0- Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2007 with funding from Microsoft Corporation http://www.archive.org/details/communitycivicstOOadamrich A COMMUNITY CIVICS A TEXT-BOOK IN LOYAL CITIZENSHIP BY EDWIN W. ADAMS SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS RADNOR TOWNSHIP WAYNE, PA. ■ CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS NEW YORK CHICAGO BOSTON -p ^ Copyright, 1920, by CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS • ••*••• • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • ••••• CONTENTS THE COMMUNITY AND ITS INTERESTS LPTER I. I Am an American .... II. Many in One ..... III. In the Game ..... IV. Our Common Interests PAGE I 5 10 14 THE ELEMENTS OF COMMUNITY WELFARE V. Health ...... VI. Health (continued) .... VII. Protection of Life and Property . VIII. Protection of Life and Property (continued) IX. Education X. XL Recreation . Civic Beauty XII. Communication XIII. Transportation XIV. Wealth XV. Wealth (continued) 22 48 8p 105 119 143 165 187 203 222 241 THE WARDS OF THE COMMUNITY XVI. Charities . . . 428206 262 / iv CONTENTS A SELF-GOVERNING COMMUNITY CHAPTER PAGE XVII. Correction and the Courts .... 274 XVIII. How the Laws Are Made XIX. Enforcing the Laws XX. Meeting the Expenses of Government XXI. Party Government and Civil Service 293 310 317 330 THE LOYAL CITIZEN XXII. American Ideals and Citizenship . . . 354 The Constitution of the United States . . .359 Index 379 ILLUSTRATIONS "I am an American" Frontispiece A Library Wagon Stopping at a Farmhouse . . . 19 A Children's Library Room . . . f . . 19 A Filter Bed . . . . . . . * 7 . . 39 Roosevelt Dam, Arizona . 40 Rubbish Cans for Paper and Other Waste .... 56 Ash Machine 61 United States Immigration Station, Ellis Island At Important Crossings We Find the Traffic Officer Traffic Has Become so Dense that it Has Become Necessary to Make Strict Rules as to just how a Vehicle Shall Proceed . . . There Are No Braver Men to Be Found Anywhere than among the Fire Fighters of our Cities These Boxes Are Connected by Wire with a Central Exchange, and from this Office the Alarm Is Sent to the Company which Is to Respond A Fire Line through a Michigan Forest The Schools Are at Work Developing the Young Citizen Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York Part of a Newspaper Pressroom Part of a City Playground Boys at Play in the Park . . . The Grand Canyon of the Yellowstone and the Great Yellowstone National Park .... A Garden Arrangement Giving an Effect of Distance The Capitol, Washington, D. C. \ v Fall 68 83 84 92 97 101 123 136 138 148 152 155 169 180 VI ILLUSTRATIONS PAGE Assorting Mail for Various States 192 Wireless Station at Sayville, N. Y. 197 Part of the Columbia River Highway, Oregon . . . 207 One of the Limited Trains, Showing the Six Tracks, Block Signal System, and Rock Ballast Roadbed . . .216 Duquesne Steel Works, Pennsylvania 235 Irrigable Land in Washington State before Reclamation . 254 Apple Orchard, Washington State, the Result of Reclamation 254 A Court Room 279 President Wilson Addressing Congress 304 A National Nominating Convention 337 A Polling Place . 346 A COMMUNITY CIVICS THE COMMUNITY AND ITS INTERESTS CHAPTER I I AM AN AMERICAN The flag was passing by. A group of schoolboys, stand- ing in the crowd on the sidewalk, had reverently removed their hats and were gazing at the Stars and Stripes as they floated at the head of a regiment of heroes who had just returned. Then with quickened breath one of the boys turned to the others and exclaimed, " Gee, fellows, I'm glad I'm an American." So were they all. You could tell it by the way their eyes sparkled as the soldiers passed along. Deep in each heart was the wish that he too might wear the uniform and march proudly after that flag. And yet when you looked at them you could tell beyond a doubt that one had come from sunny Italy, another's father at least had been a son of old Erin, and still a third had been driven from Russia by religious persecution. Yet here they were, each a loyal, true American. What a wonderful country is ours ! Not alone because of its great extent of territory, nor its wonderful wealth, but because of the things for which it has ever stood. Puritan and Cavalier, Catholic and Protestant, wearied 2 THE COMMUNITY; AND ITS INTERESTS by the persecutions of the Old World, turned their eyes and then their footsteps toward America, the land which held out to them the promise of Liberty and Freedom. And when in later years an unwise king oppressed them in their new land, they arose and threw off the yoke of Eng- land and gave us a new nation dedicated to the cause of liberty which should forever be a refuge for the oppressed of every land. Then came the seekers from all nations of the earth, each throwing in their lot with the American people. And to-day, America, made rich and fruitful by the gifts and services of many nations, stands as the champion of the rights and liberties of all peoples. There was a time when the proudest man in all the world was the one who could hold up his head and say, " I am a Persian." Years rolled by and another great people arose who conquered the Persians, and to be a Greek was the greatest honor. Then came Rome, with all its glory and world empire, and men were willing to pay a fortune merely to have the honor of being called a Roman. But to-day the proudest man or woman, boy or girl, in all the world is the one who can hold his head high and say with joy, " I am an American." And why have we the right to be so proud of our great country? Because it has stood before all the world as the champion of the rights of every man. Because it has rendered to the nations of the world the supreme service. Not because of the success of our arms, but because of the ideals for which our people have stood and for which so many of our brave men have been willing to lay down their lives. I AM AN AMERICAN 3 Many of the men who fought for our country in the Great War were not born in the United States. Many of them had been brought in childhood to this country by their parents as they sought in the land of opportunity for the freedom denied them across the seas. Yet when the call of duty came they were not found wanting. They have won for themselves by their service the right to be called Americans just as did the Revolutionary heroes. We owe much to the men and women who have come to us from other lands. If we go back far enough we find that there is not one of us whose ancestors did not come to America as immigrants. Each nation that has sent its share of people to us has contributed something to the greatness of America. We should not look down upon the newcomer because of his ignorance of our language and our ways. He too, if we but give him the chance for which our country stands, will be a true American and make his contribution to the greatness of our nation. Our country is sometimes spoken of as the melting-pot of the nations. The newcomer, if he intends to remain and make this country his home, should willingly and cheerfully adapt himself to the ways of the new land. He will never become a real American until he throws himself heart and soul in with the people of America, adopts their language and customs, and respects their institutions. There will still be much of the old which he will want to retain and which, if used for the best in- terests of the new group of which he is now a part, will be a valuable contribution to the country of his adoption. Our nation is one great family. America is our own 4 THE COMMUNITY AND ITS INTERESTS home. Stretching from ocean to ocean and under the Stars and Stripes is a land which we love to call our own. Bound together, more tightly now than ever before, we are all to live and work together, serving not only ourselves but the whole world. We are going to consider how we as a great united people are to live and work together, and what we are to do that each part may work by itself and yet at the same time with every other part, and this with- out friction. SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER STUDY AND DISCUSSION i. What should we do when the flag is passing by? Read " The flag goes by," H. H. Bennett. 2. What is the national anthem? What should we do while it is being played or sung ? Every American should know the words of this song. Do you? 3. What do we mean when we say in the salute to the flag " I pledge allegiance " ? 4. By whom was your state originally settled ? What nationalities now make up the population of your state? Why did these people come to America ? to your state ? 5. What nationalities are represented in your class in school? 6. Under what kind of government did these people live before they came to America? What were the living conditions? In what ways have they benefited by coming to America ? 7. Why is America called " the melting-pot " ? 8. Why should a foreigner, coming to America with the intention of making it his home, learn to speak the English language? 9. What are some of the things which other nations have contrib- uted to America through the immigrant? 10. How may we help the newcomer to our country to become truly American ? 11. Make a list of the names of some true Americans. Why do they deserve to be called " true Americans " ? Does your name be- long on the list ? Resolve that it shall ever deserve to remain there. CHAPTER II MANY IN ONE There are about one hundred million people in our country. Think of it. But when we stop to try to think of it we find that we can scarcely have any idea of how many this really is. If we live in a large city we may go to the roof of some tall building and look far out over the city. How large it is ! It stretches out in every direction almost as far as the eye can see. Below us lie the homes, the schools, the churches, the shops, the factories, the office buildings, where hundreds of thousands or it may be two or three million people live and work. Just think that this is but one of the many cities all over our great land where similar sights may be observed ! Or we may take a fast express train and travel hour after hour and day after day past farms and villages, through cities large and small, and after we have crossed the continent we will have seen but a small part of the homes where this enormous family, the American nation, lives. And these millions are one. Each man and woman, each boy and girl, is going about his or her own task. We do not always stop to think how many other people are doing just the same sort of work we are. And yet the most wonderful thing about it all is that we are all working each for the other. Out in the great middle 6 THE COMMUNITY AND ITS INTERESTS west the farmer is raising the wheat and the corn which we shall some day use on our own table. Down in the mines men busily dig out the precious coal to warm us when the cold days of winter come, or else to drive the wheels of shop and factory. Cattle are being raised, and cotton, and fruit, and vegetables. Every part of the land is busy with the industry which is to feed us, clothe us, shelter us, and supply the many needs which arise in our lives or to give us some of the luxuries. Great ships are out on the oceans bringing us the products of distant lands. And we receive all these things, the re- sults of the service of the many, for the small service which we render in return to the many. But not only are we members of this great big family of a hundred million, we are members at the same time of many other smaller groups which go to make up the big family or the nation. Each of us has his own little family circle, Mother and Father, Brothers and Sisters, making up the home. Here we live together happily, find- ing our joy in serving each other just as we should in our larger home, the nation. Then there is the group to which we belong which we call our class in school, thirty, forty, or fifty boys and girls who live and work together in the schoolroom and on the playground getting an education. Again, there is the group of people which we speak of as our Church, or our Sunday-school class, or it may be the ^ifc>up in the office or mill or factory where we work. Some- times we form groups for work or play as in our Red Cross society, or Boy Scout troop, or athletic teams. You will be able to think of many such groups. MANY IN ONE 7 If you have ever played on one of the athletic teams of your school you will know just how important good team work is. The nine members of the baseball team, or the football eleven, or the basketball five, must all play to- gether as one man if the team is to win. A poor player is a weak point on the team and may be the means of bringing about defeat. A player who is not willing to obey the orders of the captain and do just as he is told endangers the chances for success of the entire team. Each player must be willing to sacrifice his individual ambi- tion so that the good of the entire team may be achieved. This need for team work, for obedience to the will of the leader, grows out of the fact that the many are trying to work together as one. It is only as the leader thinks clearly and quickly and the members of the team obey promptly and fully, that victory is secured. Each mem- ber is an important part of the team and necessary to its success. On the other hand each one needs the help of all the others, for left unaided he could do nothing. It is the " many in one " working as one that makes possible success. It is not always easy to give up one's own ideas as to just what ought to be done or how a certain play should be made. Little boys and girls do not often form teams to play games, but when they do the game usually does not last very long, for they do not understand the value or necessity for team work and soon begin to quarrel and the game breaks up. ^ It is a sign of strength' of char- acter when one is able to work or play with his fellows. and is willing to subordinate his own will to that of the group. 8 THE COMMUNITY AND ITS INTERESTS And why is it that we are willing to sacrifice our own ideas as to just what should be done and to obey the word of our leader? It is because we are all so interested in the outcome of the game. We are so anxious to win that we are willing to do as we are directed. Each officer and private in the American Army may have had his own idea of just what would have been the best way to win the war, but each one knew that the only hope for success lay in following obediently the orders of the head of the Army. Even General Pershing himself, realizing that the Allied troops must work together as one, went to the commander of the French Army and pledged to Marshal Foch his own obedience and that of the American Army. It was not because General Pershing was unable to direct the fighting, but because he knew that the only way to have real success was for all the fighting forces on the field to work together as one man against the enemy. It was a victory of " many in one." The greatness of the American nation has grown out of the unity of purpose and efforts of its people. It was a united people which won independence from Great Britain. They realized that " in union there is strength " or as Franklin wittily put it to the signers of the Declara- tion of Independence after they had signed that docu- ment, " Gentlemen, we must now hang together, or we shall all hang separately." It was an attempt at disunion growing out of a difference of belief that almost wrecked the nation in the days of the great Civil War. And re- cently, when the liberties of the entire world were threat- ened by the German Government, it was the effort of our MANY IN ONE 9 united people that made the world safe for democracy. The future greatness of our country depends upon each one of us. Only as we unite with our fellows in oneness of pur- pose to serve each other and the whole world, and to cherish and protect the high ideals for which our country has so proudly stood, shall our country truly prosper. We are many, but we are one, — a united people. SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER STUDY AND DISCUSSION 1. " E pluribus unum " is the Latin for " Many in one." See if you can find the motto on a coin. 2. How many people are there in your town or city? What was the population at the last census? 3. What is meant by census ? How often is it taken? Describe the method of taking it. 4. How many cities are there in the United States with a popu- lation of over one million ? Name them in the order of their size and give their population. 5. Name the five largest cities in your state. Give the population of each. 6. What are the leading industries of your section of the country ? What do they supply to the rest of the United States? 7. What are some of the things necessary if we are to have a good school team? 8. In what way is our school like a team ? What makes it possible for all the pupils and teachers in your school to work together with so little friction ? 9. How does obedience make for true greatness? 10. What is meant by " civic virtues "? Make a list of some of the civic virtues which are necessary if we are to live and work together successfully. CHAPTER III IN THE GAME Some of us have probably never represented our school on a team in an inter-school game. We have had to be content to stand on the side-lines or sit in the grand stand and watch the chosen team play for our school. It is good fun to watch the others play, and exciting too, especially when our team is making a particularly good play. But somehow or other we do not get as much real enjoyment out of this as when we ourselves are playing, even if it is only on one of the teams from our own class. For then we are doing something ourselves, we are in the game, and that is surely more exciting than always to sit back and watch others. Of course you understand that baseball and football and the other athletic games about which we have been talking are only a few of the very many games which are being played. If you have ever worked in a business con- cern you will know that business itself is really a game, and a very interesting one too, with its rules just like our school games. As we get older we will become more and more interested in this kind of game, for it is a good game in which it pays well to be successful. In fact all of our relations in life are much like the games we have been considering. There are of course the players IO IN THE GAME II who make up not the teams but the groups which are engaged. Then there is the place where the work is being carried on, the place of business. Then there are the common interests which bring the people together. And finally there are the rules of the game, for in every activity of life, wherever people live, and work or play together, there must be agreement as to what may and what may not be done. Instead of the word team, which we might use if we cared to, but which we usually save to apply to groups playing games, we use another word which means practically the same thing. This word is community. By a community we mean a group of people living to- gether in a given place, and bound to one another by com- mon interests, and subject to common laws. It does not matter how large or small the group may be, if we find the three elements of place, community of interest, and com- mon laws, we have a community. Our families, our class, our school, our ball team, all have these elements in com- mon and are therefore communities. In like manner the people of our neighborhood form a community. And so we might go on gradually enlarging the circle until we would have the community including our entire town or city, our state, or even our nation. In each of these communities which we have mentioned you are a member. You may not be a very large member, nor a very old member, but nevertheless a member. Just as by being one of your class you are a member of the class, or by being one of your school you are a member of your school, so by being one of the inhabitants of your city, your state and nation, you are a member of each of 12 THE COMMUNITY AND ITS INTERESTS these communities. And this becomes a position of great importance when we understand that membership in a community, means citizenship. 11 But I am not a citizen," some boy or girl may exclaim, " for I do not vote nor shall I be able to do so for some years to come." Let us see. The United States is a community, is it not ? Yes, it is a group of people, about one hundred million of them, living in a given place, the United States, with common interests, surely you will not doubt that, and subject to common laws. These common laws have as their foundation stone a body of laws called the Constitution. This body of laws is called the funda- mental law of the land, that is, the foundation law. If we turn to this Constitution we shall find that ■" All per- sons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they reside." Were you born in the United States or has your father taken out his nat- uralization papers? Do you obey the laws of the coun- try? Then you are a citizen of this country, regardless of your age, size, or any other matter. How proud we should be when we realize that we are citizens ! Now we not only may say, " I am an Ameri- can," but " I am an American citizen." Just think that we are now really in the game, not merely standing on the side-lines waiting until we are old enough to take part. We are not preparing for citizenship as we do our school work or play our games, but we are citizens now, and our work and play is the work and play of citizens. As we grow older our duties and responsibilities as citi- IN THE GAME 13 zens will become greater, but they will be no more real than they are to-day. Our duty now is to make such good use of our time that when we become the voters and law- makers of our country we shall be able wisely to direct the affairs of our land. SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER STUDY AND DISCUSSION 1. Make a list of the various communities of which you are a mem- ber. 2. Turn to the Constitution of the United States and see if you can locate the definition of a citizen. 3. What are some of the rights of a citizen ? What are some of the duties ? 4. At what age will you be allowed to vote ? Do you consider voting a privilege or a duty? What objection might be raised to this last question ? 5. What are some of the rules of your home ? of your school ? of business ? 6. Politeness and courtesy are unwritten laws of society. How do they help make life smoother and easier? 7. What is a passport ? Of what value is this to an American citi- zen traveling in a foreign country? 8. The United States is very jealous of the welfare of its citizens. See if you can find any reference in your histories to steps which it has taken to protect them and their interests. CHAPTER IV OUR COMMON INTERESTS Surely no one of us would care to live the life of a her- mit. If we go off on a camping or fishing trip it is usually with companions, and we see to it that so far as possible we are not lacking in the necessities of life. When the vacation is over we are glad to get back to our family- and friends. Man is a social creature. That is, he likes to be with other people. He has found that by living in groups he can protect himself from his enemies and in many ways better his condition of living. In the earliest days of history there were no great na- tions such as ours. People lived in families and wandered about from place to place in search of locations where a living might be had. Some families being stronger than others were able to drive the weaker ones away and so get the best places for themselves. But in time when other strong families came from afar and tried to drive them away they united with the weaker families and together were able to keep off the intruder. These united families were called tribes or clans. It was such an organization that our forefathers found in America among the Indians. We have seen that strength lies in union, and so as civilization progressed people learned this fact, and out of it grew the great nations of the world. Such union not 14 OUR COMMON INTERESTS 1 5 only made for safety, but also increased the possible comforts which the people might enjoy. Where a few could barely scrape enough together to survive, the many could so work as to live in comparative luxury and ease. This, together with man's desire for companionship, led to the founding of communities where people lived close together, towns and cities. History tells of cities dating many centuries before the coming of Christ, *but the really large city, the city as we know it to-day, is a development of the past century. A hundred years ago in our country fewer than one person in every twenty-five lived in cities, and these cities we now would scarcely call good-sized villages. To-day the pro- portion of people living in cities is about two out of every five. The tremendous growth of great cities during the past hundred years has been due largely to the changed living conditions of the people, brought about by the in- vention and wide-spread use of power-driven machinery. Such machinery has cut down the number of hands needed on the farms and has increased the demand for labor in mills and factories where raw products are converted into manufactured articles. Industrial plants are for the most part to be found in the large cities, and men in search of employment must go to these cities. But the millions in the cities could not live were it not for the other millions who on farm and ranch supply the food and other necessities which the city dweller must have. And the city sends back to the farmer machinery, tools, clothing, and many other things which make for increased comfort and production on the farm. So there 1 6 THE COMMUNITY AND ITS INTERESTS is a constant working together of all the communities, aiding each other to attain the things which they desire and which are needful for the common good. If we consider any community, whether it be the family in which we live, the school we attend, an office, work- shop or factory, a church, or our city, state, or nation, we shall find that there is one element which is the chief reason for the existence of the community. It is a com- munity or commonness of interest. It is this commonness of interest which binds the members of the group together. It is the desire to attain the things which they believe to be most worth while which leads them to sacrifice if necessary their own individual desires in order that the wishes of the whole may be obtained. The one reason for the existence of any community is that the welfare of all may be advanced. If we turn to our histories we shall find that the earliest communities of white people in America were brought about by a common desire on the part of certain people in Europe to escape religious persecution. It was their desire to worship God as they saw fit which led to the com- ing of the first settlers to the New World. It was a common enemy, the French and Indians, which led later to the uniting of the English colonies into a larger community. And later it was a common desire to be free from the bur- den of English rule which led to the establishment of the American nation. The story of the beginnings of your local community will be very interesting. As you read the story try to find out just what were the causes or conditions which OUR COMMON INTERESTS 1 7 led to the founding of the community. Try to discover how the people went about it to obtain those things which represent the desires of every community. There are certain things which the people in every com- munity are seeking. They are the things which are of common interest to all the people in the community. Some of these are so common that we do not often stop to con- sider them, and yet the most common are by far the most important. Can you guess which is the most important of all the things which people in communities desire ? There is one which outranks all others in importance and yet which we take as a matter of course. It is life itself. "But we would live anyhow even if we had no community," some one may say. Let us not be too sure. One of the first desires which brought man together into communities was his desire to protect his life from wild beasts and from other stronger men. And even if there were not these to contend with there would still be the forces of nature, storms, cold, disease, hunger, and many others which would make life very uncertain. Against all these man can be reasonably safe only when he has the aid of his fellows. Then next in importance to life comes health. So im- portant is this that if health is lost, life itself is in great danger. Without health man is helpless to face the prob- lems of life. Then if ever, he needs the help of his fellow man. Living alone we could not protect ourselves prop- erly against disease and famine ; and first losing health, we would then be in danger of losing life. Man has always desired to accumulate property. To 1 8 THE COMMUNITY AND ITS INTERESTS the primitive man every handful of grain, every arrow- head, every animal skin, meant much because it stood between him and death which was constantly threatening. With us to-day the bare necessities of life are mostly taken for granted, but we too desire to possess things, for their possession may mean better living conditions and possibly greater happiness. Having accumulated wealth or property we desire to keep it, to protect it from theft and destruction. The demon fire may sweep away in a few hours the accumu- lations of a lifetime, or a thief may steal our savings of years. By ourselves we would be helpless in the presence of a stronger person, but surrounded by our community, each member of which desires that his goods also shall be safe, we feel quite secure. One of the communities to which we have frequently re- ferred has been our school. It represents another desire of the people of our community, the desire for education. Then, too, there are libraries, books, newspapers, and so on, which are other means that people have developed to satisfy their desire for learning. There is the play side of life as well as the every- day struggle for existence. Our tired bodies worn out with work, need to be rebuilt, or re-created. And because of man's desire for this re-creating, or recreation as we call it, he chooses the society of his fellows so that he may play as well as work. We are not satisfied to have the houses which shelter us mere shelters against storm and wind. We like the places where we live and work and play to be attractive. Reproduced by Courtesy of R. E. Slaley A Library Wagon Stopping at a Farmhouse A Children's Library Room 20 THE COMMUNITY AND ITS INTERESTS One of the desires of the community is to have the neigh- borhood, town or city as beautiful as possible. But our community is much larger than our immediate neighborhood. It extends out through our city, our state, and our nation. All people there are our neighbors and share with us these common interests. We want to know what is going on in other parts of our community. Some- times we travel from one part of the country to another, and constantly we are sending things to even the most remote corners of our land. All this means that pro- vision must be made for communication and transporta- tion, and so these become a part of the things which we desire. It is because of the commonness of interest which we have in these and many other things that we are really one great family, or community. As members of these several communities, and citizens of the city, state, and nation, it is necessary that we know something of how we s as a united people work together to bring about these things which we desire. SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER STUDY AND DISCUSSION i. What is a hermit? How does he live? Is he really independ- ent of the rest of the community ? What are some of the things for which he must rely on others? What can he produce entirely by himself ? 2. How did Robinson Crusoe go about satisfying his needs ? What would he have done had it not been for the supplies which he rescued from the wreck? 3. Describe community life among the Indians. 4. Tell the story of the founding of your community. OUR COMMON INTERESTS 21 5. Why is your town or city located where it is? What are the particular advantages of the location? What has been responsible for such growth as it has had ? 6. Make a list of the most important things which people in com- munities are seeking. These are called the elements of welfare. Why? THE ELEMENTS OF COMMUNITY WELFARE CHAPTER V HEALTH In the spring of 191 7 our nation, unable to endure any longer the insults and atrocities of the German govern- ment, declared war. It was a time of great anxiety and at the same time an occasion when patriotism ran high. Before the machinery of selective service was organized, thousands of the young men of the country reported at the recruiting stations and asked to be admitted to the Army. It was a shock to many of them who had all along thought that they were in perfect health to be turned down by the Army surgeons as being physically unfit to serve their country. Defective vision, poor hearing, spinal curvature, weakened heart, sickly lungs, stomach, and kidneys, fallen arches, and all manner of bodily ailments were discovered. It was hot a pleasant thing to be told that one was not physically fit to serve one's country. Some went from station to station trying to see if they could not get into some branch of the service, only to be rejected again and again. And then came the selective service act, or draft as it is sometimes called. All the young men of the country HEALTH 23 between the ages of twenty-one and thirty years were re- quired to report and register themselves for selective serv- ice. Here was a splendid lot of men. The flower of the nation they were called. And yet when they came up before the local boards and were examined as to their fitness, it was the same story. Man after man was found to be unfit for service in the Army. It was with no little chagrin that they turned away from the physicians. Ashamed to face their friends and tell them that they were weaklings, many began training and treatment which they knew would be necessary to make them fit. One of the great lessons which the war brought home to the people of the American nation was that they must pay more attention to the development of their bodies. It was one of the penalties which had to be paid for the type of community life so many had been living. It made clear the necessity for greater care of the health of the great mass of people. Improper housing, with its con- sequent lack of fresh, pure air ; improper food, unsanitary, poorly cooked, and improperly eaten ; lack of cleanliness of person and surroundings ; alcohol and drugs ; too long hours of labor and under bad conditions ; lack of exercise ; loss of sleep ; — these and many more were seen as causes of the unfitness of our men. What a difference a few short weeks in camp made in the men who were selected. In almost every case they increased in weight, grew straighter and stronger, and before they marched away to the front they were sturdy men of whom the nation might be proud. If we stop for a moment to consider the facts which 24 THE ELEMENTS OF COMMUNITY WELFARE we have just read, we shall not be so surprised after all. Most of the difficulty which was referred to was found to exist among the young men who had been born and brought up in the great cities. When people are living on farms and largely in the open air we usually find that they enjoy much better health than those who spend their lives in the closely built cities. Our larger towns and cities present especially difficult problems in regard to the health of their citizens. The closely built dwell- ings, the crowded living conditions, the smoke from mill and factory, the conditions under which people are re- quired to work, all make for poor health. It is small wonder that coming from such surroundings so many of the young men of the nation were handicapped with disease and physical defect. If we turn to our books in hygiene we shall find that there are certain rules which are laid down as necessary for the attainment and preservation of good health. Among these we find reference made to the necessity for breath- ing fresh, pure air ; drinking plenty of pure water ; eat- ing pure, wholesome food; keeping the body and its sur- roundings clean ; exercising ; and so forth. At first this all seems to be very simple, but when we consider it more deeply we find that it is not so easy after all. I cannot breathe pure air when I open my windows or go out on the street if the air is laden with smoke and gas and dust. We shall see later on that it is very difficult to tell whether or not the water which comes from the faucet is pure. The food which I buy may have been tampered with. My neighbor may litter the streets with HEALTH 25 filth. In fact it is practically impossible to obey the simplest rule of health without the aid of my neighbors. Let us look at some of these things as we find them in our own community and see how the group works together in the interest of safeguarding the public health. SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER STUDY AND DISCUSSION 1. Why does the Army require a physical examination of all who desire to enlist ? Does the Navy require a physical examination of its candidates? What are some of the qualifications? 2. What effect has the life in the Army or Navy had upon any young men whom you know? 3. Make a list of some of the conditions in your community which might lead to the breaking down of one's health. How would you sug- gest remedying these conditions? 4. Where is the most crowded living section of your community? Describe the living conditions in that section. What class or nation- ality do we find living there? 5. What is meant by the " death rate "? What is it in your com- munity ? Has it been reduced in the last ten years ? By what means ? 6. What are some of the advantages of living in the country? What are some of the disadvantages? PURE AIR Need for Pure, Fresh Air. — One of the conditions which made for the improvement in the health of our soldiers was the life in the great out-of-doors. Many a man who had been closely confined to office and factory and never realized why he was sickly and under weight gained per- fect health and put on the needed flesh as a result of his life in the fresh air and sunlight. There is not one of us who would not be in better health if we spent more time in the open air. 26 THE ELEMENTS OF COMMUNITY WELFARE Our manner of living, however, requires that much time be spent indoors. Boys and girls live in the open air more than grown folk, but if you take a pencil and figure how many hours you spend in the home and at school, you will see that it represents quite a goodly part of the day. There is no air quite so healthful as fresh, pure, out-of-door air. In our larger towns and cities, however, even this air is often not as pure as it should be. Smoke and gas from the stacks of mill, factory, and foundry ; dirt and dust from the busy streets ; foul odors from nuisances, — all tend to pollute the air and make it unfit to breathe. Then too our homes are frequently built more with a view toward saving coal in winter than for admitting fresh air. The hours which we spend in- doors are none too productive of good health. Let us look at some of the means by which the com- munity endeavors to safeguard the health of its members by securing for each one the right to breathe fresh, pure air. Ventilation. — We are all familiar with the word venti- lation. We have learned from our lessons in hygiene the necessity for having proper ventilation of the rooms in which we live and work. At home when we retire for the night we are careful to make sure that the windows are opened both from the top and the bottom so that fresh air may enter and the air which has been breathed may escape. Even on the coldest days we see that the entire house is flushed with fresh air every day by opening all the windows, and also that the living rooms and kitchen are frequently ventilated. By so doing we are taking one of the steps necessary to insure good health. HEALTH 27 Our schoolrooms and school buildings also are venti- lated. If it is an old building the method of ventilation will probably be the same as that which we use in our homes. If it is a modern building it may have a com- plicated system of ventilation. In cold weather the win- dows will not be open but a large fan will be forcing filtered, heated, and it may even be washed air into the rooms, while a series of pipes are carrying off the used impure air. Wherever we find large numbers of people congre- gated as in churches, theaters, moving picture houses, and the like we also find that care has been taken to pro- vide an adequate supply of fresh, pure air. Such venti- lation of public places is required by law. It has been discovered that the air in buildings where large numbers of people are gathered quickly becomes unfit for use and must be replaced with fresh air. To breathe such im- pure air is likely to cause illness. Then, too, disease is spread in places where the ventilation facilities are poor. Housing Conditions. — We sometimes use the ex- pression " as free as the air." It is true that air is free, but as we have seen fresh, pure air is often anything but free in our cities. Unless something is done by the com- munity to protect the purity of the air about the only way the citizen can make sure that he shall have pure air for at least a part of each day is to move to a section of the city remote from the places of business. This means that money must be spent for transportation, and then, too, the price of property in such sections is often higher than that of the more crowded and less desirable sections. 28 THE ELEMENTS OF COMMUNITY WELFARE Because of the value of land in our cities it is cut up into small plots. Each house is so built as to cover nearly the entire plot of ground on which it stands. Very often we find in the older sections of the city where once the wealthy families lived that the large houses are occupied as rooming or tenement houses. Here we find instead of one family for which the house was originally intended often as many families as there are rooms in the house. The conditions in such places are often far from sanitary. Rooms which were intended originally as merely places for storage of goods and therefore were built with little or no window space are now the homes of whole families. Then, too, there is the tenement house built in the days before the community took an active interest in such matters. In order that as much rent as possible may be gotten out of the building we find at times both out- side and inside rooms. The outside rooms are not so bad, as they face the streets or alleys. The inside rooms often look out into a narrow court or even an air shaft. When we consider that such buildings are sometimes six, eight, or more stories high we can see that the ventilation of the inside rooms is as poor as possible. Then, too, the people who live in such tenements often do not realize the necessity for ventilation and fail to make use of such means as are at hand. It is little wonder that in the crowded tenement sections of our cities disease has flourished. The dreaded " white plague," or tuberculosis, reaps a terrible harvest in these ill ventilated, poorly lighted tenements. When we realize that in our country alone, more than 150,000 people die HEALTH 29 every year from this disease and that the great majority of these are city dwellers, we get some idea of the im- portance of this question of housing and ventilating. If an enemy were to enter our country and destroy a small fraction of the number of people who die as a result of improper housing conditions we would raise an army of millions and drive it away. The enemy disease is even more dangerous than such an enemy would be because it does its work unseen. It is our duty as citizens to aid in every way that we can, the fight on such conditions as we have been considering until they are entirely de- stroyed. Selecting a Home. — We can do much to protect our own health if we exercise the proper care in the selection of a home. We shall see in a later chapter how the com- munity is endeavoring by careful planning to set aside certain sections of the city as residential sections. Of course if it is possible it is a splendid thing to live in a section where the houses are not built so closely together. The facilities for rapid transportation make this a com- paratively easy matter. However, no matter where we select a house we should make sure that it is in a good condition. When we have the opportunity to select one from several houses we should take the one which is best constructed and in the best state of repair. The house which receives the greatest amount of sunlight, which has a cemented, dry, and light cellar, and which is free from objectionable odors, is to be preferred. In selecting an apartment we should make sure that it is well ventilated 30 THE ELEMENTS OF COMMUNITY WELFARE and that there are no nuisances near by. Before moving into it we should make sure that it is thoroughly cleaned, preferably washed down with soap and water. Smoke and Other Nuisances. — It is often necessary for many people to live in a neighborhood where when they open their windows instead of pure, fresh air, smoke from stacks near by pours in, making the air almost unbearable. Or it may be that a neighbor maintains on his own ground a rubbish pile, or a garbage can, from which offensive odors arise, or from which the wind carries dirt and filth. How can we breathe fresh, pure air when all. the air which we receive has been polluted? On the other hand, the man from whose rubbish pile the odors are arising, or the owner of the factory from whose stack the smoke is pouring, may claim that since he is on his own land he may do as he pleases and if we do not like it we can get out. As a member of the community there are certain things which I should not do. If I have the interest of the com- munity at heart I shall so conduct my affairs as not to in- jure my neighbors. Any member of the community who by his actions injures other members of the group has not the welfare of the group at heart. He is not a good citizen. It is within the right and power of the other members of the group to see that he stops such ac- tions as injure them. This is not done by individual but by group action. That which the group expresses as its desire is a law of the group which each member must obey or take the consequences. Many communities have HEALTH 31 made laws which cover the matters about which we have been reading. Mill owners are required to adopt smoke- consuming devices, railroads to electrify their lines, and public nuisances must be abolished. The Community Working Together. — We have here a splendid opportunity to see how the many work as one. If each one of us was compelled to rely upon himself for protection against the things about which we have been reading we would be helpless. The men who owned the land could put up any kind of house or tenement they pleased. It might be unsanitary in every respect and dangerous to our health, but unless we were in a posi- tion to build a place of our own or to pay a higher rent to get a better house, we would be entirely at their mercy. That which affects the health of one member of the group, however, affects the welfare of all. Experience, growing out of the spread of disease and death from such improper liv- ing conditions, has led the group to make rules for the pro- tection of its members from just this sort of thing. You will find that in your community there are men and women who represent the entire group and look after the welfare of the community in respect to these matters. There are the building inspectors, who see that the requirements of the law are observed when new houses are being erected. Then there are the sanitary inspectors, who enforce the laws respecting the health conditions in our homes and places of business. When conditions are found which are believed to be a menace to health the persons responsible are required to remove the cause. If this is not done after 32 THE ELEMENTS OF COMMUNITY WELFARE sufficient warning has been given, they may be arrested and fined. In cases where the owner of the property refuses to remedy conditions the community will have the work done and then compel the owner to pay the bill. Private Organizations at Work. — If we trace the his- tory of the laws for bettering the living conditions in our community we shall find in many cases that some organ- ization of private citizens has been back of the move- ment for the passage of the laws. The great mass of people even though they may be suffering from some evil condi- tion will not know just how to go about having it remedied. In fact they often feel that, that which is, must continue. In such cases the work of private organizations is of great importance. Members of some club or civic organiza- tion become interested in a matter concerning health. They begin work by attracting the attention of the people to the existing condition. Then after a campaign of edu- cating the people up to a knowledge of their needs and rights, they go to the men who make the laws, and, with the backing of the now interested public, get a law passed which covers the situation. It is then necessary for them to keep at work to see that the desires of the people as they are expressed in the new law are carried out. Often in the beginning they will conduct the investigations, report to the authorities, and even pay for the prosecu- tion of the violators of the new law. As we get older we shall find that one of the best ways in which we can serve our community is by co-operating with and belonging to some of these civic organizations. HEALTH 33 SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER STUDY AND DISCUSSION i. Why should we observe the rule " Breathe deeply of pure, fresh air " ? What are some of the ill effects of breathing impure air ? 2. How do men live in a submarine ? in deep mines ? in tunnel- ing under a river or through a mountain ? 3. How were our soldiers protected from poisonous gases in the trenches? How were the dugouts and bombproof s ventilated? 4. Describe the system of ventilation used in your school. How is your church ventilated? the movies? 5. In front of garages and automobile stores we sometimes see the sign " Free Air." Of what value is it that it should be so adver- tised ? What are some of the ways in which we add value to the air ? 6. What are some of the building regulations of your community which relate to pure air ? 7. Why is an air shaft a poor method of ventilating a tenement house ? 8. What agencies are fighting the " white plague " in your com- munity ? How are they doing it ? 9. Make a list of the nuisances in your neighborhood which render the air impure? How would you go about having such conditions corrected ? 10. What advantage would it be to a factory owner to install a smoke- consuming device ? 11. Find out all you can about the private organizations which are at work in your community aiding in the fight for pure air. 12. What is the O eta via Hill Association? PURE WATER Water and Health. — Next to air water is probably the most necessary thing for our lives.- Deprived of air we should die almost at once ; deprived of water it would be a matter of but a few days before we should die of thirst. It is necessary therefore for the very life of the community that there be a plentiful supply of water for drinking purposes. Cities are not found on the desert. 34 THE ELEMENTS OF COMMUNITY WELFARE When people live in places where there is no natural source of supply of water, it is necessary that the water be brought from a distance. We need water, however, not only for drinking but for cooking, cleaning, and in in- dustry. In determining the site of a new community one of the most important precautions taken is to make sure that the water supply will be sufficient for the needs of the community. Water is most important to the health of the community. Not only do our bodies require water to sustain life, but also for purposes of cleanliness. Disease and dirt go hand in hand. Disease germs lurk in dirt and filth. Cleanliness must be added to fresh air and sunshine in our homes if we are to be free from disease. Soap and water are believed to-day to be the best disinfectants. A community where the supply of water for washing is insufficient cannot be a healthful community. One of the difficulties in the slum sections of our cities is the in- adequate water supply. Water and Disease. — Water not only plays an im- portant part in making for the health of the community, but it may also be a source for the spread of disease. One of the reasons for the high death-rate in cities in the past was that a disease was spread through the communities by the drinking of impure water. This disease is called typhoid fever. The germs which are responsible for this disease cannot be seen in the water. Sometimes apparently pure water will be filled with them. Since water is used by every member of the community it becomes a very HEALTH 35 important problem to see that the water which is supplied for drinking purposes is free from the germs of this disease. Sources of Water Supply. — Our great cities are situ- ated where they are, not because of the purity of the water supply which they receive, but because of certain advan- tages for trade and industry which the location affords. When the site of the town was originally selected the water of lake or river by which the town was located may have been free from impurities. As the place developed and more especially as other towns or cities were established along the banks of the lake or river the water became anything but pure. Offering, however, the handiest source of water supply it continued to supply the needs of the place. How the Water Supply Becomes Polluted. — Large bodies and streams of water afford not only a convenient source of supply for the water of a place but also offer an easy way of getting rid of the waste water which has been used for the various household and industrial pur- poses. For many years it was the practice of towns and cities to pour their sewage into the streams at some point below where they secured the fresh water, regardless of any other places which might be relying on that same stream for their water supply. Then, too, rubbish and garbage and other filth are sometimes thrown into the stream by careless persons. If, then, by any means it happened that there were people in these places who were ill with typhoid fever the germs of this disease were washed into the river along with the 36 THE ELEMENTS OF COMMUNITY WELFARE rest of the waste. When the people lower down the stream made use of this disease-polluted water for drinking purposes they too would develop the disease. In this manner much disease, suffering, and death were spread from one community to another. Protection by Individual Effort. — Each member of the community may take the necessary precautions for protecting himself from the ravages of this disease. Re- gardless of the source of supply of the water or of its purity, if people would boil all water which they intend to use for drinking purposes, they would be reasonably safe from the danger of typhoid. There are times, after the measures taken by the community as a whole have failed, when the health authorities send out warning to the citizens to take this precaution. Such a procedure, however, throws the responsibility on the individual. Unfortunately there are people who do not realize the danger to themselves and to others and who neglect to do as they are told. Not only would they be likely to pay the penalty for their careless- ness by contracting the disease, but their neighbors who had been faithfully trying to protect themselves would be ex- posed to it from other sources than drinking water. This matter of protection from disease has been recognized as of such importance that the community has been unwilling to trust its health in the hands of the careless or negligent. Another method which might be adopted for individual protection is that of vaccination. Every soldier in our Army is required to submit to inoculation against ty- phoid. This has proved to be a most effective measure HEALTH 37 and has reduced the amount of typhoid fever in the Army until it is almost negligible. This is most remarkable when we remember that in the past typhoid alone killed more of our soldiers than the bullets of the enemy. Such precaution is absolutely necessary in the Army, where, because of the difficulty of obtaining pure water, great risk is run from outbreaks of typhoid fever. Protection by Community Effort. — It is very necessary for the health of the community that the pollution of the water supply be prevented. But this involves compel- ling members of other town and city communities to dis- pose of their sewage and waste in certain prescribed ways. The members of each of these smaller communities are also members of the larger community, the state. Just as the individual in the smaller community is not allowed to do just as he pleases if his action is injurious to the group, so in the larger community the various cities and towns are required to respect the rights of the other smaller communities. The larger group, the state, desires that the health of its parts be protected, and so it usually wills by means of laws that sewage along the sources of water supply must be disposed of in certain ways. A town may not empty its sewage into the river which is the source of the drinking supply of another community. Filtration. — Cities which take their water from near-by rivers and streams protect themselves from the ravages of typhoid by treating the water so as to remove the germs of disease. This is done by the removal and destruction of disease germs through the process of filtration. Before 38 THE ELEMENTS OF COMMUNITY WELFARE the present system of filtration was introduced the city of Philadelphia had the highest death-rate from typhoid fever of any large city in the United States. This was due to the fact that the cities and towns located on the two rivers from which Philadelphia drew her water supply emptied their sewage and waste into these rivers. The water which was pumped into the homes of the city was not only dirty and foul-smelling, but often laden with the germs of disease. To-day an effective system of filtration has reduced the number of cases of typhoid to a minimum. Most of the cases which are now found in the city are brought in by returning vacationists who have been drink- ing polluted water or bathing in infected streams. Home Methods. — You may have seen a farmer in the country tie several pieces of cheese-cloth over the mouth of the pump. He does this so that if any im- purities, such as leaves, or sticks, are pumped up from the well they will not get into the water which he wishes to use. This is a very crude filter and does not make the water safe to drink. Some of us may have seen the small filter which we sometimes attach to the faucet at home. Here the water is forced through a cylinder or block of porous stone. This is, of course, better than the cloth filter, but although it clears the water it does not remove all the disease germs. The only safe filter is that in which the water passes through several feet of sand or stone. Such filters are so expensive that only the rich could afford to have them. The health of the community is such an important matter that we cannot afford to HEALTH 39 let each individual look out for himself, and so we find the community even in our smaller cities often installing filtration plants. A City Filter. — When water is taken directly from a river it is usually quite cloudy with dirt. In order that A Filter Bed the filters may not be required to handle all this and so become clogged quickly, the water is first pumped into reservoirs where it is allowed to stand for a number of hours. The heavy dirt will sink to the bottom. To still further clear the water it is next pumped through tanks which contain sand and gravel. These tanks are really just large strainers which strain off the finer mud which has not settled in the first process. The water is then carried to the slow sand filters. These consist of great chambers HEALTH 41 filled with a number of feet of fine sand and gravel. As the water is pumped into these rooms it gradually filters down through the sand and gravel. In this process not only is the remaining dirt removed but the greater part of the disease germs are destroyed. In time these great sand filters become clogged with the dirt which they have removed from the water. It is then necessary to clean them. A number of men are kept busy at this work. We see them shoveling off the top layer of sand from a bed which has been drained off and carting it away to the machines which wash the sand by forcing clean water through it. The impurities are thrown away and the sand is ready to be used again. A city filtra- tion plant will contain many such sand beds, so that the city may continue to receive filtered water even when some of the beds are being purified. A Pure Source. — Some communities, however, have not been satisfied to take impure water and by filtering it make it fit for use. New York City, for example, in order to have an adequate supply of pure water has gone more than a hundred miles from the city up into the Cats- kill Mountains and there built the largest reservoir for city water supply in America. By controlling the streams which feed the Ashokan reservoir the safety of the water supply is insured. The city of Los Angeles has gone more than two hundred miles in order that it might be supplied with pure water from the mountain streams of the Sierras. In other cities we find artesian wells supplying water which has been filtered through many hundreds of feet of sand and rock. 42 THE ELEMENTS OF COMMUNITY WELFARE Cost. — It will readily be seen that any of the methods described involves the expenditure of great sums of money. Philadelphia has already spent about 70 million dollars on its water supply system. New York paid more than 150 million dollars for the tunnel connecting the Ashokan reservoir with the city. Nearly every city in the country has spent proportionately large sums of money to make sure of an adequate and safe water supply system. Not only is it expensive to install a water supply system, but it is also very costly to maintain it. Millions of dollars are spent every year for the maintenance and repair of the water supply systems of our large cities. Water Rents and Meters. — All these expenses must be born by the people who use the water. Since there is no member of the community who does not make use of water you will see that the expense must fall upon every one. Where water is supplied by a community to its mem- bers the cost is usually met by charging for the water used in each house or place of business. The old method was to charge a water rent. This was a flat charge of so many dollars a year for each faucet of a certain size used on the premises. Since some people are likely to be very wasteful of water and let it run carelessly to waste it seems to be unfair that they should have to pay no more than those of us who realize the value of water and are careful in its use. To overcome this unfairness water meters are in- stalled. This makes each householder and business man pay for just the amount of water which he uses. A dis- tinction is made between the rate charged to a place of business and a private home. Why? HEALTH 43 Waste and Saving. — There has been a tremendous waste of water in our communities just as there has been waste in many other things. The adoption of the water meter is one of the best means of checking and preventing this waste. This reduces the cost of supplying the water and enables the authorities to spend the money saved on improving the water supply. We can do much to help prevent waste by being careful to see that the faucet is turned off tightly after we have finished using the water. We may help our community by reporting leaking faucets and hydrants when we discover them. A leaking faucet or hydrant is practically letting the community's money run right into the sewer. SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER STUDY AND DISCUSSION i. Compare the typhoid records in the National Army cantonments with those of the Spanish-American war. 2. Make a list of the various uses of water. Classify these under main heads. For which purposes might unfiltered or impure water be used? 3. Describe the system of water supply in your community. 4. Compare the cost of water to a city dweller with that of the country dweller who desires to have running water in his house. 5. What is the source of the water supply of your community? Is it satisfactory? 6. Draw a rough sketch map of the country drained by the river from which the water supply of your community is obtained. Indicate any possible sources of stream pollution. 7. Make a visit to the waterworks of your community. Write a description of your visit. If you have a camera it might be interesting to illustrate your story with photographs. 8. What are the laws in your state concerning stream pollution? 9. If the water for your community is filtered, make a visit to the filtration plant. 10. Make a sketch showing the general plan of a sand filter. 44 THE ELEMENTS OF COMMUNITY WELFARE ii. How do you pay for the water which you use ? 12. Mention some of the ways in which water is wasted in your community. How could this be prevented? 13. Subject for debate. Resolved, that the plan of securing water at a safe source as is used in New York city is better than that of puri- fying water secured from an unsafe source as is done in Philadelphia. SEWAGE DISPOSAL Danger from Improper Disposal. — The cost of water to a community does not end when the water has been de- livered at the faucets. The health not only of the home community, but also of adjoining communities, may be imperiled by the improper disposal of the waste which is carried away in the used water. After water has been used for cooking, bathing, cleaning, it is full of impurities which if not properly handled may easily become a menace to the public health. We all know how quickly a puddle of water becomes offensive, especially in hot weather. Grease from our kitchens will quickly become a breeding place for flies, and stagnant water for mos- quitoes. Even the rain and snow which falls into our streets must be gotten rid of quickly. If it were allowed to remain in puddles in our streets until it had drained off through the surface it would become a serious problem. Our cellars would catch the water as it filtered out through the ground and soon become breeding places for disease. So it is that the community having delivered the water to the houses must also provide some safe way of dispos- ing of the filth and waste which this water carries off. Methods of Sewage Disposal. — The easiest way to get rid of waste water or sewage is to let it flow into a near-by HEALTH 45 river or stream. But this is not sufficient. Where cities are on tidal rivers the waste is washed back past the city and often pollutes the stream at the source of the town's supply. And even when this does not happen, communi- ties situated down the stream suffer because of our care- lessness and are put to great expense to secure a safe water supply. Many of our state communities, realizing the dangers attendant upon this method of sewage disposal, have forbidden the pollution of streams in this manner. The result has been that each local community has been compelled to adopt some method of sewage disposal which will not result in injury to the health of other com- munities. Many large cities have sewage disposal plants that resemble somewhat the filtration plants which we have just considered. The waste water is carried to these plants through the sewers of the city. As it enters the plant it is caught in large tanks where it is allowed to stand until most of the heavier solid matter has settled to the bottom. These tanks are called sedimentation tanks. The sediment that falls in these tanks gets partly rid of the harmful bacteria which it contains by the action of friendly bacteria that work upon it a while in the darkness. This process is completed when the sediment is taken from the tanks and spread out in the sunlight to dry. This dried material is used as fertilizer. The liquid sewage which comes from the sedimentation tank is sprayed out from a number of little fountains and thus exposed to the air and sunlight. Afterward it passes through filters of sand or gravel. This process is repeated a number of 46 THE ELEMENTS OF COMMUNITY WELFARE times until the liquid may be discharged into the river without danger of injury to the health of any one. There are other ways of disposing of sewage so that it will not be harmful to the health of our own or other com- munities. In some coastal cities the sewage is treated with chemicals. This causes the solid matter to be sepa- rated from the liquid. The liquid is then emptied into the river, while the solid matter is carried on barges and dumped into the sea. In some cities the sewage is used to irrigate and fertilize farms outside the city. In this way the sewage is safely disposed of and with a profit. This method is impracticable, however, for a large city. It also can be used only where crops may be raised through- out the year, as in some of our southern towns. Surface Water and Sewage. — Most of the sewerage systems of our cities were built in the days when little or no attention was paid to the problem .of safety in sewage disposal. All that was thought to be necessary was a system of pipes to carry the waste water to the rivers. If you have ever noticed when the streets have been torn up you will remember that the sewerage pipes are much larger than the water pipes which bring the water to our homes. These were planned so as to be large enough to handle not only the waste water from our homes but also the surface water which has to be taken care of during every rain storm. In spite of the precautions which have been taken to build large sewerage mains, occasionally during a very heavy rain storm the pipes are not large enough to handle all the water and it backs up into our cellars or even comes out of the inlets in the lower sections. HEALTH 47 If a city with such a sewerage system is compelled to adopt one of the methods of safe sewage disposal about which we have been reading, the disposal plant will have to handle all the water which comes through the pipes. Where new sections of an old city are being planned or when the old sewer pipes have to be replaced, we fre- quently find that there are two sets of pipes installed. One set handles the sewage from houses and so forth which must be purified before being emptied into the stream ; the other handles only the surface water. Such a system, while expensive to install, saves in time because of the re- duced cost of operating the disposal plant. Plumbing and Health. — Have you ever noticed the pipe which leads from the sink in your kitchen or from the washstand in your bathroom? If you have, you will remember that it is not straight but is bent so as to form a letter U. This is called a trap. The U-shaped part of the pipe is always full of water which acts as a plug pre- venting the impure and foul-smelling gases which rise from the sewer from coming up into our homes. Im- proper or defective plumbing might permit this gas to injure the health of the community, so that especial care is taken that all plumbing work be inspected by health officers. SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER STUDY AND DISCUSSION i. Describe the system of sewage disposal in use in your community, 2. What laws are there in your state determining the method of sewage disposal? 3. Who are the officers who are in charge of the enforcement of these state laws? 4. What is meant by a " registered plumber " ? CHAPTER VI HEALTH (Continued) PURE FOOD One morning, early in the fall of 191 7, the citizens of a little country town just outside the limits of one of our National Army Cantonments were surprised to see the military police on guard in front of some of their largest stores and the single restaurant of which the town boasted. Civilians were allowed to enter, but if a soldier made the attempt he was stopped by the guards and ordered away. And yet there were other stores selling the same kind of goods which were unmolested. What could be the matter ? Each one of these places sold food. Now Uncle Sam was very particular as to the kind of food which his soldiers should eat. He had gone to great expense to provide clean, wholesome food for his men, and he did not care to have them go outside the camp and buy food which might result in their being made ill. Sanitary officers had in- spected the shops of the town and had discovered that some of them were careless in the manner in which they handled their foodstuffs. Meats were not kept in re- frigerators. Food was left on the counters exposed to flies and dirt. And so such places were quarantined, and no soldier was allowed to enter until the strict requirements for sanitation demanded by the Army were observed. 48 HEALTH 49 How Food Becomes Impure. — When people live on farms where they produce practically all of the food which they use, they are able to guard themselves against impure food by exercising precautions in its handling and care. In our larger towns and cities, however, the people are dependent almost if not entirely on others for their food. A city will draw its food supplies from the country for hundreds of miles around, and, in the case of some com- modities bring them from the far corners of the nation. This means that their food is produced, transported, and in many instances prepared by others. If every one were conscientious about his work, and did his duty faithfully, the necessary precautions would always be taken, and the food would reach the consumer as pure as it is possible to have it. Unfortunately all people are not as careful as they should be. Some are simply careless, others are deliberately dishonest, and in order to increase their own gains neglect the care which should be taken. Food is so important to the health of the nation, and impure food can work such injury to the people who use it, that the one who is guilty of neglect or wilful tampering with the purity of the food supply is an enemy to the community. The careless handling of foodstuffs is responsible for much impurity of food. Carelessness in regard to proper refrigeration of perishable foods ; the exposure of food to flies, and the dirt and dust from store and street ; in- discriminate handling of meats, cakes, and so forth, by customers ; lack of sanitary precautions by dealers ; — these are the chief sources of impurities. 50 THE ELEMENTS OF COMMUNITY WELFARE Then, too, we have the deliberate adulteration of foods. Milk is watered, not only decreasing its food value and thus endangering the health of infants, but also at times causing the introduction of disease germs such as typhoid. Cheap vegetable fats are mixed with butter. You will be able to extend the list considerably. Sometimes meats which have spoiled, and are unfit for human consump- tion, are treat^oVwith chemicals which make them seem as if they were freshly slaughtered. Chemical preservatives are used to insure that inferior or partly spoiled articles shall appear to be good. Dangers from Impure Food. — We must eat moderately of a wholesome, well-cooked, well-balanced diet if we are to preserve our health. Along with pure air and pure water must go pure, wholesome food. We could all cite some instance of illness caused by impure food. A very severe illness called ptomaine poisoning is caused by eating cer- tain impure or partly spoiled foods. Much of the illness among young children is caused by impure food. Milk alone is responsible for the death of many infants every summer. In fact so many babies have died as the result of drinking impure milk that our cities have made special effort to instruct mothers as to its dangers by making it the principal feature in the baby saving shows. The health of an entire community may be endangered by impure food. Typhoid fever may be spread through the city as a result of the careless handling of milk. Meat from diseased cattle may result in disease or death to those who use it. Dirt, dust, and filth from exposure of HEALTH 51 food to flies, and so forth, may seriously injure the health of members of our community. Pure food is so necessary to our health, and impure food is so dangerous, that we cannot leave this matter in the hands of the individual members of the group. It demands community action and co-operation if the health of all is to be safeguarded. Local Community Action. — In order to insure the purity and cleanliness of the food supply, we find in every town and city a more or less efficient organization to safe- guard the public health. First of all we require that dealers handling certain kinds of food which are most likely to cause trouble be licensed. This means that they must secure a permit from the local health authori- ties before they are allowed to handle this food. Such measures allow the health authorities to know just which dealers are handling certain foods, for example, milk and its products, and to keep a close watch on the sanitary conditions of their stores and places of business. In order that the health of the people may not be injured by the adulteration of foodstuffs, certain standards are set up to which foods such as milk must conform. That is, the amount of cream is prescribed, the temperature at which it must be kept is indicated, and so forth. To see that such regulations are obeyed we a find number of inspectors whose duty it is to see that the city ordinances in regard to these matters are complied with. Meats may be a source of much trouble to a commu- nity, and so we find in the local slaughterhouses inspectors who examine the meats, and pass on their fitness for human 52 THE ELEMENTS OF COMMUNITY WELFARE consumption. The conditions of bakeries and other places where food is prepared for the people are regularly inspected. The condition of health of workers in such places is determined with a view to deciding whether or not it is safe to have them handling the food of others. State and Federal Action. — The food of our towns and cities comes from without. The cattle which supply the milk and meat may be in a distant part of the state or even the nation. The canneries, mills, and so forth, where other food is prepared may also be located at a dis- tance and far from the control of the local authorities. Of course it would be possible to have a rigid inspection made of all foodstuffs being brought into a city, but this would be a difficult and expensive proposition. Since the city is a part of the state and its members citizens of the state, that which affects the welfare of the city affects the welfare of the state. Just as it is to the interest of the local community to protect the interests of its citizens, so it is to the interest of the state to protect the interests of its citizens. Hence we find that the state is vitally interested in the health of the city. By statute, and close co-operation, the state works with the city to safe- guard its health. We find state laws regulating condi- tions under which food is prepared, and so forth, and state inspectors who see that the wishes of the state group in matters pertaining to pure food are carried out. Under the direction of the state departments of health, and of agriculture, we find a corps of able men and women con- stantly on guard to protect us from impure food. HEALTH 53 The national government, too, is by no means lacking in its interest and care for the public health through pure food. In our local slaughter and packing houses we find the federal inspectors. Their stamp of approval on good meats will be familiar to those of us who have visited a butcher shop. An act of Congress known as the Pure Food and Drug Act requires that the label on packages containing food bear a truthful statement as to the con- tents. The legend u guaranteed under the pure food and drug act " does not mean, as some people believe, that the United States government is guaranteeing the quality of the contents. It is a guarantee that the materials contained are correctly stated on the label. If, for example, benzoate of soda has been used in the preserving of catsup, the label on the bottle must state this fact to- gether with the percentage used. All over the country federal inspectors keep careful watch for violation of such laws. The Bureau of Chemistry and the Bureau of Ani- mal Industry under the Department of Agriculture at Washington are waging constant warfare for the protection and the preservation of the public health through pure food. Individual Responsibility. — No amount of public watchfulness can replace the care which each one must exercise in regard to the food he eats. No amount of inspection will probably ever be able to eliminate the dealer who is careless in handling foods. It is a service which each one of us can render to ourselves and to the com- munity by refusing to patronize such places. If we in- sist that the common decencies be observed by our shop- 54 THE ELEMENTS OF COMMUNITY WELFARE keepers, and refuse to deal where food is indiscriminately handled, or exposed to dust and flies, the dealers them- selves will soon adopt cleaner and more sanitary ways. SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER STUDY AND DISCUSSION i. Describe some of the methods of handling the food supply of your community which you consider unsanitary. 2. Secure from your local Bureau of Health the regulations govern- ing the handling and sale of milk. 3. Describe the work of a milk inspector. 4. Is the dealer or other person who waters or otherwise tampers with the milk responsible for the illness or loss of life of the babies who may be injured by its use ? 5. What advantage is there in requiring that milk be served in bottles rather than from cans ? What are some of the dangers attend- ant on the use of the milk bottle? 6. What are some of the disadvantages of having a number of small slaughterhouses? 7. What advantage would it be to a community to have one large abattoir where all the city meat would be slaughtered? 8. What foods are sold in your community for the sale of which a license is required? 9. What are the dangers of a cellar bakery? 10. What are some of the services rendered by the Bureau of Animal Industry? the Bureau of Chemistry? CLEANLINESS Cleanliness has been said to be next to godliness. How- ever true this may be we know that there is a close rela- tionship between cleanliness and good citizenship. The good citizen is interested first in the cleanliness of his per- son and immediate surroundings, and then in the cleanli- ness and surroundings of his fellows. He knows that when a member of the community is not interested in his own HEALTH 55 personal cleanliness he will not be interested in that of the community in which he lives. Carelessness in this re- spect is one of the first steps away from that commonness of interest which makes for the very existence of the com- munity itself. Cleanliness is a very simple matter if we are interested enough to make the effort. The community in which we live has surrounded us with everything which we need to be clean. We have seen how a plentiful supply of pure water is piped into our homes, not only that we might have it for drinking and cooking, but also for cleansing the body and its surroundings. If we look out of the win- dow of our classroom we may see the street cleaners at work aiding us so that we may have clean streets along which to walk. We have seen the local community at work abating smoke and other nuisances which make for an uncleanly community. If we stop to think about it we shall see that there is very little excuse for uncleanli- ness. Dirt is an enemy to health. Where people are careless in regard to the cleanliness of their persons and surround- ings, we are much more likely to find disease. Most dis- ease germs grow best in dark, damp, dirty places. Fresh air, sunlight, and pure water are enemies of disease. Dis- ease carriers such as flies and mosquitoes originate in filth or in pools of stagnant water. The community can- not afford to permit dirt and filth to exist if it is to safe- guard its health. There are some forms of dirt which in themselves may not be sources of disease, but which we cannot afford to 56 THE ELEMENTS OF COMMUNITY WELFARE permit to exist because of the effect which they have upon the appearance of the community, and the consequent effect upon the lives of the people. Some people who are particular in regard to their personal surroundings are careless when the appearance of the neighborhood is concerned. They carelessly throw into the street pieces of paper and other articles which are responsible for MSKiiw .10!, \ THE R Aa\: wit Srnx: a.s.c USE THIS CAR IJ.S.K. Rubbish Cans for Paper and Other Waste much of the dirty appearance of our highways. A good citizen will be as careful of the streets of his city as of the rooms in his home. Sources of Dirt. — It is a rather distressing fact that most of our American communities are careless in regard to the condition of their streets. It is not because we want dirty streets, but because so many of us fail to recog- nize our own responsibility for the conditions which exist. Men and women who are otherwise perfectly good citizens will thoughtlessly drop into the streets torn pieces of an HEALTH 57 envelope, accept a circular which is being distributed ^and then carelessly throw it away. Boxes containing waste paper are placed out to wait for the waste collector only to have a part of the contents blown all over the street by the wind. Storekeepers sweep the dirt from their shops into the street. Boys and girls drop candy bags, torn scraps of school papers, fruit peelings, here and there. You will be able to add to this list to considerable length. It is little wonder that the streets of our towns and cities are often unpresentable. And all this in spite of the fact that the community is paying out no small amount of its good money to keep these very streets clean. " But," some one may remark, " that is what the street cleaners are for." Can you tell what is wrong with such a suggestion ? Street Cleaning. — The problem of keeping our city streets clean is a very big one, involving the expenditure of millions of dollars every year, and the employment of a small army of laborers. The methods which are used will vary in the different communities according to the pro- gressiveness of the community. Every conceivable method will be found, from the single cleaner with barrow and broom to the modern power-driven street cleaning ma- chine. The type of machine used will vary, too, with the, nature of the street paving, one type being used on the smoothly paved streets, and another on the rough granite block-paved highways. It will be interesting if various members of the class write to firms which manufacture street cleaning ma- $& THE ELEMENTS OF COMMUNITY WELFARE chinery and ask for catalogues showing pictures and giving descriptions of the different machines. It has been found that the power-driven machines, when they can be used, do the work more quickly and more economically than the older horse-drawn machines. The nature of the paving determines the type of cleaning de- vice which may be used. If the street is paved with rough granite blocks it is necessary to use the machine broom. If it is smoothly paved as with asphalt the squeegee ma- chine or the high pressure motor flusher may be used. A new type of machine not only sweeps up the dirt but also loads it into wagons to be carted away, thus com- pleting the entire process in one operation. Since street cleaning is a matter requiring constant at- tention and is a source of considerable expense to the com- munity, the relation of the nature of the street paving to it should be considered. Since the smooth-paved street, whether of asphalt, wood blocks, or cemented bricks, may be cleaned quickly and economically* by means of motor-driven machines, it would seem to be wise to see that wherever possible these forms of paving be adopted. Garbage Disposal. — Among the enemies of the public health must be listed the garbage can. Not because it should necessarily be an enemy, but because of the care- lessness of members of the community who are responsible for its condition. Even the tightly covered iron can, un- less it is kept scrupulously clean, in hot weather may be- come a nuisance. But the leaking, uncovered bucket is a certain menace to health. Not only are the odors HEALTH 59 which come from it objectionable, but it is also a breeding place for flies. These multiply with great rapidity and soon make their way from the garbage can to the food- stuffs on our tables. Even covered cans which have been allowed to stand out overnight are likely to have their contents spilled over the ground by some prowling cat or dog. Indeed the garbage can may be a source of dirt, foul odor, and disease. The problem of disposing of the garbage is an important one in every community. A simple and profitable method in country districts is to feed it to the pigs. In fact in some small cities this is still done. The keeping of pigs by individual members of the community within the city limits, however, is generally prohibited because of the ob- jectionable odors and the fact that pigpens are breeding places for flies. The garbage, on the other hand, may be burned or thrown into a near-by stream. The objections to these last methods are quite evident. In more closely settled communities some other method of disposal must be adopted. Incineration. — There are two principal methods of getting rid of garbage. One method is by incineration, that is, burning. The other is by reduction. The in- cineration or burning of garbage as it is carried on in a town or city is quite different from that which would be employed by the individual citizen who attempted to burn his garbage. When garbage is burned, unless the fire is sufficiently hot to consume all smoke and gas, a most objectionable odor is thrown off which makes living near by 60 THE ELEMENTS OF COMMUNITY WELFARE very uncomfortable. Every particle of garbage must be completely destroyed. This requires a very hot fire because of the large amount of water which is contained in garbage, and is quite expensive on account of the amount of coal or other fuel which must be used. This difficulty is overcome, however, by having the garbage mixed with ashes and then burning both together under a forced draft. There is enough unburned coal in the ashes and fuel in the garbage to burn completely all the garbage when handled in this manner. This method is not so expensive in that the cost of operating the plant may be reduced by making use of the great heat produced to generate steam with which to make electricity for operating the plant itself, and even to supply light and power to points outside the plant. Reduction. — There are some people, however, who claim that the garbage contains too much valuable material to permit of its being destroyed. In order to save the fats and other products which the garbage contains a process is resorted to which is called reduction. In this process the garbage is cooked by means of steam for a number of hours until it is boiled down to a paste. It is then subjected to pressure which separates out the grease and liquid. This grease is then refined. It is the most valu- able part of the garbage. It is used in the manufacture of soap, candles, and so forth. The remaining material is used in the manufacture of fertilizer. Waste and Ashes. — Ashes and rubbish are the cleanest of the waste products of a community, and yet they are responsible for a great deal of the dirt in the streets. This HEALTH 61 is due to the carelessness with which they are handled by housekeeper and collector. The resulting dirt from the improper disposal of ashes and rubbish has led most communities to make rather strict regulations as to just how such materials should be disposed of. But in spite of ^NJfvJpk. J at : ,i> *v\l . M\K PA.-: All - tffi\ T ^ '■-" : \ -r-:'?! ^ ^Tfi ■!._ «,* " •" Pj| Ash Machine Used to unload scows and load cars with ashes, which later are dumped to fill in land, etc. these our streets still continue to be littered every ash and rubbish day. No amount of law will ever be able to over- come the carelessness of the individual citizen. When we really want clean streets and are willing to take the proper precautions with our waste and rubbish and other sources of dirt, our streets will be clean. If each house- keeper saw to it that the cans or boxes containing the ashes did not leak, that they were not overfilled, and that 62 THE ELEMENTS OF COMMUNITY WELFARE waste papers and so forth were tied into bundles so that the wind could not blow them away, much of the unneces- sary dirt in our streets would be eliminated. A commu- nity which was careful in regard to the manner in which it placed its waste and rubbish on the street would soon see that the collectors obeyed the laws in regard to keep- ing their wagons covered and that they exercised proper care in their collections. Municipal vs. Private Service. — There are two ways in which a community may look after these matters per- taining to its cleanliness. It may either take charge of the work and do it for itself, or it may hire some one to do the work for it. . Both of these methods are to be found in our country. There are advantages and disadvantages on each side. The matters about which we have been reading are not so simple as they might at first seem. To do such work efficiently and cheaply requires expert knowl- edge. The supervision and planning of this work is the job of well-trained experts. When the work is done by the community there is the danger that it will be placed in the hands of men who are politicians rather than techni- cal experts. On the other hand there is the possibility of political influence entering into the awarding of contracts to private organizations. What is needed is the develop- ment of citizens who will be willing to place the welfare of the community above their own personal interests. SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER STUDY AND DISCUSSION i. Draw a diagram of what you would consider a satisfactory garbage can. Of what material would you have it made? HEALTH 63 2. How do you dispose of the garbage at your home? 3. How is the garbage collected? By whom? What kinds of wagons are used? 4. What system of final disposal of garbage is used by your com- munity ? 5. Write a brief argument in favor of the " reduction " plan ; of the " incinerating " plan. 6. What are the regulations governing the disposal of waste and ashes in your community? 7. Whose duty is it to see that these laws are enforced ? THE PREVENTION OF CONTAGION In the fall of 191 8 the country was swept with a terrible disease, which cost the lives of thousands of our citizens. In army camp, city and village alike it did its deadly work, while the medical profession, ignorant of a cure for the mal- ady, seemed to be almost helpless. It had been many years since such an epidemic had swept the country. The de- struction, worked by influenza and the suffering and dis- tress which it caused may be taken as an illustration of the horrors which are attendant on unchecked contagious diseases. There was a time when diseases such as small- pox and yellow fever would spread at almost regular inter- vals through whole sections of the country and claim many victims. Fortunately, as a result of the wonderful dis- coveries which have been made in recent years by our physicians, such diseases have been either entirely wiped out or when they do occur are held in such close check that they do comparatively little damage. Let us look at some of the ways by which the community protects itself from contagious diseases. 64 THE ELEMENTS OF COMMUNITY WELFARE School ' Medical Inspection. — There are many conta- gious diseases which we find especially among young children. There was a time when parents believed that every child had to have at some time or other such dis- eases as the measles and chicken-pox. Little or no care was taken to prevent the spread of these diseases. In some cases when one child in the family was taken with the measles the other children were deliberately exposed so that they would take the disease and have it over. We know to-day that this was very foolish. Children do not have to have the so-called children's diseases. In some instances such diseases result in loss of life or some per- manent injury to the child. In our schools, where large numbers of children are brought together, there is a terrible chance for the spread of contagious disease unless care is exercised. To safe- guard the health of our boys and girls every teacher is trained in detecting the more important contagious dis- eases. The teacher and the principal represent the first line of defense. When a case is discovered which seems to be suspicious the child is sent to the school medical inspector or to the nurse. If it should have a contagious disease it is immediately excluded from the school, and at the same time a report is made to the local health authorities in order that the other families in the neighbor- hood may be protected. Vaccination. — Being vaccinated is an experience which most of us have had, for we would not have been admitted to school without vaccination. Formerly smallpox was HEALTH 65 one of the most feared diseases. At intervals it would break out and sweep across the country taking a heavy toll of life. The discovery and widespread use of vaccina- tion against this disease has, however, resulted in almost complete elimination of this scourge. So effective has the application of vaccination been in preventing small- pox in civilized communities that vaccination of school children, and of persons who have been exposed to the disease by being in the neighborhood when a case is dis- covered, has been made compulsory. Other forms of vaccination which have been introduced lately are those for protection from typhoid fever and influenza. As we have seen, the compulsory inoculation of all soldiers with typhoid vaccine resulted in the practical elimination of typhoid fever from the American army in the recent war. In a matter which so closely affects the life and welfare of the entire community the good citizen willingly submits to such preventive measures as will make for the welfare of the group. Quarantine. — We have all seen the quarantine signs which are placed on houses in which there is some con- tagious disease. Have you ever read one of them ? At the top there is usually printed the name of the disease. Beneath this is a warning as to the danger of the disease and such regulations as the health officers of the commu- nity see fit to enforce. It may contain in the case of cer- tain diseases a statement forbidding any one to enter or leave the house for a certain period. In case of a disease such as smallpox we usually find an officer at the front of 66 THE ELEMENTS OF COMMUNITY WELFARE the house and another at the rear to see that the quaran- tine is enforced. It is not a pleasant thing to be quarantined and not to be permitted to leave our own homes when we please. But good citizens are willing to obey the law because they know that it is for the good of all the people of the com- munity. The health officer who placed the sign on the door, and the policemen who are there to see that the law is observed, are merely performing their duty which they are required by the rest of the community to do. How angry we should be if someone were to visit us in our home and after they had left we were to find that they had just come from a house in which there was a case of smallpox ! And we should be even more provoked if as a result of their carelessness some member of our family were to contract the dread disease. When we think of it in this light we see that quarantine is meant to save us from unnecessary exposure to the dangers of disease. The physician whom we call in, in case of illness, is re- quired by law to report to the health authorities of the community any case of contagious disease which he dis- covers. If he should fail to do this he is likely to be pun- ished very severely. The health authorities of the com- munity, the members of the Department of Health of the city, are merely the men and women whom the people of the community have selected to protect the public health. If we were to visit the headquarters of the health au- thorities we should find that they keep a very close watch over the health of the community. On large maps of the city there will be indicated by means of colored dots HEALTH 67 every case of contagious disease which exists in the city. A careful study of these maps will sometimes lead to the discovery of the source of a certain disease. This makes it possible for them to go right to the source when they take up their fight against any disease. But not only does the community quarantine the homes of individual members within the community but when necessary establishes quarantine over sections of the com- munity or even over the entire city or town. To pro- tect the public health people from other communities may be forbidden to enter our community if we are fearful lest some contagious disease from which this other group is suffering may be brought to us. Such a quarantine was established during a recent epidemic of infantile paralysis. Since the spread of disease concerns every one in the country all three communities, local, state, and national, are deeply interested and co-operate closely. When the local authorities are unable to cope satisfactorily with a given disease, the state authorities come to their aid. In like manner the national authorities have the right to step in whenever the welfare of the local or state com- munities seems to warrant it. The local authorities are required to report to the state all cases of contagious dis- ease and the number of deaths from each. Each week the state is required to report this information to the public health service of the national government. Federal Quarantine. — While we are busy guarding ourselves against diseases which arise within, the national 68 THE ELEMENTS OF COMMUNITY WELFARE community is guarding us from disease which might be brought to us from without. Constantly on guard, through every minute of the day and night, stand the quarantine officers who represent the national govern- ment. Every vessel entering our country from a foreign port is boarded by a quarantine officer. He does not allow the ship to dock until it can show a clean bill of U. S. Immigration Station, Ellis Island Here all immigrants must present themselves for their first inspection under the law health. Every alien who enters the United States must undergo a medical examination. In this way many dangerous diseases which exist in foreign lands are kept out of our country. It has been estimated that there are probably a million preventable deaths in the United States each year. This means a tremendous loss to the country. It will be seen that the problem of health is one of the most important even for the national government. So it is that all over HEALTH 69 the country the national government is constantly active in combating disease and studying its causes. Wonderful strides have been made in fighting such diseases as yellow fever, bubonic plague, and pestilence. The national gov- ernment has become one of the chief enemies of the fly and the mosquito. Education. — The public school and other educational institutions work hand in hand with the governmental agencies to promote health. A very important subject in every classroom is hygiene. It is believed to be so im- portant that instruction in this subject is in most places required by law. In our cities we find public lectures on health matters. In the more advanced communities help is given directly in the home. The public nurse visits from house to house in the sections where she is most needed, helping the people with their health problems. Then there are the health exhibits which are held from time to time covering such subjects as milk, tuberculosis, and baby- saving. SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER STUDY AND DISCUSSION 1. Secure from your school medical inspector a copy of one of the exclusion forms which he uses. Under what conditions is this form used in your school? 2. How does your teacher know when to exclude the brothers and sisters of a child in another class who is suffering with a contagious disease ? 3. Find out from some discharged soldier whom you know all you can about vaccination against typhoid fever. Why was this considered so important in the Army as to be made compulsory ? 4. In what contagious diseases does your community establish quarantine ? How is it carried out ? 70 THE ELEMENTS OF COMMUNITY WELFARE 5. Write to the Bureau of Entomology at Washington and request that pamphlets on the fly and mosquito be sent to you. 6. Read the story of the heroic fight waged against the mosquito and yellow fever by the Medical Corps of the United States Army. THE REGULATION OF WORKING HOURS AND CONDITIONS In School. — We have seen that every boy and girl is not only a citizen but a citizen at work. Most of us spend at least three or four hours every day in our class- rooms. We are engaged in a most valuable occupation and it is necessary both for ourselves and the community that the conditions under which we work be such as will not result in injury to our health. A sound mind in a sound body is a good motto to have before us. Unless we have health our education will be of little use to us in our after life. If we look around our classroom we shall see certain measures which have been taken to guard our health. The room is well ventilated. The desks are so arranged that the light falls from over our left shoulder. If we are so fortunate as to be in a modern, well-equipped school, we are sitting in adjustable desks which are comfortable, and which may be adapted to the various activities of reading, writing, drawing, and so forth. The signal on the classroom bell indicates that the school doctor or the school nurse is in the building and ready to see any one who is in need of medical attention. We may even have a dental dispensary where a dentist may be found at cer- tain hours ready to take care of our teeth. The com- munity has employed experts, who, under the direction HEALTH 71 of the school authorities, are carrying out the laws made by the local Board of Education or the State through the instructions of the City, County, or State Superintendent of Schools. Child Labor. — If we decide that we would like to leave school and go to work we find that there are certain re- quirements which we must fulfil before we may do so. Laws have been passed by the state legislature which prescribe a certain age below which no boy or girl may be employed. This is partly in order to insure that every one shall receive at least a certain amount of education, but also in order that the health of the boys and girls may be protected. It has been found that the employment of young children during the long hours of the working day is injurious to their health. There was a time, before the people of the community realized how harmful it was, when very young children were employed and worked in mills and factories from early morning until late at night. Deprived of their right to play in the fresh outdoor air and sunshine, such children after a time often sickened and died. Others became so weakened that their future use- fulness to themselves and the community was impaired, and they became subject to disease. The evils of the employment of young children are clearly recognized to-day. As the result of the efforts of private organizations such as the child labor associations, our state legislatures have passed laws forbidding the em- ployment of children below a certain age, usually fourteen years, in any form of employment. A higher age limit 72 THE ELEMENTS OF COMMUNITY WELFARE is often found governing employment in certain industries which are especially harmful to children. A medical examination must show physical fitness to enter the pro- posed employment. Employment in certain dangerous occupations is forbidden. The states employ many in- spectors whose business it is to see that the state laws governing the employment of children are obeyed. In order to assist the states in the enforcement of the child labor laws, Congress passed in 191 6 a law forbidding interstate commerce in articles in the manufacture of which child labor was engaged. Dangerous Trades. — If you have ever seen a work- man cleaning stone with a sand blast, you will have noticed that his face was protected from the flying sand by a mask. To breathe this sand and cut stone is very injurious to the lungs and in a short while would probably result in the worker developing tuberculosis. There are many occu- pations which are injurious to one's health. Trades re- quiring the handling of arsenic, mercury, lead, phosphorus, and other poisonous materials are especially dangerous. As these trades are necessary some one must do the work. From such employment it is only right that boys and girls should be excluded. The older folk who are engaged in such work must be protected as far as possible. Laws have been passed requiring the wearing of masks, the installation of hoods and fans for ventilating, and other protective measures. The state employs inspectors to see that these laws concerning labor conditions are enforced. Workers in dangerous trades often become careless and HEALTH 73 disregard the measures which have been taken for their protection. Unless the individual co-operates with the law, which has been made for his safety, the very pur- pose of the law is defeated. An evidence that the national government is interested in the health of the worker may be seen if we examine the label on a box of matches. The people who were en- gaged in the manufacture of matches were formerly sub- ject to a disease which was the result of phosphorus poi- soning. In order to protect them Congress has passed a law to which we find reference on the match box. Sweatshop Labor. — In certain lines of industry it is a practice to have part of the operation done outside the shop. We find quite a little of this in the clothing trades, where the work is let out to people who carry the goods to their homes, where the buttonholes are worked and other processes done. Work of this kind permits mothers who have no other means of support to earn money right in their own homes. There are many dangers, however, attendant on this system. Clothing may be carried into homes in which there is disease or where the sanitary conditions are unsafe. Frequently all the mem- bers of the family who are at all able are required to work on the garments so that more money may be earned. Then, too, the worker's health is often injured by working ex- cessively long hours with poor lighting and ventilating facilities. Such work is not readily inspected by the tqfci&ry inspectors and is therefore largely out of their control. It affords a means by which employers of labor 74 THE ELEMENTS OF COMMUNITY WELFARE imposing on the ignorance or impoverished conditions of the workers are able to violate practically all the laws which have been made to safeguard the workers' health. An effort has been made in some places to get at this evil by specifying, by law, the size and ventilating con- ditions of every room in which such labor is performed. Where such laws are actually enforced they help to remedy the conditions. Among the private organizations which are fighting the sweatshop evil is the National Consumers' League. This organization endeavors to educate the people as to the evils of sweatshop labor, secure legisla- tion against it, and by means of publicity bring before the people articles which are not made in sweatshops. If the people were to refuse to purchase articles made under sweatshop conditions, the evil would be quickly ended. SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER STUDY AND DISCUSSION i . How do the following school activities help safeguard the health of the boys and girls ? physical exercise ; the recess ; the school lunch ; school athletics. 2. What are the state laws governing the employment of minors in your state ? 3. Write an argument in favor of permitting the employment of boys over twelve years of age as newsboys. What are some of the dangers of this kind of work ? 4. Which is the more healthful, an indoor or an outdoor occupation ? Why? 5. How may an indoor worker guard his health so that he may keep well and strong ? 6. If you have in mind the occupation in which you expect to engage in later life make a list of all the points in favor and against it from the point of health. HEALTH 75 THE COMMUNITY AND HEALTH We have seen that health is one of the common inter- ests of every community. The very life and existence of the community depend upon the safeguarding of the health of the group. We find, therefore, that the people are vitally concerned and that in order to achieve their desires for this element of common welfare they have built up a rather complicated organization which forms a part of what we call the machinery of government. Whenever we use the word government in connection with our own country we must remember that we are referring to the power or control which all the people of the nation exercise. The President is not the govern- ment, nor is the Governor, nor Mayor, nor Judge, nor Con- gressman, nor any of the officials of city, state, or nation. They are merely the representatives of the people of their respective communities, charged with the carrying out of the desires of the people. The source of all authority in our nation is the people. The laws merely represent what the people have willed through their representatives. The authorities or representatives, be they President or po- liceman, are merely standing in the place of all the people and carrying out their wishes. In our study of the ways in which the community safe- guards its health we have seen many ordinances and laws, but they have always been the expressed wish of the people of the community. We have studied about the work of many people who are busily engaged in en- forcing these laws, but they have always been the agents 76 THE ELEMENTS OF COMMUNITY WELFARE of the people, their employees, doing what the people have instructed them to do. To manage the affairs of a community such as our city, or our state, or our nation, is a very great task. It is bigger than the management of any single business enter- prise. We all know how necessary it is that a business concern be organized so that the work may be done promptly and well. How much more necessary organiza- tion must be in the management of the great business of running our cities, our states, and our nation. In a later section of the book we shall consider in greater detail some facts about the organization of our govern- ments. It will be sufficient at this point if we get just a brief idea of the general plan of government which we find in our communities, so that when terms are used we shall understand what is meant. The work of running any one of our communities is divided into three parts. First, there is the branch of government which is responsible for making the laws. That means putting into words the things which the people of the community desire. It is called the legislative, or law-making, branch. Then there is the branch of gov- ernment which sees that the laws which have been made are carried out or enforced. It is called the executive, or law-enforcing, branch. And third, there is the branch of government which is concerned with explaining the meaning of laws that have been made and thereby helping to enforce them. It is called the judicial, or law-interpreting branch. In our study of the elements of welfare we shall be con- cerned chiefly with the work of the executive branch. In HEALTH 77 fact the great bulk of the work of the government is carried on by this branch. In our cities, for example, the laws concerning public health are enforced by the chief execu- tive of the city government, the Mayor. Since, however, he is unable to handle all this work himself and is usually lacking in the technical knowledge, he calls upon some prominent physician and makes him head of the health department of the city. The health department has so much work to do that it is as necessary for it to be organized as any other business. The work is therefore divided up among the various bureaus of which the de- partment is composed. Over each bureau we find a chief who is especially skilled in his own particular field of work. Each bureau will have many employees, depending upon the amount of work which must be done. So it is that when the inspector comes to our home he is not only rep- resenting the bureau of health, and standing in the place of the director, but also representing the Mayor or chief executive of the city. And since the Mayor is standing in the place of all the people, we may easily see that behind the word of the inspector is finally the word and power of all the people of the community. So it is that the power which comes from the people is represented in the person of one man who in respect to matters of health has been chosen to stand in the place of all the people. SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER STUDY AND DISCUSSION i. Make a list of the various services rendered by your local health department. 2. Trace the source of authority of a nuisance inspector back to the people. 78 THE ELEMENTS OF COMMUNITY WELFARE 3. Secure a copy of the last annual report of your local health de- partment. 4. How could you justify on the ground of public health a law mak- ing spitting on the streets a misdemeanor ? 5. Make a list of some of the ordinances of your city which seem to you to be especially good as measures for health protection. 6. What relation is there between the public playgrounds, gym- nasiums, swimming pools, and so forth, of your community and the public health? 7. What other city departments besides that of health are concerned in any way with the preservation of the public health ? 8. Make a list of some of the ways in which your state aids in pro- tecting the public health. 9. Make a list of the departments of your state government which are concerned in any way with the health problem. 10. Trace the source of authority of a state health agent back to the people. 11. What arguments could you advance for the establishment of a department of health as a part of the national plan of government ? 12. Find out all you can about the work of each of the following bureaus in relation to the public health: The bureau of chemistry. The bureau of animal industry. The bureau of entomology under the Department of Agriculture. The public health service under the Department of the Treasury. The children's bureau under the Department of Labor. 13. Trace the source of authority of an agent of one of these bureaus back to the people. 14. What amendment to the national constitution most directly affects the health of the people of the nation ? Why ? INDIVIDUAL RESPONSIBILITY FOR HEALTH It is the duty of the good citizen to keep himself in good health. Deprived of his health, he is no longer able to serve his community and becomes a drag upon it. All sickness is not preventable, but there is a great deal of disease and misery in every community which is the re- HEALTH 79 suit of the carelessness of some one. Sometimes it is individual neglect. At other times it is the fault of con- ditions over which the individual is powerless to exercise control, but which the community as a whole could easily regulate. We must learn to feel an individual responsi- bility for matters which, even though they may not affect us personally, yet may be injurious to others. To no small degree are we the keepers of our brother's health. The citizen who wilfully undermines the health of other members of the community, whether it be by maintain- ing nuisances, neglect of sanitary precautions, food adul- teration, or in any other manner, is an enemy to the com- munity. He is a menace to the group of which he is a member and should be tolerated no longer than is neces- sary to detect him. The rights of the community as a whole are far greater than those of any individual member. If sickness were a matter which affected only the individual it might be overlooked as a community problem. But there is no sickness or disease which does not directly or indirectly affect the entire group. The community has the right to require of each one of us such action as will make for the best interest of all. It is a matter of willing co-opera- tion. There is no better opportunity for proving the worth of one's citizenship and the fulness of one's patriotism than that of being willing to do cheerfully those things which will make for health, personal and social. Let us prove that we are patriots and not slackers by our willing effort to advance in every way possible the public health. CHAPTER VII PROTECTION OF LIFE AND PROPERTY Living has been called the most dangerous thing in life. And there is much truth in this statement. This is espe- cially true of life in a large city where, because of the great throngs of people, the vast amount of business which is going on, and the rate of speed at which everything is done, accidents are so likely to happen. As life is the one thing which we desire above all others we should expect to find that every possible precaution would be taken. And yet, every morning and evening, as we look into the newspapers, we are almost certain to see accounts of accidents resulting in the injury or loss of life of people and the destruction of property. That such accidents and the resulting loss of life do not occur even more frequently is due solely to the many precautions which the people of the community have taken to protect themselves. If we keep our eyes open we shall be able to see many of these precautions every time we walk along the street. As we leave our home in the morning we are careful to see that the door of the house is locked. At the corner of the street we see the big policeman, who has been on guard through the night, calling up the station house on the police phone. Alongside of the letter box stands the red fire alarm box from which the alarm would be sent in 80 PROTECTION OF LIFE AND PROPERTY 8 1 case of fire in one of the houses in our neighborhood. As the trolley car rounds the corner we notice the low hanging fender on guard to prevent any one who might by accident fall in front of the car from being run over by the wheels. We notice that the automobiles cut down their speed as they approach the street corners, and that they do not pass standing trolleys, but wait until the passengers have been discharged. Here is a tall building with its fire escape. As we approach the railroad we see that the grade crossing is protected by gates and by a watchman, or better still, there is no grade crossing, as the tracks have been elevated. On the railroads we notice the semaphore, or signals warning the engineers as to the condition of the track on which they are traveling. And so we might go on and enumerate many other evidences of the care of the community to protect itself from danger. There are surely many sources of danger in a modern community. Whether in our homes or on the streets, riding in the cars or while in our places of business, we are constantly surrounded by danger. And yet most of the accidents which occur are the result of some one's careless- ness. Sometimes it is the fault of the motorman or the driver of the automobile. Sometimes it is the fault of the person who has been injured. There is one word which sums up the cause of most accidents. It is careless- ness. Because of this fact a campaign is being waged constantly to save people from the results of their own care- lessness. You have often heard the motto Safety First. It is the keynote of a campaign to get each one of us to be careful, to think before we act. The railroads for many 82 THE ELEMENTS OF COMMUNITY WELFARE years have had a legend which they expose in a prominent manner at railroad crossings. It is " Stop, Look, and Listen." If it were observed more faithfully by every one, not only at railroad crossings, but also at street crossings, the death toll from accidents would be very materially reduced. THE PREVENTION OF ACCIDENT At Home. — We sometimes feel that when we are in our own homes we are in the safest place of all. And we may be if we exercise the precautions which it is necessary to take even in our own homes. Occasionally, however, it is here that some of the worst accidents occur. There are many sources of danger even at home. The gas which we use to light our houses and with which we do our cooking has been responsible for many deaths, in spite of the fact that the manufacturers give it a peculiarly objectionable odor so as to warn us in case it is escaping. The leaving of a gas jet burning near an open window where the wind may blow it out is dangerous. But the greatest danger comes from the use of the slot or prepayment meter. If the gas happens to give out while the lights are burning, especially after some of the family have gone to *bed, and some one puts a quarter into the meter and neglects to ex- amine all the jets in the house, a serious accident may occur. There have been so many accidents arising from just this cause that it pays to be very careful. Then of course there is the danger from fire. The care- less use of matches ; the placing of hot ashes into wooden boxes ; the thoughtless disposal of oily rags ; the overheated furnace ; the accumulation of piles of rubbish ; the keeping PROTECTION OF LIFE AND PROPERTY 83 of gasoline and oil on the premises ; neglecting to turn off the current when leaving an electric iron on the ironing board ; the kindling of fires with oil, — are all frequent causes of fire which often results in loss of life and property. The community takes every precaution to prevent fires and also to reduce accidents to life in case of fire. Within city limits only certain types of building con- struction are permitted. Strict laws have been made covering the use and storage of explosives and highly inflammable materials in buildings. All buildings above a certain height must be equipped with fire es- capes. To see that these laws are obeyed there are frequent inspections by the city inspectors. A great danger to life lies in permitting obstruc- tions to be placed on fire escapes, or in allowing the exits to these to be locked. Severe penalties are attached to the violation of these laws. On the Street. — On the street, especially during the busy hours of the day, there is danger, particularly to old At Important Crossings We Find the Traffic Officer 8 4 THE ELEMENTS OF COMMUNITY WELFARE folks and children. At the important crossings where there is great congestion of traffic we find the traffic officer. He is directing the movement of the countless motor-driven vehicles and cars, and in that way enabling the thou- sands of people who cross and recross the street to do so in safety. Traffic has become so dense in some of our city Copyright by Brown Brothers Traffic Has Become so Dense that it Has Become Necessary to Make Strict Rules as to just how a Vehicle Shall Proceed streets that it has become necessary to make very strict rules as to just how a vehicle shall proceed in going through the city. Often certain streets are designated as one way streets. The rate of speed is limited and many other pre- cautions are taken to protect the lives of the pedestrians. Overhead signs and wires have also been a source of acci- dent especially in time of storm, to say nothing of the un- sightliness of these things. Most communities have very PROTECTION OF LIFE AND PROPERTY 85 definite regulations as to the hanging of signs. In some places all wires must be run underground. In olden times travel upon the streets after dark was particularly dangerous. This was not due, as you may well imagine, to the traffic, but to the highwayman who took advantage of the darkness to cover his crime. Well-to-do people when they had to travel at night went surrounded by their servants who were armed. There were also public lightbearers called linkmen, who carried great flaming torches, or links, with which they would for a sum of money light the pedestrian along the road. The roads were usually so bad and so full of holes that it was unsafe to attempt to travel without a light. On the other hand the linkmen often proved to be in league with the robbers and would lead their clients right into the hands of the highwaymen. To- day our brilliantly lighted streets have done much to banish crime. Every arc light which we see along our city streets is like a great policeman keeping away the undesirable characters. On the Railroad. — When we travel on the railroad we do not often give much thought to the possibility of acci- dent. We know that the tracks and roadbed are being watched carefully for any needed repairs. Out by the side of the track stands the silent but ever watchful guard, the automatic semaphore, which warns the engineer of the con- dition of the track ahead, and puts a warning signal up against any other train which might be following. During the war our railroads were directly under the control of the national government. Prior to this time the national 86 THE ELEMENTS OF COMMUNITY WELFARE government was active in bringing about the installation of safety devices on all railroads of the country. On the Water. — Much travel and a great deal of com- merce is on the inland waterways and upon the ocean. At several hundred points along the sea coast and on the Gulf the national government maintains weather stations where warnings of impending storms are issued for the benefit of marine interests. Millions of dollars worth of property and many lives have been saved by the warning of a single hurricane. Lighthouses, buoys, light- ship tenders, are maintained by the national government. These warn mariners of dangerous rocks and shoals, and also serve to aid them to find their way into the harbors. Ocean-going ships are required to be equipped with wire- less apparatus and operators so that in case of accident they may call for aid. Inspectors under the direction of the national community see to it that steamships are not overcrowded, and that the boilers, hulls, and life-saving devices are in fit condition. In Industry. — Just as in industry the health of the worker must be protected, so must care be taken to prevent in- jury or death through accident. The high speed machin- ery which is used in so many of our modern industrial plants is likely to become dangerous to life and limb unless special precautions are taken. As the worker gains in speed and skill in the handling of machinery he is likely to become careless. This is due to the fact that after a little while the motions necessary to the operation of a machine become more or less automatic. It is then that accidents are most PROTECTION OF LIFE AND PROPERTY 87 likely to occur. Because of this many safety devices have been invented which tend to prevent even the careless worker from bemg hurt. For example, an automatic guard makes it practically impossible for one to have one's hand or arm caught in certain types of printing machines, as the guard rising up throws the arm out before the press comes together. Cog-wheels are covered with guards so as to prevent the catching of one's clothes. In the coal mines, where formerly lives were often lost through the explosions of coal gas, devices have been invented which detect the presence of gas before even the odor is evident. Elevators in our large office buildings and stores are regu- larly inspected. Boilers are tested at regular intervals. In fact every possible precaution is being used to lessen the number of deaths and accidents which are attendant on modern industry. Individual Responsibility. — But we must ever remem- ber that a part of the responsibility rests upon each one of us. No matter how fool proof the device may be there is always the possibility of an accident happening. Brains are still necessary if one is to go through life with the posses- sion of one's members. We must remember that all the precautions have been taken for our own good. The best of gates will be of no effect to the person who deliberately climbs under or around them and walks across the railroad track in front of the swiftly approaching train. As good citizens we have no business to expose ourselves to the dan- ger of accident or death. Our lives do not belong to our- selves alone but to the community of which we are a part. 88 THE ELEMENTS OF COMMUNITY WELFARE We must ever be on our guard against the carelessness which may result in loss of life or injury to ourselves or to others. SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER STUDY AND DISCUSSION i. Make a list of the accidents which you find reported in this morning's newspaper. Arrange these as to place where they have occurred and the cause. Judging from the article indicate whether or not the accident was the result of carelessness. 2. What are some of the accidents which may occur to us in our homes? How could many of these be avoided? » 3. What are some of the precautions taken in your school to pre- vent accidents? 4. What are some of the dangers of children playing in the street ? How does your community endeavor to prevent such accidents ? 5. What are some of the duties of the policeman which are con- cerned with accident prevention? 6. What traffic regulations in your community have as their aim the prevention of accidents? 7. Which do you consider safer, travel on land or water ? Why ? 8. What bureaus and department of your city government are concerned most with the prevention of accident? 9. What are some of your state laws which concern the prevention of accidents in industry? How are these laws enforced? 10. What departments of the national government are concerned with the prevention of accidents? 11. Describe the effect of an accident upon a member of the com- munity? What effect may this have upon his family? Upon the community ? PROTECTION AGAINST FIRE What excitement the alarm of fire always causes ! If it occurs during the day we drop whatever we are doing and run to see the engines go by or hurry to the scene of the fire. If it occurs during the night we anxiously inquire as to where it is, and are not satisfied to go back to bed PROTECTION OF LIFE AND PROPERTY 89 until we learn that it is at a distance from our home or that it has been extinguished. Our fear of fire is not groundless, for uncontrolled fire is one of the most destructive enemies of the community. Towns and even cities have been almost entirely destroyed by fire. It has been estimated that the cost in destruction of property by fire in the United States amounts to about five hundred dollars every minute. When we add to this the losS of life and the injuries which are the result of fire we can easily see that it is one of the most destructive agents of life and property. Against such destruction every com- munity must wage continual warfare. There are two ways of accomplishing the desired results. The one is by pro- viding for efficient methods of fire fighting, the other by fire prevention. Fire Fighting. — Every fire that has ever occurred has had a very small beginning. Sometimes it has been as small as a spark or the flaming head of a match. When a fire is just beginning it is a very simple matter to put it out. It is a time, however, when every second counts. The contents of a bucket of water well directed or the use of a rug to smother the flames has prevented many a serious fire. We may have seen buckets filled with water and marked " For fire use only." We are all of us familiar with the fire extinguishers which we see in the corridors of our schools and in places of business. These contain a chemical which when thrown on a fire quickly smothers the flames. Many of these extinguishers are so powerful that they will kill a fire even after it has made considerable 90 THE ELEMENTS OF COMMUNITY WELFARE headway. A cool head and a steady hand have checked many a fire before it has had opportunity to do much dam- age, which if it had not been checked might have resulted disastrously to life and property. Automatic Sprinklers. — In addition to the precaution which is taken to make our modern buildings as nearly fire-proof as possible, many of them are equipped with auto- matic sprinkling devices. These consist of a series of pipes which are run across the ceiling at regular intervals. In each pipe there are a number of small openings which have been plugged with a soft metal. These pipes are connected with a tank on the roof which is kept full of water. If a fire breaks out in any part of the building the heat very quickly melts the metal stoppers in the pipes and permits a steady stream of water to pour down just over the place where the fire is. It will be seen that an ordinary fire has but little chance against such odds. Often the fire is ex- tinguished before any one knows that it has taken place. Watchmen. — In our large business concerns watchmen are employed whose business it is to be constantly on the alert to detect fires. It is their duty as soon as a fire is discovered to give the alarm and then to fight the fire by using the hand fire extinguishers until help arrives. In some places we find the employees organized into a regular fire department. Each man has his station to which he must go in case of a fire and certain tasks to perform. The city fire department aids in training the members of such private fire departments in the best methods of fire fighting. PROTECTION OF LIFE AND PROPERTY 91 The Fire Department. — The problem of fire fighting is such an important one that the community is unwilling to leave the matter entirely in the hands of individual citi- zens, no matter how trustworthy they may be. In former times the fire departments were made up of volunteers who served as an act of public service. In this manner most of our modern fire-fighting forces had their origin. These men rendered splendid service, but as the cities grew it be- came increasingly impossible to leave so important a matter in the hands of volunteers and so the beginnings of our present fire departments were made. The new fire department is made up of men who give their entire time to the fighting and prevention of fire. The fire departments of our cities are carefully organized so as to be able to fight fires most effectively. Scattered all over the city we find the fire stations where the fire-fight- ing apparatus is kept and where the firemen await the alarm of fire. Each engine or piece of apparatus has its own crew and officers making up what is usually called a company with a captain in charge. A number of companies form a battalion in charge of a battalion chief. So the organiza- tion is built up until we come to the chief of the bureau of fire, a most essential part of the executive branch of com- munity government. The Fireman. — To some the life of a fireman seems to be one of ease. And this must naturally be the case, for his work is such that he must ever be ready waiting at the fire station to respond to the alarm of fire. There will be days when there will not be the slightest opportunity for There Are No Braver Men to Be Found Anywhere than among the Fire Fighters of Our Cities PROTECTION OF LIFE AND PROPERTY 93 his work. Part of his time to be sure is spent in taking care of the apparatus used in fighting fires, or being on duty to keep a record of the alarms of fire in other sections of the city to which his company, does not respond. But sooner or later there comes the day or the night when his period of ease comes to an end and when he must be ready to work unceasingly hour after hour in the face of the greatest of perils and if need be sacrifice his life in the performance of duty. There are no braver men to be found anywhere than among the fire fighters of our cities. Many of them bear the scars of battle with the flames gained in the saving of human life. No hero of field of battle deserves more nobly to wear the medals of heroic action than the unselfish fire- man. Occasionally he reaps the reward of a particularly brave and unselfish act when at some public gathering his bravery is recognized and a medal is pinned on his uniform by some public official. More often, however, his patriot- ism is taken as a matter of course and a mere part of his everyday business. Fire Schools. — Many of our large cities have a school to which a newly appointed fireman is sent. Here he is instructed as to the duties of a fireman. He learns how to make the fire inspections which are a part of his work, and how to report fire risks. He is instructed in methods of fire prevention and fire fighting. He is drilled in methods of entering a burning building, in wearing the smoke mask or oxygen helmet, in rescuing and resuscitating people trapped by fire, in the use of the pulmotor and other first 94 THE ELEMENTS OF COMMUNITY WELFARE aid measures. He becomes familiar with the various types of fire-fighting apparatus and the use of each. He is so schooled that when he enters upon the performance of his new task he is able to perform his service intelligently. The Fire Station. — A visit to a fire station will prove most interesting. If we live in even a very small town we will most likely find an automobile engine with which the race to the fire can be made in short order. The engine is used to pump the water from a near-by well or other source. We would be surprised to see how strong and steady a stream of water it can throw. In the fire sta- tions of our larger towns and cities we will find large and powerful engines for fighting fire. Most of these are motor- driven. Here and there we still find the older horse-drawn engine, but it is rapidly being replaced by the automobile engine. These engines are capable of developing great speed on the way to the fire. It is also possible to bring them from districts far removed. The engines used for pumping water are very powerful, some of them being able to throw as much as a thousand gallons of water a minute. Then there are the hook and ladder trucks which carry the ladders with which the firemen are able to scale the walls of the highest buildings. These also carry the life nets which are used to catch people who are shut off from all other means of escape and have to jump from the burn- ing building. The chemical engine is used for fighting smaller fires. Its tank contains a powerful chemical fire extinguisher which is usually sufficient to conquer a small fire. As this fluid dries quickly and does less damage than PROTECTION OF LIFE AND PROPERTY 95 water to the furniture of a building it is used whenever possible. Water Towers. — The larger cities are making use of fire engines known as water towers. The very tall build- ings make these necessary as it is not possible to reach the upper floors with ladders and hose. It is really a great steel tower or pipe mounted on a motor truck. It is constructed on the plan of a telescope so that when the scene of the fire is reached the tower is extended out by means of the motor until the nozzle at the top is opposite the windows where the stream of water is to be directed. The water is forced up through the tower under very high pressure. The force of the stream is so great that it immediately tears away the strongest glass windows. High Pressure Systems. — The danger from fire is so great that our large cities are not willing to rely even upon these powerful engines and the regular supply of water which is obtained at the fire plugs. We usually find in the more important business sections of the city a separate water supply system the sole purpose of which is for use in case of fire. The water for this is usually taken from some near-by river or lake and is not filtered. At the source of supply there are high pressure pumping stations. The power is generated by great gas machines which force the water through the mains under tremendous pressure. When these high pressure engines are running it is possible to throw a stream of water to a height of from two to three hundred feet from the ground. The hose which is used for this purpose is larger and much heavier than the ordi- 96 THE ELEMENTS OF COMMUNITY WELFARE nary fire hose. The kick of the water as it leaves the nozzle is so great that six or more men are required to handle one line unless it is attached to a fixed stand. Fire Boats. — When a city has a water front it has been found that the maintenance of fire boats to aid in the fight- ing of fires which occur along the water is a profitable in- vestment. The unlimited supply of water which is at their command, and the fact that they can reach a side of the fire where the automobile engines cannot go, makes them very useful. They carry powerful pumps which are capable of throwing large streams of water to a considerable height. They are also used in fighting fires which break out on vessels which are lying at the docks or in the river. The Insurance Patrol. — It will readily be seen that the damage resulting from a fire is not all caused by the fire itself. The great volume of water which the modern fire- fighting apparatus throws is likely to cause as much damage as the fire itself. There is also considerable damage done by smoke. It has been found that if certain precautions are taken, such as covering goods with great waterproof sheets, and moving articles out of the way of fire and water, much damage and loss of property may be prevented. As the insurance companies help meet the expenses caused by fire damage they have found that it pays to employ a number of men whose sole business is to save as much prop- erty as possible from injury and destruction. We may have seen these men dashing to a fire in their automobile which looks just like a fire engine and which has painted on its sides the words " Insurance Patrol." PROTECTION OF LIFE AND PROPERTY 97 Fire Alarms. — The method of sending in alarms of fire is most interesting. We find all types in use from the most primitive to the modern. In some small towns a great bell or even an old iron tire is hung up at some central point. A heavy hammer is kept close at hand. The alarm of fire is given by striking with the hammer on the bell or tire, thus These Boxes Are Connected by Wire with a Central Exchange, and from this Office the Alarm Is Sent to the Company which Is to Respond arousing the town. Some cities announce fires on a great bell or by a series of blasts on a whistle. The various sec- tions of the city are numbered so that to announce a fire in a certain district, for instance number thirty-two, there are three strokes, then a pause and then two strokes on the bell. This is repeated a number of times. The engines respond- ing to the alarm go to the alarm box of that district where they are directed to the scene of the fire. Such a method 98 THE ELEMENTS OF COMMUNITY WELFARE attracts many people to the scene of the fire, and as crowds often get in the way of the firemen and interfere with their work and also at times get into places of danger, this method is not generally favored. Most of us are familiar with the fire alarm box. If we do not know where the one nearest to our home is located, we should make it our business to find out at once. We should also make sure that we understand the directions which tell us how to send in an alarm in case of fire. These boxes are connected by wire with a central exchange, and from this office the alarm is sent to the company or com- panies which are to respond. All fire companies through the city receive notice of all alarms so that they may know just what is going on. A careful record of all alarms is kept at each station. When the companies from one district have responded to an alarm the duty of covering that dis- trict in case of another fire falls upon other companies. Fire Prevention. — Building laws and inspection. Fire is such a destroyer of life and property that every com- munity has undertaken in many ways to prevent it. While it does not seem to be possible to build an absolutely fire- proof building yet it is possible to build so as to reduce the chances of fire to a minimum. The substitution of con- crete and steel for wood has been a stride in this direction. In our large cities the erection of wooden buildings is for the most part prohibited by ordinance. It is necessary that a permit be secured before any building operation or alteration be undertaken. This makes it possible for cer- tain definite requirements to be exacted. The following PROTECTION OF LIFE AND PROPERTY 99 up of the builder by inspectors makes sure that he is con- forming to the specifications. The stage of theaters, for example, where fires so often originate, must be able to be shut off from the body of the house by a fire-proof wall and curtain. It is possible to confine a fire to the stage for a sufficient length of time to permit every person in the house to get out without rushing. The law prescribes that build- ings of a certain height must be provided with fire escapes, and also prescribes the width of exits, and so forth. The doors of public buildings are constructed so as to open out- ward and are provided with safety door pushes. This is to prevent the jamming of crowds against the doors and the consequent loss of life. Methods of heating and lighting buildings are also a source of fire. The tenant has little control over these matters and if fire results it is usually because of the care- lessness of builder or inspector. The law requires the in- spection of all electric wiring whether for purposes of light- ing or power. It covers such matters as the construction of furnaces, stoves, and chimneys. Boilers must be regu- larly inspected and tested as to pressure. Boiler rooms should be fire-proof and separate from the rest of the build- ing if possible. Practically every community has made some provision for the inspection of places of business, theaters, and so forth, to see that the fire regulations are being observed. This work of inspection is a police power. The fire marshal is attached to the police department and is in- vested with police powers. Together with his assistants and members of the fire department, he takes care of the IOO THE ELEMENTS OF COMMUNITY WELFARE inspection of the city. These helpers are instructed by the fire marshal in regard to the laws for fire prevention. They report to him in regard to the condition of all build- ings which they inspect. The inspector looks for evidences of the violation of fire regulations, such as the blocking of fire escape exits, the storage of materials on fire escapes, the storing of gasoline and other combustible materials, accumulations of rubbish and waste, and any neglect of the common precautions for safety against fire. He also inspects the condition of fire- fighting apparatus, water buckets, extinguishers, and so forth. An inspector who wilfully shuts his eyes to condi- tions which should not exist, or any one who intentionally conceals fire risks from the inspector, is guilty of a criminal act. Forest Fires. — Not only do buildings suffer from fires, but even the very source from which comes much of our building material. One of the most valuable resources of our country is its forests. Not alone because they are a source of supply for timber, but also because they are neces- sary to the fertility and productivity of our land. Regions where forests have been destroyed have become barren and desolate. Great sections of countries such as China have become uninhabitable simply through the destruc- tion of the forests. Forest fires have vied with man in the destruction of our forests. A few days of forest fire can destroy the work of nature of over a century. And most of these fires are the result of carelessness. Campers in the woods fail to extinguish their camp-fire before break- PROTECTION OF LIFE ANp PROPERTY IOI ing camp, a lighted match is carelessly thrown away, the sparks from a locomotive reach the dry underbush, and we have the beginning of a fire which may do untold damage. It has only been of recent years that the country has begun to awaken to the need of safeguarding its forests from fire. To-day forest rangers, representing both state and national A Fire Line through a Michigan Forest government, patrol the forests on the lookout for fires. More than two hundred million acres of forest land are now di- rectly under the control of the national government. Ob- servation stations have been erected from which a wide view of the country may be obtained. Strict regulations have been made covering the protection of our forests from fire. Warnings have been printed and posted in conspicu- ous places at railroad stations and at the road entrances to r © c o a o -c * e> c * c c and so forth. The work of each De- ENFORCING THE LAWS 315 partment is divided up among the several Bureaus of which the Department is composed, for example, the De- partment of Agriculture has among its Bureaus the Bureau of Animal Industry, the Bureau of Forest Service, and so on. The people of the nation are the source of all the power of the nation. It is they who have made the fundamental law or Constitution, planning the general organization of government and distributing powers among city, state, and nation. It is they who elect the executives or those who are to be responsible for enforcing their wishes or laws, just as they have elected the representatives who have made the laws, and either elected or had appointed the judges who are to interpret them and aid in their en- forcement. Behind legislators, judges, and executives, therefore, is the American people. When a law is made it is their desire expressed. When it is enforced it is their act. The executive, while responsible to the people for the enforcement of all the law, delegates to assistants, de- partment heads, the care of certain phases of the law. These in turn divide up the field for which they are re- sponsible among others, the heads of bureaus. And these in their turn have under them, for the actual task of carry- ing out every provision of the law, a more or less compli- cated organization reaching down to the policeman, the fireman, the forest ranger, the game warden, the deputy marshal, and so forth who actually collect the evidence, make the arrests, and carry out the purpose of the laws in direct contact with the people who have set up the machinery of government. 316 A SELF-GOVERNING COMMUNITY SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER STUDY AND DISCUSSION i. Show by means of a simple diagram the organization of the ma- chinery of government to which each of the following belongs: the policeman; the fireman; the school teacher; the boiler inspector; the game warden ; the inspector of mines ; the postman ; and any other in whom you are interested. 2. Who is in charge of each of the executive departments of your local government? How are they chosen? Who is the chief execu- tive ? Find out all you can about the services which he renders to your community. 3. Who is governor of your state? How is he elected? For how long? What are some of his duties? 4. Make a list of the various executive departments of the United States government. Place opposite each the name of the secretary who is in charge of the department. What bureaus do we find under each department ? What are some of the services rendered to all the people by these bureaus? 5. By reference to the constitution find out what are some of the powers of the President of the United States. 6. How i> the President elected? In what respect is the present method of election undemocratic ? CHAPTER XX MEETING THE EXPENSES OF GOVERNMENT The government of our communities, local, state, and national, is a tremendous business undertaking. In fact, it is the largest business in the United States. If we con- sider the number of people who are employed by our city to do those things for which the local government is held responsible, we find that they number from hundreds in the larger towns, to thousands in our large cities. They include the teachers, the policemen, the firemen, and the many other city employees. If we extend this so as to in- clude our state, the numbers increase rapidly. But when we consider the national community with its army and navy, the postal employees, and so forth, we have a number which is enormous. When we consider in addition the activities of all these communities, we begin to realize to some extent what a great business the government of our communities is carrying on. All these employees must be paid. Operations of street cleaning, road build- ing, irrigation, and countless other activities involve the expenditure of millions of dollars every year. The business of the government of a community is solely for the benefit of the community. Each member of the community reaps the benefits which come to the community as a result of the services which are rendered 317 318 A SELF-GOVERNING COMMUNITY and the money expended. In fact, the community busi- ness is a partnership in which each member of the com- munity is an active partner, sharing the benefits of the community effort and therefore sharing also the expense. It is because of the services rendered that the community comes to the individual member for his share in bearing the cost of securing the elements of welfare. In return for the contribution which we make to the community we receive benefits far out of proportion to the money which we put in. Our health is safeguarded, our lives and property protected ; our business interests are protected and provision is made that we may secure for ourselves some share of the wealth of the community ; we receive the benefits of a free education, healthful recreation, and many other things. Such of our money as is spent through the organized government of the com- munity is productive of better and farther-reaching results than any other investment we can make. Taxation. — One of the means by which the community secures the money necessary for carrying on the many activities by which it provides for the elements of wel- fare is taxation. A tax is a compulsory contribution laid upon persons, property, or business, for the purpose of raising money for the proper conduct of the government. It is money which is collected from the members of a com- munity in order that the running expenses of the community may be met and that the wishes of the community may be attained. It is really the manner in which the members of the community purchase for themselves the services necessary for their very existence as a community. MEETING THE EXPENSES OF GOVERNMENT 319 Kinds of Taxes. — Taxes are usually divided into two main groups — direct and indirect. Direct taxes are those which are borne by the person from whom they are collected. Indirect taxes are those which may be shifted from the one who pays them originally to the person who finally pur- chases the article or service upon which the tax was origi- nally laid. For example, an income tax, or tax on the earnings of a person for the year, is a direct tax, since it must be borne by the one whose income is taxed and may not be passed on. An indirect tax, on the other hand, would be such a tax as might be laid on an article imported into the country. In this case, while the importer pays the tax in the first place, he sees to it that the price of the article when it is sold to the purchaser is sufficient to include the tax. FINANCING THE CITY Expenses of City Government. — Except in time of war and the period immediately following, when the ex-^ penses of the national government have increased tre- mendously, the great bulk of the money secured by taxa- tion is raised and expended by the city. It was estimated that before the war about sixty per cent of all money secured by taxation was raised in the cities of the nation. When we consider the many activities in which the gov- ernment of the city is engaged, we are not surprised at this statement. The cities pay the salaries of policemen, firemen, teachers, inspectors, and numerous other gov- ernment officials and employees. They pave, repair, and clean the streets ; build bridges, wharves ; construct 320 A SELF-GOVERNING COMMUNITY systems for water supply and sewage disposal ; and do countless other things for the welfare of the city com- munity. All this involves the expenditure of many mil- lions of dollars. General Property Tax. — The principal source of in- come to the city governments is the general property tax. Of this the largest amount is received from the taxa- tion of real estate. Such a tax is probably the easiest of all taxes to assess and collect. Real estate is used by all members of the community. Owners or users of real estate receive a large proportion of the benefits resulting from the spending by the government of the money raised by taxes and should therefore be required to pay in propor- tion to their benefits. Each person's share in the expenses of the government should be determined by his ability to pay, and possession or use of real estate is a fairly good indi- cation of one's wealth and therefore ability to pay. Then, too, if one is living in a house as a boarder, it is a simple matter for the proprietor to distribute a part of the cost of taxation, by including it in the board bill. In this man- ner it becomes in part indirect taxation. Assessment. — In order that the amount of tax which each property owner should pay may be known, it is neces- sary to find out first the total value of property in the city. If we know how much .money will have to be raised by real estate tax in order to pay the expenses of the govern- ment, we can readily determine the percentage of tax which each owner must pay. This is done by dividing the total real estate value of the community into the amount MEETING THE EXPENSES OF GOVERNMENT 321 which represents that necessary to be raised by this form of taxation. The result will be the percentage of tax on valuation which each owner should pay. For example, if it were determined that the expenses of the city would require that $1,500,000 be raised by real estate tax, and the assessed value of the real estate of the city amounted to $100,000,000, then by dividing this last amount into the former we would get as our result .015, or one and one half per cent, the amount of the necessary tax. In other words, there would have to be a tax of $1.50 on every $100 worth of assessed property in order to secure the necessary million and a half of money for the government. The value assigned to each property in the community is de- termined by the real estate assessors. Other Sources of Income. — Where the city controls the water, gas, or other services rendered, there is an ad- ditional source' of income available. Often, however, such services are rendered at as near the cost of main- tenance, operation, and depreciation as possible, so that the net income is quite small. In addition to this there is the income which is received from the granting of licenses and permits. Then, too, the state quite frequently helps somewhat to defray the local community expense of the school system. Special assessments are made on the owners of property when the city opens, grades, or paves a street, installs a system of water supply or sewer pipes, or in other ways improves the condition of the adjoining land and thereby increases the value of the property. 322 A SELF-GOVERNING COMMUNITY Another source of income to the city is by a method which is known as H excess condemnation." In the making of improvements the government will frequently have to purchase property, as for example in the construction of a parkway or boulevard. The city attempts to purchase this property in the regular way. Often, however, owners of such land are unwilling to sell to the city at the figures which they would take from an individual. In a case of this kind the government has the right to compel the owner to sell, awarding him a fair price for the property, which has been set by a jury of condemnation. But the building of such a parkway will mean that all the land in the vicinity will increase very much in value. In order that all the people may share in the profits arising from such an increase, the city will often acquire considerably more land than is actually required for the improvement. By holding this until after the parkway has been built, it may be sold at a considerable increase in price. The money so made belongs to all the people. It may be used to help defray the expenses of the project or for any other purpose to which the people care to put it. In this way all the people of the community profit instead of a few individuals. Borrowing Money. — Permanent improvements, such as the building of bridges, construction of streets, installa- tion of filtration plants, and so forth, require the expendi- ture of large sums of money. It is not only the people, however, who are living at the time the improvement is made, but also those who are to come after them who will profit by the operation. Such a project is a benefit to the MEETING THE EXPENSES OF GOVERNMENT 323 city for many years. Instead of taxing the people or placing an assessment and requiring the present popu- lation to stand all the expense, the money is frequently borrowed to be paid back over a period of a number of years. The city owns much property which may be regarded as security for money which it borrows. Bonds are there- fore issued and sold. The money received from the sale of the bonds is used to pay for the improvement. The people who hold the bonds are paid a certain rate of interest on their money, and out of the regular taxes assessed each year, a sinking fund is provided with which the bonds may be paid off when they mature. SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER STUDY AND DISCUSSION 1. Secure a copy of a tax receipt for your city. Note how the money is apportioned to meet the various expenses of government. 2. How much money was raised by your city last year? What was the tax rate ? Estimate the assessed valuation of the city property. 3. What is a poll tax? Why do some people oppose the collection of this kind of tax? 4. What is the amount of debt of your city ? 5. Discuss the business management of city operations. Should they be self-supporting? 6. Explain why a man who sends his children to private schools should be required to pay a tax for the support of the public schools. What indirect benefits does he receive from the public school system ? 7. Why is the finance committee of the legislative branch considered of great importance ? 8. Is the budget system used in your city? How is it operated? FINANCING THE STATE When the city dweller pays his tax to the city treasurer, he is paying at the same time his county and state tax. 324 A SELF-GOVERNING COMMUNITY The county commissioners have fixed the amount which is to go for county purposes, while the state legislature has determined what shall be required for the state. But in addition to this tax, which is based on general property, the state has other sources of income. Many of the states secure a large part of their revenue from the taxes which are laid on corporations. It would be a difficult matter to have each individual pay a tax on the shares which he holds in these business concerns. It is a much simpler matter to tax the corporation on its earnings or on its total capital stock. In this way the state is sure that all of the stock is taxed, for the money which is required to pay the tax is deducted from its earn- ings by the corporation before a dividend is paid to the stockholders. In this manner also the burden of the tax is equally distributed. About three-fourths of the states secure revenue by tax- ing inheritances. When a person dies and leaves money or property, these states require that a certain percentage of the value be paid as a tax to the state. The amount which is charged varies with .the amount of the inherit- ance, a larger rate being charged on large fortunes than on small. Other sources of revenue are taxes on automobiles, legal papers, money at interest, poll taxes, and so forth. SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER STUDY AND DISCUSSION i. Make a list of the sources of income of your state. What was the total amount collected from all sources last year ? For what pur- poses is this money expended? 2. How and by whom are your state taxes collected? MEETING THE EXPENSES OF GOVERNMENT 325 3. Why do not states tax articles being brought into them from without ? 4. For what purposes does your state use the money which it col- lects ? FINANCING THE NATIONAL GOVERNMENT If you turn to the eighth section of the first article of the national constitution, you will find that it states that " Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes. ..." About half of the revenue of the national government in normal peace times has come from the tax which Con- gress has laid upon goods which are being brought into the United States. The rest of the revenue comes chiefly from internal revenue, or taxes laid on goods manufactured in the country, and from the taxation of incomes. The Tariff. — The schedule of rate which Congress prepares which indicates how much the tax shall be on all imported goods is called the tariff. Because of the lower wages paid in other countries, it is possible for manufac- turers in these countries to send many commodities to the United States, and the purchaser after paying a consider- able tax to the collector of customs at the port of entry is able to sell these goods at a profit. So long as the rate of tax is kept just low enough to permit this profit it is a source of much income. When, however, it is raised to the point where the tax eats up all the profits, it is no longer desirable to import such goods and the result is that they are shut out of the country. A high protective tariff has been used to protect American industries but may be made so high that much needed foreign goods are kept out. 326 A SELF-GOVERNING COMMUNITY Income Tax. — The subject of income taxes was for many years a much disputed problem in our country. It was recognized that an income tax afforded a fairly easy manner of raising money for the government. As the money has to be obtained in some way, it was argued that to tax incomes was a sure way of having the tax apportioned among the people so that its burden would be shared according to the ability of the people to pay. It was, however, decided by -the Supreme Court that such a tax was unconstitutional. In order to overcome this difficulty, the Constitution has been amended, and we have in the sixteenth amendment the power granted to Congress " to lay and collect taxes on incomes." Under the laws which have been passed by Congress under the authority of this amendment enormous revenues come to the national government. In order that hardship might be avoided the tax on in- comes is carefully graded. There is a limit below which the tax does not operate. Then, too, if a man is married the limit is increased. The percentage of tax on the amount of income received above the exempted limit is graded so that it increases from a small tax for small incomes to a very heavy tax on large incomes. Excises or Internal Revenue Taxes. — An excise tax is one which is levied on the manufacture and sale of articles produced within the country. Until the passage of the laws prohibiting the manufacture and sale of alcoholic beverages, a very considerable income was received by the government through the tax on their manufacture and MEETING THE EXPENSES OF GOVERNMENT 327 sale. Tobacco is taxed in this manner. If we examine a box of cigars we shall find the government revenue stamp pasted on the box so that it is impossible to open the box without destroying the stamp. At the present time the use of excise taxes has been tremendously increased. In order to help meet the extra expenses which the govern- ment faces as a result of the great war, all articles of luxury are taxed, as well as drugs, perfumes, and so forth. The government is also receiving revenue from taxes imposed on all sorts of legal papers and documents. Borrowing Money. — There is probably hardly a school boy or girl in the United States who has not been a bond salesman for Uncle Sam. During the five Liberty Loan campaigns the boys and girls of the schools of the country did a most splendid service. Many of us are ourselves the proud owners of such bonds. We have learned to feel that the holding of these bonds indicates that we are part owners of the government. It was by the issuing of bonds to the amount of several billions of dollars that the gov- ernment was able to meet the immediate expenses of rais- ing and equipping an army and navy, and transporting more than two millions of soldiers across the Atlantic. This money the government now owes principally to the citizens, who make up the government itself. We are tax- ing ourselves to raise money to be able to pay off our in- debtedness to ourselves. With the close of the war the public debt has mounted to over twenty-six billions of dollars. The income from all sources to the national government for the first year following the war is estimated 328 A SELF-GOVERNING COMMUNITY by the Secretary of the Treasury as being about six billion, five hundred million dollars. Appropriations. — The expenditure of the money which is raised by means of taxation and other sources is spoken of as appropriation. Just as the legislative body has the power of laying the tax, so it has the right to say in what manner the money shall be expended. This power of mak- ing appropriations gives the legislative bodies a control over the executive, since they are able to hold up appro- priations which are needed by the executive branch of this government. In this manner they are able at times to in- fluence the action of the executive. Budget Making. — The money which is raised in city, state, and nation is for the purpose of meeting the ex- penses of government. We have seen how in determin- ing the tax rate it is necessary to determine the amount of money which will be necessary to meet the require- ments of the government during the period for which the taxes are being raised. The carefully calculated summary of the expenses of the government for a stated period, to- gether with the estimate of means of revenue to meet these expenses, is called a budget. This is so important that in many of the governments in Europe we find an officer, who is a member of the Cabinet, whose business it is to prepare such a budget. In the United States, on the other hand, except in a few places we fail to find the budget system used. Of course there are estimates, but they are rather in the lines of recommendations, and are treated by the executive and the legislative bodies as they see fit. MEETING THE EXPENSES OF GOVERNMENT 329 Often appropriations are made without reference to the amount of money in the treasury. If the revenues and expenditures come out fairly accurately, it is usually the result of accident. If careful planning is necessary in the spending of the small income of a household, it is even more necessary in the spending of the millions of city, state, and nation. A budget system for the national government is likely to be made effective in the near future. SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER STUDY AND DISCUSSION 1. How are duties on imported goods collected? Describe what takes place when a traveler returns to the United States from a visit to another country. 2. Plan a debate on the subject of high protective tariff vs. a revenue tariff. 3. What incomes are exempt from taxation under the present law? What are the rates of tax on incomes above the exempt levels ? 4. What arguments could you advance against the proposition that the manufacture and sale of intoxicating beverages should be permitted because of the revenue which they bring to the government ? 5. What advantages do thrift stamps and War Savings stamps possess as means of saving ? Of what advantage are they to the government ? CHAPTER XXI PARTY GOVERNMENT AND CIVIL SERVICE We have seen how in the United States the laws are made, interpreted, and enforced by the representatives of the people. These laws are merely the expressed or formulated will or desire of the people and are regarded just as if they had been made by all the people gathered together. The representative is not expressing merely his own ideas and opinions in regard to matters of public welfare, but those of his constituents, as the people whom he represents are called. He has been elected to repre- sent them and to express for them their point of view and wishes. We all know, however, that it is practically impossible to find any group of people who think in just the same way about all matters. In fact, even in closely organized groups, where the numbers are small, and where the pur- pose of the organization is very definite, we are likely to find quite divergent views held by different members. Far from being harmful, this is considered a very useful and healthful state of affairs, for it indicates that the people are thinking for themselves. If there are differences of opinion in even so close a group as our own family, how much more likely are we to find a difference of opinion in the group which constitutes the community, city, state, 330 PARTY GOVERNMENT AND CIVIL SERVICE 33 1 or nation, with their problems consisting of all the ele- ments of human welfare. It would seem, then, that it would be practically im- possible for one person to represent a large number of others, for instance, a representative in Congress standing for over two hundred thousand people, or a governor of a state, representing the millions of the state's population, or even the President standing for the hundred million citizens of the national government. Yet this is the sys- tem upon which our country was organized, and under which it has been running successfully for nearly a cen- tury and a half. Let us see what some of the principles are which underlie the plan of organization. Every community is held together by the commonness of interests among its members. In city, state, and nation, there exists the common interest in the elements of welfare. The differences of opinion where they exist are in regard to the manner in which the welfare of the group is to be at- tained. All are interested in the one common object. How to attain the goal desired is the only question of controversy. There are usually a number of ways of ac- complishing almost anything which we set out to do. Some will favor one method, others another. In a democracy the will of the majority decides, so when we find that the majority want a thing done a certain way we do it that way. A good sport does not hold off and quarrel when he finds that his way is not the way others want the thing done. In every community there are many matters which re- quire the attention of the people as they strive for the welfare of all. Some of these things are more important 332 A SELF-GOVERNING COMMUNITY than others. A few, or it may be even one, of these is of such great importance and interest that the people are willing to make the manner of handling this matter the principal reason for selecting their representative. When such a matter arises, it may be the question of city con- tracts, or state highways, or national tariff and it is spoken of as an issue. We are all familiar with the scenes in our community on election day. We have seen the busy polling places where the voters come to take part in the election. We have all of us heard our parents and older members of the community talking about the elections, and we have probably felt ourselves to be Republicans or Democrats, or of some other political party. Of course we know now that our reason for feeling so strongly, one way or the other, was because the grown folks with whom we lived favored one party or the other. There was a time when one in- herited his political belief just as he did his name. There are to-day many people who are Democrats or Republi- cans, just because their fathers or grandfathers were of that political belief before them. Many people are, how- ever, coming to see that the problems of fifty or a hundred years ago are not the problems of to-day. What is needed is not the blind following of a name but the understanding of the condition and needs of the country. Our first great national parties, the Federalist and the Anti-federalist, grew out of conflicting views as to how the new national Constitution should be interpreted. While there were many other questions to be solved, this one was for the time being the most important. So it was that PARTY GOVERNMENT AND CIVIL SERVICE 333 there grew up two great parties around which the people flocked, the one standing for a strict and the other for a loose interpretation of the Constitution. From time to time other matters of great interest have come up before the country. Slavery, the high protective tariff, free silver, and many other issues have been of such importance as to be the one great idea in the minds of the people. If we were to follow these issues through our histories, and also the political parties which stood for one side or the other, we would find that the two old parties, Federalist and Anti- federalist, have under different names continued down until the present time. Of course there have been many other parties which have arisen to support some special idea, such as prohibition, but it is seldom that they have ever become the dominating party. The reason for this is that just as soon as the idea for which the third party is standing becomes so important that it looks as if it were going to become one of the questions upon which the elec- tions might be decided, the two principal parties adopt the idea as their own. Of course the existence of the third party has been largely responsible for this being done, and so its usefulness can be justified. Another change which is also likely to happen is that the growth of an idea may so dominate the country that the very nature, leaders, and pol- icies of an existing party may be changed. The party then remains still one of the two great parties of the country. There are some people who believe that there can never be more than two great political parties in the country. There is, underlying every political party, some domi- nating idea upon which the followers of the party are 334 A SELF-GOVERNING COMMUNITY agreed. In the case of the nation this must be a question of nation-wide importance, and big enough to overshadow all other ideas. If the people who hold to this particular idea want to see it become a policy of the national govern- ment, it is necessary that they send to Congress a sufficient number of representatives who will make the laws neces- sary to put it into effect. That is, they must make sure that they have in Congress a majority of the members who favor the laws which they desire. Then, too, it is necessary that there be in the presidential chair a man who is in sympathy with this idea, and who will make every effort to see that it becomes a part of the law, and that it is enforced after it becomes a law. If this is to be accom- plished the people of the nation who hold to this particular idea must put aside individual preferences and unite in their efforts to elect a President who will favor their point of view. In each state and congressional district there must be the same working together to elect Senators and Representatives who will act in accord with this plan. It is impossible for the people who hold the same political views to come together and decide who shall represent them and formulate their policy of government. It is necessary therefore that they organize themselves in such a way that the principles for which they stand may be so expressed as to represent the feeling of the whole, and that the candidates for the various offices be so selected as to insure the selection of the right people to represent them. The campaign for the election of their candidates must be also planned and carried out. This means that machinery for doing all this must be built up. Such PARTY GOVERNMENT AND CIVIL SERVICE 335 machinery is called a political party, and it is through such political parties that our country is governed. PARTY ORGANIZATION Committees. — We have probably seen an election in progress. We know that the voters who come to the polling place nearest our homes are all from our own im- mediate neighborhood. The area in which these voters live is called an election district or precinct. There may be almost any number of voters in the district from just a few up to three or four hundred. They probably repre- sent almost all of the political parties. We know that even our next door neighbor may be of a different political belief from ourselves. Local. — Usually the voters of each party in the pre- cinct select two members of their own party to look after the party interests in the precinct. The precinct com- mitteemen of the ward constitute the ward committee. Each ward committee in turn selects members to repre- sent it on the city or county committee. In other words, there will be a precinct, a ward, a city, a county committee, for each political party. The local committees try to keep up the interest of the voters in their party. They work up the vote for their own candidates, and on elec- tion day try to get all the voters of their party to go to the polls. The ward, city, or county committees look after the general interests of the party in the wider area, and determine largely the policy of the party in matters per- taining to the local community. They are also instru- 336 A SELF-GOVERNING COMMUNITY mental in determining who shall be the candidates for the various offices at the elections. State. — Above the county committee we find the state committee, usually composed of members from each county or senatorial district. This committee deals with po- litical matters of state-wide importance. It keeps closely in touch with the political situation in the several counties and lends aid when there is likely to be a close contest in any given county. It plays an important part in de- termining the state political policy and in selecting the candidates for the various state offices. National. — Every national political party has its na- tional committee. This committee is made up of one mem- ber from each state. The state representative on the national committee is usually the strongest political power in the state. The national committee deals with matters of national importance. It directs the national nomi- nating convention at which the candidates of the party for the offices of President and Vice-President are selected and the party platform made up. National Nominating Convention. — Once in every four years the national political parties hold what is known as the national nominating convention. To these con- ventions each political party sends a number of repre- sentatives equal to twice the representation which the state has in Congress. Each party holds its own national convention. A large city is usually selected as the scene for the convention. The delegates, with their flags and Copyright, Underwood and Underwood A National Nominating Convention 3$& A SELF-GOVERNING COMMUNITY banners, together with the great crowds which are usually attracted, form a most interesting and exciting sight. Many of the states' representatives come prepared to boost some favorite son for the nomination. The convention usually runs for three or four days while one after another of the candidates is eliminated from the race. By the close of the convention, however, the candidates for the office of President and Vice-President have been chosen. Party Platform. — In addition to the nominating of the candidates for the presidency and vice-presidency, the national convention draws up the party platform. This is a document in which the party tells what it believes in and stands for, and what it promises to do if it is put into power at the coming elections. There is of course the statement of the standing of the party on the main issue of the campaign, and also its attitude toward many other problems which are of national importance. These various items are spoken of as the planks of the platform. Unfortunately, at times, some planks are put into the plat- form with the sole object of drawing votes and with no intention on the part of the leaders to have the pledges carried out. Before adjourning, the members of the national com- mittee are selected by the various state delegations for the next four years. Political Clubs. — The political club plays an important part in the political life of most communities. Com- posed of the voters who are usually most interested in the politics of the community, they form a place of close con- PARTY GOVERNMENT AND CIVIL SERVICE 339 tact between the voter and the political worker. Then, too, in the campaigns preceding the election, the political spirit of the community is sensed in this manner. The club often plays an important part in keeping things stirred up and interest alive in the coming election. The Campaign. — Preceding every election there is always a campaign to interest the voters and to try to se- cure more votes. In former times this was often a source of much excitement to the community. There would be night parades, with an abundance of red fire and other fireworks, followed by political meetings, often in the open air, at which the party orators would endeavor to per- suade the voters of the righteousness of their party's cause and the quality of their candidates. While there is still ' some of this older method used, for the most part the cam- paigning is carried on through the newspapers. As people become more and more intelligent, attempts to influence their votes through exciting methods become of less im- portance, and the effort is made to show by an appeal to their intelligence that certain issues are best decided in certain ways and that particular candidates are best fitted to carry out the wishes of the people. SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER STUDY AND DISCUSSION 1. What were the issues of the most recent election in your com- munity? How many people and how much of the country did they affect? 2. Find the names of the committeemen of each of the political parties in your precinct. If any boy or girl happens to be related to or acquainted with one of them, find out what you can about the organ- ization of the political work in your ward and city. 34° A SELF-GOVERNING COMMUNITY 3. Whom do we usually find most interested in the political work of our community? Who should be interested? 4. Why is it the duty of every citizen to keep in touch with the workers of the party which most closely represents his views ? 5. What effect would it have on the political life of the community if every one were interested enough to work for the cause he believed to be right? 6. Find out all you can about the organization of your state com- mittees. Which member represents the people of your district? 7. What are the names of the men who represent your state on the national committees ? 8. If possible secure copies of newspapers giving the account of the most recent presidential nominating convention. 9. Secure copies of the party platforms of each of the political parties. To what extent has the party now in power lived up to its promises in the last platform? ELECTION MACHINERY Election day is the great day toward which all party organizations look. It would little matter how splendidly organized the followers of a political party were, if, when election day came around, their voters did not go to the polls and cast their ballots for the candidates of their party. Party machinery is the outgrowth of the popular election system of the country. Let us see who the voters are and what they do. Suffrage. — Suffrage, or the right of voting, has been left by the Constitution entirely in the hands of the states. The first restriction which was placed on the states was made by the fourteenth amendment to the Constitution, which provided that if any state were to deny the right to vote at any election for the choice of electors for Presi- dent and Vice-President, and certain other national and PARTY GOVERNMENT AND CIVIL SERVICE 341 state officials, the representation of that state should be proportionately reduced in Congress. This was followed by the fifteenth amendment, which asserted that the right of citizens of the United States to vote should not be denied or abridged, because of M race, color, or previous condi- tion of servitude." There is at the present time an amend- ment before the country which when it has been passed by three-fourths of the states will become the nineteenth amendment. It gives the right of suffrage to the women of the country. Many of the states already grant full or partial suffrage to women. An age requirement of twenty-one years is held in all the states. Citizenship is necessary in almost all of the states, although some allow an alien who has declared his intention of becoming a citizen to vote in certain elections. Most of the states require certain residence qualifications in state and election district. This prevents the importing of voters from other sections for the purpose of carrying an election by fraud. In certain states an educational qualification is required. Personal Registration. — Because of the large numbers of voters in a district and the shifting of the population it is a rather difficult matter for the election officials to know all the voters of a district, especially in our large cities. This has made possible quite a little fraudulent voting, which is called repeating. This means that a person goes from one polling place to another and votes at each one under an assumed name. In order to overcome this prac- tice we find in some of our states that the election laws re- 342 A SELF-GOVERNING COMMUNITY quire personal registration of the voters. On a certain set day all those who desire to vote at an election must ap- pear in person before the registrars of the district and answer certain questions. These answers, together with a description of the voter and his signature, are recorded in a book made for this purpose. At the time of the elec- tion it is possible to identify each voter, and if necessary to require that he prove his identity by means of his signa- ture. Party Enrollment. — In order to select from the many applicants the candidates who are to represent the various parties at the election, a primary election is held. We shall describe this more fully in a later paragraph. At this election, the members of each party vote on their own party ballots for the candidates whom they desire to select. Unless there were some restriction it would be very easy for the members of an opposing party to ask for the ballots of their opponents and to vote for candidates who could not possibly be elected if they were to be placed on the ballot at the general election. This trick is called swamping the other party. To prevent this, the voter who desires to vote for candidates for other than non-partisan offices, such as judges, is required to enroll at the time of registra- tion. He must then state, should he care to vote at the primaries for candidates of a certain party, that he desires to be enrolled with that party. In this way swamping is prevented. Nominations. — In the United States any citizen is eligible to public office if he fulfils certain qualifications. PARTY GOVERNMENT AND CIVIL SERVICE 343 There is one restriction on this in the case of the Presidency and Vice-Presidency, in which one must be a natural-born citizen of the country. Formerly the various parties se- lected their candidates for office by means of a caucus or convention. A caucus was a private meeting of members of a political party for the purpose of selecting candidates. Usually this consisted of the meeting of the political leaders, who made the choice. The convention we have just de- scribed in telling of the nomination of the President and Vice-President. Nomination Petition. — In many of the states to-day we find that nominations of candidates for the primary elections are made by petition. That is, the name of any citizen who possesses the necessary qualifications will be placed on the ballot, provided a petition to that effect has been signed by a certain number of friends or supporters. The number of signatures required varies with the office, a few only being required for some local position, while a thousand or more are required for more important city and state offices. This petition is then filed with the county or state officials in charge, according to whether the office is local or state. All properly qualified citizens nominated in this manner from whom the party voters are to select their candidates, have their names printed on the primary ballot. Primary Election. — At some time before the general election, a primary election is held for the purpose of nomi- nating candidates who are to represent the various parties 344 A SELF-GOVERNING COMMUNITY at the coming elections. This election is held in the regu- lar polling place, and is conducted in the same manner as a regular election, except that each voter, as we have seen, receives the ballot of the party for whose candidates he is eligible to vote. This has been determined by his enroll- ment at the time of registration. The ballot which he receives contains the names of all the candidates for the nomination to the various offices for which the party is to nominate for the coming elections. After the polls have been closed the election officials count the votes. The name of the successful candidate for each office in each party is now ready to be placed on the ballot for the general election. Occasionally, when a considerable number of citizens are dissatisfied with the results of the primary nomina- tions, a new party will be formed under a new name and with candidates who were not nominated at the primaries. This is done by means of petition. It is usually necessary for the petition to have the signatures of a certain per cent of the voters at the last general election. General Election. — Elections for President are always held on the Tuesday after the first Monday of November every fourth year as, 1 91 6, 1920, 1924. Practically every state chooses its representatives to Congress and its state officers at this election. By choosing county and city offi- cers in the following year, then state officers and congress- men the next, the county and city the next, and on the fourth year repeating the Presidential election, city and county politics are kept separate from state and national politics, as they should be. PARTY GOVERNMENT AND CIVIL SERVICE 345 The polling places are usually located with reference to the convenience of the voters. The district or neighbor- hood from which the voters come is often spoken of as a precinct. At the polling place we find the election officials. There is always a judge of the election, and two or more inspectors and clerks. In addition to these officers we find that each party is represented by watchers, who check off the name of each voter as he appears. If they believe that a voter is not qualified to vote they challenge him. The record made at the time of registration is then checked up and the voter required to prove that he is entitled to vote. After he has been properly identified, he receives a ballot, which he carries into a booth, where, protected from the view of observers, he marks his ballot in secret, indicating by means of a cross the party or the candidates for whom he desires to cast his vote. He then comes out of the booth and deposits his folded and secret ballot in the ballot-box. In some states ballots are so arranged that it is possible to vote for all the candidates of any given party by marking a single cross in the square before the name of the party for whose candidates one desires to vote. Another form of ballot has all the names of the candidates for a certain office grouped together, so that each office must be voted for separately. This requires that the voter read his ballot more carefully and encourages independent and intelligent voting. In a few places we find voting ma- chines in use. These resemble somewhat a cash register, the names of the candidates being printed on small slips of paper, and arranged on the various levers. By pressing down on the levers bearing the names of the candidates PARTY GOVERNMENT AND CIVIL SERVICE 347 for whom one desires to vote, a vote is automatically reg- istered. The machine is so constructed that it is possible to vote for but one candidate for each office. It acts also as an adding machine, so that the total of the votes cast is available the minute the polls close. Counting the Vote. — After the polls have closed for the day, the ballots are removed from the boxes into which they have been placed, and the votes received by each candidate are recorded on a tally sheet. Where the officer elected is voted for only by the voters of the precinct, the result of the election is known as soon as the ballots are all counted. In the case of a presidential election, however, all the votes for the electors for the state must be in before we are sure of just how the state will go in the election. The newspapers, by watching the doubtful states as they are called, where either party may win, and by counting certain states as being sure for one side or the other, often predict the election of the candidates for a certain party before midnight of the election night. There are, however, times when a number of days pass before the result is surely known. In fact, in a recent election, the candidate for one party was announced in the papers as the winner, only to learn after a day or two that one doubtful state had given the election to his opponent. We should notice in passing that the voters do not vote directly for the President, but for Presidential electors, who, in turn, assemble some weeks later, usually at the state capital of each state, and vote as they have been instructed. The counting of the electoral votes is done by Congress. 348 A SELF-GOVERNING COMMUNITY Long before this, however, the people know who is to be the next President. The Recall. — Just as it is possible for the various parties to nominate their candidates by petition, so it is also pos- sible in states where the recall exists for the voters to get rid of an undesirable official. This is done by presenting to the election officials a petition requesting that an election be held to decide whether or not the present official should remain in office. The chief advantage of the recall seems to be that where it is in force there is seldom, if ever, any need for using it, as the possibility of its being used is sufficient to produce the desired results. The Short Ballot. — If we were to examine the ballot which is placed in the hands of the voter on election day, we would realize what a complicated thing it really is. There are usually so many offices to be filled and so many candidates for each office, that the ballot must of necessity be very large. In fact, it is sometimes spoken of as a 11 blanket ballot." Often it is as large as two extended pages of a large city newspaper. Of the many names on the ballot, even the best-informed voter could scarcely be expected to know but a few. Usually what happens is that one or two of the candidates for the highest offices to be filled are known, either because of something they have done, or because of newspaper publicity. Sometimes the voter knows only the party names which appear. This means that the average voter votes for the great majority of the candidates blindly. Such a system of selection may not result in the choice of the best man for the office. PARTY GOVERNMENT AND CIVIL SERVICE 349 In order to overcome this difficulty we find that the short ballot is gradually being adopted over the country. Instead of having the " blanket ballot," with its hundred or more of candidates, the ballot contains the names of the candidates for only the most important offices. By reducing the number of names on the ballot the voter is better able to make a study of the candidates and vote for the ones who in his judgment are best qualified for the offices. Positions of less importance, it has been found, are much better filled when the individual ability of the candidate for the place is considered. These offices then are filled by appointment, the fitness of the candidates being determined by civil service examinations. SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER STUDY AND DISCUSSION 1. What provisions do we find in the Constitution in regard to the right to vote? 2. What are the voting qualifications in your state ? 3. If personal registration is required in your state, find out just what questions are asked by the registrars. It would be interesting to plan at this point to have an election in the class. The first step would be that of registering the pupils. The same questions might be used as in the case of regular registration. After the other steps in the process of elections have been discussed each one might be acted out by the class, including the election by ballot of class officers. 4. Find out from a political worker how nominations for minor city offices are made. What part does the committee take in this work? 5. Secure copies of specimen ballots from recent elections. What type of ballot is used in your state? 6. Make a map of your precinct showing the location of the polling place. 7. Explain the method by which the President of the United States is elected. 35© A SELF-GOVERNING COMMUNITY CIVIL SERVICE The carrying on of the work of the government in city, state, and nation involves the use of the services of many thousands of persons who are not elected to their posi- tions, but appointed by officials who have been elected by the people. Out of the abuse of this power of appointing, arose the " spoils system." By this is meant that the newly elected officials to public office regard the posi- tions of the workers in the various departments of gov- ernment as spoils of war. There are thousands of clerk- ships, positions as postmaster, and so forth, with which they may reward those who voted for their election. For many years the policy was to discharge from office great numbers of such workers who did not belong to the party which had just gotten into power, and to appoint in their stead its own friends and political workers. This is spoken of as patronage. It gives to the elective official a means of controlling the votes of all these appointed people and helps them to keep themselves in political office. The ability of a man as a policeman, a fireman, a sten- ographer, a bookkeeper, a building inspector, a postman, or what not, certainly can not be measured by his partic- ular political faith. These duties have to do with one's business ability and training, and if the community is to be well served in such matters, only the ability of the candidate or the office-holder should be considered. It is only when we recognize that the business of running a government, be it city, state, or nation, is a business, and PARTY GOVERNMENT AND CIVIL SERVICE 351 should be conducted on business principles, that we shall get the best possible kind of government. City Civil Service. — Many of our large cities have removed the majority of positions requiring especial training or fitness from the hands of appointing officials and placed them under civil service. We usually find a civil service commission selected in such manner as the law directs. This commission is really the employment bureau of the city, and looks after the needs of the city just as such a bureau would look after the interests of any private business concern. The commission prescribes the examination which is to be taken by the applicants for any position. There may be a physical, as well as a mental, examination required. The experience and training which the applicants have had is considered, and at times a practical test is given to see whether the claims which the applicant has made are true. In filling certain positions, requiring expert knowledge and ex- perience, the applicants prepare at their homes the papers which they are to submit, and send them to the commis- sion. Books and scientific articles by candidates may thus be examined. In this way the city is sometimes able to secure the services of an expert in a certain line, who is living in another part of the country, and who would not be able to come to take an examination, but who would come to fill a position if awarded the place. The applicants are given their ratings by the examiners of the civil service commission. The names of all suc- cessful candidates are then placed upon an eligible list 352 A SELF-GOVERNING COMMUNITY from which appointments are made. Such appointments are usually on probation. That is, the position is not made permanent for a number of months, during which time the applicant has the opportunity to prove his fitness or unfitness for the place. National Civil Service. — There are now over five hun- dred thousand persons in the national public service, more than two-thirds of which number had to pass civil service examinations before becoming eligible for appointment. The offices which are filled by competitive examinations are designated by the President. The civil service act of 1883, which organized the Civil Service Commission, re- moved from the President a tremendous burden and re- sponsibility. To-day fourth-class postmasters, letter car- riers, railway mail clerks, postal clerks, clerks in all the government departments at Washington, in fact practi- cally all appointees who require special knowledge and skill are appointed only after competitive examination. The Civil Service Commission consists of three members, appointed by the President. There are also a chief exam- iner and assistant clerks. Provision is made that the commissioners must not all belong to the same political party. Under direction of the commission examinations are given whenever there is a vacancy or need for addi- tional assistance. The appointment is made from the highest names on the list of successful applicants. SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER STUDY AND DISCUSSION 1. Secure literature advertising coming civil service examinations. 2. If possible secure copies of questions asked at recent examina- PARTY GOVERNMENT AND CIVIL SERVICE 353 tion for positions with the local government. What school subjects would help you to pass these examinations? 3. What is meant by the " spoils system " ? By whom was it first introduced? What evil effects did it have? What incident marked the turning point for the present civil service reform? 4. What offices which are now elective would in your judgment be better filled if they were to be made appointive under competitive ex- amination ? THE LOYAL CITIZEN CHAPTER XXII AMERICAN IDEALS AND CITIZENSHIP It has ever been a wonderful privilege to be an Ameri- can citizen. From the earliest days of American inde- pendence, men and women have been willing to serve, sacrifice, and if need be, to lay down their lives, that the principles of freedom for which our nation has stood might be maintained. A glorious history lies behind us. For nearly a century and a half, America has stood for liberty before all the world, and as a refuge for the oppressed of every land. To-day she has taken her place, first among the great nations of the world. /We are her sons and daughters, her citizens, and into our h#nds have fallen the duties and responsibilities of citizenship. Are we going to prove ourselves worthy of so great a trust? In ancient Athens, the young Athenian, assuming the duties of citizenship, took a solemn oath that he would bring no disgrace to his city, and that he would endeavor to transmit it to those who came after him, greater, and better, and more beautiful than it was when he received it. What an ideal for the young citizen ! If every Ameri- can boy and girl would take and keep such a pledge, what a wonderful future would lie before us! 354 AMERICAN IDEALS AND CITIZENSHIP 355 In the charter of American independence, the Declara- tion of Independence, we read that, " All men are created equal, and are endowed by their Creator with certain in- alienable rights among which are life, liberty, and the pur- suit of happiness." To secure the independence which was necessary for the realization of these ideals, our fore- fathers fought and died. To perpetuate that independ- ence, and pass it unsullied to their children, generation after generation have toiled and served and sacrificed. We who are living to-day have seen these great Ameri- can ideals extended until they have reached far beyond the boundaries of our great nation and have been realized in our service to our sister nations who were struggling for world liberty against liberty's most dangerous enemy. American citizenship carries with it to-day far greater duties and responsibilities than ever before. The very greatness of the nation makes its position more perilous. '\ y s The nation is " many in one," and the true greatness of the nation lies in the strength of character of the in- dividual citizen who makes up the nation. The true great- ness of a nation is not to be measured in terms of material wealth. Territory, riches, armament, power, are but the outward signs. It is in the character of the individual citizen that we find the real measure of a country's worth. The men and women, boys and girls, are the city, the state, and the nation.^ In so far as they are loyal citizens, liv- ing up to their country's ideals to the best of their ability, are they advancing their country's interests and adding to her glory. L The nation is a community because of its commonness 356 THE LOYAL CITIZEN of interests. Binding all together, above the interests in the elements of community welfare, is the loyalty of the citizens to the purposes and ideals for which the nation stands. It is this which eliminates sectional differences, which wipes out boundaries, so that the whole country is one in thought and feeling. In a time of great national peril, patriotism runs high. Men and women volunteer for service for their country. Boys and girls are brim- ful of patriotism, and fret because they are not old enough to serve in their country's cause. War is a great arouser of that deep emotion, love of country. But love of coun- try and patriotism are just as needful in time of peace as in war. In fact, it sometimes requires deeper love of country to serve in the quiet walks of everyday life, than when drum and trumpet are stirring our emotions. There are certain things which every boy and girl may do which are true evidences of their patriotism. Underlying good citizenship is the cultivation and daily practice of those civic virtues which make for right living and right relation with one's fellows. Obedience to parents and those in authority is the surest way of proving that one has those traits of character which will make for real leadership in later life. Kindliness, courtesy, helpful- ness, thoroughness, punctuality, truthfulness, honesty, and many other habits which we may cultivate make living with our fellows smoother and happier, and are a sure way of proving our right to the claim of good citizenship. Then, too, the good citizen is the one who serves his community. It little matters in what line of endeavor we may be, faithful, honest service is a good measure of AMERICAN IDEALS AND CITIZENSHIP 357 our citizenship. It may be the faithful preparation of our lessons, it may be the spirit of fair play in our games, but no matter how it is made evident if the service is real, it is as much a proof of our loyalty as if we were fighting in the army, or serving our country in some position of high honor. The g ood ci tizen also always pu lls with his fellows, ]y/ not against them. It is this willingness to work together, and to sacrifice if need be one's personal prejudices or de- sires for the welfare of the group that marks one as a worth-while citizen. We must recognize that we are each one dependent on the others around us, and that it is only as we are willing to co-operate with them that the best interests of all are served. It may be that we have some special talent which properly trained might be of service to the community, such as music, or skill in art, or an ability in some line of school work. Whatever it is, it is our duty to develop such talents as we have to the fullest extent, so that we may be able to serve our community better. There will always be a need for leaders in every community, — men and women who have learned to think for themselves, and who have the interests of the community at heart. We should keep the doors of opportunity open, taking ad- vantage of every chance to improve ourselves so that we may best be fitted to serve our fellows. We are proud of our nation, her history, and her achieve- ments. We rejoice to be the heirs to such a wonderful land and to such glorious liberties. The future of America is in our hands. How we profit by our opportunities, and 358 THE LOYAL CITIZEN develop our character through loyal service and co-opera- tion with our fellows, will largely determine the America of to-morrow. Let us firmly resolve that we too shall do our share, and that the boys and girls who come after us looking to us as examples may be able to say, as we say it with pride and love of country in our hearts, " I am an American citizen." APPENDIX A THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE IN CONGRESS, JULY 4, 1776 The following preamble and specifications, known as the Declaration of Inde- pendence, accompanied the resolution of Richard Henry Lee, which was adopted by Congress on the 2d day of July, 1776. This declaration was agreed to on the 4th, and the transaction is thus recorded in the Journal for that day : "Agreeably to the order of the day, the Congress resolved itself into a committee of the whole, to take into their further consideration the Declaration ; and, after some time, the president resumed the chair, and Mr. Harrison reported that the committee had agreed to a Declaration, which they desired him to report. The Declaration being read, was agreed to as follows : " A DECLARATION BY THE REPRESENTATIVES OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, IN CONGRESS ASSEMBLED. When, in the course of human events, it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another, and to as- sume, among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the laws of nature and of nature's God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation. / j» \ We hold these truths to be self-evident — that all men are created equal ; that they are endowed by their Creator with certain inalienable rights ; that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happijaess. That, to secure these rights, gov- ernments are instituted among men, derivmg their just powers from the consent of the governed ; that, whenever any form of government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the right of the people to alter or abolish it, and to institufe'a new government, laying its foundations on such principles, and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their safety and happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate, that governments long established should not be changed for light and transient causes ; and, accordingly, all experience hath shown that mankind are more disposed to suffer, while evils are sufferable, than to right themselves by abolishing the forms to which they are accustomed. But when a 359 360 APPENDIX A long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same object, evinces a design to reduce them under absolute despotism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw off such government, and to provide new guards for their future security. Such has been the patient sufferance of these colonies, and such is now the necessity which constrains them to alter their former systems of government. The history of the present king of Great Britain is a history of repeated injuries and usurpations, all having in direct object the establishment of an absolute tyranny over these States. To prove this, let facts be submitted to a candid world. i. He has refused his assent to laws the most wholesome and necessary for the public good. 2. He has forbidden his governors to pass laws of immediate and pressing im- portance, unless suspended in their operations till his assent should be obtained ; and, when so suspended, he has utterly neglected to attend to them. 3. He has refused to pass other laws for the accommodation of large districts of people, unless those people would relinquish the right of representation in the Legislature — a right inestimable to them, and formidable to tyrants only. 4. He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, uncomfortable, and distant from the repository of their public records, for the sole purpose of fatiguing them into compliance with his measures. 5. He has dissolved representative houses repeatedly, for opposing, with manly firmness, his invasions on the rights of the people. 6. He has refused, for a long time after such dissolutions, to cause others to be elected, whereby the legislative powers, incapable of annihilation, have returned to the people at large for their exercise ; the State remaining, in the meantime, ex- posed to all the dangers of invasions from without and convulsions within. 7. He has endeavored to prevent the population of these States ; for that pur- pose obstructing the laws for the naturalization of foreigners ; refusing to pass others to encourage their migration hither, and raising the conditions of new appro- priations of lands. 8. He has obstructed the administration of justice, by refusing his assent to laws for establishing judiciary powers. 9. He has made judges dependent on his will alone for the tenure on their offices, and the amount and payment of their salaries. 10. He has erected a multitude of new offices, and sent hither swarms of officers, to harass our people and eat out their substance. 11. He has kept among us in times of peace, standing armies, without the con- sent of our Legislatures. 12. He has affected to render the military independent of, and superior to, the civil power. 13. He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction foreign to our constitutions, and unacknowledged by our laws ; giving his assent to their acts of pretended legislation ; 14. For quartering large bodies of armed troops among us; 15. For protecting them, by a mock trial, from punishment for any murders which they should commit on the inhabitants of these States ; THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE 36 1 t6. For cutting off our trade with all parts of the world; 17. For imposing taxes on us without our consent ; 18. For depriving us, in many cases, of the benefits of a trial by jury; 19. For transporting us beyond seas, to be tried for pretended offenses; 20. For abolishing the free system of English laws in a neighboring province, establishing therein an arbitrary government, and enlarging its boundaries, so as to render it at once an example and fit instrument for introducing the same absolute rule into these colonies ; 21. For taking away our charters, abolishing our most valuable laws, and alter- ing, fundamentally, the forms of our governments ; 22. For suspending our own Legislatures, and declaring themselves invested with power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever. 23. He has abdicated government here, by declaring us out of his protection, and waging war against us. 24. He has plundered our seas, ravaged our coasts, burned our towns, and de- stroyed the lives of our people. 25. He is at this time transporting large armies of foreign mercenaries to com- plete the works of death, desolation and tyranny, already begun with circumstances of cruelty and perfidy scarcely paralleled in the most barbarous ages, and totally un- worthy the head of a civilized nation. 26. He has constrained our fellow-citizens, taken captive on the high seas, to bear arms against their country, to become the executioners of their friends and brethren, or to fall themselves by their hands. 27. He has excited domestic insurrection among us, and has endeavored to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers the merciless Indian savages, whose known rule of warfare is an undistinguished destruction of all ages, sexes, and conditions. , In every stage of these oppressions we have petitioned for redress in the most humble terms ; our repeated petitions have been answered only by repeated injury. A prince whose character is thus marked by every act which may define a tyrant, is unfit to be the ruler of a free people. Nor have we been wanting in our attentions to our British brethren. We have warned them, from time to time, of attempts by their legislature to extend an un- warrantable jurisdiction over us. We have reminded them of the circumstances of our emigration and settlement here. We have appealed to their native justice and magnanimity, and we have conjured them by the ties of our common kindred to disavow these usurpations, which would inevitably interrupt our connections and correspondence. They, too, have been deaf to the voice of justice and of consan- guinity. We must, therefore, acquiesce in the necessity which denounces our sep- aration, and hold them as we hold the rest of mankind— enemies in war ; in peace, friends. 5> We, therefore, the representatives of the United States of America in general Congress assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the world for the recti- tude of our intentions, do, in the name and by the authority of the good people of these colonies, solemnly publish and declare that these united colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent States ; that they are absolved 362 APPENDIX A from all allegiance to the British crown, and that all political connection between them and the state of Great Britain is, and ought to be, totally dissolved, and that, as free and independent States, they have full power to levy war, conclude peace, contract alliances, establish commerce, and do all other acts and things which independent States may of right do. And for the support of this Declaration, with a firm reliance on the protection of Divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other our lives, our fortunes, and our sacred honor. The foregoing declaration was, by order of Congress, engrossed, and signed by the following members : JOHN HANCOCK. NEW HAMPSHIRE. josiah bartlett, "William Whipple, Matthew Thornton. MASSACHUSETTS BAY. Samuel Adams, John Adams, Robert Treat Paine, Elbridge Gerry. RHODE ISLAND Stephen Hopkins, William Ellery. CONNECTICUT. Roger Sherman, Samuel Huntington, William Williams, Oliver Wolcott. NEW YORK William Floyd, Philip Livingston, Francis Lewis, Lewis Morris. NEW JERSEY. Richard Stockton, John Witherspoon, Francis Hopkinson, John Hart, Abraham Clark. PENNSYLVANIA. Robert Morris, Benjamin Rush, Benjamin Franklin, John Morton, George Clymer, James Smith, George Taylor, James Wilson, George Ross. DELAWARE. Cesar Rodney, George Read, Thomas M'Kean. MARYLAND. Samuel Chase, William Paca, Thomas Stone, Charles Carroll of Carrolkon. VIRGINIA. George Wythe, Richard Henry Lee, Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Harrison, Thomas Nelson, Jun., Francis Lightfoot Lee, Carter Braxton. NORTH CAROLINA. William Hooper, Joseph Hewes, John Penn. SOUTH CAROLINA. Edward Rutledge, Thomas Heyward, Jun., Thomas Lynch, Jun., Arthur Middleton. GEORGIA. Button Gwinnett» Lyman Hall, George Walton. APPENDIX B A CHART ON THE CONSTITUTION Some Steps toward the Constitution.. . . r New England Confederation (1643). Franklin's Plan of Union (1754). Stamp Act Congress (1765). Committees of Correspondence (1772). First Meeting of the Continental Congress (1774). Declaration of Independence (1776). Adoption of Articles of Confederation (1781;. Annapolis Convention (1786). Constitutional Convention (1787). Legislative ment Depart- Manner of election. Term of office. 'House of Represent- I Qualifications. atives -j Represents the people. Census. Apportionment. Speaker the Presiding Officer. Number. Manner of election. Term of office. ^Senate -| Represents the States. Qualifications. Sole power to try impeachments. Vice-President the Piesiding Officer. President. Executive Depart- ment ^Cabinet T Term of office. I Manner of election. ■I Qualifications. Oath of office. '^ Impeachment. {Manner of appointment. Number. Duties. Judicial Department/i (Manner of appointment. Number. Term oi office. c °— ter District 363 3^4 APPENDIX B Congress. ' Time of meeting. Quorum. Adjournment. Journal. How a Bill becomes a Law. Congress has power — To lay taxes. To borrow money. To regulate commerce. To naturalize foreigners. To coin money. To fix standard of weights and measures. To establish post-offices. To declare war. To raise and support armies. To provide and maintain a navy. To maintain light-houses. To make new States. President's Powers.. Commander-in-Chief of the army and navy. With the advice and consent of the Sen- ate makes treaties f Ambassadors. and appoints J Ministers. ** 1 Consuls. L Judges. President's Duties. . 'Messages to Con- gress. Special sessions of Con- gress. Receives Ambassadors. Attends to ex- ecution of laws. CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES We, the People of the United States, in order to form a more perfect union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquillity, provide for the common defence, pro- mote the general welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America. ARTICLE I. — Legislative Department. SECTION I. All legislative powers herein granted shall be vested in a Con- gress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House of Represent- SECTION II. Clause i. The House of Representatives shall be composed of members chosen every second year by the people of the several States, and the electors in each State shall have the qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the State Legislature. Clause 2. No person shall be a representative who shall not have attained to the age of twenty-five years, and been seven years a citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that State in which he shall be chosen. Clause 3. Representatives and direct taxes shall be apportioned among the sev- eral States which may be included within this Union, according to their respective CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 365 numbers, 1 which shall be determined by adding to the whole number of free persons, including those bound to service for a term of years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three fifths of all other persons. The actual enumeration shall be made within three years after the first meeting of the Congress of the United States, and within every subsequent term of ten years, in such manner as they shall by law direct. The num- ber of representatives shall not exceed one for every thirty thousand, but each State shall have at least one representative ; and until such enumeration shall be made, the State of New Hampshire shall be entitled to choose three; Massachusetts, eight ; Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, one ; Connecticut, five ; New York, six ; New Jersey, four; Pennsylvania, eight ; Delaware, one; Maryland, six ; Virginia, ten ; North Carolina, five ; South Carolina, five ; and Georgia, three. Clause 4. When vacancies happen in the representation from any State, the executive authority thereof shall issue writs of election to fill such vacancies. Clause 5. The House of Representatives shall choose their Speaker and other officers ; and shall have the sole power of impeachment. SECTION III.— Clause i. The Senate of the United States shall be corm- posed of two senators from each State, chosen by the Legislature thereof, for six. years ; and each senator shall have one vote. Clause 2. Immediately after they shall be assembled in consequence of the first •lection, they shall be divided as equally as may be into three classes. The seats of the senators of the first class shall be vacated at the expiration of the second year ; of the second class, at the expiration of the fourth year ; and of the third class, at the expiration of the sixth year, so that one third may be chosen every second year ; and if vacancies happen by resignation, or otherwise, during the recess of the Legis- lature of any State, the executive thereof may make temporary appointments untiL the next meeting of the Legislature, which shall then fill such vacancies. Clause 3. No person shall be a senator who shall not have attained to the age of thirty years, and been nine years a citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that State for which he shall be chosen. Clause 4. The Vice-President of the United States shall be president of the Senate, but shall have no vote, unless they be equally divided. Clause 5. The Senate shall choose their other officers, and also a president pro> tempore, in the absence of the Vice-President, or when he shall exercise the office of President of the United States. Clause 6. The Senate shall have the sole power to try all impeachments. When sitting for that purpose, they shall be on oath or affirmation. When the President of the United States is tried, the Chief-Justice shall preside ; and no person shall be convicted without the concurrence of two thirds of the members present. Clause 7. Judgment in cases of impeachment shall not extend further than to removal from office, and disqualification to hold and enjoy any office of honor, trust, or profit under the United States ; but the party convicted shall nevertheless be > Under the census of 19 10 one representative is apportioned to every 212,407 people. 366 APPENDIX B liable and subject to indictment, trial, judgment, and punishment, according to law. SECTION IV. — Clause i. The times, places, and manner of holding elections for senators and representatives shall be prescribed in each State by the Legislature thereof ; but the Congress may at any time, by law, make or alter such regulations, except as to the places of choosing senators. Clause 2. The Congress shall assemble at least once in every year, and such meeting shall be on the first Monday in December, unless they shall by law appoint a different day. SECTION V. — Clause i. Each House shall be the judge of the elections, re- turns, and qualifications of its own members, and a majority of each shall constitute a quorum to do business ; but a smaller number may adjourn from day to day, and may be authorized to compel the attendance of absent members, in such manner, and under such penalties, as each house may provide. Clause 2. Each House may determine the rules of its proceedings, punisk its members for disorderly behavior, and with the concurrence of two thirds, expel a member. CLAUSE 3. Each House shall keep a journal of its proceedings, and from time to time publish the same, excepting such parts as may in their judgment require secrecy, and the yeas and nays of the members of either House on any question shall, at the desire of one fifth of those present, be entered on the journal. Clause 4. — Neither house, during the session of Congress, shall, without the consent of the other, adjourn for moie than three days, nor to any other place than that in which the two Houses shall be sitting. SECTION VI. — Clause i. The senators and representatives shall receive a compensation for their services, to be ascertained by law and paid out of the treas- ury of the United States. They shall in all cases, except treason, felony, and breach of the peace, be privileged from arrest during their attendance at the ses- sion of their* respective Houses, and in going to and returning from the same; and for any speech or debate in either House, they shall not be questioned in any other place. Clause 2. No senator or representative shall, during the time for which he was elected, be appointed to any civil •office under the authority of the United States, which shall have been created, or the emoluments whereof shall have been in- creased, during such time ; and no person holding any office under the United States shall be a member of either House during his continuance in office. SECTION VII.— Clause i. All bills for raising revenue shall originate in the House of Representatives ; but the Senate may propose or concur with amendments, as on other bills. Clause 2. Every bill which shall have passed the House of Representatives and the Senate, shall, before it become a law, be presented to the President of the United States j if he approve, he shall sign it, but if not, he shall return it, with CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 367 his objections, to that house in which it shall have originated, who shall enter the objections at large on their journal, and proceed to reconsider it. If after such re- consideration, two thirds of that house shall agree to pass the bill, it shall be sent, together with the objections, to the other house, by which it shall likewise be recon- sidered, and if approved by two thirds of that house, it shall become a law. But in all such cases the votes of both houses shall be determined by yeas and nays, and the names of the persons voting for and against the bill shall be entered on the journal of each house respectively. If any bill shall not be returned by the Presi- dent within ten days (Sundays excepted) after it shall have been presented to him, the same shall be a law, in like manner as if he had signed ,it, unless the Congress by their adjournment prevent its return, in which case it shall not be a law. Clause 3. Every order, resolution, or vote to which the concurrence of the Senate and House of Representatives may be necessary (except on a question of adjournment) shall be presented to the President of the United States ; and before the same shall take effect, shall be approved by him, or being disapproved by him, shall be repassed by two thirds of the Senate and House of Representatives, accord- ing to the rules and limitations prescribed in the case of a bill. SECTION VIII.— Clause i. The Congress shall have power to lay and col- lect taxes, duties, imposts, and excises, to pay the debts and provide for the common defence and general welfare of the United States ; but all duties, imposts, and ex- cises shall be uniform throughout the United States ; Clause 2. To borrow money on the credit of the United States ; Clause 3. To regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the several States, and with the Indian tribes ; Clause 4. To establish an uniform rule of naturalization, and uniform laws on the subject of bankruptcies throughout the United States : Clause 5. To coin money, regulate the value thereof, and of foreign coin, and fix the standard of weights and measures ; Clause 6. To provide for the punishment of counterfeiting the securities and current coin of the United States ; Clause 7. To establish post-offices and post-roads ; Clause 8. To promote the progress of science and useful arts, by securing, for limited times, to authors and inventors the exclusive right to their respective writings and discoveries ; Clause 9. To constitute tribunals inferior to the Supreme Court ; Clause 10. To define and punish piracies and felonies committed on the high seas, and offences against the law of nations j Clause ii. To declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal, and make rules concerning captures on land and water ; Clause 12. To raise and support armies, but no appropriation of money to that use shall be for a longer term than two years ; Clause 13. To provide and maintain a navy; Clause 14. To make rules for the government and regulation of the land and naval forces ; t 368 APPENDIX B Clause 15. To provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws of the Union, suppress insurrections, and repel invasions ; Clause 16. To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining the militia, and for governing such part of them as may be employed in the service of the United States, reserving to the States respectively the appointment of the officers, and the authority of training the militia according to the discipline prescribed by Con- gress : Clause i 7. To exercise exclusive legislation in all cases whatsoever over such district (not exceeding ten miles square) as may, by cession of particular States, and the acceptance of Congress, become the seat of the government of the United States, and to exercise like authority over all places purchased by the consent of the Legislature of the State in which the same shall be, for the erection of forts, maga- zines, arsenals, dock-yards, and other needful buildings ; — And Clause 18. To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers vested by this Constitu- tion in the government of the United States, or in any department or officer thereof. SECTION IX. — Clause i. The migration or importation of such persons as any of the States now existing shall think proper to admit, shall not be prohibited by the Congress prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight, but a tax or duty may be imposed on such importation, not exceeding ten dollars for each person. Clause 2. The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be suspended, unless when in cases of rebellion or invasion the public safety may require it. Clause 3. No bill of attainder or ex post facto law shall be passed. Clause 4. No capitation or other direct tax shall be laid, unless in proportion to the census or enumeration hereinbefore directed to be taken. Clause 5. No tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported from any State. Clause 6. No preference shall be given by any regulation of commerce or rev- enue to the ports of one State over those of another ; nor shall vessels bound to, or from, one State, be obliged to enter, clear, or pay duties in another. Clause 7. No money shall be drawn from the treasury but in consequence of appropriations made by law ; and a regular statement and account of the receipts and expenditures of all public money shall be published from time to time. Clause 8. No title of nobility shall be granted by the United States : And no person holding any office of profit or trust under them, shall, without the consent of the Congress, accept of any present, emolument, office, or title, of any kind what- ever, from any king, prince, or foreign State. * SECTION X. — Clause i. No State shall enter into any treaty, afliance, or confederation ; grant letters of marque and reprisal ; coin money ; emit bills of credit ; make any thing but gold and silver coin a tender in payment of debts; pass any bill of attainder, ex post facto law, or law impairing the obligation of contracts, or grant any title of nobility. CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 369 Clause 2. No State shall, without the consent of the Congress, lay any impost or duties on imports or exports, except what may be absolutely necessary for exe- cuting its inspection laws ; and the net produce of all duties and impost, laid by any State on imports or exports, shall be for the use of the treasury of the United States ; and all such laws shall be subject to the revision and control of the Con- gress. Clause 3. No State shall, without the consent of Congress, lay any duty of tonnage, keep troops, or ships of war, in time of peace, enter into any agreement or compact with another State, or with a foreign power, or engage in war, unless actually invaded, or in such imminent danger as will not admit of delay. ARTICLE II.— Executive Department. SECTION I. — Clause i. The executive power shall be vested in a President of the United States of America. He shall hold his office during a term of four years, and, together with the Vice-President, chosen for the same term, be elected as follows : Clause 2. Each State shall appoint, in such manner as the Legislature thereof may direct, a number of electors, equal to the whole number of senators and repre- sentatives to which the State may be entitled in the Congress ; but no senator or representative, or person holding an office of trust or profit under the United States, shall be appointed an elector. Clause 3. 1 Clause 4. The Congress may determine the time of choosing the electors, and the day on which they shall give their votes ; which day shall be the same through- out the United States. Clause 5. No person except a natural-born citizen, or a citizen of the United States at the time of the adoption of this Constitution, shall be eligible to the office of President ; neither shall any person be eligible to that office who shall not have attained to the age of thirty-five years, and been fourteen years resident within the United States. Clause 6. — In case of the removal of the President from office, or of his death, resignation, or inability to discharge the powers and duties of the said office, the same shall devolve on the Vice-President, and the Congress may by law provide for the case of removal, death, resignation, or inability, both of the President and Vice- President, declaring what officer shall then act as President ; and such officer shall act accordingly until the disability be removed, or a President shall be elected. Clause 7. The President shall, at stated times, receive for his services a com- pensation which shall neither be increased nor diminished during the period for which he shall have been elected, and he shall not receive within that period any other emolument from the United States, or any of them. Clause 8. Before he enter on the execution of his office, he shall take the fol* 1 This clause is no longer in force. Amendment XII. has superseded it. 370 APPENDIX B lowing oath or affirmation : — " I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute the office of President of the United States, and will, to the best of my abil- ity, preserve, protect, and defend the Constitution of the United States." SECTION II.— Clause i. The President shall be commander-in-chief of the army and navy of the United States, and of the militia of the several States, when called into the actual service of the United States ; he may require the opinion, in writing, of the principal officer in each of the executive departments, upon any subject relating to the duties of their respective offices ; and he shall have power to grant reprieves and pardons for offences against the United States, except in cases of impeachment. , Clause 2. He shall have power, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, to make treaties, provided two thirds of the senators present concur ; and he shall nominate, and by and with the advice and consent of the Senate shall ap- point, ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls, judges of the Supreme Court, and all other officers of the United States, whose appointments are not herein otherwise provided for, and which shall be established by law ; but the Congress .may by law vest the appointment of such inferior officers, as they think proper, in the President alone, in the courts of law, or in the heads of department. Clause 3. The President shall have power to fill up all vacancies that may happen during the recess of the Senate, by granting commissions which shall expire at the end of their next session. SECTION III. — He shall from time to time give to the Congress information 1 of the state of the Union, and recommend to their consideration such measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient ; he may, on extraordinary occasions, con- vene both Houses, or either of them, and in case of disagreement between them with respect to the time of adjournment, he may adjourn them to such time as he shall think proper ; he shall receive ambassadors and other public ministers ; he shall take care that the laws be faithfully executed, and shall commission all the officers of the United States. SECTION IV. — The President, Vice-President, and all civil officers of the United States, shall be removed from office on impeachment for, and conviction of, treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors. ARTICLE III.— Judicial Department. SECTION I. — The judicial power of the United States shall be vested in one Supreme Court, and in such inferior courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain and establish. The judges, both of the Supreme and inferior courts, shall hold their offices during good behavior, and shall, at stated times, receive for their services a compensation which shall not be diminished during their continuance in office. CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 37 1 SECTION II. — Clause i. 1 The judicial power shall extend to all cases, in law and equity, arising under this Constitution, the laws of the United States, and treaties made, or which shall be made, under their authority ; — to all cases affecting ambassadors, other .public ministers, and consuls ; — to all cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction ; — to controversies to which the United States shall be a party; — to controversies between two or more States; — between a State and citizens of another State ; — between citizens of different States ; — between citiaens of the same State claiming lands under grants of different States, and between a State or the citizens thereof, and foreign states, citizens, or subjects. Clause 2. In all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and con- suls, and those in which a State shall be party, the Supreme Court shall have orig- inal jurisdiction. In all the other cases before mentioned, the Supreme Court shall have appellate jurisdiction, both as to law and fact, with such exceptions and under such regulations as the Congress shall make. Clause 3. The trial of all crimes, except in cases of impeachment, shall be by jury, and such trial shall be held in the State where the said crimes shall have been committed ; but when not committed within any State, the trial shall be at such, place or places- as the Congress may by law have directed. SECTION III. — Clause i. Treason against the United States shall consist only in levying war against them, or in adhering to their enemies, giving them aid and comfort. No person shall be convicted of treason, unless on the testimony of two witnesses to the same overt act, or on confession in open court. Clause 2. The Congress shall have power to declare the punishment of treason ; but no attainder of treason shall work corruption of blood, or forfeiture, except dur- ing the life of the person attainted. ARTICLE IV.— General Provisions. SECTION I.— Full faith and credit shall be given in each State to the public acts, records, and judicial proceedings of every other State ; and the Congress may by general laws prescribe the manner in which such acts, records, and proceedings shall be proved, and the effect thereof. SECTION II.— Clause i. The citizens of each State shall be entitled to all privileges and immunities of citizens in the several States. Clause 2. A person charged in any State with treason, felony, or other crime, who shall flee from justice, and be found in another State, shall, on demand of the executive authority of the State from which he fled, be delivered up, to be removed to the State having jurisdiction of the crime. Clause 3. No person held to service or labor in one State, under the laws thereof, escaping into another, shall in consequence of any law or regulation therein, be discharged from such service or labor, but shall be ..elivered up on claim of the party to whom such service or labor may be due. This clause has been modified by Amendment XI. IJ2 APPENDIX B SECTION III.— Clause i. New States may be admitted by the Congress w*> this Union ; but no new State shall be formed or erected within the jurisdiction or any other State ; nor any State be formed by the junction of two or more States, or parts of States, without the consent of the Legislatures of the States concerned as well as of the Congress. Clause 2. The Congress shall have power to dispose of and make all needful rules and regulations respecting the territory or other property belonging to the United States ; and nothing in this Constitution shall be so construed as to preju- dice any claims of the United States, or of any particular State. SECTION IV.— The United States shall guarantee to every State in this Union a republican form of Government, and shall protect each of them against invasion, and on application of the Legislature, or of the executive (when the Leg- islature can not be convened), against domestic violence. ARTICLE V.— Power of Amendment. The Congress, whenever two thirds of both houses shall deem it necessary, shall propose amendments to this Constitution, or, on the application of the Legis latures of two thirds of the several States, shall call a convention for proposing amendments, which, in either case, shall be valid to all intents and purposes, a» part of this Constitution, when ratified by the Legislatures of three fourths of ths. several States, or by conventions in three fourths thereof, as the one or the othet mode of ratification may be proposed by the Congress ; provided that no amende ment which may be made prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight snail in any manner affect the first and fourth clauses in the ninth section of th% first article ; and that no State, without its consent, shall be deprived of its equal suffrage in the Senate. ARTICLE VI. — Miscellaneous Provisions. Clause i. All debts contracted, and engagements entered into, before the adop- tion of this Constitution, shall be as valid against the United States under this Constitution, as under the Confederation. Clause 2. This Constitution, and the laws of the United States which shall be made in pursuance thereof ; and all treaties made, or which shall be made, under the authority of the United States, shall be the supreme law of the land ■ and the judges in every State shall be bound thereby, any thing in the Constitution or laws of any State to the contrary notwithstanding. Clause 3. The senators and representatives before mentioned, and the members of the several State Legislatures, and all executive and judicial officers, both of the United States and of the several States, shall be bound by oath or affirmation to support this Constitution ; but no religious test shall ever be required as a quali- fication to any office or public trust under the United States. CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 373 ARTICLE VII.— Ratification of the Constitute. The ratification of the conventions of nine States shall be sufficient for the estab- lishment of this Constitution between the States so ratifying the same. Done in convention, by the unanimous consent of the States present, the seventeenth day of September, in the year of our Lord one thousand seven hundred j.nd eighty-seven, and of the independence of the United States of America the twelfth. In witness whereof we have hereunto subscribed our names. GEORGE WASHINGTON, President, and Deputy from Virginia. CONSENT OF THE STATES PRESENT. 1 NEW HAMPSHIRE. John Langdon, Nicholas Gilman. MASSACHUSETTS. Nathaniel Gorham, Rufus King. CONNECTICUT William Samuel Johnson, Roger Sherman. DELAWARE. George Read, Gunning Bedford, Jr., John Dickinson, Richard Bassett, Jacob Broom. MARYLAND. James McHenry, Daniel of St. Thomas Jenifer, Daniel Carroll. NEW YORK. Alexander Hamilton. NEW JERSEY. William Livingston, David Brearley, William Paterson, Jonathan Dayton. VIRGINIA. John Blair, James Madison, Jr. NORTH CAROLINA. William Blount, Richard Dobbs Spaight, Hugh Williamson. PENNSYLVANIA. Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Mifflin, Robert Morris, George Clymer, Thomas Fitzsimons, Jared Ingersol, James Wilson, Gouverneur Morris. Attest: SOUTH CAROLINA- John Rutledge, Charles C. Pinckney, Charles Pinckney, Pierce Butler. GEORGIA. William Few, Abraham Baldwin. WILLIAM JACKSON, Secretary. i Rhode Island was not represented in the Federal Convention. 374 APPENDIX B AMENDMENTS 1 To the Constitution of the United States, Ratified according to the Provisions of the Fifth Article of the Foregoing Constitution. ARTICLE I. — Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof ; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press ; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the government for redress of grievances. ARTICLE II. — A well-regulated militia being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed. ARTICLE III. — No soldier shall, in time of peace, be quartered in any house, without the consent of the owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be pre- scribed by law. ARTICLE IV. — The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be vio- lated, and no warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized. ARTICLE V. — No person shall be held to answer for a capital or otherwise in- famous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a grand jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the militia, when in actual service in time of war and public danger ; nor shall any person be subject for the same offence to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb ; nor shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against himself, nor to be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor shall private property be taken for public use without just compensation. ARTICLE VI. — In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation ; to be confronted with the witnesses against him; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to have the assistance of counsel for his defence. ARTICLE VII. — In suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no fact tried by a jury shall be otherwise re-examined in any court of the United States, than according to the rules of common law. ARTICLE VIII.— Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines im- posed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted. » Amendments I. to X. were declared in force December 15, 1791. CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES ' 375 ARTICLE IX. — The enumeration in the Constitution of certain rights, shall not "be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people. ARTICLE X. — The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitu- tion, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people. ARTICLE XI. 1 — The judicial power of the United States shall not be construed to extend to any suit in law or equity, commenced or prosecuted against one of the United States by citizens of another State, or by citizens or subjects of any foreign state. ARTICLE XII 2 — The electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote* by ballot for President and Vice-President, one of whom, at least, shall not be an inhabitant of the same State with themselves ; they shall name in their ballots the person voted for as President, and indistinct ballots the person voted for as Vice- President ; and they shall make distinct lists of all persons voted for as President, and of all persons voted for as Vice-President, and of the number of votes for each, which lists they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the govern- ment of the United States, directed to the president of the Senate; — the president of the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open all the certificates, and the votes shall then be counted ; — the person having the greatest number of votes for President, shall be the President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed ; and if no person have such majority, then from the persons having the highest numbers not exceeding three on the list of those voted for as President, the House of Representatives shall choose immediately, by ballot, the President. But in choosing the President, the votes shall be taken by States, the representation from each State having one vote ; a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two thirds of the States, and a majority of all the States shall be necessary to a choice. And if the House of Representatives shall not choose a President whenever the right of choice shall devolve upon them, before the fourth day of March next following, then the Vice-President shall act as President, as in the case of the death or other constitutional disability of the President. The person having the greatest number of votes as Vice-President, shall be the Vice-President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed ; and if no person have a majority, then from the two highest numbers on the list, the Senate shall choose the Vice-Presi- dent ; a quorum for the purpose shall consist of two thirds of the whole number of senators, and a majority of the whole number shall be necessary to a choice. But no person constitutionally ineligible to the office of President shall be eligible to that of Vice-President of the United States. ARTICLE XIII. 8 — Section i. Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, ex- cept as a punishment for crime, whereof the person shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction. 1 Declared in force January 8. 1708. 2 Declared in force September 25, 1804. 3 Declared in force December 18, 1865. 376 * APPENDIX B Section 2. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation. ARTICLE XIV. 1 — Section i. All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they reside. No State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States ; nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law, nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws. Section 2. Representatives shall be appointed among the several States accord- ing to their respective numbers, counting the whole number of persons in each State excluding Indians not taxed. But when the right to vote at any election for the choice of electors for President and Vice-President of the United States, repre- sentatives in Congress, the executive or judicial officers of a State, or the members of the Legislature thereof, is denied to any of the male inhabitants of such State, being twenty-one years of age and citizens of the United States, or in any way abridged except for participation in rebellion or other crime, the basis of represen- tation therein shall be reduced in the proportion which the number of such male citizens shall bear to the whole number of male citizens twenty-one years of age in such State. Section 3. No person shall be a senator or representative in Congress, or elector of President or Vice-President, or hold any office, civil or military, under the United States, or under any State, who having previously taken an oath as a member of Congress, or as an officer of the United States, or as a member of any State Legislature, or as an executive or judicial officer of any State, to support the Constitution of the United States, shall have engaged in insurrection or rebellion against the same, or given aid or comfort to the enemies thereof. But Congress may, by a vote of two thirds of each house, remove such disability. Section 4. The validity of the public debt of the United States, authorized by law, including debts incurred for payment of pension and bounties for services in suppressing insurrection or rebellion, shall not be questioned. But neither the United States nor any State shall assume or pay any debt or obligation incurred in aid of insurrection or rebellion against the United States, or any claim for the loss or emancipation of any slave ; but all such debts, obligations, and claims shall be held illegal and void. Section 5. The Corgress shall have power to enforce, by appropriate legisla- tion, the provisions of this article. ARTICLE XV. 2 — Section i. The rights of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States, or by any State, on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude. Section 2. The Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation. 1 Declared in f ^rce July 28, 1898. s Declared in force March 30, 1870. CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 377 ARTICLE XVI. — The Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes on incomes from whatever source derived, without apportionment among the several States, and without regard to any census or enumeration. ARTICLE XVII?— Section i. The Senate of the United States shall be com- posed of two Senators from each State, elected by the people thereof, for six years; and each Senator shall have one vote. The electors in each State shall have the qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the State legislature. Section 2. When vacancies happen in the representation of any State in the Senate, the executive authority of such State shall issue writs of election to fill such vacancies: Provided that the legislature of any State may empower the executive thereof to make temporary appointments until the people fill the vacancies by election as the legislature may direct. Section 3. This amendment shall not be so construed as to affect the election or term of any Senator chosen before it becomes valid as part of the Constitution 1 Declared in force February 25, 1913. » Declared in force May 31, 1913. INDEX Accidents, prevention of, 82-88 ; at home, 82-83 ; on the street, 83-85 ; on the railroad, 85-86; on water, 86; in industry, 86 ; individual responsibility, 87-88; insurance, 248. Adulteration of food, 49. Aeroplane, detection of forest fires, 102 ; trans-Atlantic flight, 187; transporta- tion by, 203, 221. Aged, care of, 272-273. Air, need for pure, 25 ; pollution, 30. Alaska, education in, 131. Alderman, 298. Alien, medical examination of, 68 ; voting, 341; naturalization of, 230-231. Amendments to Constitution, 340-341. American citizenship, 12; Federation of Labor, 238; ideals and citizenship, 354-358. Animal life, conservation of, 255. Anniversaries, 161. Anti-federalist party, 332. Apartments, selection of, 29. Appeal to higher court, 282-283. Appropriation, 328. Arbitration, compulsory, 239-240. Arid land, reclamation of, 253. Armistice, declaration of, 187. Army, American, 8, 65, n 2-1 13, 131. Arrest, 281. Art, 177. Art galleries, 135-136. Art jury, 177. Artesian wells, 41. Ashes, removal'and disposal, 60-62. Ashokan reservoir, 41. Assembly, 302. Assessment, 320-321. Associated press, 199-200. Asylums for the insane, 271. Athenian oath, 354. Attorney, prosecuting, 282. Automatic sprinklers, 90. Automobiles, transportation, 210. Baby saving shows, 50. Bakeries, condition of, 52. Ballots, 345 ; short ballot, 348-349. Ballot box, 345. Bands, city, 158. Banks, saving, 244 ; national, 244. Bank examiners, 116. Banking, 243-245. Beautiful surroundings, 20. Benzoate of soda, 53. Blind, schools for the, 133. Block signal systems, 195. Blue sky laws, 116. Board of Education, 71, 129. Boards of trade, 234-235. Bond issues, 323. Books, 134. Borrowing money, 322-323, 327-328. Botanical gardens, 153. Boulevards, 175. Boy scouts, 162. Boycott, 239. Bridge, a part of highway, 207. Brown -tail moth, 115. Budget making, 328. Building and loan associations, 245. Building inspectors, 31, 83. Building laws, 83, 181. Bureau of Animal industry, 53, 114; chemistry, 53; entomology, 115; education, 130; health, 54, 77; immi- gration, 231 ; naturalization, 231 ; rec- lamation, 253. Business associations, 236-237. Business and residential sections of cities, 182. Cabinet, President's, 131. Cables, ocean, 196. Camp Fire Girls, 162. Campaign, election, 339. Capital, wealth, 224-225. Capital punishment, 277. Capitol of U. S., 181. 379 3 8o INDEX Carelessness, 55, 81. Caucus, 343. Cellars, breeding places for disease, 44. Censorship, moving pictures, 160; news- paper in wartime, 201. Census, 9. Chamber of commerce, 236. Charitable organizations, 266-269; in- stitutions, 270-273. Charities, 262-273. Charter, city, 260, 275, 299. Checks and drafts, 245. Chemical preservatives, food, 50; fire extinguisher, 94. Chicago, 189. Chicamauga Park, 154. Chief Justice, Supreme Court, 287. Child labor, 71, 72. Children, diseases of, 64; care of, 272; aid society, 272. Circuit court of appeals, 286-287. Circulars and reports, 201. Citizenship, definition, 12; duties, 13; preparing for, 230, 231. City, growth of, 15, 166; planning, 178- 183 ; expenses of government, 319-323: Civic beauty, 165-186. Civic organizations, 32. Civic virtues, 9. Civil service, 35°-353- Cleaning of streets, 206. Cleanliness, 54-63. Clearing house, 245. Clubs, 32, 162-163. Collective bargaining, 238-239. Colleges and Universities, 132. Commercial museums, 136. Commission form of city government, 301. Commissioner of education, 130. Committees, in City Councils, 301. Common interests, 16. Communication, 20, 187-202, 227. Community, denned, 11 ; founding of, 15 ; working together, 31 ; playground, 147-149. Compensation, workingmen's, 248. Congress, 303. Congressional district, 303. Conservation of natural resources, 249- 256. Constitution, 12-13; the fundamental law, 275 ; national, 306. Contagion, prevention of, 63-69. Conviction, 282. Corporation, 259. Correction and the Courts, 274-292. Correspondents, newspaper, 137. Councilmen, 298. Councils, 299-301. County commissioners, 324; committee, 335- Courts and the law, 280-283 ; organiza- tion of, 283-287. Crime, causes of, 277-278. Criminal case, 281-282; institutions, 289-291. Dangerous trades, 72. Deaf, schools for the, 133. Death rate, 25, 34. Declaration of Independence, 8, 355. Democracy, 9, 122. Democratic party, 332. Dentist, school, 70. Department of agriculture, 53 ; health, 66; interior, 130, 154, 253; post office, 190. Departments of government, 31 1-3 16. Dependents, classes of, 263-265. Deposit, banking, 243. Detectives, 108-109. Diet, an enemy to health, 55 ; sources of, 56-57- Disease in tenements, 28; germs, 55; among cattle, 114-115. District attorney, U. S., 286. District courts, federal, 286. Division of labor, 223, 233. Division of powers, 305-306. Docket, 283. Domestic relations court, 284. Draft, 22. Education, 18, 119-142; increasing earning power, 120-121; enjoyment, 1 21-122; and citizenship, 122-123; compulsory, 123-124; in Alaska, 131. Educational recreation, 156-161. Election machinery, 340-349. Electoral college, 347. Electrical communication, 194-198. Elements of welfare, 21. Emigrant, 227-228. Eminent domain, 322. INDEX 381 Employment, 15. Enemies of health, 55. Enforcing the laws, 310-316 ; through the courts, 280. Enrollment party, 342. Epidemics, 63. Evidence, 282. Excess condemnation, 322. Excises, 326. Executive, 76. Executive departments, 31 1-3 16. Executive and lawmaking, 305. Exits, theaters, etc., 99. Expenses, meeting government's, 317- 329- Explosives, storage of, 83. Fair play, 118. Farm life, 230. Federal courts, 285-287. Federal inspection for health, 52-53. Federal tariff commission, 259. Federalist party, 332. Feeble minded, care of, 271-272, 290. Feeblemindedness, a cause of crime, 277. Filter, city, 39. Filtration, 37-41. Fingerprints, 109, 281. Fire, accidents from, 82-83 ; alarms, 97, 98; boats, 96; cost, 89; department, 91 ; escapes, 83 ; fighting, 89 ; forest, 100-102 ; insurance, 247-248 ; marshal, 99, 100; prevention, 98-100; protec- tion against, 88-89; schools, 93-94; station, 94-95. Firemen, 91-93. Fish and game laws, 255. Flag, the American, 1, 4. Flies, 44, 49, 55. Floods, 114. Foch, General, 8. Folk dances, 160. Food, dangers of impure, 50 ; licenses for dealers in, 51 ; impure, 49; pure, 48; conservation of, 251. Foreigners, education of, 128. Forest, fires, 100; rangers, 101 ; reserva- tions, 114. Forms, of business, 259. Fourth of July, 161. Franchises, 212-213. Franklin, Benjamin, 8. Fraud, 115. Fundamental law, 275. Furnishings and decorations of homes, 167. Garbage nuisances, 30; disposal, 58-60; pollution of water, 35 ; receptacle, 58, 59- Gas, accidents from, 82 ; a source of in- come, 321. Gasoline, accident, 83. General election, 344-348. General property tax, 320. Gettysburg, 154. Gipsy moth, 115. Glacier Park, 185. Government, 75-77. Government ownership, telephones, tele- graphs, 196; railways, 217-218, 220. Grand jury, 281. Health, 17 ; community effort, 37 ; de- fects among volunteers and drafted men, 22; effect of army life on, 23; education, 69 ; effect of city life on, 24, 26; individual responsibility, 53-54, 78-79; protection of, 22-79; protec- tion by individual action, 36-37 ; state and federal action, 52; workers handling food, 52. Height of building, regulation of, 181. Hessian fly, 115. High pressure systems, fire, 95. Highways, state and national, 207. Homes, 167. Homestead, 253. Hospitals, 270. House of representatives, state, 302. House of representatives, 303. Housing conditions, 27. Human life, conservation of, 255. Illiteracy in army, 131. Illness, impure air, 27. Immigrants, undesirable, 229. Immigration, 228-229. Incineration of garbage, 59-60. Income tax, 319, 326. Indeterminate sentence, 288-289. Indians, 14. Indictment, 281. Industry, accidents in, 86. 382 INi^EX Infant mortality, so. Infantile paralysis, 67. Influenza epidemic, 63. Inheritance tax, 324. Initiative, 307. Inoculation, typhoid, 65. Insane, care of, 270-271, 2go. Insanity, a cause of crime, 277. Insects, 115. Inspectors, building, 31-99; factory, 73; labor, 72 ; milk, meat, slaughter house, 51; postal, 194; steamship, 86. Insurance, 247-248. Insurance patrol, 96. Interdependence, 15. Interest, 243. Internal revenue taxes, 326-327. Interstate Commerce Commission, 218- 219. Interstate commerce, child labor, 72. Interurban electric lines, 214-215. Irrigation, 253. Johnstown flood, 114. Joint worm, 115. Judge, 282. Judicial, 76. Jury, 282. Juvenile courts, 284. Kindergartens, 126. Knights of Columbus, 163. Labor, 224. Labor unions, 237-240. Lard, 224; conservation of, 253. Law, desire of group, 30; enforcing, 76; how made, 293-309 ; interpreting, 76 ; kinds of, 280; making, 76; necessity for, 274; private organizations secur- ing passage of, 32. Lawmaking, in the city, 298-302 ; in the state, 302 ; in the nation, 303. Lawns and gardens, 168. Lawsuit, 283. Lawyers, 310. Lectures and debates, 201. L'Enfant, Major, 179, 180. Legislative, 76. Levees, 114. Liberty, 122. Liberty bonds, 241, 327. Libraries, 134-135. Licenses for food dealers, 51. Life, protection of, 17, 81-118. Life insurance, 247-248. Lighthouses, 86. Lightships, 86. Lincoln, 127, 134. Linkmen, 85. Los Angeles, water supply, 41. Loyal citizenship, 354-358. Magistrates court, 281. Mail, 189-194. Marshal, U. S., 286. Mass Meeting, 297. Matches, accidents from, 82, 89. Mayor, approval of bills, 300. Measures, false, 115. Meats, chemically treated, 50; com- munity regulation of, 51. Medical inspection of schools, 64 ; exami- nation of children in industry, 72. Melting pot, the, 3. Message of President, 305. Meter, prepayment, danger of, 82. Metropolitan Museum, New York, 136. Migration, 225-232. Milk, 50, 51. Mineral resources, conservation of, 253. Misdemeanants court, 284. Money, 223. Money orders, 193. Monuments, 175. Mortgage, 246. Mosquitoes, 44; disease carriers, 55. Moth, gipsy, brown-tail, and tussock, 115. Motion pictures, 1 50-1 60. Municipal court, 283-284. Municipal ownership, street railways, 214. Museums and art galleries, 135-136. Music and entertainment, 158. Nation, education in, 130-13 1. National anthem, 4. National army cantonments, 48. National banks, 244. National civil service, 352. National committee, 336. National Consumers' League, 74. National government, expenses of, 325- 329. INDEX 383 National guard, 112. National nominating convention, 336-338. National parks, 154. Natural beauty, 184, 185. Natural resources, 224. Naturalization, 12, 128, 230-231. Navy, 113. New York water supply system, 42. Newspapers, 137, 198-201. Niagara Falls, 184. Night letters, 195. Nominations, 342-343. Nomination petition, 343. Northclifle, Lord, 188. Nuisances, 30, 59. Nurse, school, 70. Obedience, 4, 9. Ocean, cables, 196. Offenders against the law, 275-276. Old age pensions, 273. Opera, public, 159. Order, preservation of, 103. Ordinances, 75, 311. Ordinance and zoning commissions, 182. Organization of government, 31 1-3 16. Orphans, homes for, 272. Oxygen helmet, 93. Pageants, 160. Paint and repairs, 168. Panama Canal, 219-220. Parcel post, 193-194. Parks, 151-154; city, 152; civic beauty, 174-176- Parkways, 175. Parole, 289. Partnership, 259. Party government, 330-349. Party organization, 335~339- Passport, 13. Paving and street cleaning, 58, 171. Penn, William, 178. Pennsylvania Avenue, Washington, D.C., 181. Pension, old age, 273. Pensions, 289-291. Periodicals, 139. Pershing, General, 8. Petition, 307. Philadelphia, planning of, 178; play- grounds, 147 ; water supply system, 42, Phosphorus poisoning, 73. Physical examination in army and navy, 22-25. Physical recreation, 145-156. Platform, party, 338. Play, 18; streets, 150. Playgrounds, 145-149. Plumbing and health, 47. Policeman, 106-107; mounted police, 107-108; river and harbor, 108; en* forcing the law, 312. Police signals, 109; schools, no; state, 110-112. Politeness, 13. Political clubs, 338-339; parties, 33Q-339- Poorhouse, 271, 273. Population, 5, 9. Post Office, city, 191. Postal savings, 193. Postal service, 189-194. Postman, 189-190. Postmaster- General, 190. Poverty, causes of, 262-263. Precinct, 345. Precinct committee, 335. Presidency, 343. President, election of, 344, 347-348. Primary election, 343 - 344- Principal, school, 129. Private organizations, health, 32. Probation officer, 285. Professional associations, 237. Prohibition, 78, 307. Property, protection of, 17, 18, 80-118. Prosecution, 282. Prosperity, 234. Protection of health, 22-79; hfe and property, 80-118. Ptomaine poisoning, 50. Public lands, sale of, 253. Public opinion, newspapers, 200. Pulmotor, instruction in use of, 93. Punishments, 276-277. Pure food and drug act, 53. Quarantine, 65-69; federal, 67-69. Railroads, electrification of, 31. Railways, accidents on, 85-86 ; electric, 209-215; elevated, 210; city street, surface, 209-210; subway, 210; steam, 215-219. 3^4 INDEX Railway mail service, 191-193. Real estate assessors, 321. Recall, 308, 348. Recreation, 18, 143-164. Recreation centers, 149-150; piers, 151. Reduction of garbage, 60. Referendum, 307. Registration bureau, 268-269. Registration for military service, 23. Registration, personal, 341. Relief, methods of, 269. Repeating, 341. Representative, 298. Representative government, 75. Representatives, lawmaking by, 297- 298. Republican party, 332. Resuscitation, methods of, 93. Riots, in. River and harbor police, 108 ; Committee, 220. Roads, good, 208 ; toll, 208. Roosevelt, Theodore, conservation move- ment, 250. Rubbish, nuisances, 30; civic beauty, 171; fire menace, 82; water pollu- tion, 35. Sacrificing for the common good, 7, 8. Safe and sane Fourth, 161. Safety devices in industry, 72-73. Safety first, 81. Salvation Army, 163. Sanitary inspectors, 31. Sanitation in the army, 48. Savings banks, 244. Scholarships, 133. School, what it is for, 119; blind and deaf, 133; continuation, 124, 125; elementary, 125, 126; hours and con- ditions, 70-71; Junior High, 126; medical inspection of, 64; night, 128; normal, 130; playgrounds, 146-147; Senior High, 127, 128; superintendent, 129; the public schools, 123-131. Schools, 18. Sedimentation tanks, 45. Selecting a home, 29. Selective service, 22. Semaphore, 85. Senate, State, 302 ; United States, 303. Sentence, 282 ; indeterminate, 288. Sewage, 35 ; disposal of, 37, 44-47 ; dis- posal plants, 45 ; sedimentation tanks, 45- Shelter, 18. Sick, care of, 270. Signs, overhead, danger from, 84. Sinking fund, 323. Slot meter, danger of accident, 82. Smallpox, 63. Smoke, nuisance, 30; consuming de- vices, 31 ; mask, 93. Snow removal, 206. Social settlements, 268; worker, 266, 267. Societies, 139. Spending and saving, 241-248. Spoils system, 350. Squares and gardens, 1 51-152. Stage coaches, 204. State committee, 336. State courts, 285. State, education, 129-130; parks, 154. State, expenses of government, 323- 324- Steam railways, 215-219. Street, accidents on, 83-85. Street cleaning, 57, 58, 171 ; paving, 171; plans, 178. Streets, civic beauty, 170-173 ; diagonal, 179; and transportation, 204-208; cleaning, 206 ; paving and repairing of, 205-206 ; lighting and safety, 85, 207. Strikes, 239-240. Suffrage, 340-341. Superior court, state, 285. Supreme court, state, 285 ; U. S., 287. Surface water and sewage, 46. Swamping the ticket, 342. Swimming pools, 150-151. Swindles, 115. Tally sheets, 347. Tariff, 257-259, 325. Taxation, 123, 318. Taxes, kinds of, 319. Teacher training, 128. Telegraph, 137, 195. Telephone, 137, 195. Tenements, 28. Thrift, 241-248. Thrift stamps, 193, 241. Town meeting, 296. INDEX 385 Traffic circuit, 183; officer, 84; squad, 107, 108 ; regulations, 84. Transportation, 20, 203-221 ; develop- ment of city, 2 1 1-2 1 2, 227. Treaty of peace, 187. Trial, criminal case, 282 ; civil case, 282. Trusts, 260. Trust companies, 244. Tuberculosis, 28. Tussock moth, 115. Typhoid fever, 34, 50, 65. Undesirable immigrants, 229. Unemployment, 263. Unions, labor, 237-240. Universities and colleges, 132. Unsightly objects, 173. Vaccination, typhoid, 36; smallpox, 64-65. Valley Forge Park, 154. Vandalism, 186. Ventilation, 26-27. Verdict of court, 288. Veto, by Mayor, 301 ; by Governor, 302 ; by President, 303. Vice-presidency, 243. Vigilance committees, 274. Voter, qualifications and registration, 340-342. Voting, 12-13. Voting machines, 345. Wages, 222-223, 120. 242; and education, War, declaration of, 22. Ward committee, 335. Warrants, 281. War savings stamps, 193, 241. Washington, a well-planned city, 179- 181. Waste and ashes disposal, 60-62. Watchmen, 00. Water, 33-43; conservation, 251- 252. Water front, civic beauty, 175. Water towers, fire, 95. Water users' association, 253. Wealth, 222-261. Weights, false, 115. White House, 181. White plague, 28. Wilson, President, 188, 305. Window boxes, 168. Wire, overhead, danger from, 84. Wireless telegraph, 86, 196-197. Woman suffrage, 341. Working hours and conditions, 70- 74- Workingmen's compensation, 248 . Yellow fever, 63, 69. Yellowstone Park, 154, 185. Y. M. C. A., 163. Y. M. H. A., 163. Y. W. C. A., 163. Zoning commissions, 182 Zoning commission, 183. Zoological gardens, 153. TI S BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE STAMPED BELOW AN INITIAL FINE OF 25 CENTS WILL BE ASSESSED FOR FAILURE TO RETURN THIS BOOK ON THE DATE DUE. THE PENALTY WILL INCREASE TO SO CENTS ON THE FOURTH DAY AND TO $I.OO ON THE SEVENTH DAY OVERDUE. OCT 2 b 1934 FEB 14 1935 MAR 9 1939 JAN 21 1945 T^ 4346- 5Wr;-r;fF lIBRAKYti 96 W?* m RFC'D LP APR S 6 1960 2lten , faisCa OT^ 1 ■ — LD 21-100m-7,'33 YB 08773 S20G UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY