard (Morocco) 28 Regular (Persia) 28 Tiger (China) 28 U. S. Foot-soldier, 1870 27 Jack-boot 11 Jambeaux (Ancient and Modern) 23 Jambes 11 Javelins 11 Joan of Arc 25 Jupon 11 Kalmuck 30 Kettle-drum 12 Knapsack 12 Knight in Full Armor 12 Knighthood, Conferring 12 Knots, Hitches, Splices, etc 11 Anchor Knot 11 Becknet Knot 11 Bight 11 Bight 11 Knots, etc 11 Blackwall 11 Bowline 11 Cable-laid Rope 11 Capstan or Prolonge Knot.... 11 Carrick Bend 11 Catspaw 11 Fisherman's Bend 11 Granny 11 Gronnnet 11 Hawser-laid Rope 11 Hitch, Clove 11 Hitch, Timber 11 Hitch, Marlinespike 11 Hitches, Two Half 11 Hitches, Two Half, and a Round Turn 11 Mooring Knot 11 Nipper or Rack Lashing 11 Parceling a Rope 11 Pointing a Rope 11 Rolling 11 Sheet Bend 11 Seizing a Rope 11 Serving a Rope 11 Sheepshank 11 Splice, Eye 11 Splice, Short U Splice, Long 11 AVhipping a Rope 11 Worming a Rope 11 Square .• 11 Strap 11 Kriss 12 Labarum 12 Lancer (Egypt) 32 Lances 13 Lances, Ancient 23 Lansquenet 2G Lanyard, Handle, and Hook 12 Lashing and Slinging 12 Lashing 12 Lashing, Shear 12 Slinging, Barrel 12 Legatus 25 Litters 12 Army Regulation Two-horse Litter 13 British Crimean Cacolet 12 British Army Mule-litter 12 French Litter unfolded 12 Litter 13 Litter of poles and raw-hide. 12 Lord and Baine's Horse-litter 12 Splint of willow-twigs united bv buckskin thongs 13 Two-horse Litter of the IGlh Century 13 Wounded Soldier on a " Tra- vail" 12 Wounded Soldier conveyed on a Double-mule Litter... 13 Lochaber-axe 12 Machette 14 Machicolations 13, 23 Maiden 13 Mameluke Guards 30 Mangonneau 13 INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS. 659 PLATE Manipulo 13 Mantelet, Ancient 12 Mantelet, Gun 1:1 Mantelet, Itoi>e 13 Mar4chaU8i-o (France, 1780) 30 Mikrineufthe Guard, 180i(Krance) 27 Mara 14 Mnrtenu li'Armea 14 Miirtello Tower(U. S. 1780) 13 Marteis-de-fer 13 Manses d'Armes 13 Mattock 13 Merlons 13 Miner. 1786 (England) 26 Minle-ball 13 Mining 24 Shaft with Oases 24 Shaft with Frames 24 gh..rt, Hard Soil 24 Galjcriee, Hard Soil 24 False Fnimes, Use of. 24 Detonator, No. ."> 24 Detonator, No. 8 24 Detonator, No. 9 24 Detonator, No. 10 24 Detonator, No. 13 24 Fuze No. 1 24 Fuze, Instantaneous (Bick- fords) 24 Tube, No. 4 24 Fuzes In pairs, coupling up... 24 Fuzes in Powderlwig, Inser- tion of. 24 Quantity Dynamo-Electric Machine 24 Circuit, Continuous 24 Circuit, Simple 24 Commencement of Three Way Joint 24 Tul.e, Flexible 24 Tube, Tin 24 Miner's Pick 24 Push Pick 24 Miner's Shovel 'J4 Miner's Tnick 24 Candle-stick 24 Bucket '.^4 Bellows 24 Spark Measurer 24 Miquelet 27 Mole 13 Morion 13 Musculas, 14th Century 23 National Guard (Mexico). 28 Officer of the Guard (Prusaia) 28 Ordnance 14 Armstrong Gun (8-iuch) 14 Cannon, 15th Century 14 Cannon, ICtii Century 14 Cannon, 17th Century 14 Carnmade 15 Caisson and Body 17 Cais.tffon(»s (8tovkiules). PLATE 8. ITCH .M.PAR.lP'T-1 Field Casemate PLATE 9. EARTHEN RtTRENCHMENT ^%s ^5^ ■^ — — - PLATE 10. 1. Ears; 2. Nape of the neck; 3. Forelock; i. Forotop ; 6. Eye-pit; 6. Eyes; 7. Face; 8. Cheeks; 9. Nostrils; 10. Tip of nose ; ll". Lips ; 12. Chin ; 13. Beard ; 14. L'auge ; 15. Nether jaw; 16. Throat; 17. L'tncolure; 18. Mane; 19. Withers ; 20. Chest ; 21. Shoulders ; 22. Ann : 23. Fore- arm ; 24. Elbow ; 25. Chesnut : 26. Knees ; 27. Shank- bone ; 28. Sinew; 29. Bullet; 30. Fetlock; 31. Pastern; 32. Coronet ; S3. Hoof ; 34. Fetlock of the hind leg ;35. Heel ; 36. Toe ; 37. Back ; 38. Loins ; 39. Girths ; «). Eibs 41. Belly ; 42. Flanks ; 43. Sheath ; 44. Croup ; 45. Tail ; 46. Rump; 47. Haunches; 48. Thighs; 49. Leg; 60. Stifflie ; 51. Hock ; 52. Point of the hock. Artillerj Horses and iriariiess, 1. Halter; 2, Crown-piece; 3, cheek-strap; 4, Bio». iiid; 5, Xosi-banrt; (i, Chin-strajj; 7, Throat-strap; lash. Bridles, •joniposed ot Head-istall, Curb- bit, and Rtiiis. 9, Near Saddle; 10, Girth; 11, Collar; 12, Hiinies; l:i; Oliin and T();,'gle; 14, Safes; 15, Trace- tuifs; 16, Tnissiiig-straps; 17, Haine-strap; 18, Ci.llar- strap; 19, Tiacis; 20, Fiont-trace chains; trace chains; 22, Tiace-tujfjjles: 2:1, Lion-strap, Cnip[H!c iiicludinff 24, Back i-tiup; 2.5, Body; 26, Dock " " iiig, including -7, Breech-strap; 2S, Hip .strap; •/9, Breast-strap; 30, Sliding-loops; 31, Off Saddle; M, Hook for Reins and Valise-strap; 33, Valise, Coup- on n);-reiii, Whip, Leg guard, and Nose-bag. Regardant, l^egpccUnt, PLATE 11. 'V t^' Lion Blatant, Sprcnd eagl Vjili'i;i^l l .l^ l !ll'lt;'l'y e /box Bejniil, Norman hhlcld, I»t«o(e Shield, 4? Bui'pincn, rwo BAuf 1 eiovi Hircii ROUNO TU«»« PLATE 12 PLATE 13 Martello Tower. Maiden (I'. S. 1780.) Austruui Morlnraiid Oiiriai,'! PLATE 15, PLATE 16. Wind-guage (Spirit level). Heach Combination Sight ilaitini-Henry. Sight. ^.^^ U. S. Wind-gauge and Sight. Chassapot Sight. PLftTE n PLATE 18. I*( rcu>8ion lock., Mule Iflilen with pack on crosn- ole-axes. Pavisor aiul l'a-|o \ii'/ o| Pointing Instrumeou. PLATE 19. Caliitiiet or Pipe of Teato. MKANB KMPL.OYEL>lN PASSING KIVKR:* •• •'^' PonUo biidf* ii..:i.r.. PLATE IjO Swords, 1. Saxon sceax! 2. Enelisli hanger, old fo.ni; 3, rapier, about 33 inch blade; 4. £aftem cimeter-, i, cut und thrust snord, !fO to 32 inch blade: «. saber, or cavalry broadsword. 33 to 36 Inch blade; 7. heavy civalry bmadsword. 40 inch blade; 8, claymore, or Scotch broadsword, with basket hilt. 40 inch Wi c; 9. ftlchion; 10, 11, navy cutlasocs, 18 or 20 inch blade; 13, hari-kari, or .l.n-aoaa disemboweler. hiiinal Stabon atNifthl Semaphores PLATE 21 IVIoifrapli (Klet-irio Kield). ^iLSSi5;ls,^^^ Conica) Tent (France). Tent d'abn (Fiance) Kiis'. T, Hosp t»i Tent PLATE 23 't:%i' ^ (.^,«. .*:> - c- PLATE 14 ,'ittu/t mtfi Caj>6s MINING. OicktbrtiW InstnnJaneoinrFuxe PLAT E 2 6- iBffciiUrax-ali XIV.) PLATE 26. Vivandtere. Cannonier (Louis XIV.X Artificer of Artillery. 1756 (Prauce). Grenadier, 1690 (EnjflHnd). Sepoy. PLATE Z7. I'raram«;.,r .^J th.- ^rMm ^■^\<» of ib. Fraoch tiuwO. Orcn«diier. ol th Ar.hr... t4r»i3:i^ MANUFACTURERS OF liiiiiarj booiiJi iiiKi ti|iii|iiiifiiis OF ALL DESCRIPTIONS, FOR THE ARMY, NAVY, AND MARINE CORPS. ■^NEW REGULATION i* CORK AND FELT HELMETS, FL^aS, B^NI^ERS, Etc, SEND FOR ILLUSTRATED CATALOGUE.-«i Horstmann Bros. & Co., New England |utoal|4fi^ Ktt^twmw^Cump^tta o:p BOSTOJsr. The attention of Officers of the Army and Navy is directed to the following: Assets ^15,941,879.40 I^iabilltics 13,352,918.88 Total Surplus #2,588,960.52 This Company insures the lives of Officers of the Army and Navy without extra premium, except when actually engaged in warfare, which premium, if not paid at the assumption of the extra risk, loill not invalidate the policy, but will be a lien upon it ; and also gives liberty of residence and travel, on service, in all countries, at all seasons of the year, Avithout extra charge. The Directoes' Annual, Report, containing a detailed statement, can be obtained at the Office of the Company, BENJ. F. STEVENS, President. JOS. M. GIBBENS, Secretary, POST-OFFICE SQUARE. SEEDS FOIi POST GJ^^RDENS, Profitablo Gardening depends first of all upon procurinE: SEEDS of VITALITY and rUUITY. Such can bo Imd from OUK ESTAHL1SII3IENT. We ever have been tlie oldest and most extensive SEED GROWERS and SEED MERCHANTS IN THE UNITED STATES. Wo cordially invite all interested to visit and critically inspect our Sekd Farus, feeling confident that the areas, varied soils and climates, systems of cultivation, drying houses, steam machinery, implomonts and apj)urtenunce8 penerally, will demonstrate our ability to nroduoo lart^or, more varied, and bettor stock than any other party in the Seed Trade. We have always been by far The Largest Producers of Garden Seeds in America. Our farms do not exist upon paper, but can be found by any inquirer ; and in the selection of stocks and systems of culture wo have as a firm tho advantages of very ^■KAKLY A CENTURY OF EXi'KRiJiNCE. Our farms are situated at BRISTOL. Bucks Co.. Pa. MANITOWOC, Manitowoc Co.. Wis. BURLINGTON. BurlingtonCo.,N. J. MONASKON. Lancaster Co.. Vh. The whole comprising a total of l/>74' Acres, owned, occupied, and cultivated by ourselves. Upon these lands we have aiipliod in a single season ?'J(t.O<>0 worth of purchased fertilizers, a fact Avhich exhibits the magnitude of our operations. THE STOCK SEEDS from which all our crops arc grown on all tlio farms are produced on Bloomsdale, the Pcnn.sylvania farm, and under the daily scrutiny of tho proprietors, are thor- oughly culled of all departures from the true types, and produce crops of such purity of strain as to warrant us in declaring that none are Superior and few Equal ! Commanders of Government Posts who favor us witn their orders can rely upon being supplied upon most liberal terras. HORTICULTURAL REQUISITES. Post Farmers, Gardeners, or Florists desiring Tools or Appliances for the Field, Garden, or Hot House, will, upon application to us, be promptly furnished with Prices which, upon examination, will bo found as low as those of other dt-alors. I5OOKS--250 DISTINCT PUBLICATIOXS upon tho subjects of the Brooding and Management of Horses, Cattle, Shoep. Swine, Poultry, Bees, and upon the Culture of Cotton, Tobacco, Flax, U<«ses, and Bedding Plants; upon Irrigation, Drainage, Horticultural Architecture, Forestry — every- thing that a Farmer or Gardener is interested in — at Publishers' Prie<»—V*»\.*g9 Paid. Send for our Caialopues of Books, Bulbous Roots, Seeds, Tools, Oarden Ornaments. We publish Catalogues of Seeds in English, German, Stcedish, and Spanish. These Catalogues will be furnished Kratultously upon application. DAVID LANDRETH & SONS, Seed Growers, PHILADELPHIA. JSS CSrJEiTiSi. R. & J. BECK, Manufacturing Opticians, 1016 Chestnut Street, Philadelphia, Beg to call the attention of Officers of the Army and Navy to their unrivaled stock of riELD GLASSES, OPEEA GLASSES, TELESCOPES, MIOEOSGOPES, OLINIOAL THERMOMETEKS, BAKOMETEES, COMPASSES, SPECTACLES, Of the Highest Grades at Lowest Prices. THE GEM is the most Compact, Portable, and Powerful Field, Marine, and Opera Glass ever constructed. It is very largely in use in the Army, and we refer by permis- sion to numerous officers using it. Ca7i be sent by mail. Illustrated Catalogue, 176 pages, mailed free to any part of the world. Life Insurance Qo. s. OF PHILADELPHIA, E. Corner of Foiartli and TValnnt. INCORPORATED 1850. CHARTER PERPETUAL Assets, January 1, 1881 - $3,431,813.05 GEORGE W. HILL, President. JOHN S. WILSON, Secretary and Treasurer. WIBSTEB'S ONABRIDGED. THE IS^ATIONAL STAKDABD. Contains over 118,000 Words, 3000 Engravings; over 4600 IVETV^ i;V01lI>S and MIEJlTVIIVGS. Also contains a NEW BIOGKAPHIOAL DICTIONARY of over 9700 If AMES. Becommended by State Superintendents of Schools in 36 States, and by 50 College Presidents. There have been 32,000 Webster's Unabridged placed in the Public Schools of the United States. Every State purchase of Dictionaries for the Schools has been of Webster. The Books in the Public Schools of the United States are mainly based on Webster. The sale of Webster''i Dictionaries is 20 times as great as the sale of any other series. "January 1, 18S1. The Dictionary used in the Govern- ment Printing Office is Webster's Unabridged." Published by G. & C. MERRIAM, Springfield, Mass. 4 A.a8cts, 87*350,000. Surplus, 81.SOU,UUO. THE PENN MUTUAL Life Insurance Company OF PHILADELPHIA. Purely Mutual. ^^ Incorporated 1847. Has age and stability; is purely mutual, liberal, and progressive; solid and vigorous, wide-awake and well-managed ; securities all first-class ; estimates its liabilities upon the severest standard known to the law, — four per cent. ; has a relatively greater surplus than others ; and is a non-contesting company. 8TA.TE]>£EIVT OF rOLICY IS'OW IIS-^ FORCE. Policy No. 36, for ?5000, on the life of Henry C. T d, Esq., was issued July 13, 1847, at ago 2G, annual premium, $105.50. To this date (1880) thirty-four premiums have been paid, aggregating . $3587.00 Dividends have been allowed, in reduction of premium, amounting to . 1992.69 Net cost to the member $1594.31 A.VEIIAGE DIVIOENI) OVER FIFTY-FIVE J?EIl CETST. The actual cash paid in thirty-four years, as above .... $1594.81 E(iual to an average annual payment, for $5000 insurance, of 46.8;> Per year, for $1000 insurance ^^Ml ALL "PENN" POLICIES NON-FORFEITABLE. SAMUEL C. HUEY, President. J. J. BARKER. Actuary. E. M. NEEDLES, "i „ HENRY AUSTIE. Socrotary, '•Vice-Presidents. H. 8. STEPHENS, J HENRY C. BROWN. Ass't Secretary. VALUABLE WO RKS FOR MILITABY MEN A Course of Instruction in Rifle Firing. Prepared by command of Brigadier-General S. V. Benkt, Chief of Ordnance, U.S.A. By Colonel T. S. Laidley, Ordnance Department, U.S.A. With numer- ous Illustrations. New and Revised Edition. Ifimo. Extra cloth. $1.50. "Its every page bears the mark of a high degree of professional ability, earnestly directed to the development of the subject."— l/iiiierf Service Magazine. 3V[£:az3e:'s naval consxrttction. A Treatise on Naval Architecture and Ship-Building; or, An Exposition of the Elementary Princi- ples involved in the Science and Practice of Naval Construction. Compiled from various Standard Authorities. By Commander Richard W. Meade, U.S.N. Fully Illustrated. Crown 8vo. Extra cloth. $10.00. I.IFE: OF STONETWAI-I- JACKSON- Life of General Thomas J. Jackson. By S. N. Randolph, author of " The Domestic Life of Thomas Jefferson." With Illustrations. Crown 8vo. Extra cloth. $2.00. LIFE OF GESffERAr. THOIVIAS. Life and Services of Major-General George H. Thomas. By General R. W. Johnson, U.S.A. Illus- trated with Portraits of Distinguished Officers from Steel. Crown 8vo. Extra cloth. $2.00. THE FIELD JMtAMXJAL OF COXJRTS-1VIARTIAI-. By Captain Henry Coppee. Second Edition, Revised. 18mo. Extra cloth. $1.00. XEIE C03VIPA.1WY C L E X% K. By Major-General Aug. V. Kautz. 12mo. Extra cloth. $1.25. CXJSXOXM[S OF SERVICE FOR ARIVIY OFFICERS, As Derived from Law and Regulations, and Practiced in the United States Army. By Major-General A. V. Kautz. 18mo. Fine cloth. $1.25. CUSTOMS OF SERVICE FOR NON-COMMISSIONED OFFICERS AND SOLDIERS, As Derived from Law and Regulations, and Practiced in the United States Army. By Major-General A. V. Kautz. 18mo. Cloth. $1.25. ORDISTANCE KEANXJAL. The Ordnance Manual, for the use of Officers of the Army and others. Third Edition. Fully Illus- trated with Engravings on Steel. Demi 8vo. Extra cloth . $3.00. *■:-.* For sale by all Booksellers, or will be sent by mail, postage prepaid, on receipt of the price by J. B. LIPPINCOTT & CO., Publishers, 715 and 717 Market St., Philadelphia. VALUABLE MILITARY WORKS, PuUished hy JD. VAN NOSTRANB, 23 MURRAY & 27 W^ARRKN STS., NE\\r YORK. ♦■-» » — — A Treatise on Military I^aw, And the Jurisdiction, Constitution, and Proceedings of Military Courts, with a Summary of the Rules of Evidence as applicable to such Courts. By Lieut. R. A. Ives, U. S. Army. 1 vol. 8vo. Law sheep. $4.00. liotelikiss aiad Allan's Battle of Chaneellorsville. The Battle-Fiei.ds op Virginia. Chnncellorsville, embracing the Operations of the Army of Northern Virginia, from the First Battle of Fredericksburg to the Death of Lieut.-Gen. T. J. Jack- son. By Jed. IIotchkiss and William Allax. Illustrated with Five Maps and Portrait of Stonewall Jackson. Svo. Cloth. $3.50. Stevens's Three Years in tke Sixth Corps. Three Years in the Sixth Corps. A Concise Narrative of Events in the Army of the Potomac from 1861 to the Close of the Rebellion, April, 1805. By Geo. T. Stevens, Surgeon of the Seventy- seventh Regiment New York Volunteers. Illustrated with Seventeen Engravings and Six Steel Por- traits. New and Revised Edition. Svo. Cloth. $3.00. Jomini's Orand Military Operations. Treatise on Grand Military Operations. Illustrated by a Critical and Military History of the Wars of Frederick the Great. With a Summary of the Most Important Principles of the Art of War. By Baron De Jomini. Illustrated by Maps and Plans. Translated from the French by Col. S. B. HotABiRD, A.D.C., U. S. Army. 2 vols., 8vo, and Atlas. Cloth. $16.00. Half calf or morocco. $21.00. Half Russia. $22.50. .-♦-^ Send for Catalogue of Military and. Naval Books. Copies of the above books sent free by mail on receipt of price. PENNSYLVANIA Military Academy CHESTER, PENNA. Civil and Mining Engineering, Chemistry, Classics, and English. DEGREES CONFERRED. Col. THEO. HYATT, President. COMPOUND OXYGEN. For the Cure of Consumption, Asthma, Bronchitis, Catarrh, Dyspep- sia, Headache, Ozcena, Debility, and all Chronic and Nervous Disorders, by a Natural Process of Mevitalization. A REMARKABLE RESULT. We are constantly meeting with new and singular re- sults from the administration of Compound Oxygen. Witness the following, in the sudden penetration of the air into a collapsed lung. A gentleman in Pleasantville, Iowa, writing under date of October 10, 1880, says: " My daughter had not been confined to her bed, but for the past twelve years had not been able to inhale much air in her left lung, in consequence of congestion, owing to overheating. She waa unable to stand heat, and she was liable to sinking and smothering spells ; also her heart would not beat regularly ; every hour or two it would stop its pulsations, or feel as if it was going to. On the second inhalation her lung erpanded to its fullest capacity, which, of course, caused great distress of body (as the chest had sunk in over her lung), but ever since she has had no symptoms of smothering. The heart pul- sations are regular, and she feels like a new person; is gaining rapidly injlesh. Her lung is not yet strong, but is gaining. We are truly grateful to you for rescuing her from an untimely grave." "AM SO MUCH BETTER." Extract from letter of a patient in Biddeford, Me.: "It is with pleasure I tell you what your Compound Oxygen Treatment has done for me. Last April, when I commenced using it, I was very low ; suffered from a weak, tired feeling all the time. Had not been able to do any hmisework or serving for four years, and but very little for ten years past. My right side was very bad, a continual smarting ache extending from the throat to the hip, ag- gravated by using my arm. Had not been free from a cotigh for four years. Now I do most of my housework ; all my family sewing ; walk out every pleasant day ; think I could walk a mile and not be very tired ; am so much Jiappier to feel that I am some use in the world. For all this con- sider myself indebted to your Compound Oxygen Treat- ment." FORCED CHEERFULNESS. A patient writes: " I used to seem cheerful, and people often remarked it ; but my husband would look sad, and toll me he feared I did not feel it; which was true. (I did it to keep up his spirits.) But now it does me good to take a hearty laugh. Every one I meet says, ' How well you are look- ing.' I tell them it is the Compound Oxygen rebuilding mo. ... I can scarcely believe myself to be the same miser- able little ivoman I once was." "VICTORY!" Under this caption, a gentleman in Iowa, who had pro- cured the Compound Oxygen Treatment for his wife, writes: "lam surprised at finding her so much improved in health. When she began using the Oxygen she could not sit up more than four hours at a time. Could not walk a quarter of a mile. Improved from the first inhalation, and now, having used the Treatment for six weeks, does consider- able work around the house, and can walk two miles and not be tired. Raises no more bloody matter. No cough. Sleeps and eats well. All that I can say is, ' Thank God, and Drs. Starkey & Palen.' " BRONCHITIS. A lady in Carmel, N. Y., after using the Oxygen Treat- ment for about four weeks, writes as follows in regard to the result : " Four years ago I had an attack of Acute Bronchitis. It was two or three months before I got over it, and then I had lost my voice. I could not sing. The next winter I had two attacks, and in the spring I had chronic inflam- mation of the throat. I was treated for it from March till June. Then my husband took me to Brooklyn for medi- cal treatment. I got very much better; but as soon as the weather became cold I took cold, and had to stay in the house for most of the time with an inflamed throat. When I sent for the Oxygen I had just had the worst attack from which I had ever suffered. I feared that I was going to lose ray voice entirely, it hurt me so to talk. Last year, every time I had a cold it left me with apain in the lower part of my left lung. This summer the doctor sounded my lung, and said all the trouble was in the larger air passage. " The flrst time I inhaled the Oxygen that pain left me in half an hour, and I have notfe.lt it since. For two days my lung felt real good; then the inhaling made it feel sore, and every time I coughed it seemed to come from that place whore the pain had been, and what I passed had a very bad taste, but did not look bad. " I have taken a great many different things, but never in my life took anything like the Oxygen. I feel so strong and ivell, and have such a good, healthy appetite." ASTONISHED AT THE RESULT. A lady writing from Louisiana, November 15, 1880, say's : " The reception of your interesting quarterly reminds me that I have been very ungrateful to yon, in not report- ing progress for so long. I am not yet entirely cured, but when I think of the miserable condition I was in when, on the 7th of last February, I began the Oxygen Home Treatment, I am truly astonished at the result. I am still thin in flesh, but I believe I am still gaining ground. My health is better than in years before, and I can eat anything I can get to eat. I have a small supply of gas yet, which I use when I feel depressed. 1 will order an- other Treatment before long, for I feel sure it will eventu- ally effect a cure. I cannot say how thankful I am for having been induced to send to you for the Oxygen." LETTER FROM AN OLD PATIENT. We make an extract from a letter recently received from one of our patients, which shows the permanent effects of the Oxygen Treatment: "Tou will, no doubt, remember ma as one of your patients of more than a year ago. I am not entirely cured, nor ever expect to be, as my business is such that as long as I am able to be about I must go. I am manager of a large grain and stock farm, and my business keeps me out of doors most of the time, which is a decided benefit to me. I have felt stronger this year than ever before, and have done ten times as much work as ever before. I still have a part of the last Treatment, which I use once in awhile when I am not feeling good, and it immediately revives me. Only this morning I had a bad headache, and felt badly ; / took an inhalation of the Oxygen and felt like another man." Our Treatise on Compound Oxygen is sent free of charge. It contains a history of the discovery, nature, and action of this nev remedy, and a record of many of the remarkable results which have so far attended its use. Also sent free, ^'Health and Life," a quarterly record of cases and cures under the Compound Oxygen Treatment. Depository on Pacific Coast. — H. E. Mathews, 606 Montgomery Street, San Fran- cisco, California, will fill orders for the Compound Oxygen Treatment on Pacific Coast. DRS. STARKEY & PALEN, G. K f™f Jh.BfM.D.''- 1109 and ]111 Girard St. (between ChestEat k Market), Phila., Pa. nTCE OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY BERKELEY desk from which borrowed. This book is DUE on the last date stamped below. '^CC-D L,D NOV 2