LIBRARY

OK THE

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA.

GHKT < >K

"Received
Accessions No./a. Cljss No'.

THE

PKINCIPLES

ENGLISH GRAMMAR;

COMPRISING THE SUBSTANCE OF THE MOST APPROVED
ENGLISH GRAMMARS EXTANT,

WITH

COPIOUS EXERCISES IN PARSING AND SYNTAX;

A NEW

HB VISED, RE -ARRANGED AND IMPROVED

FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS'.

BY REV. PETER BULLIONS, D. D.

LATH PROFESSOR OF LANGUAGES IN THE ALBANY ACADEMY} AUTHOft OF

THCK SERIES OF GRAMMARS, GREEK, LATIN, AND ENaLISR, ETC.,

ON THE SAJtfK PLAN.

NEW YOEK:
PUBLISHED BY PliATT, OAKLEY & CO.

*O. 21 MURRAY STREET.
?j|]R 1859.

THB <K^

'"* . tf ifSL.V-

ENTERED, according to Act of Congress, in the Year One Thousand
Eight Hundred and Fifty-one, by KEY. PETER BULLIONS, D. D.,
ia the Clerk's Office of the Northern District of New York.

llrj

PREFACE.

A knowledge of English Grammar is very properly considered
nn indispensable part of an English education-, and is now taught
as such, in all our Academies and Common Schools. The great
number of elementary works which have recently appeared on
this subject, is a pleasing evidence of the attention which has been
bestowed upon it. Among these, none has enjoyed greater favor
than the Grammar of LINDLEY MURRAY 5 and the high rank which
it still holds among the numerous works which have appeared
since its publication, is a decided testimony to the soundness of
its principles and the excellence of the system. With all its ex-
cellence, however, it is far from being incapable of improvement;
and the attempt to add to its value as a manual for schools, by
correcting what is erroneous, retrenching what is superfluous or
unimportant, compressing w T hat is prolix, elucidating what is ob-
scure, determining what was left doubtful, supplying what is de-
fective, and bringing up the whole to that state of improvement
to which the labours of eminent scientific and practical writers of
the present day have so greatly contributed, can hardly fail, if
well executed, to prove acceptable to the public. Such was my
design 5 and though there may be reason to regret that it has not
been undertaken by some one more capable of doing justice to the
subject, still it is hoped that the labor bestowed, in order to carry
it into effect, will not be altogether in vain.

In endeavoring to avoid the minutiae and diffuseness of the larger
Grammar, care has been taken to guard against the opposite ex-
treme. The abridgments of Murray now in use, are little more
than a synopsis of the larger work-, presenting a mere outline of
the subject, altogether too meagre to be of much service to the
learner. The same remark is applicable to a great number of
smaller works which have been published with a similar view;
namely, to serve as an introduction to a more extended system.
They are incapable themselves of imparting a satisfactory know-
ledge of the subject; and yet it often happens, perhaps even in a
majority of cases, that those who have commenced with the " in-
troduction," have neither the time nor the means to get beyond
it : and besides, unless the "introduction" be constructed on the

IV PREFACE.

same principle of arrangement and expression with the one which
is intended to succeed it, it will probably be found worse than use-
less-, for when a particular arrangement and phraseology have
become familiar to the mind, there is great difficulty in studying
another work on the same subject, in which the arrangement ana
expression are materially different. A Grammar, to be really
valuable, ought to be simple in its style and arrangement, so as to
be adapted to the capacity of youth, for whose use it is designed $
comprehensive, so as to be a sufficient guide in the most difficult,
as well as in easy cases , and its principles and rules should be
rendered familiar to the learner by numerous examples and exer-
cises.

To meet these views of what a Grammar for the use of Schools
ought to be, the present compilation has been made : with what
success, a discerning public, to whose judgment it is respectfully
submitted, will decide. Utility, not novelty, has been aimed at.
In collecting materials, I have freely availed myself of the labors
of others who have treated on the subject since the days of Mur-
ray, and particularly of those whose object has been similar to my
own. LENNIE'S ''Principles of English Grammar," deservedly
esteemed in Britain the best compend for the use of schools which
has yet appeared, I have adopted as the ground plan of my work.
The works of MURRAY, ANGUS, CONNEL, GRANT, CROMBIE, HILEY,
and others in the extensive collection of my friend Dr. BECK, to
which I have enjoyed free access, have been consulted; and from
all of them has been carefully selected, condensed, and arranged,
whatever seemed to be suitable to my purpose. For several va-
luable suggestions, also, I am indebted to Dr. T. R. BECK, and
several other literary friends, who kindly examined my MSS. be-
fore they were sent to press, and freely communicated their sen-
timents. On the whole, it is believed that there is nothing of
much importance in Murray's larger Grammar, or in the works
ef subsequent writers, that will not be found condensed here.

On the subject of Ktymology, much expansion has been deemed
unnecessary; I have therefore generally contented myself with
stating results, without embarrassing the work with the processes,
often tedious and obscure, which have Jed to them. In the clas-
sification of words, almost all writers differ from one another; and
though on this subject there has been much discussion, nothing
has yet been proposed which, on the whole, appears less object

PKEFACJS. V

tionable in principle, or more convenient in practice, than that of
Murray, which is therefore generally retained.

In Syntax, greater fullness has been considered proper. In the
arrangement of the Rules, scarcely two writers have followed the
same order ; and that here adopted is somewhat different from any
other. Without regarding much the usual division of Syntax into
Concord and Government, those rules are placed first which ap-
pear to be most simple, and of most frequent occurrence. Care
has been taken, however, to connect with a leading rule those of
a subordinate character allied to it, and to add under every rule
such 'notes and observations as appeared necessary to its illustra-
tion. Numerous examples of false Syntax follow each rule, gene-
rally on the same page-, also examples adapted to the notes, etc.
are subjoined, distinguished by the number of the note to which
they belong. For the purpose of better exercising the judgment
of the pupil, there have been introduced at intervals, exercises on
the preceding rules promiscuously arranged; and at the end, pro-
miscuous exercises are furnished on all the rules and observations ;
the whole forming a body of exercises, containing perhaps not
fewer examples than Murray's separate volume of Exercises on
the Rules of Syntax. In this, economy as well as convenience
has been consulted. The leading principles have been made so
prominent by being printed on a large type, that they may be
easily studied by the youngest classes without a separate com-
pend. Every thing necessary for the*fuller expansion and illus-
tration of these principles, has been introduced in its place-, and
the whole furnished with questions and appropriate exercises, in
order to render every part familiar to the mind of the pupil as he
advances, so that no larger treatise, and no separate book of ex-
ercises, will be necessary. The arrangement of the exercises on
6-yntax on the same page with the rule which they are designed
to illustrate, it is believed, will greatly diminish the labor, both
of teacher and pupil, in going over this important part of the
subject.

Another object steadily kept in view in this compilation, is to
render it a profitable introduction to classical studies. While all
languages differ from one another in their modes of inflexion, and
in some forms of expression peculiar to themselves, usually de-
nominated idioms, their general principles are, to a very great
axtent, the same, ^t would eem, therefore, to be proper, in

' A*

VI PREFACE.

constructing grammars for different languages, that the prmci
pies, so far as they are the same, should be arranged in the sama
order, and expressed as nearly as possible in the same words.
Were this carefully done, the study of the grammar of one lan-
guage would be a very important aid in the study of another , and
the opportunity thus afforded, of seeing wherein they agree and
wherein they differ, would of itself furnish a profitable exercise
in comparative grammar. But when a Latin grammar is put
into the hands of a boy, differing widely in its arrangement or
phraseology from the English grammar which he had previously
studied, and then in due time a Greek grammar different from
both, not only is the benefit derived from the analogy of the dif-
ferent languages in a great measure lost, but the whole subject is
made to appear intolerably intricate and mysterious. To remedy
this evil, I resolved, some time ago, to publish a series of Gram-
mars of the English, Latin, and Greek languages, arranged in
the same order, and expressed as nearly in the same words as the
genius of the languages would permit.

This series has now been some time before the public, and
has been received with a degree of favor far surpassing my ex-
pectations.

PREFACE TO THE REVISED EDITION.

New plates for this work having become necessary, the oppor-
tunity has been embraced to improve the work in such a way as
to render it still more worthy of public favor. Several of the
definitions and rules have been rendered more strictly accurate.
In many places, observations and remarks have been introduced,
where they seemed to be necessary to complete or elucidate tho
subject. ^The etymology of the article which stood before, is
now, as it should be, placed after the noun-, and that of the par-
ticiple is placed with the moods and tenses, before the inflection
of the verb, instead of coming after it. In these two instances
only, is the order of the sections changed. In the verb, the de-
signation and arrangement of tenses first adopted in this Grammar,
but which were subsequently changed, are here resumed, being
considered as altogether better, because more natural and appro
priate. The former designations, however, are placed in paren-
theses, (except the imperfect, which does not corrpctly express
the import of that tense), that teachers may adnnt4ho9c which

PREFACE. VII

they prefer. In the observations on the tenses, an attempt has
been made to render them more full and explicit-, and in the
inflection of the verb, negative and interrogative forms have
been introduced after the active voice.

In Syntax, two or three rules have been altered, where it
seemed desirable for the sake of greater accuracy and simplicity.
So much of Rules IV., V., and VI. as referred to the pronoun,
has been omitted, to avoid the confusion occasioned by uniting
two subjects (the verb and personal pronoun) under one rule, and
all that relates to the Syntax of the personal pronoun has been
placed together in special rules under Rule X. The exercises
under these rules have been revised and made to correspond to
these changes. In Prosody, several defects have been supplied,
and the article on Composition has been considerably enlarged.

To make room for these improvements, the lists of questions
heretofore interspersed through the work, and the utility of which
has been questioned by distinguished teachers, have been removed
to the end of the book, where they are placed together, so that
they may be used or not, as the teacher may direct. For the
same purpose, all discussions of grammatical questions have been
removed from the body of the work to the Appendix, and suita-
ble reference made to them in the text. In this position, they
interfere less with the regular progress of the work, and may be
consulted at pleasure. By this means, also, an opportunity is
afforded of discussing the several subjects, when it was thought
important, at greater length than would have been proper in their
place j and hence, it will be seen, the Appendix has been consi-
derably enlarged.

By means of these arrangements, the leading parts of the
Grammar are made to occupy nearly the same place as before, be-
ing seldom more than one page distant from their former position.
This revisal of the work has been gone into more thoroughly
now, to avoid the necessity of ever hereafter making any changes j
but no change has been made which will occasion any difficulty
in using this edition with the other, as the parts introduced foi
the most part belong to the Notes and Observations, very seldom
to the leading parts.

For further information, reference is occasionally made to the
Analytical and Practical Grammar, in which the subjects generally
are treated of with greater fullness, especially in Syntax, than IL
this compend.

HI! PREFACE.

PLAN OF THIS WORK.

1. In this work the leading principles, definitions, and rules,
forming hy themselves an epitome of Grammar, are printed in
larger type, and expressed in brief, accurate, and simple language,
BO as to be easily committed to memory.

2. All that is necessary to fill up this outline, and with it to
forrr. a complete school grammar, is inserted in its place in smallei
type in Observations and Remarks, not to be committed to me-
mory, but to be studied more fully in connection with the leading
parts, in subsequent reviews.

3. The whole is perspicuously arranged under distinct sections
and heads, all of which are numbered separately , and now, in
addition to this, all the paragraphs are numbered by a running
series of numbers, rendering it easy to refer to any particular part.

4. At the close of each part of speech, and frequently at inter-
vals under different heads, Exercises, simple and easy, are intro-
duced, for the purpose of rendering the pupil familiar with each
step as he goes along, and better prepared for entering on that
which is to follow.

5. The leading rules of Syntax always stand at the top of the
page-, and under each is presented, in special rules, in small
type, or in observations and remarks in type still smaller, all that
is necessary to complete or explain the subject of which it treats $
and then,under these are furnished examples of false Syntax to be
corrected an exercise of great importance, to render the princi-
pies previously studied, and their use, familiar to the pupil.

6. For the same purpose, numerous examples of false Syntax
under all the rules are furnished at the end, promiscuously ar-
ranged. In correcting these, it will always be proper to shew
wherein they are wrong, mention the rule which they violate,
and give the rule or the reason for the change made.

7. In Analysis and Parsing, it is important that one uniform
method, the shorter the better, provided it be accurate and full,
should be pursued-, either that here recommended, or such othei
as the teacher may prefer; and that the rules, when repeated, be
repeated accurately in the very words of the text.

8. The subject of Composition, at the end of the book, will be
a profitable study for the pupil after he has studied the grammar,
and furnish the means of constantly applying its principles.

By pursuing this method, the study of Grammar, instead of
being, as it is usually considered, a dry and laborious exercise of
memory, becomes, from the first, practical, intellectual, and in-
teresting-, so that with but little labor, almost imperceptibly, and
in a very short time, the pupil becomes a proficient in this im-
portant branch of study.

INDEX AND TABLE OF CONTENTS.

GRAMMAR as a Science as an Art PAGB J

Parts of 1

Questions on 219

PART I. ORTHOGRAPHY.

ORTHOGRAPHY, Definition of 9

Letters, of ......a

Syllables, of; Division of words into 3

Spelling 3

General rules, for ....4

PART II. ETYMOLOGY.

ETYMOLOGY, Definition of 7

Words, Divisions of 7

Parts of Speech.. 8

Prvg vvhat ; Different kinds of 8

* Wrvjn, different kinds of 8, 9

Accidents of. * 9

Person of .9

Gender of 10

Observations on 11

Number of, Plural, Rules for 12

Irregular. .13

Observations on 15

Ca*e of. 16

^Nominative, use of 16

Construction of, a* the subject 89

As the predicate. 104

Independent 127

Possessive, how formed, use of 16

Observations on 17

Construction of 105, 106

Objective, use of 16

Governed by Transitive Active Verbs 90

By Intransitive Verbs 90

By Prepositions. 92

Of time, place, weight, value, &c. 92

Parsing of, Method of 17

Construction of, in apposition 103

n ARTICLE, Definition and use of. 18

Construct ion of 128

' Parsing of the, Method of 19

III. ADJECTIVE, Definition of, Observations on, Numerals 19

Comparison of, and Observations on 20

Irregular 21

Construction of 97

Of the Comparative and Superlative"-115, 116

Parsing of the, Method of, Exercises on 22

IT, PaonenrNS, Definition and division of 22

Personal, Declension of 22

Observations on 23

Parsing, Method of 23

Construction of 99

Relative, Definition of, &c 24

Observations on *25

Parsing, Method of 86

Construction of 10.1

Interrogative, what ; Observations or. ifll

X CONTENTS.

IV PBONOUNS, Adjective, Division of 27

Possessive ' 27

Distributive... 27

Construction of 97

Demonstrative 29

Construction of. 97, 98

Indefinite 28

Parsing, Method of. 53

V. VKBB, Definition and Division of 30

Transitive and Intransitive, defined and distinguished 00, 3 1

Division of, in respect of form 31

Auxiliary, what ; Observations en 32

Inflection of 34

Voice, Active and Passive defined 34

Observations on -... 34

Moods, Definition and Distinction of 35

Observations on. p 36

Subjunctive, Construction of 112

Infinitive, Construction of. 111

Tenses, Distinction and Definition of 37. 38

Observations on. 39

Construction of 124

Participles, Definition and Use of.. 41, 42

Present Active, in a Passive sense 43

As a Verbal Noun 43

Construction of 109

Number and Person of 43

Conjugation, and Forms of.. 43, 44

Regular, to love, Active voice, Inflection of 45

Parsing of the. Method of 48, 40

Negative form of 50

Interrogative form of 51

Progressive form of .....55

Passive voice, Inflection of 55-57

Exercises on 58

Irregular, to be, Inflection of.. 52

Exercises en 54

Irregular, list of. 59-64

Defective 04

Impersonal 65

Exercises on 65

Construction or Concord of, with its Nominative 88

With two nouns in connection 93

taken separately.. 84

With nominatives of different persons.. 95

With collective nouns 96

VI ADVERB, Definition and use of 65

Classification of, and Observations on 66

Parsing of the, Method of, and Exercises on 68

Construction of. 117

Position of 1 IS

VII. PREPOSITIONS, Definition and use of... 63

List of, and Observations on 68

Parsing, Method of and Exerf^ses on 70

Construction of.. 2

V III. INTERJECTIONS, List of, Use of, Observations on 70

Parsing, Method of.. 71

Construction of 120

IX. CONJUNCTIONS, pefinition and Division of. "1

Parsing, Method of 79

Construction of 113, 114

-PARSING. Etymological, Definition of 73

Specimens of 74, 75

Rules for, and Exercises in 70-85

CONTENTS. XI

PARSING, Syntactical, Definition of 132

Specimens of. 132-134

PART III. SYNTAX.

SYNTAX, Definition of 86

General Principles of, Parts of 87

RULES OF viz.

, I. A verb must agree with its nominative.. 88

Special rules under Rule I 89

n. A transitive verb in the active voice, <fc c 90

Special rules under Rule n. 91

HI. Prepositions govern the objective case, &c 92

IV. Two or more substantives singular, in connection, &c. . 93

r. taken separately, &c 94

VI. A verb with nominatives of different persons 95

vn. A verb with a collective noun 96

vm. An adjective qualifies the substantive, &c 97

IX. When two persons or things are contrasted, &c 98

X. Pronouns agree with the nouns, &c 90

XI. The relative agrees with its antecedent, c 10.1

Special rules and observations under Rule xi. 10U

XH. Substantives denoting the same tiling, <fcc 103

xm. The predicate substantive after a verb, &c. 104

xiv. The possessive case 105

xv. When the present participle is used as a noun, &c 108

.xvi. The present participle with an article before it, &C----109'

xvn. The past participle is used after have and be , & c 1 10

xvin The infinitive mood is governed, &c. Ill

Xix. The subjunctive mood 112

xx. Conjunctions connect words or sentences 113

xxi. Some conjunctions have corresponding conjunctives- -114

xxii. Comparative degree, and the pronoun other, &c 115

xxm. Double comparatives and superlatives, &c 116

xxiv. Adverbs modify verbs, &c.. 117

xxv. Adverbs are for the most part placed, &c. 118

xxvi. Two negatives in the same sentence, & c 119

xxvu. Prepositions before names of places 1 20

xxvni. Certain words and phrases must be followed, fee.. 121

xxix. In the use of verbs, &c. the order of time, &c. 124

xxx. When a member of a sentence refers to two different

clauses, it should be, &c. 126

xxxi. Case absolute. 127

xxxii. The article A, &c.. 128

xxxiii. An ellipsis is admissible when, &c.. 130

xxxiv An ellipsis is not allowable when, &c 131

SYNTAX, Promiscuous Exercises on Rules of. 135-146

Miscellaneous Observations 1 46

Improper expressions corrected 150

PUNCTUATION, Rules for 151-157

Abbreviations. 158

Paragraphs 159

Capitals 1

Rhetorical divisions of a discourse 160

Composition, different kinds of, Prose. 160, 161

Poetry 162

Figures, viz. of Etymology 163

Of Syntax and of Rhetoric MM

Poetic license 166

PART IV. PROSODY.

PROSODY, Definition of. - 169

Elocution 16

Versification * 171

Iambic Verse 172

MI CONTENTS.

PROSODY, Trochaic 175

Anapaestic ...........176

Dactylic 177

Mixed Versea 179

COMPOSITION, Art of. 180

Ue of Grammar in. 311

Law of Language 182

Hints for correct and elegant writing 184

APPENDIX.

I. Grammar' - 193

n. Classification of words 195

m. The noun or substantive. 196

iv. Person 197

v. Gender of nouns 197

VI. Case of nouns 198

vn. The article 199

vin. The adjective 201

ix. Comparison of adjectives 201

x. Pronouns 203

XI. The pronoun you 20?

xii. As not a relative 203

xm. The relative what" 204

xiv. Adjective pronouns. 205

xv. The verb 207

xvi. Division of verbs.. 208

xvii. Moods. 208

xvni. The subjunctive mood 210

xix. The participle in ins; in a passive sense 211

xx. Two first, three last, &c 215

xxx. First and second 217

;VIUSIT7]J

GRAMMAR.

1. GRAMMAR is both a SCIENCE and an ART.

2. As a SCIENCE, it investigates the principles
of language in general. When thus used, it is
denominated GENERAL or UNIVERSAL GRAMMAR ;
and sometimes COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

3. As an ART, it teaches the right method of
applying these principles to a particular language,
so as to express our thoughts in a correct and pro-
per manner, according to established usage. App. I

ENGLISH GEAMMAE.

4. ENGLISH GRAMMAR is the art of speaking and
writing the English language with propriety.

5. GRAMMAR is divided into four parts ; namely,
Orthography, Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody.

6. Orthography treats of letters and syllables ,
Etymology, of words ; Syntax, of sentences ; and
Prosody, of elocution and versification.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

PART FIRST.

1. ORTHOGRAPHY.*

7. ORTHOGRAPHY treats of letters, and the mode
of combining them into syllables and words.

8. A Letter is a mark or character used to represent an ele-
mentary sound of the human voice.

9. There are Twenty-six letters in the English Alphabet.

10. Letters ere either Vowels or Consonants.

11. A Vowel is a letter which represents a simple inarticulate
sound ; and in a word or syllable may be sounded alone. The
vowels are, a, e, i, o, u, and w and y, not before another vowel sounded
in the same syllable.

12. A Consonant is a letter which represents an articulate sound
and in a word or syllable is never sounded alone, but always in con-
nexion with a vowel The consonants are, b, c, d, /, g, h,j, k, /, m,
n, p, q, r, s, t, v, x, z, and w and y before a vowel sounded in the
same syllable.

13. A Diphthong is the union of two vowels in one sound.
Diphthongs are of two kinds, proper and improper.

14. A Proper Diphthong is one in which both the vowels ar
sounded-, as ou in out, oi in oi7, ow in cow.

15. An Improper Diphthong is one in which only one of the
vowels is sounded-, as ou in court, oa in boat.

16. A Triphthong is the union of three vowels in one sound
as cau in beauty.

* Orthography is properly a part of Grammar, as it belongs to " the art cf
speaking and writing a language with propriety." Yet as the whole subject ii
treated more fully in the spelling-book and dictionary, a brief synopsis of itr pvia-
ciples only is here given, rather as a matter of form, than with a view to its Heing
particularly studied at this stage. The teacher may, therefore, if he thinks proper,
pass over this part for the present, and begin with PART II.

1. ORTHOGRAPHY. 3

SYLLABLES.

17. A Syllable is a distinct sound forming the whole
of a word, as far ; or so much of it as can be sounded
at once, as far in far-mer.

18. A word contains as many syllables as it has dis-
tinct rocal sounds ; as, gram-ma -ri-an.

19. A Monosyllable is a word of one syllables; as,
fox.

20. A Dissyllable is a word of two syllables; as,
far-mer.

21. A Trisyllable is a word of three syllable; as,
pi-e-ty.

22. A Polysyllable is a word of many syllables.

DIVISION OF WORDS INTO SYLLABLES.

23. The division of words into syllables is called
Syllabication.

GENERAL RULE.

24. Place together in distinct syllables, those letters
which make up the separate parts or divisions of a
word, as heard in its correct pronunciation.

25. Two separate words combined as one name, are
usually separated by a hyphen; as, rail-road, glass-
house, bee-hive.

26. In writing, a word of more than one syllable
may be divided at the end of a line ; but a monosyllable,
or a syllable, never.

2. SPELLING.

27. SPELLING is the art of expressing a word by
its proper letters.

4 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 2

28. The orthography of the English language is so anomalous
and in many cases arbitrary, that proficiency in it can be acquired
only by practice, and the use of the spelling-book or dictionary.
The following rules are of a general character, though even to
these there may be a few exceptions:

GENERAL RULES FOR SPELLING WORDS.

RULE I.

29. Monosyllables ending with /, I or s, preceded by
a single vowel, double the final consonant ; as, staff mill,
pass.

Exceptions. Of, if, as, is, has, was, his, gas, yes, this, us,
thus, pus.

RULE II.

30. Words ending with any consonant except/, I or
s, do not double the final letter; as, sit, not, up, put,
that, in.

Exc. Add, bunn, butt, buzz, ebb, egg, err, inn, odd, purr.

RULE III.

31. Monosyllables and words accented on the last
syllable, ending with a single consonant preceded by a
single vowel, double that consonant before an additional
syllable beginning with a vowel ; as, rob, robber ; admit,
admittance, admitted.

Exceptions. But x and h are never doubled.

32. But when a diphthong or double vowel precedes,
or the accent is not on the last syllable, the consonant
is not doubled ; as, boil, boiling, boiler ; wool, woolen ;
fool, foolish ; visit, visited.

Exceptions. In about fifty words ending in I with a vowel be-
fore it, and not accented on the last syllable, many writers, con-
trary to analogy and without necessity, double the / improperly

2. ORTHOGRAPHY. 5

before an additional syllable. These are such words as travtl,
traveller, travelling, travelled.*

So also s and p are generally, though improperly, doubled in
bias, worship, and kidnap; as biassing, worshipper, kidnapping.
Webster, and many writers following him, in these words conform
to the general rule.

RULE IV.

33. Words ending with II drop one / before the ter-
minations less and ly, to prevent trebling, as, skill,
skilless; full, fully; and some writers, before ness and
ful; as, fulness, skilful.

34. But words ending in any other double letter,
preserve the letter double before less, ly, ness, and ful ;
as, harmlessly, stiffly, gruffhess, etc.

RULE v.

35. Words ending in y preceded by a consonant,
change y into i before an additional letter or syllable ;
as, spy, spies ; happy, happier, happiest ; carry, carrier,
carried ; fancy, fanciful.

Exc. 1. But y is not changed before ing; as, deny, denying.

Exc. 2. Words ending in y preceded by a vowel, retain the y
unchanged-, as, boy, boys, boyish, boyhood. But lay, pay, say,
make laid, paid, said; and day makes daily.

RULE VI.

36. Silent e is preserved before the terminations,
ment, less, ly, and ful; as, paleness, peaceful, abate-
ment, &c.

*The words referred to are the following : Apparel, bevel, bowel, cancel, carol,
cavil, channel, chisel, counsel, cudgel, dishevel, drivel, duel, embowel, enamel,
empannel, equal, gambol, gravel, grovel, handsel, hatchel, imperil, jewel, kennel,
label, level, libel, marshal, marvel, model, panel, parcel, pencil, peril, pistol,
pommel, quarrel, ravel, revel, rival, rowel, shovel, shrivel, snivel, tassel, tram*
wel, travel, tiumel, unravel.

6 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 2

Exceptions. Duly, truly, awtful, and generally, judgment, ac-
knowledgment, lodgment, abridgment, are excepted. Argument,
from the Latin argumentum, is not an exception.

RULE VII.

37. Silent e is omitted before terminations beginning
with a vowel; as, slave, slavish; cure, curable ; sense

sensible ; lodge, lodging ; love, lovest,

38. Blame, move, reprove, sale, and their compounds, some
times, though improperly, retain c before able; as, blameable, etc.

39. But words ending in ge and ce retain e before able, in order
to preserve the soft sound of g and c; as, changeable, peaceable,
etc. For the same reason, we have singeing and swingeing. Dye
has dyeing, to distinguish it from dying. So also words ending
with c hard, insert k before a syllable beginning with e or i, to
preserve the hard sound-, as, frolic, frolicked, frolicking.

40. The letters ie, at the end of a word, are changed into v
before ing; as, die, dying; lie, lying.

RULE VIII.

41. Simple words ending in II, when joined to other
words, generally drop one I when they lose the accent ;
as, awful, hopeful, handful, careful, aheady.

42. But when they are under the accent, the double
I should be retained; as, fulfill, willful, recall, foretell.
But until, welcome, always, also, withal, therewithal,
wherewithal, have single I.

43. On the subject of this rule, however, usage is far from
uniform: falfil and fulfill, wilful and willful, recal and recall,
foretel and foretell, and similar varieties are common.

44. Other compounded words are generally spelled in the same
manner as the simple words of which they are formed 5 as, glass-
house, mill-wright, thereby.

45. Many words in English admit of two or- more different
modes of spelling-, as, connection, connexion; enquire, inquire;
themistry, chymistry, etc. In such cases, prevailing usage and
analogy must fee our guides.

ETYMOLOGY.

PART SECOND.

3. ETYMOLOGY.

46. ETYMOLOGY treats of the different sorts of
words, their various modifications, and their de-
rivations.

47. WORDS are certain articulate sounds used
by common consent as signs of our ideas.

1st. Words, in respect of their Formation, are
either Primitive or Derivative, Simple or Compound.

A Primitive word is one that is not derived from any other
word in the language-, as, boy, just, father.

A Derivative word is one that is derived from some other word $
as, boyish, justice, fatherly.

A Simple word is one that is not combined with any other
word-, as, man, house, city.

A Compound word is one that is made up of two or more simple
words-, as, manhood, horseman.

2d. Words, in respect of Form, are either De-
clinable or Indeclinable.

A Declinable word is one which undergoes certain changes of
form or termination, to express the different relations of gender,
numher, case, person, etc., which in Grammar are usually called
ACCIDENTS-, as, man, men; love, loves, loved.

An Indeclinable word is one which undergoes no change of
form-, as, good, some, perhaps.

3d. In respect of Signification and Use, words
are divided into different classes, called Parts cf
S-peecli,

& ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 4, 5

4. PARTS OF SPEECH.

48. The Parts of Speech in the English language
are nine ; viz., The Noun or Substantive, Article,
Adjective, Pronoun, Verb, Adverb, Preposition,
Interjection, and Conjunction. App. II.

49. Of these, the Noun, Pronoun^ and Verb, are
declined ; the rest are indeclinable.

50. NOTE. A noun is called also a substantive. But this term,
for convenience, is here used in a more comprehensive sense, to
mean a noun, a pronoun, an infinitive mood, or a phrase used as a
noun, and usually called u a substantive phrase." Thus in such
a rule as this, u An adjective agrees with a substantive," etc., the
word substantive may mean a noun, a pronoun, an infinitive
mood, or a substantive phrase.

51. PARSING is the art of resolving a sentence
into its elements or parts of speech, stating the
accidents or grammatical properties of each word,
and pointing out its relation to other words with
which it is connected.

52. Parsing is distinguished into Etymological and Syntactical.

53. A word is parsed Etymologically by stating the class of
words to which it belongs, with its accidents or grammatical
properties.

54. A word is parsed Syntactically by stating, in addition, the
relation in which it stands to other words, and the rules according
to which they are combined in phrases and sentences.

5. NOUNS.

55. A NOUN is the name of any person, place, or
thing ; as, John, London, book. App. III.

56. NOUNS are of two kinds, Proper and Common

6 ETYMOLOGY. 9

57. A Proper Noun is the name applied to an in-
dividual only ; as, Albany, Washington, the Hudson,

58. A Common Noun is a name applied to all
things of the same sort ; as, man, chair, table, book.

59. REMARK.. Proper nouns distinguish individuals of the same
cl-dss from one another. Common nouns distinguish sorts or classeg t
and are equally applicable to all things of the same class.

60. OBSERVATIONS.

1. Proper nouns denoting persons, usually become common by
having an article prefixed-, as, u He is the Cicero of his age."

2. Common nouns become proper when personified, and also
when used as proper names , as, Hail Liberty! The Park.

3. Under common nouns are usually ranked,

1st. Collective nouns^ or nouns of multitude, which signify

many in the singular number-, as, army, people.

2d. Abstract nouns, o* names of qualities ; as, piety , wickedness,
3d. Verbal nouns, 01 the names of actions, or states of being,

as, reading, writing, steeping. (195.)

ACCIDENTS OF THE NOUN.

61. To NOUNS belong Person, Gender, Number,
and Case.

6. PERSON.

62. PERSON, in grammar, is the relation of a noun
or pronoun to whai is said in discourse. There are
three persons ; the first, second, and third. App. IV.

63. A noun is in the first person, when it denotes the
speaker or writer; as, " I Paul have written it."

64. A noun is in the second person, when it denotes
the person or thing addressed ; as, " Thou, God, seest
me." " Hail, Liberty ! "

65. A noun is in the third person, when it denotes
the person or thing spoken of; as, "Truth is mighty."

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

7. GENDER.

66. GENDER is the distinction of nouns with
regard to Sex. There are three genders, the Mas-
culine, Feminine, and Neuter. App. V.

67. Nouns denoting males are Masculine ; as,
man, boy.

68. Nouns denoting females are Feminine ; as,
woman, girl.

69. Nouns denoting neither males nor females
are Neuter ; as, book, house, field.

70. There are three ways of distinguishing the sexes:

1. By different words ; as,

Male.

Female.

Male.

Female

Bachelor

maid

Horse

marc

Beau

belle

Husband

wife

Boy

girl

King

queer;

Brother

sister

Lord

lady

Buck

doe

Man

woman

Bull

cow

Master

mistress

Drake

duck

Nephew

niece

Earl

countess

Ram, buck

ewe

Father

mother

Son

daughter

Friar

nun

Stag

hind

Gander

goose

Uncle

aunt

Hart

roe

Wizzard

witch

2. By a difference

of termination; as,

Abbot

abbess

Bridegroom

bride

Actor

actress

Benefactor

benefactress

Administrator

administratrix

Count

countess

Adulterer

adulteress

Deacon

deaconess

Ambassador

ambassadress

Duke

duchess

Arbiter

arbitress

Elector

electress

Author (often)

authoress

Emperor

empress

Baron

baroness

Enchanter

enchantress

ETYMOLOGY.

Male.
.Executor
Governor
Heir
Hero
Hunter
Host
Jew

Landgrave
Lion
Marquis
Mayor
Patron
Peer
Poet
Priest

Female.

executrix

governess

heiress

heroine

huntress

hostess

Jewess

landgravine

lioness

marchioness

mayoress

patroness

peeress

poetess

priestess

3. By prefixing a

A cock sparrow.
A he goat.
A man servant.
A male child.
Male descendants.

Male.
Prince
Prior
Prophet
Protector
Shepherd
Songster
Sorcerer

Sultan

Tiger

Traitor

Tutor

Viscount

Votary

Widower

Female.

princess

prioress

prophetess

protectress

shepherdess

songstress

sorceress
(sultana, or sul*
( taness

tigress

traitress

tutoress

viscountess

votaress

widow

distinguishing word; as.

A hen sparrow.
A she goat.
A maid servant.
A female child.
Female descendants.

71. OBSERVATIONS ON GENDER.

1. Some nouns are either masculine or feminine; such as
parent, child, cousin, infant, servant, neighbor. Such are some-
times said to be of the common gender.

2. Some nouns naturally neuter are converted by a figure of
speech into the masculine or feminine -, as when we say of the sun,
He is setting-, of the moon, She is eclipsed 5 and of a ship, She sails.

3. In speaking of animals whose sex is not known to us, or
not regarded, we assign the masculine gender to those distinguished
for boldness, fidelity, generosity, size, strength, etc., as the dog,
the horse, the elephant. Thus we say, u The dog is remarkably
various in his species." On the other hand, we assign the femi-
nine gender to animals characterized by weakness and timidity j
as, the hare, the cat, etc., thus, " The cat, as she beholds th
light, draws the ball of her eye small and long."

VSR :-!

1:2 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 8

4. In speaking of animals, particularly those of inferior size,
we frequently consider them devoid of sex. Thus, of an infant,
we say, " It is a lovely creature-," of a cat, "It is cruel to itt
enemy."

5. When the male and the female are expressed by distinct
terms, as, shepherd, shepherdess, the masculine term has sometimes
also a general meaning, expressing both male and female ; and is
always to be used when the office, occupation, or profession ; and
not the sex of the individual, is chiefly to be expressed. The
feminine term is used only when the discrimination of sex is
indispensably necessary. Thus, when it is said "the Poets of
this country are distinguished for correctness of taste," the term

1 Poet " clearly includes both male and female writers of poetry

8. NUMBER.

72. NUMBER is that property of a noun by which
it expresses one, or more than one. Nouns have
two numbers, the Singular and the Plural. The
Singular denotes one ; the Plural, more than one.

GENERAL RULE.

73. The plural is commonly formed by adding
tf to the singular ; as, book, books.

SPECIAL RULES.

1. Nouns in s, sh, ch soft, z, x, or o, form the plural
by adding es ; as, Miss, Misses ; brush, brushes; match,
matches ; fox, foxes ; hero, heroes.

Exc. Nouns in eo, to and yo, and in ch sounding &, have * only}
as, cameo, cameos-, monarch, monarchs. Also canto has cantos 5
but other nouns in o after a consonant now commonly add es; as,
grotto, grottoes-, tyro, tyroes.

2. Nouns in y after a consonant, change y into ies in
the plural ; as, lady, ladies.

$ 9. ETYMOLOGY. 13

Nouns in y after a vowel, follow the general rule;
as, day, days. (35. Exc. 2.)

3. Nouns in / or fe, change / or fe into ves in the
plural; as, loaf, loaves; life, lives.

Exc. Dwarf, scarf, wharf; brief, chief, grief-, kerchief, hand-
kerchief, mischief; gulf, turf, surf; fife, strife; proof, hoof, roof,
reproof, follow the general rule. Also nouns inff have their
plural in */ as, muff, muffs; except staff : , which has sometimes
ttaves; so wharf, wharves.

EXERCISES ON NUMBER.

Give the plural, and the rule for forming it, of Fox,
book, leaf, candle, hat, loaf, wish, fish, sex, box, coach,
inch, sky, bounty, army, duty, knife, echo, loss, cargo,
wife, story, church, table, glass, study, calf, branch,
street, potato, peach, sheaf, booby, rock, stone, house,
glory, hope, flower, city, difficulty, distress, wolf.

Day, bay, relay, chimney, journey, valley, needle,
enemy, army, vale, ant, voile} 7 , hill, sea, key, toy,
monarch, tyro, grotto, nuncio, punctilio, embryo, gulf
handkerchief, hoof, staff, muff, cliff, whiff,' cuff, ruff.

Of what number is Book, trees, plant, shrub, globes,
hills, river, scenes, stars, planets, toys, home, fancy,
mosses, glass, state, foxes, house, prints, spoon, bears,
lilies, roses, churches, glove, silk, skies, berries, peach?

9. NOUNS IRREGULAR IN THE PLURAL.

74. Some nouns are irregular in the formation of their plural; v

Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural,

Man men Tooth teeth

Woman women Goose geese

Child children Mouse mice

Foot feet Louse lice

Ox oxen

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

*75. Some nouns have both a regular and irregular
form of the plural, but with different significations ; as,

Singular. Plural.

Brother (one of the same family) orothers

Brother (one of the same society) brethren

Sow (an individual animal) sows

Sow or swine (the species) swine

Die (a small cube for gaming) dice

Die (a stamp for coining) dies

Index (a table of reference) indexes

Index (a character in algebra) indices

Penny (a coin) pennies

Penny (a sum or value) pence

76. Some compounds pluralize the first word ; as,

Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural.

Aid-de-camp aids-de-camp Cousin-german cousins-germau
Court-martial courts-martial Father-in-law fathers-in-law

77. Words from foreign languages sometimes retain their ori-
ginal plural. As a general rule, nouns in um or on have a in the
plural ; but those in is in the singular, change it into es in the*
plural. The following are the most common, of which some also
have a regular English plural-, these are marked R:

Singular.

Plural.

Singular. Plural.

Animalculum

animalcula R

Genus genera

Antithesis

antitheses

Genius (a spirit)genii

Apex

apices

Hypothesis hypotheses

Appendix

appendices R

Ignis fatuus ignes fatui

Arcanum

arcana

Lamina laminae

Automaton

automata R

Magus magi

Axis

axes

Memorandum memoranda

Basis

bases

Metamorphosis metamorphose*

Cherub

cherubim R

Monsieur messieurs

Crisis

crises

Phenomenon phenomena

Criterion

criteria

Radius radii

Datum

data

Stamen stamina R

Desideratum

desiderata

Seraph seraphim R

Effluvium

effluvia

Stimulus stimuli

Ellipsis

ellipses

Stratum strata

Emphasis

emphases

Vortex vortices

Encomium

encomia R

Virtuoso virtuosi

Erratum

errata

Mr (master) Messrs (me*

Focus

foci

sieurs)

10. ETYMOLOGY. 15

78. 10. OBSERVATIONS ON NUMBER.

1. Proper names have the plural, only when they refer to a
race or family, as, the Stuarts, the Campbells; or to several
persons of the same name-, as, the twelve Casars, the two Mr.
Bdls , the two Miss Browns. But without the numeral, or in
addressing letters in which both or all are equally concerned, and
also when the names are different, we pluralize the title-, as
Misses Brown, Messrs. Webster and Skinner. ( 60, Rem. 1, 2.)

2. Names of metals, virtues, vices, and things that are weighed
or measured, are for the most part confined to the singular num.
her-, as, gold, meekness, temperance, bread, beer, beef, etc. Except
when different sorts are meant; as wines, teas, etc.

3. Some nouns are used in the plural only-, such as annals
antipodes, literati, credenda, minutics, banditti, data; and things
consisting of two parts, as bellows, scissors, pliers, tongs, lungs %
etc. ; or of more than two, as ashes, embers, entrails, clothes,etc.

NOTE. For the singular of literati, the expression "one oftht
literati" is used-, and bandit is used as the singular of banditti.

4. Some nouns are alike in both numbers; as hose, deer, shcep t
swine, trout, salmon, tench; apparatus, hiatus, series, species,
brace, dozen, head, couple, score, pair, hundred, thousand, etc.

NOTE. Brace, dozen, etc., have sometimes a plural form; as,
He bought partridges in braces, and books in scores and dozens.
Cannon, shot, and sail, are used in a plural sense. Foot, horse %
infantry, and sometimes cavalry, meaning bodies of foot, etc., are
%>nstrued with a plural verb. The singular of sheep, deer, etc.,
is distinguished by the article a; as, a sheep, a deer.

5. Some words are plural in form, but in construction either
singular or plural ; such as amends, means, riches, pains; and the
names of certain sciences, as mathematics, metaphysics, ethics
politics, optics, etc.

NOTE. Means, when it points out the instrumentality of one
agent, is construed as singular-, of more than one, as plural
Mean, in the singular form, is commonly used to signify a mid-
die between two extremes. News is now generally construed in
the singular number, dims (celmesse, Ang. Sax.), riches (richesse,
Fr.) are really singular, though now used commonly in a plural
sense. Thanks is considered a plural noun, though used to de-
note one expression of gratitude

16 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 11

EXERCISES ON IRREGULAK NOUNS AND OBSERVATIONS, etc.

Give the plural of Man, foot, penny, mouse, ox,
child, father-in-law, son-in-law, brother; erratum, ra-
dius, lamina, automaton, phenomenon, stratum, axis,
ellipsis, stamen, index, cherub, seraph.

Of what number is Dice, arcana, fishermen, geese,
dormice, alms, riches, thanks, snuffers, tongs, teeth,
woman, child, court-martial, apparatus, minutiae, genii,
geniuses, indices, indexes, mathematics, Matthew, John,
James?

11. CASES OF NOUNS.

79. CASE is the state or condition of a noun with
respect to the other words in a sentence. App. VI.

80. Nouns have three cases; viz.,the Nominative,
Possessive, and Objective.

81. The Nominative case commonly expresses that of which
something is said or declared-, as, the sun shines. See ( 80.)

82. The Possessive denotes possession; as, the lady's fan. Also
origin or fitness; as, the sun's rays, men's shoes.

83. The Objective denotes the object of some action or relation;
as, James assists Thomas; they live in London.

84. The nominative and objective are alike. ^

85. The possessive singular is formed by adding an apostrophe
( ' ) and s to the nominative-, as, John's.

86. When the plural ends in *, the possessive is formed by
adding an apostrophe only.

87. NOUNS ARE THUS DECLINED!

Singular. Plural. Singular, Plural.

Nom. Lady Ladies John

Poss. Lady's Ladies' John's

Obj. Lady Ladies John

Proper names generally want the plural. See 78 1

11 ETYMOLOGY. 17

88. OBSERVATIONS ON THE POSSESSIVE.

1. The apostrophe and s ('5) are an abbreviation for is or es, the
termination of the old English genitive ; thus, " the king's crown
was anciently written, u the kingis crown."

2. When the nominative singular ends in ss, or in letters of
similar sound, the s after the apostrophe is sometimes omitted, in
order to avoid too close a succession of hissing sounds; as, " for
goodness' sake-," u for conscience' sake." This, however, is sel-
dom done, unless the word following the possessive begins with
*: thus, we do not say, "the prince 1 feather;" but, "the prince's
feather." (See An. Gr. 175).

3. The relation expressed by the possessive case, is in general
the same with that expressed by the word of; thus, u the rage
of the tyrant," "the death of the prince," are equivalent to u th
tyrant's rage," " the prince's death." Hence when the use oi
the possessive would appear stiff, it is better to use the preposition
of, or some equivalent expression instead of it-, as " the satellites
of Jupiter," " the length of the day," " the garden wall," for
" Jupiter's satellites," " the day's length," " the garden's wall."
Sometimes, however, the idea expressed by the preposition of,
with the objective, is different from that expressed by the posses-
sive-, thus, " a picture of the king," and " the king's picture,"
express different ideas; the first means u a. portrait of the king,"
the last, " a picture belonging to the king."

PARSING THE NOUN.

89. A noun is parsed etymologically (53) by stating its acci-
dents, or grammatical properties ; thus, Father, a noun, masctp
line, in the nominative singular. App. IV.

In this way parse all the nouns in the following exercise.

EXERCISES ON GENDER, NUMBER AND CASE.*

Father, brothers, mother's, boys, book, loaf, arms,
wife, hats, sisters', bride's, bottles, brush, goose, eagles'
wings, echo, ox's horn, mouse, kings, queens, bread
child's toy, grass, tooth, tongs, candle, chair, Jane's
boots, Robert's shoe, horse, bridle.

* Note. In the use of these exercises, it will save much time, which is verj

IS ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 12.

12. THE ARTICLE.

90. An ARTICLE is a word put before a noun, to
show the manner in which it is used. App. VII.

91. There are two articles; a or an, and the.

92. A or an is called the Indefinite Article, be-
cause it shews that the noun is not limited to a
particular person or thing; as, a king; that is,
any king.

93. The is 'called the Definite Article, because
it shews that the noun is limited to a particular
person or thing ; as, the king ; i. e. some particular
king.

94. A noun without an article, is taken in its
widest sense ; as, Man is mortal, i. e. All mankind:
Or, in an indefinite sense ; as, There are men de-
stitute of all shame, i. e. some men ( 81).

A noun with the before it, sometimes denotes the species; as,
the oak, the lion.

95. A is used before a consonant ; as, a look.

96. An is used before a vowel, or silent h ; as, an
age, an hour. But

97. ^,and not an, is used before u long, and the diphthong ew,
because these letters have, combined with their sound, the power
of initial y; thus, a unit, a use, a eulogy. On the other hand,
an is used before words beginning with h sounded, when the
accent is on the second syllable; as, an heroic action, an historical
account', because the h in such words is but slightly sounded.

important in a large school, if the pupil be taught to express all that is necessary
in parsing these or other words, in as few words as possible, and always in the
tame order, thus: Father, a noun, masculine, in the nominative singular.
Mother's, a noun, feminine, in the possessive singular. It will also be a profitable
txercise for him to assign a reason for every part of his description, thus : lather,
& noun, because the name of an object; masculine, because it denotes the malt
sex; singular, because it denotes but one; plural, fathers Rule, "The plural is
eommonly formed by adding $ to the singular n

13. ETYMOLOGY. J9

PARSING, An article is parsed by stating whether definite or
indefinite, and to what noun it belongs.

EXERCISES ON THE ARTICLES.

Prefix the indefinite article to the words, river, hope ?
army, hermit, infant, uncle, humor, usurper, hostler,
wish, youth, umbrage, oyster, herb, thought, honor,
elephant, husband.

Correct what follows, and give a reason for the change,
A inkstand, an handful, a article, a humble man, an
ewe, a anchor, an useful book, an history, an humorous
tale, an hedge, an union.

13. THE ADJECTIVE.

98. An ADJECTIVE is a word used to qualify a
noun or substantive ; as, a good boy ; a square box ;
ten dollars. App. VTIL

99. NOTE. A noun is qualified by an adjective when the object
named is thereby described , limited or distinguished from other
things of the same name.

100. An adjective in the predicate may qualify a pronoun, an
infinitive mood, or substantive clause; as, He is poor. To play is
pleasant. That the rich are happy, is not always ttue.

101. Nouns become adjectives when they are used to express
the quality of other nouns -, as, gold ring, silver cup, sea water.

102. On the contrary, adjectives are often used as nouns; as,
14 God rewards the good, and punishes the bad." " The virtuous
are the most happy." Adjectives thus used are usually preceded
by the definite article ; and when appbed to persons, are considered
plural. ( 40, Rule vn.)

103. Adjectives which express number, are called Numeral
adjectives. They are of two kinds, Cardinal and Ordinal. . The
Cardinal answer the question u how many?" and are one, /wo,
three, four, five, six, etc. The ordinal answer the question,
11 which of the number!" They are first, second, third, fourth.
etc. In compound numbers, the last only has the cardinal form?
es N thirty-second/ three hundred and forty-third.

20 ENtJLISH GRAMMAR. 13.

14. COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES.

104. ADJECTIVES have three degrees of com-
parison ; namely, the Positive, Comparative, and '
Superlative. App. IX.

105. The Positive expresses the quality simply; the Compara-
tive asserts it in a higher or lower degree in one object than in
another: and the Superlative, in the highest or lowest degree
compared with several-, thus. Gold is heavier than silver 5 it is
the most precious of the metals.

106. In adjectives of one syllable, the Compara-
tive is formed by adding -er to the Positive ; and
the Superlative, by adding -est ; as, sweet, sweeter*
sweetest.

107. Adjectives of more than one syllable are
compared by prefixing more and most to the posi-
tive ; as, numerous, more numerous, most numerous.

108. OBSERVATIONS.

1. Dissyllables in le after a mute, are generally compared by
cr and est: as, able, abler , ablest (37, R. vn). Dissyllables in y
change y into i before -er and -est; as, happy, happier, happiest.
But y with a vowel before it, is not changed 5 as, gay, gaycr^
gayest (35. Exc. 2).

2. Some adjectives form the superlative by adding most to the
end of the word 5 as, upper, uppermost. So, undermost, foremost^
hindmost, utmost.

3. When the positive ends in a simple consonant, preceded by
a single vowel, the consonant is doubled before er and est; as, hot y
letter, hottest (31. Rule in).

4. Some adjectives do not admit of comparison, viz:

1. Such as denote number; as, one, two; third, fourth.

2. -figure or shape; as, circular, square.

3. posture or position; as, perpendicular.

4. Those of an absolute or superlative signification', as, trwc
perfect, universal, chief, extreme, etc ( 72. Obs )

13. ETYMOLOGY. 21

REMARK. Of these last, however, comparative and superlative
forms are sometimes used by the best writers as, " The extremest
of evils." Bacon. " The chief est of the herdsmen." Bible.

5. Such adjectives as superior, inferior, exterior, interior, etc.,
though they involve the idea of comparison, are not to be con
sidered as in the comparative degree, any more than such adjec-
tives as preferable, previous, etc. They neither have the form
f the comparative, nor are they ever construed with than aftei
tnem, as comparatives in English commonly are. (See Syntax
$ 71, Rule xxii).

6. The superlative degree implying comparison, is usually
preceded by the definite article. When preceded by the indefinite
article, it does not imply comparison, but eminence; as, " He is a
most distinguished man." The same thing nearly is expressed by
prefixing the adverb very, exceedingly and the like which is some-
times called the superlative of eminence.

7. Without implying comparison, the signification of the positive
is sometimes lessened by the termination ish; as, white, whitish,
black, blackish. These may properly be called diminutive adjec-
tives. The adverb rather, expresses a small degree of the quality}
as, rather little.

109. ADJECTIVES COMPARED IRREGULARI.V

Positive. Comparative. Superlative

Good better best

Bad, evil or ill worse worst

Little less least

Much or many more most

Late later latest or last

Near nearer nearest or next

Far farther farthest

Fore former foremost or first

Old older or elder oldest or eldest

OBS. Much is applied to things weighed or measured; many, to
those that are numbered. Elder and eldest are applied to persgn*
only ; older and oldest, to either persons or things.

22 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. $ 15

EXERCISES.

Of what degree of comparison is Sweet, kinder,
warmest, prompt, firmest, bright, high, cold, nobler,
broader, bravest, more pleasant, most desirable, softer ?

Compare Great, small, rough, smooth, happy, noble,
gay, good, little, much, worthless, ambitious, old, young.

110. PARSING. An adjective is parsed by stating its degree
comparing it (if compared), and the noun which it qualifies; thus,
A good man. Good is an adjective, positive degree, compared ir-
regularly, good, better, best, and qualifies man.

EXERCISES ON THE ARTICLE, NOUN, AND ADJECTIVE.

Distinguish and parse as directed all the words in tins exercise :

A good man; a kind heart; a clear sky; the bene-
volent lady ; the highest hill ; a skilful artist ; an older
companion ; man's chief concern ; a lady's lapdog ; most
splendid talents; the liveliest disposition; a pleasant
temper ; the raging billows ; temples magnificent ; silent
shades ; excellent weather ; a loftier tower.

15. PRONOUNS.

111. A PRONOUN is a word used instead of a
noun ; as, John is a good boy ; he is diligent in his
studies. App. X.

112. Pronouns may oe divided into four classes ;
Personal, Relative, Interrogative, and Adjective.

113. The personal pronouns are, /, thou, he, she,
it. They are thus declined

SINGULAR. .

PLURAL.

Nom.

Poss.

Obj.

Nom.

Poss.

' t

M. or

mine

ours

M. or

Thou

thine

thee

You, (ye) yours

you

Masc.

his

him

They

theirs

them

Fern.

She

hers

her

They

theirs

them

Neut.

its

They

theirs

them

15 ETYMOLOGY. 23

114. OBSERVATIONS ON PERSONAL PRONOUNS.

1. /is of the first person, and denotes the speaker.
Thou is of the second, and denotes the person spoken to.
He, she, and it, are of the third person, and denote the
person or thing spoken of. So also of their plurals,
we, you (ye), they.

2. Myself, thyself, himself, herself, itself, with their
plurals ourselves, yourselves, themselves, may be called
Compound personal pronouns. They are used in the
nominative and the objective case. In the nominative
they are emphatic, and are added to their respective
personal pronouns, or are used instead of them; as,
" 1 myself did it;" " himself shall come." In the ob-
jective, they are rejlexive, showing that the agent is
also the object of his own act; as, "Judas went and
hanged himself.' 9

3. In proclamations, charters, editorial articles, and the like,
we is frequently applied to one person.

4. In addressing persons, you is commonly. put both for the
singular and the plural, and has always a plural verb. Thou is
used only in addresses to the Deity, or any important object in
nature-, or to mark special emphasis, or, in the language of con-
tempt. The plural form ye is now but seldom used. (App. XI.)

5. The pronoun it, besides its use as the neuter pronoun of the
third person, is also used indefinitely with the verb to be in the
third person singular, for all genders, numbers, and persons; as,
It is I, it is we, it is you, it is they; It was she, etc.

6. Hers, its, ours, yours, theirs, should never be written Aer'*,
ftV, owr's. your's, theirs.

PARSING PERSONAL PRONOUNS.
K.5. The personal pronouns may be parsed briefly thus: /, the
first personal pronoun, masculine (or feminine), in the nominative
singular. His, the third personal pronoun, masculine, in the pos-
sessive singular.

24 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 16

EXERCISES ON PERSONAL PRONOUNS.

Parse the following as directed above: I, thou. we,
me, us, thine, he, him, she, hers, they, thee, them, its,
theirs, you, her, ours, yours, mine, his, I, me, them, us.

16. RELATIVE PRONOUNS.

1 16. A RELATIVE Pronoun is a word that relates
to, and connects its clause with, a noun or pronoun
before it, called the antecedent ; as, " The master
who taught us.*'

117. The relative pronouns are who, which, that^
and what (App. XII). They are alike in both num-
bers. That and what are indeclinable, and used
only in the nominative and objective. JVho and
which are thus declined.

Sing, and Plur. Sing, and Plur.

Norn. Who, Which.

Poss. Whose, Whose.

Obj. Whom, Which.

118. Who is applied to persons ; as, "The boy
who reads.''

OBS. Also to inferior animals, and things without life, when
they are represented as speaking and acting like rational beings.

119. Which is applied to inferior animals and
things without life ; as, " The dog which barks ;"
" The book which was lost."

NOTE. Which is applied also to collective nouns expressing many
persons as one whole ; as, " The court of Spain which ;" " the com-
pany which." And likewise after the name of a person used
merely as a word ; as, " The court of Queen Elizabeth, which was
but another name for prudence and economy."

Wliich was formerly applied to persons as well as thinga. and if
so used in the common version of the Scriptures.

16. ETYMOLOGY. 25

120. That is often used as a relative, to prevent
the too frequent repetition of who or which. It is
applied both to persons and things. 58, Rem. 3.

121. What is applied to things only, and is never
used but when the antecedent is omitted ; as, " This
is what I wanted,"=the thing which I wanted. XIII

122. OBSERVATIONS ON THE RELATIVE.

1. Which has for its possessive whose; as, A religion whost
origin is divine. Instead of whose, however, the objective with
of before it, is more commonly used ; as, A religion the origin oj
which is divine.

2. What and which are sometimes used as adjectives-, that is,
they agree with a substantive following them-, as, "I know not
by what fatality the adversaries of the measure are impelled-,' 1
Which things are an allegory." In this sense, which applies eithei
to persons or things, and in meaning is equivalent to this or these.

3. Whoever, whosoever, whatever and whatsoever are also used as
compound relatives, and are equivalent to the relative and a gene-
ral or indefinite antecedent-, as, "Whosoever committeth sin is
the servant of sin-,*' that is u any one" or " every one who com-
mitteth sin, etc. " " Whatsoever things are of good report-," i. e.
u Ml things (without exception) which are of good report" ( 59,
Rule in; 63, 8).

4. Who, and also which, and what without a substantive fol-
lowing them, in responsive sentences, or in sentences similarly
constructed, are properly neither relatives nor adjectives, but a
kind of indefinite pronouns. Thus, when to the question ; ' Who
is the author of that poem?" it is replied, " I do not know who is
its author," the word " who" is evidently not a relative-, for if it
were, then, with the antecedent supplied, the sentence would be
u I do not know the person who is its author." These two
sentences, however, are clearly not equivalent -, the former means
11 I do rjot know by what person it was written-," the latter, " I
have nc knowledge of him, I am not acquainted with him." Th*
3

'2G ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 17

first is a direct answer to the question, the last is no answer a
all, but would be considered as an evasion.

123. PARSING. The relative is parsed by stating its gender,
number, and case, thus-, " The boy who reads," Who, a relative
pronoun, masculine, in the nominative singular, and refers to boy,
as its antecedent.

NOTE. The gender and number of the relative, are always the
same as those of the antecedent.

17. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS.

124. In asking questions, who, which, and what
are called INTERROGATIVE pronouns.

125. As interrogatives, who is applied to persons
only ; which and what , either to persons or things-
What admits of no variation.

OBSERVATIONS.

126. Obs. 1. In the use of the interrogatives as applied to per-
sons, the following distinction is to be observed 5 namely, Who
is used when we inquire after a person or persons unknown -, as,
Who did it? Which is used when w r e inquire after one or more
of a number present, or already spoken of-, as, Which of thein
did it? Which of these men is the president? What is used
when the character, or a description of a person is inquired after,
and not the name or the individual merely, as, What is he?

127. Obs. 2. When a denning term is added, either what or
which may be used-, as, What man, or which man among you?

128. Obs. 3. Whether (now used as a conjunction only) wa>
formerly used as an interrogative pronoun, equivalent to which
of the two? as, u Whether is greater, the gold, or the temple ?"
Its place is now supplied by which.

129. Obs. 4. In answers to questions made by these interroga-
tives, the same words are used as responsive s ; as, Who did it 1
I know not who did it, Which of them did it? I know not which
of them did it (See 16, Obs. 4).

18 ETYMOLOGY. 27

* 18. ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS.

130. ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS are words used
sometimes like adjectives to qualify a noun, and
sometimes like pronouns to stand instead of nouns.

131. Adjective pronouns are divided into four
classes ; namely, Possessive, Dijtoributive, Demon-
strative, and Indefinite.

132. The Possessive pronouns are such as de-
note possession. They are My, thy, his, lier, our,
your, their, its own.

133. OBS. 1. The possessive pronoun is in fact only another form
of the possessive case of the personal pronoun, having the same
meaning but a different construction. The possessive pronoun,
like the adjective, is always followed by a substantive , as, This is
my book. The possessive case of the personal pronoun is never
followed by a substantive, but refers to one previously expressed ;
as, this book is mine. The possessive case of the substantive is
used both ways 5 as this book is John's; or, this is John's book.
(App. xiv.)

134. OBS. 2. His and her when followed by a substantive are
possessive pronouns 5 not followed by a substantive, his is the
possessive case of he; and her is the objective case of she.

135. OBS. 3. Mine and thine were formerly used, before a vowel
or the letter A, as possessives for my and thy,- as, "Blot out all
mine iniquities-," "Commune with thine heart."

136. OBS. 4. Own is not used as a possessive pronoun by itself,
but is added to the other possessive pronouns, and to the possessive
case of nouns, to render them emphatic ; as, My own book ; The
boy's own book. The possessive pronoun with own following it,
may stand alone, having its substantive understood; as, It is my
own.

137. The distributive pronouns represent objects
as taken separately. They are Each, every, either f
neither.

28 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 18

138. OBS. 1. Each denotes two things taken separately; or every
one of any number taken singly. Every denotes more than two
things taken individually, and comprehends them all Either means
one of two, but not both. Neither means not either. Each other
applies to two ; one another, to more than two.

139. The demonstrative pronouns point out ob-
jects definitely. They are, This and that, with
their plurals thej* and those.

140. OBS. 1. Ton, and former and latter, may be called demon-
strative pronouns, as well as this and that .

141. OBS. 2. That is sometimes a relative, sometimes a cfe-
monstrative, and sometimes a conjunction.

1. It is a relative, when it can be turned into who or which; as,
The days that (or which) are past, are gone forever.

2. It is a demonstrative, when it is placed before a noun, or
refers to one at some distance from it 5 as, That book is new;
that is what I want.

3. It is a conjunction when it can not be changed into who or
which, but marks a consequence, an indication, or final end; as,
He was so proud, that he was universally despised : He answered,
that he never was so happy as now. Live well, that you may to
happy.

142. The indefinite pronouns denote persons or
things indefinitely. They are, None, any, all, siich,
whole, some, both, one, other. The two last are
declined like nouns.

143. Among the indefinites may also be reckoned such words as,
no, few, many, several, and the like , as well as the compounds,
whoever, whatever, whichsoever, etc., and who, which, and what, in
responsive sentences( 16, Obs. 4). *

144. None is used in both numbers, but it can not be joined tc
a noun. (App. xrv.)

145. PARSING ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS.

Adjective Pronouns are parsed by stating the class to which
hey belong and the word which they qualify, thus, " My book. 51
Jfy, a possessive adjective pronoun, qualifying book.

$ 18. ETYMOLOGY. 29

PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES ON NOUNS, etc.

Distinguish and parse etymologic-ally tlie words in the following exercises, at
previously directed.

A man, he, who, which, that, his, me, mine, thine,
whose, they, hers, it, we, us, I, him, its, horse, mare,
master, thou, theirs, thee, you, my, thy, our, your, their,
his, her; this, these; that, those; each, every, other
any, none, bride, daughter, uncle, wife's, sir, girl, madam,
box, dog, lad; a gay lady; sweet apples; strong bulls;
fat oxen ; a mountainous country.

Compare Rich, merry, furious, covetous, large, little,
good, bad, near, wretched, rigorous, delightful, sprightly,
spacious, splendid, gay, imprudent, pretty.

The human mind; cold water; he, thou, she, it;
woody mountains; the naked rock; youthful jollity;
goodness divine; justice severe; this, thy, others, one;
a peevish boy; hers, their strokes; pretty girls; his
rapid flight; her delicate cheeks; a man who; tho
sun that ; a bird which ; himself, themselves, itself; that
house; these books.

Correct The person which waited on us yesterday.
The horse who rode down the man. The dog who
was chained at the door. Those sort of trees. These
kind of persons. The angel which appeared to Moses.
The boys which learned their lessons so well. The
sun who shines so bright. Those kind of amusements.
The woman which told me the story. The messenger
which carried the letter. The court who sat last week.
The member which spoke last. I have brought three
books, you may take either of them, or neither of them.
There were twenty men, each with a spear; but nei-
ther of them was fully armed.

30 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 19

19. THE VERB.

146. A VERB is a word used to express the act*
being, or state of its subject ; as, I write ; you are;
time flies ; he is loved. App. XV.

147. The use of the verb in simple propositions is to affirm or
declare 5 that of which it affirms, is called its subject or nominatire,

148. Verbs are of two kinds; Transitive and In-
transitive. App. XVI.

149. A TRANSITIVE VERB expresses an act done
by one person or thing to another; as, "James
strikes the table." " The table is struck by James. 11
It has two forms, called the Active and the Passive
voice ( 21).

150. An INTRANSITIVE VERB expresses the being*
or state of its subject, or an act not done to another ;
as, I am, he sleeps, you run.

151. In this division, Transitive verbs include all those which
express an act that passes over from the actor to an object acted
upon-, as, He loves us; We are loved by him. Intransitive verbs
include all verbs not transitive, whether they express an action
or not-, as, I am, you walk, they run (See 21, Obs. 2, 3).

152. Intransitive verbs, from their nature, can have no distinc-
tion of voice. Their form is generally aotive-, as, I stand, I run.
A few admit also the passive form-, as, " He is come;" "they
are gone .-" equivalent to ." He has come;" "they have gone. n

153. Intransitive verbs are sometimes rendered transitive, and
to capable of a passive form, viz :

1. By the addition of another word-, as, Intrans. I laugh;
Trans. I laugh at; Passive, I am laughed at.

2. By adding, as an object, a noun of similar signification-, as,
Intr. I run; Tr. I run a race-, Passive, A race is run.

3. When used causatively, to denote the causing of the act or
state which they properly express ; as, Walk your hor"d
round the yard, i. e. Cause your horse to walk, etc.

\ 19. ETYMOLOGY. 31

154. Transitive verbs in the active voice, and intransitive
verbs, being of the same form, can be distinguished only by their
signification and construction. The following marks will enable
the student to make this necessary distinction with ease and cer-
tainty.

1st. A transitive verb in the active voice requires an object af-
ter it to complete the sense ; as, The boy studies grammar ( 48,
Rem. 3). An intransitive verb requires no object after it, but
the sense is complete without it-, as, He sits, you ride.

2d. Every transitive active verb can be changed into the passive
form-, thus, u James strikes the table," can be changed into fct The
.table is struck by James." But the intransitive verb can not be
BO changed ; thus, I smile^ can not be changed into I am smiled.

3d. In the use of the transitive verb there are always three
things implied ; the actor, the art, and the object acted upon ; in
the use of the intransitive there are only two / the subject or thing
spoken of, and the state or action attributed to it.

155. A transitive verb without an object is used intransi*
tively ; as, He reads and writes well = He is a good reader
and writer.

156. In respect of form, verbs are divided into
Regular, Irregular, and Defective.

157. A REGULAR verb is one that forms its Past
tense in the Indicative active, and its Past parti-
ciple by adding ed to the Present ; as, Present, love ;
Past, loved; Past participle, loved (37).

158. An IRREGULAR verb is one that does not
form its Past tense in the Indicative active, and
Past participle, by adding ed to the Present ; thus,
Present, write ; Past, wrote ; Past participle, writ-
ten.

159. A DEFECTIVE verb is one in which some of
the parts are wanting. To this class belong chiefly
Auxiliary and Impersonal verbs.

3*2 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. $ 2

20. AUXILIARY VERBS.

160. The AUXILIARY, or helping verbs, by l!w
help of which verbs are principally inflected, are
the following, which, as auxiliaries, are used only
in the present and the past tense ; viz.

Pres. Do, have, shall, will, may, can, am, mur*

Past. Did, had, should, would, might, could, was,

The verb to be is used as an auxiliary, in all its tenses.

161. Am, do, and have, are also principal verbs.

162. OBSERVATIONS.

1. Let (used by some Grammarians as an auxiliary in the im
perative mood), is properly a transitive verb, and complete.
Ought is a defective verb, having, like must, only the present
cense.

2. Shall implies duty or obligation; will, purpose or resolution
may, liberty, can, ability. Of these verbs, the past ten se should
would, might, could, is very indefinite with respect to time,
being used to express duty, purpose, liberty, and ability, some-
times with regard to what is past , sometimes with regard to what
is present, and sometimes with regard to what is future; thus,
Past. He could not do it then, for he was otherwise engaged.
Present. I would do it with pleasure, if I could.

Future. If he would delay his journey a few days, I might

(could, would or should), accompany him.

In these and similar examples, the auxiliaries may be considered
simply as denoting liberty, ability, will, or duty, without any re-
ference to time in themselves, and that the precise time is indi-
cated by the scope of the sentence. The same observation applies
to must and ought, implying necessity and obligation.

3. Weuld is sometimes used to denote what was customary 5
as in the examples, " He would say," u He would desire," etc
Thus,

Pleased with my admiration, and the fire
His speech struck from me, the old man would shake
His years away, and act his young encounters;
Then, having showed his wounds, he'd sit (him) down.

20 ETYMOLOGY. 33

6f WILL and SHALL, WOULD and SHOULD.

163. Will and shall, auxiliaries in the future, sometimes express
resolution or purpose, and sometimes simple futurity . They may
be thus distinguished :

RESOLUTION Of PURPOSE.

164. WILL expresses the will, purpose, resolution, or promise of
the subject with respect to his own acts . Thus, I will go, thou
unit go, he will go, express the resolution, etc. of the subject
I, thou, he.

165. SHALL expresses the purpose, resolution, etc. not of the
subject, but of another by whom the act is determined. Thus,
/ shall go, thou shalt go, James shall go, express the resolution,,
not of /, thou, James, respectively, but of some other-, as, Johv
is resolved that / shall go, etc.

SIMPLE FUTURITY.

166. SHALL is used when a person foretels what is future in
respect to himself; as, I think that I shall go.

167. WILL is used in the second and the third person, and SHALL
in the first, when a person foretels what is future in respect to
others-, as, /think that you will go, that he will go. He thinks
that I shall go.

168. But after such words as if, though, provided, unless, or
when, while, until, after, etc., or after the relative in a restrictive
clause, shall is used instead of will to denote futurity-, as, If he
thill 0; When he shall appear; All who shall subscribe

WILL and SHALL interrogatively.

169. In asking questions as to the will, purpose, resolution, or
promise of the person addressed, SHALL is used in the first and the
third person, and WILL in the second ; as, Shall /go? Shall he go*
Will you go? = Is it your purpose that I shall go, etc.?

170. But in asking questions relative to simple futurity, SHALL
is used in theirs* and the second person, and WILL in the third;
as, Shall I arrive in time? Shall you be at home? Will the stage
arrive soon?

171. Should and would are subject to the same rules as shall and
will. They are generally attended with a supposition; as,

I to run, I should soon be fatigued

34 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 2L

172. Should is often used instead of ought, to express present
duty or obligation ; as, u We should remember the poor -," = We
ought to remember the poor.

173. Would is sometimes used as a principal verb for Iwish; as n
" Would that they were gone," for "I wish that they were gone.'-
" When I make a feast, I would my guests should praise it not
the cooks." Thus used, it is in the present tense. As a past
tense, it implies strong negation-, as, u Ye would none of my re-
proof."

21. INFLECTION OF VERBS.

174. To the inflection of verbs belong, Voices
Moods, Tenses, Numbers, and Persons.

VOICE.

175. VOICE is a particular form of the verb,
which shows the relation of the subject, or thing
spoken of, to the action expressed by the verb.

176. In English the transitive verb has two
voices, the Active and the Passive.

177. The ACTIVE VOICE represents the subject
of the verb as acting; as, "James strikes the
table."

Here the verb " strikes," in the active voice, indicates that its
subject 4; James" acts.

178. The PASSIVE VOICE represents the subject
of the verb as acted upon ; as, " The table is struck
by James."

Here the verb " is struck," in the passive voice, indicates that
its subject u table" is acted upon.

179. OBSERVATIONS.

1. The transitive verb always expresses the same act, whether
it be in the active or passive form. In both it is equally transitive,
1, e. the act expressed by it in either form, passes over from the

22. ETYMOLOGY. 35

person or thing vting, to the person or thing acted upon. Hence
the same idea may be expressed witn equal propriety in both
forms, simply by changing the object of tne active voice into thfe
subject of the passive; thus,

Actively. Ccpsar conquered Gaul.

Passively. Gaul was conquered by Caesar.

2. The same verbs are sometimes used in a transitive, and
sometimes in an intransitive sense-, thus, in the phrase, "Charity
thinketh no evil," think is transitive; in the phrase, u Think on
me," it is intransitive.

3. Many verbs in the active voice, by an idiom peculiar to the
English, are used in a sense nearly allied to the passive, but for
which the passive will not always be a proper substitute. Thus,
we say. u This field ploug hs well; 17 "These lines read smoothly ,"
" This fruit tastes bitter;" "Linen wears better than cotton."
The idea here expressed, is quite different from that expressed by
the passive form, u This field is well ploughed;" " These lines
are smoothly read." Sometimes, however, the same idea is ex-
pressed by both forms; thus, "Wheat sells readily," or "is sold
readily at an advanced price." Expressions of this kind are usually
made in French by the reflected verb; thus, "Ce champ se labours
bien;" "Ces lignes se lisent aisement." When used in this sense,
they may properly be ranked with intransitive verbs, as they are
never followed by an objective case.

22. MOODS.*

180. MOOD is the mode or manner of expressing
the signification of the verb.

181. Verbs have Jive moods ; namely, the In-
dicative, Potential, Subjunctive, Imperative, and In-
Jinitive. App. XVIL

* Explanations of the rnoods and tenses'of verbs, are inserted here for the sako
of order : but it would perhaps be improper to detain the learner so long as to
commit them to memory : He may, therefore, after getting the definition of *
v*rb, proceed to the inflection of it, without delay; and when lie comes to the
exercises on the verbs, he can look Lack to the definition of verbs, moods,
fee , as occasion may require

30 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 22

1. The Indicative mood declares the fact ex-
pressed by the verb, simply and without limitation ;
as, He loves; He is loved.

2. The Potential mood declares, not the fact ex-
Dressed by the verb, but only its possibility, or the
liberty, power, will, or obligation of the subject
with respect to it ; as, The wind may blow ; We
may walk or ride ; I can swim ; He would not stay ;
You should obey your parents.

3. The Subjunctive mood represents the fact
expressed by the verb, not as actual, but as condi-
tional, desirable, or contingent ; as, " If thy
presence go not with us, carry us not up hence."
App. XVIIL

4. The Imperative mood commands, exhorts,
entreats, or permits ; as, Do this ; Remember thy
Creator; Hear, O my people; Go thy way for
this time.

5. The Infinitive mood expresses a thing in a
general manner, without any distinction of person
or number, and commonly has to before it ; as, To
love.

182. OBSERVATIONS ON THE MOODS.

1. The future indicative is sometimes used potentially 5 i. e. the
auxiliaries will and shall belong to the present potential, as well
as way, or can, or must , when they express present Willingness or
obligation. In this case, the futurity implied is contingent, and
not absolute-, as, He will do it, if properly solicited. And hence
the corresponding would and should, as well as might and could,
belong *o the past tense. The potential mood has no future tense ,

2. The subjunctive mood is always dependent upon, or is sub-
\rtined to, another verb, expressed or understood. It is sometimes

23 ETYMOLOGY. 37

called conjunctive, because it is usually preceded by a conjunction;
as, if, though, unless, etc. Sometimes it is called conditional, be-
cause it usually expresses a condition on which something is sus-
pended. It differs in form from the indicative, in the present
tense only, in the verb to be, in the present and past.

NOTE. Both the indicative and potential, with a conjunctive
particle prefixed, are used subjunctively; i. e. they are used to
express what is conditional or contingent, and with dependence
on another verb; as, " If he sleeps (now), he will do well;" u He
would go, if he could (go). 1 '

3. The imperative mood, strictly speuking, has only the second
person, singular and plural; because, in commanding, exhorting,
etc., the language of address is always used; thus, u Let him
love," is equivalent to, u Let thou him love;" where Let is the
proper imperative, and love the infinitive governed by it. (Syn-
tax, 387.)

4. The infinitive mood may be considered as a verbal noun,
having the nominative and objective cases, but not the possessive:
and hence it is used both as the subject of another verb, and as the
object after it. (Syntax, 47, Rule n.; and $ 48, Rule I.)

23. TENSES OR DISTINCTIONS OF TIME.

183. TENSES are certain forms of the verb, which
serve to point out the distinctions of time.

184. Time is naturally divided into the Present, Past and Fu-
ture: And an action may be represented, either as incomplete and
continuing, or, as completed at the time spoken of. This gives
rise to six tenses, only two of which are expressed in English by
a distinct form of the verb. The others are formed by the aid of
auxiliary verbs, thus:

PFF*FNT $ ^ ct ^ on continuing ; as, I love, I do love, or I am loving.

\ Action completed, as, I have loved.
PAST $ Action continuing ,-as. I loved. I did love, or Iwas loving.

Action completed; as I had loved,
p 5 ^ ctwn continuing; as, I shall or will love

) Action completed; as, I shall have loved.
4

28 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 23

185. The tenses in English are six, namely : the
Present, the Present-perfect, the Past, the Past-
perfect, the Future, and the Future-perfect.

1. The Present tense expresses what is going on
at the present time ; as, I love you.

2. The Present-perfect tense represents an action
or event as completed at the present time; as, " John
has cut his finger ;" " I have sold my horse ;" " I
have done nothing this week."

3. The Past tense expresses what took place in
past time ; as, " God said, let there be light ;" " The
ship sailed when the mail arrived."

4. The Past-perfect tense represents an action
or event as completed at or before a certain past
time ; as, "I had walked six miles that day;" " All
the judges had taken their places before Sir Roger
came/'

5. The Future tense expresses what will take
place in future time ; as, " I will see you again, and
your hearts shall rejoice."

6. The Future-perfect tense intimates that ap
action or event will be completed at or before a
certain time yet future ; as, "I shall have got my
lesson before ten o'clock to-morrow. 1 '

NOTE. The tenses inflected without an auxiliary are called
SIMPLE tenses-, those with an auxiliary, are called COMPOUND
tenses. In the common form of the verb, the simple tenses are the
Present and Past Indicative and Subjunctive, Active-, all the other
tenses are compound

j 24. ETYMOLOGY. 39

186. 24. OBSERVATIONS ON THE TENSES.

I. The Present tense in the simple form is used as follows:

1. It expresses the simple existence of the fact-, as, He speaks^
She writes; They walk.

2. It is used to express what is habitual or always true; as, He
takes sniftff; She goes to church-, Virtue is its own reward. In
this sense it is applied to express the feelings which persons long
since dead, or events already past usually excite in our minds , as,
Nero is abhorred for his cruelty 5 Milton is admired for his sub-
limity.

3. In historical narration, it is used with great effect for the
Past tense-, as, "Caesar leaves Gaul, crosses the Rubicon, and
enters Italy with five thousand men." (552.5).

4. It is used sometimes, instead of the present-perfect tense, in
speaking of authors long since dead, when reference is made to
their works which still exist; as, " Moses tells us who were the
descendants of Abraham;" " Virgil imitates Homer;" instead of
16 has told," " has imitated"

5. When preceded by such words as when, before, as soon as,
after, and the like, it expresses the relative time of a future action j
as, When he comes, he will be welcome; As soon as the Post
arrives, the letters will be distributed.

II. The Present-perfect In the use of this tense, it matters
not how long ago the act referred to may have been performed, if
it were in a period reaching to and embracing the present, or a
part of which is not yet past; as, " Many discoveries in the arts
have been made since the days. of Bacon" (that is, in the period
reaching from that time to the present). On the other hand, if
the time of an act mentioned is past, and does not include the pre.
sent, this tense can not be used, however near the time may be.
Thus, we cannot properly say, u I have seen your friend a mo-
ment ago ; but " I saw your friend," etc. The following usages
may be noticed.

1. This tense is used to express an act or state continued through
a period of time reaching to the present; as, " He has studied
grammar six months" u He has been absent [now] six years."

2. It is used to express acts long since completed, when the re-
ference is not to the act of finishing, but to the thing finished <wd

40 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 24.

still existing-, as, "Cicero has written orations" "Moses has
told us many important facts in his writings" "Of old thou hast
laid the foundation of the earth, and the 'heavens are the work of
thy hand." But if the thing completed does not now exist, or if
the reference is to the act of finishing, and not to the present con-
tinuance of the thing finished, this tense can not be used-, thus,
we can not say, " Cicero has written poems," because no such
productions now remain. Nor, " In the beginning God has crea-
ted the heavens," because reference is only to the act of God at a
certain past time indicated by the words " In the beginning."

3. It is used in the same manner as the present (186, I, 5), in-
stead of th future-perfect, to represent an action, etc., as perfect
at a future time; as, "The cock shall not crow, till thou hast
denied me thrice."

4. Sometimes this tense is used in effect to deny the present
existence of that of which the verb expresses the completion-, as,
" I have been young" meaning, this is now finished I am young
no more , that is, u I am old."

NOTE. This tense corresponds to the Latin perfect definite.

III. 1. The Past tense The time expressed by this tense is
regarded as entirely past, and, however near to the present, it
does not embrace it; as, I saw your friend a moment ago" " I
wrote yesterday."

2. In such expressions as "I wrote this morning" " this week"
" this year," etc., the reference is to a point of time now en-
tirely past, in these yet unfinished periods.

3. This tense is used to express what was customary in past
time; as, " She attended church regularly all her life."

IV. The Past-perfect tense (Pluperfect) has the same relation to
the Past tense that the Present-perfect has to the Present tense. It
connects the action or event expressed by the verb with some
point or period of time now wholly past , at or before which it was
completed; as, then, yesterday, last century, etc.; as " He had
THEN studied grammar six months;" " He had been a soldier in
his youth;" I had written yesterday; Many discoveries in philo-
sophy and the arts had been made before the days of Bacon.

V. The same general observations apply to the Future and
Future-perfect tenses, in relation to a point or period of time yet
future.

25 ETYMOLOGY. 41

VI. The six tenses here enumerated are all found only in the
indicative. The potential has only four tenses ; the subjunctive,
one, sometimes two, in a form distinct from that of the indica-
tive ; the imperative but one ; the infinitive two ; and the parti-
ciple three.

VII. The Past tenses both of the potential and the subjunctive
mood are much less definite with respect to the time of the action
or state expressed by the verb, than the same tenses in the indi-
cative. For examples of this in the potential mood, see 20
OBS. 2.

The Past subjunctive expresses contingency, etc. a respecting
what is past, but yet unknown, only when referring to past time
expressed or implied; as, u If I saw your friend last year, I have
forgotten it." But in connection with the potential mood, or not
referring to past time, the Past subjunctive has this peculiarity
of usage it expresses a supposition with respect to something
present, but implies a denial of the thing supposed; thus, " If I
had the money now, I would pay it," implies that I have it not.
" If he were well [now], he would go-," implying u he is sick."
The present tense here conveys a very different idea-, thus, li lfl
have the money, I will pay it," etc. In order to express the first
of these examples in past time, the Past-perfect must be usedj
thus, If I had had the money yesterday, I would have paid it.

25. PARTICIPLES.

187. A PARTICIPLE is a vford which, as a verb,
expresses an action or state, and, as an adjective,
qualifies a noun ; as, " He came seeing ;" " Having
finished our task, we may play."

188. Participles are so called, because they belong partly to the
verb, and partly to the adjective. From the former, they have
signification, voice, and tense; and they perform the office of the
latter.

189. Verbs have three participles ; the present,
the past, and the perfect ; as, loving, loved, having

42 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. $ 535

loved, in the active voice ; and being loved, loved,
having been loved, in the passive.

190. The present participle in the active voice ends
always in ing. In all verbs, it has an active signifi-
cation, and denotes an action or state as continuing
and progressive ; as, " James is building a house." In
some verbs, it has also a passive progressive significa-
tion; as, "The house is building." App. XIX.

191. The Present participle passive has always a
passive signification, but it has the same difference of
meaning with respect to the time or state of the action
as the present indicative passive App, XIX.

192. The Past participle has the same form in both voices. In
the active voice, it belongs equally to transitive and intransitive
verbs has always an active sense forms, with the auxiliaries,
the Present-perfect and Past-perfect tenses and is never found
but thus combined-, as, " has loved," " had loved," etc. In the
passive voice t it has always a passive sense, and, with the verb
to be as an auxiliary, forms the passive voice-, as, a He is loved ,"
or without it, qualifies a noun or pronoun-, as, " A man loved by
all, hated by none." The difference between the active and the
passive participle will be seen in the following examples, viz :
ACTIVE " He has concealed a dagger under his cloak-," PASSIVE
u He has a dagger concealed under his cloak."

193. The Perfect participle is always compound, and repre-
sents an action or state as completed at the time referred to. It
has always an active sense in the active voice, and a passive
sense in the passive; as, ACTIVE -. "Having finished our task,
we may play." PASSIVE : " Our task having been finished, we
may play."

194. The Present participle active, and the Past
participle passive, when separated from the idea of
time, become adjectives, and are usually called parti-
cipial adjectives; as, "An amusing story;" "Abound
book."

26, 27. ETYMOLOGY. 43

195. The participle in ing is often used as a verbal
noun ( 5, Obs. 3), having the nominative and objective
cases, but not the possessive. As a verbal noun, the
participle of a transitive verb may still retain the go-
vernment of the verb ; as, "In keeping his command-
ments, there is a great reward :" or, it may be divested
of it, by inserting the preposition of after it ; as, " In
the keeping of his commandments." When of follows
the participle, the should precede it ( 65, R. XVI).

196. So also the Perfect participle-, as, " There is satisfaction
in having done well" ;t His having done his duty, was after-
ward a source of satisfaction."

26. NUMBER AND PERSON.

197. Every tense of the verb, except in the infi-
nitive mood, has two NUMBERS, the singular and
the plural ; and in each of these, three PERSONS.

The First person asserts of the person speaking ;
as, /write, we write.

The Second, asserts of the person spoken to ;
as, Thou writest, ye or you write.

The Third, asserts of the person or thing spoken
of; as, He writes, they write. 6, and 15. Obs. 1.

27. CONJUGATION.

198. The conjugation of a verb, is the regular
combination and arrangement of its several moods,
tenses, numbers and persons.

199. In the active voice, most verbs have two forms ;
the Common, and tihe Progressive. See App. XIX, I. 1.

I. The Common form expresses the simple existence
of the fact; as, "He speaks, 19 "She writes,"
"They talk."

44 ENGLISH GRAMMAR*. 27

2. The Progressive form represents an action as
begun, and in progress, but not completed. It
is formed by annexing the present participle to
the verb "to be," through all its moods and
tenses; as, "I am writing," &c. ( 30).

200. Besides these,in the present and the past indicative, there
is a third form, called the Emphatic, used to express a fact with
emphasis or force. It is formed by prefixing to the verb the
auxiliary do, in the present tense, and did, in the past 5 as, u I do
write"" I did write." The other tenses, and also the pro-
gressive form and passive voice, are rendered emphatic, by pla-
cing emphasis on the auxiliary; as, "I have written" U I am
writing" " The letter t written."

201. To these may be added, the solemn form of the third per-
son singular, present indicative, ending in th, or eth, instead of
the common, ending in s or es. Thus solemn form, loveth, hath
loved; common, loves, has loved. Need is also used for needs.

202. The tenses of the verb, inflected without an
auxiliary, are called SIMPLE tenses ; those inflected with
an auxiliary are called COMPOUND tenses.

203. The principal parts of the verb are the
Present indicative, the Past indicative, and the
Past participle. In parsing, the mentioning of these
parts is called conjugating the verb. Thus :

Present. Past. Past participle.

Regular (157), Love, loved, loved.

Irregular (158), Write, wrote, written.

CONJUGATION OF THE REGULAR VERB "To LOVE."

204. The regular transitive verb " To laie" is
inflected through all its moods and tenses, as fol-
lows :

27. ETYMOLOGY. 45

ACTIVE VOICE.

PRINCIPAL PARTS.

Prtsent, love. Past, loved. Past participle t toved

INDICATIVE MOOD.
PRESENT TENSE.*

Singular. Plural.

1. I love. 1. We love.

2. Thou lovest. 2. You love.

3. He loves (or loveth) . 3. They love.

PRESENT-PERFECT TENSE (PERFECT).
Sign, have.

1. I have loved. 1. We have loved.

2. Thou hast loved. 2. You have loved.

3. He has or hath loved. 3. They have loved.

PAST TENSE.

1. I loved. 1. We loved.

2. Thou lovedst. 2. You loved.

3. He loved. 3. They loved.

PAST-PERFECT TENSE (PLUPERFECT).
Sign, had.

1. I had loved. . 1. We had loved.

2. Thou hadst loved. 2. You had loved.

3. He had loved. 3. They had loved,

* EMPHATIC FORMS.

PRESENT TENSE.

2. I do love. 1. We do love.

2. Thou dost love. 2. You do love.

3. He does or doth love 3. Theydolova

PAST TENSE.

1. I did love. 1. We did love

2. Thou didst love. 2. You did love.
3 He did love. 3 They did love

46 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 27

FUTURE TENSE.
Signs, shall, will Inflect with each.

1. I shall love. 1. We shall love.

2. Thou shalt love. 2. You shall love.

3. He shall love. 3. They shall love.

FUTURE-PFRFECT TENSE.
Signs, shall have, will have. Inflect with each.

1. I shall have loved. 1. We shall have loved.

2. Thou shalt have loved. 2. You shall have loved.

3. He shall have loved. 3. They shall have loved.

POTENTIAL MOOD.

PRESENT TENSE.

Signs, may, can } must. Inflect with each.
Singular. Plural.

1. I may love. 1. We may love.

2. Thou mayst love. 2. You may love.

3. He may love. 3. They may love.

PRESENT-PERFECT TENSE (PERFECT).
Signs, may have, can have,* must have. Inflect with each.

1. I may have loved. 1. We may have loved.

2. Thou mayst have loved. 2. You may have loved.

3. He may have loved. 3. They may have loved

PAST TENSE.
Signs, might, could, would, should. Inflect with each.

1. I might love. 1. We might love.

2. Thou mightst love. 2. You might love.

3. He might love. 3. They might love.

PAST-PERFECT TENSE (PLUPERFECT).
Signs, might have, could have, would have, should have. Inflect with eaoo.

1. I might have loved. 1. We might have loved.

2. Thou mightst have loved. 2. You might have loved.

3. He might have loved. 3. They might have loved.

*Can haw is not used in affirmative sentences.

4 27. ETYMOLOGY. 47

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
PRESENT TENSE (Subjunctive form)
Singular. Plura 1

1 If I love. I. If we love.

2 //" thou love. 2. //"you love.
3. # he love. 3. If they love.

PRESENT TENSE (Indicative form) .

1. If I love. 1. // we love.

2. If thou lovest. 2. Tf you love.

3. if he loves (or loveth). 3. If they love.

PRESENT-PEEFECT TENSE (PERFECT).

1. If I have loved. 1. Tjf we have loved.

2. If thou hast loved. 2. If you have loved.

3. Tjf he has or hath loved. 3. If they have loved.

PAST TENSE.

1. If I loved. 1. If we loved.

2. If thou lovedst. 2. Jjf you loved.

3. .If he loved. 3. If they loved.

PAST-PERFECT TENSE (PLUPERFECT).

l.Ifl had loved. 1. //"we had loved.

2. Jf thou hadst loved. 2. j/" you had loved.

3. #" he had loved. 3. If they had loved.

FUTURE TENSE.

1. If I shall or will love. 1. If we shall or will love.

2. IfihoM shalt or wilt love. 2. If you shall or will love,

3. If he shall or will love. 3. If they shall or will love.

*The Present subjunctive is here given in two forms : 1st, in the subjunctive
rvr elliptical form, used when both contingency and futurity are implied ; and 2d,
the indicative form, used when contingency only, and not futurity is implied. In
parsing, the latter should be called the " indicative used subjunctively," being
Hi* indicative mood in form, and rendered subjunctive only by the conjunction
prefixed. This is true also of the other tenses in this mood.

TLe emphatic forms of the present are, If I do love, if tliou do /ov, if he do
?<w, etc. ; of the past, If I did tovg, if thou didst love, etc. as in the indicative

48 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 27

FUTURE-PERFECT TENSE.

1. If I shall or will have loved. I. If we shall or will have loved.
2. If thou shalt or wilt have loved. 2. If you shall or will have loved
3. If he shall or will have loved. 3. If they shall or will have loved

IMPERATIVE MOOD.

Singular. Plural.

Common form. 2. Love, or love thou. 2. Love, or love ye or you
Emphatic form . 2. Do thou love. 2. Do ye or you love.

INFINITIVE MOOD.
PRESENT, to love. PERFECT, to have loved

PARTICIPLES.

PRESENT, loving. PAST, loved. PERFECT, having loved.

EXERCISE.

Inflect the following irregular verbs in. the same manner as the verb " to love" :
Present. Past. Past Participle.

Go went gone

Write wrote written

Do did done

Fall fell fallen

Give gave given

Have had had

^05. PARSING. A verb is parsed by stating its class (transitive
or intransitive), its form (regular or irregular), conjugating it,
ii irregular* ($ 32), and stating its tense, mood, voice, person, and
number, and also the subject of which it affirms ; thus, " He loves
study. Loves is a verb transitive, found in the present indica-
tive active, third person singular, and affirms of its subject He.1

*In parsing, it will save time to omit conjugating the verb when it is regular ;
and it is unnecessary, because its being announced to be regular sufficiently as.
certains its principal parts. All irregular verbs should be conjugated as in 32.
Every teacher, however, will adopt the course which he prefers.

t In parsing, it is important and will save much time to state every thing re.
quired in as few words as possible, to observe always the same order, and with-
out waiting to have every thing drawn out by questions.

27. ETYMOLOGY. 49

EXERCISES ON THE TENSES OF VERBS, AND CASES OF ftOUNS
AND PRONOUNS.

Tell the tense, mood, person, and number of They
love ; learn you ; they had walked ; he shall have
learned; thou hadst painted; we can gain; to form;
to have joined ; obeys ; lovedst ; teaches ; we could
stand; she has learned; we shall have gone; they will
have come; I do love; thou didst love; they did love.

Parse the following words and sentences:* We love
him ; I love you ; James loves me ; it amuses him ; we
shall conduct them ; they will divide the spoil ; soldiers
should defend their country ; friends invite friends ; she
can read her lesson ; she may play a tune ; you might
please her; thou mayst ask him; he may have betrayed
us ; we might have diverted the children ; Tom can de-
liver the message.

I love ; to love ; love ; reprove thou ; has loved ; we
tied the knot ; if we love ; if thou love ; they could have
commanded armies ; to love ; to baptize ; to have loved ;
loved; loving; to survey; having surveyed; write a let-
ter ; read your lesson ; thou hast obeyed my voice ; ho-
nour thy father ; his mother teaches him ; love ; loved

NOMINATIVE AND OBJECTIVE.

206, The teacher, if he chooses, may now acquaint the learner
with the difference between the Nominative and Objective.

* QUESTIONS which may be put to the pupils : How do you know that
love is plural? Ans. Because we, its nominative, is plural How do you know
that love is the first person ? Ans. Because we is a pronoun of the first person, and
the verb is always of the same number and person with the noun or pronoun
before it.

Many of the phrases in this page may be converted into exercises of a different
kind ; thus, the meaning of the sentence, We love him, may be expressed by lh
pass ve voice ; as, He is loved by us. It may also be turned into a question, or
made a negative ; as, Do we love him ? &c. We do not love him

50 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 28.

When the verb is active, the Nominative acts; the Objective is
acted upon; as, He eats apples.

The Nominative commonly comes before the verb , the Objective,
after it; as, We saw them. In asking questions, the nominative
follows the verb in the simple tenses, and the auxiliary in the
compound tenses; as, 'Lovestthou me? did he come? may we go?
is it finished?

28. NEGATIVE FORM OF THE VERB.

207. The verb is made to deny, by placing the word not after
the simple form; as, u Thou lovest not;" and between the auxi-
liary and the verb in the compound form; as, " I do not love."
When two auxiliaries are used, it is placed between them; as,
44 I would not have loved."

208. In the infinitive and participles, the negative is put first;
as, u Not to love" " Not 1-oving."

209. The simple form is seldom used with the negative. In the
present and past tenses, the compound or emphatic form is more
common. The following synopsis will show the manner of using
the negative :

INDICATIVE MOOD.

Present. 1 . I do not love. 2. Thou dost not love, etc.

Pres.-perf. 1. I have not loved. 2. Thou hast not loved, etc.

Past. 1. I did not love. 2. Thou didst not love, etc.

Past-perf. 1. I had not loved. 2. Thou hadst not loved, et .

Future. 1. I will not love. 2. Thou wilt not love, etc.

Fut.-pcrf. 1. I shall not have 2. Thou shalt not have loved,
loved. etc.

POTENTIAL MOOD.

Present. 1. I can not love. 2. Thou canst not love, etc.

Pres.-perf. f. I may not have 2. Thou mayst not have loved,

loved. etc.

Past. 1. I might not love. 2. Thou mightst not love, etc.

Past-perf. 1 . I might not have 2. Thou mightst not have loved,
loved. etc.

5 28 ETYMOLOGY. 51

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
Present. 1. If I do not love. 2. If thou do not love, etc.

IMPERATIVE MOOD.

Singular. Plural.

2. Love not, or do not thou love. 2. Love not, or do not ye love.

INFINITIVE MOOD.
Present. Not to love . Perfect. Not to have loved.

PARTICIPLES.

Present. Not loving. Past. Not loved.

Perfect. Not having loved.

Interrogative form of the Verb.

210. The verb is made to ask a question by placing the nomi-
native,or subject, after the simpl-e form; as, u Lovest thou?" and
between the auxiliary and the verb in the compound forms; as,
"Do I love?" When there are two auxiliaries, the nominative
is placed between them: as, u Shall I have loved?"

211. The subjunctive, imperative, infinitive, and participles,
can not have the interrogative form.

212. The simple form of the verb is seldom used interrogatively.
The following synopsis will show how the verb is put into the
interrogative form :

INDICATIVE MOOD.

Present. 1. Do I love? 2. Dost thou love? etc.

Pres.-perf. I. Have I loved? 2. Hast thou loved? etc.
Past. 1. Did I love? 2. Didst thou love? etc.

Past -perf. 1. Had I loved? 2. Hadst thou loved? etc,

Future. 1. Shall I love? 2. Wilt thou love? etc.

Fut.-perf. 1. Shall I have loved? 2. Wilt thou have loved? etc

POTENTIAL MOOD.

Present. 1. May I love? 2. Canst thou love? etc.

Prcs.-perf. I. May I have loved? 2. Canst thou have loved? etc.
Past. 1. Might I love? 2. Couldst thou love? etc.

Past -perf. I. Might I have 2. Couldst thou have loved?

loved? etc.

213. Interrogative sentences are made negative by placing the
negative either before or after the nominative; as, " Do I not
love?" or, " Dt> not I love'"

52 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 29.

29. CONJUGATION OF THE IRREGULAR VERB
" TO BE."

214. The intransitive irregular verb TO BE, is in-
flected through all its moods and tenses, as follows:

PRINCIPAL PARTS.

Present^ am. Past, was. Past participle, been

INDICATIVE MOOD.
PRESENT TENSE.

Singular. Plural.

1. I am. 1. We are.

2. Thou art. 2. You are.

3. He is. 3. They are.

PRESENT-PERFECT TENSE (PERFECT).
Sign, have.

1. I have been. 1. We have been.

2. Thou hast been. 2. You have been.

3. He has been. 3. They have been

PAST TENSE.

1. I was. 1. We were.

2. Thou wast. 2. You were.

3. He was. 3. They were.

PAST-PERFECT TENSE (PLUPERFECT).
Sign, had.

1. I had been. 1. We had been.

2. Thou hadst been. 2. You had been.

3. He had been. 3. They had been.

FUTURE TENSE.
Signs, shall, tntt. Inflect with each.

1. I shall be. 1. We shall be.

2. Thou shalt be. 2. You shall be.
^. He shall be. 3. They shall be

29 ETYMOLOGY. 53

FUTURE-PERFECT TENSE.
Signs, shall have, mitt have. Inflect with each .

1. I shall have been. 1. We shall have been.

2. Thou shalt have been. 2. You shall have been..

3. He shall have been. 3. They shall have been,

POTENTIAL MOOD.

PRESENT TENSE.

Signs, may, can, must. Inflect with each.
Singular. Plural.

1. I may be. 1. We may be.

2. Thou mayst be. 2. You may be.

3. He may be. 3. They may be

PRESENT-PERFECT TENSE (PERFECT).
Signs, may have, can have,- or must have. Inflect with each.

1. I may have been. 1. We may have been.

2. Thou mayst have been. 2. You may have been.

3. He may have been. 3. They may have been

PAST TENSE.
Signs, might, could, would, should. Inflect with each.

1. I might be. 1. We might be.

2. Thou mightst be. 2. You might be.

3. He might be. 3. They might be.

PAST-PERFECT TENSE (PLUPERFECT).
Signs, might have, could have, would have, should have. Inflect will. - . cr

1. I might have been. 1. We might have been,

2. Thou mightst have been. 2. You might have been.

3. He might have been. 3. They might have been.

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
PRESENT TENSE (Subjunctive form).
Singular. Plural.

1. If I be. 1. #webe.

2. ./f thoube. 2. If you be.

3. //"he be. 3. If they be.

34 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 29.

PAST TENSE (Subjunctive form).*

1. If I were. 1. 7jf we were.

2. TjT them wert or were. 2. JJf you were.

3. ^T he were. 3. 7/ 1 they were.

IMPERATIVE MOOD.
Singular. Plural.

2. Be, or be thou. 2. Be, or be ye or yoa.

INFINITIVE MOOD.
PRESENT TENSE. PERFECT TENSE.

To be. To have been.

PARTICIPLES.
PRESENT, Being. PAST, Been. PERFECT, Having been

EXERCISES ON THE VERB "TO BE."

Parse the words in the following exercises.

Am, is, art, wast, I was, they were, we are, hast been,
has been, we have been, hadst been, he had been, you
have been, she has been, we were, they had been.

I shall be, shalt be, we will be, thou wilt be, they shall
be, it will be, thou wilt have been, we have been, they
will have been, we shall have been, am, it is.

I can be, mayst be, canst be, she may be, you may be,
ne must be, they should be, mightst be, he would be, it-
could be, wouldst be, you could be, he may have been.

We may have been, mayst have been, they may have
been, I might have been, you should have been, wouldst
have been; (if) thou be, we be, he be, thou wert, we
were, I be.

*The indicative foaspa i*sll the tenses is the same as the indicative with a con.
junction prefixed ; thte, ff I am, If I have been, If I was, If I had been t Ifjt
shall or will be, If I shall have been.

J'30,31. ETYMOLOGY 55

Be thou, be, to be, being, to have been, if I be, be ye,
been, be, having been, if we be, if they be, to be.

Snow is white ; he was a good man ; we have been
younger ; she has been happy ; it had been late ; we are
old ; you will be wise ; it will be time ; if they be thine ;
be cautious ; be heedful youth ; we may be rich ; they
should be virtuous ; thou mightst be wiser ; they must
have been excellent scholars; they might have been
powerful.

30. PROGRESSIVE FORM.

215. The Progressive form of the verb (199, 2)
is inflected by prefixing the verb to be, through all
its moods and tenses, to the present participle ; thus,

INDICATIVE MOOD.

Present. 1. I am writing. 2. Thou art writing, etc.

Pres.-perf. 1. I have been writing. 2. Thou hast been writing, etc.
Past. 1. I was writing. 2. Thou wast writing, etc.

Past-perf. 1. 1 had been writing. 2. Thou hadst been writing, etc.
Future. 1. 1 shall be writing. 2. Thou shalt be writing, etc.
Fut'pcrf. 1. 1 shall or will have 2. Thou shalt or wilt have been

been writing. writing, etc.

NOTE. In this manner, go through the other moods and tenses as in $ 29.

31. PASSIVE VOICE.

216. The Passive voice is inflected by adding
the past participle to the auxiliary verb to be
(214), through all its moods and tenses; thus,

Pret. Am loved. Past, Was loved. Past Part. Loved.

INDICATIVE MOOD.

PRESENT TENSE.

Singular. Plural.

1. I am loved. 1. We are loved.

2. Thou art loved. 2. You are loved.

3. He is loved. 3. They are loved.

56 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 31

PRESENT-PERFECT TENSE (PERFECT).
Sign, have.

1. I have been loved. 1. We have been loved.

2. Thou hast been loved. 2. You have been loved.

3. He has been loved. 3. They have been loved.

PAST TENSE.

1. I was loved. 1. We were loved.

2. Thou wast loved. 2. You were loved.

3. He was loved. 3. They were loved.

PAST-PERFECT TENSE (PLUPERFECT).
Sign, had.

1. I had been loved. 1. We had been loved.

2. Thou hadst been loved. 2. You had been loved.

3. He had been loved, 3. They had been loved

FUTURE TENSE.
Signs, shatt, will Inflect with each.

1. I shall be loved. 1. We shall be loved.

2. Thou shalt be loved. 2. You shall be loved.

3. He shall be loved. 3. They shall be loved.

FUTURE-PERFECT TENSE.

Signs, shall have, witt haveIn&ecl with each.

1. 1 shall have been loved. 1. We shall have been loved.

2. Thou shalt have been loved. 2. You shall have been loved.

3. He shall have been loved. 3. They shall have been loved

POTENTIAL MOOD.
PRESENT TENSE.

Signs, may^ can, must Inflect with each.
Singular. Plural.

1. I maybe loved. 1. We maybe loved.

2. Thou mayst be loved. 2. You maybe loved,

3. He may be loved. 3. They may be loved.

PRESENT-PERFECT TENSE (PERFECT).
Signs, may have, can have, must have Inflect with each.

1. I may have been loved. 1. We may have been loved.

2. Thou mayst have been loved. 2. You may have been loved.

3. He may have been loved, 3. They may have been loved

$31. ETYMOLOGY. 57

PAST TENSE.

Signs, might, could, would, should Inflect with each.

1. I might be loved. 1. We might be loved.

2. Thou mightst be loved. 2. You might be loved.

3. He might be loved. 3. They might be loved.

PAST-PERFECT TENSE (PLUPERFECT).

Signs, might have, could have, would have, should haveInftecl with each.

1. I might have been loved. 1. We might have been loved.

2. Thou mightst have been loved. 2. You might have been loved.
8. He might have been loved. 3. They might have been loved.

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
PRESENT TENSE (Subjunctive form).

Singular. Plural.

1. If I be loved. 1. If we be loved.

2. If thou be loved. 2. If you be loved

3. TjThe be loved. 3. If they be loved

PAST TENSE (Subjunctive form).*

l.Ifl were loved. 1. If we were loved.

2. If thou wert or were loved, 2. If you were loved.

3. 7f he were loved. 3. If they were loved.

IMPERATIVE MOOD.

Singular. Plural.

1. Be thou loved. 2. Be ye or you loved.

INFINITIVE MOOD.
Present. To be loved. Perf. To have been loved.

PARTICIPLES.

Pres. Being loved. Past. Loved.

Perfect. Having been loved.

*The indicative form in all the tenses, is the same as the indicative with a con.
function prefixed ; thus, " If lam loved, If I have been loved, If Twos loved,
V T had been loved, Tf I shall or win be loved. If I shall have been lored."

58 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 31

EXERCISES ON THE PASSIVE VOICE.

Parse the words in the following exercises :

They are loved; we were loved; thou art loved; it
is loved; she was loved; he has been loved; you have
been loved ; I have been loved ; thou hadst been loved ,
we shall be loved; thou wilt be loved; they will be
loved; I shall have been loved; you will have been
loved.

He can be loved ; thou mayst be loved ; she must be
loved; they might be loved; ye would be loved; they
should be loved; I could be loved; thou mayst have
been loved; it may have been loved; you might have
been loved; if I be loved;* thou wert loved; we be
loved; they be loved. Be thou loved; be ye loved,
you be loved. To be loved; loved; having been loved;
to have been loved; being loved.

Promiscuous Exercises on Verbs, and Cases of Nouns

and Pronouns. Parse each word.
Tie John's shoes ; this is Jane's bonnet ; ask mamma ;
he has learned his lesson ; she invited him ; your father
may commend you; he was baptized; the minister bap-
tized him ; we should have delivered our message ; papa
will reprove us ; divide the apples ; the captain had com-
manded his soldiers to pursue the enemy; Eliza divert-
ed her brother; a hunter killed a hare; were I loved;
were we good, we should be happy; James did write;
they are reading ; I have been running ; I did run ; they
do come; he might be doing something; they must have
been travelling.

*A conjunction is frequentlv to be understood here.

ETYMOLOGY

32. IRREGULAR VERBS.
217. An IRREGULAR verb is one that does not
form both its past tense in the indicative active, and
its past participle by adding ed to the present ;*as,
Am, was, been.

218. The following list comprises nearly all the irregular verbs
in the language. Those conjugated regularly, as well as irregu-
larly, are marked with an R. Those in italics are obsolete, or
obsolescent, and now but little used :
Present. Past.

Abide

Arise

Awake

Bake

abode
was
arose

awoke, R.
baked

Bear, to bring forth bore, bare

Bear, to carry bore, bare

Beat beat

Begin began

Bend bent, R.

Bereave bereft, R.

Beseech besought

Bid bid, bade

Bind, un- bound

Bite ^ bit

Bleed hied

Blow blew

Break. broke, brake

Breed bred

Bring brought

Build, ce- bulfc, R

Burn burnt, R

Burst burst

Buy bought

Cast cast

atch caught, R.

Chide chid

Choosf chose

Past participle.

abode

been

arisen

awaked

baked, bakcn

born

borne

beaten, beat

begun

bent, R.

bereft, R.

besought

bidden, bid

bound

bitten, bit

bled

blown

broken, broke

bred

brought

built, R.

burnt, R.

burst

bought

cast

caught, R.

chidden, tliid

chosen

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

Present.

Past.

Past participle.

Cleave, to split

cleft, clave

cleft, R., cloven

Cleave, to adhere

cleaved, clavs

cleared

Cling

clung

Clothe

clad, R.

clad, R

Come, be-

came

come

Cost

cost

Creep

crept

Crow

crew, R.

crowed

Cut

cut

Dare, to venture

durst

dared

Dare. to challenge is R. dared

dared

Deal'

dealt

dealt, R.

Dig

dug, R.

Do, mis- tm-

did

done

Draw

drew

drawn

Dream

dreamt, R.

Drink

drank

drank, drunL

Drive

drove

driven

Dwell

dwelt, R.

Eat

ate, eat

eaten

Fall, be-

fell

fallen

Feed

fed

Feel

felt

Fight

fought

Find

found

Flee

fled

Fling

flung

Fly

flew

flown

Forbear

forbore

forborne

Forget

forgot

forgotten, forgot

Forsake

forsook

forsaken

Freeze

froze

4? frozen

Get, be- for-

got, gat

gotten, got

Gild

gilt, R.

Gird, be- en-

girt, R.

Give, for- mi*-

gave

given

Go, undt.r-

went

gone

Grave, en- H.

graved

graven, graved

32.

ETYMOLOGY.

Present,

Past.

Past participle.

Grind

ground

Grow

grew

grown

Hang

hung

hung*

Have

had

Hear

heard

Heave

hove, R.

hoven, R.

Hew

hewed

hewn, R.

Hide

hid

hidden, hid

Hit

hit

Hold, be- with-

held

held, holden

Hurt

hurt

Keep

kept

Kneel

knelt R.

knelt, R.

Knit

knit R.

knit, knittec-

Know

knew

known

Lade, to load]

laded

laden

Lay

laid

Lead, mw-

led

Leave

left

Lend

lent

Let

let

Lie, to reclint

lay

lain, lien

Light

lighted, lit

Lose

lost

Make

made

Mean

meant

Meet

met

Mow

mowed

mown, R,

Pay, re-

paid

Pen, to enclose

pent, R.

pent, R

Put

put

Quit

quit, R.

Read

read}

readj

Rend

rent

*Hdng, to take away life by hanging, is regular ; as, " The robber
hanged^ but the gown was hung up. n

\}j*fa. to dip, is regular. tPronounced r#l

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

Present.

Past.

Past participle.

Rid

rid

Ride,

rode, rid

ridden, rid

Ring

rang, rung

rung

Rise, a-

rose

risen

Rive

rived

riven, R.

Rot

rotted

rotten, R,

Run

ran, run

run

Saw

sawed

sawn, R.

Say

said

See

saw

seen

Seek

sought

Seethe

seethed, sod

seethed, sodden

Sell

sold

Send

sent

Set, be*

set

Shake

shook

shaken

Shape, IWM-

shaped

shapen, R,

Shave

"*" shaved

shaven, R.

Shear

sheared

shorn, R.

Shed

shed

Shine

shone, R.

shone, R,

Shoe

shod

Shoot

shot

Show

showed

shown, R.

Shrink

shrunk, shrank

shrunk

Shred

shred

shred '

Shut

shut

Sing

sang, sung

sung

Sink

sunk, sank

sunk

Sit

sat

Slay

slew

slain

Sleep

slept

Slide

slid

slidden, slid

Sling

slung, slang

slung

Slink

slunk

Slit

slit

slit or slittH

Smita

srnote

smitten

Sow, to scatter

sowed

sown, R.

ETYMOLOGY.

Present.

Past.

Past participle.

Speak, fee-'

spoke, spake

spoken

Speed

sped

Spell

spelt, R.

spelt, R

Spend, mis-

spent

Spill

spilt, R.

spilt, R

Spin

spun, span

spun

Spit, be-

spit, spat

spit

Split

split

Spread, be-

spread

Spring

sprang, sprung

sprung

Stand, with- etc.

stood

Steal

stole

stolen

Stick

stuck

Sting

stung

Stride, be-

strode, strid

stridden, strid

Strike

struck

struck, stricken

String

strung

Strive

strove

striven

Strew,* be-

strewed

Strow, fee-

strewed

strowed, strown

Swear

swore, sware

sworn .

Sweat

sweat, R.

Sweep

swept

Swell

swelled

swollen, R.

Swim

swam or swum

swum

Swing

swang

swung

Take, be- mis- re-

took

taken

Teach

taught

Tear

tore , tare

torn

Tell

told

Think, fee-

thought

Thrive

thrived, throve

thriven, R.

Throw

threw

thrown

Thrust

thrust

Tread

trod

trodden, trod

* Strew and shew are now giving way to stiow anrl show, as they are pro-
oounced.

64 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 32

Present. Past. Past participle.

Wax waxed waxen, R".

Wear wore worn

Weave wove woven

Weep wept wept

Wet wet, R. wet, R.

Whet whet, R whet, R.

Win won won

Wind wound, R. wound

Work wrought, R. wrought, worked

Wring wrung, R. wrung

Write wrote written

DEFECTIVE VERBS.

219. DEFECTIVE verbs are those in which some
of the parts are wanting. They are irregular, ana
chiefly auxiliary : these are,

Present. Past. Present Past.

Can could Shall should

May might Will would

Must Wis wist

Ought Wit or) wot

Quoth quoth Wot )

Beware, used only in the imperative and infinitive.

220. Ought, originally the past tense of owe, is now nsed to
signify present duty, and must, to denote present obligation or
necessity. When they refer to past time, a change is made in the
infinitive with which they are joined 5 thus, Present, " These
things ye ought to do/ Past, " These things ye ought to have
done."

221. Will, as an auxiliary, has wilt, and shall has shalt, in the
second person singular. They are both without inflection in the
third person singular. Will, as a principal verh, is regular,

222. Wis, wist, which signifies to know, to imagine, is now
obsolete. Wit, of the same meaning and origin, is now used only
in the infinitive, in the phrase ." to wit," that is, namely

33. ETYMOLOGY. 65

IMPERSONAL VERBS.

223. IMPERSONAL verbs are those which assert
the existence of some action or state, but refer it
to no particular subject. They are always in the
third person singular, and in English are preceded
by the pronoun it; as, "It rains;" "It hails;" "It
behooves," &c.

224. To this class of words belong the expressions, methinks,
methought ; meseems, mescemed ; sometimes used for "/ seems
to me," " It appears to me," etc.

225. The pronoun it preceding the impersonal verb as its sub-
ject, is the substitute of some unknown and general, or well-
known cause, the action of which is expressed by the verb, but
which can not, or need not, itself be named.

EXERCISES ON THE IRREGULAR VERBS.
Name the Past tense and Past participle of Take,
drive, creep, begin, abide, buy, bring, arise, catch, be-
reave, am, burst, draw, drink, fly, flee, fall, get, give,
go, feel, forsake, grow, have, hear, hide, keep, know,
lose, pay, ride, ring, shake, run, seek, sell, see, sit, slay,
slide, smite, speak, stand, tell, win, write, weave, etc.

33. ADVERBS.

226. An ADVERB is a word joined to a verb, an
adjective, or another adverb, to modify it, or to de-
note some circumstance respecting it; as, "Ann
speaks distinctly ; she is remarkably diligent, and
reads very correctly."

227. On the same principle that an adverb modifies another
adverb, it sometimes also modifies an adjunct, a phrase, or a sen-
tence-, as, " I met your brother FAR from home;" " He will be
here SOON after mid-day ;" "We shall go IMMEDIATELY after the
mail arrives."

228. The adverbs chiefly, particularly, especially, entirely, al-
together, solely, only, merely, partly, also, likewise, too, etc. some-
times modify nouns and pronouns , as, "7 only am escaped ,'
l< The women also were there."

66 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 34

CLASSIFICATION OF ADVERBS.

229. Adverbs have been divided into various
classes, according to their signification. The chief
of these are the following :

1. Adverbs of Manner ; as, justly, bravely, softly, &c.

2. Of Place ; as, here, there, where ; hither, thence, &c,

3. Of Time ; as, now, then, when, soon, often, never, &c.

4. Of Direction ; as, upward, downward, forward, &c.

5. Of Affirmation ; as, yes, verily, certainly, &c.

6. Of Negation ; as, nay, no, not, nowise, &c.

7. Of Uncertainty ; as, perhaps, peradventure, &c.

8. Of Interrogation ; as, how ? why ? when ? where ? &c.

9. Of Comparison ; as, more, most, less, as, so, thus, &c.
10 Of Quantity ; as, much, some, little, enough, &c.

11. Of Order ; as, first, secondly, thirdly, next, &c.

12. Conjunctive adverbs which stand for two adjuncts,
one of which contains a relative pronoun, and the
other its antecedent ; as, when = at the time at
which ; haw = the manner in which, &c. They
are how, when, where, while, whither, whence.

230. 34. OBSERVATIONS ON ADVERBS.

1 . The chief use of adverbs is to shorten discourse, by expres^
sing in one word what would otherwise require two or more-, as,
here, for u in this place-," nobly, for " in a noble manner," etc.

Phrases for which an adverb is an equivalent are called adjuncts.

2. Adverbs of quality, and a few others, admit of comparison
like adjectives-, as, soon, sooner, soonest; nobly, more nobly, most
nobly. A few are compared irregularly-, as, well, better, best,
badly, or ill, worse, worst.

3. Some words become adverbs by prefixing a, which signifies
it, or on; as, abed, ashore, afloat, aground, apart, etc.

4. In comparisons, the antecedents as and so are usually
reckoned adverbs, because they modify an adjective or another

34. ETYMOLOGY. 07

adverb-, the corresponding as and so are adverbs also, as they
may be resolved into an adjunct-, thus, u It is as high AS Hea-
ven ; " i. e. high in the degree IN WHICH Heaven is high.

5. The compounds of here, there, ichere; a'nd hither, thither,
whither, are all adverbs. Therefore and wherefort t sometimes
tailed conjunctions, are properly adverbs also; therefore being
equivalent to for this reason, and wherefore equivalent to for
which reason; as an interrogative =for what reason ?

6. Many words are used sometimes as adverbs, and sometimes
as other parts of speech ; thus,

Much is used, 1. As an adverb; as, It is much better to give

than to receive.
2. As an adjective-, as. In much wisdom is much

grief.
3. As a noun; as, where much is given, much is

required.
Yesterday is used, 1. As an adverb; as, He came yesterday.

2, As a noun; as, Yesterday is past.

Before is used, 1. As an adverb; as, He came before the dooi

was opened.
' 2. As a preposition; as, He stood before the dooi.

7. Circumstances of time, place, manner, etc. are often ex-
pressed by two or more words constituting an adverbial plirase ;
as, in short, in fine, in general, at most, at least, at length, not
at all, by no means, in vain, in order, long ago, by and bye, to
and fro, etc., which, taken together, may be parsed as adverbs, or
by supplying the ellipsis; thus, in a short space; in a general
ivay, etc.

8. There, commonly used as an adverb of place, is often used
ns an introductory expletive to the verbs to be, to come, to appear,
and some others, when the subject, in declaratory sentences, fol-
lows the verb; as, " There is no doubt of the fact;" u There-
came to the beach a poor exile of Erin-," " There appears tc be
a mistake somewhere." Sometimes, when the subject goes be-
fore, U is placed between the subject and the v.erb; as, u A mis-
take there is." In all such cases, there is a mere expletive. It
adds nothing to the sense, but still it enables to vary the form of
expression, and to soften the abruptness which would otherwise

68 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 35

exist. This will appear by omitting it in any of the above ex-
amples.

231. PARSING. An abverb is parsed by stating what part of
speech the class to which it belongs the word which it modi-
fies its derivation and comparison, if derived and compared
thus, " He speaks fluently? Fluently r , an adverb of manner, and
modifies " speaks ;" derived from fluent, and compared more flu-
ently, most fluently.

EXERCISES ON ADVERBS, IRREGULAR VERBS, etc.
Parse the words in the following exercises.

Peter wept bitterly. He is here now. She went
away yesterday. They came to-day. They will per-
haps buy some to-morrow. Ye shall know hereafter.
She sung sweetly. Cats soon learn to catch mice.
Mary rose up hastily. They that have enough may
sleep soundly. Cain wickedly slew his brother. I saw
mm long ago. He is a very good man. Sooner or later
all must die. You read too little. They talk too much.
James acted wisely. How many lines can you repeat]
You ran hastily. He speaks fluently. Then were they
glad. He fell fast asleep. She should not hold her head
down. The ship was driven ashore. No, indeed. They
are all alike. Let him that is athirst drink freely. The
oftener you read with attention, the more you will im-
prove.

35. PREPOSITIONS.

232. A PREPOSITION is a word which shows the
relation between a noun or pronoun following it,
and some other word in the sentence ; as, Before
honor is humility. The love of money is the root
of all evil. Come to me.

238. NOTE. Of the words related, that before the preposition
is called the antecedent term, and that after it, the subsequent tp.im

ETYMOLOGY.

234. Words of this class are called prepositions, because they aro
usually placed before the nouns or pronouns to which they refer.
The principal, are contained in the following

235. LIST OF PREPOSITIONS.

To be got accurately by heart.

About

Below

From

Through

Above

Beneath

Throughout

Across

Beside

Into

Till, until

After

Besides

Notwithstanding To

Against

Between

Touching

Along

Betwixt

Off

Toward }

Amid 7

Beyond

Towards >

Amidst 5

But

Over

Under

Among )

Out of

Underneath

Amongst $

Concerning

Past

Unto

Around

Down

Regarding

During

Respecting

Upon

Athwart

Except

Round

With

Before

Excepting

Save

Within

Behind

For

Since

Without

236. OBSERVATIONS ON PREPOSITIONS.

1. Every preposition requires an objective case after it. Wheh
a preposition has not a subsequent term or object, it becomes an
adverb; as, He rides about. But in such phrases as, cast up, hold
out, fall on, the words up, out, on, must be considered each as a
part of the verb, rather than as a preposition or an adverb.

2. Certain words are used sometimes as prepositions, and some-
times as adverbs-, as, till, until, after, before, etc.

3. Such words as near, nigh, like, etc., sometimes ranked as
prepositions, are more properly adjectives or adverbs, and the ob-
jective case after them governed by to understood; as, Near (te)
the house,

4. Inseparable prepositions are certain particles never found by

70 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 36.

themselves, but always in composition with another word. Those
purely English are a, be, fore, mis, un.

237. PARSING. A preposition is parsed by stating what part of
speech, and between what words it shows the relation-, thus,
ki The waters of Jordan." Of is a preposition, and shows the
relation between Jordan the antecedent, and waters the subse-
quent term.

EXERCISES CONTAINING PREPOSITIONS.

Parse the words in the following exercises.

He went to town. His father resides in the country.
He gave part of his dinner to a poor man in the street.
They divided the inheritance among them. All rivers
flow into the ocean. He was travelling towards Rome
when they met him at Milan, without a single atten-
dant. The coach was upset between Bristol and Lon-
don on Wednesday last.

36. INTERJECTIONS.

238. An INTERJECTION is a word used in excla-
mations to express an emotion of the mind ; as,
" Oh ! what a sight is here !" " Well done /"

NOTE. An interjection has no grammatical connection with
the other words in a sentence.

A LIST OF INTERJECTIONS.

Adieu ! ah ! alas ! alack ! away ! aha ! begone !
hark! ho! ha! he! hail! halloo! hum! hush! huzza!
hist ! hey-dey ! lo ! 0! Oh ! strange ! brave!
pshaw! see! well-a-day! &c.

239. OBSERVATIONS ON INTERJECTIONS.

1. Many words denominated interjections, are in fact nouns or
verbs, employed in the rapidity of thought and expression occa-
sioned by strong emotion, to denote what would otherwise re-
quire more words to express, as Adieu! for " I commend you to

37 ETYMOLOGY. 71

God 5" Strange! for <c that is strange: 11 Welcome! for u you are
welcome 5" and hence any word or phrase may become an inter-
jection, or be used as such, when it is expressed witn emotion,
and in an unconnected manner-, as, What! Ungrateful creature!
Shocking !

2. O is used to express wishing or exclamation, and should be
prefixed only to a noun or pronoun, in a direct address-, as, u O
virtue! How amiable thou art." Oh! is used detached from the
word, with a point of exclamation after it. It implies an emotion
of pain, sorrow, or surprise j as, " Oh! what a sight is here."

240. PARSING. An interjection is parsed by stating the part
of speech, why, and the emotion expressed-, as, u Oh! what a
sight is here!" Oh! an interjection, because used as an excla
mation, and expresses an emotion of pain.

37. CONJUNCTIONS,

241. A CONJUNCTION is a word which connects
words or sentences ; as, " You and I must study ;
but he may go and play.

242. Conjunctions are divided into two classes ;
Copulative and Disjunctive.

243. Copulative Conjunctions connect things that
are to be considered together. They are both, and,
as, because, for, if, since, that.

244. Disjunctive Conjunctions connect things
that are to be considered separately. The princi-
pal are Either, or, neither, nor, than, though, al-
though, yet, but, except, whether, lest, unless, not
withstanding, save, provided, whereas.

245. And is the principal copulative, and denotes addition. It
das frequently both as a related antecedent conjunction in the pre-
jeding member. The other copulatives denote condition, sup-
oosition, etc.

246. Or and nor are the principal disjunctive conjunctions, and
sometimes have, for their related antecedent conjunctions, either
and neither respectively. The other disjunctives denote concession
doubt, opposition, etc.

72 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 38.

247. It will be seen from the list above that the same woid
varies in its character according to its application: e. g. both, cither,
neither, are sometimes adjective pronouns and sometimes conjunc-
tions ; that is sometimes an adjective pronoun, sometimes a rela-
tive pronoun (, 18,141obs. 2), as well as a conjunction-, /or,
except, are sometimes prepositions-, since and but are sometimes
conjunctions, sometimes prepositions, and sometimes adverbs-,
thus, " since (conj.) we must part, let us do it peaceably-, 1 ' " 1
have not seen him since (prep.) that time-," " Our friendship
commenced long since" (adv.)-, u He is poor, but honest" (conj.);
u All but one" (prep.); " He has but just enough" (adv.).

248. PARSING. A conjunction is parsed by stating the part ol
speech, its class, and the words or sentences which it connects;
as, " He and I must go, but you may stay. And a copulative
conjunction, connecting the words He and /; but a disjunctive
conjunction, connecting the sentences. u He and I must go," and
" you may stay."

38. ETYMOLOGICAL PARSING.

249. ETYMOLOGICAL PARSING consists in stating
the part of speech to which each word belongs,
with its accidents or grammatical properties.

250. Accuracy and expertness in this exercise are an important
acquisition, and can not be fully acquired without a knowledge of
the rules of syntax. At the same time, in order to study the rules
of syntax with advantage, and especially to be able readily to
correct the exercises in false syntax, under each rule, considerable
proficiency in parsing is necessary, The pupil must be able at
once to distinguish the different parts of speech from each other,
and to tell the different cases, .moods, tenses, etc. in which a word is
found, and to change it readily into any other that may be required.

In proceeding to parse a sentence, it is necessary for the pupil
in the first place to understand it. When he understands a sen-
tence, and also the definition of the different parts of speech given
in the grammar, he will not find much difficulty in ascertaining
to which of them each word belongs-, i. e. which of the words are
"names of things." or nouns; which "express the quality of
things," or, "affirm any thing concerning them.," that is to say,

38 ETYMOLOGY. 73

which words are adjectives, and which are verbs. This method
will exercise the discriminating powers of the pupil better, en-
gage his attention much more, and on trial be found much more
easy and certain, than that of consulting his dictionary on every
occasion 5 a plan always laborious, often unsatisfactory, and which,
instead of leading him to exercise his own powers, and depend
on his own resources, will lead him to habits of slavish depend-
ence on the authority of others.

251. The following General principles should be remembered
and steadily kept in view in parsing every sentence, viz :

1. Every adjective qualifies or limits a noun or
pronoun expressed or understood.

2. The subject of a finite verb, i. e. the person
or thing spoken of, is always in the nominative, and
is said to be the " nominative to the verb."

3. Every noun or pronoun in the nominative
case (except the nominative independent, 80, and
the predicate-nominative, 61), is the subject of a
verb, expressed or understood, i. e. it is that of
which the verb affirms.

4. Every verb in the indicative, potential, 01
subjunctive mood, has a nominative or subject ex-
pressed or understood, i. e. it has something of
which it affirms.

5. Every transitive verb in the active voice, and
every preposition, governs a noun or pronoun in
the objective case ; and every objective case is
governed by a transitive active verb, or preposition.

NOTE. Instead of a noun or pronoun, the object of a transitive
active verb is sometime* an infinitive mood or substantive clause.
(386.)

6. Every verb in the infinitive mood is governed
by a verb, adjective, or noun ; and sometimes it
stands after the conjunction than or as. See 6 67.

74 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 39

252. j 39. SPECIMENS OF PARSING.*

" Truth and candor possess a powerful charm."

Previous to parsing this sentence, it may be anatyzed to the
young pupil by such questions as the following, viz: What is
spoken of in this sentence? Truth and candor What is said of
them? They possess some thing. What do they possess? A
charm. What soil of charm do they possess? A powerful
charm. The sentence being understood, may be parsed briefly thus :
** Truth," A noun, neuter, in the nominative singular, and,

with candor, the subject of possess.
" JLnd," A copulative Conjunction, connecting " truth" with

" candor."
" Candor" A noun, neuter, in the nominative singular, and,

with truth, the subject of possess.
" Possess" A verb transitive, in the present indicative active,

third person plural, and affirms of truth and candor.
"tf," The indefinite article, belongs to charm, and shews it is

used indefinitely.
"Powerful," an adjective, positive degree, qualifying "charm,"

compared by more and most ; as, more, powerful, most

powerful.
lv Charm" a noun, neuter, in the objective singular, the object of

possess.

NOTE. It will also be a profitable exercise to require a reason for every thing
stated in parsing a word, as for example, Why do you say that "Truth" is a noun ?
is neuter? singular? the nominative? To which questions it may be answered,
Because it is the name of a thing because it is without sex denotes but one,
and (together with candor) is the subject or nominative of the verb " possess;" or
is the thing spoken of (See note p. 17). This exercise should be continued tili the
pupil is able to answer all such questions on any of the parts of speech promptly
and intelligently.

*In parsing, the pupil should be required to state every thing belonging to the
etymology of each word in as few words as possible, and without waiting to
have every thing drawn from him by questions from his teacher; this will savo
much time and unnecessary labor. It will also contribute much to order and
precision, to have every tiling respecting each part of speech expressed always
in the same order and in the same language. These specimens are given as an
example.

39 ETYMOLOGY. 75

All the parts of speech are contained in the fol-
lowing stanza.

O how stupendous was the power

That raised me with a word ;
And every day, and every hour,
I lean upon the Lord.

O. Interjection, expressing admiration.

how . An adverb of manner, modifying stupendous.

stupendous, An adjective, positive degree, qualifying power, com-
pared by more and most.

was A verb intransitive, irregular, am, was, been, in the

past indicative active, and affirms of power.

the . The definite article belonging to power, shewing it to

be limited.

power A noun, neuter, in the nominative singular, subject

of was.

that A relative pronoun used for which, in nominative sin-
gular, subject of raised, and relates to power its an-
tecedent.

raised A verb transitive, in the past indicative active, third

pers. singular, affirms of that its subject, for power.

me The first personal pronoun masculine or feminine in

the objective singular, object of raised.

with A preposition, shewing the relation between word its

subsequent, and raised its antecedent term.

a The indefinite article, belongs to word, and shews it is

not limited.

word . ... A noun, neuter, in the obj. singular, object of with.

and A copulative conjunction, connecting the following

with the preceding sentence.

every A distributive adjective pronoun, qualifying day.

day ...... A noun, neuter, in the objective singular, restrictive

( 50 Sub - Rule] .

and A copulative conjunction, connecting day and hour.

every ..... A distributive adjective pronoun, qualifying hour.

hour A noun, neuter, in the objective singular, same as rfay

76 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 40.

/ The first personal pronoun, masculine or feminine,

nominative singular, subject of lean.
lean A verb intransitive, in the present indicative active

first person singular, and affirms of /.
upon .... A preposition, showing the relation between Lord^ it*

subsequent, and lean, its antecedent term.
the The definite article, belonging to Xorrf, and shewing

it to be limited.
Lord A noun, masculine, in the objective singular, object

of upon.

253. 40. EXERCISES IN PARSING.*

RULE 1. Two or more adjectives in succession, either with or
without a conjunction, qualify the same word; as,

A wise and faithful servant will always study his
master's interest. A dismal, dense, and portentous
cloud overhangs the city. A steady, sweet, and cheerful
temper affords great delight to its possessor. He has
bought a fine new coat. A sober and virtuous course
of conduct generally leads to happiness. Virtuous
youth brings forth accomplished and flourishing man-
hood. She had a regular and polite education.

RULE 2. When an adjective precedes two nouns, it generally
qualifies them both; as,

They waited for &jit time and place. I am delighted
with the sight of green woods and fields. He displayed
great prudence and moderation. He was a man of great
wisdom and moderation. Guard against rash temper
and conduct. They shewed sincere respect and esteem
for their friends.

RtJLB 3. When an adjective comes after the intransitive verb
TO BE, TO BECOME, and some others, it qualifies the nominative
of that verb; as,

John is wise. They were temperate. The sky is
very clear. These rivers are deep and rapid. The

*The rules in this section are not intended to be committed to memory, but to
be used as directions to the beginner in parsing the exercises under them

40. ETYMOLOGY. ?7

apples will soon be ripe. We have been attentive to
our lessons. These mountains are very high. The
sea is tempestuous. Our friends should be dear to us,
His behavior was entirely inconsistent. The Supreme
being is wise and good. Their pictures and books are
valuable. John's schemes were absurd.

RULE 4. Whatever words the verb TO BE serves to unite, refer-
ring to the same thing ^ must be of the same case ( 61) ; as,

Alexander is a student. Mary is a beautiful girl.
Hope is the balm of life. Content is a great blessing,
envy a great curse. Knowledge is power. His meat
was locusts and wild honey. He was the life of the
company. She will be the delight of her friends. Mil-
ton is the prince of English poets. Shakspeare was
a man of unbounded genius. Johnson was a powerful
writer. Contentment is great gain. He might be a
most happy man. I understood it to be him. I sup-
posed it to have been them. They imagined it to be me.

Note. It is necessary to the application of this rule, that the words connected
refer to the same thing. This connection is often made by other words than the
verb to be. (See 61, Rem. I.)

RULE 5. Nouns and pronouns put one after another, and de-
noting the same object, are said to be in APPOSITION, and always
agree in case; as,

Alexander the coppersmith was not a friend to the
Apostle Paul. Hope, the balm of life, is our greatest
friend. Thomson, the author of the Seasons, is a
delightful poet. Temperance, the best preserver of
health, should be the study of all men. He greatly
displeased his friend Cato. We received orders from
General Washington, commander-in- chief. Religion
and virtue, our best support, and highest honor, confer
on the mind principles of noble independence.

Note. In parsing such sentences as the preceding, a relative and a verb may bo
inserted between the words in apposition : as, Hope which is the balm, &c. My-
self, thyself, himself, &c., oftea stand at a considerable distance, from the words
with which they agree ; as,

Thomas despatched the letter himself. They ga-
thered the flowers in the garden themselves. Ann saw
the transaction herself, and could not be mistaken.

78 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 40

RULE 6. Myself, thyself, himself, etc., often form the objective*
after transitive verbs, of which the words they represent are tht
subjects or nominatives. They are t in such cases, called Reflexive
pronouns; as,

/ hurt myself. He wronged himself to oblige us.
They will support themselves by their industry. She
endeavored to shew herself off to advantage. We must
confine ourselves more to our studies. They hurt
themselves by their great anxiety.

RULE 7. Jldjectivef, taken as nouns, and used in reference to
persons, arc generally of the plural number; as,

The valiant never taste of death but once. The
virtuous are generally the most happy. The diligent
make most improvement. The sincere are always es-
teemed. The inquisitive are generally talkative. The
dissipated are much to be pitied. The company of the
profane should be carefully avoided. The temperate
are generally the most healthy.

RULE 8. Nouns and pronouns, takenin the same connection, must '
be of the same case; as,

The master taught him and me to write. He and
she were school-fellows. My brother and he are toler-
able grammarians. He gave the book to John and
Thomas. I lent my knife and pencil to one of the
scholars. Peter and John gained the highest prizes.
The snow and the ice have quite disappeared. Exer-
cise and temperance are the best promoters of health.

RULE 9. JL relative generally precedes the verb that governs it; as,

He is a friend loliom I greatly respect. They whom
luxury has corrupted, can not relish the simple plea-
sures of life. The books which I bought yesterday,
I have not yet received. The trees which he planted
in the spring have all died. He has lost the friend
whom he so much respected. The lesson which we
have finished, has not been difficult.

RULE 10. When both a relative and its antecedent have each a
verb belonging to it, the relative is commonly the nominative to
the first verb . and the antecedent to the second; as,

40. ETYMOLOGY. 79

HE who acts wisely DESERVES praise. He who is a
stranger to industry, may possess, but he can not enjoy.
They who are born in high stations are not always the
most happy. The man who is faithfully attached to
religion, may be relied on with confidence. Those who
excite envy will easily incur censure.

RULE 11 . What, being equal to that which, or the thing which,
may represent two cases, either both nominatives or both objectives;
or, the one the nominative and the other the objective; as,

This is precisely ivliat was necessary. What can not
be prevented, must be endured. We must not delay
till to-morrow, what ought to be done to-day. Choose
what is most fit; custom will make it the most agree-
able. Foolish men are more apt to consider what they
have lost, than what they possess.

RULE 12. Whoever and whosoever, used as relatives ( 16, Obs.
3). generally have the antecedent implied^so that they seem to stand
as the nominative to two verbs , or as at once the objective after a verb
or preposition, and the nominative to a succeeding verb. The same
is the case with whatever and whatsoever-, as,

Whoever told such a story, must have been misin-
formed. Whoever is not content in poverty, would not
be perfectly happy in the midst of plenty. Whoever
passes his time in idleness, can make but little im-
provement. Whatever gives pain to others, deserves
not the name of pleasure. Whatever is worth doing
at all, is worth doing well.

NOTE. Whatever is most frequently used, as what sometimes is ( 16, Obs
2), simply to qualify a noun; as,

Aspire to perfection, in whatever state of life you
may be placed. I forgot what words he uttered. By
what means shall we obtain wisdom. By whatever
arts we may attract attention, we can secure esteem
only by amiable dispositions.

RULE 13. Though participles never directly declare, yet they
always imply something either done or doing^ and are used in
reference to some noun or pronoun ; as,

Admired and applauded, he became vain. Having
finished our lessons, we went to play. Proceeding on

80 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 40

his journey, he was seized with a dangerous malady.
Being engaged at the time of my call, he had not a mo-
ment to spend with me. Having early disgraced him-
self, he became mean and dispirited. Knowing him to
be my superior, I cheerfully submitted.

RULE 14. The past participle of a few intransitive verbs is some-
times joined to the verb to be, which gives them a passive appear*
nnce ; as,

I am come, in compliance with your desire. If such
maxims and practices prevail, what is become of de-
cency and virtue ? The old house is at length fallen
down. John is gone to London.

RULE 15. Intransitivcs are often followed by prepositions, ma-
king what are sometimes called compound transitive verbs. The
verb and preposition may in such cases be parsed either together
or separately in the active voice. In the passive voice , they must
be parsed together / as,

He laughed at such folly. They smiled upon us in
such a way as to inspire courage. He struck at his
friend with great violence. He was much laughed at
for such conduct. He was prevailed upon to go.

RULE 16. A noun or pronoun is often used with a participle ,
without being connected in grammatical construction with any
other icords of the sentence. It is then called the nominative AB-
SOLUTE 5 as,

The father being dead, the whole estate came into
the hands of the eldest son. He destroyed, or won to
what may work his utter loss, all this will soon follow.
Whose gray top shall tremble, he descending. The
house being built and finished, he was expected to take
immediate possession. The sun rising, darkness flies
away. Our work being finished, we will play.

RULE 17. To, the sign of the infinitive, is omitted after the
verbs bid, dare, need, make, see, hear, feel, and let in the active
voice; and sometimes after perceive, behold, observe, have, know,
etc.-, as,

Let me look at your portrait. He bade me go with
him. I heard him assert the opinion I like to sse you

40. ETYMOLOGY. 81

behave so well. Let him apply to his books, and then
lie will make improvement. Let us make all the haste
in our power. I saw him ride past at great speed. I
have observed some satirists use the term.

RULE 18. Verbs connected by conjunctions, are usually in the
same mood and tense; but in the compound tenses the sign is often
used with the first only, and understood with the rest; as,

He can neither read nor write. He shall no longer
tease and vex me as he has done. He commanded them
that they should not depart from Jerusalem, but wait
for the promise of the father. His diligence should have
been commended and rewarded. Every mind, in its
present state, is obliged to receive information, and
execute its purposes, by the intervention of the body.
Fame can not spread wide, or endure long, that is not
rooted in nature, and matured by art.

RULE 19. Nouns and pronouns are often governed by a preposi-
tion understood; and nouns fcno'.vtg time, value, weight, or measure,
are used to restrict verbs or adjectives without a governing word
(307) ; as,

He gave (to) me a full account of the whole affair.
Will you lend me your knife. It is not time yet to go
home. He returned home at a very inconvenient sea-
son. He travelled on foot last summer as far as Lon-
don. He was in Paris last month. He visited Rome
last year in the spring. They remained twenty-four
days at Naples, and walked twelve miles each day.
I sent him the despatches some time ago. A wall ten
feet high. It is worth a dollar.

RULE 20. The conjunctions than and as, implying comparison,
'iave the same case after them as before them, and the latter case
has the same construction as the former; as,

He has more books than my brother (has). Mary
is not so handsome as her sister (is). They respect
him more than (they respect) us. James is not so dili-
gent as Thomas. They are much greater gainers than
I by this unexpected event. Though she is not so
learned as he, she is as much beloved and respected.

8 b 2 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 40.

RULE 21. The class of words or part of speech to which a word
belongs, depends often on its application; as,

Calm was the day, and the scene, delightful. We
may expect a calm after a storm. To prevent passion,
is easier than to calm it. Better is a little with con--
tent, than a great deal with anxiety. The gay and
dissolute think little of the miseries which are stealing
softly after them. A little attention will rectify some
errors. Though he is out of danger, he is still afraid.
He laboured to still the tumult. Still waters are com
monly deepest. Damp air is unwholesome. Guilt
often casts a damp over our sprightliest hours. Soft
bodies damp the sound much more than hard ones.
Though she is rich and fair, yet she is not amiable.
They are young, and must suspend their judgment yet
a while. Many persons are better than we suppose
them to be. The few and the many have their pre-
possessions. Few days pass without some clouds.
Much money is corrupting. Think much and speak
little. He has seen much of the world, and been much
caressed. His years are more than hers, but he has
not more knowledge. The more we are blessed, the
more grateful we should be. The desire of getting
more is rarely satisfied. He has equal knowledge, but
inferior judgment. She is his inferior in sense, but his
equal in prudence.

RULE 22. Do, have,an<i be, are principal verbs when used by
themselves^ but auxiliaries when connected with oiher verbs; as,

He does all in his power to gain esteem. He did his
utmost to please his friend. We must do nothing that
will sully our reputation. She lias a strong claim to
our respect. They had not the slightest intention to
wound our feelings. The man who has no sense of
religion, is little to be trusted. He who does the most
good, has the most pleasure. They were not in the
most prosperous circumstances, when we last saw them.
He does not write so well as he reads. We did not
stay with him more than a month. True wisdom doetr*
not inspire pride. The butler did not remember Jo

40. ETYMOLOGY. S3

seph. Did he send the book, as he was desired ? Do
they make much progress in their studies ? Have they
ascertained- the person who gave the information?
They had not determined what course to take. We
are surprised at the news.

RULE 23. An infinitive, ei participle, or a member of a sentence,
which may be called a substantive phrase, is often the nominative
to a verb, or the objective after a transitive verb or preposition; as,

1. Nominative. To study hard, is the best way to im-
prove. To endure misfortune with resignation, is the
characteristic of a great mind. To advise the ignorant,
relieve the needy and comfort the distressed, are duties
incumbent on all. John's being from home occasioned
the delay. His having neglected opportunities of im-
provement, was the cause of his disgrace. The im-
planting of right principles in the breast of the young,
is important both to themselves and to society. To
assist a friend in such circumstances, was a duty.

2. Objective. He that knows how to do good, and
does it not, is without excuse. He will regret his
having neglected opportunities of improvement, when
it may be too late. He declared that nothing could
give him greater pleasure. Of making many books
there is no end.

84 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 40

In such examples, whether the phrase be in the nominative or objective case,
. e. whether it be the subject of a verb, or the object of a transitive verb or pre-

judge," asserts a fact. " His being a judge J> or, " to be ajiulge," assumes it.
In all these examples the word judge is the predicate-nominative. In parsing
such phrases, the words may be taken separately, or the whole phrase may be
parsed as one word ( 61, Hem. 2). See also Analytical and Practical Gram*
mar, 583-24, with references. The following also are examples.

He had the honour of being a director for life. By
being a diligent student, he soon acquired eminence in
his profession. Many benefits result to men from being
wise and temperate (men).

RULE 24. The pronoun it often refers to persons ( 15, Obs. 5)
or to an infinitive or clause coming after / as,

It is John that is to blame. It was I that wrote the
letter. Itjs the duty of all to improve. It is the bu-
siness of every man, to prepare for death. It was re-
served for Newton, to discover the law of gravitation.
It is easy to form good resolutions, but difficult to put
them in practice. It is incumbent on the young, to love
and honour their parents.

RULE 25. Words, especially in poetry, are often much trans .
posed; as,

Great is Diana of the Ephesians. On yourself de-
pend for aid. Happy the man who puts his trust i
his maker. Of night the gloom was dark and dense.

Or where the gorgeous east, with richest hand,
Showers on her kings barbaric, pearls and gold.

No hive hast thou of hoarded sweets .

A transient calm the happy scenes bestow

When first thy sire to send on earth

Virtue, his darling child, designed.

On flattering appearances put no reliance.

He with viny crown advancing.

First to the lively pipe his hand addressed.

Grieved though thou art, forbear the rash design.
Not half so dreadful rises to the sight
Orion's doa:. the year whori Autumn weighs.

41 ETYMOLOGY; 85

41. PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES IN PARSING.

The world was made by a Supreme Being. He who
made it, now preserves and governs it. Nothing hap-
.pens without his permission. He sees all our actions,
and hears all our words. The thoughts of the heart
are known to him. In him we live, he gave us life, and
without him we can not breathe. Wherever we are,
God is with us. When we sit in the house, God is
there; and when we walk by the way, he is at our
right hand. He is a spirit, and fills heaven and earth
with his presence.

Demosthenes, who was born at Athens, was a very
famous orator. He acquired the art of speaking by
great labor and study. By nature he had not a good
voice, and could not rightly pronounce some words.
That he might learn to speak distinctly, he put small
round pebbles in his mouth while he spoke, in order to
cure his defect. He used to shut himself up in his
chamber, and to study a whole month together. He
often went to the shore, and pronounced his orations
to the waves, that he might be better able to endure
the noise and clamor of the people. He made many
orations both on private and public occasions ; but he
used his eloquence chiefly against Philip, king of Ma-
cedon; and, in several orations, he stirred up the Athe-
nians to make war against him.

The mimic thrush, or mocking bird, is about the size
of a blackbird, but somewhat more slender. The plu-
mage is grey, but paler on the under parts than above.

This capricious little mimic seems to have a singular
pleasure in archly leading other birds astray. He is
said at one time to allure the smaller birds with the
call of their mates ; and when these come near, to ter*
rify them with the scream of the eagle. There is
scarcely a bird of the forest, that is not at some time
deceived by'his call.

None. For additional exercises in parsing, any simple correct writer ma?
be used.

PART THIRD.

43. SYNTAX.

254. SYNTAX is that part of Grammar which
treats of the proper arrangement and connection
of words in a sentence.

255. A sentence is such an assemblage of words as makes com-
plete sense , as, Man is mortal.

256. A phrase is two or more words rightly put together, but
not making complete sense-, as, In truth; to be plain with you,

257. Sentences are of two kinds, Simple and Compound.

258. A Simple sentence has but one subject and one finite verb,
i. e. a verb not in the infinitive or participles-, as, Life is short.

259. A Compound sentence contains two or more simple sen-
tences combined; as, Life, which is short, should be well employed.

260. Every simple sentence consists of two parts, the subject
and the predicate.

261. The subject is that of which something is affirmed-, as,
Snow is white: John reads.

262. The predicate is that which is affirmed of the subject 5 as %
Snow is white: John reads.

263. The predicate properly consists of two parts the attribute
affirmed of the subject, and the copula by which the affirmation is
made. Thus in the first example, is white is the predicate, of
which white is the attribute, and is, the copula.

264. The attribute and copula are generally expressed by one
word, which in that case must always be a verb, as in the second
example-, John reads John is reading. Hence,

265. The predicate may be a noun or pronoun, an adjective, a
preposition with its case, or an adverb ; also an infinitive, or clause
of a sentence as an attribute, together with the copula by which
it is connected with, and affirmed of the subject-, or it may be a
verb, which includes in itself both attribute and copula.

266. Both subject and predicate may each be attended by other
words called adjuncts, which serve to modify or restrict the
meaning of the word with which they stand connected-, ag, * c An

44 45. SYNTAX. 87

inordinate desire of admiration often produces a contemptible levity
of deportment."

267. The subject without an adjunct, is called the Grammatical
subject; with its adjunct, it is called tne Logical subject.

268. The predicate without an adjunct, is called the Gramma-
tical predicate; with its adjunct, it is called tne Logical predicate t

269. When a compound sentence is so framed that the meaning
is suspended till the whole be finished, it is called a Period.

270. 44. GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF SYNTAX.

1. In every sentence, there must be a verb and a no-
minative or subject, expressed or understood.

2. Every article, adjective, adjective pronoun, or par
ticiple, must have a substantive expressed or understood,

3. Every subject-nominative has its own verb ex-
pressed or understood.

4. Every verb [except in the infinitive and participles]
has its own nominative expressed or understood.

5. Every possessive case is governed by a substan-
tive [50], denoting the thing possessed.

6. Every objective case is governed by a transitive
verb in the active voice, or preposition [Exc., See 307],

7. The infinitive mood is governed by a verb, an
adjective or substantive [For Exc. See 67].

45. PARTS OF SYNTAX.

271. The Rules of Syntax may all be included under
three heads, Concord, Government, and Position.

272. Concord is the agreement which one word has
with another in gender, number, case, or person.

273. Government is that power which one word has
in directing the mood, tense or case of another word.

274. Position means the place which a word occu-
pies in a sentence.

275. In the English language, which has but few inflections
the meaning of a sentence depends much on its arrangement

88 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 46.

276. 46. RULE I. A Verb must agree with iU
nominative in number and person ; as, Thou read-
est, He reads, We read.

277. Rem. 1. The nominative to a verb is known by putting the question Who I
or What ? with the verb. The answer to the question will be the nominative
as, " I read." Who reads? Am. /.

278. Rem 2. Under this rule the General Principles $ 44. 3, 4, must be cam.
lally observed. For, as follows, as concerns, as appears, <fcc. See 86, 3.

EXERCISES.

I loves reading. A soft answer turn away wrath.
We is but of yesterday, and knows nothing. The days
of man is but as grass. Thou sees how little has been
done. He need not proceed in such haste. He dare
not act otherwise. Fifty pounds of wheat contains forty
pounds of flour. A variety of pleasing objects charm
the eye. So much both of ability and merit are seldom
found. Nothing but vain and foolish pursuits delight
some persons. A judicious arrangement of studies fa-
cilitate improvement. A few pangs of conscience now
and then interrupts his pleasure, and whispers to him
that he once had better thoughts. There was more
impostors than one. What signifies good opinions, when
our practice is bad? To these precepts are subjoined
a copious selection of rules and maxims.

In vain our flocks and fields increase our store,
When our abundance make us wish for more.
The number of our days are with thee. There re-
mains two points to be considered. There is in fact no
impersonal verbs in any language. I have considered
what have been said on both sides. Great pains has
been taken to make this work as useful as possible.
In piety and virtue consist the happiness of man.

In order to exercise the judgment of the pupil, as well as to show that he under-
itands the rule, he may be required to assign a reason for the changes made in
iorrecting the exercises under this and the following rules. If well versed in
parsing, this may be done without loss of time, even in a large class, by directing
him to state the reason always, without waiting to be asked for it. Thus in tho
preceding exercises, "Loves" should be "love," because " /" is the 1st pers
sing. "Turn" should be "turns," because "answer" is the 3d per*, sing. &c

47 SYNTAX. 89

47 SPECIAL RULES AND OBSERVATIONS UNDER RULE i

279. RULE I. The subject of a verb should be in the nominative,
as, He and she are of the same age ; not, Him and her.

280. RULE II. The Infinitive mood or part of a sentence's often
used as the nominative to a verb ; as, To play is pleasant-, Hi*
being at enmity with Ccesar, was the cause of perpetual discord.

281. RULE III. A noun singular used for a plural, is joined to a
-plural verb / as, Ten sail of the line were seen at a distance.
10, 4,note.}

282. NOTE. Nouns plural in form, but singular In signification, may bejoiueO
with either a singular or plural verb. 10, 5.

283. RULE IV. Ji noun and its pronoun should never be used
as a nominative to the same verb; as, The king is just $ not, the
king, he is just. Except that himself ', herself, etc. are joined with
a noun or pronoun, rendering it emphatic. 15. Obs. 2.

284. RULE V. When the verb TO BE stands between a singular
and a plural nominative, it agrees with the one next it, or the one.
which is more naturally the subject of it / as, The wages of sin
is death.

EXERCISES ON PRECEDING RULES.

I. Him and I are able to do it. You and us enjoy
many privileges. I thought you and them had become
friends. If you were here, you would find three or four,
whom you would say pass their time very agreeably.

II. To live soberly, righteously and godly are requi-
red of all men. To do to others as we would that they
should do to us, constitute the great principle of virtue.

III. Forty head of cattle was grazing in yonder mea-
dow. Twelve brace of pigeons was sold for a dollar.

IV. Simple and innocent pleasures they alone are
durable. My banks they are furnished with bees. This
rule if it had been observed, a neighboring prince would
have wanted a great deal of that incense which has
been offered to him. John, lie said so, and Thomas,
he said so, and the rest of them, they all said so.

V. A great cause of the low state of industry was
the restraints put upon it. His meat were locusts and
wild honey. The crown of virtue is peace and honour.

90 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 48.

'285. 48. RULE II. A transitive verb^ in the
active voice, governs the objective case; as, We
love him. He loves us. Wliom did they send?

286. S. RUIE I. The infinitive mood, or part of a sentence, at
icell as a noun or pronoun, may be the object of a transitive active
verb ; as, Boys love to play ; I wish that they were wise.

287. S. RULE II. Jin intransitive verb used transitively (153).
governs the objective case; as, " Let us run the race."

288. S. RULE III. Verbs signifying TO NAME, CHOOSE, APPOINI
and the like, govern two objectives; as, they named him John.

289. Under S. RULE II, (287), may be classed such expressions as the follow,
uig : u The brooks ran nectar." "The trees wept gums and balm."

290. Rem. 1. The participle, being a part of the verb, governs the same case.

291. Rem 2. "When the objective is a relative or an interrogative, it comes be-
fore the verb that governs it.

292. Rem. 3. A transitive verb in the active voice, without an object, either
has an object understood, or is used intransitively (155).

293. Rem. 4. As substantives have no distinct form of the objective case, the
arrangement of the sentence should clearly distinguish the one case from the
other. The nominative generally precedes the verb ; the objective follows it;
but when the objective is a relative or interrogative, it precedes both the verb
and Us nominative. The objective should not, if possible,be separated from its verb.

EXERCISES.

' He loves I. He and they we know, but who art thou ?
She that is idle and mischievous, reprove sharply. Ye
only have I known. Let thou and I try it. He who is
guilty, thou shouldst correct; not I who am innocent.

(R. I.) Esteeming theirselves wise, they became fools.
Upon seeing I, he turned pale. Having exposed his self
to the fire of the enemy, he soon lost an arm in the action.

(R. 2.) The man who he raised from obscurity, is
dead. Who did they entertain so freely? They are the
persons who we ought to respect. Who having not seen,
we love. They who opulence has made proud, and who
luxury has corrupted, are not happy. Who do I love
BO much ? Who shall I pay for this service ?

(R. 3.) Faulty arrangement. This is the man, he
believed, whom he would send on that business. Becket
could not better discover, than by attacking so power-
ful an interest, his resolution to maintain his right.

49. SYNTAX. 91

49 SPECIAL RULES UNDER

294. I. Intransitive verbs never govern an objective case; thus
M Repenting him of his design," should be, " repenting of his
design."

295. Rem. Such expressions as "laughed him to scorn;" " looked daggert;"
' Talked the night away," fire anomalies.

296. II. Intransitive verbs do not admit a passive voice.

297. NOTE. An intransitive verb used transitively (153), is in that case consi-
dered transitive, and not subject to the preceding rules.

29 S. III. Transitive verbs do not admit a preposition after
them; thus, u I must premise with three circumstances," should
be, " I must premise three circumstances."

299. OBS. Verbs signifying to ask, teach, offer, promise, pay, tell, allow, deny,
and some others, sometimes in colloquial language have an objective case after
the passive voice ; as, I was taught Grammar. This may also be expressed ac-
tively ; as, He taught (to) me Grammar ; or passively, Grammar was taught
\to) me.

EXERCISES.

I. The king found reason to repent him of such dan-
gerous enemies. They did not fail to enlarge them-
selves on the subject. Go flee thee away into the land
of Judea. It will be difficult to agree his conduct with
the principles he professes. " Then having showed his
wounds, he'd sit him down."

II. This person was entered into a conspiracy against
his master. Fifty men are deserted from the army.
The influence of this corrupt example was then entirely
ceased. My father was returned yesterday.

III. I shall premise with two or three general obser-
vations. He ingratiates with some, by traducing others.
We ought to disengage from the world by degrees. He
tfill not allow of it. They shall not want for encou-

agement. The covetous man pursues after gain.

[OBS.] Change the following sentences into the form*
specified in the Obs. A few questions were asked at
cne witness. A sliip was promised to him in a few
weeks. A pardon was offered [to] him. Great liberty
was allowed [to] me. That was told [to] him some
time ago. The jewels ivere offered to her.

*92 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 50

bOO. 50. RULE III. Prepositions govern the
objective case ; as, To whom much is given, of him
much shall be required.

301. Obs The object of a preposition is sometimes an infinitive mood, or part
of a sentence j as. About to depart ; Much depends on who are his advisers.

302. Rein. 1. Prepositions are commonly placed before the words which they
govern, and as near to them as possible; but never before the relative that. But
whom and which are sometimes governed by a preposition at some distance after
them ; but this should generally be avoided in composition.

303. Rem. 2. The preposition, with its regimen^ should be placed as near aa
possible to the word to which it is related.

304. Rem. 3. For is not now used before the infinitive mood.

305. Rer" 4. It is generally inelegant and improper to connect a preposition
and active verb with the same word ; as, I wrote t o, and warned him of his danger.

306. Rem. 5. The preposition is often omitted ; as. Give [to] me the book ; do
it [in] your own way ; I wrote [to] you long ago ; like [unto] his father. Many
cases of suppose;! ellipsis, however, may come under tke following :

307. S. RULE. Nouns denoting time, value, weight, or measure,
are commonly put in the objective case, without a governing word ;
as, " He was absent six months" " It costs a penny ; but it is not
worth & farthing? " The parcel weighs a pound? " The wall is
six feet high."

EXERCISES.

To who will you give that pen ? Will you go with
him and I ? Withhold not good from they to who it is
due. With who do you live ? Great friendship subsists
between he and I. He laid the suspicion on somebody,
I know not who, in the company. [Eem. 1] Who do
you speak to ? Who did they ride with ? To have no
one who we are concerned for, is a deplorable state.
It was not he whom they were so angry with. The book
which the story is printed in, is full of fiction. 2. The
embarrassments of the artificers rendered the progress
very slow of the work. Beyond this period, the arts
can not be traced of civil society. 3. What went ye
out for to see ? Can you give me wax for to seal this
letter ? He set out for to go home an hour ago. 4. He
was afraid of, and wished to shun them. He claimed
and insisted upon his rights. 5. Will you lend to
me your grammar? I will return it on to-morrow.

51. SYNTAX. 93

308. 51. RULE IV. Two or more substantives
singular, taken in connection, require a verb in the
plural; as, 1. Cato and Cicero were learned. 2. Honor,
justice, religion itself, are derided by the profligate.

309. Rein. 1. Substantives are viewed in connection when they stand togethej
as the nominative to the same verb, not separately, but combined, forming a plu-
ral subject, i. e. a subject consisting of more things than one. Sometimes they
are joined by the conjunction and, as in the first example ; sometimes they are
without a conjunction, as in the second.

310. Rem. 2. A singular nominative and an objective connected by trith, some
times have a plural verb; as, "The ship with the crew were lost." This coo.
struction is incorrect, and should not be imitated. It should be "the ship with
the crew was lost," or, " the ship and the creiv were lost."

311. Rem. 3. But when two names are used to represent one subject, the verb
must be in the singular ; as, Why is dust and ashes proud.

312. Rem. 4. When comparison is expressed or implied, and not combination^
the verb should be singular ; as, Caesar, as well as Cicero, was remarkable for
eloquence (315).

EXERCISES.

Patience and diligence, like faith, removes mountains.
Life and death is in the power of the tongue. Wisdom,
virtue, happiness, dwells with the golden mediocrity.
Anger and impatience is always unreasonable. His
politeness and good disposition was, on failure of their
effect, entirely changed. By whose power all good and
evil is distributed. Languor and satiety destroys all
enjoyment. Out of the same mouth proceedeth bles-
sing and cursing. Leisure of life and tranquillity of
mind, which fortune and your own wisdom has given
you, is capable of being better employed.

[Rem. 3.] That able scholar and critic have been emi-
nently useful. Your friend and patron, whose name 1
have forgotten, have just now been enquiring for you.

[Rem. 4.] I, as well as they, are entitled to redress.
Perseverance, as well as talents and application, are
necessary to eminence in literary pursuits. But he, as
well as Lord Clive, have been harshly judged bj mei
who have listened to their enemies.

94 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 52

313. 52. RULE V. Two or more substantives
singular, taken separately, or one to the exclusion of
tiie rest, have a verb in the singular; as, John, or
James, or Andrew, intends to accompany you.

311. R0m. 1. Substantive? are taken separately, when, though they all stand as
the nominative to the verb, yet either one, exclusive of all the rest, is the subject
Df discourse, as in the example above; or, though all are equally the subject of
discourse, yet they are not so in combination, but individually. In this case the
verb agrees with the last, and is understood to the rest.

315. Rein. 2. Substantives taken separately are connected by or, nor, as well
is, and also. A noun taken to the exclusion of the rest is connected wuh them
by such expressions as, and not, but not, not, etc. Also nouns after each, every,
no, though connected by and. But each and every used distributively after a
plural subject, do not affect the verb; as, u They have conspired, each to re-
commend the other;" " They, each in his turn, have done their duty."

316. RULE. A singular and a plural nominative, connected by
a disjunctive, require a verb in the plural, and the plural nomi-
native should be placed next the verb; as, Neither the captain nor
the sailors were saved.

EXERCISES.

Either the boy or the girl were present. It must
be confessed that a lampoon or a satire do not carry in
it robbery or murder. The modest virgin, the prudent
wife, or the careful matron, are much more serviceable
in life than a petticoated philosopher. Neither precept
nor discipline are so forcible as example. A clock or
a watch move merely as it is moved. Every man,
woman, and child, were excluded. They, every one,
pursues their destined course. Each of the seasons, as
it revolves, give fresh proof of the Divine power and
goodness. The seasons, each as it revolves, gives plea-
sure to the soul. Neither poverty nor riches was inju-
rious to him. They or he was offended. Neither the
king nor his ministers deserves to be praised. Whether
one or more was concerned in the business, does not
yet appear. An ostentatious, a feeble, a harsh, or an
obscure style, are always a fault. Neither the captain,
nor the passengers, nor any of the crew, was saved.

53, SYNTAX. 95

317. 53. RULE VI. 1. IVhen two or more nomina-
tives combined are of different persons, the verb is
plural, and prefers the jirst person to the second, and
the second,to the third; as, He and I are brothers.

2. When nominatives of different persons are dis-
junctively connected, the verb in the singular agrees
with the person next to it; as, "He or lam to blame.""

It is generally better, however, to express the verb
with each nominative; as, "He is to blame,or I am."

318. Rem. 1. In the order of arrangement in English, the second person if
usually placed before the third, and the first person is always placed last.

319. Rem. 2. Under the first of these rules, if the verb be made plural, there
will be no liability to error in person, as all the persons in the plural are alike.
Still, the rule will serve to point out the person of the verb. Thus, are in the ex-
ample is in the first person.

EXERCISES.

1. James, and thou, and I, am attached to our country.
Thou, and the gardener, and the huntsman, has to
share the blame of this business. My sister and I, as
well as my brother, is daily employed in bur respective
occupations. While you are playing, my brother and
I am attentive to our studies.

2 Either thou or I art greatly mistaken. He or I
is sure of this week's prize. (Rem. 1) I or John has done
it. He or thou art the person who must go on that busi-
ness. Thomas or thou hast spilt the ink on my paper.

Promiscuous Exercises on the Preceding Rules.

You was there. Was the horses ready. There are
a flock of geese. In the human species, the influence of
instinct and habit are generally assisted by the sugges-
tions of reason. His having robbed several men, were
the cause of his punishment. Learning, how much
soever it may be despised by some, yet men know it to
be an acquirement of great value. He, not the minis-
ters, control all things. His wisdom and not his mo
ney produce esteem.

iHi ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 54.

320. 54. RULE VII. 1. When a collective noun
conveys the idea of unity, its verb must be singular ;
as, The class was large.

2. When a collective noun conveys the idea of
plurality, the verb must be plural; as, My people do
not consider.

321. Rem. 1. Pronouns referring to collective nouns must in like manner ba
singular or plural, according as the idea of unity or plurality is expressed (343).

322. Rcm. 2. It is sometimes difficult to determine whether a noun expressei
unity or plurality. It is now considered generally best to use the plural where
the singular is not manifestly required.

EXERCISES.

Stephen's party were entirely broken up. The meet-
ing were well attended. The people has no opinion of
their own. The people was very numerous. A com-
pany of troops were despatched to the opposite side of
the river. The people rejoices in what should give
them sorrow. The multitude eagerly pursues pleasure
as their chief good. In France, the peasantry goes
barefooted, while the middle sort makes use of wooden
shoes. The British parliament are composed of king,
lords, and commons. The fleet is all arrived and
moored in safety. The flock, and not the fleece, are,
or ought to be, the object of the shepherd's care.
When the nation complain, the rulers should listen.
The regiment consist of a thousand men. Never were
any nation so infatuated. But this people who know
not the law is cursed. The shoal of herrings were im-
mense. Why do this generation seek after a sign ? The
fleet were seen sailing up the channel. Mankind is
more united by the bonds of friendship at present than
formerly. Part of the coin were preserved. The royal
society are numerous and flourishing. " The lowing
herd wind slowly o'er the lea." The noble army of
martyrs praiseth thee, God ! A great number of
women were present. The audience takes this in good
part. All mankind composes one family.

55* SYNTAX. 97

323. 55. RULE VIII. 1. An adjective qualifies
the substantive to which it belongs; as, A good boy

2. Adjectives denoting one, qualify nouns in the
singular; those denoting more than one, qualify
nouns in the plural ; as, This man, these men.

324. Rem. 1. This rule applies also to participles, and adjective prononrs.
325. S. RULE. Adjectives should not be used as adverbs; thu's,
' He is miserable poor," should be " he is miserably poor."

326. Rem. 2. The distinction is : adjectives qualify substantives ; adverbs mo
Jify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs

327. Rem. 3. Adjective* joined with the singular, arc the ordinal numbers,
first) second, last, &c. ; one, each, every, either, neither, much with its compara-
tive more all, denoting quantity, enough, whole. See 18, (137).

328. When any of these is joined with a plural noun, the whole is regarded
as one aggregate ; as, The first two iveeks ; Every ten miles. App. XX.

329. R&m. 4. Adjectives joined with the plural only, are all cardinal numbera
above one, the words few, many , with its comparative more, both, several, enow
Many is sometimes construed with a singular noun; as, " Full many a flower."

330. Rem. 5. The adjectives, all. no, some, other, may be joined with a sin
gular or plural noun according to the sense.

331 Rem. 5. "This here," " that there," for this ani that; and "them/*
"them there," for these and those, are vulgarisms,

332. Rem. 6. This means and that means refer to one cause ; these means,
those means, to more than one ( 10, 5 note]. Amends is used in the same way

333. [.Rem. 8. An adjective as a. predicate qualifies the subject; as, (rod is good.]

EXERCISES.

This boys are diligent. I have not seen him this ten
days. Those sort of people fear nothing. These sol
diers are remarkable tall. They behaved the noblest.
It is uncommon good. Them books are almost new.
Give me that there knife. These kind of favors did
real injury. There is six foot of water in the hold. I
have no interests but that of truth and virtue. You
will find the remark in the second or third pages.
Charles was extravagant, and by those means became
poor. The scholars were attentive and industrious,
and by that means acquired knowledge. Let each es-
teem others better than themselves. Are either of
these men your friend ?
9

08 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. $ 56.

334. 55. RULE IX. JlHien two persons or
' things are contrasted, that refers to the first men-
tioned, and this to the last ; as, Virtue and vice are
opposite qualities; that ennobles the mind, this
debases it.

335. Hem. 1. Former and latter, one and other, are often used instead of that and
this. Farmer and latter are alike in both numbers ; one and other refer to the
ginguiar only. That and this, under this rule, are seldom applied to persons; but
former and latter are applied to persons or things indiscriminately. In most cases

Ihe repetition of the noun is preferable to either of them.

336. Rem. 2. Hence in the use of the demonstratives when no contrast is ex-
pressed, this and these refer to things present or just mentioned; that and thou t
to things distant or formerly mentioned. Thus, " They can not be separated from
the subject, and for that reason," &c., should be t: and for this reason," &c.

EXERCISES.

Wealth and poverty are both temptations to man ;
this tends to excite pride, that discontentment. Reli-
gion raises men above themselves, irreligion sinks them
beneath the brutes ; that binds them down to a poor
pitiable speck of perishable earth, this opens for them
a prospect to the skies. The king and the tyrant are
very different characters ; that rules his people by his
absolute will and power, this by laws to which they
consent. More rain falls in the first two summer
months than in the first two winter ones ; but it makes
a much greater show in the one than in the other, be-
cause there is a much slower evaporation. Health is
more valuable than great possessions, and yet the latter
is often sacrificed in the pursuit of the former. Exer-
cise and temperance are the best promoters of health:
that prevents disease ; this often dissipates it.

Self-love, the spring of motion, moves the soul,
Reason's comparing- balance rules the whole:
Man, but for this, no action could attend-,
Man, but for that, were active to no end.

(Rem. 2.) That very subject which we are now
discussing, is still involved in mystery. This vessel of
which you spoke yesterday, sailed for the West Indie?
this morning at ten o'clock.

57. SYNTAX. 9il

337. 57. RULE X. Pronouns agree with the
nouns for which they stand, in gender, number,
and person ; as, John is here ; he came an hour ago,
Every tree is known by its fruit.

SPECIAL RULES.

338. RULE I. When a pronoun refers to two or more sub-
stantives taken together and of different persons, it becomes plural,
and prefers the first person to the second, and the second to the
third; as, John and /do our duty.

339. RULE II. When a pronoun refers to two or more sub'
stantivcs of the same gender, taken separately, or to one of them
exclusively, it. must be singular ; as, A clock or a watch is com-
plicated in its movements. (315.)

340. NOTE. Singular substantives of different genders, taken separately, can not
r>e represented by one pronoun in English, for want of a third personal pronoun
of the common gender; thus, we can not say, "If a man or a woman hurt him
telf." In such cases, though contrary to rule, it is better to use the plural,
themselves, than the clumsy expression, "hurt himself or herself.

341. RULE III. But if either of the substantives referred to
be plural, the pronoun must be plural also / as, Neither he nor
they trouble themselves.

342. Rem. 1. Nouns are taken together when connected by and expressed or
understood ; separately, when connected by or or nor, &c. (see 314, 315).

343. RULE IV. When a pronoun refers to a collective noun
in the singular expressing many as one whole, it should be in the
neuter singular; as, The army proceeded on its march. But
when it expresses many as individuals, the pronoun should beplu*
ral ; as, u The court were divided in their opinions."

344. Rem. 2. It is improper, in the progress of a sentence, to express the same
object by pronouns of different forms or genders; as, I laboured long to make
thee happy, and now you reward me by ingratitude. It should be either, " to
make you happy," or, "thou rewardest."

EXERCISES.

Answer not a fool according to her folly. A stone
is heavy, and the sand weighty, but a fool's wrath is
heavier than them both. Take handfuls of ashes of the
furnace, and let Moses sprinkle it towards heaven in
the sight of Pharaoh; and it shall become small dust.
The crown had it in their power to give such rewards

100 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 57

Exercises on RULE X. continued.

as they thought proper. The fruit tree beareth fruii
after his kind. Rebecca took goodly raiment and put
them upon Jacob. [Let every boy answer for them-
selves. Each of us had more than we wanted. Every
one of you should attend to your own business. A man's
recollections of the past regulate their anticipations of
the future. A person's success in life depends on their
exertions.]

I. Thou and he shared it between them. James and
I are attentive to their studies. You and he are diligent
in reading their books; therefore they are good boys.

II. John or James will favor us with their company.
One or other must relinquish their claim. Each book
and each paper is in their place. Every day and every
hour brings their own temptations. Neither wealth
nor honor confers happiness on their votaries. No
thought, no word, no action, whether they be good or
evil, can escape in the judgment. NOTE. Let every
man and woman do her best. If any boy or girl should
neglect her duty, they shall forfeit their place.

IV. The assembly held their meetings in the evening.
The court in their wisdom decided otherwise. Society
is not always answerable for the conduct of their mem-
bers. Send the multitude away, that it may go and
buy itself bread. The public are informed that its in-
terests are secured.

[Rem. 2.] Virtue forces her way through obscurity,
and sooner or later it is sure to be rewarded. Thou
hast ever shewn thyself my real friend, and your kind-
ness to me I can never forget. Care for thyself, i/
you would have others care for thee. Though you are
great, yet consider thou art a man.

You draw the inspiring breath of ancient song,
Till nobly rises emulous thy own.

Thou, goddess mother, with our sire comply j
If you submit, the thunderer stands appeased.

58. SYNTAX. 101

345. 58. RULE XI. The relative agrees with
its antecedent in number and person, and the verb
agrees with it accordingly ; as, Thou who speakest.
The book which was lost.

346 Rem. 1. The antecedent, or that to which the relative refers, may be a
noun, or pronoun, as in the examples above ; also an imperative mood, or clause
of a sentence ; as, " To act rashly, which is often done, is unwise."

347. Rem. 2. Who is applied to persons, or things personified ; which, to all
other objects sometimes to children to collective nouns composed of persons,
when unity is expressed ; and also to persons in asking questions. 17, Obs. 1, 2, 4.

348. Rem. 3. The relative that is used instead of who or which

1. After adjectives in the superlative degree ; after the words very, same and
att, and often after wo, some and any.

2. When the antecedent includes both persons and things ; as, The man and
the horse that we saw yesterday.

3. After the interrogative who; often after the personal pronouns, and gene-
rally when the propriety of who or ivhich is doubtful ; as, Who that has any sense
of religion, would have argued thus. I that speak in righteousness.

EXERCISES.

1 & 2. Those which seek wisdom, will certainly
find her. This is the friend which I love. That is the
vice whom I hate. This moon who rose last night had
not yet filled her horns. Blessed is the man which
walketh in wisdom's ways. Thou who has been a wit-
ness of the fact, canst give an account of it. I am happy
in the friend which I have long proved. The court who
gives currency to manners, ought to be exemplary.
The tiger is a beast of prey, who destroys without pity.
Who of these men came to his assistance ? [ 17, Obs. 1],

3. It is the best which can be got. Solomon was the
wisest man whom the world ever saw. It is the same
picture which you saw before. "And all which beauty,
all which wealth e'er gave, await alike the inevitable
hour." The lady and lapdog which we saw at the
window, have disappeared. The men and things which
he has studied, have not contributed to the improve*
nient of his morals. I who speak unto thee, am he.
Sidney was one of the wisest and most active governors
which Ireland had enjoyed for several years. He has
committed the same fault which I condemned yesterday.

102 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 59

59. SPECIAL RULES AND OBSERVATIONS ON RULE xi.

349. RULE I. The relative,with its clause, should be placed as near
as possible to its antecedent, to prevent ambiguity ; thus, " The boy
beat his companion, whom every body believed incapable of doing
mischief," should be " The boy, whom every body believed in-
capable of doing mischief, beat his companion." Hence,

350. RULE JI. When the relative is preceded by two words refer-
ring to the same thing, one in the subject and the other in the
predicate, its proper antecedent is the one next to it; as, Thou art
the man who was engaged in that business.

351. Rem. 1. If the relative in the pr ceding example referred to thou, the seu-
lence should be arranged thus, '" Thou who wast engaged in that business, art the
man." In such sentences care should always be taken to ascertain to which
word the relative and its clause belongs, and to arrange the sentence accordingly.
In this, the sense is the only guide.

352. RULE III. The antecedent, if a pronoun of the third per-
son, is often understood when no emphasis is implied ; it is omitted
before what, and the compound relatives, whoever, whosoever, etc.
($ 16, Obs. 3.)

353. Rem. 2. The relative is sometimes understood, especially hi colloquial
language ; as, " The friend I visited yesterday, is dead to-day," for " The friend
whom I visited," &c.

EXERCISES.

I. The king dismissed his minister, without any in-
quiry, who had never before committed so unjust an
action. The soldier with a single companion, who
passed for the bravest man in the regiment, offered his
services. Thou art a friend indeed, who hast relieved
me in this dangerous crisis.

II. Thou art the friend that hast often relieved me,
and that hast not deserted me now in the time of pe-
culiar need. I am the man who command you. I ana
the person who adopt that sentiment, and maintain it.
Thou art he who driedst up the Red Sea.

III. He whoever steals my purse, steals trash
Those whom he would, he slew ; and those whom he
would, he kept alive. The man whosoever committeth
sin, is the servant of sin. To them whomsoever he
paw in distress, he imparted relief.

$ 60. SYNTAX. 103

354. 60. RULE XII. Substantives denoting
the same person or thing, agree in case ; as, Cicero
the Orator.

Words thus used are said to be in apposition

355. Words in apposition must always be in the same member of the sen
'euce ; i. e. both in the subject or both in the predicate.

356. Rent. 1. Two or more nouns, forming one complex name, or a name and
a title, with the definite article and a numeral adjeclive prefixed, have the plural
termination annexed to the last only; as, the two Miss Hays. The three Miss
Browns. The two Dr. Monroes.

357. Rein. 2. But when used without the numeral, the plural termination is an
nexed to ihe fast ; as, Messrs. Thompson. Misses Hamilton. $ 10, 1. But of
marred ladies, the name only is pluralized; as, the Mrs. Browns.

358. Rem. 3. Distributive words are sometimes put in apposition with a plursk.
substantive ; as, They stood each in the other's way. In this way is to be re-
solved the common phrase, " They stood in each other's way." " They loved
one another 7 ' = they loved, one (loved) another.

359. S. RULE. The word containing the answer to a question^
must always be in the same case with the word that asks it / as,
Who did that? / (did it). Whose books are these? John's.

EXERCISES.

The chief of the princes, him who defied the bravest
of the enemy, was assassinated by a dastardly villain.
He was the son of the Rev. Dr. West, he who pub-
lished Pindar at Oxford.

(Rem. 1, 2.) The two Misses Louisa Howard are
very amiable young ladies. The two Messrs. Websters
left town yesterday. The two Messrs. Websters will
return to-morrow. The Doctors Stevensons have been
successful in performing a very difficult operation. The
two Doctors Ramsays have returned. The Mrs. Town-
send were there, as well as the Mrs. Bay.

(S. RULE.) Of whom were the articles bought? Of a
grocer, he who resides near the Mansion House. Was
any person besides the grocer present ? Yes, both him
and his clerk were present. Who was the money paid
to ? To the grocer. Who counted it ? Both the clerk
and him. Who said that ? Me. Whose books are
these ? Her who went out a few minutes ago.

104 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 61

360. 61. RULE XIII. The predicate substantive
after a verb, is in the same case as the subject before
it ; as, It is /. I took it to be him.

361. Rem. 1. The verbs which connect the subject and its predicative sub-
stamive under this rale, are chiefly the verb to be, to become, and some other
intransitive verbs, and passive verbs of naming, choosing, appointing, and the
like , as, He shall be called John. He became the slave of passion. Stephen died e
martyr. Hence the case of the subject determines the case of the predicate.

362. Rem. 2. In substantive phrases, the infinitive or participle of an intransitive
verb without a subject. is followed by a substantive or adjective taken indefinitely,
and the substantive is in the nominative case ( 40, R. 23, Obs. 2) ; as, " To be
the slave of passion, is of all slavery the mo.st wretched." " His dying intestate
caused all this trouble." " It is our duty to be obedient to our parents."

363. Rem. 3. In English almost any verb may be used as a copula between
Its subject and an adjective as a part, or at least as a modification of the predicate ;
as, " It tastes good," " The wind blows hard," " I remember right,'' " He
feels sick," "He strikes hard, " "He drinks deep," &c. In such expressions
the adjective somewhat resembles an adverb in its use, and has sometimes been
parsed as such. It is, however, an adjective in fact as well as in form, and
qualifies the subject, not simply as a substantive, but as a substantive affected by,
or connected with the action expressed by the verb. This is a common phraseo-
logy of our language, especially in poetry, and is analogous to the Latin " insons
feci," <V I did it innocently;" u accurrunt laeti," " they run up joyfully }}

EXERCISES.

It was me who wrote the letter. Be not afraid, it
is me. I am certain that it could not have been her.
It is them that deserve most blame. You would un-
doubtedly act the same part if you were him. I under-
stood it to be he. It may have been him, but there is
no proof of it. It may have been him or them that did it.

Who do you think him to be ? Whom do men say
that I am? She is the person who I understood it to
have been. Let him be whom he may, I am not afraid
of him. Was it me that said so ? It is impossible to
be them. I am certain it was not him.

Promiscuous Exercises

Surely thou who reads so much in the Bible, can tell
me what became of Elijah. Neither the master nor the
scholars is here. Trust not him whom you know is dis-
honest. I love no interests but that of truth and virtue

62. SYNTAX. 105

364 62. RULE XIV. When two nouns come
together, denoting the possessor and the thing pos-
sessed, the Jirst is put in the possessive case ; as,
John's book ; on eagle's wings.

Obs. The latter or governing substantive is frequently understood ; as, I found
him at the stationer's (viz. shop or house).

365. Rem. 1. A noun and its possessive pronoun should not be used for the
possessive ; thus, " A man his ways," should be, " A man's ways. 1 '

366. Rem. 2. The preposition of, with the objective, is generally equivalent to
the possessive case, and is often used in preference to it. Thus, " In the name
of the army, is better than " In the army's name." Sometimes, however, these
two modes of expression are not equivalent; thus, u The Lord's day, ; ' and " The
day of the Lord," convey ideas entirely different.

367. Rem. 3. Sometimes of is used before the possessive governing a
substantive understood after it ; as, This is a discovery of Sir Isaac Newton's
(viz. discoveries). " This is a discovery of Sir Isaac Newton," expresses the
same idea. These two modes of expression, however, sometimes convey quite
different ideas; thus, " A picture of my friend," means a portrait of him; " A
picture of my friend's," means a picture belonging to him (App. XIV). Under
both these remarks, it may be observed as a general

RULE. In the use of the possessive, or of its equivalent of,
with the objective, care should be taken to avoid harshness on the
one hand, and ambiguity on the other.

EXERCISES.

It is Pompeys pillar. Seek Virtues reward. A
mans manners frequently influence his fortune. My
ancestors virtue is not mine. Asa his heart was perfect
with the Lord. A mothers tenderness and a fathers
care are nature's gifts for mans advantage. Helen her
beauty was the cause of Troy its destruction. Longinus
his treatise on the sublime. For Christ his sake.

[Rem. 3.] The Commons' vote was decidedly against
the measure. The Lord's house adjourned at a late
hour. The Representative's house convened at 12
o'clock. He married my daughter's husband's sister.
She married the brother of the wife of my son. The
Lord's day will come as a thief in the night. The next
day of the Lord came all the people to hear the word.
That is a good likeness of De Witt Clinton's. He is
the only son of his*mother's. The court's decision.
The report of the sickness of the son of the king of
England, excited the nation's fears.

106 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 63

368. 63. OBSERVATIONS ON RULE xir.

1. When several nouns come together in the possessive cas<,
implying common possession, the sign of the possessive ('s) is an-
nexed to the last, and understood to the rest , as, " Jane and Lucy's
books, 1 ' i. e. books the common property of Jane and Lucy. But
if common possession is not implied, or if several words intervene,
the sign of the possessive should be annexed to each-, as, u Jane's
and Lucy's books," i. e. books, some of which are Jane's, and
others, Lucy's. u This gained the king's, as well as the people's
approbation."

2 When a name is complex, consisting of more terms than one,
the sign of the possessive is annexed to the last only-, as, " Julius
Caesar's Commentaries." u John the Baptist's head." " His
brother Philip's wife." " The Bishop of London's charge."

3. When a short explanatory term is joined to a name, the sign
of the possessive may be annexed to either- as, I called at Smith's
the bookseller, or, at Smith the bookseller's. But if, to such a
phrase, the governing substantive is added, the sign of the pos-
sessive must be annexed to the last; as, "I called at Smith the
bookseller's shop."

4. If the explanatory circumstance be complex, or consisting of
more terms than one, the sign of the possessive must be annexed
to the name or first substantive-, as, "This Psalm is David's, the
king, priest, and prophet of the people." u That book is
Smith's, the bookseller in Maiden Lane."

5. When two nouns in the possessive are governed by different
words, the sign of the possessive must be annexed to each-, as,
u He took refuge at the governor's, the king's representative, 11
i. e. at the " Governor's house."

6. The s after the apostrophe is omitted, when the first noun
has the sound of s in its last syllable, and the second noun begins
with s; as, For righteousness' sake, etc. ( 11, Obs. 2). In other
cases, such omission would generally be improper- as, James
book, Miss' shoes-, instead of James's book, Miss's shoes (See
An. Gr^ 175).

7. A clause of a sentence should never come between the pos-
sessive case and the word by which it is governed-, thus, " She
began to extol the farmer's, as she called him, excellent under-
standing," should be, u the excellent understanding of the farmer,
as she called him."

8. The possessive whosesoever, and the compounds whichsoever,
whatsoever , howsoever, are sometimes divided by interposing the
word to which they belong -, as, whose jiouse soever; what man
goever. This, in general, however, is to be avoided, and to be ad-
mitted only when euphony and precision are thereby promoted.

63 SYNTAX. 107

RULE XIV. Continued.

EXERCISES ON OBSERVATIONS.

1. William's and Mary's reign. This is your father's,
mother's and brother's advice. Peter's, John's, and An-
drew's occupation was that of fishermen. He asked
his father, as well as his mother's advice. John and
Robert's boots fit them very well. The Betsey and the
Speedwell's cargoes were both damaged.

2. Jack's the Giant-killer's wonderful exploits. The
Bishop's of Landaff's excellent work. During Charles's
the second's reign. The Lord Mayor's of London au-
thority. That carriage is the Lord Mayor's of London.

3. The books were left at Brown's the bookseller's.
I left him at Mayell's the hatter's shop. Thorburn's
the seedsman store is now open.

4. The books were left at Brown the bookseller and
stationer's. I left the parcel at Johnson, a respectable
bookseller, a worthy man, and an old friend's. I reside
at Lord Stormont, my old patron and benefactor's.
Whose glory did he emulate? He emulated Caesar,
the greatest general of antiquity's.

5. That book is Thompson the Tutor's assistant.
We spent an hour at Wilson the Governor's deputy, and
on our return called at Mr. Smith, little Henry's father.

6. James' father arrived yesterday, and Mr. Spence 5
servant came with him. Charles' books are completely
spoiled. For conscience's sake. Miss' books will be sent.

7. They very justly condemned the prodigal's, as he
was called, extravagant conduct. This is Paul's the
Christian hero and great apostle of the Gentiles advicje.
Beyond this the arts can not be traced of civil, society

PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES ON THIS RULE.

The Emperor and the dukes cavalry were engaged.
This is for consciences sake. Escape Atrides ire. He
bought the articles at Wilson's the druggist's. William
and John's wives were present. The estate of William'p
was much encumbered.

108 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 64

369. 64. RULE XV. When the present or per-
feet participle is used as a noun (195), a substantive
before it is put in the possessive case ; as, "Much,
depends on the pupil's composing frequently; his
having done so is evident.

370. Obs. A pronoun in this construction must be the possessive pronoun, nol
the possessive case; as, Much depends on your composing, &c., nol yours.

371. Rem. 1. If the participle is not used as a noun, the noun or pronoun be.
fore it may be in any case which the construction requires ; as, " I see men
walking." These two modes of expression, in many cases, convey very different
ideas, and therefore care should be taken not to confound them ; thus, " What
do you think of my horse running to-day?" means, Do you think I should let
him run? But, " What do you think of my horse's running to-day?" means,
he has run, do you think he ran well?

372. Rem. 2. The present participle, with a possessive before it, sometimes
admits of after it, and sometimes not. Here the sense must guide.

373. Rem. 3. When a preposition or infinitive follows the participle, of is inad-
missible ; as, His depending on promises, proved his ruin. His neglecting to
study when young, rendered him ignorant all his life.

EXERCISES.

What is the reason of this person dismissing his ser
vant so hastily? I remember it being done? This jea-
lousy accounts for Hall charging the Duke of Gloucester
with the murder of Prince Edward. He being a great
man, did not make him a happy man. Much depends
on the rule being observed. Richard observing the rule,
will be the means of him avoiding error. What do you
think of my horse running to-day ? did he run well ?
Man rebelling against his Maker brought him into ruin.
A man being poor, does not make him miserable.

[Rem. 1.] That man's running so fast, is in danger
of falling. A youth's pursuing his studies with dili-
gence and perseverance, can hardly fail of success.

[Rem. 2.] Our approving their bad conduct may en-
courage them to become worse. For his avoiding that
precipice, he is indebted to his friend's care. Their
observing the rules prevented errors. By his studying
of the scriptures, he became wise. Their condemning
of the innocent and acquitting of the guilty will cove*
them with infamy.

65. SYNTAX. 109

374 65. RULE XVI. When the present partici-
ple, used as a noun, has an article before it, it should
have the preposition of after it ; as, In the keeping
7f his commandments there is a great reward.

375. Rem. I. The sense will often be the same, if both the article and the pre.
yosition be omitted ; but the one should not be omitted without the other ; thus,
' { In keeping his commandments," c.

37G. Rem. 2. In some cases, however, these two modes express very different
/leas, and therefore attention to the sense is necessary; as, " He confessed the
whole in the hearing of three witnesses, and the court spent an hour in hearing
their deposition." To prevent ambiguity in such cases, observe the following

377. RULE. When the participle expresses something of which
the noun following is the doer^ it should have the article and pre-
position ; as, u It was said in the hearing of the witness." When
it expresses something of which the noun following is not the doer^
but the object, both should be omitted; as, u the Court spent some
fcime in hearing the witness."

378. Rem. 3. When a preposition follows the participle so that q/'can not be
used (373), and yet an article is required before it, it is generally better to adopt
a different mode of expression ; thus, <( The not attending to duty:" better, "flie
want of attention to duty."

EXERCISES.

Learning of languages is very difficult. The learning
any thing speedily, requires great application. By the
exercising our faculties, they are improved. By ob-
serving of these rules, you will avoid mistakes. By
the obtaining wisdom, thou wilt command esteem.
This was a betraying the trust reposed in him. The
not attending to this rule, is the cause of a very com-
mon error. He confined all his philosophy to the suf-
fering ills patiently. This order so critically given,
occasioned the gaining the battle. This was, in fact,
converting the deposites to his own use. Propriety of
pronunciation is the giving to a word its proper sound.
'(Rein. 2.) At hearing the ear they shall obey. Be-
cause of provoking his sons and daughters, the Lord
abhorred them. He expressed the pleasure he had in
the hearing of the philosopher. In the hearing of the
will read, and in the examining of sundry papers
much time was spent.
10

110 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 66.

379. 66. RULE XVII. The past participle, and
not the past tense, should be used after the verbs
HAVE and BE ; as, I have written (not, I have
wrote). I am chosen.

380. S. RULE. The past participle should not be used instead
of the past tense; thus, it is improper to say, u he begun," for
"he began-," "he run," for u he ran-," "he done," for "he did j"
" he seen," for " he saw."

381. Rem. The present participle active, and not the past, is used after the
verb to be, to express the continued suffering of an action; as, " The house ij
building)" not u being built." When the participle in ing has not a passive
sense, the idea must be expressed by means of the active voice. Tims we do
not say, " the book is now reading," (nor " the book is now being read,") bui
" he (or she, &c.) is now reading the book" (190). See also App. XIX.

EXERCISES.

I would have wrote a letter, He had mistook his
true interest. The coat had ho seam, but was wove
throughout. The French language is spoke in every
part of Europe. His resolution was too strong to be
shook by slight opposition. The horse was stole from
the pasture. They have chose the part of honor and
virtue. She was shewed into the drawing room. He
has broke the bottle. Some fell by the way side and
was trode down. The work was very well execute.
He has chose to ride. He has drunk too much. I am
almost froze. He has forsook us. It was well wrote.

S. R. By too eager pursuit, he run a great risk of be-
ing disappointed. He soon begun to weary of having
nothing to do. He was greatly heated, and drunk with
avidity. The bending hermit here a prayer begun.
And end with sorrows as they first begun.
A second deluge learning thus o'er-run,
And the Monks finished what the Goths begun.

These men done more than could have been expected.
There can be no mistake, for I seen them do it.

[Rem.] The work was then being printed, and it was
expected to be published in a few days. That house has
been being built for six months ; it is now being plas-
tered, and will be finished soon.

67 SYNTAX. HI

382. 67. RULE XVIII. The infinitive mood
Is governed by VERBS, NOUNS, or ADJECTIVES ; a#,
I desire to learn A desire to learn desirous to
learn.

SPECIAL RULES.

383. I. One verb being the subject of another , is put in the in-
finitive ; as " To study is profitable."

384. II. One verb governs another as its object in the infini-
tive; as, Boys love to play.

385. III. The infinitive is used to express the purpose, end, or
design, of a preceding act; as, "Some who came to scoff, re-
mained to pray."

386. IV. In comparisons, the infinitive is put after so as t
too, or than-, as, "Be so good as to read this letter."

387. V. To, the sign of the infinitive, is not used after tht
verbs bid, dare, need, make, see, hear, feel, and let in the active
voice, nor after let in the passive. (See An. Gram. 878.)

Also sometimes after perceive, behold, observe, have, and know.

388. Rem. 1. The infinitive, as the subject or the object of a verb, may have a
subject of its own in the objective ; as, For us to lie is base. I wished him to go.

389. Rem. 2. The infinitive may be considered as a verbal noun having the no.
minative and accusative. It is used after the preposition about ; as, About to de-
part ; and it is sometimes independent ; as, To confess the truth, I was in fault.

EXERCISES.

Strive learn. They obliged him do it. Newton did
not wish obtrude his discoveries on the public. His
penetration and diligence seemed vie with each other.

V. They need not to call upon her. I dare not to
proceed so hastily. I have seen some young persons to
conduct themselves very discreetly. He bade me to go
home. It is the difference of their conduct which makes
us to approve the one and to reject the other. We
heard the thunder to roll. He felt the pain to abate.
I would have you to take more care. He was reluc-
tantly made obey. They were heard say it in a large
company. They were seen pass the house. He was
let to go. I have observed some satirist to use the term.

112 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 6S

390. 68. RULE XIX. 1. When doubt and fu-
turity are both implied, the subjunctive mood is used ;
as, Though he fall (hereafter), he shall rise again.

2. Wlien doubt only, and not futurity, is implied,
the indicative is used; as, If he speaks (i. e. now)
as he thinks, he may be safely trusted.

391. Remark. Doubt is usually expressed by the conjunctions (f } though, unless,
except, whether. Sec. Whether futurity is implied or not, must be ascertained
from the context. In accurate composition, of course, the mood employed will
direct to the meaning of the sentence ; thus, " I will do it if the master desires
me" (i. e. at present). Here there is uncertainty only whether he does dasire me.
" I will do it if the master desire me" (i. e. at a future time). Here there is un-
certainty whether he will desire me or not. Consequently there is both doubt and
futurity. If and though, when referring to what is fixed and certain, are
equivalent to "notwithstanding," and consequently the verb follows in the in-
dicative ; as, " Though he was rich, yet for your sakes he became poor."

392. RULE I. Lest, and that, annexed to a command, require
the subjunctive mood ; as, Love not sleep, lest thou come to pover-
ty. Take heed that thou speak not to Jacob, either good or bad.

393. RULE II. If, with but following it, when futurity is deno-
ted, requires the subjunctive mood ; as, If he do but touch the
hills, they shall smoke. When future time is not expressed, the
indicative ought to be used.

394. The subjunctive were, wert, is used to express a wish or desire ; as, I wish
that I were, at home. O that they were wise.

EXERCISES.

If a man smites his servant and he die, he shall surely
be put to death. If he acquires riches, they will corrupt
his mind. Though he be high, he hath respect to the
lowly. If thou live virtuously, thou art happy. If he
does promise, he will certainly perform. that his
heart was tender. If he is at home to-morrow, give
him the letter. 0, that thou wast as my brother !

(S. Rule 1.) Despise not any condition, lest it hap-
pens to be thy own. Let him that is sanguine take
heed lest he miscarries. See that thou speakest truth.

(S. Rule II.) If he is but discreet, he will succeed.
If he be but in health, I am content. If he does but
intimate his desire, it will produce obedience.

69. SYNTAX. 113

395. 69. RULE XX. 1. Conjunctions connect
words or sentences (241).

2. Conjunctions couple the same moods and tenses
of verbs, and cases of nouns and pronouns; as, Do
good, and seek peace. He and /are well.

396. Rem. 1. Verbs in the same mood and tense, connected by a conjunction,
must also be in the same form. For the different forms of the verb, see $ 27.

397. Rem. 2. WH^n conjunctions connect different moods and tenses, or when
a contrast is stated with but., not, though, &c., the nominative is frequently re
peated ; as. You can not ride, but you may walk.

Note. This is to be regarded only as a general direction, and is violated nearly
as often as it is observed.

398. Rem. 3. After verbs of doubting, fearing and denying, the conjunction
that should be used, and not kst, but, but that; as, You do not doubt that he ia
honest; They feared that they would not return; You do not derv that he has
some ability. That is frequently understood; as, We were desirous (that) you
would return.

399. Rem. 4. The relative usually follows than in the objective case, even when
the nominative goes before ; as, "Alfred, than whom a greater king never reigned."
This anomaly it is difficult to explain. Most probably than at first had the force
of a preposition, which it now retains only when followed by the relative.

EXERCISES.

1. He reads and wrote well. Anger glances into the
breast of a wise man but will rest only in the bosom of
fools. If he understand the subject and attends to it,he
can scarcely fail of success. Professing regard and to
act differently marks a base mind.

2. He or me must go. Neither he nor her can attend.
You and us enjoy many privileges. My father and him
were very intimate. He is taller than me. I am not
so wise as him. She was six years older than me. You
may as lawfully preach as them that do.

Rem. 1. We often overlook the blessings we possess,
and are searching after those which are out of our reach.
Did he not tell thee his fault, and entreated thee to
forgive him?

2. Rank may confer influence, but will not necessarily
produce virtue. She was proud though now humble.
He is not rich but respectable.

3. We can not question but this confederacy must
have been a source of friendship and attachment. We
were apprehensive lest some accident had happened.

10*

114 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 70

400. 70. RULE XXL Some conjunctions and
adverbs have their corresponding connectives ; thus,

Neither requires nor after it; as, Neither he nor his brother was in.

Though, yet; as, Though he was rich, yet for our sakes, &c.

Whether, or; Whether he go or stay.

Either, or; I will either write or send.

As, as; (expressing equality) Mine is as good as yours.

As, so; (expressing equality) As the stars, so shall thy seed be

So, as ; (with a negative, expressing inequality) He is not so

wise as his brother.

So, that ; (expressing consequence) I am so weak that I can not

walk.

Not only, but also ; Not only his property, but also his life was in dan-
ger.

If, then ; (in reasoning) If he can do it, then he will do it.

Note. As and 50, in either member of a compariso^are properly adverbs, 34, 4.

Note. The Poets frequently use Or or, for Either or; and Nor nor, for Nei
ther nor. In prose, Not nor, is often used for Neither nor. The yet after
though is often properly suppressed. Or does not require either before, when the
one word is a mere explanation of the other ; as, It is six feet, or one fathom deep.
In other cases, when either is not used, it may be supplied.

EXERCISES.

It is neither cold or hot. It is so clear as I need not
explain it. The relations are so uncertain as that they
require much examination. The one is equally deserving
as the other. I must be so candid to own that I have
been mistaken. He would not do it himself, nor let me
do it. He was as angry as he could not speak. So as
thy days, so shall thy strength be. Though he slay me,
so will I trust in him. He must go himself, or send his
servant. There is no condition so secure as it can not
admit of change. He is not as eminent and as much
esteemed as he thinks himself to be. Neither despise
the poor, or envy the rich; for the one dieth so as the
other. As far as I am able to judge, the book is well
written. His raiment was so white as snow. He must be
as candid as to say so. There was no man so sanguine,
who did not apprehend some ill consequences. The dog
in the manger would not eat the hay himself, nor suffer
the ox to do it. He was so fat, he could hardly walk.
NeLher despise or oppose what thou dost not under-
stand*

$ 71. SYNTAX. 115

401. 71. RULE XX11. The comparative de-
gree and the pronoun other require than after them,
and such requires as ; as, Greater than I ; No other
lhan he ; Such as do well.

NOTE. Sweft, meaning a consequence, or so great, requires that after it.

402. S.RULE. When tivo objects are compared, the. comparative is
generally used; but when more than two, the superlative; as,
James is older than John. Mary is the wisest of them all.

403., Rem. 1. Sometimes, However, the superlative is used when only two
objects are compared, viz. when it is more agreeable to the ear, and when it can
not injure the sense ; as, He is the weakest of the two.

404. Rem. 2. A comparison in which more than two are concerned, may be ex-
pressed by the comparative as well as by the superlative^ and in some cases bet.
ter; but the comparative considers the objects compared as belonging to different
classes, while the superlative compares them as included in one class. The com.
parative is used thus : " Greece was more polished than any other nation of an.
tiquity." Here Greece stands by herself, as opposed to the other nations of an-
tiquity. She was none of the other nations : she was more polished than they.
The same idea is expressed by the superlative when the word other is left out:
thus, " Greece was the most polished nation of antiquity." Here, to Greece is
assigned the highest place in the class of objects among which she is numbered
the nations of antiquity : she is one of thenir This distinction should be carefully
observed. The comparative is sometimes used in the same way ; as, He is the
taller of the two.

EXERCISES.

He has little more of the scholar besides the name.
Be ready to succour such persons who need thy assist-
ance. They had no sooner risen, but they applied them-
selves to their studies. These savage people seemed to
have no other element but war. Such men that act
treacherously, ought to be avoided. He gained nothing
farther by his speech, but only to be commended for
his eloquence. This is none other but the gate of Pa-
radise. Such sharp replies that cost him his life. To
trust in him, is no more but to acknowledge his power.
.(S. R.) James is the wisest of the two. Of the three,
Jane is the weaker. [Rem. 2.] Chimborazo is higher
than any other mountain in Europe. Eve was the fair-
est of all her daughters. I understood him the best of
all others who spoke on the subject. Solomon was
wiser than any of the ancient kings. China has a
greater population than any nation on earth.

116 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 72,

405. 72. RULE XXIII. Double comparatives
and superlatives are improper ; thus, better, best,
not more better, most best.

Rem. The double comparative lesser, however, is sanctioned by good au
thority ; as, " Lesser Asia,' ; " Every lesser tiling." N. Y. Review.

Obs. It is improper to compare adjectives whose signification does not admit of
increase or diminution [$ 13, Obs. 4]. Of this kind are true, perfect) universal,
ch*ef, extreme } supreme, &c., which have in themselves a superlative sense.
When comparison of these and similar words is admitted, as is sometimes done
( 13, Obs. 4 Rem.), they must be understood in a limited senso. Such adjectives
as superior, inferior, etc., though they imply comparison, are not in the comparsu
live degree, and are never construed as such, but have to after them.

EXERCISES.

It argued the most sincerest candor to make suet in
acknowledgment. After the most strictest sect of our
religion, I lived a Pharisee. He always posses ;d a
more serener temper. It is more easier to built two
chimneys, than to maintain one. The tongue is ke a
race horse, which runs the faster the lesser weight it
carries. The nightingale's voice is the most sweetest.

His assertion was most untrue. His work was per-
fect, his brother's more perfect, and his father's the
most perfect of all. Virtue confers the supremest dig-
nity on man, and should be his chiefest desire. His
most extreme vanity renders him most supremely ridi-
culous. This is more inferior than that, though it is
more superior than many others.

Promiscuous. The great power and force of custom
forms another argument against bad company. And
Joshua he shall go over before thee. If thou be the
king of the Jews, save thyself. The people there-
fore that was with him when he raised Lazarus out of
his grave, bare record. Public spirit is a more univer-
sal principle than a sense of honour. I see you have a
new pair of gloves [ 86, 7], Five years interest were
demanded. In all his works is sprightlmess and vigour.
The returns of kindness is sweet, and there are neither
honour nor virtue in resisting them.

How rarely reason guides the stubborn choice 5
Rule the bold hand, or prompt the suppliant voice,

73. SYNTAX. 117

406. 73. RULE XXIV. 1. Adverbs modify verbs,
adjectives, and other adverbs ( 33).

2. Adverbs should not be used as adjectives ; thus
" Thine often infirmities," should be " Thy fre-
quent infirmities."

407. Rem. 1. From, strictly speaking, should not be used before hence, thence
and whence, because it is implied. Custom, however, has so far sanctioned the
violation of this rules, that a strict adherence to it would now appear stiff and
affected.

408. Rem. 2. After verbs of motion , hither , thither, and whither, are now used
only on solemn occasions. In other cases, the adverbs here, there, and where t
are employed ; as, He came here / We rode there.

409. Rem. 3. Where should not be used for in which, unless the reference is
to place; thus, " A protestation where," should be " A protestation in which."
So is often used to represent an adjective, a noun, or a whole sentence ; as, They
are rich, we are not so. He is a good scholar, and I told you so.

410. Rem. 4. The adverbs now, then, when, where, in such phrases as till
now, till then, since when, to where, Sec., are sometimes used by good writers as
nouns. This, however, is inaccurate, and should not be imitated.

411. Rem. 5. There, properly an adverb of place, is often used as a mere in-
troductory expletive to the verb, when the nominative follows it ; as, " There are
men who can not read ;" " There came to the beach. 1 ' (See 34, 8.)

412. Rem. 6. Only, solely, chief y, merely, too, also, and perhaps a few others,
are sometimes joined to substantives ; as, Not only the men, but the women
also were innocent.

EXERCISES.

They hoped for a soon and prosperous issue to the
war. He was befriended by the then reigning Duke.
Some of my then hearers urged me to publish these
lectures. Our friends arrived safely.

Rem. 1. From whence come ye? He departed from
thence into a desert place. I Mill send thee far from
hence to the Gentiles. Where art thou gone ? The city
is near, let me escape there. Where I am, there ye
can not come. From whence we may likewise date
the period of this event. He walked thither in less than
an hour.

3. He drew up a petition where he represented his
own merit. He went to London last year, since when
I have not seen him. The situation where I found him

1 18 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 74.

413. 74. RULE XXV. Adverbs are for the most
part placed before adjectives, after a verb in the
simple form, and after the Jlrst auxiliary in the
compound form ; as, He is very attentive, behaves
well, and is much esteemed.

414. Obs. 1. This is to be considered only as a general rule, to which there are
many exceptions. Indeed, no rule for the position of the adverb can be given,
which is not liable to exceptions. That order is the best which conveys tho
meaning with most precision. In order to this, the adverb is sometimes placed
before the verb, or at some distance after it. Never, often, ahvays, sometimes,
generally precede the verb. Not. with the present participle, should generally
be placed before it. Enough follows the adjective, and sometimes both follow
the noun; thus, a solid enough reason, or, a reason solid enough.

415. Obs. 2. The improper position of the adverb only, often occasions ambi-
guity. This will generally be avoided when it refers to a sentence or clause, by
placing it at the beginning of that sentence or clause ; when it refers to a predi.
cate, by placing it before the predicating term; and when it refers to a subject,
by placing it after its name or description; as, " On ly acknowledge thine ini
quity;' 7 " The thoughts of his heart are onJy evil; ; ' " Take nothing for you?
/ourney but a staff only." These observations will generally be applicable to th
words merely, solely, chiefly, Jirst, at least, and perhaps to a few others.

416 Obs. 3. Ever and never are sometimes improperly confounded-

EXERCISES.

We should not be overcome totally by present events.
He unaffectedly and forcibly spoke, and was heard at-
tentively by the whole assembly. It can not be imper-
tinent or ridiculous, therefore, to remonstrate. Not
only he found her employed, but pleased and tranquil
also. In the proper disposition of adverbs, the ear
carefully requires to be consulted as well as the sense.

(Obs. 1.) The women contributed all their rings and
jewels voluntarily to assist the government. Having
not known, or having not considered the measures
proposed, he failed of success. He was determined to
invite back the king, and to call together his friends.

(Obs. 2.) Theism can only be opposed to polytheism.
By greatness, I do not only mean the bulk of any single
object; but the largeness of a whole view. Only you
have I known, of all the nations of the earth. In using
every exertion in our power for the public good, we
only discharge our duty.

75. . SYNTAX. 119

417. 75. RULE XXVI. Two negatives in the
same sentence are improper, unless we mean to affirm;
thus, "I can not by no means allow it," should be,
" I cannot by any" or " I can by no means allow it."

The reason of this rule is, that one negative destroys another, or is equivalent
to an affirmative.

418. Rem. 1. Sometimes two negatives are intended to affirm; and in this
case, if one of them, such as dis-, in-, ira-, un-, &c. is prefixed to another word,
a pleasing and delicate variety of expression is produced ; as, " Nor was the king
unacquainted with his designs," i. e. he " was acquainted with them." But if
the negative consists of two separate and detached words, the expression is ge-
aerally harsh and inelegant; as, "Nor have I no money which I can spare,''
>. e. " I have money which I can spare."

419. Rem. 2. In sentences containing double negatives, the intervention of
only, which is equivalent to a distinct clause, preserves the negation ; as, " He
was not only illiberal, but he was covetous."

420. Note. The English language in this respect agrees with the Latin, but
differs from the Greek and French, in both of which, two negatives with the same
subject render the negation stronger.

EXERCISES.

I can not drink no more. He can not do nothing.
He will never be no taller. Covet neither riches nor
honors, nor no such perishing things. Do not interrupt
me thyself, nor let no one disturb me. I am resolved
not to comply with the proposal, neither at present nor
at any other time. I have received no information on
the subj ect, neither from him nor from his friend. There
can not be nothing more insignificant than vanity. Nor
is danger apprehended in such a government, no more
than we commonly apprehend danger from thunder or
earthquakes. Never no imitator came up to his author.

PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES.

James and I am cousins. Thy father's merits sets
thee forth to view. That it is our duty to be pious, ad-
mit not of any doubt. If he becomes rich, he may be
less industrious. It was wrote extempore. Romulus,
which founded Rome, killed his brother Remus. He in-
volved in a troublesome lawsuit, a friend which had al-
ways supported him. Who of you convinceth me of sin.
I treat you as a boy who love to learn, and are ambi-
tious of receiving instruction.

120 CtNGLlSH GRAMMAR. 76

421. 76. RULE XXVII. Appropriate preposi-
tions must be used before names of places ; thus,

To -is used after a verb of motion ; as, He went to Spain. But it is omitted

before home; as, He went home yesterday (307).

In is used before names of countries and large cities; as, He lives in Albany,
in the State of New- York. But at is used before the names of places
and large cities, after the verbs touch, arrive, land, and frequently after
the verb to be; as, He arrived at Liverpool touched at New- York :
landed at New. Orleans. I was at New*. York.
M is used before the names of houses, towns, and foreign cities ; as, He is

at home. He resides at the Mansion House, at Saratoga-Springs.
422 liem. 1. One inhabitant speaking of another's residence, says, " He lives

in State-street;" or, if the word number be used, "at No. State-street.

423. Rem. 2. Interjections sometimes have an objective after them, but they
lever govern it : it is always governed by a transitive active verb, or preposition
understood; as, "Ah me!" i. e. "Ah! what has happened to me.' } The case
after an interjection will always have to depend on the supplement to be made :
it will generally, however, be the objective of tliejirst personal pronoun, and the
nominative of the second ; a=, "Ah me! O thou wretch! ;; ( 80, Rule 2).

EXERCISES.

They have just arrived in Rochester, and are going to
Buffalo. They will reside two months at England. I
have been to London after having resided in France, and
I now live at New- York. I was in the place appointed
long before any of the rest. We touched in Liverpool
on our way for New- York. I have been to home for a
few days. We have been to home since morning. I
will go to home to-morrow.

[Rem. 1, 2.] He boards in No. 12, Dean street. He
had lodgings at George's Square. Ah ! unhappy thee,
who art deaf to the calls of duty and honor. Oh ! hap-
py us, surrounded with so many blessings. Woe's I,
for I am a man of unclean lips.

Promiscuous. He has been expecting of us some time.
Young persons need not be initiated in the language of
controversy. His quitting of the army was unexpected.
I seen him yesterday. If there was no cowardice, there
would be little insolence. I was rejoiced at the news.
I shall do my friends no wrong, for I have none to lament
me. They were descended from a family that came over
with the Conqueror.

77.

SYNTAX.

424. 77. RULE XXVIII. Certain words and
phrases must be followed by appropriate preposi-
tions ; such as,

Abhorrence of.

Accommodate to.

Accord with.

Accuse of.

Acquit of.

Adapted to.

Agreeable to.

Ask of a person, for a thing, af-
ter what we wish to hear of.

Averse to or from.

Believe in, sometimes on.

Bestow upon, on.

Betray to a person into a thing.

Boast of. See Obs. 3.

Call on a person at a place.

Change (exchange)/or, (ajter)
to, into.

Charge a person with a thing,
a thing on an agent.

Compare with, in respect of
quality to, for illustration.

Compliance with.

Concur with a person -, in a
measure 5 to an effect.

Confide in.

Conformable to, with.

Consonant to.

Conversant with men in
things 5 about and among
are less proper.

Copy from a -Jung, after a
person.

Dependent upon, on.

Derogative from.

Derogatory to.

Die of disease by an instru-
ment or violence.

Differ /row.

Difficulty in.

Diminish from diminution of,

Disappointed in or of ( 86, 5).

Disapprove of. See Obs. 3.

Discourage from.

Discouragement to.
11

Dissent from.

Eager in, on, for, after.

Engage in a work -for a time.

Equal to, with.

Exception from, to.

Expert in (before a noun), at

(before an active participle).
Fall under. Obs. 1.
Familiar to, with. A thing is

familiar to us-, we, with it.
"Free from.
Glad of something gained by

ourselves, at something that

befalls another.
Incorporate ( active transitive )

into; (intrans. or passive) with.
Independent of.
Indulge with what is not habit

ual, in what is habitual.
Insist upon.
Intrude into an enclosed place j

upon what is not enclosed
Made of.
Marry to.
Martyr for.
Need of.
Observation of.
Prejudice against.
Prevail (to persuade) with, on,
upon ( to overcome) over,

against.
Profit by.
Protect others from ourselves

qgainst.

Provide with or for.
Reconcile to friendship with (to

make consistent).
Reduce (to subdue) under, in

other cases, to ; as, t<? powder.
Regard for; in regard to.
Replete with.
Resemblance to.
Resolve on
Rule over.

122 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 77

RULE XXVIII. continued.

Sick of. Unite (transitive) to; (intransi

Sink in/o, beneath. tive) with.

Swerve/rora. Value upon or on.

Taste fot or o/ ( 86, 6). Vest with a thing possessed in

Tax with (e. g. a crime) the possessor.

for the state. Wait upon, on.

Think o/or on. Worthy o/. Obs. 3.
True to.

425. OBSERVATIONS.

1. The particular preposition which it is proper to use, often
depends as much upon what follows as upon what goes before ,
thus, we say, To fall from a height i ito a pit to work upon
an enemy.

2. Into is used only after verbs of motion, and denotes entrance.
In is used when motion or rest in a place is signified 5 as, They
went into a carriage, and travelled in it ten miles.

3. Boast, approve, and disapprove, are often used without of.
Worthy has sometimes of following it, and sometimes not.

4. The same preposition that follows the verb or adjective
usually follows the noun derived from it, and vice versa 5 as, Con
fide in confidence in confident in.

EXERCISES.

He was very eager of recommending him to his fel-
low citizens. He found great difficulty of writing. He
accused the ministers for having betrayed the Dutch.
This is certainly not a change to the better. The Eng-
lish were a very different people then to what they are
now. The history of Peter is agreeable with the sacred
text. It was intrusted to persons on whom Congress
could confide. I completely dissent with the examiner.
Nothing shall make me swerve out of the path of duty
There was no water, and he died for thirst. We can
safely confide on none but the truly good. Many have
profited from good advice. The error was occasioned
by compliance to earnest entreaty. This is a principle
in unison to our nature [Obs. 4]. This remark is in ac-
cordance to truth. His parents think on him and his
improvement* with pleasure and hope.

77 SYNTAX. 123

EXERCISES ON RULE XXVIII. continued.

You have bestowed your favors to the most deserving
persons. The wisest persons need not think it any di-
minution to their greatness, or derogation of their suffi-
ciency, to rely upon counsel. It is consonant with our
nature. He had no regard after his father's commands.
There was a prejudice to his cause. There is no need
for it. Reconciling himself with the king. They have
no resemblance with each other. Upon such occasions
as fell into their cognizance. I am engaged with pre-
paring for a journey. We profit from experience. He
is resolved of going to the Persian court. Expert about
deceiving. The Romans reduced the world to their
own power. He provided them in every thing. He
seems to have a taste of such. studies. You are con-
versant with that science. He is more conversant in
men of science than -in politicians. These are excep-
tions of the general rule. He died for thirst. He died
of the sword. He is glad of calamities. She is glad at
his company.

He saw your brother, and inquired from him for his
friend's health. He was charged of being accessary to
the murder. This is the first time we have been in-
dulged in such a luxury. He indulges himself with the
most pernicious habits. I hope I do not intrude into
you. He will suffer no one to intrude upon his house.
Is that a copy after nature ? If you copy from your
father's example, you will do well. He has never been
reconciled with his lot. How can such conduct be re-
conciled to the principles he professes ? It is proper
that the people should be taxed with the support of
government. Can not you prevail over your father to
pay us a visit? The enemy prevailed upon us by supe-
rior force. Take care to protect yourself from the dan-
gers which threaten you. The walls protected us
against the fire of the enemy. He has now become fa-
miliar to the rules of Grammar. Your countenance is
familiar with me. The office of judge and advocate
should not be vested with the same person.

124 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 78

426. 78. RULE XXIX. In the use of verbs
and words that in point of time relate to each other >
the order of time must be observed; as, " I have
known him these many years ; not, " I know him
(or I knew him) these many years."

427. Rcm. The particular tense necessary to be used must de-
pend upon the sense, and no rules can be given that will apply to
all cases. But it may be proper to observe,

428. Obs. 1. An observation which is always true, must be ex-
pressed in the present tense-, as, The stoics believed that u all
crimes are equal" ( 24, I. 2).

429. Obs. 2. The present-perfect, and not the present tense,
should be used in connection with words denoting an extent oi
time continued to the present-, thus, u They continue with me
now three days," should be, u have continued," etc. ( 24, II. 1).

430. 06s. 3. The present-perfect tense ought never to be used
in connection with words which express past time-, thus, l 'I have
formerly mentioned his attachment to study," should be, u I for-
merly mentioned," etc. ( 24, III. 1).

431. 06s. 4. The present and past of the auxiliaries, shall,
will, may, can, should never be associated in the same sentence-,
and care must be taken that the subsequent verb be expressed in
the same tense with the antecedent verb-, thus, " I may or can do
it now, if I choose ; " I might or could do it now, if I chose ;" "I
shall or will do it, when I can;" u I may do it, if I can :" u I
once could do it, but I would not-," " I would have done it then,
but I could not." " I mention it to him, that he may stop if he
choose ;" " I mentioned it to him, that he might stop if he chose;"
" I have mentioned it to him, that he may stop 5" u I had men-
tioned it to him, that he might stop-," u I had mentioned it to
him, that he might have stopped, had he chosen."

432. NOTE 1. When 5/10 uld is used instead of ought, to express present duty
(172), it may be followed by the present; a^s, " You should study that you truiy
become learned."

433. NOTE 2. The verb had is sometimes used for would; thus, " I had rather
do it," for " I would rather do it." This should not be imitated.

434. NOTE 3. Would and should are sometimes, hi common language, used as
if they were almost expletives; thus, " It ivoiild seem," for " It seems. 1 '

435. 06s. 5. The indicative present is frequently used after
the words ichen, till, before, as soon as, after, to express the
relative time of a future action ( 24, 1. 5)j as, " When he

78. SYNTAX. 125

comes, he will be welcome." When placed before the present-
perfect indicative, these words denote the completion of a future
action or event , as, " He will never be better, till he has felt
the pangs of poverty."

436. Obs, 6. A verb in the infinitive mood must be in the pre~
sent tense, when it expresses what is contemporary in point of
time with its governing verb, or subsequent to it; as, u He ap-
peared to be a man of letters-," " The Apostles were determined
topreach the gospel."

437. Obs. 7. But the perfect infinitive must be used to express
what is antecedent to the time of the governing verb; as, " Ro-
mulus is said to have founded Rome."

EXERCISES.

1. The doctor said, in his lecture, that fever always
produced thirst. The philosopher said that heat always
expanded metals. He said that truth was immutable.

2. I know the family more than twenty years. I am
now at school six months. My brother was sick four
weeks, and is no better. He tells lies long enough.

3. He has lately lost an only son. He has been for-
merly very disorderly. I have been at London last
year, and seen the king last summer. I have once or
twice last week told the story to our friend.

4. I should be obliged to him, if he will gratify me
in that particular. Ye will not come to me that ye
might have life Be wise and good that you might be
happy. He was told his danger, that he may shun it.

[Note 1.] We should respect those persons, because
they continued long attached to us. He should study
diligently, that he might become learned." 2. I had ra-
ther go now than afterwards. He had better do it soon,

5. We shall welcome him when he shall arrive. As
soon as he shall return, we will recommence our studies.
A prisoner is not accounted guilty, till he be convicted.

6. From the conversation I had with him, he ap-
peared to have been a man of learning. Our friends in-
tended to have met us. He was afraid he would have died,

7. Kirstall Abbey, now in ruins, appears to be an
extensive building. Lycurgus, the Spartan lawgiver, is
said to be born in the 926th year before Christ.

11*

126 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 79.

438. 79. RULE XXX. When a member of a
sentence refers to two different clauses, it should be
equally applicable to both ; as, He has not been, and
can not be, censured for such conduct.

439. This rule is often violated in sentences in which there are
two comparisons of a different nature and government; thus,
u He was more beloved, but not so much admired as Cinthio."
Here, as Cinthio is applicable to the clause so much admired, but
can not be connected with more beloved. In such sentences, the
proper way is, to complete the construction of the first member,
and leave that of the second understood; as, "He was more be-
loved than Cinthio, but not so much admired" (as Cinthio).

440. A proper choice of words, and a perspicuous arrangement
should be carefully attended to.

EXERCISES.

This dedication may serve for almost any book that
has, or ever shall be published. Will it be urged that
these books are as old, or even older than tradition. He
is more bold and active, but not so wise and studious as
his companion. Sincerity is as valuable, and even more
valuable, than knowledge. No person was ever so per-
plexed, or sustained the mortifications as he has done to-
day. Neither has he, nor any other persons suspected
so much dissimulation. The intentions of some of these
philosophers, nay, of many, might and probably were
good. The reward is due, and it has already, or will
hereafter be given to him. This book is preferable, and
cheaper than the other. He either has, or will obtain the
prize. He acted both suitably and consistently with his
profession. The first proposal was essentially different,
and inferior to the second. He contrives better, but does
not execute so well as his brother. There are principles
in man which ever have, and ever will incline him to
offend. The greatest masters of critical learning differ
and contend against one another. The winter has not,
and probably will not be so severe as was expected.
He is more friendly in his disposition, but not so dis-
tinguished for talents, as his brother.

^ 80. SYNTAX. 127

'141. 80. RULE XXXI. A substantive whose
case depends on no other word, is put in the nomina-
tive. This occurs under the four following

SPECIAL RULES.

442. RULE 1. A substantive with a participle, whose case rfe-
pends on no other word, is put in the nominative absolute. / as,
u He being gone, only two remain."

443. RULE 2. A person or thing addressed, without a verb 09
governing word, is put in the nominative independent /. as, u I
remain, dear sir, yours truly," u Plato, thou reasonest well."

444. RULE 3. JL substantive, unconnected in mere exclamation^
is put in the nominative independent ; as, " O the times! the
manners /"

445. RULE 4. A substantive, used by pleonasm before an af-
firmation, is put in the nominative independent ; as, u The boy,
oh! where was he?"

446. Rem. 1. Under this rulea mistakecanbe made only in the case of pronouns.

447. Rem. 2. The substantive is sometimes understood ; as, Generally speak.
Ing, i. e. We. His conduct, viewing it in the most favorable light, reflects dis-
credit on his character, i. e. we, men, or ^parson viewing it, c.

EXERCISES.

He made as wise proverbs as any body since, him
only excepted. Them descending, the ladder fell.
Whom being dead, we shall come. But them being ab-
sent, we can not come to a determination.

Whose grey top

Shall tremble, him descending.

The bleating sheep with my complaints agree .
Them parched with heat, and me inflamed by thee.

Her quick relapsing to her former state,
With boding fears approach the sewing train.
There all thy gifts and graces we display;
Thee, only thee, directing all our way.

So great ^Eneas rushes to the fight,

Sprung from a god, and more than mortal bold,

Him fresh in youth, and me in arms grown old.

128 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 81

448. 81. RULE XXXIL 1. The article A or AN
is put before common nouns in the singular number,
when used INDEFINITELY ; as, " A man;" " An ap-
ple;" that is, " any man;" "any apple."

2. The article THE is put before common nouns,
either singular or plural, when used DEFINITELY ;
as, "The sun rises." "The city of New-York."

449. It is impossible to give a precise rule for the use of the
article, in every case. The best general rule is to observe what
the sense requires. The following usages may be noticed.

1. The article is omitted before a noun that stands for a whole
species / as, Man is mortal , and before the names of minerals,
metals, arts, etc. Some nouns denoting the species, have the
article always prefixed , as, The dog is a more grateful animal
than the cat. The lion is a noble animal.

2. The last of two nouns after a comparative, should have no
article when they both refer to one person or thing; as, He is a
better reader than writer.

3. When two or more adjectives, or epithets, belong to the
same subject, the article should be placed before the first, and
omitted before the rest-, as, A red and white rose, i. e. a rose,
some parts of which are red, and others white. But when the
adjectives or epithets belong to different subjects, the article
should be prefixed to each; as, a red and a white rose, i. e. a red
rose and a white rose. " Johnson, the bookseller and stationer,"
indicates one person-, u Johnson the bookseller, and the stationer,"
would indicate two different persons. App. XXI.

NOTE. The same remark may be made respecting the demonstrative pronouns^
as, " That great and good man/' means only one man. TJiat great and then
good man, means two ; the one great, and the other good.

4. A nice distinction of the sense is sometimes made, by trie-
use or omission of the article a before the words feiv, little. If I
say, u He behaved with a little reverence," the expression is
positive, and implies a degree of praise. But if I say, " He be
haved with little reverence," the expression is negative, and im-
plies a degree of blame.

5 A has sometimes the meaning of every or each ; as, twelve shillings a dozen,
two hundred pounds a year ; i. e. every dozen, every year.

6. The antecedent to a restrictive clause is preceded by the definite article ; as
" All tlit pupils that were present did well."

7. The is sometimes used before the comparative and the superlative degree both
of adverbs and adjectives; a*, The more I study grammar, the better I like it

81. SYNTAX. 129

RULE XXXII. Continued.
EXERCISES

ON THE IMPROPER USE AND OMISSION OF THE ARTICLES.

1. Reason was given to a man to control his passions.
The gold is corrupting. A man is the noblest work of
the creation. Wisest and best men are sometimes be-
trayed into errors. We must act our part with a con-
stancy , though reward of our constancy be distant.
There are some evils of life which equally affect prince
and people. The purity has its seat in the heart, but
extends its influence over so much of outward conduct
as to form the great and material part of a character.
At worst I could incur but a gentle reprimand. The
profligate man is seldom or never found to be the good
husband, the good father, or the beneficent neighbour

2. A man may be a better soldier than a logician.
There is much truth in the old adage, that fire is a bet
ter servant than a master. He is not so good a poet as
a historian.

3. Thomson the watchmaker, and the jeweller from
London, was of the party. A red and a white flag was
displayed from the tower. A beautiful stream flows
between the new and old mansion. A hot and cold
spring were found in the same neighbourhood. The
young and old man seem to be on good terms. The
bill equally concerns the manufacturer and consumer.

4. He has been much censured for paying a little at-
tention to his business. So bold a breach of order called
for little severity in punishing the offender.

5. A shilling for every dozen is a moderate price. I
would not undertake to walk twenty miles each day for
three months. A guinea every week.

6. Persons who suffered by this calamity, have been
much commiserated. Foreign travel, and things which
he has seen, have enlarged his views. The proprietors
are responsible for all parcels that are committed to
their care. All persons who were consulted, were of
this opinion. Members who do not appear, must be
fined.

130 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 82

450 82. XXXIII. An ellipsis or omission of
words is admissible, when they can be supplied in
the mind with such certainty and readiness as not to
obscure the sense. Thus, instead of saying, " He
was a learned man, and he was a wise man, and
he was a good man ;" we say, "He was a learned,
wise, and good man."

451. Obs. It may be regarded as a rule proper to be kept
eteadily in view, that the fewer the words by which we can express
our ideas, the better, provided the meaning be clearly brought out.

4.52. Rem. The auxiliaries of the compound tenses are often used
alone to represent the verb-, as, " We have done it, but thou hast
not;" i. e. thou hast not done it.

453. The verb to be, with its subject, in dependent clauses, is
often omitted after the connectives if, though, yet, when, <fec. ; as,
" Study, if [it ii\ neglected, becomes irksome." " Though [he was]
poor, he was honest."

EXERCISES.

He sent me the books and the papers which he pro-
mised. He has a house and a garden in the country.
These counsels were the dictates of virtue and the dic-
tates of true honor. Such conduct is contraiy to the
laws of God, and to the laws of man. His crimes brought
Mm into extreme distress and into extreme perplexity.
He was blessed with an affectionate father and an af-
fectionate mother. His reputation and his estate are
both lost by gambling. He is temperate, he is disinterest-
ed, he is benevolent. This is the man whom we met
and whom we invited to our house. Genuine virtue
supposes our benevolence and our usefulness to be
strengthened and to be confirmed by principle. Perseve-
rance in laudable pursuits will reward our toils, and
will produce effects beyond our expectation. We often
commend imprudently as well as censure imprudently.
Changes are often taking place hi men and in manners,
in opinions and in customs.

[Rem.] He regards the truth, but thou dost not regard
it. They must be punished, and they shall be punished.
We succeeded, but they did not succeed.

83. SYNTAX. 131

454. 83. RULE XXXIV. An ellipsis is not al-
lowable when it would obscure the sentence, weaken
its force, or be attended with an impropriety ; as,
We are inclined to flatter (those) who flatter us.

455. Rem. 1. In general, no word should be omitted that is ne-
cessary to the full and correct construction, or even harmony of a
sentence. Articles, pronouns, and prepositions, should always be
repeated when the words with which they stand connected are
used emphatically. Even nouns, adjectives, verbs, and adverbs,
must often, under such circumstances, be repeated- as, " Not only
the year, but the day and the hour were appointed."

456. Rem. 2. It is generally improper (except in poetry) to
omit the antecedent to a relative ; and always, to omit a relative

'when of the nominative case.

457. Rem. 3. The article should be repeated, when a different
form of it is required; as, "A horse and an ass."

EXERCISES.

I gladly shunned who gladly fled from me. His
honor, interest, religion, were all embarked in this un-
dertaking. The more I see of his conduct, I like him
better. It is not only the duty, but interest of young
persons to be studious and diligent. Without firmness,
nothing that is great can be undertaken ; that is difficult
or hazardous, accomplished. That species of commerce
will produce great gain or loss. Many days or even
weeks pass away unimproved. The people of this coun-
try possess a healthy climate and soil. I have bought
a house and orchard. His conduct is not scandalous,
and that is the best can be said of it. The captain had
several men died in his ship. They enjoy a free con-
stitution and laws. That is a property most men have,
or at least may attain. *A noble spirit disdaineth the
malice of fortune ; his greatness of soul is not to be cast
down. Charles was a man of learning, knowledge, and
benevolence ; and what is more, a true Christian. The
team consisted of a black and white horse. A beauti-
ful round and square table were exhibited.

* "A noble spirit," &c., should be, " A man of a noble spirit.' 1 It would be
improper to ype.ik f the soul of a spirit

132 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 84

84. SYNTACTICAL PARSING.

458. SYNTACTICAL PARSING includes Etymolo-
gical, and adds to it a statement of the relation in
which words stand to each other, and the rules
according to which they are combined in phrases
and sentences.

459. The method of parsing each part of speech ctymologically,
has been pointed out under each-, viz. Nouns, No. 89-, Article, un-
der 97-, Adjective, 110 5 Pronouns, viz. personal, 115 ; relative,
123 ; adjective, 145 -, Verb, 205; Adverb, 231 5 Prepositions, 237;
Interjection, 240; and Conjunctions, 248. Also, specimens of
Etymological parsing are given, 39. The method of parsing
each part of speech syntactically will be seen from the following

SPECIMEN OF SYNTACTICAL PARSING.*

460. PSALM cxi. 10. " The fear of the Lord is the
beginning of wisdom; and a good understanding
have all they that do his commandments : His
praise endureth forever."'

461. This sentence contains all the parts of speech
except the interjection, and may be analyzed thus:

" The fear of the Lord," etc. This is a compound sentence,
consisting of the three following parts, viz.

1. "The fear of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom."

This is a simple sentence.

The logical subject is, The fear of the Lord

The logical predicate is, is the beginning of wisdom

The grammatical subject is, /ear. It is limited by the adjunct, of the Lord, and

shown to be limited by the article the (App. VII).
The grammatical predicate is, is beginning, in which is is the verb or copula,

and beginning, the attribute. It is limited by the adjunct, of wisdom, and

shown to be limited by the..

*In parsing nouns, pronouns, and verbs, it is quite unnecessary to ^peat the
words gender, number, mood, tense; thus, masculine gender, singular number,
&c. : the meaning being sufficiently indicated by the terms masculine, feminine,
neuter, singular, plural, indicative, potential, &c. ; present, past, future, &c.;
and it has the advantage of saving much time. For the same reason, it may be
proper to omit the terms, proper nnd common, before nouns, and the mention of

84. SYNTAX. 133

2. "And a good understanding have all they that do
his commandments."

Tliis is a compound sentence, connected with the preceding by and; it contain!
one leading and one dependent clause, connected by that.
The independent clause is, " All they have a good understanding.*'
The dependent clause is, " that do his commandments."
fn the first or leading clause.
The logical subject is, all they.
The logical predicate is, have a good understanding.
The grammatical subject is, they, qualified by all.
The grammatical predicate is, have, modified by its object, understanding,

which is qualified by its adjective, good, and shewn to be indefinite by the

article a.

In the dependent clause,
The logical subject is the relative that, which connects the dependent with the

antecedent clause.

The logical predicate is, do his commandments.
The grammatical subject is the same as the logical.
The grammatical predicate is do, modified by its object, commandment* t

which again is limited by the possessive, his.

3. " His praise endureth forever."

This is a simple sentence, of which

The logical subject is, hii praise.

The logical predicate is, endureth forever.

The grammatical subject is, praise, qualified by his.

The grammatical predicate is, endureth, modified, in respect of time, by forever

462. The sentence thus analyzed, may be parsed
syntactically as follows :

The is the definite article; it belongs to/<rar, and shews it to be limited

RTTLE XXXII. 2. The article THE, &c.

(tar is a noun, neuter, in the nominative singular, the subject of t*5. $ 47

RULE I. The subject of a verb, &c.

of is a preposition, which shows the relation between Lord, the subse-
quent, and /ear, the antecedent term.

the is the definite article ; it belongs to Lord, and shews it to be definite ;

it is rendered so by eminence. RULE XXXII. 2.

Lord " is a noun, masculine, in the objective singular, governed by of
RULK HI. Prepositions govern, &o.

person, except when the noun is in theirs* or second person. The conjugation
Df regular verbs may also be omitted, because their being regular, sufficiently in-
dicates their principal parts. When the verb is passive, parse thus : " A verb
transitive, in the passive voice, regular, irregular," &c

134 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 84

fa. ...... ..id a verb intransitive, irregular, am, was, been; it is found in the

present indicative active, third person singular, and agrees with its
subject fear RULE I. A verb agrees, &c.

the is the definite article ; it belongs to beginning, and shews it to be

used definitely ; it is rendered so by the adjunct, of wisdom.

beginning is a noun, neuter, in the nominative singular, and is the predicate -
nominative after is. RULE XIII. The predicate substantive after *
verb, &c.

c/......... is a preposition; it shews the relation between wisdom, the subse-

quent, and beginning, the antecedent term.

wisdom- is a noun, neuter, in the objective singular, governed by of. RULB
III. A preposition, &c.

and is a copulative conjunction ; it connects the following compound, with

the preceding simple sentence. RULE XX. 1. Conjunctions connect, etc.

a is the indefinite article ; it belongs to understanding, and shews it to

be used indefinitely. RULE XXXII. 1. The article a or an, &c.

good An adjective, compared irregularly, good, better, best ; it qualifies un-
derstanding. RULE VIII. An adjective qualifies, &c.

understanding is a noun, neuter, in the objective singular, the object of, and go.
verned bv have. RULE II. A transitive verb, &c.

have"- . is a verb transitive, irregular, have, had, had,' it is found in the pre-
sent indicative active, third person plural, and agrees with its subject,
they. RULE I. A verb agrees, &c.

oB is an indefinite adjective pronoun, and qualifies they. RULE VIII. An

adjective qualifies, &c.

they is a personal pronoun, masculine or feminine, in the nominative plural

put for persons, and is the subject of have. 47, RULE I. Tlie subject
of a verb, &c

tkat is a relative pronoun, masculine or feminine, in the nominative plural,

the subject of do. 47, RULE I. It is used for ivho C330), and agrees
with its antecedent they. RULE XI. The relative agrees, &c. 1*
connects its clause with its antecedent they, restricting it.

do is a verb, transitive, irregular, do, did, done ; it is found in the pre.

sent indicative active, third person plural, and agrees with its subject,
that. RULE I. A verb agrees, &c.

hit is a possessive adjective pronoun, standing for Lord's, anc. qualifying

commandments. RULE VIII. An adjective, &c.

commandments, is a noun, neuter, in the objective plural ; the object of, and go-
verned by do. RULE II. A transitive verb, &c.

His is a possessive adjective pronoun, as before, qualifies praise. RULB

VIII. An adjective, fee.

praise-"- is a noun, neuter, in the nominative singular, the subject of cndureth.
47, RULE I. The subject of a verb, &c.

tndurcth-- is a verb, intransitive, regular ; it is in the present indicative active
third person singular, and agrees with its subject praise RULB I
A verb agrees, &c.
. U an adverb of time, and modifies enrlitreth. RnLE.XXlV. Adverbs, Sec.

PROMIS.] SYNTAX. 135

85. PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES.*

ON THE RULES OF SYNTAX.

NOTE. The following exercises, after being corrected, or in the
time of correcting, may be used as exercises in Syntactical Parsing.

1. John writes pretty. I shall nevei do so no more.
The train of our ideas are often interrupted. Was you
present at last meeting ? He need not to be in so much
haste (201). He dare not act otherwise than he docs.
Him whom they seek is in the house. George or I is
the person. They or he is much to be blamed. The
troop consist of fifty men. Those set of books was a
valuable present. That pillar is sixty foot high. His
conduct evinced the most extreme vanity. These tree?
are remarkable tall. He acted bolder than was expec-
ted. This is he who I gave the book to. Eliza always
appears amiably. Who do you lodge with now? He
was born at London, but he died in Bath. If he be sin-
cere I am satisfied. Her father and her were at church.
The master requested him and I to read more distinctly,
It is no more but his due.

2. Let he and I read the next chapter. She is free
of pain. Those sort of dealings are unjust. David the
son of Jesse was the youngest of his brothers. You
was very kind to him, he said. Well, says I, what does
thou think of him now? James is one of those boys
that was kept in at school, for bad behavior. Thou,
James, did deny the deed. Neither good nor evil come
of themselves. We need not to be afraid. He expected
to have gained more by the bargain. You should drink
plenty of goat milk. It was him who spoke first. Do
you like ass milk ? Is it me that you mean ? Who did
you buy your grammar from ? If one takes a wrong
method at first setting out, it will lead them astray.
Neither man nor woman were present. I am more tal-
ler than you. She is the same lady who sang so sweetly.
After the most straitest sect of our religion, I lived a

*NOTE. In the following, as well as in the preceding exercises, some sen,
tences are taken from the Bible, containing expressions which, though authorized
when that excellent translation was made, have now become obsolete. They *
Introduced here to be changed into the form which modem usage requires.

13(5 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. L PROMIS *

Pharisee. Is not thy wickedness great ? and thine ini-
quities infinite ? There was more sophists than one. If
a person have lived twenty or thirty years, he should
have some experience. If tins were his meaning, the
prediction has failed. Fidelity and truth is the founda-
tion of all justice. His associates in wickedness will
not fail to mark the alteration of his conduct. Thy
rod and thy staff, they comfort me.

3. And when they had lift up their eyes, they saw no
man, save Jesus only. Strive not with a man without
cause, if he have done thee no harm. Now both the
chief priests and Pharisees had given a commandment,
that if any man knew where he were, he should show
it, that they might take him. The girl, her book is
torn in pieces. It is not me who he is in love with.
He which commands himself, commands the whole
world. Nothing is more lovelier than virtue.

4. The peoples happiness is the statesmans honor.
Changed to a worser shape thou canst not be. I have
drunk no spirituous liquors this six years. He is taller
than me, but I am stronger than him. Solid peace and
contentment consists neither in beauty nor riches, but
in the favor of God. After who is the King of Israel
come out? The reciprocations of love and friendship
between he and I, have been many and sincere. Abuse
of mercies ripen us for judgment. Peter and John is
not at school to-day. Three of them was taken into
custody. To study diligently, and behave genteelly, is
commendable. The enemies who we have most to fear
are those of our own hearts. Regulus was reckoned
the most consummate warrior which Rome could then
produce. Suppose life never so long, fresh accessions
of knowledge may still be made.

5. Surely thou who reads so much in the Bible can
tell me what became of Elijah. Neither the master nor
the scholars is reading. Trust not him whom you know
is dishonest. I love no interests but that of truth and
virtue. Every imagination of the thoughts of the heart
are evil continually. No one can be blamed for taking
due care of their health. They crucified him, and two

PROMIS.J SYNTAX. 137

others with him, on either side one, and Jesus in the
midst. None can be blamed for taking care of his health.

6. I have read Popes Homer, and Drydens Virgil.
He that is diligent you should commend. There was
an earthquake which made the earth to tremble. And
God said to Solomon, Wisdom and knowledge is granted
unto thee, &c. I could not commend him for justifying
hisself when he knows that his conduct was so very im-
proper. He was very much made on at school,. Though
he were a son, yet learned he obedience by the things
which he suffered. If he is alone, tell him the news;
but if there is any body with him, do not tell him. They
ride faster than us. Though the measure be myste-
rious, it is worthy of attention. If he does but approve
my endeavors, it will be an ample reward. Was it him
who came last? Yes, it was him.

Forever in this humble cell,

Let thee and I, my fair one, dwell.

7. Every man should act suitable to his character and
station in life. His arguments were exceeding clear. I
only spoke three words on that subject. The ant and
the bee sets a good example before lazy boys. Neither
in this world, neither in the world to come. Evil com-
munications corrupts good manners. Hannibal was
one of the greatest generals whom the world ever saw.
The middle station of life seems to be the most advan-
tageous for gaming of wisdom.

8. These are the rules of grammar, by the observing
which you may avoid mistakes. The king conferred
upon him the title of a duke. My exercises are not
well wrote. I do not hold my pen good. Grammar
teaches us to speak proper. She accused her companion
for having betrayed her. I will not dissent with her,
Nothing shall make me swerve out of the path of duty
and honor. Who shall I give it to ? Who are you look-
ing for ? It is a diminution to, or a derogation of their
judgment. It fell into their notice. She values herself
for her fortune. That is a book which I am much
pleased with. I have been to see the coronation, and

12*

138 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [ PROMIS.

a fine sight it was. That portrait of the emperor's is a
very exact resemblance of him. Every thing that we
here enjoy, change, decay, and come to an end. It is not
him they blame so much.

9. No people has more faults than they that pretend
to have none. The laws of Draco is said to have been
wrote with blood. It is so clear, or so obvious, as I
need not explain it. She taught him and I to read. The
more greater a bad man's accomplishments are, the
more dangerous he is to society, and the more less fit
for a companion. Each has their own faults, and every
one should endeavor to correct their own. Let your
promises be few, and such that you can perform.

10. His being at an enmity with Caesar and Antony,
were the cause of perpetual discord. Their being
forced to their books in an age at enmity with all re-
straint, have been the reason why many have hated
books all their lives. There was a coffee-house at that
end of the town, in which several gentlemen used to
meet of an evening. Do not despise the state of the
poor, lest it becomes your own condition. It was his
duty to have interposed his authority in an affair of so
much importance. He spent his whole life in the doing
good. Every gentleman who frequented the house, and
conversed with the erectors of this occasional club,
were invited to pass an evening when they thought fit.
The winter has not been so severe as we expected it to
have been. The rest (of the stars) in circuit walls this
universe. Sir, if thou have borne hence, tell me where
thou hast laid him.

11. A lampoon, or a satire, does not carry in them
robbery or murder. She and you were not mistaken in
her conjectures. My sister and I, as well as my bro-
ther, are employed in their respective occupations. He
repents him of that indiscreet action. It was me, and
not him, that wrote it. Art thou him ? I will take care
that no one shall suffer no injury. I am a man who
approves'of wholesome discipline, and who recommend
it to others ; but I am not a person who promotes se-
verity, or who object to mild and generous treatment.

PROMIS.J SYNTAX. 139

This jackanapes has hit me in a right place enough.
Prosperity, as truly asserted by Seneca, it very much
obstructs the knowledge of ourselves. To do to others
as we would that they should do to us, it is our duty.
This grammar was purchased at Ogle '.s the bookseller s.
The council was not unanimous.

12. Who spilt the ink upon the table ? Him. Who
lost this book? Me. Whose pen is this? John. There
is in fact no impersonal verbs in any language. And
he spitted on the ground and anointed his eyes. Had
I never seen ye, I had never known ye. The ship
Maiy and Ann were restored to their owners. If we
consult the improvement of mind, or the health of body,
it is well known exercise is the great instrument for
promoting both. A man may see a metaphor or an al-
legory in a picture, as well as read them in a description.

13. I had no sooner placed her at my right hand, by
the fire, but she opened to me the reason of her visit.
A prudent wife, she shall be blessed. The house you
speak of, it cost me five hundred pounds. Did I not
tell thee, thee infamous wretch! that thou would
bring me to ruin? Not only the counsel's and attorney's,
but the judge's opinion also, favored his cause. It was
the men's, women's, and children's lot, to suffer great
calamities. That is the eldest son of the King of Eng-
land's. Lord Feversham's the general's tent. This
palace had been the Grand Sultan's Mahomet's. They
did not every man cast away the abomination of their
eyes.

14. *I am purposed. He is arrived. They were de-
serted from their regiment. Whose works are these ?
They are Cicero, the most eloquent of men's. The
mighty rivals are now at length agreed. The time of
William making the experiment, at length arrived. If
we alter the situation of any of the words, we shall pre
sentry be sensible of the melody suffering. This portrait

*RULE. It is improper to use an intransitive verb in the passtvejorm.
I &m purposed ; He is arrived ; should be, I have purposed He has arrived
From this rule there are a number of exceptions ; for it is allowable to say
is come ; She is gone, &c. 49, II.

140 ENGLISH GRAMMAR- [PROMIS

of the king's does not much resemble him. These pic-
tures of the king were sent to him from Italy. He who
committed the offence, thou shouldst correct, not I, who
am innocent.

15. But, Thomas, one of the twelve, called Didymus,
was not with them when Jesus came. I offer observa-
tions, that a long and chequered pilgrimage have ena-
bled me to make on man. When I visited Europe, 1
returned to America. Clelia is a vain woman, whom,
if we do not flatter, she will be disgusted. In his con-
duct was treachery, and in his words, faithless profes-
sions. The orators did not forget to enlarge themselves
on so popular a subject. He acted conformable with
his instructions, and can not be censured justly.

16. No person could speak stronger on this subject,
nor behave nobler, than our young advocate, for the
cause of toleration. They were studious to ingratiate
with those who it was dishonorable to favor. The house
framed a remonstrance, where they spoke with great
freedom of the king's prerogative. Neither flatter or
contemn the rich or the great. Many would exchange
gladly their honors, beauty, and riches, for that more
quiet and humbler station, which thou art now dissa-
tisfied with. High hopes, and ambitious views, is a great
enemy to tranquillity. Many persons will not believe
but what they are free from prejudices. I will lay me
down in peace, and take my rest. This word I have
only found in Spenser. The king being apprised of the
conspiracy, he fled from Jerusalem.

17. A too great variety of studies dissipate and weaken
the mind. James was resolved to not indulge himself
in such a cruel amusement. They admired the country-
man's, as they called him, candor and uprightness.
The pleasure or pain of one passion, differ from those
of another. The court of Spain, who gave the order,
were not aware of the consequences. There was much
spoke and wrote on each side of the question ; but I
have chose to suspend my decision.

18. Religion raises men above themselves ; irreligion
sinks them beneath the brutes ; that binds them down

PROMIS.J SYNTAX. 141

to a poor pitiable speck of earth ; this opens for them a
prospect to the skies. Temperance and exercise, how-
soever little they may be regarded, they are the best
means of preserving health. To despise others on ac-
count of their poverty, or to value ourselves for our
wealth, are dispositions highly culpable. This task was
the easier performed, from the cheerfulness with which
he engaged in it. These counsels were the dictates of
virtue, and the dictates of true honor. As his misfor-
tunes were the fruit of his own obstinacy, a few persons
pitied him. And they were judged every man according
to their works. Riches is the bane of human happiness.
I wrote to my brother before I received his letter.

19. WhenGarrick appeared, Peter was for sometime
in doubt whether it could be him or not. Was you liv-
ing contented in spiritual darkness ? The company was
very numerous. Shall the throne of iniquity have fel-
lowship with thee, which frameth mischief by a law?
Where is the security that evil habits will be ever bro-
ken ? Each of them bring material to the place. Nor
let no comforter delight my ear. She was six years older
than him. They were obliged to contribute more than
us. The Barons had little more to rely on, besides the
power of their families. The sewers must be kept so
clear, as the water may run away. Such among us who
follow that profession. No body is so sanguine to hope
for it. She behaved unkinder than I expected. Agree-
able to your request, I send this letter. She is exceed-
ing fair. Thomas is not as docile as his sister. There
was no other book but his. He died by a fever. Among
whom was Mary Magdalene, and Mary the mother of
James. My sister and I waited till they were called.
The army were drawn up in haste. The public is re-
spectfully informed that, &c. The friends and amuse-
ments which he preferred corrupted his morals. Each
must answer for themselves. Henry, though at first he
showed an unwillingness, yet afterwards he granted his
request.

20. Him and her live very happily together. She
invited Jane and I to see her new dress. She uttered

142 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PROMIS.

such cries that pierced the heart of every one who heard
them. Maria is not clever as her sister Ann. Though
he promises ever so solemnly, I will not believe him.
The full moon was no sooner up, in all its brightness,
but he opened to them the gate of paradise. It render-
ed the progress very slow of the new invention. This
book is Thomas', that is James'. Socrates's wisdom has
been the subject of many a conversation. Fare thee
well, James. Who, who has the judgment of a man,
would have drawn such an inference ? George was the
most diligent scholar whom I ever knew. I have ob-
served some children to use deceit. He durst not to
displease his master. The hopeless delinquents might,
each in their turn, adopt the expostulatory language of
Job. Several of our English words, some centuries ago,
had different meanings to those they have now. And I
was afraid, and went and hid thy talent in the earth ; lo,
there thou hast that is thine. With this booty he made
off to a distant part of the country, where he had reason
to believe that neither he nor his master were known.
Thine is the kingdom, the power, and the glory. I have 4
been at London.

21. Which of the two masters, says Seneca, shall we
most esteem? he who strives to correct his scholars
by prudent advice and motives of honor, or he who will
lash them severely for not repeating their lessons as they
ought ? The blessing of the Lord it maketh rich, and
he addeth no sorrow with it. For if ther^ be first a
willing mind, it is accepted according to that a man hath,
and not according to that he has not. If a brother or
a sister be naked and destitute of daily food, and one of
you say unto them, Depart in peace, be ye warmed and
filled ; notwithstanding if ye give them not those things
which are needful to the body, what doth it profit ? 340.

22. But she always behaved with great severity to
her maids ; and if any of them were negligent of their
duty, or made a slip in their conduct, nothing would
serve her but burying the poor girls alive. He had no
master to instruct him ; he had read nothing but the
writings of Moses and the prophets, and had received

PROMIS.] SYNTAX. 143

no lessons from the Socrates's,* the Plato's and the Con-
fucius's of the age. They that honor me, I will honor.
For the poor always ye have with you.

23. The first Christians of the Gentile world made a
simple and entire transition from a state as bad, if not
worse, than that of entire ignorance, to the Christianity
of the New Testament. And he said unto Gideon, every
one that lappeth of the water with his tongue, as a dog
lappeth, him shalt thou set by himself.

The duke had not .behaved with that loyalty as was
expected. Milton seems to have been well acquainted
with his own genius, and to know what it was that na-
ture had bestowed upon him more bountifully than upon
others.

24. And on the morrow, because he would have known
the certainty wherefore he was accusedf of the Jews,
he loosed him from his bonds,

Here rages force, here tremble flight and fear,
Here stormed contention, and here fury frowned:
The Cretan javelin reached him from afar,^
And pierced his shoulder as he mounts his car.

Nor is it then a welcome guest, affording only an uneasy
sensation, and brings always with it a mixture of con-
cern and compassion.

He onlyj promised me a loan of the book for two
days. I was once thinking to have written a poem.

25. A very slow child will often be found to get les-
sons by heart as soon as, nay sometimes sooner than,
one who is ten times as intelligent.

It is then from a cultivation of the perceptive facul-
ties, that we only can attain those powers of concep-
tion which are essential to taste.

No man is fit for free conversation for the inquiry

*The possessive case must not be used for the plural number. In this quotation
from Baron Haller's Letters to his Daughter, the proper names should have been
phiralized like common nouns; thus, From the Socrateses, the Platoes, and the
Confuciuscs of the age.

t Accused requires of before the crime, and by before the person accusing.

t r f his sentence expresses one meaning as it stands. It may be^ made to ex*
press other four by placing only after me, or loan, or book, or days.

144 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PROMIS.

after truth if he be exceedingly reserved; if he be
haughty and proud of his knowledge ; if he be positive
and dogmatical in his opinions ; if he be one who always
affects to outshine all the company; if he be fretful
and peevish; if he affect wit, and is full of puns, or
quirks, or quibbles.

26. Conversation is the business, and let every one
that please add their opinion freely. There are many
more shining qualities in the mind of man, but there is
none so useful as discretion.

Mr. Locke having been introduced by Lord Shafts-
bury to the Duke of Buckingham and Lord Halifax,
these three noblemen, instead of conversing with the
philosopher on literary subjects, in a very short tune
sat down to cards.

BAD ARRANGEMENT.

27. It is your light fantastic fools, who have neither
heads nor hearts, in both sexes, who, by dressing their
bodies out of all shape, render themselves ridiculous
and contemptible.

And how can brethren hope to partake of their pa-
rent's blessing, that curse each other.

The superiority of others over us, though in trivial
concerns, never fails to mortify our vanity, and give
us vexation, as Nicol admirably observes.

Likewise also the chief priests, mocking, said among
themselves, with the scribes, He saved others ; himself
he can not save.

Noah, for his godliness, and his family, were the only
persons preserved from the flood,

It is an unanswerable argument of a very refined age,
the wonderful civilities that have passed between the
nation of authors, and that of readers.

And they said among themselves, Who shall roll us
away the stone from the door of the sepulchre ? And
when they had looked, they saw that the stone was
rolled away: for it was very great.

A great stone that I happened to find, after a long
search, by the sea-shore, served me for an anchor

PROMIS.J &VNTAX. 145

It is true what he says, but it is not applicable to the
point. Wanted a young man to take care of some hor-
ses, of a religious turn of mind. The following verses
were written by a young man who has long lain in the
grave, for his own amusement. He rode to town and
drove twelve cows on horseback.

BAD ARRANGEMENT.*

28. The Senate of Rome ordered that no part of it
should be rebuilt ; it was demolished to the ground, so
that travellers are unable to say where Carthage stood
at this day.

Thus ended the war with Antiochus, twelve years
after the second punic war, and two after it had begun.

Upon the death of Claudius, the young Emperor
Nero pronounced his funeral oration, and he was ca-
nonized among the gods, who scarcely deserved the
name of a man.

Galerius abated much of his severities against the
Christians on his death-bed, and revoked those edicts
which he had formerly published, tending to their per-
secution, a little before his death.

The first care of Aurelius was to marry his daughter
Lucilla once more to Claudius Pompeianus a man of
moderate fortune, c.

But at length having made his guards accomplices in
their design, they set upon Maximin while he slept at
noon in his tent, and slew both him and his son, whom
he had made his partner in the empire, without any
opposition.

Aurelian defeated the Marcomanni, a fierce and ter-
rible nation of Germany, that had invaded Italy, in
three several engagements.

AMBIGUITY.

29. You suppose him younger than I.

This may mean, either that you suppose him younger than 1
am, or that you suppose him to b younger than I suppose him
to be.

* The exercises in this section are all extractei from the octavo edition of
Goldsm.th's Roman History, from which many more might he obtained.

140 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 86

Parmenio had served, with great fidelity, Philip, the
father of Alexander, as well as himself, for whom he
first opened the way into Asia.

Here we are apt to suppose the word himself refers to Parmenio,
and means that he had not only served Philip but he had served
himself ai the same time. This, however, is not the meaning of
the passage. If we arrange it thus, the meaning will appear.
" Parmenio had not only served Philip the father of Alexander
with great fidelity, but he had served .Alexander himself \ and
was the first that opened the way for him into Asia.''

Belisarius was general of all the forces under the
emperor Justinian the First, a man of rare valor.

Who was a man of rare valor? The emperor Justinian we
should suppose, from the arrangement of the w r ords-, but this is
not the case, for it was Belisarius. The sentence should stand
thus, " Belisarius, a man of rare valor, was general of all the
forces under the emperor Justinian the First."

Lisias promised to his father never to abandon his
friends.

Whether were they his own friends or his fathers whom Lisias
promised never to abandon? If his own, it should be, Lisias pro-
mised and said to his father, I will never abandon my friends. If
his father" 1 s^ it should be, Lisias promised and said to his father.
I will never abandon your friends.

86. MISCELLANEOUS OBSEPvVATIONS.

463. 1. Many writers use a plural noun after the se-
cond of two numeral adjectives; thus, " The first and
second pages are torn." According to analogy it should
be, The first and the second page [449, 3], Thus we
say, " The new and the old world," "Ancient and mo-
dern history," c.

2. Another, One, Every.

Another corresponds to one ; but not to some, nor to
every. Thus, " Handed down from every writer of
rerses to another," should be, "From one writer of
verses to another." "At some hour or another,' 9 should
be, "At some hour or other."

One is oiten used in familiar phrases, (like on in
French,) for we, or any one of us, indiscriminately '
thus, " One is often more influenced by example than

86 SYNTAX. 147

by precept." The verb and pronoun with which one
agrees, should be singular ; thus, " If one take a wrong
method at first, it will lead them astray," should be,
"it will lead one astray," or "him astray."

3 As follows, As regards, As appears, <$ c.

Dr. Campbell and Mr. Murray regard these, and se-
veral other expressions of a similar kind, as impersonal
verbs, and are of opinion that they should always be
used in the singular. This, however, is contrary to the
established usage of our best writers, who frequently
use them in the plural form ; as, " The circumstances
were as follow." Other Grammarians, and particularly
Dr. Crombie (Etymology, p. 389 et seq.), consider as to
be a relative pronoun, and that the verb following it
should be singular or plural, according as its antecedent
is in the singular or plural number ; thus, " His descrip-
tion was as follows," i. e. "was this which follows."
" His words were as follow," i. e. " were those which
follow." Neither of these explanations seems to be en-
tirely satisfactory. It is perhaps better to regard such
phrases as elliptical, and in parsing to supply the ellip-
sis thus, " The words were such as those which follow,"
or, "were the same as those which follow."

As concerns, as regards, used commonly in the singu-
lar, are also elliptical, and may be supplied thus, "As it
concerns," or " As far as it concerns, regards," &c. As
(it) appears, is always in the singular. In the plural,
the noun or pronoun is commonly expressed thus,
" These things, as they concern," or, " as far as they
concern us ;" or, "As far as these things concern us,'*
&c. In this way, there is no necessity for considering
these expressions as impersonal verbs, nor for depriving
as of its conjunctive character. App. XII.

4. So and Such.

When we refer to the species or nature of a thing,
the word such is properly applied ; as, " Such a temper
is seldom found." But when degree is signified, we
use the word so ; as, " So bad a temper is seldom found."
Yet so is hardly ever used before an adjective followed

148 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 86

by a plural noun. In this case, such is used instead of
it, to express degree. Thus, we say, " Such beautiful
flowers 1 have seldom seen ;" not, " so beautiful flowers."
Still it would be correct to say, " I have never seen
flowers so beautiful/'

5. Disappointed of, Disappointed in.

We are disappointed of a thing, when we expect it
and do not get it ; and disappointed in it, when we have
it, and it does not answer our expectations. Hence a
person may be disappointed in that which he is not
disappointed of.

6. Taste of, and Taste for.

A taste of a thing, implies actual enjoyment of it ;
but a taste for it, implies only capacity for enjoyment ;
as, " When we have had a true taste of the pleasures
of virtue, we can have no relish for those of vice."
" He had a taste for such studies, and pursued them
earnestly."

7. Position of Adjectives.

Adjectives should be placed next their substantives.
Thus, it is incorrect to say, " a new pair of shoes," " a
fine field of corn," " a good glass of wine," &c.; because
the adjectives in these sentences qualify shoes, corn,
wine, and not pair, Jield, glass, with which they are
joined. The phrases should be, "A pair of new shoes ;"
"A field of fine corn;" "A glass of good wine."

8. Evt that.

But is often improperly used before that, after words
which imply doubt or fear ; as, " I doubt not but that
he "will fulfil his promise." This would seem to say.
" I doubt nothing save one thing, namely, that he will
fulfil his promise ;" whereas, that is the very thing not
doubted. Remove the but, and you preserve the sense.

9. Older, Oldest, Elder, Eldest.

Older and oldest refer to maturity of age; elder and
eldest, to priority of right by birth. Thus, " Homer is

86. SYNTAX. 149

an older author than Virgil." "Being the eldest of the
family, he succeeded to the estate."

10. Farther and Farthest, Further and Furthest.
Farther and farthest denote place or distance ; Fur*
ther and furthest, quantity or addition ; as, " The farther
they advanced, the more interesting was the scene."
" I have nothing further to say on this subject." Far-
ther is the comparative, and farthest, the superlative
of far ; Further and furthest, of fore or forth.

11. Later, latest, Latter, last, Next, Nearest.

Later and latest, compared from late, have respect
to time ; latter and last, to place or position, and are
employed without so direct a reference to comparison.
Next refers either to time or place ; nearest, to place
only.

12. Past, passed.

Pastissiu adjective ; passed, the past tense or past
participle of the verb, and they ought not, as they fre-
quently are, to be confounded with each other.

13. Lay, lie, Set, sit.

Lay and lie are distinct in meaning and application,
and can not be used indiscriminately. The use of the
former for the latter is an error exceedingly prevalent,
and should be corrected. Thus we constantly hear such
expressions as, " It lays on the table ;" " It laid there
yesterday." Lie is an intransitive verb; Lay is tran-
sitive, and means to make lie. The past tense of lie
is lay, and past participle lain. The past tense of lay
is laid, and past participle laid* Thus, The bricklayer
lays bricks, and being laid, they lie. The book lies
on the shelf; it was laid there a week ago, and has
lain ever since. The same distinction should be ob-
served between set and sit.

14. "Be that as it will," is a common, but inaccurate
expression. It ought to be, " Be that as it may," or
may have been.

15. " Seldom or ever" is not correct. It should be
seldom or never; or, seldom if ever,

13*

150

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

464. 87. A LIST OF IMPROPER EXPRESSIONS

SELECTED CHIEFLY FROM PICKERING'S VOCABULARY.

I should admire to go to sea.

I allut upon going.

The alone God. The alone motive.

I an't ; you an't ; he an } t, &c.

Any manner of means.

His discourse was approbated.

To sell at auction.

lie was walking back and forth.

Part were good, the balance were bad.

His argument was based on this fact.

Where be you? Here I be.

The money was ordered paid.

I would not be.little or demean myself.

He was paid for his betterments.

I calculate to leave town soon.

A chunk of bread.

A clever* house.

He conducts ivell.

He is considerable of a scholar.

His farm was convenient to mine.

The creatures^ must be sent to pasture.

Curious apples; curious cider, &c.

He is a decent scholar, writer.

Her situation was distressing toadegree.

Such conduct was very derogatory.

A total destitution of capacity.

The United States, or either of them.

Equally as well as good, c.

Mr. B , Esq.

I think it will eventuate in this.
I expect* they be.

I expect lie must have died long ago
These things are in a bad fix.
Will you fix these things for me?
Firstly, secondly, thirdly, &c.
How do your folks do?
What do folks think of it?
Will you go by and dine with me?
Talents of the highest grade.
Do you love play ? I guess% I dp.
You will tell another guess (guise) sto-
ry soon.

We may hope the assistance of God.
A horse colt / A mare colt.
It would illy accord.
When did you come in town.

In good case ; or kelter.

Where do you keep ? put up ?

A lengthy sermon , &c.

I would like to go to sea.

I Intend to go.

The one God. The only motive.

1 am not ; you are not ; he is not, &c.

Any means.

His discourse was approved.

To sell by auction.

backwards and forwards.

the remainder, or the rest were

bad.

His argument was founded on this fact.
Where are you ? Here I am.
The money was ordered to be paid.
1 would not degrade myself.
He was paid for his improvements
I intend to leave town soon.
A piece of bread.
A good house.

He conducts himself well, respectably.
He is a pretty good scholar.
His farm was contiguous to mine, close
The cattle must be sum to pasture.
Excellent apples, excellent cider. &c.
He is a pretty good scholar, writer.

was extremely distressing

was very degrading.

A total want of capacity.
The United States, or any of them
Equally well, or just as well, &c.
A B , Esq.

- will end, or terminate, in this.

I believe they are.

I think he must have died, &c.

in a bad state or condition.

Will you put these things in order for me ?

First, secondly, &c.

How is your family ?

What do people think of it?

Will you go by my house and dine?

Talents of the highest order.

there is no doubt of that

another kind of story.

We may hope for the assistance of God.

A colt : A filly.

It would ill accord.

When did you come into town? ($ 77,

Obs. 2.)

In good condition, good order.
At whose house do you stay ?
A long sermon. &c.

*The word clever, applied to persons, in the English sense, means active,
quick, ingenious ; in the American sense, of a kind, obliging disposition.

tThis word, in the northern states, is a general term for horses, cattle, sheep,
win, &c.

t is properly applied to thing's to come ; guess, to things uncertain, never
present, or about which there is no doubt

^88.

SYNTAX.

151

Why don't you strike like I do?

Be is a very likely man.

Will you loan me a few dollars?

I was mad at him.

Migkty cold ; mighty fine.

Obnoxious* doctrines.

He will once in a while get drunk.

He went up on to the roof

What had that ought to be ?

Over the signature of Junius.f

He still plead not guilty.

They are not very plenty.

He is rather poorly.

Predicated on former proceedings.

The work progresses slowly.

Not proven.

I was raised in Virginia.

A commktee was raised.

The price will raise soon.

I reckon he will.

The council resulted, that, &c.

Such doctrine revolt us.

A rugged child.

I sat out on my journey.

The market is full of sauce.

You have too much sauce.

I see him, I seen him yesterday.

Serious people.

He is some better than he was.

I have had a spell of sickness.

Be spry. He is a springy man.

He shews much temper.^

He is an v-gfy fellow.

as I do, or, like as I do.

He is a very good looking man.

lend me a few dollars

I was angry with him.
Very cold ; very fine.
Hurtful or offensive doctrines.

sometimes get drunk.

He went up to the roof.

What should that be ?

Under the signature of Junius.

pleaded not guilty.

They are not very plentiful.
rather indisposed.
Founded on former proceedings.
The work advances slowly.
Not proved.
I was brought up in Virginia.

was formed or appointed.

will rise soon.

I suppose he will.

came to the conclusion, that, & 3.

We revolt at such doctrines.
A robust or healthy child.
I set out, &c.

full of vegetables.

too. much impertinence.

I saw him yesterday.
Religious people.

somewhat better.

I have been sick for some time.
Be quick an active man.

much warmth of temper.

a fellow of bad disposition.

88. PUNCTUATION.

465. Punctuation is the art of dividing a written
composition into sentences, or parts of sentences, by
points or stops, in order to convey to the reader the
exact sense, and assist him in the proper delivery.

*Obnoxious signifies liable to, and should not be used for hurtful or offensive.

tOn this expression, Pickering remarks : " A few of our writers still counte-
nance this unwarrantable innovation ; but the principle on which it is defended
would unsettle the whole language.' 7 We might with equal propriety say, "criven
over my hand and seal." " It is so well known to be the constant practice of
the best English and American writers to say, ' under a name,' and 'under a sig.
nature,' that it will hardly be credited that any who speak the English language
could have questioned the propriety of it." The term under, in such phrases, 'S
figurative, ailtt means, under the sanction, authority, or responsibility of. It has
nothing to do with the mere relative position of the writing, and the name or sig-
nature attached to it; a circumstance in itself of no consequence whatever, but
which, nevertheless, is all that the term over is capable of expressing.

\Tempe,r, in the American sense, means warmth of temper, passion. In Eng-
jand it means ''moderation, coolness." In this sense the words temperate and
aitemperate arc always understood.

15*2 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 88

466. The principal stops are the following:

The Comma ( , ) the semicolon ( ; ) the colon ( : )
the period, or full stop ( . ) the note of interrogation
( ? ) the note of exclamation ( ! )

467. The comma represents the shortest pause ; the
semicolon, a pause double that of the comma; the colon,
double that of the semicolon; and the period, double
that of the colon.

468. The duration of the pauses must be left to the taste of the
reader or speaker.

RULES FOB, THE PROPER PUNCTUATION OF A COMPOSITION.

THE COMMA.

469. The comma usually separates those parts of a
sentence which, though very closely connected in sense
and construction, require a pause between them.

470. RULE 1. A simple sentence, when it is a short one, admits
only a period at the end-, as, " No state of life is exempt from
trouble."

471. When a simple sentence is a long one, and the nominative
case is accompanied by inseparable adjuncts, a comma must be in-
serted before the verb-, as, U A steady and undivided attention to
one object, is a sure mark of superior genius. The necessity of an
early acquaintance with history, has always been acknowledged."

472. NOTE. By the term adjunct, is meant any number of words
added by way of modifying or qualifying the principal words -, thus,
44 Cicero, the eloquent Cicero, suffered an ignominious death :" the
phrase, the eloquent Cicero, is the adjunct of Cicero (484).

473. RULE 2. The simple members of a compound sentence are
separated by commas-, as, u When the graces of novelty are worn
off, admiration is succeeded by indifference." u Crafty men con-
temn studies, simple men admire them, and wise men use them."

474. But when the members are closely connected, the comma
is unnecessary-, as, u Revelation tells us how we may obtain hap-
piness."

475. RULE 3. Two words of the same part of speech, whether
nouns, adjectives, verbs, participles, or adverbs, do not admit a
comma between them when connected by a conjunction -, as, " The

88. SYNTAX. 153

earth and the moon are planets." "Time brings a gentle and
powerful opiate to all misfortunes." t; The man of order catches
and arrests the hours as they fly." " By encouraging 1 and ani
mating him, he became active." " Success generally depends on
acting prudently and vigorously.' 1 ' 1 ic We must live either virtu
ously or viciously.' 1 ' 1

476. But when the conjunction is not expressed, a comma is in-
serted between the words*, as, a Reason^ passion, answer one great
end." u He is a/??ain, honest man."

477. RULE 4. Three or more nouns, adjectives, verbs, parti-
ciples, or adverbs, with or without a conjunction, are separated by
commas; as, "Poetry, music, and painting, are fine arts." "David
was a brave, wise, and prudent prince." " The sight, the hear-
ing, the feeling, the taste, the smell, are the live natural senses."

478. When words are connected in pairs, there is a comma after
each pair ; as, " Anarchy and confusion, poverty and distress, deso
lation and ruin, are the consequences of civil war.''

479. RULE 5. The words used in a direct address, the case ab
solute, a short expression in the manner of a quotation, and tha
infinitive mood absolute when it is not used as a nominative case,
should be separated from the rest of the sentence by commas , as,
l My son, hear the counsels of thy father." " I remain, Sir, youi
obedient servant." " The time of youth being precious, we should
devote it to the purposes of improvement." " Plutarch calls lying,
the vice of slaves." 1 " 1 " To enjoy present pleasure, he sacrificed
future ease and reputation."

480. RULE 6. A single name in apposition is not separated by a
comma-, as, " The apostle Peter 5 " "The emperor Antoninus."
But when such name is accompanied with an adjunct, the adjunct
should have a comma before and after it ; as "Augustus, the Roman
fmperor, was a patron of the fine arts." " Paul, the apostle of the
Gentiles, was eminent for his zeal and knowledge."

481. RULE 7. Simple members of sentences connected bycom-
oaratives, and phrases placed in opposition to, or in contrast with,
each other, are separated by commas-, thus, " As the hart panteth
after the water brooks, so cioth my soul after thee." " They are
sometimes in union with, an^ sometimes in opposition to. the
vhwi of each other."

1 Th'uph 4e^p y.t clear ; though gentle, yet not dull ;
Strong, with-it rage*, without o'erflowing, full."

154 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 88

482. When one word follows the last preposition as its object
a comma must not be inserted before it-, as, u He was much at
tached to, and concerned for John."

483. When the members of comparative sentences are short, thf
comma is omitted-, as, u How much better is wisdom than gold.'

484. RULE 8. All adjuncts or explanatory phrases, either at
the beginning, middle, or end of a simple sentence, are separated
from it by commas-, as, u With gratitude, I remember his good-
ness to me. 17 u I remember, with gratitude, his goodness to
me." u His talents, formed for great enterprizes, could not fail
of rendering him conspicuous." " Vices, like shadows, towards
the evening of life, grow great and monstrous." u I saw the
captain, as he is called."

485. A comma must also be inserted between the two parts of
a sentence, which have their natural order inverted -, as, u To God,
nothing is impossible-, that is, " Nothing is impossible to God."

486. RULE 9. A comma must be inserted before the relative,
when the clause immediately after it is used as explanatory of
the antecedent clause-, as, " He, who disregards the good opinion
of the world, must be utterly abandoned-," or, u He must be ut-
terly abandoned, who disregards the good opinion of the world."

487. But when the relative is so closely connected with its an
tecedent. that it can not be transposed, a comma must not be in-
serted before it , as, "Self-denial is the sacrifice which virtue must
make." ;c I have carefully perused the book which you lent me."

488. RULE 10. When any tense of the verb to be is followed by
a verb in the infinitive mood, which, by transposition, might be
made the nominative case to it, the former is generally separated
from the latter verb by a comma-, as, u The best preservative of
health is, to be temperate in all our gratifications." " To be
temperate in all our gratifications, is the best preservative of
health."

489. RULE 11. When a verb is understood, a comma must !>e
inserted-, as, u Reading makes a full man-, conference, a ready
man-, and writing, an exact man."

490. RULE 12. The word that, used as a conjunction, is preceded
by a comma-, as, " Be virtuous, that you may be happy."

491. Adverbs, prepositions, or conjunctions, used to connect or
introduce a new member, must be separated from the preceding
part of the sentence by a comma; as, u The instructions of ad-

$ 88. SYNTAX. 15S

versity may be wholesome, though unpleasing.' r lt The wise
man seeketh wisdom, but the fool despiseth understanding,"

492. RULE 13. The words nay, so, hence, again, first, secondly^
formerly, now, lastly, in fact, therefore, wherefore, however, be-
sides, indeed, and all other words and phrases of the same kind,
must, when considered of importance, be separated from the con-
text by a comma, according to rule 8th j as, " Besides, our repu-
tation does not depend on the caprice of man, but on our own
good actions." " Lastly, strive to preserve a conscience void of
offence towards God and man." " If the spring put forth no
blossoms, in summer there will be no beauty, and in autumn, no
fruit 5 so, if youth be trifled away without improvement, riper
years may be contemptible, and old age miserable."

493. When, however, these phrases are not considered im-
portant, and particularly in short sentences, the comma is not
inserted-, as, u There is surely a pleasure in acting kindly."
" Idleness certainly is the mother of all vices." u He was at
last convinced of his error."

494.*** The foregoing rules will, it is hoped, be found comprehensive; yet
there may be some cases in which the student must rely on his own judgment.

In composing works for the press, many authors merely insert a period at the
end of each sentence, and leave the rest to be pointed by the printers, who, from
their constant practice, are supposed to have acquired a uniform mode of punc-
tuation.

THE SEMICOLON.

495. The semicolon is used to separate the parts of
a sentence, which are less closely connected than those
which are separated by a comma.

496. RULE 1. When the first division of a sentence contains a
complete proposition, but is followed by a clause which is added
as an inference, or to give some explanation, the two parts must
be separated by a semicolon-, as, " Perform your duty faithfully-,
for this will procure you the blessing of heaven." " The orator
makes the truth plain to his hearers-, he awakens them; he ex-
cites them to action-, he shews them their impending danger."
u Be in peace with many-, nevertheless, have but one counsellor
of a thousand."

497. RULE 2. When several short sentences follow each other,
having merely a slight connection in idea, though in other respects
complete in themselves, they may be separated by a semicolon;
as, "Every thing grows old-, every thing passes away; ever*

156 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 88

thing disappears." u The epic poem recites the exploits of a hero;
tragedy represents a disastrous event , comedy ridicules the vices
and follies of mankind ; pastoral poetry describes rural life j and
elegy displays the tender emotions of the heart.

THE COLON.

498. The colon is used to divide a sentence into two
or more parts, less connected than those which are se-
parated by a semicolon, but not so independent as to
require a period.

499. RULE 1. A colon is used when a member of a sentence
is complete in itself, both in sense and construction, but is fol-
lowed by some additional remark or illustration, depending upon
it in sense, though not in syntax-, as, "A brute arrives at a point
of perfection that he can never pass : in a few years he has all the
endowments he is capable of, and were he to live ten thousand
more, would be the same thing he is at present." " Study to ac-
quire a habit of thinking: no study is more important."

500. RULE 2. When a sentence contains several perfect mem-
bers separated by semicolons, the concluding member requires a
colon before it; as, U A Divine Legislator, uttering his voice from
heaven , an Almighty Governor stretching forth his arm to pu-
nish or reward ; informing us of perpetual rest prepared hereafter
for the righteous, and of indignation and wrath awaiting the
wicked: these are the considerations which overawe the world,
which support integrity and check guilt."

501. RULE 3. Either the colon or semicolon may be used when
an example, a quotation, or a speech is introduced; as, "Always
remember this ancient maxim; "Know thyself." u The scrip-
tures give us an amiable representation of the Deity, in these
words: ' God is Jove.'"

502. RULE 4, The insertion or omission of a conjunction be-
fore the concluding member of a sentence, frequently determines
the use of the colon or semicolon. When the conjunction is not
expressed before the concluding member, the colon is to be usedj
but when it is expressed, the semicolon is used; as, "Apply your-
self to learning : it will redound to your honor." u Apply your-
self to learning; for it will redound to your honor."

$ 88. SYNTAX. 157

THE PERIOD.

503. When a sentence is complete, with respect to
the construction and the sense intended, a period must
be used; as, "God made all things." "By disappoint-
ments and trials, the violence of our passions is tamed."
" In the varieties of life, we are inured to habits both
of the active and the passive virtues."

504. A period is sometimes inserted between sentences which
are connected by conjunctions ; as, " Our position is, that happi-
ness does not consist in greatness. JLnd this position we make
out by shewing, that even what are supposed to be the peculiar
advantages of greatness, the pleasures of ambition and superior-
ity, are in reality common to all conditions. But whether the
pursuits of ambition are ever wise, whether they contribute more
to the happiness or misery of the pursuers, is a different question 5
and a question concerning which we may be allowed to entertain
great doubt."

505. The period must be used after all abbrevia-
tions; as, "A. D." "M. A." "FoL"

506. OTHER CHARACTERS USED IN COMPOSITION.

Interrogation (?) is used when a question is asked.

Admiration (!) or Exclamation, is used to express any sudden emotion of tho
mind.

Parenthesis ( ) is used to enclose some necessary remark in the body "of another
sentence ; commas are now commonly used instead of parentheses

Apostrophe (') is used in place of a letter left out; as lov'd for loved.

Caret (A) is used to show that some word is either omitted or interlined.

Hyphen (-) is used at the end of a line, to show that the rest of the word is at the
beginning of the next line. It also connects compound words ; as, Tea*
pot ; Father-in-law.

Section ($) is used to divide a discourse or chapter into portions

Paragraph (H) is used to denote the beginning of a new subject.

Crotchets ([ ]) or Brackets, are properly used to enclose a word or phrase inteipo
lated for the purpose of explanation, correction, or supplying a deficiency
in a sentence quoted or regarded as such, and which did not belong to
the original composition; thus, It is said, " The wisest men [and, it
might be added, the best too] are not exempt from human frailty.' '

Quotation (" ") is used to show that a passage is quoted in the author's words,
cr to mark a passage regarded as a quotation.

Tndex (O"" ) is used to point out any thing remarkable.

( is used to connect words which have one common term, or three'ltnes I*
M ' I poetry, having the MKM rhyme-, called tho uyleu

158

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

Ellipsis ( ) is used when some letters are omitted; as, K g for King.

Acute accent (') is used to denote a short syllable; the grave D a long.
Breve (*") marks a short vowel or syllable, and the Macron, (-) a long.
Dicsresis ( " ) is used to divide a diphthong into two syllables ; as, aerial.
Asterisk (*) Obelisk It) Double Dagger (J) and Parallels (||) with small let
Urs midfigures, refer to some note on the margin, or at the bottom of tha
page.
***) Two or three asterisks denote the omission of some letters in some bold or

indelicate expression, or some defect in the manuscript.

Dash ( ) is used to denote abruptness a significant pause an unexpected
turn in the sentiment or that the first clause is common to all the rest,
as in this definition of a dash.
507. ABBREVIATIONS.

Latin.

Ante Christum*

A. C.

Before Christ

Artium Baccalaureus
Anno Domini

A. B.
A. D.

Bachelor of Arts (often B. A.)
In the year of our Lord

Artium Magister

A. M.

Master of Arts

Anno Mundi

A. M.

In the year of the world

Ante Meridiem

A. M.

In the forenoon

Anno Urbis Conditce

A. U. C.

In the year after the building of the city

Baccalaureus Divimtatis

B. D.

Bachelor of Divinity [ Rome

Custos Privati Sigilli

C. P. 9.

Keeper of the Privy Seal

Gustos Sigilli

C. S.

Keeper of the Seal

Doctor Divinitatis

D.D.

Doctor of Divinity

Exempli gratia e. g.
Regioe Societatis Socius R. S. S.
Regice Societatis Antiquario-R. S. A.

For example
Fellow of the Royal Society
S.Fellow of the Royal Socie?r ** AWL

rum Socius

quarics

Georgius Rex

G.R.

George the King

Id est

i. e.

That is

Jesus Hominum Salvator

J. H. S.

Jesus the Saviour of men

Legum Doctor

L. L. D.

Doctor of Laws

Locus Sigilli

L. S.

Place of the Seal

Messieurs [French]

Messrs

Gentlemen

Medicinae T)octor

M. D.

Doctor of Medicine

Memoriae Sacrum

M. S.

Sacred to the Memory (or 3. M.)

Nota Bene

N.B.

Note well : Take notiw

Post Meridiem

P. M.

In the afternoon

Post Scriptum

P.S.

Postscnptjsomothing written afte

Ultimo

Ult.

Last, (mon.*b)

Et Csetera

&c. &c.

And the rest ; and so for'h

A. Answer, Alexander

L. C. J.

Lord Chief Justice

Acct. Account

Knt.

Knight

Bart. Baronet
Bp. Bishop

K. G.
K. B.

Knight of the Garter
Knight of the Bath

Capt. Captain

K. C. B.

Knt. Commander of the Bath

Col. Colonel

K. C.

Knt. of the Crescent

Cr. Creditor

K. P.

Knight of St. Patrick

Dr. Debtor, Doctor

K. T.

Knight of the Thistle

Do. or Ditto. The same

MS. a

Manuscript

Viz.j Namely

MSS.

Manuscripts

Q. Question, Qusen

N. S.

New Style

R. N. Royal Navy

O. S.

Old Style

Esq. Esquire

J. p.

Justice of the Peace

*The Latin of these Abbreviations is inserted, not to be got by heart, but t*
show the etymology of the English; or explain, for instance how P. M. comes to
mean Afternoon, & '

tContnctetl from

89 SYNTAX. lt>t)

508. PARAGRAPHS.

Different subjects, unless they are very short, or very numer-
ous, should be separated into paragraphs.

When one subject is continued to a considerable length, the
hifger divisions of it should be put into distinct paragraphs.

The facts, premises, and conclusions, of a subject, sometimes
naturally point out the separations into paragraphs: and each of
these, when of great length, will again require subdivisions at
the most distinctive parts.

In cases which require a connected subject to be formed into
several paragraphs, a suitable turn of expression, exhibiting the
connection of the broken parts, will give beauty and force to the
division.

509. 89. CAPITALS,

Formerly every noun began with a capital letter,
both in writing and hi printing ; but at present only the
following words begin with capital letters :

1. The first word of every book, chapter, letter,
note, or other piece of writing.

2. The first word after a period; also after a note
of interrogation, or exclamation, when the sentence be-
fore, and the one after it, are independent of each other.

But if several interrogative or exclamatory sentences arc so connected, that
the latter sentences depend on the former, all of them, except the first, may begin
with a small letter ; as, " How doth the city sit solitary, that was full of people
how are her habitations become as desolate ! how is she become as a widow !

3. Proper names, that is, names of persons, places,
ships, &c.

4. The pronoun I, and the interjection 0, are writ-
ten in capitals.

5. The first word of every line in poetry.

6. The appellations of the Deity ; as, God, Most
High, the Almighty, the Supreme Being, &c.

7. Adjectives derived from the proper names of pla-
ces ; as, Grecian, Roman, English, &c.

8. The first word of a quotation, introduced after a

160 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 90, 91.

colon ; as, Always remember this ancient maxim : "J
thyself."

When a. quotation is not introduced in the direct form, but follows a comma, the
first word must not begin with a capital ; as, Solomon observes, that ' prido
goes before destruction.'

9. Common nouns when personified; as, "Come, gen-
tle Spring."

10. Every substantive and principal word in the ti-
tles of books; as, "Euclid's Elements of Geometry;"
" Goldsmith's Deserted Village."

NOTE. Other words, besides the preceding, may begin with capitals, when
they are remarkably emphatical, or the principal subject of the composition.

90. RHETORICAL DIVISIONS OF A DISCOURSE.

510. The principal parts of a discourse are generally six in
number, viz. the Exordium, the Narration, the Proposition, the
Confirmation, the Refutation, and the Peroration.

511. The Exordium, or beginning of a discourse, is the part in
which the writer or speaker gives some intimation of his subject,
and solicits the favor and attention of his audience or readers.

512. The Narration is a brief recital of all the facts connected
with the case, from beginning to end.

513. The Proposition is the part in which is given the true
state of the question, specifying the points maintained, and those
in which the writer or speaker differs from his adversary,

514. The Confirmation assembles all the proofs and arguments
that can be adduced in support of what has been attempted to be
established. The stronger begin and end this part, and the weaker
are reserved for the middle.

515. The Refutation is the part in which the writer or speaker
answers the arguments and objections of his opponent.

516. In the Peroration or Conclusion, he sums up the principal
arguments, and endeavors to excite the passions of his reader or
hearer in his favor.

$ 91. DIFFERENT KINDS OF COMPOSITION.

517. All Composition, whether spoken or written, is of two
kinds, either Prose or Poetry.

518. Prose compositions are those in which the thoughts and
sentiments are expressed in common and ordinary language.

$ 91. SYNTAX. 161

519. Poetic compositions are those in which the thoughts and
sentiments are expressed by such a selection and arrangement oi
words as pleases the ear and captivates the fancy.

520. Thousands write and speak prose, for one who does so in
verse ; yet it is generally allowed that poetic compositions, in all
countries, have preceded those of prose.

521. Compositions, whether in prose or poetry, are divided into
different classes, and arranged under various heads.

I. DIFFERENT KINDS OF PROSE COMPOSITION.'

522. The different kinds into which prose compositions may be
divided, are, Narrative, Letters, Memoirs, History, Biography,
Essays, Philosophy, Sermons, Novels, and Speeches or Orations.

523. NARRATIVE is a plain and simple statement of such facts
and occurences as a person may have either seen or heard, and in-
cludes in it Voyages and Travels of all descriptions.

524. LETTERS are those easy and familiar compositions which
pass from one person to another, and may be appropriated to every
description of subject, though generally relating to the common
and ordinary occurrences of life and business.

525. MEMOIRS consist of loose and familiar records of indivi-
duals or nations, without that regularity of method which history
and biography require.

526. HISTORY is a regular account of the past transactions of
some particular age or nation, and details chiefly plans of govern-
ment, movements of armies, and events of great general interest.

527. BIOGRAPHY is a particular species of history, and consists
oi an account of the birth, death, and most important occurrences
in the life of some eminent individual.

528. ESSAY means trial or attempt, and is a modest term as-
sumed at the pleasure of the writer, as the title of almost any
species of composition, though it is generally employed to denote
such writings as the Spectator, Rambler, etc.

529. PHILOSOPHY, or Philosophical Compositions are those in
which the principles of art and science are inculcated, and the va-
rious phenomena of the natural and moral world investigated.

530. SERMONS are illustrations of some doctrine of Scripture,
or exhortations to the practice of some moral and religious duty,
enjoined by Christianity.

531. NOVELS are those compositions which give an account of
characters and events that have in reality never existed, but hav*

14*

163 ^NGLISH GRAMMAR. 91.

Deen invented or supposed by the author, for the purpose eitner
of affording pleasure, or inculcating some important lesson.

532. SPEECHES AND ORATIONS are those addresses which are
made either at the Bar or in Public Assemblies, for the purpose
of persuading the hearers of the truth of certain opinions, or lead
ing to the adoption of certain modes of action.

II. DIFFERENT KINDS OF POETRY.

533. The different kinds into which poetry may be divided, are
the Epigram, the Epitaph, the Sonnet-, Pastoral, Didactic, Satiric,
Descriptive, Elegiac, Lyric, Dramatic, and Epic, or Heroic poetry.

534. An EPIGRAM is a short, witty poem, the point or humour
of which is brought out in the concluding lines.

535. An EPITAPH is an inscription on a tombstone, in comme-
moration of some departed person.

536. The SONNET, which is of Italian origin, means a little
song, and consists generally of fourteen lines, constructed in a
peculiar manner.

537. PASTORAL POETRY is that which relates to rural life-, though
it sometimes assumes the form of a simple song or ballad.

538. DIDACTIC POETRY is that by which some art or duty is in-
culcated , and, though forming a distinct class of itself, yet its
characteristics are so general as to extend to .almost every descrip-
tion of poetry.

539. SATIRES are poems intended to ridicule vices and follies,
and hold them up to contempt. They have been divided into two
classes-, the jocose or ludicrous, and the serious or declamatory.

540. DESCRIPTIVE POETRY maybe classed under two divisions;
that, by which is offered to our view a delineation of nature, or
of natural scenery, and that, by which are described the manners,
sentiments, and passions of men.

541. ELEGY was first employed in lamentation for the decease
of great persons, or of those who were particularly dear to the
writer; but it was afterwards extended in its application, and
employed to express the misery of disappointed love, and even at
times made the vehicle of moral sentiment.

542. LYRIC POETRY is such as may be sung or set to music,
which both the term orfe, and the epithet lyric, from lyre, a mu-
sical instrument, imply. There is the serious and sublime ode,
and the familiar and comic vhich, in modern language, is de-
nominated the song.

92. SYNTAX. 163

543. By DRAMATIC POETRY is generally meant a poem in blank
verse or rhyme, called a play, and fitted for representation on the
stage. It is of two kinds, Tragic and Comic.

544. An EPIC POEM, is a historical representation or descrip-
tion of some great and important action, involving the interests
of the whole, or of a large portion, of mankind.

92. FIGURES.

545. A FIGURE in grammar, is some deviation
from the ordinary form, or construction, or appli-
cation of words, in a sentence, for the purpose of
greater precision, variety, or elegance of expression.

546. There are three kinds of Figures; viz. of Ety-
mology, of Syntax, and of Rhetoric. The first and
the second refer to the form of words, or to their con-
struction, the last to their application.

FIGURES OF ETYMOLOGY.

547. A Figure of Etymology is a departure from the
tosual or simple form of words, merely.

548. Of these the most important are eight, viz. .
A-phar-e-sis, Pros-the-sis, Syn-co-pe, A-poc-o-pe, Par-a-
go-ge, Di~ar-e-sis, Syn-ar-e-sis, and Tme-sis.

1 . dphceresis is the elision of a syllable from the beginning of
a word-, as, Against, 'gan, 'bove, 'neath, for against, began %
above, beneath.

2. Prosthesis is the prefixing of a syllable to a word ; as, adown^
agoing, etc., for down, going, etc.

3. Syncope is the elision of a letter or syllable, usually a short
one, from the middle of a word-, as, medicine, spirit, e'en, for
medicine, spirit, even.

4. Apocope is the elision of a letter or syllable from the end of
a word-, as, tho^ for though, tW for the.

5. Paragoge is the annexing of a syllable to the end of a word$
as, deary, for dear.

6. Diaresis is the division of two concurrent vowels into dif-
ferent syllables, usually marked thus ( ) on the second vowel j
as, cooperate, atirial.

164 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 92,

7. Synaresis is the joining of two syllables into one, in either
orthography or pronunciation , as, dost, seest, for doest^ segst; or,
loved, learned, pronounced in one syllable instead of two, lov-ed,
learn-ed.

8. Tmesis is separating the parts of a compound word by an
intervening term-, as, u What time soever ;" " On which side
soever;" " To us ward."

FIGURES OF SYNTAX.

549. A Figure of Syntax is a deviation from the
usual construction of words in a sentence, used for the
sake of greater beauty or force.

550. Of these, the most important are Ellipsis, Pleo-
nasm, Syllepsis, Enallage, and Hyperbaton.

1. Ellipsis is the omission of words necessary to the full con
struction of a sentence, but not necessary to convey the idea
intended. Such words are said to be understood-, as; " The
men, women, and children," for " The men, the women, and the
children."

2. Pleonasm is the using of more words than are necessary to
the full construction of a sentence, to give greater force or em
phasis to the expression-, as, " The boy, oh! where was he ? "

3. Syllepsis is an inferior species of personification, by which
we conceive the sense of words otherwise than the words import,
and construe them according to the sense conceived. Thus, of the
sun, we say, " He shines ;" of a ship, " She sails" ( 7. Obs. 2).

4. Enallage is the use of one part of speech for another, or of
one modification of a word for another-, as an adjective for an ad
verb, thus-. u They fall successive, and successive rise," for suc-
cessively / the use of we and you in the plural, to denote an indi-
vidual, etc. ($ 15. Obs. 3-4).

5. Hyperbaton is the transposition of words and clauses in a
sentence, to give variety, force, and vivacity, to the composition j
as, " Now come we to the last." " A man he was to all the
country dear." " He wanders earth around."

FIGURES OF RHETORIC.

551. A Figure of Rhetoric is a deviation from the
ordinary application of words in speech, to give anima-

92. SYNTAX. 165

tion, strength, and'beauty, to the composition. These
figures are sometimes called tropes.

552. Of these, the most important are the following,
viz :

Personification, Hyperbole, Climax,

Simile, Irony, Exclamation,

Metaphor, Metonymy, Interrogation,

Allegory, Synecdoche, Paralepsis,

Vision, Antithesis, Apostrophe.

1. Personification, or prosopopoeia, is that figure of speech by
which we attribute life and action to inanimate objects-, as, u The
sea saw it, and fled."

2. A simile expresses the resemblance that one object bears to
another; as, "He shall be like a tree planted by the rivers of water."

3. A metaphor is a simile without the sign [like, or as, etc.]
of comparison; as, u He shall be a tree planted by," etc.

4. An allegory is a continuation of several metaphors, so con
nected in sense as to form a kind of parable or fable. Thus, the
people of Israel are represented under the image of a vine : "Tho
hast brought a vine out of Egypt," etc. Ps. Ixxx. 8-16. Of this
style are ^Esop's Fables, Bunyan's " Pilgrim's Progress,"- etc.

5. Vision, or imagery, is a figure by which the speaker repre-
sents past events, or the objects of his imagination, as actually
present to his senses; as, " Caesar leaves Gaul, crosses the Rubi-
con, and enters Italy;" " The combat thickens : on, ye brave!"

6. An hyperbole is a figure that represents things as greater or
less, better or worse, than they really are. Thus, David says of
Saul and Jonathan, u They were swifter than eagles, they were
stronger than /ions."

7. Irony is a figure by which we mean quite the contrary of
what we say, as, when Elijah said to the worshippers of Baal,
u Cry aloud, for he is a god," etc.

8. A metonymy is a figure by which we put the cause for the
effect or the effect for the cause; as, when we say, " He reads
Milton;" we mean Milton's works. u Gray hairs should be re-
spected;" that is, old age.

9. Synecdoche is the putting of a part for the whole, or the
whole for a part, a definite number for an indefinite, etc. ; as. the

166 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 92

waves for the sea, the head for the person* and ten thousand for
any great number. This figure is nearly allied to metonymy

10. Antithesis , or contrast , is a figure by which different or
contrary objects are contrasted, to make them show one another to
advantage. Thus, Solomon contrasts the timidity of the wicked
with the courage of the righteous, when he says, " The wicked
flee when no man pursueth, but the righteous are bold as a lion."

11. Climax, or amplification, is the heightening of all the cir-
cumstances of an object or action which we wish to place in a
strong light-, as, "Who shall separate us from the love of Christ?
Shall tribulation, or distress, or persecution, or famine, or na-
kedness, or peril, or sword ? Nay," etc. See also Rom. viii. 38, 39.

12. Exclamation is a figure that is used to express some strong
emotion of the mind-, as, " Oh! the depth of the riches both of
the wisdom and the knowledge of God!"

13. Interrogation is a figure by which we express the emotion
of our mind, and enliven our discourse, by proposing questions ,
thus, " Hath the Lord said it ? and shall he not do iff Hath he
spoken it ? and shall he not make it good ? "

14. Paralepsis, or omission, is a figure by which the speaker
pretends to conceal what he is really declaring and strongly
enforcing-, as, u Horatius was once a very promising young gen-
tleman, but in process of time he became so addicted to gaming,
not to mention his drunkenness and debauchery, that he soon ex-
hausted his estate, and ruined his constitution.

15. Apostrophe is a turning off from the subject, to address some
other person or thing*, as, "Death is swallowed up in victory y
O Death, where is thy sting ? "

POETIC LICENSE.

553. Besides the deviations from the usual form and construc-
tion of words, noted under the figures of Etymology and Syntax,
there are still others, which can not be classed under proper
heads, and which, from being used mostly in poetic composition,
are commonly called poetic licenses. These are such as the fol-
lowing

554. 1. In poetry, words, idioms, and phrases, are
often used, which would be inadmissible in prose ; as,

rt A man he was to all the country dear,
And passing rich with forty pounds a year.*

$ 92. SYNTAX. 167

" By fountain clear, or spangled starlight sheen."
44 Shall I receive by gift, what of my own,

When and where likes me best, I can command 1 ?"
44 Thy voice we hear, and thy behests obey."
44 The whiles, the vaulted shrine around.

Seraphic wires were heard to sound."
44 On the first friendly bank he throws him down. 11
" I'll seek the solitude he sought,

And stretch me where he lay."
4 ' Not Hector's self should want an equal ibe."

2. More violent and peculiar ellipses are allowable
In poetry than in prose ; as,

41 Suffice^ to-night, these orders to obey."
44 Time is our tedious song should here have ending.**
C4 For is there aught in sleep can charm the wise?"
* 4 'Tt> Fancy, in her fiery car,

Transports me to the thickest war."
44 Who never fasts, no banquet e'er enjoys."
44 Bliss is the same in subject as in king,
. In who obtain defence, or who defend."

3. Adjectives in poetry are often elegantly construct-
ed with nouns which they do not strictly qualify ; as,

44 The ploughman homeward plods his weary way. 1 '

44 The tenants of the warbling shade."

14 And drowsy tinklings lull the distant folds."

4. The rules of grammar are often violated by the
poets. A noun and its pronoun are often used in refer-
ence to the same verb ; as,

41 It ceased, the melancholy sound."

44 My banks they are furnished with bees."

5. An adverb is often admitted between the verb
and t o, the sign of the infinitive ; as,

41 To sit on rocks, to muse o'er flood and fell j
To slowly trace the forest's shady scenes . "

168 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 92.

6. A common poetic license consists in employing
or and nor instead of either and neither; as,

And first

Or on the listed plain, or stormy sea."
" Nor grief nor fear shall break my rest."

7. Intransitive verbs are often made transitive, and
adjectives used like abstract nouns; as,

" The lightnings flash a larger curve."

" Still in harmonious intercourse they lived

The rural day, and talked the flowing heart."
4t Meanwhile, whatever of beautiful or new,

By chance, or search, was offered to his view,

He scanned with curious eye."

8. Greek, Latin, and other foreign idioms, are al-
lowable in poetry, though inadmissible in prose ; as,

41 He knew to sing, and build the lofty rhyme."
" Give me to seize rich Nestor's shield of gold."
14 There are, who, deaf to mad ambition's call,

Would shrink to hear the obstreperous trump of farm."
44 Yet to their general's voice they all obeyed."

" Never since created man

Met ni'.b embodied force."

PART FOURTH.

PROSODY.

555. PROSODY treats of Elocution and Versifi-
cation >

93. ELOCUTION.

556. ELOCUTION is correct pronunciation, or the
proper management of the voice in reading or
speaking.

557. In order to read and speak with grace and ef-
fect, attention must be paid to the proper pitch of the
voice, the accent and quantity of the syllables, and to
emphasis, pauses, and tones.

558. 1. In the PITCH and management of the voice, it should
be neither too high nor too low-, it should be distinct and clear ,
the utterance neither too quick nor too slow, and neither too va-
ried nor too monotonous.

559. 2. ACCENT is the laying of a particular stress of voice
on a certain syllable in a word, as the syllable vir- in vir'tue,
vir'tuous.

560. 3. The QUANTITY of a syllable is the relative time which
is required to pronounce it. A long syllable, in quantity, is equal
to two short ones. Thus, pine, tube, note, require to be sounded
as long again as pin, tub, not. In English versification, an ac-
cented syllable is long, an unaccented one is short.

561 . 4. EMPHASIS means that greater stress of the voice which
we lay on some particular word or words, in order to mark their
superior importance in the sentence, and thereby the better to con-
vey the idea intended by the writer or speaker.

562. 5. PAUSES, or rests, are cessations of the voice, in order
to enable the reader or speaker to take breath , and to give the
hearer a distinct perception of the meaning, not only of each sen-
tence, but of the whole discourse.
15

170 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 94.

563. 6. TONES consist in the modulation of the voice, and the
notes, or variations of sound, which we employ in speaking, to
express the different sentiments, emotions, or feelings, intended.

# **AfuJl consideration of these topics, in a work of this kind, would be asim.
practicable as it would be out of place, since it would require a volume for that
purpose. They are fully treated of and exemplified in works on elocution ; a sub.
ject which is, or should be, token up as a separate branch of study.

94. VERSIFICATION.

564. VERSIFICATION is the art of arranging words
into poetical lines, or verses.

565. A Verse, or Poetical Line, consists of a certain
number of accented and unaccented syllables, arranged
according to fixed rules.

566. A Couplet, or Distich, consists of two lines or
verses taken together, whether rhyming with each other
or not. A Triplet consists of three lines rhyming to-
gether.

567. A Stanza is a combination of several verses or
lines, varying in number according to the poet's fancy
and constituting a regular division of a poem or song
This is often incorrectly called a verse.

568. Rhyme is the similarity of sound in the last
syllables of two or more lines arranged in a certain
order. Poetry, the verses of which have this similarity
is sometimes called Rhyme.

569. Blank Verse is the name given to that species
of poetry which is without rhyme.

FEET.

570. Feet are the smaller portions into which a line
is divided ; each of which consists of two or more syl-
lables, combined according to accent.

571. In English versification, an accented syllable is accounted
long ; an unaccented syllable, short. In the following examples,
a straight line (-) over a syllable shows that it is accented, and
a curved line, or breve ( -), that it is unaccented.

94. PROSODY. 171

572. Monosyllables, which, when alone, are regarded as with
out accent, often receive it when placed in a poetical line, and
are long or short, according as they are with or without the ac-
cent: thus,

" T6 rouse him with the spur and rein,
With more than rapture's ray."

In the ancient languages, each syllable has a certain quantity,
long or short, independent of accent, for which there are certain
definite rules. In this, they differ widely from the English.

573. Metre, or Measure, is the arrangement of a
certain number of poetical feet in a verse or line.

1. When a line has the proper metre, or number of feet, it is
called Acatalectic.

2. When it is deficient, it is called Catalectic.

4. When it has a redundant syllable, it is called Hyper cat alectic^
or Hypermeter.

574. A line consisting of one foot is called manome-
ter ; of two, dimeter ; of three, trimeter ; of four, te-
trameter ; of five, pentameter ; of six, hexameter ; of
seven, heptameter.

575. Scanning is dividing a verse into the feet of
which it is composed.

576. All feet in poetry are reducible to eight kinds ;
four of two syllables, and four of three, as follows :

I. FEET OF TWO SYLLABLES,

1. An iambus ~ ; as. defend.

2. A Trochee ^ ; as, noble.

3. A Spondee ; as, vain man.

4. A Pyrrhic - ~ ; as, on a (hill).

II. FEET OF THREE SYLLABLES.

1. An Anapaest - - ; as, intercede.

2. A Dactyl - - - ; as, durable.

3. An Amphibrach - ~ ; as, abundant.

4. A Tribach ~ ~ ~ ; as, (to)lerable.

17*2 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 94

577. Of all these, the principal are the Iambus, Tro-
chee, Anapast, and Dactyl. The other four feet are
used chiefly in connection with these, in order to give
Variety to measure.

578. A Trochee has the first syllable accented, and the last
unaccented-, as, noblP, music.

579. An Iambus has the first syllable unaccented, and the last
accented-, as, adore, defend.

580. A Spondee has both the words or syllables accented-, as,
vain man.

581. A Pyrrhic has both the words or syllables unaccented-, as,
6n a (hill).

582. A Dactyl has the first syllable accented, and the two last
unaccented-, as, vlrtuoHs.

583. An Amphibrach has the first and the last syllable unac-
cented, and the middle one accented-, as, contentment.

684. An Anapaest has the first two syllables unaccented, and the
last one accented ; as, Intercede.

585. A Tribrach has all its syllables unaccented-, as, nu \ m
rabU.

586. A verse is usually named from the name of the
foot which predominates in it ; thus, Iambic, Trochaic,
&e.

I. IAMBIC VERSE.

587. An Iambic verse consists of iambuses, and
consequently has the accent on the second, fourth, sixth,
&c. syllable. It has different metres, as follows :

1. Iambic Manometer. The shortest form of Iambic
verse consists of one iambus ; as,
How bright
The light!

It sometimes assumes an additional or hypermeter
syllable ; as,

Consent | ing,
Repent | ing.

We have no poem of this measure, but it^is sometimes
introduced into stanzas.

94 PROSODY. 173

2. Iambic Dimeter. The second form of our Iam-
bic is also too short to be continued through any num-
ber of lines. It consists of two iambuses ; as,

With Thee | we rise,
With Thee j we reign,
And em | pires gain
Beyond [ the skies.

This form sometimes assumes an hyp* /meter syllable ;
as,

Upon | a moun | tain,
Beside | a foun | tain.

3. Iambic Trimeter. The third form consists of
three iambuses, and is continued onlj for a few lines; as,

In pla | ces far | Or near,

Or fa | mous or | Sbscure,

Where whole | some is | the air,

Or where [ the most impure.

This form sometimes admits an additional short sylla-
ble ; as,

Our hearts | no long | er Ian | gulsh.

4. Iambic Tetrameter. The fourth form may extend
through a considerable number of verses ; it consists of
four iambuses ; as,

How sleep | the brave | whS sink | t6 rest,
By all their country's wishes blest !

This also admits an hypermeter syllable ; as,
From house | wife cares | a mi | nute bor | row.

5. Iambic Pentameter. The fifth species, or Heroic
measure, consists of Jive iambuses; as,

Ye gilt | t'rmg towns, | with wealth | and splen | dour cr5wn'd*
Ye fields, where summer spreads profusion round 5
Ye lakes, whose vessels catch the busy gale;
Ye bending swains, that dress the flow'ry vale.

This verse without rhyme constitutes the common

blank verse. Such is Milton's Paradise Lost,

15*

174 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 94

The Elegiac Stanza consists of four lines pentameter
rhyming alternately ; as,

The cur | few tolls | the knell | of part | Ing day,

The lowing herd winds slowly o'er the lea;
The ploughman homeward plods his weary way,

And leaves the world to darkness and to me.
This measure frequently admits an additional sylla-
ble; as,

6. Iambic Hexameter. The sixth form of our Iam-
bic is commonly called the Alexandrine measure ; it
consists of six iambuses.

For thou I art but | of dust : be hum | ble and | be* wise.
The Alexandrine is sometimes introduced into heroic
rhyme, and particularly into stanzas after the manner
of Spenser, in Ms " Faery Queen ;" and when used
sparingly, and with judgment, occasions an agreeable
variety.

To sit on rocks, to muse o'er flood and fell,

To slowly trace the forest's shady scene,

Where things that own not man's dominion dwell,

And mortal foot hath ne'er, or rarely been;

To climb the trackless mountain all unseen,

With the wild flock that never needs a fold ;

Alone o'er steeps and foaming falls to lean j

This is not solitude; 'tis but to hold

Converse \ with Na \ ture^s charms, \ and view \ her store* \
unroWd.

This also admits an hypermeter syllable ; as,

The shep j herd him | pursues, | and to I his dog j doth hoi | low.

7. Iambic Heptameter. The seventh and last form
of Iambic verse consists of seven iambuses.

$ 94. FROSODT. 175

This was anciently written in one line ; but it is now
divided into two, the first containing four feet, and the
second, three ; as,

Thou didst, | O migh | ty God! | exist |

Ere time | began | its race-,
Before the ample elements

FilPd up the void of space.

This is what is called Common Metre. The Short
Metre Stanza consists of four lines, of which the first,
second and fourth contain three feet, and the third,
four. Long Metre has four feet in each line, as above
(No, 4).

II. TROCHAIC VERSE.

588. Trochaic verse consists of trochees, and con-
sequently has the accent on the first, third, fifth, &c.
syllable.

1. Trochaic Monometer. The shortest form consists
of one foot ; as,

Cheering,
Veering.

It sometimes admits an additional long syllable ; as,

Tumult | cease,
Sink to | peace.

2. Trochaic Dimeter. The next form contains two
trochees ; as,

Wishes | rising,
Thoughts sur | prising,
Pleasures | courting,
Charms trans | porting.
Sometimes this form admits an additional syllable ; as.

In the | days of | old,
Stories | plainly | told. -

3. Trochaic Trimeter. The third species contains
three trochees ; as,

When our | hearts ftre | mourning,

176 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 94

This form frequently has an additional syllable ; as,

4. Trochaic Tetrameter. The fourth form consistf
of four trochees ; as,

Round us | roars the" | tempest | louder.

This form sometimes assumes an additional syllable; as

Where the | wood is | waving | green and | high.

5. Trochaic Pentameter. The fifth species is not
very common ; it is composed of Jive trochees ; as,

All that | walk dn | foot or | ride In | chariots,
All that dwell in palaces or garrets. .

6. Trochaic Hexameter. The sixth and last form
consists of six trochees ; as,

Both the fifth and sixth species sometimes take an
additional syllable, in which case the line is usually
divided into two ; thus,

Divided thus,

Divided thus,

III. ANAP^STIC VERSE.

589. Anapastic verse consists chiefly of anapaests
and, when pure, has the accent on every third syllable.

1. Anap&stic Manometer. This measure consists of
one foot; as,

In a sweet
RSsdnance.

94. PROSODY. 177

2. Anap&stic Dimeter. The second form of Ana-
paestic verse consists of two anapaests ; as,

But his cou | rage, 'gan fail,
For no arts | could avail.

Sometimes this form assumes an additional short
syllable; as,

Then his cou | rage, gan fail | him
For no arts could avail him.

3. Anapastic Trimeter. The third species, much
used both in solemn and cheerful subjects, consists of
three anapaests, and seldom takes an additional syllable.

ye woods, | spread your branch | es apace,
To your deep | est recess | es I fly,

1 would hide with the beasts of the chase,
I would vanish, from every eye.

4. Anapastic Tetrameter. The fourth consists of
four anapaests ; as,

IV. DACTYLIC VERSE.

590. Dactylic verse consists chiefly of dactyls, and
has the following varieties :

1. Dactylic Monometer. This consists of one foot, as,

Fearfully,
Tearfully.
This measure takes an additional long syllable, as,

Over a | mad,
Pricking his | steed.

2. Dactylic Dimeter. This consists of two dactyls; as,

Free from sa | tlety,
Care and an | xiety,
Charms in variety
Fall to his | share.

178 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 94.

The same with an additional long syllable ; as,

Cover'd with | snow was the | vale ;
Sad was the | shriek of the ] gale.

3. Dactylic Trimeter. This form consists of three
dactyls ; as,

Wearing a | way In his | youthfulness,
Loveliness, | beauty and | truthfulness.
This also may have an additional long syllable ; as,

Weary and | worn, she has | waited fftr | years,
Keeping her | grief ever | green with her | tears.
Dactylic Tetrameter, Pentameter, and Hexameter,
are seldom used ; when used, they are constructed by
making the line consist of four, Jive, or six dactylic feet.
In Dactylic verse the last foot is not always a dactyl,
a trochee being often used instead of it, and sometimes
a single long syllable, making a hypermeter line in dac-
tylic stanzas, as in the following :
Faster come, | faster come,

Faster and j faster-,
Chief vassal, | page and groom,

591. The following is an example of dactyls and
spondees alternately :

The following is an example of pure dactylic hexa-
meter :

OvSr th6 | vallSy, with | speed like the j wind, fill thS I
steeds wSro a | galloping.

94 PROSODY 179

MIXED VERSES.

592. The preceding are the different kinds 'of the
principal feet, in their simple forms. They are capable
of numerous variations, by the intermixture of those
feet with one another, and by the admission of the se-
condary feet, as will be seen by the following examples

THE PYBRHIC MIXED WITH THE IAMBIC.

And td [ the" dead | my will | Ing soul | shall go.

THE SPONDEE WITH THE IAMBIC.

Forbear | great man, | in arms | renown'd, | fSrbear.

THE TROCHEE WITH THE IAMBIC.

Tyrant | and slave, | those names | of hate | and fear.

THE FOLLOWING CONSISTS OF AN IAMBIC AND TWO ANAPJSSTS.

My sor | rows I then | might assuage

In the ways | of reli | gion and truth ;
Might learn | from the wis | dom of age,

And be cheerM | by the sal | lies of youth.

V. OF BLANK VERSE.

593. Our blank verse maybe reckoned a noble, bold
and unencumbered species of versification, and in se-
veral cases it possesses many advantages over rhyme
It allows the lines to run into one another with perfect
freedom ; hence it is adapted to subjects of dignity and
force, which demand more free and manly numbers
than can be obtained in rhyme. Blank verse is written
in the heroic measure, consisting of ten syllables. The
principal poets in this species of composition are Mil-
ton, Thomson, Armstrong, Akenside, Cowper, and
Pollok.

180 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 95

95. COMPOSITION.

594 . COMPOSITION is the art of expressing our senti-
ments in spoken or written language. It is of two
kinds, Prose and Poetry.

595. Prose compositions are those in which the thoughts are
expressed in the natural order, in common and ordinary language.

596. Poetic compositions are those in which the thoughts and
sentiments are expressed in measured verse, in loftier and more
inverted style, by words and figures selected and arranged so as
to please the ear, and captivate the fancy.

597. In both of these, speech or discourse is either direct or
indirect.

598. Direct discourse is that in which a writer or speaker de-
livers his own sentiments.

599. Indirect or oblique discourse is that in which a person re-
lates, in his own language, what another speaker or writer said.

BOO. In theirs?, when the speaker refers to himself, he uses
the first person /or we. When he refers to the person or per-
sons addressed, he uses the second person thou, you, etc.

601. In the second or indirect discourse, whether the speaker
is reported as referring to himself, or to those whom headdresses,
the third person is used in either case-, as, he, she, they, etc. An
example will best illustrate the distinction ; thus :

DIRECT DISCOURSE.

602. Then Paul stood in the midst of Mars-hill and said: u Ye
men of Athens, I perceive that in all things ye are too supersti-
tious-, for as I passed by and beheld your devotions, I found an
altar with this inscription-. c To THE UNKNOWN GOD.' Whom,
therefore, ye ignorantly worship, him declare I unto you."

INDIRECT DISCOURSE.

603. The same, reported in indirect or oblique discourse, would
run thus-.

Then Paul, standing on Mars-hill, told the men of Athens he
perceived that : a all things they were too superstitious -, for as
he passed by and beheld their devotions, he found an altar with
this inscription: " To THE UNKNOWN GOD." Whom, therefore,
they ignorantly worshipped, him declared he unto them.

604. When the reporter, the speaker reported, and the person
or persons addressed, are different in gender or number, there is
no danger of ambiguity. But when in these respects they are
the same, ambiguity is unavoidable, from the same pronoun
being used in the progress of discourse, to designate different
persons. Hence, to prevent mistakes, it is often necessary to
insert the name or designation of the person meant by the pro-
noun An example will best illustrate this also

9.^. COMPOSITION. 181

" Then the son went to his father and said to him, [direct] l I
have sinned against Heaven and in thy sight/ "

u Then the son went to his father and said to him, [indirect]
that he [the son] had sinned against Heaven and in his [his fa-
ther's] sight."

It will at once be perceived, that, without the words enclosed
in brackets, for explanation, it would be impossible to tell whe-
ther by the word he, the father or the son was intended-, so also
with respect to the word 'his. Hence, when by the indirect dis-
course, ambiguity is unavoidable, it is generally better to have
recourse to the direct form, and quote the writer's or speaker's
own words, as in (G02).

605. The principal kinds of prose compositions are,
narrative, letters, memoirs, history, biography, essays,
philosophy, sermons, novels, speeches, and orations.

606. The principal kinds of poetical compositions
are, the epigram, the epitaph, the sonnet, pastoral poe-
try, didactic poetry, satires, descriptive poetry, elegy,
lyric poetry, dramatic poetry, and epic poetry [ 91].

THE USE OF GRAMMAR IN COMPOSITION.

607. To speak and write with propriety, in every species of
composition, is an attainment of no small importance-, and to
lead to this attainment is the business of grammar. The grammar
of a language is just a compilation of rules and directions, agreea-
bly to which that language is spoken or written. These rules,
however, are not the invention of the grammarian, nor dependent
on his authority for their validity. As it is the business of the
philosopher, not to make a law of Nature, nor to dictate how her
operations should be performed, but, by close observation, to as-
certain what those laws are, and to state them for the information
of others-, so the business of the grammarian is, not to make the
laws of language, for language is before grammar, but to observe
and note those principles, and forms, and modes of speech, by
which men are accustomed to express their sentiments, and to
arrange the results of his observation into a system of rules for
the guidance and assistance of others. It is obvious, then, that
the ultimate principle or test to which the rules laid down by the
grammarian must conform, is THE BEST USAGE.

608. Hence, when the inquiry is whether a particular word or
form of speech is right, is good English, the only question to be
decided is, " Is it according to the best usage V" On this subject,
however, it has been made a question, "What is the best usage?"
The following sentiments, abridged from Dr. Crombie's work on
English Etymology and Syntax, seem to be just and compre-
hensive of this whole subject.

182 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, $ 95

THE LAW OF LANGUAGE.

609. First. The USAGE which gives law to language, in order
to establish its authority, or to entitle its suffrage to our assent,
must be reputable ; by which is meant, not the usage of the court,
nor great men, nor merely scientific men, but of those whose
works are esteemed by the public^ and who may therefore be de-
nominated reputable authors.

610. Secondly. This usage must be national. It must not be
confined to this or that province or district. "Those," to use
CampbelPs apposite similitude, "who deviate from the beaten
road may be incomparably more numerous than those who travel
in it , yet, into whatever number of by-paths the former may be
divided, there may not be found in any one of these tracks so many
as travel in the king's highway."

611. Thirdly. This usage must be present. It is difficult to fix
with any precision what usage may in all cases be deemed pre-
sent. It is perhaps in this respect different with different com-
positions. In general, words and forms of speech, which have
been long disused, should not be employed. And so, on the con-
trary, the usage of the present day is not implicitly to be adop-
ted. Mankind are fond of novelty, and there is a -fashion in lan-
guage as there is in dress. Whim, vanity, and affectation, de-
light in creating new words, and using new forms of phraseology.
Now, to adopt every new-fangled upstart at its birth, would ar-
gue, not taste, nor judgment, but childish fondness for singularity
and novelty. But should any of these maintain its ground, and
receive the sanction of reputable usage, it must in that case be
received,

612. The usage, then, which gives law to language, and which
is generally denominated good usage, must be reputable, national,
and present. It happens, however, that " good usage'* is not
always uniform in her decisions, and that in unquestionable au-
thorities are found far different modes of expression. In such
cases, the following CANONS, proposed by Dr. Campbell, will
be of service in enabling to decide to which phraseology the pre-
ference ought to be given. They are given nearly in the w r ordg
of the author-.

613. CANON 1. Wlien the use is divided as to any
particular words or phrases, and when one of the ex-
pressions is susceptible of a different meaning, while
the other adraits of only one signification, the expression
which is strictly univocal should be preferred.

614. CANON 2. In doubtful cases, analogy should
be regarded.

615. CANON 3, When expressions are in other re-

$ 95. COMPOSITION. !83

spects equal, that should be preferred which is most
agreeable to the ear.

616. CANON 4. When none of the preceding rules
takes place, regard should be had to simplicity.

617. But though no expression or mode of speech can be jus-
tified which is not sanctioned by usage, yet the converse does riot
follow, that every phraseology sanctioned by usage should be re-
tained. In many such cases, custom may properly be checked
by criticism." whose province it is, not only to remonstrate against
the introduction of any word or phraseology which may be either
unnecessary or contrary to analogy, but also to exclude whateve*
is reprehensible, though in general use. It is by this, her prero*
gative, that languages are gradually refined and improved. In
exercising this authority, she can not pretend to degrade, in-
stantly, any phraseology which she may deem objectionable 5 but
she may, by repeated remonstrances, gradually effect its dis-
mission. Her decisions in such cases may be properly regulated
oy the following rules, laid down by the same author:

618. RULE 1. All words and phrases, particularly
harsh and not absolutely necessary, should be dismissed.

619. RULE 2. When the etymology plainly points
to a different signification from what the word bears,
propriety and simplicity require its dismission.

620. RULE 3. When words become obsolete, or are
never used but in particular phrases, they should be
repudiated, as they give the style an air of vulgarity
and cant, when this general disuse renders them obscure.

621. RULE 4. All words and phrases which, analy-
zed grammatically, include a solecism, should be. dis-
missed. *

622. RULE 5. All expressions which, according to
the established rules of language, either have no mean-
ing, or involve a contradiction, or, according to the fair
construction of the words, convey a meaning different
from the intention of the speaker, should be dismissed.

623. In order to write any language with grammatical purity
three things are required-.

1. That the words be all of that language. The violation of
this rule is called a barbarism.

184 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 96

2. That they be construed and arranged according to the rules
of srntax in that language. A violation of this rule is called a
solttism.

3. That they be employed in that sense which usage has an-
nexed to them. A violation of this rule is called impropriety.

624. A barbarism is an offence against lexicography. The
solecism is an offence against the rules of syntax , and the impro-
priety is an offence against lexicography, by mistaking the mean-
ing of words and phrases.

$ 96. HINTS FOR CORRECT AND ELEGANT WRITING

625. Correct and elegant writing depends partly upon
the choice of words, and partly upon the form and
structure of sentences.

I. In so far as respects single words, the chief things
to he observed, are Purity, Propriety, and Precision.

PURITY.

626. Purity consists in the rejection of such words and phrases
as are not strictly English, nor in accordance with the practice
of good writers and speakers.

1. Avoid fo.eign words and modes of expression , as, Fraicheur,
politesse ; he repents him of his folly.

2. Avoid obsolete and unauthorized words; as, Albeit, afore-
time, inspectator. judgmatical.

EXERCISES.

The person is without encumberment. In the country, we
associate with none but the bettermost sort of people. Snails
exclude their horns, aud therewith explorate their way. Me-
thinks till now I never heard a sound more dreary. We walked
adown the river side. Peradveiiture he may call to-morrow. He
is a very impopular speaker. I like his great candidness of
temper.

PROPRIETY.

627. Propriety consists in the use of such words as are best
tdapted to express our meaning.

1. Avoid low and provincial expressions-, as, to get into a scrape.

2. In writing prose, reject words that are merely poetical j as,
this morn ; the celestial orbs.

3. Avoid technical terms, unless you write to those who per-
fectly understand them.

4. Do not use the same word too frequently, or in different
senses-, as, the king communicated his intention to the minister,
who disclosed it to the secretary, who made it known to the pub-
lic-, His own reason might have suggested better reasons.

5. Supply words that are wanting, and necessary to complete
th sense-, thus, instead of " this action increased his former ser-

96. COMPOSITION. 185

vices," say, this action increased the merit of his former services.

6. Avoid equivocal or ambiguous expressions-, as, his memory
shall be lost on the earth.

7. Avoid unintelligible and inconsistent expressions , as, I have
an opaque idea of what you mean.

EXERCISES.

The composure of this psalm is attributed to David. They will
meet at eve. Regard should be paid to the pupils' intended avo-
cations. The observation of the Sabbath is incumbent upon every
Christian. The negligence of this leaves us exposed to uncom-
mon levity. He put an end to his own existence. I propose to
give a general view of the subject. I wonder if he will COTIC.
He feels none of the sorrows that usually arrive at man. War
should be so managed as to remember that its only end is peace.
When Johnson was ill, he composed a prayer to deprecate God's
mercy. There are both more and more important truths. He
lives in a lone cottage. The Latin tongue in its purity was ne-
ver in Britain. Imprudent associations disqualify us for the in-
struction or reproof of others.

PRECISION.

628. Precision rejects the superfluous words.

1. Avoid tautology-, as, u his faithfulness and fidelity were un
equalled."

2. Observe the exact meaning of words accounted synonymous,
thus, instead of, " though his actions and intentions were good, he
lost his character;" say u he lost his reputation."

EXERCISES.

I took some wine and some water, and mixed them both to-
gether. He wandered throughout the whole city. They abhorred
and detested being in debt. This man, on all occasions, treated
those around him with great haughtiness and disdain. His wealth
and riches being collected and accumulated in meanness, were
squandered in riot and extravagance. Such conduct showed a
marked and obvious intention to deceive and abuse us. He had
proceeded but a short way on his journey, when he returned home
again.

II. With respect to sentences, Clearness, Unity,
Strength, and a proper application of the Figures of
Speech, are necessary.

CLEARNESS.

629. Clearness demands a proper arrangement of words.

1. Adverbs, relative pronouns, and explanatory phrases, must
be placed as near as possible to the words which they affect, and
in such a situation as the sense requires.

2. In prose, a poetic collocation must be avoided.

3. Pronouns must be so used as clearly to indicate the word
for which they stand. , *

186 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 96.

EXERCISES.

By the articles subsisting^between us, on the day of marriage,
you agreed to pay down the sum of eight thousand pounds. Not
to exasperate him, I only spoke a very few words. It has not a
word, says Pope, but what the author religiously thinks in it. It
is true what he says, but it is not applicable to the point. Had
he died before, would not then this art have been wholly unknown?
Most nations, not even excepting the Jews, were prone to idolatry.
He will soon weary the company, who is himself wearied.

UNITY.

630. Unity retains one predominant object through a sentence,
or a series of clauses.

1. Separate into distinct sentences, such clauses as have no im-
mediate connection.

2. The principal words must, throughout a sentence, be the
most prominent 5 and the leading nominative should, if possible,
be the subject of every clause.

3. Avoid the introduction of parentheses, except when a lively
remark may be thrown in, without too long suspending the sense
of what goes before .

EXERCISES.

Desires or pleasure usher in temptation, and the growth of dis-
orderly passions is forwarded. The notions of Lord Sunderland
were always good, but he was a man of great expense. A short
time after this injury, he came to himself-, and the next day they
put him on board a ship, which conveyed him first to Corinth, and
thence to the island of ^Egina. He who performs every employ-
ment in its due place and season, suffers no part of time to escape
without profit-, and thus his days become multiplied, and much
of life is enjoyed in little space. Never delay till to-morrow, (for
to-morrow is not yours -, and though you should live to enjoy it,
you must not overload it with a burden not its own,) what reason
and conscience tell you ought to be performed to-day.

STRENGTH.

631. Strength gives to every word and every member its due
importance.

1. Avoid tautology, and reject all superfluous words and mem-
bers. In the following sentence, the word printed in italics should
be omitted; ''''being conscious of his own integrity, he disdained
submission."

2. Place the most important words in the situation in which
they will make the strongest impression.

3. A weaker assertion should not follow a stronger; and when
the sentence consists of two members, the longer should be the
concluding one.

4. When two things are compared or contrasted with each other,
where either resemblance or opposition is to be expressed, some
resemblance in the language and construction should be preserved.

^ 96. COMPOSITION. 187

5. A sentence should not be concluded with a preposition, 01
any inconsiderable word or phrase, unless it be emphatic.

EXERCISES.

It is six months ago, since I paid a visit to my relations . Sus-
pend your censure so long, till your judgment be wisely formed.
The reason why he spoke as he did, he never explained. If I
mistake not, I think he has made great improvement since I last
saw him. Those two gentleman appear both to be foreigners. I
fear this is the last time that we shall ever meet. How m-any are
there, by whom these tidings of good news were never heard.
This measure may afford some profit, and furnish some amuse-
ment. Thought and language act and re-act mutually upon each
other. Sinful pleasures blast the opening prospects of human
felicity, and degrade human honor. Generosity is a splendid vir-
tue, which many persons are very fond of ? As no one is without
his failings, so few want good qualities.

632. FIGURES OF SPEECH.

1. Figurative language must be used sparingly, and never, ex-
cept when it serves to illustrate or enforce what is said.

2. Figures of speech, when used, should be such as appear na-
tural, not remote or foreign from the subject, and not pursued toe
far.

3. Literal and figurative language ought never to be blended
together.

4. When figurative language is used, the same figure should be
preserved throughout, and different figures never jumbled together.

EXERCISES.

No human happiness is so serene as not to contain some alloy.
I intend to make use of these words in the thread of my specula-
tions. Hope, the balm of life, darts a ray of light through the
thickest gloom. Let us keep our mouths with a bridle, and steer
our vessel so as to avoid the rocks and shoals which meet us at
every step. We are all embarked on a troubled sea, and every
step of our journey brings us into new perils. Let us keep alive
the flame of devotion in the soul, and not suffer our minds to sink
into utter indifference about spiritual matters.

TRANSPOSITION AND VARIETY OF EXPRESSION.

633. As a preparatory step to the important business of com-
position, the pupil, after he has acquired a knowledge of gram-
mar, may be exercised with great advantage upon the transpo
sition of words and members in sentences, so as to try in how
many different ways the same thought or sentiment may be ex
pressed. This will give him a considerable command of lan-
guage, and prove, at the same lime, a source of considerable
mental cultivation. It is often necessary to give an entirely new
turn to an expression, before a sentence can be rendered elegant
jr even perspicuous.

188 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 96

There are chiefly four ways in which the mode of expressing &
thought may be varied.

1. By changing an active into a passive, or a passive into an
active verb-, as, The sun dissolves the snow, The snow is dis-
tolved by the sun.

2. By inversions or transpositions, which consist in changing
the order in which the words stand in the sentence-, as, Compe-
tence may be acquired by industry, By industry, competence may
be acquired.

3. By changing an affirmative into a negative, or a negative
into an affirmative, of an entirely contrary character; as, Virtue
promotes happiness-, Virtue does not promote misery.

4. By either a partial or an entire change of the words em-
ployed to express any sentiment-, as, Diligence and application
are the best means of improvement -, Nothing promotes improve
ment like diligence and application.

EXERCISES ON TRANSPOSITION.

The Roman state evidently declined, in proportion to the in-
crease of luxury. I am willing to remit all that is past, provided
it can be done with safety. A good man has respect to the feel-
ings of others in all that he says or does. Bravely to contend for
a good cause is noble-, silently to suffer for it, is heroic. Provided
he is himself in comfortable circumstances, the selfish man has
no concern about the circumstances of others. The man who can
make light of the sufferings of others, is himself entitled to no
compassion. Sloth is one of man's deadliest enemies. He who
made light spring from primeval darkness, will, at last, make
order rise from the seeming confusion of the world.

EXAMPLE OF TRANSPOSITION.

The Roman state evidently declined, in proportion to the in-
crease of luxury. In proportion to the increase of luxury, the
Roman state evidently declined. The Roman state, in proper-
tion to the increase of luxury, evidently declined.

EXERCISES ON VARIETY OF EXPRESSION.

His conduct was less praiseworthy than his sister's. It is
better to be moved by false glory, than not to be moved at all. I
shall attend the meeting, if I can do it with convenience. He
who improves in modesty, as he improves in knowledge, has an
undoubted claim to greatness of mind. The spirit of true religion
breathes gentleness and affability. There is no such obstacle to
the attainment of excellence, as the power of producing, with
facility, what is tolerably good. Industry is not only the in-
strument of improvement, but the foundation of pleasure. A wolf,
let into the sheep-fold, will devour the sheep.

EXAMPLE OF VARIETY OF EXPRESSION.

His conduct was less praiseworthy than his sister's. His sis-
ter's conduct was more praiseworthy than his. His sister's mode

96. (COMPOSITION. 189

of acting was entitled to more praise than his. His conduct waa
less entitled to praise, than that of his sister, etc.

Another exercise, not destitute of utility as a foundation for
composition, consists in giving the pupil, especially if very young
a list of words, with directions to form from them such sentences
as shall contain these words.

EXERCISES.

Construct a number of such sentences as shall each contain one
or more of the following words : Contentment, behavior, conside-
ration, elevation, distance, application, respect, duty, intercourse
evidence, social, bereavement, nonsensical, absurdity, elucidate
consternation, temperance, luxury, disarm, expatiate, etc.

LETTERS.

634. One of the simplest and yet most useful species of compo-
sition, is letter-writing. This species of composition may oa
practised either by way of real correspondence between those pur-
suing the same studies, or it may consist of letters written to
imaginary correspondents. The following are a few topics adap-
ted to compositions of this latter kind:

Letter 1st. Write to a friend at a distance. State to him the
object of your writing. Tell him what studies you are pursuing,
and how you like them. Mention how yourself and friends are.
Give an account of some of the changes which have lately been
made, or are now making in your neighborhood ; and conclude by
expressing a desire either to see him, or hear from him soon.

Letter 2d. Write to a companion an account of a long walk
which you lately had. Tell him whether you were alone or in
company. Mention what particular things struck you by the
way , and enumerate all the incidents that occurred of any mo-
ment.

Letter 3d. Write to a friend who is supposed to have sent you
a present of books, and thank him for such kindness. Tell him
the use you intend to make of them; and inform him to what
particular books you are most partial. Conclude by giving some
account of those you have lately been reading, and how you like
them.

Letter 4th. Write to a friend supposed to be going abroad.
Describe to him how you would feel if called to leave your friends
and your native country. Express your regret at losing him,
but state your hope that you will not forget each other when seas
roll between you. Request him to write to you frequently-, and
advise him to be careful about his health, and of the society he
keeps.

Letter 5th. Write to a friend at a distance-, and give him an ac-
count of a sail which you lately had in a steam-boat. Mention

190 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 96

what places you visited -, and state the objects that most delighted
you. Tell him how long you were away, what sort of weather
you had, and what were your feelings upon returning home.

Letter 6th. Write to a friend an account of the church you were
at last Sabbath. Tell who preached-, mention the psalms or
hymns that were sung-, and the portions of Scripture that were
read. State the texts from which the minister preached-, and
give your opinion of the different sermons.

These have been given as mere specimens of the subjects upoa
which the student, who has acquired a knowledge of grammar,
may be required to write. The prudent and skilful teacher will
be enabled to multiply and vary them at pleasure, and to any extent.

REPRODUCTION.

635. Another method of exercising the minds of pupils in com-
position, consists in reading some simple story or narrative, till
such time as they are acquainted with the facts, and then direct
ing them to express these in their own words. A still further,
and perhaps even a simpler method, is, to take advantage of a
young person's having given some account of what he has either
seen, heard, or read, and desire him to commit to writing what
he has stated orally.

THEMES.

636. The next step in composition is the writing of regular
themes. The subject, however, should always be such as is not
above the capacity of the person who is desired to compose-, for, if
it is, the whole benefit resulting from the exercise will be nulli-
fied.

A theme is a regular set subject upon which a person is requir-
ed to write -, or the dissertation that has been written upon such
a subject. Some of the simplest subjects for themes are those
draw r n from natural history, or natural philosophy. At all events
they should not, in the first instance, be drawn from subjects of
an abstruse and abstract character.

637. The following may serve as specimens in this department:
Theme 1st. The horse. 1. Describe what sort of animal the

horse is. 2. Tell some of the different kinds. 3. Mention the
various ways in which this noble animal is serviceable to man.
4. State what would be the consequence of wanting him. 5.
Mention the treatment to which he is entitled, and the cruelty of
ill-using such a creature.

Write themes on the cow, the dog, the sheep, and upon poultry ,
and follow the same plan as that which you followed in writing
upon the horse.

Theme 2d. The sun. 1. Begin by stating what the sun is. 2.
Tell all you know of its size, figure, and distance from our earth.
3. Mention the effect it has upon the earth, and the benefits we

$ 96. COMPOSITION. 191

derive from it. 4. State what would be the consequence if the
sun were extinguished , and what our feelings ought to he toward
the Supreme Being, for such an object.

Write themes upon the moon, the stars, fire, air, and water;
and in all, follow the same plan.

Theme 3d. Day and night. 1. Tell what you mean by day
and~ftight. 2. State whether they are always alike long; and
what is the advantage arising from their length being different
at different seasons. 3. Mention the different purposes for which
they are adapted. 4. Say of what the continued succession of
day and night is fitted to remind us, and how this should lead us
to act.

Write themes upon the different seasons, and upon mountains,
rivers, and the tides of the sea-, and follow a similar plan in all.

Theme 4th. On Composition. 1. Explain what you mean by
this term. 2. Point out the necessity of studying this art, by
showing how much it contributes to add to the value of one's
knowledge. 3. Mention what is necessary to fit one for compos-
ing well. 4. State the means by which skill in this art is to be
obtained.

Theme 5th. On Company. 1. Explain what you mean by
company. 2. Show how natural it is for man to seek society,
3. State the danger of keeping either too much company, or of
keeping bad company. 4. Point out the advantages of good com
pany.

Write themes upon Conversation, Study, Improvement of Time,
Choice of Books, Memory, the different Organs of Sense, etc. , and
in all follow the same method as you did in writing on Company.

Theme 6th. Narratives. Describe the place or scene of the
actions related the persons concerned in the time posture of
affairs state of mind, motives, ends, etc. of the actors-, results.

Y/rite themes upon The discovery of America. The French
War. The Revolutionary War. The Battle of Bunker Hill.
The French Revolution.

Theme 1th. Dissertations on remarkable events in sacred or
profane history The place the origin the circumstances re-
sults moral influence, etc.

Following this or a similar arrangement of parts, write a com-
position on The Creation Death of Abel The Deluge The
World after the Flood The Tower of Babel The Israelites in
Egypt Their deliverance from it The giving of the law from
Sinai The Advent of the Messiah, his death, resurrection
Destruction of Jerusalem, etc. The Siege of Troy Rise and
Fall of the Roman Empire The Crusades The Burning of Mos-
cowThe Battle of Waterloo The Death of Bonaparte, etc.

Theme 8th. Give an account of some of the most distinguished
characters in different ages of the World Warriors, Statesmen,

192

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

Artists, Philosophers, Poets, Orators, Divines, Philanthropists 5
mentioning what is known respecting their country, parentage,
education, character, principles, exploits, influence on society for
good or evil, death.

638. The following iist of themes is selected from Parker's
Exercises in Composition.

1. On Attention,

26.

On Fortune,

51.

On Ocean,

2. " Adversity,

27.

4; Fear,

52.

" Pride,

3. " Ardor of mind.

28.

" Forgiveness,

53.

" Party Spirit,

4. " Art,

29.

'* Government,

54.

" Poverty,

5. " Attachment,

30.

11 Grammar,

55.

" Principle,

6. " Anger,

31.

" Greatness, true,

56.

" Perseverance,

7. " Air,

32.

" Genius,

57.

" Patriotism,

8. " Benevolence,

33.

* Habit,

58.

" Politeness,

9. " Beauty,

34.

' Honour,

59.

" Providence,

10. " Biography,

35.

4 Happiness,

60.

" Punctuality,

11.

Bad Scholar,

36.

( Humility,

61.

" Poetry,

12.

' Charity,

37.

' Hypocrisy,

62.

" Piety,

13.

1 Clemency,

38.

" History,

63.

" Religion,

14.
15.

' Compassion,
' Conscience,

39.

40.

" Hope,
" Indolence,

64.
65.

" Reading,
" Sincerity,

16.

' Constancy,

41.

" Industry,

66.

" Summer,

17.

' Carelessness,

42.

" Ingratitude,

67.

11 Spring,

18.

' Curiosity,

43.

" Justice,

08.

' { Sun,

19.

4 Cheerfulness,

44.

' Learning,

69.

" System,

20.

c Contentment,

45.

' Love of Fame,

70.

' Truth,

21.

' Diligence,

46.

' Music,

71.

' Time,

22.

c Duplicity,

47.

' Moon,

72.

4 Talent,

23.

' Early rising,

48.

' Novelty,

73.

' Vanity,

24.

' Envy.

4 Night,

74.

' Virtue,

25. ' Friendship,

50.

' Order,

75.

4 Wealth

76. Knowledge is Power,

77. Progress of Error,

78. Progress of Truth,

79. Government of the Tongue,

80. Government of the Temper,

81. Government of the Affections,

82. Local Attachments,

83. The Power of Association,
84 The Immortality of the Soul,

85. The Uses of Knowledge,

86. Power of Conscience,

87. The Power of Habit,

88. Life is Short,

89. Miseries of Idleness,

90. Never too old to learn,

91. Public Opinion,

92. Diligence ensures success,

93. Idleness destroys Character,

94. Contrivance proves design,

95. Avoid Extremes,

96. Visit to an Almshouse.

97. Pleasures of Memory,

98. Example better than Precept,

99. Misery is wed to Guilt,

100. Value of Time,

101. Virtue the way to Happiness,

102. No one lives for Himself,

103. Thou God sees! me,

104. Trust not Appearances,

i AC tun . :_ :_ T:_U

105. Whatever is, is Right

106. " An honest man's the noblest work of God.' ;

107. Every man the architect of his own fortune.

108. Man, " Mysterious link in being's endless chain. 7 '

109 u A little learning is a dangerous thing.' 7

110 How blessings brighten, as they take their flight.

111 Advantages derived from the invention of the mariner's compass of tht

telescope the steam enpire the art of printing of gunpowdei

112. History of a needle a cent a Bible a beaver hat.

113. Description of a voyage to EnglandCoast of AfricaConstantinople-

South America East Indies China.

APPENDIX.

I. GRAMMAR.

The object of Grammar, in a general sense, is to investigate
the principles of language, and from a careful analysis of these,
to lay down a system of rules and principles, by observing which,
we may be enabled to express our thoughts in a particular lan-
guage in a correct and proper manner, feuch a collection of rules
and principles applicable to the English language, with directions
for their use in the most simple, brief, and convenient manner,
has been attempted in the preceding pages.

When we speak of Grammar as a system of rules, it is not to
be understood that the rules are first established, and the language
afterwards modelled in conformity to these. The very reverse is
the fact: language is antecedent to grammar. u No grammarian
can of his own authority alter the phraseology of any expression,
or assign to a word a signification different from that which has
been allotted to it by established usage. He must take the lan-
guage as it is, not as he would wish it to be. He may, indeed,
recommend this or that mode of expression, as more agreeable to
analogy, but if must remain with the public whether or not his
advice be adopted. From the decision of general, reputable, and
established usage, there lies no appeal. His business is, to observe
the agreement or disagreement of words, the similarity or dis-
similarity between different forms of expression, to reduce those
that are similar, under the same class, and, by a careful induction
of particulars, establish general propositions. Nor is it abso-
lutely necessary that he should know by what means this or that
phraseology came into use, or why this or that word forms an
exception to a general rule; it is sufficient for his purpose if he
does know that it is an exception, and, knowing it, points it out
to others.

" By arranging the various rules and principles of a language
into a systematic form, permanency is given to what w r ould other-
wise be subject to fluctuation, or involved in obscurity-, the rela-
tive connection and importance of the rules become clearly as(er
tained, and the whole is rendered more easy of being acquired
and retained, and applied with facility and correctness.

u Prior to the publication of Lowth's excellent little grammar,
the grammatical study of our own language formed no part of the
ordinary method of instruction, and consequently the writings of
the best authors were frequently inaccurate. Subsequent to thai
period, however, attention has been paid to this important subject,
and the change that has taken place both in our written ana oral
language, has evidenced the decided advantages resulting from
such a plan.

194 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

" The Grammar which has attained the greatest celebrity for
general use, is that by Mr. MuiTay. In this work, he has embo-
died the principles and rules which were deduced by the most ce-
lebrated grammarians that preceded him , and by arranging the
whole in a better order, has rendered it decidedly superior to
every work of the kind which existed before its appearance." -
HUey's Preface.

Since that time, many works have been published of various
degrees of merit, most of which have had for their object, not so
much to investigate more thoroughly the principles of language,
as to simplify and elucidate principles already investigated. The
Etymology and Syntax of Dr. Crombie, lately published, though
not intended for the use of schools, is a most valuable addition to
the stock of original works on this subject. u The industry of
research, and acuteness of discrimination, which he has evinced
in the collection and comparison of different forms of speech,
have thrown great light upon many difficulties-, and his conclu-
sions must, in general serve as landmarks to the future traveller. '
Among recent valuable contributions to our stock of literature crj
this subject, may be noticed the work of Mr. Harrison, on u The
rise, progress, and present structure of the English language,"
published in England in 1848, and republished here in 1850 , and
the large work of William C. Fowler, late Professor of Rhetoric
in Amherst College, entitled " The English language in its Ele-
ments and Forms." Some works of an eccentric character have
also at times appeared, whose authors, smitten with a passion for
novelty or singularity, have manifested much more capacity for
pulling down, than for building up for rinding fault with thai
which is good already, than for producing something better in itj
place. Still the labors of even these are not without their use.
Like the violence of the tempest which shakes the sturdy oak,
and causes it to strike its roots deeper and firmer in the parent
soil, they only more firmly establish that which can not be
overthrown.

The principles of language, which grammar as a science inves-
tigates, are general and permanent. They belong to all languages,
and remain the same, however they may be classed, or in
whatever terms they may be expressed. Hence it is that the
grammars of all languages are substantially the same, and differ
only in minor details, as idiom and usage require. This is as it
should be. No good reason can be given for making a grammar
of the English language, for example, toto ccelo, different from the
grammars of other languages, ancient or modern. And yet it has
been, and still is, the practice of some to declaim against the ex-
isting systems of English Grammar, because, as they say, they
are conformed to the grammars of the dead languages, or to those
of foreign nations. Though such efforts may prevail for a season
and with a few, more mature reflection usually dissipates the de-
lusion. It is well known that novices in every science are con-
stantly making discoveries; and these appear to them for a time

APPENDIX. 195

so important and wonderful, that they sometimes think they can-
not fail to astonish the world, revolutionize the science, and im
mortalize themselves. It happens, too, that such discoveries are
usually in proportion to the want of discrimination and intelli-
gence of those who make them. A more extended acquaintance
with facts and principles will often prove, even to themselves,
that their great discoveries are only the crude and exploded fan-
cies of other men, and other days, long since abandoned as unte-
nable and worthless. Discoveries of such a character are some-
times made in grammar also ; and such, too, are often their origin
and their end.

The system o'f English grammar, as we now have it in the best
works, or in what some are pleased to call the U 01d Grammars,"
rests on a more solid foundation. Men of sound, discriminating,
and philosophical minds men prepared for the work by long stu-
dy, patient investigation, and extensive acquirements, have la
bored for ages to improve and perfect it 5 and nothing is hazarded
in asserting, that should it be unwisely abandoned, it will be long
before another, equal in beauty, stability, and usefulness, be pro-
duced in its stead.

II. CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS.

LANGUAGE, written or spoken, consists of words. In combi-
-ing these into propositions and sentences, so as to express our
ideas in a correct and intelligent manner, an accurate knowledge
of their forms, changes, and functions, is necessary , and this again
can be attained only by a proper classification of them according to
their distinguishing characteristics and uses in the communication
of thought. The importance of this has always been felt by
grammarians, and various classifications have been made, differing
from each other according to the principles assumed as their basis.
The essentials of speech were anciently supposed to be sufficiently
designated by the Noun and the Verb', to which was subsequently
added, the Conjunction. In modern times, the parts of speech
have been denominated Substantives, Attributives, Definitives, and
Connectives. Such a classification, however, is too general to be
of much use in grammar. To group together under one head,
words specifically different in their character and use, can tend
only to confusion ; andto multiply divisions which can serve no
practical purpose, is an extreme equally unprofitable.

By a careful analysis of language, we find that some words are
employed to express the names of things, others to indicate theii
qualities; some express action or state under various modifications 5
others are used in connection with these to point out tircumstan-
ces of time, place, manner, order, degree, etc.: some are em-
ployed to denote certain relations of things to each other, and
others again chiefly to connect the different parts of a sentence
together. This diversity in the use of words is as real, and as
distinctly marked as the functions of the bones, muscies, arteries,

196 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

and nerves oi the human system, and forms a basis of classifica-
tion equally proper in all languages.

On this principle of classification, the later Greek grammarians
divided words into eight classes or parts of speech; viz., the Noun,
Article, Pronoun, Verb, Participle, Adverb, Preposition, and
Conjunction. The Romans had no article, but retained the same
number by distinguishing between adverbs and interjections.
Both included under the term noun, the names of things, and
words expressive of their qualities-, the former they called Sub
stantive Nouns ; the latter, Adjective Nouns. These w r ere subse-
quently ranked as two distinct classes, commonly called Nouns
or Substantives, and Adjectives ; and the participle was restored
to the verb, to which it properly belongs. This classification,
with little variation, has been adopted by the best English gram-
marians, and remains in general use even at this day-, and though
not absolutely perfect, or incapable of improvement, still it is suf-
ficient for all practical purposes, and is perhaps, on the whole,
the best that has yet been proposed. Objections to it merely on
the ground that it agrees with the generally received classification
of ancient, or foreign languages, are just about as reasonable as
objections to the anatomical classifications of ancient or foreign
nations would be, merely because they happen to differ in stature,
complexion, or features, from ourselves. Such objections have
been, and still continue to be made, the futility of which needs
no better illustration than the fact, that, after all, their authors
have offered little else in its stead, than the same, or nearly the
same divisions under different names.

III. THE NOUN OR SUBSTANTIVE.

The characteristic of this class of words, is that they are names.
Every word that is the name of any thing that exists, whether
material or immaterial, or of any thing that is or can be made
the subject of thought or discourse, is a noun. Hence it follows,
that letters, marks, or characters, and words used independently
of their meaning, and merely as things spoken of, are nouns 5 thus,
A is a vowel; honor is sometimes spelled with a u. and sometimes
without it; th has two sounds; us is a pronoun; I will have no ifs
or bnis ; 4~ is the sign of addition. Hence, also, the infinitive
mood, a participle, a member of a sentence, or a proposition,
forming together the subject of a discourse, or the object of a verb
or preposition, and being the name of an act or circumstance, are
in construction regarded as nouns, and are usually called "sub-
stantive phrases; 1 ' as, "To play is pleasant," "His being an ex-
pert dancer is no recommendation," " Let your motto be 'Ho-
nesty is the best policy." 1 "

The ACCIDENTS of the noun, in English, are, in general, the
same as in other languages, i. e. they have Person, Gender, Num-
ber, and Case ; though in the details of these, there is some di-
versity in different languages, and even in different grammars of
the same language.

APPENDIX. 197

IV. PERSON OF NOUNS.

The person of nouns is not determined by any difference of
form, as in pronouns, but simply by their relation to the discourse,
In direct discourse,* a noun used by a speaker or writer to de-
signate himself, is said to be of the first person , used to desig-
nate the person addressed, it is said to be of the second person-
and,when used to designate a person or thing spoken of, it is said
to be of the third person. It is obvious then from the nature of
the case, that those words only can be of the first or second per-
son, which denote intelligent beings, or which by personification
are regarded as such, for no other can either speak or properly be
spoken to, and they are usually in apposition with the first or
second personal pronouns; as, u 1, Artaxerxes make a decree-,' 1
*'I, thy father-in-law Jethro, am come unto theej" " Thou, God
seest me."

A noun in the predicate, however, denoting either the speaker,
or the person spoken to, is generally regarded as in the third per-
son-, thus, " I am he that liveth and was dead;" u I am Alpha
and Omega who is, and who was, and who is to come." For
this construction, and the variation of meaning which a change
of person commonly indicates, see 59, R. II, Rem. This rule,
however, does not hold universally. In the following sentence,
" Verily thou art a God that hidest thyself," the word " God,"
in the predicate, is evidently regarded as of the second person.
So also in the phrases, " It is I," " It is thou," etc. In oblique
discourse, the third person only can be used.

As the name of the speaker, or of the person spoken to, is sel-
dom expressed (the pronouns / and thou, we and T/OM, being used
in their stead), it seems to be a useless waste of time, in parsing,
to mention the person of a noun, unless it be in the first or second
person, which will not happen more than once in a thousand times.
Much time therefore will be saved, and no loss sustained, if it be
considered as taken for granted, without stating it, that a noun
is in the third person, unless it be otherwise mentioned.

V. GENDER OF NOUNS.

In all languages, the distinction of nouns with regard to sex,
das been noted. Every substantive denotes either a male or
/emale, or that which is neither the one nor the other. This
Accident, or characteristic of nouns, is called their Gender.
In English, all words denoting male animals, are considered as
masculine; all those denoting female animals, feminine; and those
denoting things neither male nor female, are termed neuter. "In

^Discourse is said to be direct, when a writer or speaker delivers his own sen.
liments ; as, " I am the man.' ; Oblique, when he relates, in his own language,
ihe sayings of another; as, " He says that he is the man." See Lat, Gr. $ 111,
Rule VI-

17*

198 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

this distribution," says Crornbie, "we follow the order of nature.
ind our language is, in this respect, both simple and animated."
Both in Latin and Greek, many words denoting things without.
Bex, are ranked as masculine or feminine, without any regard to
their meaning, but simply on account of their terminations. In
French, all nouns are regarded as either masculine or feminine,
which is a still greater departure from the order and simplicity of
nature, for which the English language on this point is distin-
guished.

Some have objected to the designation of three genders 5 they
think that as there are but two sexes, it would be more philoso-
phical and accurate to say there are only two genders : and to
regard all words not belonging to these, as without gender. ^ A
little reflection, I think, will show that this objection has no just
foundation, either in philosophy or in fact, an<| that the change
it proposes would be no improvement. It has probably arisen
from confounding the word gender, which properly signifies a
kind, class, or species (Lat. genus, French genre), with the
word sex, and considering them as synonymous. This, however,
is not the case; these words do riot mean precisely the same thing,
and they can not be properly applied in the same way. We never
say, " the masculine sex, the feminine sex-," nor " the male gen-
der, the female gender." In strict propriety of speech, the word
sex can be predicated only of animated beings 5 the word gender,
only of the term by which that being is expressed. The being
man, has sex, not gender; the word man, has gender, not sex.
Though therefore it is very absurd to speak of three sexes, yet
it may be very proper to speak of three genders 5 that is to say,
there are three classes (genders) of nouns, distinguished from
each other by their relation to sex. One denotes objects of the
male sex, and is called masculine ; another denotes objects of the
female sex, and is called, feminine; and the third denotes objects
neither male nor female, for which a name more appropriate thar
the term neuter need not be desired.

The term "Common gender," applied to such words as parer
child, friend, etc., does not constitute a distinct class of words,
which are neither masculine, nor feminine, nor neuter, but is used
for convenience, merely to indicate that such words sometimes
denote a male, and sometimes a female. Instead of " common, 11
those who prefer it, may call such words "masculine or feminine."

VI. CASE OF NOUNS.

In the ancient languages, and also in the modern languages of
Europe, nouns in each number have certain changes of termina
tion, called Cases, which serve to shew the relation existing be
c tween them and other words in the sentence. Of these, the Latin
has six; the Greek, five; the German, four; the Saxon, six; the
French, three; etc. In English, the only vaiiation of the noun in
*ach number, is that used to mark possession, and, for this reason

APPENDIX. 199

stnmouly called the possessive case. The nominative and objec-
tive do not differ in form, but only in their use ; the former being
used to denote the subject of a verb, and the latter to denote the
object of a verb or preposition. The propriety of this distinction
is manifest, from the fact, that in personal and relative pronouns,
the objective case is distinguished from the nominative by a change
of form.

VII. THE ARTICLE.

THE ARTICLE may properly be regarded as an adjective word,
i. e. it is always employed in connection with a noun, or with
words and phrases used as such. In Greek, and also in other
languages, it is declined like the adjective, and comes under the
same rules of concord with it. The Articles in English are A or
arf, and The. Ofcthese. the first is used to individualize without
restricting. It is therefore appropriately termed Indefinite , and
is never used but with the singular number.

This word is evidently a derivative of the Saxon numeral Ant
(one), shortened by the absence of emphasis into An ; or it may
be regarded as the same word used in a particular way. For the
sake of euphony, the n is dropped before a consonant ; and be-
cause most words begin with a consonant, this of course is its more
common form. In the French, German, and other languages,
which have the indefinite article, its form is the same with their
numeral one, and, in reading or speaking, it is distinguished from
it by emphasis only. Still, in these languages it is not regarded
as a numeral, its office being specifically different. The office of
the numeral is to designate number only one as opposed to two
or more. But though from its nature this article is joined only
with the singular, yet number- is not the idea it is used to convey,
but simply to indicate an individual indefinitely. An example
will illustrate this. If I say, u Will one man be able to carry
this burden so far?" I evidently oppose one to more, and the an-
swer might be, u No-, but two men will." But if I say, u Will
a man be able to carry this burden?" it is manifest the idea is en-
tirely changed-, the reference is not to number, but to the species 5
and the answer might be, "No-, but a horse will." Translate
these two sentences into Latin or Greek, or any language which
does not use the indefinite article, and the first will necessarily
have the numeral, the second will as necessarily want it. In this
respect, the English has manifestly a decided advantage over those
languages in which the same term is used both as an article and
a numeral-, and hence it appears to me, that to class this article as
a numeral, as some have proposed, would not only be in some
measure to relinquish this advantage, but, by combining under
one head, words w r hose use is so widely different, would prove an
injury instead of an improvement.

The Article The, on the other hand, is used to shew that a word
is restricted, or limited; and is therefore termed Definite. Its pro-

200 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

per office is to call the attention to a particular individual or clas
or to any number of such, and is used with nouns in either tL
singular or plural r-nrnber. This word seems to be derived fror'.
the Saxon Se (that), plural Tha ; and is distinguished from the
demonstratives this, and that, much in the same way that a is
distinguished fro-m the numeral one. The Greeks had a separate
word for this purpose, which the early grammarians called the
prepositive Article, from its position before its noun-, and to dis-
tinguish it from the relative pronoun which they called the post-
positive Article, usually placed after it. These two words, in
many sentences, were used relatively to each other, and, like a
joint (Jlrticulus}. from which the name is derived, served to unite
the t\vo members of the sentence to which they respectively be-
longed, into one whole. This designation, originally given to
this word from one of its prevailing uses, continued to be applied
to it not only after the postpositive article -vjls more appropri-
ately called the Relative pronoun, but also in cases in which no
conjunction of the parts of a sentence was effected-, and modern
grammarians have extended it to the word known as the Indefi-
nite Article. Whether a more appropriate designation for these
words should now be devised, or whether they might be classed
under some other head, are questions of no practical moment.
The words exist in the language ; they have a specific office to
perform', they have peculiarities of construction which belong to
no other class of words ; they are only two in number, and are
easily distinguished from other parts of speech, and if these con-
siderations should not be considered sufficient to entitle them
strictly and philosophically to a separate denomination, they are
such, at any rate, as to render it convenient and useful ; and if so,
it seems unwise, for the sake of a trivial advantage, even if that
could be gained, to disturb the settled language of grammar on
this point, and so to destroy its present similarity to that of most
other languages, in which this division and nomenclature are re
ceived.

In many sentences, The and That are nearly equivalent, and
the sense will be the same by using either j as. U 27ic man, or that
man who hath no music in his soul," etc. This, however, doea
not always hold-, " The difference," says Crombie, "seems-to be,

1st. The Article the, like a, must have a substantive joined
with it 5 whereas that , like one, may have it understood ; thus. ;
speaking of books, I may select one and say, ; give me that-,
but not, c give me the ;' ' give me one ;' but not ' give me a.'
Here the analogy holds between a and one the and that.

2d. " In general, the distinction between the and that seems
to be that the latter marks the object more emphatically than the
former, being indirectly opposed to this. lean not, for example,
say, fc that man with that long beard,' without implying: a con-
trast with this man with this long beard , the word that bcina
always emphatical and discriminative."

APPENDIX. 201

VIII. THE ADJECTIVE.

Words of this class are supposed to have been originally nouns,
the names of qualities or attributes, and, from being joined to
nouns whose quality or property they were employed to express,
were called adjective nouns. In a more advanced state of lan-
guage, with few exceptions, they cease to be used as nouns, and
are employed to denote a quality, property, or attribute, not se-
parately, but in conjunction w r ith its subject-, thus, when we say,
u a stone," we have the generic name of a certain substance, and
no more; but when we say, u a round stone, " u a hard stone,"
'' a smooth stone," we have the generic name, limited and de-
scribed by the attributes of roundness, hardness, smoothness; and
these as inherent in or belonging to the substance stone. The
adjective always implies the name of a quality or attribute, but
does not present %at idea alone to the mind, as when W T C speak
of roundness, haraness, etc., but that idea in concrete in conjunc-
tion with its subject. Hence it follows that a word which does
not add to its noun the idea of some quality or attribute as be-
longing to it or connected with it, is not, strictly speaking, an ad-
jective-, and for this reason the articles, and the words generally
ranked as distributive, demonstrative, and indefinite pronouns,
though adjectives in construction, are not so in sense and mean-
ing. They express no quality, property, or attribute of a noun,
either separately or in connection with it, nor can they be predi-
cated of it. On the other hand, all words which do make such
an addition to the noun, may properly be regarded as adjectives,
though they be often or generally used for other purposes. Thus
the words u gold," tl sea," " flower, 1 ' are nouns-, but when we
say " a gold watch," u sea water," " a flower garden," they are
used as adjectives.

IX. COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES.

Adjectives denoting qualities or properties capable of increase,
and so of existing in different degrees, assume different forms, to
express a greater or less degree of such quality or property in one
object compared with another, or with several others. These
forms are three, and are appropriately denominated the positive,
comparative, and superlative. Some object to the positive being
called a degree of comparison, because, in its ordinary use, it does
not, like the comparative and superlative forms, necessarily in-
volve comparison-, and they think it more philosophical to say,
that the degrees of comparison are only two, the comparative ana
superlative. This, however, with the appearance of greater ex-
actness, is little else than a change of words, and a change perhaps
not for the better. If we define a degree of comparison ' a form
of the adjective which necessarily implies comparison,' this change
would be an improvement-, but this is not w r hat grammarians
mean ? when they say there are three degrees of comparison. Their
meaning is, that there are three forms of the adjective, each of

202 ENGLISH GRAMMAR-

which, when comparison is intended, expresses a different degree
of the quality or attribute in the things compared : thus, if we
compare wood, stone, and iron, with regard to their weight, we
would say, u wood is heavy, stone is heavier, and iron is the hea*
viest." Each of these forms of the adjective in this comparison
expresses a different degree of weight in the things compared :
the positive heavy expresses one degree-, the comparative heavier,
another-, and the superlative heaviest, a third-, and of these, the
first is as essential an element in the comparison as the second or
the third. Indeed there never can be comparison without the state-
ment of at least two degrees 5 and of these, the positive form of
the adjective, either expressed or implied, always expresses one.
"When we say "wisdom is more precious than rubies," two de-
grees of value are compared, the one expressed by the comparative
a more precious," the other necessarily impl^d. : the meaning is,
" rubies are precious, wisdom is more precio^jj^' 1 Though, there-
fore, it is true that the simple form of the adjective does not al-
ways, nor even commonly. denote comparison-, yet as it always does
indicate one of the degrees compared whenever comparison exists,
; t seems proper to rank it with the other forms, as a degree of com-
parison. This involves no impropriety, it produces no confusion,
it leads to no error, it has a positive foundation in the nature of
comparison, and it furnishes an appropriate and convenient appel-
lation for this form of the adjective, by which to distinguish it in
speech from the other forms.

X. PRONOUNS.

The term pronoun (Lat. pronomen) strictly means a word used
for, or instead of a noun. In English, pronouns are usually di-
vided into four general classes, personal, relative, interrogative^
and adjective. The first or personal, includes also compound pro-
nouns, which in the nominative are emphatic or definite, and in
the objective, reflexive, 15, Obs. 2. The second, or relative
(except " that"), without any change of form, becomes interroga
tive in asking questions, $ 17. All the words in these three classes,
both in sense and construction, are used as nouns, and instead of
nouns.

XI. THE PKONOUN YOU.

You, the common plural of thou, is now used also to denote o&e
person-, but, even when it does so, it always takes a plural verb.
This usage has become so fixed and uniform, that some eminent
grammarians contend for its being regarded as singular. No ad-
vantage, however, would be gained by adopting this proposal ; and
it seems to accord much more with simplicity, as w T eil as wdtn fact,
to regard it as a plural which has come by use to be applied in this
manner. In certain kinds of writing (243), we is used in the same
way, and so also is the corresponding pronoun in French, and

APPENDIX. 203

somt other modern languages, in which, however, it is always
regai ded as a plural form.*

XII. AS, NOT A RELATIVE.

The word AS. is by some grammarians considered as a relative.
That it should not be considered a relative in any circumstances, I
think is plain from the following considerations-.

1. It has neither the meaning, nor the use of a relative. Its of-
fice is simply to connect things compared, and, together with its
antecedent word, to express the idea of equality , likeness, fyc. be
tween them; thus, " James is as tall as his father." " Your hat
is such as mine."

2. It does not, like a relative, relate to a noun or pronoun before
it, called the antecedent, nor stand instead of it, or of any othei
word, but is relatgi only to the comparative word, as, such, so,
etc., in the precedMg clause. Thus, in the sentence, u As many
as received him," the second as relates to the first, and the two
convey the idea of equality. Again, " Send such books as you
have." Here, as refers not to books, but to such. Take away
such, and as can not be used.

3. Jls can never be used as a substitute for another relative pro-
noun, nor another relative pronoun as a substitute for it. If, then,
it is a relative pronoun, it is, to say the least, a very unaccommo-
dating one.

' 4. In sentences in which as is said to be a relative, it evidently
has the same meaning and use as in those in which it is allowed to
be only a conjunction. Compare the following examples : u As
many as five men received a reward." "As many as received
him." u As many as they can give." In all these, the phrase
44 as many as" means, and is felt to mean, the same thing 5 equality
of number. There surely, then, can be no propriety in calling the
second as a conjunction in the first sentence, and. a relative in the
other two. The same thing will be evident if we change the ante-
cedent word-, thus, u Such books as these are useful." "/Sue/ 1
books as are useful." u Such books as you can give."

5. If the word as in the preceding sentences and clauses is a re
lative pronoun, for the same reasons alleged for this, the word than
must be a relative in those which follow. The construction is
precisely the same: "More than five books were wanted."
u More books than are useful." " More books than you can give.'-
Now, if, in the second of these examples, than is not a relative in

*" The pronoun you, though originally and properly plural, is now generally
applied alike to one person or to more. This usage, however it may seern to
mvolve a solecism, is established by that authority against which the mere gram,
marian has scarcely a right to remonstrate. We do not, however, think it neces.
wiry or advi&able to encumber the conjugations, as some have done, by introdu.
cing this pronoun and the corresponding form of the verb, as singular. It is ma.
nifestly better to say that the plural is used for the singular, by the figure enal-
Iage."Grovtd Broivn, p. 137,

204 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

the nominative case before are, nor in the third a relative in the
objective case after can give, what need for considering as a rela-
tive in the same position, in the same construction, and for the
same purpose, to denote comparison? There is the same ellipsis
in both, and the same words necessary to be supplied, in the one
case, as in the other-, thus, "More books than [those which]
were wanted." " More books than [those which] are useful," etc.
So, "Such books as [those which] were wanted." "As many
books as [those which] are necessary," etc.

XIII. THE RELATIVE WHAT.

u Various opinions have been entertained about the nature of
the relative what. It is said to be 'a compound relative pronoun,
including both the antecedent and the relative, and equivalent to
that which, or, the thing which." 1 Though thisunay seem plausible,
yet we shall find, on examination, that what iRiothing more than
a relative, and includes nothing else. Compare these two sen-
tences :

" ' I saw whom I wanted to see'

u ' I saw what I wanted to see.'

u If what, in the latter, is equivalent to that ichich. or the thing
which ; ichom, in the former, is equivalent to him whom, OT the per-
son whom. ' Who steals my purso steals trash ' is equivalent to
he who. or the man who.

" And on the same principle, when the relative is omitted, the
antecedent should be represented as equivalent to the relative and
the antecedent. Thus, c I saw the man I wanted to see.' Here,
man should be represented as equivalent to the man whom.

" The cause of the error in respect to what, is, that the antece-
dent is never expressed with it. It is not like the word who y
which is used both when the antecedent is expressed, and when
it is omitted. The relative that, however, was formerly used in
many cases where we use what, that is, with the antecedent
omitted. A few examples of this will help us to ascertain the
nature of what : i We speak that we do know.' English Bible.
l l am that I am.' Ib.

" l Who had been seen imagine mote thereby,

T/iawhylome of Hercules hath been told.' Spenser.
" ; Eschewe that wicked is.' Gower.

" ! Is it possible he should not know what he is, and be that he

is. 1 Shaks.
" ' Gather the sequel by that went before.' Ib.

u In these examples, that is a relative, and is exactly synony-
mous with what. No one would contend, that that stands for
itself and its antecedent at the same time. The antecedent is
omitted because it is indefinite, or easily supplied." Butler's
Grammar, p. 48.

remarks appcnr to m* just and conclusive on this point.

205

XIV. ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS.

The fourth class, called adjective pronouns, and sometimes pro-
nominal adjectives, is usually subdivided into possessive, distri-
butive, demonstrative, and indefinite. Of these, the first' or pos-
sessive are derived from the personal, and in meaning are strictly
pronouns, being always the representative or substitute of a noun-,
but in construction they are adjectives, and are always joined with
a noun, and hence are appropriately denominated adjective pro-
nouns, i. e. pronouns used adjectively. "By some, they are less
appropriately classed with adjectives, and called pronominal ad-
jectives.

In many grammars the possessives my, thy, his, her, its, our
your, their, are set down as the possessive case of the personal
pronouns, with mine, thine, his, hers, its. ours, yours, theirs,
making two forms of the possessive case; thus, my or mine, thy
or thine, etc. In tlje use of these forms this difference is to be
observed, viz. that the first is always followed by a noun deno-
ting the thing possessed-, as, u this is my book :" the latter never
has the noun following it, but seems as it were to include it, as
well as to be governed by it-, as, "this book is not mine," equi-
valent to " this book is not my book.' 1 ' 1 The possessive case of the
noun is used both ways-, as, u this is John's book," or, " this book
is John's." Which of these methods is adopted in teaching or stu-
dying grammar, is a matter of no practical moment : some gram-
marians adopt the one, and some the other, merely as a matter of
taste, without any controversy on the subject. The classification
in the text is preferred as being on the whole more simple, because
the possessives my, thy, etc., like the adjective, can never stand
alone, as the possessive case does, but must be supported by a noun
following them-, thus, we say, " It is the king's-, 1 ' " It is yours "
but we can not say, " It is your," the presence of a noun being ne-
cessary to the last expression -, and because if these words are ranked
as the possessive case of the personal pronoun, it unnecessarily
leaves the English language without a class of words correspond-
ing to the possessive pronouns of other languages. They have pre-
cisely the same meaning. as the Latin Meus,mea, meum ; or the
French Mon, ma; or the German Mein (or meiner), meine, mein;
01 the Anglo-Saxon (which is the motherof the English language),
Min, mine, min; they are used in precisely the same way.

There seems, therefore, to be no good reason for giving them adif
ferent classification. Indeed, the only circumstance which renders
it possible to regard them as a possessive case in English, is that
like the English adjective they are indeclinable. Had they been
declinable, like the Latin or French, etc., they never could have
been used as a possessive case.

Some, again, regard my, thy, etc. as the only forms of the posses-

sive case-, and mine, thine, etc. not as a possessive case at all. but as

a substitute for the possessive case of the pronoun, and the noun re-

ferred to, together-, and that it is in the nominative or objective case

ENCJLiSH GRAMMAR.

accouling as the noun referred to would be, in the full expression;
ihus, u Your book is old, mine is new." is equivalent to "Your book
is old, my book is new." Hence it is inferred that mine is not a pos-
sessive case, but a substitute for my book, and the nominative to is.
This, though plausible, is obviously incorrect. If, instead of the pro-
noun mine, we substitute a noun, that noun will have to be in the
possessive case-, thus, u Your book is old, John's is new." The
construction in these two sentences being identical, if ^John's" is
the possessive case, so also is u mine ;" and if in the possessive, it
can not be the nominative to u is.' 1 The mistake lies in considering
mine a substitute for my book, whereas it really is a substitute only
for my, including such a reference to the word book in the preceding
part of the sentence, as renders its repetition in the second part not
only unnecessary, but, according to the usage of the language, im-
proper. The difference between the construction of the noun and
the pronoun, in such sentences, is simply this: the possessive mine,
thine, etc., according to usage, are never used before a noun, but the
possessive of the noun is used both before a noun and after it.
When it is deemed proper to express the noun after the pronoun,
the form mine. etc. must be changed for my, etc. Thus, we can
not say, u Mine book," but " My book-, 11 but we can with equal
propriety say, u John's book," or, " The book is John's."

In the same manner may be explained the use of the possessive
after transitive verbs in the active voice, and after prepositions ,
thus, u James lost his books, and I gave him mine," meaning my
books; " A picture of the king's," is a picture of (i. e. from) the
king's pictures. So, " A book of mine, 1 ' is a book of [from] my
books. u A friend of yours," is a friend of [from] your friends.
It is worthy of notice, that though this use of the possessive after
of, originally and strictly implies selection, or a part only, it has
insensibly come to be used when no such selection is, or even can
be, intended. Thus we may say, " That house of yours," u that
farm of yours," without intending to imply that any other hou-
ses or farms belong to you-, and when w r e say, " That head of
yours _." selection is obviously excluded by the sense.

The words belonging to the other three divisions, have been
found more difficult to arrange in a satisfactory manner. They
eem to occupy a sort of middle ground between adjectives and
pronouns, and are sometimes used as the one, and sometimes as
the other, without the strict and appropriate character of either.
They are not adjectives in sense as, already shewn (App. VIII) ;
but they are generally adjectives in construction, having a noun
expressed or understood, which they serve to limit or restrict in
various ways. On the other hand, with few exceptions, they are
no often used without a noun, or as its substitute, that they are not
improperly regarded as pronouns, though in a sense less strict than
the others , thus, "Let each esteem trt/iers better than themselves."
" Among men, some are good, others bad, none perfect." " M
things come alike to all," etc.

From this equivocal or rather double character of these words

APPENDIX. 207

they have been variously arranged by different authors. Some.
among whom are Grant, Crombie, Hiley, Sutcliffe, Allen, Coo-
per, Brown, etc. class them with adjectives, and call them " Pro-
nominal Adjectives;" and others, such as Lowth, Priestly, Smart,
Murray, Lennie, Booth, Churchill, Wright, Cobbet, Kirkham,
Smith, and many others, class them with pronouns, and call them
* c Adjective Pronouns" Since all are agreed about the use of
these words, .it seems in itself a matter of less importance to
which of these two classes they be attached, or whether they are
more appropriately called Pronominal Adjectives, or Adjective
Pronouns. But as in the Latin and Greek, and in most, if not all
European languages, almost all of the corresponding words are
ranked uniformly as adjective pronouns , and as there is no neces-
sity for, and no advantage to be derived from a different classifi-
cation, it seems to be unwise, merely for the sake of change
or the love of singularity, to depart from this arrangement in
English.

XV. THE VERB.

Though there is little, if any, difference of judgment among
grammarians as to what a verb is, yet all have probably found it
a difficult ma/*r to give an accurate, and at the same time a brief
definition of it , and, accordingly, nearly all grammars differ in
their definition of this part of speech. The old definition, that
u a verb is a word which signifies to be, to do, or to suffer,"
though unexceptionable as any, as far as it goes, is yet greatly
defective in stating nothing respecting the function or use of this
part of speech.

The use of the verb in simple propositions is to affirm or declare,
and that of which it affirms is called its subject or nominative.
This is always the office of the verb in the indicative, potential,
or subjunctive. In the use of its other parts, however, namely,
the imperative, infinitive, and participles, there is properly no af-
firmation, though*the action or state expressed by the verb in these
parts is clearly seen to be the act or state of some person or thing,
and which for that reason is strictly and properly, though not
technically, its subject. Thus, u For me to die is gain," is a
simple proposition, containing two verbs, the first of which, to
die, in the infinitive, expresses no affirmation, though it evidently,
without affirming, attributes dying to a person, expressed by the
word me. So when we say, u I see a man walking," the word
walking expresses an act of the person man, though there is pro-
perly no affirmation. In like manner, when I say, " Do this,"
the verb do attributes action imperatively to the person addressed,
but there is no affirmation. To speak of "affirming imperatively' 1
is certainly not very intelligible, though, for want of a better ex-
pression, we sometimes use it in a loose sense.

For these reasons, the definition of a verb which says it is u a
part of speech which asserts or affirms" appears to me to be de-

208 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

fectivc. It states one function of this class of words, but excludes,
or at least does not include, others. It gives, as the distinguishing
characteristic of a verb, that which does not belong to it in seve-
ral of its parts and uses. It is too restrictive.

The definition formerly given in this work, is liable to an ob-
jection of an opposite kind . it is too general, and not sufficiently
distinctive. A verb does, indeed, u express an action or state,"
but there are other words that do so also. Nouns, such as love,
desire, wisk, hope, etc., and most verbal nouns, such as eruption,
friction, collision, diffusion, progression, etc., express action ; and
many words, both nouns and adjectives, express a state.

The definition given in the text, though perhaps not unexcep-
tionable, occupies a middle place between these extremes, avoids
the indefiniteness of the old definition, and is probably less liable
to objection than most of those which have been given.

XVI. DIVISION OF VERBS.

The division of verbs into Transitive and Intransitive is now
so generally adopted by grammarians, instead of the former di-
vision into Active, Passive, and Neuter; and its propriety and
simplicity so obvious, that it seems now unnecessary to argue
the point. Of this division, it is necessary only to observe

1st. It divides all verbs into two classes, Transitive and Intran-
sitive, distinguished by a clear and definite characteristic, derived
from their use in the construction of sentences. To the first, be-
long those which are used transitively, whatever be their mean-
ing or form 5 and to the second, all that are used intransitively,
Vv r hether they denote action or not ( 19).

2d. This arrangement and nomenclature leaves the terms Ac.-
live and Passive at liberty to be applied exclusively to the two
forms which all transitive verbs assume, called the active and
tke passive voice.

3d. It dispenses with the term neuter altogether, as applied to
verbs, and leaves it to be appropriated in grammar to the desig-
nation of gender only.

XVII. MOODS.

Some grammarians are of opinion that no more moods or tenses
ought to be assigned to the verb in English, than are distinguished
by difference of form in the simple verb. This principle rejects
at once the whole passive voice 5 and in the active, retains only
the present and past tense of the indicative mood, and the present
of the subjunctive. To carry out this principle to its full extent,
we should reject also the plural number of the tenses that are
left-, for this is always in the same form with the first person
singular. This certainly reduces the English verb to very nar-
row limits, and renders it a very simple thing-, so simple, indeed,
as to be of little use, being capable of expressing an action or
state only in two relations of time.

APPENDIX. 209

This simplification of the verb, however, tends only to perplex
the language, for though it reduces the number of moods and
tenses, it does not, and can not, reduce the number of the forms
of speech, by which the different times or modes of action are
expressed. It is certain, for example, that we have such forms
of speech as. "have loved," "shall love," "might love, 1 ' etc,
Now since these and other similar forms of speech express only
different relations of time and manner of the one act, "to love,"
tl certainly does seem more easy and simple to regard them as
different moods and tenses of the verb to love, than to elevate the
auxiliary to the rank of a principal verb, and then to combine
them syntactically with the verb to love. Indeed, to dispose of
diem in this way satisfactorily, is riot a quite easy or simple mat-
ter. For example, in the sentence, " I have written a letter," it
is easy enough to .say that have is a verb transitive, etc., and
written a perfect participle-, but when we inquire, what does
have govern? what does written agree with? a correct and satis-
factory answer will not be so easily found. This example will
perhaps show that it is much easier, and quite as satisfactory, to
rank the expression as a certain mood and tense of the verb "to
write."

This theory has its foundation in the supposition that a tens
or mood must necessarily mean a distinct form of the simple verb.
This supposition, however, is entirely gratuitous. There is no-
thing in the meaning of the word mood or tense, which counte-
nances it. A verb is a word which expresses action-, tense, ex-
presses the action connected with certain relations of time: mood,
represents it as further modified by circumstances of contingency,
conditionality, etc. j but whether these modifications are expressed
by a change in the form of the simple verb, or by its combination
with certain auxiliaries, seems to be a matter perfectly indifferent.
Indeed, the generally received opinion is, that the different forma
of the verb, denominated mood and tense, in Latin and Greek, arc
nothing more than the incorporation of the auxiliary with the
root of the simple verb. If so, why should not the uniform jux-
taposition of the auxiliary with the verb, to answer the same
purpose, be called by the same name? If a certain auxiliary,
connected with a verb, express a certain relation of time, properly
denominated the future tense-, what essential difference can it
make, whether the two words combine into one, or merely stand
together? On the whole, then, there is nothing gained by the
proposed simplification . Indeed, on the contrary, much, even of
simplicity, is lost; and it moreover deprives our language of the
analogy which it has in mood and tense with other languages,
modern as well as ancient-, and if adopted, instead of smoothing
the path of the learner, it would tend only to perplex and obscure it.

INDICATIVE AND POTENTIAL.

The indicative mood attributes to its subject the act, being, or

18*

210 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

state expressed by the verb simply and without limitation. The
potential mood attributes to the subject not the act, etc., expressed
by the verb, but only liberty, power, will, or obligation with re-
spect to it-, that is, the potential mood expresses not what the
subject does or is, but only what it may, can, must, might,
could, icould, or should do or be, etc.

The auxiliaries may, can, etc., in the potential mood, in all
probability, were at first independent verbs in the indicative, fol
lowed by the verb in the infinitive, without the sign to before it
as it is now used after such verbs as see, hear, feel, let, etc. Gram-
marians now generally combine them as one word, constituting a
particular form of the verb, to which they have given the name
of potential mood, from its leading use. The indicative and po
tential both declare, but they declare different things : the former
declares what the subject does, or is; the latter, what it may or
can, etc., do or be. The declaration made by the indicative is
simple; that made by the potential is always complex, contain-
ing the idea of liberty, power, etc., in connection with the act.
u He writes," is the indicative of the verb to write. u He can
write," is the indicative of the verb can, with the infinitive of to
write ; or, combined, the potential of the verb to write.

XVIII. THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.

This mood, as its name implies, is always subjoined to, and
dependent on, another verb expressed or understood. " If he
study, he will improve ;" u [I wish] that thou wert," etc.

The subjunctive mood differs in form from the indicative in the
present tense only; in the verb to be, in the present and past.

Both the indicative and potential, with a conjunctive particle
prefixed, are used subjunctively; that is, they are used to ex-
press what is conditional, or contingent, and with dependence on
another verb-, as, " If he sleeps, he will do well-," ;; He would go
if he could" (go).

The conditionality or contingency, etc. expressed by this mood,
is usually intimated by such conjunctives as, if, though, lest, un~
less, so, etc. prefixed, which, however, make no part of the verb.

The same thing is sometimes expressed without the conjunc-
tion, by merely putting the verb or auxiliary before the subject
or nominative-, as, ,' Had I," for u If I had;" " Were he," for
;t If he were;" " Had he gone," for " If he had gone;" " Would
he but reform," for "If he would but reform, 11 etc.

Most grammarians consider the subjunctive present only as an
abbreviated form of the future indicative, or the past potential,
and that the supplement may always be made; thus, u lfhe
study ," etc. that is, if he shall (or should) study," etc.; " though
he [should] come," etc. This view is plausible, and may apply
to the present tense of the subjunctive in most cases ; but it will
not apply to the past subjunctive of the verb to be, either as a
principal or an auxiliary. For though we might say, u If I

APPENDIX. 211

should be," for "If I be," yet we can not say, ' If I should were?'*
And there are some cases in which the present subjunctive form
seems to be indispensable: as, " See thou do it noty' " If he do
but try, he will succeed 5" still

The subjunctive mood, in its distinctive form, is now falling
greatly into disuse. The tendency appears to be to lay it aside,
and to use the indicative or potential in its stead, wherever it can
be done. According to rule, the subjunctive form is used only
when it has a future reference-, as, " If he come [viz. at a future
time], he will be welcome." The same idea is expressed by say-
ing," u lf he comes" (186, 1. 5), "If he shall come ;" and one or other
of these expressions is now generally preferred to the subjunctive.
Formerly, in cases of supposition, the present subjunctive was
used, whether it had a future reference or not 5 as, " Though God
be high, yet hath he respect to the lowly." In all such expressions,
according to present usage, the present indicative would be used-,
thus, " Though God is high," etc.

XIX. THE PARTICIPLE IN ing IN A PASSIVE SENSE.

According to the definition, the passive voice expresses, pas-
sively, the same thing that the active does actively. For exam-
ple, Caesar conquered Gaul," and "Gaul was conquered by Caesar,"
express precisely the same idea. This, however, is not always
done by the regular passive form in the present tense, though it
is generally done in the other tenses. Thus, it will be felt at
once that the expressions, " Caesar conquers Gaul," and " Gaul
is conquered by Caesar," do not express the same thing.

In regard to this matter, there are evidently two classes of verbs;
namely, those whose present passive expresses precisely the same
thing, passively, as the active voice does actively, and those in
which it does not.

I. To the first of these classes belong

1. All those verbs which, in the regular present passive, imply
a continuance of the act; such as, to love, to hate, to regard, to
esteem, to envy, to please, etc. Thus, "James loves me." and "I
am loved *by James," express precisely the same idea, and con-
sequently continuance is implied as much in the passive form as
in the active. Hence, " is loved," is a true present passive, both
in form and meaning. In verbs of this' class the progressive form
in the active voice is seldom used, because it would express the
same thing generally as the common form-, thus, "James loves
me," and " James is loving me," express the same thing.

2. To this class belong all verbs when used to express general
truths, or what is usual or customary from time to time: Thus,
"Vinegar dissolves pearls-," "Vice prod uces misery -," "The cob-
bler mends shoes -," "Masons build houses," etc. These verbs,
used in this way, express precisely the same thing in the regular
passive form as they do in the active. Thus, "Pearls are dis-
solved by vinegar j" " Misery is produced by vice-," " Shoes an

ENGLISH GRAMMAR

mended by the cobbler-" "Houses are built by masons," etc In
verbs used in this way, the progressive form is not employed.
The use of it would change the meaning from a general ex-
pression to a particular act. Thus, "Vice is producing misery,"
would immediately direct the mind, not to a general truth, but
to a particular case. But^ again, when these verbs express a
particular act, and not a general truth, the active and the passive
present expres^ different ideas; thus, u James builds a house,'*
represents an act in progress-, but when we say, u A house is
built by Jarnes," the act is represented as completed.

3. To this class belong all verbs which, by the figure called
vision (552-5), are used in the present tense to express what is
past. Thus, " Cassar leaves Gaul," crosses the Rubicon, enters
Italy." Passively, " Gaul is left by Caesar, the Rubicon is
crossed, Italy is entered. In all these, used in this figurative way,
the present passive expresses the same thing as the present,
active.

II. The second class of verbs consists of those (perhaps the
greater number) whose present passive implies that the act ex-
pressed by the active voice has ceased, and the effect or result
only remains as a finished act, and as such is predicated of the
subject. Thus, " The house is built." Here it is implied that
the act of building is completed, and has ceased-, and the result,
expressed by built, is predicated of the house. In all verbs of
this kind, the past participle, after the verb to be, has reference
to the state resulting from the act as predicated of, or qualifying
the subject of the verb, and not to the act itself. Strictly speak-
ing, then, the past participle with the verb to be is not the pre-
sent tense in the passive voice of verbs thus used-, that is, this
form does not express passively the doing of the act. These verbs
either have no present passive, or it is made by annexing the par-
ticiple in ing, in its passive sense, to the verb to be;" as, " Tha
house is building.^

It is supposed by some that "is built," although in the form
of the present passive, really is a present-perfect-, because it re-
presents the act as completed, and because the perfect-definite, in
Latin, is often translated by this form into English. Due con-
sideration, however, I think will show that it differs quite as
much from the present-perfect as it does from the present. To be
satisfied of this, compare the following expressions: " This gar-
ment is torn," merely asserts the present state of the garment,
with no reference to the act but what is implied-, but when we
gay, "This garment has been torn," the reference is chiefly to the
act as having been done, with no reference to the state of the
garment but what is implied. The one asserts that the garment
remains torn, the other does not it may have been mended-, the
latter is the regular passive of the present-perfect' active, the for-
mer is not. This will perhaps be more clearly perceived by
means of another example: "This house has been painted, but

APPENDIX. 213

the paint is worn off." This is good English', but if we should
say, " This house is painted , but the paint is worn off," we would
assert a contradiction.

There is properly no passive form, in English, corresponding
to the progressive form in the active voice, except where it is
made by the participle in ing-, in a passive sense-, thus, "The
house is building-," "The garments are making-," "Wheat is
selling," etc. Though such expressions have been used in all
time past by the best writers, an attempt has been made by some
grammarians of late, to banish them from the language, and to
justify and defend a clumsy solecism, which has been introduced
within the last forty years, chiefly through the newspaper press,
but which has gained such currency, and is becoming so familiar
to the ear, that it seems likely to prevail, with all its uncouth-
ness and deformity. I refer to such expressions as u The house
is being built-," "The letter is being written-," "The mine is
being worked-,' 1 "The news is being telegraphed," etc. etc.

Respecting this mode of expression, it may be noticed

1. That it had no existence in the language till within the last
forty years. This, indeed, would not make it wrong, were it
otherwise unexceptionable-, but it shows that it is not, as is pre-
tended, a necessary form; and in some measure accounts for the,
insolence and effrontery with. which, like all upstarts, it seeks to
override and bear down that which is venerable for its antiquity,
and commended by its propriety.

2. This form of expression, when analyzed, is found not to
express what it is intended to express, and would be used only
by such as are either ignorant of its import, or are careless and
loose in their use of language. To make this manifest, let it be
considered, first, that there is no progressive form of the verb to
be, and no need of it-, hence, there is no such expression in En
lish as is being. Of course, the expression "is being built," for
example, is not a compound of is being and built, but of is and
being built; that is, of the verb to be and the present participle
passive. Now, let it be observed that the only verbs in which
the present participle passive expresses a continued action, are
those mentioned above as the first class, in which the regular
passive form expresses a continuance of the action; as, is loved y
is desired, etc., and in which of course the form in question (it
being built) is not required. Nobody would think of saying,
" He is being loved-," " This result is being desired."

In all other verbs, then, the present participle passive, like the
present tense in the second class of verbs mentioned above, ex-
presses, not a continued action, or the continued receiving of an
action, but that the action has ceased, and the result only exists
in a finished state. Thus, " Our arrangements being made, we
departed-," "The house being finished, was immediately occu-
pied-," " Our work being finished, we may rest," etc. In all
such expressions, the present participle' passive represents the ae-

214 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

tion as now finished, and existing only in its results (191). This
finished act, then, can not be made unfinished and progressive,
by being asserted of a subject, which is all the verb to be, as a
copula, can express. Hence, it is manifest that is being built, if
it mean any thing, can mean nothing more than is built, which is
not the idea intended to be expressed.

3. For the same reason that is being built, etc. is contended for
as a proper expression, we should contend also for, u Has been
being built-, 1 ' u Had been being built-,' 1 " Shall have been being:
built 5 " u Might have been being built-," u To be being built-,"
u To have been being built:" "Being being built-," "Having
been being built. 1 ' When all these shall have been introduced, our
language will be rich indeed.

4. The use of this form is justified only by condemning an es-
tablished usage of the language, namely, the passive sense in
some verbs of the participle in ing (190). In reference to this, it
is flippantly asked. u What does the house build?" " What does
the letter write? etc. "taking for granted, without attempting to
prove, that the participle in ing can not have a passive sense in
any verb. The following are a few examples from writers of the
best reputation, which this novelty would condemn-. u While the
ceremony was performing." Tom Brown. " The court was then
holding. 11 Sir G. MTKenzie. " And still be doing, never.-done."
Butler. " The books are selling." Wen's Gram. " The work
of the temple was carrying on." Dr. Owen. u To know nothing
of what is transacting in the region above us." Dr. Blair. "The
spot where this new and strange tragedy was acting. 1 ' E. Eve-
rett. " The fortress was building." Irving. u An attempt is
making in the English parliament." D. Webster. " The church
now erecting in the city of New York. 1 ' N. A. Review. "This
movement was making." Cooper. "These things were trans-
acting in England. "*~ Bancroft.

5. This new doctrine is in opposition to the almost unanimous
judgment of the most distinguished grammarians and critics, who
have considered the subject, and expressed their views concerning
it. The following are a specimen: "Expressions of this kind are
condemned by some critics-, but the usage is unquestionably of
far better authority, and (according to my apprehension) in far
better taste, than the more complex phraseology which some late
writers adopt in its stead ; as, ' The books are now being sold.' 7}
Goold Brown. De War observes: " The participle in ing is also
passive in many instances-, as, ' The house is building-, 1 'I heard
Df apian forming/ etc." Quoted in Frazee's Grammar, page 49.

'It would be an absurdity, indeed, to give up the only way we
aave of denoting the incomplete state of action by a passive form"
(viz. by the participle in ing in the passive sense). Arnold?*
English Grammar, p. 46. "The present participle is often used
passively-, as, 'The ship is building. 1 The form of expression,
Is being built , is being committed, etc., is almost universally con^

APPENDIX. 215

demned by grammarians, but it is sometimes met with in re-
spectable writers-, it occurs most frequently in newspaper para-
graphs and in hasty compositions. See Worcester's Universal
and Critical Dictionary. 1 ' Weld's Grammar, p. 118 and 180.
4 'When we say, ' The house is building, 1 the advocates of the
new theory ask, ' Building what? 1 We might ask, in turn,
when you say, 'The field ploughs well-, 1 ' Ploughs what?' 'Wheat
sells well-,' 'Sells what? 1 If usage allows us to say, 'Wheat
sells at a dollar 1 , in a sense which is not active, why may it not
also allow us to s~y wheat is selling at a dollar, in a sense that
is not active? 11 Harfs Gram., p. 76. " The prevailing practice
of the best authors is in favor of the simple form 5 as, ' The house
is building. 111 WcWs School Gram., p. 148. "Several other
expressions of this sort now and then occur, such as the new-
fangled and most uncouth solecism ' is being done,'' for the good
old English idiom ' is doing'' an absurd periphrasis driving out
a pointed and pithy turn of the English language. 1 ' N. Jl. Re
view, quoted by Mr. Wells, p. 148.

This usage some suppose has its origin in the use of the verbal
noun after in, to express the same idea; thus, "Forty and six
years was this temple in building;''' 1 " And the house, when it was
in building, was built of stone made ready, so that there was nei-
ther hammer nor axe heard in the house, while it was in build'
ing." In the absence of emphasis, the in being indistinctly ut
terecl, came to be spoken, and consequently to be written, a; as,
"While the ark was a preparing" (]. Pet. iii. 20), and finally to
be omitted altogether. Similar changes of prepositions we have
in the expressions, a going, a running, a hunting, a fishing,
etc. Others, again, suppose that this ought to be regarded as an
original idiom of the language, similar to the passive use of the
infinitive active in such expressions as, "You are to blame:" "A
house to Ut;" " Knives to grind," etc. But whether either of
these is the true account of this matter or not, the fact is certain.
It is therefore the duty of the grammarian to note the fact, though
he may be unable to account for it.

XX. TWO FIRST, THREE LAST, &c.

The expressions, two first, three last, and the like, have been
opposed and ridiculed by some, on the ground, as they allege, that
there can be only one first, and one last. The objectors evidently
have not well considered their position-, for

1 . The terms first and last do not necessarily mean only one.
First, according to Webster, means, " preceding all others. 11 The
two first, then, means the two preceding all others, and the three
last means the three succeeding all others -, expressions in which
there is surely nothing either ridiculous or absurd.

2. If we say, " The first days of summer;" " The first years
of our life-,' 1 "The last days of Pompeii," which nobody doubts.
then, it is not true that there can be only one first and one last

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

and so the ground of the objection fails. If we can say, a The
last days of summer," why not the two last, or the three last ?

3. The expression objected to is used by the best authorities in
the language, and has been in use hundreds of years-, and there-
fore, on the well-known maxim, u Usage is the law of language,"
even if it were absurd, it can not be rejected. The following are
examples, most of them mentioned by Mr. Wells -. " The four first
acts." Bp. Berkeley. " The three first monarchies." Warbur-
ton. "The two first persons." Latham^s Eng. Gram. " My
two last letters." Jlddison. "The two first lines." Blair.
"The three first generations." E. Everett. "The two first
years." Bancroft. " The two first days." Irving. " The two
nrst cantos." Ji. H. Everett. " The four first centuries." Pres-
cott. "The two last productions." N. A. Review. "The four
first are poetical. "Cheever. "The three first of his longer
poems." Southey. "The two last schools." Johnson. "The
six first French kings." Macaulay.

4. This expression is, in some cases, evidently better than the
other. It is probably always so, when the number characterized
as fir at or last constitutes a majority of the whole. When we say,
" the first four," there is evidently a reference to a second four,
or a last four. But if the first four constitute a majority of the
whole, there remains no second four to justify the reference.
Jims, when we say, "The first four acts of a play were well
performed," there remains only one to which any other reference
can be made. On the other hand, w r hen a whole is divided into
equal portions, each containing a certain number, as the recurrence
of the census every five years of the Olympic games every four
of the sabbath every seven days of four lines in each stanza
of a poem, and the like then the expression, first four, second
four, last four, etc., is preferable, because it implies a reference
to other portions of equal extent. Also, even when there is no
such reference, it is often properly used, especially when the
number is large/ as, "The first hundred-,'' "The last thou-
sand," etc.

5. Several distinguished scholars and grammarians have ex-
amined this point, and expressed their views respecting it as fol-
lows -. "It has been doubted whether the cardinal should precede
or follow the ordinal numeral." Atterbury says in one of his
letters to Pope-. "Not but that the four first lines are good."
u We conceive the expression to be quite correct, though the other
form be often employed to denote the same conception." Crom-
bie's English Syntax, p. 240. " Some grammarians object to the
use of the numerals tico, four, etc., before the adjectives first
and last. There seems, however, to be no good reason for the
objection, and the expressions two first, two last, etc., are fully
sanctioned by good usage." Wells' s Grammar, p. 137. The
following is a note on the same page : "It has been fashionable
of late to write the first three, and so on, instead of the three

APPENDIX. 217

fit st. People write in this way to avoid the seeming absurdity
of implying that more than one thing can be first; but it is at
least equally as absurd to talk about the first four, when, as often
happens, there is no second four." Arnold. " Surely if there
can be only one last, one first, there can be only 'a last one,' 'a
first one.' I need only observe, that usage is decidedly in favor
of the former phraseology." Grant.

u The only argument against the use of two first, and in favor
of substituting first two, so far as I can recollect, is this : In the
nature of things, there can be only one first and one last in any
series of things. Bat is it true that there can never be more than
one first, and one last ? If it be so, then the adjectives first and
last must always be of the singular number, and can never agree
with nouns in the plural. ; We are told that the first years of a
lawyer's practice are seldom very lucrative.' ' The poet tells us
that his first essays were severely handled by the critics, but his
last efforts have been well received.' Examples like these might
be produced, without number-, they occur everywhere, in all our
standard w r ritars. * * * When a numeral adjective, and a
qualifying epithet, both refer to the same noun, the general rule
of the English language is to place the numeral first, then the
qualifying epithet, and then the noun. Thus we say, ' The two
wise men,' ' The two tall men-,' and not 'The wise two men,'
' The tall two men.' And the same rule holds in superlatives.
We say, ' The two wisest men,' v The two tallest men 5' and not
* The wisest tivo men,' ; The tallest two men.' Now, if this be
admitted to be the general rule of the English language, then it
follows that generally we should say, ' The two first S ' The two
last,' etc., rather than ; The first two? ' The last two,'' etc. This,
I say, should generally be the order of the words. Yet +here are
some cases in which it seems preferable to say. ' The first two*
1 The last two,' etc." Dr. Murdoch.

XXI. FIRST AND SECOND, &c.

Two or more adjectives connected, without an article interve-
ning, belong to the same noun- as u A red and white rose-," that
is, one rose partly red and partly white. Hence, care should be
taken to see that the qualities expressed by adjectives so used be
consistent, or such as maybe found in one object. Thus, it would
be improper to say, " An old and young man-," " A round and
square hole-." " A hot and cold spring-," because a man can not
be old and young at the same time; nor a hole round and square;
nor a spring hot and cold. Hence

When two or more adjectives express qualities that belong to
different objects of the same name, and that name expressed only
with the last, the article should be placed before each adjective;
thus, " A red and a white rose" means two roses; one red, and
one white. In this case, it makes no difference whether the
qualities expressed by the adjectives be consistent or not, since

218 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

they belong to different individuals. Thus, we can say, "A young
and an old man-, 1 ' " A round and a square hole-," " a hot and a
cold spring-," that is, one man young, and another old. etc. It
is therefore manifest that we can not properly say, " The first
and second page-," "The fifth and sixth verse-," "The Old and
New Testament -," because no page can be at once first and second
no verse fifth and sixth, and no Testament Old and New. It
is equally improper in principle to say, u The first and second
pages, r> u The fifth and sixth verses," because two adjectives can
not be joined with a word jointly which can not be joined with it
sepajately. We can not say, " the first pages," nor "the second
pages.' 1 ' 1 when we mean but one first and one second. Besides,
when the ellipsis is supplied, it stands " the first page and the
second page /" and the omission of the first noun can not, on any
correct principle, affect the number of the second. In many cases,
too. the use of the plural, if it would relieve from the absurdity
of uniting inconsistent qualities in an object, will as certainly
lead to ambiguity. For if, to avoid the absurdity of saying " the
old and young man," we say "the old and young men," the latter
expression may mean fifty, or a hundred, or any number of men,
instead of two-, one young and one old. Notwithstanding, how-
ever, usage has prevailed over principle in this as well as in other
cases-, and it has become quite common to say, " The first and
second verses-," " The Old and New Testaments-," " The hot and
cold springs-," " The indicative and subjunctive moods," etc,
When no ambiguity exists in the use of such expressions, they
must be tolerated. The correct expression, however, in all cases
in which one is intended, is made by repeating the article with the
adjective, and retaining the noun in the singular ; thus, " The
first and the second verse-," " The Old and the New Testament -,"
" The hot and the cold spring," etc. j or, " The first verse and th*
second," etc.

QUESTIONS.

GRAMMAR AND ORTHOGRAPHY. 1, 2.

What is Grammar? What is its object as a science? as an
art? What is English Grammar? Into what parts is it dirided
Of what does Orthography treat? Etymology? Syntax? Pro-
sody? Of what does Orthography treat besides letters ? What
is a letter ? How many letters are in the English Alphabet ?
How are they divided ? What is a vowel ? What letters are
vowels ? What is a consonant ? What letters are consonants ?
When are w and y vowels? when consonants ? What is a diph-
thong? a proper diphthong? an improper diphthong? a triph-
thong?

What is a syllable? How do we know how many syllables a
word contains? What is a monosyllable? a dissyllable? a tri-
syllable a polysyllable? What is syllabication? What is the
general rule for dividing words into syllables? When should a
hyphen be placed between two words? How should words be
divided at the end of a line?

2. What is spelling? How is proficiency in spelling to be
acquired? What is the first general rule? the second? the
third ? the fourth? the fifth ? the sixth? the seventh? the
eighth?

ETYMOLOGY AND PARTS OP SPEECH. 3, 4.

Of what does Etymology treat? What are words? How arc
words divided in respect of their formation ? of their form ?
of signification and use? What is a primitive word? a deriva-
tive? a simple? a compound? What is a declinable word?
an indeclinable? How many parts of speech are there in En-
glish? Which are declinable ? indeclinable ? What is a sub-
stantive ? How is the term substantive used in this Grammar ?
What is Parsing ? How is a word parsed etymologically ?
syntactically?

NOUN. 5-11.

5. What is a noun ? Into what two kinds are nouns divi-
ded ? What is a proper noun ? a common noun ? What is the
use of proper nouns? of common nouns? How do proper nouns

220 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

become common? How do common nouns become proper? What
is the usual subdivision of common nouns? What is a collective
noun ? an abstract noun ? a verbal noun ? What are the acci-
dents of the noun?

6. PERSON. What is person? How many persons are there!
When is a noun in the first person? in the second? in the third?

7. GENDER. What is gender? How many genders are there?
What nouns are masculine? feminine? neuter? How many
ways of distinguishing the sex are there? What is the first?
(Give examples) the second? (Give examples) the third? (Give
examples) . What is meant by common gender ? When are neu-
ter nouns to be regarded as masculine or feminine? When the
sex of an animal is not known to us, what gender do we assign to
it ? How do we consider those of inferior size? When does
the masculine term include the female as well as the male ?

$ 8, 9, 10. NUMBER. What is number? What numbers have
nouns? What does the singular denote? the plural? How do
nouns commonly form the plural? What is the first special rule?
its exceptions? How do nouns that end in y after a consonant,
form the plural? in y after a vowel? in /or fel What are the
exceptions? What nouns are irregular in the plural? What nouns
have both a regular and irregular form? How do some compounds
form the plural? words from foreign languages? (Give exam-
ples). Have proper names commonly a plural? Why? When
have they a plural? have usually the sin-

gular only? the plural only? the same form in both? are plural
in form, but singular in construction? singular or plural in con-
struction?

$ 11. CASE. What is case? What cases have nouns? How
is the nominative used? the possessive? the objective? Which
cases are alike? How is the possessive formed in the singular?
in the plural? in the plural not ending in s ? For what is the
apostrophe and s an abbreviation? When is the * omitted after
an apostrophe in the singular. What is equivalent to the pos-
sessive case? When should this expression be used instead of the
possessive? How is a noun parsed etymologically?

THE ARTICLE. 12.

What is an article? What is its use? What are the articles t
What is a or an called? why 3 What is the called? whv?

QUESTIONS. 221

How is a noun without an article taken? Before what letters is
a used? an? When is a used before a vowel? When is an used
before hi How is an article parsed etymological iy.
THE ADJECTIVE. 13, 14.

13. What is an adjective? What is meant by qualifying a
noun? When may an adjective qualify a pronoun? What else
may it qualify in this position? When do nouns become adjectives?
When are adjectives used as nouns? What are adjectives called
that express number? How many classes of numerals are there?
What are the cardinal numerals? What do they express? What
are the ordinal numerals? What do they express? How are
compound numerals made ordinal?

14. COMPARISON. What degrees of comparison have adjec-
tives? What does the positive express? the comparative? the
superlative? How are adjectives of one syllable compared of
two or more ? How are dissyllables in le after a mute compared?
dissyllables in y ? What classes of adjectives do not admit of
comparison ? (Give examples in each). Of what degree are su-
perior , inferior, and the like? Why are they not comparatives?
What is meant by the superlative of eminence ? How is the sig-
nification of the positive sometimes diminished? What adjectives
are compared irregularly ? (Compare them). How is much ap-
plied ? many ? elder and eldest ? older and oldest ?

PRONOUNS. 15-18.

15. What is a PRONOUN? Into what classes are pronouns
divided? What are the personal pronouns? (Decline them).
What pronouns are of the first person? Why? of the second?
Why? of the third ? Why? What are the compound personal
pronouns? In what cases are they used? For what purpose are
they used in the nominative ? in the objective ? How is we used
hi proclamations, etc. ? In what style is thou used ? What is used
for thou in the common style ? How is it used before the verb to
be ? How are personal pronouns parsed ?

16. RELATIVE. What is a relative pronoun ? (Name them).
Which are declinable ? Which are indeclinable ? (Decline who
which). To what is who applied ? which ? How is which ap-
plied in the Bible ? How is that used as a relative ? To what ia
it applied ? To what is the relative what applied ? When is it
used ? To what ia it equivalent ? What relatives are sometime*

*229 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

ased as adjectives? What are the compound relatives? To what
are they equivalent ? What are who, which and what in respon-
sive sentences? How is the gender and number of the relative
determined ? How are relatives parsed ?

17. INTERROGATIVES. What pronouns are employed in ask-
ing questions ? What are they then called ? What interrogative
is applied to persons? What, to things ? How are the mterro-
gatives who, which, and what distinguished when applied to per-
sons ? What does whether mean ? How is it now used ?

ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. 18.

What are adjective pronouns ? Into what classes are they di-
vided ?

POSSESSIVES. What is a possessive adjective pronoun ? (Name
them). Tp what is the possessive pronoun equivalent in mean-
ing ? How does it differ in use from the possessive case ? What
are his and her when followed by a substantive ? when not fol-
lowed by a substantive ? When are mine and thine used as pos
sessives ?

DISTRIBUTIVES. What is a distributive adjective pronoun ?
(Name them) . What does each denote ? every ? either ?
neither ?

DEMONSTRATIVES. What is a demonstrative pronoun ? (Name
them). What other words maybe called demonstratives ? When
is that a relative ? when a demonstrative ? when a conjunction ?

INDEFINITES. What are indefinite pronouns ? (Name the inde-
finite pronouns) . How is none used ? How is an adjective pro*
noun parsed ?

VERBS. 19-32.

19. What is a verb ? What is its use in simple propositions?
What is the subject of a verb ? Into what two classes are verbs
divided ? What is a transitive verb ? What forms has it ? What
is an intransitive verb ? What does the word transitive mean as
applied to verbs ? intransitive ? What is the usual form of in-
transitive verbs ? In how many ways are intransitive verbs ren-
dered transitive ? What are they ? How are transitive verbs
distinguished from intransitive ? What is the first method ?
fhe second ? the third 1 * How is a transitive verb used when it
is without an object ?

How are verbs divided in respect of form ? What is a regular

223

verb ? an irregular ? a defective verb ? To which of these
classes do auxiliaries belong ? impersonal verbs ?

20. AUXILIARY VERBS. What is an auxiliary verb ? In
what tenses are they used ? (Name them in the present tense
in the past.) What verbs are used both as auxiliaries and prin-
cipal verbs ? What does shall imply? will 1 ? may ? can? In
what tense are will and shall auxiliaries ? may or can ? How
are will and shall distinguished in expressing resolution or pur-
pose ? in expressing simple futurity? in interrogations ? How
tre verbs inflected ?

21. VOICE. What is voice ? In English how many voices
are there ? (Name them). What kind of verbs have two voices?
How does the active voice represent the subject ? -the passive ?
Are any verbs used both in a transitive and an intransitive sense?
(Give an example).

22. MOODS. What is mood ? How many moods have verbs?
(Name them). How is a verB used in the indicative mood ? in
the potential ? in the subjunctive ? in the imperative ? in the
infinitive ? How does the declaration made by the indicative
mood differ from that made by the potential ? How does the
lubjunctive differ in form from the indicative ? Why is the sub-
junctive mood so called ? Is the indicative ever used subjunc-
tively ? is the potential ? What persons has the imperative
mood ? What is the true character of the infinitive ?

23, 24. TENSES. What are tenses ? How is time naturally
divided ? In each of these, how may an action, etc. be repre-
sented ? How many tenses are there in English ? (Name them).
What does the present tense express ? the present-perfect ?
the past ? the past-perfect ? the future ? the future peifect ?
What is a simple tense ? a compound ? Which tenses are sim-
ple ? which compound ? What different things is the present
tense in the simple form, used to express ? the present-perfect *
To what tense in Latin does the present-perfect in English cor-
respond ? What tenses has the indicative mood ? the potential?
the subjunctive ? the imperative? the infinitive ? the par-
ticiple?

25. PARTICIPLES. What is a participle ? Why so called?
How many participles have verbs in the active voice ? (Name
them) in the passive ? (Name them). How does the present
participle active always end ? Has it ever a passive sense ?

224 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

(Give an example). Does the past participle active differ in
form from the past participle passive ? Is the perfect participle
simple or compound ? When do participles become adjectives ?
What participles may become adjectives in this way ? (Give ex-
amples). What participles are used as verbal nouns ? (Give an
example of each) . When a participle is so used, what cases does
t have

26. NUMBER AND PERSON. How many numbers have verbs ?
in each of these, how many persons are there ? Of what doet
.he first person assert? the second? the third ?

27. CONJUGATION. What is the conjugation of a verb ?
What two forms has the verb in the active voice ? What does
the common form express ? the progressive ? How is a verb
rendered emphatic in the present ? in the past ? in the com-
pound tenses ? What are called the principal parts of a verb ?
What is conjugating a verb ? (Conjugate the verb to love in the
active voice , inflect it through ail its parts) . How is a verb
parsed?

28. FORMS. How is a verb made to deny ? How, in the
infinitive and participles? How is a verb made to ask a question?
How are interrogative sentences made negative.

$ 29, 30, 31. To BE, etc. Conjugate the irregular verb to be.
(Inflect it). How is the progressive form of the verb made? How
is the passive voice formed? Conjugate to love in the passive
voice. (Inflect it).

32. IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. What is an irre-
gular verb ? Conjugate abide, etc. (see the list). What is a de-
fective verb ? What are the defective verbs ? What is an im-
personal verb ? (Give examples). Properly speaking, what is
the pronoun it before the impersonal verb ?

ADVERBS. 33, 34.

What is an adverb ? Into what classes have adverbs been di-
f ided ? What is the chief use of adverbs ? What kind of adverbs
idmit of comparison ? What adverbs are compared irregularly ?
(Give examples of words made into adverbs, by prefixing a).
What are as and so in comparisons ? What is an adverbial
phrase ? How is there used at the beginning of a sentence ?
How is an adverb parsed ?

QUESTIONS. 225

PREPOSITIONS. 35.

What is a preposition ? Of the related words, what is that be*
fore the preposition called ? that after it ? Why are words of
this class called prepositions ? (Give a list of prepositions). What
case does a preposition require after it ? What does a preposition
become when it has no object? Are prepositions ever understood?
(Give an example). What are inseparable prepositions ? (Name
them),* How are prepositions parsed ?

INTERJECTIONS. 36.

What is an interjection ? Have interjections any grammatical
connection with other words in a sentence ? What is the differ-
ence between and Oh? How are interjections parsed ?
CONJUNCTIONS. 37.

What is a conjunction ? Into what classes are conjunctions
divided ? What is the use of copulative conjunctions ? of dis-
junctive ? What are the principal copulatives disjunctives ?
What does and denote ? What do or and nor denote ? How are
conjunctions parsed?

PARSING. 38, 39.

What is parsing ? How is one part of speech to be distin-
guished from another ? How do we know when a word is a noun ?
an adjective ? a pronoun ? a verb ? an adverb ? a preposi-
tion* an interjection ? a conjunction ? What are the general
principles to be kept in view in parsing ? Give specimens of
parsing.

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