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THE 
 
 PKINCIPLES 
 
 OP 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAR; 
 
 COMPRISING THE SUBSTANCE OF THE MOST APPROVED 
 ENGLISH GRAMMARS EXTANT, 
 
 WITH 
 
 COPIOUS EXERCISES IN PARSING AND SYNTAX; 
 
 A NEW 
 
 HB VISED, RE -ARRANGED AND IMPROVED 
 
 FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS'. 
 
 BY REV. PETER BULLIONS, D. D. 
 
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 THCK SERIES OF GRAMMARS, GREEK, LATIN, AND ENaLISR, ETC., 
 
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ENTERED, according to Act of Congress, in the Year One Thousand 
 Eight Hundred and Fifty-one, by KEY. PETER BULLIONS, D. D., 
 ia the Clerk's Office of the Northern District of New York. 
 
llrj 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 A knowledge of English Grammar is very properly considered 
 nn indispensable part of an English education-, and is now taught 
 as such, in all our Academies and Common Schools. The great 
 number of elementary works which have recently appeared on 
 this subject, is a pleasing evidence of the attention which has been 
 bestowed upon it. Among these, none has enjoyed greater favor 
 than the Grammar of LINDLEY MURRAY 5 and the high rank which 
 it still holds among the numerous works which have appeared 
 since its publication, is a decided testimony to the soundness of 
 its principles and the excellence of the system. With all its ex- 
 cellence, however, it is far from being incapable of improvement; 
 and the attempt to add to its value as a manual for schools, by 
 correcting what is erroneous, retrenching what is superfluous or 
 unimportant, compressing w T hat is prolix, elucidating what is ob- 
 scure, determining what was left doubtful, supplying what is de- 
 fective, and bringing up the whole to that state of improvement 
 to which the labours of eminent scientific and practical writers of 
 the present day have so greatly contributed, can hardly fail, if 
 well executed, to prove acceptable to the public. Such was my 
 design 5 and though there may be reason to regret that it has not 
 been undertaken by some one more capable of doing justice to the 
 subject, still it is hoped that the labor bestowed, in order to carry 
 it into effect, will not be altogether in vain. 
 
 In endeavoring to avoid the minutiae and diffuseness of the larger 
 Grammar, care has been taken to guard against the opposite ex- 
 treme. The abridgments of Murray now in use, are little more 
 than a synopsis of the larger work-, presenting a mere outline of 
 the subject, altogether too meagre to be of much service to the 
 learner. The same remark is applicable to a great number of 
 smaller works which have been published with a similar view; 
 namely, to serve as an introduction to a more extended system. 
 They are incapable themselves of imparting a satisfactory know- 
 ledge of the subject; and yet it often happens, perhaps even in a 
 majority of cases, that those who have commenced with the " in- 
 troduction," have neither the time nor the means to get beyond 
 it : and besides, unless the "introduction" be constructed on the 
 
IV PREFACE. 
 
 same principle of arrangement and expression with the one which 
 is intended to succeed it, it will probably be found worse than use- 
 less-, for when a particular arrangement and phraseology have 
 become familiar to the mind, there is great difficulty in studying 
 another work on the same subject, in which the arrangement ana 
 expression are materially different. A Grammar, to be really 
 valuable, ought to be simple in its style and arrangement, so as to 
 be adapted to the capacity of youth, for whose use it is designed $ 
 comprehensive, so as to be a sufficient guide in the most difficult, 
 as well as in easy cases , and its principles and rules should be 
 rendered familiar to the learner by numerous examples and exer- 
 cises. 
 
 To meet these views of what a Grammar for the use of Schools 
 ought to be, the present compilation has been made : with what 
 success, a discerning public, to whose judgment it is respectfully 
 submitted, will decide. Utility, not novelty, has been aimed at. 
 In collecting materials, I have freely availed myself of the labors 
 of others who have treated on the subject since the days of Mur- 
 ray, and particularly of those whose object has been similar to my 
 own. LENNIE'S ''Principles of English Grammar," deservedly 
 esteemed in Britain the best compend for the use of schools which 
 has yet appeared, I have adopted as the ground plan of my work. 
 The works of MURRAY, ANGUS, CONNEL, GRANT, CROMBIE, HILEY, 
 and others in the extensive collection of my friend Dr. BECK, to 
 which I have enjoyed free access, have been consulted; and from 
 all of them has been carefully selected, condensed, and arranged, 
 whatever seemed to be suitable to my purpose. For several va- 
 luable suggestions, also, I am indebted to Dr. T. R. BECK, and 
 several other literary friends, who kindly examined my MSS. be- 
 fore they were sent to press, and freely communicated their sen- 
 timents. On the whole, it is believed that there is nothing of 
 much importance in Murray's larger Grammar, or in the works 
 ef subsequent writers, that will not be found condensed here. 
 
 On the subject of Ktymology, much expansion has been deemed 
 unnecessary; I have therefore generally contented myself with 
 stating results, without embarrassing the work with the processes, 
 often tedious and obscure, which have Jed to them. In the clas- 
 sification of words, almost all writers differ from one another; and 
 though on this subject there has been much discussion, nothing 
 has yet been proposed which, on the whole, appears less object 
 
PKEFACJS. V 
 
 tionable in principle, or more convenient in practice, than that of 
 Murray, which is therefore generally retained. 
 
 In Syntax, greater fullness has been considered proper. In the 
 arrangement of the Rules, scarcely two writers have followed the 
 same order ; and that here adopted is somewhat different from any 
 other. Without regarding much the usual division of Syntax into 
 Concord and Government, those rules are placed first which ap- 
 pear to be most simple, and of most frequent occurrence. Care 
 has been taken, however, to connect with a leading rule those of 
 a subordinate character allied to it, and to add under every rule 
 such 'notes and observations as appeared necessary to its illustra- 
 tion. Numerous examples of false Syntax follow each rule, gene- 
 rally on the same page-, also examples adapted to the notes, etc. 
 are subjoined, distinguished by the number of the note to which 
 they belong. For the purpose of better exercising the judgment 
 of the pupil, there have been introduced at intervals, exercises on 
 the preceding rules promiscuously arranged; and at the end, pro- 
 miscuous exercises are furnished on all the rules and observations ; 
 the whole forming a body of exercises, containing perhaps not 
 fewer examples than Murray's separate volume of Exercises on 
 the Rules of Syntax. In this, economy as well as convenience 
 has been consulted. The leading principles have been made so 
 prominent by being printed on a large type, that they may be 
 easily studied by the youngest classes without a separate com- 
 pend. Every thing necessary for the*fuller expansion and illus- 
 tration of these principles, has been introduced in its place-, and 
 the whole furnished with questions and appropriate exercises, in 
 order to render every part familiar to the mind of the pupil as he 
 advances, so that no larger treatise, and no separate book of ex- 
 ercises, will be necessary. The arrangement of the exercises on 
 6-yntax on the same page with the rule which they are designed 
 to illustrate, it is believed, will greatly diminish the labor, both 
 of teacher and pupil, in going over this important part of the 
 subject. 
 
 Another object steadily kept in view in this compilation, is to 
 render it a profitable introduction to classical studies. While all 
 languages differ from one another in their modes of inflexion, and 
 in some forms of expression peculiar to themselves, usually de- 
 nominated idioms, their general principles are, to a very great 
 axtent, the same, ^t would eem, therefore, to be proper, in 
 
 ' A* 
 
VI PREFACE. 
 
 constructing grammars for different languages, that the prmci 
 pies, so far as they are the same, should be arranged in the sama 
 order, and expressed as nearly as possible in the same words. 
 Were this carefully done, the study of the grammar of one lan- 
 guage would be a very important aid in the study of another , and 
 the opportunity thus afforded, of seeing wherein they agree and 
 wherein they differ, would of itself furnish a profitable exercise 
 in comparative grammar. But when a Latin grammar is put 
 into the hands of a boy, differing widely in its arrangement or 
 phraseology from the English grammar which he had previously 
 studied, and then in due time a Greek grammar different from 
 both, not only is the benefit derived from the analogy of the dif- 
 ferent languages in a great measure lost, but the whole subject is 
 made to appear intolerably intricate and mysterious. To remedy 
 this evil, I resolved, some time ago, to publish a series of Gram- 
 mars of the English, Latin, and Greek languages, arranged in 
 the same order, and expressed as nearly in the same words as the 
 genius of the languages would permit. 
 
 This series has now been some time before the public, and 
 has been received with a degree of favor far surpassing my ex- 
 pectations. 
 
 PREFACE TO THE REVISED EDITION. 
 
 New plates for this work having become necessary, the oppor- 
 tunity has been embraced to improve the work in such a way as 
 to render it still more worthy of public favor. Several of the 
 definitions and rules have been rendered more strictly accurate. 
 In many places, observations and remarks have been introduced, 
 where they seemed to be necessary to complete or elucidate tho 
 subject. ^The etymology of the article which stood before, is 
 now, as it should be, placed after the noun-, and that of the par- 
 ticiple is placed with the moods and tenses, before the inflection 
 of the verb, instead of coming after it. In these two instances 
 only, is the order of the sections changed. In the verb, the de- 
 signation and arrangement of tenses first adopted in this Grammar, 
 but which were subsequently changed, are here resumed, being 
 considered as altogether better, because more natural and appro 
 priate. The former designations, however, are placed in paren- 
 theses, (except the imperfect, which does not corrpctly express 
 the import of that tense), that teachers may adnnt4ho9c which 
 
PREFACE. VII 
 
 they prefer. In the observations on the tenses, an attempt has 
 been made to render them more full and explicit-, and in the 
 inflection of the verb, negative and interrogative forms have 
 been introduced after the active voice. 
 
 In Syntax, two or three rules have been altered, where it 
 seemed desirable for the sake of greater accuracy and simplicity. 
 So much of Rules IV., V., and VI. as referred to the pronoun, 
 has been omitted, to avoid the confusion occasioned by uniting 
 two subjects (the verb and personal pronoun) under one rule, and 
 all that relates to the Syntax of the personal pronoun has been 
 placed together in special rules under Rule X. The exercises 
 under these rules have been revised and made to correspond to 
 these changes. In Prosody, several defects have been supplied, 
 and the article on Composition has been considerably enlarged. 
 
 To make room for these improvements, the lists of questions 
 heretofore interspersed through the work, and the utility of which 
 has been questioned by distinguished teachers, have been removed 
 to the end of the book, where they are placed together, so that 
 they may be used or not, as the teacher may direct. For the 
 same purpose, all discussions of grammatical questions have been 
 removed from the body of the work to the Appendix, and suita- 
 ble reference made to them in the text. In this position, they 
 interfere less with the regular progress of the work, and may be 
 consulted at pleasure. By this means, also, an opportunity is 
 afforded of discussing the several subjects, when it was thought 
 important, at greater length than would have been proper in their 
 place j and hence, it will be seen, the Appendix has been consi- 
 derably enlarged. 
 
 By means of these arrangements, the leading parts of the 
 Grammar are made to occupy nearly the same place as before, be- 
 ing seldom more than one page distant from their former position. 
 This revisal of the work has been gone into more thoroughly 
 now, to avoid the necessity of ever hereafter making any changes j 
 but no change has been made which will occasion any difficulty 
 in using this edition with the other, as the parts introduced foi 
 the most part belong to the Notes and Observations, very seldom 
 to the leading parts. 
 
 For further information, reference is occasionally made to the 
 Analytical and Practical Grammar, in which the subjects generally 
 are treated of with greater fullness, especially in Syntax, than IL 
 this compend. 
 
HI! PREFACE. 
 
 PLAN OF THIS WORK. 
 
 1. In this work the leading principles, definitions, and rules, 
 forming hy themselves an epitome of Grammar, are printed in 
 larger type, and expressed in brief, accurate, and simple language, 
 BO as to be easily committed to memory. 
 
 2. All that is necessary to fill up this outline, and with it to 
 forrr. a complete school grammar, is inserted in its place in smallei 
 type in Observations and Remarks, not to be committed to me- 
 mory, but to be studied more fully in connection with the leading 
 parts, in subsequent reviews. 
 
 3. The whole is perspicuously arranged under distinct sections 
 and heads, all of which are numbered separately , and now, in 
 addition to this, all the paragraphs are numbered by a running 
 series of numbers, rendering it easy to refer to any particular part. 
 
 4. At the close of each part of speech, and frequently at inter- 
 vals under different heads, Exercises, simple and easy, are intro- 
 duced, for the purpose of rendering the pupil familiar with each 
 step as he goes along, and better prepared for entering on that 
 which is to follow. 
 
 5. The leading rules of Syntax always stand at the top of the 
 page-, and under each is presented, in special rules, in small 
 type, or in observations and remarks in type still smaller, all that 
 is necessary to complete or explain the subject of which it treats $ 
 and then,under these are furnished examples of false Syntax to be 
 corrected an exercise of great importance, to render the princi- 
 pies previously studied, and their use, familiar to the pupil. 
 
 6. For the same purpose, numerous examples of false Syntax 
 under all the rules are furnished at the end, promiscuously ar- 
 ranged. In correcting these, it will always be proper to shew 
 wherein they are wrong, mention the rule which they violate, 
 and give the rule or the reason for the change made. 
 
 7. In Analysis and Parsing, it is important that one uniform 
 method, the shorter the better, provided it be accurate and full, 
 should be pursued-, either that here recommended, or such othei 
 as the teacher may prefer; and that the rules, when repeated, be 
 repeated accurately in the very words of the text. 
 
 8. The subject of Composition, at the end of the book, will be 
 a profitable study for the pupil after he has studied the grammar, 
 and furnish the means of constantly applying its principles. 
 
 By pursuing this method, the study of Grammar, instead of 
 being, as it is usually considered, a dry and laborious exercise of 
 memory, becomes, from the first, practical, intellectual, and in- 
 teresting-, so that with but little labor, almost imperceptibly, and 
 in a very short time, the pupil becomes a proficient in this im- 
 portant branch of study. 
 

 INDEX AND TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
 
 GRAMMAR as a Science as an Art PAGB J 
 
 Parts of 1 
 
 Questions on 219 
 
 PART I. ORTHOGRAPHY. 
 
 ORTHOGRAPHY, Definition of 9 
 
 Letters, of ......a 
 
 Syllables, of; Division of words into 3 
 
 Spelling 3 
 
 General rules, for ....4 
 
 PART II. ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 ETYMOLOGY, Definition of 7 
 
 Words, Divisions of 7 
 
 Parts of Speech.. 8 
 
 Prvg vvhat ; Different kinds of 8 
 
 * Wrvjn, different kinds of 8, 9 
 
 Accidents of. * 9 
 
 Person of .9 
 
 Gender of 10 
 
 Observations on 11 
 
 Number of, Plural, Rules for 12 
 
 Irregular. .13 
 
 Observations on 15 
 
 Ca*e of. 16 
 
 ^Nominative, use of 16 
 
 Construction of, a* the subject 89 
 
 As the predicate. 104 
 
 Independent 127 
 
 Possessive, how formed, use of 16 
 
 Observations on 17 
 
 Construction of 105, 106 
 
 Objective, use of 16 
 
 Governed by Transitive Active Verbs 90 
 
 By Intransitive Verbs 90 
 
 By Prepositions. 92 
 
 Of time, place, weight, value, &c. 92 
 
 Parsing of, Method of 17 
 
 Construction of, in apposition 103 
 
 n ARTICLE, Definition and use of. 18 
 
 Construct ion of 128 
 
 ' Parsing of the, Method of 19 
 
 III. ADJECTIVE, Definition of, Observations on, Numerals 19 
 
 Comparison of, and Observations on 20 
 
 Irregular 21 
 
 Construction of 97 
 
 Of the Comparative and Superlative"-115, 116 
 
 Parsing of the, Method of, Exercises on 22 
 
 IT, PaonenrNS, Definition and division of 22 
 
 Personal, Declension of 22 
 
 Observations on 23 
 
 Parsing, Method of 23 
 
 Construction of 99 
 
 Relative, Definition of, &c 24 
 
 Observations on *25 
 
 Parsing, Method of 86 
 
 Construction of 10.1 
 
 Interrogative, what ; Observations or. ifll 
 
X CONTENTS. 
 
 IV PBONOUNS, Adjective, Division of 27 
 
 Possessive ' 27 
 
 Distributive... 27 
 
 Construction of 97 
 
 Demonstrative 29 
 
 Construction of. 97, 98 
 
 Indefinite 28 
 
 Parsing, Method of. 53 
 
 V. VKBB, Definition and Division of 30 
 
 Transitive and Intransitive, defined and distinguished 00, 3 1 
 
 Division of, in respect of form 31 
 
 Auxiliary, what ; Observations en 32 
 
 Inflection of 34 
 
 Voice, Active and Passive defined 34 
 
 Observations on -... 34 
 
 Moods, Definition and Distinction of 35 
 
 Observations on. p 36 
 
 Subjunctive, Construction of 112 
 
 Infinitive, Construction of. 111 
 
 Tenses, Distinction and Definition of 37. 38 
 
 Observations on. 39 
 
 Construction of 124 
 
 Participles, Definition and Use of.. 41, 42 
 
 Present Active, in a Passive sense 43 
 
 As a Verbal Noun 43 
 
 Construction of 109 
 
 Number and Person of 43 
 
 Conjugation, and Forms of.. 43, 44 
 
 Regular, to love, Active voice, Inflection of 45 
 
 Parsing of the. Method of 48, 40 
 
 Negative form of 50 
 
 Interrogative form of 51 
 
 Progressive form of .....55 
 
 Passive voice, Inflection of 55-57 
 
 Exercises on 58 
 
 Irregular, to be, Inflection of.. 52 
 
 Exercises en 54 
 
 Irregular, list of. 59-64 
 
 Defective 04 
 
 Impersonal 65 
 
 Exercises on 65 
 
 Construction or Concord of, with its Nominative 88 
 
 With two nouns in connection 93 
 
 taken separately.. 84 
 
 With nominatives of different persons.. 95 
 
 With collective nouns 96 
 
 VI ADVERB, Definition and use of 65 
 
 Classification of, and Observations on 66 
 
 Parsing of the, Method of, and Exercises on 68 
 
 Construction of. 117 
 
 Position of 1 IS 
 
 VII. PREPOSITIONS, Definition and use of... 63 
 
 List of, and Observations on 68 
 
 Parsing, Method of and Exerf^ses on 70 
 
 Construction of.. 2 
 
 V III. INTERJECTIONS, List of, Use of, Observations on 70 
 
 Parsing, Method of.. 71 
 
 Construction of 120 
 
 IX. CONJUNCTIONS, pefinition and Division of. "1 
 
 Parsing, Method of 79 
 
 Construction of 113, 114 
 
 -PARSING. Etymological, Definition of 73 
 
 Specimens of 74, 75 
 
 Rules for, and Exercises in 70-85 
 
CONTENTS. XI 
 
 PARSING, Syntactical, Definition of 132 
 
 Specimens of. 132-134 
 
 PART III. SYNTAX. 
 
 SYNTAX, Definition of 86 
 
 General Principles of, Parts of 87 
 
 RULES OF viz. 
 
 , I. A verb must agree with its nominative.. 88 
 
 Special rules under Rule I 89 
 
 n. A transitive verb in the active voice, <fc c 90 
 
 Special rules under Rule n. 91 
 
 HI. Prepositions govern the objective case, &c 92 
 
 IV. Two or more substantives singular, in connection, &c. . 93 
 
 r. taken separately, &c 94 
 
 VI. A verb with nominatives of different persons 95 
 
 vn. A verb with a collective noun 96 
 
 vm. An adjective qualifies the substantive, &c 97 
 
 IX. When two persons or things are contrasted, &c 98 
 
 X. Pronouns agree with the nouns, &c 90 
 
 XI. The relative agrees with its antecedent, c 10.1 
 
 Special rules and observations under Rule xi. 10U 
 
 XH. Substantives denoting the same tiling, <fcc 103 
 
 xm. The predicate substantive after a verb, &c. 104 
 
 xiv. The possessive case 105 
 
 xv. When the present participle is used as a noun, &c 108 
 
 .xvi. The present participle with an article before it, &C----109' 
 
 xvn. The past participle is used after have and be , & c 1 10 
 
 xvin The infinitive mood is governed, &c. Ill 
 
 Xix. The subjunctive mood 112 
 
 xx. Conjunctions connect words or sentences 113 
 
 xxi. Some conjunctions have corresponding conjunctives- -114 
 
 xxii. Comparative degree, and the pronoun other, &c 115 
 
 xxm. Double comparatives and superlatives, &c 116 
 
 xxiv. Adverbs modify verbs, &c.. 117 
 
 xxv. Adverbs are for the most part placed, &c. 118 
 
 xxvi. Two negatives in the same sentence, & c 119 
 
 xxvu. Prepositions before names of places 1 20 
 
 xxvni. Certain words and phrases must be followed, fee.. 121 
 
 xxix. In the use of verbs, &c. the order of time, &c. 124 
 
 xxx. When a member of a sentence refers to two different 
 
 clauses, it should be, &c. 126 
 
 xxxi. Case absolute. 127 
 
 xxxii. The article A, &c.. 128 
 
 xxxiii. An ellipsis is admissible when, &c.. 130 
 
 xxxiv An ellipsis is not allowable when, &c 131 
 
 SYNTAX, Promiscuous Exercises on Rules of. 135-146 
 
 Miscellaneous Observations 1 46 
 
 Improper expressions corrected 150 
 
 PUNCTUATION, Rules for 151-157 
 
 Abbreviations. 158 
 
 Paragraphs 159 
 
 Capitals 1 
 
 Rhetorical divisions of a discourse 160 
 
 Composition, different kinds of, Prose. 160, 161 
 
 Poetry 162 
 
 Figures, viz. of Etymology 163 
 
 Of Syntax and of Rhetoric MM 
 
 Poetic license 166 
 
 PART IV. PROSODY. 
 
 PROSODY, Definition of. - 169 
 
 Elocution 16 
 
 Versification * 171 
 
 Iambic Verse 172 
 
MI CONTENTS. 
 
 PROSODY, Trochaic 175 
 
 Anapaestic ...........176 
 
 Dactylic 177 
 
 Mixed Versea 179 
 
 COMPOSITION, Art of. 180 
 
 Ue of Grammar in. 311 
 
 Law of Language 182 
 
 Hints for correct and elegant writing 184 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 I. Grammar' - 193 
 
 n. Classification of words 195 
 
 m. The noun or substantive. 196 
 
 iv. Person 197 
 
 v. Gender of nouns 197 
 
 VI. Case of nouns 198 
 
 vn. The article 199 
 
 vin. The adjective 201 
 
 ix. Comparison of adjectives 201 
 
 x. Pronouns 203 
 
 XI. The pronoun you 20? 
 
 xii. As not a relative 203 
 
 xm. The relative what" 204 
 
 xiv. Adjective pronouns. 205 
 
 xv. The verb 207 
 
 xvi. Division of verbs.. 208 
 
 xvii. Moods. 208 
 
 xvni. The subjunctive mood 210 
 
 xix. The participle in ins; in a passive sense 211 
 
 xx. Two first, three last, &c 215 
 
 xxx. First and second 217 
 
;VIUSIT7]J 
 
 GRAMMAR. 
 
 1. GRAMMAR is both a SCIENCE and an ART. 
 
 2. As a SCIENCE, it investigates the principles 
 of language in general. When thus used, it is 
 denominated GENERAL or UNIVERSAL GRAMMAR ; 
 and sometimes COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 3. As an ART, it teaches the right method of 
 applying these principles to a particular language, 
 so as to express our thoughts in a correct and pro- 
 per manner, according to established usage. App. I 
 
 ENGLISH GEAMMAE. 
 
 4. ENGLISH GRAMMAR is the art of speaking and 
 writing the English language with propriety. 
 
 5. GRAMMAR is divided into four parts ; namely, 
 Orthography, Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody. 
 
 6. Orthography treats of letters and syllables , 
 Etymology, of words ; Syntax, of sentences ; and 
 Prosody, of elocution and versification. 
 
ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 PART FIRST. 
 
 1. ORTHOGRAPHY.* 
 
 7. ORTHOGRAPHY treats of letters, and the mode 
 of combining them into syllables and words. 
 
 8. A Letter is a mark or character used to represent an ele- 
 mentary sound of the human voice. 
 
 9. There are Twenty-six letters in the English Alphabet. 
 
 10. Letters ere either Vowels or Consonants. 
 
 11. A Vowel is a letter which represents a simple inarticulate 
 sound ; and in a word or syllable may be sounded alone. The 
 vowels are, a, e, i, o, u, and w and y, not before another vowel sounded 
 in the same syllable. 
 
 12. A Consonant is a letter which represents an articulate sound 
 and in a word or syllable is never sounded alone, but always in con- 
 nexion with a vowel The consonants are, b, c, d, /, g, h,j, k, /, m, 
 n, p, q, r, s, t, v, x, z, and w and y before a vowel sounded in the 
 same syllable. 
 
 13. A Diphthong is the union of two vowels in one sound. 
 Diphthongs are of two kinds, proper and improper. 
 
 14. A Proper Diphthong is one in which both the vowels ar 
 sounded-, as ou in out, oi in oi7, ow in cow. 
 
 15. An Improper Diphthong is one in which only one of the 
 vowels is sounded-, as ou in court, oa in boat. 
 
 16. A Triphthong is the union of three vowels in one sound 
 as cau in beauty. 
 
 * Orthography is properly a part of Grammar, as it belongs to " the art cf 
 speaking and writing a language with propriety." Yet as the whole subject ii 
 treated more fully in the spelling-book and dictionary, a brief synopsis of itr pvia- 
 ciples only is here given, rather as a matter of form, than with a view to its Heing 
 particularly studied at this stage. The teacher may, therefore, if he thinks proper, 
 pass over this part for the present, and begin with PART II. 
 
1. ORTHOGRAPHY. 3 
 
 SYLLABLES. 
 
 17. A Syllable is a distinct sound forming the whole 
 of a word, as far ; or so much of it as can be sounded 
 at once, as far in far-mer. 
 
 18. A word contains as many syllables as it has dis- 
 tinct rocal sounds ; as, gram-ma -ri-an. 
 
 19. A Monosyllable is a word of one syllables; as, 
 fox. 
 
 20. A Dissyllable is a word of two syllables; as, 
 far-mer. 
 
 21. A Trisyllable is a word of three syllable; as, 
 pi-e-ty. 
 
 22. A Polysyllable is a word of many syllables. 
 
 DIVISION OF WORDS INTO SYLLABLES. 
 
 23. The division of words into syllables is called 
 Syllabication. 
 
 GENERAL RULE. 
 
 24. Place together in distinct syllables, those letters 
 which make up the separate parts or divisions of a 
 word, as heard in its correct pronunciation. 
 
 25. Two separate words combined as one name, are 
 usually separated by a hyphen; as, rail-road, glass- 
 house, bee-hive. 
 
 26. In writing, a word of more than one syllable 
 may be divided at the end of a line ; but a monosyllable, 
 or a syllable, never. 
 
 2. SPELLING. 
 
 27. SPELLING is the art of expressing a word by 
 its proper letters. 
 
4 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 2 
 
 28. The orthography of the English language is so anomalous 
 and in many cases arbitrary, that proficiency in it can be acquired 
 only by practice, and the use of the spelling-book or dictionary. 
 The following rules are of a general character, though even to 
 these there may be a few exceptions: 
 
 GENERAL RULES FOR SPELLING WORDS. 
 
 RULE I. 
 
 29. Monosyllables ending with /, I or s, preceded by 
 a single vowel, double the final consonant ; as, staff mill, 
 pass. 
 
 Exceptions. Of, if, as, is, has, was, his, gas, yes, this, us, 
 thus, pus. 
 
 RULE II. 
 
 30. Words ending with any consonant except/, I or 
 s, do not double the final letter; as, sit, not, up, put, 
 that, in. 
 
 Exc. Add, bunn, butt, buzz, ebb, egg, err, inn, odd, purr. 
 
 RULE III. 
 
 31. Monosyllables and words accented on the last 
 syllable, ending with a single consonant preceded by a 
 single vowel, double that consonant before an additional 
 syllable beginning with a vowel ; as, rob, robber ; admit, 
 admittance, admitted. 
 
 Exceptions. But x and h are never doubled. 
 
 32. But when a diphthong or double vowel precedes, 
 or the accent is not on the last syllable, the consonant 
 is not doubled ; as, boil, boiling, boiler ; wool, woolen ; 
 fool, foolish ; visit, visited. 
 
 Exceptions. In about fifty words ending in I with a vowel be- 
 fore it, and not accented on the last syllable, many writers, con- 
 trary to analogy and without necessity, double the / improperly 
 
2. ORTHOGRAPHY. 5 
 
 before an additional syllable. These are such words as travtl, 
 traveller, travelling, travelled.* 
 
 So also s and p are generally, though improperly, doubled in 
 bias, worship, and kidnap; as biassing, worshipper, kidnapping. 
 Webster, and many writers following him, in these words conform 
 to the general rule. 
 
 RULE IV. 
 
 33. Words ending with II drop one / before the ter- 
 minations less and ly, to prevent trebling, as, skill, 
 skilless; full, fully; and some writers, before ness and 
 ful; as, fulness, skilful. 
 
 34. But words ending in any other double letter, 
 preserve the letter double before less, ly, ness, and ful ; 
 as, harmlessly, stiffly, gruffhess, etc. 
 
 RULE v. 
 
 35. Words ending in y preceded by a consonant, 
 change y into i before an additional letter or syllable ; 
 as, spy, spies ; happy, happier, happiest ; carry, carrier, 
 carried ; fancy, fanciful. 
 
 Exc. 1. But y is not changed before ing; as, deny, denying. 
 
 Exc. 2. Words ending in y preceded by a vowel, retain the y 
 unchanged-, as, boy, boys, boyish, boyhood. But lay, pay, say, 
 make laid, paid, said; and day makes daily. 
 
 RULE VI. 
 
 36. Silent e is preserved before the terminations, 
 ment, less, ly, and ful; as, paleness, peaceful, abate- 
 ment, &c. 
 
 *The words referred to are the following : Apparel, bevel, bowel, cancel, carol, 
 cavil, channel, chisel, counsel, cudgel, dishevel, drivel, duel, embowel, enamel, 
 empannel, equal, gambol, gravel, grovel, handsel, hatchel, imperil, jewel, kennel, 
 label, level, libel, marshal, marvel, model, panel, parcel, pencil, peril, pistol, 
 pommel, quarrel, ravel, revel, rival, rowel, shovel, shrivel, snivel, tassel, tram* 
 wel, travel, tiumel, unravel. 
 
 i* 
 
6 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 2 
 
 Exceptions. Duly, truly, awtful, and generally, judgment, ac- 
 knowledgment, lodgment, abridgment, are excepted. Argument, 
 from the Latin argumentum, is not an exception. 
 
 RULE VII. 
 
 37. Silent e is omitted before terminations beginning 
 with a vowel; as, slave, slavish; cure, curable ; sense 
 
 sensible ; lodge, lodging ; love, lovest, 
 
 38. Blame, move, reprove, sale, and their compounds, some 
 times, though improperly, retain c before able; as, blameable, etc. 
 
 39. But words ending in ge and ce retain e before able, in order 
 to preserve the soft sound of g and c; as, changeable, peaceable, 
 etc. For the same reason, we have singeing and swingeing. Dye 
 has dyeing, to distinguish it from dying. So also words ending 
 with c hard, insert k before a syllable beginning with e or i, to 
 preserve the hard sound-, as, frolic, frolicked, frolicking. 
 
 40. The letters ie, at the end of a word, are changed into v 
 before ing; as, die, dying; lie, lying. 
 
 RULE VIII. 
 
 41. Simple words ending in II, when joined to other 
 words, generally drop one I when they lose the accent ; 
 as, awful, hopeful, handful, careful, aheady. 
 
 42. But when they are under the accent, the double 
 I should be retained; as, fulfill, willful, recall, foretell. 
 But until, welcome, always, also, withal, therewithal, 
 wherewithal, have single I. 
 
 43. On the subject of this rule, however, usage is far from 
 uniform: falfil and fulfill, wilful and willful, recal and recall, 
 foretel and foretell, and similar varieties are common. 
 
 44. Other compounded words are generally spelled in the same 
 manner as the simple words of which they are formed 5 as, glass- 
 house, mill-wright, thereby. 
 
 45. Many words in English admit of two or- more different 
 modes of spelling-, as, connection, connexion; enquire, inquire; 
 themistry, chymistry, etc. In such cases, prevailing usage and 
 analogy must fee our guides. 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 PART SECOND. 
 
 3. ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 46. ETYMOLOGY treats of the different sorts of 
 words, their various modifications, and their de- 
 rivations. 
 
 47. WORDS are certain articulate sounds used 
 by common consent as signs of our ideas. 
 
 1st. Words, in respect of their Formation, are 
 either Primitive or Derivative, Simple or Compound. 
 
 A Primitive word is one that is not derived from any other 
 word in the language-, as, boy, just, father. 
 
 A Derivative word is one that is derived from some other word $ 
 as, boyish, justice, fatherly. 
 
 A Simple word is one that is not combined with any other 
 word-, as, man, house, city. 
 
 A Compound word is one that is made up of two or more simple 
 words-, as, manhood, horseman. 
 
 2d. Words, in respect of Form, are either De- 
 clinable or Indeclinable. 
 
 A Declinable word is one which undergoes certain changes of 
 form or termination, to express the different relations of gender, 
 numher, case, person, etc., which in Grammar are usually called 
 ACCIDENTS-, as, man, men; love, loves, loved. 
 
 An Indeclinable word is one which undergoes no change of 
 form-, as, good, some, perhaps. 
 
 3d. In respect of Signification and Use, words 
 are divided into different classes, called Parts cf 
 S-peecli, 
 
& ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 4, 5 
 
 4. PARTS OF SPEECH. 
 
 48. The Parts of Speech in the English language 
 are nine ; viz., The Noun or Substantive, Article, 
 Adjective, Pronoun, Verb, Adverb, Preposition, 
 Interjection, and Conjunction. App. II. 
 
 49. Of these, the Noun, Pronoun^ and Verb, are 
 declined ; the rest are indeclinable. 
 
 50. NOTE. A noun is called also a substantive. But this term, 
 for convenience, is here used in a more comprehensive sense, to 
 mean a noun, a pronoun, an infinitive mood, or a phrase used as a 
 noun, and usually called u a substantive phrase." Thus in such 
 a rule as this, u An adjective agrees with a substantive," etc., the 
 word substantive may mean a noun, a pronoun, an infinitive 
 mood, or a substantive phrase. 
 
 51. PARSING is the art of resolving a sentence 
 into its elements or parts of speech, stating the 
 accidents or grammatical properties of each word, 
 and pointing out its relation to other words with 
 which it is connected. 
 
 52. Parsing is distinguished into Etymological and Syntactical. 
 
 53. A word is parsed Etymologically by stating the class of 
 words to which it belongs, with its accidents or grammatical 
 properties. 
 
 54. A word is parsed Syntactically by stating, in addition, the 
 relation in which it stands to other words, and the rules according 
 to which they are combined in phrases and sentences. 
 
 5. NOUNS. 
 
 55. A NOUN is the name of any person, place, or 
 thing ; as, John, London, book. App. III. 
 
 56. NOUNS are of two kinds, Proper and Common 
 
6 ETYMOLOGY. 9 
 
 57. A Proper Noun is the name applied to an in- 
 dividual only ; as, Albany, Washington, the Hudson, 
 
 58. A Common Noun is a name applied to all 
 things of the same sort ; as, man, chair, table, book. 
 
 59. REMARK.. Proper nouns distinguish individuals of the same 
 cl-dss from one another. Common nouns distinguish sorts or classeg t 
 and are equally applicable to all things of the same class. 
 
 60. OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 1. Proper nouns denoting persons, usually become common by 
 having an article prefixed-, as, u He is the Cicero of his age." 
 
 2. Common nouns become proper when personified, and also 
 when used as proper names , as, Hail Liberty! The Park. 
 
 3. Under common nouns are usually ranked, 
 
 1st. Collective nouns^ or nouns of multitude, which signify 
 
 many in the singular number-, as, army, people. 
 
 2d. Abstract nouns, o* names of qualities ; as, piety , wickedness, 
 3d. Verbal nouns, 01 the names of actions, or states of being, 
 
 as, reading, writing, steeping. (195.) 
 
 ACCIDENTS OF THE NOUN. 
 
 61. To NOUNS belong Person, Gender, Number, 
 and Case. 
 
 6. PERSON. 
 
 62. PERSON, in grammar, is the relation of a noun 
 or pronoun to whai is said in discourse. There are 
 three persons ; the first, second, and third. App. IV. 
 
 63. A noun is in the first person, when it denotes the 
 speaker or writer; as, " I Paul have written it." 
 
 64. A noun is in the second person, when it denotes 
 the person or thing addressed ; as, " Thou, God, seest 
 me." " Hail, Liberty ! " 
 
 65. A noun is in the third person, when it denotes 
 the person or thing spoken of; as, "Truth is mighty." 
 
10 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 7. GENDER. 
 
 66. GENDER is the distinction of nouns with 
 regard to Sex. There are three genders, the Mas- 
 culine, Feminine, and Neuter. App. V. 
 
 67. Nouns denoting males are Masculine ; as, 
 man, boy. 
 
 68. Nouns denoting females are Feminine ; as, 
 woman, girl. 
 
 69. Nouns denoting neither males nor females 
 are Neuter ; as, book, house, field. 
 
 70. There are three ways of distinguishing the sexes: 
 
 1. By different words ; as, 
 
 Male. 
 
 Female. 
 
 Male. 
 
 Female 
 
 Bachelor 
 
 maid 
 
 Horse 
 
 marc 
 
 Beau 
 
 belle 
 
 Husband 
 
 wife 
 
 Boy 
 
 girl 
 
 King 
 
 queer; 
 
 Brother 
 
 sister 
 
 Lord 
 
 lady 
 
 Buck 
 
 doe 
 
 Man 
 
 woman 
 
 Bull 
 
 cow 
 
 Master 
 
 mistress 
 
 Drake 
 
 duck 
 
 Nephew 
 
 niece 
 
 Earl 
 
 countess 
 
 Ram, buck 
 
 ewe 
 
 Father 
 
 mother 
 
 Son 
 
 daughter 
 
 Friar 
 
 nun 
 
 Stag 
 
 hind 
 
 Gander 
 
 goose 
 
 Uncle 
 
 aunt 
 
 Hart 
 
 roe 
 
 Wizzard 
 
 witch 
 
 2. By a difference 
 
 of termination; as, 
 
 Abbot 
 
 abbess 
 
 Bridegroom 
 
 bride 
 
 Actor 
 
 actress 
 
 Benefactor 
 
 benefactress 
 
 Administrator 
 
 administratrix 
 
 Count 
 
 countess 
 
 Adulterer 
 
 adulteress 
 
 Deacon 
 
 deaconess 
 
 Ambassador 
 
 ambassadress 
 
 Duke 
 
 duchess 
 
 Arbiter 
 
 arbitress 
 
 Elector 
 
 electress 
 
 Author (often) 
 
 authoress 
 
 Emperor 
 
 empress 
 
 Baron 
 
 baroness 
 
 Enchanter 
 
 enchantress 
 
7. 
 
 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 I] 
 
 Male. 
 .Executor 
 Governor 
 Heir 
 Hero 
 Hunter 
 Host 
 Jew 
 
 Landgrave 
 Lion 
 Marquis 
 Mayor 
 Patron 
 Peer 
 Poet 
 Priest 
 
 Female. 
 
 executrix 
 
 governess 
 
 heiress 
 
 heroine 
 
 huntress 
 
 hostess 
 
 Jewess 
 
 landgravine 
 
 lioness 
 
 marchioness 
 
 mayoress 
 
 patroness 
 
 peeress 
 
 poetess 
 
 priestess 
 
 3. By prefixing a 
 
 A cock sparrow. 
 A he goat. 
 A man servant. 
 A male child. 
 Male descendants. 
 
 Male. 
 Prince 
 Prior 
 Prophet 
 Protector 
 Shepherd 
 Songster 
 Sorcerer 
 
 Sultan 
 
 Tiger 
 
 Traitor 
 
 Tutor 
 
 Viscount 
 
 Votary 
 
 Widower 
 
 Female. 
 
 princess 
 
 prioress 
 
 prophetess 
 
 protectress 
 
 shepherdess 
 
 songstress 
 
 sorceress 
 (sultana, or sul* 
 ( taness 
 
 tigress 
 
 traitress 
 
 tutoress 
 
 viscountess 
 
 votaress 
 
 widow 
 
 distinguishing word; as. 
 
 A hen sparrow. 
 A she goat. 
 A maid servant. 
 A female child. 
 Female descendants. 
 
 71. OBSERVATIONS ON GENDER. 
 
 1. Some nouns are either masculine or feminine; such as 
 parent, child, cousin, infant, servant, neighbor. Such are some- 
 times said to be of the common gender. 
 
 2. Some nouns naturally neuter are converted by a figure of 
 speech into the masculine or feminine -, as when we say of the sun, 
 He is setting-, of the moon, She is eclipsed 5 and of a ship, She sails. 
 
 3. In speaking of animals whose sex is not known to us, or 
 not regarded, we assign the masculine gender to those distinguished 
 for boldness, fidelity, generosity, size, strength, etc., as the dog, 
 the horse, the elephant. Thus we say, u The dog is remarkably 
 various in his species." On the other hand, we assign the femi- 
 nine gender to animals characterized by weakness and timidity j 
 as, the hare, the cat, etc., thus, " The cat, as she beholds th 
 light, draws the ball of her eye small and long." 
 
 
 
 VSR :-! 
 
1:2 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 8 
 
 4. In speaking of animals, particularly those of inferior size, 
 we frequently consider them devoid of sex. Thus, of an infant, 
 we say, " It is a lovely creature-," of a cat, "It is cruel to itt 
 enemy." 
 
 5. When the male and the female are expressed by distinct 
 terms, as, shepherd, shepherdess, the masculine term has sometimes 
 also a general meaning, expressing both male and female ; and is 
 always to be used when the office, occupation, or profession ; and 
 not the sex of the individual, is chiefly to be expressed. The 
 feminine term is used only when the discrimination of sex is 
 indispensably necessary. Thus, when it is said "the Poets of 
 this country are distinguished for correctness of taste," the term 
 
 1 Poet " clearly includes both male and female writers of poetry 
 
 8. NUMBER. 
 
 72. NUMBER is that property of a noun by which 
 it expresses one, or more than one. Nouns have 
 two numbers, the Singular and the Plural. The 
 Singular denotes one ; the Plural, more than one. 
 
 GENERAL RULE. 
 
 73. The plural is commonly formed by adding 
 tf to the singular ; as, book, books. 
 
 SPECIAL RULES. 
 
 1. Nouns in s, sh, ch soft, z, x, or o, form the plural 
 by adding es ; as, Miss, Misses ; brush, brushes; match, 
 matches ; fox, foxes ; hero, heroes. 
 
 Exc. Nouns in eo, to and yo, and in ch sounding &, have * only} 
 as, cameo, cameos-, monarch, monarchs. Also canto has cantos 5 
 but other nouns in o after a consonant now commonly add es; as, 
 grotto, grottoes-, tyro, tyroes. 
 
 2. Nouns in y after a consonant, change y into ies in 
 the plural ; as, lady, ladies. 
 
$ 9. ETYMOLOGY. 13 
 
 Nouns in y after a vowel, follow the general rule; 
 as, day, days. (35. Exc. 2.) 
 
 3. Nouns in / or fe, change / or fe into ves in the 
 plural; as, loaf, loaves; life, lives. 
 
 Exc. Dwarf, scarf, wharf; brief, chief, grief-, kerchief, hand- 
 kerchief, mischief; gulf, turf, surf; fife, strife; proof, hoof, roof, 
 reproof, follow the general rule. Also nouns inff have their 
 plural in */ as, muff, muffs; except staff : , which has sometimes 
 ttaves; so wharf, wharves. 
 
 EXERCISES ON NUMBER. 
 
 Give the plural, and the rule for forming it, of Fox, 
 book, leaf, candle, hat, loaf, wish, fish, sex, box, coach, 
 inch, sky, bounty, army, duty, knife, echo, loss, cargo, 
 wife, story, church, table, glass, study, calf, branch, 
 street, potato, peach, sheaf, booby, rock, stone, house, 
 glory, hope, flower, city, difficulty, distress, wolf. 
 
 Day, bay, relay, chimney, journey, valley, needle, 
 enemy, army, vale, ant, voile} 7 , hill, sea, key, toy, 
 monarch, tyro, grotto, nuncio, punctilio, embryo, gulf 
 handkerchief, hoof, staff, muff, cliff, whiff,' cuff, ruff. 
 
 Of what number is Book, trees, plant, shrub, globes, 
 hills, river, scenes, stars, planets, toys, home, fancy, 
 mosses, glass, state, foxes, house, prints, spoon, bears, 
 lilies, roses, churches, glove, silk, skies, berries, peach? 
 
 9. NOUNS IRREGULAR IN THE PLURAL. 
 
 74. Some nouns are irregular in the formation of their plural; v 
 
 Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural, 
 
 Man men Tooth teeth 
 
 Woman women Goose geese 
 
 Child children Mouse mice 
 
 Foot feet Louse lice 
 
 Ox oxen 
 
14 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 *75. Some nouns have both a regular and irregular 
 form of the plural, but with different significations ; as, 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 Brother (one of the same family) orothers 
 
 Brother (one of the same society) brethren 
 
 Sow (an individual animal) sows 
 
 Sow or swine (the species) swine 
 
 Die (a small cube for gaming) dice 
 
 Die (a stamp for coining) dies 
 
 Index (a table of reference) indexes 
 
 Index (a character in algebra) indices 
 
 Penny (a coin) pennies 
 
 Penny (a sum or value) pence 
 
 76. Some compounds pluralize the first word ; as, 
 
 Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. 
 
 Aid-de-camp aids-de-camp Cousin-german cousins-germau 
 Court-martial courts-martial Father-in-law fathers-in-law 
 
 77. Words from foreign languages sometimes retain their ori- 
 ginal plural. As a general rule, nouns in um or on have a in the 
 plural ; but those in is in the singular, change it into es in the* 
 plural. The following are the most common, of which some also 
 have a regular English plural-, these are marked R: 
 
 Singular. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 Animalculum 
 
 animalcula R 
 
 Genus genera 
 
 Antithesis 
 
 antitheses 
 
 Genius (a spirit)genii 
 
 Apex 
 
 apices 
 
 Hypothesis hypotheses 
 
 Appendix 
 
 appendices R 
 
 Ignis fatuus ignes fatui 
 
 Arcanum 
 
 arcana 
 
 Lamina laminae 
 
 Automaton 
 
 automata R 
 
 Magus magi 
 
 Axis 
 
 axes 
 
 Memorandum memoranda 
 
 Basis 
 
 bases 
 
 Metamorphosis metamorphose* 
 
 Cherub 
 
 cherubim R 
 
 Monsieur messieurs 
 
 Crisis 
 
 crises 
 
 Phenomenon phenomena 
 
 Criterion 
 
 criteria 
 
 Radius radii 
 
 Datum 
 
 data 
 
 Stamen stamina R 
 
 Desideratum 
 
 desiderata 
 
 Seraph seraphim R 
 
 Effluvium 
 
 effluvia 
 
 Stimulus stimuli 
 
 Ellipsis 
 
 ellipses 
 
 Stratum strata 
 
 Emphasis 
 
 emphases 
 
 Vortex vortices 
 
 Encomium 
 
 encomia R 
 
 Virtuoso virtuosi 
 
 Erratum 
 
 errata 
 
 Mr (master) Messrs (me* 
 
 Focus 
 
 foci 
 
 sieurs) 
 
10. ETYMOLOGY. 15 
 
 78. 10. OBSERVATIONS ON NUMBER. 
 
 1. Proper names have the plural, only when they refer to a 
 race or family, as, the Stuarts, the Campbells; or to several 
 persons of the same name-, as, the twelve Casars, the two Mr. 
 Bdls , the two Miss Browns. But without the numeral, or in 
 addressing letters in which both or all are equally concerned, and 
 also when the names are different, we pluralize the title-, as 
 Misses Brown, Messrs. Webster and Skinner. ( 60, Rem. 1, 2.) 
 
 2. Names of metals, virtues, vices, and things that are weighed 
 or measured, are for the most part confined to the singular num. 
 her-, as, gold, meekness, temperance, bread, beer, beef, etc. Except 
 when different sorts are meant; as wines, teas, etc. 
 
 3. Some nouns are used in the plural only-, such as annals 
 antipodes, literati, credenda, minutics, banditti, data; and things 
 consisting of two parts, as bellows, scissors, pliers, tongs, lungs % 
 etc. ; or of more than two, as ashes, embers, entrails, clothes,etc. 
 
 NOTE. For the singular of literati, the expression "one oftht 
 literati" is used-, and bandit is used as the singular of banditti. 
 
 4. Some nouns are alike in both numbers; as hose, deer, shcep t 
 swine, trout, salmon, tench; apparatus, hiatus, series, species, 
 brace, dozen, head, couple, score, pair, hundred, thousand, etc. 
 
 NOTE. Brace, dozen, etc., have sometimes a plural form; as, 
 He bought partridges in braces, and books in scores and dozens. 
 Cannon, shot, and sail, are used in a plural sense. Foot, horse % 
 infantry, and sometimes cavalry, meaning bodies of foot, etc., are 
 %>nstrued with a plural verb. The singular of sheep, deer, etc., 
 is distinguished by the article a; as, a sheep, a deer. 
 
 5. Some words are plural in form, but in construction either 
 singular or plural ; such as amends, means, riches, pains; and the 
 names of certain sciences, as mathematics, metaphysics, ethics 
 politics, optics, etc. 
 
 NOTE. Means, when it points out the instrumentality of one 
 agent, is construed as singular-, of more than one, as plural 
 Mean, in the singular form, is commonly used to signify a mid- 
 die between two extremes. News is now generally construed in 
 the singular number, dims (celmesse, Ang. Sax.), riches (richesse, 
 Fr.) are really singular, though now used commonly in a plural 
 sense. Thanks is considered a plural noun, though used to de- 
 note one expression of gratitude 
 
16 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 11 
 
 EXERCISES ON IRREGULAK NOUNS AND OBSERVATIONS, etc. 
 
 Give the plural of Man, foot, penny, mouse, ox, 
 child, father-in-law, son-in-law, brother; erratum, ra- 
 dius, lamina, automaton, phenomenon, stratum, axis, 
 ellipsis, stamen, index, cherub, seraph. 
 
 Of what number is Dice, arcana, fishermen, geese, 
 dormice, alms, riches, thanks, snuffers, tongs, teeth, 
 woman, child, court-martial, apparatus, minutiae, genii, 
 geniuses, indices, indexes, mathematics, Matthew, John, 
 James? 
 
 11. CASES OF NOUNS. 
 
 79. CASE is the state or condition of a noun with 
 respect to the other words in a sentence. App. VI. 
 
 80. Nouns have three cases; viz.,the Nominative, 
 Possessive, and Objective. 
 
 81. The Nominative case commonly expresses that of which 
 something is said or declared-, as, the sun shines. See ( 80.) 
 
 82. The Possessive denotes possession; as, the lady's fan. Also 
 origin or fitness; as, the sun's rays, men's shoes. 
 
 83. The Objective denotes the object of some action or relation; 
 as, James assists Thomas; they live in London. 
 
 84. The nominative and objective are alike. ^ 
 
 85. The possessive singular is formed by adding an apostrophe 
 ( ' ) and s to the nominative-, as, John's. 
 
 86. When the plural ends in *, the possessive is formed by 
 adding an apostrophe only. 
 
 87. NOUNS ARE THUS DECLINED! 
 
 Singular. Plural. Singular, Plural. 
 
 Nom. Lady Ladies John 
 
 Poss. Lady's Ladies' John's 
 
 Obj. Lady Ladies John 
 
 Proper names generally want the plural. See 78 1 
 
11 ETYMOLOGY. 17 
 
 88. OBSERVATIONS ON THE POSSESSIVE. 
 
 1. The apostrophe and s ('5) are an abbreviation for is or es, the 
 termination of the old English genitive ; thus, " the king's crown 
 was anciently written, u the kingis crown." 
 
 2. When the nominative singular ends in ss, or in letters of 
 similar sound, the s after the apostrophe is sometimes omitted, in 
 order to avoid too close a succession of hissing sounds; as, " for 
 goodness' sake-," u for conscience' sake." This, however, is sel- 
 dom done, unless the word following the possessive begins with 
 *: thus, we do not say, "the prince 1 feather;" but, "the prince's 
 feather." (See An. Gr. 175). 
 
 3. The relation expressed by the possessive case, is in general 
 the same with that expressed by the word of; thus, u the rage 
 of the tyrant," "the death of the prince," are equivalent to u th 
 tyrant's rage," " the prince's death." Hence when the use oi 
 the possessive would appear stiff, it is better to use the preposition 
 of, or some equivalent expression instead of it-, as " the satellites 
 of Jupiter," " the length of the day," " the garden wall," for 
 " Jupiter's satellites," " the day's length," " the garden's wall." 
 Sometimes, however, the idea expressed by the preposition of, 
 with the objective, is different from that expressed by the posses- 
 sive-, thus, " a picture of the king," and " the king's picture," 
 express different ideas; the first means u a. portrait of the king," 
 the last, " a picture belonging to the king." 
 
 PARSING THE NOUN. 
 
 89. A noun is parsed etymologically (53) by stating its acci- 
 dents, or grammatical properties ; thus, Father, a noun, masctp 
 line, in the nominative singular. App. IV. 
 
 In this way parse all the nouns in the following exercise. 
 
 EXERCISES ON GENDER, NUMBER AND CASE.* 
 
 Father, brothers, mother's, boys, book, loaf, arms, 
 wife, hats, sisters', bride's, bottles, brush, goose, eagles' 
 wings, echo, ox's horn, mouse, kings, queens, bread 
 child's toy, grass, tooth, tongs, candle, chair, Jane's 
 boots, Robert's shoe, horse, bridle. 
 
 * Note. In the use of these exercises, it will save much time, which is verj 
 
IS ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 12. 
 
 12. THE ARTICLE. 
 
 90. An ARTICLE is a word put before a noun, to 
 show the manner in which it is used. App. VII. 
 
 91. There are two articles; a or an, and the. 
 
 92. A or an is called the Indefinite Article, be- 
 cause it shews that the noun is not limited to a 
 particular person or thing; as, a king; that is, 
 any king. 
 
 93. The is 'called the Definite Article, because 
 it shews that the noun is limited to a particular 
 person or thing ; as, the king ; i. e. some particular 
 king. 
 
 94. A noun without an article, is taken in its 
 widest sense ; as, Man is mortal, i. e. All mankind: 
 Or, in an indefinite sense ; as, There are men de- 
 stitute of all shame, i. e. some men ( 81). 
 
 A noun with the before it, sometimes denotes the species; as, 
 the oak, the lion. 
 
 95. A is used before a consonant ; as, a look. 
 
 96. An is used before a vowel, or silent h ; as, an 
 age, an hour. But 
 
 97. ^,and not an, is used before u long, and the diphthong ew, 
 because these letters have, combined with their sound, the power 
 of initial y; thus, a unit, a use, a eulogy. On the other hand, 
 an is used before words beginning with h sounded, when the 
 accent is on the second syllable; as, an heroic action, an historical 
 account', because the h in such words is but slightly sounded. 
 
 important in a large school, if the pupil be taught to express all that is necessary 
 in parsing these or other words, in as few words as possible, and always in the 
 tame order, thus: Father, a noun, masculine, in the nominative singular. 
 Mother's, a noun, feminine, in the possessive singular. It will also be a profitable 
 txercise for him to assign a reason for every part of his description, thus : lather, 
 & noun, because the name of an object; masculine, because it denotes the malt 
 sex; singular, because it denotes but one; plural, fathers Rule, "The plural is 
 eommonly formed by adding $ to the singular n 
 
13. ETYMOLOGY. J9 
 
 PARSING, An article is parsed by stating whether definite or 
 indefinite, and to what noun it belongs. 
 
 EXERCISES ON THE ARTICLES. 
 
 Prefix the indefinite article to the words, river, hope ? 
 army, hermit, infant, uncle, humor, usurper, hostler, 
 wish, youth, umbrage, oyster, herb, thought, honor, 
 elephant, husband. 
 
 Correct what follows, and give a reason for the change, 
 A inkstand, an handful, a article, a humble man, an 
 ewe, a anchor, an useful book, an history, an humorous 
 tale, an hedge, an union. 
 
 13. THE ADJECTIVE. 
 
 98. An ADJECTIVE is a word used to qualify a 
 noun or substantive ; as, a good boy ; a square box ; 
 ten dollars. App. VTIL 
 
 99. NOTE. A noun is qualified by an adjective when the object 
 named is thereby described , limited or distinguished from other 
 things of the same name. 
 
 100. An adjective in the predicate may qualify a pronoun, an 
 infinitive mood, or substantive clause; as, He is poor. To play is 
 pleasant. That the rich are happy, is not always ttue. 
 
 101. Nouns become adjectives when they are used to express 
 the quality of other nouns -, as, gold ring, silver cup, sea water. 
 
 102. On the contrary, adjectives are often used as nouns; as, 
 14 God rewards the good, and punishes the bad." " The virtuous 
 are the most happy." Adjectives thus used are usually preceded 
 by the definite article ; and when appbed to persons, are considered 
 plural. ( 40, Rule vn.) 
 
 103. Adjectives which express number, are called Numeral 
 adjectives. They are of two kinds, Cardinal and Ordinal. . The 
 Cardinal answer the question u how many?" and are one, /wo, 
 three, four, five, six, etc. The ordinal answer the question, 
 11 which of the number!" They are first, second, third, fourth. 
 etc. In compound numbers, the last only has the cardinal form? 
 es N thirty-second/ three hundred and forty-third. 
 
20 ENtJLISH GRAMMAR. 13. 
 
 14. COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 
 
 104. ADJECTIVES have three degrees of com- 
 parison ; namely, the Positive, Comparative, and ' 
 Superlative. App. IX. 
 
 105. The Positive expresses the quality simply; the Compara- 
 tive asserts it in a higher or lower degree in one object than in 
 another: and the Superlative, in the highest or lowest degree 
 compared with several-, thus. Gold is heavier than silver 5 it is 
 the most precious of the metals. 
 
 106. In adjectives of one syllable, the Compara- 
 tive is formed by adding -er to the Positive ; and 
 the Superlative, by adding -est ; as, sweet, sweeter* 
 sweetest. 
 
 107. Adjectives of more than one syllable are 
 compared by prefixing more and most to the posi- 
 tive ; as, numerous, more numerous, most numerous. 
 
 108. OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 1. Dissyllables in le after a mute, are generally compared by 
 cr and est: as, able, abler , ablest (37, R. vn). Dissyllables in y 
 change y into i before -er and -est; as, happy, happier, happiest. 
 But y with a vowel before it, is not changed 5 as, gay, gaycr^ 
 gayest (35. Exc. 2). 
 
 2. Some adjectives form the superlative by adding most to the 
 end of the word 5 as, upper, uppermost. So, undermost, foremost^ 
 hindmost, utmost. 
 
 3. When the positive ends in a simple consonant, preceded by 
 a single vowel, the consonant is doubled before er and est; as, hot y 
 letter, hottest (31. Rule in). 
 
 4. Some adjectives do not admit of comparison, viz: 
 
 1. Such as denote number; as, one, two; third, fourth. 
 
 2. -figure or shape; as, circular, square. 
 
 3. posture or position; as, perpendicular. 
 
 4. Those of an absolute or superlative signification', as, trwc 
 perfect, universal, chief, extreme, etc ( 72. Obs ) 
 
13. ETYMOLOGY. 21 
 
 REMARK. Of these last, however, comparative and superlative 
 forms are sometimes used by the best writers as, " The extremest 
 of evils." Bacon. " The chief est of the herdsmen." Bible. 
 
 5. Such adjectives as superior, inferior, exterior, interior, etc., 
 though they involve the idea of comparison, are not to be con 
 sidered as in the comparative degree, any more than such adjec- 
 tives as preferable, previous, etc. They neither have the form 
 f the comparative, nor are they ever construed with than aftei 
 tnem, as comparatives in English commonly are. (See Syntax 
 $ 71, Rule xxii). 
 
 6. The superlative degree implying comparison, is usually 
 preceded by the definite article. When preceded by the indefinite 
 article, it does not imply comparison, but eminence; as, " He is a 
 most distinguished man." The same thing nearly is expressed by 
 prefixing the adverb very, exceedingly and the like which is some- 
 times called the superlative of eminence. 
 
 7. Without implying comparison, the signification of the positive 
 is sometimes lessened by the termination ish; as, white, whitish, 
 black, blackish. These may properly be called diminutive adjec- 
 tives. The adverb rather, expresses a small degree of the quality} 
 as, rather little. 
 
 109. ADJECTIVES COMPARED IRREGULARI.V 
 
 Positive. Comparative. Superlative 
 
 Good better best 
 
 Bad, evil or ill worse worst 
 
 Little less least 
 
 Much or many more most 
 
 Late later latest or last 
 
 Near nearer nearest or next 
 
 Far farther farthest 
 
 Fore former foremost or first 
 
 Old older or elder oldest or eldest 
 
 OBS. Much is applied to things weighed or measured; many, to 
 those that are numbered. Elder and eldest are applied to persgn* 
 only ; older and oldest, to either persons or things. 
 
22 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. $ 15 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 Of what degree of comparison is Sweet, kinder, 
 warmest, prompt, firmest, bright, high, cold, nobler, 
 broader, bravest, more pleasant, most desirable, softer ? 
 
 Compare Great, small, rough, smooth, happy, noble, 
 gay, good, little, much, worthless, ambitious, old, young. 
 
 110. PARSING. An adjective is parsed by stating its degree 
 comparing it (if compared), and the noun which it qualifies; thus, 
 A good man. Good is an adjective, positive degree, compared ir- 
 regularly, good, better, best, and qualifies man. 
 
 EXERCISES ON THE ARTICLE, NOUN, AND ADJECTIVE. 
 
 Distinguish and parse as directed all the words in tins exercise : 
 
 A good man; a kind heart; a clear sky; the bene- 
 volent lady ; the highest hill ; a skilful artist ; an older 
 companion ; man's chief concern ; a lady's lapdog ; most 
 splendid talents; the liveliest disposition; a pleasant 
 temper ; the raging billows ; temples magnificent ; silent 
 shades ; excellent weather ; a loftier tower. 
 
 15. PRONOUNS. 
 
 111. A PRONOUN is a word used instead of a 
 noun ; as, John is a good boy ; he is diligent in his 
 studies. App. X. 
 
 112. Pronouns may oe divided into four classes ; 
 Personal, Relative, Interrogative, and Adjective. 
 
 113. The personal pronouns are, /, thou, he, she, 
 it. They are thus declined 
 
 SINGULAR. . 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Nom. 
 
 Poss. 
 
 Obj. 
 
 Nom. 
 
 Poss. 
 
 OK 
 
 ' t 
 
 M. or 
 
 F. 
 
 I 
 
 mine 
 
 me 
 
 We 
 
 ours 
 
 us 
 
 t, 
 
 M. or 
 
 F. 
 
 Thou 
 
 thine 
 
 thee 
 
 You, (ye) yours 
 
 you 
 
 3. 
 
 Masc. 
 
 
 He 
 
 his 
 
 him 
 
 They 
 
 theirs 
 
 them 
 
 3. 
 
 Fern. 
 
 
 She 
 
 hers 
 
 her 
 
 They 
 
 theirs 
 
 them 
 
 a. 
 
 Neut. 
 
 
 It 
 
 its 
 
 it 
 
 They 
 
 theirs 
 
 them 
 
15 ETYMOLOGY. 23 
 
 114. OBSERVATIONS ON PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 
 
 1. /is of the first person, and denotes the speaker. 
 Thou is of the second, and denotes the person spoken to. 
 He, she, and it, are of the third person, and denote the 
 person or thing spoken of. So also of their plurals, 
 we, you (ye), they. 
 
 2. Myself, thyself, himself, herself, itself, with their 
 plurals ourselves, yourselves, themselves, may be called 
 Compound personal pronouns. They are used in the 
 nominative and the objective case. In the nominative 
 they are emphatic, and are added to their respective 
 personal pronouns, or are used instead of them; as, 
 " 1 myself did it;" " himself shall come." In the ob- 
 jective, they are rejlexive, showing that the agent is 
 also the object of his own act; as, "Judas went and 
 hanged himself.' 9 
 
 3. In proclamations, charters, editorial articles, and the like, 
 we is frequently applied to one person. 
 
 4. In addressing persons, you is commonly. put both for the 
 singular and the plural, and has always a plural verb. Thou is 
 used only in addresses to the Deity, or any important object in 
 nature-, or to mark special emphasis, or, in the language of con- 
 tempt. The plural form ye is now but seldom used. (App. XI.) 
 
 5. The pronoun it, besides its use as the neuter pronoun of the 
 third person, is also used indefinitely with the verb to be in the 
 third person singular, for all genders, numbers, and persons; as, 
 It is I, it is we, it is you, it is they; It was she, etc. 
 
 6. Hers, its, ours, yours, theirs, should never be written Aer'*, 
 ftV, owr's. your's, theirs. 
 
 PARSING PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 
 K.5. The personal pronouns may be parsed briefly thus: /, the 
 first personal pronoun, masculine (or feminine), in the nominative 
 singular. His, the third personal pronoun, masculine, in the pos- 
 sessive singular. 
 
24 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 16 
 
 EXERCISES ON PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 
 
 Parse the following as directed above: I, thou. we, 
 me, us, thine, he, him, she, hers, they, thee, them, its, 
 theirs, you, her, ours, yours, mine, his, I, me, them, us. 
 
 16. RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 1 16. A RELATIVE Pronoun is a word that relates 
 to, and connects its clause with, a noun or pronoun 
 before it, called the antecedent ; as, " The master 
 who taught us.*' 
 
 117. The relative pronouns are who, which, that^ 
 and what (App. XII). They are alike in both num- 
 bers. That and what are indeclinable, and used 
 only in the nominative and objective. JVho and 
 which are thus declined. 
 
 Sing, and Plur. Sing, and Plur. 
 
 Norn. Who, Which. 
 
 Poss. Whose, Whose. 
 
 Obj. Whom, Which. 
 
 118. Who is applied to persons ; as, "The boy 
 who reads.'' 
 
 OBS. Also to inferior animals, and things without life, when 
 they are represented as speaking and acting like rational beings. 
 
 119. Which is applied to inferior animals and 
 things without life ; as, " The dog which barks ;" 
 " The book which was lost." 
 
 NOTE. Which is applied also to collective nouns expressing many 
 persons as one whole ; as, " The court of Spain which ;" " the com- 
 pany which." And likewise after the name of a person used 
 merely as a word ; as, " The court of Queen Elizabeth, which was 
 but another name for prudence and economy." 
 
 Wliich was formerly applied to persons as well as thinga. and if 
 so used in the common version of the Scriptures. 
 
16. ETYMOLOGY. 25 
 
 120. That is often used as a relative, to prevent 
 the too frequent repetition of who or which. It is 
 applied both to persons and things. 58, Rem. 3. 
 
 121. What is applied to things only, and is never 
 used but when the antecedent is omitted ; as, " This 
 is what I wanted,"=the thing which I wanted. XIII 
 
 122. OBSERVATIONS ON THE RELATIVE. 
 
 1. Which has for its possessive whose; as, A religion whost 
 origin is divine. Instead of whose, however, the objective with 
 of before it, is more commonly used ; as, A religion the origin oj 
 which is divine. 
 
 2. What and which are sometimes used as adjectives-, that is, 
 they agree with a substantive following them-, as, "I know not 
 by what fatality the adversaries of the measure are impelled-,' 1 
 Which things are an allegory." In this sense, which applies eithei 
 to persons or things, and in meaning is equivalent to this or these. 
 
 3. Whoever, whosoever, whatever and whatsoever are also used as 
 compound relatives, and are equivalent to the relative and a gene- 
 ral or indefinite antecedent-, as, "Whosoever committeth sin is 
 the servant of sin-,*' that is u any one" or " every one who com- 
 mitteth sin, etc. " " Whatsoever things are of good report-," i. e. 
 u Ml things (without exception) which are of good report" ( 59, 
 Rule in; 63, 8). 
 
 4. Who, and also which, and what without a substantive fol- 
 lowing them, in responsive sentences, or in sentences similarly 
 constructed, are properly neither relatives nor adjectives, but a 
 kind of indefinite pronouns. Thus, when to the question ; ' Who 
 is the author of that poem?" it is replied, " I do not know who is 
 its author," the word " who" is evidently not a relative-, for if it 
 were, then, with the antecedent supplied, the sentence would be 
 u I do not know the person who is its author." These two 
 sentences, however, are clearly not equivalent -, the former means 
 11 I do rjot know by what person it was written-," the latter, " I 
 have nc knowledge of him, I am not acquainted with him." Th* 
 3 
 
'2G ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 17 
 
 first is a direct answer to the question, the last is no answer a 
 all, but would be considered as an evasion. 
 
 123. PARSING. The relative is parsed by stating its gender, 
 number, and case, thus-, " The boy who reads," Who, a relative 
 pronoun, masculine, in the nominative singular, and refers to boy, 
 as its antecedent. 
 
 NOTE. The gender and number of the relative, are always the 
 same as those of the antecedent. 
 
 17. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 124. In asking questions, who, which, and what 
 are called INTERROGATIVE pronouns. 
 
 125. As interrogatives, who is applied to persons 
 only ; which and what , either to persons or things- 
 What admits of no variation. 
 
 OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 126. Obs. 1. In the use of the interrogatives as applied to per- 
 sons, the following distinction is to be observed 5 namely, Who 
 is used when we inquire after a person or persons unknown -, as, 
 Who did it? Which is used when w r e inquire after one or more 
 of a number present, or already spoken of-, as, Which of thein 
 did it? Which of these men is the president? What is used 
 when the character, or a description of a person is inquired after, 
 and not the name or the individual merely, as, What is he? 
 
 127. Obs. 2. When a denning term is added, either what or 
 which may be used-, as, What man, or which man among you? 
 
 128. Obs. 3. Whether (now used as a conjunction only) wa> 
 formerly used as an interrogative pronoun, equivalent to which 
 of the two? as, u Whether is greater, the gold, or the temple ?" 
 Its place is now supplied by which. 
 
 129. Obs. 4. In answers to questions made by these interroga- 
 tives, the same words are used as responsive s ; as, Who did it 1 
 I know not who did it, Which of them did it? I know not which 
 of them did it (See 16, Obs. 4). 
 
18 ETYMOLOGY. 27 
 
 * 18. ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 130. ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS are words used 
 sometimes like adjectives to qualify a noun, and 
 sometimes like pronouns to stand instead of nouns. 
 
 131. Adjective pronouns are divided into four 
 classes ; namely, Possessive, Dijtoributive, Demon- 
 strative, and Indefinite. 
 
 132. The Possessive pronouns are such as de- 
 note possession. They are My, thy, his, lier, our, 
 your, their, its own. 
 
 133. OBS. 1. The possessive pronoun is in fact only another form 
 of the possessive case of the personal pronoun, having the same 
 meaning but a different construction. The possessive pronoun, 
 like the adjective, is always followed by a substantive , as, This is 
 my book. The possessive case of the personal pronoun is never 
 followed by a substantive, but refers to one previously expressed ; 
 as, this book is mine. The possessive case of the substantive is 
 used both ways 5 as this book is John's; or, this is John's book. 
 (App. xiv.) 
 
 134. OBS. 2. His and her when followed by a substantive are 
 possessive pronouns 5 not followed by a substantive, his is the 
 possessive case of he; and her is the objective case of she. 
 
 135. OBS. 3. Mine and thine were formerly used, before a vowel 
 or the letter A, as possessives for my and thy,- as, "Blot out all 
 mine iniquities-," "Commune with thine heart." 
 
 136. OBS. 4. Own is not used as a possessive pronoun by itself, 
 but is added to the other possessive pronouns, and to the possessive 
 case of nouns, to render them emphatic ; as, My own book ; The 
 boy's own book. The possessive pronoun with own following it, 
 may stand alone, having its substantive understood; as, It is my 
 own. 
 
 137. The distributive pronouns represent objects 
 as taken separately. They are Each, every, either f 
 neither. 
 
28 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 18 
 
 138. OBS. 1. Each denotes two things taken separately; or every 
 one of any number taken singly. Every denotes more than two 
 things taken individually, and comprehends them all Either means 
 one of two, but not both. Neither means not either. Each other 
 applies to two ; one another, to more than two. 
 
 139. The demonstrative pronouns point out ob- 
 jects definitely. They are, This and that, with 
 their plurals thej* and those. 
 
 140. OBS. 1. Ton, and former and latter, may be called demon- 
 strative pronouns, as well as this and that . 
 
 141. OBS. 2. That is sometimes a relative, sometimes a cfe- 
 monstrative, and sometimes a conjunction. 
 
 1. It is a relative, when it can be turned into who or which; as, 
 The days that (or which) are past, are gone forever. 
 
 2. It is a demonstrative, when it is placed before a noun, or 
 refers to one at some distance from it 5 as, That book is new; 
 that is what I want. 
 
 3. It is a conjunction when it can not be changed into who or 
 which, but marks a consequence, an indication, or final end; as, 
 He was so proud, that he was universally despised : He answered, 
 that he never was so happy as now. Live well, that you may to 
 happy. 
 
 142. The indefinite pronouns denote persons or 
 things indefinitely. They are, None, any, all, siich, 
 whole, some, both, one, other. The two last are 
 declined like nouns. 
 
 143. Among the indefinites may also be reckoned such words as, 
 no, few, many, several, and the like , as well as the compounds, 
 whoever, whatever, whichsoever, etc., and who, which, and what, in 
 responsive sentences( 16, Obs. 4). * 
 
 144. None is used in both numbers, but it can not be joined tc 
 a noun. (App. xrv.) 
 
 145. PARSING ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 Adjective Pronouns are parsed by stating the class to which 
 hey belong and the word which they qualify, thus, " My book. 51 
 Jfy, a possessive adjective pronoun, qualifying book. 
 
$ 18. ETYMOLOGY. 29 
 
 PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES ON NOUNS, etc. 
 
 Distinguish and parse etymologic-ally tlie words in the following exercises, at 
 previously directed. 
 
 A man, he, who, which, that, his, me, mine, thine, 
 whose, they, hers, it, we, us, I, him, its, horse, mare, 
 master, thou, theirs, thee, you, my, thy, our, your, their, 
 his, her; this, these; that, those; each, every, other 
 any, none, bride, daughter, uncle, wife's, sir, girl, madam, 
 box, dog, lad; a gay lady; sweet apples; strong bulls; 
 fat oxen ; a mountainous country. 
 
 Compare Rich, merry, furious, covetous, large, little, 
 good, bad, near, wretched, rigorous, delightful, sprightly, 
 spacious, splendid, gay, imprudent, pretty. 
 
 The human mind; cold water; he, thou, she, it; 
 woody mountains; the naked rock; youthful jollity; 
 goodness divine; justice severe; this, thy, others, one; 
 a peevish boy; hers, their strokes; pretty girls; his 
 rapid flight; her delicate cheeks; a man who; tho 
 sun that ; a bird which ; himself, themselves, itself; that 
 house; these books. 
 
 Correct The person which waited on us yesterday. 
 The horse who rode down the man. The dog who 
 was chained at the door. Those sort of trees. These 
 kind of persons. The angel which appeared to Moses. 
 The boys which learned their lessons so well. The 
 sun who shines so bright. Those kind of amusements. 
 The woman which told me the story. The messenger 
 which carried the letter. The court who sat last week. 
 The member which spoke last. I have brought three 
 books, you may take either of them, or neither of them. 
 There were twenty men, each with a spear; but nei- 
 ther of them was fully armed. 
 
 3* 
 
30 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 19 
 
 19. THE VERB. 
 
 146. A VERB is a word used to express the act* 
 being, or state of its subject ; as, I write ; you are; 
 time flies ; he is loved. App. XV. 
 
 147. The use of the verb in simple propositions is to affirm or 
 declare 5 that of which it affirms, is called its subject or nominatire, 
 
 148. Verbs are of two kinds; Transitive and In- 
 transitive. App. XVI. 
 
 149. A TRANSITIVE VERB expresses an act done 
 by one person or thing to another; as, "James 
 strikes the table." " The table is struck by James. 11 
 It has two forms, called the Active and the Passive 
 voice ( 21). 
 
 150. An INTRANSITIVE VERB expresses the being* 
 or state of its subject, or an act not done to another ; 
 as, I am, he sleeps, you run. 
 
 151. In this division, Transitive verbs include all those which 
 express an act that passes over from the actor to an object acted 
 upon-, as, He loves us; We are loved by him. Intransitive verbs 
 include all verbs not transitive, whether they express an action 
 or not-, as, I am, you walk, they run (See 21, Obs. 2, 3). 
 
 152. Intransitive verbs, from their nature, can have no distinc- 
 tion of voice. Their form is generally aotive-, as, I stand, I run. 
 A few admit also the passive form-, as, " He is come;" "they 
 are gone .-" equivalent to ." He has come;" "they have gone. n 
 
 153. Intransitive verbs are sometimes rendered transitive, and 
 to capable of a passive form, viz : 
 
 1. By the addition of another word-, as, Intrans. I laugh; 
 Trans. I laugh at; Passive, I am laughed at. 
 
 2. By adding, as an object, a noun of similar signification-, as, 
 Intr. I run; Tr. I run a race-, Passive, A race is run. 
 
 3. When used causatively, to denote the causing of the act or 
 state which they properly express ; as, Walk your hor"d 
 round the yard, i. e. Cause your horse to walk, etc. 
 
\ 19. ETYMOLOGY. 31 
 
 154. Transitive verbs in the active voice, and intransitive 
 verbs, being of the same form, can be distinguished only by their 
 signification and construction. The following marks will enable 
 the student to make this necessary distinction with ease and cer- 
 tainty. 
 
 1st. A transitive verb in the active voice requires an object af- 
 ter it to complete the sense ; as, The boy studies grammar ( 48, 
 Rem. 3). An intransitive verb requires no object after it, but 
 the sense is complete without it-, as, He sits, you ride. 
 
 2d. Every transitive active verb can be changed into the passive 
 form-, thus, u James strikes the table," can be changed into fct The 
 .table is struck by James." But the intransitive verb can not be 
 BO changed ; thus, I smile^ can not be changed into I am smiled. 
 
 3d. In the use of the transitive verb there are always three 
 things implied ; the actor, the art, and the object acted upon ; in 
 the use of the intransitive there are only two / the subject or thing 
 spoken of, and the state or action attributed to it. 
 
 155. A transitive verb without an object is used intransi* 
 tively ; as, He reads and writes well = He is a good reader 
 and writer. 
 
 156. In respect of form, verbs are divided into 
 Regular, Irregular, and Defective. 
 
 157. A REGULAR verb is one that forms its Past 
 tense in the Indicative active, and its Past parti- 
 ciple by adding ed to the Present ; as, Present, love ; 
 Past, loved; Past participle, loved (37). 
 
 158. An IRREGULAR verb is one that does not 
 form its Past tense in the Indicative active, and 
 Past participle, by adding ed to the Present ; thus, 
 Present, write ; Past, wrote ; Past participle, writ- 
 ten. 
 
 159. A DEFECTIVE verb is one in which some of 
 the parts are wanting. To this class belong chiefly 
 Auxiliary and Impersonal verbs. 
 
3*2 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. $ 2 
 
 20. AUXILIARY VERBS. 
 
 160. The AUXILIARY, or helping verbs, by l!w 
 help of which verbs are principally inflected, are 
 the following, which, as auxiliaries, are used only 
 in the present and the past tense ; viz. 
 
 Pres. Do, have, shall, will, may, can, am, mur* 
 
 Past. Did, had, should, would, might, could, was, 
 
 The verb to be is used as an auxiliary, in all its tenses. 
 
 161. Am, do, and have, are also principal verbs. 
 
 162. OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 1. Let (used by some Grammarians as an auxiliary in the im 
 perative mood), is properly a transitive verb, and complete. 
 Ought is a defective verb, having, like must, only the present 
 cense. 
 
 2. Shall implies duty or obligation; will, purpose or resolution 
 may, liberty, can, ability. Of these verbs, the past ten se should 
 would, might, could, is very indefinite with respect to time, 
 being used to express duty, purpose, liberty, and ability, some- 
 times with regard to what is past , sometimes with regard to what 
 is present, and sometimes with regard to what is future; thus, 
 Past. He could not do it then, for he was otherwise engaged. 
 Present. I would do it with pleasure, if I could. 
 
 Future. If he would delay his journey a few days, I might 
 
 (could, would or should), accompany him. 
 
 In these and similar examples, the auxiliaries may be considered 
 simply as denoting liberty, ability, will, or duty, without any re- 
 ference to time in themselves, and that the precise time is indi- 
 cated by the scope of the sentence. The same observation applies 
 to must and ought, implying necessity and obligation. 
 
 3. Weuld is sometimes used to denote what was customary 5 
 as in the examples, " He would say," u He would desire," etc 
 Thus, 
 
 Pleased with my admiration, and the fire 
 His speech struck from me, the old man would shake 
 His years away, and act his young encounters; 
 Then, having showed his wounds, he'd sit (him) down. 
 
20 ETYMOLOGY. 33 
 
 6f WILL and SHALL, WOULD and SHOULD. 
 
 163. Will and shall, auxiliaries in the future, sometimes express 
 resolution or purpose, and sometimes simple futurity . They may 
 be thus distinguished : 
 
 RESOLUTION Of PURPOSE. 
 
 164. WILL expresses the will, purpose, resolution, or promise of 
 the subject with respect to his own acts . Thus, I will go, thou 
 unit go, he will go, express the resolution, etc. of the subject 
 I, thou, he. 
 
 165. SHALL expresses the purpose, resolution, etc. not of the 
 subject, but of another by whom the act is determined. Thus, 
 / shall go, thou shalt go, James shall go, express the resolution,, 
 not of /, thou, James, respectively, but of some other-, as, Johv 
 is resolved that / shall go, etc. 
 
 SIMPLE FUTURITY. 
 
 166. SHALL is used when a person foretels what is future in 
 respect to himself; as, I think that I shall go. 
 
 167. WILL is used in the second and the third person, and SHALL 
 in the first, when a person foretels what is future in respect to 
 others-, as, /think that you will go, that he will go. He thinks 
 that I shall go. 
 
 168. But after such words as if, though, provided, unless, or 
 when, while, until, after, etc., or after the relative in a restrictive 
 clause, shall is used instead of will to denote futurity-, as, If he 
 thill 0; When he shall appear; All who shall subscribe 
 
 WILL and SHALL interrogatively. 
 
 169. In asking questions as to the will, purpose, resolution, or 
 promise of the person addressed, SHALL is used in the first and the 
 third person, and WILL in the second ; as, Shall /go? Shall he go* 
 Will you go? = Is it your purpose that I shall go, etc.? 
 
 170. But in asking questions relative to simple futurity, SHALL 
 is used in theirs* and the second person, and WILL in the third; 
 as, Shall I arrive in time? Shall you be at home? Will the stage 
 arrive soon? 
 
 171. Should and would are subject to the same rules as shall and 
 will. They are generally attended with a supposition; as, 
 
 I to run, I should soon be fatigued 
 
34 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 2L 
 
 172. Should is often used instead of ought, to express present 
 duty or obligation ; as, u We should remember the poor -," = We 
 ought to remember the poor. 
 
 173. Would is sometimes used as a principal verb for Iwish; as n 
 " Would that they were gone," for "I wish that they were gone.'- 
 " When I make a feast, I would my guests should praise it not 
 the cooks." Thus used, it is in the present tense. As a past 
 tense, it implies strong negation-, as, u Ye would none of my re- 
 proof." 
 
 21. INFLECTION OF VERBS. 
 
 174. To the inflection of verbs belong, Voices 
 Moods, Tenses, Numbers, and Persons. 
 
 VOICE. 
 
 175. VOICE is a particular form of the verb, 
 which shows the relation of the subject, or thing 
 spoken of, to the action expressed by the verb. 
 
 176. In English the transitive verb has two 
 voices, the Active and the Passive. 
 
 177. The ACTIVE VOICE represents the subject 
 of the verb as acting; as, "James strikes the 
 table." 
 
 Here the verb " strikes," in the active voice, indicates that its 
 subject 4; James" acts. 
 
 178. The PASSIVE VOICE represents the subject 
 of the verb as acted upon ; as, " The table is struck 
 by James." 
 
 Here the verb " is struck," in the passive voice, indicates that 
 its subject u table" is acted upon. 
 
 179. OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 1. The transitive verb always expresses the same act, whether 
 it be in the active or passive form. In both it is equally transitive, 
 1, e. the act expressed by it in either form, passes over from the 
 
22. ETYMOLOGY. 35 
 
 person or thing vting, to the person or thing acted upon. Hence 
 the same idea may be expressed witn equal propriety in both 
 forms, simply by changing the object of tne active voice into thfe 
 subject of the passive; thus, 
 
 Actively. Ccpsar conquered Gaul. 
 
 Passively. Gaul was conquered by Caesar. 
 
 2. The same verbs are sometimes used in a transitive, and 
 sometimes in an intransitive sense-, thus, in the phrase, "Charity 
 thinketh no evil," think is transitive; in the phrase, u Think on 
 me," it is intransitive. 
 
 3. Many verbs in the active voice, by an idiom peculiar to the 
 English, are used in a sense nearly allied to the passive, but for 
 which the passive will not always be a proper substitute. Thus, 
 we say. u This field ploug hs well; 17 "These lines read smoothly ," 
 " This fruit tastes bitter;" "Linen wears better than cotton." 
 The idea here expressed, is quite different from that expressed by 
 the passive form, u This field is well ploughed;" " These lines 
 are smoothly read." Sometimes, however, the same idea is ex- 
 pressed by both forms; thus, "Wheat sells readily," or "is sold 
 readily at an advanced price." Expressions of this kind are usually 
 made in French by the reflected verb; thus, "Ce champ se labours 
 bien;" "Ces lignes se lisent aisement." When used in this sense, 
 they may properly be ranked with intransitive verbs, as they are 
 never followed by an objective case. 
 
 22. MOODS.* 
 
 180. MOOD is the mode or manner of expressing 
 the signification of the verb. 
 
 181. Verbs have Jive moods ; namely, the In- 
 dicative, Potential, Subjunctive, Imperative, and In- 
 Jinitive. App. XVIL 
 
 * Explanations of the rnoods and tenses'of verbs, are inserted here for the sako 
 of order : but it would perhaps be improper to detain the learner so long as to 
 commit them to memory : He may, therefore, after getting the definition of * 
 v*rb, proceed to the inflection of it, without delay; and when lie comes to the 
 exercises on the verbs, he can look Lack to the definition of verbs, moods, 
 fee , as occasion may require 
 
30 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 22 
 
 1. The Indicative mood declares the fact ex- 
 pressed by the verb, simply and without limitation ; 
 as, He loves; He is loved. 
 
 2. The Potential mood declares, not the fact ex- 
 Dressed by the verb, but only its possibility, or the 
 liberty, power, will, or obligation of the subject 
 with respect to it ; as, The wind may blow ; We 
 may walk or ride ; I can swim ; He would not stay ; 
 You should obey your parents. 
 
 3. The Subjunctive mood represents the fact 
 expressed by the verb, not as actual, but as condi- 
 tional, desirable, or contingent ; as, " If thy 
 presence go not with us, carry us not up hence." 
 App. XVIIL 
 
 4. The Imperative mood commands, exhorts, 
 entreats, or permits ; as, Do this ; Remember thy 
 Creator; Hear, O my people; Go thy way for 
 this time. 
 
 5. The Infinitive mood expresses a thing in a 
 general manner, without any distinction of person 
 or number, and commonly has to before it ; as, To 
 love. 
 
 182. OBSERVATIONS ON THE MOODS. 
 
 1. The future indicative is sometimes used potentially 5 i. e. the 
 auxiliaries will and shall belong to the present potential, as well 
 as way, or can, or must , when they express present Willingness or 
 obligation. In this case, the futurity implied is contingent, and 
 not absolute-, as, He will do it, if properly solicited. And hence 
 the corresponding would and should, as well as might and could, 
 belong *o the past tense. The potential mood has no future tense , 
 
 2. The subjunctive mood is always dependent upon, or is sub- 
 \rtined to, another verb, expressed or understood. It is sometimes 
 
23 ETYMOLOGY. 37 
 
 called conjunctive, because it is usually preceded by a conjunction; 
 as, if, though, unless, etc. Sometimes it is called conditional, be- 
 cause it usually expresses a condition on which something is sus- 
 pended. It differs in form from the indicative, in the present 
 tense only, in the verb to be, in the present and past. 
 
 NOTE. Both the indicative and potential, with a conjunctive 
 particle prefixed, are used subjunctively; i. e. they are used to 
 express what is conditional or contingent, and with dependence 
 on another verb; as, " If he sleeps (now), he will do well;" u He 
 would go, if he could (go). 1 ' 
 
 3. The imperative mood, strictly speuking, has only the second 
 person, singular and plural; because, in commanding, exhorting, 
 etc., the language of address is always used; thus, u Let him 
 love," is equivalent to, u Let thou him love;" where Let is the 
 proper imperative, and love the infinitive governed by it. (Syn- 
 tax, 387.) 
 
 4. The infinitive mood may be considered as a verbal noun, 
 having the nominative and objective cases, but not the possessive: 
 and hence it is used both as the subject of another verb, and as the 
 object after it. (Syntax, 47, Rule n.; and $ 48, Rule I.) 
 
 23. TENSES OR DISTINCTIONS OF TIME. 
 
 183. TENSES are certain forms of the verb, which 
 serve to point out the distinctions of time. 
 
 184. Time is naturally divided into the Present, Past and Fu- 
 ture: And an action may be represented, either as incomplete and 
 continuing, or, as completed at the time spoken of. This gives 
 rise to six tenses, only two of which are expressed in English by 
 a distinct form of the verb. The others are formed by the aid of 
 auxiliary verbs, thus: 
 
 PFF*FNT $ ^ ct ^ on continuing ; as, I love, I do love, or I am loving. 
 
 \ Action completed, as, I have loved. 
 PAST $ Action continuing ,-as. I loved. I did love, or Iwas loving. 
 
 Action completed; as I had loved, 
 p 5 ^ ctwn continuing; as, I shall or will love 
 
 ) Action completed; as, I shall have loved. 
 4 
 
28 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 23 
 
 185. The tenses in English are six, namely : the 
 Present, the Present-perfect, the Past, the Past- 
 perfect, the Future, and the Future-perfect. 
 
 1. The Present tense expresses what is going on 
 at the present time ; as, I love you. 
 
 2. The Present-perfect tense represents an action 
 or event as completed at the present time; as, " John 
 has cut his finger ;" " I have sold my horse ;" " I 
 have done nothing this week." 
 
 3. The Past tense expresses what took place in 
 past time ; as, " God said, let there be light ;" " The 
 ship sailed when the mail arrived." 
 
 4. The Past-perfect tense represents an action 
 or event as completed at or before a certain past 
 time ; as, "I had walked six miles that day;" " All 
 the judges had taken their places before Sir Roger 
 came/' 
 
 5. The Future tense expresses what will take 
 place in future time ; as, " I will see you again, and 
 your hearts shall rejoice." 
 
 6. The Future-perfect tense intimates that ap 
 action or event will be completed at or before a 
 certain time yet future ; as, "I shall have got my 
 lesson before ten o'clock to-morrow. 1 ' 
 
 NOTE. The tenses inflected without an auxiliary are called 
 SIMPLE tenses-, those with an auxiliary, are called COMPOUND 
 tenses. In the common form of the verb, the simple tenses are the 
 Present and Past Indicative and Subjunctive, Active-, all the other 
 tenses are compound 
 
j 24. ETYMOLOGY. 39 
 
 186. 24. OBSERVATIONS ON THE TENSES. 
 
 I. The Present tense in the simple form is used as follows: 
 
 1. It expresses the simple existence of the fact-, as, He speaks^ 
 She writes; They walk. 
 
 2. It is used to express what is habitual or always true; as, He 
 takes sniftff; She goes to church-, Virtue is its own reward. In 
 this sense it is applied to express the feelings which persons long 
 since dead, or events already past usually excite in our minds , as, 
 Nero is abhorred for his cruelty 5 Milton is admired for his sub- 
 limity. 
 
 3. In historical narration, it is used with great effect for the 
 Past tense-, as, "Caesar leaves Gaul, crosses the Rubicon, and 
 enters Italy with five thousand men." (552.5). 
 
 4. It is used sometimes, instead of the present-perfect tense, in 
 speaking of authors long since dead, when reference is made to 
 their works which still exist; as, " Moses tells us who were the 
 descendants of Abraham;" " Virgil imitates Homer;" instead of 
 16 has told," " has imitated" 
 
 5. When preceded by such words as when, before, as soon as, 
 after, and the like, it expresses the relative time of a future action j 
 as, When he comes, he will be welcome; As soon as the Post 
 arrives, the letters will be distributed. 
 
 II. The Present-perfect In the use of this tense, it matters 
 not how long ago the act referred to may have been performed, if 
 it were in a period reaching to and embracing the present, or a 
 part of which is not yet past; as, " Many discoveries in the arts 
 have been made since the days. of Bacon" (that is, in the period 
 reaching from that time to the present). On the other hand, if 
 the time of an act mentioned is past, and does not include the pre. 
 sent, this tense can not be used, however near the time may be. 
 Thus, we cannot properly say, u I have seen your friend a mo- 
 ment ago ; but " I saw your friend," etc. The following usages 
 may be noticed. 
 
 1. This tense is used to express an act or state continued through 
 a period of time reaching to the present; as, " He has studied 
 grammar six months" u He has been absent [now] six years." 
 
 2. It is used to express acts long since completed, when the re- 
 ference is not to the act of finishing, but to the thing finished <wd 
 
40 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 24. 
 
 still existing-, as, "Cicero has written orations" "Moses has 
 told us many important facts in his writings" "Of old thou hast 
 laid the foundation of the earth, and the 'heavens are the work of 
 thy hand." But if the thing completed does not now exist, or if 
 the reference is to the act of finishing, and not to the present con- 
 tinuance of the thing finished, this tense can not be used-, thus, 
 we can not say, " Cicero has written poems," because no such 
 productions now remain. Nor, " In the beginning God has crea- 
 ted the heavens," because reference is only to the act of God at a 
 certain past time indicated by the words " In the beginning." 
 
 3. It is used in the same manner as the present (186, I, 5), in- 
 stead of th future-perfect, to represent an action, etc., as perfect 
 at a future time; as, "The cock shall not crow, till thou hast 
 denied me thrice." 
 
 4. Sometimes this tense is used in effect to deny the present 
 existence of that of which the verb expresses the completion-, as, 
 " I have been young" meaning, this is now finished I am young 
 no more , that is, u I am old." 
 
 NOTE. This tense corresponds to the Latin perfect definite. 
 
 III. 1. The Past tense The time expressed by this tense is 
 regarded as entirely past, and, however near to the present, it 
 does not embrace it; as, I saw your friend a moment ago" " I 
 wrote yesterday." 
 
 2. In such expressions as "I wrote this morning" " this week" 
 " this year," etc., the reference is to a point of time now en- 
 tirely past, in these yet unfinished periods. 
 
 3. This tense is used to express what was customary in past 
 time; as, " She attended church regularly all her life." 
 
 IV. The Past-perfect tense (Pluperfect) has the same relation to 
 the Past tense that the Present-perfect has to the Present tense. It 
 connects the action or event expressed by the verb with some 
 point or period of time now wholly past , at or before which it was 
 completed; as, then, yesterday, last century, etc.; as " He had 
 THEN studied grammar six months;" " He had been a soldier in 
 his youth;" I had written yesterday; Many discoveries in philo- 
 sophy and the arts had been made before the days of Bacon. 
 
 V. The same general observations apply to the Future and 
 Future-perfect tenses, in relation to a point or period of time yet 
 future. 
 
25 ETYMOLOGY. 41 
 
 VI. The six tenses here enumerated are all found only in the 
 indicative. The potential has only four tenses ; the subjunctive, 
 one, sometimes two, in a form distinct from that of the indica- 
 tive ; the imperative but one ; the infinitive two ; and the parti- 
 ciple three. 
 
 VII. The Past tenses both of the potential and the subjunctive 
 mood are much less definite with respect to the time of the action 
 or state expressed by the verb, than the same tenses in the indi- 
 cative. For examples of this in the potential mood, see 20 
 OBS. 2. 
 
 The Past subjunctive expresses contingency, etc. a respecting 
 what is past, but yet unknown, only when referring to past time 
 expressed or implied; as, u If I saw your friend last year, I have 
 forgotten it." But in connection with the potential mood, or not 
 referring to past time, the Past subjunctive has this peculiarity 
 of usage it expresses a supposition with respect to something 
 present, but implies a denial of the thing supposed; thus, " If I 
 had the money now, I would pay it," implies that I have it not. 
 " If he were well [now], he would go-," implying u he is sick." 
 The present tense here conveys a very different idea-, thus, li lfl 
 have the money, I will pay it," etc. In order to express the first 
 of these examples in past time, the Past-perfect must be usedj 
 thus, If I had had the money yesterday, I would have paid it. 
 
 25. PARTICIPLES. 
 
 187. A PARTICIPLE is a vford which, as a verb, 
 expresses an action or state, and, as an adjective, 
 qualifies a noun ; as, " He came seeing ;" " Having 
 finished our task, we may play." 
 
 188. Participles are so called, because they belong partly to the 
 verb, and partly to the adjective. From the former, they have 
 signification, voice, and tense; and they perform the office of the 
 latter. 
 
 189. Verbs have three participles ; the present, 
 the past, and the perfect ; as, loving, loved, having 
 
42 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. $ 535 
 
 loved, in the active voice ; and being loved, loved, 
 having been loved, in the passive. 
 
 190. The present participle in the active voice ends 
 always in ing. In all verbs, it has an active signifi- 
 cation, and denotes an action or state as continuing 
 and progressive ; as, " James is building a house." In 
 some verbs, it has also a passive progressive significa- 
 tion; as, "The house is building." App. XIX. 
 
 191. The Present participle passive has always a 
 passive signification, but it has the same difference of 
 meaning with respect to the time or state of the action 
 as the present indicative passive App, XIX. 
 
 192. The Past participle has the same form in both voices. In 
 the active voice, it belongs equally to transitive and intransitive 
 verbs has always an active sense forms, with the auxiliaries, 
 the Present-perfect and Past-perfect tenses and is never found 
 but thus combined-, as, " has loved," " had loved," etc. In the 
 passive voice t it has always a passive sense, and, with the verb 
 to be as an auxiliary, forms the passive voice-, as, a He is loved ," 
 or without it, qualifies a noun or pronoun-, as, " A man loved by 
 all, hated by none." The difference between the active and the 
 passive participle will be seen in the following examples, viz : 
 ACTIVE " He has concealed a dagger under his cloak-," PASSIVE 
 u He has a dagger concealed under his cloak." 
 
 193. The Perfect participle is always compound, and repre- 
 sents an action or state as completed at the time referred to. It 
 has always an active sense in the active voice, and a passive 
 sense in the passive; as, ACTIVE -. "Having finished our task, 
 we may play." PASSIVE : " Our task having been finished, we 
 may play." 
 
 194. The Present participle active, and the Past 
 participle passive, when separated from the idea of 
 time, become adjectives, and are usually called parti- 
 cipial adjectives; as, "An amusing story;" "Abound 
 book." 
 
26, 27. ETYMOLOGY. 43 
 
 195. The participle in ing is often used as a verbal 
 noun ( 5, Obs. 3), having the nominative and objective 
 cases, but not the possessive. As a verbal noun, the 
 participle of a transitive verb may still retain the go- 
 vernment of the verb ; as, "In keeping his command- 
 ments, there is a great reward :" or, it may be divested 
 of it, by inserting the preposition of after it ; as, " In 
 the keeping of his commandments." When of follows 
 the participle, the should precede it ( 65, R. XVI). 
 
 196. So also the Perfect participle-, as, " There is satisfaction 
 in having done well" ;t His having done his duty, was after- 
 ward a source of satisfaction." 
 
 26. NUMBER AND PERSON. 
 
 197. Every tense of the verb, except in the infi- 
 nitive mood, has two NUMBERS, the singular and 
 the plural ; and in each of these, three PERSONS. 
 
 The First person asserts of the person speaking ; 
 as, /write, we write. 
 
 The Second, asserts of the person spoken to ; 
 as, Thou writest, ye or you write. 
 
 The Third, asserts of the person or thing spoken 
 of; as, He writes, they write. 6, and 15. Obs. 1. 
 
 27. CONJUGATION. 
 
 198. The conjugation of a verb, is the regular 
 combination and arrangement of its several moods, 
 tenses, numbers and persons. 
 
 199. In the active voice, most verbs have two forms ; 
 the Common, and tihe Progressive. See App. XIX, I. 1. 
 
 I. The Common form expresses the simple existence 
 of the fact; as, "He speaks, 19 "She writes," 
 "They talk." 
 
44 ENGLISH GRAMMAR*. 27 
 
 2. The Progressive form represents an action as 
 begun, and in progress, but not completed. It 
 is formed by annexing the present participle to 
 the verb "to be," through all its moods and 
 tenses; as, "I am writing," &c. ( 30). 
 
 200. Besides these,in the present and the past indicative, there 
 is a third form, called the Emphatic, used to express a fact with 
 emphasis or force. It is formed by prefixing to the verb the 
 auxiliary do, in the present tense, and did, in the past 5 as, u I do 
 write"" I did write." The other tenses, and also the pro- 
 gressive form and passive voice, are rendered emphatic, by pla- 
 cing emphasis on the auxiliary; as, "I have written" U I am 
 writing" " The letter t written." 
 
 201. To these may be added, the solemn form of the third per- 
 son singular, present indicative, ending in th, or eth, instead of 
 the common, ending in s or es. Thus solemn form, loveth, hath 
 loved; common, loves, has loved. Need is also used for needs. 
 
 202. The tenses of the verb, inflected without an 
 auxiliary, are called SIMPLE tenses ; those inflected with 
 an auxiliary are called COMPOUND tenses. 
 
 203. The principal parts of the verb are the 
 Present indicative, the Past indicative, and the 
 Past participle. In parsing, the mentioning of these 
 parts is called conjugating the verb. Thus : 
 
 Present. Past. Past participle. 
 
 Regular (157), Love, loved, loved. 
 
 Irregular (158), Write, wrote, written. 
 
 CONJUGATION OF THE REGULAR VERB "To LOVE." 
 
 204. The regular transitive verb " To laie" is 
 inflected through all its moods and tenses, as fol- 
 lows : 
 
27. ETYMOLOGY. 45 
 
 ACTIVE VOICE. 
 
 PRINCIPAL PARTS. 
 
 Prtsent, love. Past, loved. Past participle t toved 
 
 INDICATIVE MOOD. 
 PRESENT TENSE.* 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I love. 1. We love. 
 
 2. Thou lovest. 2. You love. 
 
 3. He loves (or loveth) . 3. They love. 
 
 PRESENT-PERFECT TENSE (PERFECT). 
 Sign, have. 
 
 1. I have loved. 1. We have loved. 
 
 2. Thou hast loved. 2. You have loved. 
 
 3. He has or hath loved. 3. They have loved. 
 
 PAST TENSE. 
 
 1. I loved. 1. We loved. 
 
 2. Thou lovedst. 2. You loved. 
 
 3. He loved. 3. They loved. 
 
 PAST-PERFECT TENSE (PLUPERFECT). 
 Sign, had. 
 
 1. I had loved. . 1. We had loved. 
 
 2. Thou hadst loved. 2. You had loved. 
 
 3. He had loved. 3. They had loved, 
 
 * EMPHATIC FORMS. 
 
 PRESENT TENSE. 
 
 2. I do love. 1. We do love. 
 
 2. Thou dost love. 2. You do love. 
 
 3. He does or doth love 3. Theydolova 
 
 PAST TENSE. 
 
 1. I did love. 1. We did love 
 
 2. Thou didst love. 2. You did love. 
 3 He did love. 3 They did love 
 
46 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 27 
 
 FUTURE TENSE. 
 Signs, shall, will Inflect with each. 
 
 1. I shall love. 1. We shall love. 
 
 2. Thou shalt love. 2. You shall love. 
 
 3. He shall love. 3. They shall love. 
 
 FUTURE-PFRFECT TENSE. 
 Signs, shall have, will have. Inflect with each. 
 
 1. I shall have loved. 1. We shall have loved. 
 
 2. Thou shalt have loved. 2. You shall have loved. 
 
 3. He shall have loved. 3. They shall have loved. 
 
 POTENTIAL MOOD. 
 
 PRESENT TENSE. 
 
 Signs, may, can } must. Inflect with each. 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I may love. 1. We may love. 
 
 2. Thou mayst love. 2. You may love. 
 
 3. He may love. 3. They may love. 
 
 PRESENT-PERFECT TENSE (PERFECT). 
 Signs, may have, can have,* must have. Inflect with each. 
 
 1. I may have loved. 1. We may have loved. 
 
 2. Thou mayst have loved. 2. You may have loved. 
 
 3. He may have loved. 3. They may have loved 
 
 PAST TENSE. 
 Signs, might, could, would, should. Inflect with each. 
 
 1. I might love. 1. We might love. 
 
 2. Thou mightst love. 2. You might love. 
 
 3. He might love. 3. They might love. 
 
 PAST-PERFECT TENSE (PLUPERFECT). 
 Signs, might have, could have, would have, should have. Inflect with eaoo. 
 
 1. I might have loved. 1. We might have loved. 
 
 2. Thou mightst have loved. 2. You might have loved. 
 
 3. He might have loved. 3. They might have loved. 
 
 *Can haw is not used in affirmative sentences. 
 
4 27. ETYMOLOGY. 47 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
 PRESENT TENSE (Subjunctive form) 
 Singular. Plura 1 
 
 1 If I love. I. If we love. 
 
 2 //" thou love. 2. //"you love. 
 3. # he love. 3. If they love. 
 
 PRESENT TENSE (Indicative form) . 
 
 1. If I love. 1. // we love. 
 
 2. If thou lovest. 2. Tf you love. 
 
 3. if he loves (or loveth). 3. If they love. 
 
 PRESENT-PEEFECT TENSE (PERFECT). 
 
 1. If I have loved. 1. Tjf we have loved. 
 
 2. If thou hast loved. 2. If you have loved. 
 
 3. Tjf he has or hath loved. 3. If they have loved. 
 
 PAST TENSE. 
 
 1. If I loved. 1. If we loved. 
 
 2. If thou lovedst. 2. Jjf you loved. 
 
 3. .If he loved. 3. If they loved. 
 
 PAST-PERFECT TENSE (PLUPERFECT). 
 
 l.Ifl had loved. 1. //"we had loved. 
 
 2. Jf thou hadst loved. 2. j/" you had loved. 
 
 3. #" he had loved. 3. If they had loved. 
 
 FUTURE TENSE. 
 
 1. If I shall or will love. 1. If we shall or will love. 
 
 2. IfihoM shalt or wilt love. 2. If you shall or will love, 
 
 3. If he shall or will love. 3. If they shall or will love. 
 
 *The Present subjunctive is here given in two forms : 1st, in the subjunctive 
 rvr elliptical form, used when both contingency and futurity are implied ; and 2d, 
 the indicative form, used when contingency only, and not futurity is implied. In 
 parsing, the latter should be called the " indicative used subjunctively," being 
 Hi* indicative mood in form, and rendered subjunctive only by the conjunction 
 prefixed. This is true also of the other tenses in this mood. 
 
 TLe emphatic forms of the present are, If I do love, if tliou do /ov, if he do 
 ?<w, etc. ; of the past, If I did tovg, if thou didst love, etc. as in the indicative 
 
48 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 27 
 
 FUTURE-PERFECT TENSE. 
 
 1. If I shall or will have loved. I. If we shall or will have loved. 
 2. If thou shalt or wilt have loved. 2. If you shall or will have loved 
 3. If he shall or will have loved. 3. If they shall or will have loved 
 
 IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 Common form. 2. Love, or love thou. 2. Love, or love ye or you 
 Emphatic form . 2. Do thou love. 2. Do ye or you love. 
 
 INFINITIVE MOOD. 
 PRESENT, to love. PERFECT, to have loved 
 
 PARTICIPLES. 
 
 PRESENT, loving. PAST, loved. PERFECT, having loved. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 Inflect the following irregular verbs in. the same manner as the verb " to love" : 
 Present. Past. Past Participle. 
 
 Go went gone 
 
 Write wrote written 
 
 Do did done 
 
 Fall fell fallen 
 
 Give gave given 
 
 Have had had 
 
 ^05. PARSING. A verb is parsed by stating its class (transitive 
 or intransitive), its form (regular or irregular), conjugating it, 
 ii irregular* ($ 32), and stating its tense, mood, voice, person, and 
 number, and also the subject of which it affirms ; thus, " He loves 
 study. Loves is a verb transitive, found in the present indica- 
 tive active, third person singular, and affirms of its subject He.1 
 
 *In parsing, it will save time to omit conjugating the verb when it is regular ; 
 and it is unnecessary, because its being announced to be regular sufficiently as. 
 certains its principal parts. All irregular verbs should be conjugated as in 32. 
 Every teacher, however, will adopt the course which he prefers. 
 
 t In parsing, it is important and will save much time to state every thing re. 
 quired in as few words as possible, to observe always the same order, and with- 
 out waiting to have every thing drawn out by questions. 
 
27. ETYMOLOGY. 49 
 
 EXERCISES ON THE TENSES OF VERBS, AND CASES OF ftOUNS 
 AND PRONOUNS. 
 
 Tell the tense, mood, person, and number of They 
 love ; learn you ; they had walked ; he shall have 
 learned; thou hadst painted; we can gain; to form; 
 to have joined ; obeys ; lovedst ; teaches ; we could 
 stand; she has learned; we shall have gone; they will 
 have come; I do love; thou didst love; they did love. 
 
 Parse the following words and sentences:* We love 
 him ; I love you ; James loves me ; it amuses him ; we 
 shall conduct them ; they will divide the spoil ; soldiers 
 should defend their country ; friends invite friends ; she 
 can read her lesson ; she may play a tune ; you might 
 please her; thou mayst ask him; he may have betrayed 
 us ; we might have diverted the children ; Tom can de- 
 liver the message. 
 
 I love ; to love ; love ; reprove thou ; has loved ; we 
 tied the knot ; if we love ; if thou love ; they could have 
 commanded armies ; to love ; to baptize ; to have loved ; 
 loved; loving; to survey; having surveyed; write a let- 
 ter ; read your lesson ; thou hast obeyed my voice ; ho- 
 nour thy father ; his mother teaches him ; love ; loved 
 
 NOMINATIVE AND OBJECTIVE. 
 
 206, The teacher, if he chooses, may now acquaint the learner 
 with the difference between the Nominative and Objective. 
 
 * QUESTIONS which may be put to the pupils : How do you know that 
 love is plural? Ans. Because we, its nominative, is plural How do you know 
 that love is the first person ? Ans. Because we is a pronoun of the first person, and 
 the verb is always of the same number and person with the noun or pronoun 
 before it. 
 
 Many of the phrases in this page may be converted into exercises of a different 
 kind ; thus, the meaning of the sentence, We love him, may be expressed by lh 
 pass ve voice ; as, He is loved by us. It may also be turned into a question, or 
 made a negative ; as, Do we love him ? &c. We do not love him 
 
 5 
 
50 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 28. 
 
 When the verb is active, the Nominative acts; the Objective is 
 acted upon; as, He eats apples. 
 
 The Nominative commonly comes before the verb , the Objective, 
 after it; as, We saw them. In asking questions, the nominative 
 follows the verb in the simple tenses, and the auxiliary in the 
 compound tenses; as, 'Lovestthou me? did he come? may we go? 
 is it finished? 
 
 28. NEGATIVE FORM OF THE VERB. 
 
 207. The verb is made to deny, by placing the word not after 
 the simple form; as, u Thou lovest not;" and between the auxi- 
 liary and the verb in the compound form; as, " I do not love." 
 When two auxiliaries are used, it is placed between them; as, 
 44 I would not have loved." 
 
 208. In the infinitive and participles, the negative is put first; 
 as, u Not to love" " Not 1-oving." 
 
 209. The simple form is seldom used with the negative. In the 
 present and past tenses, the compound or emphatic form is more 
 common. The following synopsis will show the manner of using 
 the negative : 
 
 INDICATIVE MOOD. 
 
 Present. 1 . I do not love. 2. Thou dost not love, etc. 
 
 Pres.-perf. 1. I have not loved. 2. Thou hast not loved, etc. 
 
 Past. 1. I did not love. 2. Thou didst not love, etc. 
 
 Past-perf. 1. I had not loved. 2. Thou hadst not loved, et . 
 
 Future. 1. I will not love. 2. Thou wilt not love, etc. 
 
 Fut.-pcrf. 1. I shall not have 2. Thou shalt not have loved, 
 loved. etc. 
 
 POTENTIAL MOOD. 
 
 Present. 1. I can not love. 2. Thou canst not love, etc. 
 
 Pres.-perf. f. I may not have 2. Thou mayst not have loved, 
 
 loved. etc. 
 
 Past. 1. I might not love. 2. Thou mightst not love, etc. 
 
 Past-perf. 1 . I might not have 2. Thou mightst not have loved, 
 loved. etc. 
 
5 28 ETYMOLOGY. 51 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
 Present. 1. If I do not love. 2. If thou do not love, etc. 
 
 IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 2. Love not, or do not thou love. 2. Love not, or do not ye love. 
 
 INFINITIVE MOOD. 
 Present. Not to love . Perfect. Not to have loved. 
 
 PARTICIPLES. 
 
 Present. Not loving. Past. Not loved. 
 
 Perfect. Not having loved. 
 
 Interrogative form of the Verb. 
 
 210. The verb is made to ask a question by placing the nomi- 
 native,or subject, after the simpl-e form; as, u Lovest thou?" and 
 between the auxiliary and the verb in the compound forms; as, 
 "Do I love?" When there are two auxiliaries, the nominative 
 is placed between them: as, u Shall I have loved?" 
 
 211. The subjunctive, imperative, infinitive, and participles, 
 can not have the interrogative form. 
 
 212. The simple form of the verb is seldom used interrogatively. 
 The following synopsis will show how the verb is put into the 
 interrogative form : 
 
 INDICATIVE MOOD. 
 
 Present. 1. Do I love? 2. Dost thou love? etc. 
 
 Pres.-perf. I. Have I loved? 2. Hast thou loved? etc. 
 Past. 1. Did I love? 2. Didst thou love? etc. 
 
 Past -perf. 1. Had I loved? 2. Hadst thou loved? etc, 
 
 Future. 1. Shall I love? 2. Wilt thou love? etc. 
 
 Fut.-perf. 1. Shall I have loved? 2. Wilt thou have loved? etc 
 
 POTENTIAL MOOD. 
 
 Present. 1. May I love? 2. Canst thou love? etc. 
 
 Prcs.-perf. I. May I have loved? 2. Canst thou have loved? etc. 
 Past. 1. Might I love? 2. Couldst thou love? etc. 
 
 Past -perf. I. Might I have 2. Couldst thou have loved? 
 
 loved? etc. 
 
 213. Interrogative sentences are made negative by placing the 
 negative either before or after the nominative; as, " Do I not 
 love?" or, " Dt> not I love'" 
 
52 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 29. 
 
 29. CONJUGATION OF THE IRREGULAR VERB 
 " TO BE." 
 
 214. The intransitive irregular verb TO BE, is in- 
 flected through all its moods and tenses, as follows: 
 
 PRINCIPAL PARTS. 
 
 Present^ am. Past, was. Past participle, been 
 
 INDICATIVE MOOD. 
 PRESENT TENSE. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I am. 1. We are. 
 
 2. Thou art. 2. You are. 
 
 3. He is. 3. They are. 
 
 PRESENT-PERFECT TENSE (PERFECT). 
 Sign, have. 
 
 1. I have been. 1. We have been. 
 
 2. Thou hast been. 2. You have been. 
 
 3. He has been. 3. They have been 
 
 PAST TENSE. 
 
 1. I was. 1. We were. 
 
 2. Thou wast. 2. You were. 
 
 3. He was. 3. They were. 
 
 PAST-PERFECT TENSE (PLUPERFECT). 
 Sign, had. 
 
 1. I had been. 1. We had been. 
 
 2. Thou hadst been. 2. You had been. 
 
 3. He had been. 3. They had been. 
 
 FUTURE TENSE. 
 Signs, shall, tntt. Inflect with each. 
 
 1. I shall be. 1. We shall be. 
 
 2. Thou shalt be. 2. You shall be. 
 ^. He shall be. 3. They shall be 
 
29 ETYMOLOGY. 53 
 
 FUTURE-PERFECT TENSE. 
 Signs, shall have, mitt have. Inflect with each . 
 
 1. I shall have been. 1. We shall have been. 
 
 2. Thou shalt have been. 2. You shall have been.. 
 
 3. He shall have been. 3. They shall have been, 
 
 POTENTIAL MOOD. 
 
 PRESENT TENSE. 
 
 Signs, may, can, must. Inflect with each. 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I may be. 1. We may be. 
 
 2. Thou mayst be. 2. You may be. 
 
 3. He may be. 3. They may be 
 
 PRESENT-PERFECT TENSE (PERFECT). 
 Signs, may have, can have,- or must have. Inflect with each. 
 
 1. I may have been. 1. We may have been. 
 
 2. Thou mayst have been. 2. You may have been. 
 
 3. He may have been. 3. They may have been 
 
 PAST TENSE. 
 Signs, might, could, would, should. Inflect with each. 
 
 1. I might be. 1. We might be. 
 
 2. Thou mightst be. 2. You might be. 
 
 3. He might be. 3. They might be. 
 
 PAST-PERFECT TENSE (PLUPERFECT). 
 Signs, might have, could have, would have, should have. Inflect will. - . cr 
 
 1. I might have been. 1. We might have been, 
 
 2. Thou mightst have been. 2. You might have been. 
 
 3. He might have been. 3. They might have been. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
 PRESENT TENSE (Subjunctive form). 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. If I be. 1. #webe. 
 
 2. ./f thoube. 2. If you be. 
 
 3. //"he be. 3. If they be. 
 
34 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 29. 
 
 PAST TENSE (Subjunctive form).* 
 
 1. If I were. 1. 7jf we were. 
 
 2. TjT them wert or were. 2. JJf you were. 
 
 3. ^T he were. 3. 7/ 1 they were. 
 
 IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 2. Be, or be thou. 2. Be, or be ye or yoa. 
 
 INFINITIVE MOOD. 
 PRESENT TENSE. PERFECT TENSE. 
 
 To be. To have been. 
 
 PARTICIPLES. 
 PRESENT, Being. PAST, Been. PERFECT, Having been 
 
 EXERCISES ON THE VERB "TO BE." 
 
 Parse the words in the following exercises. 
 
 Am, is, art, wast, I was, they were, we are, hast been, 
 has been, we have been, hadst been, he had been, you 
 have been, she has been, we were, they had been. 
 
 I shall be, shalt be, we will be, thou wilt be, they shall 
 be, it will be, thou wilt have been, we have been, they 
 will have been, we shall have been, am, it is. 
 
 I can be, mayst be, canst be, she may be, you may be, 
 ne must be, they should be, mightst be, he would be, it- 
 could be, wouldst be, you could be, he may have been. 
 
 We may have been, mayst have been, they may have 
 been, I might have been, you should have been, wouldst 
 have been; (if) thou be, we be, he be, thou wert, we 
 were, I be. 
 
 *The indicative foaspa i*sll the tenses is the same as the indicative with a con. 
 junction prefixed ; thte, ff I am, If I have been, If I was, If I had been t Ifjt 
 shall or will be, If I shall have been. 
 
J'30,31. ETYMOLOGY 55 
 
 Be thou, be, to be, being, to have been, if I be, be ye, 
 been, be, having been, if we be, if they be, to be. 
 
 Snow is white ; he was a good man ; we have been 
 younger ; she has been happy ; it had been late ; we are 
 old ; you will be wise ; it will be time ; if they be thine ; 
 be cautious ; be heedful youth ; we may be rich ; they 
 should be virtuous ; thou mightst be wiser ; they must 
 have been excellent scholars; they might have been 
 powerful. 
 
 30. PROGRESSIVE FORM. 
 
 215. The Progressive form of the verb (199, 2) 
 is inflected by prefixing the verb to be, through all 
 its moods and tenses, to the present participle ; thus, 
 
 INDICATIVE MOOD. 
 
 Present. 1. I am writing. 2. Thou art writing, etc. 
 
 Pres.-perf. 1. I have been writing. 2. Thou hast been writing, etc. 
 Past. 1. I was writing. 2. Thou wast writing, etc. 
 
 Past-perf. 1. 1 had been writing. 2. Thou hadst been writing, etc. 
 Future. 1. 1 shall be writing. 2. Thou shalt be writing, etc. 
 Fut'pcrf. 1. 1 shall or will have 2. Thou shalt or wilt have been 
 
 been writing. writing, etc. 
 
 NOTE. In this manner, go through the other moods and tenses as in $ 29. 
 
 31. PASSIVE VOICE. 
 
 216. The Passive voice is inflected by adding 
 the past participle to the auxiliary verb to be 
 (214), through all its moods and tenses; thus, 
 
 Pret. Am loved. Past, Was loved. Past Part. Loved. 
 
 INDICATIVE MOOD. 
 
 PRESENT TENSE. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I am loved. 1. We are loved. 
 
 2. Thou art loved. 2. You are loved. 
 
 3. He is loved. 3. They are loved. 
 
56 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 31 
 
 PRESENT-PERFECT TENSE (PERFECT). 
 Sign, have. 
 
 1. I have been loved. 1. We have been loved. 
 
 2. Thou hast been loved. 2. You have been loved. 
 
 3. He has been loved. 3. They have been loved. 
 
 PAST TENSE. 
 
 1. I was loved. 1. We were loved. 
 
 2. Thou wast loved. 2. You were loved. 
 
 3. He was loved. 3. They were loved. 
 
 PAST-PERFECT TENSE (PLUPERFECT). 
 Sign, had. 
 
 1. I had been loved. 1. We had been loved. 
 
 2. Thou hadst been loved. 2. You had been loved. 
 
 3. He had been loved, 3. They had been loved 
 
 FUTURE TENSE. 
 Signs, shatt, will Inflect with each. 
 
 1. I shall be loved. 1. We shall be loved. 
 
 2. Thou shalt be loved. 2. You shall be loved. 
 
 3. He shall be loved. 3. They shall be loved. 
 
 FUTURE-PERFECT TENSE. 
 
 Signs, shall have, witt haveIn&ecl with each. 
 
 1. 1 shall have been loved. 1. We shall have been loved. 
 
 2. Thou shalt have been loved. 2. You shall have been loved. 
 
 3. He shall have been loved. 3. They shall have been loved 
 
 POTENTIAL MOOD. 
 PRESENT TENSE. 
 
 Signs, may^ can, must Inflect with each. 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I maybe loved. 1. We maybe loved. 
 
 2. Thou mayst be loved. 2. You maybe loved, 
 
 3. He may be loved. 3. They may be loved. 
 
 PRESENT-PERFECT TENSE (PERFECT). 
 Signs, may have, can have, must have Inflect with each. 
 
 1. I may have been loved. 1. We may have been loved. 
 
 2. Thou mayst have been loved. 2. You may have been loved. 
 
 3. He may have been loved, 3. They may have been loved 
 
$31. ETYMOLOGY. 57 
 
 PAST TENSE. 
 
 Signs, might, could, would, should Inflect with each. 
 
 1. I might be loved. 1. We might be loved. 
 
 2. Thou mightst be loved. 2. You might be loved. 
 
 3. He might be loved. 3. They might be loved. 
 
 PAST-PERFECT TENSE (PLUPERFECT). 
 
 Signs, might have, could have, would have, should haveInftecl with each. 
 
 1. I might have been loved. 1. We might have been loved. 
 
 2. Thou mightst have been loved. 2. You might have been loved. 
 8. He might have been loved. 3. They might have been loved. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
 PRESENT TENSE (Subjunctive form). 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. If I be loved. 1. If we be loved. 
 
 2. If thou be loved. 2. If you be loved 
 
 3. TjThe be loved. 3. If they be loved 
 
 PAST TENSE (Subjunctive form).* 
 
 l.Ifl were loved. 1. If we were loved. 
 
 2. If thou wert or were loved, 2. If you were loved. 
 
 3. 7f he were loved. 3. If they were loved. 
 
 IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. Be thou loved. 2. Be ye or you loved. 
 
 INFINITIVE MOOD. 
 Present. To be loved. Perf. To have been loved. 
 
 PARTICIPLES. 
 
 Pres. Being loved. Past. Loved. 
 
 Perfect. Having been loved. 
 
 *The indicative form in all the tenses, is the same as the indicative with a con. 
 function prefixed ; thus, " If lam loved, If I have been loved, If Twos loved, 
 V T had been loved, Tf I shall or win be loved. If I shall have been lored." 
 
58 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 31 
 
 EXERCISES ON THE PASSIVE VOICE. 
 
 Parse the words in the following exercises : 
 
 They are loved; we were loved; thou art loved; it 
 is loved; she was loved; he has been loved; you have 
 been loved ; I have been loved ; thou hadst been loved , 
 we shall be loved; thou wilt be loved; they will be 
 loved; I shall have been loved; you will have been 
 loved. 
 
 He can be loved ; thou mayst be loved ; she must be 
 loved; they might be loved; ye would be loved; they 
 should be loved; I could be loved; thou mayst have 
 been loved; it may have been loved; you might have 
 been loved; if I be loved;* thou wert loved; we be 
 loved; they be loved. Be thou loved; be ye loved, 
 you be loved. To be loved; loved; having been loved; 
 to have been loved; being loved. 
 
 Promiscuous Exercises on Verbs, and Cases of Nouns 
 
 and Pronouns. Parse each word. 
 Tie John's shoes ; this is Jane's bonnet ; ask mamma ; 
 he has learned his lesson ; she invited him ; your father 
 may commend you; he was baptized; the minister bap- 
 tized him ; we should have delivered our message ; papa 
 will reprove us ; divide the apples ; the captain had com- 
 manded his soldiers to pursue the enemy; Eliza divert- 
 ed her brother; a hunter killed a hare; were I loved; 
 were we good, we should be happy; James did write; 
 they are reading ; I have been running ; I did run ; they 
 do come; he might be doing something; they must have 
 been travelling. 
 
 *A conjunction is frequentlv to be understood here. 
 

 
 ETYMOLOGY 
 
 59 
 
 32. IRREGULAR VERBS. 
 217. An IRREGULAR verb is one that does not 
 form both its past tense in the indicative active, and 
 its past participle by adding ed to the present ;*as, 
 Am, was, been. 
 
 218. The following list comprises nearly all the irregular verbs 
 in the language. Those conjugated regularly, as well as irregu- 
 larly, are marked with an R. Those in italics are obsolete, or 
 obsolescent, and now but little used : 
 Present. Past. 
 
 Abide 
 
 Am 
 
 Arise 
 
 Awake 
 
 Bake 
 
 abode 
 was 
 arose 
 
 awoke, R. 
 baked 
 
 Bear, to bring forth bore, bare 
 
 Bear, to carry bore, bare 
 
 Beat beat 
 
 Begin began 
 
 Bend bent, R. 
 
 Bereave bereft, R. 
 
 Beseech besought 
 
 Bid bid, bade 
 
 Bind, un- bound 
 
 Bite ^ bit 
 
 Bleed hied 
 
 Blow blew 
 
 Break. broke, brake 
 
 Breed bred 
 
 Bring brought 
 
 Build, ce- bulfc, R 
 
 Burn burnt, R 
 
 Burst burst 
 
 Buy bought 
 
 Cast cast 
 
 atch caught, R. 
 
 Chide chid 
 
 Choosf chose 
 
 Past participle. 
 
 abode 
 
 been 
 
 arisen 
 
 awaked 
 
 baked, bakcn 
 
 born 
 
 borne 
 
 beaten, beat 
 
 begun 
 
 bent, R. 
 
 bereft, R. 
 
 besought 
 
 bidden, bid 
 
 bound 
 
 bitten, bit 
 
 bled 
 
 blown 
 
 broken, broke 
 
 bred 
 
 brought 
 
 built, R. 
 
 burnt, R. 
 
 burst 
 
 bought 
 
 cast 
 
 caught, R. 
 
 chidden, tliid 
 
 chosen 
 
60 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 32 
 
 Present. 
 
 Past. 
 
 Past participle. 
 
 Cleave, to split 
 
 cleft, clave 
 
 cleft, R., cloven 
 
 Cleave, to adhere 
 
 cleaved, clavs 
 
 cleared 
 
 Cling 
 
 clung 
 
 clung 
 
 Clothe 
 
 clad, R. 
 
 clad, R 
 
 Come, be- 
 
 came 
 
 come 
 
 Cost 
 
 cost 
 
 cost 
 
 Creep 
 
 crept 
 
 crept 
 
 Crow 
 
 crew, R. 
 
 crowed 
 
 Cut 
 
 cut 
 
 cut 
 
 Dare, to venture 
 
 durst 
 
 dared 
 
 Dare. to challenge is R. dared 
 
 dared 
 
 Deal' 
 
 dealt 
 
 dealt, R. 
 
 Dig 
 
 dug, R. 
 
 dug, R. 
 
 Do, mis- tm- 
 
 did 
 
 done 
 
 Draw 
 
 drew 
 
 drawn 
 
 Dream 
 
 dreamt, R. 
 
 dreamt, R. 
 
 Drink 
 
 drank 
 
 drank, drunL 
 
 Drive 
 
 drove 
 
 driven 
 
 Dwell 
 
 dwelt, R. 
 
 dwelt, R. 
 
 Eat 
 
 ate, eat 
 
 eaten 
 
 Fall, be- 
 
 fell 
 
 fallen 
 
 Feed 
 
 fed 
 
 fed 
 
 Feel 
 
 felt 
 
 felt 
 
 Fight 
 
 fought 
 
 fought 
 
 Find 
 
 found 
 
 found 
 
 Flee 
 
 fled 
 
 fled 
 
 Fling 
 
 flung 
 
 flung 
 
 Fly 
 
 flew 
 
 flown 
 
 Forbear 
 
 forbore 
 
 forborne 
 
 Forget 
 
 forgot 
 
 forgotten, forgot 
 
 Forsake 
 
 forsook 
 
 forsaken 
 
 Freeze 
 
 froze 
 
 4? frozen 
 
 Get, be- for- 
 
 got, gat 
 
 gotten, got 
 
 Gild 
 
 gilt, R. 
 
 gilt, R. 
 
 Gird, be- en- 
 
 girt, R. 
 
 girt, R. 
 
 Give, for- mi*- 
 
 gave 
 
 given 
 
 Go, undt.r- 
 
 went 
 
 gone 
 
 Grave, en- H. 
 
 graved 
 
 graven, graved 
 
32. 
 
 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 Present, 
 
 Past. 
 
 Past participle. 
 
 Grind 
 
 ground 
 
 ground 
 
 Grow 
 
 grew 
 
 grown 
 
 Hang 
 
 hung 
 
 hung* 
 
 Have 
 
 had 
 
 had 
 
 Hear 
 
 heard 
 
 heard 
 
 Heave 
 
 hove, R. 
 
 hoven, R. 
 
 Hew 
 
 hewed 
 
 hewn, R. 
 
 Hide 
 
 hid 
 
 hidden, hid 
 
 Hit 
 
 hit 
 
 hit 
 
 Hold, be- with- 
 
 held 
 
 held, holden 
 
 Hurt 
 
 hurt 
 
 hurt 
 
 Keep 
 
 kept 
 
 kept 
 
 Kneel 
 
 knelt R. 
 
 knelt, R. 
 
 Knit 
 
 knit R. 
 
 knit, knittec- 
 
 Know 
 
 knew 
 
 known 
 
 Lade, to load] 
 
 laded 
 
 laden 
 
 Lay 
 
 laid 
 
 laid 
 
 Lead, mw- 
 
 led 
 
 led 
 
 Leave 
 
 left 
 
 left 
 
 Lend 
 
 lent 
 
 lent 
 
 Let 
 
 let 
 
 let 
 
 Lie, to reclint 
 
 lay 
 
 lain, lien 
 
 Light 
 
 lighted, lit 
 
 lighted, lit 
 
 Lose 
 
 lost 
 
 lost 
 
 Make 
 
 made 
 
 made 
 
 Mean 
 
 meant 
 
 meant 
 
 Meet 
 
 met 
 
 met 
 
 Mow 
 
 mowed 
 
 mown, R, 
 
 Pay, re- 
 
 paid 
 
 paid 
 
 Pen, to enclose 
 
 pent, R. 
 
 pent, R 
 
 Put 
 
 put 
 
 put 
 
 Quit 
 
 quit, R. 
 
 quit, R. 
 
 Read 
 
 read} 
 
 readj 
 
 Rend 
 
 rent 
 
 rent 
 
 *Hdng, to take away life by hanging, is regular ; as, " The robber 
 hanged^ but the gown was hung up. n 
 
 \}j*fa. to dip, is regular. tPronounced r#l 
 
 6 
 
ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 32 
 
 Present. 
 
 Past. 
 
 Past participle. 
 
 Rid 
 
 rid 
 
 rid 
 
 Ride, 
 
 rode, rid 
 
 ridden, rid 
 
 Ring 
 
 rang, rung 
 
 rung 
 
 Rise, a- 
 
 rose 
 
 risen 
 
 Rive 
 
 rived 
 
 riven, R. 
 
 Rot 
 
 rotted 
 
 rotten, R, 
 
 Run 
 
 ran, run 
 
 run 
 
 Saw 
 
 sawed 
 
 sawn, R. 
 
 Say 
 
 said 
 
 said 
 
 See 
 
 saw 
 
 seen 
 
 Seek 
 
 sought 
 
 sought 
 
 Seethe 
 
 seethed, sod 
 
 seethed, sodden 
 
 Sell 
 
 sold 
 
 sold 
 
 Send 
 
 sent 
 
 sent 
 
 Set, be* 
 
 set 
 
 set 
 
 Shake 
 
 shook 
 
 shaken 
 
 Shape, IWM- 
 
 shaped 
 
 shapen, R, 
 
 Shave 
 
 "*" shaved 
 
 shaven, R. 
 
 Shear 
 
 sheared 
 
 shorn, R. 
 
 Shed 
 
 shed 
 
 shed 
 
 Shine 
 
 shone, R. 
 
 shone, R, 
 
 Shoe 
 
 shod 
 
 shod 
 
 Shoot 
 
 shot 
 
 shot 
 
 Show 
 
 showed 
 
 shown, R. 
 
 Shrink 
 
 shrunk, shrank 
 
 shrunk 
 
 Shred 
 
 shred 
 
 shred ' 
 
 Shut 
 
 shut 
 
 shut 
 
 Sing 
 
 sang, sung 
 
 sung 
 
 Sink 
 
 sunk, sank 
 
 sunk 
 
 Sit 
 
 sat 
 
 sat 
 
 Slay 
 
 slew 
 
 slain 
 
 Sleep 
 
 slept 
 
 slept 
 
 Slide 
 
 slid 
 
 slidden, slid 
 
 Sling 
 
 slung, slang 
 
 slung 
 
 Slink 
 
 slunk 
 
 slunk 
 
 Slit 
 
 slit 
 
 slit or slittH 
 
 Smita 
 
 srnote 
 
 smitten 
 
 Sow, to scatter 
 
 sowed 
 
 sown, R. 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 Present. 
 
 Past. 
 
 Past participle. 
 
 Speak, fee-' 
 
 spoke, spake 
 
 spoken 
 
 Speed 
 
 sped 
 
 sped 
 
 Spell 
 
 spelt, R. 
 
 spelt, R 
 
 Spend, mis- 
 
 spent 
 
 spent 
 
 Spill 
 
 spilt, R. 
 
 spilt, R 
 
 Spin 
 
 spun, span 
 
 spun 
 
 Spit, be- 
 
 spit, spat 
 
 spit 
 
 Split 
 
 split 
 
 split 
 
 Spread, be- 
 
 spread 
 
 spread 
 
 Spring 
 
 sprang, sprung 
 
 sprung 
 
 Stand, with- etc. 
 
 stood 
 
 stood 
 
 Steal 
 
 stole 
 
 stolen 
 
 Stick 
 
 stuck 
 
 stuck 
 
 Sting 
 
 stung 
 
 stung 
 
 Stride, be- 
 
 strode, strid 
 
 stridden, strid 
 
 Strike 
 
 struck 
 
 struck, stricken 
 
 String 
 
 strung 
 
 strung 
 
 Strive 
 
 strove 
 
 striven 
 
 Strew,* be- 
 
 strewed 
 
 strewed 
 
 Strow, fee- 
 
 strewed 
 
 strowed, strown 
 
 Swear 
 
 swore, sware 
 
 sworn . 
 
 Sweat 
 
 sweat, R. 
 
 sweat, R. 
 
 Sweep 
 
 swept 
 
 swept 
 
 Swell 
 
 swelled 
 
 swollen, R. 
 
 Swim 
 
 swam or swum 
 
 swum 
 
 Swing 
 
 swang 
 
 swung 
 
 Take, be- mis- re- 
 
 took 
 
 taken 
 
 Teach 
 
 taught 
 
 taught 
 
 Tear 
 
 tore , tare 
 
 torn 
 
 Tell 
 
 told 
 
 told 
 
 Think, fee- 
 
 thought 
 
 thought 
 
 Thrive 
 
 thrived, throve 
 
 thriven, R. 
 
 Throw 
 
 threw 
 
 thrown 
 
 Thrust 
 
 thrust 
 
 thrust 
 
 Tread 
 
 trod 
 
 trodden, trod 
 
 * Strew and shew are now giving way to stiow anrl show, as they are pro- 
 oounced. 
 
64 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 32 
 
 Present. Past. Past participle. 
 
 Wax waxed waxen, R". 
 
 Wear wore worn 
 
 Weave wove woven 
 
 Weep wept wept 
 
 Wet wet, R. wet, R. 
 
 Whet whet, R whet, R. 
 
 Win won won 
 
 Wind wound, R. wound 
 
 Work wrought, R. wrought, worked 
 
 Wring wrung, R. wrung 
 
 Write wrote written 
 
 DEFECTIVE VERBS. 
 
 219. DEFECTIVE verbs are those in which some 
 of the parts are wanting. They are irregular, ana 
 chiefly auxiliary : these are, 
 
 Present. Past. Present Past. 
 
 Can could Shall should 
 
 May might Will would 
 
 Must Wis wist 
 
 Ought Wit or) wot 
 
 Quoth quoth Wot ) 
 
 Beware, used only in the imperative and infinitive. 
 
 220. Ought, originally the past tense of owe, is now nsed to 
 signify present duty, and must, to denote present obligation or 
 necessity. When they refer to past time, a change is made in the 
 infinitive with which they are joined 5 thus, Present, " These 
 things ye ought to do/ Past, " These things ye ought to have 
 done." 
 
 221. Will, as an auxiliary, has wilt, and shall has shalt, in the 
 second person singular. They are both without inflection in the 
 third person singular. Will, as a principal verh, is regular, 
 
 222. Wis, wist, which signifies to know, to imagine, is now 
 obsolete. Wit, of the same meaning and origin, is now used only 
 in the infinitive, in the phrase ." to wit," that is, namely 
 
33. ETYMOLOGY. 65 
 
 IMPERSONAL VERBS. 
 
 223. IMPERSONAL verbs are those which assert 
 the existence of some action or state, but refer it 
 to no particular subject. They are always in the 
 third person singular, and in English are preceded 
 by the pronoun it; as, "It rains;" "It hails;" "It 
 behooves," &c. 
 
 224. To this class of words belong the expressions, methinks, 
 methought ; meseems, mescemed ; sometimes used for "/ seems 
 to me," " It appears to me," etc. 
 
 225. The pronoun it preceding the impersonal verb as its sub- 
 ject, is the substitute of some unknown and general, or well- 
 known cause, the action of which is expressed by the verb, but 
 which can not, or need not, itself be named. 
 
 EXERCISES ON THE IRREGULAR VERBS. 
 Name the Past tense and Past participle of Take, 
 drive, creep, begin, abide, buy, bring, arise, catch, be- 
 reave, am, burst, draw, drink, fly, flee, fall, get, give, 
 go, feel, forsake, grow, have, hear, hide, keep, know, 
 lose, pay, ride, ring, shake, run, seek, sell, see, sit, slay, 
 slide, smite, speak, stand, tell, win, write, weave, etc. 
 
 33. ADVERBS. 
 
 226. An ADVERB is a word joined to a verb, an 
 adjective, or another adverb, to modify it, or to de- 
 note some circumstance respecting it; as, "Ann 
 speaks distinctly ; she is remarkably diligent, and 
 reads very correctly." 
 
 227. On the same principle that an adverb modifies another 
 adverb, it sometimes also modifies an adjunct, a phrase, or a sen- 
 tence-, as, " I met your brother FAR from home;" " He will be 
 here SOON after mid-day ;" "We shall go IMMEDIATELY after the 
 mail arrives." 
 
 228. The adverbs chiefly, particularly, especially, entirely, al- 
 together, solely, only, merely, partly, also, likewise, too, etc. some- 
 times modify nouns and pronouns , as, "7 only am escaped ,' 
 l< The women also were there." 
 
 6* 
 
66 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 34 
 
 CLASSIFICATION OF ADVERBS. 
 
 229. Adverbs have been divided into various 
 classes, according to their signification. The chief 
 of these are the following : 
 
 1. Adverbs of Manner ; as, justly, bravely, softly, &c. 
 
 2. Of Place ; as, here, there, where ; hither, thence, &c, 
 
 3. Of Time ; as, now, then, when, soon, often, never, &c. 
 
 4. Of Direction ; as, upward, downward, forward, &c. 
 
 5. Of Affirmation ; as, yes, verily, certainly, &c. 
 
 6. Of Negation ; as, nay, no, not, nowise, &c. 
 
 7. Of Uncertainty ; as, perhaps, peradventure, &c. 
 
 8. Of Interrogation ; as, how ? why ? when ? where ? &c. 
 
 9. Of Comparison ; as, more, most, less, as, so, thus, &c. 
 10 Of Quantity ; as, much, some, little, enough, &c. 
 
 11. Of Order ; as, first, secondly, thirdly, next, &c. 
 
 12. Conjunctive adverbs which stand for two adjuncts, 
 one of which contains a relative pronoun, and the 
 other its antecedent ; as, when = at the time at 
 which ; haw = the manner in which, &c. They 
 are how, when, where, while, whither, whence. 
 
 230. 34. OBSERVATIONS ON ADVERBS. 
 
 1 . The chief use of adverbs is to shorten discourse, by expres^ 
 sing in one word what would otherwise require two or more-, as, 
 here, for u in this place-," nobly, for " in a noble manner," etc. 
 
 Phrases for which an adverb is an equivalent are called adjuncts. 
 
 2. Adverbs of quality, and a few others, admit of comparison 
 like adjectives-, as, soon, sooner, soonest; nobly, more nobly, most 
 nobly. A few are compared irregularly-, as, well, better, best, 
 badly, or ill, worse, worst. 
 
 3. Some words become adverbs by prefixing a, which signifies 
 it, or on; as, abed, ashore, afloat, aground, apart, etc. 
 
 4. In comparisons, the antecedents as and so are usually 
 reckoned adverbs, because they modify an adjective or another 
 
34. ETYMOLOGY. 07 
 
 adverb-, the corresponding as and so are adverbs also, as they 
 may be resolved into an adjunct-, thus, u It is as high AS Hea- 
 ven ; " i. e. high in the degree IN WHICH Heaven is high. 
 
 5. The compounds of here, there, ichere; a'nd hither, thither, 
 whither, are all adverbs. Therefore and wherefort t sometimes 
 tailed conjunctions, are properly adverbs also; therefore being 
 equivalent to for this reason, and wherefore equivalent to for 
 which reason; as an interrogative =for what reason ? 
 
 6. Many words are used sometimes as adverbs, and sometimes 
 as other parts of speech ; thus, 
 
 Much is used, 1. As an adverb; as, It is much better to give 
 
 than to receive. 
 2. As an adjective-, as. In much wisdom is much 
 
 grief. 
 3. As a noun; as, where much is given, much is 
 
 required. 
 Yesterday is used, 1. As an adverb; as, He came yesterday. 
 
 2, As a noun; as, Yesterday is past. 
 
 Before is used, 1. As an adverb; as, He came before the dooi 
 
 was opened. 
 ' 2. As a preposition; as, He stood before the dooi. 
 
 7. Circumstances of time, place, manner, etc. are often ex- 
 pressed by two or more words constituting an adverbial plirase ; 
 as, in short, in fine, in general, at most, at least, at length, not 
 at all, by no means, in vain, in order, long ago, by and bye, to 
 and fro, etc., which, taken together, may be parsed as adverbs, or 
 by supplying the ellipsis; thus, in a short space; in a general 
 ivay, etc. 
 
 8. There, commonly used as an adverb of place, is often used 
 ns an introductory expletive to the verbs to be, to come, to appear, 
 and some others, when the subject, in declaratory sentences, fol- 
 lows the verb; as, " There is no doubt of the fact;" u There- 
 came to the beach a poor exile of Erin-," " There appears tc be 
 a mistake somewhere." Sometimes, when the subject goes be- 
 fore, U is placed between the subject and the v.erb; as, u A mis- 
 take there is." In all such cases, there is a mere expletive. It 
 adds nothing to the sense, but still it enables to vary the form of 
 expression, and to soften the abruptness which would otherwise 
 
68 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 35 
 
 exist. This will appear by omitting it in any of the above ex- 
 amples. 
 
 231. PARSING. An abverb is parsed by stating what part of 
 speech the class to which it belongs the word which it modi- 
 fies its derivation and comparison, if derived and compared 
 thus, " He speaks fluently? Fluently r , an adverb of manner, and 
 modifies " speaks ;" derived from fluent, and compared more flu- 
 ently, most fluently. 
 
 EXERCISES ON ADVERBS, IRREGULAR VERBS, etc. 
 Parse the words in the following exercises. 
 
 Peter wept bitterly. He is here now. She went 
 away yesterday. They came to-day. They will per- 
 haps buy some to-morrow. Ye shall know hereafter. 
 She sung sweetly. Cats soon learn to catch mice. 
 Mary rose up hastily. They that have enough may 
 sleep soundly. Cain wickedly slew his brother. I saw 
 mm long ago. He is a very good man. Sooner or later 
 all must die. You read too little. They talk too much. 
 James acted wisely. How many lines can you repeat] 
 You ran hastily. He speaks fluently. Then were they 
 glad. He fell fast asleep. She should not hold her head 
 down. The ship was driven ashore. No, indeed. They 
 are all alike. Let him that is athirst drink freely. The 
 oftener you read with attention, the more you will im- 
 prove. 
 
 35. PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 232. A PREPOSITION is a word which shows the 
 relation between a noun or pronoun following it, 
 and some other word in the sentence ; as, Before 
 honor is humility. The love of money is the root 
 of all evil. Come to me. 
 
 238. NOTE. Of the words related, that before the preposition 
 is called the antecedent term, and that after it, the subsequent tp.im 
 
35 
 
 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 69 
 
 234. Words of this class are called prepositions, because they aro 
 usually placed before the nouns or pronouns to which they refer. 
 The principal, are contained in the following 
 
 235. LIST OF PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 To be got accurately by heart. 
 
 About 
 
 Below 
 
 From 
 
 Through 
 
 Above 
 
 Beneath 
 
 In 
 
 Throughout 
 
 Across 
 
 Beside 
 
 Into 
 
 Till, until 
 
 After 
 
 Besides 
 
 Notwithstanding To 
 
 Against 
 
 Between 
 
 Of 
 
 Touching 
 
 Along 
 
 Betwixt 
 
 Off 
 
 Toward } 
 
 Amid 7 
 
 Beyond 
 
 On 
 
 Towards > 
 
 Amidst 5 
 
 But 
 
 Over 
 
 Under 
 
 Among ) 
 
 By 
 
 Out of 
 
 Underneath 
 
 Amongst $ 
 
 Concerning 
 
 Past 
 
 Unto 
 
 Around 
 
 Down 
 
 Regarding 
 
 Up 
 
 At 
 
 During 
 
 Respecting 
 
 Upon 
 
 Athwart 
 
 Except 
 
 Round 
 
 With 
 
 Before 
 
 Excepting 
 
 Save 
 
 Within 
 
 Behind 
 
 For 
 
 Since 
 
 Without 
 
 236. OBSERVATIONS ON PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 1. Every preposition requires an objective case after it. Wheh 
 a preposition has not a subsequent term or object, it becomes an 
 adverb; as, He rides about. But in such phrases as, cast up, hold 
 out, fall on, the words up, out, on, must be considered each as a 
 part of the verb, rather than as a preposition or an adverb. 
 
 2. Certain words are used sometimes as prepositions, and some- 
 times as adverbs-, as, till, until, after, before, etc. 
 
 3. Such words as near, nigh, like, etc., sometimes ranked as 
 prepositions, are more properly adjectives or adverbs, and the ob- 
 jective case after them governed by to understood; as, Near (te) 
 the house, 
 
 4. Inseparable prepositions are certain particles never found by 
 
70 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 36. 
 
 themselves, but always in composition with another word. Those 
 purely English are a, be, fore, mis, un. 
 
 237. PARSING. A preposition is parsed by stating what part of 
 speech, and between what words it shows the relation-, thus, 
 ki The waters of Jordan." Of is a preposition, and shows the 
 relation between Jordan the antecedent, and waters the subse- 
 quent term. 
 
 EXERCISES CONTAINING PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 Parse the words in the following exercises. 
 
 He went to town. His father resides in the country. 
 He gave part of his dinner to a poor man in the street. 
 They divided the inheritance among them. All rivers 
 flow into the ocean. He was travelling towards Rome 
 when they met him at Milan, without a single atten- 
 dant. The coach was upset between Bristol and Lon- 
 don on Wednesday last. 
 
 36. INTERJECTIONS. 
 
 238. An INTERJECTION is a word used in excla- 
 mations to express an emotion of the mind ; as, 
 " Oh ! what a sight is here !" " Well done /" 
 
 NOTE. An interjection has no grammatical connection with 
 the other words in a sentence. 
 
 A LIST OF INTERJECTIONS. 
 
 Adieu ! ah ! alas ! alack ! away ! aha ! begone ! 
 hark! ho! ha! he! hail! halloo! hum! hush! huzza! 
 hist ! hey-dey ! lo ! 0! Oh ! strange ! brave! 
 pshaw! see! well-a-day! &c. 
 
 239. OBSERVATIONS ON INTERJECTIONS. 
 
 1. Many words denominated interjections, are in fact nouns or 
 verbs, employed in the rapidity of thought and expression occa- 
 sioned by strong emotion, to denote what would otherwise re- 
 quire more words to express, as Adieu! for " I commend you to 
 
37 ETYMOLOGY. 71 
 
 God 5" Strange! for <c that is strange: 11 Welcome! for u you are 
 welcome 5" and hence any word or phrase may become an inter- 
 jection, or be used as such, when it is expressed witn emotion, 
 and in an unconnected manner-, as, What! Ungrateful creature! 
 Shocking ! 
 
 2. O is used to express wishing or exclamation, and should be 
 prefixed only to a noun or pronoun, in a direct address-, as, u O 
 virtue! How amiable thou art." Oh! is used detached from the 
 word, with a point of exclamation after it. It implies an emotion 
 of pain, sorrow, or surprise j as, " Oh! what a sight is here." 
 
 240. PARSING. An interjection is parsed by stating the part 
 of speech, why, and the emotion expressed-, as, u Oh! what a 
 sight is here!" Oh! an interjection, because used as an excla 
 mation, and expresses an emotion of pain. 
 
 37. CONJUNCTIONS, 
 
 241. A CONJUNCTION is a word which connects 
 words or sentences ; as, " You and I must study ; 
 but he may go and play. 
 
 242. Conjunctions are divided into two classes ; 
 Copulative and Disjunctive. 
 
 243. Copulative Conjunctions connect things that 
 are to be considered together. They are both, and, 
 as, because, for, if, since, that. 
 
 244. Disjunctive Conjunctions connect things 
 that are to be considered separately. The princi- 
 pal are Either, or, neither, nor, than, though, al- 
 though, yet, but, except, whether, lest, unless, not 
 withstanding, save, provided, whereas. 
 
 245. And is the principal copulative, and denotes addition. It 
 das frequently both as a related antecedent conjunction in the pre- 
 jeding member. The other copulatives denote condition, sup- 
 oosition, etc. 
 
 246. Or and nor are the principal disjunctive conjunctions, and 
 sometimes have, for their related antecedent conjunctions, either 
 and neither respectively. The other disjunctives denote concession 
 doubt, opposition, etc. 
 
72 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 38. 
 
 247. It will be seen from the list above that the same woid 
 varies in its character according to its application: e. g. both, cither, 
 neither, are sometimes adjective pronouns and sometimes conjunc- 
 tions ; that is sometimes an adjective pronoun, sometimes a rela- 
 tive pronoun (, 18,141obs. 2), as well as a conjunction-, /or, 
 except, are sometimes prepositions-, since and but are sometimes 
 conjunctions, sometimes prepositions, and sometimes adverbs-, 
 thus, " since (conj.) we must part, let us do it peaceably-, 1 ' " 1 
 have not seen him since (prep.) that time-," " Our friendship 
 commenced long since" (adv.)-, u He is poor, but honest" (conj.); 
 u All but one" (prep.); " He has but just enough" (adv.). 
 
 248. PARSING. A conjunction is parsed by stating the part ol 
 speech, its class, and the words or sentences which it connects; 
 as, " He and I must go, but you may stay. And a copulative 
 conjunction, connecting the words He and /; but a disjunctive 
 conjunction, connecting the sentences. u He and I must go," and 
 " you may stay." 
 
 38. ETYMOLOGICAL PARSING. 
 
 249. ETYMOLOGICAL PARSING consists in stating 
 the part of speech to which each word belongs, 
 with its accidents or grammatical properties. 
 
 250. Accuracy and expertness in this exercise are an important 
 acquisition, and can not be fully acquired without a knowledge of 
 the rules of syntax. At the same time, in order to study the rules 
 of syntax with advantage, and especially to be able readily to 
 correct the exercises in false syntax, under each rule, considerable 
 proficiency in parsing is necessary, The pupil must be able at 
 once to distinguish the different parts of speech from each other, 
 and to tell the different cases, .moods, tenses, etc. in which a word is 
 found, and to change it readily into any other that may be required. 
 
 In proceeding to parse a sentence, it is necessary for the pupil 
 in the first place to understand it. When he understands a sen- 
 tence, and also the definition of the different parts of speech given 
 in the grammar, he will not find much difficulty in ascertaining 
 to which of them each word belongs-, i. e. which of the words are 
 "names of things." or nouns; which "express the quality of 
 things," or, "affirm any thing concerning them.," that is to say, 
 
38 ETYMOLOGY. 73 
 
 which words are adjectives, and which are verbs. This method 
 will exercise the discriminating powers of the pupil better, en- 
 gage his attention much more, and on trial be found much more 
 easy and certain, than that of consulting his dictionary on every 
 occasion 5 a plan always laborious, often unsatisfactory, and which, 
 instead of leading him to exercise his own powers, and depend 
 on his own resources, will lead him to habits of slavish depend- 
 ence on the authority of others. 
 
 251. The following General principles should be remembered 
 and steadily kept in view in parsing every sentence, viz : 
 
 1. Every adjective qualifies or limits a noun or 
 pronoun expressed or understood. 
 
 2. The subject of a finite verb, i. e. the person 
 or thing spoken of, is always in the nominative, and 
 is said to be the " nominative to the verb." 
 
 3. Every noun or pronoun in the nominative 
 case (except the nominative independent, 80, and 
 the predicate-nominative, 61), is the subject of a 
 verb, expressed or understood, i. e. it is that of 
 which the verb affirms. 
 
 4. Every verb in the indicative, potential, 01 
 subjunctive mood, has a nominative or subject ex- 
 pressed or understood, i. e. it has something of 
 which it affirms. 
 
 5. Every transitive verb in the active voice, and 
 every preposition, governs a noun or pronoun in 
 the objective case ; and every objective case is 
 governed by a transitive active verb, or preposition. 
 
 NOTE. Instead of a noun or pronoun, the object of a transitive 
 active verb is sometime* an infinitive mood or substantive clause. 
 (386.) 
 
 6. Every verb in the infinitive mood is governed 
 by a verb, adjective, or noun ; and sometimes it 
 stands after the conjunction than or as. See 6 67. 
 
 7 
 
74 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 39 
 
 252. j 39. SPECIMENS OF PARSING.* 
 
 " Truth and candor possess a powerful charm." 
 
 Previous to parsing this sentence, it may be anatyzed to the 
 young pupil by such questions as the following, viz: What is 
 spoken of in this sentence? Truth and candor What is said of 
 them? They possess some thing. What do they possess? A 
 charm. What soil of charm do they possess? A powerful 
 charm. The sentence being understood, may be parsed briefly thus : 
 ** Truth," A noun, neuter, in the nominative singular, and, 
 
 with candor, the subject of possess. 
 " JLnd," A copulative Conjunction, connecting " truth" with 
 
 " candor." 
 " Candor" A noun, neuter, in the nominative singular, and, 
 
 with truth, the subject of possess. 
 " Possess" A verb transitive, in the present indicative active, 
 
 third person plural, and affirms of truth and candor. 
 "tf," The indefinite article, belongs to charm, and shews it is 
 
 used indefinitely. 
 "Powerful," an adjective, positive degree, qualifying "charm," 
 
 compared by more and most ; as, more, powerful, most 
 
 powerful. 
 lv Charm" a noun, neuter, in the objective singular, the object of 
 
 possess. 
 
 NOTE. It will also be a profitable exercise to require a reason for every thing 
 stated in parsing a word, as for example, Why do you say that "Truth" is a noun ? 
 is neuter? singular? the nominative? To which questions it may be answered, 
 Because it is the name of a thing because it is without sex denotes but one, 
 and (together with candor) is the subject or nominative of the verb " possess;" or 
 is the thing spoken of (See note p. 17). This exercise should be continued tili the 
 pupil is able to answer all such questions on any of the parts of speech promptly 
 and intelligently. 
 
 *In parsing, the pupil should be required to state every thing belonging to the 
 etymology of each word in as few words as possible, and without waiting to 
 have every thing drawn from him by questions from his teacher; this will savo 
 much time and unnecessary labor. It will also contribute much to order and 
 precision, to have every tiling respecting each part of speech expressed always 
 in the same order and in the same language. These specimens are given as an 
 example. 
 
39 ETYMOLOGY. 75 
 
 All the parts of speech are contained in the fol- 
 lowing stanza. 
 
 O how stupendous was the power 
 
 That raised me with a word ; 
 And every day, and every hour, 
 I lean upon the Lord. 
 
 O. Interjection, expressing admiration. 
 
 how . An adverb of manner, modifying stupendous. 
 
 stupendous, An adjective, positive degree, qualifying power, com- 
 pared by more and most. 
 
 was A verb intransitive, irregular, am, was, been, in the 
 
 past indicative active, and affirms of power. 
 
 the . The definite article belonging to power, shewing it to 
 
 be limited. 
 
 power A noun, neuter, in the nominative singular, subject 
 
 of was. 
 
 that A relative pronoun used for which, in nominative sin- 
 gular, subject of raised, and relates to power its an- 
 tecedent. 
 
 raised A verb transitive, in the past indicative active, third 
 
 pers. singular, affirms of that its subject, for power. 
 
 me The first personal pronoun masculine or feminine in 
 
 the objective singular, object of raised. 
 
 with A preposition, shewing the relation between word its 
 
 subsequent, and raised its antecedent term. 
 
 a The indefinite article, belongs to word, and shews it is 
 
 not limited. 
 
 word . ... A noun, neuter, in the obj. singular, object of with. 
 
 and A copulative conjunction, connecting the following 
 
 with the preceding sentence. 
 
 every A distributive adjective pronoun, qualifying day. 
 
 day ...... A noun, neuter, in the objective singular, restrictive 
 
 ( 50 Sub - Rule] . 
 
 and A copulative conjunction, connecting day and hour. 
 
 every ..... A distributive adjective pronoun, qualifying hour. 
 
 hour A noun, neuter, in the objective singular, same as rfay 
 
76 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 40. 
 
 / The first personal pronoun, masculine or feminine, 
 
 nominative singular, subject of lean. 
 lean A verb intransitive, in the present indicative active 
 
 first person singular, and affirms of /. 
 upon .... A preposition, showing the relation between Lord^ it* 
 
 subsequent, and lean, its antecedent term. 
 the The definite article, belonging to Xorrf, and shewing 
 
 it to be limited. 
 Lord A noun, masculine, in the objective singular, object 
 
 of upon. 
 
 253. 40. EXERCISES IN PARSING.* 
 
 RULE 1. Two or more adjectives in succession, either with or 
 without a conjunction, qualify the same word; as, 
 
 A wise and faithful servant will always study his 
 master's interest. A dismal, dense, and portentous 
 cloud overhangs the city. A steady, sweet, and cheerful 
 temper affords great delight to its possessor. He has 
 bought a fine new coat. A sober and virtuous course 
 of conduct generally leads to happiness. Virtuous 
 youth brings forth accomplished and flourishing man- 
 hood. She had a regular and polite education. 
 
 RULE 2. When an adjective precedes two nouns, it generally 
 qualifies them both; as, 
 
 They waited for &jit time and place. I am delighted 
 with the sight of green woods and fields. He displayed 
 great prudence and moderation. He was a man of great 
 wisdom and moderation. Guard against rash temper 
 and conduct. They shewed sincere respect and esteem 
 for their friends. 
 
 RtJLB 3. When an adjective comes after the intransitive verb 
 TO BE, TO BECOME, and some others, it qualifies the nominative 
 of that verb; as, 
 
 John is wise. They were temperate. The sky is 
 very clear. These rivers are deep and rapid. The 
 
 *The rules in this section are not intended to be committed to memory, but to 
 be used as directions to the beginner in parsing the exercises under them 
 
40. ETYMOLOGY. ?7 
 
 apples will soon be ripe. We have been attentive to 
 our lessons. These mountains are very high. The 
 sea is tempestuous. Our friends should be dear to us, 
 His behavior was entirely inconsistent. The Supreme 
 being is wise and good. Their pictures and books are 
 valuable. John's schemes were absurd. 
 
 RULE 4. Whatever words the verb TO BE serves to unite, refer- 
 ring to the same thing ^ must be of the same case ( 61) ; as, 
 
 Alexander is a student. Mary is a beautiful girl. 
 Hope is the balm of life. Content is a great blessing, 
 envy a great curse. Knowledge is power. His meat 
 was locusts and wild honey. He was the life of the 
 company. She will be the delight of her friends. Mil- 
 ton is the prince of English poets. Shakspeare was 
 a man of unbounded genius. Johnson was a powerful 
 writer. Contentment is great gain. He might be a 
 most happy man. I understood it to be him. I sup- 
 posed it to have been them. They imagined it to be me. 
 
 Note. It is necessary to the application of this rule, that the words connected 
 refer to the same thing. This connection is often made by other words than the 
 verb to be. (See 61, Rem. I.) 
 
 RULE 5. Nouns and pronouns put one after another, and de- 
 noting the same object, are said to be in APPOSITION, and always 
 agree in case; as, 
 
 Alexander the coppersmith was not a friend to the 
 Apostle Paul. Hope, the balm of life, is our greatest 
 friend. Thomson, the author of the Seasons, is a 
 delightful poet. Temperance, the best preserver of 
 health, should be the study of all men. He greatly 
 displeased his friend Cato. We received orders from 
 General Washington, commander-in- chief. Religion 
 and virtue, our best support, and highest honor, confer 
 on the mind principles of noble independence. 
 
 Note. In parsing such sentences as the preceding, a relative and a verb may bo 
 inserted between the words in apposition : as, Hope which is the balm, &c. My- 
 self, thyself, himself, &c., oftea stand at a considerable distance, from the words 
 with which they agree ; as, 
 
 Thomas despatched the letter himself. They ga- 
 thered the flowers in the garden themselves. Ann saw 
 the transaction herself, and could not be mistaken. 
 
 7* 
 
78 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 40 
 
 RULE 6. Myself, thyself, himself, etc., often form the objective* 
 after transitive verbs, of which the words they represent are tht 
 subjects or nominatives. They are t in such cases, called Reflexive 
 pronouns; as, 
 
 / hurt myself. He wronged himself to oblige us. 
 They will support themselves by their industry. She 
 endeavored to shew herself off to advantage. We must 
 confine ourselves more to our studies. They hurt 
 themselves by their great anxiety. 
 
 RULE 7. Jldjectivef, taken as nouns, and used in reference to 
 persons, arc generally of the plural number; as, 
 
 The valiant never taste of death but once. The 
 virtuous are generally the most happy. The diligent 
 make most improvement. The sincere are always es- 
 teemed. The inquisitive are generally talkative. The 
 dissipated are much to be pitied. The company of the 
 profane should be carefully avoided. The temperate 
 are generally the most healthy. 
 
 RULE 8. Nouns and pronouns, takenin the same connection, must ' 
 be of the same case; as, 
 
 The master taught him and me to write. He and 
 she were school-fellows. My brother and he are toler- 
 able grammarians. He gave the book to John and 
 Thomas. I lent my knife and pencil to one of the 
 scholars. Peter and John gained the highest prizes. 
 The snow and the ice have quite disappeared. Exer- 
 cise and temperance are the best promoters of health. 
 
 RULE 9. JL relative generally precedes the verb that governs it; as, 
 
 He is a friend loliom I greatly respect. They whom 
 luxury has corrupted, can not relish the simple plea- 
 sures of life. The books which I bought yesterday, 
 I have not yet received. The trees which he planted 
 in the spring have all died. He has lost the friend 
 whom he so much respected. The lesson which we 
 have finished, has not been difficult. 
 
 RULE 10. When both a relative and its antecedent have each a 
 verb belonging to it, the relative is commonly the nominative to 
 the first verb . and the antecedent to the second; as, 
 
40. ETYMOLOGY. 79 
 
 HE who acts wisely DESERVES praise. He who is a 
 stranger to industry, may possess, but he can not enjoy. 
 They who are born in high stations are not always the 
 most happy. The man who is faithfully attached to 
 religion, may be relied on with confidence. Those who 
 excite envy will easily incur censure. 
 
 RULE 11 . What, being equal to that which, or the thing which, 
 may represent two cases, either both nominatives or both objectives; 
 or, the one the nominative and the other the objective; as, 
 
 This is precisely ivliat was necessary. What can not 
 be prevented, must be endured. We must not delay 
 till to-morrow, what ought to be done to-day. Choose 
 what is most fit; custom will make it the most agree- 
 able. Foolish men are more apt to consider what they 
 have lost, than what they possess. 
 
 RULE 12. Whoever and whosoever, used as relatives ( 16, Obs. 
 3). generally have the antecedent implied^so that they seem to stand 
 as the nominative to two verbs , or as at once the objective after a verb 
 or preposition, and the nominative to a succeeding verb. The same 
 is the case with whatever and whatsoever-, as, 
 
 Whoever told such a story, must have been misin- 
 formed. Whoever is not content in poverty, would not 
 be perfectly happy in the midst of plenty. Whoever 
 passes his time in idleness, can make but little im- 
 provement. Whatever gives pain to others, deserves 
 not the name of pleasure. Whatever is worth doing 
 at all, is worth doing well. 
 
 NOTE. Whatever is most frequently used, as what sometimes is ( 16, Obs 
 2), simply to qualify a noun; as, 
 
 Aspire to perfection, in whatever state of life you 
 may be placed. I forgot what words he uttered. By 
 what means shall we obtain wisdom. By whatever 
 arts we may attract attention, we can secure esteem 
 only by amiable dispositions. 
 
 RULE 13. Though participles never directly declare, yet they 
 always imply something either done or doing^ and are used in 
 reference to some noun or pronoun ; as, 
 
 Admired and applauded, he became vain. Having 
 finished our lessons, we went to play. Proceeding on 
 
80 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 40 
 
 his journey, he was seized with a dangerous malady. 
 Being engaged at the time of my call, he had not a mo- 
 ment to spend with me. Having early disgraced him- 
 self, he became mean and dispirited. Knowing him to 
 be my superior, I cheerfully submitted. 
 
 RULE 14. The past participle of a few intransitive verbs is some- 
 times joined to the verb to be, which gives them a passive appear* 
 nnce ; as, 
 
 I am come, in compliance with your desire. If such 
 maxims and practices prevail, what is become of de- 
 cency and virtue ? The old house is at length fallen 
 down. John is gone to London. 
 
 RULE 15. Intransitivcs are often followed by prepositions, ma- 
 king what are sometimes called compound transitive verbs. The 
 verb and preposition may in such cases be parsed either together 
 or separately in the active voice. In the passive voice , they must 
 be parsed together / as, 
 
 He laughed at such folly. They smiled upon us in 
 such a way as to inspire courage. He struck at his 
 friend with great violence. He was much laughed at 
 for such conduct. He was prevailed upon to go. 
 
 RULE 16. A noun or pronoun is often used with a participle , 
 without being connected in grammatical construction with any 
 other icords of the sentence. It is then called the nominative AB- 
 SOLUTE 5 as, 
 
 The father being dead, the whole estate came into 
 the hands of the eldest son. He destroyed, or won to 
 what may work his utter loss, all this will soon follow. 
 Whose gray top shall tremble, he descending. The 
 house being built and finished, he was expected to take 
 immediate possession. The sun rising, darkness flies 
 away. Our work being finished, we will play. 
 
 RULE 17. To, the sign of the infinitive, is omitted after the 
 verbs bid, dare, need, make, see, hear, feel, and let in the active 
 voice; and sometimes after perceive, behold, observe, have, know, 
 etc.-, as, 
 
 Let me look at your portrait. He bade me go with 
 him. I heard him assert the opinion I like to sse you 
 
40. ETYMOLOGY. 81 
 
 behave so well. Let him apply to his books, and then 
 lie will make improvement. Let us make all the haste 
 in our power. I saw him ride past at great speed. I 
 have observed some satirists use the term. 
 
 RULE 18. Verbs connected by conjunctions, are usually in the 
 same mood and tense; but in the compound tenses the sign is often 
 used with the first only, and understood with the rest; as, 
 
 He can neither read nor write. He shall no longer 
 tease and vex me as he has done. He commanded them 
 that they should not depart from Jerusalem, but wait 
 for the promise of the father. His diligence should have 
 been commended and rewarded. Every mind, in its 
 present state, is obliged to receive information, and 
 execute its purposes, by the intervention of the body. 
 Fame can not spread wide, or endure long, that is not 
 rooted in nature, and matured by art. 
 
 RULE 19. Nouns and pronouns are often governed by a preposi- 
 tion understood; and nouns fcno'.vtg time, value, weight, or measure, 
 are used to restrict verbs or adjectives without a governing word 
 (307) ; as, 
 
 He gave (to) me a full account of the whole affair. 
 Will you lend me your knife. It is not time yet to go 
 home. He returned home at a very inconvenient sea- 
 son. He travelled on foot last summer as far as Lon- 
 don. He was in Paris last month. He visited Rome 
 last year in the spring. They remained twenty-four 
 days at Naples, and walked twelve miles each day. 
 I sent him the despatches some time ago. A wall ten 
 feet high. It is worth a dollar. 
 
 RULE 20. The conjunctions than and as, implying comparison, 
 'iave the same case after them as before them, and the latter case 
 has the same construction as the former; as, 
 
 He has more books than my brother (has). Mary 
 is not so handsome as her sister (is). They respect 
 him more than (they respect) us. James is not so dili- 
 gent as Thomas. They are much greater gainers than 
 I by this unexpected event. Though she is not so 
 learned as he, she is as much beloved and respected. 
 
. 
 
 8 b 2 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 40. 
 
 RULE 21. The class of words or part of speech to which a word 
 belongs, depends often on its application; as, 
 
 Calm was the day, and the scene, delightful. We 
 may expect a calm after a storm. To prevent passion, 
 is easier than to calm it. Better is a little with con-- 
 tent, than a great deal with anxiety. The gay and 
 dissolute think little of the miseries which are stealing 
 softly after them. A little attention will rectify some 
 errors. Though he is out of danger, he is still afraid. 
 He laboured to still the tumult. Still waters are com 
 monly deepest. Damp air is unwholesome. Guilt 
 often casts a damp over our sprightliest hours. Soft 
 bodies damp the sound much more than hard ones. 
 Though she is rich and fair, yet she is not amiable. 
 They are young, and must suspend their judgment yet 
 a while. Many persons are better than we suppose 
 them to be. The few and the many have their pre- 
 possessions. Few days pass without some clouds. 
 Much money is corrupting. Think much and speak 
 little. He has seen much of the world, and been much 
 caressed. His years are more than hers, but he has 
 not more knowledge. The more we are blessed, the 
 more grateful we should be. The desire of getting 
 more is rarely satisfied. He has equal knowledge, but 
 inferior judgment. She is his inferior in sense, but his 
 equal in prudence. 
 
 RULE 22. Do, have,an<i be, are principal verbs when used by 
 themselves^ but auxiliaries when connected with oiher verbs; as, 
 
 He does all in his power to gain esteem. He did his 
 utmost to please his friend. We must do nothing that 
 will sully our reputation. She lias a strong claim to 
 our respect. They had not the slightest intention to 
 wound our feelings. The man who has no sense of 
 religion, is little to be trusted. He who does the most 
 good, has the most pleasure. They were not in the 
 most prosperous circumstances, when we last saw them. 
 He does not write so well as he reads. We did not 
 stay with him more than a month. True wisdom doetr* 
 not inspire pride. The butler did not remember Jo 
 
40. ETYMOLOGY. S3 
 
 seph. Did he send the book, as he was desired ? Do 
 they make much progress in their studies ? Have they 
 ascertained- the person who gave the information? 
 They had not determined what course to take. We 
 are surprised at the news. 
 
 RULE 23. An infinitive, ei participle, or a member of a sentence, 
 which may be called a substantive phrase, is often the nominative 
 to a verb, or the objective after a transitive verb or preposition; as, 
 
 1. Nominative. To study hard, is the best way to im- 
 prove. To endure misfortune with resignation, is the 
 characteristic of a great mind. To advise the ignorant, 
 relieve the needy and comfort the distressed, are duties 
 incumbent on all. John's being from home occasioned 
 the delay. His having neglected opportunities of im- 
 provement, was the cause of his disgrace. The im- 
 planting of right principles in the breast of the young, 
 is important both to themselves and to society. To 
 assist a friend in such circumstances, was a duty. 
 
 2. Objective. He that knows how to do good, and 
 does it not, is without excuse. He will regret his 
 having neglected opportunities of improvement, when 
 it may be too late. He declared that nothing could 
 give him greater pleasure. Of making many books 
 there is no end. 
 
84 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 40 
 
 In such examples, whether the phrase be in the nominative or objective case, 
 . e. whether it be the subject of a verb, or the object of a transitive verb or pre- 
 
 judge," asserts a fact. " His being a judge J> or, " to be ajiulge," assumes it. 
 In all these examples the word judge is the predicate-nominative. In parsing 
 such phrases, the words may be taken separately, or the whole phrase may be 
 parsed as one word ( 61, Hem. 2). See also Analytical and Practical Gram* 
 mar, 583-24, with references. The following also are examples. 
 
 He had the honour of being a director for life. By 
 being a diligent student, he soon acquired eminence in 
 his profession. Many benefits result to men from being 
 wise and temperate (men). 
 
 RULE 24. The pronoun it often refers to persons ( 15, Obs. 5) 
 or to an infinitive or clause coming after / as, 
 
 It is John that is to blame. It was I that wrote the 
 letter. Itjs the duty of all to improve. It is the bu- 
 siness of every man, to prepare for death. It was re- 
 served for Newton, to discover the law of gravitation. 
 It is easy to form good resolutions, but difficult to put 
 them in practice. It is incumbent on the young, to love 
 and honour their parents. 
 
 RULE 25. Words, especially in poetry, are often much trans . 
 posed; as, 
 
 Great is Diana of the Ephesians. On yourself de- 
 pend for aid. Happy the man who puts his trust i 
 his maker. Of night the gloom was dark and dense. 
 
 Or where the gorgeous east, with richest hand, 
 Showers on her kings barbaric, pearls and gold. 
 
 No hive hast thou of hoarded sweets . 
 
 A transient calm the happy scenes bestow 
 
 When first thy sire to send on earth 
 
 Virtue, his darling child, designed. 
 
 On flattering appearances put no reliance. 
 
 He with viny crown advancing. 
 
 First to the lively pipe his hand addressed. 
 
 Grieved though thou art, forbear the rash design. 
 Not half so dreadful rises to the sight 
 Orion's doa:. the year whori Autumn weighs. 
 
41 ETYMOLOGY; 85 
 
 41. PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES IN PARSING. 
 
 The world was made by a Supreme Being. He who 
 made it, now preserves and governs it. Nothing hap- 
 .pens without his permission. He sees all our actions, 
 and hears all our words. The thoughts of the heart 
 are known to him. In him we live, he gave us life, and 
 without him we can not breathe. Wherever we are, 
 God is with us. When we sit in the house, God is 
 there; and when we walk by the way, he is at our 
 right hand. He is a spirit, and fills heaven and earth 
 with his presence. 
 
 Demosthenes, who was born at Athens, was a very 
 famous orator. He acquired the art of speaking by 
 great labor and study. By nature he had not a good 
 voice, and could not rightly pronounce some words. 
 That he might learn to speak distinctly, he put small 
 round pebbles in his mouth while he spoke, in order to 
 cure his defect. He used to shut himself up in his 
 chamber, and to study a whole month together. He 
 often went to the shore, and pronounced his orations 
 to the waves, that he might be better able to endure 
 the noise and clamor of the people. He made many 
 orations both on private and public occasions ; but he 
 used his eloquence chiefly against Philip, king of Ma- 
 cedon; and, in several orations, he stirred up the Athe- 
 nians to make war against him. 
 
 The mimic thrush, or mocking bird, is about the size 
 of a blackbird, but somewhat more slender. The plu- 
 mage is grey, but paler on the under parts than above. 
 
 This capricious little mimic seems to have a singular 
 pleasure in archly leading other birds astray. He is 
 said at one time to allure the smaller birds with the 
 call of their mates ; and when these come near, to ter* 
 rify them with the scream of the eagle. There is 
 scarcely a bird of the forest, that is not at some time 
 deceived by'his call. 
 
 None. For additional exercises in parsing, any simple correct writer ma? 
 be used. 
 
 8 
 
PART THIRD. 
 
 43. SYNTAX. 
 
 254. SYNTAX is that part of Grammar which 
 treats of the proper arrangement and connection 
 of words in a sentence. 
 
 255. A sentence is such an assemblage of words as makes com- 
 plete sense , as, Man is mortal. 
 
 256. A phrase is two or more words rightly put together, but 
 not making complete sense-, as, In truth; to be plain with you, 
 
 257. Sentences are of two kinds, Simple and Compound. 
 
 258. A Simple sentence has but one subject and one finite verb, 
 i. e. a verb not in the infinitive or participles-, as, Life is short. 
 
 259. A Compound sentence contains two or more simple sen- 
 tences combined; as, Life, which is short, should be well employed. 
 
 260. Every simple sentence consists of two parts, the subject 
 and the predicate. 
 
 261. The subject is that of which something is affirmed-, as, 
 Snow is white: John reads. 
 
 262. The predicate is that which is affirmed of the subject 5 as % 
 Snow is white: John reads. 
 
 263. The predicate properly consists of two parts the attribute 
 affirmed of the subject, and the copula by which the affirmation is 
 made. Thus in the first example, is white is the predicate, of 
 which white is the attribute, and is, the copula. 
 
 264. The attribute and copula are generally expressed by one 
 word, which in that case must always be a verb, as in the second 
 example-, John reads John is reading. Hence, 
 
 265. The predicate may be a noun or pronoun, an adjective, a 
 preposition with its case, or an adverb ; also an infinitive, or clause 
 of a sentence as an attribute, together with the copula by which 
 it is connected with, and affirmed of the subject-, or it may be a 
 verb, which includes in itself both attribute and copula. 
 
 266. Both subject and predicate may each be attended by other 
 words called adjuncts, which serve to modify or restrict the 
 meaning of the word with which they stand connected-, ag, * c An 
 
44 45. SYNTAX. 87 
 
 inordinate desire of admiration often produces a contemptible levity 
 of deportment." 
 
 267. The subject without an adjunct, is called the Grammatical 
 subject; with its adjunct, it is called tne Logical subject. 
 
 268. The predicate without an adjunct, is called the Gramma- 
 tical predicate; with its adjunct, it is called tne Logical predicate t 
 
 269. When a compound sentence is so framed that the meaning 
 is suspended till the whole be finished, it is called a Period. 
 
 270. 44. GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF SYNTAX. 
 
 1. In every sentence, there must be a verb and a no- 
 minative or subject, expressed or understood. 
 
 2. Every article, adjective, adjective pronoun, or par 
 ticiple, must have a substantive expressed or understood, 
 
 3. Every subject-nominative has its own verb ex- 
 pressed or understood. 
 
 4. Every verb [except in the infinitive and participles] 
 has its own nominative expressed or understood. 
 
 5. Every possessive case is governed by a substan- 
 tive [50], denoting the thing possessed. 
 
 6. Every objective case is governed by a transitive 
 verb in the active voice, or preposition [Exc., See 307], 
 
 7. The infinitive mood is governed by a verb, an 
 adjective or substantive [For Exc. See 67]. 
 
 45. PARTS OF SYNTAX. 
 
 271. The Rules of Syntax may all be included under 
 three heads, Concord, Government, and Position. 
 
 272. Concord is the agreement which one word has 
 with another in gender, number, case, or person. 
 
 273. Government is that power which one word has 
 in directing the mood, tense or case of another word. 
 
 274. Position means the place which a word occu- 
 pies in a sentence. 
 
 275. In the English language, which has but few inflections 
 the meaning of a sentence depends much on its arrangement 
 
88 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 46. 
 
 276. 46. RULE I. A Verb must agree with iU 
 nominative in number and person ; as, Thou read- 
 est, He reads, We read. 
 
 277. Rem. 1. The nominative to a verb is known by putting the question Who I 
 or What ? with the verb. The answer to the question will be the nominative 
 as, " I read." Who reads? Am. /. 
 
 278. Rem 2. Under this rule the General Principles $ 44. 3, 4, must be cam. 
 lally observed. For, as follows, as concerns, as appears, <fcc. See 86, 3. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 I loves reading. A soft answer turn away wrath. 
 We is but of yesterday, and knows nothing. The days 
 of man is but as grass. Thou sees how little has been 
 done. He need not proceed in such haste. He dare 
 not act otherwise. Fifty pounds of wheat contains forty 
 pounds of flour. A variety of pleasing objects charm 
 the eye. So much both of ability and merit are seldom 
 found. Nothing but vain and foolish pursuits delight 
 some persons. A judicious arrangement of studies fa- 
 cilitate improvement. A few pangs of conscience now 
 and then interrupts his pleasure, and whispers to him 
 that he once had better thoughts. There was more 
 impostors than one. What signifies good opinions, when 
 our practice is bad? To these precepts are subjoined 
 a copious selection of rules and maxims. 
 
 In vain our flocks and fields increase our store, 
 When our abundance make us wish for more. 
 The number of our days are with thee. There re- 
 mains two points to be considered. There is in fact no 
 impersonal verbs in any language. I have considered 
 what have been said on both sides. Great pains has 
 been taken to make this work as useful as possible. 
 In piety and virtue consist the happiness of man. 
 
 In order to exercise the judgment of the pupil, as well as to show that he under- 
 itands the rule, he may be required to assign a reason for the changes made in 
 iorrecting the exercises under this and the following rules. If well versed in 
 parsing, this may be done without loss of time, even in a large class, by directing 
 him to state the reason always, without waiting to be asked for it. Thus in tho 
 preceding exercises, "Loves" should be "love," because " /" is the 1st pers 
 sing. "Turn" should be "turns," because "answer" is the 3d per*, sing. &c 
 
47 SYNTAX. 89 
 
 47 SPECIAL RULES AND OBSERVATIONS UNDER RULE i 
 
 279. RULE I. The subject of a verb should be in the nominative, 
 as, He and she are of the same age ; not, Him and her. 
 
 280. RULE II. The Infinitive mood or part of a sentence's often 
 used as the nominative to a verb ; as, To play is pleasant-, Hi* 
 being at enmity with Ccesar, was the cause of perpetual discord. 
 
 281. RULE III. A noun singular used for a plural, is joined to a 
 -plural verb / as, Ten sail of the line were seen at a distance. 
 10, 4,note.} 
 
 282. NOTE. Nouns plural in form, but singular In signification, may bejoiueO 
 with either a singular or plural verb. 10, 5. 
 
 283. RULE IV. Ji noun and its pronoun should never be used 
 as a nominative to the same verb; as, The king is just $ not, the 
 king, he is just. Except that himself ', herself, etc. are joined with 
 a noun or pronoun, rendering it emphatic. 15. Obs. 2. 
 
 284. RULE V. When the verb TO BE stands between a singular 
 and a plural nominative, it agrees with the one next it, or the one. 
 which is more naturally the subject of it / as, The wages of sin 
 is death. 
 
 EXERCISES ON PRECEDING RULES. 
 
 I. Him and I are able to do it. You and us enjoy 
 many privileges. I thought you and them had become 
 friends. If you were here, you would find three or four, 
 whom you would say pass their time very agreeably. 
 
 II. To live soberly, righteously and godly are requi- 
 red of all men. To do to others as we would that they 
 should do to us, constitute the great principle of virtue. 
 
 III. Forty head of cattle was grazing in yonder mea- 
 dow. Twelve brace of pigeons was sold for a dollar. 
 
 IV. Simple and innocent pleasures they alone are 
 durable. My banks they are furnished with bees. This 
 rule if it had been observed, a neighboring prince would 
 have wanted a great deal of that incense which has 
 been offered to him. John, lie said so, and Thomas, 
 he said so, and the rest of them, they all said so. 
 
 V. A great cause of the low state of industry was 
 the restraints put upon it. His meat were locusts and 
 wild honey. The crown of virtue is peace and honour. 
 
 8* 
 
90 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 48. 
 
 '285. 48. RULE II. A transitive verb^ in the 
 active voice, governs the objective case; as, We 
 love him. He loves us. Wliom did they send? 
 
 286. S. RUIE I. The infinitive mood, or part of a sentence, at 
 icell as a noun or pronoun, may be the object of a transitive active 
 verb ; as, Boys love to play ; I wish that they were wise. 
 
 287. S. RULE II. Jin intransitive verb used transitively (153). 
 governs the objective case; as, " Let us run the race." 
 
 288. S. RULE III. Verbs signifying TO NAME, CHOOSE, APPOINI 
 and the like, govern two objectives; as, they named him John. 
 
 289. Under S. RULE II, (287), may be classed such expressions as the follow, 
 uig : u The brooks ran nectar." "The trees wept gums and balm." 
 
 290. Rem. 1. The participle, being a part of the verb, governs the same case. 
 
 291. Rem 2. "When the objective is a relative or an interrogative, it comes be- 
 fore the verb that governs it. 
 
 292. Rem. 3. A transitive verb in the active voice, without an object, either 
 has an object understood, or is used intransitively (155). 
 
 293. Rem. 4. As substantives have no distinct form of the objective case, the 
 arrangement of the sentence should clearly distinguish the one case from the 
 other. The nominative generally precedes the verb ; the objective follows it; 
 but when the objective is a relative or interrogative, it precedes both the verb 
 and Us nominative. The objective should not, if possible,be separated from its verb. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 ' He loves I. He and they we know, but who art thou ? 
 She that is idle and mischievous, reprove sharply. Ye 
 only have I known. Let thou and I try it. He who is 
 guilty, thou shouldst correct; not I who am innocent. 
 
 (R. I.) Esteeming theirselves wise, they became fools. 
 Upon seeing I, he turned pale. Having exposed his self 
 to the fire of the enemy, he soon lost an arm in the action. 
 
 (R. 2.) The man who he raised from obscurity, is 
 dead. Who did they entertain so freely? They are the 
 persons who we ought to respect. Who having not seen, 
 we love. They who opulence has made proud, and who 
 luxury has corrupted, are not happy. Who do I love 
 BO much ? Who shall I pay for this service ? 
 
 (R. 3.) Faulty arrangement. This is the man, he 
 believed, whom he would send on that business. Becket 
 could not better discover, than by attacking so power- 
 ful an interest, his resolution to maintain his right. 
 
49. SYNTAX. 91 
 
 49 SPECIAL RULES UNDER 
 
 294. I. Intransitive verbs never govern an objective case; thus 
 M Repenting him of his design," should be, " repenting of his 
 design." 
 
 295. Rem. Such expressions as "laughed him to scorn;" " looked daggert;" 
 ' Talked the night away," fire anomalies. 
 
 296. II. Intransitive verbs do not admit a passive voice. 
 
 297. NOTE. An intransitive verb used transitively (153), is in that case consi- 
 dered transitive, and not subject to the preceding rules. 
 
 29 S. III. Transitive verbs do not admit a preposition after 
 them; thus, u I must premise with three circumstances," should 
 be, " I must premise three circumstances." 
 
 299. OBS. Verbs signifying to ask, teach, offer, promise, pay, tell, allow, deny, 
 and some others, sometimes in colloquial language have an objective case after 
 the passive voice ; as, I was taught Grammar. This may also be expressed ac- 
 tively ; as, He taught (to) me Grammar ; or passively, Grammar was taught 
 \to) me. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 I. The king found reason to repent him of such dan- 
 gerous enemies. They did not fail to enlarge them- 
 selves on the subject. Go flee thee away into the land 
 of Judea. It will be difficult to agree his conduct with 
 the principles he professes. " Then having showed his 
 wounds, he'd sit him down." 
 
 II. This person was entered into a conspiracy against 
 his master. Fifty men are deserted from the army. 
 The influence of this corrupt example was then entirely 
 ceased. My father was returned yesterday. 
 
 III. I shall premise with two or three general obser- 
 vations. He ingratiates with some, by traducing others. 
 We ought to disengage from the world by degrees. He 
 tfill not allow of it. They shall not want for encou- 
 
 agement. The covetous man pursues after gain. 
 
 [OBS.] Change the following sentences into the form* 
 specified in the Obs. A few questions were asked at 
 cne witness. A sliip was promised to him in a few 
 weeks. A pardon was offered [to] him. Great liberty 
 was allowed [to] me. That was told [to] him some 
 time ago. The jewels ivere offered to her. 
 
*92 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 50 
 
 bOO. 50. RULE III. Prepositions govern the 
 objective case ; as, To whom much is given, of him 
 much shall be required. 
 
 301. Obs The object of a preposition is sometimes an infinitive mood, or part 
 of a sentence j as. About to depart ; Much depends on who are his advisers. 
 
 302. Rein. 1. Prepositions are commonly placed before the words which they 
 govern, and as near to them as possible; but never before the relative that. But 
 whom and which are sometimes governed by a preposition at some distance after 
 them ; but this should generally be avoided in composition. 
 
 303. Rem. 2. The preposition, with its regimen^ should be placed as near aa 
 possible to the word to which it is related. 
 
 304. Rem. 3. For is not now used before the infinitive mood. 
 
 305. Rer" 4. It is generally inelegant and improper to connect a preposition 
 and active verb with the same word ; as, I wrote t o, and warned him of his danger. 
 
 306. Rem. 5. The preposition is often omitted ; as. Give [to] me the book ; do 
 it [in] your own way ; I wrote [to] you long ago ; like [unto] his father. Many 
 cases of suppose;! ellipsis, however, may come under tke following : 
 
 307. S. RULE. Nouns denoting time, value, weight, or measure, 
 are commonly put in the objective case, without a governing word ; 
 as, " He was absent six months" " It costs a penny ; but it is not 
 worth & farthing? " The parcel weighs a pound? " The wall is 
 six feet high." 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 To who will you give that pen ? Will you go with 
 him and I ? Withhold not good from they to who it is 
 due. With who do you live ? Great friendship subsists 
 between he and I. He laid the suspicion on somebody, 
 I know not who, in the company. [Eem. 1] Who do 
 you speak to ? Who did they ride with ? To have no 
 one who we are concerned for, is a deplorable state. 
 It was not he whom they were so angry with. The book 
 which the story is printed in, is full of fiction. 2. The 
 embarrassments of the artificers rendered the progress 
 very slow of the work. Beyond this period, the arts 
 can not be traced of civil society. 3. What went ye 
 out for to see ? Can you give me wax for to seal this 
 letter ? He set out for to go home an hour ago. 4. He 
 was afraid of, and wished to shun them. He claimed 
 and insisted upon his rights. 5. Will you lend to 
 me your grammar? I will return it on to-morrow. 
 
51. SYNTAX. 93 
 
 308. 51. RULE IV. Two or more substantives 
 singular, taken in connection, require a verb in the 
 plural; as, 1. Cato and Cicero were learned. 2. Honor, 
 justice, religion itself, are derided by the profligate. 
 
 309. Rein. 1. Substantives are viewed in connection when they stand togethej 
 as the nominative to the same verb, not separately, but combined, forming a plu- 
 ral subject, i. e. a subject consisting of more things than one. Sometimes they 
 are joined by the conjunction and, as in the first example ; sometimes they are 
 without a conjunction, as in the second. 
 
 310. Rem. 2. A singular nominative and an objective connected by trith, some 
 times have a plural verb; as, "The ship with the crew were lost." This coo. 
 struction is incorrect, and should not be imitated. It should be "the ship with 
 the crew was lost," or, " the ship and the creiv were lost." 
 
 311. Rem. 3. But when two names are used to represent one subject, the verb 
 must be in the singular ; as, Why is dust and ashes proud. 
 
 312. Rem. 4. When comparison is expressed or implied, and not combination^ 
 the verb should be singular ; as, Caesar, as well as Cicero, was remarkable for 
 eloquence (315). 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 Patience and diligence, like faith, removes mountains. 
 Life and death is in the power of the tongue. Wisdom, 
 virtue, happiness, dwells with the golden mediocrity. 
 Anger and impatience is always unreasonable. His 
 politeness and good disposition was, on failure of their 
 effect, entirely changed. By whose power all good and 
 evil is distributed. Languor and satiety destroys all 
 enjoyment. Out of the same mouth proceedeth bles- 
 sing and cursing. Leisure of life and tranquillity of 
 mind, which fortune and your own wisdom has given 
 you, is capable of being better employed. 
 
 [Rem. 3.] That able scholar and critic have been emi- 
 nently useful. Your friend and patron, whose name 1 
 have forgotten, have just now been enquiring for you. 
 
 [Rem. 4.] I, as well as they, are entitled to redress. 
 Perseverance, as well as talents and application, are 
 necessary to eminence in literary pursuits. But he, as 
 well as Lord Clive, have been harshly judged bj mei 
 who have listened to their enemies. 
 
94 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 52 
 
 313. 52. RULE V. Two or more substantives 
 singular, taken separately, or one to the exclusion of 
 tiie rest, have a verb in the singular; as, John, or 
 James, or Andrew, intends to accompany you. 
 
 311. R0m. 1. Substantive? are taken separately, when, though they all stand as 
 the nominative to the verb, yet either one, exclusive of all the rest, is the subject 
 Df discourse, as in the example above; or, though all are equally the subject of 
 discourse, yet they are not so in combination, but individually. In this case the 
 verb agrees with the last, and is understood to the rest. 
 
 315. Rein. 2. Substantives taken separately are connected by or, nor, as well 
 is, and also. A noun taken to the exclusion of the rest is connected wuh them 
 by such expressions as, and not, but not, not, etc. Also nouns after each, every, 
 no, though connected by and. But each and every used distributively after a 
 plural subject, do not affect the verb; as, u They have conspired, each to re- 
 commend the other;" " They, each in his turn, have done their duty." 
 
 316. RULE. A singular and a plural nominative, connected by 
 a disjunctive, require a verb in the plural, and the plural nomi- 
 native should be placed next the verb; as, Neither the captain nor 
 the sailors were saved. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 Either the boy or the girl were present. It must 
 be confessed that a lampoon or a satire do not carry in 
 it robbery or murder. The modest virgin, the prudent 
 wife, or the careful matron, are much more serviceable 
 in life than a petticoated philosopher. Neither precept 
 nor discipline are so forcible as example. A clock or 
 a watch move merely as it is moved. Every man, 
 woman, and child, were excluded. They, every one, 
 pursues their destined course. Each of the seasons, as 
 it revolves, give fresh proof of the Divine power and 
 goodness. The seasons, each as it revolves, gives plea- 
 sure to the soul. Neither poverty nor riches was inju- 
 rious to him. They or he was offended. Neither the 
 king nor his ministers deserves to be praised. Whether 
 one or more was concerned in the business, does not 
 yet appear. An ostentatious, a feeble, a harsh, or an 
 obscure style, are always a fault. Neither the captain, 
 nor the passengers, nor any of the crew, was saved. 
 
53, SYNTAX. 95 
 
 317. 53. RULE VI. 1. IVhen two or more nomina- 
 tives combined are of different persons, the verb is 
 plural, and prefers the jirst person to the second, and 
 the second,to the third; as, He and I are brothers. 
 
 2. When nominatives of different persons are dis- 
 junctively connected, the verb in the singular agrees 
 with the person next to it; as, "He or lam to blame."" 
 
 It is generally better, however, to express the verb 
 with each nominative; as, "He is to blame,or I am." 
 
 318. Rem. 1. In the order of arrangement in English, the second person if 
 usually placed before the third, and the first person is always placed last. 
 
 319. Rem. 2. Under the first of these rules, if the verb be made plural, there 
 will be no liability to error in person, as all the persons in the plural are alike. 
 Still, the rule will serve to point out the person of the verb. Thus, are in the ex- 
 ample is in the first person. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. James, and thou, and I, am attached to our country. 
 Thou, and the gardener, and the huntsman, has to 
 share the blame of this business. My sister and I, as 
 well as my brother, is daily employed in bur respective 
 occupations. While you are playing, my brother and 
 I am attentive to our studies. 
 
 2 Either thou or I art greatly mistaken. He or I 
 is sure of this week's prize. (Rem. 1) I or John has done 
 it. He or thou art the person who must go on that busi- 
 ness. Thomas or thou hast spilt the ink on my paper. 
 
 Promiscuous Exercises on the Preceding Rules. 
 
 You was there. Was the horses ready. There are 
 a flock of geese. In the human species, the influence of 
 instinct and habit are generally assisted by the sugges- 
 tions of reason. His having robbed several men, were 
 the cause of his punishment. Learning, how much 
 soever it may be despised by some, yet men know it to 
 be an acquirement of great value. He, not the minis- 
 ters, control all things. His wisdom and not his mo 
 ney produce esteem. 
 
iHi ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 54. 
 
 320. 54. RULE VII. 1. When a collective noun 
 conveys the idea of unity, its verb must be singular ; 
 as, The class was large. 
 
 2. When a collective noun conveys the idea of 
 plurality, the verb must be plural; as, My people do 
 not consider. 
 
 321. Rem. 1. Pronouns referring to collective nouns must in like manner ba 
 singular or plural, according as the idea of unity or plurality is expressed (343). 
 
 322. Rcm. 2. It is sometimes difficult to determine whether a noun expressei 
 unity or plurality. It is now considered generally best to use the plural where 
 the singular is not manifestly required. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 Stephen's party were entirely broken up. The meet- 
 ing were well attended. The people has no opinion of 
 their own. The people was very numerous. A com- 
 pany of troops were despatched to the opposite side of 
 the river. The people rejoices in what should give 
 them sorrow. The multitude eagerly pursues pleasure 
 as their chief good. In France, the peasantry goes 
 barefooted, while the middle sort makes use of wooden 
 shoes. The British parliament are composed of king, 
 lords, and commons. The fleet is all arrived and 
 moored in safety. The flock, and not the fleece, are, 
 or ought to be, the object of the shepherd's care. 
 When the nation complain, the rulers should listen. 
 The regiment consist of a thousand men. Never were 
 any nation so infatuated. But this people who know 
 not the law is cursed. The shoal of herrings were im- 
 mense. Why do this generation seek after a sign ? The 
 fleet were seen sailing up the channel. Mankind is 
 more united by the bonds of friendship at present than 
 formerly. Part of the coin were preserved. The royal 
 society are numerous and flourishing. " The lowing 
 herd wind slowly o'er the lea." The noble army of 
 martyrs praiseth thee, God ! A great number of 
 women were present. The audience takes this in good 
 part. All mankind composes one family. 
 
55* SYNTAX. 97 
 
 323. 55. RULE VIII. 1. An adjective qualifies 
 the substantive to which it belongs; as, A good boy 
 
 2. Adjectives denoting one, qualify nouns in the 
 singular; those denoting more than one, qualify 
 nouns in the plural ; as, This man, these men. 
 
 324. Rem. 1. This rule applies also to participles, and adjective prononrs. 
 325. S. RULE. Adjectives should not be used as adverbs; thu's, 
 ' He is miserable poor," should be " he is miserably poor." 
 
 326. Rem. 2. The distinction is : adjectives qualify substantives ; adverbs mo 
 Jify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs 
 
 327. Rem. 3. Adjective* joined with the singular, arc the ordinal numbers, 
 first) second, last, &c. ; one, each, every, either, neither, much with its compara- 
 tive more all, denoting quantity, enough, whole. See 18, (137). 
 
 328. When any of these is joined with a plural noun, the whole is regarded 
 as one aggregate ; as, The first two iveeks ; Every ten miles. App. XX. 
 
 329. R&m. 4. Adjectives joined with the plural only, are all cardinal numbera 
 above one, the words few, many , with its comparative more, both, several, enow 
 Many is sometimes construed with a singular noun; as, " Full many a flower." 
 
 330. Rem. 5. The adjectives, all. no, some, other, may be joined with a sin 
 gular or plural noun according to the sense. 
 
 331 Rem. 5. "This here," " that there," for this ani that; and "them/* 
 "them there," for these and those, are vulgarisms, 
 
 332. Rem. 6. This means and that means refer to one cause ; these means, 
 those means, to more than one ( 10, 5 note]. Amends is used in the same way 
 
 333. [.Rem. 8. An adjective as a. predicate qualifies the subject; as, (rod is good.] 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 This boys are diligent. I have not seen him this ten 
 days. Those sort of people fear nothing. These sol 
 diers are remarkable tall. They behaved the noblest. 
 It is uncommon good. Them books are almost new. 
 Give me that there knife. These kind of favors did 
 real injury. There is six foot of water in the hold. I 
 have no interests but that of truth and virtue. You 
 will find the remark in the second or third pages. 
 Charles was extravagant, and by those means became 
 poor. The scholars were attentive and industrious, 
 and by that means acquired knowledge. Let each es- 
 teem others better than themselves. Are either of 
 these men your friend ? 
 9 
 
08 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. $ 56. 
 
 334. 55. RULE IX. JlHien two persons or 
 ' things are contrasted, that refers to the first men- 
 tioned, and this to the last ; as, Virtue and vice are 
 opposite qualities; that ennobles the mind, this 
 debases it. 
 
 335. Hem. 1. Former and latter, one and other, are often used instead of that and 
 this. Farmer and latter are alike in both numbers ; one and other refer to the 
 ginguiar only. That and this, under this rule, are seldom applied to persons; but 
 former and latter are applied to persons or things indiscriminately. In most cases 
 
 Ihe repetition of the noun is preferable to either of them. 
 
 336. Rem. 2. Hence in the use of the demonstratives when no contrast is ex- 
 pressed, this and these refer to things present or just mentioned; that and thou t 
 to things distant or formerly mentioned. Thus, " They can not be separated from 
 the subject, and for that reason," &c., should be t: and for this reason," &c. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 Wealth and poverty are both temptations to man ; 
 this tends to excite pride, that discontentment. Reli- 
 gion raises men above themselves, irreligion sinks them 
 beneath the brutes ; that binds them down to a poor 
 pitiable speck of perishable earth, this opens for them 
 a prospect to the skies. The king and the tyrant are 
 very different characters ; that rules his people by his 
 absolute will and power, this by laws to which they 
 consent. More rain falls in the first two summer 
 months than in the first two winter ones ; but it makes 
 a much greater show in the one than in the other, be- 
 cause there is a much slower evaporation. Health is 
 more valuable than great possessions, and yet the latter 
 is often sacrificed in the pursuit of the former. Exer- 
 cise and temperance are the best promoters of health: 
 that prevents disease ; this often dissipates it. 
 
 Self-love, the spring of motion, moves the soul, 
 Reason's comparing- balance rules the whole: 
 Man, but for this, no action could attend-, 
 Man, but for that, were active to no end. 
 
 (Rem. 2.) That very subject which we are now 
 discussing, is still involved in mystery. This vessel of 
 which you spoke yesterday, sailed for the West Indie? 
 this morning at ten o'clock. 
 
57. SYNTAX. 9il 
 
 337. 57. RULE X. Pronouns agree with the 
 nouns for which they stand, in gender, number, 
 and person ; as, John is here ; he came an hour ago, 
 Every tree is known by its fruit. 
 
 SPECIAL RULES. 
 
 338. RULE I. When a pronoun refers to two or more sub- 
 stantives taken together and of different persons, it becomes plural, 
 and prefers the first person to the second, and the second to the 
 third; as, John and /do our duty. 
 
 339. RULE II. When a pronoun refers to two or more sub' 
 stantivcs of the same gender, taken separately, or to one of them 
 exclusively, it. must be singular ; as, A clock or a watch is com- 
 plicated in its movements. (315.) 
 
 340. NOTE. Singular substantives of different genders, taken separately, can not 
 r>e represented by one pronoun in English, for want of a third personal pronoun 
 of the common gender; thus, we can not say, "If a man or a woman hurt him 
 telf." In such cases, though contrary to rule, it is better to use the plural, 
 themselves, than the clumsy expression, "hurt himself or herself. 
 
 341. RULE III. But if either of the substantives referred to 
 be plural, the pronoun must be plural also / as, Neither he nor 
 they trouble themselves. 
 
 342. Rem. 1. Nouns are taken together when connected by and expressed or 
 understood ; separately, when connected by or or nor, &c. (see 314, 315). 
 
 343. RULE IV. When a pronoun refers to a collective noun 
 in the singular expressing many as one whole, it should be in the 
 neuter singular; as, The army proceeded on its march. But 
 when it expresses many as individuals, the pronoun should beplu* 
 ral ; as, u The court were divided in their opinions." 
 
 344. Rem. 2. It is improper, in the progress of a sentence, to express the same 
 object by pronouns of different forms or genders; as, I laboured long to make 
 thee happy, and now you reward me by ingratitude. It should be either, " to 
 make you happy," or, "thou rewardest." 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 Answer not a fool according to her folly. A stone 
 is heavy, and the sand weighty, but a fool's wrath is 
 heavier than them both. Take handfuls of ashes of the 
 furnace, and let Moses sprinkle it towards heaven in 
 the sight of Pharaoh; and it shall become small dust. 
 The crown had it in their power to give such rewards 
 
100 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 57 
 
 Exercises on RULE X. continued. 
 
 as they thought proper. The fruit tree beareth fruii 
 after his kind. Rebecca took goodly raiment and put 
 them upon Jacob. [Let every boy answer for them- 
 selves. Each of us had more than we wanted. Every 
 one of you should attend to your own business. A man's 
 recollections of the past regulate their anticipations of 
 the future. A person's success in life depends on their 
 exertions.] 
 
 I. Thou and he shared it between them. James and 
 I are attentive to their studies. You and he are diligent 
 in reading their books; therefore they are good boys. 
 
 II. John or James will favor us with their company. 
 One or other must relinquish their claim. Each book 
 and each paper is in their place. Every day and every 
 hour brings their own temptations. Neither wealth 
 nor honor confers happiness on their votaries. No 
 thought, no word, no action, whether they be good or 
 evil, can escape in the judgment. NOTE. Let every 
 man and woman do her best. If any boy or girl should 
 neglect her duty, they shall forfeit their place. 
 
 IV. The assembly held their meetings in the evening. 
 The court in their wisdom decided otherwise. Society 
 is not always answerable for the conduct of their mem- 
 bers. Send the multitude away, that it may go and 
 buy itself bread. The public are informed that its in- 
 terests are secured. 
 
 [Rem. 2.] Virtue forces her way through obscurity, 
 and sooner or later it is sure to be rewarded. Thou 
 hast ever shewn thyself my real friend, and your kind- 
 ness to me I can never forget. Care for thyself, i/ 
 you would have others care for thee. Though you are 
 great, yet consider thou art a man. 
 
 You draw the inspiring breath of ancient song, 
 Till nobly rises emulous thy own. 
 
 Thou, goddess mother, with our sire comply j 
 If you submit, the thunderer stands appeased. 
 
58. SYNTAX. 101 
 
 345. 58. RULE XI. The relative agrees with 
 its antecedent in number and person, and the verb 
 agrees with it accordingly ; as, Thou who speakest. 
 The book which was lost. 
 
 346 Rem. 1. The antecedent, or that to which the relative refers, may be a 
 noun, or pronoun, as in the examples above ; also an imperative mood, or clause 
 of a sentence ; as, " To act rashly, which is often done, is unwise." 
 
 347. Rem. 2. Who is applied to persons, or things personified ; which, to all 
 other objects sometimes to children to collective nouns composed of persons, 
 when unity is expressed ; and also to persons in asking questions. 17, Obs. 1, 2, 4. 
 
 348. Rem. 3. The relative that is used instead of who or which 
 
 1. After adjectives in the superlative degree ; after the words very, same and 
 att, and often after wo, some and any. 
 
 2. When the antecedent includes both persons and things ; as, The man and 
 the horse that we saw yesterday. 
 
 3. After the interrogative who; often after the personal pronouns, and gene- 
 rally when the propriety of who or ivhich is doubtful ; as, Who that has any sense 
 of religion, would have argued thus. I that speak in righteousness. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1 & 2. Those which seek wisdom, will certainly 
 find her. This is the friend which I love. That is the 
 vice whom I hate. This moon who rose last night had 
 not yet filled her horns. Blessed is the man which 
 walketh in wisdom's ways. Thou who has been a wit- 
 ness of the fact, canst give an account of it. I am happy 
 in the friend which I have long proved. The court who 
 gives currency to manners, ought to be exemplary. 
 The tiger is a beast of prey, who destroys without pity. 
 Who of these men came to his assistance ? [ 17, Obs. 1], 
 
 3. It is the best which can be got. Solomon was the 
 wisest man whom the world ever saw. It is the same 
 picture which you saw before. "And all which beauty, 
 all which wealth e'er gave, await alike the inevitable 
 hour." The lady and lapdog which we saw at the 
 window, have disappeared. The men and things which 
 he has studied, have not contributed to the improve* 
 nient of his morals. I who speak unto thee, am he. 
 Sidney was one of the wisest and most active governors 
 which Ireland had enjoyed for several years. He has 
 committed the same fault which I condemned yesterday. 
 
 0* 
 
102 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 59 
 
 59. SPECIAL RULES AND OBSERVATIONS ON RULE xi. 
 
 349. RULE I. The relative,with its clause, should be placed as near 
 as possible to its antecedent, to prevent ambiguity ; thus, " The boy 
 beat his companion, whom every body believed incapable of doing 
 mischief," should be " The boy, whom every body believed in- 
 capable of doing mischief, beat his companion." Hence, 
 
 350. RULE JI. When the relative is preceded by two words refer- 
 ring to the same thing, one in the subject and the other in the 
 predicate, its proper antecedent is the one next to it; as, Thou art 
 the man who was engaged in that business. 
 
 351. Rem. 1. If the relative in the pr ceding example referred to thou, the seu- 
 lence should be arranged thus, '" Thou who wast engaged in that business, art the 
 man." In such sentences care should always be taken to ascertain to which 
 word the relative and its clause belongs, and to arrange the sentence accordingly. 
 In this, the sense is the only guide. 
 
 352. RULE III. The antecedent, if a pronoun of the third per- 
 son, is often understood when no emphasis is implied ; it is omitted 
 before what, and the compound relatives, whoever, whosoever, etc. 
 ($ 16, Obs. 3.) 
 
 353. Rem. 2. The relative is sometimes understood, especially hi colloquial 
 language ; as, " The friend I visited yesterday, is dead to-day," for " The friend 
 whom I visited," &c. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 I. The king dismissed his minister, without any in- 
 quiry, who had never before committed so unjust an 
 action. The soldier with a single companion, who 
 passed for the bravest man in the regiment, offered his 
 services. Thou art a friend indeed, who hast relieved 
 me in this dangerous crisis. 
 
 II. Thou art the friend that hast often relieved me, 
 and that hast not deserted me now in the time of pe- 
 culiar need. I am the man who command you. I ana 
 the person who adopt that sentiment, and maintain it. 
 Thou art he who driedst up the Red Sea. 
 
 III. He whoever steals my purse, steals trash 
 Those whom he would, he slew ; and those whom he 
 would, he kept alive. The man whosoever committeth 
 sin, is the servant of sin. To them whomsoever he 
 paw in distress, he imparted relief. 
 
$ 60. SYNTAX. 103 
 
 354. 60. RULE XII. Substantives denoting 
 the same person or thing, agree in case ; as, Cicero 
 the Orator. 
 
 Words thus used are said to be in apposition 
 
 355. Words in apposition must always be in the same member of the sen 
 'euce ; i. e. both in the subject or both in the predicate. 
 
 356. Rent. 1. Two or more nouns, forming one complex name, or a name and 
 a title, with the definite article and a numeral adjeclive prefixed, have the plural 
 termination annexed to the last only; as, the two Miss Hays. The three Miss 
 Browns. The two Dr. Monroes. 
 
 357. Rein. 2. But when used without the numeral, the plural termination is an 
 nexed to ihe fast ; as, Messrs. Thompson. Misses Hamilton. $ 10, 1. But of 
 marred ladies, the name only is pluralized; as, the Mrs. Browns. 
 
 358. Rem. 3. Distributive words are sometimes put in apposition with a plursk. 
 substantive ; as, They stood each in the other's way. In this way is to be re- 
 solved the common phrase, " They stood in each other's way." " They loved 
 one another 7 ' = they loved, one (loved) another. 
 
 359. S. RULE. The word containing the answer to a question^ 
 must always be in the same case with the word that asks it / as, 
 Who did that? / (did it). Whose books are these? John's. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 The chief of the princes, him who defied the bravest 
 of the enemy, was assassinated by a dastardly villain. 
 He was the son of the Rev. Dr. West, he who pub- 
 lished Pindar at Oxford. 
 
 (Rem. 1, 2.) The two Misses Louisa Howard are 
 very amiable young ladies. The two Messrs. Websters 
 left town yesterday. The two Messrs. Websters will 
 return to-morrow. The Doctors Stevensons have been 
 successful in performing a very difficult operation. The 
 two Doctors Ramsays have returned. The Mrs. Town- 
 send were there, as well as the Mrs. Bay. 
 
 (S. RULE.) Of whom were the articles bought? Of a 
 grocer, he who resides near the Mansion House. Was 
 any person besides the grocer present ? Yes, both him 
 and his clerk were present. Who was the money paid 
 to ? To the grocer. Who counted it ? Both the clerk 
 and him. Who said that ? Me. Whose books are 
 these ? Her who went out a few minutes ago. 
 
104 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 61 
 
 360. 61. RULE XIII. The predicate substantive 
 after a verb, is in the same case as the subject before 
 it ; as, It is /. I took it to be him. 
 
 361. Rem. 1. The verbs which connect the subject and its predicative sub- 
 stamive under this rale, are chiefly the verb to be, to become, and some other 
 intransitive verbs, and passive verbs of naming, choosing, appointing, and the 
 like , as, He shall be called John. He became the slave of passion. Stephen died e 
 martyr. Hence the case of the subject determines the case of the predicate. 
 
 362. Rem. 2. In substantive phrases, the infinitive or participle of an intransitive 
 verb without a subject. is followed by a substantive or adjective taken indefinitely, 
 and the substantive is in the nominative case ( 40, R. 23, Obs. 2) ; as, " To be 
 the slave of passion, is of all slavery the mo.st wretched." " His dying intestate 
 caused all this trouble." " It is our duty to be obedient to our parents." 
 
 363. Rem. 3. In English almost any verb may be used as a copula between 
 Its subject and an adjective as a part, or at least as a modification of the predicate ; 
 as, " It tastes good," " The wind blows hard," " I remember right,'' " He 
 feels sick," "He strikes hard, " "He drinks deep," &c. In such expressions 
 the adjective somewhat resembles an adverb in its use, and has sometimes been 
 parsed as such. It is, however, an adjective in fact as well as in form, and 
 qualifies the subject, not simply as a substantive, but as a substantive affected by, 
 or connected with the action expressed by the verb. This is a common phraseo- 
 logy of our language, especially in poetry, and is analogous to the Latin " insons 
 feci," <V I did it innocently;" u accurrunt laeti," " they run up joyfully }} 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 It was me who wrote the letter. Be not afraid, it 
 is me. I am certain that it could not have been her. 
 It is them that deserve most blame. You would un- 
 doubtedly act the same part if you were him. I under- 
 stood it to be he. It may have been him, but there is 
 no proof of it. It may have been him or them that did it. 
 
 Who do you think him to be ? Whom do men say 
 that I am? She is the person who I understood it to 
 have been. Let him be whom he may, I am not afraid 
 of him. Was it me that said so ? It is impossible to 
 be them. I am certain it was not him. 
 
 Promiscuous Exercises 
 
 Surely thou who reads so much in the Bible, can tell 
 me what became of Elijah. Neither the master nor the 
 scholars is here. Trust not him whom you know is dis- 
 honest. I love no interests but that of truth and virtue 
 
62. SYNTAX. 105 
 
 364 62. RULE XIV. When two nouns come 
 together, denoting the possessor and the thing pos- 
 sessed, the Jirst is put in the possessive case ; as, 
 John's book ; on eagle's wings. 
 
 Obs. The latter or governing substantive is frequently understood ; as, I found 
 him at the stationer's (viz. shop or house). 
 
 365. Rem. 1. A noun and its possessive pronoun should not be used for the 
 possessive ; thus, " A man his ways," should be, " A man's ways. 1 ' 
 
 366. Rem. 2. The preposition of, with the objective, is generally equivalent to 
 the possessive case, and is often used in preference to it. Thus, " In the name 
 of the army, is better than " In the army's name." Sometimes, however, these 
 two modes of expression are not equivalent; thus, u The Lord's day, ; ' and " The 
 day of the Lord," convey ideas entirely different. 
 
 367. Rem. 3. Sometimes of is used before the possessive governing a 
 substantive understood after it ; as, This is a discovery of Sir Isaac Newton's 
 (viz. discoveries). " This is a discovery of Sir Isaac Newton," expresses the 
 same idea. These two modes of expression, however, sometimes convey quite 
 different ideas; thus, " A picture of my friend," means a portrait of him; " A 
 picture of my friend's," means a picture belonging to him (App. XIV). Under 
 both these remarks, it may be observed as a general 
 
 RULE. In the use of the possessive, or of its equivalent of, 
 with the objective, care should be taken to avoid harshness on the 
 one hand, and ambiguity on the other. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 It is Pompeys pillar. Seek Virtues reward. A 
 mans manners frequently influence his fortune. My 
 ancestors virtue is not mine. Asa his heart was perfect 
 with the Lord. A mothers tenderness and a fathers 
 care are nature's gifts for mans advantage. Helen her 
 beauty was the cause of Troy its destruction. Longinus 
 his treatise on the sublime. For Christ his sake. 
 
 [Rem. 3.] The Commons' vote was decidedly against 
 the measure. The Lord's house adjourned at a late 
 hour. The Representative's house convened at 12 
 o'clock. He married my daughter's husband's sister. 
 She married the brother of the wife of my son. The 
 Lord's day will come as a thief in the night. The next 
 day of the Lord came all the people to hear the word. 
 That is a good likeness of De Witt Clinton's. He is 
 the only son of his*mother's. The court's decision. 
 The report of the sickness of the son of the king of 
 England, excited the nation's fears. 
 
106 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 63 
 
 368. 63. OBSERVATIONS ON RULE xir. 
 
 1. When several nouns come together in the possessive cas<, 
 implying common possession, the sign of the possessive ('s) is an- 
 nexed to the last, and understood to the rest , as, " Jane and Lucy's 
 books, 1 ' i. e. books the common property of Jane and Lucy. But 
 if common possession is not implied, or if several words intervene, 
 the sign of the possessive should be annexed to each-, as, u Jane's 
 and Lucy's books," i. e. books, some of which are Jane's, and 
 others, Lucy's. u This gained the king's, as well as the people's 
 approbation." 
 
 2 When a name is complex, consisting of more terms than one, 
 the sign of the possessive is annexed to the last only-, as, " Julius 
 Caesar's Commentaries." u John the Baptist's head." " His 
 brother Philip's wife." " The Bishop of London's charge." 
 
 3. When a short explanatory term is joined to a name, the sign 
 of the possessive may be annexed to either- as, I called at Smith's 
 the bookseller, or, at Smith the bookseller's. But if, to such a 
 phrase, the governing substantive is added, the sign of the pos- 
 sessive must be annexed to the last; as, "I called at Smith the 
 bookseller's shop." 
 
 4. If the explanatory circumstance be complex, or consisting of 
 more terms than one, the sign of the possessive must be annexed 
 to the name or first substantive-, as, "This Psalm is David's, the 
 king, priest, and prophet of the people." u That book is 
 Smith's, the bookseller in Maiden Lane." 
 
 5. When two nouns in the possessive are governed by different 
 words, the sign of the possessive must be annexed to each-, as, 
 u He took refuge at the governor's, the king's representative, 11 
 i. e. at the " Governor's house." 
 
 6. The s after the apostrophe is omitted, when the first noun 
 has the sound of s in its last syllable, and the second noun begins 
 with s; as, For righteousness' sake, etc. ( 11, Obs. 2). In other 
 cases, such omission would generally be improper- as, James 
 book, Miss' shoes-, instead of James's book, Miss's shoes (See 
 An. Gr^ 175). 
 
 7. A clause of a sentence should never come between the pos- 
 sessive case and the word by which it is governed-, thus, " She 
 began to extol the farmer's, as she called him, excellent under- 
 standing," should be, u the excellent understanding of the farmer, 
 as she called him." 
 
 8. The possessive whosesoever, and the compounds whichsoever, 
 whatsoever , howsoever, are sometimes divided by interposing the 
 word to which they belong -, as, whose jiouse soever; what man 
 goever. This, in general, however, is to be avoided, and to be ad- 
 mitted only when euphony and precision are thereby promoted. 
 
63 SYNTAX. 107 
 
 RULE XIV. Continued. 
 
 EXERCISES ON OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 1. William's and Mary's reign. This is your father's, 
 mother's and brother's advice. Peter's, John's, and An- 
 drew's occupation was that of fishermen. He asked 
 his father, as well as his mother's advice. John and 
 Robert's boots fit them very well. The Betsey and the 
 Speedwell's cargoes were both damaged. 
 
 2. Jack's the Giant-killer's wonderful exploits. The 
 Bishop's of Landaff's excellent work. During Charles's 
 the second's reign. The Lord Mayor's of London au- 
 thority. That carriage is the Lord Mayor's of London. 
 
 3. The books were left at Brown's the bookseller's. 
 I left him at Mayell's the hatter's shop. Thorburn's 
 the seedsman store is now open. 
 
 4. The books were left at Brown the bookseller and 
 stationer's. I left the parcel at Johnson, a respectable 
 bookseller, a worthy man, and an old friend's. I reside 
 at Lord Stormont, my old patron and benefactor's. 
 Whose glory did he emulate? He emulated Caesar, 
 the greatest general of antiquity's. 
 
 5. That book is Thompson the Tutor's assistant. 
 We spent an hour at Wilson the Governor's deputy, and 
 on our return called at Mr. Smith, little Henry's father. 
 
 6. James' father arrived yesterday, and Mr. Spence 5 
 servant came with him. Charles' books are completely 
 spoiled. For conscience's sake. Miss' books will be sent. 
 
 7. They very justly condemned the prodigal's, as he 
 was called, extravagant conduct. This is Paul's the 
 Christian hero and great apostle of the Gentiles advicje. 
 Beyond this the arts can not be traced of civil, society 
 
 PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES ON THIS RULE. 
 
 The Emperor and the dukes cavalry were engaged. 
 This is for consciences sake. Escape Atrides ire. He 
 bought the articles at Wilson's the druggist's. William 
 and John's wives were present. The estate of William'p 
 was much encumbered. 
 
108 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 64 
 
 369. 64. RULE XV. When the present or per- 
 feet participle is used as a noun (195), a substantive 
 before it is put in the possessive case ; as, "Much, 
 depends on the pupil's composing frequently; his 
 having done so is evident. 
 
 370. Obs. A pronoun in this construction must be the possessive pronoun, nol 
 the possessive case; as, Much depends on your composing, &c., nol yours. 
 
 371. Rem. 1. If the participle is not used as a noun, the noun or pronoun be. 
 fore it may be in any case which the construction requires ; as, " I see men 
 walking." These two modes of expression, in many cases, convey very different 
 ideas, and therefore care should be taken not to confound them ; thus, " What 
 do you think of my horse running to-day?" means, Do you think I should let 
 him run? But, " What do you think of my horse's running to-day?" means, 
 he has run, do you think he ran well? 
 
 372. Rem. 2. The present participle, with a possessive before it, sometimes 
 admits of after it, and sometimes not. Here the sense must guide. 
 
 373. Rem. 3. When a preposition or infinitive follows the participle, of is inad- 
 missible ; as, His depending on promises, proved his ruin. His neglecting to 
 study when young, rendered him ignorant all his life. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 What is the reason of this person dismissing his ser 
 vant so hastily? I remember it being done? This jea- 
 lousy accounts for Hall charging the Duke of Gloucester 
 with the murder of Prince Edward. He being a great 
 man, did not make him a happy man. Much depends 
 on the rule being observed. Richard observing the rule, 
 will be the means of him avoiding error. What do you 
 think of my horse running to-day ? did he run well ? 
 Man rebelling against his Maker brought him into ruin. 
 A man being poor, does not make him miserable. 
 
 [Rem. 1.] That man's running so fast, is in danger 
 of falling. A youth's pursuing his studies with dili- 
 gence and perseverance, can hardly fail of success. 
 
 [Rem. 2.] Our approving their bad conduct may en- 
 courage them to become worse. For his avoiding that 
 precipice, he is indebted to his friend's care. Their 
 observing the rules prevented errors. By his studying 
 of the scriptures, he became wise. Their condemning 
 of the innocent and acquitting of the guilty will cove* 
 them with infamy. 
 
65. SYNTAX. 109 
 
 374 65. RULE XVI. When the present partici- 
 ple, used as a noun, has an article before it, it should 
 have the preposition of after it ; as, In the keeping 
 7f his commandments there is a great reward. 
 
 375. Rem. I. The sense will often be the same, if both the article and the pre. 
 yosition be omitted ; but the one should not be omitted without the other ; thus, 
 ' { In keeping his commandments," c. 
 
 37G. Rem. 2. In some cases, however, these two modes express very different 
 /leas, and therefore attention to the sense is necessary; as, " He confessed the 
 whole in the hearing of three witnesses, and the court spent an hour in hearing 
 their deposition." To prevent ambiguity in such cases, observe the following 
 
 377. RULE. When the participle expresses something of which 
 the noun following is the doer^ it should have the article and pre- 
 position ; as, u It was said in the hearing of the witness." When 
 it expresses something of which the noun following is not the doer^ 
 but the object, both should be omitted; as, u the Court spent some 
 fcime in hearing the witness." 
 
 378. Rem. 3. When a preposition follows the participle so that q/'can not be 
 used (373), and yet an article is required before it, it is generally better to adopt 
 a different mode of expression ; thus, <( The not attending to duty:" better, "flie 
 want of attention to duty." 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 Learning of languages is very difficult. The learning 
 any thing speedily, requires great application. By the 
 exercising our faculties, they are improved. By ob- 
 serving of these rules, you will avoid mistakes. By 
 the obtaining wisdom, thou wilt command esteem. 
 This was a betraying the trust reposed in him. The 
 not attending to this rule, is the cause of a very com- 
 mon error. He confined all his philosophy to the suf- 
 fering ills patiently. This order so critically given, 
 occasioned the gaining the battle. This was, in fact, 
 converting the deposites to his own use. Propriety of 
 pronunciation is the giving to a word its proper sound. 
 '(Rein. 2.) At hearing the ear they shall obey. Be- 
 cause of provoking his sons and daughters, the Lord 
 abhorred them. He expressed the pleasure he had in 
 the hearing of the philosopher. In the hearing of the 
 will read, and in the examining of sundry papers 
 much time was spent. 
 10 
 
110 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 66. 
 
 379. 66. RULE XVII. The past participle, and 
 not the past tense, should be used after the verbs 
 HAVE and BE ; as, I have written (not, I have 
 wrote). I am chosen. 
 
 380. S. RULE. The past participle should not be used instead 
 of the past tense; thus, it is improper to say, u he begun," for 
 "he began-," "he run," for u he ran-," "he done," for "he did j" 
 " he seen," for " he saw." 
 
 381. Rem. The present participle active, and not the past, is used after the 
 verb to be, to express the continued suffering of an action; as, " The house ij 
 building)" not u being built." When the participle in ing has not a passive 
 sense, the idea must be expressed by means of the active voice. Tims we do 
 not say, " the book is now reading," (nor " the book is now being read,") bui 
 " he (or she, &c.) is now reading the book" (190). See also App. XIX. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 I would have wrote a letter, He had mistook his 
 true interest. The coat had ho seam, but was wove 
 throughout. The French language is spoke in every 
 part of Europe. His resolution was too strong to be 
 shook by slight opposition. The horse was stole from 
 the pasture. They have chose the part of honor and 
 virtue. She was shewed into the drawing room. He 
 has broke the bottle. Some fell by the way side and 
 was trode down. The work was very well execute. 
 He has chose to ride. He has drunk too much. I am 
 almost froze. He has forsook us. It was well wrote. 
 
 S. R. By too eager pursuit, he run a great risk of be- 
 ing disappointed. He soon begun to weary of having 
 nothing to do. He was greatly heated, and drunk with 
 avidity. The bending hermit here a prayer begun. 
 And end with sorrows as they first begun. 
 A second deluge learning thus o'er-run, 
 And the Monks finished what the Goths begun. 
 
 These men done more than could have been expected. 
 There can be no mistake, for I seen them do it. 
 
 [Rem.] The work was then being printed, and it was 
 expected to be published in a few days. That house has 
 been being built for six months ; it is now being plas- 
 tered, and will be finished soon. 
 
67 SYNTAX. HI 
 
 382. 67. RULE XVIII. The infinitive mood 
 Is governed by VERBS, NOUNS, or ADJECTIVES ; a#, 
 I desire to learn A desire to learn desirous to 
 learn. 
 
 SPECIAL RULES. 
 
 383. I. One verb being the subject of another , is put in the in- 
 finitive ; as " To study is profitable." 
 
 384. II. One verb governs another as its object in the infini- 
 tive; as, Boys love to play. 
 
 385. III. The infinitive is used to express the purpose, end, or 
 design, of a preceding act; as, "Some who came to scoff, re- 
 mained to pray." 
 
 386. IV. In comparisons, the infinitive is put after so as t 
 too, or than-, as, "Be so good as to read this letter." 
 
 387. V. To, the sign of the infinitive, is not used after tht 
 verbs bid, dare, need, make, see, hear, feel, and let in the active 
 voice, nor after let in the passive. (See An. Gram. 878.) 
 
 Also sometimes after perceive, behold, observe, have, and know. 
 
 388. Rem. 1. The infinitive, as the subject or the object of a verb, may have a 
 subject of its own in the objective ; as, For us to lie is base. I wished him to go. 
 
 389. Rem. 2. The infinitive may be considered as a verbal noun having the no. 
 minative and accusative. It is used after the preposition about ; as, About to de- 
 part ; and it is sometimes independent ; as, To confess the truth, I was in fault. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 Strive learn. They obliged him do it. Newton did 
 not wish obtrude his discoveries on the public. His 
 penetration and diligence seemed vie with each other. 
 
 V. They need not to call upon her. I dare not to 
 proceed so hastily. I have seen some young persons to 
 conduct themselves very discreetly. He bade me to go 
 home. It is the difference of their conduct which makes 
 us to approve the one and to reject the other. We 
 heard the thunder to roll. He felt the pain to abate. 
 I would have you to take more care. He was reluc- 
 tantly made obey. They were heard say it in a large 
 company. They were seen pass the house. He was 
 let to go. I have observed some satirist to use the term. 
 
112 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 6S 
 
 390. 68. RULE XIX. 1. When doubt and fu- 
 turity are both implied, the subjunctive mood is used ; 
 as, Though he fall (hereafter), he shall rise again. 
 
 2. Wlien doubt only, and not futurity, is implied, 
 the indicative is used; as, If he speaks (i. e. now) 
 as he thinks, he may be safely trusted. 
 
 391. Remark. Doubt is usually expressed by the conjunctions (f } though, unless, 
 except, whether. Sec. Whether futurity is implied or not, must be ascertained 
 from the context. In accurate composition, of course, the mood employed will 
 direct to the meaning of the sentence ; thus, " I will do it if the master desires 
 me" (i. e. at present). Here there is uncertainty only whether he does dasire me. 
 " I will do it if the master desire me" (i. e. at a future time). Here there is un- 
 certainty whether he will desire me or not. Consequently there is both doubt and 
 futurity. If and though, when referring to what is fixed and certain, are 
 equivalent to "notwithstanding," and consequently the verb follows in the in- 
 dicative ; as, " Though he was rich, yet for your sakes he became poor." 
 
 392. RULE I. Lest, and that, annexed to a command, require 
 the subjunctive mood ; as, Love not sleep, lest thou come to pover- 
 ty. Take heed that thou speak not to Jacob, either good or bad. 
 
 393. RULE II. If, with but following it, when futurity is deno- 
 ted, requires the subjunctive mood ; as, If he do but touch the 
 hills, they shall smoke. When future time is not expressed, the 
 indicative ought to be used. 
 
 394. The subjunctive were, wert, is used to express a wish or desire ; as, I wish 
 that I were, at home. O that they were wise. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 If a man smites his servant and he die, he shall surely 
 be put to death. If he acquires riches, they will corrupt 
 his mind. Though he be high, he hath respect to the 
 lowly. If thou live virtuously, thou art happy. If he 
 does promise, he will certainly perform. that his 
 heart was tender. If he is at home to-morrow, give 
 him the letter. 0, that thou wast as my brother ! 
 
 (S. Rule 1.) Despise not any condition, lest it hap- 
 pens to be thy own. Let him that is sanguine take 
 heed lest he miscarries. See that thou speakest truth. 
 
 (S. Rule II.) If he is but discreet, he will succeed. 
 If he be but in health, I am content. If he does but 
 intimate his desire, it will produce obedience. 
 
69. SYNTAX. 113 
 
 395. 69. RULE XX. 1. Conjunctions connect 
 words or sentences (241). 
 
 2. Conjunctions couple the same moods and tenses 
 of verbs, and cases of nouns and pronouns; as, Do 
 good, and seek peace. He and /are well. 
 
 396. Rem. 1. Verbs in the same mood and tense, connected by a conjunction, 
 must also be in the same form. For the different forms of the verb, see $ 27. 
 
 397. Rem. 2. WH^n conjunctions connect different moods and tenses, or when 
 a contrast is stated with but., not, though, &c., the nominative is frequently re 
 peated ; as. You can not ride, but you may walk. 
 
 Note. This is to be regarded only as a general direction, and is violated nearly 
 as often as it is observed. 
 
 398. Rem. 3. After verbs of doubting, fearing and denying, the conjunction 
 that should be used, and not kst, but, but that; as, You do not doubt that he ia 
 honest; They feared that they would not return; You do not derv that he has 
 some ability. That is frequently understood; as, We were desirous (that) you 
 would return. 
 
 399. Rem. 4. The relative usually follows than in the objective case, even when 
 the nominative goes before ; as, "Alfred, than whom a greater king never reigned." 
 This anomaly it is difficult to explain. Most probably than at first had the force 
 of a preposition, which it now retains only when followed by the relative. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. He reads and wrote well. Anger glances into the 
 breast of a wise man but will rest only in the bosom of 
 fools. If he understand the subject and attends to it,he 
 can scarcely fail of success. Professing regard and to 
 act differently marks a base mind. 
 
 2. He or me must go. Neither he nor her can attend. 
 You and us enjoy many privileges. My father and him 
 were very intimate. He is taller than me. I am not 
 so wise as him. She was six years older than me. You 
 may as lawfully preach as them that do. 
 
 Rem. 1. We often overlook the blessings we possess, 
 and are searching after those which are out of our reach. 
 Did he not tell thee his fault, and entreated thee to 
 forgive him? 
 
 2. Rank may confer influence, but will not necessarily 
 produce virtue. She was proud though now humble. 
 He is not rich but respectable. 
 
 3. We can not question but this confederacy must 
 have been a source of friendship and attachment. We 
 were apprehensive lest some accident had happened. 
 
 10* 
 
114 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 70 
 
 400. 70. RULE XXL Some conjunctions and 
 adverbs have their corresponding connectives ; thus, 
 
 Neither requires nor after it; as, Neither he nor his brother was in. 
 
 Though, yet; as, Though he was rich, yet for our sakes, &c. 
 
 Whether, or; Whether he go or stay. 
 
 Either, or; I will either write or send. 
 
 As, as; (expressing equality) Mine is as good as yours. 
 
 As, so; (expressing equality) As the stars, so shall thy seed be 
 
 So, as ; (with a negative, expressing inequality) He is not so 
 
 wise as his brother. 
 
 So, that ; (expressing consequence) I am so weak that I can not 
 
 walk. 
 
 Not only, but also ; Not only his property, but also his life was in dan- 
 ger. 
 
 If, then ; (in reasoning) If he can do it, then he will do it. 
 
 Note. As and 50, in either member of a compariso^are properly adverbs, 34, 4. 
 
 Note. The Poets frequently use Or or, for Either or; and Nor nor, for Nei 
 ther nor. In prose, Not nor, is often used for Neither nor. The yet after 
 though is often properly suppressed. Or does not require either before, when the 
 one word is a mere explanation of the other ; as, It is six feet, or one fathom deep. 
 In other cases, when either is not used, it may be supplied. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 It is neither cold or hot. It is so clear as I need not 
 explain it. The relations are so uncertain as that they 
 require much examination. The one is equally deserving 
 as the other. I must be so candid to own that I have 
 been mistaken. He would not do it himself, nor let me 
 do it. He was as angry as he could not speak. So as 
 thy days, so shall thy strength be. Though he slay me, 
 so will I trust in him. He must go himself, or send his 
 servant. There is no condition so secure as it can not 
 admit of change. He is not as eminent and as much 
 esteemed as he thinks himself to be. Neither despise 
 the poor, or envy the rich; for the one dieth so as the 
 other. As far as I am able to judge, the book is well 
 written. His raiment was so white as snow. He must be 
 as candid as to say so. There was no man so sanguine, 
 who did not apprehend some ill consequences. The dog 
 in the manger would not eat the hay himself, nor suffer 
 the ox to do it. He was so fat, he could hardly walk. 
 NeLher despise or oppose what thou dost not under- 
 stand* 
 
$ 71. SYNTAX. 115 
 
 401. 71. RULE XX11. The comparative de- 
 gree and the pronoun other require than after them, 
 and such requires as ; as, Greater than I ; No other 
 lhan he ; Such as do well. 
 
 NOTE. Sweft, meaning a consequence, or so great, requires that after it. 
 
 402. S.RULE. When tivo objects are compared, the. comparative is 
 generally used; but when more than two, the superlative; as, 
 James is older than John. Mary is the wisest of them all. 
 
 403., Rem. 1. Sometimes, However, the superlative is used when only two 
 objects are compared, viz. when it is more agreeable to the ear, and when it can 
 not injure the sense ; as, He is the weakest of the two. 
 
 404. Rem. 2. A comparison in which more than two are concerned, may be ex- 
 pressed by the comparative as well as by the superlative^ and in some cases bet. 
 ter; but the comparative considers the objects compared as belonging to different 
 classes, while the superlative compares them as included in one class. The com. 
 parative is used thus : " Greece was more polished than any other nation of an. 
 tiquity." Here Greece stands by herself, as opposed to the other nations of an- 
 tiquity. She was none of the other nations : she was more polished than they. 
 The same idea is expressed by the superlative when the word other is left out: 
 thus, " Greece was the most polished nation of antiquity." Here, to Greece is 
 assigned the highest place in the class of objects among which she is numbered 
 the nations of antiquity : she is one of thenir This distinction should be carefully 
 observed. The comparative is sometimes used in the same way ; as, He is the 
 taller of the two. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 He has little more of the scholar besides the name. 
 Be ready to succour such persons who need thy assist- 
 ance. They had no sooner risen, but they applied them- 
 selves to their studies. These savage people seemed to 
 have no other element but war. Such men that act 
 treacherously, ought to be avoided. He gained nothing 
 farther by his speech, but only to be commended for 
 his eloquence. This is none other but the gate of Pa- 
 radise. Such sharp replies that cost him his life. To 
 trust in him, is no more but to acknowledge his power. 
 .(S. R.) James is the wisest of the two. Of the three, 
 Jane is the weaker. [Rem. 2.] Chimborazo is higher 
 than any other mountain in Europe. Eve was the fair- 
 est of all her daughters. I understood him the best of 
 all others who spoke on the subject. Solomon was 
 wiser than any of the ancient kings. China has a 
 greater population than any nation on earth. 
 
116 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 72, 
 
 405. 72. RULE XXIII. Double comparatives 
 and superlatives are improper ; thus, better, best, 
 not more better, most best. 
 
 Rem. The double comparative lesser, however, is sanctioned by good au 
 thority ; as, " Lesser Asia,' ; " Every lesser tiling." N. Y. Review. 
 
 Obs. It is improper to compare adjectives whose signification does not admit of 
 increase or diminution [$ 13, Obs. 4]. Of this kind are true, perfect) universal, 
 ch*ef, extreme } supreme, &c., which have in themselves a superlative sense. 
 When comparison of these and similar words is admitted, as is sometimes done 
 ( 13, Obs. 4 Rem.), they must be understood in a limited senso. Such adjectives 
 as superior, inferior, etc., though they imply comparison, are not in the comparsu 
 live degree, and are never construed as such, but have to after them. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 It argued the most sincerest candor to make suet in 
 acknowledgment. After the most strictest sect of our 
 religion, I lived a Pharisee. He always posses ;d a 
 more serener temper. It is more easier to built two 
 chimneys, than to maintain one. The tongue is ke a 
 race horse, which runs the faster the lesser weight it 
 carries. The nightingale's voice is the most sweetest. 
 
 His assertion was most untrue. His work was per- 
 fect, his brother's more perfect, and his father's the 
 most perfect of all. Virtue confers the supremest dig- 
 nity on man, and should be his chiefest desire. His 
 most extreme vanity renders him most supremely ridi- 
 culous. This is more inferior than that, though it is 
 more superior than many others. 
 
 Promiscuous. The great power and force of custom 
 forms another argument against bad company. And 
 Joshua he shall go over before thee. If thou be the 
 king of the Jews, save thyself. The people there- 
 fore that was with him when he raised Lazarus out of 
 his grave, bare record. Public spirit is a more univer- 
 sal principle than a sense of honour. I see you have a 
 new pair of gloves [ 86, 7], Five years interest were 
 demanded. In all his works is sprightlmess and vigour. 
 The returns of kindness is sweet, and there are neither 
 honour nor virtue in resisting them. 
 
 How rarely reason guides the stubborn choice 5 
 Rule the bold hand, or prompt the suppliant voice, 
 
73. SYNTAX. 117 
 
 406. 73. RULE XXIV. 1. Adverbs modify verbs, 
 adjectives, and other adverbs ( 33). 
 
 2. Adverbs should not be used as adjectives ; thus 
 " Thine often infirmities," should be " Thy fre- 
 quent infirmities." 
 
 407. Rem. 1. From, strictly speaking, should not be used before hence, thence 
 and whence, because it is implied. Custom, however, has so far sanctioned the 
 violation of this rules, that a strict adherence to it would now appear stiff and 
 affected. 
 
 408. Rem. 2. After verbs of motion , hither , thither, and whither, are now used 
 only on solemn occasions. In other cases, the adverbs here, there, and where t 
 are employed ; as, He came here / We rode there. 
 
 409. Rem. 3. Where should not be used for in which, unless the reference is 
 to place; thus, " A protestation where," should be " A protestation in which." 
 So is often used to represent an adjective, a noun, or a whole sentence ; as, They 
 are rich, we are not so. He is a good scholar, and I told you so. 
 
 410. Rem. 4. The adverbs now, then, when, where, in such phrases as till 
 now, till then, since when, to where, Sec., are sometimes used by good writers as 
 nouns. This, however, is inaccurate, and should not be imitated. 
 
 411. Rem. 5. There, properly an adverb of place, is often used as a mere in- 
 troductory expletive to the verb, when the nominative follows it ; as, " There are 
 men who can not read ;" " There came to the beach. 1 ' (See 34, 8.) 
 
 412. Rem. 6. Only, solely, chief y, merely, too, also, and perhaps a few others, 
 are sometimes joined to substantives ; as, Not only the men, but the women 
 also were innocent. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 They hoped for a soon and prosperous issue to the 
 war. He was befriended by the then reigning Duke. 
 Some of my then hearers urged me to publish these 
 lectures. Our friends arrived safely. 
 
 Rem. 1. From whence come ye? He departed from 
 thence into a desert place. I Mill send thee far from 
 hence to the Gentiles. Where art thou gone ? The city 
 is near, let me escape there. Where I am, there ye 
 can not come. From whence we may likewise date 
 the period of this event. He walked thither in less than 
 an hour. 
 
 3. He drew up a petition where he represented his 
 own merit. He went to London last year, since when 
 I have not seen him. The situation where I found him 
 
1 18 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 74. 
 
 413. 74. RULE XXV. Adverbs are for the most 
 part placed before adjectives, after a verb in the 
 simple form, and after the Jlrst auxiliary in the 
 compound form ; as, He is very attentive, behaves 
 well, and is much esteemed. 
 
 414. Obs. 1. This is to be considered only as a general rule, to which there are 
 many exceptions. Indeed, no rule for the position of the adverb can be given, 
 which is not liable to exceptions. That order is the best which conveys tho 
 meaning with most precision. In order to this, the adverb is sometimes placed 
 before the verb, or at some distance after it. Never, often, ahvays, sometimes, 
 generally precede the verb. Not. with the present participle, should generally 
 be placed before it. Enough follows the adjective, and sometimes both follow 
 the noun; thus, a solid enough reason, or, a reason solid enough. 
 
 415. Obs. 2. The improper position of the adverb only, often occasions ambi- 
 guity. This will generally be avoided when it refers to a sentence or clause, by 
 placing it at the beginning of that sentence or clause ; when it refers to a predi. 
 cate, by placing it before the predicating term; and when it refers to a subject, 
 by placing it after its name or description; as, " On ly acknowledge thine ini 
 quity;' 7 " The thoughts of his heart are onJy evil; ; ' " Take nothing for you? 
 /ourney but a staff only." These observations will generally be applicable to th 
 words merely, solely, chiefly, Jirst, at least, and perhaps to a few others. 
 
 416 Obs. 3. Ever and never are sometimes improperly confounded- 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 We should not be overcome totally by present events. 
 He unaffectedly and forcibly spoke, and was heard at- 
 tentively by the whole assembly. It can not be imper- 
 tinent or ridiculous, therefore, to remonstrate. Not 
 only he found her employed, but pleased and tranquil 
 also. In the proper disposition of adverbs, the ear 
 carefully requires to be consulted as well as the sense. 
 
 (Obs. 1.) The women contributed all their rings and 
 jewels voluntarily to assist the government. Having 
 not known, or having not considered the measures 
 proposed, he failed of success. He was determined to 
 invite back the king, and to call together his friends. 
 
 (Obs. 2.) Theism can only be opposed to polytheism. 
 By greatness, I do not only mean the bulk of any single 
 object; but the largeness of a whole view. Only you 
 have I known, of all the nations of the earth. In using 
 every exertion in our power for the public good, we 
 only discharge our duty. 
 
75. . SYNTAX. 119 
 
 417. 75. RULE XXVI. Two negatives in the 
 same sentence are improper, unless we mean to affirm; 
 thus, "I can not by no means allow it," should be, 
 " I cannot by any" or " I can by no means allow it." 
 
 The reason of this rule is, that one negative destroys another, or is equivalent 
 to an affirmative. 
 
 418. Rem. 1. Sometimes two negatives are intended to affirm; and in this 
 case, if one of them, such as dis-, in-, ira-, un-, &c. is prefixed to another word, 
 a pleasing and delicate variety of expression is produced ; as, " Nor was the king 
 unacquainted with his designs," i. e. he " was acquainted with them." But if 
 the negative consists of two separate and detached words, the expression is ge- 
 aerally harsh and inelegant; as, "Nor have I no money which I can spare,'' 
 >. e. " I have money which I can spare." 
 
 419. Rem. 2. In sentences containing double negatives, the intervention of 
 only, which is equivalent to a distinct clause, preserves the negation ; as, " He 
 was not only illiberal, but he was covetous." 
 
 420. Note. The English language in this respect agrees with the Latin, but 
 differs from the Greek and French, in both of which, two negatives with the same 
 subject render the negation stronger. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 I can not drink no more. He can not do nothing. 
 He will never be no taller. Covet neither riches nor 
 honors, nor no such perishing things. Do not interrupt 
 me thyself, nor let no one disturb me. I am resolved 
 not to comply with the proposal, neither at present nor 
 at any other time. I have received no information on 
 the subj ect, neither from him nor from his friend. There 
 can not be nothing more insignificant than vanity. Nor 
 is danger apprehended in such a government, no more 
 than we commonly apprehend danger from thunder or 
 earthquakes. Never no imitator came up to his author. 
 
 PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES. 
 
 James and I am cousins. Thy father's merits sets 
 thee forth to view. That it is our duty to be pious, ad- 
 mit not of any doubt. If he becomes rich, he may be 
 less industrious. It was wrote extempore. Romulus, 
 which founded Rome, killed his brother Remus. He in- 
 volved in a troublesome lawsuit, a friend which had al- 
 ways supported him. Who of you convinceth me of sin. 
 I treat you as a boy who love to learn, and are ambi- 
 tious of receiving instruction. 
 
120 CtNGLlSH GRAMMAR. 76 
 
 421. 76. RULE XXVII. Appropriate preposi- 
 tions must be used before names of places ; thus, 
 
 To -is used after a verb of motion ; as, He went to Spain. But it is omitted 
 
 before home; as, He went home yesterday (307). 
 
 In is used before names of countries and large cities; as, He lives in Albany, 
 in the State of New- York. But at is used before the names of places 
 and large cities, after the verbs touch, arrive, land, and frequently after 
 the verb to be; as, He arrived at Liverpool touched at New- York : 
 landed at New. Orleans. I was at New*. York. 
 M is used before the names of houses, towns, and foreign cities ; as, He is 
 
 at home. He resides at the Mansion House, at Saratoga-Springs. 
 422 liem. 1. One inhabitant speaking of another's residence, says, " He lives 
 
 in State-street;" or, if the word number be used, "at No. State-street. 
 
 423. Rem. 2. Interjections sometimes have an objective after them, but they 
 lever govern it : it is always governed by a transitive active verb, or preposition 
 understood; as, "Ah me!" i. e. "Ah! what has happened to me.' } The case 
 after an interjection will always have to depend on the supplement to be made : 
 it will generally, however, be the objective of tliejirst personal pronoun, and the 
 nominative of the second ; a=, "Ah me! O thou wretch! ;; ( 80, Rule 2). 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 They have just arrived in Rochester, and are going to 
 Buffalo. They will reside two months at England. I 
 have been to London after having resided in France, and 
 I now live at New- York. I was in the place appointed 
 long before any of the rest. We touched in Liverpool 
 on our way for New- York. I have been to home for a 
 few days. We have been to home since morning. I 
 will go to home to-morrow. 
 
 [Rem. 1, 2.] He boards in No. 12, Dean street. He 
 had lodgings at George's Square. Ah ! unhappy thee, 
 who art deaf to the calls of duty and honor. Oh ! hap- 
 py us, surrounded with so many blessings. Woe's I, 
 for I am a man of unclean lips. 
 
 Promiscuous. He has been expecting of us some time. 
 Young persons need not be initiated in the language of 
 controversy. His quitting of the army was unexpected. 
 I seen him yesterday. If there was no cowardice, there 
 would be little insolence. I was rejoiced at the news. 
 I shall do my friends no wrong, for I have none to lament 
 me. They were descended from a family that came over 
 with the Conqueror. 
 
77. 
 
 SYNTAX. 
 
 424. 77. RULE XXVIII. Certain words and 
 phrases must be followed by appropriate preposi- 
 tions ; such as, 
 
 Abhorrence of. 
 
 Accommodate to. 
 
 Accord with. 
 
 Accuse of. 
 
 Acquit of. 
 
 Adapted to. 
 
 Agreeable to. 
 
 Ask of a person, for a thing, af- 
 ter what we wish to hear of. 
 
 Averse to or from. 
 
 Believe in, sometimes on. 
 
 Bestow upon, on. 
 
 Betray to a person into a thing. 
 
 Boast of. See Obs. 3. 
 
 Call on a person at a place. 
 
 Change (exchange)/or, (ajter) 
 to, into. 
 
 Charge a person with a thing, 
 a thing on an agent. 
 
 Compare with, in respect of 
 quality to, for illustration. 
 
 Compliance with. 
 
 Concur with a person -, in a 
 measure 5 to an effect. 
 
 Confide in. 
 
 Conformable to, with. 
 
 Consonant to. 
 
 Conversant with men in 
 things 5 about and among 
 are less proper. 
 
 Copy from a -Jung, after a 
 person. 
 
 Dependent upon, on. 
 
 Derogative from. 
 
 Derogatory to. 
 
 Die of disease by an instru- 
 ment or violence. 
 
 Differ /row. 
 
 Difficulty in. 
 
 Diminish from diminution of, 
 
 Disappointed in or of ( 86, 5). 
 
 Disapprove of. See Obs. 3. 
 
 Discourage from. 
 
 Discouragement to. 
 11 
 
 Dissent from. 
 
 Eager in, on, for, after. 
 
 Engage in a work -for a time. 
 
 Equal to, with. 
 
 Exception from, to. 
 
 Expert in (before a noun), at 
 
 (before an active participle). 
 Fall under. Obs. 1. 
 Familiar to, with. A thing is 
 
 familiar to us-, we, with it. 
 "Free from. 
 Glad of something gained by 
 
 ourselves, at something that 
 
 befalls another. 
 Incorporate ( active transitive ) 
 
 into; (intrans. or passive) with. 
 Independent of. 
 Indulge with what is not habit 
 
 ual, in what is habitual. 
 Insist upon. 
 Intrude into an enclosed place j 
 
 upon what is not enclosed 
 Made of. 
 Marry to. 
 Martyr for. 
 Need of. 
 Observation of. 
 Prejudice against. 
 Prevail (to persuade) with, on, 
 upon ( to overcome) over, 
 
 against. 
 Profit by. 
 Protect others from ourselves 
 
 qgainst. 
 
 Provide with or for. 
 Reconcile to friendship with (to 
 
 make consistent). 
 Reduce (to subdue) under, in 
 
 other cases, to ; as, t<? powder. 
 Regard for; in regard to. 
 Replete with. 
 Resemblance to. 
 Resolve on 
 Rule over. 
 
122 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 77 
 
 RULE XXVIII. continued. 
 
 Sick of. Unite (transitive) to; (intransi 
 
 Sink in/o, beneath. tive) with. 
 
 Swerve/rora. Value upon or on. 
 
 Taste fot or o/ ( 86, 6). Vest with a thing possessed in 
 
 Tax with (e. g. a crime) the possessor. 
 
 for the state. Wait upon, on. 
 
 Think o/or on. Worthy o/. Obs. 3. 
 True to. 
 
 425. OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 1. The particular preposition which it is proper to use, often 
 depends as much upon what follows as upon what goes before , 
 thus, we say, To fall from a height i ito a pit to work upon 
 an enemy. 
 
 2. Into is used only after verbs of motion, and denotes entrance. 
 In is used when motion or rest in a place is signified 5 as, They 
 went into a carriage, and travelled in it ten miles. 
 
 3. Boast, approve, and disapprove, are often used without of. 
 Worthy has sometimes of following it, and sometimes not. 
 
 4. The same preposition that follows the verb or adjective 
 usually follows the noun derived from it, and vice versa 5 as, Con 
 fide in confidence in confident in. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 He was very eager of recommending him to his fel- 
 low citizens. He found great difficulty of writing. He 
 accused the ministers for having betrayed the Dutch. 
 This is certainly not a change to the better. The Eng- 
 lish were a very different people then to what they are 
 now. The history of Peter is agreeable with the sacred 
 text. It was intrusted to persons on whom Congress 
 could confide. I completely dissent with the examiner. 
 Nothing shall make me swerve out of the path of duty 
 There was no water, and he died for thirst. We can 
 safely confide on none but the truly good. Many have 
 profited from good advice. The error was occasioned 
 by compliance to earnest entreaty. This is a principle 
 in unison to our nature [Obs. 4]. This remark is in ac- 
 cordance to truth. His parents think on him and his 
 improvement* with pleasure and hope. 
 
77 SYNTAX. 123 
 
 EXERCISES ON RULE XXVIII. continued. 
 
 You have bestowed your favors to the most deserving 
 persons. The wisest persons need not think it any di- 
 minution to their greatness, or derogation of their suffi- 
 ciency, to rely upon counsel. It is consonant with our 
 nature. He had no regard after his father's commands. 
 There was a prejudice to his cause. There is no need 
 for it. Reconciling himself with the king. They have 
 no resemblance with each other. Upon such occasions 
 as fell into their cognizance. I am engaged with pre- 
 paring for a journey. We profit from experience. He 
 is resolved of going to the Persian court. Expert about 
 deceiving. The Romans reduced the world to their 
 own power. He provided them in every thing. He 
 seems to have a taste of such. studies. You are con- 
 versant with that science. He is more conversant in 
 men of science than -in politicians. These are excep- 
 tions of the general rule. He died for thirst. He died 
 of the sword. He is glad of calamities. She is glad at 
 his company. 
 
 He saw your brother, and inquired from him for his 
 friend's health. He was charged of being accessary to 
 the murder. This is the first time we have been in- 
 dulged in such a luxury. He indulges himself with the 
 most pernicious habits. I hope I do not intrude into 
 you. He will suffer no one to intrude upon his house. 
 Is that a copy after nature ? If you copy from your 
 father's example, you will do well. He has never been 
 reconciled with his lot. How can such conduct be re- 
 conciled to the principles he professes ? It is proper 
 that the people should be taxed with the support of 
 government. Can not you prevail over your father to 
 pay us a visit? The enemy prevailed upon us by supe- 
 rior force. Take care to protect yourself from the dan- 
 gers which threaten you. The walls protected us 
 against the fire of the enemy. He has now become fa- 
 miliar to the rules of Grammar. Your countenance is 
 familiar with me. The office of judge and advocate 
 should not be vested with the same person. 
 
124 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 78 
 
 426. 78. RULE XXIX. In the use of verbs 
 and words that in point of time relate to each other > 
 the order of time must be observed; as, " I have 
 known him these many years ; not, " I know him 
 (or I knew him) these many years." 
 
 427. Rcm. The particular tense necessary to be used must de- 
 pend upon the sense, and no rules can be given that will apply to 
 all cases. But it may be proper to observe, 
 
 428. Obs. 1. An observation which is always true, must be ex- 
 pressed in the present tense-, as, The stoics believed that u all 
 crimes are equal" ( 24, I. 2). 
 
 429. Obs. 2. The present-perfect, and not the present tense, 
 should be used in connection with words denoting an extent oi 
 time continued to the present-, thus, u They continue with me 
 now three days," should be, u have continued," etc. ( 24, II. 1). 
 
 430. 06s. 3. The present-perfect tense ought never to be used 
 in connection with words which express past time-, thus, l 'I have 
 formerly mentioned his attachment to study," should be, u I for- 
 merly mentioned," etc. ( 24, III. 1). 
 
 431. 06s. 4. The present and past of the auxiliaries, shall, 
 will, may, can, should never be associated in the same sentence-, 
 and care must be taken that the subsequent verb be expressed in 
 the same tense with the antecedent verb-, thus, " I may or can do 
 it now, if I choose ; " I might or could do it now, if I chose ;" "I 
 shall or will do it, when I can;" u I may do it, if I can :" u I 
 once could do it, but I would not-," " I would have done it then, 
 but I could not." " I mention it to him, that he may stop if he 
 choose ;" " I mentioned it to him, that he might stop if he chose;" 
 " I have mentioned it to him, that he may stop 5" u I had men- 
 tioned it to him, that he might stop-," u I had mentioned it to 
 him, that he might have stopped, had he chosen." 
 
 432. NOTE 1. When 5/10 uld is used instead of ought, to express present duty 
 (172), it may be followed by the present; a^s, " You should study that you truiy 
 become learned." 
 
 433. NOTE 2. The verb had is sometimes used for would; thus, " I had rather 
 do it," for " I would rather do it." This should not be imitated. 
 
 434. NOTE 3. Would and should are sometimes, hi common language, used as 
 if they were almost expletives; thus, " It ivoiild seem," for " It seems. 1 ' 
 
 435. 06s. 5. The indicative present is frequently used after 
 the words ichen, till, before, as soon as, after, to express the 
 relative time of a future action ( 24, 1. 5)j as, " When he 
 
78. SYNTAX. 125 
 
 comes, he will be welcome." When placed before the present- 
 perfect indicative, these words denote the completion of a future 
 action or event , as, " He will never be better, till he has felt 
 the pangs of poverty." 
 
 436. Obs, 6. A verb in the infinitive mood must be in the pre~ 
 sent tense, when it expresses what is contemporary in point of 
 time with its governing verb, or subsequent to it; as, u He ap- 
 peared to be a man of letters-," " The Apostles were determined 
 topreach the gospel." 
 
 437. Obs. 7. But the perfect infinitive must be used to express 
 what is antecedent to the time of the governing verb; as, " Ro- 
 mulus is said to have founded Rome." 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. The doctor said, in his lecture, that fever always 
 produced thirst. The philosopher said that heat always 
 expanded metals. He said that truth was immutable. 
 
 2. I know the family more than twenty years. I am 
 now at school six months. My brother was sick four 
 weeks, and is no better. He tells lies long enough. 
 
 3. He has lately lost an only son. He has been for- 
 merly very disorderly. I have been at London last 
 year, and seen the king last summer. I have once or 
 twice last week told the story to our friend. 
 
 4. I should be obliged to him, if he will gratify me 
 in that particular. Ye will not come to me that ye 
 might have life Be wise and good that you might be 
 happy. He was told his danger, that he may shun it. 
 
 [Note 1.] We should respect those persons, because 
 they continued long attached to us. He should study 
 diligently, that he might become learned." 2. I had ra- 
 ther go now than afterwards. He had better do it soon, 
 
 5. We shall welcome him when he shall arrive. As 
 soon as he shall return, we will recommence our studies. 
 A prisoner is not accounted guilty, till he be convicted. 
 
 6. From the conversation I had with him, he ap- 
 peared to have been a man of learning. Our friends in- 
 tended to have met us. He was afraid he would have died, 
 
 7. Kirstall Abbey, now in ruins, appears to be an 
 extensive building. Lycurgus, the Spartan lawgiver, is 
 said to be born in the 926th year before Christ. 
 
 11* 
 
126 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 79. 
 
 438. 79. RULE XXX. When a member of a 
 sentence refers to two different clauses, it should be 
 equally applicable to both ; as, He has not been, and 
 can not be, censured for such conduct. 
 
 439. This rule is often violated in sentences in which there are 
 two comparisons of a different nature and government; thus, 
 u He was more beloved, but not so much admired as Cinthio." 
 Here, as Cinthio is applicable to the clause so much admired, but 
 can not be connected with more beloved. In such sentences, the 
 proper way is, to complete the construction of the first member, 
 and leave that of the second understood; as, "He was more be- 
 loved than Cinthio, but not so much admired" (as Cinthio). 
 
 440. A proper choice of words, and a perspicuous arrangement 
 should be carefully attended to. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 This dedication may serve for almost any book that 
 has, or ever shall be published. Will it be urged that 
 these books are as old, or even older than tradition. He 
 is more bold and active, but not so wise and studious as 
 his companion. Sincerity is as valuable, and even more 
 valuable, than knowledge. No person was ever so per- 
 plexed, or sustained the mortifications as he has done to- 
 day. Neither has he, nor any other persons suspected 
 so much dissimulation. The intentions of some of these 
 philosophers, nay, of many, might and probably were 
 good. The reward is due, and it has already, or will 
 hereafter be given to him. This book is preferable, and 
 cheaper than the other. He either has, or will obtain the 
 prize. He acted both suitably and consistently with his 
 profession. The first proposal was essentially different, 
 and inferior to the second. He contrives better, but does 
 not execute so well as his brother. There are principles 
 in man which ever have, and ever will incline him to 
 offend. The greatest masters of critical learning differ 
 and contend against one another. The winter has not, 
 and probably will not be so severe as was expected. 
 He is more friendly in his disposition, but not so dis- 
 tinguished for talents, as his brother. 
 
^ 80. SYNTAX. 127 
 
 '141. 80. RULE XXXI. A substantive whose 
 case depends on no other word, is put in the nomina- 
 tive. This occurs under the four following 
 
 SPECIAL RULES. 
 
 442. RULE 1. A substantive with a participle, whose case rfe- 
 pends on no other word, is put in the nominative absolute. / as, 
 u He being gone, only two remain." 
 
 443. RULE 2. A person or thing addressed, without a verb 09 
 governing word, is put in the nominative independent /. as, u I 
 remain, dear sir, yours truly," u Plato, thou reasonest well." 
 
 444. RULE 3. JL substantive, unconnected in mere exclamation^ 
 is put in the nominative independent ; as, " O the times! the 
 manners /" 
 
 445. RULE 4. A substantive, used by pleonasm before an af- 
 firmation, is put in the nominative independent ; as, u The boy, 
 oh! where was he?" 
 
 446. Rem. 1. Under this rulea mistakecanbe made only in the case of pronouns. 
 
 447. Rem. 2. The substantive is sometimes understood ; as, Generally speak. 
 Ing, i. e. We. His conduct, viewing it in the most favorable light, reflects dis- 
 credit on his character, i. e. we, men, or ^parson viewing it, c. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 He made as wise proverbs as any body since, him 
 only excepted. Them descending, the ladder fell. 
 Whom being dead, we shall come. But them being ab- 
 sent, we can not come to a determination. 
 
 Whose grey top 
 
 Shall tremble, him descending. 
 
 The bleating sheep with my complaints agree . 
 Them parched with heat, and me inflamed by thee. 
 
 Her quick relapsing to her former state, 
 With boding fears approach the sewing train. 
 There all thy gifts and graces we display; 
 Thee, only thee, directing all our way. 
 
 So great ^Eneas rushes to the fight, 
 
 Sprung from a god, and more than mortal bold, 
 
 Him fresh in youth, and me in arms grown old. 
 
128 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 81 
 
 448. 81. RULE XXXIL 1. The article A or AN 
 is put before common nouns in the singular number, 
 when used INDEFINITELY ; as, " A man;" " An ap- 
 ple;" that is, " any man;" "any apple." 
 
 2. The article THE is put before common nouns, 
 either singular or plural, when used DEFINITELY ; 
 as, "The sun rises." "The city of New-York." 
 
 449. It is impossible to give a precise rule for the use of the 
 article, in every case. The best general rule is to observe what 
 the sense requires. The following usages may be noticed. 
 
 1. The article is omitted before a noun that stands for a whole 
 species / as, Man is mortal , and before the names of minerals, 
 metals, arts, etc. Some nouns denoting the species, have the 
 article always prefixed , as, The dog is a more grateful animal 
 than the cat. The lion is a noble animal. 
 
 2. The last of two nouns after a comparative, should have no 
 article when they both refer to one person or thing; as, He is a 
 better reader than writer. 
 
 3. When two or more adjectives, or epithets, belong to the 
 same subject, the article should be placed before the first, and 
 omitted before the rest-, as, A red and white rose, i. e. a rose, 
 some parts of which are red, and others white. But when the 
 adjectives or epithets belong to different subjects, the article 
 should be prefixed to each; as, a red and a white rose, i. e. a red 
 rose and a white rose. " Johnson, the bookseller and stationer," 
 indicates one person-, u Johnson the bookseller, and the stationer," 
 would indicate two different persons. App. XXI. 
 
 NOTE. The same remark may be made respecting the demonstrative pronouns^ 
 as, " That great and good man/' means only one man. TJiat great and then 
 good man, means two ; the one great, and the other good. 
 
 4. A nice distinction of the sense is sometimes made, by trie- 
 use or omission of the article a before the words feiv, little. If I 
 say, u He behaved with a little reverence," the expression is 
 positive, and implies a degree of praise. But if I say, " He be 
 haved with little reverence," the expression is negative, and im- 
 plies a degree of blame. 
 
 5 A has sometimes the meaning of every or each ; as, twelve shillings a dozen, 
 two hundred pounds a year ; i. e. every dozen, every year. 
 
 6. The antecedent to a restrictive clause is preceded by the definite article ; as 
 " All tlit pupils that were present did well." 
 
 7. The is sometimes used before the comparative and the superlative degree both 
 of adverbs and adjectives; a*, The more I study grammar, the better I like it 
 
81. SYNTAX. 129 
 
 RULE XXXII. Continued. 
 EXERCISES 
 
 ON THE IMPROPER USE AND OMISSION OF THE ARTICLES. 
 
 1. Reason was given to a man to control his passions. 
 The gold is corrupting. A man is the noblest work of 
 the creation. Wisest and best men are sometimes be- 
 trayed into errors. We must act our part with a con- 
 stancy , though reward of our constancy be distant. 
 There are some evils of life which equally affect prince 
 and people. The purity has its seat in the heart, but 
 extends its influence over so much of outward conduct 
 as to form the great and material part of a character. 
 At worst I could incur but a gentle reprimand. The 
 profligate man is seldom or never found to be the good 
 husband, the good father, or the beneficent neighbour 
 
 2. A man may be a better soldier than a logician. 
 There is much truth in the old adage, that fire is a bet 
 ter servant than a master. He is not so good a poet as 
 a historian. 
 
 3. Thomson the watchmaker, and the jeweller from 
 London, was of the party. A red and a white flag was 
 displayed from the tower. A beautiful stream flows 
 between the new and old mansion. A hot and cold 
 spring were found in the same neighbourhood. The 
 young and old man seem to be on good terms. The 
 bill equally concerns the manufacturer and consumer. 
 
 4. He has been much censured for paying a little at- 
 tention to his business. So bold a breach of order called 
 for little severity in punishing the offender. 
 
 5. A shilling for every dozen is a moderate price. I 
 would not undertake to walk twenty miles each day for 
 three months. A guinea every week. 
 
 6. Persons who suffered by this calamity, have been 
 much commiserated. Foreign travel, and things which 
 he has seen, have enlarged his views. The proprietors 
 are responsible for all parcels that are committed to 
 their care. All persons who were consulted, were of 
 this opinion. Members who do not appear, must be 
 fined. 
 
130 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 82 
 
 450 82. XXXIII. An ellipsis or omission of 
 words is admissible, when they can be supplied in 
 the mind with such certainty and readiness as not to 
 obscure the sense. Thus, instead of saying, " He 
 was a learned man, and he was a wise man, and 
 he was a good man ;" we say, "He was a learned, 
 wise, and good man." 
 
 451. Obs. It may be regarded as a rule proper to be kept 
 eteadily in view, that the fewer the words by which we can express 
 our ideas, the better, provided the meaning be clearly brought out. 
 
 4.52. Rem. The auxiliaries of the compound tenses are often used 
 alone to represent the verb-, as, " We have done it, but thou hast 
 not;" i. e. thou hast not done it. 
 
 453. The verb to be, with its subject, in dependent clauses, is 
 often omitted after the connectives if, though, yet, when, <fec. ; as, 
 " Study, if [it ii\ neglected, becomes irksome." " Though [he was] 
 poor, he was honest." 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 He sent me the books and the papers which he pro- 
 mised. He has a house and a garden in the country. 
 These counsels were the dictates of virtue and the dic- 
 tates of true honor. Such conduct is contraiy to the 
 laws of God, and to the laws of man. His crimes brought 
 Mm into extreme distress and into extreme perplexity. 
 He was blessed with an affectionate father and an af- 
 fectionate mother. His reputation and his estate are 
 both lost by gambling. He is temperate, he is disinterest- 
 ed, he is benevolent. This is the man whom we met 
 and whom we invited to our house. Genuine virtue 
 supposes our benevolence and our usefulness to be 
 strengthened and to be confirmed by principle. Perseve- 
 rance in laudable pursuits will reward our toils, and 
 will produce effects beyond our expectation. We often 
 commend imprudently as well as censure imprudently. 
 Changes are often taking place hi men and in manners, 
 in opinions and in customs. 
 
 [Rem.] He regards the truth, but thou dost not regard 
 it. They must be punished, and they shall be punished. 
 We succeeded, but they did not succeed. 
 
83. SYNTAX. 131 
 
 454. 83. RULE XXXIV. An ellipsis is not al- 
 lowable when it would obscure the sentence, weaken 
 its force, or be attended with an impropriety ; as, 
 We are inclined to flatter (those) who flatter us. 
 
 455. Rem. 1. In general, no word should be omitted that is ne- 
 cessary to the full and correct construction, or even harmony of a 
 sentence. Articles, pronouns, and prepositions, should always be 
 repeated when the words with which they stand connected are 
 used emphatically. Even nouns, adjectives, verbs, and adverbs, 
 must often, under such circumstances, be repeated- as, " Not only 
 the year, but the day and the hour were appointed." 
 
 456. Rem. 2. It is generally improper (except in poetry) to 
 omit the antecedent to a relative ; and always, to omit a relative 
 
 'when of the nominative case. 
 
 457. Rem. 3. The article should be repeated, when a different 
 form of it is required; as, "A horse and an ass." 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 I gladly shunned who gladly fled from me. His 
 honor, interest, religion, were all embarked in this un- 
 dertaking. The more I see of his conduct, I like him 
 better. It is not only the duty, but interest of young 
 persons to be studious and diligent. Without firmness, 
 nothing that is great can be undertaken ; that is difficult 
 or hazardous, accomplished. That species of commerce 
 will produce great gain or loss. Many days or even 
 weeks pass away unimproved. The people of this coun- 
 try possess a healthy climate and soil. I have bought 
 a house and orchard. His conduct is not scandalous, 
 and that is the best can be said of it. The captain had 
 several men died in his ship. They enjoy a free con- 
 stitution and laws. That is a property most men have, 
 or at least may attain. *A noble spirit disdaineth the 
 malice of fortune ; his greatness of soul is not to be cast 
 down. Charles was a man of learning, knowledge, and 
 benevolence ; and what is more, a true Christian. The 
 team consisted of a black and white horse. A beauti- 
 ful round and square table were exhibited. 
 
 * "A noble spirit," &c., should be, " A man of a noble spirit.' 1 It would be 
 improper to ype.ik f the soul of a spirit 
 
132 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 84 
 
 84. SYNTACTICAL PARSING. 
 
 458. SYNTACTICAL PARSING includes Etymolo- 
 gical, and adds to it a statement of the relation in 
 which words stand to each other, and the rules 
 according to which they are combined in phrases 
 and sentences. 
 
 459. The method of parsing each part of speech ctymologically, 
 has been pointed out under each-, viz. Nouns, No. 89-, Article, un- 
 der 97-, Adjective, 110 5 Pronouns, viz. personal, 115 ; relative, 
 123 ; adjective, 145 -, Verb, 205; Adverb, 231 5 Prepositions, 237; 
 Interjection, 240; and Conjunctions, 248. Also, specimens of 
 Etymological parsing are given, 39. The method of parsing 
 each part of speech syntactically will be seen from the following 
 
 SPECIMEN OF SYNTACTICAL PARSING.* 
 
 460. PSALM cxi. 10. " The fear of the Lord is the 
 beginning of wisdom; and a good understanding 
 have all they that do his commandments : His 
 praise endureth forever."' 
 
 461. This sentence contains all the parts of speech 
 except the interjection, and may be analyzed thus: 
 
 " The fear of the Lord," etc. This is a compound sentence, 
 consisting of the three following parts, viz. 
 
 1. "The fear of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom." 
 
 This is a simple sentence. 
 
 The logical subject is, The fear of the Lord 
 
 The logical predicate is, is the beginning of wisdom 
 
 The grammatical subject is, /ear. It is limited by the adjunct, of the Lord, and 
 
 shown to be limited by the article the (App. VII). 
 The grammatical predicate is, is beginning, in which is is the verb or copula, 
 
 and beginning, the attribute. It is limited by the adjunct, of wisdom, and 
 
 shown to be limited by the.. 
 
 *In parsing nouns, pronouns, and verbs, it is quite unnecessary to ^peat the 
 words gender, number, mood, tense; thus, masculine gender, singular number, 
 &c. : the meaning being sufficiently indicated by the terms masculine, feminine, 
 neuter, singular, plural, indicative, potential, &c. ; present, past, future, &c.; 
 and it has the advantage of saving much time. For the same reason, it may be 
 proper to omit the terms, proper nnd common, before nouns, and the mention of 
 
84. SYNTAX. 133 
 
 2. "And a good understanding have all they that do 
 his commandments." 
 
 Tliis is a compound sentence, connected with the preceding by and; it contain! 
 one leading and one dependent clause, connected by that. 
 The independent clause is, " All they have a good understanding.*' 
 The dependent clause is, " that do his commandments." 
 fn the first or leading clause. 
 The logical subject is, all they. 
 The logical predicate is, have a good understanding. 
 The grammatical subject is, they, qualified by all. 
 The grammatical predicate is, have, modified by its object, understanding, 
 
 which is qualified by its adjective, good, and shewn to be indefinite by the 
 
 article a. 
 
 In the dependent clause, 
 The logical subject is the relative that, which connects the dependent with the 
 
 antecedent clause. 
 
 The logical predicate is, do his commandments. 
 The grammatical subject is the same as the logical. 
 The grammatical predicate is do, modified by its object, commandment* t 
 
 which again is limited by the possessive, his. 
 
 3. " His praise endureth forever." 
 
 This is a simple sentence, of which 
 
 The logical subject is, hii praise. 
 
 The logical predicate is, endureth forever. 
 
 The grammatical subject is, praise, qualified by his. 
 
 The grammatical predicate is, endureth, modified, in respect of time, by forever 
 
 462. The sentence thus analyzed, may be parsed 
 syntactically as follows : 
 
 The is the definite article; it belongs to/<rar, and shews it to be limited 
 
 RTTLE XXXII. 2. The article THE, &c. 
 
 (tar is a noun, neuter, in the nominative singular, the subject of t*5. $ 47 
 
 RULE I. The subject of a verb, &c. 
 
 of is a preposition, which shows the relation between Lord, the subse- 
 quent, and /ear, the antecedent term. 
 
 the is the definite article ; it belongs to Lord, and shews it to be definite ; 
 
 it is rendered so by eminence. RULE XXXII. 2. 
 
 Lord " is a noun, masculine, in the objective singular, governed by of 
 RULK HI. Prepositions govern, &o. 
 
 person, except when the noun is in theirs* or second person. The conjugation 
 Df regular verbs may also be omitted, because their being regular, sufficiently in- 
 dicates their principal parts. When the verb is passive, parse thus : " A verb 
 transitive, in the passive voice, regular, irregular," &c 
 
 12 
 
134 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 84 
 
 fa. ...... ..id a verb intransitive, irregular, am, was, been; it is found in the 
 
 present indicative active, third person singular, and agrees with its 
 subject fear RULE I. A verb agrees, &c. 
 
 the is the definite article ; it belongs to beginning, and shews it to be 
 
 used definitely ; it is rendered so by the adjunct, of wisdom. 
 
 beginning is a noun, neuter, in the nominative singular, and is the predicate - 
 nominative after is. RULE XIII. The predicate substantive after * 
 verb, &c. 
 
 c/......... is a preposition; it shews the relation between wisdom, the subse- 
 
 quent, and beginning, the antecedent term. 
 
 wisdom- is a noun, neuter, in the objective singular, governed by of. RULB 
 III. A preposition, &c. 
 
 and is a copulative conjunction ; it connects the following compound, with 
 
 the preceding simple sentence. RULE XX. 1. Conjunctions connect, etc. 
 
 a is the indefinite article ; it belongs to understanding, and shews it to 
 
 be used indefinitely. RULE XXXII. 1. The article a or an, &c. 
 
 good An adjective, compared irregularly, good, better, best ; it qualifies un- 
 derstanding. RULE VIII. An adjective qualifies, &c. 
 
 understanding is a noun, neuter, in the objective singular, the object of, and go. 
 verned bv have. RULE II. A transitive verb, &c. 
 
 have"- . is a verb transitive, irregular, have, had, had,' it is found in the pre- 
 sent indicative active, third person plural, and agrees with its subject, 
 they. RULE I. A verb agrees, &c. 
 
 oB is an indefinite adjective pronoun, and qualifies they. RULE VIII. An 
 
 adjective qualifies, &c. 
 
 they is a personal pronoun, masculine or feminine, in the nominative plural 
 
 put for persons, and is the subject of have. 47, RULE I. Tlie subject 
 of a verb, &c 
 
 tkat is a relative pronoun, masculine or feminine, in the nominative plural, 
 
 the subject of do. 47, RULE I. It is used for ivho C330), and agrees 
 with its antecedent they. RULE XI. The relative agrees, &c. 1* 
 connects its clause with its antecedent they, restricting it. 
 
 do is a verb, transitive, irregular, do, did, done ; it is found in the pre. 
 
 sent indicative active, third person plural, and agrees with its subject, 
 that. RULE I. A verb agrees, &c. 
 
 hit is a possessive adjective pronoun, standing for Lord's, anc. qualifying 
 
 commandments. RULE VIII. An adjective, &c. 
 
 commandments, is a noun, neuter, in the objective plural ; the object of, and go- 
 verned by do. RULE II. A transitive verb, &c. 
 
 His is a possessive adjective pronoun, as before, qualifies praise. RULB 
 
 VIII. An adjective, fee. 
 
 praise-"- is a noun, neuter, in the nominative singular, the subject of cndureth. 
 47, RULE I. The subject of a verb, &c. 
 
 tndurcth-- is a verb, intransitive, regular ; it is in the present indicative active 
 third person singular, and agrees with its subject praise RULB I 
 A verb agrees, &c. 
 . U an adverb of time, and modifies enrlitreth. RnLE.XXlV. Adverbs, Sec. 
 
PROMIS.] SYNTAX. 135 
 
 85. PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES.* 
 
 ON THE RULES OF SYNTAX. 
 
 NOTE. The following exercises, after being corrected, or in the 
 time of correcting, may be used as exercises in Syntactical Parsing. 
 
 1. John writes pretty. I shall nevei do so no more. 
 The train of our ideas are often interrupted. Was you 
 present at last meeting ? He need not to be in so much 
 haste (201). He dare not act otherwise than he docs. 
 Him whom they seek is in the house. George or I is 
 the person. They or he is much to be blamed. The 
 troop consist of fifty men. Those set of books was a 
 valuable present. That pillar is sixty foot high. His 
 conduct evinced the most extreme vanity. These tree? 
 are remarkable tall. He acted bolder than was expec- 
 ted. This is he who I gave the book to. Eliza always 
 appears amiably. Who do you lodge with now? He 
 was born at London, but he died in Bath. If he be sin- 
 cere I am satisfied. Her father and her were at church. 
 The master requested him and I to read more distinctly, 
 It is no more but his due. 
 
 2. Let he and I read the next chapter. She is free 
 of pain. Those sort of dealings are unjust. David the 
 son of Jesse was the youngest of his brothers. You 
 was very kind to him, he said. Well, says I, what does 
 thou think of him now? James is one of those boys 
 that was kept in at school, for bad behavior. Thou, 
 James, did deny the deed. Neither good nor evil come 
 of themselves. We need not to be afraid. He expected 
 to have gained more by the bargain. You should drink 
 plenty of goat milk. It was him who spoke first. Do 
 you like ass milk ? Is it me that you mean ? Who did 
 you buy your grammar from ? If one takes a wrong 
 method at first setting out, it will lead them astray. 
 Neither man nor woman were present. I am more tal- 
 ler than you. She is the same lady who sang so sweetly. 
 After the most straitest sect of our religion, I lived a 
 
 *NOTE. In the following, as well as in the preceding exercises, some sen, 
 tences are taken from the Bible, containing expressions which, though authorized 
 when that excellent translation was made, have now become obsolete. They * 
 Introduced here to be changed into the form which modem usage requires. 
 
13(5 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. L PROMIS * 
 
 Pharisee. Is not thy wickedness great ? and thine ini- 
 quities infinite ? There was more sophists than one. If 
 a person have lived twenty or thirty years, he should 
 have some experience. If tins were his meaning, the 
 prediction has failed. Fidelity and truth is the founda- 
 tion of all justice. His associates in wickedness will 
 not fail to mark the alteration of his conduct. Thy 
 rod and thy staff, they comfort me. 
 
 3. And when they had lift up their eyes, they saw no 
 man, save Jesus only. Strive not with a man without 
 cause, if he have done thee no harm. Now both the 
 chief priests and Pharisees had given a commandment, 
 that if any man knew where he were, he should show 
 it, that they might take him. The girl, her book is 
 torn in pieces. It is not me who he is in love with. 
 He which commands himself, commands the whole 
 world. Nothing is more lovelier than virtue. 
 
 4. The peoples happiness is the statesmans honor. 
 Changed to a worser shape thou canst not be. I have 
 drunk no spirituous liquors this six years. He is taller 
 than me, but I am stronger than him. Solid peace and 
 contentment consists neither in beauty nor riches, but 
 in the favor of God. After who is the King of Israel 
 come out? The reciprocations of love and friendship 
 between he and I, have been many and sincere. Abuse 
 of mercies ripen us for judgment. Peter and John is 
 not at school to-day. Three of them was taken into 
 custody. To study diligently, and behave genteelly, is 
 commendable. The enemies who we have most to fear 
 are those of our own hearts. Regulus was reckoned 
 the most consummate warrior which Rome could then 
 produce. Suppose life never so long, fresh accessions 
 of knowledge may still be made. 
 
 5. Surely thou who reads so much in the Bible can 
 tell me what became of Elijah. Neither the master nor 
 the scholars is reading. Trust not him whom you know 
 is dishonest. I love no interests but that of truth and 
 virtue. Every imagination of the thoughts of the heart 
 are evil continually. No one can be blamed for taking 
 due care of their health. They crucified him, and two 
 
PROMIS.J SYNTAX. 137 
 
 others with him, on either side one, and Jesus in the 
 midst. None can be blamed for taking care of his health. 
 
 6. I have read Popes Homer, and Drydens Virgil. 
 He that is diligent you should commend. There was 
 an earthquake which made the earth to tremble. And 
 God said to Solomon, Wisdom and knowledge is granted 
 unto thee, &c. I could not commend him for justifying 
 hisself when he knows that his conduct was so very im- 
 proper. He was very much made on at school,. Though 
 he were a son, yet learned he obedience by the things 
 which he suffered. If he is alone, tell him the news; 
 but if there is any body with him, do not tell him. They 
 ride faster than us. Though the measure be myste- 
 rious, it is worthy of attention. If he does but approve 
 my endeavors, it will be an ample reward. Was it him 
 who came last? Yes, it was him. 
 
 Forever in this humble cell, 
 
 Let thee and I, my fair one, dwell. 
 
 7. Every man should act suitable to his character and 
 station in life. His arguments were exceeding clear. I 
 only spoke three words on that subject. The ant and 
 the bee sets a good example before lazy boys. Neither 
 in this world, neither in the world to come. Evil com- 
 munications corrupts good manners. Hannibal was 
 one of the greatest generals whom the world ever saw. 
 The middle station of life seems to be the most advan- 
 tageous for gaming of wisdom. 
 
 8. These are the rules of grammar, by the observing 
 which you may avoid mistakes. The king conferred 
 upon him the title of a duke. My exercises are not 
 well wrote. I do not hold my pen good. Grammar 
 teaches us to speak proper. She accused her companion 
 for having betrayed her. I will not dissent with her, 
 Nothing shall make me swerve out of the path of duty 
 and honor. Who shall I give it to ? Who are you look- 
 ing for ? It is a diminution to, or a derogation of their 
 judgment. It fell into their notice. She values herself 
 for her fortune. That is a book which I am much 
 pleased with. I have been to see the coronation, and 
 
 12* 
 
138 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [ PROMIS. 
 
 a fine sight it was. That portrait of the emperor's is a 
 very exact resemblance of him. Every thing that we 
 here enjoy, change, decay, and come to an end. It is not 
 him they blame so much. 
 
 9. No people has more faults than they that pretend 
 to have none. The laws of Draco is said to have been 
 wrote with blood. It is so clear, or so obvious, as I 
 need not explain it. She taught him and I to read. The 
 more greater a bad man's accomplishments are, the 
 more dangerous he is to society, and the more less fit 
 for a companion. Each has their own faults, and every 
 one should endeavor to correct their own. Let your 
 promises be few, and such that you can perform. 
 
 10. His being at an enmity with Caesar and Antony, 
 were the cause of perpetual discord. Their being 
 forced to their books in an age at enmity with all re- 
 straint, have been the reason why many have hated 
 books all their lives. There was a coffee-house at that 
 end of the town, in which several gentlemen used to 
 meet of an evening. Do not despise the state of the 
 poor, lest it becomes your own condition. It was his 
 duty to have interposed his authority in an affair of so 
 much importance. He spent his whole life in the doing 
 good. Every gentleman who frequented the house, and 
 conversed with the erectors of this occasional club, 
 were invited to pass an evening when they thought fit. 
 The winter has not been so severe as we expected it to 
 have been. The rest (of the stars) in circuit walls this 
 universe. Sir, if thou have borne hence, tell me where 
 thou hast laid him. 
 
 11. A lampoon, or a satire, does not carry in them 
 robbery or murder. She and you were not mistaken in 
 her conjectures. My sister and I, as well as my bro- 
 ther, are employed in their respective occupations. He 
 repents him of that indiscreet action. It was me, and 
 not him, that wrote it. Art thou him ? I will take care 
 that no one shall suffer no injury. I am a man who 
 approves'of wholesome discipline, and who recommend 
 it to others ; but I am not a person who promotes se- 
 verity, or who object to mild and generous treatment. 
 
PROMIS.J SYNTAX. 139 
 
 This jackanapes has hit me in a right place enough. 
 Prosperity, as truly asserted by Seneca, it very much 
 obstructs the knowledge of ourselves. To do to others 
 as we would that they should do to us, it is our duty. 
 This grammar was purchased at Ogle '.s the bookseller s. 
 The council was not unanimous. 
 
 12. Who spilt the ink upon the table ? Him. Who 
 lost this book? Me. Whose pen is this? John. There 
 is in fact no impersonal verbs in any language. And 
 he spitted on the ground and anointed his eyes. Had 
 I never seen ye, I had never known ye. The ship 
 Maiy and Ann were restored to their owners. If we 
 consult the improvement of mind, or the health of body, 
 it is well known exercise is the great instrument for 
 promoting both. A man may see a metaphor or an al- 
 legory in a picture, as well as read them in a description. 
 
 13. I had no sooner placed her at my right hand, by 
 the fire, but she opened to me the reason of her visit. 
 A prudent wife, she shall be blessed. The house you 
 speak of, it cost me five hundred pounds. Did I not 
 tell thee, thee infamous wretch! that thou would 
 bring me to ruin? Not only the counsel's and attorney's, 
 but the judge's opinion also, favored his cause. It was 
 the men's, women's, and children's lot, to suffer great 
 calamities. That is the eldest son of the King of Eng- 
 land's. Lord Feversham's the general's tent. This 
 palace had been the Grand Sultan's Mahomet's. They 
 did not every man cast away the abomination of their 
 eyes. 
 
 14. *I am purposed. He is arrived. They were de- 
 serted from their regiment. Whose works are these ? 
 They are Cicero, the most eloquent of men's. The 
 mighty rivals are now at length agreed. The time of 
 William making the experiment, at length arrived. If 
 we alter the situation of any of the words, we shall pre 
 sentry be sensible of the melody suffering. This portrait 
 
 *RULE. It is improper to use an intransitive verb in the passtvejorm. 
 I &m purposed ; He is arrived ; should be, I have purposed He has arrived 
 From this rule there are a number of exceptions ; for it is allowable to say 
 is come ; She is gone, &c. 49, II. 
 
140 ENGLISH GRAMMAR- [PROMIS 
 
 of the king's does not much resemble him. These pic- 
 tures of the king were sent to him from Italy. He who 
 committed the offence, thou shouldst correct, not I, who 
 am innocent. 
 
 15. But, Thomas, one of the twelve, called Didymus, 
 was not with them when Jesus came. I offer observa- 
 tions, that a long and chequered pilgrimage have ena- 
 bled me to make on man. When I visited Europe, 1 
 returned to America. Clelia is a vain woman, whom, 
 if we do not flatter, she will be disgusted. In his con- 
 duct was treachery, and in his words, faithless profes- 
 sions. The orators did not forget to enlarge themselves 
 on so popular a subject. He acted conformable with 
 his instructions, and can not be censured justly. 
 
 16. No person could speak stronger on this subject, 
 nor behave nobler, than our young advocate, for the 
 cause of toleration. They were studious to ingratiate 
 with those who it was dishonorable to favor. The house 
 framed a remonstrance, where they spoke with great 
 freedom of the king's prerogative. Neither flatter or 
 contemn the rich or the great. Many would exchange 
 gladly their honors, beauty, and riches, for that more 
 quiet and humbler station, which thou art now dissa- 
 tisfied with. High hopes, and ambitious views, is a great 
 enemy to tranquillity. Many persons will not believe 
 but what they are free from prejudices. I will lay me 
 down in peace, and take my rest. This word I have 
 only found in Spenser. The king being apprised of the 
 conspiracy, he fled from Jerusalem. 
 
 17. A too great variety of studies dissipate and weaken 
 the mind. James was resolved to not indulge himself 
 in such a cruel amusement. They admired the country- 
 man's, as they called him, candor and uprightness. 
 The pleasure or pain of one passion, differ from those 
 of another. The court of Spain, who gave the order, 
 were not aware of the consequences. There was much 
 spoke and wrote on each side of the question ; but I 
 have chose to suspend my decision. 
 
 18. Religion raises men above themselves ; irreligion 
 sinks them beneath the brutes ; that binds them down 
 
PROMIS.J SYNTAX. 141 
 
 to a poor pitiable speck of earth ; this opens for them a 
 prospect to the skies. Temperance and exercise, how- 
 soever little they may be regarded, they are the best 
 means of preserving health. To despise others on ac- 
 count of their poverty, or to value ourselves for our 
 wealth, are dispositions highly culpable. This task was 
 the easier performed, from the cheerfulness with which 
 he engaged in it. These counsels were the dictates of 
 virtue, and the dictates of true honor. As his misfor- 
 tunes were the fruit of his own obstinacy, a few persons 
 pitied him. And they were judged every man according 
 to their works. Riches is the bane of human happiness. 
 I wrote to my brother before I received his letter. 
 
 19. WhenGarrick appeared, Peter was for sometime 
 in doubt whether it could be him or not. Was you liv- 
 ing contented in spiritual darkness ? The company was 
 very numerous. Shall the throne of iniquity have fel- 
 lowship with thee, which frameth mischief by a law? 
 Where is the security that evil habits will be ever bro- 
 ken ? Each of them bring material to the place. Nor 
 let no comforter delight my ear. She was six years older 
 than him. They were obliged to contribute more than 
 us. The Barons had little more to rely on, besides the 
 power of their families. The sewers must be kept so 
 clear, as the water may run away. Such among us who 
 follow that profession. No body is so sanguine to hope 
 for it. She behaved unkinder than I expected. Agree- 
 able to your request, I send this letter. She is exceed- 
 ing fair. Thomas is not as docile as his sister. There 
 was no other book but his. He died by a fever. Among 
 whom was Mary Magdalene, and Mary the mother of 
 James. My sister and I waited till they were called. 
 The army were drawn up in haste. The public is re- 
 spectfully informed that, &c. The friends and amuse- 
 ments which he preferred corrupted his morals. Each 
 must answer for themselves. Henry, though at first he 
 showed an unwillingness, yet afterwards he granted his 
 request. 
 
 20. Him and her live very happily together. She 
 invited Jane and I to see her new dress. She uttered 
 
142 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PROMIS. 
 
 such cries that pierced the heart of every one who heard 
 them. Maria is not clever as her sister Ann. Though 
 he promises ever so solemnly, I will not believe him. 
 The full moon was no sooner up, in all its brightness, 
 but he opened to them the gate of paradise. It render- 
 ed the progress very slow of the new invention. This 
 book is Thomas', that is James'. Socrates's wisdom has 
 been the subject of many a conversation. Fare thee 
 well, James. Who, who has the judgment of a man, 
 would have drawn such an inference ? George was the 
 most diligent scholar whom I ever knew. I have ob- 
 served some children to use deceit. He durst not to 
 displease his master. The hopeless delinquents might, 
 each in their turn, adopt the expostulatory language of 
 Job. Several of our English words, some centuries ago, 
 had different meanings to those they have now. And I 
 was afraid, and went and hid thy talent in the earth ; lo, 
 there thou hast that is thine. With this booty he made 
 off to a distant part of the country, where he had reason 
 to believe that neither he nor his master were known. 
 Thine is the kingdom, the power, and the glory. I have 4 
 been at London. 
 
 21. Which of the two masters, says Seneca, shall we 
 most esteem? he who strives to correct his scholars 
 by prudent advice and motives of honor, or he who will 
 lash them severely for not repeating their lessons as they 
 ought ? The blessing of the Lord it maketh rich, and 
 he addeth no sorrow with it. For if ther^ be first a 
 willing mind, it is accepted according to that a man hath, 
 and not according to that he has not. If a brother or 
 a sister be naked and destitute of daily food, and one of 
 you say unto them, Depart in peace, be ye warmed and 
 filled ; notwithstanding if ye give them not those things 
 which are needful to the body, what doth it profit ? 340. 
 
 22. But she always behaved with great severity to 
 her maids ; and if any of them were negligent of their 
 duty, or made a slip in their conduct, nothing would 
 serve her but burying the poor girls alive. He had no 
 master to instruct him ; he had read nothing but the 
 writings of Moses and the prophets, and had received 
 
PROMIS.] SYNTAX. 143 
 
 no lessons from the Socrates's,* the Plato's and the Con- 
 fucius's of the age. They that honor me, I will honor. 
 For the poor always ye have with you. 
 
 23. The first Christians of the Gentile world made a 
 simple and entire transition from a state as bad, if not 
 worse, than that of entire ignorance, to the Christianity 
 of the New Testament. And he said unto Gideon, every 
 one that lappeth of the water with his tongue, as a dog 
 lappeth, him shalt thou set by himself. 
 
 The duke had not .behaved with that loyalty as was 
 expected. Milton seems to have been well acquainted 
 with his own genius, and to know what it was that na- 
 ture had bestowed upon him more bountifully than upon 
 others. 
 
 24. And on the morrow, because he would have known 
 the certainty wherefore he was accusedf of the Jews, 
 he loosed him from his bonds, 
 
 Here rages force, here tremble flight and fear, 
 Here stormed contention, and here fury frowned: 
 The Cretan javelin reached him from afar,^ 
 And pierced his shoulder as he mounts his car. 
 
 Nor is it then a welcome guest, affording only an uneasy 
 sensation, and brings always with it a mixture of con- 
 cern and compassion. 
 
 He onlyj promised me a loan of the book for two 
 days. I was once thinking to have written a poem. 
 
 25. A very slow child will often be found to get les- 
 sons by heart as soon as, nay sometimes sooner than, 
 one who is ten times as intelligent. 
 
 It is then from a cultivation of the perceptive facul- 
 ties, that we only can attain those powers of concep- 
 tion which are essential to taste. 
 
 No man is fit for free conversation for the inquiry 
 
 *The possessive case must not be used for the plural number. In this quotation 
 from Baron Haller's Letters to his Daughter, the proper names should have been 
 phiralized like common nouns; thus, From the Socrateses, the Platoes, and the 
 Confuciuscs of the age. 
 
 t Accused requires of before the crime, and by before the person accusing. 
 
 t r f his sentence expresses one meaning as it stands. It may be^ made to ex* 
 press other four by placing only after me, or loan, or book, or days. 
 
144 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PROMIS. 
 
 after truth if he be exceedingly reserved; if he be 
 haughty and proud of his knowledge ; if he be positive 
 and dogmatical in his opinions ; if he be one who always 
 affects to outshine all the company; if he be fretful 
 and peevish; if he affect wit, and is full of puns, or 
 quirks, or quibbles. 
 
 26. Conversation is the business, and let every one 
 that please add their opinion freely. There are many 
 more shining qualities in the mind of man, but there is 
 none so useful as discretion. 
 
 Mr. Locke having been introduced by Lord Shafts- 
 bury to the Duke of Buckingham and Lord Halifax, 
 these three noblemen, instead of conversing with the 
 philosopher on literary subjects, in a very short tune 
 sat down to cards. 
 
 BAD ARRANGEMENT. 
 
 27. It is your light fantastic fools, who have neither 
 heads nor hearts, in both sexes, who, by dressing their 
 bodies out of all shape, render themselves ridiculous 
 and contemptible. 
 
 And how can brethren hope to partake of their pa- 
 rent's blessing, that curse each other. 
 
 The superiority of others over us, though in trivial 
 concerns, never fails to mortify our vanity, and give 
 us vexation, as Nicol admirably observes. 
 
 Likewise also the chief priests, mocking, said among 
 themselves, with the scribes, He saved others ; himself 
 he can not save. 
 
 Noah, for his godliness, and his family, were the only 
 persons preserved from the flood, 
 
 It is an unanswerable argument of a very refined age, 
 the wonderful civilities that have passed between the 
 nation of authors, and that of readers. 
 
 And they said among themselves, Who shall roll us 
 away the stone from the door of the sepulchre ? And 
 when they had looked, they saw that the stone was 
 rolled away: for it was very great. 
 
 A great stone that I happened to find, after a long 
 search, by the sea-shore, served me for an anchor 
 
PROMIS.J &VNTAX. 145 
 
 It is true what he says, but it is not applicable to the 
 point. Wanted a young man to take care of some hor- 
 ses, of a religious turn of mind. The following verses 
 were written by a young man who has long lain in the 
 grave, for his own amusement. He rode to town and 
 drove twelve cows on horseback. 
 
 BAD ARRANGEMENT.* 
 
 28. The Senate of Rome ordered that no part of it 
 should be rebuilt ; it was demolished to the ground, so 
 that travellers are unable to say where Carthage stood 
 at this day. 
 
 Thus ended the war with Antiochus, twelve years 
 after the second punic war, and two after it had begun. 
 
 Upon the death of Claudius, the young Emperor 
 Nero pronounced his funeral oration, and he was ca- 
 nonized among the gods, who scarcely deserved the 
 name of a man. 
 
 Galerius abated much of his severities against the 
 Christians on his death-bed, and revoked those edicts 
 which he had formerly published, tending to their per- 
 secution, a little before his death. 
 
 The first care of Aurelius was to marry his daughter 
 Lucilla once more to Claudius Pompeianus a man of 
 moderate fortune, c. 
 
 But at length having made his guards accomplices in 
 their design, they set upon Maximin while he slept at 
 noon in his tent, and slew both him and his son, whom 
 he had made his partner in the empire, without any 
 opposition. 
 
 Aurelian defeated the Marcomanni, a fierce and ter- 
 rible nation of Germany, that had invaded Italy, in 
 three several engagements. 
 
 AMBIGUITY. 
 
 29. You suppose him younger than I. 
 
 This may mean, either that you suppose him younger than 1 
 am, or that you suppose him to b younger than I suppose him 
 to be. 
 
 * The exercises in this section are all extractei from the octavo edition of 
 Goldsm.th's Roman History, from which many more might he obtained. 
 
 13 
 
140 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 86 
 
 Parmenio had served, with great fidelity, Philip, the 
 father of Alexander, as well as himself, for whom he 
 first opened the way into Asia. 
 
 Here we are apt to suppose the word himself refers to Parmenio, 
 and means that he had not only served Philip but he had served 
 himself ai the same time. This, however, is not the meaning of 
 the passage. If we arrange it thus, the meaning will appear. 
 " Parmenio had not only served Philip the father of Alexander 
 with great fidelity, but he had served .Alexander himself \ and 
 was the first that opened the way for him into Asia.'' 
 
 Belisarius was general of all the forces under the 
 emperor Justinian the First, a man of rare valor. 
 
 Who was a man of rare valor? The emperor Justinian we 
 should suppose, from the arrangement of the w r ords-, but this is 
 not the case, for it was Belisarius. The sentence should stand 
 thus, " Belisarius, a man of rare valor, was general of all the 
 forces under the emperor Justinian the First." 
 
 Lisias promised to his father never to abandon his 
 friends. 
 
 Whether were they his own friends or his fathers whom Lisias 
 promised never to abandon? If his own, it should be, Lisias pro- 
 mised and said to his father, I will never abandon my friends. If 
 his father" 1 s^ it should be, Lisias promised and said to his father. 
 I will never abandon your friends. 
 
 86. MISCELLANEOUS OBSEPvVATIONS. 
 
 463. 1. Many writers use a plural noun after the se- 
 cond of two numeral adjectives; thus, " The first and 
 second pages are torn." According to analogy it should 
 be, The first and the second page [449, 3], Thus we 
 say, " The new and the old world," "Ancient and mo- 
 dern history," c. 
 
 2. Another, One, Every. 
 
 Another corresponds to one ; but not to some, nor to 
 every. Thus, " Handed down from every writer of 
 rerses to another," should be, "From one writer of 
 verses to another." "At some hour or another,' 9 should 
 be, "At some hour or other." 
 
 One is oiten used in familiar phrases, (like on in 
 French,) for we, or any one of us, indiscriminately ' 
 thus, " One is often more influenced by example than 
 
86 SYNTAX. 147 
 
 by precept." The verb and pronoun with which one 
 agrees, should be singular ; thus, " If one take a wrong 
 method at first, it will lead them astray," should be, 
 "it will lead one astray," or "him astray." 
 
 3 As follows, As regards, As appears, <$ c. 
 
 Dr. Campbell and Mr. Murray regard these, and se- 
 veral other expressions of a similar kind, as impersonal 
 verbs, and are of opinion that they should always be 
 used in the singular. This, however, is contrary to the 
 established usage of our best writers, who frequently 
 use them in the plural form ; as, " The circumstances 
 were as follow." Other Grammarians, and particularly 
 Dr. Crombie (Etymology, p. 389 et seq.), consider as to 
 be a relative pronoun, and that the verb following it 
 should be singular or plural, according as its antecedent 
 is in the singular or plural number ; thus, " His descrip- 
 tion was as follows," i. e. "was this which follows." 
 " His words were as follow," i. e. " were those which 
 follow." Neither of these explanations seems to be en- 
 tirely satisfactory. It is perhaps better to regard such 
 phrases as elliptical, and in parsing to supply the ellip- 
 sis thus, " The words were such as those which follow," 
 or, "were the same as those which follow." 
 
 As concerns, as regards, used commonly in the singu- 
 lar, are also elliptical, and may be supplied thus, "As it 
 concerns," or " As far as it concerns, regards," &c. As 
 (it) appears, is always in the singular. In the plural, 
 the noun or pronoun is commonly expressed thus, 
 " These things, as they concern," or, " as far as they 
 concern us ;" or, "As far as these things concern us,'* 
 &c. In this way, there is no necessity for considering 
 these expressions as impersonal verbs, nor for depriving 
 as of its conjunctive character. App. XII. 
 
 4. So and Such. 
 
 When we refer to the species or nature of a thing, 
 the word such is properly applied ; as, " Such a temper 
 is seldom found." But when degree is signified, we 
 use the word so ; as, " So bad a temper is seldom found." 
 Yet so is hardly ever used before an adjective followed 
 
148 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 86 
 
 by a plural noun. In this case, such is used instead of 
 it, to express degree. Thus, we say, " Such beautiful 
 flowers 1 have seldom seen ;" not, " so beautiful flowers." 
 Still it would be correct to say, " I have never seen 
 flowers so beautiful/' 
 
 5. Disappointed of, Disappointed in. 
 
 We are disappointed of a thing, when we expect it 
 and do not get it ; and disappointed in it, when we have 
 it, and it does not answer our expectations. Hence a 
 person may be disappointed in that which he is not 
 disappointed of. 
 
 6. Taste of, and Taste for. 
 
 A taste of a thing, implies actual enjoyment of it ; 
 but a taste for it, implies only capacity for enjoyment ; 
 as, " When we have had a true taste of the pleasures 
 of virtue, we can have no relish for those of vice." 
 " He had a taste for such studies, and pursued them 
 earnestly." 
 
 7. Position of Adjectives. 
 
 Adjectives should be placed next their substantives. 
 Thus, it is incorrect to say, " a new pair of shoes," " a 
 fine field of corn," " a good glass of wine," &c.; because 
 the adjectives in these sentences qualify shoes, corn, 
 wine, and not pair, Jield, glass, with which they are 
 joined. The phrases should be, "A pair of new shoes ;" 
 "A field of fine corn;" "A glass of good wine." 
 
 8. Evt that. 
 
 But is often improperly used before that, after words 
 which imply doubt or fear ; as, " I doubt not but that 
 he "will fulfil his promise." This would seem to say. 
 " I doubt nothing save one thing, namely, that he will 
 fulfil his promise ;" whereas, that is the very thing not 
 doubted. Remove the but, and you preserve the sense. 
 
 9. Older, Oldest, Elder, Eldest. 
 
 Older and oldest refer to maturity of age; elder and 
 eldest, to priority of right by birth. Thus, " Homer is 
 
86. SYNTAX. 149 
 
 an older author than Virgil." "Being the eldest of the 
 family, he succeeded to the estate." 
 
 10. Farther and Farthest, Further and Furthest. 
 Farther and farthest denote place or distance ; Fur* 
 ther and furthest, quantity or addition ; as, " The farther 
 they advanced, the more interesting was the scene." 
 " I have nothing further to say on this subject." Far- 
 ther is the comparative, and farthest, the superlative 
 of far ; Further and furthest, of fore or forth. 
 
 11. Later, latest, Latter, last, Next, Nearest. 
 
 Later and latest, compared from late, have respect 
 to time ; latter and last, to place or position, and are 
 employed without so direct a reference to comparison. 
 Next refers either to time or place ; nearest, to place 
 only. 
 
 12. Past, passed. 
 
 Pastissiu adjective ; passed, the past tense or past 
 participle of the verb, and they ought not, as they fre- 
 quently are, to be confounded with each other. 
 
 13. Lay, lie, Set, sit. 
 
 Lay and lie are distinct in meaning and application, 
 and can not be used indiscriminately. The use of the 
 former for the latter is an error exceedingly prevalent, 
 and should be corrected. Thus we constantly hear such 
 expressions as, " It lays on the table ;" " It laid there 
 yesterday." Lie is an intransitive verb; Lay is tran- 
 sitive, and means to make lie. The past tense of lie 
 is lay, and past participle lain. The past tense of lay 
 is laid, and past participle laid* Thus, The bricklayer 
 lays bricks, and being laid, they lie. The book lies 
 on the shelf; it was laid there a week ago, and has 
 lain ever since. The same distinction should be ob- 
 served between set and sit. 
 
 14. "Be that as it will," is a common, but inaccurate 
 expression. It ought to be, " Be that as it may," or 
 may have been. 
 
 15. " Seldom or ever" is not correct. It should be 
 seldom or never; or, seldom if ever, 
 
 13* 
 
150 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 464. 87. A LIST OF IMPROPER EXPRESSIONS 
 
 SELECTED CHIEFLY FROM PICKERING'S VOCABULARY. 
 
 I should admire to go to sea. 
 
 I allut upon going. 
 
 The alone God. The alone motive. 
 
 I an't ; you an't ; he an } t, &c. 
 
 Any manner of means. 
 
 His discourse was approbated. 
 
 To sell at auction. 
 
 lie was walking back and forth. 
 
 Part were good, the balance were bad. 
 
 His argument was based on this fact. 
 
 Where be you? Here I be. 
 
 The money was ordered paid. 
 
 I would not be.little or demean myself. 
 
 He was paid for his betterments. 
 
 I calculate to leave town soon. 
 
 A chunk of bread. 
 
 A clever* house. 
 
 He conducts ivell. 
 
 He is considerable of a scholar. 
 
 His farm was convenient to mine. 
 
 The creatures^ must be sent to pasture. 
 
 Curious apples; curious cider, &c. 
 
 He is a decent scholar, writer. 
 
 Her situation was distressing toadegree. 
 
 Such conduct was very derogatory. 
 
 A total destitution of capacity. 
 
 The United States, or either of them. 
 
 Equally as well as good, c. 
 
 Mr. B , Esq. 
 
 I think it will eventuate in this. 
 I expect* they be. 
 
 I expect lie must have died long ago 
 These things are in a bad fix. 
 Will you fix these things for me? 
 Firstly, secondly, thirdly, &c. 
 How do your folks do? 
 What do folks think of it? 
 Will you go by and dine with me? 
 Talents of the highest grade. 
 Do you love play ? I guess% I dp. 
 You will tell another guess (guise) sto- 
 ry soon. 
 
 We may hope the assistance of God. 
 A horse colt / A mare colt. 
 It would illy accord. 
 When did you come in town. 
 
 In good case ; or kelter. 
 
 Where do you keep ? put up ? 
 
 A lengthy sermon , &c. 
 
 I would like to go to sea. 
 
 I Intend to go. 
 
 The one God. The only motive. 
 
 1 am not ; you are not ; he is not, &c. 
 
 Any means. 
 
 His discourse was approved. 
 
 To sell by auction. 
 
 backwards and forwards. 
 
 the remainder, or the rest were 
 
 bad. 
 
 His argument was founded on this fact. 
 Where are you ? Here I am. 
 The money was ordered to be paid. 
 1 would not degrade myself. 
 He was paid for his improvements 
 I intend to leave town soon. 
 A piece of bread. 
 A good house. 
 
 He conducts himself well, respectably. 
 He is a pretty good scholar. 
 His farm was contiguous to mine, close 
 The cattle must be sum to pasture. 
 Excellent apples, excellent cider. &c. 
 He is a pretty good scholar, writer. 
 
 was extremely distressing 
 
 was very degrading. 
 
 A total want of capacity. 
 The United States, or any of them 
 Equally well, or just as well, &c. 
 A B , Esq. 
 
 - will end, or terminate, in this. 
 
 I believe they are. 
 
 I think he must have died, &c. 
 
 in a bad state or condition. 
 
 Will you put these things in order for me ? 
 
 First, secondly, &c. 
 
 How is your family ? 
 
 What do people think of it? 
 
 Will you go by my house and dine? 
 
 Talents of the highest order. 
 
 there is no doubt of that 
 
 another kind of story. 
 
 We may hope for the assistance of God. 
 
 A colt : A filly. 
 
 It would ill accord. 
 
 When did you come into town? ($ 77, 
 
 Obs. 2.) 
 
 In good condition, good order. 
 At whose house do you stay ? 
 A long sermon. &c. 
 
 *The word clever, applied to persons, in the English sense, means active, 
 quick, ingenious ; in the American sense, of a kind, obliging disposition. 
 
 tThis word, in the northern states, is a general term for horses, cattle, sheep, 
 win, &c. 
 
 t is properly applied to thing's to come ; guess, to things uncertain, never 
 present, or about which there is no doubt 
 
^88. 
 
 SYNTAX. 
 
 151 
 
 Why don't you strike like I do? 
 
 Be is a very likely man. 
 
 Will you loan me a few dollars? 
 
 I was mad at him. 
 
 Migkty cold ; mighty fine. 
 
 Obnoxious* doctrines. 
 
 He will once in a while get drunk. 
 
 He went up on to the roof 
 
 What had that ought to be ? 
 
 Over the signature of Junius.f 
 
 He still plead not guilty. 
 
 They are not very plenty. 
 
 He is rather poorly. 
 
 Predicated on former proceedings. 
 
 The work progresses slowly. 
 
 Not proven. 
 
 I was raised in Virginia. 
 
 A commktee was raised. 
 
 The price will raise soon. 
 
 I reckon he will. 
 
 The council resulted, that, &c. 
 
 Such doctrine revolt us. 
 
 A rugged child. 
 
 I sat out on my journey. 
 
 The market is full of sauce. 
 
 You have too much sauce. 
 
 I see him, I seen him yesterday. 
 
 Serious people. 
 
 He is some better than he was. 
 
 I have had a spell of sickness. 
 
 Be spry. He is a springy man. 
 
 He shews much temper.^ 
 
 He is an v-gfy fellow. 
 
 as I do, or, like as I do. 
 
 He is a very good looking man. 
 
 lend me a few dollars 
 
 I was angry with him. 
 Very cold ; very fine. 
 Hurtful or offensive doctrines. 
 
 sometimes get drunk. 
 
 He went up to the roof. 
 
 What should that be ? 
 
 Under the signature of Junius. 
 
 pleaded not guilty. 
 
 They are not very plentiful. 
 rather indisposed. 
 Founded on former proceedings. 
 The work advances slowly. 
 Not proved. 
 I was brought up in Virginia. 
 
 was formed or appointed. 
 
 will rise soon. 
 
 I suppose he will. 
 
 came to the conclusion, that, & 3. 
 
 We revolt at such doctrines. 
 A robust or healthy child. 
 I set out, &c. 
 
 full of vegetables. 
 
 too. much impertinence. 
 
 I saw him yesterday. 
 Religious people. 
 
 somewhat better. 
 
 I have been sick for some time. 
 Be quick an active man. 
 
 much warmth of temper. 
 
 a fellow of bad disposition. 
 
 88. PUNCTUATION. 
 
 465. Punctuation is the art of dividing a written 
 composition into sentences, or parts of sentences, by 
 points or stops, in order to convey to the reader the 
 exact sense, and assist him in the proper delivery. 
 
 *Obnoxious signifies liable to, and should not be used for hurtful or offensive. 
 
 tOn this expression, Pickering remarks : " A few of our writers still counte- 
 nance this unwarrantable innovation ; but the principle on which it is defended 
 would unsettle the whole language.' 7 We might with equal propriety say, "criven 
 over my hand and seal." " It is so well known to be the constant practice of 
 the best English and American writers to say, ' under a name,' and 'under a sig. 
 nature,' that it will hardly be credited that any who speak the English language 
 could have questioned the propriety of it." The term under, in such phrases, 'S 
 figurative, ailtt means, under the sanction, authority, or responsibility of. It has 
 nothing to do with the mere relative position of the writing, and the name or sig- 
 nature attached to it; a circumstance in itself of no consequence whatever, but 
 which, nevertheless, is all that the term over is capable of expressing. 
 
 \Tempe,r, in the American sense, means warmth of temper, passion. In Eng- 
 jand it means ''moderation, coolness." In this sense the words temperate and 
 aitemperate arc always understood. 
 
15*2 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 88 
 
 466. The principal stops are the following: 
 
 The Comma ( , ) the semicolon ( ; ) the colon ( : ) 
 the period, or full stop ( . ) the note of interrogation 
 ( ? ) the note of exclamation ( ! ) 
 
 467. The comma represents the shortest pause ; the 
 semicolon, a pause double that of the comma; the colon, 
 double that of the semicolon; and the period, double 
 that of the colon. 
 
 468. The duration of the pauses must be left to the taste of the 
 reader or speaker. 
 
 RULES FOB, THE PROPER PUNCTUATION OF A COMPOSITION. 
 
 THE COMMA. 
 
 469. The comma usually separates those parts of a 
 sentence which, though very closely connected in sense 
 and construction, require a pause between them. 
 
 470. RULE 1. A simple sentence, when it is a short one, admits 
 only a period at the end-, as, " No state of life is exempt from 
 trouble." 
 
 471. When a simple sentence is a long one, and the nominative 
 case is accompanied by inseparable adjuncts, a comma must be in- 
 serted before the verb-, as, U A steady and undivided attention to 
 one object, is a sure mark of superior genius. The necessity of an 
 early acquaintance with history, has always been acknowledged." 
 
 472. NOTE. By the term adjunct, is meant any number of words 
 added by way of modifying or qualifying the principal words -, thus, 
 44 Cicero, the eloquent Cicero, suffered an ignominious death :" the 
 phrase, the eloquent Cicero, is the adjunct of Cicero (484). 
 
 473. RULE 2. The simple members of a compound sentence are 
 separated by commas-, as, u When the graces of novelty are worn 
 off, admiration is succeeded by indifference." u Crafty men con- 
 temn studies, simple men admire them, and wise men use them." 
 
 474. But when the members are closely connected, the comma 
 is unnecessary-, as, u Revelation tells us how we may obtain hap- 
 piness." 
 
 475. RULE 3. Two words of the same part of speech, whether 
 nouns, adjectives, verbs, participles, or adverbs, do not admit a 
 comma between them when connected by a conjunction -, as, " The 
 
88. SYNTAX. 153 
 
 earth and the moon are planets." "Time brings a gentle and 
 powerful opiate to all misfortunes." t; The man of order catches 
 and arrests the hours as they fly." " By encouraging 1 and ani 
 mating him, he became active." " Success generally depends on 
 acting prudently and vigorously.' 1 ' 1 ic We must live either virtu 
 ously or viciously.' 1 ' 1 
 
 476. But when the conjunction is not expressed, a comma is in- 
 serted between the words*, as, a Reason^ passion, answer one great 
 end." u He is a/??ain, honest man." 
 
 477. RULE 4. Three or more nouns, adjectives, verbs, parti- 
 ciples, or adverbs, with or without a conjunction, are separated by 
 commas; as, "Poetry, music, and painting, are fine arts." "David 
 was a brave, wise, and prudent prince." " The sight, the hear- 
 ing, the feeling, the taste, the smell, are the live natural senses." 
 
 478. When words are connected in pairs, there is a comma after 
 each pair ; as, " Anarchy and confusion, poverty and distress, deso 
 lation and ruin, are the consequences of civil war.'' 
 
 479. RULE 5. The words used in a direct address, the case ab 
 solute, a short expression in the manner of a quotation, and tha 
 infinitive mood absolute when it is not used as a nominative case, 
 should be separated from the rest of the sentence by commas , as, 
 l My son, hear the counsels of thy father." " I remain, Sir, youi 
 obedient servant." " The time of youth being precious, we should 
 devote it to the purposes of improvement." " Plutarch calls lying, 
 the vice of slaves." 1 " 1 " To enjoy present pleasure, he sacrificed 
 future ease and reputation." 
 
 480. RULE 6. A single name in apposition is not separated by a 
 comma-, as, " The apostle Peter 5 " "The emperor Antoninus." 
 But when such name is accompanied with an adjunct, the adjunct 
 should have a comma before and after it ; as "Augustus, the Roman 
 fmperor, was a patron of the fine arts." " Paul, the apostle of the 
 Gentiles, was eminent for his zeal and knowledge." 
 
 481. RULE 7. Simple members of sentences connected bycom- 
 oaratives, and phrases placed in opposition to, or in contrast with, 
 each other, are separated by commas-, thus, " As the hart panteth 
 after the water brooks, so cioth my soul after thee." " They are 
 sometimes in union with, an^ sometimes in opposition to. the 
 vhwi of each other." 
 
 1 Th'uph 4e^p y.t clear ; though gentle, yet not dull ; 
 Strong, with-it rage*, without o'erflowing, full." 
 
154 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 88 
 
 482. When one word follows the last preposition as its object 
 a comma must not be inserted before it-, as, u He was much at 
 tached to, and concerned for John." 
 
 483. When the members of comparative sentences are short, thf 
 comma is omitted-, as, u How much better is wisdom than gold.' 
 
 484. RULE 8. All adjuncts or explanatory phrases, either at 
 the beginning, middle, or end of a simple sentence, are separated 
 from it by commas-, as, u With gratitude, I remember his good- 
 ness to me. 17 u I remember, with gratitude, his goodness to 
 me." u His talents, formed for great enterprizes, could not fail 
 of rendering him conspicuous." " Vices, like shadows, towards 
 the evening of life, grow great and monstrous." u I saw the 
 captain, as he is called." 
 
 485. A comma must also be inserted between the two parts of 
 a sentence, which have their natural order inverted -, as, u To God, 
 nothing is impossible-, that is, " Nothing is impossible to God." 
 
 486. RULE 9. A comma must be inserted before the relative, 
 when the clause immediately after it is used as explanatory of 
 the antecedent clause-, as, " He, who disregards the good opinion 
 of the world, must be utterly abandoned-," or, u He must be ut- 
 terly abandoned, who disregards the good opinion of the world." 
 
 487. But when the relative is so closely connected with its an 
 tecedent. that it can not be transposed, a comma must not be in- 
 serted before it , as, "Self-denial is the sacrifice which virtue must 
 make." ;c I have carefully perused the book which you lent me." 
 
 488. RULE 10. When any tense of the verb to be is followed by 
 a verb in the infinitive mood, which, by transposition, might be 
 made the nominative case to it, the former is generally separated 
 from the latter verb by a comma-, as, u The best preservative of 
 health is, to be temperate in all our gratifications." " To be 
 temperate in all our gratifications, is the best preservative of 
 health." 
 
 489. RULE 11. When a verb is understood, a comma must !>e 
 inserted-, as, u Reading makes a full man-, conference, a ready 
 man-, and writing, an exact man." 
 
 490. RULE 12. The word that, used as a conjunction, is preceded 
 by a comma-, as, " Be virtuous, that you may be happy." 
 
 491. Adverbs, prepositions, or conjunctions, used to connect or 
 introduce a new member, must be separated from the preceding 
 part of the sentence by a comma; as, u The instructions of ad- 
 
$ 88. SYNTAX. 15S 
 
 versity may be wholesome, though unpleasing.' r lt The wise 
 man seeketh wisdom, but the fool despiseth understanding," 
 
 492. RULE 13. The words nay, so, hence, again, first, secondly^ 
 formerly, now, lastly, in fact, therefore, wherefore, however, be- 
 sides, indeed, and all other words and phrases of the same kind, 
 must, when considered of importance, be separated from the con- 
 text by a comma, according to rule 8th j as, " Besides, our repu- 
 tation does not depend on the caprice of man, but on our own 
 good actions." " Lastly, strive to preserve a conscience void of 
 offence towards God and man." " If the spring put forth no 
 blossoms, in summer there will be no beauty, and in autumn, no 
 fruit 5 so, if youth be trifled away without improvement, riper 
 years may be contemptible, and old age miserable." 
 
 493. When, however, these phrases are not considered im- 
 portant, and particularly in short sentences, the comma is not 
 inserted-, as, u There is surely a pleasure in acting kindly." 
 " Idleness certainly is the mother of all vices." u He was at 
 last convinced of his error." 
 
 494.*** The foregoing rules will, it is hoped, be found comprehensive; yet 
 there may be some cases in which the student must rely on his own judgment. 
 
 In composing works for the press, many authors merely insert a period at the 
 end of each sentence, and leave the rest to be pointed by the printers, who, from 
 their constant practice, are supposed to have acquired a uniform mode of punc- 
 tuation. 
 
 THE SEMICOLON. 
 
 495. The semicolon is used to separate the parts of 
 a sentence, which are less closely connected than those 
 which are separated by a comma. 
 
 496. RULE 1. When the first division of a sentence contains a 
 complete proposition, but is followed by a clause which is added 
 as an inference, or to give some explanation, the two parts must 
 be separated by a semicolon-, as, " Perform your duty faithfully-, 
 for this will procure you the blessing of heaven." " The orator 
 makes the truth plain to his hearers-, he awakens them; he ex- 
 cites them to action-, he shews them their impending danger." 
 u Be in peace with many-, nevertheless, have but one counsellor 
 of a thousand." 
 
 497. RULE 2. When several short sentences follow each other, 
 having merely a slight connection in idea, though in other respects 
 complete in themselves, they may be separated by a semicolon; 
 as, "Every thing grows old-, every thing passes away; ever* 
 
156 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 88 
 
 thing disappears." u The epic poem recites the exploits of a hero; 
 tragedy represents a disastrous event , comedy ridicules the vices 
 and follies of mankind ; pastoral poetry describes rural life j and 
 elegy displays the tender emotions of the heart. 
 
 THE COLON. 
 
 498. The colon is used to divide a sentence into two 
 or more parts, less connected than those which are se- 
 parated by a semicolon, but not so independent as to 
 require a period. 
 
 499. RULE 1. A colon is used when a member of a sentence 
 is complete in itself, both in sense and construction, but is fol- 
 lowed by some additional remark or illustration, depending upon 
 it in sense, though not in syntax-, as, "A brute arrives at a point 
 of perfection that he can never pass : in a few years he has all the 
 endowments he is capable of, and were he to live ten thousand 
 more, would be the same thing he is at present." " Study to ac- 
 quire a habit of thinking: no study is more important." 
 
 500. RULE 2. When a sentence contains several perfect mem- 
 bers separated by semicolons, the concluding member requires a 
 colon before it; as, U A Divine Legislator, uttering his voice from 
 heaven , an Almighty Governor stretching forth his arm to pu- 
 nish or reward ; informing us of perpetual rest prepared hereafter 
 for the righteous, and of indignation and wrath awaiting the 
 wicked: these are the considerations which overawe the world, 
 which support integrity and check guilt." 
 
 501. RULE 3. Either the colon or semicolon may be used when 
 an example, a quotation, or a speech is introduced; as, "Always 
 remember this ancient maxim; "Know thyself." u The scrip- 
 tures give us an amiable representation of the Deity, in these 
 words: ' God is Jove.'" 
 
 502. RULE 4, The insertion or omission of a conjunction be- 
 fore the concluding member of a sentence, frequently determines 
 the use of the colon or semicolon. When the conjunction is not 
 expressed before the concluding member, the colon is to be usedj 
 but when it is expressed, the semicolon is used; as, "Apply your- 
 self to learning : it will redound to your honor." u Apply your- 
 self to learning; for it will redound to your honor." 
 
$ 88. SYNTAX. 157 
 
 THE PERIOD. 
 
 503. When a sentence is complete, with respect to 
 the construction and the sense intended, a period must 
 be used; as, "God made all things." "By disappoint- 
 ments and trials, the violence of our passions is tamed." 
 " In the varieties of life, we are inured to habits both 
 of the active and the passive virtues." 
 
 504. A period is sometimes inserted between sentences which 
 are connected by conjunctions ; as, " Our position is, that happi- 
 ness does not consist in greatness. JLnd this position we make 
 out by shewing, that even what are supposed to be the peculiar 
 advantages of greatness, the pleasures of ambition and superior- 
 ity, are in reality common to all conditions. But whether the 
 pursuits of ambition are ever wise, whether they contribute more 
 to the happiness or misery of the pursuers, is a different question 5 
 and a question concerning which we may be allowed to entertain 
 great doubt." 
 
 505. The period must be used after all abbrevia- 
 tions; as, "A. D." "M. A." "FoL" 
 
 506. OTHER CHARACTERS USED IN COMPOSITION. 
 
 Interrogation (?) is used when a question is asked. 
 
 Admiration (!) or Exclamation, is used to express any sudden emotion of tho 
 mind. 
 
 Parenthesis ( ) is used to enclose some necessary remark in the body "of another 
 sentence ; commas are now commonly used instead of parentheses 
 
 Apostrophe (') is used in place of a letter left out; as lov'd for loved. 
 
 Caret (A) is used to show that some word is either omitted or interlined. 
 
 Hyphen (-) is used at the end of a line, to show that the rest of the word is at the 
 beginning of the next line. It also connects compound words ; as, Tea* 
 pot ; Father-in-law. 
 
 Section ($) is used to divide a discourse or chapter into portions 
 
 Paragraph (H) is used to denote the beginning of a new subject. 
 
 Crotchets ([ ]) or Brackets, are properly used to enclose a word or phrase inteipo 
 lated for the purpose of explanation, correction, or supplying a deficiency 
 in a sentence quoted or regarded as such, and which did not belong to 
 the original composition; thus, It is said, " The wisest men [and, it 
 might be added, the best too] are not exempt from human frailty.' ' 
 
 Quotation (" ") is used to show that a passage is quoted in the author's words, 
 cr to mark a passage regarded as a quotation. 
 
 Tndex (O"" ) is used to point out any thing remarkable. 
 
 ( is used to connect words which have one common term, or three'ltnes I* 
 M ' I poetry, having the MKM rhyme-, called tho uyleu 
 
 14 
 
158 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 Ellipsis ( ) is used when some letters are omitted; as, K g for King. 
 
 Acute accent (') is used to denote a short syllable; the grave D a long. 
 Breve (*") marks a short vowel or syllable, and the Macron, (-) a long. 
 Dicsresis ( " ) is used to divide a diphthong into two syllables ; as, aerial. 
 Asterisk (*) Obelisk It) Double Dagger (J) and Parallels (||) with small let 
 Urs midfigures, refer to some note on the margin, or at the bottom of tha 
 page. 
 ***) Two or three asterisks denote the omission of some letters in some bold or 
 
 indelicate expression, or some defect in the manuscript. 
 
 Dash ( ) is used to denote abruptness a significant pause an unexpected 
 turn in the sentiment or that the first clause is common to all the rest, 
 as in this definition of a dash. 
 507. ABBREVIATIONS. 
 
 Latin. 
 
 Ante Christum* 
 
 A. C. 
 
 Before Christ 
 
 Artium Baccalaureus 
 Anno Domini 
 
 A. B. 
 A. D. 
 
 Bachelor of Arts (often B. A.) 
 In the year of our Lord 
 
 Artium Magister 
 
 A. M. 
 
 Master of Arts 
 
 Anno Mundi 
 
 A. M. 
 
 In the year of the world 
 
 Ante Meridiem 
 
 A. M. 
 
 In the forenoon 
 
 Anno Urbis Conditce 
 
 A. U. C. 
 
 In the year after the building of the city 
 
 Baccalaureus Divimtatis 
 
 B. D. 
 
 Bachelor of Divinity [ Rome 
 
 Custos Privati Sigilli 
 
 C. P. 9. 
 
 Keeper of the Privy Seal 
 
 Gustos Sigilli 
 
 C. S. 
 
 Keeper of the Seal 
 
 Doctor Divinitatis 
 
 D.D. 
 
 Doctor of Divinity 
 
 Exempli gratia e. g. 
 Regioe Societatis Socius R. S. S. 
 Regice Societatis Antiquario-R. S. A. 
 
 For example 
 Fellow of the Royal Society 
 S.Fellow of the Royal Socie?r ** AWL 
 
 rum Socius 
 
 
 quarics 
 
 Georgius Rex 
 
 G.R. 
 
 George the King 
 
 Id est 
 
 i. e. 
 
 That is 
 
 Jesus Hominum Salvator 
 
 J. H. S. 
 
 Jesus the Saviour of men 
 
 Legum Doctor 
 
 L. L. D. 
 
 Doctor of Laws 
 
 Locus Sigilli 
 
 L. S. 
 
 Place of the Seal 
 
 Messieurs [French] 
 
 Messrs 
 
 Gentlemen 
 
 Medicinae T)octor 
 
 M. D. 
 
 Doctor of Medicine 
 
 Memoriae Sacrum 
 
 M. S. 
 
 Sacred to the Memory (or 3. M.) 
 
 Nota Bene 
 
 N.B. 
 
 Note well : Take notiw 
 
 Post Meridiem 
 
 P. M. 
 
 In the afternoon 
 
 Post Scriptum 
 
 P.S. 
 
 Postscnptjsomothing written afte 
 
 Ultimo 
 
 Ult. 
 
 Last, (mon.*b) 
 
 Et Csetera 
 
 &c. &c. 
 
 And the rest ; and so for'h 
 
 A. Answer, Alexander 
 
 L. C. J. 
 
 Lord Chief Justice 
 
 Acct. Account 
 
 Knt. 
 
 Knight 
 
 Bart. Baronet 
 Bp. Bishop 
 
 K. G. 
 K. B. 
 
 Knight of the Garter 
 Knight of the Bath 
 
 Capt. Captain 
 
 K. C. B. 
 
 Knt. Commander of the Bath 
 
 Col. Colonel 
 
 K. C. 
 
 Knt. of the Crescent 
 
 Cr. Creditor 
 
 K. P. 
 
 Knight of St. Patrick 
 
 Dr. Debtor, Doctor 
 
 K. T. 
 
 Knight of the Thistle 
 
 Do. or Ditto. The same 
 
 MS. a 
 
 Manuscript 
 
 Viz.j Namely 
 
 MSS. 
 
 Manuscripts 
 
 Q. Question, Qusen 
 
 N. S. 
 
 New Style 
 
 R. N. Royal Navy 
 
 O. S. 
 
 Old Style 
 
 Esq. Esquire 
 
 J. p. 
 
 Justice of the Peace 
 
 *The Latin of these Abbreviations is inserted, not to be got by heart, but t* 
 show the etymology of the English; or explain, for instance how P. M. comes to 
 mean Afternoon, & ' 
 
 tContnctetl from 
 
89 SYNTAX. lt>t) 
 
 508. PARAGRAPHS. 
 
 Different subjects, unless they are very short, or very numer- 
 ous, should be separated into paragraphs. 
 
 When one subject is continued to a considerable length, the 
 hifger divisions of it should be put into distinct paragraphs. 
 
 The facts, premises, and conclusions, of a subject, sometimes 
 naturally point out the separations into paragraphs: and each of 
 these, when of great length, will again require subdivisions at 
 the most distinctive parts. 
 
 In cases which require a connected subject to be formed into 
 several paragraphs, a suitable turn of expression, exhibiting the 
 connection of the broken parts, will give beauty and force to the 
 division. 
 
 509. 89. CAPITALS, 
 
 Formerly every noun began with a capital letter, 
 both in writing and hi printing ; but at present only the 
 following words begin with capital letters : 
 
 1. The first word of every book, chapter, letter, 
 note, or other piece of writing. 
 
 2. The first word after a period; also after a note 
 of interrogation, or exclamation, when the sentence be- 
 fore, and the one after it, are independent of each other. 
 
 But if several interrogative or exclamatory sentences arc so connected, that 
 the latter sentences depend on the former, all of them, except the first, may begin 
 with a small letter ; as, " How doth the city sit solitary, that was full of people 
 how are her habitations become as desolate ! how is she become as a widow ! 
 
 3. Proper names, that is, names of persons, places, 
 ships, &c. 
 
 4. The pronoun I, and the interjection 0, are writ- 
 ten in capitals. 
 
 5. The first word of every line in poetry. 
 
 6. The appellations of the Deity ; as, God, Most 
 High, the Almighty, the Supreme Being, &c. 
 
 7. Adjectives derived from the proper names of pla- 
 ces ; as, Grecian, Roman, English, &c. 
 
 8. The first word of a quotation, introduced after a 
 
160 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 90, 91. 
 
 colon ; as, Always remember this ancient maxim : "J 
 thyself." 
 
 When a. quotation is not introduced in the direct form, but follows a comma, the 
 first word must not begin with a capital ; as, Solomon observes, that ' prido 
 goes before destruction.' 
 
 9. Common nouns when personified; as, "Come, gen- 
 tle Spring." 
 
 10. Every substantive and principal word in the ti- 
 tles of books; as, "Euclid's Elements of Geometry;" 
 " Goldsmith's Deserted Village." 
 
 NOTE. Other words, besides the preceding, may begin with capitals, when 
 they are remarkably emphatical, or the principal subject of the composition. 
 
 90. RHETORICAL DIVISIONS OF A DISCOURSE. 
 
 510. The principal parts of a discourse are generally six in 
 number, viz. the Exordium, the Narration, the Proposition, the 
 Confirmation, the Refutation, and the Peroration. 
 
 511. The Exordium, or beginning of a discourse, is the part in 
 which the writer or speaker gives some intimation of his subject, 
 and solicits the favor and attention of his audience or readers. 
 
 512. The Narration is a brief recital of all the facts connected 
 with the case, from beginning to end. 
 
 513. The Proposition is the part in which is given the true 
 state of the question, specifying the points maintained, and those 
 in which the writer or speaker differs from his adversary, 
 
 514. The Confirmation assembles all the proofs and arguments 
 that can be adduced in support of what has been attempted to be 
 established. The stronger begin and end this part, and the weaker 
 are reserved for the middle. 
 
 515. The Refutation is the part in which the writer or speaker 
 answers the arguments and objections of his opponent. 
 
 516. In the Peroration or Conclusion, he sums up the principal 
 arguments, and endeavors to excite the passions of his reader or 
 hearer in his favor. 
 
 $ 91. DIFFERENT KINDS OF COMPOSITION. 
 
 517. All Composition, whether spoken or written, is of two 
 kinds, either Prose or Poetry. 
 
 518. Prose compositions are those in which the thoughts and 
 sentiments are expressed in common and ordinary language. 
 
$ 91. SYNTAX. 161 
 
 519. Poetic compositions are those in which the thoughts and 
 sentiments are expressed by such a selection and arrangement oi 
 words as pleases the ear and captivates the fancy. 
 
 520. Thousands write and speak prose, for one who does so in 
 verse ; yet it is generally allowed that poetic compositions, in all 
 countries, have preceded those of prose. 
 
 521. Compositions, whether in prose or poetry, are divided into 
 different classes, and arranged under various heads. 
 
 I. DIFFERENT KINDS OF PROSE COMPOSITION.' 
 
 522. The different kinds into which prose compositions may be 
 divided, are, Narrative, Letters, Memoirs, History, Biography, 
 Essays, Philosophy, Sermons, Novels, and Speeches or Orations. 
 
 523. NARRATIVE is a plain and simple statement of such facts 
 and occurences as a person may have either seen or heard, and in- 
 cludes in it Voyages and Travels of all descriptions. 
 
 524. LETTERS are those easy and familiar compositions which 
 pass from one person to another, and may be appropriated to every 
 description of subject, though generally relating to the common 
 and ordinary occurrences of life and business. 
 
 525. MEMOIRS consist of loose and familiar records of indivi- 
 duals or nations, without that regularity of method which history 
 and biography require. 
 
 526. HISTORY is a regular account of the past transactions of 
 some particular age or nation, and details chiefly plans of govern- 
 ment, movements of armies, and events of great general interest. 
 
 527. BIOGRAPHY is a particular species of history, and consists 
 oi an account of the birth, death, and most important occurrences 
 in the life of some eminent individual. 
 
 528. ESSAY means trial or attempt, and is a modest term as- 
 sumed at the pleasure of the writer, as the title of almost any 
 species of composition, though it is generally employed to denote 
 such writings as the Spectator, Rambler, etc. 
 
 529. PHILOSOPHY, or Philosophical Compositions are those in 
 which the principles of art and science are inculcated, and the va- 
 rious phenomena of the natural and moral world investigated. 
 
 530. SERMONS are illustrations of some doctrine of Scripture, 
 or exhortations to the practice of some moral and religious duty, 
 enjoined by Christianity. 
 
 531. NOVELS are those compositions which give an account of 
 characters and events that have in reality never existed, but hav* 
 
 14* 
 
163 ^NGLISH GRAMMAR. 91. 
 
 Deen invented or supposed by the author, for the purpose eitner 
 of affording pleasure, or inculcating some important lesson. 
 
 532. SPEECHES AND ORATIONS are those addresses which are 
 made either at the Bar or in Public Assemblies, for the purpose 
 of persuading the hearers of the truth of certain opinions, or lead 
 ing to the adoption of certain modes of action. 
 
 II. DIFFERENT KINDS OF POETRY. 
 
 533. The different kinds into which poetry may be divided, are 
 the Epigram, the Epitaph, the Sonnet-, Pastoral, Didactic, Satiric, 
 Descriptive, Elegiac, Lyric, Dramatic, and Epic, or Heroic poetry. 
 
 534. An EPIGRAM is a short, witty poem, the point or humour 
 of which is brought out in the concluding lines. 
 
 535. An EPITAPH is an inscription on a tombstone, in comme- 
 moration of some departed person. 
 
 536. The SONNET, which is of Italian origin, means a little 
 song, and consists generally of fourteen lines, constructed in a 
 peculiar manner. 
 
 537. PASTORAL POETRY is that which relates to rural life-, though 
 it sometimes assumes the form of a simple song or ballad. 
 
 538. DIDACTIC POETRY is that by which some art or duty is in- 
 culcated , and, though forming a distinct class of itself, yet its 
 characteristics are so general as to extend to .almost every descrip- 
 tion of poetry. 
 
 539. SATIRES are poems intended to ridicule vices and follies, 
 and hold them up to contempt. They have been divided into two 
 classes-, the jocose or ludicrous, and the serious or declamatory. 
 
 540. DESCRIPTIVE POETRY maybe classed under two divisions; 
 that, by which is offered to our view a delineation of nature, or 
 of natural scenery, and that, by which are described the manners, 
 sentiments, and passions of men. 
 
 541. ELEGY was first employed in lamentation for the decease 
 of great persons, or of those who were particularly dear to the 
 writer; but it was afterwards extended in its application, and 
 employed to express the misery of disappointed love, and even at 
 times made the vehicle of moral sentiment. 
 
 542. LYRIC POETRY is such as may be sung or set to music, 
 which both the term orfe, and the epithet lyric, from lyre, a mu- 
 sical instrument, imply. There is the serious and sublime ode, 
 and the familiar and comic vhich, in modern language, is de- 
 nominated the song. 
 
92. SYNTAX. 163 
 
 543. By DRAMATIC POETRY is generally meant a poem in blank 
 verse or rhyme, called a play, and fitted for representation on the 
 stage. It is of two kinds, Tragic and Comic. 
 
 544. An EPIC POEM, is a historical representation or descrip- 
 tion of some great and important action, involving the interests 
 of the whole, or of a large portion, of mankind. 
 
 92. FIGURES. 
 
 545. A FIGURE in grammar, is some deviation 
 from the ordinary form, or construction, or appli- 
 cation of words, in a sentence, for the purpose of 
 greater precision, variety, or elegance of expression. 
 
 546. There are three kinds of Figures; viz. of Ety- 
 mology, of Syntax, and of Rhetoric. The first and 
 the second refer to the form of words, or to their con- 
 struction, the last to their application. 
 
 FIGURES OF ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 547. A Figure of Etymology is a departure from the 
 tosual or simple form of words, merely. 
 
 548. Of these the most important are eight, viz. . 
 A-phar-e-sis, Pros-the-sis, Syn-co-pe, A-poc-o-pe, Par-a- 
 go-ge, Di~ar-e-sis, Syn-ar-e-sis, and Tme-sis. 
 
 1 . dphceresis is the elision of a syllable from the beginning of 
 a word-, as, Against, 'gan, 'bove, 'neath, for against, began % 
 above, beneath. 
 
 2. Prosthesis is the prefixing of a syllable to a word ; as, adown^ 
 agoing, etc., for down, going, etc. 
 
 3. Syncope is the elision of a letter or syllable, usually a short 
 one, from the middle of a word-, as, medicine, spirit, e'en, for 
 medicine, spirit, even. 
 
 4. Apocope is the elision of a letter or syllable from the end of 
 a word-, as, tho^ for though, tW for the. 
 
 5. Paragoge is the annexing of a syllable to the end of a word$ 
 as, deary, for dear. 
 
 6. Diaresis is the division of two concurrent vowels into dif- 
 ferent syllables, usually marked thus ( ) on the second vowel j 
 as, cooperate, atirial. 
 
164 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 92, 
 
 7. Synaresis is the joining of two syllables into one, in either 
 orthography or pronunciation , as, dost, seest, for doest^ segst; or, 
 loved, learned, pronounced in one syllable instead of two, lov-ed, 
 learn-ed. 
 
 8. Tmesis is separating the parts of a compound word by an 
 intervening term-, as, u What time soever ;" " On which side 
 soever;" " To us ward." 
 
 FIGURES OF SYNTAX. 
 
 549. A Figure of Syntax is a deviation from the 
 usual construction of words in a sentence, used for the 
 sake of greater beauty or force. 
 
 550. Of these, the most important are Ellipsis, Pleo- 
 nasm, Syllepsis, Enallage, and Hyperbaton. 
 
 1. Ellipsis is the omission of words necessary to the full con 
 struction of a sentence, but not necessary to convey the idea 
 intended. Such words are said to be understood-, as; " The 
 men, women, and children," for " The men, the women, and the 
 children." 
 
 2. Pleonasm is the using of more words than are necessary to 
 the full construction of a sentence, to give greater force or em 
 phasis to the expression-, as, " The boy, oh! where was he ? " 
 
 3. Syllepsis is an inferior species of personification, by which 
 we conceive the sense of words otherwise than the words import, 
 and construe them according to the sense conceived. Thus, of the 
 sun, we say, " He shines ;" of a ship, " She sails" ( 7. Obs. 2). 
 
 4. Enallage is the use of one part of speech for another, or of 
 one modification of a word for another-, as an adjective for an ad 
 verb, thus-. u They fall successive, and successive rise," for suc- 
 cessively / the use of we and you in the plural, to denote an indi- 
 vidual, etc. ($ 15. Obs. 3-4). 
 
 5. Hyperbaton is the transposition of words and clauses in a 
 sentence, to give variety, force, and vivacity, to the composition j 
 as, " Now come we to the last." " A man he was to all the 
 country dear." " He wanders earth around." 
 
 FIGURES OF RHETORIC. 
 
 551. A Figure of Rhetoric is a deviation from the 
 ordinary application of words in speech, to give anima- 
 
92. SYNTAX. 165 
 
 tion, strength, and'beauty, to the composition. These 
 figures are sometimes called tropes. 
 
 552. Of these, the most important are the following, 
 viz : 
 
 Personification, Hyperbole, Climax, 
 
 Simile, Irony, Exclamation, 
 
 Metaphor, Metonymy, Interrogation, 
 
 Allegory, Synecdoche, Paralepsis, 
 
 Vision, Antithesis, Apostrophe. 
 
 1. Personification, or prosopopoeia, is that figure of speech by 
 which we attribute life and action to inanimate objects-, as, u The 
 sea saw it, and fled." 
 
 2. A simile expresses the resemblance that one object bears to 
 another; as, "He shall be like a tree planted by the rivers of water." 
 
 3. A metaphor is a simile without the sign [like, or as, etc.] 
 of comparison; as, u He shall be a tree planted by," etc. 
 
 4. An allegory is a continuation of several metaphors, so con 
 nected in sense as to form a kind of parable or fable. Thus, the 
 people of Israel are represented under the image of a vine : "Tho 
 hast brought a vine out of Egypt," etc. Ps. Ixxx. 8-16. Of this 
 style are ^Esop's Fables, Bunyan's " Pilgrim's Progress,"- etc. 
 
 5. Vision, or imagery, is a figure by which the speaker repre- 
 sents past events, or the objects of his imagination, as actually 
 present to his senses; as, " Caesar leaves Gaul, crosses the Rubi- 
 con, and enters Italy;" " The combat thickens : on, ye brave!" 
 
 6. An hyperbole is a figure that represents things as greater or 
 less, better or worse, than they really are. Thus, David says of 
 Saul and Jonathan, u They were swifter than eagles, they were 
 stronger than /ions." 
 
 7. Irony is a figure by which we mean quite the contrary of 
 what we say, as, when Elijah said to the worshippers of Baal, 
 u Cry aloud, for he is a god," etc. 
 
 8. A metonymy is a figure by which we put the cause for the 
 effect or the effect for the cause; as, when we say, " He reads 
 Milton;" we mean Milton's works. u Gray hairs should be re- 
 spected;" that is, old age. 
 
 9. Synecdoche is the putting of a part for the whole, or the 
 whole for a part, a definite number for an indefinite, etc. ; as. the 
 
166 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 92 
 
 waves for the sea, the head for the person* and ten thousand for 
 any great number. This figure is nearly allied to metonymy 
 
 10. Antithesis , or contrast , is a figure by which different or 
 contrary objects are contrasted, to make them show one another to 
 advantage. Thus, Solomon contrasts the timidity of the wicked 
 with the courage of the righteous, when he says, " The wicked 
 flee when no man pursueth, but the righteous are bold as a lion." 
 
 11. Climax, or amplification, is the heightening of all the cir- 
 cumstances of an object or action which we wish to place in a 
 strong light-, as, "Who shall separate us from the love of Christ? 
 Shall tribulation, or distress, or persecution, or famine, or na- 
 kedness, or peril, or sword ? Nay," etc. See also Rom. viii. 38, 39. 
 
 12. Exclamation is a figure that is used to express some strong 
 emotion of the mind-, as, " Oh! the depth of the riches both of 
 the wisdom and the knowledge of God!" 
 
 13. Interrogation is a figure by which we express the emotion 
 of our mind, and enliven our discourse, by proposing questions , 
 thus, " Hath the Lord said it ? and shall he not do iff Hath he 
 spoken it ? and shall he not make it good ? " 
 
 14. Paralepsis, or omission, is a figure by which the speaker 
 pretends to conceal what he is really declaring and strongly 
 enforcing-, as, u Horatius was once a very promising young gen- 
 tleman, but in process of time he became so addicted to gaming, 
 not to mention his drunkenness and debauchery, that he soon ex- 
 hausted his estate, and ruined his constitution. 
 
 15. Apostrophe is a turning off from the subject, to address some 
 other person or thing*, as, "Death is swallowed up in victory y 
 O Death, where is thy sting ? " 
 
 POETIC LICENSE. 
 
 553. Besides the deviations from the usual form and construc- 
 tion of words, noted under the figures of Etymology and Syntax, 
 there are still others, which can not be classed under proper 
 heads, and which, from being used mostly in poetic composition, 
 are commonly called poetic licenses. These are such as the fol- 
 lowing 
 
 554. 1. In poetry, words, idioms, and phrases, are 
 often used, which would be inadmissible in prose ; as, 
 
 rt A man he was to all the country dear, 
 And passing rich with forty pounds a year.* 
 
$ 92. SYNTAX. 167 
 
 " By fountain clear, or spangled starlight sheen." 
 44 Shall I receive by gift, what of my own, 
 
 When and where likes me best, I can command 1 ?" 
 44 Thy voice we hear, and thy behests obey." 
 44 The whiles, the vaulted shrine around. 
 
 Seraphic wires were heard to sound." 
 44 On the first friendly bank he throws him down. 11 
 " I'll seek the solitude he sought, 
 
 And stretch me where he lay." 
 4 ' Not Hector's self should want an equal ibe." 
 
 2. More violent and peculiar ellipses are allowable 
 In poetry than in prose ; as, 
 
 41 Suffice^ to-night, these orders to obey." 
 44 Time is our tedious song should here have ending.** 
 C4 For is there aught in sleep can charm the wise?" 
 * 4 'Tt> Fancy, in her fiery car, 
 
 Transports me to the thickest war." 
 44 Who never fasts, no banquet e'er enjoys." 
 44 Bliss is the same in subject as in king, 
 . In who obtain defence, or who defend." 
 
 3. Adjectives in poetry are often elegantly construct- 
 ed with nouns which they do not strictly qualify ; as, 
 
 44 The ploughman homeward plods his weary way. 1 ' 
 
 44 The tenants of the warbling shade." 
 
 14 And drowsy tinklings lull the distant folds." 
 
 4. The rules of grammar are often violated by the 
 poets. A noun and its pronoun are often used in refer- 
 ence to the same verb ; as, 
 
 41 It ceased, the melancholy sound." 
 
 44 My banks they are furnished with bees." 
 
 5. An adverb is often admitted between the verb 
 and t o, the sign of the infinitive ; as, 
 
 41 To sit on rocks, to muse o'er flood and fell j 
 To slowly trace the forest's shady scenes . " 
 
168 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 92. 
 
 6. A common poetic license consists in employing 
 or and nor instead of either and neither; as, 
 
 And first 
 
 Or on the listed plain, or stormy sea." 
 " Nor grief nor fear shall break my rest." 
 
 7. Intransitive verbs are often made transitive, and 
 adjectives used like abstract nouns; as, 
 
 " The lightnings flash a larger curve." 
 
 " Still in harmonious intercourse they lived 
 
 The rural day, and talked the flowing heart." 
 4t Meanwhile, whatever of beautiful or new, 
 
 By chance, or search, was offered to his view, 
 
 He scanned with curious eye." 
 
 8. Greek, Latin, and other foreign idioms, are al- 
 lowable in poetry, though inadmissible in prose ; as, 
 
 41 He knew to sing, and build the lofty rhyme." 
 " Give me to seize rich Nestor's shield of gold." 
 14 There are, who, deaf to mad ambition's call, 
 
 Would shrink to hear the obstreperous trump of farm." 
 44 Yet to their general's voice they all obeyed." 
 
 " Never since created man 
 
 Met ni'.b embodied force." 
 
PART FOURTH. 
 
 PROSODY. 
 
 555. PROSODY treats of Elocution and Versifi- 
 cation > 
 
 93. ELOCUTION. 
 
 556. ELOCUTION is correct pronunciation, or the 
 proper management of the voice in reading or 
 speaking. 
 
 557. In order to read and speak with grace and ef- 
 fect, attention must be paid to the proper pitch of the 
 voice, the accent and quantity of the syllables, and to 
 emphasis, pauses, and tones. 
 
 558. 1. In the PITCH and management of the voice, it should 
 be neither too high nor too low-, it should be distinct and clear , 
 the utterance neither too quick nor too slow, and neither too va- 
 ried nor too monotonous. 
 
 559. 2. ACCENT is the laying of a particular stress of voice 
 on a certain syllable in a word, as the syllable vir- in vir'tue, 
 vir'tuous. 
 
 560. 3. The QUANTITY of a syllable is the relative time which 
 is required to pronounce it. A long syllable, in quantity, is equal 
 to two short ones. Thus, pine, tube, note, require to be sounded 
 as long again as pin, tub, not. In English versification, an ac- 
 cented syllable is long, an unaccented one is short. 
 
 561 . 4. EMPHASIS means that greater stress of the voice which 
 we lay on some particular word or words, in order to mark their 
 superior importance in the sentence, and thereby the better to con- 
 vey the idea intended by the writer or speaker. 
 
 562. 5. PAUSES, or rests, are cessations of the voice, in order 
 to enable the reader or speaker to take breath , and to give the 
 hearer a distinct perception of the meaning, not only of each sen- 
 tence, but of the whole discourse. 
 15 
 
170 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 94. 
 
 563. 6. TONES consist in the modulation of the voice, and the 
 notes, or variations of sound, which we employ in speaking, to 
 express the different sentiments, emotions, or feelings, intended. 
 
 # **AfuJl consideration of these topics, in a work of this kind, would be asim. 
 practicable as it would be out of place, since it would require a volume for that 
 purpose. They are fully treated of and exemplified in works on elocution ; a sub. 
 ject which is, or should be, token up as a separate branch of study. 
 
 94. VERSIFICATION. 
 
 564. VERSIFICATION is the art of arranging words 
 into poetical lines, or verses. 
 
 565. A Verse, or Poetical Line, consists of a certain 
 number of accented and unaccented syllables, arranged 
 according to fixed rules. 
 
 566. A Couplet, or Distich, consists of two lines or 
 verses taken together, whether rhyming with each other 
 or not. A Triplet consists of three lines rhyming to- 
 gether. 
 
 567. A Stanza is a combination of several verses or 
 lines, varying in number according to the poet's fancy 
 and constituting a regular division of a poem or song 
 This is often incorrectly called a verse. 
 
 568. Rhyme is the similarity of sound in the last 
 syllables of two or more lines arranged in a certain 
 order. Poetry, the verses of which have this similarity 
 is sometimes called Rhyme. 
 
 569. Blank Verse is the name given to that species 
 of poetry which is without rhyme. 
 
 FEET. 
 
 570. Feet are the smaller portions into which a line 
 is divided ; each of which consists of two or more syl- 
 lables, combined according to accent. 
 
 571. In English versification, an accented syllable is accounted 
 long ; an unaccented syllable, short. In the following examples, 
 a straight line (-) over a syllable shows that it is accented, and 
 a curved line, or breve ( -), that it is unaccented. 
 
94. PROSODY. 171 
 
 572. Monosyllables, which, when alone, are regarded as with 
 out accent, often receive it when placed in a poetical line, and 
 are long or short, according as they are with or without the ac- 
 cent: thus, 
 
 " T6 rouse him with the spur and rein, 
 With more than rapture's ray." 
 
 In the ancient languages, each syllable has a certain quantity, 
 long or short, independent of accent, for which there are certain 
 definite rules. In this, they differ widely from the English. 
 
 573. Metre, or Measure, is the arrangement of a 
 certain number of poetical feet in a verse or line. 
 
 1. When a line has the proper metre, or number of feet, it is 
 called Acatalectic. 
 
 2. When it is deficient, it is called Catalectic. 
 
 4. When it has a redundant syllable, it is called Hyper cat alectic^ 
 or Hypermeter. 
 
 574. A line consisting of one foot is called manome- 
 ter ; of two, dimeter ; of three, trimeter ; of four, te- 
 trameter ; of five, pentameter ; of six, hexameter ; of 
 seven, heptameter. 
 
 575. Scanning is dividing a verse into the feet of 
 which it is composed. 
 
 576. All feet in poetry are reducible to eight kinds ; 
 four of two syllables, and four of three, as follows : 
 
 I. FEET OF TWO SYLLABLES, 
 
 1. An iambus ~ ; as. defend. 
 
 2. A Trochee ^ ; as, noble. 
 
 3. A Spondee ; as, vain man. 
 
 4. A Pyrrhic - ~ ; as, on a (hill). 
 
 II. FEET OF THREE SYLLABLES. 
 
 1. An Anapaest - - ; as, intercede. 
 
 2. A Dactyl - - - ; as, durable. 
 
 3. An Amphibrach - ~ ; as, abundant. 
 
 4. A Tribach ~ ~ ~ ; as, (to)lerable. 
 
17*2 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 94 
 
 577. Of all these, the principal are the Iambus, Tro- 
 chee, Anapast, and Dactyl. The other four feet are 
 used chiefly in connection with these, in order to give 
 Variety to measure. 
 
 578. A Trochee has the first syllable accented, and the last 
 unaccented-, as, noblP, music. 
 
 579. An Iambus has the first syllable unaccented, and the last 
 accented-, as, adore, defend. 
 
 580. A Spondee has both the words or syllables accented-, as, 
 vain man. 
 
 581. A Pyrrhic has both the words or syllables unaccented-, as, 
 6n a (hill). 
 
 582. A Dactyl has the first syllable accented, and the two last 
 unaccented-, as, vlrtuoHs. 
 
 583. An Amphibrach has the first and the last syllable unac- 
 cented, and the middle one accented-, as, contentment. 
 
 684. An Anapaest has the first two syllables unaccented, and the 
 last one accented ; as, Intercede. 
 
 585. A Tribrach has all its syllables unaccented-, as, nu \ m 
 rabU. 
 
 586. A verse is usually named from the name of the 
 foot which predominates in it ; thus, Iambic, Trochaic, 
 &e. 
 
 I. IAMBIC VERSE. 
 
 587. An Iambic verse consists of iambuses, and 
 consequently has the accent on the second, fourth, sixth, 
 &c. syllable. It has different metres, as follows : 
 
 1. Iambic Manometer. The shortest form of Iambic 
 verse consists of one iambus ; as, 
 How bright 
 The light! 
 
 It sometimes assumes an additional or hypermeter 
 syllable ; as, 
 
 Consent | ing, 
 Repent | ing. 
 
 We have no poem of this measure, but it^is sometimes 
 introduced into stanzas. 
 
94 PROSODY. 173 
 
 2. Iambic Dimeter. The second form of our Iam- 
 bic is also too short to be continued through any num- 
 ber of lines. It consists of two iambuses ; as, 
 
 With Thee | we rise, 
 With Thee j we reign, 
 And em | pires gain 
 Beyond [ the skies. 
 
 This form sometimes assumes an hyp* /meter syllable ; 
 as, 
 
 Upon | a moun | tain, 
 Beside | a foun | tain. 
 
 3. Iambic Trimeter. The third form consists of 
 three iambuses, and is continued onlj for a few lines; as, 
 
 In pla | ces far | Or near, 
 
 Or fa | mous or | Sbscure, 
 
 Where whole | some is | the air, 
 
 Or where [ the most impure. 
 
 This form sometimes admits an additional short sylla- 
 ble ; as, 
 
 Our hearts | no long | er Ian | gulsh. 
 
 4. Iambic Tetrameter. The fourth form may extend 
 through a considerable number of verses ; it consists of 
 four iambuses ; as, 
 
 How sleep | the brave | whS sink | t6 rest, 
 By all their country's wishes blest ! 
 
 This also admits an hypermeter syllable ; as, 
 From house | wife cares | a mi | nute bor | row. 
 
 5. Iambic Pentameter. The fifth species, or Heroic 
 measure, consists of Jive iambuses; as, 
 
 Ye gilt | t'rmg towns, | with wealth | and splen | dour cr5wn'd* 
 Ye fields, where summer spreads profusion round 5 
 Ye lakes, whose vessels catch the busy gale; 
 Ye bending swains, that dress the flow'ry vale. 
 
 This verse without rhyme constitutes the common 
 
 blank verse. Such is Milton's Paradise Lost, 
 
 15* 
 
174 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 94 
 
 The Elegiac Stanza consists of four lines pentameter 
 rhyming alternately ; as, 
 
 The cur | few tolls | the knell | of part | Ing day, 
 
 The lowing herd winds slowly o'er the lea; 
 The ploughman homeward plods his weary way, 
 
 And leaves the world to darkness and to me. 
 This measure frequently admits an additional sylla- 
 ble; as, 
 
 Worth makes | the man, | the* want | 6f It | the fel | low, 
 The rest is nought but leather or pruneUo. 
 
 6. Iambic Hexameter. The sixth form of our Iam- 
 bic is commonly called the Alexandrine measure ; it 
 consists of six iambuses. 
 
 For thou I art but | of dust : be hum | ble and | be* wise. 
 The Alexandrine is sometimes introduced into heroic 
 rhyme, and particularly into stanzas after the manner 
 of Spenser, in Ms " Faery Queen ;" and when used 
 sparingly, and with judgment, occasions an agreeable 
 variety. 
 
 To sit on rocks, to muse o'er flood and fell, 
 
 To slowly trace the forest's shady scene, 
 
 Where things that own not man's dominion dwell, 
 
 And mortal foot hath ne'er, or rarely been; 
 
 To climb the trackless mountain all unseen, 
 
 With the wild flock that never needs a fold ; 
 
 Alone o'er steeps and foaming falls to lean j 
 
 This is not solitude; 'tis but to hold 
 
 Converse \ with Na \ ture^s charms, \ and view \ her store* \ 
 unroWd. 
 
 This also admits an hypermeter syllable ; as, 
 
 The shep j herd him | pursues, | and to I his dog j doth hoi | low. 
 
 7. Iambic Heptameter. The seventh and last form 
 of Iambic verse consists of seven iambuses. 
 
 The" Lord | descend | ed from | above, | and bow'd | thS ha | 
 v6ns high. 
 
$ 94. FROSODT. 175 
 
 This was anciently written in one line ; but it is now 
 divided into two, the first containing four feet, and the 
 second, three ; as, 
 
 Thou didst, | O migh | ty God! | exist | 
 
 Ere time | began | its race-, 
 Before the ample elements 
 
 FilPd up the void of space. 
 
 This is what is called Common Metre. The Short 
 Metre Stanza consists of four lines, of which the first, 
 second and fourth contain three feet, and the third, 
 four. Long Metre has four feet in each line, as above 
 (No, 4). 
 
 II. TROCHAIC VERSE. 
 
 588. Trochaic verse consists of trochees, and con- 
 sequently has the accent on the first, third, fifth, &c. 
 syllable. 
 
 1. Trochaic Monometer. The shortest form consists 
 of one foot ; as, 
 
 Cheering, 
 Veering. 
 
 It sometimes admits an additional long syllable ; as, 
 
 Tumult | cease, 
 Sink to | peace. 
 
 2. Trochaic Dimeter. The next form contains two 
 trochees ; as, 
 
 Wishes | rising, 
 Thoughts sur | prising, 
 Pleasures | courting, 
 Charms trans | porting. 
 Sometimes this form admits an additional syllable ; as. 
 
 In the | days of | old, 
 Stories | plainly | told. - 
 
 3. Trochaic Trimeter. The third species contains 
 three trochees ; as, 
 
 When our | hearts ftre | mourning, 
 
176 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 94 
 
 This form frequently has an additional syllable ; as, 
 
 Vital | spark of | heav'nly | flame t 
 Quit, oh | quit this | mortal \frame! 
 
 4. Trochaic Tetrameter. The fourth form consistf 
 of four trochees ; as, 
 
 Round us | roars the" | tempest | louder. 
 
 This form sometimes assumes an additional syllable; as 
 
 Where the | wood is | waving | green and | high. 
 
 5. Trochaic Pentameter. The fifth species is not 
 very common ; it is composed of Jive trochees ; as, 
 
 All that | walk dn | foot or | ride In | chariots, 
 All that dwell in palaces or garrets. . 
 
 6. Trochaic Hexameter. The sixth and last form 
 consists of six trochees ; as, 
 
 On a | mountain, | stretch'd be | neath a | hoary | willow, 
 Lay a shepherd swain, and viewed the rolling billow. 
 
 Both the fifth and sixth species sometimes take an 
 additional syllable, in which case the line is usually 
 divided into two ; thus, 
 
 5. Hail t6 | thee, blithe | spirit! | bird thou | never | wirt, 
 
 Divided thus, 
 
 Hail to | thee, blithe | spirit! 
 Bird thou | never | wert. 
 <J. Night and | morning | were at | meeting, | over | Wat^r | loo 
 
 Divided thus, 
 
 Night and | morning | were at | meeting, 
 Over | Water | loo. 
 
 III. ANAP^STIC VERSE. 
 
 589. Anapastic verse consists chiefly of anapaests 
 and, when pure, has the accent on every third syllable. 
 
 1. Anap&stic Manometer. This measure consists of 
 one foot; as, 
 
 In a sweet 
 RSsdnance. 
 
94. PROSODY. 177 
 
 2. Anap&stic Dimeter. The second form of Ana- 
 paestic verse consists of two anapaests ; as, 
 
 But his cou | rage, 'gan fail, 
 For no arts | could avail. 
 
 Sometimes this form assumes an additional short 
 syllable; as, 
 
 Then his cou | rage, gan fail | him 
 For no arts could avail him. 
 
 3. Anapastic Trimeter. The third species, much 
 used both in solemn and cheerful subjects, consists of 
 three anapaests, and seldom takes an additional syllable. 
 
 ye woods, | spread your branch | es apace, 
 To your deep | est recess | es I fly, 
 
 1 would hide with the beasts of the chase, 
 I would vanish, from every eye. 
 
 4. Anapastic Tetrameter. The fourth consists of 
 four anapaests ; as, 
 
 May I go | vern my pas | sions with ab | solute sway, 
 And grow wiser and better as life wears away. 
 This form sometimes contains an additional syllable; as. 
 On the warm | cheek of youth, | smiles and ro | ses are 
 blend | Ing. 
 
 IV. DACTYLIC VERSE. 
 
 590. Dactylic verse consists chiefly of dactyls, and 
 has the following varieties : 
 
 1. Dactylic Monometer. This consists of one foot, as, 
 
 Fearfully, 
 Tearfully. 
 This measure takes an additional long syllable, as, 
 
 Over a | mad, 
 Pricking his | steed. 
 
 2. Dactylic Dimeter. This consists of two dactyls; as, 
 
 Free from sa | tlety, 
 Care and an | xiety, 
 Charms in variety 
 Fall to his | share. 
 
178 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 94. 
 
 The same with an additional long syllable ; as, 
 
 Cover'd with | snow was the | vale ; 
 Sad was the | shriek of the ] gale. 
 
 3. Dactylic Trimeter. This form consists of three 
 dactyls ; as, 
 
 Wearing a | way In his | youthfulness, 
 Loveliness, | beauty and | truthfulness. 
 This also may have an additional long syllable ; as, 
 
 Weary and | worn, she has | waited fftr | years, 
 Keeping her | grief ever | green with her | tears. 
 Dactylic Tetrameter, Pentameter, and Hexameter, 
 are seldom used ; when used, they are constructed by 
 making the line consist of four, Jive, or six dactylic feet. 
 In Dactylic verse the last foot is not always a dactyl, 
 a trochee being often used instead of it, and sometimes 
 a single long syllable, making a hypermeter line in dac- 
 tylic stanzas, as in the following : 
 Faster come, | faster come, 
 
 Faster and j faster-, 
 Chief vassal, | page and groom, 
 
 Tenant and | master. 
 Peace to the | Isle of the | ocean, 
 Peace to thy | breezes and | billows. 
 Hail to the | Chief who In | triumph ad | Vance's ! 
 Honored and | bless'd be the | ever-green | pine! 
 Long may the | tree In his | banner that | glances, 
 Flourish the | shelter and | grace of our | line. 
 
 591. The following is an example of dactyls and 
 spondees alternately : 
 
 Green in the | wildwood, | proudly the | tall tree | looks on th 
 | brown plain. 
 
 The following is an example of pure dactylic hexa- 
 meter : 
 
 OvSr th6 | vallSy, with | speed like the j wind, fill thS I 
 steeds wSro a | galloping. 
 
94 PROSODY 179 
 
 MIXED VERSES. 
 
 592. The preceding are the different kinds 'of the 
 principal feet, in their simple forms. They are capable 
 of numerous variations, by the intermixture of those 
 feet with one another, and by the admission of the se- 
 condary feet, as will be seen by the following examples 
 
 THE PYBRHIC MIXED WITH THE IAMBIC. 
 
 And td [ the" dead | my will | Ing soul | shall go. 
 
 THE SPONDEE WITH THE IAMBIC. 
 
 Forbear | great man, | in arms | renown'd, | fSrbear. 
 
 THE TROCHEE WITH THE IAMBIC. 
 
 Tyrant | and slave, | those names | of hate | and fear. 
 
 THE FOLLOWING CONSISTS OF AN IAMBIC AND TWO ANAPJSSTS. 
 
 My sor | rows I then | might assuage 
 
 In the ways | of reli | gion and truth ; 
 Might learn | from the wis | dom of age, 
 
 And be cheerM | by the sal | lies of youth. 
 
 A pleasing movement is produced by intermingling 
 iambuses and anapasts, as in the following lines : 
 " Ye may trace | my steps | o'er the wa | kenlng earth, 
 By th6 winds | which tell | of the vl | olet.'s birth, 
 By the prim | rose stars | of the sha | dowy grass, 
 By the green | leaves o | pening | as I pass." 
 
 V. OF BLANK VERSE. 
 
 593. Our blank verse maybe reckoned a noble, bold 
 and unencumbered species of versification, and in se- 
 veral cases it possesses many advantages over rhyme 
 It allows the lines to run into one another with perfect 
 freedom ; hence it is adapted to subjects of dignity and 
 force, which demand more free and manly numbers 
 than can be obtained in rhyme. Blank verse is written 
 in the heroic measure, consisting of ten syllables. The 
 principal poets in this species of composition are Mil- 
 ton, Thomson, Armstrong, Akenside, Cowper, and 
 Pollok. 
 
180 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 95 
 
 95. COMPOSITION. 
 
 594 . COMPOSITION is the art of expressing our senti- 
 ments in spoken or written language. It is of two 
 kinds, Prose and Poetry. 
 
 595. Prose compositions are those in which the thoughts are 
 expressed in the natural order, in common and ordinary language. 
 
 596. Poetic compositions are those in which the thoughts and 
 sentiments are expressed in measured verse, in loftier and more 
 inverted style, by words and figures selected and arranged so as 
 to please the ear, and captivate the fancy. 
 
 597. In both of these, speech or discourse is either direct or 
 indirect. 
 
 598. Direct discourse is that in which a writer or speaker de- 
 livers his own sentiments. 
 
 599. Indirect or oblique discourse is that in which a person re- 
 lates, in his own language, what another speaker or writer said. 
 
 BOO. In theirs?, when the speaker refers to himself, he uses 
 the first person /or we. When he refers to the person or per- 
 sons addressed, he uses the second person thou, you, etc. 
 
 601. In the second or indirect discourse, whether the speaker 
 is reported as referring to himself, or to those whom headdresses, 
 the third person is used in either case-, as, he, she, they, etc. An 
 example will best illustrate the distinction ; thus : 
 
 DIRECT DISCOURSE. 
 
 602. Then Paul stood in the midst of Mars-hill and said: u Ye 
 men of Athens, I perceive that in all things ye are too supersti- 
 tious-, for as I passed by and beheld your devotions, I found an 
 altar with this inscription-. c To THE UNKNOWN GOD.' Whom, 
 therefore, ye ignorantly worship, him declare I unto you." 
 
 INDIRECT DISCOURSE. 
 
 603. The same, reported in indirect or oblique discourse, would 
 run thus-. 
 
 Then Paul, standing on Mars-hill, told the men of Athens he 
 perceived that : a all things they were too superstitious -, for as 
 he passed by and beheld their devotions, he found an altar with 
 this inscription: " To THE UNKNOWN GOD." Whom, therefore, 
 they ignorantly worshipped, him declared he unto them. 
 
 604. When the reporter, the speaker reported, and the person 
 or persons addressed, are different in gender or number, there is 
 no danger of ambiguity. But when in these respects they are 
 the same, ambiguity is unavoidable, from the same pronoun 
 being used in the progress of discourse, to designate different 
 persons. Hence, to prevent mistakes, it is often necessary to 
 insert the name or designation of the person meant by the pro- 
 noun An example will best illustrate this also 
 
9.^. COMPOSITION. 181 
 
 " Then the son went to his father and said to him, [direct] l I 
 have sinned against Heaven and in thy sight/ " 
 
 u Then the son went to his father and said to him, [indirect] 
 that he [the son] had sinned against Heaven and in his [his fa- 
 ther's] sight." 
 
 It will at once be perceived, that, without the words enclosed 
 in brackets, for explanation, it would be impossible to tell whe- 
 ther by the word he, the father or the son was intended-, so also 
 with respect to the word 'his. Hence, when by the indirect dis- 
 course, ambiguity is unavoidable, it is generally better to have 
 recourse to the direct form, and quote the writer's or speaker's 
 own words, as in (G02). 
 
 605. The principal kinds of prose compositions are, 
 narrative, letters, memoirs, history, biography, essays, 
 philosophy, sermons, novels, speeches, and orations. 
 
 606. The principal kinds of poetical compositions 
 are, the epigram, the epitaph, the sonnet, pastoral poe- 
 try, didactic poetry, satires, descriptive poetry, elegy, 
 lyric poetry, dramatic poetry, and epic poetry [ 91]. 
 
 THE USE OF GRAMMAR IN COMPOSITION. 
 
 607. To speak and write with propriety, in every species of 
 composition, is an attainment of no small importance-, and to 
 lead to this attainment is the business of grammar. The grammar 
 of a language is just a compilation of rules and directions, agreea- 
 bly to which that language is spoken or written. These rules, 
 however, are not the invention of the grammarian, nor dependent 
 on his authority for their validity. As it is the business of the 
 philosopher, not to make a law of Nature, nor to dictate how her 
 operations should be performed, but, by close observation, to as- 
 certain what those laws are, and to state them for the information 
 of others-, so the business of the grammarian is, not to make the 
 laws of language, for language is before grammar, but to observe 
 and note those principles, and forms, and modes of speech, by 
 which men are accustomed to express their sentiments, and to 
 arrange the results of his observation into a system of rules for 
 the guidance and assistance of others. It is obvious, then, that 
 the ultimate principle or test to which the rules laid down by the 
 grammarian must conform, is THE BEST USAGE. 
 
 608. Hence, when the inquiry is whether a particular word or 
 form of speech is right, is good English, the only question to be 
 decided is, " Is it according to the best usage V" On this subject, 
 however, it has been made a question, "What is the best usage?" 
 The following sentiments, abridged from Dr. Crombie's work on 
 English Etymology and Syntax, seem to be just and compre- 
 hensive of this whole subject. 
 
 16 
 
182 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, $ 95 
 
 THE LAW OF LANGUAGE. 
 
 609. First. The USAGE which gives law to language, in order 
 to establish its authority, or to entitle its suffrage to our assent, 
 must be reputable ; by which is meant, not the usage of the court, 
 nor great men, nor merely scientific men, but of those whose 
 works are esteemed by the public^ and who may therefore be de- 
 nominated reputable authors. 
 
 610. Secondly. This usage must be national. It must not be 
 confined to this or that province or district. "Those," to use 
 CampbelPs apposite similitude, "who deviate from the beaten 
 road may be incomparably more numerous than those who travel 
 in it , yet, into whatever number of by-paths the former may be 
 divided, there may not be found in any one of these tracks so many 
 as travel in the king's highway." 
 
 611. Thirdly. This usage must be present. It is difficult to fix 
 with any precision what usage may in all cases be deemed pre- 
 sent. It is perhaps in this respect different with different com- 
 positions. In general, words and forms of speech, which have 
 been long disused, should not be employed. And so, on the con- 
 trary, the usage of the present day is not implicitly to be adop- 
 ted. Mankind are fond of novelty, and there is a -fashion in lan- 
 guage as there is in dress. Whim, vanity, and affectation, de- 
 light in creating new words, and using new forms of phraseology. 
 Now, to adopt every new-fangled upstart at its birth, would ar- 
 gue, not taste, nor judgment, but childish fondness for singularity 
 and novelty. But should any of these maintain its ground, and 
 receive the sanction of reputable usage, it must in that case be 
 received, 
 
 612. The usage, then, which gives law to language, and which 
 is generally denominated good usage, must be reputable, national, 
 and present. It happens, however, that " good usage'* is not 
 always uniform in her decisions, and that in unquestionable au- 
 thorities are found far different modes of expression. In such 
 cases, the following CANONS, proposed by Dr. Campbell, will 
 be of service in enabling to decide to which phraseology the pre- 
 ference ought to be given. They are given nearly in the w r ordg 
 of the author-. 
 
 613. CANON 1. Wlien the use is divided as to any 
 particular words or phrases, and when one of the ex- 
 pressions is susceptible of a different meaning, while 
 the other adraits of only one signification, the expression 
 which is strictly univocal should be preferred. 
 
 614. CANON 2. In doubtful cases, analogy should 
 be regarded. 
 
 615. CANON 3, When expressions are in other re- 
 
$ 95. COMPOSITION. !83 
 
 spects equal, that should be preferred which is most 
 agreeable to the ear. 
 
 616. CANON 4. When none of the preceding rules 
 takes place, regard should be had to simplicity. 
 
 617. But though no expression or mode of speech can be jus- 
 tified which is not sanctioned by usage, yet the converse does riot 
 follow, that every phraseology sanctioned by usage should be re- 
 tained. In many such cases, custom may properly be checked 
 by criticism." whose province it is, not only to remonstrate against 
 the introduction of any word or phraseology which may be either 
 unnecessary or contrary to analogy, but also to exclude whateve* 
 is reprehensible, though in general use. It is by this, her prero* 
 gative, that languages are gradually refined and improved. In 
 exercising this authority, she can not pretend to degrade, in- 
 stantly, any phraseology which she may deem objectionable 5 but 
 she may, by repeated remonstrances, gradually effect its dis- 
 mission. Her decisions in such cases may be properly regulated 
 oy the following rules, laid down by the same author: 
 
 618. RULE 1. All words and phrases, particularly 
 harsh and not absolutely necessary, should be dismissed. 
 
 619. RULE 2. When the etymology plainly points 
 to a different signification from what the word bears, 
 propriety and simplicity require its dismission. 
 
 620. RULE 3. When words become obsolete, or are 
 never used but in particular phrases, they should be 
 repudiated, as they give the style an air of vulgarity 
 and cant, when this general disuse renders them obscure. 
 
 621. RULE 4. All words and phrases which, analy- 
 zed grammatically, include a solecism, should be. dis- 
 missed. * 
 
 622. RULE 5. All expressions which, according to 
 the established rules of language, either have no mean- 
 ing, or involve a contradiction, or, according to the fair 
 construction of the words, convey a meaning different 
 from the intention of the speaker, should be dismissed. 
 
 623. In order to write any language with grammatical purity 
 three things are required-. 
 
 1. That the words be all of that language. The violation of 
 this rule is called a barbarism. 
 
184 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 96 
 
 2. That they be construed and arranged according to the rules 
 of srntax in that language. A violation of this rule is called a 
 solttism. 
 
 3. That they be employed in that sense which usage has an- 
 nexed to them. A violation of this rule is called impropriety. 
 
 624. A barbarism is an offence against lexicography. The 
 solecism is an offence against the rules of syntax , and the impro- 
 priety is an offence against lexicography, by mistaking the mean- 
 ing of words and phrases. 
 
 $ 96. HINTS FOR CORRECT AND ELEGANT WRITING 
 
 625. Correct and elegant writing depends partly upon 
 the choice of words, and partly upon the form and 
 structure of sentences. 
 
 I. In so far as respects single words, the chief things 
 to he observed, are Purity, Propriety, and Precision. 
 
 PURITY. 
 
 626. Purity consists in the rejection of such words and phrases 
 as are not strictly English, nor in accordance with the practice 
 of good writers and speakers. 
 
 1. Avoid fo.eign words and modes of expression , as, Fraicheur, 
 politesse ; he repents him of his folly. 
 
 2. Avoid obsolete and unauthorized words; as, Albeit, afore- 
 time, inspectator. judgmatical. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 The person is without encumberment. In the country, we 
 associate with none but the bettermost sort of people. Snails 
 exclude their horns, aud therewith explorate their way. Me- 
 thinks till now I never heard a sound more dreary. We walked 
 adown the river side. Peradveiiture he may call to-morrow. He 
 is a very impopular speaker. I like his great candidness of 
 temper. 
 
 PROPRIETY. 
 
 627. Propriety consists in the use of such words as are best 
 tdapted to express our meaning. 
 
 1. Avoid low and provincial expressions-, as, to get into a scrape. 
 
 2. In writing prose, reject words that are merely poetical j as, 
 this morn ; the celestial orbs. 
 
 3. Avoid technical terms, unless you write to those who per- 
 fectly understand them. 
 
 4. Do not use the same word too frequently, or in different 
 senses-, as, the king communicated his intention to the minister, 
 who disclosed it to the secretary, who made it known to the pub- 
 lic-, His own reason might have suggested better reasons. 
 
 5. Supply words that are wanting, and necessary to complete 
 th sense-, thus, instead of " this action increased his former ser- 
 
96. COMPOSITION. 185 
 
 vices," say, this action increased the merit of his former services. 
 
 6. Avoid equivocal or ambiguous expressions-, as, his memory 
 shall be lost on the earth. 
 
 7. Avoid unintelligible and inconsistent expressions , as, I have 
 an opaque idea of what you mean. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 The composure of this psalm is attributed to David. They will 
 meet at eve. Regard should be paid to the pupils' intended avo- 
 cations. The observation of the Sabbath is incumbent upon every 
 Christian. The negligence of this leaves us exposed to uncom- 
 mon levity. He put an end to his own existence. I propose to 
 give a general view of the subject. I wonder if he will COTIC. 
 He feels none of the sorrows that usually arrive at man. War 
 should be so managed as to remember that its only end is peace. 
 When Johnson was ill, he composed a prayer to deprecate God's 
 mercy. There are both more and more important truths. He 
 lives in a lone cottage. The Latin tongue in its purity was ne- 
 ver in Britain. Imprudent associations disqualify us for the in- 
 struction or reproof of others. 
 
 PRECISION. 
 
 628. Precision rejects the superfluous words. 
 
 1. Avoid tautology-, as, u his faithfulness and fidelity were un 
 equalled." 
 
 2. Observe the exact meaning of words accounted synonymous, 
 thus, instead of, " though his actions and intentions were good, he 
 lost his character;" say u he lost his reputation." 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 I took some wine and some water, and mixed them both to- 
 gether. He wandered throughout the whole city. They abhorred 
 and detested being in debt. This man, on all occasions, treated 
 those around him with great haughtiness and disdain. His wealth 
 and riches being collected and accumulated in meanness, were 
 squandered in riot and extravagance. Such conduct showed a 
 marked and obvious intention to deceive and abuse us. He had 
 proceeded but a short way on his journey, when he returned home 
 again. 
 
 II. With respect to sentences, Clearness, Unity, 
 Strength, and a proper application of the Figures of 
 Speech, are necessary. 
 
 CLEARNESS. 
 
 629. Clearness demands a proper arrangement of words. 
 
 1. Adverbs, relative pronouns, and explanatory phrases, must 
 be placed as near as possible to the words which they affect, and 
 in such a situation as the sense requires. 
 
 2. In prose, a poetic collocation must be avoided. 
 
 3. Pronouns must be so used as clearly to indicate the word 
 for which they stand. , * 
 
186 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 96. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 By the articles subsisting^between us, on the day of marriage, 
 you agreed to pay down the sum of eight thousand pounds. Not 
 to exasperate him, I only spoke a very few words. It has not a 
 word, says Pope, but what the author religiously thinks in it. It 
 is true what he says, but it is not applicable to the point. Had 
 he died before, would not then this art have been wholly unknown? 
 Most nations, not even excepting the Jews, were prone to idolatry. 
 He will soon weary the company, who is himself wearied. 
 
 UNITY. 
 
 630. Unity retains one predominant object through a sentence, 
 or a series of clauses. 
 
 1. Separate into distinct sentences, such clauses as have no im- 
 mediate connection. 
 
 2. The principal words must, throughout a sentence, be the 
 most prominent 5 and the leading nominative should, if possible, 
 be the subject of every clause. 
 
 3. Avoid the introduction of parentheses, except when a lively 
 remark may be thrown in, without too long suspending the sense 
 of what goes before . 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 Desires or pleasure usher in temptation, and the growth of dis- 
 orderly passions is forwarded. The notions of Lord Sunderland 
 were always good, but he was a man of great expense. A short 
 time after this injury, he came to himself-, and the next day they 
 put him on board a ship, which conveyed him first to Corinth, and 
 thence to the island of ^Egina. He who performs every employ- 
 ment in its due place and season, suffers no part of time to escape 
 without profit-, and thus his days become multiplied, and much 
 of life is enjoyed in little space. Never delay till to-morrow, (for 
 to-morrow is not yours -, and though you should live to enjoy it, 
 you must not overload it with a burden not its own,) what reason 
 and conscience tell you ought to be performed to-day. 
 
 STRENGTH. 
 
 631. Strength gives to every word and every member its due 
 importance. 
 
 1. Avoid tautology, and reject all superfluous words and mem- 
 bers. In the following sentence, the word printed in italics should 
 be omitted; ''''being conscious of his own integrity, he disdained 
 submission." 
 
 2. Place the most important words in the situation in which 
 they will make the strongest impression. 
 
 3. A weaker assertion should not follow a stronger; and when 
 the sentence consists of two members, the longer should be the 
 concluding one. 
 
 4. When two things are compared or contrasted with each other, 
 where either resemblance or opposition is to be expressed, some 
 resemblance in the language and construction should be preserved. 
 
^ 96. COMPOSITION. 187 
 
 5. A sentence should not be concluded with a preposition, 01 
 any inconsiderable word or phrase, unless it be emphatic. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 It is six months ago, since I paid a visit to my relations . Sus- 
 pend your censure so long, till your judgment be wisely formed. 
 The reason why he spoke as he did, he never explained. If I 
 mistake not, I think he has made great improvement since I last 
 saw him. Those two gentleman appear both to be foreigners. I 
 fear this is the last time that we shall ever meet. How m-any are 
 there, by whom these tidings of good news were never heard. 
 This measure may afford some profit, and furnish some amuse- 
 ment. Thought and language act and re-act mutually upon each 
 other. Sinful pleasures blast the opening prospects of human 
 felicity, and degrade human honor. Generosity is a splendid vir- 
 tue, which many persons are very fond of ? As no one is without 
 his failings, so few want good qualities. 
 
 632. FIGURES OF SPEECH. 
 
 1. Figurative language must be used sparingly, and never, ex- 
 cept when it serves to illustrate or enforce what is said. 
 
 2. Figures of speech, when used, should be such as appear na- 
 tural, not remote or foreign from the subject, and not pursued toe 
 far. 
 
 3. Literal and figurative language ought never to be blended 
 together. 
 
 4. When figurative language is used, the same figure should be 
 preserved throughout, and different figures never jumbled together. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 No human happiness is so serene as not to contain some alloy. 
 I intend to make use of these words in the thread of my specula- 
 tions. Hope, the balm of life, darts a ray of light through the 
 thickest gloom. Let us keep our mouths with a bridle, and steer 
 our vessel so as to avoid the rocks and shoals which meet us at 
 every step. We are all embarked on a troubled sea, and every 
 step of our journey brings us into new perils. Let us keep alive 
 the flame of devotion in the soul, and not suffer our minds to sink 
 into utter indifference about spiritual matters. 
 
 TRANSPOSITION AND VARIETY OF EXPRESSION. 
 
 633. As a preparatory step to the important business of com- 
 position, the pupil, after he has acquired a knowledge of gram- 
 mar, may be exercised with great advantage upon the transpo 
 sition of words and members in sentences, so as to try in how 
 many different ways the same thought or sentiment may be ex 
 pressed. This will give him a considerable command of lan- 
 guage, and prove, at the same lime, a source of considerable 
 mental cultivation. It is often necessary to give an entirely new 
 turn to an expression, before a sentence can be rendered elegant 
 jr even perspicuous. 
 
188 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 96 
 
 There are chiefly four ways in which the mode of expressing & 
 thought may be varied. 
 
 1. By changing an active into a passive, or a passive into an 
 active verb-, as, The sun dissolves the snow, The snow is dis- 
 tolved by the sun. 
 
 2. By inversions or transpositions, which consist in changing 
 the order in which the words stand in the sentence-, as, Compe- 
 tence may be acquired by industry, By industry, competence may 
 be acquired. 
 
 3. By changing an affirmative into a negative, or a negative 
 into an affirmative, of an entirely contrary character; as, Virtue 
 promotes happiness-, Virtue does not promote misery. 
 
 4. By either a partial or an entire change of the words em- 
 ployed to express any sentiment-, as, Diligence and application 
 are the best means of improvement -, Nothing promotes improve 
 ment like diligence and application. 
 
 EXERCISES ON TRANSPOSITION. 
 
 The Roman state evidently declined, in proportion to the in- 
 crease of luxury. I am willing to remit all that is past, provided 
 it can be done with safety. A good man has respect to the feel- 
 ings of others in all that he says or does. Bravely to contend for 
 a good cause is noble-, silently to suffer for it, is heroic. Provided 
 he is himself in comfortable circumstances, the selfish man has 
 no concern about the circumstances of others. The man who can 
 make light of the sufferings of others, is himself entitled to no 
 compassion. Sloth is one of man's deadliest enemies. He who 
 made light spring from primeval darkness, will, at last, make 
 order rise from the seeming confusion of the world. 
 
 EXAMPLE OF TRANSPOSITION. 
 
 The Roman state evidently declined, in proportion to the in- 
 crease of luxury. In proportion to the increase of luxury, the 
 Roman state evidently declined. The Roman state, in proper- 
 tion to the increase of luxury, evidently declined. 
 
 EXERCISES ON VARIETY OF EXPRESSION. 
 
 His conduct was less praiseworthy than his sister's. It is 
 better to be moved by false glory, than not to be moved at all. I 
 shall attend the meeting, if I can do it with convenience. He 
 who improves in modesty, as he improves in knowledge, has an 
 undoubted claim to greatness of mind. The spirit of true religion 
 breathes gentleness and affability. There is no such obstacle to 
 the attainment of excellence, as the power of producing, with 
 facility, what is tolerably good. Industry is not only the in- 
 strument of improvement, but the foundation of pleasure. A wolf, 
 let into the sheep-fold, will devour the sheep. 
 
 EXAMPLE OF VARIETY OF EXPRESSION. 
 
 His conduct was less praiseworthy than his sister's. His sis- 
 ter's conduct was more praiseworthy than his. His sister's mode 
 
96. (COMPOSITION. 189 
 
 of acting was entitled to more praise than his. His conduct waa 
 less entitled to praise, than that of his sister, etc. 
 
 Another exercise, not destitute of utility as a foundation for 
 composition, consists in giving the pupil, especially if very young 
 a list of words, with directions to form from them such sentences 
 as shall contain these words. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 Construct a number of such sentences as shall each contain one 
 or more of the following words : Contentment, behavior, conside- 
 ration, elevation, distance, application, respect, duty, intercourse 
 evidence, social, bereavement, nonsensical, absurdity, elucidate 
 consternation, temperance, luxury, disarm, expatiate, etc. 
 
 LETTERS. 
 
 634. One of the simplest and yet most useful species of compo- 
 sition, is letter-writing. This species of composition may oa 
 practised either by way of real correspondence between those pur- 
 suing the same studies, or it may consist of letters written to 
 imaginary correspondents. The following are a few topics adap- 
 ted to compositions of this latter kind: 
 
 Letter 1st. Write to a friend at a distance. State to him the 
 object of your writing. Tell him what studies you are pursuing, 
 and how you like them. Mention how yourself and friends are. 
 Give an account of some of the changes which have lately been 
 made, or are now making in your neighborhood ; and conclude by 
 expressing a desire either to see him, or hear from him soon. 
 
 Letter 2d. Write to a companion an account of a long walk 
 which you lately had. Tell him whether you were alone or in 
 company. Mention what particular things struck you by the 
 way , and enumerate all the incidents that occurred of any mo- 
 ment. 
 
 Letter 3d. Write to a friend who is supposed to have sent you 
 a present of books, and thank him for such kindness. Tell him 
 the use you intend to make of them; and inform him to what 
 particular books you are most partial. Conclude by giving some 
 account of those you have lately been reading, and how you like 
 them. 
 
 Letter 4th. Write to a friend supposed to be going abroad. 
 Describe to him how you would feel if called to leave your friends 
 and your native country. Express your regret at losing him, 
 but state your hope that you will not forget each other when seas 
 roll between you. Request him to write to you frequently-, and 
 advise him to be careful about his health, and of the society he 
 keeps. 
 
 Letter 5th. Write to a friend at a distance-, and give him an ac- 
 count of a sail which you lately had in a steam-boat. Mention 
 
190 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 96 
 
 what places you visited -, and state the objects that most delighted 
 you. Tell him how long you were away, what sort of weather 
 you had, and what were your feelings upon returning home. 
 
 Letter 6th. Write to a friend an account of the church you were 
 at last Sabbath. Tell who preached-, mention the psalms or 
 hymns that were sung-, and the portions of Scripture that were 
 read. State the texts from which the minister preached-, and 
 give your opinion of the different sermons. 
 
 These have been given as mere specimens of the subjects upoa 
 which the student, who has acquired a knowledge of grammar, 
 may be required to write. The prudent and skilful teacher will 
 be enabled to multiply and vary them at pleasure, and to any extent. 
 
 REPRODUCTION. 
 
 635. Another method of exercising the minds of pupils in com- 
 position, consists in reading some simple story or narrative, till 
 such time as they are acquainted with the facts, and then direct 
 ing them to express these in their own words. A still further, 
 and perhaps even a simpler method, is, to take advantage of a 
 young person's having given some account of what he has either 
 seen, heard, or read, and desire him to commit to writing what 
 he has stated orally. 
 
 THEMES. 
 
 636. The next step in composition is the writing of regular 
 themes. The subject, however, should always be such as is not 
 above the capacity of the person who is desired to compose-, for, if 
 it is, the whole benefit resulting from the exercise will be nulli- 
 fied. 
 
 A theme is a regular set subject upon which a person is requir- 
 ed to write -, or the dissertation that has been written upon such 
 a subject. Some of the simplest subjects for themes are those 
 draw r n from natural history, or natural philosophy. At all events 
 they should not, in the first instance, be drawn from subjects of 
 an abstruse and abstract character. 
 
 637. The following may serve as specimens in this department: 
 Theme 1st. The horse. 1. Describe what sort of animal the 
 
 horse is. 2. Tell some of the different kinds. 3. Mention the 
 various ways in which this noble animal is serviceable to man. 
 4. State what would be the consequence of wanting him. 5. 
 Mention the treatment to which he is entitled, and the cruelty of 
 ill-using such a creature. 
 
 Write themes on the cow, the dog, the sheep, and upon poultry , 
 and follow the same plan as that which you followed in writing 
 upon the horse. 
 
 Theme 2d. The sun. 1. Begin by stating what the sun is. 2. 
 Tell all you know of its size, figure, and distance from our earth. 
 3. Mention the effect it has upon the earth, and the benefits we 
 
$ 96. COMPOSITION. 191 
 
 derive from it. 4. State what would be the consequence if the 
 sun were extinguished , and what our feelings ought to he toward 
 the Supreme Being, for such an object. 
 
 Write themes upon the moon, the stars, fire, air, and water; 
 and in all, follow the same plan. 
 
 Theme 3d. Day and night. 1. Tell what you mean by day 
 and~ftight. 2. State whether they are always alike long; and 
 what is the advantage arising from their length being different 
 at different seasons. 3. Mention the different purposes for which 
 they are adapted. 4. Say of what the continued succession of 
 day and night is fitted to remind us, and how this should lead us 
 to act. 
 
 Write themes upon the different seasons, and upon mountains, 
 rivers, and the tides of the sea-, and follow a similar plan in all. 
 
 Theme 4th. On Composition. 1. Explain what you mean by 
 this term. 2. Point out the necessity of studying this art, by 
 showing how much it contributes to add to the value of one's 
 knowledge. 3. Mention what is necessary to fit one for compos- 
 ing well. 4. State the means by which skill in this art is to be 
 obtained. 
 
 Theme 5th. On Company. 1. Explain what you mean by 
 company. 2. Show how natural it is for man to seek society, 
 3. State the danger of keeping either too much company, or of 
 keeping bad company. 4. Point out the advantages of good com 
 pany. 
 
 Write themes upon Conversation, Study, Improvement of Time, 
 Choice of Books, Memory, the different Organs of Sense, etc. , and 
 in all follow the same method as you did in writing on Company. 
 
 Theme 6th. Narratives. Describe the place or scene of the 
 actions related the persons concerned in the time posture of 
 affairs state of mind, motives, ends, etc. of the actors-, results. 
 
 Y/rite themes upon The discovery of America. The French 
 War. The Revolutionary War. The Battle of Bunker Hill. 
 The French Revolution. 
 
 Theme 1th. Dissertations on remarkable events in sacred or 
 profane history The place the origin the circumstances re- 
 sults moral influence, etc. 
 
 Following this or a similar arrangement of parts, write a com- 
 position on The Creation Death of Abel The Deluge The 
 World after the Flood The Tower of Babel The Israelites in 
 Egypt Their deliverance from it The giving of the law from 
 Sinai The Advent of the Messiah, his death, resurrection 
 Destruction of Jerusalem, etc. The Siege of Troy Rise and 
 Fall of the Roman Empire The Crusades The Burning of Mos- 
 cowThe Battle of Waterloo The Death of Bonaparte, etc. 
 
 Theme 8th. Give an account of some of the most distinguished 
 characters in different ages of the World Warriors, Statesmen, 
 
192 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 96 
 
 J 
 
 Artists, Philosophers, Poets, Orators, Divines, Philanthropists 5 
 mentioning what is known respecting their country, parentage, 
 education, character, principles, exploits, influence on society for 
 good or evil, death. 
 
 638. The following iist of themes is selected from Parker's 
 Exercises in Composition. 
 
 1. On Attention, 
 
 26. 
 
 On Fortune, 
 
 51. 
 
 On Ocean, 
 
 2. " Adversity, 
 
 27. 
 
 4; Fear, 
 
 52. 
 
 " Pride, 
 
 3. " Ardor of mind. 
 
 28. 
 
 " Forgiveness, 
 
 53. 
 
 " Party Spirit, 
 
 4. " Art, 
 
 29. 
 
 '* Government, 
 
 54. 
 
 " Poverty, 
 
 5. " Attachment, 
 
 30. 
 
 11 Grammar, 
 
 55. 
 
 " Principle, 
 
 6. " Anger, 
 
 31. 
 
 " Greatness, true, 
 
 56. 
 
 " Perseverance, 
 
 7. " Air, 
 
 32. 
 
 " Genius, 
 
 57. 
 
 " Patriotism, 
 
 8. " Benevolence, 
 
 33. 
 
 * Habit, 
 
 58. 
 
 " Politeness, 
 
 9. " Beauty, 
 
 34. 
 
 ' Honour, 
 
 59. 
 
 " Providence, 
 
 10. " Biography, 
 
 35. 
 
 4 Happiness, 
 
 60. 
 
 " Punctuality, 
 
 11. 
 
 Bad Scholar, 
 
 36. 
 
 ( Humility, 
 
 61. 
 
 " Poetry, 
 
 12. 
 
 ' Charity, 
 
 37. 
 
 ' Hypocrisy, 
 
 62. 
 
 " Piety, 
 
 13. 
 
 1 Clemency, 
 
 38. 
 
 " History, 
 
 63. 
 
 " Religion, 
 
 14. 
 15. 
 
 ' Compassion, 
 ' Conscience, 
 
 39. 
 
 40. 
 
 " Hope, 
 " Indolence, 
 
 64. 
 65. 
 
 " Reading, 
 " Sincerity, 
 
 16. 
 
 ' Constancy, 
 
 41. 
 
 " Industry, 
 
 66. 
 
 " Summer, 
 
 17. 
 
 ' Carelessness, 
 
 42. 
 
 " Ingratitude, 
 
 67. 
 
 11 Spring, 
 
 18. 
 
 ' Curiosity, 
 
 43. 
 
 " Justice, 
 
 08. 
 
 ' { Sun, 
 
 19. 
 
 4 Cheerfulness, 
 
 44. 
 
 ' Learning, 
 
 69. 
 
 " System, 
 
 20. 
 
 c Contentment, 
 
 45. 
 
 ' Love of Fame, 
 
 70. 
 
 ' Truth, 
 
 21. 
 
 ' Diligence, 
 
 46. 
 
 ' Music, 
 
 71. 
 
 ' Time, 
 
 22. 
 
 c Duplicity, 
 
 47. 
 
 ' Moon, 
 
 72. 
 
 4 Talent, 
 
 23. 
 
 ' Early rising, 
 
 48. 
 
 ' Novelty, 
 
 73. 
 
 ' Vanity, 
 
 24. 
 
 ' Envy. 
 
 49 
 
 4 Night, 
 
 74. 
 
 ' Virtue, 
 
 25. ' Friendship, 
 
 50. 
 
 ' Order, 
 
 75. 
 
 4 Wealth 
 
 76. Knowledge is Power, 
 
 77. Progress of Error, 
 
 78. Progress of Truth, 
 
 79. Government of the Tongue, 
 
 80. Government of the Temper, 
 
 81. Government of the Affections, 
 
 82. Local Attachments, 
 
 83. The Power of Association, 
 84 The Immortality of the Soul, 
 
 85. The Uses of Knowledge, 
 
 86. Power of Conscience, 
 
 87. The Power of Habit, 
 
 88. Life is Short, 
 
 89. Miseries of Idleness, 
 
 90. Never too old to learn, 
 
 91. Public Opinion, 
 
 92. Diligence ensures success, 
 
 93. Idleness destroys Character, 
 
 94. Contrivance proves design, 
 
 95. Avoid Extremes, 
 
 96. Visit to an Almshouse. 
 
 97. Pleasures of Memory, 
 
 98. Example better than Precept, 
 
 99. Misery is wed to Guilt, 
 
 100. Value of Time, 
 
 101. Virtue the way to Happiness, 
 
 102. No one lives for Himself, 
 
 103. Thou God sees! me, 
 
 104. Trust not Appearances, 
 
 i AC tun . :_ :_ T:_U 
 
 105. Whatever is, is Right 
 
 106. " An honest man's the noblest work of God.' ; 
 
 107. Every man the architect of his own fortune. 
 
 108. Man, " Mysterious link in being's endless chain. 7 ' 
 
 109 u A little learning is a dangerous thing.' 7 
 
 110 How blessings brighten, as they take their flight. 
 
 111 Advantages derived from the invention of the mariner's compass of tht 
 
 telescope the steam enpire the art of printing of gunpowdei 
 
 112. History of a needle a cent a Bible a beaver hat. 
 
 113. Description of a voyage to EnglandCoast of AfricaConstantinople- 
 
 South America East Indies China. 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 I. GRAMMAR. 
 
 The object of Grammar, in a general sense, is to investigate 
 the principles of language, and from a careful analysis of these, 
 to lay down a system of rules and principles, by observing which, 
 we may be enabled to express our thoughts in a particular lan- 
 guage in a correct and proper manner, feuch a collection of rules 
 and principles applicable to the English language, with directions 
 for their use in the most simple, brief, and convenient manner, 
 has been attempted in the preceding pages. 
 
 When we speak of Grammar as a system of rules, it is not to 
 be understood that the rules are first established, and the language 
 afterwards modelled in conformity to these. The very reverse is 
 the fact: language is antecedent to grammar. u No grammarian 
 can of his own authority alter the phraseology of any expression, 
 or assign to a word a signification different from that which has 
 been allotted to it by established usage. He must take the lan- 
 guage as it is, not as he would wish it to be. He may, indeed, 
 recommend this or that mode of expression, as more agreeable to 
 analogy, but if must remain with the public whether or not his 
 advice be adopted. From the decision of general, reputable, and 
 established usage, there lies no appeal. His business is, to observe 
 the agreement or disagreement of words, the similarity or dis- 
 similarity between different forms of expression, to reduce those 
 that are similar, under the same class, and, by a careful induction 
 of particulars, establish general propositions. Nor is it abso- 
 lutely necessary that he should know by what means this or that 
 phraseology came into use, or why this or that word forms an 
 exception to a general rule; it is sufficient for his purpose if he 
 does know that it is an exception, and, knowing it, points it out 
 to others. 
 
 " By arranging the various rules and principles of a language 
 into a systematic form, permanency is given to what w r ould other- 
 wise be subject to fluctuation, or involved in obscurity-, the rela- 
 tive connection and importance of the rules become clearly as(er 
 tained, and the whole is rendered more easy of being acquired 
 and retained, and applied with facility and correctness. 
 
 u Prior to the publication of Lowth's excellent little grammar, 
 the grammatical study of our own language formed no part of the 
 ordinary method of instruction, and consequently the writings of 
 the best authors were frequently inaccurate. Subsequent to thai 
 period, however, attention has been paid to this important subject, 
 and the change that has taken place both in our written ana oral 
 language, has evidenced the decided advantages resulting from 
 such a plan. 
 
 1* 
 
194 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 " The Grammar which has attained the greatest celebrity for 
 general use, is that by Mr. MuiTay. In this work, he has embo- 
 died the principles and rules which were deduced by the most ce- 
 lebrated grammarians that preceded him , and by arranging the 
 whole in a better order, has rendered it decidedly superior to 
 every work of the kind which existed before its appearance." - 
 HUey's Preface. 
 
 Since that time, many works have been published of various 
 degrees of merit, most of which have had for their object, not so 
 much to investigate more thoroughly the principles of language, 
 as to simplify and elucidate principles already investigated. The 
 Etymology and Syntax of Dr. Crombie, lately published, though 
 not intended for the use of schools, is a most valuable addition to 
 the stock of original works on this subject. u The industry of 
 research, and acuteness of discrimination, which he has evinced 
 in the collection and comparison of different forms of speech, 
 have thrown great light upon many difficulties-, and his conclu- 
 sions must, in general serve as landmarks to the future traveller. ' 
 Among recent valuable contributions to our stock of literature crj 
 this subject, may be noticed the work of Mr. Harrison, on u The 
 rise, progress, and present structure of the English language," 
 published in England in 1848, and republished here in 1850 , and 
 the large work of William C. Fowler, late Professor of Rhetoric 
 in Amherst College, entitled " The English language in its Ele- 
 ments and Forms." Some works of an eccentric character have 
 also at times appeared, whose authors, smitten with a passion for 
 novelty or singularity, have manifested much more capacity for 
 pulling down, than for building up for rinding fault with thai 
 which is good already, than for producing something better in itj 
 place. Still the labors of even these are not without their use. 
 Like the violence of the tempest which shakes the sturdy oak, 
 and causes it to strike its roots deeper and firmer in the parent 
 soil, they only more firmly establish that which can not be 
 overthrown. 
 
 The principles of language, which grammar as a science inves- 
 tigates, are general and permanent. They belong to all languages, 
 and remain the same, however they may be classed, or in 
 whatever terms they may be expressed. Hence it is that the 
 grammars of all languages are substantially the same, and differ 
 only in minor details, as idiom and usage require. This is as it 
 should be. No good reason can be given for making a grammar 
 of the English language, for example, toto ccelo, different from the 
 grammars of other languages, ancient or modern. And yet it has 
 been, and still is, the practice of some to declaim against the ex- 
 isting systems of English Grammar, because, as they say, they 
 are conformed to the grammars of the dead languages, or to those 
 of foreign nations. Though such efforts may prevail for a season 
 and with a few, more mature reflection usually dissipates the de- 
 lusion. It is well known that novices in every science are con- 
 stantly making discoveries; and these appear to them for a time 
 
APPENDIX. 195 
 
 so important and wonderful, that they sometimes think they can- 
 not fail to astonish the world, revolutionize the science, and im 
 mortalize themselves. It happens, too, that such discoveries are 
 usually in proportion to the want of discrimination and intelli- 
 gence of those who make them. A more extended acquaintance 
 with facts and principles will often prove, even to themselves, 
 that their great discoveries are only the crude and exploded fan- 
 cies of other men, and other days, long since abandoned as unte- 
 nable and worthless. Discoveries of such a character are some- 
 times made in grammar also ; and such, too, are often their origin 
 and their end. 
 
 The system o'f English grammar, as we now have it in the best 
 works, or in what some are pleased to call the U 01d Grammars," 
 rests on a more solid foundation. Men of sound, discriminating, 
 and philosophical minds men prepared for the work by long stu- 
 dy, patient investigation, and extensive acquirements, have la 
 bored for ages to improve and perfect it 5 and nothing is hazarded 
 in asserting, that should it be unwisely abandoned, it will be long 
 before another, equal in beauty, stability, and usefulness, be pro- 
 duced in its stead. 
 
 II. CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS. 
 
 LANGUAGE, written or spoken, consists of words. In combi- 
 -ing these into propositions and sentences, so as to express our 
 ideas in a correct and intelligent manner, an accurate knowledge 
 of their forms, changes, and functions, is necessary , and this again 
 can be attained only by a proper classification of them according to 
 their distinguishing characteristics and uses in the communication 
 of thought. The importance of this has always been felt by 
 grammarians, and various classifications have been made, differing 
 from each other according to the principles assumed as their basis. 
 The essentials of speech were anciently supposed to be sufficiently 
 designated by the Noun and the Verb', to which was subsequently 
 added, the Conjunction. In modern times, the parts of speech 
 have been denominated Substantives, Attributives, Definitives, and 
 Connectives. Such a classification, however, is too general to be 
 of much use in grammar. To group together under one head, 
 words specifically different in their character and use, can tend 
 only to confusion ; andto multiply divisions which can serve no 
 practical purpose, is an extreme equally unprofitable. 
 
 By a careful analysis of language, we find that some words are 
 employed to express the names of things, others to indicate theii 
 qualities; some express action or state under various modifications 5 
 others are used in connection with these to point out tircumstan- 
 ces of time, place, manner, order, degree, etc.: some are em- 
 ployed to denote certain relations of things to each other, and 
 others again chiefly to connect the different parts of a sentence 
 together. This diversity in the use of words is as real, and as 
 distinctly marked as the functions of the bones, muscies, arteries, 
 
196 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 and nerves oi the human system, and forms a basis of classifica- 
 tion equally proper in all languages. 
 
 On this principle of classification, the later Greek grammarians 
 divided words into eight classes or parts of speech; viz., the Noun, 
 Article, Pronoun, Verb, Participle, Adverb, Preposition, and 
 Conjunction. The Romans had no article, but retained the same 
 number by distinguishing between adverbs and interjections. 
 Both included under the term noun, the names of things, and 
 words expressive of their qualities-, the former they called Sub 
 stantive Nouns ; the latter, Adjective Nouns. These w r ere subse- 
 quently ranked as two distinct classes, commonly called Nouns 
 or Substantives, and Adjectives ; and the participle was restored 
 to the verb, to which it properly belongs. This classification, 
 with little variation, has been adopted by the best English gram- 
 marians, and remains in general use even at this day-, and though 
 not absolutely perfect, or incapable of improvement, still it is suf- 
 ficient for all practical purposes, and is perhaps, on the whole, 
 the best that has yet been proposed. Objections to it merely on 
 the ground that it agrees with the generally received classification 
 of ancient, or foreign languages, are just about as reasonable as 
 objections to the anatomical classifications of ancient or foreign 
 nations would be, merely because they happen to differ in stature, 
 complexion, or features, from ourselves. Such objections have 
 been, and still continue to be made, the futility of which needs 
 no better illustration than the fact, that, after all, their authors 
 have offered little else in its stead, than the same, or nearly the 
 same divisions under different names. 
 
 III. THE NOUN OR SUBSTANTIVE. 
 
 The characteristic of this class of words, is that they are names. 
 Every word that is the name of any thing that exists, whether 
 material or immaterial, or of any thing that is or can be made 
 the subject of thought or discourse, is a noun. Hence it follows, 
 that letters, marks, or characters, and words used independently 
 of their meaning, and merely as things spoken of, are nouns 5 thus, 
 A is a vowel; honor is sometimes spelled with a u. and sometimes 
 without it; th has two sounds; us is a pronoun; I will have no ifs 
 or bnis ; 4~ is the sign of addition. Hence, also, the infinitive 
 mood, a participle, a member of a sentence, or a proposition, 
 forming together the subject of a discourse, or the object of a verb 
 or preposition, and being the name of an act or circumstance, are 
 in construction regarded as nouns, and are usually called "sub- 
 stantive phrases; 1 ' as, "To play is pleasant," "His being an ex- 
 pert dancer is no recommendation," " Let your motto be 'Ho- 
 nesty is the best policy." 1 " 
 
 The ACCIDENTS of the noun, in English, are, in general, the 
 same as in other languages, i. e. they have Person, Gender, Num- 
 ber, and Case ; though in the details of these, there is some di- 
 versity in different languages, and even in different grammars of 
 the same language. 
 
APPENDIX. 197 
 
 IV. PERSON OF NOUNS. 
 
 The person of nouns is not determined by any difference of 
 form, as in pronouns, but simply by their relation to the discourse, 
 In direct discourse,* a noun used by a speaker or writer to de- 
 signate himself, is said to be of the first person , used to desig- 
 nate the person addressed, it is said to be of the second person- 
 and,when used to designate a person or thing spoken of, it is said 
 to be of the third person. It is obvious then from the nature of 
 the case, that those words only can be of the first or second per- 
 son, which denote intelligent beings, or which by personification 
 are regarded as such, for no other can either speak or properly be 
 spoken to, and they are usually in apposition with the first or 
 second personal pronouns; as, u 1, Artaxerxes make a decree-,' 1 
 *'I, thy father-in-law Jethro, am come unto theej" " Thou, God 
 seest me." 
 
 A noun in the predicate, however, denoting either the speaker, 
 or the person spoken to, is generally regarded as in the third per- 
 son-, thus, " I am he that liveth and was dead;" u I am Alpha 
 and Omega who is, and who was, and who is to come." For 
 this construction, and the variation of meaning which a change 
 of person commonly indicates, see 59, R. II, Rem. This rule, 
 however, does not hold universally. In the following sentence, 
 " Verily thou art a God that hidest thyself," the word " God," 
 in the predicate, is evidently regarded as of the second person. 
 So also in the phrases, " It is I," " It is thou," etc. In oblique 
 discourse, the third person only can be used. 
 
 As the name of the speaker, or of the person spoken to, is sel- 
 dom expressed (the pronouns / and thou, we and T/OM, being used 
 in their stead), it seems to be a useless waste of time, in parsing, 
 to mention the person of a noun, unless it be in the first or second 
 person, which will not happen more than once in a thousand times. 
 Much time therefore will be saved, and no loss sustained, if it be 
 considered as taken for granted, without stating it, that a noun 
 is in the third person, unless it be otherwise mentioned. 
 
 V. GENDER OF NOUNS. 
 
 In all languages, the distinction of nouns with regard to sex, 
 das been noted. Every substantive denotes either a male or 
 /emale, or that which is neither the one nor the other. This 
 Accident, or characteristic of nouns, is called their Gender. 
 In English, all words denoting male animals, are considered as 
 masculine; all those denoting female animals, feminine; and those 
 denoting things neither male nor female, are termed neuter. "In 
 
 ^Discourse is said to be direct, when a writer or speaker delivers his own sen. 
 liments ; as, " I am the man.' ; Oblique, when he relates, in his own language, 
 ihe sayings of another; as, " He says that he is the man." See Lat, Gr. $ 111, 
 Rule VI- 
 
 17* 
 
198 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 this distribution," says Crornbie, "we follow the order of nature. 
 ind our language is, in this respect, both simple and animated." 
 Both in Latin and Greek, many words denoting things without. 
 Bex, are ranked as masculine or feminine, without any regard to 
 their meaning, but simply on account of their terminations. In 
 French, all nouns are regarded as either masculine or feminine, 
 which is a still greater departure from the order and simplicity of 
 nature, for which the English language on this point is distin- 
 guished. 
 
 Some have objected to the designation of three genders 5 they 
 think that as there are but two sexes, it would be more philoso- 
 phical and accurate to say there are only two genders : and to 
 regard all words not belonging to these, as without gender. ^ A 
 little reflection, I think, will show that this objection has no just 
 foundation, either in philosophy or in fact, an<| that the change 
 it proposes would be no improvement. It has probably arisen 
 from confounding the word gender, which properly signifies a 
 kind, class, or species (Lat. genus, French genre), with the 
 word sex, and considering them as synonymous. This, however, 
 is not the case; these words do riot mean precisely the same thing, 
 and they can not be properly applied in the same way. We never 
 say, " the masculine sex, the feminine sex-," nor " the male gen- 
 der, the female gender." In strict propriety of speech, the word 
 sex can be predicated only of animated beings 5 the word gender, 
 only of the term by which that being is expressed. The being 
 man, has sex, not gender; the word man, has gender, not sex. 
 Though therefore it is very absurd to speak of three sexes, yet 
 it may be very proper to speak of three genders 5 that is to say, 
 there are three classes (genders) of nouns, distinguished from 
 each other by their relation to sex. One denotes objects of the 
 male sex, and is called masculine ; another denotes objects of the 
 female sex, and is called, feminine; and the third denotes objects 
 neither male nor female, for which a name more appropriate thar 
 the term neuter need not be desired. 
 
 The term "Common gender," applied to such words as parer 
 child, friend, etc., does not constitute a distinct class of words, 
 which are neither masculine, nor feminine, nor neuter, but is used 
 for convenience, merely to indicate that such words sometimes 
 denote a male, and sometimes a female. Instead of " common, 11 
 those who prefer it, may call such words "masculine or feminine." 
 
 VI. CASE OF NOUNS. 
 
 In the ancient languages, and also in the modern languages of 
 Europe, nouns in each number have certain changes of termina 
 tion, called Cases, which serve to shew the relation existing be 
 c tween them and other words in the sentence. Of these, the Latin 
 has six; the Greek, five; the German, four; the Saxon, six; the 
 French, three; etc. In English, the only vaiiation of the noun in 
 *ach number, is that used to mark possession, and, for this reason 
 
APPENDIX. 199 
 
 stnmouly called the possessive case. The nominative and objec- 
 tive do not differ in form, but only in their use ; the former being 
 used to denote the subject of a verb, and the latter to denote the 
 object of a verb or preposition. The propriety of this distinction 
 is manifest, from the fact, that in personal and relative pronouns, 
 the objective case is distinguished from the nominative by a change 
 of form. 
 
 VII. THE ARTICLE. 
 
 THE ARTICLE may properly be regarded as an adjective word, 
 i. e. it is always employed in connection with a noun, or with 
 words and phrases used as such. In Greek, and also in other 
 languages, it is declined like the adjective, and comes under the 
 same rules of concord with it. The Articles in English are A or 
 arf, and The. Ofcthese. the first is used to individualize without 
 restricting. It is therefore appropriately termed Indefinite , and 
 is never used but with the singular number. 
 
 This word is evidently a derivative of the Saxon numeral Ant 
 (one), shortened by the absence of emphasis into An ; or it may 
 be regarded as the same word used in a particular way. For the 
 sake of euphony, the n is dropped before a consonant ; and be- 
 cause most words begin with a consonant, this of course is its more 
 common form. In the French, German, and other languages, 
 which have the indefinite article, its form is the same with their 
 numeral one, and, in reading or speaking, it is distinguished from 
 it by emphasis only. Still, in these languages it is not regarded 
 as a numeral, its office being specifically different. The office of 
 the numeral is to designate number only one as opposed to two 
 or more. But though from its nature this article is joined only 
 with the singular, yet number- is not the idea it is used to convey, 
 but simply to indicate an individual indefinitely. An example 
 will illustrate this. If I say, u Will one man be able to carry 
 this burden so far?" I evidently oppose one to more, and the an- 
 swer might be, u No-, but two men will." But if I say, u Will 
 a man be able to carry this burden?" it is manifest the idea is en- 
 tirely changed-, the reference is not to number, but to the species 5 
 and the answer might be, "No-, but a horse will." Translate 
 these two sentences into Latin or Greek, or any language which 
 does not use the indefinite article, and the first will necessarily 
 have the numeral, the second will as necessarily want it. In this 
 respect, the English has manifestly a decided advantage over those 
 languages in which the same term is used both as an article and 
 a numeral-, and hence it appears to me, that to class this article as 
 a numeral, as some have proposed, would not only be in some 
 measure to relinquish this advantage, but, by combining under 
 one head, words w r hose use is so widely different, would prove an 
 injury instead of an improvement. 
 
 The Article The, on the other hand, is used to shew that a word 
 is restricted, or limited; and is therefore termed Definite. Its pro- 
 
200 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 per office is to call the attention to a particular individual or clas 
 or to any number of such, and is used with nouns in either tL 
 singular or plural r-nrnber. This word seems to be derived fror'. 
 the Saxon Se (that), plural Tha ; and is distinguished from the 
 demonstratives this, and that, much in the same way that a is 
 distinguished fro-m the numeral one. The Greeks had a separate 
 word for this purpose, which the early grammarians called the 
 prepositive Article, from its position before its noun-, and to dis- 
 tinguish it from the relative pronoun which they called the post- 
 positive Article, usually placed after it. These two words, in 
 many sentences, were used relatively to each other, and, like a 
 joint (Jlrticulus}. from which the name is derived, served to unite 
 the t\vo members of the sentence to which they respectively be- 
 longed, into one whole. This designation, originally given to 
 this word from one of its prevailing uses, continued to be applied 
 to it not only after the postpositive article -vjls more appropri- 
 ately called the Relative pronoun, but also in cases in which no 
 conjunction of the parts of a sentence was effected-, and modern 
 grammarians have extended it to the word known as the Indefi- 
 nite Article. Whether a more appropriate designation for these 
 words should now be devised, or whether they might be classed 
 under some other head, are questions of no practical moment. 
 The words exist in the language ; they have a specific office to 
 perform', they have peculiarities of construction which belong to 
 no other class of words ; they are only two in number, and are 
 easily distinguished from other parts of speech, and if these con- 
 siderations should not be considered sufficient to entitle them 
 strictly and philosophically to a separate denomination, they are 
 such, at any rate, as to render it convenient and useful ; and if so, 
 it seems unwise, for the sake of a trivial advantage, even if that 
 could be gained, to disturb the settled language of grammar on 
 this point, and so to destroy its present similarity to that of most 
 other languages, in which this division and nomenclature are re 
 ceived. 
 
 In many sentences, The and That are nearly equivalent, and 
 the sense will be the same by using either j as. U 27ic man, or that 
 man who hath no music in his soul," etc. This, however, doea 
 not always hold-, " The difference," says Crombie, "seems-to be, 
 
 1st. The Article the, like a, must have a substantive joined 
 with it 5 whereas that , like one, may have it understood ; thus. ; 
 speaking of books, I may select one and say, ; give me that-, 
 but not, c give me the ;' ' give me one ;' but not ' give me a.' 
 Here the analogy holds between a and one the and that. 
 
 2d. " In general, the distinction between the and that seems 
 to be that the latter marks the object more emphatically than the 
 former, being indirectly opposed to this. lean not, for example, 
 say, fc that man with that long beard,' without implying: a con- 
 trast with this man with this long beard , the word that bcina 
 always emphatical and discriminative." 
 
APPENDIX. 201 
 
 VIII. THE ADJECTIVE. 
 
 Words of this class are supposed to have been originally nouns, 
 the names of qualities or attributes, and, from being joined to 
 nouns whose quality or property they were employed to express, 
 were called adjective nouns. In a more advanced state of lan- 
 guage, with few exceptions, they cease to be used as nouns, and 
 are employed to denote a quality, property, or attribute, not se- 
 parately, but in conjunction w r ith its subject-, thus, when we say, 
 u a stone," we have the generic name of a certain substance, and 
 no more; but when we say, u a round stone, " u a hard stone," 
 '' a smooth stone," we have the generic name, limited and de- 
 scribed by the attributes of roundness, hardness, smoothness; and 
 these as inherent in or belonging to the substance stone. The 
 adjective always implies the name of a quality or attribute, but 
 does not present %at idea alone to the mind, as when W T C speak 
 of roundness, haraness, etc., but that idea in concrete in conjunc- 
 tion with its subject. Hence it follows that a word which does 
 not add to its noun the idea of some quality or attribute as be- 
 longing to it or connected with it, is not, strictly speaking, an ad- 
 jective-, and for this reason the articles, and the words generally 
 ranked as distributive, demonstrative, and indefinite pronouns, 
 though adjectives in construction, are not so in sense and mean- 
 ing. They express no quality, property, or attribute of a noun, 
 either separately or in connection with it, nor can they be predi- 
 cated of it. On the other hand, all words which do make such 
 an addition to the noun, may properly be regarded as adjectives, 
 though they be often or generally used for other purposes. Thus 
 the words u gold," tl sea," " flower, 1 ' are nouns-, but when we 
 say " a gold watch," u sea water," " a flower garden," they are 
 used as adjectives. 
 
 IX. COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 
 
 Adjectives denoting qualities or properties capable of increase, 
 and so of existing in different degrees, assume different forms, to 
 express a greater or less degree of such quality or property in one 
 object compared with another, or with several others. These 
 forms are three, and are appropriately denominated the positive, 
 comparative, and superlative. Some object to the positive being 
 called a degree of comparison, because, in its ordinary use, it does 
 not, like the comparative and superlative forms, necessarily in- 
 volve comparison-, and they think it more philosophical to say, 
 that the degrees of comparison are only two, the comparative ana 
 superlative. This, however, with the appearance of greater ex- 
 actness, is little else than a change of words, and a change perhaps 
 not for the better. If we define a degree of comparison ' a form 
 of the adjective which necessarily implies comparison,' this change 
 would be an improvement-, but this is not w r hat grammarians 
 mean ? when they say there are three degrees of comparison. Their 
 meaning is, that there are three forms of the adjective, each of 
 
202 ENGLISH GRAMMAR- 
 
 which, when comparison is intended, expresses a different degree 
 of the quality or attribute in the things compared : thus, if we 
 compare wood, stone, and iron, with regard to their weight, we 
 would say, u wood is heavy, stone is heavier, and iron is the hea* 
 viest." Each of these forms of the adjective in this comparison 
 expresses a different degree of weight in the things compared : 
 the positive heavy expresses one degree-, the comparative heavier, 
 another-, and the superlative heaviest, a third-, and of these, the 
 first is as essential an element in the comparison as the second or 
 the third. Indeed there never can be comparison without the state- 
 ment of at least two degrees 5 and of these, the positive form of 
 the adjective, either expressed or implied, always expresses one. 
 "When we say "wisdom is more precious than rubies," two de- 
 grees of value are compared, the one expressed by the comparative 
 a more precious," the other necessarily impl^d. : the meaning is, 
 " rubies are precious, wisdom is more precio^jj^' 1 Though, there- 
 fore, it is true that the simple form of the adjective does not al- 
 ways, nor even commonly. denote comparison-, yet as it always does 
 indicate one of the degrees compared whenever comparison exists, 
 ; t seems proper to rank it with the other forms, as a degree of com- 
 parison. This involves no impropriety, it produces no confusion, 
 it leads to no error, it has a positive foundation in the nature of 
 comparison, and it furnishes an appropriate and convenient appel- 
 lation for this form of the adjective, by which to distinguish it in 
 speech from the other forms. 
 
 X. PRONOUNS. 
 
 The term pronoun (Lat. pronomen) strictly means a word used 
 for, or instead of a noun. In English, pronouns are usually di- 
 vided into four general classes, personal, relative, interrogative^ 
 and adjective. The first or personal, includes also compound pro- 
 nouns, which in the nominative are emphatic or definite, and in 
 the objective, reflexive, 15, Obs. 2. The second, or relative 
 (except " that"), without any change of form, becomes interroga 
 tive in asking questions, $ 17. All the words in these three classes, 
 both in sense and construction, are used as nouns, and instead of 
 nouns. 
 
 XI. THE PKONOUN YOU. 
 
 You, the common plural of thou, is now used also to denote o&e 
 person-, but, even when it does so, it always takes a plural verb. 
 This usage has become so fixed and uniform, that some eminent 
 grammarians contend for its being regarded as singular. No ad- 
 vantage, however, would be gained by adopting this proposal ; and 
 it seems to accord much more with simplicity, as w T eil as wdtn fact, 
 to regard it as a plural which has come by use to be applied in this 
 manner. In certain kinds of writing (243), we is used in the same 
 way, and so also is the corresponding pronoun in French, and 
 
APPENDIX. 203 
 
 somt other modern languages, in which, however, it is always 
 regai ded as a plural form.* 
 
 XII. AS, NOT A RELATIVE. 
 
 The word AS. is by some grammarians considered as a relative. 
 That it should not be considered a relative in any circumstances, I 
 think is plain from the following considerations-. 
 
 1. It has neither the meaning, nor the use of a relative. Its of- 
 fice is simply to connect things compared, and, together with its 
 antecedent word, to express the idea of equality , likeness, fyc. be 
 tween them; thus, " James is as tall as his father." " Your hat 
 is such as mine." 
 
 2. It does not, like a relative, relate to a noun or pronoun before 
 it, called the antecedent, nor stand instead of it, or of any othei 
 word, but is relatgi only to the comparative word, as, such, so, 
 etc., in the precedMg clause. Thus, in the sentence, u As many 
 as received him," the second as relates to the first, and the two 
 convey the idea of equality. Again, " Send such books as you 
 have." Here, as refers not to books, but to such. Take away 
 such, and as can not be used. 
 
 3. Jls can never be used as a substitute for another relative pro- 
 noun, nor another relative pronoun as a substitute for it. If, then, 
 it is a relative pronoun, it is, to say the least, a very unaccommo- 
 dating one. 
 
 ' 4. In sentences in which as is said to be a relative, it evidently 
 has the same meaning and use as in those in which it is allowed to 
 be only a conjunction. Compare the following examples : u As 
 many as five men received a reward." "As many as received 
 him." u As many as they can give." In all these, the phrase 
 44 as many as" means, and is felt to mean, the same thing 5 equality 
 of number. There surely, then, can be no propriety in calling the 
 second as a conjunction in the first sentence, and. a relative in the 
 other two. The same thing will be evident if we change the ante- 
 cedent word-, thus, u Such books as these are useful." "/Sue/ 1 
 books as are useful." u Such books as you can give." 
 
 5. If the word as in the preceding sentences and clauses is a re 
 lative pronoun, for the same reasons alleged for this, the word than 
 must be a relative in those which follow. The construction is 
 precisely the same: "More than five books were wanted." 
 u More books than are useful." " More books than you can give.'- 
 Now, if, in the second of these examples, than is not a relative in 
 
 *" The pronoun you, though originally and properly plural, is now generally 
 applied alike to one person or to more. This usage, however it may seern to 
 mvolve a solecism, is established by that authority against which the mere gram, 
 marian has scarcely a right to remonstrate. We do not, however, think it neces. 
 wiry or advi&able to encumber the conjugations, as some have done, by introdu. 
 cing this pronoun and the corresponding form of the verb, as singular. It is ma. 
 nifestly better to say that the plural is used for the singular, by the figure enal- 
 Iage."Grovtd Broivn, p. 137, 
 
204 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 the nominative case before are, nor in the third a relative in the 
 objective case after can give, what need for considering as a rela- 
 tive in the same position, in the same construction, and for the 
 same purpose, to denote comparison? There is the same ellipsis 
 in both, and the same words necessary to be supplied, in the one 
 case, as in the other-, thus, "More books than [those which] 
 were wanted." " More books than [those which] are useful," etc. 
 So, "Such books as [those which] were wanted." "As many 
 books as [those which] are necessary," etc. 
 
 XIII. THE RELATIVE WHAT. 
 
 u Various opinions have been entertained about the nature of 
 the relative what. It is said to be 'a compound relative pronoun, 
 including both the antecedent and the relative, and equivalent to 
 that which, or, the thing which." 1 Though thisunay seem plausible, 
 yet we shall find, on examination, that what iRiothing more than 
 a relative, and includes nothing else. Compare these two sen- 
 tences : 
 
 " ' I saw whom I wanted to see' 
 
 u ' I saw what I wanted to see.' 
 
 u If what, in the latter, is equivalent to that ichich. or the thing 
 which ; ichom, in the former, is equivalent to him whom, OT the per- 
 son whom. ' Who steals my purso steals trash ' is equivalent to 
 he who. or the man who. 
 
 " And on the same principle, when the relative is omitted, the 
 antecedent should be represented as equivalent to the relative and 
 the antecedent. Thus, c I saw the man I wanted to see.' Here, 
 man should be represented as equivalent to the man whom. 
 
 " The cause of the error in respect to what, is, that the antece- 
 dent is never expressed with it. It is not like the word who y 
 which is used both when the antecedent is expressed, and when 
 it is omitted. The relative that, however, was formerly used in 
 many cases where we use what, that is, with the antecedent 
 omitted. A few examples of this will help us to ascertain the 
 nature of what : i We speak that we do know.' English Bible. 
 l l am that I am.' Ib. 
 
 " l Who had been seen imagine mote thereby, 
 
 T/iawhylome of Hercules hath been told.' Spenser. 
 " ; Eschewe that wicked is.' Gower. 
 
 " ! Is it possible he should not know what he is, and be that he 
 
 is. 1 Shaks. 
 " ' Gather the sequel by that went before.' Ib. 
 
 u In these examples, that is a relative, and is exactly synony- 
 mous with what. No one would contend, that that stands for 
 itself and its antecedent at the same time. The antecedent is 
 omitted because it is indefinite, or easily supplied." Butler's 
 Grammar, p. 48. 
 
 remarks appcnr to m* just and conclusive on this point. 
 
205 
 
 XIV. ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 The fourth class, called adjective pronouns, and sometimes pro- 
 nominal adjectives, is usually subdivided into possessive, distri- 
 butive, demonstrative, and indefinite. Of these, the first' or pos- 
 sessive are derived from the personal, and in meaning are strictly 
 pronouns, being always the representative or substitute of a noun-, 
 but in construction they are adjectives, and are always joined with 
 a noun, and hence are appropriately denominated adjective pro- 
 nouns, i. e. pronouns used adjectively. "By some, they are less 
 appropriately classed with adjectives, and called pronominal ad- 
 jectives. 
 
 In many grammars the possessives my, thy, his, her, its, our 
 your, their, are set down as the possessive case of the personal 
 pronouns, with mine, thine, his, hers, its. ours, yours, theirs, 
 making two forms of the possessive case; thus, my or mine, thy 
 or thine, etc. In tlje use of these forms this difference is to be 
 observed, viz. that the first is always followed by a noun deno- 
 ting the thing possessed-, as, u this is my book :" the latter never 
 has the noun following it, but seems as it were to include it, as 
 well as to be governed by it-, as, "this book is not mine," equi- 
 valent to " this book is not my book.' 1 ' 1 The possessive case of the 
 noun is used both ways-, as, u this is John's book," or, " this book 
 is John's." Which of these methods is adopted in teaching or stu- 
 dying grammar, is a matter of no practical moment : some gram- 
 marians adopt the one, and some the other, merely as a matter of 
 taste, without any controversy on the subject. The classification 
 in the text is preferred as being on the whole more simple, because 
 the possessives my, thy, etc., like the adjective, can never stand 
 alone, as the possessive case does, but must be supported by a noun 
 following them-, thus, we say, " It is the king's-, 1 ' " It is yours " 
 but we can not say, " It is your," the presence of a noun being ne- 
 cessary to the last expression -, and because if these words are ranked 
 as the possessive case of the personal pronoun, it unnecessarily 
 leaves the English language without a class of words correspond- 
 ing to the possessive pronouns of other languages. They have pre- 
 cisely the same meaning. as the Latin Meus,mea, meum ; or the 
 French Mon, ma; or the German Mein (or meiner), meine, mein; 
 01 the Anglo-Saxon (which is the motherof the English language), 
 Min, mine, min; they are used in precisely the same way. 
 
 There seems, therefore, to be no good reason for giving them adif 
 ferent classification. Indeed, the only circumstance which renders 
 it possible to regard them as a possessive case in English, is that 
 like the English adjective they are indeclinable. Had they been 
 declinable, like the Latin or French, etc., they never could have 
 been used as a possessive case. 
 
 Some, again, regard my, thy, etc. as the only forms of the posses- 
 
 sive case-, and mine, thine, etc. not as a possessive case at all. but as 
 
 a substitute for the possessive case of the pronoun, and the noun re- 
 
 ferred to, together-, and that it is in the nominative or objective case 
 
 18 
 
ENCJLiSH GRAMMAR. 
 
 accouling as the noun referred to would be, in the full expression; 
 ihus, u Your book is old, mine is new." is equivalent to "Your book 
 is old, my book is new." Hence it is inferred that mine is not a pos- 
 sessive case, but a substitute for my book, and the nominative to is. 
 This, though plausible, is obviously incorrect. If, instead of the pro- 
 noun mine, we substitute a noun, that noun will have to be in the 
 possessive case-, thus, u Your book is old, John's is new." The 
 construction in these two sentences being identical, if ^John's" is 
 the possessive case, so also is u mine ;" and if in the possessive, it 
 can not be the nominative to u is.' 1 The mistake lies in considering 
 mine a substitute for my book, whereas it really is a substitute only 
 for my, including such a reference to the word book in the preceding 
 part of the sentence, as renders its repetition in the second part not 
 only unnecessary, but, according to the usage of the language, im- 
 proper. The difference between the construction of the noun and 
 the pronoun, in such sentences, is simply this: the possessive mine, 
 thine, etc., according to usage, are never used before a noun, but the 
 possessive of the noun is used both before a noun and after it. 
 When it is deemed proper to express the noun after the pronoun, 
 the form mine. etc. must be changed for my, etc. Thus, we can 
 not say, u Mine book," but " My book-, 11 but we can with equal 
 propriety say, u John's book," or, " The book is John's." 
 
 In the same manner may be explained the use of the possessive 
 after transitive verbs in the active voice, and after prepositions , 
 thus, u James lost his books, and I gave him mine," meaning my 
 books; " A picture of the king's," is a picture of (i. e. from) the 
 king's pictures. So, " A book of mine, 1 ' is a book of [from] my 
 books. u A friend of yours," is a friend of [from] your friends. 
 It is worthy of notice, that though this use of the possessive after 
 of, originally and strictly implies selection, or a part only, it has 
 insensibly come to be used when no such selection is, or even can 
 be, intended. Thus we may say, " That house of yours," u that 
 farm of yours," without intending to imply that any other hou- 
 ses or farms belong to you-, and when w r e say, " That head of 
 yours _." selection is obviously excluded by the sense. 
 
 The words belonging to the other three divisions, have been 
 found more difficult to arrange in a satisfactory manner. They 
 eem to occupy a sort of middle ground between adjectives and 
 pronouns, and are sometimes used as the one, and sometimes as 
 the other, without the strict and appropriate character of either. 
 They are not adjectives in sense as, already shewn (App. VIII) ; 
 but they are generally adjectives in construction, having a noun 
 expressed or understood, which they serve to limit or restrict in 
 various ways. On the other hand, with few exceptions, they are 
 no often used without a noun, or as its substitute, that they are not 
 improperly regarded as pronouns, though in a sense less strict than 
 the others , thus, "Let each esteem trt/iers better than themselves." 
 " Among men, some are good, others bad, none perfect." " M 
 things come alike to all," etc. 
 
 From this equivocal or rather double character of these words 
 
APPENDIX. 207 
 
 they have been variously arranged by different authors. Some. 
 among whom are Grant, Crombie, Hiley, Sutcliffe, Allen, Coo- 
 per, Brown, etc. class them with adjectives, and call them " Pro- 
 nominal Adjectives;" and others, such as Lowth, Priestly, Smart, 
 Murray, Lennie, Booth, Churchill, Wright, Cobbet, Kirkham, 
 Smith, and many others, class them with pronouns, and call them 
 * c Adjective Pronouns" Since all are agreed about the use of 
 these words, .it seems in itself a matter of less importance to 
 which of these two classes they be attached, or whether they are 
 more appropriately called Pronominal Adjectives, or Adjective 
 Pronouns. But as in the Latin and Greek, and in most, if not all 
 European languages, almost all of the corresponding words are 
 ranked uniformly as adjective pronouns , and as there is no neces- 
 sity for, and no advantage to be derived from a different classifi- 
 cation, it seems to be unwise, merely for the sake of change 
 or the love of singularity, to depart from this arrangement in 
 English. 
 
 XV. THE VERB. 
 
 Though there is little, if any, difference of judgment among 
 grammarians as to what a verb is, yet all have probably found it 
 a difficult ma/*r to give an accurate, and at the same time a brief 
 definition of it , and, accordingly, nearly all grammars differ in 
 their definition of this part of speech. The old definition, that 
 u a verb is a word which signifies to be, to do, or to suffer," 
 though unexceptionable as any, as far as it goes, is yet greatly 
 defective in stating nothing respecting the function or use of this 
 part of speech. 
 
 The use of the verb in simple propositions is to affirm or declare, 
 and that of which it affirms is called its subject or nominative. 
 This is always the office of the verb in the indicative, potential, 
 or subjunctive. In the use of its other parts, however, namely, 
 the imperative, infinitive, and participles, there is properly no af- 
 firmation, though*the action or state expressed by the verb in these 
 parts is clearly seen to be the act or state of some person or thing, 
 and which for that reason is strictly and properly, though not 
 technically, its subject. Thus, u For me to die is gain," is a 
 simple proposition, containing two verbs, the first of which, to 
 die, in the infinitive, expresses no affirmation, though it evidently, 
 without affirming, attributes dying to a person, expressed by the 
 word me. So when we say, u I see a man walking," the word 
 walking expresses an act of the person man, though there is pro- 
 perly no affirmation. In like manner, when I say, " Do this," 
 the verb do attributes action imperatively to the person addressed, 
 but there is no affirmation. To speak of "affirming imperatively' 1 
 is certainly not very intelligible, though, for want of a better ex- 
 pression, we sometimes use it in a loose sense. 
 
 For these reasons, the definition of a verb which says it is u a 
 part of speech which asserts or affirms" appears to me to be de- 
 
208 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 r 
 
 fectivc. It states one function of this class of words, but excludes, 
 or at least does not include, others. It gives, as the distinguishing 
 characteristic of a verb, that which does not belong to it in seve- 
 ral of its parts and uses. It is too restrictive. 
 
 The definition formerly given in this work, is liable to an ob- 
 jection of an opposite kind . it is too general, and not sufficiently 
 distinctive. A verb does, indeed, u express an action or state," 
 but there are other words that do so also. Nouns, such as love, 
 desire, wisk, hope, etc., and most verbal nouns, such as eruption, 
 friction, collision, diffusion, progression, etc., express action ; and 
 many words, both nouns and adjectives, express a state. 
 
 The definition given in the text, though perhaps not unexcep- 
 tionable, occupies a middle place between these extremes, avoids 
 the indefiniteness of the old definition, and is probably less liable 
 to objection than most of those which have been given. 
 
 XVI. DIVISION OF VERBS. 
 
 The division of verbs into Transitive and Intransitive is now 
 so generally adopted by grammarians, instead of the former di- 
 vision into Active, Passive, and Neuter; and its propriety and 
 simplicity so obvious, that it seems now unnecessary to argue 
 the point. Of this division, it is necessary only to observe 
 
 1st. It divides all verbs into two classes, Transitive and Intran- 
 sitive, distinguished by a clear and definite characteristic, derived 
 from their use in the construction of sentences. To the first, be- 
 long those which are used transitively, whatever be their mean- 
 ing or form 5 and to the second, all that are used intransitively, 
 Vv r hether they denote action or not ( 19). 
 
 2d. This arrangement and nomenclature leaves the terms Ac.- 
 live and Passive at liberty to be applied exclusively to the two 
 forms which all transitive verbs assume, called the active and 
 tke passive voice. 
 
 3d. It dispenses with the term neuter altogether, as applied to 
 verbs, and leaves it to be appropriated in grammar to the desig- 
 nation of gender only. 
 
 XVII. MOODS. 
 
 Some grammarians are of opinion that no more moods or tenses 
 ought to be assigned to the verb in English, than are distinguished 
 by difference of form in the simple verb. This principle rejects 
 at once the whole passive voice 5 and in the active, retains only 
 the present and past tense of the indicative mood, and the present 
 of the subjunctive. To carry out this principle to its full extent, 
 we should reject also the plural number of the tenses that are 
 left-, for this is always in the same form with the first person 
 singular. This certainly reduces the English verb to very nar- 
 row limits, and renders it a very simple thing-, so simple, indeed, 
 as to be of little use, being capable of expressing an action or 
 state only in two relations of time. 
 
APPENDIX. 209 
 
 This simplification of the verb, however, tends only to perplex 
 the language, for though it reduces the number of moods and 
 tenses, it does not, and can not, reduce the number of the forms 
 of speech, by which the different times or modes of action are 
 expressed. It is certain, for example, that we have such forms 
 of speech as. "have loved," "shall love," "might love, 1 ' etc, 
 Now since these and other similar forms of speech express only 
 different relations of time and manner of the one act, "to love," 
 tl certainly does seem more easy and simple to regard them as 
 different moods and tenses of the verb to love, than to elevate the 
 auxiliary to the rank of a principal verb, and then to combine 
 them syntactically with the verb to love. Indeed, to dispose of 
 diem in this way satisfactorily, is riot a quite easy or simple mat- 
 ter. For example, in the sentence, " I have written a letter," it 
 is easy enough to .say that have is a verb transitive, etc., and 
 written a perfect participle-, but when we inquire, what does 
 have govern? what does written agree with? a correct and satis- 
 factory answer will not be so easily found. This example will 
 perhaps show that it is much easier, and quite as satisfactory, to 
 rank the expression as a certain mood and tense of the verb "to 
 write." 
 
 This theory has its foundation in the supposition that a tens 
 or mood must necessarily mean a distinct form of the simple verb. 
 This supposition, however, is entirely gratuitous. There is no- 
 thing in the meaning of the word mood or tense, which counte- 
 nances it. A verb is a word which expresses action-, tense, ex- 
 presses the action connected with certain relations of time: mood, 
 represents it as further modified by circumstances of contingency, 
 conditionality, etc. j but whether these modifications are expressed 
 by a change in the form of the simple verb, or by its combination 
 with certain auxiliaries, seems to be a matter perfectly indifferent. 
 Indeed, the generally received opinion is, that the different forma 
 of the verb, denominated mood and tense, in Latin and Greek, arc 
 nothing more than the incorporation of the auxiliary with the 
 root of the simple verb. If so, why should not the uniform jux- 
 taposition of the auxiliary with the verb, to answer the same 
 purpose, be called by the same name? If a certain auxiliary, 
 connected with a verb, express a certain relation of time, properly 
 denominated the future tense-, what essential difference can it 
 make, whether the two words combine into one, or merely stand 
 together? On the whole, then, there is nothing gained by the 
 proposed simplification . Indeed, on the contrary, much, even of 
 simplicity, is lost; and it moreover deprives our language of the 
 analogy which it has in mood and tense with other languages, 
 modern as well as ancient-, and if adopted, instead of smoothing 
 the path of the learner, it would tend only to perplex and obscure it. 
 
 INDICATIVE AND POTENTIAL. 
 
 The indicative mood attributes to its subject the act, being, or 
 
 18* 
 
210 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 state expressed by the verb simply and without limitation. The 
 potential mood attributes to the subject not the act, etc., expressed 
 by the verb, but only liberty, power, will, or obligation with re- 
 spect to it-, that is, the potential mood expresses not what the 
 subject does or is, but only what it may, can, must, might, 
 could, icould, or should do or be, etc. 
 
 The auxiliaries may, can, etc., in the potential mood, in all 
 probability, were at first independent verbs in the indicative, fol 
 lowed by the verb in the infinitive, without the sign to before it 
 as it is now used after such verbs as see, hear, feel, let, etc. Gram- 
 marians now generally combine them as one word, constituting a 
 particular form of the verb, to which they have given the name 
 of potential mood, from its leading use. The indicative and po 
 tential both declare, but they declare different things : the former 
 declares what the subject does, or is; the latter, what it may or 
 can, etc., do or be. The declaration made by the indicative is 
 simple; that made by the potential is always complex, contain- 
 ing the idea of liberty, power, etc., in connection with the act. 
 u He writes," is the indicative of the verb to write. u He can 
 write," is the indicative of the verb can, with the infinitive of to 
 write ; or, combined, the potential of the verb to write. 
 
 XVIII. THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
 
 This mood, as its name implies, is always subjoined to, and 
 dependent on, another verb expressed or understood. " If he 
 study, he will improve ;" u [I wish] that thou wert," etc. 
 
 The subjunctive mood differs in form from the indicative in the 
 present tense only; in the verb to be, in the present and past. 
 
 Both the indicative and potential, with a conjunctive particle 
 prefixed, are used subjunctively; that is, they are used to ex- 
 press what is conditional, or contingent, and with dependence on 
 another verb-, as, " If he sleeps, he will do well-," ;; He would go 
 if he could" (go). 
 
 The conditionality or contingency, etc. expressed by this mood, 
 is usually intimated by such conjunctives as, if, though, lest, un~ 
 less, so, etc. prefixed, which, however, make no part of the verb. 
 
 The same thing is sometimes expressed without the conjunc- 
 tion, by merely putting the verb or auxiliary before the subject 
 or nominative-, as, ,' Had I," for u If I had;" " Were he," for 
 ;t If he were;" " Had he gone," for " If he had gone;" " Would 
 he but reform," for "If he would but reform, 11 etc. 
 
 Most grammarians consider the subjunctive present only as an 
 abbreviated form of the future indicative, or the past potential, 
 and that the supplement may always be made; thus, u lfhe 
 study ," etc. that is, if he shall (or should) study," etc.; " though 
 he [should] come," etc. This view is plausible, and may apply 
 to the present tense of the subjunctive in most cases ; but it will 
 not apply to the past subjunctive of the verb to be, either as a 
 principal or an auxiliary. For though we might say, u If I 
 
APPENDIX. 211 
 
 should be," for "If I be," yet we can not say, ' If I should were?'* 
 And there are some cases in which the present subjunctive form 
 seems to be indispensable: as, " See thou do it noty' " If he do 
 but try, he will succeed 5" still 
 
 The subjunctive mood, in its distinctive form, is now falling 
 greatly into disuse. The tendency appears to be to lay it aside, 
 and to use the indicative or potential in its stead, wherever it can 
 be done. According to rule, the subjunctive form is used only 
 when it has a future reference-, as, " If he come [viz. at a future 
 time], he will be welcome." The same idea is expressed by say- 
 ing," u lf he comes" (186, 1. 5), "If he shall come ;" and one or other 
 of these expressions is now generally preferred to the subjunctive. 
 Formerly, in cases of supposition, the present subjunctive was 
 used, whether it had a future reference or not 5 as, " Though God 
 be high, yet hath he respect to the lowly." In all such expressions, 
 according to present usage, the present indicative would be used-, 
 thus, " Though God is high," etc. 
 
 XIX. THE PARTICIPLE IN ing IN A PASSIVE SENSE. 
 
 According to the definition, the passive voice expresses, pas- 
 sively, the same thing that the active does actively. For exam- 
 ple, Caesar conquered Gaul," and "Gaul was conquered by Caesar," 
 express precisely the same idea. This, however, is not always 
 done by the regular passive form in the present tense, though it 
 is generally done in the other tenses. Thus, it will be felt at 
 once that the expressions, " Caesar conquers Gaul," and " Gaul 
 is conquered by Caesar," do not express the same thing. 
 
 In regard to this matter, there are evidently two classes of verbs; 
 namely, those whose present passive expresses precisely the same 
 thing, passively, as the active voice does actively, and those in 
 which it does not. 
 
 I. To the first of these classes belong 
 
 1. All those verbs which, in the regular present passive, imply 
 a continuance of the act; such as, to love, to hate, to regard, to 
 esteem, to envy, to please, etc. Thus, "James loves me." and "I 
 am loved *by James," express precisely the same idea, and con- 
 sequently continuance is implied as much in the passive form as 
 in the active. Hence, " is loved," is a true present passive, both 
 in form and meaning. In verbs of this' class the progressive form 
 in the active voice is seldom used, because it would express the 
 same thing generally as the common form-, thus, "James loves 
 me," and " James is loving me," express the same thing. 
 
 2. To this class belong all verbs when used to express general 
 truths, or what is usual or customary from time to time: Thus, 
 "Vinegar dissolves pearls-," "Vice prod uces misery -," "The cob- 
 bler mends shoes -," "Masons build houses," etc. These verbs, 
 used in this way, express precisely the same thing in the regular 
 passive form as they do in the active. Thus, "Pearls are dis- 
 solved by vinegar j" " Misery is produced by vice-," " Shoes an 
 
ENGLISH GRAMMAR 
 
 mended by the cobbler-" "Houses are built by masons," etc In 
 verbs used in this way, the progressive form is not employed. 
 The use of it would change the meaning from a general ex- 
 pression to a particular act. Thus, "Vice is producing misery," 
 would immediately direct the mind, not to a general truth, but 
 to a particular case. But^ again, when these verbs express a 
 particular act, and not a general truth, the active and the passive 
 present expres^ different ideas; thus, u James builds a house,'* 
 represents an act in progress-, but when we say, u A house is 
 built by Jarnes," the act is represented as completed. 
 
 3. To this class belong all verbs which, by the figure called 
 vision (552-5), are used in the present tense to express what is 
 past. Thus, " Cassar leaves Gaul," crosses the Rubicon, enters 
 Italy." Passively, " Gaul is left by Caesar, the Rubicon is 
 crossed, Italy is entered. In all these, used in this figurative way, 
 the present passive expresses the same thing as the present, 
 active. 
 
 II. The second class of verbs consists of those (perhaps the 
 greater number) whose present passive implies that the act ex- 
 pressed by the active voice has ceased, and the effect or result 
 only remains as a finished act, and as such is predicated of the 
 subject. Thus, " The house is built." Here it is implied that 
 the act of building is completed, and has ceased-, and the result, 
 expressed by built, is predicated of the house. In all verbs of 
 this kind, the past participle, after the verb to be, has reference 
 to the state resulting from the act as predicated of, or qualifying 
 the subject of the verb, and not to the act itself. Strictly speak- 
 ing, then, the past participle with the verb to be is not the pre- 
 sent tense in the passive voice of verbs thus used-, that is, this 
 form does not express passively the doing of the act. These verbs 
 either have no present passive, or it is made by annexing the par- 
 ticiple in ing, in its passive sense, to the verb to be;" as, " Tha 
 house is building.^ 
 
 It is supposed by some that "is built," although in the form 
 of the present passive, really is a present-perfect-, because it re- 
 presents the act as completed, and because the perfect-definite, in 
 Latin, is often translated by this form into English. Due con- 
 sideration, however, I think will show that it differs quite as 
 much from the present-perfect as it does from the present. To be 
 satisfied of this, compare the following expressions: " This gar- 
 ment is torn," merely asserts the present state of the garment, 
 with no reference to the act but what is implied-, but when we 
 gay, "This garment has been torn," the reference is chiefly to the 
 act as having been done, with no reference to the state of the 
 garment but what is implied. The one asserts that the garment 
 remains torn, the other does not it may have been mended-, the 
 latter is the regular passive of the present-perfect' active, the for- 
 mer is not. This will perhaps be more clearly perceived by 
 means of another example: "This house has been painted, but 
 
APPENDIX. 213 
 
 the paint is worn off." This is good English', but if we should 
 say, " This house is painted , but the paint is worn off," we would 
 assert a contradiction. 
 
 There is properly no passive form, in English, corresponding 
 to the progressive form in the active voice, except where it is 
 made by the participle in ing-, in a passive sense-, thus, "The 
 house is building-," "The garments are making-," "Wheat is 
 selling," etc. Though such expressions have been used in all 
 time past by the best writers, an attempt has been made by some 
 grammarians of late, to banish them from the language, and to 
 justify and defend a clumsy solecism, which has been introduced 
 within the last forty years, chiefly through the newspaper press, 
 but which has gained such currency, and is becoming so familiar 
 to the ear, that it seems likely to prevail, with all its uncouth- 
 ness and deformity. I refer to such expressions as u The house 
 is being built-," "The letter is being written-," "The mine is 
 being worked-,' 1 "The news is being telegraphed," etc. etc. 
 
 Respecting this mode of expression, it may be noticed 
 
 1. That it had no existence in the language till within the last 
 forty years. This, indeed, would not make it wrong, were it 
 otherwise unexceptionable-, but it shows that it is not, as is pre- 
 tended, a necessary form; and in some measure accounts for the, 
 insolence and effrontery with. which, like all upstarts, it seeks to 
 override and bear down that which is venerable for its antiquity, 
 and commended by its propriety. 
 
 2. This form of expression, when analyzed, is found not to 
 express what it is intended to express, and would be used only 
 by such as are either ignorant of its import, or are careless and 
 loose in their use of language. To make this manifest, let it be 
 considered, first, that there is no progressive form of the verb to 
 be, and no need of it-, hence, there is no such expression in En 
 lish as is being. Of course, the expression "is being built," for 
 example, is not a compound of is being and built, but of is and 
 being built; that is, of the verb to be and the present participle 
 passive. Now, let it be observed that the only verbs in which 
 the present participle passive expresses a continued action, are 
 those mentioned above as the first class, in which the regular 
 passive form expresses a continuance of the action; as, is loved y 
 is desired, etc., and in which of course the form in question (it 
 being built) is not required. Nobody would think of saying, 
 " He is being loved-," " This result is being desired." 
 
 In all other verbs, then, the present participle passive, like the 
 present tense in the second class of verbs mentioned above, ex- 
 presses, not a continued action, or the continued receiving of an 
 action, but that the action has ceased, and the result only exists 
 in a finished state. Thus, " Our arrangements being made, we 
 departed-," "The house being finished, was immediately occu- 
 pied-," " Our work being finished, we may rest," etc. In all 
 such expressions, the present participle' passive represents the ae- 
 
214 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 tion as now finished, and existing only in its results (191). This 
 finished act, then, can not be made unfinished and progressive, 
 by being asserted of a subject, which is all the verb to be, as a 
 copula, can express. Hence, it is manifest that is being built, if 
 it mean any thing, can mean nothing more than is built, which is 
 not the idea intended to be expressed. 
 
 3. For the same reason that is being built, etc. is contended for 
 as a proper expression, we should contend also for, u Has been 
 being built-, 1 ' u Had been being built-,' 1 " Shall have been being: 
 built 5 " u Might have been being built-," u To be being built-," 
 u To have been being built:" "Being being built-," "Having 
 been being built. 1 ' When all these shall have been introduced, our 
 language will be rich indeed. 
 
 4. The use of this form is justified only by condemning an es- 
 tablished usage of the language, namely, the passive sense in 
 some verbs of the participle in ing (190). In reference to this, it 
 is flippantly asked. u What does the house build?" " What does 
 the letter write? etc. "taking for granted, without attempting to 
 prove, that the participle in ing can not have a passive sense in 
 any verb. The following are a few examples from writers of the 
 best reputation, which this novelty would condemn-. u While the 
 ceremony was performing." Tom Brown. " The court was then 
 holding. 11 Sir G. MTKenzie. " And still be doing, never.-done." 
 Butler. " The books are selling." Wen's Gram. " The work 
 of the temple was carrying on." Dr. Owen. u To know nothing 
 of what is transacting in the region above us." Dr. Blair. "The 
 spot where this new and strange tragedy was acting. 1 ' E. Eve- 
 rett. " The fortress was building." Irving. u An attempt is 
 making in the English parliament." D. Webster. " The church 
 now erecting in the city of New York. 1 ' N. A. Review. "This 
 movement was making." Cooper. "These things were trans- 
 acting in England. "*~ Bancroft. 
 
 5. This new doctrine is in opposition to the almost unanimous 
 judgment of the most distinguished grammarians and critics, who 
 have considered the subject, and expressed their views concerning 
 it. The following are a specimen: "Expressions of this kind are 
 condemned by some critics-, but the usage is unquestionably of 
 far better authority, and (according to my apprehension) in far 
 better taste, than the more complex phraseology which some late 
 writers adopt in its stead ; as, ' The books are now being sold.' 7} 
 Goold Brown. De War observes: " The participle in ing is also 
 passive in many instances-, as, ' The house is building-, 1 'I heard 
 Df apian forming/ etc." Quoted in Frazee's Grammar, page 49. 
 
 'It would be an absurdity, indeed, to give up the only way we 
 aave of denoting the incomplete state of action by a passive form" 
 (viz. by the participle in ing in the passive sense). Arnold?* 
 English Grammar, p. 46. "The present participle is often used 
 passively-, as, 'The ship is building. 1 The form of expression, 
 Is being built , is being committed, etc., is almost universally con^ 
 
APPENDIX. 215 
 
 demned by grammarians, but it is sometimes met with in re- 
 spectable writers-, it occurs most frequently in newspaper para- 
 graphs and in hasty compositions. See Worcester's Universal 
 and Critical Dictionary. 1 ' Weld's Grammar, p. 118 and 180. 
 4 'When we say, ' The house is building, 1 the advocates of the 
 new theory ask, ' Building what? 1 We might ask, in turn, 
 when you say, 'The field ploughs well-, 1 ' Ploughs what?' 'Wheat 
 sells well-,' 'Sells what? 1 If usage allows us to say, 'Wheat 
 sells at a dollar 1 , in a sense which is not active, why may it not 
 also allow us to s~y wheat is selling at a dollar, in a sense that 
 is not active? 11 Harfs Gram., p. 76. " The prevailing practice 
 of the best authors is in favor of the simple form 5 as, ' The house 
 is building. 111 WcWs School Gram., p. 148. "Several other 
 expressions of this sort now and then occur, such as the new- 
 fangled and most uncouth solecism ' is being done,'' for the good 
 old English idiom ' is doing'' an absurd periphrasis driving out 
 a pointed and pithy turn of the English language. 1 ' N. Jl. Re 
 view, quoted by Mr. Wells, p. 148. 
 
 This usage some suppose has its origin in the use of the verbal 
 noun after in, to express the same idea; thus, "Forty and six 
 years was this temple in building;''' 1 " And the house, when it was 
 in building, was built of stone made ready, so that there was nei- 
 ther hammer nor axe heard in the house, while it was in build' 
 ing." In the absence of emphasis, the in being indistinctly ut 
 terecl, came to be spoken, and consequently to be written, a; as, 
 "While the ark was a preparing" (]. Pet. iii. 20), and finally to 
 be omitted altogether. Similar changes of prepositions we have 
 in the expressions, a going, a running, a hunting, a fishing, 
 etc. Others, again, suppose that this ought to be regarded as an 
 original idiom of the language, similar to the passive use of the 
 infinitive active in such expressions as, "You are to blame:" "A 
 house to Ut;" " Knives to grind," etc. But whether either of 
 these is the true account of this matter or not, the fact is certain. 
 It is therefore the duty of the grammarian to note the fact, though 
 he may be unable to account for it. 
 
 XX. TWO FIRST, THREE LAST, &c. 
 
 The expressions, two first, three last, and the like, have been 
 opposed and ridiculed by some, on the ground, as they allege, that 
 there can be only one first, and one last. The objectors evidently 
 have not well considered their position-, for 
 
 1 . The terms first and last do not necessarily mean only one. 
 First, according to Webster, means, " preceding all others. 11 The 
 two first, then, means the two preceding all others, and the three 
 last means the three succeeding all others -, expressions in which 
 there is surely nothing either ridiculous or absurd. 
 
 2. If we say, " The first days of summer;" " The first years 
 of our life-,' 1 "The last days of Pompeii," which nobody doubts. 
 then, it is not true that there can be only one first and one last 
 
ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 and so the ground of the objection fails. If we can say, a The 
 last days of summer," why not the two last, or the three last ? 
 
 3. The expression objected to is used by the best authorities in 
 the language, and has been in use hundreds of years-, and there- 
 fore, on the well-known maxim, u Usage is the law of language," 
 even if it were absurd, it can not be rejected. The following are 
 examples, most of them mentioned by Mr. Wells -. " The four first 
 acts." Bp. Berkeley. " The three first monarchies." Warbur- 
 ton. "The two first persons." Latham^s Eng. Gram. " My 
 two last letters." Jlddison. "The two first lines." Blair. 
 "The three first generations." E. Everett. "The two first 
 years." Bancroft. " The two first days." Irving. " The two 
 nrst cantos." Ji. H. Everett. " The four first centuries." Pres- 
 cott. "The two last productions." N. A. Review. "The four 
 first are poetical. "Cheever. "The three first of his longer 
 poems." Southey. "The two last schools." Johnson. "The 
 six first French kings." Macaulay. 
 
 4. This expression is, in some cases, evidently better than the 
 other. It is probably always so, when the number characterized 
 as fir at or last constitutes a majority of the whole. When we say, 
 " the first four," there is evidently a reference to a second four, 
 or a last four. But if the first four constitute a majority of the 
 whole, there remains no second four to justify the reference. 
 Jims, when we say, "The first four acts of a play were well 
 performed," there remains only one to which any other reference 
 can be made. On the other hand, w r hen a whole is divided into 
 equal portions, each containing a certain number, as the recurrence 
 of the census every five years of the Olympic games every four 
 of the sabbath every seven days of four lines in each stanza 
 of a poem, and the like then the expression, first four, second 
 four, last four, etc., is preferable, because it implies a reference 
 to other portions of equal extent. Also, even when there is no 
 such reference, it is often properly used, especially when the 
 number is large/ as, "The first hundred-,'' "The last thou- 
 sand," etc. 
 
 5. Several distinguished scholars and grammarians have ex- 
 amined this point, and expressed their views respecting it as fol- 
 lows -. "It has been doubted whether the cardinal should precede 
 or follow the ordinal numeral." Atterbury says in one of his 
 letters to Pope-. "Not but that the four first lines are good." 
 u We conceive the expression to be quite correct, though the other 
 form be often employed to denote the same conception." Crom- 
 bie's English Syntax, p. 240. " Some grammarians object to the 
 use of the numerals tico, four, etc., before the adjectives first 
 and last. There seems, however, to be no good reason for the 
 objection, and the expressions two first, two last, etc., are fully 
 sanctioned by good usage." Wells' s Grammar, p. 137. The 
 following is a note on the same page : "It has been fashionable 
 of late to write the first three, and so on, instead of the three 
 
APPENDIX. 217 
 
 fit st. People write in this way to avoid the seeming absurdity 
 of implying that more than one thing can be first; but it is at 
 least equally as absurd to talk about the first four, when, as often 
 happens, there is no second four." Arnold. " Surely if there 
 can be only one last, one first, there can be only 'a last one,' 'a 
 first one.' I need only observe, that usage is decidedly in favor 
 of the former phraseology." Grant. 
 
 u The only argument against the use of two first, and in favor 
 of substituting first two, so far as I can recollect, is this : In the 
 nature of things, there can be only one first and one last in any 
 series of things. Bat is it true that there can never be more than 
 one first, and one last ? If it be so, then the adjectives first and 
 last must always be of the singular number, and can never agree 
 with nouns in the plural. ; We are told that the first years of a 
 lawyer's practice are seldom very lucrative.' ' The poet tells us 
 that his first essays were severely handled by the critics, but his 
 last efforts have been well received.' Examples like these might 
 be produced, without number-, they occur everywhere, in all our 
 standard w r ritars. * * * When a numeral adjective, and a 
 qualifying epithet, both refer to the same noun, the general rule 
 of the English language is to place the numeral first, then the 
 qualifying epithet, and then the noun. Thus we say, ' The two 
 wise men,' ' The two tall men-,' and not 'The wise two men,' 
 ' The tall two men.' And the same rule holds in superlatives. 
 We say, ' The two wisest men,' v The two tallest men 5' and not 
 * The wisest tivo men,' ; The tallest two men.' Now, if this be 
 admitted to be the general rule of the English language, then it 
 follows that generally we should say, ' The two first S ' The two 
 last,' etc., rather than ; The first two? ' The last two,'' etc. This, 
 I say, should generally be the order of the words. Yet +here are 
 some cases in which it seems preferable to say. ' The first two* 
 1 The last two,' etc." Dr. Murdoch. 
 
 XXI. FIRST AND SECOND, &c. 
 
 Two or more adjectives connected, without an article interve- 
 ning, belong to the same noun- as u A red and white rose-," that 
 is, one rose partly red and partly white. Hence, care should be 
 taken to see that the qualities expressed by adjectives so used be 
 consistent, or such as maybe found in one object. Thus, it would 
 be improper to say, " An old and young man-," " A round and 
 square hole-." " A hot and cold spring-," because a man can not 
 be old and young at the same time; nor a hole round and square; 
 nor a spring hot and cold. Hence 
 
 When two or more adjectives express qualities that belong to 
 different objects of the same name, and that name expressed only 
 with the last, the article should be placed before each adjective; 
 thus, " A red and a white rose" means two roses; one red, and 
 one white. In this case, it makes no difference whether the 
 qualities expressed by the adjectives be consistent or not, since 
 
 19 
 
218 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 they belong to different individuals. Thus, we can say, "A young 
 and an old man-, 1 ' " A round and a square hole-," " a hot and a 
 cold spring-," that is, one man young, and another old. etc. It 
 is therefore manifest that we can not properly say, " The first 
 and second page-," "The fifth and sixth verse-," "The Old and 
 New Testament -," because no page can be at once first and second 
 no verse fifth and sixth, and no Testament Old and New. It 
 is equally improper in principle to say, u The first and second 
 pages, r> u The fifth and sixth verses," because two adjectives can 
 not be joined with a word jointly which can not be joined with it 
 sepajately. We can not say, " the first pages," nor "the second 
 pages.' 1 ' 1 when we mean but one first and one second. Besides, 
 when the ellipsis is supplied, it stands " the first page and the 
 second page /" and the omission of the first noun can not, on any 
 correct principle, affect the number of the second. In many cases, 
 too. the use of the plural, if it would relieve from the absurdity 
 of uniting inconsistent qualities in an object, will as certainly 
 lead to ambiguity. For if, to avoid the absurdity of saying " the 
 old and young man," we say "the old and young men," the latter 
 expression may mean fifty, or a hundred, or any number of men, 
 instead of two-, one young and one old. Notwithstanding, how- 
 ever, usage has prevailed over principle in this as well as in other 
 cases-, and it has become quite common to say, " The first and 
 second verses-," " The Old and New Testaments-," " The hot and 
 cold springs-," " The indicative and subjunctive moods," etc, 
 When no ambiguity exists in the use of such expressions, they 
 must be tolerated. The correct expression, however, in all cases 
 in which one is intended, is made by repeating the article with the 
 adjective, and retaining the noun in the singular ; thus, " The 
 first and the second verse-," " The Old and the New Testament -," 
 " The hot and the cold spring," etc. j or, " The first verse and th* 
 second," etc. 
 
QUESTIONS. 
 
 GRAMMAR AND ORTHOGRAPHY. 1, 2. 
 
 What is Grammar? What is its object as a science? as an 
 art? What is English Grammar? Into what parts is it dirided 
 Of what does Orthography treat? Etymology? Syntax? Pro- 
 sody? Of what does Orthography treat besides letters ? What 
 is a letter ? How many letters are in the English Alphabet ? 
 How are they divided ? What is a vowel ? What letters are 
 vowels ? What is a consonant ? What letters are consonants ? 
 When are w and y vowels? when consonants ? What is a diph- 
 thong? a proper diphthong? an improper diphthong? a triph- 
 thong? 
 
 What is a syllable? How do we know how many syllables a 
 word contains? What is a monosyllable? a dissyllable? a tri- 
 syllable a polysyllable? What is syllabication? What is the 
 general rule for dividing words into syllables? When should a 
 hyphen be placed between two words? How should words be 
 divided at the end of a line? 
 
 2. What is spelling? How is proficiency in spelling to be 
 acquired? What is the first general rule? the second? the 
 third ? the fourth? the fifth ? the sixth? the seventh? the 
 eighth? 
 
 ETYMOLOGY AND PARTS OP SPEECH. 3, 4. 
 
 Of what does Etymology treat? What are words? How arc 
 words divided in respect of their formation ? of their form ? 
 of signification and use? What is a primitive word? a deriva- 
 tive? a simple? a compound? What is a declinable word? 
 an indeclinable? How many parts of speech are there in En- 
 glish? Which are declinable ? indeclinable ? What is a sub- 
 stantive ? How is the term substantive used in this Grammar ? 
 What is Parsing ? How is a word parsed etymologically ? 
 syntactically? 
 
 NOUN. 5-11. 
 
 5. What is a noun ? Into what two kinds are nouns divi- 
 ded ? What is a proper noun ? a common noun ? What is the 
 use of proper nouns? of common nouns? How do proper nouns 
 
220 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 become common? How do common nouns become proper? What 
 is the usual subdivision of common nouns? What is a collective 
 noun ? an abstract noun ? a verbal noun ? What are the acci- 
 dents of the noun? 
 
 6. PERSON. What is person? How many persons are there! 
 When is a noun in the first person? in the second? in the third? 
 
 7. GENDER. What is gender? How many genders are there? 
 What nouns are masculine? feminine? neuter? How many 
 ways of distinguishing the sex are there? What is the first? 
 (Give examples) the second? (Give examples) the third? (Give 
 examples) . What is meant by common gender ? When are neu- 
 ter nouns to be regarded as masculine or feminine? When the 
 sex of an animal is not known to us, what gender do we assign to 
 it ? How do we consider those of inferior size? When does 
 the masculine term include the female as well as the male ? 
 
 $ 8, 9, 10. NUMBER. What is number? What numbers have 
 nouns? What does the singular denote? the plural? How do 
 nouns commonly form the plural? What is the first special rule? 
 its exceptions? How do nouns that end in y after a consonant, 
 form the plural? in y after a vowel? in /or fel What are the 
 exceptions? What nouns are irregular in the plural? What nouns 
 have both a regular and irregular form? How do some compounds 
 form the plural? words from foreign languages? (Give exam- 
 ples). Have proper names commonly a plural? Why? When 
 have they a plural? have usually the sin- 
 
 gular only? the plural only? the same form in both? are plural 
 in form, but singular in construction? singular or plural in con- 
 struction? 
 
 $ 11. CASE. What is case? What cases have nouns? How 
 is the nominative used? the possessive? the objective? Which 
 cases are alike? How is the possessive formed in the singular? 
 in the plural? in the plural not ending in s ? For what is the 
 apostrophe and s an abbreviation? When is the * omitted after 
 an apostrophe in the singular. What is equivalent to the pos- 
 sessive case? When should this expression be used instead of the 
 possessive? How is a noun parsed etymologically? 
 
 THE ARTICLE. 12. 
 
 What is an article? What is its use? What are the articles t 
 What is a or an called? why 3 What is the called? whv? 
 
QUESTIONS. 221 
 
 How is a noun without an article taken? Before what letters is 
 a used? an? When is a used before a vowel? When is an used 
 before hi How is an article parsed etymological iy. 
 THE ADJECTIVE. 13, 14. 
 
 13. What is an adjective? What is meant by qualifying a 
 noun? When may an adjective qualify a pronoun? What else 
 may it qualify in this position? When do nouns become adjectives? 
 When are adjectives used as nouns? What are adjectives called 
 that express number? How many classes of numerals are there? 
 What are the cardinal numerals? What do they express? What 
 are the ordinal numerals? What do they express? How are 
 compound numerals made ordinal? 
 
 14. COMPARISON. What degrees of comparison have adjec- 
 tives? What does the positive express? the comparative? the 
 superlative? How are adjectives of one syllable compared of 
 two or more ? How are dissyllables in le after a mute compared? 
 dissyllables in y ? What classes of adjectives do not admit of 
 comparison ? (Give examples in each). Of what degree are su- 
 perior , inferior, and the like? Why are they not comparatives? 
 What is meant by the superlative of eminence ? How is the sig- 
 nification of the positive sometimes diminished? What adjectives 
 are compared irregularly ? (Compare them). How is much ap- 
 plied ? many ? elder and eldest ? older and oldest ? 
 
 PRONOUNS. 15-18. 
 
 15. What is a PRONOUN? Into what classes are pronouns 
 divided? What are the personal pronouns? (Decline them). 
 What pronouns are of the first person? Why? of the second? 
 Why? of the third ? Why? What are the compound personal 
 pronouns? In what cases are they used? For what purpose are 
 they used in the nominative ? in the objective ? How is we used 
 hi proclamations, etc. ? In what style is thou used ? What is used 
 for thou in the common style ? How is it used before the verb to 
 be ? How are personal pronouns parsed ? 
 
 16. RELATIVE. What is a relative pronoun ? (Name them). 
 Which are declinable ? Which are indeclinable ? (Decline who 
 which). To what is who applied ? which ? How is which ap- 
 plied in the Bible ? How is that used as a relative ? To what ia 
 it applied ? To what is the relative what applied ? When is it 
 used ? To what ia it equivalent ? What relatives are sometime* 
 
*229 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 ased as adjectives? What are the compound relatives? To what 
 are they equivalent ? What are who, which and what in respon- 
 sive sentences? How is the gender and number of the relative 
 determined ? How are relatives parsed ? 
 
 17. INTERROGATIVES. What pronouns are employed in ask- 
 ing questions ? What are they then called ? What interrogative 
 is applied to persons? What, to things ? How are the mterro- 
 gatives who, which, and what distinguished when applied to per- 
 sons ? What does whether mean ? How is it now used ? 
 
 ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. 18. 
 
 What are adjective pronouns ? Into what classes are they di- 
 vided ? 
 
 POSSESSIVES. What is a possessive adjective pronoun ? (Name 
 them). Tp what is the possessive pronoun equivalent in mean- 
 ing ? How does it differ in use from the possessive case ? What 
 are his and her when followed by a substantive ? when not fol- 
 lowed by a substantive ? When are mine and thine used as pos 
 sessives ? 
 
 DISTRIBUTIVES. What is a distributive adjective pronoun ? 
 (Name them) . What does each denote ? every ? either ? 
 neither ? 
 
 DEMONSTRATIVES. What is a demonstrative pronoun ? (Name 
 them). What other words maybe called demonstratives ? When 
 is that a relative ? when a demonstrative ? when a conjunction ? 
 
 INDEFINITES. What are indefinite pronouns ? (Name the inde- 
 finite pronouns) . How is none used ? How is an adjective pro* 
 noun parsed ? 
 
 VERBS. 19-32. 
 
 19. What is a verb ? What is its use in simple propositions? 
 What is the subject of a verb ? Into what two classes are verbs 
 divided ? What is a transitive verb ? What forms has it ? What 
 is an intransitive verb ? What does the word transitive mean as 
 applied to verbs ? intransitive ? What is the usual form of in- 
 transitive verbs ? In how many ways are intransitive verbs ren- 
 dered transitive ? What are they ? How are transitive verbs 
 distinguished from intransitive ? What is the first method ? 
 fhe second ? the third 1 * How is a transitive verb used when it 
 is without an object ? 
 
 How are verbs divided in respect of form ? What is a regular 
 
223 
 
 verb ? an irregular ? a defective verb ? To which of these 
 classes do auxiliaries belong ? impersonal verbs ? 
 
 20. AUXILIARY VERBS. What is an auxiliary verb ? In 
 what tenses are they used ? (Name them in the present tense 
 in the past.) What verbs are used both as auxiliaries and prin- 
 cipal verbs ? What does shall imply? will 1 ? may ? can? In 
 what tense are will and shall auxiliaries ? may or can ? How 
 are will and shall distinguished in expressing resolution or pur- 
 pose ? in expressing simple futurity? in interrogations ? How 
 tre verbs inflected ? 
 
 21. VOICE. What is voice ? In English how many voices 
 are there ? (Name them). What kind of verbs have two voices? 
 How does the active voice represent the subject ? -the passive ? 
 Are any verbs used both in a transitive and an intransitive sense? 
 (Give an example). 
 
 22. MOODS. What is mood ? How many moods have verbs? 
 (Name them). How is a verB used in the indicative mood ? in 
 the potential ? in the subjunctive ? in the imperative ? in the 
 infinitive ? How does the declaration made by the indicative 
 mood differ from that made by the potential ? How does the 
 lubjunctive differ in form from the indicative ? Why is the sub- 
 junctive mood so called ? Is the indicative ever used subjunc- 
 tively ? is the potential ? What persons has the imperative 
 mood ? What is the true character of the infinitive ? 
 
 23, 24. TENSES. What are tenses ? How is time naturally 
 divided ? In each of these, how may an action, etc. be repre- 
 sented ? How many tenses are there in English ? (Name them). 
 What does the present tense express ? the present-perfect ? 
 the past ? the past-perfect ? the future ? the future peifect ? 
 What is a simple tense ? a compound ? Which tenses are sim- 
 ple ? which compound ? What different things is the present 
 tense in the simple form, used to express ? the present-perfect * 
 To what tense in Latin does the present-perfect in English cor- 
 respond ? What tenses has the indicative mood ? the potential? 
 the subjunctive ? the imperative? the infinitive ? the par- 
 ticiple? 
 
 25. PARTICIPLES. What is a participle ? Why so called? 
 How many participles have verbs in the active voice ? (Name 
 them) in the passive ? (Name them). How does the present 
 participle active always end ? Has it ever a passive sense ? 
 
224 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 (Give an example). Does the past participle active differ in 
 form from the past participle passive ? Is the perfect participle 
 simple or compound ? When do participles become adjectives ? 
 What participles may become adjectives in this way ? (Give ex- 
 amples). What participles are used as verbal nouns ? (Give an 
 example of each) . When a participle is so used, what cases does 
 t have 
 
 26. NUMBER AND PERSON. How many numbers have verbs ? 
 in each of these, how many persons are there ? Of what doet 
 .he first person assert? the second? the third ? 
 
 27. CONJUGATION. What is the conjugation of a verb ? 
 What two forms has the verb in the active voice ? What does 
 the common form express ? the progressive ? How is a verb 
 rendered emphatic in the present ? in the past ? in the com- 
 pound tenses ? What are called the principal parts of a verb ? 
 What is conjugating a verb ? (Conjugate the verb to love in the 
 active voice , inflect it through ail its parts) . How is a verb 
 parsed? 
 
 28. FORMS. How is a verb made to deny ? How, in the 
 infinitive and participles? How is a verb made to ask a question? 
 How are interrogative sentences made negative. 
 
 $ 29, 30, 31. To BE, etc. Conjugate the irregular verb to be. 
 (Inflect it). How is the progressive form of the verb made? How 
 is the passive voice formed? Conjugate to love in the passive 
 voice. (Inflect it). 
 
 32. IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. What is an irre- 
 gular verb ? Conjugate abide, etc. (see the list). What is a de- 
 fective verb ? What are the defective verbs ? What is an im- 
 personal verb ? (Give examples). Properly speaking, what is 
 the pronoun it before the impersonal verb ? 
 
 ADVERBS. 33, 34. 
 
 What is an adverb ? Into what classes have adverbs been di- 
 f ided ? What is the chief use of adverbs ? What kind of adverbs 
 idmit of comparison ? What adverbs are compared irregularly ? 
 (Give examples of words made into adverbs, by prefixing a). 
 What are as and so in comparisons ? What is an adverbial 
 phrase ? How is there used at the beginning of a sentence ? 
 How is an adverb parsed ? 
 
QUESTIONS. 225 
 
 PREPOSITIONS. 35. 
 
 What is a preposition ? Of the related words, what is that be* 
 fore the preposition called ? that after it ? Why are words of 
 this class called prepositions ? (Give a list of prepositions). What 
 case does a preposition require after it ? What does a preposition 
 become when it has no object? Are prepositions ever understood? 
 (Give an example). What are inseparable prepositions ? (Name 
 them),* How are prepositions parsed ? 
 
 INTERJECTIONS. 36. 
 
 What is an interjection ? Have interjections any grammatical 
 connection with other words in a sentence ? What is the differ- 
 ence between and Oh? How are interjections parsed ? 
 CONJUNCTIONS. 37. 
 
 What is a conjunction ? Into what classes are conjunctions 
 divided ? What is the use of copulative conjunctions ? of dis- 
 junctive ? What are the principal copulatives disjunctives ? 
 What does and denote ? What do or and nor denote ? How are 
 conjunctions parsed? 
 
 PARSING. 38, 39. 
 
 What is parsing ? How is one part of speech to be distin- 
 guished from another ? How do we know when a word is a noun ? 
 an adjective ? a pronoun ? a verb ? an adverb ? a preposi- 
 tion* an interjection ? a conjunction ? What are the general 
 principles to be kept in view in parsing ? Give specimens of 
 parsing. 
 
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 Of all the German Grammars we have ever examined, this is the most modest and 
 Unpretending, and yet ; t contains a system and a principle which is the life of it, aa 
 tlcar, as practical, as effective for learning grammar as any thing we have ever seen 
 \>ut forth, with so much more pret nse of originality and show of philosophy. II 
 vvill be found, too, we thnk, that the author has not only presented a new idea ol 
 r nuch interest in itself, bu.< has admirably carried it out in the practical lessons and 
 zeroises of his work. 
 
 From PROF J. FOSTER, of Schenectady. 
 
 1 nave examined Prof. Feigner's German Grammar with some attention; have 
 marked with interest the rapio advancement of students here using it as a text-book., 
 and have myself carefully tested it in the instruction of a daughter eleven years c. 
 age. The result is a conviction that it is most admirably adapted to secure easy, 
 pleasant, and real progress, and fhat from no other work which has come under mj 
 notice can so satisfactory a knowledge of the language be obtained in a gi/en time 
 
THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE 
 STAMPED BELOW 
 
 AN INITIAL FINE OF 25 CENTS 
 
 WILL BE ASSESSED FOR FAILURE TO RETURN 
 THIS BOOK ON THE DATE DUE. THE PENALTY 
 WILL INCREASE TO SO CENTS ON THE FOURTH 
 DAY AND TO $1.OO ON THE SEVENTH DAY 
 OVERDUE. 
 
 SEP 111934 
 
 
 JAN 16 1935 
 
 
 fta-+uJ '/i'-j3J* 
 
 
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 FEB 9 193 1 
 
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 OCT *v 
 
 
 W0f * 134$ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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 LD 21-100m-7,'33 
 
YA 003!;- 
 
 

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