/^ r ^ ^ Mfs ^A- s?S ^:^^m^ r ^V>.' ■ -.. A AAA-A ..0 1 <^g . ^ LI BR ARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA. Received Cy/rr2/ ^ , i8(^67' i A ccessions No^^ ^ J. fiS shelf No. '^^3- - ■ f I ^f '^ 6^ — 6^(\6ci OLCO/lf ^ ^^a, >c>c/ Digitized by tine Internet Archive in 2007 witin funding from IVIicrosoft Corporation http://www.arcliive.org/details/elementarygreekgOOgoodricli AN ELEMENTARY GREEK GRAMMAR. BY WILLIAM W. GOODWIN, Ph.D., ELIOT PROFESSOR OF GREEK LITERATURE IN HARVARD COLLEGE. REVISED AND ENLARGED EDITION. BOSTaN': GINN AND HEATH. 1881. Copyright^ 1879, By William W. Goodwin. l^^' , PREFACE This Grammar is partly a revised edition of the Elementary Greek Grammar published in 18T0, and partly an independent work. The part whicl; precedes the Inflection of the Verb contains the substance of the former edition revised and enlarged, with many additions to the Paradigms. The part relating to the Inflection of the Verb, §§ 88 — 127, has been entirely re-written, and increased from fifty to one hundred pages. Part III., on the Formation of Words, is entirely new. The Syn- tax is in most parts substantially the same as in the former edition ; but some changes and numerous addi- tions have been made, the chief increase being in the sections on the Prepositions. Part V., on Versification, is almost entirely new, and is based to a great extent on the Rhythmic and Metric of J. H. H. Schmidt, which has just been published in an English translation by Professor J. W. White. I have not followed Schmidt, however, in making all iambic and anapaestic verses trochaic and dactylic ; and I have followed the ancient authorities in recognizing cyclic anapaests as well as cyclic dactyls. I have adopted the modern doctrine of log-aoedic verses, which enlarges their dominion and reduces them to a uniform f measure, thus avoiding iv PREFACE. many of the incongruities which beset the common theory of these verses. The Catalogue of Verbs is increased from nineteen to thirty-two pages, and contains a greater number of verbs and gives the forms more completely than the former one. The object has still been to present only the strictly classic forms of each verb, and thereby to save the learner from a mass of detail which he may never need. It is surprising how simple many formidable verbs become when all later and doubtful forms are removed. In pre- paring the Catalogue I liave relied constantly on Veitch's Greek Verbs, Irregular and Defective, a work in the Clarendon Press Series, for which every classical scholar will bless the author. It will be seen that the enlargement has been made chiefly in the part relating to the Inflection of the Verb. There I have adopted (§ 108) the division of verbs in w into eight classes which is employed by G. Curtius : this reduces many of the apparent irregularities of the Greek verb to rule and order. In the former edition I adopted Hadley's addition of a class of " reduplicating " verbs. I have omitted this class as unnecessary in my present arrangement. Of the six verbs (apart from verbs in fit and verbs in cr/co)) which composed this class, ^u^voy^ai^ X(TX<^i and iriirTCti are now assigned by Curtius to his " mixed class " ; the first syllable of tUtgd is now not considered a reduplication by Curtius ; filfivo) is used only in the present stem ; while rirpday seern^s too late a form to affect classification. The chief innovation which I have now ventured to make in the classification of Cur- tius relates to the large class of verbs which add e- to the PREFACE. V stem in certain tenses not belonging to the present stem. I have no thought of disputing the remark of Curtius that this phenomenon and the addition of e- in the pres- ent stem (as in Bok-, So/ce-o)) are to be explained on simi- lar principles. But it seems obvious that the former is not, like the latter, a process by which the present stem is formed from the simple stem, and it therefore has no place in the classification which we are here considering. Further, the addition of €- in other tenses than the pres- ent occurs in every one of the eight classes of Curtius, so that it must confuse the classification to introduce it there at all. I have therefore included this among the modifications of the stem explained in § 109, thus class- ing it with such phenomena as the addition of a- in certain verbs and other modifications which affect only special tenses. (See § 109, 8.i) In § 120, 1, I have followed the doctrine of F. D. Allen, stated in the American Philological Transactions for 1873 (pp. 5-19), by which Homeric forms like opoay for opdco are explained by assimilation. I fear I may have offended many scholars in giving the present stems of Xvgj, \eyco, XetTro), &c. as Xv-, X67-, Xetir-^ &c., and not as \vo(e)-, \e-, Xey-, Xetw-, &c. present stems, evidently thinking the other forms too cumbrous for a school-book. I have had no hesitation in following his example. The sections on the Syntax of the Verb contain a con- densed statement of the principles which I have explained at greater length in a larger work. Syntax of the Moods and Tenses of the Greek Verb^ to which I must refer more advanced students, and especially teachers, for a fuller exposition of this subject.^ I must still confess myself unable to give any general definitions which shall include all the uses of either the indicative, the subjunctive, or the optative, and yet be accurate enough to meet modern scientific demands. The truth must be recognized that these moods were not invented deliberately to express certain definite classes of ideas to the exclusion of all others, and then always held rigidly to these pre-deter- mined uses. On the contrary, their various uses grew up gradually, as language was developed and found new ideas to express. Both the Greek and the Latin inherited most of their modal forms through a line of ancestors now lost, 1 For a still fuller explanation of the classification of conditional sen- tences here introduced, with the corresponding arrangement of relative clauses, I must refer to articles in the Transactions of the American Philo- logical Association for 1873 and 1876, printed also in the Journal of Phi- lology, Vol. V. No. 10, pp. 186-205, and Vol. viii. No. 15, pp. 18-38, PREFACE. VU and each language employed these forms, partly in con- formity with tradition, and partly to suit its own peculiar needs and tendencies of thought. We must have a far better knowledge of the uses of the moods in the original Indo-European tongue and of the earliest uses in both Greek and Latin than we are likely ever to get from our present stock of material, before we can hope to trace historically each use of the moods in the classic languages. Investigations made through the Sanskrit, like those of Delbriick, are looking in the right direction ; but scholars differ widely in their interpretation of the results thus obtained, and the moods are used too vaguely in Sanskrit (compared with Greek or Latin) to be decisive in the comparison. We know enough, however, not to be sur- prised when we find the same idea expressed in Latin by the past tenses of the subjunctive, and in Greek by the past tenses of the indicative, especially when we find the two constructions coincide in a few instances in Homeric Greek. Much that is contained in the Notes of this Grammar, especially all in the smallest type, is intended to be used for reference, or to be read by the more interested pupils as they study the remainder of the book. A great change has gradually come upon the study of grammar in these practical days ; and no teacher (it is hoped) now believes in cramming pupils in advance with grammatical details which they are not expected to use or even understand until they have learnt the language in some other way. I am strongly of the opinion that a pupil should begin to translate easy sentences from Greek into English and from English into Greek as soon as he has learnt the forms ^'^^li PREFACE. absolutely necessary for tlie process. The true time to. teach each principle of grammar (beyond the most general rules, which every student of Greek will have already) is the moment when the pupil is to meet with it in reading or writing ; and no grammar which is not thus illustrated as it is taught ever becomes a reality to the pupil. But* it is not enough for a learner merely to meet each con- struction or form in isolated instances ; for he may do this repeatedly, and yet know little of the general principle which the single example partially illustrates. Men saw apples fall and the moon and planets roll ages before the principle of gravitation was thought of. It is necessary, therefore, not merely to bring the pupil face to face with the facts of a language by means of examples carefully selected to exhibit them, but also to refer him to a state- ment of the general principles which show the full meaning of the facts and their relation to other prin- ciples.^ In other words, systematic practice in reading and writing must be supplemented from the beginning by equally systematic reference to the grammar. Mechanics are not learnt by merely observing the working of levers and pulleys, nor is chemistry by watching experiments on gases; although no one would undertake to teach either without such practical illustrations. I have, there- fore, no faith in classical scholarship which is not based on a solid foundation of grammar ; while I still believe that more attention to practical illustration than has generally been paid is urgently needed, and that the ^ These objects seem to me to "be admirably attained in the First Lessons in Greek, which was prepared by my colleague, Professor J. W. White, to be used in connection with this Grammar. PREFACE. IX study of grammar may tlius be relieved of most of its traditional terrors and made what it should be, a means, not an end. These remarks apply especially to syntax, the chief principles of which have always seemed to me more profitable for a pupil in the earlier years of his classical studies than the details of vowel-changes and exceptional forms which are often thought more seasona- ble. The study of Greek syntax, properly pursued, gives the pupil an insight into the processes of thought of a highly cultivated people ; and while it stimulates his own powers of thought, it teaches him habits of more careful expression by making him familiar with many forms of statement more precise than those to which he is accustomed in his own language. The Greek syntax, as it was developed and refined by the Athenians, is a most important chapter in the history of thought, and even those whose classical studies are limited to the rudiments cannot afford to neglect it entirely. One of the best practical illustrations of any language, ancient or modern, one which is available even for those who have no teachers, is committing to memory passages of its best literature, and using them as a basis for both oral and written exercises. This "natural method," which has proved so successful in teaching modern languages, can be made of great advantage in classical education by a skilful teacher ; although I am convinced that in the ancient languages it should always be accompanied by careful grammatical study, and especially by constant reference to a systematic grammar. As an important aid, however, it cannot be too highly commended, and it can hardly begin too early. X PREFACE. I have not thought that the subject of Pronunciation, in its only practical form, belongs properly to Greek grammar. The question of the ancient sound of the Greek letters is too extensive, and involves too much learned discussion and controversy, to be treated in a work like this. A very different question, it seems to me, is the practical one. How are boys to be taught to pronounce Greek in our schools? Even if we had a complete ancient account of Greek pronunciation, — ' which we are very far from having, — it would be a much harder task to teach boys of the present day to follow it than it would be to teach them to pronounce French or German by rules without the help of the voice. The chief practical considerations here are simplicity and uniformity. For more than a generation, until very re- cently, there has been no system of pronouncing Greek in the United States which could claim notice on the ground of uniformity. Only our oldest scholars remember the prevalence of the so-called " English system," which uses Englisji vowel-sounds and Latin accents ; and this would now be unintelligible in most of our schools and colleges. My own efforts have been exerted merely towards bringing some order out of this chaos. Our scholars have generally assumed that the written accents should be used ; and, whatever theory of ancient accent we may hold, it will be admitted that the Greeks marked the first syllable of dvOpcoiroi, and the Romans the first syllable of homines, in the same way. The English vowel- sounds are not easily combined with Greek accents, especially when a short penultimate is accented, as in TTpayfidrcDV* Harvard College has for the past eighteen PREFACE. Xi years recommended schools to use the Greek accents, and to pronounce a as ct in father, rj and e as e in fete and men, t as i in machine, leaving further details to each teacher's discretion. The American Philological Asso- ciation has twice recommended the same; and to this extent some degree of uniformity has thus been secured within the last ten years. The other sounds have generally remained as they are in the English system, with the exception of ov, which is generally pronounced like ou in group. Perhaps the majority pronounce av like ou in house (as the Germans do). To those who ask my advice, I am in the habit of recommending the following system, which I follow chiefly from its simplicity, and because it is adopted by more scholars in the United States than any other, not pretending that all the sounds (^e.g-. those of €L and the aspirated consonants) rest on a scientific basis: — a as a in father, 7; as e in fete, e as e in men, i as i in machine, « as o in note, v as French u; short vowels merely shorter than the long vowels ; — a* as at in aisle, et as ei in height, 01 as oi in oil, vt as ui in quit or wi in with, av as ou in house, ev as eu in feud, ov as ou in group; a, 77, ft), like a, t}, co; — the consonants as in English, except that 7 before /c, 7, f, and x ^^^ the sound of n, but elsewhere is hard; that 6 is always like th in thin; and that ^ i^ always hard, like German ch. I have always pronounced f like English z, but it would prob- ably be more correct to give it the sound of soft ds (not that of German z), as it is a double consonant (§ 6, 2). Many scholars prefer to pronounce ei like ei in eight ; and this has much to be said in its favor on several xu PREFACE. grounds. I do not think we have any positive knowl- edge of the sound of et before it reached the sound of i (our ee), and I have held to that of ei in height simply to avoid another change from, both English and German usage. I need not enumerate here the familiar works to which I am indebted for most of the facts of Greek Grammar. These have been collected so often and so thoroughly, that there is little room for originality except in the form of presentation. The best examples of every principle have already been used scores of times, and I have never hesitated to use them again. I must again acknowledge my deep obligations to the late Professor Hadley for his kind permission to use the valuable material in his pub- lished works, and for the friendly aid and advice on which I constantly depended for many years. The influ- ence of his profound learning and his noble example will long survive in American scholarship. I am greatly indebted to all who have given me their counsel during the preparation of this book. I must mention particularly Professors F. D. Allen, Addison Hoge, M. W. Humphreys, and J. W. White. Professor Caskie Harrison of Sewanee, Tennessee, has done me the great kindness of sending me an elaborate criticism of Part I. and the whole Syntax of my former edition, with discussions of many of the most important points. I have often been aided by his remarks in revising these portions of my work ; and even when I could not agree with his opinions, his criticisms have shown me some weak points in my former state- ments. PREFACE. xni My special thanks are due to Mr. Henry Jackson, of Trinity College, Cambridge, who has kindly read the proofs of the English edition, published at the same time with this, and has given me many valuable suggestions during the printing. W. W. GOODWIN. Harvard College, Cambridge, October, 1879. CONTENTS, Page iNTRODrcTiON. — The Greek Language and Dialects ... 1 PART I.— LETTERS, SYLLABLES, AND ACCENTS. § 1. The Alphabet 6 §§ 2, 3. Vowels and Diphthongs 6 § 4. Breathings 6, 7 §§ 5-7. Consonants and their Divisions 7, 8 § 8. Collision of Vowels. — Hiatus ...... 8 § 9. Contraction of Vowels 8-10 § 10. Synizesis 10 § 11. Crasis 10, 11 § 12. Elision . 11, 12 § 13. Movable Consonants 12 § 14. Metathesis and Syncope ....... 13 §§ 15-17. Euphony of Consonants 13-16 § 18. Syllables and their Division 17 §§ 19, 20. Quantity of Syllables 17, 18 §§ 21-23. General Principles of Accent . . . . . 18-20 § 24. Accent of Contracted Syllables . . . ' . . . 20, 21 § 25. Accent of Nouns and Adjectives 21, 22 § 26. Accent of Verbs . . 22, 23 §§ 27, 28. Enclitics . .23,24 § 29. Proclitics . 24, 25 § 30. Dialectic Changes in Letters 25 §31. Punctuation-Marks 25 xvi CONTENTS. PART IL— INFLECTION. § 32. Definitions. — Inflection, Boot, Stem, Ending ... 26 § 33. Numbers, Genders, Cases 26, 27 NOUNS. § 34. Three Declensions of Nouns 28 §§ 35, 36. Stems and Terminations of First Declension . . .28, 29 § 37. Paradigms of First Declension 29, 30 § 38. Contract Nouns of First Declension 30, 31 § 39. Dialects of First Declension 31 §§ 40, 41. Stems and Terminations of Second Declension . . 31, 32 § 42. 1. Paradigms of Second Declension 32, 33 2. Attic Second Declension 33 § 43. Contract Nouns of Second Declension . . . . 33, 34 § 44. Dialects of Second Declension 34 § 45. Stems and Case-endings of Third Declension . . .34, 35 Note. Comparison of Case-endings in the Three Declensions 35 § 46. Nominative Singular of Third Declension .... 36, 37 § 47. Accusative Singular of Third Declension . . , . 37 § 48. Vocative Singular of Third Declension .... 38 § 49. Dative Plural of Third Declension 39 § 50. Paradigms of Nouns of Third Declension with Mute or Liquid Stems 39-41 §§ 51-56. Paradigms of Nouns of Third Declension with Stems in S or Vowel Stems (chiefly contract) .... 42-47 § 57. Syncopated Nouns of Third Declension . . , . 47, 48 § 58. Gender of Third Declension 49 § 59. Dialects of Third Declension 49 § 60. Irregular Nouns . 49-52 § 61. Local Endings, -di, -dev, -Se, &c 52 ADJECTIVES. §§ 62-64. Adjectives of the First and Second Declensions . . 63, 54 § 65. Contract Adjectives of the First and Second Declensions . 54-56 § 66. Adjectives of the Third Declension 56, 57 § 67. First and Third Declensions combined .... 57-59 § 68. Participles in -a Alpha B b Brjra Beta r y g rdfifia Gamma / A 8 d Aekra Delta E € e (^shorf) *E -y^Ikov Epsilon Z r z Zr)Ta Zeta H V e (long) "Hra Eta e e^ th Grjra Theta I c i ^Icora Iota K K k or hard c KaiTira Kappa A \ 1 Adfi^Ba Lambda M /* m Mv Mu N V n Nv m H f X m Xi o (short) *0 fUKpOV Omicron n TT P m Pi p P r 'p& Rho X G 9 s Styfia Sigma T T t Tav Tau T V u or y 'r yjrlXdv Upsilon $ ^ pb ^l ' Phi X X kb XI Chi w ^ ps Wl Psi n Q) (long) "il ixerfa Omega Remark. The Greek v was represented by the Latin y, and was prob- ably pronounced somewhat like the French u or the German ti. For remarks on Pronunciation see the Preface. 6 LETTERS, SYLLABLES, AND ACCENTS. [§ 2. Note 1. At the end of a word the form s is used, elsewhere the form 0-; thus, avo-Taa-is. Note 2. Two obsolete letters — Vau or Digamma (F or g) equivalent to V or W, and Koppa (

) with c forms the (so called) im- proper diphthongs a, rj, «. The Ionic dialect has also a diphthong wu. Note. In a, 77, a, the t is now written below the first vowel, and is called iota subscript. But with capitals it is written in the line ; as in THI KQMQIAIAI, r^ Kcona^ia, and in '^Qix^to, cox^ro. This i was written as an ordinary letter as long as it was pronounced, that is, until the first century B.C. BREATHINGS. § 4. 1. Every vowel or diphthong at the beginning of a Avord has either the rovgh breathing (') or the smooth breathing ('). The rough breathing shows that the vowel is aspirated^ i.e. that it is preceded by the sound § 6.] CONSONANTS. 7 of Ji ; the smooth breathing shows that the vowel is not aspirated. Thus opwvy seeing^ is pronounced horon ; but opiaVi of mountains^ is pronounced or on. Note 1. A diphtliong takes the breathing (like the accent) upon its second vowel. But a, »;, and a take it upon the first vowel, even when the i is written in the line. Thus oi^cTai, evcbpalvco, Ai/lkoi/; but wx^ro or "nLxeTo, aSw or "Aibco, ydeiv or "HiSeiv. On the other hand, the breathing of didios CAidios) shows that a and i do not form a diphthong. • Note 2. The rough breathing was once denoted by H. When this character was taken to denote long e (which once was not distinguished from e), half of it I was used for the rough breathing ; and afterwards the other half i was used for the smaoth breathing. From- these fragments came the later signs ' and '. 2. The consonant p is generally written p at the begin- ning of a word. In the middle of a word pp is often written pp. Thus prjrcop (rhetor), orator ; dpp7}To or ^, where it has the sound of v, as in ayKvpa (ancora) , anchor. 2. The mutes are of three orders ; — smooth mutes, tt, k, t, middle mutes, y8, y, 8, row^A mutes, <^, x> 0. These again correspond in the folio wihg classes : — labial mutes, tt, )8, 0, palatal mutes, k, y, x> lingual mutes, t, S, ^. Note. Mutes of the same ord^r are called co-ordinate ; those of the same class are called cognate. The smooth and rough mutes, with 0-, I, and >//-, are called surd (hushed sounds) ; the other con- sonants and the vowels are called sonant. § 7. The only consonants which can stand at the end of a Greek word are v, p, and s. If others are left at the end in forming words (cf. § 46, 1), they are dropped. Note. Tiie only exceptions are found in the proclitics (§ 29) tK and ovK (or ov^), which have other forms, e^ and ou. Final | and >/r (ko- and tto-) are no exceptions. EUPHONY OF VOWELS. COLLISION OF VOWELS. HIATUS. § 8. A succession of two vowel sounds, not forming a diph- thong was generally displeasing to the Athenians. In the middle of a word this could be avoided by contraction (§9). Between two words — where it is called hiatus, and was especially offensive — it could be avoided by crasis (§ 11), by elision (§ 12), or by adding a movable consonant (§ 13) to the former word. CONTRACTION OF VOWELS. § 9. Two successive vowels, or a vowel and a diphthong, are often united by contraction in a single long vowel or a §9.] EUPHONY OF VOWELS. ^ diphthong ; as ^iXeco, l\w ; <}>l\€€, iX5)(rL ; TLfidofJiev, rt/xw/xcv ; rifjidiafjievy t(,/x(u/acv ; SrjXoia, 8rjX,(o ; — but yei'eos, yevovs ; ttAoos, irXovs ; voc, vov. Note. In contract adjectives in oos (§ 65) o is dropped before a and T]y M and 3 ; as dTrXoo, drrXa ; dTrXojy, d^rX^ ; dTrXoat, dTrXat ; dTrXd^;, drrXj}. 3. If the two vowels are a and c (or rj), the first vowel sound prevails, and we have d or rj. Aa gives d, €>/ or rje gives 1; ; but €€ gives «. Thus, cri/Aac, ert/xa ; rt/Aai^c, Tt/xdre ; rci^^ctx, rei^^ ; /xvaa, /Avd ; ^tXei/rc, ^tX^rc ; TiftijcvTOS, Tt/x^vros ; €<^tXcc, c^tXct. Note. In the first and second declensions, ca becomes 5 in the dual and plural, and in all numbers after a vowel or p (§§ 38, 65) ; it also becomes d in the third declension whenever it follows a vowel (§52, 2, N. 2; § 53, 3, N. 3). In the dual of the third declension ee sometimes becomes ?; (§ 52, 2; § 53, 1, N. 2). In the accusative plural of the third declension eds generally becomes eis (§ 51, 2). 4. A vowel disappears by absorption before a diphthong beginning with the same vowel. Further, c is always ab- sorbed before 01, and in contract nouns and adjectives also before at. In other cases, a simple vowel followed by a diph- thong is contracted with the Jirst vowel of the diphthong, and the second vowel disappears unless it can be retained as iota subscript (§ 3) in a, 17, or w. Thus, /avaat, /xvat ; /xma, fjiva.; <^tX€€t, <^tXet ; (fiiXe^i <^t^0 j S-qXooiy 8rj\oL ; voo), vw ; 8rjX6ov, SrjXov ; <^iXeot, iko2 ; )(pv(r€OLj xP^^-ot ; ^(pvo-cat, xpva-ai (cf. aTrXoat, 10 LETTERS, SYLLABLES, AND ACCENTS. [§10. aTrXat) ; Ttjaact, Tifxa. ; Tifxay, Tijxa ; TL/xdoL, Ttuw ; Ttfxdov, rt/xco ; cjiiXeov, (faXov ', Aveat, Xvrj (v. Note 1) ; XvrjaL, Xvy ', fiefjivrjoiOy jjLe/MV<^o ; TrAttKoets, 7rXaKo9s (v. N. 2). Note 1. In the second person singular of the passive and middle, eai (for ecrai) gives a form in et as well as that in tj ; as Xveai, Xvrj or Xvei. (See § 113, 2, N. 1.) Note 2. In verbs in do), oct and o?/ give ot; as brjXoeis, driXols'^ brjXoT}, drfXol (cf. aTrXorj, aTrXfj, 2, Note). Infinitives in deiv and dfti' lose I in the contracted form; as rifxaeivy Tifxau; drjXoeiv, 8r)\ovp (§ 98, N. 5). 5. The close vowels (t and v) are contracted with a follow- ing vowel in some forms of nouns in tg and vs of the third declension. (See § 53, 1, N. 3 ; § 53, 2.) Remark. In some classes of nouns and adjectives of the third declen- sion, contraction is confined to certain cases ; see §§ 53, 67. For exceptions in the contraction of verbs see § 98, Notes 1, 2, 3. STNIZESIS. § 10. In poetry, two successive vowels, not forming a diphthong, are sometimes united in pronunciation for the sake of the metre, without being contracted. This is called si/ni- zesis (a-vvilrjo-L^, settling together). Thus, ^cot may make but one syllable in poetry ; a-T^Oea or -xpva-iio may make but two. CRASIS AND ELISION. §11.-1. A vowel or diphthong at the end of a word is often contracted with one at the beginning of the following word. This is called crasis (Kpdcns, mixture). The coronis (') is placed over the contracted S3-Ilable. The first of the two words is generally an article, a relative pronoun, or KaL Crasis generally follows the laws of contraction (§9), but with these modifications : — {a.) A diphthong at the end of th^ first word drops its last vowel before crasis takes place. §12.] CRASIS AKD ELISION. . 11 (b) The article drops its final vowel or diphthong in crasis before a. The particle roc drops ot before a ; and kul drops at before rjy av, evj ovj and the words €i, cts, ot, at. 2. The following are examples of crasis : — To ovofiOf ToxSvofia'^ to, ayadd, raya^a; ro evavrlov, rovvavriov'^ 6 e/c, ovk; 6 eVt, ov7ri\ to Ifiariov, Bolfidriov (§ 17, 1); a av, av'^ koL av, Kiivj Koi dra, mra'^ — 6 dvr)p, dvrjp; oi dbeXcfiOL, ddeX(Poi'^ ra dv8pi, rdvdpi'^ TO avro, TavTO ; tov avTov, tovtov 5 — rot dv^ tov (^p.evToi dv, fxevTav) ; rot dpay Tapa] — kol uvtos, kuvtos', koL avTrj, ;(avr7/ (§ 17, 1); Kai et, Kel ; Koi ov, Kov \ KOL oi, xol ? KOL at, ■)(al' So €yo> oiSa, eycoda | Si duBpcoTrCj a>v6p(OTr€ I Tjj iirap^y Trjirapfj j 7rpoex^^> irpov^oiv. Note 1. K the first word is an article or relative with the rough breathing, this breathing is retained on the contracted syllable, taking the place of the coronis ; as in dv, dvrjp. ISToTE 2. In crasis, erepos takes the form dreposf —whence Barepovy BaTepcOykc. (§11, 1, &; §17,1.) Note 3. Crasis, like contraction (§ 10), may be left to pronun- ciation in poetry. Thus, p.r] ov makes one syllable in poetry; so p.r) eldevaiy ijrel ov. Note 4. A short vowel at the beginning of a word is sometimes dropped after a long vowel or a diphthong. This is called aphaeresis {dtpaipea-iSy taking off^. Thus, /x?) 'yco for pJi] eyco; ttoO Vrij/ for ttoO IdTiv 5 eycb '(fidvTjv for iya> €, ^aA:e honey, from stem peXtr- of peXt, honey (cf. Latin me^), by syncope pXir-, p/3Xir-, /3Xir-, ^Xltt, )(x, and 66. Thus ^a7r(x)f BaK;(09, Kar6av€tv, not %a-8r]v). IleTreicr- TttL (TTCTTCLO-Tai), €7reLcrdr}P (JiveiO-Orjv), fjCTTai, (^d-Tai), I'oTe (Id-re^. IsToTE 1. 'Ek, /rom, in composition retains k unchanged; as in Note 2. No combinations of different mutes, except those here included and those mentioned in § 15, 1, are allowed in Greek. When any such arise, the first mute is dropped; as in TreVetKa (for TreTreiO-Ka). When y stands before k or ;(, as in o-vy-xeo) {(xvv and j^eo)), it is not a mute but a nasal (§ 6, 1). 2. No mute can stand before o- except tt and k (in \p and ^) . B and <^ become ir before o- ; y and x become k ; t, 8, and d are dropped. E.g. Tpiyjroi (for rpL^-o-ai), ypdyjra) (for ypa(j)-cra)), Xe^co (for Xey-cro)) VTfiVo) (for Tret^-crco), acrco (for aS-crco), croDp-aai (for cro)p.ar-ai), eXTri'crt (for iknid-o-i). So (i)\€\//> (tor (fiXef3-s), iXiris (for ep^TrtS-s), w^ (for i/vxr-s). See examples under § 46, 2. 3. Before /x, a labial mute (tt, /3, iai), Terptfifxai (for Terpi^-p-ai), yiypappai (for y€ypa(f)-ixaL), TreVXey/xat (for 7re7rXeK-/xat), Terevyfiai (forVeTev^- /xai), ^(T/xai (for rjd-fiai), Treneia-fJiai (for 7re7rei^-/xat). Note. When yy^t or /i/i^a would thus arise, they are shortened to y/A or )it;ti ; as eX^yxw, eXi^Xey-fiai, (for ^\7?Xeyx-yu,ai, iXTjXeyy-fiat) ; KdfnrTw, KiKafi- fiat (for K€Ka/jiTr-/j,ai, KeKafXfi-fiat) ; tt^/attw, ir^Trefifxai (for TreTrefitr-fiai, irerrefiiX' fmc). (See § 97, N. 2.) 'Ek here also remains unchanged, as in iK-fiavddpca. ■ 4. In passive and middle endings, o- is dropped between two consonants. -£^.^. AeXft^^e (for XeXciTT-cr^f, § 16, 1), yeypa<^6e (for yeypac^-a^e), y€ypd) v becomes jw, ; before a palatal mute (k, y, -^ it becomes y (§ 6, 1). ^.^. 'EftTriTrra) (for eV-7ri7rrco), avfi^aLVOi (for avv-^aivo)), efxcfyavfjs (for €P- (for o-uv-^ew), avyyevrjs (for avv-yevrjs) . 6. Before another liquid v is changed to that liquid ; before o- it is generally dropped and the preceding vowel is length- ened (e to ct, o to ov) . J5J.^. 'EXXftTTCo (for eV-XetTTQ)) e/x/xei/o) (for €i/-fX€Vco), crvppeai (for (rvv-peco). MeXds {for fxeXav-s), els (for eV-y), Xvovai (for Xuo-vcn, § 112, 2, Note). So eo-7r6io--/xai (from o-7reVSco) for ecnrevd-fiai, icnreva-fiat (§ 16, 3). Note 1. The combinations irr, i/S, v^, are often dropped together before a (§ 16, 2 and 6), and the preceding vowel is lengthened, as above (§ 16, 6) ; as vrao-i (for iravT-ai), yiyds (for ytyavrs), Xeovcrt (for XfovT-cri), TiQelcri (dat. plur. for Tidevr-a-i), rideis (for TiBevr-s), dovs (for dovT-i), o-Treio-co (for o-Trei/S-o-o), Xvovaa (for Xuoi/r-o-a), Xv^eio-a (for XvBevr-ara) , Trdaa (for Trai^-tra). Note 2. N standing alone before on of the dative plural is dropped without lengthening the vowel; as daifioa-i (ioi daiixov-a-i). Compare ndai (for Travr-ai), N. 1. So j/r in adjectives in eis, but never in participles; as xaptfo"i (for )(api€VT-(Ti) ; but TiOela-i, as given above. Note 3. The preposition ev is not changed before o-, p, or f. 2vv becomes aver- before cr and a vowel, but o-u- before cr and a con- sonant or before ^. Thus, cVpaTrro), avao-iTos, av^vyos. NoTB 4. Some verbs in i/w change i/ to o- before fiai in the perfect middle (§ 109, 6, Note) as (f)alv(o, 7re(f)aa-fjiai (for 7r€ for Tapa;(-i-a); Kopvcra-co {Kopvd-), for Kopvd-L-oa. (b) A (sometimes y or yy) with i forms ^; as (^pd^-a (cf)pab-), for ; d^eivav (a/u.ei/-), better, for a/xej^-i-a)!/ ; x^'^P^^ (stem x^P~)» "^orse, for x^p-t-cov (§73); Kei-pco (xfp-), for Kep-i-oj; KpiW (/cpiv-), for Kptv-L-co (ti be- coming i) dfivpo) (afjLvv-), for a/ivi/-i-a); (riJpo) for (rvp-i-o) (u't becoming v). So fieXaLva (fem. of {xeXas, black, stem p-eXav-) for fifXav-i-a (§67); croDTeipa (fem. of acoTrjp, saving, saviour, stem, acorep-), tor aoyrep-i-a. § 17. 1. When a smooth mute (tt, k, t) is brought before a rough vowel (either by elision or in forming a compound word) , it is itself made rough. B.g, *A(f)iT]pLi (for dTr-lrjfii), Kadaipeo) (for Kar-aipeo)), a<^' Siv (for otto av), vvxff oXtjv (for vvKTa oXr)v, § 12, 1 ; §16,1). So in crasis, where the rough breathing may affect even a conso- nant not immediately preceding it. (See examples in § 11, 2.) Note. The Ionic dialect does not observe this principle, but has (for example) an'' ov, dnir)p.L (from dno and tqp.i). 2. In reduplications (§101, 1) an initial rough mute is always made smooth, to avoid two rough consonants in suc- cessive syllables. E.g. Ile(f)vKa (for (p€(f)vKa) , perfect of ^vo) ; Kexrjva (for x^X*/"") ' P^rf' of xao-Kco ; T€0r]Xa (for BedrjXa) , perf . of 6aKXa>. So in tl-Oijixi (for' ei-er]fii), § 121, 3. Note. A similar change takes place in a few verbs which origi- nally had two rough consonants in the stem ; as rpecfxo (stem Tpe0- for 6pi(\>-), nourish, fut. dpe-^^oa, aor. pass. Wpecftdrjv; rpexo (jpfX' ^'^^ 6p€X-)i ^"^' f^^- Ope^ofiai; erdcfirfv, from ddnrco (racf)- for da(})-), bury; see also OpvuTco, rv^co, and stem (jdan-), in the Catalogue of Verbs. So in eTvdrjv (for iOvBrjv) from Ovoi, and fTeOrjv (for eOeOrjv) from rlBrifii. So in Bpi^, hair, gen. rpixos (stem rpt^- for dpix') ; and in raxv9, swift, comparative dda-a-oiv for dax-ifov, § 16, 7, a). Here the first aspirate reappears whenever the second is lost. See § 110, VI. N. 3. 3. The ending 6l of the first aorist imperative passive be- comes Tt after Or]- of the tense stem (§ 116, 3) ; as XvOtjtl (for kvOrj-dt) , (jidvOrp-L (for (fiavO-q-OL) ; but d\rq-6i. §19.] QUANTITY OF SYLLABLE^^ 17 SYLLABLES. § 18. 1. A Greek word has as many syllables has separate vowels or diphthongs. The syllable next to the last is called the penult (pen-ultima, almost last') ; the one before the penult is called the antepenult. 2. A pure syllable is one whose vowel or diphthong immediately follows another vowel or diphthong ; as the last syllable of iXe(a, ol/cta, 'X^pvcreo'^. . Note. In most editions of the Greek authors, the following rules are observed in dividing syllables at the end of a line : — 1. Single consonants, combinations of consonants which can begin a word (which can be seen from the Lexicon) , and mutes followed by ft or V, are placed at the beginning of a syllable. Other combi- nations of consonants are divided : thus, c-;^o), e-yw, i-ane-pa, ve-Krap^ a-KpLT], de-a-p-os, p.(-Kp6vy rrpd-ypa-Tos, 7rpd(T-aa>, eX-Tris, iv-hov. 2. Compound words are divided into their original parts ; but when the final vowel of a preposition has been elided in compo- sition, the compound is divided like a simple word : thus Trpoa-d-yat (from irpos and ayco) ; but Tra-pd-yo) (from napd and ayco). QUANTITY OF SYLLABLES. § 19. 1. A syllable is long by nature when it has a long vowel or a diphthong ; as in rl/jbiji kt€lv(o. 2. A syllable is long by position when its vowel is fol- lowed by two consonants or a double consonant ; as in OpTV^. 3. When a vowel short by nature is followed by a mute and a liquid, the syllable is common (i.e, either long or short) ; as in t6kvov, vttvo^, v^pc<;. But in Attic poetry such a syllable is generally short ;" in other poetry it is generally long. Note 1. A middle mute (jS, y, b) before \. p,, ov v generally lengthens a preceding vowel ; as in dyuas, /3t/3Xioi/, boypa. 18 LETTERS, SYLLABLES, AND ACCENTS. [§20. Note 2. E in e/c is long when a liquid follows, either in compo- sition or in the next word ; as cKXeya, €k vccov (both -« -). § 20. The quantity of most syllables can be seen at once. Thus 7} and w and all diphthongs are long by nature ; c and o are short by nature. (See § 2.) When a, t, and v are not long by position, their quantity must generally be learned by observation. But it is to be remembered that 1. Every vowel arising from contraction or crasis is long; as a in yepd (for yepaa) , ctKcov (for a€K(i>v) , and kov (for Kttt av) . 2. The endings a? and v? are long when v or vr has been dropped 'before o- (§ 16, 6, and N. 1). 3. The accent often shows the quantity of a vowel. (See §21, 1; §22.) The quantity of the terminations of nouns and verbs will be stated below in the proper places. ACCENT. GENERAL PRINCIPLES. § 21. 1. There are three accents, the acute^ ('), the grave (^), and the circumflex ("). The acute' can stand only on one of the last three syllables of a word, the cir- cumflex only on one of the last two, and the grave only on the last. The circumflex can stand only on a syllable long by nature. Remark. The marks of accent were invented by Aristophanes of Byzantium, an Alexandrian scholar, about 200 b. c, in order to teach foreigners the correct accent in pronouncing Greek. By the ancient theory every syllable not having either the acute or the circumflex was said to have the grave accent ; and the circumflex, originally formed tlins '\ was said to result from the union of an acute and a following grnvf^. § 22.] ACCENT. 19 Note 1. The grave accent is rarely used except in place of the acute in the case mentioned in § 23, 1, and occasionally on the indefinite pronoun tIs, ti (§ 84). Note 2, The accent (like the breathing) stands on the second vowel of a diphthong. (See § 4; 1, Note 1.) 2. A word is called oxytone (^sharp-toned) when it has the acute on the last syllable ; par oxytone^ when it has the acute on the penult ; propar oxytone^ when it has the acute on the antepenult. A word is called perispomenon when it has the circumflex on the last sjdlable ; properispomenon^ when it has the circum- flex on the penult. These terms refer to the shape of the mark ( ^ " ~ ) as twisted^ or circumflexed^ Trepto-Troj/xei/o?. A word is called barytone {grave or flat-toned) when its last syllable has no accent, i.e. when (on the ancient theory) it has the grave accent. 3. When a word throws its accent as far back as possible (§ 22), it is said to have recessive accent. This is especially the case with verbs (§ 26). (See § 25, 1, Note.) § 22. 1. The antepenult cannot be accented if the last syllable is long either by nature or by position. If accented, it takes the acute ; as TreXe/cy?, avOpayiro^;. 2. The penult, if accented, takes the circumflex if it is long by nature and if at the same time the last syllable is short by nature; as firiXov, vrjcrof;, rj\i^. Otherwise, if accented, it takes the acute. Note 1. Final ai and oi are considered short in determining the accent; as avdpoonoi, vtjo-oc: except in the optative mood, and in the adverb o'lkoi, at home ; as rifxrjo-ai, ttolt^o-ol (not Tifirja-at or ttoItjo-oi). Note 2. Genitives in ews and ewv from nouns in is and uy of the third declension (§ 53, 1, N. 2), all cases of nouns and adjectives in ws and cju of the Attic second declension (§ 42, 2), and the Ionic "genitive in eui of the first (§ 39, 3), allow the acute on the antepenult ; as dvur/eioi/, voXeus, Trjpcu {Trjprjs). For ibairep, oWe, &e., see § 28, N. 3. 20 LETTERS, SYLLABLES, AND ACCENTS. [§23. § 23. 1. An oxytone changes its acute to the grave before other words in the same sentence ; as Tot'9 itovtj- poif^ dvOpco7rov<; (for tou? 7ropr)pov<; avOpcairov^i), Note. This change is not made before enclitics (§ 28) nor before an elided syllable (§ 24, 3), nor in the interrogative tLs^ tI (§ 84). It is generally made before a comma, but not before a colon. 2. When a dissyllabic preposition follows its case, it throws its accent back to the penult ; as tovtiov iripi, about these. This is called anastrophe {avaaTporj^ turning hack) . This occurs in Attic prose only with Trepi, but in the poets with All the dissyllabic prepositions except avd, hia, dfi(f)i, and dvri- In Homer it occurs when a preposition follows a verb from which it is separated by tmesis (§ 191, N. 3); as oXea-as ano, having destroyed. Anastrophe takes place also when a preposition stands for itself compounded with cVrtV ; as ndpa for Trdpfo-riv- ACCENT OF CONTRACTED SYLLABLES. § 24. 1 • A contracted syllable is accented if either of the original sjdlables had an accent. If it is a penult or ante- penult, the accent is regular (§ 22). If it is a final sjdlable, it is circnmflexed ; but if the original word had the acute on the last syllable, this is retained, ^.g. Tipdipevos from npaopevos, ^tXeire from (juXeere, ripS) from ripdoi ; but /3ej3a)s from /SejSawy. This proceeds from the ancient principle (§21, 1, Rem.) that the circumflex comes from ' and', never from * and ' ; so that ripdo) gives ri/ia>, but ^e^das gives ^f/3 for ^rjyX cyco, Acd/c' CTTJ; for p(»3P, compounds of (fipriv), and the neuter of comparatives in wv; as evbal- IJ.UP, eijdatfxov (§ 66); ^eXriuv, p^Xriov (§ 72, 2); but Sai(f)ppov : (c) many barytone compounds in 17s in all forms ; as aiiTapKTjs, adrapKes, gen. pi. avrdpKUJv ; v, Orjai- Note 1. Hois, child, Tpois, Trojan, Say, torch, bfias, slave, (^Ss, light, ous, ear, and a few others, violate the last rule in the genitive dual and plural ; so nas, all, in both genitive and dative plural : as TTOLS, naidos, naibi, Traicrt, but Traidcov ; ttcls, ttuvtos, ttuvtI, Travrcov, ttckti. Note 2. The interrogative ris, tIvos, t'lvi, &c., always accents the first syllable. So do all monosyllabic participles; as wi/, ovtos, ovtl, ovTcav, oval] ^ds, ^dvTos. Note 3. Some further exceptions occur in irregular nouns, and others will be noticed under the different declensions. accent of verbs. § 26- Verbs throw the accent as far back as the last syllable permits ; as ^ovXevut, /SovXevo/xev, j^ovXevova-tv ; 7rap€)(oy, 7rdp€)(€y d7ro8t8o)/>tt, aTrdSoTC. Note 1. This applies to compound as well as simple verbs. But the accent (in compound verbs) can never precede the augment : thus, irapiixov (not irdpnxov). So when the verb begins with a long vowel or a diphthong not augmented ; as i^evpov (not e^evpov). Note 2. Participles in their inflection are accented as nouns (§ 25, 1), not as verbs. Thus, ^ovXevav has in the neuter ^ovXevov (not ^ovXevov) ; cpiXecov, ^tXa>v, has (jiiXeop (not (piXeov), cfiiXovP (§ 69). Note 3. The chief exceptions to the principle just stated (§ 26) are these : — (1.) The following forms accent the penult : the first aorist active infinitive, the second aorist middle infinitive, the perfect passive infinitive and participle, and all infinitives in vai or fiev (except those in fxcvai). Thus, ^ovXevo-ai, yeveaOai, "KeXva-Bai, XeXv- fxevos, la-rdvai, dibovai, XeXvKevai, bofiev and dofxevm (both Epic for dovuai) . Add the compounds of So's, es, Bes, and crx^s ; as aTrdSos. (2.) The following forms have the acute on the last syllable: the second aorist active participle, participles in eis, ovs, vs, and as, and §2S.] EI^CLITICS. 28 present participles in as from verbs in fii. Thus, Xinav, XvBeis, didovs. deiKvvs, XeXvKois, lards (pres.), but Xvaas and arrjaas (aor.). Add the imperatives I8e, ctVe, eX^e, evpe, and Xa/Se. (3.) The following circumflex the last syllable : the second aorist active infinitive in eiv, and the second person singular of the second aorist middle imperative in ov, except when the latter is com- l)ounded with a dissyllabic preposition (not elided). Thus, Xmelvj XiTToi), npodoii, diroXov, d^-ov (but KardOov, irtpibov). Note 4. For optatives in oi and ai see § 22, Note 1. Some other exceptions occur, especially in iiTegular verbs (like ei>i and (pvf^.) See also § 122, N. 2. ENCLITICS. § 27. An enclitic is a word which loses its own accent, and is pronounced as if it were part of the preceding word ; as avOpwTTOL T€ (like Jwminesque in Latin) . The enclitics are : 1. The personal pronouns /xov (jaet'), //oi, /xc ; aov (a-io, o-cv)', a-oL (tol), o-e (re, rtV, tu, accus.) ; ov, ot, c, and (in poetry) icrL (with Ionic or poetic (r(f>i, a-cjiiv, e, (T^we, (r(f>(x)LVy cry^. 4. The particles ye, re, rot, 7r6p, vw (not vvv) ; and the Epic K€ (or KeV), ^ij»/, and pa. Also the inseparable -Be in o8c, Tovo-Se, &c. (not Se, &«<) ; and -^e and -^t in ct^e and vai^c (§28, N. 3). § 28. The word before an enclitic retains its own accent, and never changes a»final acute to the grave (§ 23, 1). 1 . If its last syllable is accented, the accent of the enclitic is merely dropped ; as rijxaL re, rifiwy re, ao6s rts, koXcus r]a-Lv. 24 LETTERS, SYLLABLES, AND ACCENTS. [§29. 2. If its last syllable is unaccented and it has not the acute on the penult, it receives from the enclitic an acute on the last syllable as an additional accent, while the enclitic loses its accent ; as avOponros ns, Set^ov /x,ot, TratSes Ttvcs, ovtos icmv, 3. If it has the acute on the penult, it receives no second accent. A monosyllabic enclitic here drops its accent ; a dissyllabic enclitic retains it. Thus, rovrov yc, ttoo-os rt?, dvbp€y]s, Kai, dXX' (for dXXa), and tovt (for TOVTO). Note 2. When several enclitics occur in succession, each takes an acute from the following, the last remaining without accent; as ci Tis ri (Tol (l>r]criv, if any one is saying anything to you. Note 3. When an enclitic forms the last part of a compound word, the compound is accented as if the enclitic were a separate word. Thus, ovtlpos, wrivi, divrivav, aa-Trep, &(tt€, ol8e, Tovade, eire, oijT€, pfjT€j are only apparent exceptions to § 22. PROCLITICS. § 29, A proclitic is a word which has no accent, and is pronounced as if it were part of the following word. The proclitics are the articles 6, y, oi, at, and the particles ci, ws, ov {ovK, ovx), "S (es)? ^K (e|), ev {dv) . Note 1. Ov takes the acute at the end of a sentence; as ttws yap ov] for why not? 'Q.s and sometimes ck and cV take the acute when ^in poetry) they follow their noun; as /caiceoi/ €^,from evils ; Beos coy, I as a God. 'ils is accented also when itmeans thus ; as &>? elTTev,thus he spoke. This use of coy is chiefly poetic; but Koi wy, even thus, and V ov8* &s or pr}b' &s, not even thus, sometimes occur in Attic prose. §81.] DIALECTIC CHANGES IN LETTERS. 25 Note 2. When 6 is used for the relative os (§ 140), it is accented (as in Od, ii. 262) ; and many editors accent all articles when they are demonstrative, as in //. i. 9, o yap ^ao-iXrji xoXw^eis. DIALECTIC CHANGES IN LETTERS. § 30. 1. The Ionic dialect is marked by the use of rf where the Attic has d ; and the Doric by the use of d where the Attic has ry. Thus, Ionic yeverj for yevca, Irja-Ofiat for Ida-OfxaL (from tao/x,at, § 109, 1) ; Doric Tt/xdcrw for rt/Ar^o-w (from ri/Aao)) . But an Attic d caused by contraction (as in Tifxd from Tt/xac) , or an Attic -q lengthened from € (as in (^tArjorw from KJxXio)) , § 109, 1), is never thus changed. 2. The Ionic often has «, ov, for Attic c, o ; and -^t for Attic €L in nouns and adjectives in eto?, eiov ; as ^cti/os for ^cVos, ixovvoirr}^^ the fox. Note 3. The gender must often be learned by observation. But names of males are generally masculine, and names of females fem- inine. Most names of rivers^ winds, and months are masculine; and most names of countries, to2vns, trees, and islands are feminine. Most nouns denoting qualities or conditions are feminine ; as 17 dperr], virtue, eXnU, hope. Diminutive nouns are neuter; as Traihlov, child. Other rules are given under the declensions (§§ 35, 40, 58) and in § 129. 3. There are five cases; the nominative, genitive, dative^ accusative, and vocative. The nominative and vocative phiral are always alike. In neuters, the nominative, accusative, and vocative are alike in all numbers ; and in the plural these cases end in a. The nominative, accusative, and vocative dual are always alike ; and the genitive and dative dual are always alike. Note 1. The cases have in general the same meaning as the cor- responding cases in Latin ; as Nom. a man (as subject) , Gen. of a man, Dat. to or for a man, Accus. a man (as object), Voc. man. The chief functions of the Latin ablative are divided between the Greek genitive and dative. (See Remark before § 157.) Note 2. All the cases except the nominative and vocative are called oblique cases. 28 INFLECTION. M. NOUNS. § 34. There are three declensions of nouns, in which also all adjectives and participles are included. These correspond in general to the first three declensions in Latin. (See § 45, 2, Note) . The first is sometimes called the A declension^ and the second the declension ; these two together are sometimes called the Vowel declension, as opposed to the third or Consonant declension (§ 45, 1). The principles which are common to adjectives, participles, and substantives are given under the three declensions of nouns. Note. The name noun {8vofia), according to ancient usage, includes hoth substantives and adjectives. But by modem custom noun is often used as synonymous with substantive, and it is so used in the present work. FIRST DECLENSION. § 35. Stems of the first declension end originally in a, which is often modified into tj in the singular. The nom- inative singular of f eminines ends in a or ?; ; that of mas- culines ends in a? or t;?. § 36. The following table shows the terminations in all the cases of this declension. These consist of the final a (or rj) of the stem united with the case-endings (§ 32,2). See § 45, 2, N. Singular. Dual. Plural. • Feminine. Masculine. Masc. and Fern. 3fasc. and Fern. N. a n] as Tis N. at G. ds or Tjs Tis ov (for ao) N. A. y. d G. «v (for d«v) D. if. OTJi Tl ^ Tl G. D. aiv D. ais A. av Tiv dv TJV A. ds V. a t] d a or Tl V. ai §37.] FIRST DECLENSION. 29 Note. Here, as in most cases, the relation of the stem to the termina- tions must be explained by reference to the earlier forms of the language. Thus, uu of the genitive plural (§ 25, 2) is contracted from the Homeric diov (§ 39); and ov of the genitive singular comes from the Homeric ao (through a form eo) by contraction. The stem in a may thus be seen in all the cases of oiKia and rafiias, and (with the change of a to 77 in the singular) also in all the other paradigms. (See § 45, 2, Note.) The forms in a and rj have no case-endings. § 37. 1. The nouns (1^) tc/jltj, honor^ (97) ot/ctia, house, (?;) %a)/9a, land, (77) Movcra, Muse, (0) ttoXlttj^;, citizen, (0) Ta/u,ta9, steward, are thus declined : — Singular. N. Tl|A^ olKCd X«pa Movvpa, bridge, y€cf>vpavpa, yicfivpav ; PI. y€vpaL, &C. (TKLd, shadow, o-Kcas, crKta, a-Kidv ; PI. a-KLac, ctklwv, o-Ktat?, &C yvwfxrj, opinion, yvw/xi;?, yvw/XT/, yvw/xrjv ; PI. yi/w/Aat, yvw/xwi/, &C. W€tpa, attempt, Trctpa?, Tretpa, Trctpav ; PI. Tretpat, TTctpoiv, &C. 2. Nouns ending in a preceded by e, l, or p, and a few proper names, retain a throughout the singular, and are 30 INFLECTION. [§38. declined like olKia or ;^a)/9a (those with d like yicj^vpa or Trelpa). Other nouns in a are declined like Movcra. Note 1. The nouns in rjs which have a in the vocative singular (like ttoXlttjs) are chiefly those in rqs, national appellatives (like Ilepa-rjs, a Persian, voc. Tlepcra), and compounds (like yeM-fxerprjs, a (/eumeter, voc. yecoixerpa). Afam'nrjs, master, has voc. becnroTa. Most other nouns in t^s have the vocative in rj ; as Kpovldrjs, son of Kronos, Kpovidr]. Note 2. The termination a of the nominative singular is always short when the genitive has r]s. It is generally long when the gen- itive has ay; the exceptions, which can always be seen by the accent (§ 22), are chiefly (a) most nouns ending in pa preceded by a diph- thong or by V (as p,olpa, ye(f)vpa), (b) most abstract nouns formed from the stems of adjectives in rjs or oos (as dXrjdeia, evuoia), (c) most compounds in cia (as fieaoyeLo), {(I) common nouns in eia and rpia designating females (as (iaa-iXeia, queen, -^akrpia, female harper^ : but jSaaiXfiay kingdom (with d) . Note 3. Av of the accusative singular and a of the vocative sin- gular agree in quantity with a of the nominative. The quantity of all other vowels may be seen from the table in § 36. Note 4. The nouns in a always have recessive accent (§ 21, 3). Contract Nouns of the First Declension. § 38. Most nouns in aa, ea, and ea?, are contracted (§ 9). Mvda, fjbva, mina, avKea, avfcrj^ fig-tree^ and ^Epfjui- a; as *Arpft§ao, 'Arpeideco, /Sopeoj: Hdt. (co, rarely 4co for eeo) (sometimes foj in old Attic proper names) : Doric a (rarely in Attic nouns in as). 4. Gen. Plur. Hom. dav, ecov (whence, by contraction," Attic cov, Doric du) ; as vaxrrdav, vavreav (Att. vavrwv) : Hdt. eutv. 5. Bat. Plur. Poetic aiai, Hom. rjai, lys; Hdt. rjs', as rifxalai, Movarjcri or Mov(rT]s (for Movaais} . SECOND DECLENSION. § 40. The nominative singular of most nouns of the second declension ends in o? or op (gen. ou). Those in o9 are masculine, rarely feminine ; those in op are neuter. Note. The stem of nouns of this declension ends in o, which is sometimes lengthened to co. It becomes e in the vocative singular; and a in the nominative, accusative, and vocative plm-al of neuters. § 41. The following table shows the terminations of nouns in o? and ov in this declension, that is, the final o of the stem (with its modifications) united with the case-endings : — 32 Singular. Masc. S Fern. Neuter. N. OS ov G. ov (for oo) D. ^ for 01 ) A. ov V. c ov INFLECTION. [§42. Dual. Plural. Masc, Fern., & Neuter. Masc. db Fern. Neut. N. 01. a N. A. V. CO (for o) G. MV (for owv) G. D. oiv D. ois A. ovs (for ovs) a- V. 01 d Note. Looking at the original forms of these terminations (§ 36, Note), we see the stem in o in all the cases except in the vocative singular in e and the neuter plural in a. (See § 45, 2, Note.) § 42. 1- The nouns (o) X6709, word^ (17) i/tJo-o?, island., (0, rf) dvOptoTTOf;, man or human being, (97) 0S09, road, (to) hoipoVi gift, are thus declined : — Singular. N. X<57os v<)o-os dvepcotros 686s Swpov G. X<5"yov v^o-ov dvGpwirou 680V 8<^poxi D. XoYw v^o- 68 v^o-« dvOpwirw 68(^ 8c5p« G. D. Xo-yoiv v^o-oiv dv9p»irotv Plural. 6801V 8«poiv N. X dv(OY€a>v Plural. N. G. D. A. V. N. A. V. G. D. VC(p V€ in the dual, just mentioned. 3. The contracted forms of compounds in oos follow the accent of the contracted nominative singular; as avTinvoos, avTinvovs, blowing against, gen. avriTrvoov, qlvtIttvov (not dvTnrvov) , &C. For ea contracted to d in the neuter plural, see § 9, 3, Note. Dialects. § 44. 1. Gen. Sing. Epic oto (for o/o), Doric o> (for oo); as Beoio, fieyako}. Attic ov is contracted from oo. 2. Gen. arid Dat. Dual. Epic ouv for oiv\ as trmouv. 3. Dat. Plur. Tonic and poetic oio-i for ois ; as Imroian. 4. Ace. Plur. Doric my or op for ouy; as vofiai, ras \vkos- 5. The Ionic generally omits contraction. y THIRD DECLENSION. § 45. 1. This declension includes all nouns not be- longing to either the first or the second. Its genitive singular ends in 09 (sometimes 0)9). §45.] THIRD DECLENSION. 35 KoTE. This is often called the Consonant Declension (§ 34), because the stem here generally ends in a consonant. Some stems, however, end in a close vowel (i or u), some in a diphthong, and a few in o. The last two are snpposed to have ended originally in a consonant {F or a). See § 63, 3 ; § 54 ; § 55. 2. The stem of a noun of the third declension cannot always be determined by the nominative singular ; but it is generally found by dropping os (or w?) of the genitive. The cases are formed by adding to the stem the following endings (which here are not united with any letter of the stem) : — Singular. Dual. Plural. Masc. d; Fern. NeuL Masc. , Fem.f Neut. Masc. ib Fern. Neut. N. s None. N. €S a G. OS, «s N. A. V. € G. fOV D. I G. D. OIV D. crl A. d or V None. A. ds & V. None, or like N. None. Y. CS d Note. The following comparison shows the relations of the case-endings in the three declensions : — Sing. — Norn. 1st decl. masc. s; 2nd masc. and fern, s, neut. v (Lat. s, m); 3rd masc. and fern. $■ (Lat. s). Gen. 1st masc. o, fem. s', 2nd o or lo, making ov or oio with o of the stem. (cf. Lat. i) ; 3rd os (Lat. is). Dat. All decl. t; 1st and 2nd i in a, 77, a (Lat. «, ai, qe, o). Accus. Masc. and fem. 1st and '2nd v for /x (Lat. m) ; 3rd v (Lat. m), or a for av or a/x (Lat. em), cf. Tvpcri-v with Lat. turri-m, 6-b6vT-a{y) with Lat. dent-em. Dual. N. A. V. 1st and 2nd a and o of stem lengthened to a and 0) ; 3rd e. G. D. 1st and 2nd iv] 3rd oiv. Plur. — Norn. Masc. and fem. 1st and 2nd t; making ai and ot with a and o of the stem (cf. Lat. i)\ 3rd es (Latin es ; neut. 3rd a (Lat. a). (ren. eoj/; in 1st and 2nd contracted with a or o of the stem to oav (cf. Lat. t/m, om). Dat. 1st and 2nd tp (older la-i) ; 3rd o-t. Accus. Masc. and fem. 1st and 2nd s (for vs), as and ovs coming from dvs and 01/? (Lat. a*-, os); 3rd a? (for oj/y) retaining a (Lat. ci): neut. 3rd a (Lat. a). The vocative is either like the nominative or without a case- ending. 36 INFLECTION. * [§ 46. FORMATION OF CASES. Nominative Singular. § 46. The forms of the nominative singular of this de- clension are numerous, and must be learned partl}^ by practice. The following are the general principles on which the nominative is formed from the stem. 1. In neuters, the nominative singular is generally the same as the stem. Stems ending in t (including vr) regu- larly drop the T (§ 7) . JS.g. 2w/za, body, aatfiar-os', fieXai/ (neuter of fiiXas), Mack, fjLe\av-os, Xvcrap (neuter of Xvaas), having loosed, XvaavT-os; irav, all, iravT-os] TiBev, placing, ndevr-os ; x^P^'^"' 9^(^ceful, xaptei""-os ; dibov, giving, 8i- dovTos, Xeyov, saying, Xeyoj/r-os; beiKvvv (y), showing, heiKvvvr-oi. For the masculine nominatives of these adjectives and participles, see below, § 46, 2, 3, and Note 1. Some neuter stems in ar change r to s in the nominative, and a few to p; as repas, prodigy, repar-os; rinap, liver, rjirar-os. 2. Masculine and feminine stems (except those included under 3 and 4) form the nominative singular by adding s and making the needful euphonic changes (§ 16). U.g. ^vXa^, guard, ^uXa/c-os; yvyjr, vulture, yvir-os', ^Xex//-, vein, (f)\e^-6s (§ 16, 2); eXiris (for eXnids), hope, iXirid-os (§ 16, 2); x^P^^j grace, XapiT-os', opvLS, bird, opv[6-os', vv^, night, vvv, being, ovt-os. § 47.] , THIRD DECLENSION. 37 Note 1. Masculine participles from verbs in w/ui change ovt to ov? (§ 46, 2); as hihovsi giving, 8tS6n--os' (§ 16, 6, N. 1). So a few nouns in ous; as ohovs, tooth, oSdin-os. Neuters in oin-- are regular (§ 46, 1). In TTou?, TTod-os, foot, -obs becomes -ovS' Note 2. The perfect active participle (§ 68) , with a stem in ot^ forms its nominative in (os (masc.) and os (neut.) ; as XeXu/ccbs, hav- ing loosed, XeXv/cds, gen. XeXv/cdr-os. Note 3. For nominatives in 77s (es) and os, gen. eoj, see § 52, 1, Note. A few other peculiar formations in contract nouns will be noticed below, §§ 53-56. Accusative Singular. § 47. 1 . Most masculines and feminines with stems ending in a consonant form the accusative singular by adding a to the stem ; as vXa$ (^uXuk-) , vXaKa ; Xitov (Xcovt-) , liorij Xe- ovra. 2. Nouns in t?, v?, av?, and ov?, if the stem ends in a vowel or diphthong, change 9 of the nominative to v ; as TrdXt?, state, 'ttoXlv ', i)(Ovp(iiv (a-oifjipov-) <, continent, voc. (Tu)(f>pov. But if the last syllable is accented, the vocative is the same as the nominative ; as Xi/xiji/ (Ai/acv-) , harbor, voc. XtfjLijv ; aWrjp {aWep-), sky, VOC. aWrjp, (b) In barytone nouns and adjectives whose stems end in VT, final T of fhe stem being dropped (§ 7) ; as ytyag (ytyavr-), ffiant,\OC. yiyav ; keoiv ■ {XeovT-), lion, \0C. XeW ; x^P''^^^ (x*" pLcvT-) , graceful, voc. xctptev. But all participles of the third declension have the vocative and nominative alike. (Compare Auwv, loosing, voc. Xv(ov, with AeW, lion, voc. Xiov.) (c) In nouns and adjectives in ts (except those in I9 Tvos) , CV9, t;?, and avs. These drop s of the nominative to form the vocative; as rvpavm (rvpawiS-), tyranny, voc. rvpawi (§ 7) ; TToXt? (ttoXi-) , s^a^e, voc. ttoXl ; t^^i^'s, iX^'^' > ^acrtXcv?, /SaariXev (§ 53, 3, N. 1) ; ypai)?, ypav (§54, Note) ; Trals (for Trai,?), Trat (for Trat). So in ^ovv (Xeovr-), Xeovtrt ; Sai/uo)!/. (8at/A0J/-), baifioai ', Tide is (rt^cKr-), Tt^eicrt ; ;;^apiety (xaptepr-), ;;^apieo-t ; ioTas {ioTavT-), toracrt ; deiKVVs (deiKvvvT-), deiKvixri ', /3acriXevp (/SacrtXfu-), jSao-tXeCcrt ; ^ovs (^ov-), ^ovcrl; ypavs (ypav-), ypavai (§ 54). ITor the euphonic changes, see § 16, 2 and 6, with notes. For a change in syncopated nouns, see § 57. NOUNS WITH MUTE OR LIQUID STEMS. § 50. The following are examples of the most com- mon forms of nouns of the third declension with, mute or liquid stems. For the formation of the cases of these nouns, see §§ 46 — 49. For euphonic changes in nearly all, see § 16, 2 and § 46. For special changes in Xecoj/ and yiyas, see § 16, 6, N. 1. I. Masculines and Feminines. 6 (<|>vXdK-) watchman. vein. {o-aX-iri'Y'Y-) b (Xeovr-) trumpet. lion. Singular N. G. D. A. V. cf>vXa| ()>vXaKOS ^vXttKl <|)vXaKtt (j>vXa§^ 4,x.pds 4,x.pc 4>X€pa 4>X€4, Dual. crdXiriYl o-dXirLYyos ordXiriyyt crdXiriyYa ordXiri-yg X€'a)v Xe'ovTOS Xe'ovTi XcoVTtt Xwv N. A. Y. G. D. <|)vXaKe 4>vXdK0iv 4,X4pe X6poiv Plural. o-dXiriYye a-aXirlyyoiv XfovTC XcdvTOiv N.V. G. D. A. 4>vXaK€s <{>vXdK(i)v 4>vXa^i ()>vXaKas <|,Xe'p€s <|)X€p«V Xex{/£ c|,XePas o-dXiriYycs (TaXirtyYWv o-dXiri-ylt o-dXiriYYas X€OVT€S XcdvTwv Xc'ovo-i Xwvras 40 INFLECTION-. [§50 6 (YiYavT.) ^ (XajiiraS-) ^ (IXirtS-) 6 T| (opvlO-) giant. Singular. hope. bird. K yC^as XajJLTrds IXttCs fipvis G. •yf-yavTOS Xa(jnrd8os a-irCSoS ^pviGos D. ^("yavTi XafiirdSi IXorCSt 6pvkdi A. •yt-yavTa Xap-irdSa IXirCSa £pvkv (6pvi6a) V. •yC-yav Xajjnrds Dual IXuC 6pvi N. A. V. yiyavrt Xa|iirdS€ IXirCSe dpviOe G. D. 'Y'''y<*'VTOiv Xa|j.irdSoiv Plural. cXtt^Soiv 6pv£6oiv N. V. yCycLvrts XafXTrdSes €X7r£8€s «pvie€$ G. •yi-yavTCDV Xa[JLird8a>v IXir{8a)v 6pv£da)v D. yiyda-i Xa^Jiirdo'i IXiriVt Spvko-i A. •yC-yavras XafiirdSas €Xir(8as SpvtOas o (iroificv-) 6 (al«v-) 6 (t|76|XOV-) 6 (Sainov-) shepherd. age. Singular. leader. divinity. K. iroiH-^v al(&v •hy^v-^v Salfuov G. WOlji^VOS altovos T|"y€|JLOVOS SaCfjLovos D. iroi(i^vi alwvi Tj-yenovt 8a£|xovi. A. TTOlfJLCVa alwva ^Y€|M>va 8a£|ji.ova V. WOIJX^V au&v Dual. ^-yejM&v Satfiov N. A. V. iroiM^ve aUv€ ^76HOV€ 8al(M)V6 G. D. Trok|Ji^voiv alwvotv Flural. i^"y6(Jidvoiv 8ai)iidvoiv N. Y. iroijw'ves al«v€s ilJYCfiovcs 8aC|jLovcs G. iroifJi^vwv alwvcov i\yili6vvas § 50.] THIRD DECLENSION. 41 ^(^T,Top-) 6(eiiT-) 6{aK-) o (erip-) Tj (Aiv-) orator. hired man. salt. feeosi. nose. Singular. N. ^^Twp e^s BXs e^p i^ls G. pTJTOpOS OtITo's dXds etjpos five's D. P'^TOpi 9t]t£ d\£ erjpt jSivC A. ^^Topa Gtjto &Xa ef]pa piva V. pflTOp O-^IS e^p fiCs N. A. V. ^^Topc fl-fiTe &\€ efip€ ^tv. G. D. pTJTOpOlV 0T|TOIV oXoiv 0i]poiv pivoiv Plural. N. Y. p^TOpCS 6flT€S &X€S e|Mir-) TO (ircpaT-) t6 (^iraT-) *0(^y. ewe?. Singular. liver. N. A.y. wa^. Plural. N. ixei&s N. IX0V.S G. IxOvos N. A. y. ixe^€ G. i\Qvo>v D. Ixeit (Hom. Ixev7) G. D. IxOvoiv D. IxOvo-i A. ixBvv A. UxeOas) 1x055 V. IxOv Note 1. "Eyxe^vs, eel, is declined like IxBvs in the singular, and like ntjxvs in the plui-al. §54.] THIRD DECLENSION. 45 Note 2. Adjectives in vs are declined in the masculine like TTTJxvs, and in the neuter like aa-rv. But the masculine genitive ends in (OS (like the neuter) ; and eos and ea are not contracted. (See § 67.) "Aarv is the principal noun in y; its genitive aareois is poetic. 3. Nouns in ev? retain ev in the nominative and voca- tive singular and dative plural ; as (6) ySao-tXeO?, king (stem /^ao-tXeu-), which is thus declined : — Dual. Singular. N. PaoriXevs G. PaoriXcws D. (^aaiXeC) patriXci A. pao-iXe'a V. PatriXcv N. A. V. Pas, aldovs, aldoi, aldco, — Tjtoy, rjovs, ^oi. rja. Nouns in cos, gen caos are regular, but are sometimes contracted; as rjpios, hero, rjpioos, ^pio'ii or fjpco, rjpcoa or ijpa), &c. Note 2. A few nouns in wj/ (uKoiv, image, and arjdav, niglitingale') occasionally have forms like those of nouns in co ; as gen. (Ikovs, ar]bovs', accus fiKO); VOC. ar^hoi. Note 3. The uncontracted forms of these nouns in oos, 6t and 6a are not used. Herodotus has an accusative singular in ovv\ as *lovp for 'lo), from 'iw, /o, gen. 'lovs. stems in as, or in as and AT. § 56. 1. Neuters in as, gen. ao?, are contracted when the a of the stem is followed by a vowel ; as (to) yepas, prize, which is thus declined : — Singular. N.A.V. "yepas G. (yipaos;) yipois D. (y^po-'O "ytpai Dual. N.A.V. {yepae) yipa G. D. (yepdoiv) yiptfV Plural. N.A.V. {yepaa) yipd G. (yepd'jov) -yepwv D. yipatn 2. A few neuters in a?, gen. aros, drop t and are contracted like yipa7/x>yTcpa) Arj/xrjTpa ', VOC. dL-qfxrjTcp. ^ § 60.] IRREGULAR NOUNS. 4^ Gender ot the Third Declension. § 58. The gender of many nouns in this declension must be learned by observation. A few general rules ^ however, may be given. 1 . The following are masculine : substantives ending in dvy Tjv, €v?, most of those in rjp, wp, and wi/ (gen. wvos), and all that have vto7- Tos), as (gen. aSos), , dpvi, apva\ pi. api/ey, dpvcov, dpvdai, lipuas. In the nom. sing. dp.v6i (2d decl.) is used. *- 5. yoKa (to)^ milk, ydXaKTos, ydXaKTi, SiC. I. 6. ydia; (jo)-, knee, yovaros^ yovari, &c. (from stem yowir-); Ton. and poet, yovvaros, yovvariy &c. ; llom. also gen. yovvos, dat. yovvl^ pi. youi'a, yovvoiv, yovv€(T(TU 7. yijj/jj (ij), W{/e, yvvaiKos. yvvaiKt, yvvaiKa, yvpai] dual yvvaL<€j yvvaiKoiv; pi. yvvoLKes, yvvaiKav, yvvai^i, ywaiKaS' 8. SeVSpoi; (to), /ree, ou, reg. (Ion. fieVSpf oi/) . dat. sing. 8ei/8p«; pi. dev8p€(Ti. 9. 8opu (to), spear (ci. yow), bdparos, 86paTi or Sopi'; pi. dopaTa, &c. Ion. and poet, dovparos, &c. ; also gen. Sovpos, dat. fioupi, 6opi,or dopei', dual SoOpe; pi. dovpa, dovpau, dovpeo-ai. 10. Zfvs (iEol. Aevs)j -^eu.s', Alos, Ait, Ai'a, Zeu. Ion. and poet. Ztj- voSf Zrjvif Zrjva. II. Ge'pis (t)), Justice (also as proper name, Themis), gen. Gept- 8os, Oinio-Tos, QefiiTos, Qifiios (Hdt.) ; dat. QeynaTi \ acc. Qepnara or §60.] IRREGULAR NOUNS. 51 Gefiiv; voc. e/ftt; pi. Befjuares, Oifiia-Tas'-, all lon. or poet. In Attic prose, indeclinable in defiis earCjfas est. 12. 6pi^ (rj), Jiair, rpixos, Tpixh &c., 6pi^t (§ 17, 2, Note). 13. Kapd (to), head, poetic; in Attic only nom., accus., and voc. sing. Horn. Kapi], gen. KaprjTos, Kap^aros, Kpdaros, Kparos', dat. Kapj/rt, Kaprjari, Kpdari, Kpdri (trag. Kapq) ; acc. (tou) Kpdra, (to) Kaprj or /cap ; plur. nom. Kapd, KaprjuTa, KpduTa, gen. KpuToyp; dat. Kpaai', acc. like nom. with (rovs) KpaTas; nom. and acc. pi. also Kaprjpa, gen. Kapr)- V(OP. 14. Kpipov (to), lily, ov, &c. In plural also Kpipca (Hdt.) and Kpi- V€(ri. C- 15. KvoiP (6, T]), dog, voc. kvop: the rest from stem *cvv-, /cuvo?, Kvpiy Kvpa, pi. Kvues, Kvpatp, Kvai, KVPaS' 16. \as (6), stone, Hom. \aas, poetic; gen. \dos (or Xdov)^ dat. Xai*, acc. \dap, \ap ; dual Xae ; plur. Xawv, Xaecro-i. 17. XiTra (Hom. XiV, generally with iKala, oil), fat, oil: proba- bly \iiTa is neut. accus., and Xi'rr* is dat. for XtTrt. See Lexicon. 18. fidpTvs (6, fj), loiiness, fidpTvpos, &c., dat. pi. iidpTvai. 19. p.d(TTi^ (fj), whip, gen. fxdaTtyoSf &c., Hom. dat. ixdarl, acc. fidarip- ^ 20. ois (f)), sheep, ol6s, oil, oiv', pi. oJes, oIojp, olaip, olas. Hom. ois, oios, OLP, oces, 010)1/, otea-a-t (olecri, occrcn), ois. Aristoph. has dat. ot. ^ 21. opeipos (6), opeipop (to), dream, gen. ov; also opap (to), gen, opeipaTOs, dat. oi/eipart; plur. opeipara, opciparoup, opeipaai. 22. oo-cre (tw), dual, eyes, poetic; plur. gen. oaacop, dat. oa-arois or oo-(rowrt. 23. oppts (6, fj), bird, see.§ 50. Also, from stem opi/t-, pi. Sppeis, opp€a>u, acc. oppeis or opj/i;. , 24. ou? (to), ear, toros-, wrt; pi. ^Ta, qotcop (§ 25, 3, N. 1), wo-t. Hom. also gen. ovaTos; pi. oCaTa, ovaai. 25. nw^ (^), Pnyx, Uvkpos, Uvkpi, UiiKpa (for IIi/vk-os, &c.). / 26. irp€(T^vs (6), oW man, elder (properly adj.), poetic, acc npe- tr^vp (as adj.), voc. TrptV/Su; pi. irpea^eis (Ep. npea^rjes), chiefs, elders: the common word in this sense is Trpea-^vTrjs, distinct from Trpea^ev- rfjs. ripeo-jSu? == ambassador, w. gen. npeaiSeas, is rare and poetic in sing.; but common in prose in plur., rrfiealSeis, TrpcVjSecoi/, np€(r^€ai, TrpeVjSfts (like n^x^s): Trpeo-jScur^y, ambassador, is common in sing., but rare in plural. ^ 27. nvp (to) , fire, nvpos, nvpl ; pi. (to) irvpd, esp. loatch-fres. 28. (TiT€os or (TTreios (to), cave, Epic; g-TreiovSf air^i, (nreicDP, aTtfjeaat or (TTrecrai. 52 INFLECTION. [§61. !- 29. vScop (jo)^ water, vdaros, vdari, &c., dat. plur. v8a X^"^ (p^- ^o^St § 54). Att. also gen. xof-i^^ &c. (§ 53, 3, N. 3). 33. ix^os) xows (6), mound, xoos, xoi. Xoi^J' (like /Sows, § 54). i> 34. XP'*'^ (o)' ^^'"> xP'"'"^^' XP^'^'^f XP^'""? poet, also xpoo^j XP°^» Xpoa; dat. xp

6v, wise. 2. If a vowel or p precedes 09, the feminine ends in d ; as afto9, d^La, a^iovy worthy. But adjectives in 009 have 07] in the feminine, except those in poo<; ; as a7r\oo9, dirXoTj, dirXooVi simple ; ddpoo^y dOpoa, ddpoov, crowded. 3. ^o(f>6^y wise, and a|to9, worthy^ are thus declined : — Singular. N. G. D. A. V. ds (ro(f>ov w dv f]s o-o<}>fi TJv 0-04,^ dv o-o<|)ov (ro({>(C dv Dual. >os d|lov diCa dgias d^ttt d^iav d|ia agiov d|Cov dlCcp dgiov dgtov N. A. V. G.D. (& O"0«j>0lV aiv 0-04) Ji oiv Plural. d|Ca> dgi'okv d|i'a dgCaiv d^l'o) dgCoiv N. V. G. D. (ro(f>oC ois o-o<|)aC o-owv o-o(t>ais d ois d^lois d|iai d^Ccdv d^tats d^icov d|£ois A. a'oovs (rods o-o<|>d d|Covs d^ias &|ia So fxaKpos, fiaKpa, fxaKpoVy long ; gen. /lUKpov, /xafcpa?, fiaKpov ; dat. fiaKptOy ficucpa, p.aKp^ ; acc. fxaKpov, p-aKpav, fiaKpoVj &C. , like All participles in os are declined like o-o<^os. 54 INFLECTION. [§63. Note. Proparoxytones in os have recessive accent also in the feminine ; as a|tos, ci^iai (not d^lai. like d^id). For the accent of (ou in the feminine of the genitive plural of barytones, see § 25, 2. § 63. Some adjectives in os, especially compounds, have only two endings, os and ov, the feminine being the same as the masculine. They are declined like o-o<^os, omitting the feminine; as oAoyos, aXoyov; gen. dA.oyov; dat. dA-oyw, &c. Note. Some adjectives in os may be declined with either two or three endings. § 64. A few adjectives of the second declension end in OS and wv, and are declined like vews and avwycwv (§ 42, 2). "lAcws, gracious, and dyrjp(x)Sj free from old age, are thus de- clined : — Singular. N. V. G. D. a€«v Dual. L-^i\pm d^ifipw d7^p

v V\«pv Plural. dY^pca ay^ptpv dv^po, dYip^v N. V. G. D. A. tXcwv aecps a€« I'Xcwv aeo) dv^pio d-yTJpwv dynpws d7^p«S a7^pw d-y^pwv dv^ptps dYifjpw For the accent of iXfws, see § 22, Note 2. § 65. Many adjectives in cos and oos are contracted. Xpv- creo<;, golden^ dpyu/jcos, of silver, and (XTrAo'os, Simple, are thus declined : — / N. (XpiJo-eos) Xpvvyd8os,^ fugitive; anan, oTraiSoy, childless; dyvas, dyvu>Tos, unknown; avakKis, dvakKidos, weak. The oblique cases occasionally occur as neuter. A very few adjectives of one termination are of the first declen- sion, ending in as or rjs', as yevmbas, noble, gen. yevvddov* FIRST AND THIRD DECLENSIONS COMBINED. § 67. 1. Most adjectives of tliis class end in u9, eta, v, or in et?, ecra-a, ev. Three end in a?, — Tra?, iraaa, iravy all; fieka^, fiiXaivaj fiiXavy black; and Td\a<;, Tokatva, ToKaVi wretched. 2. rXvKv<;, sweety x^pieL^^ graceful., 7rd<;, all, and fiiXa^, black, are thus declined : — Singular. N. yVvkiIs YXvKcta -yXvKv G. 7\vK€OS ■yXvKtias -YXyKcos D. (y\vKiC) -yXvKefc "ikvKdq. (yXvKiX) -yXv^t A. ^XvKvv ■yXvKciav ^Xvkv V. YXvki» . •yXvKcta -yXvKV 58 INFLECTION. [§ Dual N. A. V, YXvK^e yXvKiia yXvkIc G. D. ■yXvKeoiv' yXvKiCaiv Plural. 'yXvKeoiv N. V. (yXvKks) -yXvKcis -YXuKctai YXvKc'a G. •yXuKcwv ■yXvKciwv ■yXuKewv D. •yXvKc'cri YXvKcCais •yXvKc'o-t A. {yXvKias) y\ .VKcis 'yXvKeias YXvKca Singular. N. \apUis XapCca-o-a Xopfcv G. XapicvTos Xapic'o-o-Tis Xapi€VTOS D. XapUvri Xapw'o-o-ti XaptcvTt A. XapCcvra Xapico-o-av Xctpttv V. Xaptcv Xapleo-ora Dual. XapCev N. A. V. XapCevTc XapicVo-a Xap£€VT€ G. D. Xapi^VTOiv Xapi^o-o-aiv PUral. XapUvTOkv N. XapUvres XapUcro-ai XapCevra G. \apUvT(av Xapiecro-wv XapievTwv D. XapUa-i Xapico-o-ais Xap£€- v^eiSy cf)(ov^€a(ra, cfxovrjevj vocal. Note 3. One adjective in rjv, — T€pT]v, repetva, Tfpev. tender (Latin tenej'), gen. repevos, Tepeiurjs, repei/o?. &c., — is declined after the analogy of fifXas. So aparjv (or appr}v)y aparev, male, gen. ap(T€voSi which has no feminine form. § 68. To this class belong all active and all aorist passive participles. Avwv, loosing^ lard^y erecting^ rt^ei?, placing^ heiKvv^y showing (present active participles of \vwy l'(TT7}/jii, Tt67]fiiy and BeLfcvv/uuL), and XeXu/cco?, having loosed (perfect active participle of Xuw), are thus de- clined : — Singular. Xvov iv XvovV XvovV 8€tKVVv: for ova-a in the feminine, for oi/r-o-a, see § 16, 6, N. 1. Participles in ovs are declined like Xvov, except in the nominative and vocative singular; as fiiSouff, StSoOo-a, hihov, giving; gen. bihovros, hibovar}s \ dat. hihovri, tibova-jj, &c. Aorist active participles in as are declined like taras ; as Xvcras, "Kixraa-a, Xvarav, having loosed; gen. XixravTos, 'Kvcrda-rjs ; dat. Xvo-avTi, Xvado-t], &c. Aorist passive participles in eis are declined likeri^fts-; us Xvdfls, \v6elaa, XvOev, loosed ; gen. \v6evTos,\v6€i(Tr]s; dat. \v6kim, Xvdfiarj, &c. When the accent differs from that of the paradigm, it follows the general principle (§ 25, 1). See § 117, 2. § 69. Participles in dcov, ecov, and ocov are contracted. Tcfidcov, ri/jb(ov, honoring, and (j)c\ecov, (pckcov, loving, are (declined as follows : — N. {rifiaiov) Ti\i(av Singular. {rifxaovaa) Ti}JLc5(ra (rifmov) ri|i.c5v G. (Ti/idovTos) TifjLwvTOS {TifjLaoijo-rjs) Tk)i,(d(rr]S {ti/jiAovtos) thji«vtos| D. {rifmovTi) TifjLwvTi {TL/j.ao6vTa V. {Tljxduv) Tl)JL(0V Dual. N. (Ttytidoj'Te) ri|iwvT€ {Tifiaoia-a) Tifi(o(ra (rifidovre) rifiuvrc G. (TifiadvToiv) Ti|JL«SvTOiv (Tt;ctaoiJa-atJ') Ti{JL(0(raiv (TifiadPToiv) ri^utvrow N. (rt/Ac£o»'res) ri^JitovTCS G. (TifxadvTWv) Ti(uavT(i)v D. (ri/idouo-t) Ti)xw(ri A. (rifidovras) ri^icovras V. (rt/idoj'Tes) TtjiwvTCS Plural. (riixdovcrai) Ti|j.ci>(ri (rt/iaoi/cras) Tip,wi\wv {<}>L\eovaa) <}>iXo€(ra {(fnXiov) c|>iXovv G. {(piXeovTos) <})iXovvTos (^iXeoucnjs) iXot»iXovvtos D. {(piX^ovTi) 4>i,XovVTi {(piXeoOarj) <})iXovo-t) (jpLkeovTi) <^iXovvTi A. {(f>i.\iovTa) tXovvTa {(pCkiovaav) (}>iXou(rav {(J)l\^ov) <{>iXovv V. {(ptX^wv) ^CKiav {jpCKiovaa) iXoO(ra {(piXeov) <|>iXovv N. (tpiX^ovre) <|>iXoCvt€ (0tXeoi5(ra) ({>iXov(ra ((ptX^ovre) 4>iXovvtc G. {(piXedyroip) <}>iXoi»vtoiv (jpiX^odaaiv) 4>iXov(rabV (^tXeoirotj') <}>iXovvtoiv Plural. N. {(piXiovrei) <})iXovvt€S {(piXiovcrai) <}>iXov{rai {(piXiovra) ^iKovvra G. (^tXeojo-wv) ({>iXovVT(i)v (^tXeouo-tDj/) (}>iXov(r(ov {(f)iX€6uTU}v) <{>iXoi!)vT(i)V D. (^(pLX^ovai) (|>iXov(n. (^tXeoucrats) <|>iXov(rais (^iXeovtrt) (|>iXo€(ri A. (0iX^oj/Tas) <}>iXovvTas (0iXeoucras) 4>LXovaras ((fiiXeovTo) <)>iXovvTa V. (0tX^oj'Tes) ({>iXovvT€s {(piX^ovffai) (j>LXov(rai ((piXeovTo) ^ikovvra The present participles of verbs in oeo (contracted oi) are declined like (piX^v, the contracted form of cpiXeayv. Thus drjXayv, dTjXova-a, 8t)\ovv, manifest hi fj : gen. 8r;Xoi)i/Tos, St^Xowott;? ; dat. 8j;Xo0i/Tt, drjXovarj, &c. The uncontracted form of verbs in oto is not used. § 98, Rem. Note. A few second perfect participles in aas of the fii- form (§ 124) have coo-a in the feminine, and retain w in the oblique cases. They are contracted in Attic; as {eo-radys, ea-Taaxra, ca-raos), contr. eoTO)?, eVrtoo-a, cVroy (irregular for co-tcds), standing : gen. fo-Twrof, iaroiarjSi coroiroff, &C. But reOvfws, reOvcuxra^ reBveos, (lead, from 6vf](TK(iD, always remains uncontracted. See § 110, iv. (d), N. 3. IRREGULAR ADJECTIVES. § 70. The irregular adjectives, /iiiya<;, great, ttoXu?, much, and 7rpdo<;, mild, are thus declined : — Singular. G. fte-yaXou |t€"ydXT]s (jlcy^^o^ D. }Ji€-ydX(0 H^c-ydXt] |iC7dX(p A. [iCYav (jtc-ydXTiv H«Ya V. (JLC-ydXc jwydXr] pAya. iroXvs TToXX^ iroXv iroXXov itoXXtjs iroXXov oroXXu iroXXirj iroXXu iroXvv TToXXi^v TToXii §70.] X ■-'-.r ADJECTIVES— IRREGULAR DECLENSION. N. A. V. jieyAXe* firydXa G. D. |jLpydXoiv )Ji€-yd\aiv Dual, ^eydXci) {jLC-yoXoiv Plural. 63 N. Y. |i€"y A. irpdov irpociav Dual. irpdov N. V. irpdo) irpaefa irpdo) G. D. irpdoiv irpacCaiv Flural. irpdoiV N. A. irpaoi, ' irpaeis irpaeiai irpaca G. irpaccDV irptuiwv irpaeW D. irpdois, irpoio-b irpactais irpdois, irpato-t A. irpdovs irpaeCas irpaea Note 1. Most of the forms of /x^as and iroKM are derived from stems in Of fxeyaXo' and ttoXXo-. UoWds, rj, 6v, is found in Homer and Herodo- tus, declined regularly throughout. In Homer, ttoXj^s has forms ttoX^os, TToX^cs, iro\i(>}v, &c., which must not be confounded with Epic forms of t6Xis (§ 53, 1, N. 3). Note 2. Il/oaos has two stems, one irpao- (written also irpq.o-') from which the masculine and neuter are generally formed ; and one irpav (never irpq.}}-) from which the feminine and some other forms come (§ 67, 2). There is an Epic form irptjius (Lyric Trpdi^j) coming from the latter stem. The forms belonging to the two stems differ in accent. \ ^ INFLECTION. [§71. COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. I. Comparison by -repos, -Taros, § 71. Most adjectives add T6po<; to the stem to form tlie comparative, and TaTod)Tcpos, wiser, aocfxaraToSj toisesU 2eixv6s (o-e/xz/o-), august, affivorepos, a-ffivoTaros. HtKpos (niKpo-), bitter, niKporepos, ttlkpotutos. *0^vs (o^u-), sharp, o^vrepos, o^VTaros. MeXa? (/leXai'-), black, ficXavrepos, ficKavTaros. *AXr}Br}s (aXrjOecr-), true, aXrjOioTepos, okrjdeaTaTOS' (§ 52, 1). Note 1. Stems in o do not lengthen o to o if the penultimate vowel is followed by a mute and a liquid (§ 19, 3). See niKpos above. Note 2. Meo-oy, middle, and a few others, drop os and add aire' pos and airaTOs ', as peaos, peaaiTepos, peaaiTaTos. Note 3. Adjectives in oos drop o? and add eo-repos and foraros, which are contracted with o to ovarcpos and ouo-raros ; as {evvoos) evuovs, well-disjjosed , evuovarepos, (vvoixrraTos. Note 4. Adjectives in cov add eerrepos and eararos to the stem ; as a graceful, x'^P'-^^'^^P^^^ XapieararoS' II. Comparison by -i«v, -kttos. § 72. 1. Some adjectives in v? and po? are compared by changing these endings to icov and tcrro?. JE^.^. *H8u9, siveet, fjSiav, ^Sto-roj. Taxvs,sivifi, Taxioov (commonly 6a(T(T(ov, § 17, 2, N.), Taxt ifiiotn. ifilovas ifiCovs i\Biovai ^S£a> Note 1. The terminations -ova, -oves, -ovas may drop v, and be contracted into -a> and -ous (§ 47, N. 1). The vocative singular of these comparatives seems not to occur. For the recessive accent iu the neuter singular, see § 25, 1, Note. Note 2, The irregular comparatives iu av (§ 73) are declined like iJSiojK. HI. Irregular Comparison. § 73, 1 . The following are the most important cases of ii'regular comparison : — 1. dYaOos, goodf L^iivav (§ 16, 7), {ap€i(av\ fipio-TOSy PcXtCuV, , P^TIOTOS, (piXrepos), {jSeXraros), KpiC4prepo%), {epTaTos, kpUTTO%\ XipMV {\(alCXos, f^ear, «},£XT€pOS, ^iXaCrepos (rare), (0tXi«v, rare), <}>iX(6Tcpos (rare). <|>CXTaTOs, ^iXaiTaros (rare). Ionic or poetic forms are in ( ). Note. Irregularities in the comparison of the following words will be found in the Lexicon : — altrxpos, aXyciPos, apna^, a(f)6ovos, a)(apis, jSa^vy, jSXa^. /SpaSus, ye- paios, yXvKVS, fmXrja- jkov, e7rt;;(apif, rjc-vxos, Ibios, taos, XdXoy, fioKap, fiQKpos, peos, nakaios, iraxvs, Trentov^ Trt'eof, ttXj^ctios, npea^vs, npovpyov, npoaios, (rnovdalos, axoXalos, yj/^evbrjs, wkvs. 2. Some comparatives and superlatives have no positive, but their stem generally appears in an adverb or preposition. *Avoi}T€pos, upper, ava>TaTos, uppermost, from ava, tip : nporepoSf former, npcoTo^ or npaTiaTos,, first, irom Trpo, he/ore: Kararfpos, loicer^ KaTO)TaTos, lowest, from Kara), flownirnrd. ISee in the Lexicon ayxorepos, dcpaprepoi, Kepblcov, oTrXorepor, npoadt- repos, piyiov (nenter), vneprfpoi, va-repos, vyj/icov, (f)advT€po5, with their regular superlatives ; also (o-xaros and KT)8taTos. 3. Comparatives and superlatives ma}^ be formed from nouns, and even from pronouns. U.g. Bao-iXfuy, Icing, j3ao-tXfvrfpoy, a (jrealer king, ^aaiXevTaros, the greaf- cst king : KkiTTTT)^, thief, KXcrrTlaTcpos. KXeTrTiaraTos', kvcov, flog, Kvvrfpos, more impvflent, kvptotos, most impudent. So avros, self, avroraTOf, his very self, ipsissimus. §75.] ADVERBS AND THEIR COMPARISON. 67 ADVERBS AND THEIR COMPARISON. § 74. 1. Adverbs are regularly formed from adjec- tives. Their form (including the .accent) is found by- changing V of the genitive plural masculine to v) ; Ttray/xfi/cos, regularly, from reTayfievos {raa-aa), order). 2. The neuter accusative of an adjective (either singu- lar or plural) may be used as an adverb. U.g. IIoXu and ttoXXo, much (ttoXv?) ; fieya or fieyaXa, greatly (jieyas) ; also fieydXas, § 74, 1; jxovov, only (fxovos, alone). Note. Other forms of adverbs with various terminations will be learnt by practice. See § 129. § 75, The neuter accusative singular of the com- parative of. an adjective forms the comparative of the corresponding adverb ; and the neuter accusative plural of the superlative forms the superlative of the adverb. U.g. 2o(f)as (a-o^oi), wisely; aocpcirepov, more wisely: (To^araTa. most wisely. *Kkr]6m^ (dXrjBqs), truly: dXrjOearfpov, dXtjOeaTara. 'HSfco? (f]8vs), sweetly, rjdLo-^, ijdiara. Xapievrcas (xapUi<:), gracefully: X"P^^" (TTepov, xopteo-rara. 29 (^(raxppayu) , prudently ; (Ta)(f)pove(rT€pov, fraxPpoveaTara. Note 1. Other adverbs generally form a comparative in repa, and a superlative in Tarco; as nvco, above, dv(OTepa>, dvcoTdro). A few comparatives derived from adjectives end in repcos', as j3e- /Satorcpo)?, more firmly, for ^i^aiorepov, from fie^alas. Note 2. MaXa, much, very, has comparative fidWov (for fxdkiov, § 16, 7), more, raOier; superlative /LtdXiora, most, especially. 68 INFLECTION. [§76. NUMERALS. § 76, The cardinal and ordinal numeral adjectives, and the numeral adverbs which occur, are as follows : — Sign 1. Cardinal. Ordinal. Adverb. 1 a' cts, jita, ^v, o?i,e 7rp<5Tos, first &ira^, once 2 P' 8uo, two 8€UT€pos, second 8is, tvjixie 3 V Tpcis, Tpi'a TpiTOS TpCs 4 8' Tcororopcs, T€' irevrdKOorioi, at, a ircvTaKoo-ioo'Tos 600 x' €|aKdo-iot, ai, a €^aKoo-ioo-T(Js 700 xj/' lirTdxoo-tot, at, a lirTaKotrtoo-Tos 800 w' oKTCiKdo-tot, at, a oKraKoo-tocrrds 900 ^' cvaKoo-tot, at, d IvaKoo-too-rds 1000 p. \i\\.o}., at, a X''^'^°°"'''os Xi'^i'^'^^'S 2000 ^P 8ttif fxvpiddes, 30,000, &c. were used. ^' Note. The dialects have the following peculiar forms: — 1 — 4. See § 77, Note 1.. Epic TpiraTo^, rerparos. - 12. Doric and Ionic bvathcKa', Poetic bvoKaibcKa. 20. Epic WiKO(n\ Doric etKari. 30, 80, 200, 300. Ionic rpLrjKovra, dybcoKovTa, bLrjKoa-ioi, rpirjKomoi. 40. Herod. rea-aeprjicovTa. § 77. 1. The cardinal numbers eh, one^ Zvo, two, TpeU, three., and reacrape^ (or Terrape^)^ four., are thus declmed : — N. €ts fiCd 2v G. Ivds jitds Ivo's N. A 8vo D. ' kvi jit^ Ivl G. D. Svoii^ A. ^va IJiCav ?v N. rpcis rpCa Wo-o-apcs T6W (iod) aVTM a^rd avTM G. D v«pv o-<|>(^v {crcpmi') avToiv avrakv avToiv 72 INFLECTION. [§7 P/?6mZ. N. ^futs *|l€ts o-4>€iS (V cr<{>(3v avTtov avTwv avTwv D. ^|11V v\tXv o-ds ((Tel(i}v) D. rjfuv (dfifii) VfJUV (ijfJ.fXl) l(JL, e'ias), i Herodotus has also o-^fl? and v avTa>p, ad)iaiv avrols (avraii), (T(f)as avTOvs (avrds), often OCCUr. He- rodotus has eiieavTov, (TeavTov, tcouroO. Keciprocal Pronoun. § 81. The reciprocal pronoun is oXXtjXodv, of one another, used only in the dual and plural. It is thus declined : — Diml. Plural. G. dXX'^Xoiv oXX-tjXaiv aXXijXoiv oXXi^Xwv aXXijXuv dXXijXuv D. dXXrjXoiv dXX-rjXaiv aXXijXoiv oXXt^Xois dXXtjXais dXXijXois A. aXXi^Xw dXXijXa dXXTJXw dXXijXovs dXXtjXas &XXT]Xa ' Possegsive Pronouns. § 82. The possessive pronouns are e/io?, mi/, Ikcivo IV Note 1. *EkcIvos is regular except in the neuter iKelvo. "oSf is merely the article 6 with the inseparable particle -6e added. For its accent, see § 28, N. 3. Other demonstratives will be found among the pronominal adjec- tives (§ 87, 1). Note 2. The demonstratives, including some adverbs (§ 87, 2), may be emphasized by the addition of long t, before which a short vowel is dropped. Thus ovroa-i, avrrji, rovri; 66i, rjdi, ro^t'; rovrovi, ravTi, TOVTOivl', ToaovTocrii iobi, ovTcoaL Note 3. Herodotus has rovreav in the feminine (not in the mas- culine or the neuter) for tovtcov. (For aireuv, see § 79, 1, N. 6.) Homer has roio-Stcro-t or roladttn for rolabf. Keipos is Ionic and poetic for (Kelvos. 76 INFLECTION. l§ 84. Interrogative and Indefinite Pronouns. § 84. 1. The interrogative pronoun r/?, rt, who f which? what? always takes the acute on the first syllable. The indefinite pronoun rk, rt, any one, some one, is en- clitic, and its proper accent belongs on the last syllable. 2. These pronouns are thus declined : — Interkogative. Singidar. Indefinite '• N. ' tCs t£ tIs tI G. t£vos, tow TIVOS, TOV D. Mvi, rtf Tivf, T<{> A. rlva tC Dual, Tivd rl N. A. tCv€ Tive' G. D. tCvoiv Plural. TIVOIV N. tCv€S rCva TIV^S Tivd G. tIvcdv TIVWV D. tCo-i TwrC A. rCvas rfva Tivds Tivd For the indefinite plural nva there is a form arra (Ionic aaa-a'). Note 1. Ovtis and firjTis, poetic for ovBels and tirjdels, no one, are declined like rls. Note 2. The acute accent of r/? is never changed to the grave (§ 23, 1, Note). The forms tis and ti of the indefinite pronoun seldom occur with the grave accent, as they are enclitic (§ 27). The Ionic has reo and rev for rov, rew for tw, recou for rlvcov, and TeoKTi for rial ; also the same forms as enclitics for rov, t A. Sriva 8 m Plural. Stcwv firivas Herodotus has orev, orec^, oTfoiv, orcoiai, and aaaa (Note 1). PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS. § 87. 1 • There are man}^ pronominal adjectwes which cor- respond to each other in foim and meaning. The following are the most important : — InterrogatiTC. Indefinite. vbaos; howmuchl voa-ds, of a cer- quantus ? tain quantity. jroios; of what iroi6s, of a cer- kind ? quails ? tain kind. Demonstratire. (rocros), Toadade, TO(rouTos, so much, tantus. (rotos), Toi6a5€, ToiovTOi, such, talis. Relative. 6aos, oirda-os, as much, as muny, quantus. olos, owdios, -of tchich kind, [such] as, qua- Hs. wrjXlKos ; how old? how large ? •Khnpo^ ; which of TrSrepoi (or irore- the two. p6s), one of two (rare). (T7]\iKos), TijXt- tjXLkos, OTTiyXkoS, Kdcrde, r-qXiKov- of which age or Tos, so old or size, [as old] as, so large. [as large] as. (repos, the one or oirdrfpoi, which- the other {of er".r of the two. two). The pronouns tI%, tU, &c. form a corresponding series : — rls ; who ? rU, any one. 88e, odros, this, 8s, 6, ttXc/c-w. 2. The stem which is the basis of the present and imper- fect, however, is often not the same as the stem which appears in some or all of the other tenses. Thus in XciVw (§ 95), we find the stem XciTr- in most of the tenses ; but in the second aorists e-Xt7r-ov and c-Xitt-o/xt^i/ we find the stem XXir-. In ^aiVw (§ 95) we have aLv- only in the present and imperfect, and a stem 4>av' (sometimes in the form r]V') as the basis of the other tenses. Again, in /jLavOdvio, learn, we have the stem fxaO- in e/xaOov ; and in XafjLJSdvoi, take, we have Xa/3- in eXafiov. (See the Catalogue of Verbs.) As these stems Xitt-, tjidv-, /aS^-, Xa/3-, are simpler and more primitive than XetTr-, aLv, fiav6av-, XayujSav-, they are called the simple stems of these verbs. Note. The simple stem, or (in verbs like Xu-o), Xcy-^) the sin- gle stem, is often identical with tlie root (§ 32, 2, Note) ; as Xitt-, Xa/3-, Xv-, Xey-, nXtK-. In other verbs the stem is formed by adding a suffix to the root ; as in Tifid-o> the single stem rifxa- (the same as that of the noun rifir], § 37, 1) is formed from the root rt- by adding fia ; so in the simple stem cfyav- is itself derived from the root €vy(ji {(f>€vy-j ^vy-), Tret^co (Tret^-, ttW-) , <^atV(o (^atv-, (j>av-^, (TTcXXu) (crreXA-, o-reA.-). Note. A verb which has a vowel stem in all its tenses is called a pure verb ; and one which has a mute stem or a liquid stem in all its tenses is called a mute or a liquid verb. 4. It will be seen bj^the s^mopsis (§ 95), that even the sin- gle stem Xv- appears in several modified forms in different tenses of Avo) ; as Av-, Avo--, AcAvk-, and Av^e- (or Xv6r]-) enlarged to XvOrja--. In <^ati/o> the simple stem av- appears also as wi TTCf^av-^ av6€- (or tat, l-Xv-ofx-qv ; ^atv- in <^atVa), €(f>aLv-0Vy &C. ; AciTT- in AeiV-o), eAeiTT-ov, ActV-o/xat, &C. II. The Future stem, of the future active and middle ; as Avor-, in Xv(T'(jd, Xva-ofjiai ; Xenf/- in Acii/^-o), XcL\l/-ofxaL ; <^av€- in ((f>av€-(i>) cfiavw, (c^ave-o/xai) ffiavovfxaL. The last foiTD (in c) be- longs to liquid stems. * The term tense stem is here used, in conformity with general usage in elementary works, to denote the fixed form which (with certain internal modifications) is the basis of a tense. Strictly, the present stem of Xe7a; is Xey- + a variable vowel (o or e) ; the aorist stem of Xi^w is Xucr- -^ o or e, &c. : see § 112, 4. This variable element is not included in the tense stems as they are here given. §92.] TENSE STEMS. 83 III. The FiRST-AoRisT stem, of the aorist active and mid- dle ; as Xva- in e-Avcr-a, i-kv(T-d-fX7]v ; (j^rjv- in e-cfir]v-a, i'(f>r)v-a.ixT]v, The last form (without a) belongs to hquid stems. IV. The Perfect stem, of the perfect, pluperfect, and fu- ture perfect. Of this there are four forms : (a) The Perfect- Middle stem ; as AeAi;- in AeAv/xat and iXeXv-fxyv, XeXenr- in XiXcL/ji-fxaL and IXeXeLfJL-firjv (§ 16, 3), 7r€cf>av- in 7rc<^acr-/>iat and i-n-ecfidcr-fjirjv (§ 16, 6, N. 4). (6) The Perfect-Active stem; as XcXv-K- in AeAvK-a and c-AcAuk-civ, -jrecfiav-K- (§ 16, 5) in 7r€ay-Ka and €-rr€0Ly-K€Lv. (c) The Future- Perfect stem; as AeAv-o-- in XeXva-o/xai, AeActi/^- in AeAcii/^-o/^at. {d) The Second- Perfect stem ; as AcAotTT- in AeAotTr-a and c-AeAotV-eti/, 7r€(j>r]v- in Tre^T^v-a and i-7r€0€{r])- in i-Xd(^6y]-v and (Aet<^^e-o)) Ack^^w (subj.), cfiavO€{r])- in i-tpdvOrj-v and {(fiavOi-oi) cjiavOu) (subj.) ; (p) XvOrja- in XvOT^a-Ofxai, Xcicj^Orja- in XeLcfiOrjcT-ofxai. VII. The Second Passive stem, of the second aorist and the second future passive ; as {a) dvr]-v and {av€-oi) (f>avu) (subj.) ; {b) KJiavrjcr- in cf>avr](r-oixaL. Note. The three verbs Xi5a>, XeiTrw, and 0atVw, from which the preced- ing examples are taken, give a general idea of the most common forms which the seven tense stems assume. 5. T\\Q principal parts of a Greek verb (bv giving which we describe the verb) are the first person singular of the present, future, first aorist, and (first or second) perfect indicative active, the perfect and (first or second) aorist indicative pas- sive, with the second aorist (active or middle) when one occurs. E.g. Avay, Xvcro), Tkvcra^ XeXvAca, Xe'Xv/xat, iXvdrjv. AfiTTO), X6t\^a>, XeXoiTra, XeXei/xjuat, iXeicfidTjv, eXinov. ^aivo), ^ai/o), €(f)r)paj 7re, loose. II. All the tenses of XetVcD, leave ; the second perfect and pluperfect active and the second aorist active and middle be- ing in heavy- faced t3'pe. III. All the tenses of <^atV(o, show ; the future and aorist active and middle and the second aorist and second future passive being in heavy-faced type. The synopsis of Xvw, with the forms in heavier type in the synop- ses of Xf tTTo) and dyaiuo), will thus show the full conjugation of the verb in (b; and only these forms are inflected in § 96. For the peculiar inflection of the perfect and pluperfect middle and passive of verbs with consonant stems, see § 97. Note. The paradigms in § 96 include the perfect imperative active of Xi5w, Xeiircj, and 0riTi \€i9r}di^dT}(x6fiepoi 90 INFLECTION. [§95. Tense-stem. I. 0ai»'- II. (pave- Ill. -nv' III. ^aiyta (<|»av-). ACTIVE VOICE. Indicative. J Present i^alvoi \ Imperfect €avw Aorist ^T]va IV. (h) ire^ajK- for j Perfect iri(f}ayKa 7re0a;'-/c-(§16,5) j Pluperfect iTrecpdyKeiv Subjunctive, (poUpa iretfxiyKta or ireipayKCjs Cb IV. (d) 7reav€- Future ((paviofiai) ()>avov)JLai> III. (Pvv Aorist ^(j>i]vd|j,T)v (j>^V<0(Uli IV. (a) 7r60av- 1 Perfect 7ri(f>aa-fiac ( Pluperfect iiretpdaixriv PASSIVE VOICE. ire^aa-zievos c5 I. (paiP' IV. (a) fl-e^av- Present and Imperfect ) « Perfect and Pluperfect ) a« m Middle. VI. (a) (£vT)v avfi (for ^av^w) VII. (&) 0av7;(r- 2 Future ({>avi^a£va> (<|»av-). ACTIVE VOICE. ^^. -^ Optative, aipoifii Imperative. Infinitive. ■^^ ((fxivhifii) avoi)ji,i. ov ((paveoirjp) <{>avoCi)V irecpdyKoifii or ( TrcT^voifj,i or ( ireipTjPijjs elrjv (ipapietv) (|>av€iv {^aveuv) <[>avtav (ftTivov 4>f)vai (|>'^va$ [7r^0a7icc, § 95, N. ] ireipayKhaL vealvov (f>aip€ffdat {(f>aP€oifirip) <{>avoC)LT)V (|>T]va£(Miv <)>T)vai (f>aip6/i€Pos j (4>apeeap€6fi€P0i) \ 4>avci(r0ai \ ^avovficvos il]va(rdai T]vd}j,€vos 'ir€dpdai (§ 16, 4) Tre^affnepos PASSIVE VOICE. ipapOetrjv ^aveCTiv <|>avT|(rot}iT]v dvt]Ob ^ap6i]pai avT]vai av6Cs avi] commonly means to release for one^s self, or to release some one belonging to oneh- self, hence to ransom (a captive) or to deliver (one's friends from danger). See § 199, 3. In the passive the tenses are changed merely to suit that voice; as I am loosed, I was loosed, I shall he loosed, I have been loosed, &c. The future perfect passive means / shall have been loosed (i.e. before some future event refeiTed to). II. AcCttco. ACTIVE VOICE. Indicative. Imperative. Infinitive. Participle. Pres. I leave ov am leaving. Leave thou. To leave or to he leaving. Leaving. Imperf. I left or was leaving. Fut. I shall leave. To he ahout to leave. About to leave. 2 Perf. I have left (some- times / have failed or am wanting). (§118, 2, N.) To have left. Having left. 2 Plup. I had left. 2 Aor. Heft. Leave thou. To leave or to Having left or (§202, 1.) have left. leaving. The passive of XetVo) is used in all tenses, with the meanings / am left, I was left, I have been left, I had been left, I shall have been left, I was left, 1 shall be left. It also means lam inferior {lejl behind). §95.] TENSES. 93 The middle of XetVo) means properly to remain (leave one^s self), in which sense it differs little (or not at all) from the passive. But the 2nd aor. eXiirofirjv often means I left, for myself (^a a memorial or monu- ment) : so with the present and future middle in composition. 'EXt- nonrjv in Homer sometimes means I was left behind or was inferior^ like the passive. III. #aCv«. Indicative. Imperative. Infinitive. Participle. Pres. / show or am showing. Show thou. To show. Shewing. Imperf. I showed or was showing. Fut. I shall show. To be about to show. About to shxyw. Aor. I showed. Show thou. To shoio or to Having shown (§ 202, 1.) have shown. or showing. 1 Perf. I have shown. (§118, 2, N.) To have shown. Having shown. 1 Plup. I had shovm. 2 Perf. I have appeared. (§118,2,N.) To Jiave ap- peared. Having ap- peared. 2 Plup. I Jiad appeared. The passive of ^aiW means properly to he shown or made evident ; the middle, to appear (show one's self). But these two meanings are often hard to distinguish, and it is therefore sometimes impossible to decide whether (f)aLPOfiai, Tre^ao-ftai, &c. are passive or middle. The 2nd fut. pass. cf)avfi(rofiai, I shall appear or be shown, does not differ in sense from the fut. mid. (ftavovfiai ; but i(f)dv6rjv is generally pas- sive, / was shown, yvhiie €(j)dvijv is / appeared. The aor. mid. f(pT}pd- ur}p is transitive, 1 showed , it is rare and poetic in the simple form, but d7r€fjLev (or Xixroifxfv) avrov, let us loose him , fxf} \v(rr]s avrov, do not loose him. 'Eai/ Xvw (or \va-a>) avrov, ;^atpi7(ret, if I (shall) loose him, he will rejoice. "EpxofJiai, Iva avTou Xv XeXvKoi(j.cv XcXvKOlT€ XcXvKoicv S. ^2. (3. IXcXvKciv cXeXi^KCis IXeXvK€t MS IXeXvKciTov ^XcXvKClTTlV 4. cXcXvKClfiCV cXcXvKetTc IXcXvKeo-av or IXeXvKcwrav § 96.] CONJUGATION OF VERBS IN ft. Xvo) {continued). AORIST. 97 Imperative. Infinitive, Participle. Ml Xvv Xv€ IXvo-aro \va-ay.ax \vat\Tcrav or XcXt{0Vi(r€av(o •S 2. (0av^eis) 4>av€is ( 3. {(paviei) c]>avei p. j2 2. (^ai'eeroj') ({>aveiTov 3. (^af^erov) <}>av€iTov ((pai^iofieu) <}>avovficv 2. (^aj'^ere) <{>avciTC 3. {tpapiovffi) ^avovai FUTURE. XeCirw Middle Optative. Xiirotii-qv Xiiroio XCiroiTO XCiroto-Oov XnroCavoiiJ.i, or {(paueoiTjv) (f'avol'qv {(pavhis) (|>avois, or ((paveoLrjs) <)>avoiT]S {(Pavioi) <|>avoi, or {4>a-veolr)) <}>avoiT) {(pavioiTov) <{>avoiTOV, or ((paveoLriTou) (|>avoCT]rov ((paveoiTrjv) (f>avoiTT)v, or (0aj'eot^r77»')avoi^TT]V {(f)av€Oifiev) (|>avoip«v, or {(paueoirifiev) avoCT|^cv {(pavioLTe) <{>avoiT€, or ((paveolTjTt) <}>avoiT]T6 (^aj'^oie;') <{>avoieV| or {4)av€oiriaav) ({>avoCT]T]va ?<|)Tivas €<}>^VaTOV l<|>T]vdTTlV €<})11VaT€ SubjunMive. ''^VT1T0V Optative. 4>i(]vai|ii <|>irivais or 4)'^v€ias -/ivai or <}>'qvei€ ^vaiTov (|>'r]vai|XEV «j>TJvaiT€ <{>iiv(U€v or (j>i]V6iav CONJUGATION OF VERBS IN fl. 107 {conlinued). Voice. SECOND AORIST. Imperative, Infinitive. Participle. Mi Xiirov XtireVew Xkireo-Ooi Xnr<5fji€vos, -^, -ov (§ 62, 3) ^■{l X£ir€avciv Participle. {^ai^uv) av»v (§ 69) AORIST. Imperative. -{I HI Ma: 4>T]vd.TC0 <|)'^vaTov <|>T]vdT(i)V <}>"^VaT6 ^i]vdTa)(rav or (|>T|vdvTMV Infinitive. <|>f)vai 4>'^vds, <{>^vd(ra, (|>T)vav (§ 68) 108 SJ2. (3. -Si P.-] 2. (3. INFLECTION. [§ 96. <}>aCva) FUTURE. Middle Indicative. Optative. {(Paviofiai) ((paviri, (pavh {(paveerai) <|>avov[i,ai i) av€i <|)av€iTai (ipaveoifiTjv) 4)avoCnTjv {(pav^oio) (j>avoio {(pavioLTo) <})avoiTo (ipavietrdov) {(jxivUadov) <|>av€ior0ov ({>aveio-6ov (4>avioiadov) avoi(r6ov {avotT]vd|iT]V CijvaiTo "11 l(j>i]vao-6ov |T)vdo-6T]V <|)T1VT1O-0OV (|>i]vaio-0ov c|)TivaCijvao-0€ 44>iivavTO <)>T]vco(ji€0a «pT]VT](P0€ (j>ljVb>VTai SECOND AORIST. Tiva£fJi€0a <|)Tlvaio-0€ <|)ijvaivTo Passi\ 0' B.)2. (3. l4>dVT,V l4>dvTlS 4«|>dvT, avckT]s avcCi) m:: lavfjTov ^avfjTov ^avcCi^TOv or 4>aveiT0V av6iifiT'riv or ^aviirriv p.-] 2! (3. l<|»dvT,»i€y l<|»dvT,T€ €<{>dvT]o-av <|)avavf]T€ <|)av«avcC'q|Ji€V or (|>avct(jL€V av€CtiT€ or <}>av€iT€ <)>avcCT](rav or av€i€V § 96.] CONJUGATION OF VERBS IN SI 109 (continited). Voice. FUTURE. Infinitive. Participle. ((pavhadai) ^avila^u {(pavedfieuos) <|>avotJ(i€VOS, -tj, -ov - (§ 62, 3) Imperative, ( 2. 4>fjvai. Is. 4>T]vd(r0tf •Q j 2. 4>'^va(rBov ( 3. 4)Tivder0wv p ^ 2. ^-qvaa-Qi 'U. ' ' ' 4>iivdT]vd(r6a)V Voice. AORIST. Infinitive. (j>^va(r6(u Participle. ^vd|ievos, -1], -ov (§ 62, 3) SECOND AORIST. g J2, <^VT|0t 3. (|>aWJT(i> D. ( 2. ()>din^Tov av^jTwv 5 2. <|>dvT]T€ X 3. iai <)>av{)vai <^vcis, 4>av€i(ra, 4>av^v (§ 68) <|>av'/jTwav^vT(i)v 110 INFLECTION. \ ^oivM (continued), SECOND FUTURE PASSIVE. [§ 96. Indicative. ( 1. (|>avi](ro|xai •s 2. 4>avijaviricr€Tau Optative. (f>avT]aVT|0-OlTO S. •^ 2. 4>avijavT)(r€i 4)avTiaviricr€Tau ■Q ^ 2. «f>avTjoP€o-0ov Participle, (f>aVT]0-0(t€VOS, -Tl,-ov(§62,3) (3. <})av'avT)(rd|ie9a <|)avijav^(rovTai <|)avi^avT)(ro£(r0T)V (t>avT]orof)JLC0a <|>avTJaiva), enclosed in ( ) above, and of other futures with liquid stems, are not Attic, but are found in Homer and Herodotus. So with some of the uncontracted forms of the aorist subjunctive passive in ea>, &c. Note 2. The tenses of XftVa) and (jiaivo) which are not inflected above follow the corresponding tenses of Xvoj ; except the perfect and pluperfect middle, for which see § 97. AeXeiix-fiai is inflected like rerpifi-fiai (§ 97, 3), and 7r€<^ao--/xat is inflected in § 97, 4. Note 3. Some of the dissyllabic forms of Xvm do not show the accent so well as corresponding forms with three or more syllables. The correct accent will be seen in the following forms of kcoXvo), to hinder : — Pres. Imp. Act. Aor. Opt. Act. Aor. Imp. Act. Aor. Imp. Mid. 111 K(i>X\$(rai|J.i KwXvo-ais or -iJ §97.] PERFECT AND PLUPERFECT MIDDLE. lU Perfect and Pluperfect Middle and Passive of Consonant Steins. § 97. 1. In the perfect and pluperfect middle arm' sive, many euphonic changes (§ 16) occur when a final consonant of the stem comes before an initial ytt, t, cr, or (tQ of the ending (§ 118). 2. When the stem ends in a consonant, the third person plural of these tenses is formed by the perfect participle and etVt, are, and ^crai/, were^ the present and imperfect of et>t, he (§ 127). 3. These tenses of Tpt/3ft) (stem T/9t/3-), ruh^ irXeKco QiikeK-^, weave., ireidci} QrreiO-^^ persuade^ and a-TeWco (^(TTeW-, o-reX-, <7TaX-), send, are thus inflected : — r^ Perfect Indicative. ^^• T^Tpi|xp.ai ire'irXc-yiiai TrcVtierjiat {eOV ire'irXcxQov triirna-Qov cVtoXOov T6'Tpi<|>0OV -rriirXixQov ircircKrOov i'orraXeov ^^• T€Tpi|l}Jl€0a ircirXeYixeGa ircireitrncOa ia-ToX^iQa p.] 2. T€Tpi<}>e6 ireirXexOe ircireio-Oe co-TttXec (3. TCTpip,|J.eVO|. ircirXc-yixe'vot ireireio-jj^vot ca-raXfi^voi. €l0« ircirXexOw •ir€ir€C0OV ir^irXexOov 'Tre''ir6i(r0ov 4'0a»V TTfrrXi^Qav 'Tr€ir€((r0a)V 4o-TdX0(i)v -\l T€Tpi0€ triirXexQi 'ir^ir€i0«V or irtTrXe'xOwv or •jrCTrci0ai ircirXexGat Treircia-Oai ^trrdXOai Participle TCTpifxiievos ircirXe-Yjitvos ircircwrjwvos €90V CTerpC<|>9T)v 4T€Tp{)J.|JLc6a 4TtTpuj>0€ T€Tpi.)l.(JL€VOI. •Jjo-av Pluperfect Indicative. iTreirXe-yiiTjv circirc^a-p.Tiv circ'irXe^o lircirXocTO lircirXcxOov lircTrXe'xGTiv cireirXe'-yp.cOtt lircirXcxO* ircirXeyiJtevot fjo-av ^trcircio-o cTreircwTTO lirc'ircio-Oov lirerrcfo-OTiv lireireCo-p.cOa circirtio-Gc TTcirctcrp.cvoi €OrTdX|lT]V €ao-p.ai i^XXaYnai IXTfjXcYJMlt a.U. T€T^X€avavTat •J^XXaKTttu IXi^Xc^KTai. -la: TerA.6av0ov <^XXax0ov IX-qKtyxQov T€TcXcav0ov av0e 4iXXax06 ^X^XcYxe^ (3. TCTCXCO-JJL^VOI 'ire4>a(rtievoi ^XXa^jJievot eXTjXc-yiJLevoi eUrC clcrC €l(r£ €l(r£ Perfect Subjunctive and Optative. SuhJ. T-iTcXco-nevos avdv0a> 'n'^<}>av0ov 'irc()>dv0(i>v irc(}>dv0cD(rav or 7r€4>dv0a)V ■fjXXolo T|XXdx0« ■{lXXax0ov ■flXXdxOwv i^XXax0€ '^XXdx0worav or if|XXdx0«v IX^Xr/fo IXtiXcyxOw or €XtiX^yx0»v §97.] PERFECT AND PLUPERFECT MIDDLE. 113 Perfect Infinitive and Partici2)le. Inf. TeT€X^o-0at ir6<}>dv6ai '^XXax^ai Fart. TCTeXco-fJi^vos 7rc4»ad(rfi'r]V 'jjWd^fJ.Tjv lire4>avaVT0 ^•ire(f>av6ov ^•n-€4>dv0Tiv Iirc<}>av6e ir€<|>a(r)j.evoi ■fjo-av ij\Xa|o i^XXaKTO <]XXax0ov T|XXdx0iiv iP|XXd7jji,€9a ijXXax0€ ^T]X^'yX®*'' IXT)Xey|i^vos IXTiX^YIiilv IX^Xe^^o IXl^Xc^KTO tXVjXe-yxOov eXTjXiTx^Tiv IXr]X^-Y}i.e0a eX^Xc-yx^e eXi]X€Yp^voi ^a(r-|i.ai. TCTcXc-cai ircVct-o-at 'irc4)av-orai T6T€'X6-av-Tai T€T€Xe-(r0c 8 ire'av-0€ 114 ■ INFLECTION. [§97. Tn ^\ay-fjiai no change was required (§ 16, 3) ; p^\a-^ai is for fjWay-aai (§ 16, 2); ^'XXaK-rai for j^XXay-rat (§ 16, 1); fjXXav-Gop ioT T)\\ay-(r6ov (§ 16, 4 and 1), cf. irenXex'^^^ (above). In (XrjXey-fiai, yyfi (lor yxfi, § 16, 3) drops one y (§ 16, 3, Note); Aj^Xey^at and fXi)\cyK-Tai are for eXrjXfyx-o-ai and eXrjXeyx-TUi (§ 16, 1, 2); eX^Xfyj^- $€ is lor (XrjXeyx-o-de (§ 16, 4) ; see also § 102. Note 3. (a) All perfect-middle stems ending in a labial inflect these tenses like Terpifji-fiai, &c. ; as XftVo), XeXeifi-fiai] ypdcfyo) (ypa^-), write, ye'ypn/i-/iai (§ 16, 3); piiTTio (pi(^-), throw, eppifx-fxai. But when final pn of the stem is reduced to p before /m (§ 16, 3, Note), the original tt recurs before other consonants; as KaprrTa) (Kapir-), hend, K€Kap-pai, KCKap^ai, K^Kaprr-Tai, KeKap(^-6f', Trepnco (irfpTr-), send, n€TT€p-pai, 7r€7r€p\j^ai, TreTrepn-Tai, TreVf /x^-^e : compare with the latter Irene p-pai from Treaarco (Trejr-), cook, inflected Trene-^ai, ire-nen-Tai, nenecp-dey &C. (h) All ending in a palatal inflect these tenses like TrenXey-pai and ^XXay-/Liat; as rrpdcrcroi (npdy-), do, neTrpay-pai ; Tapd(r(rco {rapax'), confuse, Terapay-pai ', (f)vXdiT(Ta) (<^i;Xa.<-), 7Te(f)vXay-pai. But when y before p represents yy, as in eXtjXey-pai from eXeyx-(o (end of N. 2), the second palatal of the stem recurs before other consonants. (c) All ending in a lingual mute inflect these tenses like irenda-- paL, &C.; as (Ppd^(o {(f)pa8-), tell, 7re(f)pa(T-pai, TreCJipa-aai, Tre ((rnevd-^, pour, e(T7rei(r-pai (§ 16, 6), for ecrirevb-p.ai, i(nrev(T-p.ai, (§ 16, 3), eairei-aai,, ecnreia-rai, fa7rei(r-0e. (d) Most ending in v (those in du- and ijv- of verbs in mvco or vvco) are inflected like necjiaa-pai, changing v to a- before p (§ 16, 6, N. 4), and retaining i/ elsewhere; as ixpaivM (u0ay-), fveare, v(pa(r-prti, v(f)av-(Tai, v, sharpen, a)$vp-p.2i (later ^^va-pai); and even then the V recurs before other consonants, as ut^w-aai, w^w-rai. When final j/ of a stem is dropped (§ 109, 6), as in kXIvch, hend, KeKXi pat, the stem becomes a vowel-stem, and is inflected like \fXv-pai. (e) Those ending in X or p are inflected like eardX-pai; as dyyeXXa (ayyfX-), announce, ^yyeX-pai; jitpto (dp-), I'alse, rip-pai', eyeipoi (eyep-), rouse, eyrjyep-pat', 7reipa> (rrep-), pierce, Trerrap-paL (§ 109, 4); no change being made except the dropping of a in (r$ after X or p (§ 16, 4), as iu rjyyeK-Bf and €yr}yep-6ai. §98.] CONTRACT VERBS. 115 Contract Verbs. § 98. Verbs in aw, ew, and ow are contracted in the present and imperfect. These tenses of ti/jluco (jL^a-)^ honor^ (pLXio) (i\(5 {8vX6u) 8tiXa> s. 2. (Tt/ideis) TlJi^S (0t\^eis) 4)iX€is (drjXdeis) StjXois (3. (ri/idei) Tl|l^ (^tXe'eO <},lX6l {SrjXdeO 8tiXoi Tv !' (rt/xcieroj') Tip.dTOV (^tX^eroi') 4)lX€lT0V {dr]X6eTov) 8t|Xowtov D. (Tt/xderoi') TlfldTOV (^tX^ero;/) <})tX€lTOV {drjXoeTOu) 8t]Xovtov li: (Tt;u.do/(xei') Ti)i(3|ji.ev (0tXeo/i€J') iXov}«v (SrjXoofieu) 8T]Xovp,€V P. (rt/adeTc) Tl(ldT€ {(piX^ere) lX€lT€ (577X6ere) StjXovtc (Tifxdovai) Tip.WO-1 (j^iXeovai) <{>iXovo-i (8r)X6ov(ri) 8TiXoviX<5 {Sr,X6u}) 8tiX« a •2. (Ti/xdr?s) Ti|iqLs (0iX^77s) «j>iXfis (8vX6vs) 8-^X019 (3. (ri/idT?) Tip.a ((^iX^T?) <|>lXTi (577X67?) 8tiXoi n «: (xt^dTyToi') Tip,dTOV ((piX^Tjrov) 4)lXfjT0V (577X677x01') St^Xwtov x/* {Ttfid-nTOP) Tijidrov {4>L\ey}T0v) <|>tX'qTOV {dyjXorjTOp) 8iiX«Tov ^^• {TtfJLdci}IJ.€P) Tijjiwfiev ((pLX^ufiet^) 4>iX(5p.6v (SrjXSoifjiev) 8t^X»}i€v p. - 2. (rt/xdTjre) Ttp,dT6 (cptX^Vre) <|)lX71T€ {SrjXorjre) 8t|X«T6 (3. (ri/idwcrt) Ti|Ji«(rt) iX«cn {dr]X6ci}(n Present Optative. n. (rijudotjui) TlflW|Xl ((ptX^oifii) <|)iXot|it (Sr)\6oifxi) 8tiXoi|ii G. ■" 2. {rifxdoii) TlJXipS (0iX^ots) <|)iXois (577X601S) 8t)Xois (3. {Ti/idoi) Tl|i«p (0tX^oO lXoiTOV (577X6o£roi') 8t]XoiTOV (Ti/xaoiTTjv) Tl[l,iXoi(tev (577X6ot;aei') 8T]Xotjt€V P J2. (ri/xdoiTe) Tl|liXoiTe (577X6o£xe) 8tiXoit6 I (3. {TL/xdoUf) Tl|i«€V ((piXeoiev) ({>iXoicv (57;X6otc»') 8i]Xokcv 116 INFLECTION. (1. (r. 5.-J2. (r, (3. (ri or ifiaolrjv) ifxaoir]) (2. (jtfxaoiriTov) (. 3. (3. (jL[Jiaoi.-qT'qv) (TifiaoiTjfjiev) (Ti/xaoir]Te) [Ti/jLaoirja-av Tl(JL«T)V Tl|JI,(UT]S Tl^(t>T]TOV TIJJIWI^TTJV ((pLXeoirjv) (lXolT]V (f>lXoiT]S c{>lXo^T) 4>iXoCt]tov <})tXoiTJTT]V <(>lXo£T]|iCV iXo£tJT€ (j>iXokT](rav or (SrjXoolrjv) {SrjXooirjs) (driXoolrj) (hrjXoolrjTov) (drjXoof^Trjv) {dr}Xooirj/X€j/) (S-rjXooirjTe) [5r]Xoolr]aav [§98. 8t]XoCt]v 8t]Xo£t]s 8i]XoIt] 8t]XoCtjtov 8T]XoiiriTT)v 8t]XoCt]^cv 8i]Xotr]T6 - 8T]Xo£T]o-av] Present Imperative. g 52. (Tlf^ae) ' i 3. (Tifxa^TOj) 5 2. (Tifiderov) ' i 3. (ri/xa^Tuu) TljxdTOV TlJJtdTWV 2. (Tifxaere) Ti(JidT6 (0tXee) ((ptXciTUji) (ff>LX^€TOv) ((piXetTuv) {(piX^ere) iXe£Ta) <}>lXciTOV (|>LXeiTitfv <}>iXeiTc (S^Xoe) (drjXo^TU)) (SrjXSeTov) (5t]Xo^tuv) (8r)X6€Te) 8^Xov 8t]Xovtw 8t)Xovtov 8l]XoviTWV 811X0VT6 3. {TCfxa^Twaav) TinaTwiXovvTiav {b-qXobvTwv) StiXovvtwv Present Infinitive, {ri/xdeiu) Tifiav (tX4(Lv) iXees) (e^tXee) i(f>aovv (eSiJXooi') (eS^Xoes) (eS^Xoe) l8^Xovv ^S^Xovs ISVjXov -■\l (iTifxdeTOv) (iri/ia^Trjp) CTlfJldTOV 6Tt(ldTT]V (f^tA^erof) (((piXe^TTjv) 4<}>lX€lT0V (iSrjXveTOv) (edriXo^TTju) l8l^X0VT0V 48-qXoiiTTiV "li; (irifjidofiev) (iri/xdeTe) (iTifxaov) ItI|JI<0|1€V cTifidrc CTljXWV (k^LX^Ofxeu) (e0(Xf'er6) (e^i'Xeoi') l4>lXov(l€V l<}>lX€tT€ 4iXouv (e5r]X6o/j.€v) (edrjXSeTe) (eoTjXoov) 48T]X0V|itXo€jJLat {drjXoofjLai) 8T)Xo{)(iai s. ft)Ti|xa (<^iXe'77,0iX^et)iXin. «l>i^«^ (5'>;X677,5T7X6et)8TjXot Tindrai (^tX^erat) 4>iX6iTat (5);X6eTai) S-qXovrai D ( 2. (TCfj.d€L\iead€) <|)iX€i(tai {(piX^u/xai) <}>iX»(J.at (5T)X6ci)fiat) 8T]Xw|xat S. j 2. (rt^dTj) Tlfl^ (0tX^77) tXti (drjXorj) Sii\\oi ( 3. (TCfxdrjTai) Tifidrai {i\^T)Tai) <|>iXfiTai {5rjX6T]TaL) 8TiXwTat D. ( 2. {TLfid-qadov) ■ ( 3. (TLtid-qadov) Tindo-Oov ((piX^rjadov) iXritXf]o-0€ {dvXdrjaee) 8iiXiXc»vTai Present Optative. {SrjXouvTai) 8T]X«VTat ri. (TifiaoLix-nv) TlJiWRV {(PiXeoiiiiTjv) <}>iXoC|M]v (SrfXoolfjLTjp) 8T]Xoi|Jt.TlV S. •s 2. (riyuctoto) TlflWO {4>LXeoio) iXotiXoto-0T]V {drjXooiadrjv) 8T]XoiiX^oiiXoio-0€ {57]X6oLiXeov) ^\Xov (S-nXdov) StiXov TipLdo-0a> {(juXeiaOio) ^\.\d D ( 2. (rifideadov) i 3. (Ttfia^aduu) Ti[idcr0ov {(pLXeeadov) <|)iX€rv {(j)LXe4adwv) <|>tX€io-0a)V {8riXo^adojv) 8T|Xov(r0a)V (2. (rifideaee) Tindor0€ ((f>iXe€(rde) <}>iX€io-0€ (SrjXdeaee) 8TiXo€(r0€ P. ) 3. (rifiaiadu- TindtX€£or0«o-av (STjXoiadu}- 8T]\ov 1 aav or or ffav or or (rav or or V. Tifia^aduf) Ti[jLd(r0iXe^adu}v) 4>iX€{o-0ft)V SrjXoiadcov) 8T)Xovo-0tty 118 INFLECTION. [§98. {rifideaOat) Ti|xaor0aL {rifiad/xevos) Tip.w|i6V0S (3. (iTiiJ.a6fJL7]v) {eriimdov) 3. (eTiixdeTo) €TI|JL(0(J.T]V eTl|lU) CTijidro (2. {€ TLfjt.de a 6 Of) €Tip,diXov|jl€VOS Imperfect. (((piXeSixTjv) ciXot)|j.T]v (ecpiXiov) €(|>iXov {€(pl\i€T0) €<}>lX€lTO {i(pL\eeiX€i(rdov {kcfyCkeiadriv) c(|>iX€C(r6T]v (e^tXeo/ueda) ecfx-XoviicGa {elX0VVT0 (5T;X<5e, tliirst, bt-^fjs, 8i\|/-.^, di-^^re ; imperf. fSt>//-coi/, ebtylrrjs, fBlyj/r)] infin. diyj/^rju. So ^dco, live, kpoco, sci'ape, Tretvao), hunger^ afidat smear, XP""> ff^^^ oracles, with xpf^o/xai, and yj/dco, rub. Note 3. 'Piy6a>, shiver, has infinitive piyatu (with piyovv), and other similar forms in w. 'idpoco, sweat, has ISpwcrt, l8p ^^® Note 2), and a very few jwetic forms. Note 5. The present infinitive active of verbs in aco and ow (in av and ovv, not av and olv) is probably contracted from forms in aeu and oeu. The infinitive in ev is Doric (§ 119, 14, c). See § 9, 4, N. 2. Note 6. The optative active in onja-av is very rare, and perhaps was never used except (contracted) in verbs in ew. (See § 115, 4.) §100.] AUGMENT. 113 AUGMENT. § 99. 1. In the secondary tenses of the indicative, and in the perfect and future perfect of all the moods and the participle, the stem of the verb receives an augment (i.e. increase') at the beginning. 2. There are three kinds of augment, syllabic augment, temporal augment, and reduplication. (a) The syllabic augment prefixes e to verbs beginning with a consonant ; as Xvw, eXvov: (5) The temporal augment lengthens the first syllable of verbs beginning with a vowel or a diphthong ; as ayo), lead^ rj^ov ; olKeco, ol/ccj, dwells ^KTjaa, ((?) The reduplication prefixes the initial consonant fol- lowed by 6 in forming the perfect stem of verbs beginning with a consonant ; as Xvca, \e-XvKa ; 7/oa(/)o), write, yi- ypacfia. For Attic reduplication, see § 102. Remark. There is an important distinction between the aug- ment of the imperfect and aorist, which does not belong to the tense stem and never appears except in the indicative, and the redu- Elication or other augment of the perfect and future perfect, which elongs to the perfect stem, and is therefore retained in all the moods and the participle. Imperfect and Aorist Indicative. § 100. 1. The imperfect and aorist indicative of verbs beginning with a consonant have the syllabic augment e. E.g. Ayco, eXvov, e\v(Ta,i\v6fxr)v, €\v(rafiT}v, iXv^rju; ypa(f>'', icrite, eypac^oi', €ypa\|/'a, i'ypdcprjv; piVro), throic, (ppirrrov, (fjpL(()riv (foT pp see § 15,2). For the pluperfect of these verbs, see § 101, 4. 2. The imperfect and aorist indicative of verbs begin- ning with a short vowel have the temporal augment, which lengthens the initial vowel ; d and e become ij, and t^ o, ij become I, cj, v. E.g. 120 INFLECTION. [§101. "Ayo), lead., ^yov, fjx6r)v\ iXavva, drive, ffkavvov, iKfTeva) (T), implore ^ iKcrfvov (c)» lK€T€V(Ta (r) ; ovetSi^w, reproach, wveidi^ov ; vfipl^oi (v), insult, v^plcrOrjviy)', aKo\ov$ito^ accompany, rjKoXovdrjaa', 6p66(o, erect^ fopdoia-a. For the augment of verbs beginning with a diphthong, see § 103. Note 1. If the initial vowel is already long, no change takes place in it, except that a generally becomes rj by augment; as dOXeca {a6- contr. from d(6-), struggle, ^6\r}(ra. Both a and r] are found in dvakio-KOi and dvaXoa) ; see also dio) (poetic) , hear. Note 2. BovXopxii, loish, dvvafiai, be able, and /LteXXw, intend, often add the temporal augment to the syllabic ; as €^ov\6p.T]v or r)^ovX6- firjv, e^ovXrjOrju or rj^ovXf]6r}V ', idvvdfiTjv or ribvvdp.r}v, edvi^Tj6r]V or rjdvvrj^ Otjp] efieXXov or ^/leXXo;/. Note 3. The second aorist active and middle in all the moods and the participle sometimes has a reduplication in Homer; as ne- (f)pa8ov from Si Xe-Xvfievos', ypd(J)a>, ye~ ypacpa, ye-ypd(fi6ai.. So Bvco, sacrifice, ri-OvKa (§ 17, 2); ^aiVto (<^av-)y show, TT€-(}iaap.aL, 7r€-, gape, KC-xrjva. § 101.] AUGMENT. 121 Note. Five verbs have €i as augment in the perfect instead of the reduplication : \ayxdv(o (Kax-), obtain by lot, €d\.T)xa, (iXrjyfiai', Xafj.- ^dvoi (XojS-), take, etXrj^a, etXrjmiai. (poet. XeXT^/i/xat) ; Xc'-yo), collect, in compos., -e'iXoxa, -elXfyfiai with -XcXeyfxat {bia-Xeyofxai, discuss, has 8i- (iXcynai); ficipofxat (fi€p-), obtain part, ([jxaprai, it is fated ; stem (pe-), €iLpr)Ka, have said, cIprjfjLai, fut. pf. elprjcrofiai (see clnou). See also eday. An irregular reduplication appears in Homeric deidoiKu and tei- bta^ from deiba>, fear. 2. Verbs beginning witb two consonants (except a mute and a liquid), with a double consonant (J", f, -^/r), or with p have the simple syllabic augment e in all forms of the perfect and future perfect, ^.g, SreXXo), send, earaXKa', (rjTeo}, seek, e^rjTrjKa', ^€v8, shut, KeKXeiKa (regularly). Note 2. Mifivrja-Ka (iiva-), remind, has p.€p.vr]fiai (memini), remem- ber , and Krdonai, acquire, has both KeKTrjfMai and eKTrip.ai, possess. See also Homer, pf. pass, of pinro) and pvn6(o. 3. Verbs beginning with a short vowel have the tem- poral augment in all forms of the perfect and future perfect. U.ff. "Ayco, lead, ^;^a, ^ypai, rjyfievos', aKoXovdeay, folloiv, rjKoXovBrjKa, rjKo- Xov6r)Kevai', opSoo), erect, copdcoixai; 6pi(a), bound , copiKa, (opi(rfj.ai; aTijjioay, dishonor, r}Tip., prove, e\^- Xey/iat, eXrjXeyfirjv ', eXavvui (iXa-), drive, eXtjXaKa, iXrjXaixai', aKOvo), hear, dK^Koa (§ 110, IV. d, N. 1). Other verbs which have the Attic reduplication are dycipa, aXci0o), aXe'o), eyeipdi, tpeifio), ep^op-ai, ea6l(o, oXXvfii, op.vvp.i, opvTToi, 0epa). See also, lor Ionic or poetic forms, alpe(o, dXdopai, dXvKreai, dpapiaKa, ipei- TTO), €)(^u>, TJp,vci}, (oSu-) o So) 8 utT/xot, o^o), opdoi (on"co7ra) , 6pey(o, opwfMi. The Auic reduplication (so called by the Greek grammarians) is not peculiarly Attic, and is found in Homer. Note 1. 'Eyeipto (eyep-), rouse, has 2 perf. iyp-i^yopa (for iy-rjyop-a, of. § 109, 3), but fy-r)y€piiai. For the Attic reduplication in fjyayov, 2 aor. of ayco, in fjveyKa and fjveyp.oKa), and bL-(opa>pvKTo (oi Bi-opvcra(o. 8i-op(i)pvypai) occur in Attic prose. See Homeric pluperfects of eXavva and epeida. Augment of Diphthongs. § 103. Verbs beginning with a diphthong take the temporal augment on the first vowel of the diphthong, at or a becoming rj, ot becoming w. U.g. Airt'o), ask, yTrja-a; oIk€a6r]v'^ aXlaKofxai., be captured, eaXa>/ca, 2 aor. edXcoj/ (or {fk(iiv)\ ayvvyn (ay-), break, ea^a, 2 pt. eaya; e/jSu), do, Ionic, 2 pt'. eopya', wviofiai, bug, iuivov^irjv, ike. ; iOi^o), accus- tom, eXdia-Uy etBiKa (from ie3-) ; e'ao), permit, eidaa, eid/ca. These verbs are, further, eXio-o-o), cXkcd, eTrw, epydi^onai, epnay or ioTzt^oi, earidat, e^co, trjui (e-}, with the aorists eidov and elXov (atpto)), the perfects etcoOa {Fed-y bid- for Fa>6-) and eot/ca (t/c-) , and plpf . f torri^- K€iv (for ceo-r-) of larrjixi. See also Ionic and poetic forms under dv8dp, and e^ojxaL. Note 1. 'Opdco, .see, and dj/-oiya). o/)en, generally take the tempo- ral augment after the syllabic; as eapoiv, (capaKa (or (opdKo), ioopdpat; dv-ecpyov, dv-ca^a (rarely fjvoiyov, rjvoi^a, § 105, N. 3). Homer has frjvdiwou from dvbdvo), please : etovoxoet imp. of oivoxoeoo, pour wine ; and 2 plpf. iajXTtei and ewpyet from cXttu) and epSeo. 'Eoprd^o), ieep holiday (Hdt. oprd^oj) has Attic imp. (a)pTa(,ov. Note 2. This form of augment is explained on the supposition that these verbs originally began with the consonant F or some other consonant, which was afterwards dropped : thus el5ov, saw, is for ^Ftdov (cf. Latin vicl-i) ; ^opya is for FeFopya, from stem Fepy- (§ 110, IV. d), cf. Eng. work (German fVerk) ; and ^piru, creep, is for ff-epwu (cf. Latin serpo). Augment of Compound Verbs. § 105. 1. In compound verbs, the augment follows the preposition. Prepositions (except Trepv and Trpo) drop a final vowel before the augment e. U.g. npocr-ypdcfxi), Trpoa-ey pa(f)ou, 7rpocr-y€ypa(f)a', cl(r-dy(o, fla-'Tjyov (§ 26, N. 1); €K-3dXX, dispute, T]fx(Pia^TjTovv and r}fi(})€(T^r)Tovv (as if the last part were -(r/S^rfo)). 2. Indirect compounds of Svo--, ill, and occasionally those of €v, well, are augmented after the adverb, if the following part begins with a vowel. JS.g, Ava-apearTea),be displeased^ bvarjpearovv'^ eicpyerea, do good, el-qpyk- rrjKa (or eyrpy-). Note. In other cases, compounds of Svo-- are augmented at the beginning, and those of ev generally omit the augment. 3. Other indirect compounds are augmented at the begin- ning. See, however, oSoTroiew. ^ Omission of Augment. § 106. 1. In the imperfect and aorist, the temporal aug- ment is often omitted b}^ Herodotus ; as in dfxci/BeTo and dpei- if/aro (for rjfiiL^eTo and r)ix€L\l/aTo) ; and both temporal and syllabic augment by the Epic and L3Tic poets, as in oficXeov, txpVj 8coK€ (for oi/JLcXeoVj €t;(Ov, cScoKe). Note. The reduplication or augment of the perfect stem is very rarely omitted. But Homer has dix'^'^°-'- for SeS^xarai, from 5^xo/iai, receive ; and Herodotus occasionally omits the temporal augment, as in KaTappdoSrj- Kas (for Kar-rjpp-), and he makes iiraXiKXoyrjTO as plpf. of TaXiXXoy^u, 2. The Attic poets sometimes omit the augment in (lyric) choral pas- sages, seldom in the dialogue of the drama. In Attic prose we have xpijv for ixprjv (impf. of XP^)* i^usi- {— §108.] VERBAL STEMS, £ms. VERBAL STEMS. Formation of the Present Stem from the Simple Stent. § 107. That we may know to what present any verbal form is to be referred, we must understand the relations whicTi exist in different classes of verbs between the present stem and the simple stem (§ 92, 2). When these are not identical (as the}' are in Xvco), the present stem is generalh^ an enlarged form of tlie simple stem ; as in kottt-uj (kott-), strike, /xavOdv-o) {fiaO-), learn, 8ok€-io (8o/c-), believe. In a few very irregular verbs, however, there is no connection to be seen between the present stem and the stem or stems which are in use in other tenses; as in cfiipw (e/3-), bear, fut. oicrw (ot-), aor. rjveyKa (^iueyK-). § 108. Verbs in -(i), write. Note. The pure verbs of this class which irregularly retain a short vowel in certain tenses are given in § 109, 1, N. 2 ; those which insert a- in certain tenses, in § 109, 2 ; and the verbs which add e to the stem in some or all tenses not of the present system (as ^ovXafiai), in § 109, 8. These and other verbs of this class which are peculiar in their inflection will be found in the Catalogue of Verbs. II. Second Class. (Lengthened Stems.) 1. This includes all verbs with mute simple stems which form the present stem by lengthening a short vowel, d to rj, i to a (sometimes to I), V to €v (sometimes to v) ; as ttjk-oj (raK-), melt, XctV-oi (Xltt-), leave, (^evy-w (<^uy-), Jlee, rpifS-u) (TpXjS-), rub, i^v;(-w (^l/vx-), cool. Here belong, further, KrjSoi (/caS-), "K^dco (Xa^-), a^Troj (o-an-), aXei- <^co (dXicf)-), cpftTTO) (f'prTT-), 7761^0) (nid-), a'ti^co (ari^-), (TTeix<>> (o'ti'X')' ipfidofxai (<|)i8-), ^Xl/3a) (^Xt/3-), nvtyoi {nvXy-), nevOofia!. (nvd-), Tiv\ai 126 INFLECTION. [§108. (rvx-)^ Tv(f)(o (tv^-), (^piyoi {^pvy-)\ with Ionic or poetic ip^Koa (fpiK), ep€vyop.at (ipvy), KeuSco (ku6-), Tp.T]yM (r/xay-), and (dan- or Ta(f)-) stem oi reSrjna and ctckPov] see also el'/cco (Ik-)- Tpcbyco (jpity-) irregularly lengthens a to «. 2. Six verbs in ew with stems in v belong bj^ formation to this class. These originally lengthened v to eu, which became €f (§ 1, N. 2) before a vowel, and finally dropped F and left c ; as TrAv-, ttAcv-, ttAcF-w, xXc-cd, 5ai7. These verbs are ^ew (6v-)y run, vea (vu-), .sw/w, n\e(o (ttXiJ-), . {pi)-), flow, x^^ (x^")' pour. The poetic trevo) (cru-), wr^e, has this formation, with 6v retained. Note. Verbs of the second class have the lengthened stem, as Tr]K- in rrfKoi, uev- in (i/efo)) veco, in all tenses except in the second per- fect, second aorist, and second passive tense systems ; as (f)€vya>, (j)(v- ^Ofxai, effivyov; TrjK(o, ttj^co, reTTjKa, iTaKrjv', pea (for peFa), pevaopai, (ppvrjv. Exceptions are the perfect middle of aXei) stems generall}' add r, and thus form the present in TTToj (§ 16, 1) ; as KOTTT-d) (kott-), cut, jSXdTTT-u) (jSka/S-) , hurt, ptTTT-oi (pi^-), throw. Here the exact form of the simple stem cannot be determined from the present. Thus, in the examples above given, the stem is to bs found in the second aorists ckotttjv, e/3Xa/3?/v, and eppicprjv; and in Kokv-rrTO) (kuXu/S-), corer^ it is seen in koXv^-tj, hut. The verbs of this class are aVr-a) (a(^-), ^dTTT-a (/3*?0-), ^Xdnr-oi (/3Xa/3-), 6d7rT-(o (racfi-)., Opv-rrr-co (rpvc^-), KoXv-rrT-co (xaXv/S-), KdpnT-w (xa/MTT-), K\e7TT-(0 (xXfTT-), KOTTT-CO (kOTT") , Kpl/TTT-Oi (^KpV^- OY KpvCf)-) , KV7rT-(o (kvcJ)-), pdnT-co (pd(j)-), plirr-co {pX({)-), o-Kdnr-u) ((TKa(f>-), ckc- TTTOp-ai ((7X677-), (TKrjnTO) (o-Kf/TT-) , (TKOiTTTOi) ((TKfOTr-) , TUTTTCi) (rUTT") , witll Homeric and poetic yvdp.irT(o (yvapir-), ivlnrw (cVrTr-), and fidpTTTot {fxapTT-). TiKTco (rex-), probably for tckt-co, belongs here. IV. Fourth Class. (Iota Class.) This includes all verbs in which occur any of the euphonic changes arising from the addition of i to the simple stem in forming the present stem (§ 16, 7). There are three divisions : — 1 . ( Ve7'bs in a-am or ttm and ^w.) (a) Presents in o-o-oj {rriji) generally' come from palatal stems, k, y, or x with t becoming §108.] VERBAL STEMS. 127 o-a- (tt). These liaA^e futures in ^o>; as irpaa-croi (Trpdy-), c?o, fut. TTpa^co; fjia\a.(T(rv\d (, TTTiaraa}, with d. 2 aor. (Epic) Trc^paSov ; ko- p,t^co (ko/xiS-, seen in kopllStJ), carry, fut. KopLia-a)] pe^oi (pcy-), c^o, poetic, fut. pe^co; /cAd^oj (KAayy-, compare clango), scream, fut. KAdy^w. See § 16, 7 (^•). See also dpTrdfo) (apTrdS-), Bavpd^co (Oavpab-)., ep/^o) (epiS-), ifoa (tS-), vopl^oi (i/opiS-), ofo) (o8-), TTfAdfo) (TreXdS-), o-to^oo ((rto8-). X"C'»' (;(dS-) ; Kod^o) ( have stems both in S and y ; as irai^a (rraiS-, Traty-), />/«?/, fut. Trat^oOjuat (§ 110, II. N. 2), aor. eTraiaa. See also poetic fo^'ms of dpTrd^co and vdaa-o). Note 2. Nt'Cw (wjS-), tras/i, has a labial stem. 2. ( FerSs t^2VA lengthened Liquid Stems.) (c) Presents in AAca are formed from simple stems in A with added t, At becom- ing AA ; as o-tcAAw, send, for o-rcA-t-w ; dyycAAw, announce, for dyyeA-i-w; crdXX(i), trip up, for (r(f>aX-L-oi. See § 16, 7 (c). See also /SdXAo) (/3dX-), ^dXXo) (^dX-), oKeXko) (dxeX-), TrdXXo) (TrdX-), I^icfXXo) ((TKeX-) , TeXXo) (reX-), aXXopai (dX-), &c. * (, aipw, and eipw are formed from / simple stems in av, ev, ap, and cp, with added t, whicli, after 1 The lists of verbs of the fourth class aj-e not coin])lete, while those of the other classes which are given contain all the verbs in common use. 128 INFLECTION. . [§108. metathesis, is contracted with the preceding vowel ; as <^atVa), show^ for av-L-o)y flit, (fyavu) ; Krelvwy kill, for KTCv-i-oi ; atpco, raise, for d/3-i-o); o-Tretpoj, so2^?, for o-Trcp-i-co. See § 16, 7 (c?). Those in Ikw, i5j/a), and vpo) may be formed in the same way from simple stems in Xv, vv, and vp, tt becoming I, and vC be- coming v ; as Kptvo), Judge, for Kptv-L-tOj fut. Kptvw ; d/xvi/oj^ ward off, for d/xviz-t-o), fut. afjivvo) ; (Tvpo), draw, for o-vp-t-w. i\ See also evt^paivco (jevc^pav-) , Kepbaivto (KepBav-) , piaiva (piav-) , ^z;- pmVo) {^rjpdv-), a-rjuaivo) {arjuav-), {/(paivoi (v(f)dp-), reipco (rev-), poetic OelvQ) (^ej/-), yelvopai (yev-), aaipa) (adp-), xaipo) ix"P~)i fyf'P<«> (^y^P")* Acetpco ( (o^uj/-), alaxyvoi {ala)(yv-), 6\o(fivpopaL (pXo(pvp-), &C. Note 1. '0(f)€i\Odv-(a (cfiOd-), anticipate ; tlv-io (tl-), pag / ), Hom. 6i)VQ) (with 6vi (8ap3-), dir-^xGavoyiai (ix^~)i i(dv-(o (with i^-co), poetic Kixdv-(o {kXx-) , olbdv-oi (with old-fo), Class 7), 6\icr6av-a} (6\l(tO-), 6a(})paiv-op.aL {6a(Pp-, N. 1), 6cf}\i(TKdv-(o (o^X-, 6(f)XicrK-, VI.), with poetic dXiTaiv-ofiai {oXXt-, N. 1), dX (Ty;^-) , with po- etic x^vbdpd) (xd8-), epvyydv-co (epvy-). 3. A few stems add ve : y8w€-o)(with ^v-w), s^ojt? i<:^, iKvi-ofiaL (with iK-w), come, Kwi-m (kv-), ^e'ss; also dixTr-La-xy^-ofxaiy have on, and vTr-tcrxv^-ofiaL, promise, from io-x-w (VIII.). 4. Some stems add w (after a vowel, wv) : these form the second class (in vvixl) of verbs in jxi, as Bclkw/xl (8eiK-), show, K€pdvvv-fXL (xeptt-), m/ic, and are enumerated in § 125, 5. Some of these have also the present in wui (§ 122, N. 5). NoTK 1. Baivo) Oa-, /3ai/-), y/o, and u(T(f)palvopai {oacfyp-,, 6(T {6qp-, 6pQ-), IXd-aKopai, pedv-aKco, p.i-p.vT)-(TKoi (/xm-), Tn-ni-a-KO) (Ion. and Pind.), 'jri-Trpda-KO), Tt-rpm-a-i^w (rpo-), (dXv/c-), amc^, dLdd-a-KOj (didux-), teach, and Xo-cr/co; (Xa\'-), speak, omit /c or x before cr/cw instead of inserting t. So Homeric ettr/cw or &-/cw (et/c- or t/c-). Note 4. These verbs, from their ending (with fxapTvpofiaL) , ptTrreo) (with piTrro)) , cjiiKeoi (v. Epic forms) ; and poetic 8aT€op.aL, bovneco, elkeoi, fnavpeoa, Kevreo), Ttareofxai, ptye'a>, cruyco).. Topco), and ;^paio-/ie'o>. See also ttcktcco {-JreK-, Tre kt-). Most verbs in cw belong to the first class, as ttouo) (Troie-). Note. A few chiefly poetic verbs form present stems by adding a in the same way to the simple stem : see jSpyxdoixai, yodoj, dripiaw, fjLTjKdofjLai, flTjTldu}, fjLVKdoixai. VIII. Eighth Class. {Mixed Class.) This includes the few irregular verbs in which any of the tense stems are so essentially different from others, or which are otherwise so peculiar in formation, that they cannot be brought under an}' of the preceding classes. The}' are the following : — aipea ( A-) , take, fut. alp^aa, 2 aor. etXov. aXe'^w (dXfK-), ward off, fut. aXe^rjaco (§ 109, 8), aXf^rjo-ofiai, and dXe^oficu; 2 aor. o-XoXkov (Horn.) for aX-aXcK-ou (§ 100, 2, N. 4). yiyvofiat (y(v- or yv-, ycve-, yd-), become, for yi-yevofxai, fut. ytvr]- aofxai, 2 aor. eyepoiinp, 2 pf. yiyova (§ 109, 3) with yfydatrt, &C. (§ 125, 4). 6^0) (JeB; F(o0-, ad-), he accustomed, 2 pf. etada, 2 plpf. elaOetv. fibov (Fib-, 18-), saw, vldi, 2 aorist (no present act.); 2 pf. oiSa, know (§ 127). Mid. ei'Sopat (poetic). fiTTov (etV-, fp-,pe-), spoke, 2 aor. (no pres.); fut. (ep/o))^ ipio, pf. fl-pr]-Ka. The stem eln- is for e-eir (orig. Fe-Fen-), and ep- (pe-j is for fep- (Fpe-), seen in Lat. ver-hum (§ 109, 7, a). So ev-ena. epxofiai (eXvB- or eX^-, eXevd-), go, fut. iXevaofiai (poet.), 2 aor. epScD (fpy-), work, poetic, fut. ep^w; by metathesis epy- becomes pey- in pe^w (Class 4). Originally the stem was Fepy-, as iu cpyoj', wo7'k, German Werk. §109.] MODIFICATION OF VERBAL STEMS. 181 iaBlto (ed-, (pay-) J eat, fut. eBofiai, 2 aor. €(f>ayou. 6770) (Attic only in comp), be about : mid. enofiai, follow (o-ctt- or cnr-i err-), fut. eyjro^ai, 2 aor. icnrofirjv. e;^a) (ce;^- or cr;^-, o-;^f-), Aate, fut. e^ca or ctxW^j ^ aor. Zcrxov (for (-(Tfx-ov). Also i(r;(&) (for (ri-o-e;(-o)). opao) (oTT-), see, fut. oyj/ofiat, pf. icapUKa. See ftSoi/. naax, aor. ^i/ey»ca (§ 109, 7, i), pf. iv-i]vox-a (§ 109, 3, N. 2), tV- rjvey-pai, aor. p. rjvexOrjP. For full forms of these verbs, see the Catalogue. Note. Occasional Homeric or poetic irregular forms appear even in some verbs of the first seven classes. See d/caxt^«' and ■xp.pddvui in the Catalogue. Modification of Verbal Stetng. Remark. This section includes all those modifications of the stem which follow recognized principles, or which occur in so many verbs that they deserve special notice. For example, the change from Tipa- in Tipdco to Tiprj- in riprjao), that from crrepy- in arepyoi to iaropy- in 2 pf . ea-ropya. that from o-T€X-(stem of o-reXXo)) to oTfiX- in €OTei\a and eordX- in earaX-Ka, and that from j3aX- (stem of jSaXXco) to /3e/3Xf7- (for jde^Xd-) in ^e^XrjKa, all follow definite principles ; while that from tti- to tto- in ttiVo) and that from ndS- to nevO- in 7racr;^a) (§ 108, YIII.) are mere irregularities. § 109. 1. Most stems ending in a short vowel lengthen this vowel in all tenses formed from these stems, except the present and imperfect. A and e be- come 7], and becomes w ; but when d follows e, t, or p, it becomes d. E.g. Tipdo) (ti a-), honor, Tiprj a-oa, eTiprj-a-a, rcTifirj-Ka, T€Tipr]-pai, inpr]-' 0T}v: 0tXea) (^iXf-), lore, (piXrjacii, ((piXrjora, 7rf ^iX?;, eacro) (d) ; Idopai, Ida-opai (d) \ 8pd(o, dpdaoi (d), (dpdaa. dedpuKa. This applies also to stems which become vowel stems by metathe- sis (§ 109, 7), as ISdXXa (^dX-, /SXa-), throiv, pf fii^Xrj Ka; Kdfiv(o {Kaji-, 132 INFLECTION. [§ 109. Kfia-), labor, K€Kfxr}-Ka', or by adding e (§ 109, 8), as ^oiiXofiai (/3ovX-, /SouXf-), wish, ^ovXtj-aofiai, ^e^ovXrj-fiaL, e^ovXrj-drjv. Note 1. Ava>, loose, generally has ii in Attic poetry in the pres- ent and imperfect (generally li in Homer) ; in other tenses it has V only in the future and aorist active and middle and in the future perfect. 'A»cpoao/xat, hear, has aKpodcrofiai, &c. ; xP'^^i 9^^^ oracles, lengthens a to j; ; as xPW^i ^c- ^^ rprja-o} and erprjo-a from stem rpa-; see T€TpaLV(o, bore. ^OTE 2. Some vowel stems retain the short vowel, contrary to the geneTST rule (§ 109, 1); as yeXaaty laugh, yeXaaofiai, eyeXaa-a', dpKea>, suffice, dp, dpKCco, dpoco, dpvco, yeXdco, cXkixo (v. eX/cco), c/ieo), €pd(o, ^eco, 6Xdco, KXdco, break, ^eco, tttvco, (mdco, TcXko, rpeo), ^Xao), XaXdo); and Epic dKrjdeut, Koreco, Xoeo), vfiKcoi, and the stems (dd-) and (a€-); — (other verbs with vowel stems) dpkoKat (dpe-), dxBopxit (dxOe-), eXavvio (cXa-), iXd(TKop.aL (iXa-), peOvaKoi {pedv-) ', also all verbs in avwpi and evvvpt, with stems in a and e (given in § 125, 5) , with oXXu/Lit (oXe-) and opvvpL (dpo-^. (b) The final vowel of the stem is variable in quantity in differ- ent tenses in the following verbs : (pure verbs) alveco, alpea, fie'o), bind, dv(o (v. dvv(o), epvu) (Epic), Bvco, sacrifice, KoXeo), Xva>, /xuto, ttoBco), tto- veoy; — (other verbs) ^aivco (/3a-), evpla-Koi (fvp-, eupc-), /Lia;(o/iat (/ia;^e-), jrivo) (tti-, no-), cfiddpa) {(jiBd-), ^Bivco {(^6X-). 2. Many vowel stems have o- added, before all endings not beginning with a, in the perfect middle and first passive tense S3'stems. E.g. T€X€, so far as they form these tenses, and in the following: d/couo), Spaw, Bpavco, KeXevco, kXcIco (kXt^co), Kvaa, Kvaico, Kpoixo, KvXia), Xevca, veco, heap, ^va>, naioD, naXait), 7rava>, 7rpia>, aeica, tiVo), va>, x^^^ XP^^* XP^^f SLud po- etic pai(o. Some, however, have forms both with and without a. See the Catalogue. 3. In the second perfect the simple stem generall}^ changes € to o, and lengthens other short vowels, a to 17 (after p to a), o to CO, t to ot, and v to cv. E.g. 2Tepy-a>, love, earopya', yiyvopai (yfv-), become, yeyova, iyeyoveiv', TiKTO) (t€k-), bring forth, reroKa; (baivoi ((f)dp-), Tre(f)T]va', Kpd((o (Kpdy-), cry, KCKpdya', tt}kco (raK-), melt, rerr^Ka, iTerfjKeiv', XeiTrco (Xin-),^eXoi7ra, §109.1 MODIFICATION OF VERBAL STEMS. 133 eXeXoineiv; (f)€vy(o {(^vy-^,Jiee, 7r€(f)€vya, tTTi^evynv. So cyfipw (Jytp-^, rouse ^ eyprjyopa (§ 102, N. 1). Note 1. Tlpd(raa> (rrpay-), do, has nenpaya (§ 110, lY. (d), N. 2). "eOco (eS-), am accustomed, has irregularly d'o^a {wd- for FaS-, § 104); and prjywfju (pay-) has eppaya (p): these are KeKXo(jf)a, from KkenTO) {kKott-), steal ; ("iXoxa, from Xey-co, collect; n€nofjL(f>a from Tre/ATr-o), se7id; TeTpo(f)a (sometimes TeTpa(f)d) from rpeTr-a), turn; TeTpocjya (perhaps second perfect), from Tpe(fi-a>, nourish. So i be- comes 01 in Se'Sot/fa {hi-), fear. In riBrjpi (^e-), J9m^, € becomes et in re- BeiKa and redeifiai', compare 7rip (Kep-), shear, KCKappai, eKaprjv (Ion.) ; (nrcipo) (o-nep-), sow, €cnrappaij ianaprjv. So in bfpco, KT€iva>, peipopai, reXXo), and (^deipco. Note 1. The same change of € to a (after p) occurs in (rrpecfxo, turn, ea-rpap-fxai, ea-Tpd(f)T]v, aTpa6T}v). It occurs, further, in the second aorist (active or mid- dle) of KTelva>f kill, Tep.va>, cuty TpeTra, and Tepiro) ', viz. , in eicravov (poet.), erapiov, €Tap.6pr]v, eTpanov, eTpa7r6p.r)v, TeTapTrofirjv (Hom.) ; also in several Homeric and poetic forms (see depKOfiai, nepda), and rrr^o- aa). Note 2. The first passive system rarely appears in verbs with monosyllabic liquid stems. TeiVco (rev-), stretch, in which rev- drops V in this system (§ 109, 6), changes 6 to a in erddrjv and eK-radrjao- p.ai. 5. Liquid stems lengthen their last vowel in the aorist active and middle; as o-reAXo) (o-reA-), lo-TciAa. See § 110, III. 2, and the examples. 6. Four verbs in vw drop v of the stem in the perfect and first passive sj^stems, and thus have vowel stems in these forms : — Kplvia ^KpXv-), separate, KiKpXKu, KiKpTfim, iKplOrjv ; kAiVo) (kAii/-), incline, KCKAiKa, KCKAi/xai, kKXiOrjv, n-Awo> (ttAvi/-), wash, 'jriirXviw.Lf iirXvOrjv ; reiVw (j€v-), stretch, xeVaKa (§ 109, 4), rcra- 134 INFLECTION. [§109. fiai, iTaOrjVy €K'TaBrj(TO}xai. So KxetVca in some poetic forms : see also KepSaivoi. Note. When final v ot Si stem is not thus dropped, it becomes y before ku (§ 16, 5), and generally becomes or before /xai (§ 16, 6, N. 4); as ^aiVw {(f)av-), neCJiayKa, neipao-ixai, €(})dv6T}V. 7. (a) The stem sometimes suffers metathesis (§ 14, 1) : (1) in the present, as Ovrjo-KU) {Oav-, Ova-), die, (§ 108, VI. N. 2) ; (2) in other tenses, as ^aAXw (ySaX-, /?A.a-), throw, jSijSXrj- Ktt, pipXrjixai, ipXrjdrjv; ScpKo/xat (BepK-), see (poetic), 2 aor. ^SpaKOV (SpaK-, § 109, 4, N. 1). (5) Sometimes syncope (§ 14, 2) : (1) in the present, as yiyvop-aL (ycv-) , become, for yL-yfy-ofxat ; (2) in the second ao- rist, as irrTOfxrjv for i-7r€T-oiJL7]v ', (3) in the perfect, as irerawvpLi (Trera-), expand, TreTrra/xat for Tre-Trera-fjiai. (c) Sometimes reduplication (besides the regular reduplica- tion of the perfect stem) : (1) in the present, especially in verbs of the sixth class and in verbs in /xi (§ 121, 3), as yt- yvwa-KO), know, yi-yvo/xai, i-crTrjfXL ; (2) in the second aorist, as TrecOo} ijrW-), persuade, Tri-irWov (Ep.). Attic redupl. in ayw, lead, r^yayov (dy-ay) ; see apapicTKOi. § 110, V. N. 2 ; § 100, Notes 3 and 4. 8. E is sometimes added to the present stem, sometimes to the simple stem, making a new stem in e. From this some verbs form special tenses ; and others form all their tenses except the present, imperfect, second perfect, and second aorists (§ 90, N. 1). ^.g. BovXofxai (j3ouX-), wish, ^ovXfjaroixai (/SouXe-, § 109, 1), &c.; ala-dd- vofiai {al(T$-), perceive, ala-drja-ofjLai, (alaOe-}^ ^(xBrjfiai; p.ev(o (ixfv-), remain, fxcfxevqKa (/xei/e-) ; fxaxofiai {p.ax-), fight, fut. (fiaxe-ofuii,) fiaxov- fxai, ip.axicrdp.rjv, pipdxqpai', ;j(atpa) (x«p-)» ^^J<>i<^^i x^'-PW^ (X"*P^')» KcxdprjKa (x^pe-). (a) The following have the stem in e, in all tenses except those mentioned; (1) formed from the present stem: dXe'^o), oKOopai (Ion.), axOopai, ^ovXopai, ^oa-KO), Seo), wcmt, eSeXco and OeXto, epopai and etpo- pai (Ion.), eppco, euSco, e\//"a), KeXopai (poet.), fxdxopai, pedopai (poet.), fxe'AXo), peX(o, pv^oi, suck, o'iopai, o'lxopai. ocpfiXco, neropai', (2) formed from the simple stem: alaOdvopai (alad-), dpaprdvo) (dpiapr-), avbdva (dS-), dn-€X^^^c)paL (-fX^")' o.v^dv(o (au^-), /3Xacrrai/a) (/SXaar-), evplaKca (fvp-), Kixdvo) (KtX')j Xd(7/cw (Xa/c-), pavddpco (jiad-), oXtcrBdva (pXiad-), §110.] FORMATION OF TENSE STEMS. 135 oWvfii (o\-), ocfAia-Kavo) (o^X-) ; see poetic dfinXaKia-Koi and aTra^to-fCoo, and the stem (Sa-). (6) The following have the stem in c in special tenses; (1) formed from the present stem: fiiSao-KU), Kadi^di, /eXatco, fievoo, vcfico, naia}, nero- fiai TvnT(o; (2) formed from the simple stem: dap6dvco (dapO-), Kr)da> (KaS-), oacfipaivofiai (6(T(})p-), Treldo) (nXd-), peto (pv-)) (TTeijSco (oti/S-), TvyxavQ) (t^X")' X^C^ (x^^ )' ^^® ^^^*^ yiyvo[xai, ex^* rpex'^' Xatpo) {X"p-) forms both x"*P^' ^^'^ X°P^~- Note. In o/xw/xt, swear, the stem o/i- is enlarged to 6fio- in some tenses, as in afio-aa; in dXicrKOfmi^ be captured, aX- is enlarged to a\o-, as in dXa)o-o/:iat. So Tpvx<>>, exhaust, rpvxoao'oi). So probably otxo- fiai, be gone, has stem olxo- for ot^e- in the perfect olxa>- with o- be- come ij/; K, y, X with 0- become ^ ; t, 8, 6 before o- are dropped (§16,2). Kg. Tifidco, hmor, Ttju^o-o); Bpam, do, Bpaa-co; kotttco {kott-), cut, KoyJAay; TSXaTTTo) (/3Xa^-), hurt, ^XayJAco, ^Xdyj/^ofxai ; ypdcfxo, write, ypd-^a, ypd-^o- pai; TrXf/fO), Iwist, ttXc^co; npd(T(r(o {npdy-), do, Trpd^oa, irpd^Ofxai', rapda- aui {Tapdx-)^ confu.pa8-), tell, (f)pd(ra} (for (})pad-(r(i>) \ neida, persuade, nela-o) (for neid-aoi). So antvhoi, 136 INFLECTION. [§ no. pow, o-Treio-o) (for (rneub a-ca, § 16, 2 and 6, N. 1) ; Tpe(f)(o, nourish^ epeyjro), dpiyJAOfiai (§ 17, 2, Note). 2. Liquid stems add e (in place of o-) to form the future stem ; this e is contracted with w and o/xat to to and ovfjiai, E,g. ^alvoi ((jf)aj/-), .s^o?;', fut. ((fiave-co) (pavo), {(^ave-oixai) (fiavovixai; areX- Xo) (arfX-), send, {crriKi-w^ oreXci), (^areXe-ofiai) a-TeXovfiat] vefxco, dwidey (ff/xe-co) j/e/xco; KptVo) {KpXv-), Jud(/e, {KpXve-(o) KpXva>. ' Note 1. (^«^■c Future.) (a) The futures of KaXea, call, and TeX€u>,Jinish, AcaXcVco and reXeaa (§ 109, 1, N. 2), drop o- of the futiire stem, and contract KaXe- and reXe- with a> and o/xat, making KaXw, KaXov/mat, TfXS) and (poetic) rcXo€/xat. These futures have the same forms as the presents. So 6XXvp.i (oX-, oXe-), destroy, has fut. oXeaca (Hom.), oXc'o) (Hdt ), oXo) (Attic). So paxeaopai, Homeric future of pdxop.ai (paxe-), Jig^t, becomes pxixovpai in Attic. KaOe^opai (e8-), sit, has Kadedovpai. (6) In like manner, futures in ao-w from verbs in avwpi (stems in a), some in fcrco from verbs in fwvpt (stems in e), and some in ao-o from verbs in a^o) (stems in dd), drop o- and contract aco and eo to S). Thus (TKebdvvvpi ((TKeda-), scatter, aKeddcro), (o-KfSdco) ff/cfSco; o-ro- pevvvpi (a-Tope-), spread, aTopeaa), (aTopeto) aropoi); ^i^d^io (/St^afi-), cause to go, ^i^da-co, (^t/Saw) /3tj3a). So eXavvco (eXa-), drive (§ 108, V. N. 2), iXdo-ui, {eXncj) e'Xeo. For fut. eXdo), Kpeuoco, &c., in Homer, see § 120, 1, (6). (c) Futures in Xa-o) and lo-o/^ai f i-om verbs in tfoj (iS-) of more than two syllables regularly drop cr and insert e; then tew and leopai are contracted to ia> and loiipai ; as Kopi^(o, car?'?/, Koplau), (/co/xieo)) /co/lii<5, Kop.iaopai, (Kopuofxai) Kopiovpai, inflected like ^iXw, (f)iXovp.ai (§ 98). See § 120, 2, (a). (^) Though these forms of future are called Attic, because the Attic dialect seldom uses any others in these tenses, they are yet found in other dialects and even in Homer, while the Attic occa- sionally uses the full forms in era. Note 2. (Doric Future.) A few verbs sometimes add e to o- in the stem of the future middle, and contract aeopai to aovpai. These are TrXew, .sail, TrXcva-ovpai (§ 108, II. 2) ; rrveco, breathe, irvfv (tti-), drink. Note 4. A few liquid stems add (KeX-), /ana>, eypa^a, (ypa\lrdixpv\ ttXcko), (irXe^a, enXe^d- p-rju; TTpdaaoi, eirpa^a, eirpa^dfirjv :, Tapda-(ra), erdpa^a; (/)pa^a), ecfypaaa (for €(j)pad-(Ta) ; n€td(o, eneiaa (§ 108, II. Note) ; air^vda, eaneiaa (for €(nrev8- a-a) ; rpecfioi, c^pe>/^a, i6p(y\rdp.r)v (§ 17, 2, Note) ; tjjkco, mclty frrj^a (§ 108, II. Note); TrXew, .sat/, ?7rXeuo-a (§ 108, II. 2). Note 1. Three verbs in fit, dldcofii (8o-), c/we, trjfii (c-), 5en«/, and Tidrjfxi (de-), put, form the aorist stem by adding k instead of o-, giv- ing- edwKa, riKa, edrjKa. These forms are seldom used except in the indicative active, and are most common in the singular, where the second aorists Uoov, rjv, %Br)v, are not in use. (See § 122, N. 1.) Even riKdyir)v and ddrjKdixrju occur, the latter not in Attic Greek. Note 2. Xe'co, pour, has aorists ex^a (Horn, ex^va) and fx^dfirjuy corresponding to the futures x^^ ^"^ ;(eo/Ltai (II. N. 3). Eiirov, aaid, has also first aorist ctTra; and <^epa), bear^ has rjvcyK-a (from stem iveyK-) . For Homeric aorists like ipT^a-ero, iUffero, X^ov, &c., see § 119, 8. 2. Liquid stems form the first aorist stem by lengthening their last vowel, a to >; (after t or p to d) and c to ct. E.g. ^alvut {(pdv-) , €(f)T}u-a, €({)r}vdpr]v (rare) ; (rTeXKa> (oreX-), tarfiK-a, iaTfLX-dfirjV, dyyeXXo) (ayyeX-), announce, flyy€iKa,fjyy€i\diJLr]v; -nepalvca {TTepdv-),Jinish, iivipava', piaiv(o(pidv-), stain, €p,idva', vep.(t>,diride, eveifxa, €veip.diJir]v; KpivoHf judge, CKplva', dp.vv(o, keep off,rjp,vva,r)}xvvdp,r)v', Oep-), destroy, icpdeipa. Compare the futures in II. 2. Note 1. A few liquid stems lengthen av to av irregularly; as KcpBaiva, gain, eKepbdva. A few lengthen pap to prjV, as rcTpaivoi, bore, tT€Tpr)va. Note 2, Atpa (dp-), raise, and aXXofiai (dX-), leap, have ^pa, r}pd- fXT]v, fjXdfj.rju (augmented) ; but a in the other moods, as apa>, apas, upa- fiai, dpalfiT]v, dXdp,€vos (all with a). IV. (Perfect Stem.) (a) Perfect Middle Stem, The stem of the perfect and pluperfect middle and passive consists of 138 INFLECTION. [§ 110. the simple stem (in verbs of the second class, of the present stem) with the required reduplication or augment prefixed ; as Av-o), AeAv/xat, iXiXvjxrjv ] AaV-co, XeXctTr- (§ 108, II. Note), Ae- XeijjifxaLj iXcXiififJLTjv. The stem may be modified (§ 109) as follows : — (1) A short final vowel is regularly lengthened; as (piXe-ca, nerjii- X»7fiat, eirecfitXrjfiTjV, Spaco, dedpdf.'.M. (§ 109, 1.) (2) Some vowel stems add o-; reXe'-o), TercXecr-/iat. (§ 109, 2.) (3) Most monosyllabic liquid stems and some others change e to a; as areWco (oreX-), earaX/xai, €a-Ta.\fir]v. (§ 109, 4). (4) A few stems in v drop v, and others change v to , write, ye'ypa^a, eyey pa(f)€iv', opvcraio (opvx-)i dig, opQipvxo.' So Kop.i^(o (ko/iiS-), carry, KCKopiKa (§ 16, 1, N. 2). This stem may be modified (§ 109) in various ways: — (1^ A short final vowel is regularly lengthened ; as (bikia), irecbl- \rjKa. (§ 109, 1.) (2) Most monosyllabic liquid stems and some others change e to a; as (TTeXKuj (oreX-), ea-raXKa, earaXKeiv. (§ 109, 4.) (3) A few lingual and palatal stems change e to o, as in the sec- ond perfect. (§ 109, 3, N. 2.) (4) A few stems in v drop v, and become vowel stems. (§ 109, 6.) (5) Metathesis sometimes occurs; as /SaXXo) (^aX-, /3Xo-), /Sc- ^XrjKa. (§109, 7, a.) § 110.] FORMATION OF TENSE STEMS. 139 Note. The only forai of first perfect found in Homer is that in Aca of verbs having vowel stems. The perfect in Ka of liquid and lingual stems, and the aspirated perfects of labial and j)alatal stems, belong to a later development of the language. (c) Future Perfect Stem. The stem of the future perfect is formed by adding a to the stem of the perfect middle ; as XeXv, AeAvo--, AeAvcro/xat ; ypa(f>-, yeypa-, ycypai/^-, yiypdif/o/xaL ; XctTr-, XeXcLTT-, XeXcL^}/-, AeXeu/^o^at ; Trpda-croi (j^pay-), ireTrpdy-, Trcvpai-, imrpa.^op.ax. Note 1. The future perfect is found in only a small number of verbs. Its stem, when a consonant precedes o-, is subject to all the euphonic changes noticed in the future stem (§ 110, II. 1). Note 2. Two verbs have a special form in Attic Greek for the future perfect active; Outjo-ko), die, has TfOvrj^o), shall be deadj formed from TcdprjK-, the stem of perf . TidvrjKa, am dead ; and IdTr^fii, set, has to-TTj^co, shall stand, from iarrjK-, stem of perf. tcm^Ka, stand. In Homer, we have also Kexapfjo-io and K€xapr](rop.ai, from ;)(atpa) (x^')* rejoice; and KeKadrjaa, (irreg.) from ;^a^a) (xad-), yield. (d) Second Perfect Stem. The stem of the second perfect and pluperfect is always the simple stem with the redupli- cation (or augment) prefixed. The stem is generally modified by changing € to o, or by lengthening other short vowels. See § 109, 3, with the examples. For second perfects and pluperfects of the jxi-form, see § 124. Note 1. Vowel stems do not form second perfects; d/cou-o), Jiear, is only an apparent exception, as dKfjKoa is for aK-rjKoF-a with F omit- ted (§ 102). Note 2. Few verbs have both a first and a second perfect. In TTpdaa-o) (npay-), do, we have rreTrpaxa, have done, and TreVpaya, fare (well or ill) ; so dv-olyco, open, dv-eaxa (trans.), dv-eaya (intrans.). Note 3. The second perfect stem appears especially in the Homeric dialect, which has many second perfects not found in Attic ; as vrpo-p^^ovXa from /3oi5\o/mi, wish, fxe/xrjXa from /t^Xw, cmicem. Homer has many varie- ties of the 2 perfect participle of the ^i-form ; in <3^t6s, gen. aOros (some- times aSros), fem. aula, as yeyatis, /Se/Satis ; in -rjds, gen. •j/wtos or tjojos, fem. Tjv'ia, as Tedu-nJjs, reOvqCiTo^ or -6tos, redu-rfvia. Herodotus has cws, eCoaa, e6s, gen. ewros, eiLa-ns, as eo-reuis, &c., some forms of which {e.g. ia-rewra, redvedTi) occur in Homer. The Attic contracts acis, owo-a, cbs, to ws, tDo-a, OS {§ 69, N.), gen. wtos, (ha-ns, &c., but leaves T€0ueu)s (of 6vi]L\r)-p.ai (§ 109, 1), ecfiiXr)- Orjv', TLfidd), T€-TLfxr]-p.ai, (TiprjBqv, TifMrjOfjO-opxii', TfXeo), TeTeXf-a-fmi (§ 109, 2), €TeXe(r-6r]V, TeXfaBrjaofiai', kXivco, K€KXi-pai (§ 109, 6), €K\i-6r)v, kXi- BrjaofiaL] reipco (rev-), Tera-pxn. (§ 109, 4 and 6), erdOrjv, iK-Ta6r](T0jxai. Note 1. Tpeirco has TiTpafifiai, iTp^d7)p) ; rp^ifxa has reOpaixfmt, 4dpedr)v (Ion. and Dor. iaTpacpdriv). ^aivio has W^ac/iat (§ 16, 6, N. 4), but i6rjv and Tedpdaiv- irreXX- Xvdve- o-TcXe- Xvdv having no endings in these persons. The original ending at of the second person singular is found only in the Epic fa-a-i, ihou arty in all other verbs being reduced to or. In the third person singular Ti is Doric, as t'iBtj-tl for TiBr^ai ; and it is preserved in Attic in ea-Ti^ he is. In the first person plural /xey is Doric. In the third j^erson plural v(TL always drops v and lengthens the preceding vowel, as in Xvovo-i for Xvo-vai (§ 16, 6) ; the original form vri is Doric, as cfitpovrt for (f)€pov(rt (hRt.feriint). The perfect indicative active of all veibs, and the present indicative active of verbs in /it (§ 121, 2, d), have dai (for avari) in the third person plural. ^ 1 Among the original active endings, inherited from the parent language of the Greek, Latin, Sanskrit, German, &c., were fit, ieV, a-T€, from tf>y]fXL {a.-), say ; rcrTa-/jiat, to-ra-o-ai, tcTTa-Tai, tcTTa-j'Tat, from lo-TT^/xt, set (§ 123). 4. In other parts of the verb the tense stem appears in a prolonged form, consisting of the fixed portion and a variable vowel (sometimes a diphthong), to which the endings are affixed. This formation will be seen by a comparison of the present indicative middle of rt^ry/xi (rt^c-) with that of 0tA.c(o (iX^-o-|j,ai Ti6€-{Ji€6a i\6-d|ie6a tIOc-o-ou iX€'.6-(tX€'-€-O-0€ Tt06-Tat <|>l\€'-€-Tai Tt0€-VTat <|>iXe-o-vTaL T{0€-}Aai iOfteOa W (for Tjo-ai, Tjai) T] (for TiOe-d)), 5iSa>/xat (for Bibo-afxai), Ocofxep and Oaprai. (Ion. Oecofiep, ekoiPTai). See § 122, N. 4 ; § 126, 7 (a). Optative. § 115. The optative has the secondary personal endings (§ 112, 2), preceded by a modal sign t or ir] (le before final v of the third person plural) . Active. | Sing. Dual. Pluml. 1. «> L- XoLTjv; Cr]Xo-o-Lr)-v, StjXooltjv, SyjXoirjv; T6/xa-o-t-/>ii, TiixdoLfj.L, TLfxioiJiL; iXe-o-L'fXLy (jiLXeoLfjiLy cfiiXoLfXL; 8rjXo-o-L-fx.Lt BrjXooLfiLj hT]XoLfjLL, (Scc §98.) Note 1. A few verbs have oirjv in the second perfect optative; as fKne(p€vya, fKirecfxvyoirjp. The secoud aorist optative of exa>, havey is axoirjv {axoi^L in composition). Note 2. The Attic generally uses the Aeolic terminations tiasy (le, and €iav, for ais, at, aiev, in the aorist optative active. See Xva and (f)aiva> in § 96. . Imperative. j § 116. 1. The personal endings of the imperative are as follows : — Active. Passive and Middle. Sing. Dual. Plural. Sing. Dtial Plural. eior — TOV TC v 6l is always dropped after a connecting vowel. 2. The regular connecting vowel of the imperative is c ; but before v it is o. In the aorist active and middle it is a. But the second person singular in the aorist active ends in ov, and in the aorist middle in at. The endings united with the connecting vowels are as follows : — Passive and Middle. Sitig. Dual. Plural. ov (for € €(r0(i)V C(r0a)(rav or €O'0«v Aorist Middle. ai aa-Qov att-forms, which add /xevos directly to the tense stem. Note. Participial stems in vt add o-a to form the stem of the feminine; as XvovT-aa, Xvovtra; laravT-a-a., lo-Taa-a', XvOevr-aa, Xvdelaa. (§ 16, 6, N. 1.) Perfects in ws, otos (stem in t) have an irregular feminine in via. Participles in fievos form the feminine in /xeVj;. For the decleusiou of participles, see §§ 62, 68, 69. 150 INFLECTION. [§118. 3. The stem of the verbal adjectives in tos and t€o<5 is formed b}^ adding to- or reo- to the stem of the verb, which has the same form here as in the aorist passive (with the ne- cessary change of <^ and x to tt and k, § 16, 1) ; as XvTosy XvTio?, -ov) w, AeAv/xeVos (->;, -ov) d-qv. See the paradigms. Note. A few verbs with vowel stems form these tenses directly from the stem: Krd-ofxai, KTccfiai, acquire, pi. KeKT-qfiai, possess : subj. KfKToiifxai (for Ke-KTa (OfMat), kckttj, K(KTr}Tai; opt. K€KT(piir]v (for jce-zcra- Oiprjv), KCKtSo, K€KTa)TO, SbUd KeKTrJlJLTJI/ (for KeKTT} l-flTJV, § 115, 2), K€KT^O, K€KTJjTo, KeKTTjfxeda; — fiifjLvf](TKa) (ixva-), remind, pf. fiefxvrjfxai, remember : subj. fi€fxva)fiai, ficjjLvaiixeOa (Hdt. /xf/ui/f co/ne^a) ; opt. fxefivwfxrjv (Horn. fie fjLve^To), or fiffjLv^fxrjv. So poetic KekX^fMTjv (for K€Kkr]-i-pr)v) of KaXeco, and Homeric \c\vto (for XeXu-t-ro) or XcXiivro of Xva. See also pr. opt. daivvTO of dalvvfit. 2. The perfect subjunctive and optative active is more fre- quently expressed by the perfect active participle with w and €Lrfv than by the special forms given in the paradigms ; as XeXv- Kws w and AeXvKws eirjv for XcXvKU) and XiXvKOLfxL. Note. The perfect imperative can be expressed by the perfect participle and icrOi, earo), &c. ; as dprjKcos earco, let him have spoken (before a given time); elprjpevov eo-rw (§ 202, 2, N. 1). The forms like XeXv/ce, XeXonre, &c. were probably used only when the perfect had the meaning of the present; as xao-'«a' (x^**")? 9^P^y P^* i^^X^^^i imper. Kcxrivare, gape. (See § 95, 1, Note.) § 119.] DIALECTIC AND POETIC FOEMS OF VERBS IN Q. 151 3. The future perfect active, for which very few verbs have a special form (§ 110, IV. c, N. 2), is generally expressed by the perfect participle with ea-ofiai (future of ct/xt, be) ; as iyvioko- T€s iaofxiOa, we shall have learnt, 4. Even the perfect and pluperfect indicative are occasion- all}' expressed by the perfect participle and dfxi; as yeyovw? ia-TL for yeyoi/e, TreTroiyjKios ^v for e7re7rot?yKei. 5. The periphrastic third person plural of the perfect and pluperfect indicative middle and passive, formed by the parti- ciple and eio-t and ^o-av, is necessary when the stem ends in a consonant (§ 97, 2). The participle maj^ be used in all gen- ders ; as ovTOL XcXeL/xfievoL €L(TLy tkesc {men) have been left ; avrat AcXct/A/Aevat €tcrt ; ravra XcXci/i/xeva co-ti (§ 135, 2). Note. Here, however, the Ionic endings arm and aro for vtcu and PTO (§ 119, 3) are occasionally used even in Attic prose; as rc- Tax-arai and (Tcrdx-aro (Thucyd.) for Terayfievoi ela-i and ^aav. 6. A periphrastic future is sometimes formed by /xeXXw, in- tend, be about (to do) , and the present or future (seldom the aorist) infinitive ; as fxiWofxcv tovto ttoicii/ (or TroLya-av) , we are about to do this. (See § 202, 3, Note.) DIALECTIC AND POETIC FORMS OF VERBS IN 0. § 119. 1. The Doric has the personal endings fi€s for ficu, rav for T7;i/, nav for /xt^v, ovti for overt, a>VTi for axri, avri for aai. The poets have fieada for fieOa. 2. When a is dropped in a-ai and ao of the second person (§ 113, 2, N. 1), Homer often keeps the uncontracted forms eai, T}ai, ao, co. Herodotus always has eat and ao, but generally rj for rjai. In both Homer and Hdt. eo may become fv. In Homer o-ai and ao some- times drop . When they are contracted, they follow the analogy of verbs in « have e-eo-Acoi/ or €(tkov in the imperfect; as koKU- (TKov, 7rci)Xeo-K€To ; verbs in aa> have a-aa-Kov or aa/cov; as yodaaKe, vLKoa-Kopev. Rarely other verbs have acrKov in the imperfect; as KpvTTTaa-KOP from Kpyirro). These forms are confined to the indicative, and they generally (in Hdt. always) omit the augment. They denote repetition\ as ttw- \k(TKeTo, he went (regularly) . For /ii-forms with these endings see § 126, 5. 11. Some verbs have poetic stems, made by adding preceded by a vowel (generally a or e) to the present or the second aorist tense stem; as dpwad-, diaxaO-, cfAeyed-, from dpvva>, ward off, diaxa, pur- sue, ^Xeyoj, burn. From these special stems are formed — sometimes presents, as^Xfye^Qj; sometimes imperfects, as cStco/ca^oi/ ; sometimes second aorists, as ea-xf&ov (a-x-)'-, and also subjunctives and opta- tives, as €lKd6a>, (iKdOoipi, dpvva6oiTO] imperatives, as dpwdOaTe, dpv- vdOov', infinitives, as apvuddav. diaxdOeiv, o-\t6((iv, crx^^^iv or axfOelv, and participles, as eiKaOcov, ax^Oav or crx^dcau. As few of these stems form a present indicative, many scholars consider ddiaxudou, tpyaOov, § 119.] DIALECTIC AND POETIC FORMS OF VERBS IN 12. 153 &c., with the subjunctives, &c. second aorists, and accent the infini- tives and participles fiico/ca^eii/, dnwaOelv^ clKadflp, flKadcov, &c., although the traditional accent is on the penult. See in the Lexicon aXKadciv, dfxvpddo), di(oKdda>, eiKdOfiv, ipyddeiv, fjepeBonai, fiyepidofxai, fxeraKidOo), o-^c'^w, (fi6iuv6to, (jAeytdo). 12. (^Subjunctive.) (a) In Homer the subjunctive (especially in the 1st aor. act. and mid.) often has the short connecting vowels e and o (Attic rj and w), yet never in the singular of the active voice nor in the third person plural; as ipxxraofx^v^ aKyr]cr€Tfi p,vdr)a-ofiaij ev^eai, drjXrjaeTai, dfidyj/eTai, eyfipofxev, lixeipfTai. (b) In both aor. pass, subjunctives Herodotus generally has the uncontracted forms in ceo, eaficv, eaxri, but contracts erj (or erj) to 7 (or T]) ; as d(j)aipc6€(o (Att. -6Si), ^aveacrt (Att. -axri), but , fT/y, €T}, to CIO), firjs (or tjtjs), fir) (or t/t;), and has eiofiev, eiere, for fcjpev, cr]T€', as dafieiat (from tbdnrju, 2nd aor. p. of dapvdoi, subdue) ^ dafieiTjs or 8ap.r}T)s, dafieirj or dafifir), daficifTc ; Tpaneiofxev (from erdpnTjif of Tepna, amuse). This is more fully developed in the 2nd aor. act. of the /xt-form (§ 126, 7, b). (d) In the subj. active Homer often has afxi, rjaOa (or rjaOa), jytrt; as fOfXafjLi, iOikrjcrOa, idtkrjtri. 13. {Optative.) The Aeolic forms of the aor. opt. act., etas, etf, fiav (given in the paradigms of Xvw and ^aiVo)), are the common forms in all dialects ; the Aeolic has also first persons in fia and cip.ev. Homer sometimes has oto-^a in the 2nd person for ois ; as kKqI- oKxOa. For aro (for vto) see above, 3. 14. (Tnjinitive.) (a) Homer often has €-fi€vat and e-fxcp for fi-v in the infinitive active ; as d/xwep-fvat, dpwepev (Attic dpvveiv) ; eXBe- picvai, iXdepev (iXdelv) ; d^epevai, d^epev (a$eiv). For the perfect (only of the /ni-form, § 125, 4) see § 126, 9: the inf. in evai does not occur in Homer. So Hom. pevai^ Dor. p£v, in the aor. pass. ; as opoKoOrj- fifvai, 8arj-p.epaL (also da^vai), Hom.; alaxvv6^p,€v, Find. (/>) Homer often has the uncontracted 2nd aor. inf. act. in etiv ; as Ide'tip. (c) The Doric has ev (§ 98, N. 5) and the Aeolic rjv for eiv in the infin. ; Doric also rjv for e'eti/ or fli/; thus deldcv and ydpvep (Dor.) for df I'Seti/ and yrjpvfiv ; (f)€pr]v and ^xi^ (Aeol.) for €p€iv and ex? «' ; eiTriiv (Dor.), finrjv (Aeol.), for elirelp. 15. (Participle.) The Doric and Aeolic have oiaa for ovara, and aiSf ataa for aa, cura, in the participle ; as exoia-a, dpcyj/^ats, dpeyjraKra. 154 INFLECTION. [§ 120. Special Forms of Contract Verbs. § 120. The present and imperfect of verbs in aa>, ew, and oo) have the following dialectic peculiarities : — 1. {Verbs in aco.) (a) In Homer verbs in aa are often contracted as in Attic. In a few cases they remain uncontracted ; sometimes without change, as paLerdovo-i, vauracov, from i/aterao), dicell ; some- times with a, as in Treii/dco, hunger, bi^doi, thirst ; sometimes with euv for aov in the imperfect, as fifvoiveov from fxcvoivdoi, long for. (b) Commonly, when they are not contracted in Homer, the two vowels (or the vowel and diphthong) which elsewhere are contracted are assimilated, so as to give a double A or a double O sound. The second syllable, if it is short by nature or has a diphthong with a short initial vowel, is generally prolonged ; sometimes the former syllable; rarely both. We thus have ad (sometimes aa) for & or arj (aa for aet or ai]), and ow (sometimes coo or coa>) for ao or aco (oa> for aoi) : 6pd „ 6pd« 6p<$a>orv ,, opdovo-i {i.e. opaovo-i) bp6iatra „ 6pdovpLfv, opaare, opaaro. It extends also to the so-called Attic futures in oo-qj, ato, w (§ 110, II. Note 1, b)\ as Aoo), eXo'coo-t, Kpefioco, dafida, fia/iocoai, for eXda; to t; ; this occurs in the dual of a few imperfects in Homer, as Trpoo-avdrjTrjv (from npoaavdam), L\T)p.evai {(j)i\ea>) for (biXe-efievai, Ka\T)p.€vai (/caXeco). So (poprjvai {(f)op€-€iv) from (popeco. Homer has Doric contraction in the duals 6fMapTrjTr)v (SfiapTea)) and aTreiXj^rT/i/ (aTreiXe'co). See 1 (c). 3. (Fer&5 m ow.) (a) Verbs in oco are always contracted in He- rodotus, but he sometimes has ev (for ov) from oo or oov, especially in 6iKaido), think Just; as ddiKaievv, diKuievvros, diKaievai. (h) They are always contracted in Homer, except in the few cases in which forms in oco or wo occur resembling tliose made by assimi- lation in verbs in aw (1, &); as dpocoai (from dpdw, plouf/h); brjiotatv and (impf.) br}i6a>vTo (from 6;ytdw); idpaovaa and idpaovra (from i5pdw). 156 INFLECTIOK [§121. CONJUGATION OF VERBS IN MI. Remark. The peculiar inflection of verbs in fxi affects only the tenses formed from the present and second aorist stems, and in a few verbs those formed from the second perfect stem. Most of the second aorists and perfects here included do not belong to presents in fii, but are irregular forms of verbs in o) ; as e^rjv {fiaiva)), tyvuiv {yiyvaaaKO)), eirTcifirfv (TreTOfxai), and Tedvufxcv, reduairju, redvduai (2nd per- fect of 6vi}(TK(o). See § 125, 3 and 4. Tenses thus inflected are called /Ltt-forms. In other tenses verbs in |ii are inflected like verbs in o) (§ 123, 3). No single verb exhibits all the /ii-forms. § 121. 1. In the present and imperfect of verbs in /xt, and in all other tenses which have the /xi-form of inflection, the endings (§ 112, 2) are added directly to the tense stem, except in the subjunctive and optative. The tense stem almost always ends in a vowel, which, if short, is lengthened (Note 1 ) in the singular of the present and imperfect indica- tive active, and generally in all forms of the second aorist indicative, imperative, and infinitive active. Thus ;-/>tt , Q)) Qi is retained in the second aorist imperative active (§ 116, 1) after a long vowel, as in o-ttiOi,, ^rjdi ; but it is changed to s in ides, Soy, €?, and o-^e?. It is rare in the present, as ^a6i, Wi. The present commonly omits 61, and lengthens the preceding vowel (a e, o, or i;) to 1;, ei, ou, or v; as io-tij (for ia-Ta-Ot), riOei, didovi Set/cm (See § 123.) § 122.] CONJUGATION OF VERBS IN ML 157 (c) In the second person singular passive and middle, aai and ao are retained (see, however, § 122, N. 3) ; except in the second aorist middle and in the subjunctive and optative, which drop o- and are contracted (§ 114, N. 2; § 115, 2, 3). In the present imperative hoth forms in cro and contracted forms in a> or ov (for da-o, tao, ocro) occur, vao being always retained. (d) In the third person plural of the present indicative active, a is prefixed to the ending vai, making do-t (§ 16, 6), which is con- tracted with a (but not with f , o, or v) of the stem ; as loraa-t (for la-Ta-ava-i) , but Tide-dai, bido-dcri, deiKvv-dai. Contracted forms in elai, oOori, and va-i, from stems in e, o, and v, are regular in Ionic, but rare in Attic. In the third person plural, the imperfect and second aorist active have aav, and the optative active has irj-aap or ic-v. (e) The infinitive active adds vai to the tense stem ; as lora-mi, riOe-vai, SoO-rai, 6ei-vai. (j) The participle active (with stem in ain-, evr, ow, or vvt) forms the nominative in fiy, as, ovs, or vy. 3. Some verbs in -q/xt and w/tt reduplicate the stem in the present and imperfect by prefixing its initial consonant with i ; as Si-Sio-fxi {So-), give, TL-Orj-fjn (^c-), put, for Ot-Orj-fjn (§ 17, 2). From stem ora- we have t-a-Trj-fxi, set, for ai-a-Trj-fiL ; and from c- we have I-yj-ixl (l-rj-fiL). See § 125, 2. § 122. There are two classes of verbs which have this inflection : — 1. First, verbs in fii which have the simple stem or the re- duplicated simple stem (§ 121, 3) in the present ; and all the second aorists and second perfects and pluperfects of the /tt- form. This includes all verbs in rjfXL and wftt (from stems in a, e, and o). 2. Secondly, verbs in w/xi, which (with one exception) have the /xi-form only in the present and imperfect. These add vv (after a vowel, wv) to the simple stem to form the present stem ; as Scik-, Sct/cvi;-, heUvv-ixLj ScLKVv-s, SiLKVV-aLj but SiLKVVixev, S€LKVVT€ (§ 121, 1); They thus belong, by the formation of the present stem, to the fifth class of verbs in a> (§ 108, V. 4), and some of them (as beUw- fii) use the present in via) (see Note 5). Note 1. Some verbs in rjfu and ajfii have forms which follow the inflection of verbs in ». Especially, in the imperfect of Ti$Tjfii and 158 . INFLECTION. [§123. dt'Scu/xt, eriBeis and eriBei (as if from riBe'co), and eBiSovv, eSlBovs, eS/- dov (as if fiom 8id6(o), are much more common tliau the regular forms in rjv and cov. So in the second aorist, tlie foi-nis [e^T/i/, eOrjSf €6r}~\ and [eSwi/, e'dois, eSco] never occur; and in their place the first aorists in ku, edrjKa and edcoKa (§ 110, III. 1, N. 1) are used in the .sm- ffular, while the second aorist forms eOfrou, &c., eborov, &c., are gen- erally used in the dual and plural. See also Injii (§ 127), where r]Ka is used in the same way. Further, in the optative middle, Tidolixrjv, ndolo, tiBoIto, &c. (also accented ridoio, tiOolto, &c.) and (in composition) Bolfxrjv, 6oio, 6oIto^ &c. (also accented o-vv-Oolto, 7rp6(r-6oia6€, &c.) occur with the regular TiBeifiTjv, BeifiTjv, &c. See also Trpooiro, &c., under irjfit (§ 127). Note 2. A few deponent verbs accent the subjunctive and opta- tive as if there were no contraction. Such are dvvafxai, inlo-Tafiai, Kpe- fiafiai, iTTpidixrjv (§ 123) ; as diivcofiai, bvvaiTo (not bvvoipaiy bwalro) ; and sometimes other verbs in /xi. The infinitive irplacrdai is accented like a first aorist. Note 3. Avvafim and erriaTafiai generally have ebvva (or r)bvva>) and ^TTio-TG), for ibvvacro and rjma-Taao, in the second person singular of the imperfect. Note 4. For the formation of the subjunctive and optative of verbs in rjfit and w/xt, see § 114, N. 2, and § 115, 2 and 3. But the contracted subjunctive from stems in a has a», fjs, fj, &c. (act.), and aip.aL,rj, rjrai, &c. (mid.), as if from stems in e; which stems are found in Ionic, as in (rre-c«>-/xei', crTe-co-cri (Attic crrcoficv, (ttuxti). See § 126, 7 (a). Note 5. Verbs in w/xi form the subjunctive and optative like verbs in <»; as b€iKvv-a>, beiKuv-oip-i, 8€tKvi>-ciip.ai, bciKw-oifirjv. In other moods forms of verbs in pva> often occur ; as beiKvvova-i, opvvovai. Note 6. Only one verb in j/v/xi, a^evpvfit (o-/3e-), quejich, has a second aorist active; and this, ea^rju, was quenched, with infin. (r/3^- vai and (Ion.) part. o-jSei's, is formed fi'om the simple stem in e (§ 125, 3). § 123. 1. The following is a synopsis of lo-Trjfii, set, (stem o-rd-'), TlOrjfii, put (stem ^e-), hlBcofii, give (stem Bo-), and SeUvvfiL, show (stem BecK-, present stem BeiKvv-^, in the present and second aorist systems. As la-rrjixi wants the second aorist middle, e7rpidp.r)v, IhougJit (from a stem irpia- which has no present) , is added. As bfiKwyn wants the second aorist (§ 122, N. 6), eSw, / entered (from bvo), formed as if from bv-pii) , is added in the active voice. No second aorist middle in vyLr)v occurs, except in scattered poetic forms (see Xuw, Trv(u>, (rfva>, and x€o>). "Ebvv has no aorist optative in Attic; but two forms of an old optative dvijv (for dv-irjv) occur in Homer, viz. dvrj and § 123.] CONJUGATION OF VERBS IN MI. 159 ACTIVE. Pres. Indicative. Subjunctive. Optative. Imperative. 't 8€iKvt{oi|i.i ScCkvv Infinitive. Participle. ijrrdvai. lorras Tl0€Vai riQds 8i8($vai 8i8oi$s 8ciKv\Jvat 8€IKVWS 't|Aai 8eiKvvoi|jirv 8e£Kvv(ro 8€CKW irpiaC\i.r\v irplo iQ(p.r\v 0w(i.ai 0€C|i.t)v 0ov 48d|j.T]v 8w|JLai 8oCp.T]v 8ov irpCa(ri 8£8oTov 8C80TOV 8£8o)i.cv 8180T6 8i.86av Present Infinitive. b 8ciKVVTOV 8€IKVVT«V 8€IKVVT€ 8€lKVt}T«0XlV or 8eiKvvvTuv 8ckKvvvat 8€kKVvis ^8vv tSvs ^8v I ?8vT0V €8^X11 V S8v|JL€V ?8vT€ £8v(rav 162 INFLECTION. Second Aorist Subjunctive. S^- (rru 6(5 8» StW Sing. h. (TTTJS 8^. 8ca 8vxis 8t5Ti Dual \i CTTJTOV 8o's h6r Dual « (rav SoToxrav 8iiT(i)(ra' [§ 123. or CTavTwv or ^ivrv Secand Aorist Infinitive. trrf[Vox 0civai. 8ovva(> Second Aorist 'Participle. v 8{)vai 8ifs § 123.] CONJUGATION OF VERBS IN MI. 163 PASSIVE AND MIDDLE. Present Indicative. \'- VcrTa)j.ai TC0€|xai 8C8o|iai 8€lKW|Aai Sing. ^• l!T)v €8l8<$(iT)V C8€IICVV)LT|V Sing. 2- tOTttO-O lTl0€(rO I8C800-0 IZdKWITO (3. toTaro lTC0eTO I8180TO I8€Ckvuto Dual v.. Xtrraa-Qov lTC0€|iiat Sing. - 2.- lO-TTJ TtO^ 8i8(^ 8ci.KVVT| (3! Itrrt^Tai TlvTlTClt 8i8a)Tai 8€ikv\Jtit (3. urraiTO T€0€ITO 81801TO 8ciKVl!0lT0 Dual \l io-Taiio-0ov i£0a ^060-06 g0evTO l8o(LT]V £8ov S80TO S8oo-0ov c8d '7rpta(rav or irpid 06'o-0ov 0^o^(av 06'o-06 06o-0a)o-av or 06'o-0wv 80V 86o-0a> 86o-0ov 8oo'0a)V 8oo-06 8do-0&)O'av or 8oo'0(i)V Second Aorist Middle Infinitive. irpCao-0ai O6o-0ai 8do-0ai. Second Aorist Middle Participle. irpidpi6V0S 06'|1.6VOS 8dp.6V0S 3. The following is a full synopsis of the indicative of XcTTrj^Ly rlOriiJbLy SlBcofic, and BeUvvfML, in all the voices : — ACTIVE. Pres. XKa 28oTov,&c. 1. ffi6i|a dual and plur. ^^^ INFLECTION. j-g 123. 1. tcmjKa ^ Perf J ^- ^o^ciTov, &c. I in dual and plur. ( ^' •^^^«'«* L 8^8«Ka 1. Se'Seixa Plupf. . ' 1. Ic-HjKClV or €lO-T1QK6lV 2. ^OPTttTOV, &c. in dual and plur. stood 1. 4t60€£k€Iv 1. IScScfiKctv 1. IScSe^x* Fut Perf. lo-'HJia,, shall stand § 110, IV. (c) N. 2. ' MIDDLE. Pres. ^o-ra^ai, stand rCGcKat (trans.) 8£8o,xat 8.CKvv>at (trans.) Impf. torTdjiriv |ti0.V,,v 48t8o>,iv ISaKw^riv Fut. .rHjo-ofiai 0ViT]v Perf. So-TafJLai (as pass.) rcOciixcu 8^8of&ai 8^6i7fiai Plupf- (?) (?) l868d|jLTiv 48€8€C7jiTiv PASSIVE. Present, Imperfect, Perfect, Pluperfect : as in Middle. Aor. lv-), produce : e^Oi/, was produced, am, (f)va), (fivvai, (jyvs (like Zdvp). Add to. these the single forms, yrjpdvai (yrjpds, Hom.) of yrjpdaKco, grow old ; dno-aKkrjvai, of aTroo-fceXXco, dri/ up ; (rx^s, imperat. of ej^o), have ; ttWl, imperat. of ttlvco, drink. See also in the Catalogue Homeric /it-forms of the following verbs : dnavpd(o, aco, ^dWca, ^t^pa)(TKCo, kKvco, ktI^o), Xvco, ovrdco, neXd^O), ttXcoo), nveoi, nTrjcraci), aevio, (pOivco, ;^/a) ; and of these (with consonant stems), aXXopai, dpapiaKco, ykvro {yev-), dexop,ai, Xeyco (Xe;^-) eXeyprjVf TrdXXo), TTepdo). Note 1. Second aorists in rjv or aprjv from stems in a are in- flected like €(TTr}v or inpidfxrjv ; but edpdv substitutes a (after p) for 17, and cKTav is irregular. Note 2. The second aorists of rlBripL, Irjpi, and SiSco/it do not lengthen e or o of the stem (§121, 1) in the indicative (dual and plural) or imperative ((LTov,€tp.ev, &c. being augmented): in the infinitive they have delvai, elvat, and 8ovvai (§ 126, 9), and in the imperative ^eV, «, and dos (§ 121, 2, b). The other stems in e have eo-^rjv {-r)s, -rj) and o-^rjvai (§ 122, N. 6), and dnoaKXrjvai. The other stems in o are inflected like eyvcov, as follows : — Indie. eyvQjv, eyvcos, eyv6i, yvo)T(o, yvarov, yvarcou, yvvat. Part. yvovs (lik:e Sous). The optative ^larjv is irregular. 4. Second Perfects and Pluperfects of the fn-Form. The following verbs have these forms in Attic Greek, even in prose : — "la-TTjpi (ara-)', see § 123, 2 (paradigm). Baivco (jSa-), go; 2 pf. /^e/Sao-t (Hom. jSc^daai), subj. /3e/3(5(7t, inf. ^c^dvai (Horn, fie^dfiep), part, ^e^coy (Horn, -aws); 2 plup. (Hom. /Se/Sao-aj/). 170 INFLECTION. [§126. Viyvofiai (ycu-, ya-), become, 2 pf. yeyova, am; (Horn. 2 pf. -yeyaao-t, inf. yeydixev, yeyaois), Att. yeycos (poetic). QvTjaKco (Bav; 6va-), die ; 2 pf . reOvarov, reBvafxeu, Tedvare, rcBvacri, opt. reBvalrjv, imper. reBvaBi, TeBvaro), inf. nOvdvai (Horn, redvdfxevai or -vdfiev), part, redi^eays (Horn. reOurjas), 2 plup. creOvao-av. AetSo) (hi-), Epic in pres., fear, Attic 2 pf. fieSia (Horn. belSia), 2 plup. ebebidv, both regular in indie, also 2 pf. dedifxev, SeSire, 2 plup. cSeStaai/; subj. SeSt'j/, SeSiwo-i, opt. debielr], imper. debXBi, inf. SeSteVai, part. SeSiwy. (Horn. 2 pf. deldifxev, imper. beidtOi, deidire, inf. SetSt'/icj/, part. SfiSiws, plup. tSft'St/xei/, edeidia-av.) [EiKoj] (t<-, eiK-), 2 pf. eotica, .s'eew ; also 2 pf. eoiyfxev, et^aa-i (for ioiKdat), part. etKo)? (Horn. 2 pf. etfcroi/, 2 plup. €iktt)v), used with the regular forms of eoixa, eoJiceii/ (see Catalogue). OtSa (i8-), know; see § 127 (paradigm). See also poetic, chiefly Homeric, forms under the following verbs in the Catalogue: dvciyco, ^i^pwcrKOJ, eyeipo), ep^^ofxaif {Ka, Tret^w, 7ri7JTa>,[TXaa)], (jivoi. 5. Verbs in w/jli, with w (after a vowel, wv) added to the verb stem in the present. These are all inflected like SecKWfXL (§ 123)., and, with the exception of o-^evwfjLi, quench (§ 122, N. 6) , have no /xt-forms except in the present and imperfect. The following belong to this class : — (Stems in a), Kcpd-wvfii, Kpe/xd-vvvfit, neTa-vvviii, cTK^hd-vvvfii ; (stems in e), e-vvvfJLi, Kope-puvfxi, a-^e-vvvyn, (TTope-vuvp.L] (stems in a>), ^o>-vpvfii, pat-vvvjXL, (TTpod-vvvpLi, ; (consonant stems), ay-vvp-i, ap-wpai, deiK-PVfii (§ 123), elpy-vvfiL, ^cvy-vvfii dno-KTlv-vvp.L (v. KTeivco), p.iy-vvfii, o'ly-WfMi, oX-\vp.L (§ 108, V. 4, N. 2), 6fi-vvfii, ofJLopy-vvfii; op-vvp.i, nr}y-vvp.L (Tray-), Trrdp-vvixai, prjy-vvfiL (pay-), arop-vvp.!, (f)pdy-vvpi. See these in the Catalogue, and also Ionic or poetic (chiefly Homeric) forms under aivvpai, axwpai, ydvvpai, halvvpn, Kalvvp-ai^ Kiwfiai, opky-vvyn, rdvvp^i {v, Tf iVa>), Tivvpai (y. nVco). Dialectic Forms of Verbs In MI. § 126. 1. Homer and Herodotus have many forms (some doubtful) in which verbs in rjpi (with stems in e) and api have the inflection of verbs in ea and oca ; as riBel, SiSotr, 81801. So in com- pounds of iTjpi, as dvUis (or dviels), pcBiei (or -lel) in pres. , and Trpoteiv, irpoteis, dplei, in impf . Hom. has imperat. KaO-ia-ra (Attic -rj). Herod, has terra (for iott^o-i), vnep-criBea and npo-fTidee in impf., and Trpocr- BeoiTo (lor -BfiTo), &c. in opt. For i8l8ovp, &c. and hlBfis, iriBcL (also Attic), see § 122, 2, N. 1. 2. In the Aeolic dialect most verbs in am, ew, and ow take the form in p.i ; as (fylXrjpL (with ; as Becofiev, arkutpev. (h) Generally, when the 2 aor. subj. act. is uncontracted in Homer, the final vowel of the stem is lengthened, e (or a) to « or 17, o to to, while the connecting vowels i] and a> are shortened to e and o in the dual and plural, except before ai (for vai). Thus we find in Homer: — (Stems in a.) OcC^is, O^TJS Pclfo (Attic Pw for Pa- 4>6^TI (Stems in o.) o-rf|€TOV YV 9€0)cri YVwt], Sco^, Sca-qctiv ^(Gofjiev, 8(oo|i.ev (Stems in €.) -yvwoxri, Swoxri e€l«, 4-€f« See also § 119, 12 (c). (c) A few cases of the middle inflected as in (h) occur in Homer ; as ^\r)-€Tai (v. /SaXXo)), aX-erai (^aXXopai), dno-Beiopai, KaTa-Beiofxai] SO Kara-B^ai (Hesiod) for KaraBf-rjai (Att. KaraBfj). 172 INFLECTION. [§ 127. 8. For Homeric optatives of daiwfxt, dvw, Xvoj, and (fiSlvco, — diavvro, dvT}, and dvfxev, XeXCro or XeXvvro, (f)6ifirjp (for (f)6i-ifjLr)v), — see those verbs in the Catalogue, and § 118, 1, Note. 9. Homer has fievm or fiev (the latter only after a short vowel) for vai in the infinitive. The final vowel of the stem is rarely- lengthened in the present; as nOe-fievai, rarely TiOrj-fievai. In the 2 aor. act. the vowel is regularly long (§ 121, 1), as aTrj-fxevm, yva>- fxevai'^ but rlBrj^ii and dldcofii (§ 125, 3, N. 2) have Bk-^cvai and bo- fxepai. For TTj-iievaL in the aor. pass, infin. see § 119, 14. In the perfect of the /ni-form (§ 125, 4), we have ea-rorfievai, eara-fxevf TfOvaixevai, redvafiev. 10. Homer rarely has rjfxevos for (fievos in the participle. For perf. part, in as (cas, J?a)y)» see § 110, IV. (c?), N. 3. Irregular Verbs of the MI-Form. § 127, The verbs cI/jli, be, dfxi, go, X-qjxi, send, ^rj/xi, say^ rjfiat, sit, KCLfiaL, lie, and the second perfect 6l8a, know, are thus inflected. I. El/At (stem CO--, Latin esse), he. PRESENT. Indicative. Subjunolive. Optative. Imperativt. Sing. <2. (3. k Cto) , (2. I'tov (3. 1:tov VtlTOV Kt^tov toiTOV loCrqv trov Htwv (1. 1>€V ■. < 2. i:t€ (3. twn t«|16V tTlT€ two-t i!oi|i.ev toiTC toiev tT€ iraxTttv or Wvtwv Infinitive. tcVat. Panic. t(ov, ioi}(ra, iw, gen. tOl/TOS, lOUOT/S, &C, IMPERFECT. SiTtj^. DuaZ. PiumZ. 1. f|€iv or f|a 2. xfeis or Ti€t7jut, inflected like TiOrjiii ; but 3 pers. plur. laa-i. Subj. tw, t^s, ly, &C. Opt. Ultjv, ultjsj Uirj, &c. (See N. 1.) Imper. tct, tero), &c. i^i/zTt. teVat. Partic. Uls, Imperfect. iciv, r«9, t€t ; terov, tCTiyv ; te/xev, tere, teo-av. Also fiyv (in r](f>L7]v, § 105, 1, N. 3), and ltj (Horn.). See dLrffu. Future. ^(TO), i^crcts, "^(ra, &c., regular. jPi>5f Aorist. "^; ijica, ^Acas, tJkc, &c., Only in indicative. Perfect (in compos.), c&ca, euca9, cIkc, &C. Second Aorist (generally in compos.). Tndic. No singular : Dual, etroi/, emyv : Plur. et/xcv, cTtc, €x(Tav. Suhj. w, ^5, fi ; Tyrov, T^rov ; w/xo', ,7x6, axrt. Op^. en^v, etryg, cny ; ctTyrov, ilrjrrjv ; etrjixev Or cTfiey^ etrjre OF €tr€, ctrjcrav Or ctev. Imper. cs, Itco ; ctov, Itcdi/ ; ere, crwcrav or Ii'twi'. J^«. ctrnt. Partic. cts, ctcra, ei/. PASSIVE AND MIDDLE. Present. Indie. Ufxai. Subj. t(o/x,at. Opt. Uifirjv. Imper, tetro or tov. Injln. LcaduL. Partic. Uiiivor)ixL, ^17?, 7](TL', ^arov, fparovi afi€v, ^are, ^axrC. Subj. (fiC), 4*V^^ 4'Vf ^^' Opt. (jiaiTjv, cf>aLrj^^ (jjalrj, &C. Imper. cf>d9i or cjiaOi, cf>dT(o ; dTov<, <^aTcoi/, &c. InJin. (fidvuL. Partic. (not Attic) ^as, (f>d(Ta^ a(Tav, Future. A orist. rj(r(i)f cfy-qcreLVj Yj(T(iiV. €^r;o-a, (j>T^^ (Doric €0d and <^a), e^af and cf>dv (for e(paaau and (pda-av). Aor. Doric ^aore for €(fir](T€. iN'oTE 2. Homer has some middle forms of ^j;/it; pres. imperat. (f)do, (pdaBco, (f>d(r6€'^ in fin. (f)dcr6ai', pariic. (})dfi€vos \ imperfect €(f}dfiT]v or 0a/iiyj/, e(J3aTo or (pdro, ecpaiTo and (jydvTO. Doric fut. (jidcrofiai. These all have an active sense. V. ^Hfiac (stem rja-")^ sit. (Chiefly poetic in simple form : in Attic prose KdO-rjixat is generally used.) Present {with form of Perfect). Ind. riixai, vjcrai, rja-raL ; rj(r6ov ; yjfieOaj ^aOcf ^vrai, Imperat. ^yL€v in subj. ; Xb^ievai and Ibyav in infin. ; Ibvla for elhvla in the participle. Aeolic irro) for iotco in imperative. Doric ios (Aoyo-, ypa^-), writer of speeches. 2. (Verbals and Denominatives.) (a) When a noun or adjective is formed directly from a root (§ 32, Note), or from a stem which appears as the stem of a verb, it is called a ver- bal or primitive ; as apxq (stem apx^--) t beginning^ formed from "PX"' stem of ap')(iji ; ypa(f>€v€v-)^ Writer, ypacfiiq (ypa^iS-), Style (for writing), ypafifirj (ypa/x/xa- for ypacfi-fxa), line, (3, N. 2), ypa/xjua (ypa/t/xar-) , written document, ypacf}iK6, as in o-r/oaTici-TT/s, soldier (jcrrpaTia'), St/ceXtt6-T?;s, Sicilian (St/ceXia-). Note 4. Many vowel stems (especially verb stems) lengthen their final vowel before a consonant of the suffix, as in verbs (§ 109, 1); as Troirj-fw,, volri-cris, ttolti-tikI/S, iroi-q-Tr}^, from Trote-. Many add c before /* and r of a suffix, as in the perfect and aorist passive (§ 109, 2); as KeXev-a-T^s, com- mander, KiXev-a-fxa, command, from KcXev- (/ceXeiJw), /ce/cAeu-(r-/xat. Note 5. In many verbal nouns and adjectives, especially those in os and 7], the interior vowel of the stem is lengthened or otherwise modified, as it is in the second perfect (§ 109, 3). A change of e to o is especially common. Thus X-ndr], forgetfulness, from Xa^- (cf. X^Xrjda); ydvos, offspring, from ycv- (cf. y^ova); Xoiirds, remaining, from XtTr- (cf. X^Xonra); (rropyq, affection, from (rrepy- (cf. ^aropya); iro/xT-n, sending, from ttc/xtt- (cf. iri- irofxtpa, § 109, 3, N. 2); rpdiros, turn, from rpeir-; - contains only the general idea write, not as yet devel- oped into a noun, adjective, or verb. By adding a it becomes ypa-n, a writing, which stem is modified by case-endings to ypa(pa-i, 7/3a<^d-s, &c. (§ 45, 2J Note). By adding o or e (the so-called connecting vowel, § 112, 4) it is developed into 7pa0o(c)-, the full form of the present stem of the verb ypdw, write, which is modified by pei-sonal endings to ypdo-fi€v, we write, ypd^c-re, you wrUe, &c. 182 FORMATION OF WORDS. [§ 129. FORMATION OF SIMPLE WORDS. I. —NOUNS, ADJECTIVES, AND ADVERBS. § 129, The chief suffixes by which the steins of nouns, adjectives, and adverbs are formed are as follows : — NOUNS. 1. The simplest and most common suffixes are o- (nom. o? or ov) and a- (nom. a or jy). Nouns thus formed have a great variety of meanings; as \6yo-s (Xoy-o-), speech, from Xey- (stem of Xeyo), § 128, 3, N". 5); yLax-q (n-ax-a-), battle, from ^ax- (stem of fidxofiai, Jight) '^ rpoTTosj turn, from rpen- (stem of rpeno), turn)', aroXos, expedition, aToXrf, equipment, from oreX- (stem of o-tcXXcd, send). . 2. (Agent.) The following suffixes denote the agent in verbals, -^ and the person concerned with anything in denominatives: — (a) eu- (nom. evs) '• ypa(f)-€v-s, writer, from ypacji- (-ypa^w); yov-ev-Sf parent, from yev-; imr-ev-s, horseman, from Iniro- (iTTTroy) ; nopBfi-ev-Sf ferryman (7ropBfi6s,^erryJ^ See § 128, 3, Notes 3 and 5. Note. A few nouns in evs have feminines in eia (with recessive accent, § 25, 1, N.); as ^aalXeia, queen (cf. 3, N. 2). (h) Tt\p- (nom. TTjp) : a-arfjp, saviour, from (t^a>, save). Top- (nom. Tcop) : prjTcop, orator, from pe- (epea, epm, shall say) . [ Ttt- (nom. TTjs): Troi^r^y, poet (maker), from note- (ttoUo))', opxr)- \ a-Trjs, dancer, from opx^- (6px€op,ai, dance) ; Ittttottis, horseman, from \ imro- (iTTiros, horse). To these correspond the following feminine forms: — T€ipa- (nom. rcipa) : trwreipa, fem. of a-ooTrjp. rpia- (nom. rpta) : Troirjrpia, poetess ; opxTjarpia, dancing-girl. TpiS- (nom. rpli) : opxrjaTpis, dancing-girl, gen. -Ibos;. Ti8- (nom. Tis): 7rpo(f)^Tis, prophetess ; olKeris, female servant. Note. Verbals in rrip and rpts are oxytone : those in riop, rpia, and reipa have recessive accent (§ 25, 1, N.). 3. (Action). These suffixes denote action (in verbals only) : — X Ti- (nom. ris, fem.): ma-Tis, belief from mB- (ndOco, believe). cri- (nom. ais, fem.) : Xv-ais, loosing, from Xu- (Xvco). cria- (nom. o-td, f em ) ; doKipa-aia, testing, (doKipd^o), test). |jio- (nom. p6s, masc ): a7ra(r-fi6s, spasm {(nrd-co, draw, § 128, 3, N. 4). §129.] FORMATION OF SIMPLE WORDS. . 183 Note 1. The suffix fia- (nom. iitj, fern.) has the same force as simple o- (§ 129, 1); as yvcb/n], knowledge (yvo-), rdXfir], daring (roX/ta-), 68/1% odor {6i^(a, 68-). Note 2. From stems in ev (eF) of verbs in euw come nouns in tia de- noting action; as ^acriXeia, kingly power, kingdom, TratSeca, edttcation (cf. 2, a, Note). 4. (Result.^ These suffixes denote the result of an action (in verbals only) : — jtar- (nom. fia, neut.) : irpay-fjia, thing, act, from irpdy- (irpdaa-oi, do)] p^ixa, saying Qhing said), from pe- (hit. e/>a>)5 Tp.fj-fia, section, gen. TfxrjfjLaTos, from r/xe-, re/x- (rep-vo), cut). €o-- (nom. OS, neut.) : \dxos (Xaxear-), lot, from Xa^- (Xayxdua, gain by lot); Was (e^eo-), custom, from ed- (eloiOa, am accustomed) ; yevos (yepea-), race, from yev- (yeyova, § 128, 3, N. 5). ^ ^ Note. Denominatives in os (stem in c, plough) ; Xv-rpov, ransom, from Xu- (Xvw) ; XoC-rpo»', bath, from Xou- (Xova>, wash). Note. The feminine in rpd sometimes denotes an instrument, as x^'f'f^t earthen pot, from xu- {x^oj, pour); ^iz-tr-rpa, scraper, from ^u- (?i>«, scrape) ; sometimes other relations, e.g. ^tece, as iraXa^i/, masc, only denom.) : dvbpaiv,men''s apartment, from dvrip, gen. dvbp-6s, man ; dpircXav, vineyard, from apnekos, vine. 7. (Quality.) Nouns denoting quality are formed from adjective stems by these suffixes : — TTiT- (nom. rrjs, fern.): veo-rrjs (veorrjr-), youth, from veo-s^ young; 1(t6-tt)s (la-oTTjT-), equality, from lo-o-s, equal (cf. Latin Veritas, gen. veri-tdtis, virtus, gen. vir-tutis). (f)pn-(rvvr}, continence, from aaxfipaiv (o-axppov-) , continent. V la- (nom. ta, fem.): ao^-la, wvidom (ao(f)6s), KaKia, vice (kukos), dXrjBeia, truth, from aXrjOea- (akrjdrjs, true). See Note. erj, (To(f)6u, wise; kuk-os, bad; \onr-6s, re- maining (XtTT-, XotTT-, § 128, 3, N. 5). 12. Adjectives signifying belonging or related in anyway to a per- son or thing are formed from noun stems by the suffix 10- (nom^jips') : ovpdv-ios, heavenly (ovpavo-i), otKetos, domestic (see § 128, 3, N. 3), 81- Kmos,just (diKa-), 'ABrjvaios, Athe?iian ('AdTJvai, stem ^AOrjva-). 13. (a) Verbals denoting ability or Jitness are formed by iko- (nom, iKos) , sometimes tiko- (tikos) : dpx-tKos, Jit to rule (apx<«>) > ypa(f)iK6s, capable of loriting or j)ainting (ypdcfxa), ^ovXev-riKos, able to advise (^ovXeixo), npaK-riKos, jfit fur action (practical), from npdy- (Trpdaaro)) . (b) Denominatives thus formed denote relation, like adjectives in 105 (12) ; nokefi-iKos, of loar, luarlike {TroXeixos), ^aatX-iKos, kingly (/3a- aikevs), ^vo-iKoy, natural (, signify, from o-^/xa (aTjfiaT-), sign. 8. vvtt (vi/-): ^bvvca, sweeten, from ^Su-j, SM;ee^ For the relations of the present to the simple stem, see § 108. Note 1. Desiderative verbs, expressing a desire to do anything, are sometimes formed from other verbs and from nouns by the ending o-eio; (stem in ^poi (X<"7> libation), bringer of libations, eXa07?-^6Xos (^Xa0o-s), deer-slayer. Stems in €pov8oi {rrpoy oSds), gone (cf. § 17, 2, Note). Euphonic changes occur here as usual ; as in cyxo}pLo<: (cV and x<'V"? § l^i ^)- 4. The following inseparable particles are used only as prefixes : — (a) av (a- before a consonant) , called alpha privative, pre- fixed to nouns and adjectives, rarelj^ to verbs, with a negative force, like English un-, Latin in- ; as dv-cXcu^cpos, unfree, dv- atSi;?, shameless, dv-o/Aoto?, unlike, d-Trats, childless, d'ypao0Lvb%, Moody. Note 2. The prefix a- is sometimes copulative (denoting union) ; as in d-\oxos, bedfellow (from Xexos). (B.) Last Part of a Compound Word. 5. At the beginning of the last part of a compound noun or adjective, a, e, or o (unless it is lengthened by position) is generally lengthened to rj or w. Mg. IrpaT-rjyos (arrpaTo-s, ayco), general; vir-qKoos (iVo. aKovw), obe- dient* KaT-r]p€(f)T}s (Kara, €pe(f)a>), cooered ; en-awpos CeVi, ovopa), nam- ing or named for; Kar-nyopos (Kara, and stem of dyopd), accuser. (See § 12, 2.) §132.] COMPOUND WORDS. 189 6. The last part of a compound noun or adjective may be changed in form when a suffix is added (§ 129). This takes place especially in compound adjectives, and when an abstract noun forms the last part of a compound noun. E.g. ^Xo-Tt/xoff (ti/xi^), lionor-lovlng ; iroXv-Trpdyficov (npayfia), meddle- some; avT-dpKTjs (avTos, dpKeoy, suffice), self-sufficient ; dv-ai8ris (aldeo- fiai), shameless; KaKo-T]6rjs (^Bos), ill-disposed; — Xi6o-^oXia (\i6oSi jSoXiy), stone-throwing, vav-p.axia {vavs, p-dxr})y sea-fight. Compound adjectives in j;? are especially frequent (§ 129, 17). Note. An abstract noun compounded with a preposition may retain its form ; as irpo-^ouX^, forethought. 7. A compound verb can be formed directly only by prefix- ing a preposition to a verb ; as Trpocr-dy, throw stones^ denom. from \i0o-^6\os, stone-thrower; Karriyopeo), accuse, from KOT-riyopoi, accuser (cf. 5). See § 105, 1, N. 2. (C) Meaning of Compounds. § 132. Compound nouns and adjectives are of three classes, distinguished by the relation of the parts of the com- pound to each other and to the whole. 1. Objective compounds are those composed of a noun and a verb, adjective, or preposition, in which the noun stands to the other part in some relation (commonly that of object) which could be expressed by an oblique case of the noun. E.g. Aoyo-ypd(f>os, speech-'Writer (\6yovs ypdcfxov) ; p,ta-dpdpayrroi, man- hating (pi(ro^, speech-writer ; \l6o-^6\os, throioer of stones, but Xi.66-^o\os, pelted with stones ; firjrpo-Krduos, matricide, matricidal ;. arpaT-Tjyos, general ; X070- iroids, story-maker. 2. Determinative compounds are nouns or adjectives in which the first part, generally as adjective or adverb, quali- fies (or determines) the second part. ^.g. *AKp6-7r6Xis, citadel (aKpa uoXis) ; fiea--r)fi^pia (fifo-j) fjfiepa, § 14, 2, N. 1), mid-day; yf/evdo-fiavTis, false prophet ; 6p,6-8ov\os., fellow-slave {ofiov 8ov\cvoiv) ; 8v(r-fia6r]s, learning with difficulty ; dxv-ireTrjs, swift- flying ; dfKpi-OeaTpov, amphitheatre {theatre extending all round)\ a-ypac{>os, unwritten. Here belong adjectives like fjLfXi-rjbrjs (f}bvs)i honey-sweet, *Aprji-6oosy swift as Ares (Ares-swift). Note. Here belong a few compounds sometimes called copulative, made of two nouns or two adjectives, and signifying a combination of the two things or quahties. Strictly, the first part limits the last, like an adjective or adverb. Such are larpo-ixavTis, physician-prophet (a prophet who is also o. physician); ^Kpo-fidxa^pa, sword-sabre; dvdpo-irais, man-child; yXvKiJ-TriKpos, sweetly bitter ; deo-ravpos (of Zeus changed to a bull). 3. Possessive or attributive compounds are adjectives in which the first part qualifies the second (as in determinatives), and the whole denotes a quality or attribute belonging to some person or thing. £.g. * Apyvpo-To^os, with silver bow (apyvpovv ro^ov exoav) ; KaKo-bai}i6cv, he says that he is writing; irapaivovfiiv (Toi fievecv, we advise you to remain. So when it is the same with any important adjunct of the lead- ing verb ; as Kamvpyov eari KpiBevr dnoOavelv, it is like a malefactor to die by sentence of the law (§ 138, N. 8, b). Note 1. The subject nominative of the first or second person is omitted, except when special emphasis is required. (See foot-note, page 143.) The nominative of the third person is omitted: — r (a) When it is expressed or implied in the context ; (b) When it is a general word for persons ; as Xeyovai, they say, it is said ; (c) When it is indefinite; as mo'^e ^v, it was late; koKcos e;^ft, it is well ; 8r}\ol, it is evident (the case shows) : so in the impersonal con- struction with the verbal in reoPj as in Treicrreov (cWl) t<5 vofia, we must obey the law (§ 281, 2). («/) When the verb implies its own subject, as Kijpva-a-ei, the her- ald (Krjpv^) proclaims, eadXmy^ey the trumpeter sounded the trumpet^ K(o\v€i, a hindrance occurs. In passive expressions like napea-Kev- aa-rai fioi, preparation has been made by me (7 am prepared), like ven- tum est in Latin, the subject is really the idea of preparation^ &c, contained in the verb. See § 198. § 135.] SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 193 (e) With verbs like vet, it rains, dorpaTrret, it lightens^ aeifi, there is an earthquake (it shakes), where, however, some subject like Zevs or 6e6s was originally supplied. iN'oTE 2. Many verbs in the thii-d person singular have an infini- tive or a sentence as their subject. These are called impersonal verbs. Such are TrpeVei and irpoo-rjKd, it is proper, eveari and e^eari, it is possi- ble, doKel, it seems good, avfi^aiveL, it happens, and the like ; as e^ea-riv vfiiv TovTo noielv, it is in gour power to do this (to do this is possible for gou). So also Set and -x^pi], it is required, we ought ; as del rjfias drrfX- ddv, we must go awag (here, however, the infinitive might be consid- ered an object, and del and xpn might be classed under Note 1 (c) ; cf. § 172, N. 2). The name impersonal is applied with still greater propriety (though less frequently) to the verbs included in (c) and (d) of Note 1. Subject NomiuatiTe and Verb. § 135. 1. A verb agrees with its subject nominative in number and person ; as {iycb} Xeyo), I say^ ovto<; Xeyei, this man says, ol avhpe^ Xeyovaiv, the men say, 2. But a nominative in the neuter plural regularly takes a singular verb ; as ravra iyevero, these things hap- pened, TO, olKrifiara eireaevy the buildings felL So ahv- vard iart (or dBvvaTov icrrt), it is impossible. But exceptions sometimes occur, especially with nouns denoting persons. Several are found in Xenophou. 3. A singular collective noun may take a plural verb ; as TO 7r\rj6o<; i'\lrrj(j>La-avTo TToXepLetv, the majority voted for war. Note 1. IVhen several subjects are connected by and, they gen- erally have a plural verb. But the verb often agrees with one of the subjects (generally the nearest), and is imderstood with the rest. The latter generally happens when they are connected by or or nor. E.g. Sxjfxvovfi€v eya> Koi v/ifi?, / and you agree : aocftoi e-yw Ka\ av rifieVf I and you were wise ; koi (tv koi ol dbf\(f)o\ naprjaTe, both you and your brothers icere present. 'E/xt ovre Kaipos . . . ovt (Knis ovre (})6^os ovT aWo ovdev firrjpep. 13 194 SYNTAX. [§136. Note 2. /f the subjects are of different persons, the verb is in the first person rather than the second, and in the second rather than the third. (See examples under N. 1.) Note 3. A verb in the dual may follow two subjects in the sin- gular, or even a plural subject denoting two persons or things. But even a subject in the dual may have a verb in the plural. (See II. iv. 453; v. 10,275; xvi. 218.) Note 4. Sometimes a verb agrees with the predicate nomina- tive; as al ;^op?;'ytai iKavav evdatfiovias aTjfielov eVrii/, tlie pa)jnients for choruses are a sufficient sign of prosperity. Note 5. Rarely a singular verb has a masculine or feminine sub- ject in the plural; as eort be inTa crrddioi i^ 'A/SwSou is rrjv dirauTioVj and there is a distance of seven siades from Abydos to the opposite coast. In such cases the subject follows the verb, and its plural form seems to have arisen from an afterthought. See also the phrases €(ttlv o1, ike, § 152, N. 2. predicate noun and adjective. § 136, With verbs signifying to he^ to become^ to ap- pear, to he named, chosen, considered, and the like, a noun or adjective in the predicate is in the same case as the subject. U.g, OvTos eoTi ^aa-iXevs, this man is king; ^AXf^avdpos Bios oivofid- ^cTo^ Alexander was named a God ; r}pe6r} o-Tparijyos, he was chosen general; rj noXis (j)povpLou KaTearrj, the city became a fortress; ovtos fCTTiv €v8aifj,(ov, this man is happy; fj nokis fieydXrj eyevero, the city be- came great ; Tjv^rjrai fieyas, he has grown {to be) great. Remark. The verbs which are here included with the copula elfii (§ 133, 1, N. 1) are called copulative verbs. The predicate nominative with the passive verbs of this class represents the predi- cate accusative of the active construction (§ 166). Note 1. The predicate adjectioe agrees with the subject in gen- der and number as well as in case (§ 138, Remark). Note 2. The predicate of an infinitive with its subject accusa- tive expressed (§ 134, 2) is in the accusative; as ^ovXerai rbv vlov (ivai (ro(f)6vy he wishes his son to be wise. So when the participle is used like the infinitive in indirect discourse (§ 280) ; as rjdeaav t6v Kvpov ^aaiXta yevofievov, they knew that Cyrus had become king. Note 3. (a) A\Tien the subject of ehat or of a copulative infini- tive is omitted because it refers to the same person or thing as a § 137.] APPOSITION. 195 nominative, genitive, or dative connected with the leading verb (§ 134, 3), a predicate noun or adjective which belongs to the omit- ted subject is generally assimilated in case to the preceding nomina- tive, genitive, or dative. But it may stand in the accusative instead of being assimilated to a genitive or dative ; especially a predicate noun is very seldom assimilated to a genitive. E.g. (Norn.) BovXerai a-o(f)6s elvai, he wishes to be ivise ; 6 *A\e^avbpo9 ecjiaa-Kev et.pat Aios vlos, Alexandtr asserted that he was a son of Zeus. (^Gen.) Kvpov ibiovro wy npoOvfioTaTov yevfadai, they asked Cyrus to be as devoted to them as possible ; but (with a noun) 'A^?;- vaioiv iderjBrja-av cr(pl(ri ^orjOovs yeveadai, they asked the Athenians to become their helpers. (Dat.) vvv crot, e^eariv dv8p\ yevea-Bai, it is now in your power to show yourself a man; npfnec ctol elvai 7rpo6vfi(o, it becomes you to be zealous ; but also avp-cpepcL avrois cf)i\ovs tivat, it is for their interest to befriends. (b) So when b, participle (in any case) represents the leading verb, and its noun the leading subject; as ^\6ov eVt ttm rav doKovv- TOiv elvai (ro(Pcov, I went to one of those who seemed to be wise : ttoXXoi Toiv 7Tpoa7roiT]o-ap,evcov eluai aocftKTTcov , many of those who professed to be sophists. So toIs doKovaiv eluai ao(f)oh. Note 4. The same principle (N. 3) applies to the predicate of av or of the participle of a copulative verb; as rjdeaav (To(j)ol oWeff, they knew that they were wise (but fjdfcrav rovrovs aocfiovs ovras, they knew that these men were wise). See Note 2. Note 5. For the application of the same principle to all adjective words which refer to the omitted subject of an infinitive, see § 138, N. 8. APPOSITION. § 137. A noun annexed to another noun to describe it, and denoting the same person or thing, agrees with it in case. This is called apposition. E.g. Aapclos 6 /3ao-iXeu?, Darius the king. "Adrjvai, peyaXrj ttoXis, Athens^ a great city. 'Yp.as rovs cro(Povs, you, the wise ones. 'Hficbv rwv 'A^i;- vaicov, of us J the Athenians. Qepia-TOKXrjs fj<(o (sc. eyw), / Themisto- cles am come. ^iKrjoios koX Avkcov ol 'A;^aioi, Philesius and Lycon, the Achaeans. Note 1. Possessive prononns and adjectives may have a geni- tive in apposition with a genitive which they imply ; as 6 epo? tov ToXanrapov /3io?, the life of me, miserable one; ^Adrjuaios rostrale, — no small {cause of) confidence to the citij ; 'Ekevrjv Kravco^ev. MeveXea XtiTTTjv TTiKpdv, Ict US kill Helen, {which ivill be) a bitter grief to Menelaus. Note 4. A noun may be in apposition with the subject or the object of a sentence, where we use as or a like word; as Xinroi rjyovro Ovfiara t<5 'HXiw, horses were brought as offerings to the Sun (in active, iTTTTouff liyeiv OvjxaTa, to bring horses as offerings); avup-axovs e^eis Beovs, you will have Gods as allies. So rvxflv rtvos ^I'Xov, to gain some one as a friend : ;(pa)/iat rovro) (fyiXa, I treat him as a friend. So rivos bLbda-KoXoi tJkctc ; as teachers of what are you come f See § 166, Note 2. AGREEMENT OF ADJECTIVES. § 138. Adjectives agree with their nouns in gender, number, and case. This applies also to the article and to adjective pronouns and participles. E.g. 'O ao(f)bs dvTjp, the wise man ; rov ao rixvo.-, these two arts. Especially rare are the feminines to, ravra. Note 6. Avo, two, is often used with a plural noun. "Oa-ae, the eyes, and bovpe, two spears, in Homer, may have plural adjectives. Note 7. A predicate adjective is sometimes used where we should use an adverb or adverbial phrase; as iKovres ^Xdov, they came icill- iugly; opKios aoi Xeyta, I say it to you on my oath ; TrpSyros 8' e^epe- five NeWcop, and first, Nestor inquired. There is often, however, a great distinction between the adjective and the adverb; as Trpwroy avTovs eidov, 1 was the first to see them; irpatrovs avrovs ttSoi/, they were the first whom I saw; rrpa>Tov (adv.) avrovs dbov, first (of all that I did) 1 saw them. 198 SYNTAX. [§ 139. Note 8. (a) When the subject of an infinitive is omitted be- cause it refers to the same person or thing as a nominative, geni- tive, or dative connected with the leading verb (jf 134, 3), adjectives, adjective pronouns, and participles which belong to the omitted sub- ject are generally assimilated in case to the preceding nominative, genitive, or dative; but they sometimes stand in the accusative (agreeing with the omitted subject) instead of the genitive or da- tive, rarely instead of the nominative. This occurs chiefly in the predicate of eluai, or of a copulative verb ; for the usage in such cases and for examples, see § 136, Note 3. (b) With the infinitives of other verbs, the assimilation of an ad- jective to a subject nominal we is regular and very rarely neglected ; after a genitive, assimilation seldom (if ever) occurs, and the accusa- tive is regular; after a dative either the dative or the accusative may be used. E.g. (Norn.) Ovx 6ixo\oyr)(ra) aKXrjros rJKeiv, I shall not admit that I am come unbidden ; uvk ecprj avrosi d\X cKelvov arpaTrjyelv, he said that not (he) himself, but he (Nicias) icas general; he said ovk (cycb) avros {(TTpaTiTyco) aXX ckclvos a-TpaTrj-yel, cwtos being adjective (§ 145, 1) and eWi/off substantive. (Dat.) (do^cu avToii (TvaKevacrafx^vots a (i^ov Koi 6^07rXi(ra/Ae- pois npoievai, they decided to pack up what the// had and arm themselves completely, and to advance (A nab. ii. 1, 2); but edo^ev avrols irpocfyv- XoAcay KaraaTTja-avTas avyKaXelv tovs OT/jarifOTas-, they decided to Station pickets and to assemble the soldiers {ib. iii. 2, 1) ; in i. 2, we find two datives and an accusative. (Accus. for Gen.) KUKovpyov eWt Kpi0€VT^ a.7ro6ave2v, (TTpaTrjyov de fiaxt'^p-evov tols nok€p.iots, it is like a malefactor to die by the sen- tence of a court, but like a general (Jo die) fighting the enemy ; biop-ai v/xcoi/ fx€ fjivrjixevovi rav elprjixeuav to. dcKaia \}rr}v ohov rjyefiouevfv, but he, the old man, showed them the way ; tov S" olov iraTfp evpov, and they found him, the father, alone. (c) Hardly, if at all, to be distinguished from the Attic article is that found in examples like these: ore 8f) ttjv vqaov dc^UcTo, when now he came to the island ; to re o-Oevos ^Qpiavos, and the might of Orion; ai Se yvvalKcs 'urrdfxevat BavfiaCov, and the women stood and wondered. (<-/) It is, therefore, often difficult to decide the exact force of an article in early Greek. The above examples show a gradual transi- tion, even in Homer, from the original pronoun to the true definite article. 200 SYNTAX. [§ 141. Note 3. The examples in Note 2 (c) are exceptional ; and in such cases the nouns usually stand without the article in Homer, as in Latin. Thus deivrj fie KXayyt) yevcr apyvpeoio fiioio would in Attic Greek require jj KXayyrj and tov ^lov (§ 141). Note 4. Herodotus generally uses the forms of the article be- ginning with r in the place of the ordinary relative, — of which he uses only the forms oy, rj. o1, and at, except after prepositions. Thus opvis Ipos., Tw ovvop.a ^olvi^, a sacred bird, whose name is Phoenix. In other respects, he uses the article as it is used in Attic prose. Note 5. The Lyric poets follow the Homeric usage with respect to the article more closely than Herodotus ; and the Attic poets, espe- cially in the lyric chorus, admit Homeric uses. Attic Use of the Article. «• § 141. In Attic Greek the article generally cor- responds to the English definite article the; as 6 avrjp, the man ; twv TroXewv, of the cities ; tol<; '' EWtjctcv, to the Grreeks, Note 1. The Greek uses the article in certain cases in which the English generally omits it. Such are the following: — (a) Proper names may take the article ; as 6 ^(OKpdnjs or 2a)Kpd- TTjSi Socrates. (b) Abstract nouns very often take the article ; as ^ dper^, virtue^ r] bKaiocrvvT}, justice ; fj evXa^cia, caution. But dperrj, &c. are also used in the same sense. (c) Nouns qualified by a demonstrative or possessive pronoun regularly take the article ; as ourop 6 dv^p, this man ; 6 €p,6s TraTrjp, my father ; nepl rfjs fjpeTcpas nokecos, about our state. (See § 142, 4.) So with nouns on which a possessive genitive of a personal, demonsti'a- tive, or reflexive pronoun depends; as 6 Trarrjp fiov, nu/ father; 6 ifxav- rov naTTjp, my own father (§ 142, 1, Note) ; 6 Tovrav Trarrjpy their father. (d) ToiovTos, TO(TovTos, TOLocrde, roa-oo-de, and rrfKiKovros may take the article ; as top toiovtov au8pa, such a man. It is always used with fielva, such a one. Note 2. The article is sometimes used, where we use a posses- sive pronoun, to mark something as belonging to a person or thing mentioned in the sentence ; as epxfTai Mavdavrj npos rov Trarepa, Man- dane comes to her father (lit. to the father) . Note 3. An adverb, a preposition with its case, or any similar expression, may be used with the article to qualify a noun, like an § 142.] THE ARTICLE. 201 attributive adjective ; as ol totc av6pamoi, the men of that time ; rov TToKm KaS/iov, of ancient Cadmus; oi iv aarei 'aBtjvoioi, the Athenians in the city. Here a noun denoting men or things is often omitted; as ol ew aoTfi, those in the city ; rots t6t€, to those of that time ; oi d/u^l IlXd- Tcam, those about Plato (generally Plato and his school^ or simply Plato). Note 4. The nouns y^, land^ rrpdyfiara, things or affairs, vlos, son, and sometimes other nouns which are readily suggested by the context, may be omitted after the article, when a qualifying adjec- tive or genitive is added; as els tt]v eavrwu (sc. yrjv), to their own land; €K TTJsTrcpioiKidos, from the neighboring country ; to, Trjs xroXecoff, the affairs of the state ; Ilfpi/cX^s oSavdimrov (sc. vios), Pericles, the son of Xanthippus ; ttju raxlo'Trju (sc. 686v), the quickest way. Expressions like TO. T»)s 1uxr}s, TO T^s opyrjs, with no definite nouns understood, sometimes do not differ from Tv^j/, Fortuiie, and opyf], ivrath. Note 5. Instead of repeating a noun with new adjuncts in the same sentence, it is sufficient to repeat its article; as oi rcov TroXirau naides /cat oi Ta>v aX\(ov, the children of the citizens and those of the others. Note 6. The infinitive, as a verbal noun (§ 258), may take a neuter article ; as to ddevat, the knowing ; a-oi to fiq a-iyrjaai Xoittop ^v, it remained for you not to be silent. Note 7. In like manner, a neuter article may precede a whole clause considered as a noun; as to yp(o$i aravTov Travraxoi) 'art XP7~ a-ifMov, the saying ^^ know thyself ^^ is everywhere useful. Note 8. A predicate noun seldom has the article; as vv^ rj rifiipa eyevero, the day became night ; ovtoI elcri kukio-toi dvdpaynav, these are the worst of men. But when the predicate refers definitely to distinct individuals, it may have the article; as elai 8' ovtol oi fldo- T€s ToXijdts ; and are these those (whom I mean) who know the truth ? Position of the Article. § 142. 1. An attributive adjective which qualifies a noun with the article commonly stands between the arti- cle and the noun ; as o (ro(l)6<; avrjpy the wise man ; rwv fieyakcov TroXecov, of the great cities. The position of such an adjective with reference to the article (with the two modifications mentioned in 2) is called the attributive position, as opposed to the predicate position (see 3). 202 SYNTAX. [§ 142. Note. This applies to possessive pronouns and all expressions which have the force of attributive adjectives, when they are pre- ceded by the article (§ 141, N. 3), and to dependent genitives (ex- cept partitives and the genitive of the personal pronoun) ; as 6 iixos Trarfjp, my father ; rj arj yir,rr)p, thy mother; 6 efiavrov narrjp, my own father ; ol ev acrrei avOpatiroi, the men in the city ; ov8e)s tSuv rore 'EXXfj- i/cov, none of the Greeks of that time ; to rat ovri xjrevdo?, the real false- hood ; els TTjv cKetviop noXiv, into their city ; ol rcov Orjliaicov crTpaT-qyol., the f/enerals of the Thebans (2, N. 2). For participles, see 2, N. 5. Two or even three articles may thus stand together ; as to. tijs tS>p noXkcov 'i'vxrjs ofiixara, the eyes of the soul of the multitude. 2. The article together with any of these qualifying expressions may follow the noun, in which case the noun itself may have another article before it. E.g. *0 avr]p 6 (ro({)6s, or civfjp 6 arov KaKo'i). Even the other forms of the adnominal genitive occa- sionally have this position, as tS)v naXaicov rj cjiiXoaocjiia, the phdosophy of the ancients. Note 3. (o) 'O aXXos generally means the rest, seldom the other; ot aXXoL, the others : as 17 aXXrj ttoXis, the rest of the state (but aXXr] no- Xis. another state) ; ol aXXot "EAXj^i/es, the other Greeks. Both 6 (iXXos and KXXos (rarely erepos) may have the meaning of besides ; as evdai- povi^opevos vTTo Tav TioXiToiv Koi ra>v ciXXcuv ^ev(ov, congratulated by the citizens and the foreigners besides; ov yap rju x^P"^^^ °^^^ aXXo oev- dpop, for there was no grass nor any tree either (lit. any other tree). (b) UoXvs with the article generally (though not always) means the greater part, especially in ol noXXoi. the multitude, the majorijy^ and TO iToXv,the greater part. So ol nXeioves, the majority, to nXelop, the greater part, ol nXclaroi, and to nXelcrTop, the greatest number or part. §142.] THE ARTICLE. 203 Note 4. When a noun has two or more qualifying words, each of them may take an article and stand in either of the above posi- tions (1 or 2), or all may stand between one article and its noun ; as 17 'Attikt) t) TToKata (f)(i)vf], the ancient Attic speech: ra Tci\-q to. eaurtoi/ TO. fiuKpd, their own long loalis ; eneixnov els ras oKXas 'ApKadiKas noXets, they sent to the other Arcadian cities ; fj vir' ^ApeTtjs 'HpaxXeous Ttaidev- ais, the instruction of Hercules by Virtue. Occasionally one stands between the article and the noun, while another follows the noun without an article ; as tj iv fidxjj ^vfjL^oXf] ^apela. Note 5 When an attributive participle (§ 138) with dependent words qualifies a noun with the article, either the participle or tlie dependent words may follow the noim; as t6v peovra irorapov bta rfjs TToXecop, the river which runs through the city ; f] iv tg> ^adfxa enip.ovff yevopxvrj, the delay which occurred at the Isthmus. But sucJi expres- sions may also take either of the positions 1 or 2. Note 6. The Greeks commonly said the Euphrates river, rbv Ey- ^pdr-qv TvorapLOVy &c., rather than the river Euphrates. So sometimes with names of mountains (rarely with those of cities or islands). 3. When an adjective either precedes the article, or follows the noun without taking an article, it forms a predicate, and some part of eifjul^ be, is implied (§ 138, Remark) . E.g', *0 dvfjp a-o(j)6s or (ro(f)6s 6 dvrjp (sc. icrriv), the man is tvise, or wise is the man : iroXXoi ol navovpyoi, many are the evil-doers : ecov, (T(^i(Ti^ &c., when they are used in Attic prose, are generally indirect reflexives, that is, in a dependent clause (or joined with an infinitive or participle in the leading clause) referring to the subject of the leading verb. E.g', ^o^ovvrai prj ol ^Adijvaioi o-cf)L(riv eTreXBaxnv, they fear that the Athe- nians may attack them; ebeovro vpwv prj o-(^as irepiopdv (^deipopevovs, they begged you not to see them destroyed. See § 79, 1, N. 1. (6) In Homer and Herodotus they are generally per- sonal pronouns, though sometimes (direct or indirect) reflexives. E.g'. SYNTAX. [§ 145. *Ek yap (r(f)ea>v (j)pfvas etXero UaWas "Ad^vrj, for Pallas Athena bereft them of their senses (Mom.) ; avrUa de oi evdovri eneo-rrj oveipos, and soon a dream came to him in his sleep (Hdt.). § 145. 1. AvTo^ in all its cases may be an intensive adjective pronoun, himself, herself, itself, themselves, like ipse. This is always its force in the nominative of all numbers, except when it is preceded by the article and means the same (§ 79, 2). E.g. Avrbs 6 OTpaTT^yos. the general himself; en avTo7s to7s atyiaXoip, on the very coasts; iivi(TTr)p.r] avrr], knowledge itself. (See § 142, 4, N. 2.) Note. A pronoun with which airos agrees is often omitted ; as Tavra eTToifire avroi (sc. v/xfl?), you did this yourselces ; nXeva-Ttov els ravras avrols efijBaaiv (sc. vplv)^ you must sail^ emharli'ing on these yourselces {in jierson). So avrbs e(j)r) (ipse dixit), himself (the master) said it. 2. The oblique cases of auro? are the ordinary personal pronouns of the third person. E.g. ^Tparrjyov avrbv aivebei^e, he designaterl him as general. See four other examples in Xen. Anah. i. 1, 2 and 3. For /xiV, VLP, and o-c^e, see § 79, 1, Notes 3 and 4. Note. The oblitpie cases of alros are often used where the indirect reflexives (§ 144, 2) might stand, and sometimes even where the direct reflexives (§ 146) would be allowed; as djiXcos rrjv eavTov yvoofiijv drrecfiaiveTo '2(i)KpdTr]s npos tovs ofiiKovvTas avrco ySoci'ak'S used to . declare his oum opinion plainly to those who conversed with him, where ol might have been used (Xen. Mem. iv. 7, 1); but in i. 2, 3, we have eXiri^eiv eiroiei tovs avvbiaTpi^ovras eavra. The union" of an intensive and a personal pronoun in avTos explains this freedom of usage. REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS. § 146. The reflexive pronouns refer to the subject of the clause in which they stand. Sometimes in a de- pendent clause they refer to the subject of the leading verb, — i.e. they are indirect reflexives. E.g-. Tvcodi a-avTou, know thyself ; enear(f)a^ev eavrov, he sleto himself ; Ta apia-Ta ^ovXeueaBe vfilp avrols, take the best counsel for yourselves. § 147.] PRONOUNS. 207 *0 rvpavvov, vpwv, or o-c^wi/ implied in the possessive (§ 137, N. 1); as top riperepov avrav narcpa, our own father; rrj vpcrepa avrav prjrpi, to your oion mother; tovs (r(fieTepovs avrav naidas, their oivn children. In the third person iavrcov can be used; as tovs iavTav iraibas (also (r(f)a>v avTwv iralbas, without the article) ; but very seldom rjpoiv (or vpav) avrtoi/. In the singular, expressions like tov epov avrov Trarepa for top ipxwTov narepa, &c. are poetic. 208 SYNTAX. [§148. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. § 148. OvTO<; and oSe, this, generally refer to what is near in place, time, or thought ; i/celvo<;, Ihat, refers to what is more remote. Note 1. The distinction between ovros and oSe, both of which coiTespond to our this, must be learned by practice. In the histo- rians, ovTos (with TOLuvTos, ToaovTos, and ovtoh) frequently refers to a speech just made, while oSe (with roioabe, roo-oaSf, and Side) refei'S to one about to be made; as rdde elnev, he spoke as follows, but ravra €i7r€v, thus he spoke (said after the speech). Note 2. Ovtos is sometimes an exclamation; as ovtos, tI irouh ; You there ! what are you doing 1 Note 3. The Greek has no word exactly corresponding to the unemphatic demonstrative which is often used in English as the antecedent of a relative, as 1 saio those who were present. Hei*e a participle with the article is generally used; as elbov tov^ Trapovras; if a demonstrative is used (eldov tovtovs ol nap^aav, J saw these men who were present), it has special emphasis (§ 152, N. 3). A relative with omitted antecedent sometimes expresses the sense required ; as elbov ovs eXa/3ej/, / saw (those) whom he took (§ 152). Note 4. ToCro /xcV . . . tovto be, first . . . secondly, partly . . . partly, is used nearly in the sense of to fieu . . . to de (§ 143, 1, N. 1), especially by Herodotus. For ovTotri, odi, eKcivoai, ovTcoa-i, coSi, &c., see § 83, N. 2. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN. § 149. 1. The interrogative rt? ; who ? what ? may- be either substantive or adjective ; as t/W? elSov ; whom did I see ? or rtm? dvSpa<; elhov ; what men did I see ? 2. Tt? may be used both in direct and in indirect questions ; as rt ^ovXerac ; what does he want ? ipayra tl ^ovXeaOe, he asks what you want (§ 241, 1). In indirect questions, however, the relative oaTis is more common ; as cpcoTa o TL ^ovXeade. Note. The same principles apply to the pronominal adjectives 7ro(roy, irolos, &C. (§ 87, 1.) §151.] RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 209 INDEFINITE PRONOUN. § 150. The indefinite rU generally means some, any, and may be either substantive or adjective ; as tovto Xeyec tc<;, some one says this ; avOpwirot; ti^, some man. It is sometimes nearly equivalent to the English a or a7i ; as elhov dvdpcoTrov rcva, I saw a certain man, or I saw a man. Note. Occasionally rls means every one, like rrai ns; as €v fiev Tis 86pv 6T]^da6v, for this is the right of the dead. A few similar expressions occur in Attic prose, especially the Platonic 7 §' o?, said he (where rj is imperfect of r)pi, say). So /cat or, and he, koL ol, and they, and (in Herod.) 6s koi os, tiiis man and that. (Compare t6v koL t6v, § 143, 2.) So also 6s peu . . . os Se, in the oblique cases, may be used for 6 ph . . . 6 8e. Note 4. In the Epic and Lyric poets the enclitic tc is often appended to relative words without affecting their meaning; as ovk 210 SYNTAX. [§ 152. dteis a T€ v TroXfwi; cav ex«, from the cities which he holds (for as exei) ; To7sdya6ois ols c'xo/xei', with the good things which we have (for d exo- fi€v) . This is often called attraction. Note 1. When an antecedent is omitted which (if it could have been expressed) would have been a genitive or dative, the assimila- tion still takes place ; and a preposition which would have belonged to the antecedent passes over to the relative ; as efijjXcoo-e tovto ols enpaTTe, he showed this bg what he did (like e«6tWs a) ; avv ols e'x^ TO. aKpa KaTaXr)\lrQfxai, I icill seize the heights with the men whom I have (as if it were avv rols dvdpdaip ovs ex^) '•< ovSev cjv ^ovXeaBe npa^ere, you will do none of the things which you wish (like (Kelvcov a). See § 148, N. 3. Note 2. A relative is very seldom assimilated from any other construction than that of the object accusative, or into any other case than the genitive or dative. Yet exceptions occur; as av ^Tri'o-ret TToXXous, many of those whom he distrusted (like eKeivav ols). Even the nominative may be assimilated; sls ^XdnTfadai dcf) a>v rjp.lv napeaKeva- trrai, to be injured by what has been prepared by us (like dn-' eKeiv(OP a). Thuc. Note 3. A like assimilation takes place in relative adverbs ; as BLeKopi^ovTo ev6vs 66ev vnc^iOevro Traidas KaiyvvaiKas, they immediately brought over their children and women from the places in which they had placed them for safety (where oBev, from which, stands for cKelSev of, from the places whither). Thuc. Note 4. The antecedent occasionally is assimilated to the case of the relative, when this immediately follows ; ascXfyopon TrdvTcov Ziv deovrat irfnpayoTfs eUv, they said that they had done all things which they needed (where irdvTcov hv for Trdvra hv is very irregular) . This inverted assimilation takes place in olbeXs oaris ov, every- body^ in which ovhfis follows the case of the relative; as ovbevi 6t<^ ovK dTTOKpiverai (for ovdeis ioTiv oro)), he replies to everybody. Note 5. A peculiar assimilation occurs in certain expressions with ofos-; as xapiC^adai oia aoi dv8pi, to please a man like you (for ToiovTco oios av). § 154. The antecedent is often attracted into the rela- tive clause, and agrees with the relative. E.g, Mr] dc^eKr^aBc vpav avrStv rjv K€Krrjcr3c So^av KaXrjv, do not take from yourselves the good reputation which you have gained (for rr]V KoKrjv do^av fjv KeKTrjade) : here notice the omission of the article. Even the subject of a verb may be attracted ; as o'tx^rai (pevyoav bv ^yfs p,dpTvpaj the witness lohom you brought (for 6 p-dprvs ov rjycs) has run aivay. Note. This attraction may be joined with assimilation (§ 153); as dp.a6eaTaToi i(TT€ hv eyw olba 'EXKfjvcov you air 'he most ignorant of 212 SYNTAX. ^ [§155. the Greeks whom I Icnow ; J^ ^? to irpwrov to-x^ yvvaiK6s, from the wife which he took first ; avv § ei^c bwdfiei, with the force lohich he had (for (Tvv TTJ 8vvdfJLei Tjv il)(ev). Kelative in Sxclamations, &.c. § 155, Oto9, 6Vo9, and cw? are used in exclamations ; as 6 a a irpdyfiara ep(;et9, how much trouble you have! CO? ao-T6to9, how witty ! For the relative in indirect questions see § 149, 2. Relative not repeated. § 156, A relative is seldom repeated in a new case in the same sentence, but a personal or demonstrative pro- noun commonly takes its place. E.g. 'E/ceii/ot Tocvvv, ols ovk i)(api^ov6^ ol XeyovTes ovS' e(f)i\ovv avrovs toanep vpds ovtoi vvv, those men, then, whom the orators did not try to gratify, and whom they did not love as these now love you (lit. nor did they love them as, &c.). Dem. Here avrovs is used to avoid repeating the relative in a new case, ovs- Note. Sometimes, however, a new case of the relative is under- stood in the latter part of a sentence; as ^Apialos de, bu fipels rjdeXopfv ^aa-Ckia KaBiaTiivai,, Ka\ edoiKap-ev koI i\d^op,€v Tncrrd, and Ariaeus, whom we wished to make king, and Qo whom) we gave and (Jrom whom) we received pledges^ &c. Xen. THE CASES. Remark. The Greek is descended from a language which had eight cases, — an ablative, a locative, and an instrumental, besides the five found in Greek. The functions of the ablative were chiefly- absorbed by the genitive; those of the instrumental and locative chiefly by the dative. I. NOMINATIVE AND VOCATIVE. § 157. 1. The nominative is used chiefly as the sub- ject of a finite verb (§ 134, 1), or in the predicate after verbs signifying to be, &c. (§ 136). § 159.] ACCUSATIVE. 213 2. The vocative, with or without w, is used in address- ing a person or thing ; as w avSpe^ 'AOrjvalot,^ O men of Athens I aKovecf;, Alax^vT] ; dost thou hear, Aeschines ? Note. The nominative is sometimes used in exclamations, and even in other expressions, where the vocative is more common ; as <5/ioi iyoi beiKos, O wrelc/ied me ! So r} UpoKvq cK^aive, Procne, come out! II. ACCUSATIVE. Remark. The primary purpose of the- accusative is to denote the nearer or direct object of a verb, as opposed to the remoter or indirect object denoted by the dative. It thus bears the same relation to a verb which the genitive generally bears to a noun. The object denoted by the accusative may be the external object of the action of a transitive verb, or the internal (cognate) object which is often implied in the meaning of even an intransitive verb. But the accusative has also assumed other functions, as will be seen, which cannot be brought under this or any other single category. Accusative of Direct CExternal> Object. § 158. The direct object of the action of a transitive verb is put in the accusative ; as rovro aco^ei, rjfjLa^;, this preserves us ; Tavra TrotovfjLev, we do these things. Note 1. Many verbs which are transitive in English, and govern the objective case, take either a genitive or a dative in Greek. (See § 171, § 184, 2, and § 188, 1, N. 2.) Note 2. Many verbs which are transitive in Greek are intransi- tive in English ; as ofiovixaL tovs Biovs, 1 will swear hy the Gods ; ndvras eXaOev, he escaped the notice of all. Note 3. Verbal adjectives and even verbal nonns occasionally take an object accusative instead of the regular objective genitive (§ 167, 3; § 180); as emo-Trifioves rjaap to. tt poa-rjKovra, they were acquainted with what was pi'oper. Xen. So ra fierecopa cfypovTKTTTjSt one who ponders on the things above (like (ppovri^oiv). Plat. Cognate Accusative (Internal Object). § 159. Any verb whose meaning permits it may take an accusative of kindred signification. This accusative repeats the idea already contained in the verb, and may follow intransitive as well as transitive verbs. E.g. 214 SYNTAX. [§159. "HSo/uai ras fxeyLCTTas r}Bovds, I enjoy the greatest pleasures. Evrv- Xov(n TovTo TO €VTv\T)ixa, tltey enjoy this good fortune. So ttltttciv neo-Tjfia, to Jail a Jail ; voaov voaeiv or voaov acrOevelv or voaov KafivfLv, to suffer under a disease ; dfxdpTrjfjLa afxaprdveLu, to commit an error {to sin a s«n) ; dovXeiav dovXevetv, to be subject to slavery; dySiva dycovi- ^eaOai, to undergo a contest: ypai 1 have the same griejs and the same joys. So tI xph^opai. TOVTO) ; (= Tiva ;^peiaj/ ;^p^cro/iat ;) what use shall I mati.-. oj this? and ouSeV xPW^H'"-'- TovTcp, I shall make no use oJ this (§ 188, 1, N. 2). So xpW'-H-o^ ovSeV, good Jor nothing (N. 1). See § 160, 2, Note. Note 3. Here belongs the accusative of effect, which expresses a result beyond the action of the verb, which is effected by that action; diS Trpea-^evova-t Tr)u elprjvrjv, they negotiate the peace {as am- bassadors, 7rpeV/3ety), but Trpea^eveiv rrpea-^eiav, to go on an embassy. Compare the English breaking a hole, as opposed to breaking a stick. S>o diiter verbs of looking (in poetry) ; as ''A /a?; SeSopKcVm, to look war {Ares); tj ^ovXtj e^Xe'^e pdnv, the Senate looked mustard. Note 4. A transitive verb may have a cognate accusative and another object at the same time; as ypd^eo-^ai Tiva ttjv ypa. § 162. In poetry, the accusative without a preposition may denote the place or object towards ivhich motion is directed. E.g. Mvrja-TTJpas d(})lK€To, she came to the suitors. Odyss. ^Ave'^rj fieyav ovpavbv Ov\v firrov re. II. To KoiXov " A p y o s /3as (pvyds, going as an exile to the hollow Argos. Soph. In prose a preposition would be used. Accusative after Ni] and Md. § 163. The accusative follows the adverbs of swear- ing vT) and /ia, by. An oath introduced by vri is affirmative ; one introduced by fta is negative ; as vi] rov Ata, yes, hy Zeus; fxa tov Ata, no, by Zeus. Note 1. When /ua is preceded by val^ yes, the oath is affirmative ; as va\, fia Ala, yes^ by Zeus. Note 2. Ma is sometimes omitted when a negative precedes; as ov, T6vb"'0\vfinov, no, by this Olympus. 165.] ACCUSATIVE. U 'Ij'^' -^ ' 217 §^ \<\ ' ^A Two Accusatives with one Verb)^«^< • .{ T § 164, Verbs signifying to ask, to demanct^^i^l ^ahA.J^^ to remind, to clothe or unclothe, to conceal, to deprive^ and to divide, may take two object accusatives. E.g. 'Eai/ Tty (T€ ravra i^€Ta(rj^ {f any one shall ask you these questions ; jLieXXere tovs Beovi aiTflv^dyadd, you are about to ask hlessings of the Gods; TOVS TToidas rfju fiov(TiKf)v 6iSao-«6t, he teaches the boys music; TT)v ^vfj.fxa)(^iav dva/jLiixprjCTKovTes tovs ' Adrjvaiovs, reminding the Athenians oj the alliance ; eKbvei e/^e Tr)v (adrjra, he strips me of my dress ; (jltj fxe Kpv\j/ijs TovTo, do not conceal thi'i from me; rrjv Beov tovs o-recjiavovs a-ecrvXrjKaaiv, they have robbed the Goddess of her crowns ; to o-Tpdrevfia Kareveifxe Scofieica fieprj, he divided the army into twelve parts (Jie made ttvelce divisions of the army). In many cases, as in the third and last examples, one of the accusatives is cognate; see § 159, N. 4. Note 1. In poetry some other verbs have this construction ; thus xpoa viCfTo oXfirjv, he washed the dried spray f^om his sJdn; so TifKopeladai Tiva alp.a, to punish one for blood (shed). Note 2. Many verbs of this class sometimes have other con- structions. Thus verbs of depriving may take the genitive of a person with an accusative of a thing, tlvos n; sometimes the reverse, Tivd Tivos (neut.). For verbs of reminding, see § 171, 2, N. 3. Note 3. The accusative of a thing with some of these verbs is really a cognate accusative; see § 159, N. 4. § 165. Verbs signifying to do anything to or to say anything of a person or thing take two accusatives. E.g. TavTi fxe noiova-tv, they do these things to me; tI fi elpydao) ; what didst thou do to me f TrXeitrTa koko. ttjv ttoXii/ iroioijcnv, they do the most evils to the state. Tavrl ai) roX/uay rjpds Xeyeiv ; dost thou dare to say these things ofusf Ov (fypovriaTiov o tl epovaiv oi ttoXXoI r)p.ds, we must not consider what the multitude will say of us. Note 1. These verbs often take ev or koKcos, well, or kokws^ ill, instead of the accusative of a thing; tovtovs €v ttouI., he does them good ; vp-ds kukws ttou'i, he does you harm ; kukcos rjpds Xeyft, he speaks ill of us. " The passive form of these expressions is not (v (or KaKS)s) -iroifl- a&ai, €v (or KOKciys) XcyeaBai, to be done well by, to be spoken well of &c. ; but ev (or kukSis) Trdaxfiv, to experience good (or evil), and cw (or KaKa>s) aKoviiv, bene (male) audire, to hear one^s self called. 218 SYNTAX. [§ 166. Note 2. npao-o-o), do, very seldom takes two accusatives in this construction, Trotew being generally used. Ev Trpda-o-co and kukcos npd(raa> are intransitive, meaning to be well off, to be badly off. Note 3. Verbs signifying to do may take the dative of a person ; as dya^oi' Ti TToioCcrt r^ TroXet, they do some good to the state. § 166. Verbs signifying to name, to choose or appoint, to make, to consider, and the like, may take a predicate accusative besides the object accusative. E.g. Tt TTjP TToXiu Trpoaayopeveis ; what do you call the state f — SO KaXoiiai fxf TovTo TO ouofia, they call me by this name ; arpaTrjyov avrou diredei^ey he appointed him general ; evepyerrju top ^iXimrou fjyovpro, they thought Philip a benefactor ; Trdvrcov beairor-qv iavTov nenoirjKev, he has made himself master of all. Note 1. This is the active construction of which the passive appears in the predicate nominative with passive verbs (§ 136). Like the latter, it includes also predicate adjectives; as rou? avp.- fid^ovs TTpodvixovs TToielaOai, to make the allies eager; ray dfxapTiai fx€yd) ; who are these whom I see f (§ 142, 3.) Note 3. A predicate accusative may denote the effect of the action of the verb upon its direct object; as naidevfLv nvd (To(f)6v (or KCKov), to train one {to be) wise (or bad) ; rovy vUls Innoras edida^ev, he taught his sons to be horsemen. See § 159, N. 3. Note 4. In the passive, when the object accusative becomes the subject nominative (§ 197, 1), the predicate accusative (of every kind) becomes a predicate nominative. See § 136, Rem.; and § 137, N. 4. III. GENITIVE. Remark. As the chief use of the accusative is to limit the meaning of a verb, so the chief use of the genitive is to limit the meaning of a noun. When the genitive is used as the object of a verb, it seems to depend on the nominal idea which belongs to the verb: thus eiridv/jiC) involves iiridv- fjuay (as we can say iindvfxu} iTridv/xiav, § 159) ; and in kindvixC) toijtov, I have a desire for this, the nominal idea preponderates over the verbal. The Greek is somewhat arbitrary in deciding when it will allow either to pre- ponderate in the construction, and after some verbs it allows both the accusative and the genitive. In the same general sense the genitive follows verbal adjectives. It has also uses which originally beloncred to the abla- tive; for example, with verbs of separation and to exjjress source. (See Rem. before § 157.) § 167.] GENITIVE. 219 Genitive after Xouns CAdnominal GenitiTe>€ § 167. A noun in the genitive may limit the mean- ing of another noun, to express various relations, most of which are denoted by of or by the possessive case in English. The genitive thus depending on a noun is called adnominal. The most important of these relations are the following : — 1. Possession: as ^ tov Trarpos otKta, the father^ s house; vjfxuiv yj Trarpt?, our country. So rf tov Atds, the daughter of Zeus; TO. Twi/ Oeojv, the things of the Gods (§ 141, Note 4). The Possessive Genitive. 2. The Subject of an action or feeling : as ri tov S-qfiov ewota, the good-will of the people (i.e. which the people feel). The Subjective Genitive. 3. The Object of an action or feeling : as Sea to Uava-a- vLov /Ato-os, owing to the hatred of (i.e. felt against) Pausanias ; at TOV x^'-H'^^^^ Kaprepr^crct?, the endurance of the Winter. So TMV Oeuiv opKOL, oaths (sworn) in the name of the Gods (as we sa}' ^eous ofxvvvaL, § 158, N. 2). The Objective Genitive. 4. Material, including that of which anything consists : as /Souiv dyiXr], a herd of cattle; aXcros rjjxepwv SeVSpcov, a grove of cultivated trees ; Kprjvr) ri8€ov TO TToXu (for ol TToXXoi), thc greater part of the enemy. Note 2. A partitive genitive sometimes depends on tI? or p^pos understood; as ecfyaaav cmpiyvvvaL a-(f)a)V re npos cKeivovs kqi eKeivojv npos favTovs, they said that some of their own men had mixed with them, and some of them with their own men (tivus being understood with o-^wi/ and eKeluoov). Compare § 169, 2; § 170, 2. Note 3. Similar to such phrases as nov y^s ; els tovto dvolas, &c., is the use of exco and an adverb with the genitive; as ttcos e^ei? ^o^rjs; in what state of opinion are you ? ovtco Tponov ex^is, this is your character (lit. in this state of character) \ as elxe toxovs, as fast as he could (lit. in the condition of speed in which he was)] so cos elx^ TTofieoi/; €v ex^tv (\)peva>v^ to be right in his mind. § 170.] GENITIVE. 221 Genitive after Verbs. § 169. 1. Verbs signifying to be, to become, or to belong- take a genitive which is equivalent to the pos- sessive or the partitive genitive. E.g-. 'O vofios ovTos ApoKovToi eariv, this law is Dracoes. Ueviau cf)epeiu oi/ rravros, aXX' dvdpos (to<\>ov^ to bear ptwerly is not in the poicer of every one, but in that of a wise man. Aapeiov yiyvovrai 8vo nalSes, two sons are born {belonging) to Darius. Tovratv yeuov fioi, become (one) of these for me. 2. Verbs signifying to name, to choose or appoint, to 7nake, to consider, and the like, which generally take two accusatives (§ 166), may take a partitive genitive in place of the predicate accusative. E.g, *Efi€ Bks ra>v irfircicrp.evwv, put me dozen as (one) of those who are persuaded. Tovro rrjs rjnerepas dfXfXeias av m Belrj dtKaiojs, any one might Justly consider this to belong to our neglect. Note. When these verbs become passive, they still retain the genitive ; as 26\(ov tcou inTu troc^La-rSiv €KXrj6rj, Solo7i luas called (one) of the Seven Sages. 3. The genitive after verbs sometimes expresses other relations of the adnominal genitive. E.g. To T^ixos (TTabicop rjv oktcd, the wall was (one) of eight stades (m length) ; eneidav eroiv fj ti? rpidicovTa, when one is thirty years old : — Genitive of Measnre. Ot artcjiavoL pohoav ^(rav. the crowns were (made) of roses ; to relxos TreTroirjTai \i6ov, the wall is built of stone ; — Genitive of Material. Ov tmv KUKovpycov oiktos (sc. earip), there is 710 pity felt for the evil-doers; — Objective Genitive. § 170. 1. Any verb may take a genitive if its action affects the object on/t/ in part. E.g. TIep.iT€i Tcov At; 8 0)1/, he sends some of the Lydians (but •tripirfi rovs Avbovs, he sends the Lydians). Uivei rov o'ivov, he drinks of the wine. T^s y^s €T€fiov, they ravaged (some) of the land. 2. This principle applies especially to verbs signifying to share (i.e. to give or take a parf) or to enjoy. E.g. MfrfT^oi' T^? Xeiap, they shared in the booty; so often fieraTrotei- crOai Tiuos, to claim a share of anything (cf. § 171, 1) ; dnoXavofiev riov 222 SYNTAX. [§ 171. aya6a)Vy we enjoy the blessings (i.e. our share of them'); ovt(os ovato TovTOij/, thus may est thou enjoij these, iio ov TrpocrrjKei ixoi ttjs dpxrjs, I have no concern in the gocernment ; fiereaTL not. tovtov, I have a share in this (§ 184, 2, N. 1). Note. Many of these verbs also take an accusative. Mfre^w and similar verbs may regularly take an accusative like fi^pos, i>art ; as 'iv padrjpdrcov (niOvpa, 1 long for learning ; xpr)pdT(tiv (ficldeaOm, to he sparing of money ; do^rjs dpcXelv, to neglect opinion ; ayapat Trjs dperrjs, I admire virtue; KaTa(f)pov€lu tov Kivdvvov, to despise danger (cf. § 173, 2, Note). Note 1. Verbs of hearing, learning, &c. may take an accusative of the thing heard, &c., and a genitive of the person heard from; as TovT(ov ToiovTovs dKovca Xoyovs, I hear such sayings from these men ; TTvdeaOai tovto vpav, to learn this from you. The genitive here belongs under § 176, 1. A sentence may take the place of the accusative; HH TovTcdv iiKove Ti Xeyovcriv, hear from these what they say. See also dvodexopaL, accept (a statement) fro?n, in the Lexicon. § 172.] GENITIVE. 223 Note 2. The impersonals jxeXei and fierafieXei take the geni- tive of a thing with tlie dative of a person (§ 184, 2, N. 1); as fieXei fxoi TovTov, I care for this ; ^(TOfxe'KcL v Koi inTTfoiv eo-TpaTr)y€i, he was general of infantry and cavalry; rjye'iTai nauTos Kol epyov /cat Xoyovj he directs everything that is done and said. This construction is sometimes connected with that of § 175, 2. But the genitive here depends on the idea of king or rider implied in the verb, while there it depends on the idea of comparison (see Remark before § 167). Note. For other cases after many of these verbs, as the dative after fiyeofiai and dvda-aa, see the Lexicon. § 172. 1. Verbs signifying fulness and ivanl take tlie genitive of material (§ 167, 4). E.g'. Xprjpdrcov (vrropfi, he has abundance of money ; oi rvpavvoi inai- vov omoT€ (Tnavi^fTe, you tyrants never have a scarcity of praise. 2. Verbs signifying to fill take the accusative of the thing filled and the genitive of material. E.g. "Y bar OS rrjv KiikiKO wXrjpovv, to fill the cup icilh icater. Note 1. Atofiat, T want, besides the ordinary construction (as TovTcov ideovTo, they icere in want of these), may take a genitive of the person with a cognate accusative of the thing; as 8eT}v and 6dvaTov see Note). Note. Compounds of Kara of this class commonly take a genitive of the person, which depends on the Kard. They may §175.] GENITIVE. 225 take also an object accusative denoting the crime or punishment. Olbfis avTos avTov Karqyoprjtrf tranoTe^ no man ever himself accused himself: KaTo^evhovral fiov [jLeyaXa, they tell great falsehoods against me; ^oi^ov ddiKiav KaTrj-yopelv, to charge injustice upon Phoebus; €via>v erreKTav vfxas aKpircov Odvarov KaTa\lfr](f)i(ra(T6ai, they persuaded you to pass {sentence of) death upon some without a trial. Verbs of condemning may take three cases, as in the last example under § 173, 2. 3. The genitive is sometimes used in exclamations^ to give the cause of the astonishment. E.g. 'Q noVetSoi/, rris rexvrjs ! Poseidon, lohat a trade! *fl Zcv fiaaiXfv, rrjs XenTorrjTos Tuiv (j)p€vS)v ! King Zeus! what subtlety of mind ! Genitive of Separation, of Comparison, of Source. § 174. The genitive may denote that from which any- thing is separated or distinguished. On this principle the genitive follows verbs denoting to remove., to restrain^ to release, to abandon, to deprive, and the like. E.g. 'H vriaos ov nokv Sie'x" rrjs rjireipov, the island is not far distant from the main-land ; tnio-Trjpr} x<^pi'C'^H'^^V dpeTrjs, knowledge separated from virtue; \v(t6v p.e dca-p-cov, release me from chains ; eireaxov rrjs reixv^f ois, they ceased from building the wall : ttoo-wi/ dTrca-Teprjo-de ; of how much have you been deprived? €7rava-av avrov ttjs arpaTr^ylas, they deposed him from his command ; ov iravcaOe rrjs fiox&VP^^^^ V^^ do not cease from your rascality. So (Xttov (avra) rov kt) p v kg s pifj Xchreadai, they told him not to he left behiml the herald (i.e. to follow close upon him) ; f] fTria-ToiXf), ^v ovtos (ypayjrev cTroXft^^fiv n/xcSi/, the letter which this man wrote loiihout our knowledge (lit. separated from us). For the accusative after verbs of depriving, see § 164. § 175. 1. The comparative degree takes the genitive when rj, than., is omitted. E.g. KpeiTTav eWt rovrtov, he is better than these; veois to cnydv Kpelrrov f(TTi Tov XaXeiv, for youth silence is better than prating; jrourjpLa BoTTov BavcLTov Tpcx^t, wickcdncss runs faster than death. Note 1. All adjectives and adverbs which imply a comparison may take a genitive : as hcpoi tovtcov, others tJian these ; varepoi Trjs 226 SYNTAX. [§176. fidxrjs, too late for (later than) the battle ; t^ va-Tepala r^s fidxrjsy on the day after the battle. So TpiirXdaiov fjjxav, thrice as muck as we. Note 2. After rrXeov (TrKelv), more, or eXaaa-ov, less, rj is occasion- ally omitted without affecting the case; as irefi^co opuls err avrbvy frXeii/ i^aKoaiov^ rou dpidfiov, I ivill send birds against him, more than six hundred in number (§ 160). Aristoph. 2. The genitive follows verbs signifying to surpass, to he inferior.) and all others which imply comparison. E.g, "AvOpcoTTos ^vveaei vTrepex^i rav aXXcoi/, man surpasses the others in sagacity; tov ttXtjOov^ nepiylyveadai, to be superior to the multitude; varepi^fLv Ta>p Kaipwv, to be too late for the opportunities. So Tap tX'^pf^v vLKdaOai (or rjaadaOai), to be overcome by one''s enemies; but these two verbs take also the genitive with vno, and the dative. So Ta>v exOpcov Kparelv, to prevail over one''s enemies, and ttjs OaXdaarjs Kparfiv, to be master of the sea. Compare the examples under § 171, 3. § 176. 1. The genitive sometimes denotes the source. E.g, HovTo €Tvxdv aov, I obtained this from you: tovto efiaOev vfiav, he learned this from you. Add the examples under § 171, 2, N. 1. 2. In poetry the genitive occasionally denotes the agent after passive verbs, or is used like the instrumental dative (§ 188). E.g,. ^Ev^Ai^abf) Kelaai, a as d\6xov (r(j)aye\s Alyicrdov re, thou liest noiv in Hades, slain by thy ivife and xiegisihus. Eur. np^o-ai TTvpos drjioio Bvperpa, to burn the gates with destructive fire. 11. These constructions would not be allowed in prose. Genitive after Compound Verbs. § 177. The genitive often depends on a» preposition included in a compound verb. E. g. UpoKeirai, rrjs 'ArrtK^s oprj pcyoKa, high mountains lie before Attica; tcop vpcTepoav diKaicov irpotcTTaaOai, to stand in defence of your rights ; vncpecpavrjaav tov X6(pov, they appeared above the hill; ovTojs vfiaiv vn€pa\ya>, I grieve so for you ; ent^duTes tov tcixovs, having mounted the tcall; dtvoTpiirci fie tovtov, it turns me from this. For the genitive after certain compounds of /card, see § 173, 2, Note. See also §193. 180.] GENITIVE. 227 Crenltive of Price or Value. 178. The genitive may denote the price or value of a thing. E.g, Ao^a ;(/37;/ixarQ>j/ ovK wvrjrr) (sc. ia-rlv), glory is not to he hougJit with money ; nocrov didaaKct ; for what price does he teach f fiia-dov vofiovs el(T(fi€pci, he proposes laws for a bribe; 6 dovXos irevre fxvau Ti[xaTai, the slave is valued at Jive minas. So Tifiarai 8' ovp fioi 6 dvfjp Bavarovy so the man estimates my punishment at death (i.e. proposes death as my punishment) . Plat. So also 2^o8piai/ vTr^yoi/ Oavdrovt they impeached Sphodrias on a capital charge (cf. § 173, 2). Note. The genitive depending on a^ios, worth, worthy, and its compounds, or on d^Loa, think worthy, is the genitive of price or value ; as a^ios eari davdrov, he is ivorthy of death / QefiiaTOKXea rav fieyiartiiv r)^i(o(rau, they thought Themistocles tvorthy of the highest honors. So sometimes armos and driad^a take the genitive. (See § 180, 1.) Genitive of Time and Place. § 179. 1. The genitive may denote the time within ivhich anything takes place. E.g. Uepa-ai ovx rj^ova-i bcKa iratv, the Persians will not come within ten years. T^s vvktos eyevero, it happened within the night (but ttjv vvKTa means during the whole night). So dpaxp-rjp eXa/i/Saj/e rrjs rjfxipas, he received a drachma a day {each day). 2. A similar genitive of the place within which is found in poetry. E.g. '"H ov< "Apyeos rjev 'A;^aitKoG; was he not in Achaean Argos? Odyss. So in the Homeric Tredioio BUlv, to run on the plain (i.e. ivithin its limits), and similar expressions. So dpia-TepTJs x^*po^> on the left hand, even in Hdt. Genitive with. Adjectives. § 180. The objective genitive follows many verbal adjectives. 1. These adjectives are chiefly kindred (in meaning or derivation) to verbs which take the genitive. E.g. 228 SYNTAX. [§ 181. MeToxos Uj without a taste of evils ; dp.vr]p.cov tu>v Kivbvvcov, forgetful of the dangers; diradfjs KUKciv, without suffering ills : dKparfjs ykcaa-arjs, without power over his tongue. Note 2. Sometimes these compounds take a genitive of kindred meaning, which depends on the idea of separation implied in them ; as arrais dppevcou Tvalhoav, childless (in respect^ of male children; arip.os 7rd(Tr)s TLfirjs, destitute of all honor ; ddoipoTaros XRVI^^"^^^} most free from taking -bribes. 2. Some are kindred to verbs which take the accusa- tive. Ei.g, * IloXfcoff dj/arpenrtKo?, svhversive of the state ; npaKriKos rav /caXwy, capable of doing noble deeds; (jjiXofxaOrji ndarjs dXrjOeias, fond of learning all truth. § 181. The possessive genitive sometimes follows adjectives denoting possession or the opposite. E.g. OlKfla rav ^aaikevovrav, belonging to the kings ; Upos 6 x^P^s r^? *ApT€pLbos, the place is sacred to Artemis ; koivov dnavroiv, common to all: drjixoKparias aXXdrpia, things not belonging to democracy. For the dative after such adjectives, which with some of them is more common than the genitive, see § 185. Note. Some adjectives of place, like ivavrlos, opposite, may take the genitive instead of the regular dative (§ 185), but chiefly in poetry; as ivavrioi ea-rap 'A;(aiw^, they stood opposite the Achaeans. Hom. § 183.] GENITIVE. 229 Genitive with Adverbs. § 182. 1- The genitive follows adverbs derived from adjectives which take the genitive. E.g. Ot efXTreipas avrov e;^oi/re$', tliose luJio are acquainted with Mm; dva^las t^9 TroXeas, in a manner unworthy of the state; efxaxopro d^ioos \6yov, they fought in a manner worthy of mention. 2. The genitive follows many adverbs oi place. E.g. Eto-to Tov epvixaros, within the fortress ; e^co tov reixovs, outside of the wall; exro? tcov opcav, witliout the boundaries; x<^pi-s tov o-cofiaros, apart from the body ; [xera^v o-ocpia^ kol dfiaSias, between wisdom and ignorance ; ntpav roii norap-ov, beyond the river; TrpoaOei/ rov crrpa- Tonedov, in front of the camp : dp,(()OT€pa)6ep t^s 68ov, on both sides of the road: evdv ttjs ^aar^Xibos, straight to Phaselis. Such adverbs, besides those given above, are chiefly ivros^ within; dixa, apart from ; iyyvs, "yx^i vreXay, and TrXijainv, near ; Troppco (Trpoaoy), far from ; ontaOcv and Karoncv, behind; and a few others of similar meaning*. The genitive after most of them can be explained as a partitive genitive or as a genitive of separation ; that after ev6v resembles that after verbs of aiming at (§ 171, 1). Add pa and Kpyc^ta, without the knowledge of sometimes take the genitive. ' Note. nX»7»/, except^ «XP* ^^^^ ^^'XP*' until, avev and arep, without, €V€Ka (ovveKa), on account of and puTa^v, between, take the genitive like prepositions. For these and ordinary prepositions with the genitive, see § 191. Genitive Absolute. § 183. A noun and a participle not connected with the main construction of the sentence may stand by themselves in the genitive. This is called the genitive absolute. E.g. TavT enpaxBt] Kovavos (TTpaTrjyovvTos, this teas done trhen Conon ivas general. Ovbev Ta)v bcovTcov ttoiovptcov vpa>v KaKois ra irpdypara e;^€t, affairs are in a bad state while you do nothing which you ought to do. Qecov didovroiv ovk av €K(f)vyoi KaKa, if (he Gods should grant (it to be so), he could not escape evils. "Ovros yj/^evdovs ea-riv dnaTTj, when there is falsehood, there is deceit. For the various relations denoted by the genitive absolute, sea §§277,278. 230 SYNTAX. [§184. IV. DATIVE. Remark. The primary use of the dative case is to denote that to or for which anything is or is done : this inckides the dative of the remote or indirect object, and the dative of interest. It also denotes that hy which or with which, and the time (sometimes the place) in which, anything takes place, — i.e. it is not merely a dative, but also an instrumental and a locative case. (See Remark before § 157.) The object of motion after to is not regularly expressed by the Greek dative, but by the accusative with a preposition. (See § 162.) Dative expressing To or For. § 184, The dative is used to denote that to or for which anything is or is done. This includes, — 1. The dative of the indirect object after transitive verbs, which is generally introduced in English by to. E.g. Aidaxri fiiadou tw aTparevfiari, he gives pay to the army; vni- axvelral aoi deKa ToXavra, he promises ten talents to you (or he promises you ten talents) ', ^orjSeiav nen'^ofiev toIs (Tviiixaxois^ ive will send aid to our allies; eXeyov rw ^aa-iXel ra yey evrjfieva, they told the king what had happened. 2. The dative after certain intransitive verbs, many of which in English take a direct object without to. E.g. Ei!;^o/xai rots Oeols, I pray (to) the Gods; BiKaioavvrj XvaiTfXel r^ exovTi, justice is advantageous to (or profits) the one having it; rois vofxois TTeiderai, he is obedient to the laws (he obeys the laws); ^or^del Tols (f) i\ o I s, he assists his friends ; dpeaKci rois ttoXltois, it is pleas- ing to (or it pjleases) the citizens; clkc apdyKj], yield to necessity; "^ ov nicTTevei Tols (piXois, he does not trust his friends ; rois Qrj^aiois oveidiCovaiv, they reproach the Thebans ; tL iyKokeis rjfilv; lohai have you to blame us for? eTrijped^ovo-iv dWrjXois, they revile one another ; opyl^eaOf rots- dbiKova-iv^ you are angry ivith the offenders. So TTpeneL poi Xeyeiv, it is becoming 7ne to speak; TrpocrrjKei p,oL, it belongs to me; doKcl fioi, it seems to me; 8ok(o p.oi, methinks. The verbs of this class which are not translated with to in English are chie% those signifying to benefit., serve., obey., defend^ assist, please, trust, satisfy, advise, exhort, or an}' of their opposites ; also those expressing friendliness, hostility^ abuse, reproach, envy, anger, threats. §184.] DATIVE. 231 Note 1. (a) The impersonals Set, fierfari, fieXei, /Mera/ieXet, and Trpoa-rjKei take the dative of a jierson with the genitive of a thing ; as Set fxoL TovTov, I have need of this : fieTea-TL fioi tovtov, I have a share in this ; fieXei fioi tovtov, I am interested in this; npoarjKei fioi tovtov. I am concerned in this. (For the gen. see § 170, 2, § 172, N. 2.) (Ji) AeT and xph take the accusative (very rarely the dative) when an infinitive follows. For Set (in poetry) with the accusative and the genitive, see § 172, N. 2. Note 2. Some verbs of this class may take the accusative. Others, whose meaning would place them here (as ftto-ew, hate), take only the accusative. AoiSope'co, revile, has the accusative, but XoiBopeonai (mid- dle) the dative. KfXevw in Attic Greek has only the accusative (commonly with the infinitive) ; in Homer generally the dative. 3. The dative of interest (or of advantage or dis- advantage'), which is generally introduced in English by for. E.g. nS? avr]p uvtS novel, every man labors for himself ; 26\a>v ^Adrj- vaioLs vofiovs edrjKc, Solon made laios for the Athenians; ol Kaipoi TrpoelvTat TJj TrdXet, lit. the opportunities have been sacrifced for the state {for its disadvantage)'^ eXnida e;^ei (ra>Tr]pias t^ TrdXet, he has hope of safety for the state. Note 1. A peculiar use of this dative is found in statements of time ; as tw Tjdr) 8vo yeveal i^BiaTOy two generations had already passed away for him (i.e. he had seen them pass away). Hom. 'Hpepat ^aav rri Mvti\t)vtj ia\(OKvia inTa, for Mitylene captured (i.e. since its cap- ture) there had been seven days. 'H/xepa rjv TreprnTr) eTrnrXeovai tols *A6rjvaiois, it was the ffth day for the Athenians sailing on (i.e. it was the fifth day of their voyage). Note 2. Here belong such Homeric expressions as Tolaiv dveaTr), he rose up for them (i.e. to address them) ; roio-t p.v6oov rjpxcv, he began to speak before them. Note 3. In Homer, verbs signifying to ward off take an accusa- tive of the thing and a dative of the person; as Aavaolai Xotyoi tiavvov, ward off destruction from the Danai (lit. for the Danai). Here the accusative may be omitted, so that Aapaolai apvvtiv meanw to defend the Danai. For other constructions of apvvuj see the Lexicon. Ae'xofxat, receive, takes a dative in Homer by a similar idiom; as Be^aTo ol (TKrjnTpov, he took his sceptre from him (lit. for him). Note 4. Sometimes this dative has nearly the same force as a possessive genitive; as ol innot avTols StSeirat, their horses are tied (lit. the horses are tied for them) ; 8ia to ianapBai avTw to o-rpaTcvpa, because his army has been scattered {for him) ; rjpxpv tov vuvtikov toIs 232 SYNTAX. [§ 185. 2vpaKop jxeu ivroXr] Alos ex^i TeXos, as regards you two, the order of Zeus is fully executed. So in such expressions as these: eV Sf^m eanXeouTi, on the right as you sail in (with respect to one sailing in); a-vveXovTi, or w? avveXovTi etVeti/, concisely, or to speak concisely (lit. for one having made the matter concise). So m efxoi, in my opinion. § 185, The dative follows many adjectives and ad- verbs of kindred meaning with the verbs included in § 184, and some verbal nouns. E.g: Ava-p.evr)s tols ^iXois, hostile to his friends ; vttoxo s rots vofiois, subject to the laws; (niKivdwov rfj noXei, dangerous to the state; PXa^e pov TO) a-Mfxari, hurtful to the body; evvovs eavrw, kind to himself; evavrios avra, opposed to him. (For the genitive after fmi/rtos,, see § 181, Note.) 2v fi(j)€ povr cos avra, profitably to him- self: e fiTTodoov ifxoi, in my way. So KaradovXaxris tS>v ''EXXrjvcov roig 'ABijvaiois, subjugation of the Greeks to the Athenians. § 187.] DATIVE. 233 Dative of Resemblance and Union. § 186. The dative is used with all words implying resemblance, union, or approach. This includes verbs, adjectives, adverbs, and nouns. E.g. 2Kta7s (oik6t€s, like shadows ; ofxiKovai rots KaKols, they associate with the bad; tovs (pevyovras avrols ^vufjWa^ev, he reconciled the exiles with them ; SfioKoyovaiv dWfjXois, they agree with one another; biaXiyovTai tovtols, they converse with these; rovs tmrovs yfrocpois nXrjcnd^eiv, to briny the horses near to noises. "OfxoLot rots Tv(f)Xois, like the blind; Kvfiara lara opea-aiv, waves like mountains (Horn.); rois avTols Kvptp oTrXoty aTrXiafievoi, armed with the same arms as Cyrus. 'Eyyvs oSw, 7iear a road ^also the genitive, § 182, 2); afia TTJ rjfiepa, as soon as (it was) day ; ofxov tw tttjXw, together with the mud ; to. tovtols e'^e^^s, what comes next to these. Note 1. To this class belong not merely such verbs as 8ia- \eyofiai, discourse with, but also fiaxoixai, TroXefieco, and others signifying contend with, quarrel with; as /iia;^ea^ai roiy Qrj^aioif, to fight with the Thebans ; noXefxova-iv rjixlv, they are at war with us; ipi^ovcriv d\\r]\ois, they contend with each other; hia^epccOai toIs TTovrjpois, to be at variance with the base. So €s x^tpas eXOelv tivi, or €s Xoyovs i\6elv tlvi, to come to a conjiict (or words) with any one. Note 2. After adjectives of likeness, an abridged form of expression may be used; as K6p.ai XapiTeaa-Lv 6p.olai, hair like (that of) the Graces (Horn.); ras iVas nXriyas ifioi, the same number of blows with me. Dative after Compound Verbs. § 187. The dative follows many verbs compounded with eV, G-vv, or eVt ; and some compounded with Trpo'?, irapdy irepi, and viro. E.g. Toi? v6p.oLs ep.{X€i/a)v, abiding by the laws; ai rjSovai e7naTr)fiT}u ovbepiav "^vxfl (}nvo(.ovcnv, pleasures produce no knowledge in the soul; eVe/cetiTo Tw nepi/cXel, they pressed hard on Pericles ; epavra (TvvTjbdv ov8ev eTTio-ra/Liei/ft), / was conscious to myself that I knew nothing (lit. with myself)] ^8tj Trore a-oi inrjXdev ; did it ever occur to you? Upoa^aXXciv Ta Tei)(io-p.aTt, to attack the fortifcation ; aSeX- ^os dvbpl Trapdrj, let a brother stand by a man (i.e. let a man^s brother stand by him); tols kukoIs TrepnriTTTovo-Lv, they are involved in evils ; vTroKeiTai to nedinv rw iepw, the plain lies below the temple. This dative sometimes' depends on the preposition (§ 193), and sometimes on the idea contained in the compound as a whole. 234 SYNTAX. [§ 188. Causal and Instrumental Dative. § 188. 1. The dative is used to denote the cause, manner, means, or instrument. E.g. Cause : ^ArroBvrjo-Kei vocrm, he dies of disease ; ttoWclkl^ ay vol a Afxaprdvofxev, ice often err through ignorance. Manner: Apo'/xw T]7reiyovTo, they pressed forward 07i a run ; ttoWtj Kpavyfj €7re\6e7v, to advance with a loud shout ; rij akr]6iia, in truth ; tw ovtl, in reality ; ^la. forcibly ; ravTT], in this manner, thus. Means or Instrument : ^Opcofiev To7s ocpOaXfioLs, we see with our eyes; eyvaxrdrjo-av rfj \faKos ovojxarii a city, Thapsacus by name (cf. § 160, 1). Note 2. Xpaofxai, to use {to serve oneU self by), takes the instrumental dative; as ;(paji/rai dpyvplco, Jthey use money. A neuter pronoun {e.g. rl, t\, 6 rt, or tovto} niaj)/be added as a cognate accusative (§ 159, N. 2); as W rouroty xph'^J^tJ^'- > i^^'hat shall I do with these? (lit. what use shall I make of thesjn). No/xiX<«> has sometimes the same meaning and construction as^pdo/xat. 2. The dative of manner is:iised with comparatives to denote the degree of difference. E.g. IToXXo) Kpfirrov eariv, it is much better (better by much) ; rfj K€c{)a\fj jjicl^cov (or eXdrraji/), a head taller (or shorter); tootovt^ rjdiov ^o), / live so much the more happily ; rexvrj dvdyKT]^ dadeveaTepa liaKpio, art is weaker than necessity by far. So sometimes with superlatives, and even with other expressions which imply comparison ; as paKpa KdWiard re koI apicrra, by far the most beautiful and the best; beKa ercai 71 p6 ttjs ev SaXa/xii/i uavfiaxiaSf ten years before the battle of Salamis. 3. The dative sometimes denotes the agent with passive verbs, especially with the perfect and pluperfect. E.g. TovTo fjhr] (TOL TrenpaKTai, this has now been done by you; iveihrj 7rape(TK€vaa-To tois KopcvOiois, when preparation had been made by the Corinthians {when the Corinthians had their preparation made). Here there seems to be a reference to the agent's interest in the result of the completed action expressed by the perfect and plu- perfect. With other tenses, the agent is regularly expressed by uTTo, &G. and the genitive (§ 197, 1) ; rarely by the dative, except iu poetry. § 189.J DATIVE. 235 4. With the verbal adjective in -Teo 'i-mrov /xaxeadai, to fight on horseback (from a horse). (b) of TIME : ciTrb roirov tov xp^^ov, from this time. (c) of CAUSE : dirb ardaecou iKTrlTrreiv, to be driven out by factions. In COMP. : from, away, off, in return. §191.] PREPOSITIONS. 237 3. Ik or l| (§ 13, 2; Lat. e, ex), from^ out of; originally (as opposed to airb) from within. (a) of PLACE : €/c Iiirdprrji (pe&y^i, he is banished from Sparta. (&) of TIME : €K waXaioTdTov, from the most ancient time. (c) of ORIGIN : 6vap eK Aids iariu, the dream comes from Zeus. So also with 2mssive yfivhs (instead of utto with gen.): Ti/j,da6ai iK Tivos, to be honored by some one (the agent viewed as the source). In comp. : out, from, away, off. 4. vyov els Meyapa, they fled into Megara. (6) of TIME : 6is vvKTa, (to) till night ; els rbv Hiravra xp(>vov, for all time. (c) of NUMBER and MEASURE : els SiaKoaiovs, (ainounting) to two hundred ; eis Sijpafiiu, up to one's j)ower. {d) of PURPOSE or REFERENCE : xPVf^o.'i'o- dvaXiaKeiv els Tov x6\efwv, to spend money on the war ; xPW'-P-os ets rt, useful for any- thing. In COMP. : into, in, to. 2. «s, to, only with persons : elaupai Cos riva, to go in to (visit) any otic. 238 SYNTAX. [§ 191. IV. Three take the genitive and accusative : Bud, Kara, virep. 1. 8id, through (Lat. di-, dis-). (1) with the GENITIVE : (a) of PLACE : 5i aairlbos ^XOev, it went through a shield. (b) of TIME : 8ca vvktSs, through the night. (c) of MEANS : dt epfiTjv^cas \4yeiv, to speak through an interpreter. id) in various phrases like 5t' oUtov ^x^cu, to pity ; dia 0tXtaj tVmt, to be in friendship {with one). (2) with the accusative, on account of, by reason of: bC 'M-fjvrjv, by help of Athena; 8ia toCto, on this account. In COMP. : through, also apart (Lat. di-, dis-). 2. Kara (cf. adverb kcItci), below), originally down (opposed to dvd). (1) with the genitive: (a) down from: aWeaOai /caret t^s Tr^rpas, to leap doion from the rock. (p) down upon : Kara ttjs KetpaXrjs Karaxetv, to pour down upon the head; also against, lender, concerning. (2) with the accusative, down along ; of motion over, through, among, into, against ; also according to, concerning. (a) of PLACE : Karcc povu, down stream ; Kard. yrjv kcu daXaaaav, by land and by sea. {b) of TIME : Kara rbv irdXefiov, during (at the time of) the war. (c) DISTRIBUTIVELY : Kara Tpeis, by threes, three by three ; Kad' ijixepau, day by day, daily. In COMP. : down, against. 3. virip, over (Lat. super). (1) with the GENITIVE : {a) of PLACE : virkp TTJs KetpoKrjs, over (his) head; virkp riji daXdaayjs, above (away from) the sea. (5) for, in behalf of (opposed to Kurd) : fidxeadat viripTivos, to fight .for one (originally over him); vtrep aod deSoLKu, I fen r for you ; vTT^p Tivos \eyeLv, to speak in place of one ; in the orators sometimes concerning (like irepi). (2) with the accusative, over, beyond, of place and measure. In COMP. : over, beyond, exceedingly, in behalf of. V. One takes the dative and accusative {\Qry rarely the genitive) : dva. dvd (cf. adverb dvw, above), originally up (opposed to Kard). (1) with the DATIVE (only Epic and Lyric), up on : dva aKi^rrpc^, on a sceptre. § 191.] PREPOSITIONS. 239 ■ (2) with the accusative, up along ; and of motion over^ through^ among (cf. /card). (a) of PLACE : avit. povv, up stream ; apdi. cTparbv, through the army (Horn.). (J) of TIME : avb. traffav rT)v rjixipav, all through the day. (c) In DISTRIBUTIVE expressions : ava r^rrapas, by fours. In COMP. : up, back, again. (3) with the genitive, only in the Homeric expression, dva vrjbs paiveiv, to go on board ship. VI. Seyentsike the gemtivey dative, and accusative: afjicf>i, CTTi', fJiCTo., Trapa, Trcpt, Trpos, vtto, 1. d|i(f>C (Lat. amb-), connected with &\L^a>, both; originally on both sides of; hence about. (1) with the GENITIVE (rare in prose), about, concerning. (2) with the dative (only Ionic and poetic), about ; hence concerning, on account of. (3) with the accusative, about, near, of place, time, number, etc.: d/i0' &\a, by the sea; d/ji^l deiXriv, near evening; dfi4>l rd e^-fiKovra, about sixty (circiter sexaginta); so d/i.0t rt ?x^^''> to ^^ (busy) about a thing. In COMP. : about, on both sides. 2. Iirf, on, uj)on. (1) with the genitive : (a) of place : iirl Tiipyov, mi a tower ; sometimes towards : irrl 2d/Aou TrXet;', to sail (upon) towards Samos. (b) of time : ecp' 7}ixC}v, in our time. (2) with the dative : {a) of place: iirl rrj 9a\di,KV€7Tai irapa Kvpov, he comes to Cyrus. {b) of TIME : irapa irdvTa tov xP^^ov, throughout the whole time. (c) of CAUSE : Trap A rrjv rjfxeTipav afjLiXeiav, on account of our neglect. (d) with idea of beyond or beside, and except: ovk iari irapa ravra dWa, there are no others besides these ; irapa rbv vbixov, con' trary to tlie law (properly beyond it). In COMP. : beside, along by, hithervmrd, wrongly (beside the Tnark), over (as in overstep). 5. irepl, around (on all sides). (1) with the GENITIVE, abotct, concerning (Lat. de): wepl irarpbs ipeadai, to inquire about his fatlier ; also (poetic) above; Kparepos irepi iravTwv, mighty above all. (2) with the dative, about, around, concerning, seldom in Attic prose. (3) with the accusative, nearly the same as d(U0^. In COMP. : around, about, exceedingly. 6. irpds, at or by (in front of), akin to irpd. (1) with the genitive : (a) in front of, looking towards : irphs Opg/cijs Ketadai, to be situated over against Thrace ; — in swearing : Trpos Bf.(hv, before (by) the Gods. Sometimes pertaining to (as character): 9i Kapra irpbs yvvaiKos iarip, surely it is very like a woman. Q>) from (properly from before) : tljx7)v irpbs Ztjvbs exovres, having honor from Zeus; sometimes with passive verbs (like virb): irpbs TLvos (pCKuadaL, to be loved by some one. (2) with the dative : {a) at : 6 KOpos ^v irpos Ba^vXuvi, Cyrus was at Babylon, (b) in addition to : irpbs toL, dvri, (xtto, 8ia, eK (e|), €7rt, Kara, /xera, Trapa, Trept, irpo, irpos, vttc/o, vtto, — i.e. all except ci9, ev, crvv, dvd. Also the improper prepositions avcv, arcp, ax/oi, i^-^xph p-^ra^v, €V€Ka, TrXrjv. 2. The following take the dative : d.fji(f>L, dvd, iv, cVi, /xera, irapdf Trept, Trpo?, avvj viro. 3. The following take the accusative: dpL, dvd, Sid, et? (es), cTTt, Kara, /Acra, rrapd, Trcpt, vrpo?, vTrcp, vtto, — i.e. all except dvTt, aTTo, e/c, cv, Trpo, o-w. So also w? (with words denoting persons) . § 193. A preposition is often followed by its own case when it is part of a compound verb. U.g. HapeKopl^ovTo ri]v ^Irakiav, they sailed along the coast of Italy; €(r^\6e /xe, it occurred to me; rj prjrrfp o-vveTrparrev avrco ravra, his mother assisted him in this (i.e. (TrpaTre crvv avra). For examples of the genitive, see § 177; for those of the dative, see § 187. § 196.] ADVERBS. 243 ADVEKBS. § 194. Adverbs qualify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. E.^, OvTOis eliv€v, thus Tie spoke; ays dvvafiai, as I am able; irpStrov aTrrjXde, he first ivent aivay ; to dXrjdcjs kukop, that which is truly evil; fiaXXov 7rp€7r6vT(os rjyi'juccryi.ivr], more becomingly dressed. For adjectives used as adverbs, see § 138, N. 7. For adverbs preceded by the article, and qualifying a noun like adjectives, see § 141, N. 3. For adverbs with the genitive or dative, see §§ 168 (with N. 3); 182, 2; 185 ; 186. For adverbs as prepositions, see § 191. For negative adverbs, see § 283. THE VERB. VOICES. Active. § 195, In tlie active voice the subject is represented as acting ; as rpeirw tov<; 6(f>6aXfjLoi>(;, I turn my eyes ; o waryp (piXel tov TralSa, the father loves the child; 6 Xtttto^ Tpix^h the horse runs. Note 1. The form of the active voice includes most intransitive verbs; as rpexoi, run. On the other hand, the form of the middle or passive voice includes many deponent verbs which are active and transitive in meaning; as /SovXo/nai tovto, I icant this. Some transi- tive verbs have certain intransitive tenses; as eorrrjKa, I stand, eo-Trjv, 1 stood, from tarrjixi, place. Such tenses are said to have a middle, or sometimes even a passive, meaning. Note 2. The same verb may be both transitive and intransi- tive; as eXavvo), drive (trans, or intrans.) or march. The intransi- tive use sometimes arose from the omission of a familiar object; as fkavvcLv (Ittttou or apixa), TeXevrdv {top /St'oi/), to end {life) or to die. Compare the English verbs drive, turn, move, &c. Passive. § 196. In the passive voice the subject is represented as acted upon; as 6 iral^ virb tov irarpo^ (^CKelTav, the child is loved by the father. 244 SYNTAX. [§ 197. § 197, 1. The object of the active becomes the subject of the passive. The subject of the active, the agent, is generally expressed by vtto and the genitive in the pas- sive construction. (See § 196 and the example.) Even a genitive or dative used as a direct object can become the subject of the passive ; as KaTa(f>pov€lTai vn^ efxov, he is despised hy me (cf. KaTa(^pova> avrov, § 171, 2); nia-TeveTai vno rmp dpxofievoiv, he is trusted hy his subjects (cf . Tnarevovaiv avr^, § 184, 2) ; so dpx6fJ.evoSf ruled over, is passive of apxa>, rule (§ 171,' 3). • !N'oTE 1. other prepositions than Ino with the genitive of the agent, though used in poetry, are not common in Attic prose. Such are rrapd, Trpos-, ex, and duo. Note 2. When the active is followed by two accusatives, or by an accusative of a thing and a dative of a person, the case denoting a person is generally made the subject of the passive, and the other (an accusative) remains unchanged. E.g. Ovdev aWo diddaKeTui avdpconos, the man is taught nothing else (in the active ovdeu aWo diddcrKovat top dvdpaTrov). "AXXo tl fxel^op €TnTax0r}o-€(T6e, you will have some other greater command imposed on you (active, SKKo tl pei^ov vpXv eiriTd^ovaiv, they loill impose some other greater command on you). Of €7nTeTpap,[ji,evoi ttjp cf)v\aKr)v, those to tvhom the guard has been intrusted (active, emTpeneiv rfjv (f)v\aKTjv rov- Tois-). AKpOepav euTjfifievos, clad in a leathern jerkin (active, ivdrrrfiv Tl Tivi, to jit a thing on one). So eKKOTrrecrdaL rov 6(f)6akfx6v, to hare his eye cut out, and divoTep.v€(T6ai rrjv Ke(pa.\r]v, to have his head cut off, &c., from possible active constructions eKKOTrreiv rl rtz/t, and dnoji- fiveiv ri tivl (§ 184, 3, N. 4). This construction has nothing to do with that of § 160. The first two examples are cases of the cognate accusative of the thing retained with the passive, while the accusative or dative of the person is made the subject (§ 159, Notes 2 and 4). 2. The perfect and pluperfect passive generally take the dative of the agent (§ 188, 3). The personal verbal in -t€o<; takes the dative, the imper- sonal in -T€ov the dative or accusative, of the agent (§ 188, 4). § 198, The subject of the passive may be a neuter adjective which represents a cognate accusative of the active construction ; or the passive may be used imper- sonally, the subject being implied in the idea of the verb itself. U.ff, §199.] THE VERB. — VOICES. 245 'Ao-e/Selrat ovbev, no act of impiety is committed (act. da-c^clv ovbeu, § 159, N. 2). 8o TrapfaKevaarai, preparation has been made (it is prepared) ; afxapTaverai, error is committed (it is erred) : cf . ventum est. This occurs cliiefly in such participial expressions as to. rjo-e- ^rjixeva, the impious acts which have been committed : to. Kivdvvev- 6evTa, the risks ivhich icere run ; ra r] fiaprrjixeva, the errors which have been made, &c. (See § 134, N. 1, , write or propose 246 SYNTAX. [§200. a vote, ypdcfiofiai, indict; rificopio rivi, I avenge a person, rificopovfiai Tiva, I avemje myself on a person or 1 punish a per son ; ai,T(o, fasten, a.TTTop.ai, cling to (fasten myself to); so exofiai, hold to. The passive of some of these verbs is used as a passive to both active and middle; thus ypacprji^ai can mean either to be ivritten or to he indicted. Note 4. The future middle of some verbs has a passive sense ; as dSt/cw, wrong, ddiKrjaoixai, I shall be wronged. TENSES. I. TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE. § 200. The tenses of the indicative express action as follows ; — Present, continued or repeated present action : ypac^w, / am writing or / write (habitualh') . I31PERFECT, continued or repeated past action : eypa<^oi/, I was writing or I used to write. Perfect, action finished in present time : yiypa(f>a, I have wi'itten. Pluperfect, action finished in past time : eyeypac^etv, I had written. Aorist, simple past action (N. 5) : eypaxj/a, T wrote. Future, future action : ypai/^w, / shall write or / shall he writing. Future Perfect, action to be finished in future time : ycypai/^erat, it will have been written. Note 1. In narration, the present is sometimes used vividly for the aorist; as nopeverai np6<: fiaaCKia § tdvparo rdxiorra, he goes (went) to the king as fast as he could. For the present expressing a general truth, see § 205, 1. Note 2. The present and especially the imperfect often express an «//<'wp/'e^ action ; as ttc lOovaivvpas, they are trying to persuade yon; ' AXouifija-ov edidov, he offered (tried to gii'c) Halonnesus ; a iirpda-ar^To ovk iyevero, luhat was attempted did not happen. Note 3. ' (o) The presents r^Ka, I am come, and oixofiai, lam gone, have the force of perfects; the imperfects having the force of pluperfects. (Cf. N. 6.) § 200.] TENSES. 247 (h) The present elfxi, T am f/oinff, has a future sense, and is used as a future of epxofJiai, iXevo-ofxai not being ordinarily used in Attic prose. Note 4. The present with noKat or any other expression of past time has the force of a present and perfect combined ; as rrdXai aoi tovto Xeyo), 1 have long been telling you this (jvhich I now tell). Note 5. (a) The aorist takes its name (dopiaros, unlimited^ tinqualifed) from its denoting a simple past occurrence, with none of the limitations (opoi) as to completion, continuance, repetition, &c. which belong to the other past tenses. It corresponds exactly to the so-called imperfect in English, whereas the Greek imperfect corresponds to the forms I was doing, &c. Thus, eirolei tovto is he icas doing this or he did this habitually ; 7re7roirjK€ tovto is he has already done this; iirciroir}K€L tovto is he had already (at some past time) done this; but eVoiTyo-e tovto is simply he did tJiis, without qualification of any kind. (/;) The aorist of verbs which denote a state or condition generally expresses the entrance into that state or condition ; as nXovTa, I am rich ; enXovTOvp, I was rich; inXovTr^aa, I became rich. So i^aaiXeva-e, he became king ; rjp^i, he obtained office. (c) The distinction between the imperfect and aorist was some- times neglected, especially in the earlier Greek. See ^aivov and /3^ in //. i. 437 and 439; ^oXXeTo and ^oXcto in //. ii .43 and 45; eXinev and Xetne, II. ii. 106 and 107. Note 6. Some perfects have a present meaning; as Bvrja-Keiv, to die, T€6vr]K€vai, to be dead; ylyveadai, to become, yeyovevai, to be; pipvrjaKCLv, to remind, p.epvrja6ai, to remember; KaXelv, to call, K€KX^a6ai, to be called. So oida, I know, novi. This is usually explained by the meaning of the verb. In such verbs the pluperfect has the force of an imperfect; as 58eii/, / knew (§ 127). (Cf. N. 3, a.) Note 7. The perfect sometimes refers vividly to the future; as €t /ze ai(rdr](T€Tai oXtoXa, if he shall perceive me, I am ruined (peril). So sometimes the present; as oTroXXu/xai, I perish! (for 1 shall perish). Note 8. The second person of the future may express a per- mission, or even a command ; as irpd^m olov av deXrj^, you may act as you please; nduTcos Se tovto dpdcreis, and by all means do this (you shall do this). So in imprecations; as dnoXc'iaOe, to destruction with you! (lit. you shall perish). See § 257^ where the future with ov fir] is explaine.d in this way. Note 9. The future perfect is sometimes merely an emphatic future, denoting that a future act will be immediate or decisive ; as 248 SYNTAX. [§ 201. <^pa^e Kcu 7r€7rpd^€Tai, speak, and it shall he (no sooner said than) done. Compare the similar use of the perfect infinitive, § 202, 2, N. 2. § 201, The division of the tenses of the indicative into primary and secondary (or historical^ is explained in § 90, 2. In dependent clauses, when the construction allows both subjunctive and optative, or both indicative and optative, the subjunctive or indicative regularly follows primary tenses, and the optative follows secondary tenses. E.g:. UpcLTTova-Lu a av ^ovXavTai, they do whatever they please; tnpaTTov a ^ovXoivTo, they did whatever they pleased. Aeyovaiv oTi TovTo ^ovXovTat, they say that they wish for this; cXe^av on rovTo ^ovXoivTo, they said that they loished for this. These constructions will be explained hereafter (§§ 233, 243). Remark. The gnomic aorist is a primary tense, as it refers to present time (§ 205, 2) ; and the historic present is secondary, as it refers to past time (§ 200, N. 1). Note 1. The only exception to this principle occurs in indirect discourse, where the form of the direct discourse can always be re- tained, even after secondary tenses. See § 242, § 248, Note, § 216, 2. Note 2. The distinction into primary and secondary tenses extends to the dependent moods only where the tenses keep the same distinction of time which they have in the indicative, as in the optative and infinitive of indirect discourse (§ 203). An optative of future time generally assimilates a dependent conditional relative clause or protasis to the optative when it might otherwise be in the subjunctive : thus we should generally have npaTToiep av a ^ovXoivro, they would do whatever they (inight please) pleased (see the first example under § 201). See § 235, 1. Such an optative seldom assimilates the subjunctive or indicative of a final or object clause (§ 215) in prose; but oftener in poetry. It very rarely assimilates an indicative of indirect discourse, although it may assimilate an interrogative subjunctive (§ 244, N. 1). II. TENSES OF THE DEPENDENT MOODS. A. Not in Indirect Discourse. ^ § 202* In the subjunctive and imperative, and also in the optative and infinitive when they are not in indirect discourse (§ 203), the tenses chiefly used are the present and aorist. § 202.] TENSES. 249 1. These tenses here differ only in this, that the present denotes a continued or repeated action, while the aorist denotes a simple occurrence of the action, the time of both being pre- cisely the same. E.g. *Eav TTOifj Tovro, if lie shall do tliis (habitually^, lav Troirjar] tovto, (simply) if he shall do this; el ttolo'ii) tovto, if he should do this (Jiabitually), el iroirjo-eie tovto, (simply) if he shoidd do this; noiei TOVTO, do this (habitually), noirjo-ov toxjto, (simply) do this. Ovtoh viKTja-aifii T eyoi koX vofjLi^oifirjv aocpos, on this condition may I gain the victory (aor.) and be considered (pres.) wise. BouXerai tovto noieluy he ivishes to do this (habitually); /SoiiXerai tovto Troi^crat, (simply) he wishes to do this. This is a distinction entirely unknown to the Latin, which has (for example) only one form, si faciat, corresponding to el noioir) and el TToirjaeiev. Even the Greek does not always regard it; and in many cases it is indifferent which tense is used. 2. The perfect, which seldom occurs in these constructions, represents an action unfinished at the time at which the pres- ent would represent it as going on. E.g. AedoiKa fiT) \r]6-qv ireirocr) Krj, I fear lest it may prove to har^e caused forgetfulness (fj,f) iroifi would mean lest it may cause). Mr^bev'i ^orj- Oelv OS fifj TTpoTepos $e^or} BrjKOis vfuv fj, to help no one who shall not previously have helped you (6s ai/ /x^ . . . . ^orjd^ would mean who shall not previously help you). Ovk av hia tovto y eXev ovk ev6vs deSca- KoTes, they would not (on enquiry) prove to have failed to pay imme- diately on this account (with didoiev this would mean they would not fail to pay). Ov ^ovXeveadat en copa, dWa ^e^ovXevadai, it is no longer time to be deliberating^ but (it is time) to have finished deliberating. Note 1. The perfect imperative generally expresses a command that something shall be decisive and permanent ; as TavTa elprja-Oai, let this have been said (i.e. let what has been said be final), or let this {which folloivs) be said once for all ; p-expf- rovde oipicrOca vpS>v r) ^pa- BvTrjs, at this point let the limit of your sluggishness be fixed. This is confined to the third person singular passive; the rare second person singular middle being merely emphatic. The active is used only when the perfect has a present meaning (§ 200, N. 6). Note 2. The perfect infinitive sometimes expresses decision or permanence (like the imperative, N. 1), and sometimes it is merely more emphatic than the present; as elirov Tr)v dvpav KeK\ela6ai, they ordered the gate to be shut (and kept so) ; rjXawev enl tovs Meucovost toar eKeivovs eKirenX^x^^'' '^"^ rpe^eiv enl to. oTrXa, .so that they icere (once for all) thoroughly frightened and ran to arms. The regular 250 SYNTAX. [§208. meaning of this tense, when it is not in indirect discourse, is that given in § 202, 2. See § 95, 1, Note. 3. (a) The future infinitive is regular!}^ used only to represent the future indicative in indirect discourse (§ 203). (b) It occurs occasionally in other constructions, in place of the regular present or aorist, to make more emphatic a future idea which the infinitive receives from the con- text. JS.g. ^EberjBrjaav rav Meyapecov vava\ (r(pas ^u/x7rpo7re/x\//'f ti/, they asked the Merjarians to escort them with ships: ovk dTroKcoXixrciv dvvarol ovres, not being able to prevent. So rarely after otare, and to express a purpose. In all these constructions the future is strictly excep- tional, the only regular forms of the infinitive out of indirect dis- course being the present and aorist, except in the few cases in which the perfect is used (§ 202, 2) and in the case mentioned in the following Note. See also § 203, N. 2. Note. One regular exception to the principle just stated is found in the periphrastic future (§ 118, 6), where the present and future infinitives with /xeAXto are equally common, but the aorist seldom occm's. 4. The future optative is used onl}^ in indirect discoui'se and constructions which involve this (§ 203, N. 3). B. In Indirect Discourse. Remark. The term indirect discourse includes all clauses de- pending on a verb of saying or thinking which contain the thoughts or words of any person stated indirectly, i.e. incorporated into the general structure of the sentence. It includes of course all indirect quotations and questions. § 203. When the optative and infinitive stand in indirect discourse, each tense represents the corresponding tense of the same verb in direct discourse. E.g. ''EXfyev on ypd(j)oi, he said that he was writing (he said ypd^ay, I am loriting); eXeyeu oVt ypd^oi,he said that he would write (he said 'ypa\//'a), / will write)', ikeyev on ypd-^fiev, he said that he had written (he said eypa>|/-a) ; eXeyfj/ ort y(ypa(f)cbs c'lrj, he said that he had already written (he said yeypa^a). "Upero c'i tis efiov tlij aocfxarepos, he asked whether any one was wiser than I (he asked cart Tis ;)' § 203.] TENSES. 251 ^(71 ypd(f)€iv, he says tJiat he is tcrifing (he says ypat^w) ; (fyrjal ypdxireiv, he says that he icill loriie (ypdxj/co); (pTjal ypd-^ai, he says that he wrote {€ypa\l/ay, (f>r](Tl yeypa^evai, he says that he has written (y€ypacf)a). Eineu oTi avbpa ayoi ov elp^ai 8eoi, he said that he was Iringing a man whom it was necessary to confine (he said avbpa aya> ov eip^ai del). 'EXoyl^ovTO a>s, el pr] pdxoiVTO, aTroaTrjaoivTo ai ttoXcls, they considered that, if they should not fght, the cities would revolt (they thought edv prj /xa;(&)/x6^a, aTroa-Trja-ovTai, if we do notfght, they wilt revolt). These constructions will be explained in § 243, § 246, and § 247. Here they merely show the different force of the tenses in indirect discourse and in other constructions. Compare especially the difference between (fyrjal ypdpov€iTr]v). See § 203, Note 1. Note 2. The aorist participle in certain constructions does not denote time past with reference to the leading verb, but expresses a simple occurrence without regard to time (like the aorist infinitive in § 202). This is so in the following examples: — "Etvx^v e\6oiv he happened to come; k'Xadeu iXBuiv, he came secretly; e(f)6r] eXdwv, he came frst. (See § 279,4.) IlfpaSfti/ rj)i/ yrjv TixTjdela-av, to allow the land to be ravaged (to see it ravaged j. (See § 279, 3.) So sometimes when the participle denotes that m which the action of the verb consists (§ 277) ; as €v y enoLTjo-ai dvapvTjaas fx€, you did well in reminding me. IV. GNOMIC AND ITERATIVE TENSES. § 205, 1. The present is the tense commonly used in Greek, as in English, to denote a general truth or an habitual action ; as ifkolov eU Arjkov ^AOrjvaLOL irefiirovaiv^ the Athenians send a ship to Delos {annualhj). 2. In animated language the aorist is used in this sense. This is called the gnomic aorist., and is generally translated by the English present. E.g, § 207.] THE PARTICLE "AN. 253 "Hv tls TovTcav Ti Trapa^alvrj, ^rjixlav avrois eTre^etraj/, i.e. they impose a pejia/tj/ on all who transgress. Mi" rjfiepa rbv jxev KadilXev v\f/^66ev, Tov 5' rjp* avco, One day {often) brings down one man from a height and raises another high. Note 1. Here one distinct case in past time is vividly used to represent all possible cases. Examples containing such adverbs as TtoWciKLs, oflen^ ^'drj, already, ovnto, never yet., illustrate the construc- tion; as dOvfiovvres avdpes ovTToi rpoTraiou eo-rrjcrav, disheartened men never yet raised a trophy, i.e. never raise a trophy. Note 2. An aorist resembling the gnomic is found in Homeric similes; as ^pnre 8' as ore tls 8pvs rjpnrev, and he fell, as when some oak falls (lit. as when an oak once fell). Note 3. The gnomic aorist sometimes occurs in indirect dis- course in the infinitive and participle, and even in the optative. 3. The perfect is sometimes gnomic, like the aorist. ^.g. To de fifj ip.7Toha>v dvavTaycovia-ra ei/voia T€Tifxr]Tai, but those tcho are not before men's eyes are honored with a good will which has no rivalry. The gnomic perfect may be used in the infinitive. § 206. The imperfect and aorist are sometimes used with the adverb dv to denote a customary action. E.g. AirjpcoTcov av avTovs ti Xeyoiev, 1 used to ask them (7 would often ask them) what they said. TJoWaKis ^Kovaafiev av vfids, we used often to hear you. Remark. This construction must be carefully distinguished from the ordinary apodosis with av (§ 222). It is equivalent to our phrase he would often do this for he used to do this, and was probably developed from the past potential construction (§ 226, 2, N. 2). Note. The Ionic has iterative forms in -o-kov and -arKOfirjv in both imperfect and aorist. (See § 119, 10.) Herodotus uses these also with av, as above. THE PARTICLE "AN. § 207. The adverb dv (Epic /ce) has two distinct uses. 1. It is joined to all the secondary tenses of the indica- tive (in Homer also to the future indicative), and to the optative, infinitive, or participle, to denote that the action 254 SYNTAX. [§ 208. of the verb is dependent on some condition^ expressed or implied. Here it belongs to the verb. 2. It is joined regularly to et, t/, and to all relative and temporal words (and occasionally to the final particles CO?, oiTw^, and 6(f>pa), when these are followed by the subjunctive. Here it belongs entirely to the particle or relative, with which it often forms one word, as in idv, orav, iTrecBdp.' There is no English word which can translate av. In its first use it is expressed in the would or should of the verb (^ovXoito av., he would wish ; eXoifjLrjv av, I should choose}. In its second use it has no force which can be made apparent in English. Eemark. The above statement (§ 207) includes all regular uses of &v except the Epic construction explained in § 255, and the iterative con- struction of § 206. The following sections (§§ 208-211) enumerate the various uses of &v : when these are explained more fully elsewhere, reference is made to the proper sections. § 208« 1. The present and perfect indicative never take av, 2. The future indicative often takes av (or kc) in the early poets, especially Homer ; very rarely in Attic Greek. U.g. Kai K€ Tii a>8' epeei, and perhaps some one will thus speak; aXKoi^ o1 K€ fjL€ Tinrja-ova-i, others who will honor me {if occasion offers). The future with av seems to have been an intermediate form between the simple future, ivill honor, and the optative with av, would honor. One of the few examples found in Attic prose is in Plat. Apol. p. 29 C. 3. The most common use of av with the indicative is when it forms an apodosis with the .secondary tenses. It here denotes that the condition upon which the action of the verb depends is not or was not fulfilled. See § 222. For the past potential construction with &v, see § 226, 2, N. 2; for the iterative construction with 6.v, see § 206. § 209. 1. In Attic Greek the subjunctive is used with av only in the constructions mentioned in § 207, 2, where av belongs to the introductory word. See § 223, § 225, § 232, 3, § 233; also § 216, 1, N. 2. § 211.] THE PARTICLE 'AN. 255 2. In Epic poetry, where the subjunctive is often used nearl}' or quite in the sense of the future indicative (§ 255), it may, hke the future (§ 208, 2), take av or kc. JE.g. El 8e K€ /ij) doicoaiv, eyo) Se K€V avTOS eXco/xai, and if they do not give her up, I will take her myself. § 210. The optative with av forms an apodosis, with which a condition must be either expressed or impUed. It denotes what would happen if the condition should be fulfilled (§ 224). Note. The future optative is never used with av. See § 203, N. 3. § 211, The present and aorist (rarely the perfect) infini- tive and participle are used with av to form an apodosis. Each tense is here equivalent to the corresponding tense of the indicative or optative with av, — the present representing also the imperfect, and the perfect also the pluperfect. Thus the present infinitive or participle with av may repre- sent either an imperfect indicative or a present optative with av ; the aorist, either an aorist indicative or an aorist optative with av ; the perfect, either a pluperfect indicative or a perfect opta- tive with av. E.g. (JPres.) ^t}(t\v avrovs iXevdepovs av civai, eZ tovto eTrpa^av, he saijs that they would (now) be free (Jjaav av)^ if they had done this ; (l)r]a-\v avTovs i\evdepovs av elvai, ei tovto Trpd^eiav, he says that they would (hereafter) be free (eiev av), if they should do this. OiSa avTovs fXevdepovs av ovTas, d tovto enpa^av, I know that they would (now) be free (rjaav av), if they had done this; ol8a avTovs iXcvOepovs av ovTas, €1 TavTa npd^etav, I know that they would (hereafter) be free ((lev av), if they should do this. (A or.) ^aaiv avTov e\6elv av (or oiba avTov eXdovTa av), fl tovto eyei/ero, they say (or I know) that he would hare come (rfkOfvav), if this had happened ; SYNTAX. [§212. in the future) Tiave suffered proper punishment (SeSwKorfs hv^uv), if you sJiould condemn them. The context must decide in each case whether we have the equiva- lent of the indicative or of the optative with aV. In the examples given, the form of the protasis generally settles the question. Note. As the early poets who use the future indicative with ap (§ 208, 2) do not use this construction, the future infinitive and participle with av are very rarely found. § 212, 1. When dv is used with the subjunctive (as in § 207, 2), it is generally separated from the introductory word only by monosyllabic particles like /xcV, 8e, re, ydp, &c. 2. In a long apodosis dv may be used twice or even three times with the same verb ; as ovk av rfy^la-O' avrov kov eTrtSpa- /xetv; do you not think that he ivould even have rushed thither'^ In Time. ii. 41, dv is used three times with irapix'^a-Bai. 3. "Av may be used elliptically with a verb understood ; as ot otKerat piyKOvcriv ' aX)C ovk av irpo rov (sc. eppeyKov) , the slaves are snoring; but in old times they wouldn't have do7ie so. So in o/SovfX€vos wcTTTcp OLV cl TTttts, fearing like a child {uio-Trep av €oft€LTO el TTtttS ^v) . 4. When an apodosis consists of several co-ordinate verbs, dv generally^ stands only with the first ; as ovSev av 8tas fifjiroTe tovto € it o ltj a Uy that thou hadst killed me, that I might never have done this! (§ 251, 2; § 216, 3). Ei^e tovto dXTjOes rjv, O that this were true! (§ 251, 2). Remark. These constructions are explained in the sections re- ferred to. Their variety shows the impossibility of giving any precise single definition, which will be of practical value, including all the uses even of the indicative. With the subjunctive and optative it is equally impossible. 2. The various uses of the subjunctive are shown by the following examples : — "Epx^TQi Iva tovto tBff, he is coming that he may see this (§ 216); ^oficiTat firi TOVTO yevrjTai, he fears lest this may happen (§ 218). 'Eai/ eXdrj, totjto Troirjaoi, if he shall come (or if he comes), I shall do this (§ 223); edv tis (XOrj, tovto ttoiS), if any one {ever) comes, I (altvays) do this (§ 225). "Orav eXdrj, tovto noifja-co, when he shall come (or when he comes), I shall do this (§ 232, 3); oTav tis (X6tj, tovto TTotw, when any one comes, I (always) do this (§ 233). "lanev, let us go (§ 253). M^ 6avfida-T)Te, do not wonder (^25i). Ti fiVo); ivhat shall I say? (§ 256). Ov firj tovto yevrjTai this (surely) loill not happen (§ 257). "iSco/xat, I shall see (Hom., § 255). These constructions are explained in the sections referred to. Remark. The subjunctive, in its simplest and apparently most primitive use, expresses simple futurity, like the future indicative ; this is seen in the -Homeric independent construction, iSco/xm, / shall see; (tirriai tis, one will say. Then, in exhortations and prohibi- tions it is still future ; as tco/zei/, let us go ; fir] TroifjarjTe tovto, do not do this. In final and object clauses it expresses a future pur- pose or a future object of fear. In conditional and conditional relative sentences it expresses a future supposition; except in general conditions, where it is indefinite (but never strictly present) m its time. 17 258 SYNTAX. [§ 213. 3. The various uses of the optative are shown by th& following examples : — 'HX^ei/ tua tovto tSot, he came that he might see this (§ 216); €o^eiTaL prj ycvrjTai. iav Tis fXOri tovto TToim, cTTi/ieAeirat oiruis tovto yevqa-fTai, and Xcyfi oTi tovto 'rrou7, with the corresponding forms after past leading verbs given in § 213, 3. 4. The imperative is used to express commands and prohibitions ; as tovto ttolcl, do this ; firj (j>€iiyeTe, do not fly. 5. The infinitive is a verbal noun, which expresses the simple idea of a verb without restriction of person or number. §215.] THE MOODS. 259 § 214. The following sections (§§ 215-257) treat of all constructions which require an}^ other form of the finite verb than the indicative in simple assertions (§ 213, 1). The infinitive and participle are included here only so far as they are used in indirect discourse or in protasis and apodosis. These constructions are divided as follows : — I. Final and Object clauses after im, ws, ottw?, and /xtJ. II. Conditional sentences. III. Relative and Temporal sen- tences. IV. Indirect Discourse. V. Causal sentences. VI. Wishes. VII. Commands, Exhortations, and Prohibi- tions. VIII. Homeric Subjunctive (like Future Indicative) . — Interrogative Subjunctive. — Ov /xiy with Subjunctive or Future Indicative. I. FINAL AND OBJECT CLAUSES AFTER tva, w?, oTrwg, ^rj. § 215. The clauses which depend on the socBlled final particles ha, &>?, oirco^, that, in order that, and /jlt], that not, lest, may be divided into three classes : — A. Final clauses, expressing the purpose or motive ; as epxerat ha tovto 'IBy, he is coining- that he may see this. Here all the final particles may be used. B. Object clauses with otto)? after verbs signifying to strive for, to care for, to effect ; as aKoirec ottco^; tovto r^ev7](7€Tat, scc to it that this is done. C . Object clauses with fiij after verbs oifear or caution ; as (jio^etTai firj tovto tyevrjTac, he fears that (or lest^ this may happen. Remark. The first two classes (sometimes classed together as fnal) are to be distinguished with special care. The object clauses in B are the direct object of the leading verb, and can even stand in apposition to an object accusative like tovto', as o-xoVft tovto, onois fir) ae oyjreTai, see to this, namely, that he does not see you. But a final clause could stand in apposition only to tovtov cvcku, for the sale of this, or 8ia tovto, to this end ; as epxerai tovtov evcKa, Iva fjfias tdjji he is coming for this purpose ^ namely, that he may see us. 260 SYNTAX. [§ 216. Note 1. The negative adverb in all these clauses is /n^; except after firj, lest, where ov is used. Note 2. "Ocppa, that, is used as a final particle in Epic and Lyric poetry. A. Final Clauses. § 216. 1. Final clauses take the subjunctive after primary tenses, and tlie optative after secondary tenses. Aiavoelrai rfjv yi^vpav X€crat, co? firj dia^rJTe, he thinks of breaking up the bridge, that yoa mag not jhiss over. AvcrufXel eaaai iv tco TrapovTL, nrj Koi tovtov noKefiLov irpoo-SayfxeBa, it is expedient to alloio it for a time, lest roe may add him to the number of our enemies. Ilapa- KaXcls larpovs, ottcds pf} d-nodavr], you call in physicians, that he may not die. ^l\os e^ovXero elvm ro2s peyi(TTa dvvapevoLS, Iva abiKbiv pff hthoir) bUrjv, he wished to be a friend to the most powerful, that he viight do wrong and not be punished. Tovtov evcKa (^iXoav ^ero beiaOaii 6)ff avvepyovs e^oi, he thought he needed friends for this purpose ^ namely, that he might have helpers. Note 1. The future indicative very rarely takes the place of the subjunctive in final clauses after otto)?, ocppa, and p,r]. This is almost entirely confined to poetry. See Odyss. i. 56, iv. 163; //. XX. 301. Note 2. The adverb av (kc) is sometimes joined with ««•, orro)?, and ocfipa before the subjunctive in final clauses; as wy av pdOrjg, avTaKovaov, hear the other side, that you may learn. It adds nothing to the sense that can be made perceptible in English. In Homer and Herodotus it occasionally occurs even before an optative. 2. As final clauses express the purpose or motive of some person, they admit the double construction of indirect dis- course (§ 242) . Hence, instead of the optative after secon- dary tenses, we can have the mood and tense which would be used when a person conceived the purpose in his own mind ; that is, we can say either yXOev ha tSoi, he came that he might see (§ 216, 1), or rj\.6€.v tva 1817, because the person himself would have said epxopLai Iva IB w, I come that I may see. (See § 248, Note.) On this principle the subjunctive in final clauses after secondary tenses is nearly as common as the more regular optative. E.g. §217.] THE MOODS. 261 Ta rrXoia KoriKavcrfv, Iva fxt] Kvpos 8ia^^, he burned the vessels j that Cyrus might not pass over. 3. The secondary tenses of the indicative are used in final clauses with ii/a, sometimes with ws or ottws, to denote that the end or object is dependent on some unfulfilled condition or some unaccomplished wish^ and therefore is not or was not attained. E.g, Tt /i' oil \al3oov €KT€ivas evdvs, wp edfi^a nrjnoTc; &c., why did you not take me and kill me at once, (hat I might never have shown f &c. ^fO, ^ r e fdu re (f)^Te, both if you and Anytus deny it and if you admit it. Classification of Conditional Sentences. § 220* Conditional sentences in Greek have six forms. The classification is based chiefly on the time to which the supposition refers, partly on what is implied with regard to the fulfilment of the condition, and partly on the distinction between particular and geheral suppositions exi)lained in II. 264 . SYNTAX. [§220. I. Four Forms of Ordinary Conditions. The most obvious distinction of conditions is that of (a) present or past and {b) future. Present and Past Conditions. (a) In present or past conditions, the question of fulfil- ment has already been decided (in point of fact), but we may or may not wish to imply by our form of statement how this has been decided. In Greek (as in English or Latin) we may, therefore, state such a condition in one of two ways : — 1. We may simply state a present or past condition, imply- ing nothing as to its fulfilment ; as if he is {now) doing this, tl TovTO TrpdaaeL; — if he was doing it, el cTrpao-o-e ; — if he did ity ct €7rpa$€ ; — if he has (already) done it, el iriTrpa-^a. The apodosis here expresses simply what is {was or will he) the result of the fulfilment of the condition. Thus we may say : — Et TT pa a- are I tovto, koXcos e^ei, if he is doing tJiis, it is well; el TTpdaa-et tovto, TjpdprqKeu, if he is doing this, he has erred; el TTpda-aeL tovto, KaXws e^ei, if he is doing this, it will be icell. Et enpa^e tovto, KoKms exei {ftx^v, eaxev, or e^ei), if he did this, it is {ivns or will be) well. So with the other tenses of the indicative. (See §221.)^ So in Latin: Si hocfacit, bene est; Si hoc fecit, bene erit. 2. "We ma}'^ state a present or past condition so as to impl}' that it is 7wt or was not fulfilled ; as if he were {now) doing this^ el TOVTO eTrpas av eax^v, if he had done thiSy it would have been well. (See § 222.) In Latin: Si hoc facer et, bene esset; Si hoc fecisset, bene fuisset. §220.] THE MOODS. 265 The Greek has no form implying that a condition is or was fulfilled, and it is hardly conceivable that any language should find such a form necessary or useful. Future Conditions. {h) We ma}^ state a future condition in Greek (as in English and Latin) in either of two ways. ^ 1. We may say if he shall do this, iav Trpda-o-r) (or Trpd^r/) TovTo (or, still more vividl}^ ci Trpa^ct tovto), making a dis- tinct supposition of a future case. The apodosis expresses what will be the result if the condition shall be fulfilled. Thus we may say : — 'Eap rrpda-a-rj (or Tpd^rj) tovto, KokCos e^ei, ifJie shall do tJiis^ it will be well (sometimes d npd^ei tovto). (See § 223.) In Latin: Si hoc faciei (or si hoc feceril}, bene erit ; sometimes Si hoc facial. 2. We may also say if he should do this, cl Trpda-o-oi (or TTpa^ete) tovto, still supposing a case in the future, but less distinctly and vividh' than before. The apodosis corresponds to this in form (with the addition of ai^) , and expresses what would be the result if the condition should be fulfilled. Thus we can say : — El IT p da (TO I (or Tvpd^cie) tovto, KaXws av e;(ot, if he should do this, it would be well. (See § 224.) In Latin: Si hoc facial, bene sit. II. Present and Past General Suppositions. The supposition contained in a protasis may be either particular or general. A particular supposition refers to a definite act or a definite series of acts ; as if he (now) has this, he will give it ; if he had it, he gave it ; if he had had the power, he would have helped me ; if he shall receive it (or if he receives it) , he will give it ; if he should receive it, he woidd give it. A general supposition refers to any one of a class of acts, which may occur (or may have occurred) on any one of a series of possible occasions ; as if ever he receives anything. 266 SYNTAX. [§220. he {always) gives it ; if ever he received anything^ he {always) gave it ; if he had {on each occasion) had the power, he would {always) have helped me ; if ever any one shall (or should) wish to go^ he will (or would) always be permitted. Although this distinction is seen in all classes of con- ditions (as the examples show) , it is onl}' in the present and past conditions which do not imply non-fulfilment, i.e. in those of {a) 1, that the Greek distinguishes general from particular suppositions in construction. Here, however, we have two classes of conditions which contain only general suppositions. {a) When the apodosis has a verb of present time express- ing a customary or repeated action (§ 205), the protasis may refer (in a general way) to an}- one of a class of acts which can be supposed to occur within the period represented in EngUsh as present. Thus we may say : — 'Eai/ TLs KXeTTTTj, KoXdCerai, if {ever) any one steals, he is {in all such cases) punished ; edu tis TrpdcrcTT] (or Trpd^rj) tolovtov rt, xaXe- naivoixev avra, if {ever) any one does such a thing, we are {aiways) angry loith him. (See § 225.) {h) When the apodosis has a verb of past time expressing a customary or repeated action, the protasis may refer (in a general way) to any one of a class of acts which can be sup- posed to have occurred in the past. Thus we may say : — El Tis icXeTTTot, iKo\d^€To., if {ever) any one stole, he toas {in all such cases) punished ; ei riy Trpdaa-oi (or irpd^ete) toiovtov ti, i xaXenaivofiev avra, if {ever) any one did such a thing, we were {always) angry with him. (See § 225.) Remark 1. Although the Latin sometimes agrees with the Greek in distingu, koX eixavTov iniKiXTjafxat. ' dWa yap ovderepd eari tovtqjv, if I do not knou) Phaedrus, I have forgotten myself ; but neither of these is so. Et Beov rji'f OVK riv al(TXpoK€p8f)s, if he was the son of a God, he teas not ava- ricious. 'AXX' 6t doKel o-ot, rrXeconev^ but if it pleajies you, let us sail. Ka/cto-r dTroXolfXTjv, SauOiav d firj 0tXoJ, may I die most wretchedly, if I do not love Xanthias. Note. Even the future indicative can stand in a protasis of this class if it expresses merely a present intention or necessity that something shall be done; as aipe TrXrjKrpou, el fxax^l', raise your spur, if you are going to fight. Aristoph. Here el /xeXXfis p.dxea6ai. would be the more common expression in prose. It is important to notice that a future of this kind could not be changed to the sub- jmictivp, like the ordinary future in protasis. (For the latter see § 223, N. 1.) 2. With Supposition contrary to Fact. § 222. When the protasis states a present or past supposition, implying that the condition is not or was not fulfilled., the secondary tenses of the indicative are used in both protasis and apodosis. The apodosis takes the adverb av. The imperfect here refers to present time or to a 268 SYNTAX. [§ 222. continued or repeated action in past time, the aorist to an action simply occurring in past time, and the (rare) pluperfect to an action finished in past or present time. E.g, Tavra ovk av ihvvavro rroielv, cl fxfj dialrrj fxeTpia ixpotvrOj they would not be able (a.s* they are) to do this, if they did not lead an abstemious life. Et rjaav avdpes dyadoi, o>s av (jyrjs, ovk av nore ravra Zivatrx'^^i {/^^'^^ ^''^"'^ ^^'^^ f/ot»r/ inen^ as you say, they would never have suffered these things (referring to several cases), kai to-coy av aireOavov., 6t p-r] rj apx^ KaTfXvOrj, and perhaps I should have perished, if the government had not been put down. El dneKpivco, Uavas av ^dr) e fx€ p,adr]Kr] (§ 113, 2, N. 4), if you had answered, I should already have learned enough (which now I have not done). El pLT} vfXfls ^X^ere, iiropevo peOa hv em tov jSao-tX/a, if you had not come (aor.), we should now be on our way (impf.) to the King. Note 1. Sometimes av is omitted in the apodosis, as in English we may say it had been for it would have been, or in Latin aequius fuerat for aequius fuisset ; as ft /xj) fjap-ev, (f>6^ov rrapeo-x^v, if we had . not known, this had (woidd have) caused us fear. ISo KaXov rjv avT^ el OVK eyevvT^drj 6 avdpconos eKelvos, it had been good for that man if he had not been born. N. T. ) Note 2. The imperfects ebei, xp^" o^ ^XP^^-> ^^h^-> and others / denoting necessity, propriety, obligation, possibility, and the like, are ] often used with the infinitive to form an apodosis implying the non- / fulfilment of a condition. /^Ai^ is not used Here, as these phrases simply express in other Words what is usually expressed by the indicative with av. I Thus, edei ere rovrov (fnXelv, you ought to love him (but do not), or you ought to have loved him (but did not), is equivalent to you would love him, or would have loved him (ecjyiXds hv TovTov), if you did your duty (ra deovra). So e^^v aoi tovto TTOi^a-ai, you might have done this ; elKos rjv ae tovto 7roifj(rai, you would properly have done this. The real apodosis is here always in the infinitive. "O.cjie'Kov with the infinitive in wishes is used in the same way; see § 251, 2, N. 1, and the examples. Wheii the present infinitive is used, the construction refers to the present or to continued or repeated action in the past ; when the aorist is used, it refers to the past. Note 3. In Homer the imperfect indicative in this class of sentences (§ 222) always refers to the past. We occasionally find a present optative in Homer in the sense in which Attic writers use the imperfect indicative; and in a few passages even the aorist optative with /ce in the place of the aorist indicative (see //. v. 311 and 388). §224.] , THE MOODS. 269 B. Future Conditions. 1. Subjunctive in Protasis with Future Apodosis. § 223. When a supposed future case is stated dis- tinctly and vividly (as in English, if I shall g-o, or if Ig'o), the protasis takes the subjunctive with idv (Epic et Ke). The apodosis takes the future indicative or some other form expressing future time. E.g. El iiev K€V MeveXaou 'AXf^avSpo? KaraTrecfivrjf avroi tmiff 'FXevrjv ix^T(a Koi KTrjfiara navra, if Alexander shall slay Alenelaus, then let him have Helen and all the goods himself. Horn. "Ap tis avdiarrj- rai, TTfipaaofieBa x^i-pova-dai, if an)/ one shall stand opposed to us, we shall try to overcome him. *Eai/ ovv irjs vvu, nore eaet oLkoi; if there- fore you go now, when will you be at home? Remark. The older English forms if he shall go and if he go express the force of the Greek subjunctive; but the ordinary modern English uses if he goes even when the time is clearly- future. Note 1. The future indicative with ei is very often used for the subjunctive in conditions of this class, as a still more vivid form of expression; as et /LU7 KaOe^eis y\a)(ra-av, ea-rai aoi KaKa, if you do not (shall not) restrain your tongue, you will have trouble. This common use of the future, in which it is merely a more vivid form than the subjunctive, must not be confounded with that of § 221, Note. Note 2. In Homer el (without tiv or /ce) is often used with the subjunctive, apparently in the same sense as ei k€ or rjv, as d 6e vq iSiXrj oXea-ai, but if he shall wish to destroy our ship. The same use of el for edp is found occasionally even in Attic poetry. See § 239, N. 1. For the Homeric subjunctive with k€ in apodosis, see § 255, Note. 2. Optative in Protasis and Apodosis. § 224, When a supposed future case is stated in a less distinct and vivid form (as in English, if I should g-o), the protasis takes the optative with et, and the apodosis takes the optative with du. E.g> Ei»;p ^oprjTo^ ovk av, el 7rpd fj bvvavrai (f)epeiv' biappayelev yap av. they do not eat more than they can carry; for (if they did) they ivoidd burst. Hycrf rrjv elprjvrjv oficos' ov yap ^v o ri av (TroielTe, you still kept the peace ; for there teas nothing ivhich you could have done (if you had not). 272 SYNTAX. [§ 226. (b) Sometimes, however, the implied protasis is too indefi- nite to be expressed (in Greek or in English) , as often when it is merel}^ if he pleased^ if he could ^ if he should try^ if there should be an opportunity^ if we should consider^ if what is natural (or likely) should happen, &c. Sometimes it is even too vague to be reall}^ present in the mind. Thus arises the potential optative and indicative (with av), corresponding to the English forms with may, can, must, might, could, would, and should. E.g. "icrat? au Tis imTifiTjcreie rots (IprjixevoiSj perhaps some one might (or may} find fault with what has been said. 'Hbecos S' au tyoay epoinrjv AeTTTivrjv, and 1 should be glad to ask Leptines. ToOro ovt av ovtos exoi Xeyeiu ovff vfiels TreKrSfirjre, neither could (can) he say this, nor loould you believe it (if he should). Ovk av fieOfi/jirjv tov Opovov, I won^t give up the throne (/ would n^t on any condition). ILoi ovv rpa- TTolfieO^ av; whither then can we turn? QaTTov ^ TLs &v aero, quicker than one would have thought. Krvnov nas Tis rja-der* av cra(f)o>S', every one must have heard the sound. So Tiyfjo-co av, you would have thought; cldes av, you might have seen; CI. Latin crederes, diceres, videres, &c. So ^ovXoLfirjv av (velim), I should wish (in some future case); i^ov\6p,T]v av (yellem), I should (now) wishj I should prefer (on some condition not fulfilled). Note 1. The potential optative sometimes expresses a mild command, and sometimes is hardly more than a future, or a softer expression for a mere assertion ; as x^po'is av eio-to, you may go in ; \eyois av, you may speak (for speak) ; kXvols av ^'8r), ^di^e, hear me now, Phoebus. Ovk av ovv irdvv yk ri a-novdalov f'lrj f] diKaioo-vvrj, Justice will not then turn out to be anything very excellent: see also the fourth and fifth examples under (b). Ovk hv dpvoifirjv tovto, I will not (iDould not) deny it. In these cases and in most of those under (b), the form of an apodosis was unconsciously used with no reference to any definite condition. Note 2. The potential indicative sometimes expresses what would have been likely to happen, i.e. might have happened (and perhaps did happen) , with no reference to any unfulfilled condition ; as t) yap piv ^(oov ye Kix'fjo-cai, rj Kev ^Opearrjs Krdvev v7ros e^etv, / believe that, if you shall do this, all will be well; olda vfxds idu TavTa yevTjTai ev rrpd^ovTas, I know that you will prosper if this is (shall be) done. For examples of the infinitive and participle with av, see § 211. 4. The apodosis may be expressed in an infinitive not in indirect discourse (§ 260, 1), especially one depending on a verb of wishing, commanding, advising, &c., from which the infinitive receives a future meaning. E.g. BovXerat eXOelv edv tovto yevqTai, he wishes to go if this shall be done; KeXevco vfj-ds idv "dvvrjo-de dnfXdelv, I command you to depart if you can (§ 226). For the principle of indirect discourse which appears in the protasis here after past tenses, see § 248, 1. Note 1. Sometimes the apodosis is merely implied in the con- text, and in such cases ft or edv is often to be translated supposing that or in case that; as aKovcrov Kai tfxov, edv aoi tuvtci 8ok^, hear me also, in case the same shall please you (i.e. that then you may assent to it) ; 01 8' (MKTcipov, el dXaxrolvTo, and others pitied them, in case they should be captured (i.e. thinking what they would suffer if they should be captured). See § 248, 2. So npos rfjv noXiv, el eTri^oijdolev, ix^povv, they marched towards the city, in case they {the citizens) should rush out (i.e. to meet them if they should rush out). On this principle we must explain at Kev Trta? ^ovkeTai, 11. i. 66 ; at k e6ekrja6a, Od. iii. 92; and similar passages. Note 2. The apodosis is sometimes entirely suppressed for effect; as el p.ev daxrova-i yepas, if they (shall) give me a prize ^ — very well (11. i. 135; cf. i. 580). Mixed Constructions. — A^ in Apodosis. § 227. 1. The protasis and apodosis sometimes belong to different forms. This happens especially when an indicative with el in the protasis is followed by an optative with av in the apodosis, the latter sometimes having another protasis implied, and sometimes being a potential optative (§ 226, 2). U.g. 'Elvvvye bvcTTVXov p.ev, jras Tavavri^ av npdTTovTes ov cra>^olfie6* av J if we are now unfortunate j how could we help being saved if we 18 274 SYNTAX. [§ 228. should do the opposite f Et ovtoi 6p6m direa-rrjcrav, vfiels av ov Xpcoiv apxoire, if the. "^e had a right to secede, you cannot {could not) possibly hold your power rightfully. Note. Sometimes a protasis contains the adverb av, belonging not to el, but to the verb. Here the verb is also an apodosis at the same time; as « /xi) TroiT^o-atr' av tovto, if (it is true that) you would not do this (i.e. if it should be necessary), which differs entirely from et fi?) iroiTja-aiTe tovto, if you should not do this; el rnvro laxvpov rjv av avrw TeKfirjptov, if this would have been a strong proof J or him (if he had had it). 2. The apodosis is sometimes introduced by the conjunc- tion Sc, which cannot be translated in English. E.g. Et be Kf pf] daxoariv, eya> de Kev avTos eXco/xai, but if they do not give her up, then I will take her myself. El after Verbs of Wondering, Ac. § 228» Some verbs expressing wonder^ contentment., dis^ appointment., indignation., &c. take a protasis with d where a causal sentence would seem more natural. So miror si in Latin. U.g. Qavpn^cii 8' eycoye el fXT]8e\s vpa>v prjv evOvfielrai firjT opyi^erai, and I wonder that no one of you is either concerned or angry (lit. if no one of you is, &c., 1 wonder). See also § 248, 2, for the principle of indirect discourse applied to these sentences. Note. Such verbs are especially 6avixd^a>, alarxvvopai, ayairdon, and dyavaKTea. They sometimes take on, because, and a causal sentence (§ 250). III. RELATIVE AND TEMPORAL SENTENCES. Remark. The principles of construction of relative clauses include all temporal clauses. Those introduced by ^ws, irplv, and other ■f)articles mean- ing until, have special peculiarities, and are therefore treated separately (§§ 239, 240). § 229. The antecedent of a relative is either definite or indefinite. It is definite when the relative refers to a definite person or thing, or to some definite time, place, or manner ; it is indefinite when no such definite person, thing, time, place, or manner is referred to. Both definite §232.] THE MOODS. 275 and indefinite antecedents may be either expressed or understood. E.^. {Definite.^ TaOra a ex'^ opas^ you see these things which I have; or a €x<^ Spas- "Ore fjSouXero rjXdev, (once) ivhen he wished^ he came. (Indejinile.) Tldpra a au ^ovXcavraL e^ovcriv, they will have every- thing which they may want ; or a av ^ovXcovrat c^ovctlv, they will have whatever they may want. "Orav eXOij^ tovto Trpa^co, when he shall come (or when he comes), I will do this. "Ore ^ovXolto, tovto eirpaaa-cvj whenever he wished, he (always) did this. 'Qs civ eiTro), Troico/iej/, as I shall direct, let us act. Definite Antecedent. § 230. A relative as such has no effect on the mood of the following: verb. A relative with a definite ante- cedent therefore may take the indicative (with ov for its negative) or any other construction which could occur in an independent sentence. E.g-. Tiff ((xff 6 x«poff drJT iv a ^e^rjKafiev ; i.e. the place in which, &c. *Ea)ff eo-ri Kaipoi, dvTiXd^eade twv 7rpayp.aT(ov, (now) ichile there is an opportunity, &c. Tovto ovk enoirjcrev, €V(o top dr)pov eTiprja-ev av, he did not do this, in which he would have honored the people. So 6 p-rf yevoiTo, may this not happen. Indefinite Antecedent. — Conditional Relative. § 231. A relative clause with an indefinite antecedent has a conditional force, and is often called a protasis, the antecedent clause being called the apodosis. Such a relative is called a conditional relative. The negative particle is /x??. Note. Relative words (like et, if) take av before the subjunc- tive. (See §207, 2.) ^ With ore, oTrore, eVei, and eVetSj;, s, &s re, a>s ore, as os (seldom &s kc, &c.), with the subjunctive, where we should expect the present indicative, which is sometimes used; as as yvvfj kXui- jjari, . . . . &s ^Odvaevs, &c., as a wife weeps, so did Ulysses, &c. Odyss. viii. 523. See Odyss. v. 328; //. x. 5; xi. 67. § 234. Conditional relative sentences have most of the peculiarities and irregularities of common protasis. Thus, the protasis and apodosis may have different forms (§ 227, 1); the simple relative is sometimes found in poetry with the sub- junctive (like €t for idv or et kc, § 223, N. 2) ; the relative clause may depend on an infinitive, participle, or other con- struction (§ 226, 3 and 4) ; and the conjunction 8e may connect the relative clause to a following antecedent clause (§227,2). Agslmilation In Conditional Relative Clauses. § 235. 1. When a conditional relative clause referring to the future depends on a subjunctive or optative referring to the future, it regularly takes by assimilation the same mood with its leading verb. E.g. ^Edv Tives ot hv dvvayvrai tovto rroiSxri, Kokats c^«, if any loho may he able shall do this, it will be well; el rives ot dvvaivro tovto Troiolev, Kokats hv ixoi, if any who should be (or were) able should do this, it 278 . SYNTAX. [§236. would he well. EWe ndvTfs ot dvvaivro tovto Troiolfv, that all who may be (or icere) able would do this. (Here the optative ttoioUv, § 251, 1, makes ol bvvaLvro preferable to oX av duvtovrai, which would express the same idea). Tedvairjv ore ^ui firfKen ravra fxeXot, may I die whenever I shall no longer care for these (orau fj-eXj] would express the same idea). So in Latin: Injurias quas ferre nequeas defugi- endo relinquas. 2. Likewise, when a conditional relative sentence depends on a secondary tense of the indicative impl3'ing the non-ful- filment of a condition, it takes by assimilation a similar form. E.g. EX Ttvcs ot ihvvavTo TOVTO enpa^av, KokSys ap dx^v, if any tvho had been able had done this, it would have been wed. El iv eKelvrj ttj ^oivfi T€ Koi TO) TpoTTcp cXeyou ev oh €Te6pdfip,7]v, if I were speating to you in the dialect and in the maimer in which I had been brought up (all introduced by el ^ivos ervyxavov cop, if I happened to be a foreigner). So in Latin : Si solos eot> diceres miseros quibus moriendum esset, neminem tu quidem eorum qui viverent exciperes. Note. All clauses which come under this principle of assimilation are really protases, and belong equally under § 232, 2, 3, or 4. This princi- ple often decides which form shall be used in future conditions. y Kelatlve Clauses expressing Purpose, Kesult, or Cause. § 236. The relative is used with the future^ indicative to express a purpose. E.g. Tlpea^eiap 7re/u.7reii/ tJtls tout e pel kol napea-Tai toIs Trpdyfiaaip, to send an embassy to say this, and to be present at the transactions. Ov yap ea-Ti p.oi ;(p^/xara, onoBep eKTlaco, for I have no money to pay the Jine with. The antecedent here may be definite or indefinite ; but the nega- tive particle is always p.r}, &^ in final clauses. Note 1. In Homer, the subjunctive (with Ke joined to the rela- tive) is commonly found in this construction after primary tenses, and the optative (without Ke) after secondary tenses. The optative is sometimes found even in Attic prose, usually depending on another optative. Note 2. 'Epa, until, refer to a definite point of past time, they take the indicative. JE.g. ^rjxov TToKiv, €(09 €Trrj\0ov fls irorafiov, I swam on again, until I came into a river. Hom. Tavra (ttolovv, fiexpt^ (tkoto^ eyepero, this they did until darkness came on. 2. These particles follow the construction of conditional relatives in the last three forms which correspond to or- dinary protasis, and in general suppositions. E.g, ^Enla-x^s, ear av koi ra Xoina Trpoo-fidBrjSi wait until you (shall) learn the rest besides (§ 232, 3). Elrroifi ay ... . Ico? Traparetpaiixt TovTop, I would tell him, &c., until I put him to the torture (§ 232, 4; § 235, 1). 'HSeoJS a» TOVTta crt StcXeyd/if/i/, cius avr^ .... dTTfhdiKa, 280 SYNTAX. _ [§240. / should (in that case) gladly have continued to talk with him until I had f/iven him back, &c. (§ 232, 2; § 235, 2). *A S' aj/ do-vvraKTa jj, dvdyKT} ravra df\ Trpdy^iara rrapex^'-^i ^^^ "^ x'^P^^ ^"/S;/, whatever things are in disorder, these must alu:ai/s make iruuble until they are put in order (§ 233). UepuixiPo^ev eKacrroTe, eoo? dvoLx^^'^V '"^ bcapLwrrjoiov, we waited each day until the prison was opened (§ 233), or U7itil the prison should be opened (Note 2). Note 1. The omission of av after these particles and npiv, when the verb is in the subjunctive, is more common than it is after cl or ordinary relatives (§ 223, N. 2), occurring sometimes in Attic prose; as fifXP'- ttAoOs ■yeV/^rai, Thuc. i. 137. Note 2. Clauses introduced by ea>s, &c. and by Trpiv frequently imply a purpose ; see the examples under 2. When these clauses depend upon a past tense, they admit the double construction of indirect discourse (§ 248, 3), like final clauses (§ 216, 2). See examples under § 248, 3. § 240. 1. When irpiv^ before^ until, is not followed by the infinitive (see below, 2), it takes the indicative, sub- junctive, or optative, following the principles already- stated for ^W (§ 239). U.g. OvK rju d^e^rifi ovdev, rrpiv y eyco a(f)iaLv eSf i^a, &c., there was no relief, unfit / showed them, &c. (§ 239, 1). Ou xpr} ne evdevde aTreXOdv, TTplv av Sw diKrjp, I must not leave this place until he is punished (§ 232, 3). OvK av elbdrji iTp\v 7r€ iprjde itj s^ you would not know until you had (should have) tested it (§ 232, 4; § 235, 1). *ExpTJv fxirj npoTe- pov avp.^ov\ev€iv, nplv f}p.ds ebida^av, &C., they ought not to have given advice until they had instructed us, &c. (§ 232, 2; § 235, 2). 'Opcoai Tovi npea-^VTepovs ov TrpoaBev aTnovras, Trpiv av dcfiao-iv ol apxovTfs, they see that the elders never go away until the authorities dismiss them (§ 233). Ov8ap.66ev dcf)i€o-av, ttoIu napaOelfv avrols apiarov. they dismissed them from no place before they had set a meal before them (§ 233). 'A7n;ydpfve firjdeva ^aXXeiv, nplv Kijpos € fiTrXTj- a-Oeir] 6f)pa>v, he forbade any one to shoot until Cyrus should be sated with the hunt (§ 239, 2, N. 2; § 248, 3). ^ For TTpiv without av with the subjunctive, see § 239, N. 1. 2. In constructions in which -n-ptv (following the principle of etJ9, § 239) might take the subjunctive or optative, these moods are generally used only when the leading verb is nega- tive or interrogative with an implied negative. It takes the indicative (when that would be allowed by the construction) after both negative and affirmative sentences, but chieflj^ after negatives. §242.] THE MOODS. 281 When TTpiv does not take the indicative, subjunctive, or optative, it is followed b}" the infinitive (§ 274). In Homer, the infinitive is the form regularly used after TrptV, without regard to the leading sentence. Note. JJpiv is by ellipsis for Trpiv rj (priusquarn), and is prob- ably for npo-LOP (irpo-ip), a comparative of wpo, before. Tlplv 7, nporepov 7, and npoadep rj may be used in the same construc- tions as irpiv itself. IV. INDIRECT DISCOURSE. General Principles. § 241. 1. A direct quotation or question gives the exact words of the original speaker or writer. In an indirect quotation or question the original words conform to the construction of the sentence in which they are quoted. Thus the words ravra fiovXofxai may be quoted either directly, "Keyei T15 ^^ ravra ^ovXo fiai,^^ OV indirectly^ \eyei ris on ravra ^ov- Xerai or (f)rj(Ti ris ravra ^ovXcaBai, some one says that he wishes for this. So fpcdra " ri jSouXei;" he asks, " what do you want V^ But ipara ri /SovXerat, he asks him what he wants. 2. Indirect quotations may be introduced by ori, or w?, iliat^ or by the infinitive (as in the example given above) ; sometimes also by the participle. Note. "Ori, that, occasionally introduces even a direct quota- tion; as in Anab. i. 6, 8. 3. Indirect questions follow the same rule as indirect quotations in regard to their moods and tenses. Note. The term indirect discourse applies to all clauses (even single clauses in sentences of different construction) which indirectly express the words or thought of any person, even past thoughts of the speaker himself (§ 248). § 242. 1. Indirect quotations after ort and w<; and indirect questions follow these general rules : — " (a) After primary tenses, each verb retains both the mood and the tense of the direct discoui-se. 282 SYNTAX. [§ 248. (ft) After secondary tenses, each indicative or sub- juijctive of the direct discourse may be either changed to the same tense of the optative or retained in its original mood and tense. But all secondary tenses of the indica- tive implying non-fulfilment of a condition (§ 222) and all optatives are retained unchanged. Note. The imperfect and pluperfect, having no tenses in the optative, generally remain unchanged in all kinds of sentences. The aorist indicative likewise remains unchanged when it belongs to a dependent clause of the direct discourse (§ 247) ; but when it belongs to the leading clause, it is changed to the optative like the primary tenses (§ 243). 2. When the quotation depends on a verb which takes the infinitive or participle, its leading verb is changed to the corresponding tense of the infinitive or participle (av being retained when there is one), and its dependent verbs follow the preceding rule. 3. "^Av is never omitted with the indicative or optative in indirect discourse, if it was used in the direct form ; but av belonging to a relative word or particle in the direct form (§ 207, 2) is regularly dropped when the sub- junctive is changed to the optative in indirect discourse. Note. "Kv is never added in the indirect discourse when it was not used in the direct form. 4. The negative particle of the direct discourse is regularly retained in the indirect form. But the infini- tive and participle occasionally bave firj where ov would be used in direct discourse (§ 283, 3). Simple Sentences in Indirect Discourse. Indicative and Optative after Brt and cos, and in Indirect Questions. § 243. When the direct form is an indicative (with- out ai/), the principle of § 242, 1, gives the following rule § 243.J THE MOODS. 283 for indirect quotations after 6tc or w? and for indirect questions : — After primary tenses the verb retains both its mood and its tense. After secondary tenses it is either changed to the same tense of the optative or retained in the original mood and tense. E.g. Aeyci oTi ypdcjiei, he says that he is writing ; Xe'-yei on Zypacfxv, he says that he was writing: Xiyci on eypa^ev, he says that he lurote ; Xe'^ei on y€ypa(f)€v, he will say that he has written. 'Epcora n ^ov- "k OPT a I, he asks what they want; dyvoS) tl ttoitjo-ovo-iv, I do not know what they will do. 'Einev on ypa.(f)oi or on ypd(j)€i, he said that he was meriting (he said ypd0a, I have written). (Opt.) ^Enfipoaiirjv avra dciKvvvai, on oloiro peu elvai (to^os^ eXrj fi' ov, I tried to show him that he believed himself to be wise, but was not so (i.e. oUrai p€V . . . etrn 8' ov). 'Ynenvoav on avTos ra/fft npd^oiy Sx^TOj hinting that he woidd himself attend to things there, he departed (he said avrbs rdfcei Trpd^co). '^EXe^av on TVifi-^fie trc^ay 6 ^Ivbav ^aaikevsy KeXevcov epcoTav e^ orov 6 TroKefios elij, they said that the king of the Indians had sent them, commanding them to ask on what account there was the war (they said enefi-^ev rjpds, and the question was e/c TLVos eariv 6 jroXefios;). ^Hpcro £i ns efiov ftr] (ro^a}Tepos, he asked whether there was any one wiser than I (i.e. co-rt ns ao^ii- Tfpos ;) . (Indic.) "EXeyov on eXni^ova-i ae kol ttjv noXtv e^dv ixoi x) • 'E/SouXeuoin-o e'lre KaraKavcraxTiv evre Tt aXKo ;Yp^o- V^T^^-rv § 246. When the infinitive or participle is used '^^tLt^ indirect discourse, its tense represents the tense of the finite verb in the direct form to which it corresponds, the present and perfect inckiding the imperfect and pluper- fect. Each tense with av can represent the correspond- ing- tenses of either indicative or optative with dv. E.g. 'Appaa-relv Trpo^ao-t^frai, he pretends that he is ill; e^afioacv appaa-Telp tovtovI, he took an oath that this man was ill. Kara- (Txflv , (ToaBr^a o pai,. it seemed best to me to try to gain safety in this way, thinking that, if J should escape notice, I should be saved (here we might have had ei Xddoipi, aatdrja-oiprju). "Ecfjaa-av tovs audpas dnoKTevelv ovy ep^ovat (covras, they said that they should till the men whom they had living (dnoKTe- vovpev ovs exopev. which might have been changed to dnoKrevelv ovs exoiev). npodrjXov ^v {tovto) i aoptvov, cl pfj KcoXvcreTe, it was plain that this would be so unless you should prevent {tovto (o-rai, €1 pr) KcoXvo-ere, which might have become el prj kcoXv(toit€). "HXtti^ov Tovs '2iKiKovs Tavrrj, ovs perene pyj/avro, dtravrijcTfaOai, they hoped the Sikels lohom they had sent for would meet them here (N. 2). Note 1. One verb may be changed to the optative while another is retained; as Sj^Xaxras on eroipoi elai pdxea-6ai, ei ns e^e pxotro, having shown that they were ready to fght if any one should come forth (eToipoi eiaiv, fdv ns «^epx^^"0' This sometimes causes a great variety of constructions in the same sentence. Note 2. The aoinst indicative is not changed to the aorist opta- tive in dependent clauses, because the latter tense is commonly used to represent the aorist subjunctive. In dependent clauses in which confusion would be impossible (as in causal sentences, which never have a subjunctive), even an aorist indicative may become optative. For the imperfect and pluperfect see § 242, 1 (&), Note. Note 3. A dependent optative of the direct form naturally remains unchanged in all indirect discourse. Note 4. Occasionally a dependent present or perfect indicative is changed to the imperfect or pluperfect, as in the leading clause (§ 243, N. 2). §248.] THE MOODS. 287 § 248. The principles of § 247 apply also to any dependent clause (in a sentence of any kind) which expresses indirectly the past thoughts of any person, even of the speaker himself. This applies especially to the following constructions : — 1. Clauses depending on an infinitive after verbs of wish- ing^ commanding^ advising^ &c., which imply thought^ although the infinitive after them is not in indirect discourse (§ 246, Note). 2. Clauses containing a protasis with the apodosis implied in the context (§ 226, 4, N. 1) , or with the apodosis expressed in a verb like OavfjLaCo) (§ 228). 3. Temporal clauses expressing a past intention or purpose ^ especially those introduced by ews or TrptV after past tenses. 4. Even ordinary relative sentences, which would regularly take the indicative. This afiects the construction of course only after past tenses. U.g. (1) 'E/3ouXoz/ro iXBelv, et tovto ye volt o, they ivished to go if tliis should happen. (Here i^ovKovro eXdelu, iav tovto yevrjTai might be used, expressing the form, if this shall happen, in which the wish would be conceived. Here ekOflv is not in indirect discourse. (§ 226, 4; § 246, N.) 'Efce'Xeuo-ei/ 6 Ti dvvaiVTO Xa^ovras fX€Ta8i(iyK€iv, he commanded them to take lohat they coidd and pursue (he said 6 ti av dvurja-df, what you can, and therefore we mio^ht have had o ti av bvvcovTai). Upoflnov avTols fif) vavfiaxelu Kopivdiois, ^v fxr) eVt KepKvpau TrXeaxri Koi fieXXoia-LV airo^alvciv, they instructed them not to enyaye in a sea fight tvith Corinthians, unless these should he sailing against Corcyra and should he on the point of landing. (Here the direct forms are retained, for which d p-r] nXeonv koi peXXoiev might have been used.) (2)''QiicTeipov, el aXoio-oLVTo, they pitied them, in case they should he captured (the thought being el dXayo-ovrat, which might have been retained). ^vXoKas a-vpn-epTrei, onays cj)vXdTToi€v ovtov, koi el twu dypiav Ti (Pave IT) 6r)pia)v, he sends (^sent) guards, to guard him and {to he ready) in case any of the savage heasts should appear (the thought being edv Tt (pavfj), TdXXa, ^u eTi vavpaxelv ol ^ABrjvaloi t oX prj cr on a- 1, TtapecTKevd^ovTo, they made the other preparations, (Jo he ready) in case the Athenians shoidd still venture a naval hattle. "Exaipov dyanav el Tis edaoi, I rejoiced, heing content if any one would let it pass (the 288 SYNTAX. [§249. thought was dyairS) eX n? edaei). ^EOavixa^cv el tis dpyvpiov npar- TOLTo, he wondered that any one demanded money (Xen. Mem. i. 2, 7) ; but in the same book (i. 1, 13) we find cOavfiaCe 8' el fxri i^avepbv avrois e(TTLV, he wondered that it was not plai7i. (3) ^novbas enoLrjcravTO eais dnayyeXBe it] ra "Kex^devra els Aa/te- Baifiova, they made a truce, (to continue) until what had been said should he reported at Sparta (then- thought was eu)s av dnayye\6fj, which might have been retained). Ov yap 8i] acpeas drriei 6 6e6s t^? d-rrot- KirjSj irp\v dfj dTTiKoyvTat es avrrjv AijSvrjv, i.e. U7itil they should come, &c. (where diriKoivTo might have been used). Hdt. Mevovres earaaav omrore Trvpyos Tpcowi/ opfirja-eie, they stood waiting until (for the time when) a column should rush upon the Trojans. Hom. (4) Kai i]Tee arjua Ideadai, 6 m pd oi yafx^polo ndpa Upoiroio (fiepoiTo, he asked to see the token, which he was bringing (as he said) from Proeius. Karrjyopeov tcov Alyiirqrecov rd ireiTonq Koiev TTpobovres rrju 'EWdba, they accused the Aeginetans for what (as they said) they had done in betraying Greece. For the same principle in causal sentences, see § 250, Note. Note. On this principle, final and object clauses with Iva, ottcos, o)ff, p,i], &c. admit the double construction of indirect discourse, and allow either the subjunctive or future indicative (as the case may be) to stand unchanged after secondary tenses. (See § 216, 2.) The same principle extends to all conditional and all conditional relative and temporal sentences depending on final or object clauses, as these too belong to the indirect discourse. "Ottcbs and Homeric "O in Indirect Quotations. § 249. 1. In a few cases ottws is used for ws or on in indirect quotations, cliiefl}- in poetry. E.g. TovTo p.r] fioi cf)pd(\ oTTcoff ovK eiKaKos, do not tell me this, that you are not base. Soph. 2. Homer rarel}^ uses o (neuter of 09) for ort. E.g. Aev(TaeT€ yap to ye ndpTes, o p,oi yepas epxerai aWrj, for you aU see this, that my prize goes another way. riyvcoaKcjv o 01 avros vneipexe X^^pas 'AttoXAcoi/, knowing that Apollo himself held over him his hands. V. CAUSAL SENTENCES. § 250. Causal sentences express a cause or reason., and are introduced by on, w?, because., eTrel, eireihr), ore, oirore, since^ and by other particles of similar meaning. Tliey §251.] THE MOODS. 289 take the indicative after both primary and secondary- tenses. The negative particle is ov. E.g. Krj8eTo yap Aavaav, on pa Bvrja-Kovras oparo, for he pitied the Danai, because he saiv them dying. "Ore roijid' ovtojs ^x^*' TrpoarjKeif &c., since this is so, it is becoming, &c. Note. On the principle of indirect discourse (§ 248), the optative may be used in a causal sentence after a past tense, to imply that the cause is assigned on the authority of some other person than the speaker; as t6v IlepiKXea eKaKi^ov, on arpavqyos u>v ovk iire ^dyoi, they abused Pericles, because {as they said) being general he did not lead them out. Thuc. (This assigns the Athenians^ reason for abus- ing him, and does not show the historian's opinion.) VI. EXPRESSION OF A WISH. § 251. 1. When a wish refers to the future, it is ex- pressed by the optative, either with or without eWe or el yap (Horn, aide., at yap'), O that., O if. The negative is /Lt?;, which can stand alone with the optative. E.g. At yap ip.o\ Tocr(Ti)vhe Oeul bvvapiv napadelev, Q that the Gods would clothe 7)1 e icith so much strength. Hom. To fxei/ vvv ravra n prja-a-ois rdnep iv x^P^*^ ^X^^^' /^'' ^'*^ present may you continue to do these things which you have now in hand. Ildt. E'lBe (f>i\os rjpiv yevoio, O that you may become our friend.. MrjKeTt, C^rjv eyco, may I no longer live. 'Te6vaiT)v, ore p.oi fir)K€Ti raiira peXoi, may I die when J shall no longer care for these things (§ 235, 1). For the distinction between the present and aorist see § 202, 1. Note 1. In poetry ft alone is sometimes used with the optative in wishes; as ei /ioi yevoiro <\)66yyos iv ^paxioaiv, that 1 might find a voice in my arms. Eur. Note 2. The poets, especially Homer, sometimes prefix as (not translatable) to the optative in wishes; q,s as dnoXoiro koI aXXos oris Toiavrd ye pe^oi, likewise may any other perish who may do the like. Note 3. In poetry, especially in Homer, the optative alone sometimes expresses a concession or permission , sometimes a command or exhortation ; as aZris ^ Apyelrjv 'EXevrju MeveXaos ayoiro, Menelaus may take back Argive Helen. TcOuairjs, Si Tlpolr,^ ndxravc BeXXepo- (fiovTijv, either die, or kill Bellerophontes. Here, and in the optative alone in wishes, we probably have an original independent use of the optative; while all the forms of wishes introduced by ei^e, et ydp, or ft are elliptical protases, as is seen by the use of ft, and by the force of the tenses, which is the same as it is in protasis. 19 290 SYNTAX. [§252. 2. When a wish refers to the present or the past, and it is implied that its object is not or was not attained^ it is expressed by a secondary tense of the indicative with eWe or el yap, which here cannot be omitted. The imper- fect and aorist are distinguished here as in protasis (§ 222). E.g, Ei^e TovTO eTToiet, that he loere doing this, or O that he had done this. Et^e ToxJTo eiToirjaev, that he had done this; el yap ixfj iykvfTo TOVTO, that this had not happened. 'EXff elxfs ^cXtlovs (jypevas, that thou hadst a better understanding. Et yap ToaavTrjv bvvapiv elx^ov, that I hdd so great power. EWe (rot, t6t€ crvv€y€v6p,r)v, that I had then met with yo'a. Note 1. The aorist a)(}>€\ov of o(/)6iXa), debeo, and in Homer some- times the imperfect axpeWov, are used with the infinitive in wishes, with the same meaning as the secondary tenses of the indicative ; as a(f)€\€ TovTo TToidv, would that he were doing this (lit. he ought to he doing this), or loould that he had done this (habitually); axjieXe tovto TToiTJcrai, tvould that he had done this. For the distinction made by the different tenses of the infinitive, see § 222, N. 2. Note 2. "QcpeXov is negatived by p.r) (not ov), and it may even be preceded by eWe, el yap, or evy6, begone ! ikderco, let him come ; 'x^atpovrcov, let them rejoice. Note. A combination of a command and a question is found in such phrases as oto-^' 6 SpSo-oi/; do — dost thou know what? § 253. The first person of the subjunctive (generally plural^ is used in exhortations. Its negative is firj, E.g. "lafiev, let US go ; iSw/xei/, let us see; fifj tovto jroicofiev, let us not do this. §256.] THE MOODS. 291 Note. Both subjunctive and imperative may be preceded by- aye (ny ere), <^epe, or tOi, come! These words are used without regard to the number or person of the verb which follows; as aye fliflV€T€ 7tdvT€S' § 254, In prohibitions, in the second and third per- sons, the present imperative or the aorist subjunctive is used with firj and its compounds. E.g. Ml) ttoUl tovto, do not do this (Jidlntually) ^ or do not rjo on doing tJns ; yLY} 7roir](TT]S .TovTo, (simply) do not do this. M17 Kara tovs vofiovs 8iKd(rr]T€' fif) ^orjOrjcrrjTe tw ttctzovBotl dcivd' /1117 evop/eetre, do not Judge according to the laws ; do not help him who has suffered outrages ; do not abide by your oaths. The two forms have merely the usual distinction between the present and aorist (§ 202, 1). Note. The third person of the aorist imperative sometimes occui's in prohibitions ; the second person very rarely. VIII. SUBJUNCTIVE LIKE FUTURE INDICATIVE (IN HOMER). —INTERROGATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE.— SUBJUNCTIVE AND FUTURE INDICATIVE WITH OV fJLT]. § 255, In Homer, the subjunctive in independent sen- tences sometimes has the force of a future indicative. E.g-. Oi) yap na> Toiovs iBov dvepas, ovbe tbcofiai, for I never yet saiv nor shall I ever see such men. Kai nore tls ctTrrja-tv, and one icill (or may^ some time say. Note. This subjunctive may, like the future indicative, take av or Kk to form an apodosis. See § 209, 2, with the example. § 256. The first person of the subjunctive, and some- times the third, may be used in questions of doubt, where a person asks himself or another what he is to do. It is negatived by prj. It is often introduced by ^ovXeu or ^ovXeade (in poetry OiXet^ or deXere). E.g. EiTTo) ravra; shall I say this"? or ^ovXci eiTrw ravra; do you wish that I should say this? Hdi TpaTrafxai; ttol 7rop€vda>; ichither shall I turn? ivhither shall T go? Tlov bf) jSouXei Ka6L^6p.evoi dvayvwyav; where now loilt thou that we sit down and read? Tt tls flvai rovro (f)rj; what shall any one (i.e. /) say this is? So in Ti 7rd6(o; what will become of me? what harm will it do me? (lit. what shall I undergo ?) 292 SYNTAX. [§257. § 257. The subjunctive and future indicative are used with the double negative ov fjnj in the sense of the future indicative with ov, but with more emphasis. E.g: Oif ht) 7riBt]Tai, he will not obey. Oure yap yiyvcTai, ovre yeyovey^ aide ovv fif) yevrjrai, for' there is not^ nor has there been, nor will there ever be, &c. Oi; rror e^ ifiov ye fif) ivadrjs robe, you never shall suffer this at my hands. Ov tol fjLrjnoTe ae . . . aKovra tis a^ei, no one shall ever take you against your will, &c. The double negative here seems to have merely the force of emphasis, and the subjunctive is a relic of the old usage (§ 255). The aorist subjunctive is generally used in these expressions. Note. This construction in the second person sometimes ex- presses a strong prohibition ; as ov fi^ Kara^rja-ei, do not come down (lit. you shall not come down) ; ov jx^ aKMyj/rjs, do not mock.^ The future indicative and the aorist subjunctive are both allowed in this sense. The imperative force is to be explained as in the future used imperatively (§ 200, N. 8). THE INFINITIVE. § 258, The infinitive has the force of a neuter verbal noun, and may take the neuter article in all its cases. It may at the same time, like a verb, have a subject or ob- ject ; and it is qualified by adverbs, not by adjectives. § 259, The infinitive as nominative may be the sub- ject of a finite verb, especially of an impersonal verb (§ 134, N. 2) or of earl', or it may be a predicate (§ 136). As accusative it may be the subject of another infinitive. E.g, 2vv€^r] avra i\6e'iv, it happened to him to go : i^rjv fxeveiv, it was possible to remain; ^dv ttoXXovs ex^P°^^ ^X^'^^y is it pleasant to have many enemies f ^r)o\v e^elvai tovtois fxeveiv he says it is possible for these to remain (jieveiv being subject of i^elvai). To yvdvai eniaTr}- fir)v \aj3elv cVrti/, to learn is to acquire knowledge. Tovro eari to d^t- Keiv, this is to commit injustice. To yap Sdvarov de^ifvai ovbev aXXo earlv fj doKeiv aocpov clvai pfj ovra, for to fear death (the fear of death) is nothing else than to seem to be wise without being so. Note. These infinitives usually stand without the article ; but whenever it is desired to make the infinitive more prominent as a noun (see the last examples), the article can be added. See § 260, 1, N. 2. §260.] THE INFINITIVK 293 § 260. The infinitive without the article may be the object of a verb. It generally has the force of an object accusative, sometimes that of a cognate accusative, and sometimes that of an object genitive. 1. The object infinitive not in indirect discourse may follow any verb whose action naturally impUes another action as its object. Such verbs are in general the same in Greek as in English, and others must be learned by practice. E.g, BouXfrat iXBelv, lie wishes to go: ^ovXerai roiis TroXtVay noXefiiKovs €tvai, he wishes the citizens to he warlike ; tvapaivovfiev aoi ^eveiVy we advise you to remain; irpociXiTo noXefirjaaiy he preferred to make war ; KeXevet ere fXTj dneXOelv, he commands you not to depart ; d^iov- (TLv apx^tv, they claim the right to rule ; d^Lovrai davelv, he is thought to deserve to die ; 8eo[xai vfxuiv crxjyyuwpLriv poi ex^ftv, I ask you to have consideration for me. So KcoXvfi ae ^adiCeiu, he prevents you from marching ; ovTre'tpvKe dovXeveiv, he is not born to he a slave: dva^dX- Xerai TovTo noLelVi he postpones doing this ; Kivdvvevei davelv, he is in danger of death. Note 1. The tenses here used are chiefly the present and aorist, and these do not differ in their time (§ 202, 1, 2, and 3). In this construction the infinitive has no more reference to time than any other verbal noun would have, but the meaning of the verb gene- rally gives it a reference to the future ; as in n^toOrat 6avfXv (above) davclv expresses time only so far as davdrov would do so in its place. Its negative is /x^ (§ 283, 3). Note 2. When the infinitive is the object of a verb which does not com- monly take this construction, it generally has the article ; as rb reXevTrjaai. irdvTwv i) ireirptaixipT} KariKpivev, Fate adjudged death to all. Occasionally even the ordinary verbs included in § 260, 1 (as verbs of wishing) take the infinitive with t6 as an object accusative, chiefly in poetry ; as t6 5/9d»' oiiK 7jd€\r](Tav, they were not willing to act. 2. The object infinitive in indirect discourse (§ 203) follows a verb implying thought or the expression of thought., or some equivalent phrase. Here each tense of the infinitive corre- sponds in time to the same tense of some finite mood. See § 246, with the examples and Note. Note 1. Of the three common verbs meaning to say^ — (a) (f)r)ixL regularly takes the infinitive in indirect discourse ; (b) eiTTov takes ort or a>s with the indicative or optative ; (c) Xeyco allows either construction, but in the active voice it gen- erally taKes oTi or wy. 294 SYNTAX. [§261. Note 2. A relative clause depending on an infinitive in indirect discourse sometimes takes the infinitive by assimilation ; as cireidrj be yiveaOai errl rfj oIkIo., (e(f)r]) dveccyfxevrju KaraXa^^dveiv rfjv Bvpap, ana when they came to the house, the// found the door open (Jie said). Herodotus allows this even after ti, if, and 6ioVt, because. § 261. !• The infinitive without the article limits the meaning of many adjectives and nouns. U.g. Avvaros woielv tovto, able to do this' beivos Xeyeiv, sHlled in sjieaking ; a^ios tovto Xa^elv, worthij to receive this. irpoOv^os Xe- •yeti', eager to speak; fxaXaKol KapTcpeip, (too) effeminate to endure: eTTLo-TTjfKav \ey€Lv re /cat aiyav, knowing how both to speak and to be silent. ^AvdyKT] ia-Ti ndvTas aTreXdelv, there is a necessity that all should withdraw; Kivdwos rjv avrco it a 6 civ rt, he was in danger of suffering something; &pa dnievai, it is time to go away; iXnidas ex^i tovto TToiTJaat, he has hopes of doing this. __ Note 1. Adjectives of this class are especially those denoting ability, ftness, desert, readiness, and their opposites ; and, in general, those corresponding in meaning to verbs which take the infinitive (§ 260, 1). Nouns of this class are such as form with a verb (gen- erally 6t/xi) an expression equivalent to a verb which takes the object infinitive. Most nouns take the infinitive with the article as an adnominal genitive (§ 262, 2). Note 2. The article is sometimes prefixed to the infinitive here, as after verbs (§ 260, 1, N. 2). This snows more clearly its char- acter as an object accusative ; as to ^iq ttoXltkHsv 8pdv e^vv dp,rjxavoSf I am incapable of acting in defiance of the citizens. 2. Any adjective or adverb may take the infinitive without the article as an accusative of specification (§160,1). :E.g. Qeafia al(rxpov 6 pap, a sight disgraceful to behold : Xoyoi v[xlp xPT aipcoraToc aKovo-ai, words most useful for you to hear . to ;(aX€7ra)Tara evpclp, the things hardest to find ; TroXtTcia ^aXfTTj) o-t'^^j/, a govern- 7)ient hard to live under. KaXXtcrra (adv.) ibelp, in a manner most delightful to behold. Remark. This infinitive is generally active rather than passive ; as TTpdyjia ;(aXe7r6i/ ttoicIp, a thing hard to do, rather than ;^aX67r6i» TTOieladai, hard to be done. Note. Nouns and even verbs may take the infinitive on this principle; as Qavpa IdiaBai, a wonder to behold. ^ApiaTevearKe fid- Xe(T6ai, he was the first infighting (like fJidxnv)- Horn. §263.] THE INFINITIVE. 295 § 262. 1- The infinitive may depend on a preposition, in which case the article »Toi), tgS, or to must be pre- fixed. E.g. Tlpo Tov Tovs opKov9 uTT o8o vpai , before taking tlie oaths; npbs rm fiTjbeu eK Trjs Tcpeafiiiai Xa^elv, besides receiving nothing by the embassy^ dia TO ^svos €ivai ovk av oUi d8iKr}6r]vai ; do you think you tcould not be wronged on account of your being a stranger f 2. The genitive and dative of the infinitive, with the article., can stand in most of the constructions belonging to those cases ; as in that of the adnominal genitive, the genitive after a comparative or after verbs and adjectives, the dative of manner., means., &c., the dative after verbs and adjectives, and sometimes in that of the genitive of cause or purpose (§ 173, 1). E.g. Tov 77 1 el V (TTidvfiia, a desire to drink; KpeTrrov rovXaXeiv, better than prating; enecrxoficv tov baKpveiv, we ceased our weeping (§263); ai'ideif Toi) KaraKovctv tivos daiv, they are unused to obeying any one. T(S (Pavepns elvai toiovtos &v, by having it evident that he was such a man; tw Koa-plcos Cfjp Tncrrfveiv, to trust in an orderly life; laov ra npo(TTeveiv, equal to lamenting beforehand. Mivms to Xtjotikov Ka6rj~ pel, Tov Tcis Trpoaodovs p,aWov levai avr^f Minos put down piracy, that his revenues might come in more abundantly. Thuc. § 263. 1. Verbs and expressions denoting hindrance or freedom from anything allow either the infinitive With tov (§ 262, 2) or the 'simple infinitive (§ 260, 1). As the infin- itive after such verbs can take the negative /xrj without affect- ing the sense (§ 283, 6), w^e have a third and fourth form, still with the same meaning. (See Note, and § 263, 2.) E.g. Etpyei (re tovto TToieXv, elpyei ere tov tovto Troieiv, etpyet ere fifj TovTo notelv, eipyet ae tov p,r) tovto Troieti/, all meaning he prevents you from doing this. Tov ^iXittttov ivape\6elv ovk ebvvamo Koikvaai, they could not hinder Philip from passing through. Tov dpairerev- €iv ciTreipyovai, they restrain them from running away. "Onep earxe p-rj TTjv Tle\o7r6wr}(Tov iropBelp, which prevented (him) from ravaging Peloponnesus. "E^ei avTovs tov p.ri Karabvpaij it will keep them from sinking. Note. When the leading verb is negatived (or interrogative im- plying a negative), the double negative pi] ov is generally used rather than the simple pr] with the infinitive (§ 283, 7) so that we 296 SYNTAX. [§264. can say ovk flpyei ae fir) ov tovto TToieiVy he doen not prevent you from doing this. T ov firi ov iroielv is rarely (if ever) used. 2. The infinitive with to fxrj (sometimes with to alone) may be used after expressions denoting hindrance^ and also after all which even imply prevention^ omission^ or denial. This infinitive with to is less closely connected with the leading verb than are the forms just mentioned (1), and it may often be considered an accusative of specification (§ 160, 1), and sometimes (as after verbs of denial) an object accusative. Sometimes it expresses merely a result. E.g. Top ofiiKop fipyov to jxrj to. eyyiis ttjs TroXcai KaKovpytlv , they pre~ vented the crowd from injuring the neighboring parts of the city. kwXu- o-et (TiTo 8pav, he will prevent you from acting (§ 260, 1, N. 2). Kt/iw- pa napa Tpcis d(f)€laav ylrrjcfiovs to pi] 6avaT(o (r)piS)(rai, they allowed Cimon by three votes to escape the punishment of death (they let him off from the punishment of death), ^o^os avO' vttvov TrapaaraTel, to pi] ^\i(papa avp^aXelv, fear stands by me instead of sleep, preventing me from closing my eyelids. Thus we have 2i fifth and a sixth form, tlpyfi (re to pi] tovto not- €7v and etpyet ere to tovto noiflv, added to those given in § 263, 1, as equivalents of the English he prevents you from doing this. Note. Here, as above (1, Note) pi] ov is used when the leading verb is negatived ; as ovdiv yap avTw tuvt inapKea-ei to pi] ov ttc- crelv'tfor this will not at all suffice to prevent him from falling . § 264* The infinitive with its subject, object, or other adjuncts (sometimes including dependent clauses) may^ be preceded by the article, the whole standing as a single noun in any ordinary construction. E.g. To de pr)T€ TraKai tovto TTfTrovdevat , necjirjvevai Te Tiva f]p7v avp' pLa^lav TovTcov avTippoTTOv, hv ^ovXapeOa xPW^^'-i ''^^ "^^P eKeivcov evuoias fvepyeTqp* av eycoye Oeirjv, but the fact that we have not suffered this long ago, and that an alliance has appeared to us to balance these, if we shall wish to use it, — this I should ascribe as a benefaction to their good-will. Dem. (Here the whole sentence to ... . xRW^^^f- i^ the object of 6tlr]v.) § 265, The infinitive without the article may express a purpose. E.g. Ol apxovTes, ovs ftXcaBf apx^iv pov, the rulers, whom you chose to. rule me. Tijv noXiv ' wre (§ 267) ; and sometimes a purpose, like a final clause. E.g, *E^6v avTois tS>v \oi7rS)v apxciv 'EWtjvchv, axrr^ avrovs vnaKoveiv /Sao-iXel, it being in their power to rule the rest of the Greeks, on condi- tion that they should themselves obey the King. Udv iroiovaiv aart diKTjv pf) dtdovai, they do everything so that they may not suffer punish- ment (Iva pr) StSwo-i might have been used). Note 1. '12? sometimes takes the infinitive like ©are, generally to express a result, seldom to express a. purpose. Note 2. "Qore may also take the indicative to express a result (§ 237). For the distinction see § 237, Rem. Note 8. "flore in Homer usually means as, like wo-rrep. (See § 265, Note.) Note 4. (a) The infinitive with axrre or cos sometimes follows a comparative with ^ ; as eXdrro) ep^cov bvvapiv ^ worrc tovs <^CKqvs co^e- Xeiv, having too little power to aid his friends. (b) Sometimes ware is omitted ; as voa-qpa pel^ov ^ <^ep€Lv, a dis- ease too great to bear (§ 261, 2, with Rem.). Note 5. Verbs, adjectives, and nouns which commonly take the simple infinitive occasionally have the infinitive with coare or tby ; as ■^rjcpiadpfvoi axTTc dpvveiv, having voted to defend them; TreiOovatv &aT€ e7nxeipT]o-ai, they persuade them to make an attempt; (f)povipa)Tepoi &(TTe padelu, wiser in learning ; oXiyot u)s eyKparels elvai, too few to have the power ; dmyKr] eocrre Kiv8vvev€iv, a necessity of incurring risk (§ 261, 1). § 267. The infinitive follows €(/>' m or €' wre, on con- dition that, sometimes for the purpose of, E.g, 298 SYNTAX. [§268. *A0if/xci' (re, cm tovtco /LtcVroi, e(f)^ are ixrjKeri ^iXotro^cij/, we re- lease i/ou, (nit on this condition, that you kIuiLI no longer he a philoso- pher. AlpeOevTfs e0' rare |^vyypdx//"at vofxovs, chosen for the purpose o/ compiling laws. For the future indicative after these words, see § 236, N. 2. § 268, The infinitive may stand absolutely in paren- thetical phrases, generally with w? or oaov. E.g, To Ae'Xra lari i/eojo-rt, cos \6yf^ etTreii/, dvairecjiTjvos, the Delta has recently, so to speak, made its appearance. So as enos elirclv, so to speak; as o-wToficos (or avveXovri, § 184, 5) eiTreiv, to speak concisely ; TO ^vfinav eiVeii/, on the ivhole : cbr aTretKao-at, to Judge (i.e. as far as toe can Judge) ; oaov ye fi etSe'j/ai, as far as I know : ois e'fioi 8o- Kclu, or ifioL 8oK€iv, as it seems to me : ov ttoXXq) Xoyw eiTreti/, not to make along story y in short. So oXi'you Seii/, to want little, i.e. almost; ill which Sell/ can be omitted. Note. Tn certain cases clvai seems to be superfluous; especially in iK(ov elvai, willing or willingly, which generally stands in a neg- ative seuteuce. So TO vvv e IV at, at present ; to Trjixcpov eiuai to-day; TO in eKcivnis elvai, as far as depends on them ; ttju irpa>Trjv elvai^ at first (Hdt.); as -noKaia clvai, considering their aye (Thuc.) ; and some other phrases. § 269. The infinitive is sometimes used like the im- perative, especially in Homer. E.g, M17 TTore kclL (tv yvvaiKi irep rJTnos eivai, be thou never indulgent to thy wife. Note. The subject is here in the nominative; but in the three following constructions it is in the accusative. § 270. The infinitive sometimes expresses a wish, like the optative. This occm-s chiefly in poetry. E.g. Zev Trdrep, fj A'lavra Xax^'iv fj Tvbeos vlovy Father Zeus, may the lot fall either on AJax or on the son of Tydeus (Hom.). Note. This construction depends in thought on some word like €vxop,ai, I pray, or dos, grant, which is often expressed; as dbs Tio-a- adai. § 271. In laws, treaties, and proclamations the inflnitive often depends on eSo^e or ScSo/crat, he it enacted, or kcXcuc- Tttt, it is commanded ; which may be expressed in a previous sentence or understood. E.g. §275.] THE PARTICIPLE. 299 AiKa^eiv be ttjv iv *Apeta) irdya (j)6vovy &c., and (be it enacted) that the Senate on the Areopagus shall hare jurisdiction in cases of murder^ &c. "Ett) de eivai ras o-rrovbas irevTTjKopray and that the treaty shall continue Jifty years. § 272. The infinitive, with or without to, may be used to express surprise or indignation. E.g. Trjs fxcoplas ' to Aia vofil^ecv, opra ttjXikovtovI, what folly! to believe in Zeus when you are so big! So in Latin: Meue incepto desistere victam ! § 273, In narration, the infinitive often seems to stand for the indicative, when it depends on some word like Xeyerac, it is said, in a preceding sentence. U.^. *AmKOfi€vovs de €9 to "Apyos, hiaTlOardaL tov (jiopTov, and comitig to Argos, they were (it is said) setting out their cargo for sale (Smri- Bea-duL is an imperfect infinitive, § 203, N. 1). Hdt. i. 1. See Hdt. i. 24, and Xen. Cyr. i. 3, 5. § 274. nptv, before, before that, until, besides taking the indicative, subjunctive, and optative (§ 240), also takes the infinitive. This happens in Attic Greek chiefly* after affirmative sentences, but in Homer without regard to the leading verb. U.ff. 'ATTOTre/iTrouo-ii/ avTov np\u d*coC(rat, they send him away before hear- ing him. Mecrcrrjvrjv elXop-eu nplv Tlepaas Xa^eiv ttjv ^aaiXeiav, we took Messene before the Persians obtained their kingdom. For irpiv with the finite moods, see § 240. Note. Iip\v rj, irpoTepov rj, TrpocrOev fj^ before that, sooner than, and even va-repov rj, later than, may take the infinitive like irpiv alone. See § 240, Note. THE PARTICIPLE. § 275. The participle is a verbal adjective, and has three uses. First, it may express a simple attrihute, like an ordi- nar}' adjective ; secondly, it ma}' define the circumstances under which an action takes place ; thirdl}^, it may form part of the predicate with certain verbs, often having a force resembling that of the infinitive. 300 SYNTAX. (§276. § 276. 1. The participle, like any other adjective, may qualify a noun. Here it must often be translated by a relative and a finite verb, especially when it is pre- ceded by the article. E.g, 'O Tvapoiv XP^^^^^ ^^*^ present time ; Beoi aUv eovres, immortal Gods (Horn.); TTo'Xis fcaXXei 8La(j)epova-a, a city exceUin^i in beauty: dvfjp KoXays Trenaidevfievos, a man who has been well educated (or a well- educated nian)\ ol npea^ets oi vno *iXtWou 7r€p.(j)6€VT€s, the ambas- sadors who were sent by Philip; avdpes ol tovto iroirjcrovTeSf men ivho are to do this. 2. The participle preceded by the article may be used substantively, like any other adjective. It is then equiva- lent to he who or those who with a finite verb. iJ.g, Ot 7r€Treicrp.€voi, those who have been convinced .; irapa toU apiarois 8 o /cover 11/ eivat, among those who seem to be best : 6 ttjv yvcoprjv tovtiju fiTTft)!/, the one ivho gave this opinion: rois 'ApKudcov a^erepois ovat, ^vpLiiaxois TTpodnov, they proclaimed to those who were their allies among the Arcadians. § 277. The participle may define the circumstances of an action. It expresses the following relations : — 1. Time ; the tenses denoting various points of time, which is relative to that of the verb of the sentence (§ 204). E.g. Tavra firpa-m a-Tparrjytov , he did this while he was general: ravra 7rpd$€i arrpaTrjycip, he will do this while he is general: rvpavvevaas fie err] rpla 'imrias €xa>p€i « Siyetov, and when he had been tyrant three years, Hippias withdrew to Sigeum. 2. Cause, manner., means, and similar relations, including manner of employment. E.g. Ae'yo) §€ rovTov €U€Ka, ^ovXopcvos So^ai aoi onep ep,ol, and 1 speak for this reason, because I wish that to seem good to you which, &c. Ilpoe/Xero /xaXXoi/ roiy vopois cfxpevatv dnnOaveiv ^ 7rapavop.a)v ^fjVy he preferred to die abiding by the laws rather than to live transgi-essing them; tovto enoirjo-e \ada)v, he did this secretly ; aTTedrjfxei TpirjpapxSiV, he was absent on duty as trierarch. Arji^op-evoi ^axnv, they live by plunder. 3. Purpose or intention ; general!}^ expressed by the fiUure participle. E.g. §277.1 THE PARTICIPLE. 801 ^HXOe \v(T6fi€V09 dvyuTpa, he came to ransom Ms datifjhter. Horn. UefiTreiv irpea-^cis ravTa epovvras koI Avo-avdpov alrrjo-ovraSi ^o send ambassadors to say this and to ask for Lysander. 4. Condition ; the tenses of the participle representing the corresponding tenses of the indicative, subjunctive, or opta- tive, in all classes of protasis. See § 226, 1, where examples will be found. 5. Opposition or limitation ; where the participle is generally to be translated by although and a verb. E.g. *OXtya hvvdp.fvoi irpoopav ttoKKo. eirixfipovixeu Trpdrreiv, although we are able to foresee few things, we try to do many things. 6. An}' attendant circumstance, the participle being merely descriptive. E.g. "Epxerai rbv viov exova-a, she comes bringing her son ; TrapaXw ^ovres Tovi Boicorous iarTparcvcrav eVi $ap) The participle denoting opposition is often strengthened by Kainep or kui, even (poetic also koI . . . nep) , in negative sen- tences ov8e or fiTjbe, witli or without nep; or by koi ravra, and that too : as eTTOLKTeipa) viv Kaincp ovra Sva-fxevrj, T pity him, even though he is an enemy. Ovk av npodoiTjv, ovde irep Trpdaa-cou Ka<s cidoTa, ovk edeXer^ aKoveiv, you are unwilling to hear, as (j/ou would be) if you already knew it tcell. Here cocrirep means merely a.t : the //" belongs to the meaning of the participle. Compare oio-nep ei Xeyots, as if you should say. We find even cocnrep av d . . . rjyovjjLevoi, as if you believed (Dem.). The participle thus used witli axTTrep has ov for its negative, not liV (§ 283, 4). § 278. 1. When a participle denoting any of the relations included in § 277 belongs to a noun which is not connected with the main construction of the sentence, they stand together in the genitive absolute. See § 183, and the examples there given. All the particles men- tioned m the notes to § 277 can be used here. Note. Sometimes a participle stands alone in the genitive abso- lute, when a subject can easily be supplied from the context, or when some general subject, like avdpcoircov or npayixaToov, is under- stood; as ol TroXe'ixLoi, 7rpo(n6uTu)v, recos pev T)avx(iC^v, but the enemy, as they (men before mentioned) came on, kept (/uietfor a time: ovtco 5* exovTcov, eiKOi iaTiv, k. t. X., and this being the case (sc. Trpay/xarcoi/), it hi likely, &,'c. So with verbs like vei, &c. (§ 134, N. 1, e) ; as vovTos TToXXo), when it was raining heavily (where originally Aids was understood). 2. The participles of impersonal verbs stand in the accusa- tive absolute^ in the neuter singular, when others would be in the genitive absolute. So with passive participles and 6v when they are used impersonall}'. E.g. Ol S' ov ^orjOrja-avTes, biov, 17161? dn^Xdov ; and did those who brought no aid when it was needed escape safe and sound ? So €v ?ie napaa-xov, and when a good opportunity offered; ov Trpoa-rj- Kov, improperly (it being not becoming); tvxov, by chance (it having happened); Trpoarax^^v pot. when I had b^en commanded : elprj- pevov. when it has been said: ahvvaTov ov. it being impossible; dnoaprj' TOP TToXei (sc. 01/), when it is forbidden by the state. Note. The participles of personal verbs sometimes stand with their nouns in the accusative absolute; but very seldom unless they are preceded by ois or coajrep (§ 277, Notes 2 and 3). § 279. The participle may be used to limit the mean- ing of certain verbs, in a sense which often resembles that of the infinitive (§ 260, 1). §279.] THE PARTICIPLE. 303 1 . In this sense the participle is used with the subject of verbs signifying to begin^ to continue^ to endure^ to persevere, to cease^ to repent, to be weary of, to be pleased, displeased, or ashamed ; and with the object of verbs signif3'ing to cause to cease. E.g. "Ap^ofxai Xeycou, I will begin to speak ; ovk dve^ofxai ^(ov, I shall not endure to live, tovto €x<^v fitareXfi, he continues to have this (4, Note); dneipTjKa rpex^^^ ^ ^"* tired of running ; rois epcorcoai Xatpco diroKpivop-evos, 1 delight to answer questioners : ("Keyxo- p.€voi TJx6ouTo, they were displeased at being tested , alcrxvv€Tai tovto Xey(ov, he is ashamed to sag this (johich he sags); ttju Vi he is weary of doing this). But see the last example under 3. Note 2. The aorist (sometimes the perfect) participle with cx^ may form a periphrastic perfect, especially in Attic poetry; as Bavfid- aas €X(o Tode, J have loondered at this. In prose, tx^ ^'^ih a partici- ple generally has its common force; as Tr]v npo'iKa exft \a^a>v, he has received and has the dowry (not simply he has taken il). 2. The participle may be used with the object of verbs signif3"ing to perceive (in any wa}'), to Jind^ or to represents, denoting an act or state in which the object is perceived, found, or represented. E.g. 'OpS) povp.€vovs, he has represented those in Hades as suffering 2)unishment. Note. This muf^t not be confounded with indirect discourse, in which 6pco o-e Kpv-nTovra would mean 1 see that you are hiding ; dKovui ae Xeyovra, I hear that you say (a/cou'o) taking the accusative). See §280. 3. With verbs signif3ing to overloolc or see, in the sense of cdlow, — Trcptopaw and €opdoi, with TrcpictSov and cVetSoi/, sometimes dhov, — the participle is used in the sense of the object infinitive (§ 260, 1), the present and aorist participles 804 SYNTAX. l§280. differing merely as the present and aorist infinitives would differ in similar constructions (§ 202, 1). E.g. M^ nepudcofiev v^ picrdela-av rrjv AoKedaifioua Koi KoracfipovT]- Belaav, let us not allow Lacedaemon to he insulted and despised. M17 /i.' Ibeiv Bavovd^ vtt' ao-reoi/, not to see me killed by citizens (Eur.). nepudelvTrjuy^v t p,T) delo-av , to allow the land to be ravaged (Thuc. ii. 18). (But in ii. 20, we find ncpudelv rfju yijv Tixijdrjvai, referring to the same thing.) See § 204, N. 2. 4. With the following verbs the participle contains the lead- ing idea of the expression: XavOdvo), escape the notice of; rvyxav(j>i happen ; 6apevT€ s, you will be corrupted before you know it. ''Etvxov Kadrjpevos evravda, I happened to be sitting there; ervxf Kara TovTo Tov Kaipov cXdcov, he happened to come (not to have come) just at that time. "Ecfidrjcrav roiis Ilepo-as aTriKoixevoi, they came before the Persians (Hdt.). OuS' apa KipKrjv eXOovrei iXrjdofiev, nor did we come without Circeh knowing it (Honi.). See examples under § 204, N. 2. The perfect participle here has its ordinary force. Note. The participle with 8tarfXfa>, continue (§ 279, 1), o 1^0 fiat, be gone (§ 277, 2), 6 a p, 1^03, be wont or be frequent^ and some others, expresses the leading idea; but the aorist partici- ple with these has no peculiar force; as oXxfrai (pfvyau, he has taken Jlight (§ 200, N. 3); ov Oapi^eis Kara^aiviov els tup Ufipata, you don't come down to the Peiraeus very often. § 280. With many verbs the participle stands in indirect discourse, each tense representing the corre- sponding tense of the indicative or optative. Such verbs are chiefly those signifying to see, to knoiv, to hear or learn, to remember, to forget, to show, to appear, to prove, to acknowledge, and dyyeXXo), to announce. E.g. *Opa> be p! epyov beivou e ^€ ipyacr pe vrjv. but 1 see that I have done a dreadful deed ; rJKovae Kvpov Iv KiXiKiq ovra, he heard .that Cyrus was in Cilicia (cf. § 279, 2, with N.); orau kXvtj ^^ovt* 'Opeo-r7;i/, when she hears that Orestes will come; olda ov8ev eTriarrdpevos, I know that I understand nothing ; ovk fjdeaav avrbv TcdvrjKora. they did not know that he was dead; enftddv yvaiaiv dntarovpevoiy after they find out that they are distrusted; pepvtjpai iXdcav, I re- § 281.] VERBAL ADJECTIVES. 305 member that I went; fxenvrjixat avrov e\66vra^ I remember that he went; del^co tovtov cxOpop ovra^ I shall show that this man is an enemy (pass, ovroy bet\6ri(TiTai ex,6pos &v)\ avrio Kvpop arparev- oura nparos ^yyetXa, 1 Jirst announced to him that Cyrus was on his march. See § 246 and examples ; and § 211 for examples of the participle with dv representing both indicative and optative with av. Note 1. ArjXos elp.L and cfiavepos et/xi take the participle in indirect discourse, where we use an impersonal construction; as drjXos Tjv olofievosj &c., it was evident that he thought, &c. (like drj- Xoj/ rjv oTt oioiTo). Note 2. With crvvoi8a or a-vyyiyvma-KO) and a dative of the reflexive, a participle maybe in either the nominative or dative; as avvotda €fxavTr]), he saiil that other (ships) must be sent for. *0 Xeyo3 prjTenv hrrlv. what 1 say wunt he spoken. The noun denoting the agent is here in the dative (§ 188, 4). See 2. 306 SYNTAX. [§ 282. 2. In the impersonal construction the verbal is in the neuter of the nominative singular (sometimes plural), with ecni expressed or understood. It is active in sense, and is equivalent to hel with the infinitive. The agent is generally expressed by the dative, some- times by the accusative. These verbals may have an object like their verbs. E.g, Tavra rjfiiv (or i7fias') TToirjTeov iariv, we must do this (equivalent to Tovra fjfiCLS del Trocrjaai, § 184, 2, N. 1). 01(tt€ov rdde, we must bear these things (sc. rjfxlv). Ti av xivTa Troirjreov etr] ; what would he be obliged to do f ^^y^r)^L(TavTo TroXefirjrea clvai, they voted that they jHUSt go to war (= bclv TroXe/xflv). Tot's ^v^fxdxovs ov Trapadoria Tois ^ABrjuaiois, we must not abandon our allies to the Athenians, The Latin has this construction (but seldom with verbs which take an object accusative) ; as Eundum est tibi (Ireov eari aot) , — Moriendum est omnibus. So Bello utendum est nobis (ra TroXe/xo) Xpr](TTeov iarrip fjpiv), we must go to war. (See Madvig's Latin Gram- mar, § 421.) INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES. § 282. 1. All interrogative pronouns, pronominal adjec- tives, and adverbs can be used in both direct and indirect questions. The relative ocms and most other relative words may be used in indirect questions. (See § 149.) 2. The principal direct interrogative particles are rj and apa. These imply nothing as to the answer expected ; but apa ov implies that an affirmative, Spa p-^ that a negative, answer is expected. Ov and p,^ alone are often used with the same force as with apa. So fiuv (for p,^ ow). E.g. 'H (rxo\f) ea-rai; will there be leisure? 'Ap' elcri tiv€9 a^ioi; are there any deserving ones? *Ap' ov 0ovXeade eXOelv ; or ov ^ovXeade eXedv; do you not wish to go (i.e. you wish, do you not)'^ Apa pr] ^ovXeade iXdelv ; or pf) (or pa,v) /3ovXe(r(9e eXdclv; do you tvish to go {you don't wish to go, do you)'^ This distinction between ov and pr/ does not apply to the interrogative subjunctive (§ 256), which allows only prj. § 283.] NEGATIVES. 307 3. "AXXo TLT]; is it anything else than 9 or simply akXo tl; is it notf is sometimes used as a direct interrogative. U.g. "aWo Tl ^ ddiKovnev ; are we not (is it anything else than that we are) in the wrong? — liWo tl o/xoXoyoO/xei; ; do we not agree? 4. Indirect questions may be introduced by ci, whether; and in Homer by ^ or rjL E.g. 'Hpoyrrjaa el /3ovXoiro eXdelv, I asked whether he wished to go. "QiX^^to nevaofxevos 7 ttov er (trjs, he was gone to inquire whether pos- sibly you were still living (Hoiii.). Ovk olba el tovto 8c5, / do not know ivhether I shall give this (here el is used even with the sub- junctive : see § 24A). 5. Alternative questions (both direct and indirect) may be introduced by irorepov (Trorepa) . . . ^, whether . , . or. Indirect alternative questions can also be introduced by ct . . . ^, ctrc . . . ctT€, etre . . . ^, whether .,,or; and in Homer by rj (jje) . . . TLoTepov eas apxeiv rj SKkov KaBLOTrjs ; do you allow him to rule, or do you appoint another? 'E/SouXcucro el trep.TTOiev Tivas fj irdvTes toteVf he was deliberating whether they should send some or should all go. NEGATIVES. § 283, The Greek has two negative adverbs, ov and /jl-^. What is said of each of these applies generally to its com- pounds, — ouSets, ovSc, ouT€, &C., and /otrySets, jtAi/Sc, ftiyrc, &C. 1 . Ov is used with the indicative and optative in all inde- pendent sentences (except wishes,, which are generally elliptical protases, § 251, 1, N. 3) ; also in indirect discourse after on, and ws, and in causal sentences. Note. Tn indirect questions, introduced by el, whether, fif) can be used as well as ov ; as j3ovXo/iai epeo-Oai el p.a6a>v Tis Tl Koi p.ep.vr]p.evoi fxf] oldev, I want to ask whether one who has learnt a thing and remem- bers it does not know it? Also, in the second part of an indirect alternative question (§ 282, 5), both ov and p.r} are allowed; as cr*co- rrapev el Trpenei rj ov, let us look and see whether it is becoming or not; el Se aXrjdes fj fxrj , Treipdaofiai fiaOelv, but I will try to ledrn whether it is true or not. 308 SYNTAX. [§ 283 2. Mrj is used with the subjunctive and imperative in all constructions (except the Homeric subjunctive, § 255, which has the force of a future indicative). Mtj is used in all Jincd and object clauses after ti/a, ottw?, &c. ; except after /x^y, lest^ which takes ov. It is used in all conditional sentences, in relative sentences with an indefinite antecedent (§ 231) and the corresponding temporal sentences after ews, TrptV, &c. (§§ 239, 240), in relative sentences expressing a purpose (§ 236), and in all expressions of a wish with both indicative and optative (§ 251). 3. Mr) is used with the infinitive in all constructions, both wath and without the article, except that of indirect discourse. The infinitive in indirect discourse regularl}^ has ov, to retain the negative of the direct discoui-se ; but some exceptions occur. 4. When a participle expresses a condition (§ 277, 4) it takes fjLrj ; so when it is equivalent to a relative clause with an indefinite antecedent^ as 61 fxr] povXofjLivoi, any who do not wish. (See, however, § 277, N. 3.) Otherwise it takes ov. In indirect discourse it sometimes, like the infinitive, takes /atJ irregularly (3). 5. Adjectives follow the same principle with participles, taking fjirj only when they do not refer to definite persons or things (i. e. when they can be expressed by a relative clause with an indefinite antecedent) ; as ol fxrj dyaOol TroXtTai, {any) citizens who are not good, but ol ovk dyaOol TroXtrat means special citizens who are not good. 6. When verbs which contain a negative idea (as those of hindering, forbidding^ denying^ concealing^ and distrusting) are followed by the infinitive, the negative ^rj can be added to the infinitive to strengthen the negation. Such a negative cannot be translated in English, and can alwa3^s be omitted in Greek. For examples see § 263. [§ 283. NEGATIVES. 309 7. When an infinitive would regularly be negatived by firj, — either in the ordinary way (3) or to strengthen a pre- ceding negation (6), — if the verb on which it depends has a negative, it generally takes the double negative fxrj ov. Thus BiKaLov ia-TL fxr] tovtov a(f>€LvaL, it IS just not to acquit him^ becomes, if we negative the leading verb, ov hiKaiov icm /xrj ov TOVTOV d<^€ti/at, it is not just not to acquit him. So ws oxf^ oatov o-oL ov fji-q ov jSorjdeiv SiKatoavvrj, since (as you said) it was a failure in piety for you not to assist justice. Again, ctpyct o-e ^7} TovTo ttouIv (§ 263, 1), he prevents you from doing this, becomes, with ctpyct negatived, ovk ctpyct a-e ixrj ov tovto TTotctv, he does not prevent you from doing this. Note. M^ ov is used also when the leading verb is interroga- tive implying a negative; as ri efnrobcjv fifj ovx'i v^piConevove ano6av€Lv; what is there to prevent («*) from being insulted and perishing f It is sometimes used with participles, or even nouns, to express an exception to a negative statement ; as noXeis xaXfTrai Xafielv, (jlt) ov iroXiopKia, cities hard to capture, except by siege. 8. When a negative is followed by a simple negative (ov or firj) in the same clause, each retains its own force. If they belong to the same word or expression, they make an affirmative ; as ovSk tov ^opfxiuiva ovx opa, nor does he not see Phormio (i. e. he sees Phormio well enough). But if they belong to different words, each is independent of the other ; as ov St' aiTiipiav ye ov -q(T€LS ex^iv o tl ctTn;?, it is not surely through inexperience that you will deny that you have anything to say ; ov jxovov ov rruOovTai, they not only do not obey ; el /xy Upo^evov ovx vTrcSc^avTo, if they had not refused to receive Proxenus {had not not received him) . Note. An interrogative ov (§ 282, 2), belonging to the -whole sentence, is not counted as a negative in these cases; as o vac inX rov hrjp.ov . . . ovk rjOeXrjaav avarpaTeveiv ; were they nut unwill- ing, &c.? 9. But when a negative is followed by a compound negative (or by several compound negatives) in the same clause, the 310 * SYNTAX. [§283. negation is strengthened; as avcv rovrov ovSels cis ovhkv ovSevos av v/awv ovScttotc ykvoiTo a|tos, if it were not for this, no one of you would ever come to be of any value for any- thing . For the double negative ov /x^, see § 257. PAP.T Y. VERSIFICATION. ICTUS. — RHYTHM AND METRE. § 284* 1- Everj^ verse is composed of portions called feet. Thus we have four feet in each of these verses : — ^r\(To\^fv Trpos \ tovs (rTpa\Triyovs. | Far from j mortal | cares rej treating, j 2. In each foot there is a certain part on which falls a special stress of voice called ictus (stroke)^ and another part on which there is no such stress. The part of the foot on which the ictus falls is called the arsis, and the rest of the foot is called the thesis.^ The regular alternation of arsis and thesis in successive feet produces the rhythm {harmonious movement) of the verse. 3. In this English verse (as in all English poetry) the rhj'thm depends entirely on the ordinary accent of the words, with which the ictus coincides. In the Greek verse, however, the ictus is entirely' independent of the word-accent ; and the feet (with the ictus marked) are c^rjo-o, — fiev Trpo?, — tov's o-Tpa, — rrjyov^. In Greek poetry a foot consists of a regular combination of syllables of a certain length ; and the place of the ictus here depends on the quantity (i. e. the length or shortness) of the S3'llables which compose the foot, the ictus naturally falling upon a long syllable (§ 285, 3). The regu- 1 The term Aptris (raising) and dia-is (placing), as they were used by nearly all the Greek writers on Rhythm, referred to the raising and putting down of the foot in marching, dancing, or beating time, so that d^a-is de- noted the part of the foot on whicli the ictus fell, and apais the lighter part. Most of the Roman writers, however, inverted this use, and referred arsis to the raising of the voice and thesis to the lowering of the voice in reading. The prevailing modern use of these terms unfortunately follows the Roman writers. 312 VERSIFICATION. [§ 285. lar alternation of long and short sj^llables in successive feet makes the verse metrical^ i.e. measured in its time. The rhythm of a Greek verse thus depends closely on its metre, i.e. on the measure or quantity of its syllables. Note. The fundamental distinction between ancient and most modern poetry is simply this, that in modern poetry the verse con- sists of a regular combination of accented and unaccented syllables, while in ancient poetiy it consists of a regular combination of long and short syllables. The rlujthm is the one essential requisite in the external form of all poetry, ancient and modern; but in ancient poetry, rhythm depends on metre and not at all on accent ; in mod- ern poetry it depends on accent, and the quantity of the syllables (i.e. the metre) is generally no more regarded than it is in prose. Both are equally rhythmical; but the ancient is also metrical, and its metre is the basis of its rhythm. What is called metre in English poetry is strictly only rhythm. ^ It is to a great extent uncertain how the Greeks distinguished or reconciled the stress of voice which constituted the ictus and the raising of tone which constituted the word-accent. Any combina- tion of the two is now very difficult, and for most pei'sons impos- sible. In reading Greek poetry we usually mark the Greek ictus by our accent, which is its modern rejn-esentative, and neglect the word-accent or make it subordinate to the ictus. Care should al- ways be taken in reading to distinguish the words, not the feet, FEET. § 285. 1. The unit of measure in Greek verse is the short syllable (^), which has the value of J^ or an i note in music. This is called a time or mora. The long syllable ( — ) has twice the length of a short one, and has the value of a | note or J in music. 1 The change from metrical to accentual rhythm can best he seen in modem Greek poetry, in which, even when the forms of the ancient lan- guage are retained, the rhythm is generally accentual and the metre is no more regarded than it is in English poetry. These are the first two verses in a translation of the Odyssey : — ■^dXXc rhv \ &v8pa, ©eld, tov iroIXvTpoirov, | 8 ^l'"'€^ Tpoi|T]s Ulpbv TTToXflfiOpov I|ircpcr6v. If the former verses set our teeth on edge, it is only through force of acquired habit ; for these verses have much more of the nature of modem poetry than the Homeric originals, and their rhythm is precisely what we are accustomed to in English. 285.] FEET. 313 2. Feet are distinguished according to the number of times which they contain. The most common feet are the follow- ing : — (a) Of Three Times (in |- time) Trochee —^ <^atvc Iambus w — t), in which the arsis and thesis are of equal lenoth, and which form the e(]ual class {yevos taou). The more complicated relations of arsis and thesis in the feet of five and six times are not considered here . 3. The ictus falls naturally on a long syllable. The first syllable of the trochee and the dactyl, and the last syllable of tiie iambus and the anapaest, therefore, form the arsis, the remainder of the foot being the thesis ; as _l ^, -i- W v^? Note 1. When a long syllable in the arsis is resolved into two short syllables (§ 286, 1), the ictus properly belongs on the two taken together, but in reading it is usually placed on the first. Thus a tribrach used for a trochee (j. w) is vl/ w w ; one used for an iambus (^ jS) is ^ ^ kj- So a spondee used for a dactyl is j_ _; one used for an anapaest is _ jl- Likewise a dactyl used for an anapaest (_ v^ w for for ^ vy _) is _ v^ w- The only use of the tribrach and the chief use of the spondee are to repre- sent other feet which have their arsis naturally marked by a long syllable. Note 2. Although the principal ictus (which alone has been considered) falls on the arsis, there is generally also a subordinate ictus on the thesis or on some syllable of the thesis. (See § 299.) 4. A verse is sometimes introduced by an incomplete fool, consisting of one or two syllables equivalent in time to the thesis of the fundamental foot of the verse. This is called an anacrusis {ava.Kpova-L. The foot in which it occurs is also called irrational (ttovs aXoyos) . Thus, in aXX air k^^poiv {j_ \j j^ >), the apparent spondee which takes the place of the second trochee is called an irrational trochee ; in ^ovvai ScKrjv (> _i_ w ^) that which takes the i^lace of the first iambus is called an irrational iambus. 4. A similar shortening occurs in the so-called cyclic dac- tyl (marked -\^ w) and cyclic anapaest (marked v^ w— )» which have the time of only three short syllables instead of four. The cyclic dactyl takes the place of a trochee _ ^, especially in logaoedic verses (§ 300). The cyclic anapaest takes the place of an iaml)us ^ _, and is found especially in the iam- bic trimeter of comedy (§ 293, 4). 5. The last syllable of every verse is common, and may l)e considered long or short to suit the metre, without regard to its usual quantity. It is called syllaha anceps. But the con- tinuous systems described in § 298 allow this only at the end of the last verse. RHYTHMICAL SERIES. — VERSE. — CATALEXIS. — PAUSE. § 287. 1. A rhyth7nical series is a continuous succession of feet of the same measure. A verse may consist of one such series, or of several such united. Thus the verse TToAAa Ttt Setva, KOvBev dv\\0poi7rov Sctvorepov rrcXet 316 VERSIFICATION. [§288. consists of a First GljTonic (§ 300, 4),-\^wl_v^!_w|i_ (at the end of a verse, -\^wl_wl_w I — A), followed by a Second Gl3'conic, _w|-v^wl_v/l_A. Each part forms a series, the former ending with the first syllable of avOpw-n-ov (see above) ; and either series might have formed a distinct verse. A rhythmical series generally ends after the arsis of the third foot in the dactylic hexameter (§ 295, 4). See § 288. 2. The verse must close in such a way as to be distinctly marked off from what follows. (a.) It must end with the end of a word. {b.) It allows the last S3ilable {syllaba anceps) to be either long or short (§ 286, 5). (c.) It allows hiatus (§8) before a vowel beginning the next verse. 3. A verse which has an unfinished foot at the close is called catalectic (/caraXryKTiKos, stopped short), A complete verse is called acatalectic. 4. The time of the omitted S3dlable or syllables in a cata- lectic verse is filled by a pause. A pause of one time^ equiva- lent to a short syllable (w), is marked A (for A, the initial of Xctft/ia); a pause of two times (_) is marked A. CAESURA AND DIAERESIS. § 288* 1. Caesura (i.e. cutting) of the foot occurs when- ever a word ends before a foot is finished ; as in three cases in the following verse : — iroA-Xas I 8' L(ji6i\{Xov|_>|-ww|i_ll_^ |_>|_w|_A A rhythmical series (§ 287, 1) ends with the penult of Aiopdaou. This is a logaoedic verse, called EupoUdean (§ 300, 7) VERSES. § 289. 1- Verses are called Trochaic^ lamhiCj Dactylic, &c., from their fundamental foot. 2. In most kinds of verse, a monometer consists of one foot, a dimeter of two feet, a trimeter, tetrameter^ pentameter, or hexameter of three, four, five, or six feet. But in tro- chaic, iambic, and anapaestic verses, which are measured by dipodies (i. e. pairs of feet), a monometer consists of one di- pody (or two feet) , a dimeter of four feet, a trimeter of six feet, and a tetrameter of eight feet. In most kinds of verse, there are catalectic as well as acatalectic forms (§ 287, 3). 3. Rhythms are divided into rising and falling rhythms. In rising rhythms the arsis follows the thesis, as in the iam- bus and anapaest ; in falling rhythms the thesis follows the arsis, as in the trochee and the dactyl. Note. It will be seen that prefixing an anacrusis (§ 285, 4) of the same time as the thesis to a falling rhythm will change it to a rising rhythm ; as _ v^ | _ ^ with w prefixed becomes w — I w __ 1 »^ ; and — w v-/ 1 _ v^ w I _ with kj kj prefixed becomes WW — I WW — Iww_. Many modern wi-iters treat all iambic and anapaestic verses as trochaic and dactylic with anacrusis; as w:_w|_w|_w for w_|w_|w_|wA; and ww:_ww | _ww|_ww|_A for wv^ — Iv^w |ww Iww • 318 VERSIFICATION. . [§291. 4. In Greek poetry, the same kind of verse ma}- be repeated without interruption, as in tlie heroic hexameter (§ 295, 4) and the iambic trimeter of the drama (§ 293, 4). Secondly, simi- lar verses maybe combined into distichs (§ 295, 5) or into snnple systems (§ 298). Thirdly, in lyric poetry, verses may be combined into strophes of complex rhythmical and metrical structure, with antistrophes corresponding to them in form. In the following sections, the .principal rhythms found in Greek poetry are described. TROCHAIC RHYTHMS. § 290, Trochaic verses are measured by dipodies (§ 289, 2). The irrational trochee jl > (§ 286, 3) in the form of a spondee can stand in the secotid place of each trochaic dipody ; so that the dipody has the form, j_ ^ j_^. In trochaic verse, therefore, the tribrach j, ^ ^ can stand in an}' place for the trochee j_ ^; and the (apparent) spondee can stand in all the even places, that is, in the second part of ever^' dipod}^ An apparent anapaest (^ ^ > for _i_ >) is sometimes used as the equivalent of the irrational trochee. The C3'clic dac- tyl -w w (§ 286, 4) sometimes stands for the trochee in proper names in both parts of the dipody. § 291, The following are the most common trochaic verses : — 1. The dimeter (acatalectic and catalectic) : — (j)T](roiJifv Trpop I Tovs arpaTrjyovs. \j > ^vxaycoyel j ^uxpdrrjs. \^ > — \j — \j _ w_ A 2. The tetrameter catalectic, consisting of seven feet and a syllable, or of the two preceding verses combined. There is a regular diaeresis (§ 288, 2) after the second dipod}", where the first rhjahmical series ends (§ 287, 1). See § 293, 3. a ao(f)a)ra\Toi Bcaraij \\ 8evpo tov vovv \ 7rp6a-)(fT€. — v./ — w| \J >ll v^ > I \J A §293.] IAMBIC RHYTHMS. 319 In English poetiy each series is general^ made a separate verse ; as Tell me not in moiimful mimbers, Life is but an empty dream. 3. The Ith^^phallic, which is a trochaic tripody^ not allow- ing irrational feet, — flfjTTOT eKTaKflT). \j \ \^ \ \^ For trochaic systems see § 298, Note. IAMBIC RHYTHMS. § 292, Iambic verses are measured b}^ dipodies (§ 289, 2). The irrational iambus > _ (§ 286, 3) in the form of a spon- dee can stand in the ^rs^ place of each iambic dipod}^, so that the dipod}' has the form ^ j_ y^ _l. In iambic Averse, there- fore, the tribrach ^ \i, ^ can stand in an}^ place for the iam- bus ^ j_ and the (apparent) spondee can stand in all the odd places, that is, in \h.<^ first part of ever}' dipod}'. An apparent dactyl (> ^ v^ for > j_) is sometimes used as the equivalent of the irrational iambus ; and the C3'clic anapaest ^ ^j— (§ 286, 4) is used for the iambus in both parts of the dipody, especially by the Attic comedians (§ 293, 4). § 293. The following are the most common iambic verses : — 1 . The monometer, — Trpof rr\v 6e6u. > kj 2. The dimeter (acatalectic and catalectic), — ^;r;Xc5 ae Ttjs \ ev^ovKias- > w |> w Koi TOP \(tyOV I TOP ^TTO). > w \ ^ w A 3. The tetrameter catalectic, consisting of seven feet and a syllable, or of the two preceding verses combined. There is a regular diaeresis (§ 288, 2) after the second dipody, where the first rhythmical series ends (§ 287, 1). See § 291, 2. ttnep Tov avbp 1 vncp^aKel, || koi firj yeXcor | offArjaeis. >_v^__|vy_vy_i > ~ ^ — |w_-wA 320 VERSIFICATION. [§293. In English poetiy each series is generally made a separate verse ; as A captain bold | of Halifax Who lived in conn | try quarters. 4. The TRIMETER ACATALECTic, the iMOst common of all iambic verses, in which most of the dialogue of the Attic drama is composed. It never allows any substitution in the last foot. With this exception it ma}- haA^e the tribrach m any place. The irrational iambus > _ in the form of a spon- dee can stand in the first place of ever}' dipody. The trage- dians allow the (apparent) dactyl > 6 w only in the first and third places, and the cyclic anapaest only in the first place ; but in proper names they allow the anapaest in every place except the last. The comedians allow the dactyl > vl/ w in all the odd places, and the cjxlic anapaest in every place except the last (§ 292) . The most common caesura is that after the thesis of the third foot. The following scheme shows the tragic and the comic iam- bic trimeter compared, — the forms peculiar to comedy being enclosed in [ ] . vy — \J -:- >_ vy -i- v^ _L. w >_ > www www w > w w > WW— [ww— ] [w www www www WW [> w w] ][ww-] [ww-l In general the tragedians avoid the feet of three syllables, even where they are allowed. The following are examples of both the tragic and the comic form : — (Tragic) x^o^os /tev els | TrjKovpov rj\KOfjLeu TreSoi/, 2Ki6T]V is oi\fiov, a^arov els \ iprjixlav, "Hcpaiarre, aoi \ de xp^ fxeKfiv | eTTto-roXaff. (Comic) Q> Zcv /SacrtXev • | to xPW^ "^^^ \ vvkt^u oaov anepavTov ov\Be7ro6* T][j.epa \ yevrjacrai; anoXoio fi^r', | St TroXepe, 7roX\Xmv ovfCKa. The Iambic Trimeter appears in English as the Alexan- drine, which is seldom used except at the end of a stanza : — And hope to meiiit Heaven by maklhig Earth a Hell. For iambic systems, sec § 298. §295.] DACTYLIC RHYTHMS. 321 DACTYLIC RHYTHMS. § 294. The onl}- regular substitute for the dact}-! is the spondee, which arises by contraction of the two short s^^lla- bles of the dactyl (_l. — from ^ ^ w) • § 295, The following are the most common dactylic verses : — 1. The dimeter, — flVOToBolKOS dofMOS W W I \J W fioipa 8i\coK€i w v^ I 2. The trimeter (acatalectic and catalectic), — TiapOeuoi I 6fi^po'w — |ww — |v^ ovTOi I 7rXovTr]\cr€T€ Tray [res. 1 Iww — I w The Lord | is advancling. Prepare |ye! l_1 v^wjl |^w_i_| \^ 4. The tetrameter catalectic, consisting of seven feet and a syllable, or of the two preceding verses combined. There is a regular diaeresis after the second dipody. See § 291, 2. TTpoo-xere tov vovv \ rois ddavdrois || fjfuv, toIs al\ep covctl, ToTs aWepioiSf \ tolotlv dyrjptas, \\ rols a(f>6iTa fXTj\8op.€Voi(rLV. § 298. An anapaestic system consists of a series of anapaes- tic dimeters acatalectic, with occasionally a monometer, ending always with the paroemiac (or dimeter catalectic). These are very frequently employed in both tragedy and comedy. E.g, deKQTov p.kv €Tos Tob^ €7ret Ilpidiwv fieyas dvribiKos, MeueXaos ava^ r}b* 'Aya/ie/xi/for, diOpovov ALodev Koi dLa-Krjnrpov Tifi^s oxvpov (evyos 'ArpetSaj/, arokov *ApyeiQ}V ;(iXtovaurav Trjo-b* dno ;(a)pa? ^pav, arpaTi5)Tiv dpcoydv. Note. Iambic and trochaic systems are sometimes formed on the same principle, consisting of iambic or trochaic dimeters acatalec- tic, with occasionally a monometer, ending always with a dimeter catalectic. LOGAOEDIC RHYTHMS. § 299. 1. Logaoedic rhythm is a rhythm in | time, having the trochee as its foundation, but admitting great freedom of construction. Besides the trochee — w , it admits the irrational trochee — >, the tribrach www, the cyclic dactyl -w w, and the syncopated trochee i — 824 VERSIFICATION. [§ 300. 2. The first foot of a logaoedic verse often allows special freedom, and it is then jcalled a basis. The basis may be a trochee or an irrational trochee — >, and sometimes a tribrach kj \j \j. An apparent iambus (probably with ictus w — ) sometimes occurs (see § 300, 7) ; and rarely even two short syllables, v^ w, stand for a basis in tyric poetry. Great license is permitted in using different forms of basis, even in verses which otherwise correspond precisely (§ 289, 4), as in § 300, 7. A basis is marked x. When a verse has more than one rhj'thmical series (§ 287, 1), each series ma}^ begin with a basis (see § 300, 7). Sometimes an anacrusis (§ 285, 4) precedes a logaoedic verse, either with or without a following basis. § 300. The following are some of the most important logaoedic verses : — 1. Adonic: a-vfifxaxos ecra-o. — o* v^ I — \j This Is the final verse of the Sapphic stanza (6.) 2. First Pherecratic : eirTairvKoLcn Qrj^ais. Catal. ■^evBea-i ttoikiXois- 8. Second Pherecratic : TraiBbs 8va(j)opou arav. Catal. exdlcTTcov dveixcou. 4. Ghjconic : (Three forms) : — (a) fxfj Kara rov ve&viau, —y^ vy I (b) Qrj^a rav rrporepav (f)dos. _? > [ (c) (f)S)Ta jSai/ra Traua-ayia. _y w | 5. Three Alcaics, which form the Alcaic stanza: — (a) d(rvP€Tr]fii rSiv duejiav a-rda-iv v-/ : w\^ I _^ 1 — v^ Kj\ w I — A (a) TO fiev yap evOev KVfia KvKivdfTai (6) TO 5' evdeu • afifxes 8* dv to pL€(T|-^wl — \J J^>l —\^ \j l_A V.I- _wl_ _A y^ 1 _wl _A w I-wvy 1 _ A §301.] FEET OF FIVE OR SIX TIMES. 825 6. Sapphic: iTOLKi\\66pov \ dBdvar \ *A^po]8ira. l_> I Three Sapphics and an Adonic (1) form the Sapphic stanza. ; S> Be (Oflf\ /ot, Kare|p _> -^ ^ L_ II JL w — > — > _ A w — See § 288, Note Note. Nearly all the verses here described as logaoedic have been called choriambic (§ 301, 1). If we consider the dactyl here as _ w w and not as -^ kj , it forms w w _ with the follow- ing long syllable; and thus, by the division hitherto common, the Pherecratics become (1) \j\j — | \j v^ and v^- w | w , (2) _ w 1 _ v^ w _ I w and ^i; I _ v^- w _ ; the Glyconics become (1) \j\j — I w _ w _, (2) _ c? | _ v^' w _ | w _, (3) >3;| w| \j \j ; and the Sapphic becomes _^|_w|_ww_|w_vy, with the Adonic _ w v^ __ | w. RHYTHMS WITH FEET OF FIVE OR SIX TIMES. § 301, Some of the more important rhythms with feet of five or six times (§ 285, 2, c, d) are the following : — 1. Choriambic rhythms, with the choriambus _ ^^ ,^ — as the fundamental foot : — TraiSa fiev av\Tds noaiv ai|ra df/xei/a. \j \j 1 \J\J — I — v^vy Note. Choriambic verses of this class are rare. Most so-called choriambic verses are here explained as logaoedic (§ 300, Note). 2. Ionic rhythms, with the ionic a minore ^ \j as the fundamental foot, — Tre7repaK€v | jxev 6 ir€pa-e\7rTo\is ^^rj )3ao-iXetoff | (rrparos fls dvlriTropou yei\TOva ;(a)pav. A ditrochee _ ^ _ ^ often takes the place of two long syl- lables and the two following shorts. This is called anacldsis (dvaKXao-is, breaking up) : ris 6 KpaiTTv^ \ 7ro8i 7rr}8r)\p,aTog fVTr€\Tfjs dvacraoap; WW Iww Iww — wf W 326 VERSIFICATION. [§302. 3. Cretic rhj'thms, in which paeons occur by resolution of long syllables (_ w w w or w vy w _ for _ w _) : — oi'K dva\(rxr}(Toixai • \ nrjbe Xe'ye | fioi crv Xoyov. KaTUTefiS) j Toi(riv tTrljreCo-t KarlrvfiaTa. — \J — I W I WWV^ I WWV^ KJ W "^ I K^ I W i W 4. Bacchic rh3'thms, with the bacchius w as the funda- mental foot : — Tts axoii I tIs odjxa. \ npoaeTTTll \ fi 6.(f>eyy'fis ; \j |w \ \j |w DOCHMIACS. § 802. Dochmiac verses, which are used chiefly in tragedy to express great excitement, are based upon a foot compounded of the bacchius and the iambus, \j I ^ — ? called the dochmiiis. This peculiar foot appears in nineteen different forms, by resolving the lohg syllables and admitting irrational longs in place of the two shorts. Its most common forms are ^ I w — and kj \j kj—^ kj — As examples may be given hva-oKycl TV)(a. \j { w TTTcpocjiopov defjias. w w vy \ K^ yuaodiov pev ovV' "^ \j \J | w (for ^ | v^ _«) pcyaXa peyaXa Kai, w w w w v-' | w (for w | w ) (fiepoipav ^octkclv. \j | > (for \^ \ kj ) irpoirepy^as a^, \ xLva dpoels Xoyov } Vw>'— .— .w— I \yv^v>_w«. APPENDIX. CATALOGUE OF YEEBS. APPENDIX. CATALOGUE OF VEEBS. Note. — This catalogue professes to contain only those verbs in ordinary use in classic Greek which have any such peculiarities as to present diffi- culties to a student. No verb is introduced which does not occur in some form before Aristotle ; and no forms are given which are not found in writ- ers earlier than the Alexandrian period, except sometimes the present indicative of a verb which is classic in other tenses, and occasionally a form which is given for completeness and marked as later. Tenses which are not used by Attic writers, in either prose or poetry, or which occur only in lyrical parts of the drama, are enclosed in [ ], except occasionally the present indicative of a verb which is Attic in other tenses. The simple stem of each verb, when this does not appear in the present, i.e. unless the verb is of the first class (§ 108, I.), is given in ( ) directly after the present indicative. The class of each verb (§ 108) is given in ( ) at the end, unless it belongs to the first class, when it is left without a number. Verbs in ixl of the second class (in vfn, § 108, v. 4) are marked (II.) ; other verbs in m are marked (I.). A few Epic irregularities are not noticed in the classification. The modification of the stem made by adding c in certain tenses (§ 109, 8) is marked by prefixing (e-) to the first form in which this occurs. A hyphen prefixed to a form (as -TjVe/ca) indicates that it occurs only in com- position. This is omitted, however, if the simple form occurs even in later Greek ; and it is not always inserted when the occurrence of cognate forms, or any other reason, makes it probable that the simple form was in good use. It would be extremely difficult to point out an example of every tense of even the best English verbs in a writer of established authority within a fixed period. The imperfect or j)luperfect is generally omitted when the present or perfect is given. A. [(aa-), injure, infatuate, stem, with aor. &a, qcofxai (9, breathe out, only imp. dioj'. Epic. See ^77^11.] ['AKaxt^w, afHict, redupl. pres., with dx^« and dxcvo, be grieved (only in pr. part, dxe'w, dxe(>wv), and dxop.ai, Je grieved; fut. d/caxijo^w, aor. d/cdx^ca ; p. p. dKax^jPiaL (d/c7?xe'5aTai), d/cdxw^at, dKax'nfJt.epos or d/ci/- X^/J-evos ; 2 aor. ■f]Kaxov, dKaxd^v. See dx^^f^'- ^^^^ ^X^f^^'- Epic] ['AKaxH-tvos, sharpened. Epic perf. part, with no present in use.] *AKeo|iai, heal, aor. '^Kead/njv. *Akt]8€« (aXr^-), anoint, dXeix/zcj, ifXeiypa, -dX-^Xidt)v, -dXet(t>drj(TOfiai (rare), 2 a. p. -TjXi, awr^, dXci/crw, ^eyca, '^Xevdfirjv. *A\il 'AXto-KojJiai (dX-, dXo-), &e captured, aX(adva) (aX0-), Ji7id, acquire, [Epic 2 aor. ?jX(pov.] (5.) •AfJiapTdvw (a/JLapr-), err, (€-) afiapnfiep-) and dftcpSo), deprive, ijfiepffa, ijfi^periv. Poetic. (1. 4.) 'Afiir-^X" an(i d}jnr-£, douht, riiKpiyvUov and -fj/JLcpeyvdeov, rjfKpiyvbriaa ; aor. pass. part. dfjL^LyvoTjdeis. § 105, 1, N. 3. *A(Jw}>i-€VVv}Ji.i (see 'ivwixC), clothe, fut. [Ep. dfKpL^aui] Att. -dfKpiQ ; r/fKpieaa, rj/xcpiea/xai ; dfJ.(pieaofxai, dix(l)Leadixrjv (poet.). § 105, 1, N. 3. (II.) *Aji.io-pTiTe«, dispute, augmented r]fi^i ^^'^^^ '^^P ' ^^® ^X"» ^'^^ § 1^5> 1» Note 3. ['AvirivoOe, defect. 2 pf., springs, sprung. Epic] See ev-qvode, 'Av-oi-yvviAi and oyolyvi (see ot'yvv^lL), open, imp. dvicpyov {ijvoLyov, rare) I [Epic dvi^yov] ; dmi^ia, dv^cp^a {ijvoi^a, rare) [Hdt. ctVot^a], dvecpx^"-) du^cp- ynai, dveiljxOrji' (subj. aVoix^w, &c.); fut. pf. aVe4i^o;uai ; 2 pf. dviifya (rare). (II.) *Av-op0d«, 5C< upright, aug. dvwp- and Tjpujp-. § 105, 1, N. 3. *Avv», Att. also dvvTw, accomplish ; fut, aVi/aw, dvixroinai ; aor. -fjuvaa, rivvffdjx'qv ; pf. ijvvKa, ijvvafxai. (Always u.) 'Avw-yw, orcZcr, exhort, imp. ijvcoyov ; duiv^u, iji/u^a ; 2 p. dt'W7a (as pres. ), with imperat. duuxOi-, du(vxd(o, dvi^xOe, 2 plpf. r]vd)yea. Ionic and poetic. ('Air-avpdo)), takeaway, not found in jjresent ; imp. dinjipwv (as aor.); a. m. dTrr]vpdfirju (?); aor. part. aToOpas, dirovpafiei/o^. Poetic. 'Airacljto-Kw (a7rd0-), deceive, 2 a. '^Traoy [2 a. m. opt. ctTra^oi/AT;!']. Po- etic. (6.) 'AtrexOdvoiiai (e'x^-), &e hated, (c-) d'rrex&VO'o/xaL, diriixQw^-'' > 2 a. ctTTT^x^^- /i^?". (5.) ['Airdcpo-c, stf£;^< q^, subj. diroipcri, opt. -(rete. Only in 3 pers. Epic] ' AiroKTivvv|JLi and -v«, forms of diroKTdvo}. See kt£iv. 'AirdxpT), t^ suffices, impersonal. See XPV- "Atttw (d0-), touch, fut. ai/'w, a^o^at ; aor. ij^i'a, i]- (ai)^-), increase, (€-) au^ijo-w, av^r'i(rop.ai, r)^^r}d(rv. Epic] See a0jJw. (4.) ['A<}>vi(i), f?raw, d(f>v} (late), ijipvcra, rjcpvadpirjv. Poetic, chiefly Epic] "AxOofiat, be displeased, (€-) dxO^o'op.ai, i)xO^-), clip, j3dxpu, i^a\f/a, pe^afXfxai, e^d^rjv and (poet.) €pd(pdr)v ; fut. m. )8di//o/xai. (3.) Bdo-KCi) (j3a-), poetic form of /SatVw, ^o. (6.) Bao-rd^w (^aarab-), carry, /Sao-rdo-w, e^daracra. Poetic. (4.) B^o-crw (jSt/x-), Att. ^TjTTW, cough, jS^^w, ^/37?^a. (4.) [Btptini (/3a-), ^0, pr. part. jSi/3ds. Epic] (I.) BiPptooTKii) {^po-), eat, p. pippcoKa, peppcofxai, [e^piaO-qv, 2 a. ^/Spwv ; fut. pf. Pe^pwao/xai] ; 2 p. part. (jSe/^/sws) pi. /SejSpwres (§ 125, 4). [Horn. pres. pe^pcbeo}.] (6.) ^ Bidw, Zwe, ^nbcro/xac, i^iu /S/'i'X'?^"^- § 108, vii. N. (7.) Bvv€« or Pv« (jSu-), stop up, j8if and ynp^^) groiv old, yTjpdao} and y^pdaofxai, ey-qpaaa, yey-qpaKa {am old); 2 a. {iyrjpav, % 125, 3) [eynpa Hom.], inf. yripdvai, pt. yqpd^. \ (6.) '"'^^-iJi'YVOjJiai and "yCvofJiai (7^1'-, 7a-), become, yev/i, bewail, 2 aor. (70-), 7601'; only Epic in active.] Mid. yodofiat, poetic, impf. 700x0; [yo-Zjao/Mai (Epic), as active]. § 108, vii. N. (7.) ^ rpd<|>w, write, ypdxj/io, &c. regular ; 2 a. p. iypd(f)7]v {iypd(p6r]u is not class- ic); 2 f . ypaipT^aofxai ; fut. pf. yeypd\l/ofmi. (8a-), stem, teach, learn, no pres., [(e-) dai^crofiai, SeddrjKa, SeSdrnmat ; 2 a. m. (?) inf. deddaadai ; 2 p. (5^5aa) § 125, 4 ; 2 a. 8i8aov or idaov,] 2 a. p. iddrjv. Poetic, chiefly Epic. [AaC^w (5at7-), rend, 8ai^(a, iddl'^a, 8€8diyp.ai, e8atx0riv. Epic and Lyric] (4-) AafvOfii (5at-), entertain, 8alcr(j}, eSaiaa, (iSala-Orjv) Saicrdeis. [Epic 8aiuv, impf. and pr. imperat.] Mid. Saimj/J.ai, feast, Salaofiai, i8ai(Tdfi7]u ; [Ep. pr. opt. 8aivvTo for Satvut-ro, 8ai.piaT for 8aii>vt-vTo. § 118, 1, N.] (II.) Aabixai (5a-), divide, [Ep. f. Scto-o^uat,] iSacrd/xrjv, pf. p. S^Sao-^uat [Ep. S^Sai- fmi]. § 108, iv. 3, Note. (4.) Pres. also SaWofiai (Sar-), divide^ to which 8daofmi, iSacdfjLTjv, and 848a SrjxO-ncofjLat. ; 2 a. eduKov. (2. 5.) Aafivdo) and 8d}JiVT]|JLi {dafi-, dfia-), also pr. Saftd^a) (dafiad-), tame, stcbdue, [Ep. f. da/xQ {\Y. dafidq., bajxowai) for dafidaio, iddfj.aaa, [dedfMrjfMai,] ida- fxdadrjv (§ 16, 1) and ed/j.ijdTjv ; 2 a. p. eddfirjv ; [fut. pf. dedfj^-^aofiai ; fut. m. Sa/ido-cro/xat,] a. m. idaixaadfxrju. See § 108, V. N. 1. (4. 5). AapOdvo) {8apd-), sleep, 2 a. tdapdov, poet, edpadov ; (€-) p Kara-dedapdrj- Kws ; KaT-eddpdrjv (Isiter). (5.) AaTeo(i.ai : see 8a£o|iai. [Ae'a|JLai, appear, only in impf, S^aro. Horn.] , AiBia, fear : see stem {di-, Set-). ~v^ [ A€l8w, /gar ; see (5i-, Set-).] ■ AeiKVvjj.1 (SetK-), s/iow, 5e/^w, eSei^a, d^Seixa, S^Seiy/iiai, iMxO-rfv, dei- ^ Xdrjaofiai; dei^ofiai, idei^dfirjv. See § 123. (II.) [Ion. (5e7c-), -5^|w, -^8e^a, -5e'6e7/Aai (Ep. deideyfiat), -idexdWi ide^dfiriv.] A^[ico (5e/i-, dfie-), build, ^deifia, [d^d/xrifiai], idei/jLd/xrjv. Chiefly Ionic. AepKO(Jiai, see, ibipx^W > 2 a. ^bpaKov, (edpdKTjv) Spanels ; 2 p. 8i8opKaf § 109, 3, 7 (a), and 4, N. 1. Acpo), flay, depC), edeipa, d^dap/j-ai ; 2 a. iddprjv. § 109, 4. [Aevofxai, Epic for S^ojuat.] See Zi, 8i€, ^5o^a, d^dojfiai, iddxdv^ (rare). Poetic 5oK^(T(a, edoKTjaa, dedoKtjKa, 8e56Kr)fMi, edoKTfidrjy. Impersonal, 8ok€i, it seems, &c. (7.) Aovireo) (Soutt-), sound heavily, i8oijTrif], do, 8pd {8v-), enter ; Sia-co {v), ^Svaa, 8i8vKa, 8€8vfiaL, i8^6r]v {v); 2 a. ^8vv, inflected § 123, see also § 125, 3; a. m. iSvffd/iriv [Ep. i8v. "ESofjiai, (^5- for aeS- ; cf. sed-eo), sit, [fut. inf. i-4. -e?/)/fa, elp^at [Ep. t'e/j^uot]. (4.) ['Eto-Kft), ZtX-eji, com])are; poetic, chiefly Epic: pres. also tV/cw.] See e'lKw. (7.) *EKKXT], traffic, ifxiroX-rjau, &c. regular. Augm. tj/jlit- or iue/jLiT'. § 105, 1, N. 3. 'Evaipo) (emp-), kill, [Ep. a. m. ivrjpdfiijp,] 2 a. ijvapov. Poetic. (4.) 'Evc'iro) (ei/ and stem creTr-) or Ivveirft), say, ie^Z, (Ep. f. ivi-airrjiTU) and eVt'i/'w;] 2 a. €i/i'. § 109, 8. Ev6p7€T€«, cZo good, evepyeri^aci}, &c. regular : sometimes augmented evrjpy. (§105,2). EvpCo-KCi) (evp-), find, (c-) evp-f](T(x}, eijp-rjKa, eijprjfJLai, evpidr}v, evpedTjao/xai ; 2 a. e^pou, €vp6p.T]v. Sometimes augmented rjvp- (§ 103, Note). § 109, 1, N. 2 (J.) (6.) Ev(j>paCv(o (6i) <''Xf's> o-xci'', o'X'^'' > poet, eax^^ov, &c. ; [Horn. pf. part. avu-oxoKdiiS, plpf. f^r- tixaro, t^gre s^?<<.] Mid. ^X^Hiai, cZi^igf . ZeuYWjii (fu7- cf. jug-um), yoke, i^u^o;, c^eu^a, e^evyfiai, i^eijx^rjv ; 2. a. p. e^u^v. (2. II. ) Zc'ci), boil, poet, ^etw, f^o-w ; efeaa, [-efe(r/iat Ion.]. Zwyvvjit (i"w-), gird, ei^uaa, l^ojafMi, e^ua-d/xr]!/. (11.) ^ 'H8o|iai, be pleased, Tjdo/J.'qv; vtrOriv, i]. 0€po|JLai, warm one's self, [fut. depaojxat., 2 a. p. {idiprjv) subj. ^epew Chiefly Epic] 0e'(D (^u-), rw7t, fut. deicofxai. § 108, II. 2. (2.) 0177^© (017-), <02tc/i-, 6L^o/xai or redi^o/xai (?), 2 a. idXyov. (5.) [0X«x«, bruise, 6\ct(T(a, idXaaa, ridXaa-fmi, idXdffdriv. Ionic and poetic] 0XiPw (5\t^-), squeeze, dXixJ/u, ieXi\J/a, [W^Xt^a late,] ridXififiai, idXi4>6r)tf ; ieXlfirjv ; [fut. m. dXixpofiat. Horn.]. (2.) 4 342 APPENDIX. .©vqcrKO) {dap-, Ova-), die, 6avovfxai, ridvriKa ; fut. pf. redvij^u}, § 110, iv. (c), N. 2, or redv-q^oixai', 2 a. ^davov \ 2 p. [Tedvaa) § 125, 4, part, redveus [Horn. T€du7]d)-j\. In Attic prose always airo-davodixai and dir-idapov. (6.) 0pdo-a-a) and dparru {rpax-, Opax-), disturb, aor. idpa^a, idpdxOrjp (rare); [p. TeTprixa, be disturbed, plpf. TerprixeiP, Horn,] See rapda-croj. (4.) Gpavci), bruise, dpaiao), Wpavaa, r^dpavafxai and redpav/xai, idpava-drjp. § 109, 2. Chiefly poetic. ©pviTTO) {rpvcp- for dpvp6r]p, chiefly Epic]; idpiJa-ofxai, Idpvadixrjp. "Ttfii (15-), seat or sit, mid. t^ojiai, sit; used chiefly in Kad-i^u), which see. See also 'qp.at. (4.) "iTifxi (e-), send; see § 127. (I.) ^ 'lKV€'o|j.ai (k-), poet, i'/cw, comg, i^ofiai, tyfiai ; 2 a. Udfirip. In prose usu- ally d^-cKPeofiaL. From t/ca;, [Ep. imp. Ikoj', 2 a. i^op, § 119, 8. J (5.) 'IXdo-KO(j.ai [Ep. iXdofiai] (tXa-), propitiate, IXdaopiai, iXdadrjp, IXaad- fj-VP. (6.) ["IXtjjjli, be propitious, pres. only imper. 'CX-qdi. or I'Xa^t ; pf. subj. and opt. IX-qKO), iXriKoi/jLL (Hom. ). Poetic, chiefly Epic] [I.] "IXXft) and I'XXofxai, roll, for etXXw. See elXeo). *Indo- shear, f. /ce/jtS, a. t/cei/Da [poet. e/cep m. eKeipdfnjv [w. poet. part. /ce/jcrd/zfj'os.] (4.) [KcKaSov, deprived of, caused to leave, KCKaobfi-qv, retired, KeKaS-fjau, shall de- prive, reduplicated Hom. forms of xdiw.] § 100, N. 3. See xo-t"- V KeXevb), command, KcXeiJo-w, iKeXcvcra, KeK^XevKa, KCK^Xevafmi, iKeXevadrjv. § 109, 2. Mid. chiefly in compounds, K^XXo) (/fcX-), land, KiXaw, CKcXaa. Poetic. See 6kA.Xo>. (4.) KeXopiai, order, [Ep. (e-) KfXri(TO(.taL, iKeX-qadfx-rjv ; 2 a. m. k€kX6htjv or iKexXofirju (§ 100, N. 3).] See § 110, v. N. 2. Chiefly Epic. KcvTw, prick, Kevrria-b}, iK^vTrjaa, [KeK^t^TTjfjLai Ion., iKevrrjOrjv later, ci/y- KevT7]drj(T0fiac Hdt.j. [Hom. aor. inf. K^vaai, from stem kcpt-. (7.)] Kcpdwv|u (xe/aa-, /cpa-), miar, iKipdcra [Ion. CKprjo-a], KiKpa/mi [Ion. -i;A'aO» •344 APPENDIX. iKpidrjv f Ion. --/idrjv] and iKepdadrjv ; f. pass. Kpadi^cro/xai ; a. m. iKepaa-A- fivv. (II.) KepSaCvo) {KepSav-), gain, f. KepdavQ [Ion. Kepdav^o) and icepS'^o-Ojuai], ^/c^p- Sd/za [Ion. -T/m or rjaa], -KeKepdTjKa (/cepSa-, § 109, 6). (4.) KcvSw (/ci;^-)> ^*^^> /cei^o-w, [l/ceuaa ;] 2 p. KiKevda (as pres.) ; [Ep. 2 a. /ClJ^OJ', Subj. K€K^6u}.] (2.) KrfSu (/fa5-)> "^^^j (*") [f'^S^crw, -iKi^drjaa ; 2 p. /c^KiySa]. Mid. Ki^dofxaif sorrow, iKrjSecrdfJLriv, [Ep. fut. pf. /ce/ca5?70-o;aac.] (2.) KT)pv(rcr(i) {KTjpvK-), proclaim, Krjpij^io, iKifjpv^a, KeK-^pvxO', KeK'^pvyp.ai, iKT]- p^xQWi KTjpvxdvo'Ofw.i ; K-qpi^opjOLL, eKr)pv^dp,7]v. (4.) [K£8vii|Jii, spread, Ion. and poetic for aKe8dvvvp.L.] (I.) [K^vvjiat; jnore, pres. and imp. ; as mid. of kivcw. Epic] (XL) K£pvT])j,i and Kipvdw: see K€pdvvv|xi,. Ki\avoi (klx-), find, (€-) «:tx^o-o/iat, [Ep. ^Kt-xwo-p-riv] ; 2 a. iKixov [and ^/c£- X?;!' like ea-rrju]. Poetic. (5.) KCxpil|Ji.«. (xpa-)* ^«^cZ, [x/>^o-« Hdt.], ex/)i7 and K\do> (/cXav-), tweep, K\ai(Top.ai (rarely KXavaovpui, sometimes KXanr/a-bj or KXd-rja-b)), CKXavcra and iKXava, k^- KXep,fiai, (jKX4(pdr]v) KXetpdeb; 2 a. p. iKXdirtjv. § 109, 3, N. 2. (3.) KXtvd) (/cXrj/-). &s»i^, incline, kXivQ, e/cXim, [^^icXr/ca, later,] /c^/cX^iai, c/cX/- ^T^i/ [Ep. iKXlvBrjv], KXXdrj(Top.ai ; 2 a. p. iKXivrjv, f. KXXvfjffop.aL ; fut. m. «:Xi- voO/ittt, a. €KXi.vdp.r)v. § 109, 6. (4.) KXvw, ^ear, imp. IkXuoj' (as aor.) ; 2 a. imper. /cXO^t, KXvre [Ep. KinXvOi, KiKXvTe]. Poetic. KvaC(i>, scrape (in compos.), -Kval;/m«], eKopiadriv ', [Ep. 2 p. pt. KCKopi^dis, a. m. hopead- fiV"'] (H.) CATALOGUE OF VERBS. 345 Kopvo-o-w (Kopvd-), arm, [aor. Kbpvffo-e and Kopvaffdfjievos (Horn.), pf. p. /ce- \ Kopvdixivoi.] Poetic, chiefly Epic. (4.) [KoTcu, he angry, aor. kKbreca, eKOTeadfirju, 2 pf. pt. Ke/corijcis, angry, Epic] Kpd^cD (/c/oay-), cry out, fut. pf. KeKpd^o/Mi (rare), 2 pf. KiKpdya (imper. k^- Kpaxdi'), 2 a. -iKpayov. (4.) KpaCvw (ff/Mxi'-), accomplish, Kpavd, ^Kpdva [Ion. ^/cpi/j/a], iKpdp6r]v, Kpavd-fi- cofxai ; f. m. Kpapoufiai ; p. p. 3 sing. K^KpavTai (cf. Tre^airat, § 97, Note 3, d). Ionic and poetic. [Epic KpaiaCvw, aor. iKprjriva, pf. and pip. KeKpdavrai and KeKpdavro ; iKpddvdrjv (Theoc.).] (4.) Kp^jiajxai, ^^Tig', (intrans.), Kpe/xT^aofxai. (I.) Kp6}j.dvvv(JLL {Kpefia-), hang, (trans.), KpefiQ (for Kpejxdau), iKpi/xaaa, iKpe/xd- (xOtjv ; le Kp€fiaad/X7}v.^ (H*) Kpi]nvT]|JLi, suspend, mid. Kpi^fivafxai ; only in pres. and impf. Poetic. (I. ) Kp{^« (KpXy-), creak, squeak, [2 a. {^KpiKOp) 3 sing. KpUe-^ 2 p. {K^KpTya) KeKpiybres, squeaking. (4.) V Kptvw (^KpTv-), judge, f. /fptvcD, ^KpTva, K^KpiKa, KiKpt/xai, iKptdrjv [Ep. ^/cptV- ^771/], KpW'qaofiai, ; fut. m. Kpcuovfiai, a. m. [Ep. ^/c/atJ'd/ATyj'.] § 109, 6. (4.) Kpovo), Jea^, Kpoicw, ^KpQvaa, K^KpovKa, -niKpovfiai and -K^Kpovafxat, iKpoi- adrjv ; -Kpoicrofmt, iKpovad/xrjv. KpiJirTw, {Kpv^-, Kpv'riaofxai or Kpv^riao/Mai. (3.) I KTdop.ai, acquire, KT-^ao/mi, iKTrja-d/xrjv, K^KTTjfiai. or ^KTijfjLai, possess (subj. K€KTu}fiat, opt. KeKTTjfjiTjv OT KeKTi^Tjv), iKT-^drjv (as pass.) ; KCKTi^cofiai (rarely e/cr-), shall possess. § 118, 1, Note. ( KtcCvo) (fcrev-), ^t'ZZ, f. /crevw [Ion. Kreviw, Ep. also /crai'^aj], a. ^Kreiva, (p. iKTayKa, rare), 2 p. ^/ croyg ; [Ep. ^/crd^T^i' ;] 2 a. iKToivov (l/crai' poet. § 125, 3) ; 2 a. m. poet. iKTdjxrjv (as pass.) ; [Ep. fut. m. -/crai'eojuat.] § 109, 3, 4 (w. N. 1), 6. In Attic prose diroKTdv 2 a. eXaxop [Ep. XeX-l (5.) Sj Aa)i.pdva) (\a^-), take, X-fiypajJucii, €tXrjJ AavOdvw (\a^-),poet. X^^w, ?ie Aic?, escape <^e oioticc of (some one), X'?7(7w, y [eXT^cra], 2 p. XAt^^o [Dor. Xe'Xct^a,] 2 a. IXa^oj' [Ep. X^Xadov.] Mid. forget, X-qaofiai, XiX-qafiaL [Horn. -aafJiaC], fut. pf. XeXriao/xai, 2 a. iXadd- /jLrjp [Ep. XeXadofXTjv.] (5.) Ado-Kw for XaK-a-KU} (\a/c-), speak, (e-) XaK^aofiaL, eXdK-rjaa, 2 p. XAd/ca [Ep. XiXrjKa w. fem. part. XeXaKv^a :] 2 a. eXa/cov [\eXa/t6/t77i']. Poetic § 108, vi. N. 3. (6.) [Add), XcD, t^is/i, X^s, X^, &c. ; Infin. Xrjv. § 98, K. 2. Doric] ly Aiyo), say, X^fw, eXe^a, XiXeyfmi {di-eiXeyfiat), iXix^rjv ; fut. Xex^Tjcro/xat, X^^ofiai, XeX^^o/xat, all passive. For pf. act. cfpij/ca is used (see dtrov). *^i A^Yw, gatlier, arrange, count (Attic only in comp.), Xi^w, iXe^a, eiXoxa, ! etXeyfmi or X^Xey/nai, iX^x^V^ (rare) ; 2 a. p. i Xiyrj v, f. Xeyr]crofxai. [2 a. m. eX^y/jLTjv (X^kto, imper. X^^o, inf. X^x^ai, pt. X^7^ej'os)]. [The Horn. forms X^^o/mai, iXe^dfitjp, eXe^a, and eXiyfi-qv, in the sense _pw< io res^, res^, are generally referred to stem Xcx-, whence X^xos, &c.] AdiTbi (XtTT-), Zca-ye, Xc/i^w, XiXeififiat, kXe'Kpdrjv; 2 p. X£Xoi7ra ; 2 a. eXirrov, eXiTTOfJivv. See § 95 and § 96. (2.) [AcX£t]^ai, part. XeXcTjfji^vos, eager (llom.y] Aiva, stone, generally Kara-Xeiju) ; -Xei/o-w, -eXevcra, eXeiffdrjVf -Xevad^aofxau § 109, 2. AijGo), poetic : see XavOdvu. Aritjft) (XtjXS-) , jylunder, act. rare, only impf. eXiJl'^oi'. Mid. XTi't^op-ai (as . act.), [fut. XTjtaofiat, aor. kXyfCadfiriv, Ion.]. Eurip. has tXrjad/Jiijv, and pf. p. X4Xri(TiJ.ai. (4.) At{r, Epic for Xoi5w ; Xoeaao/xai, iXUaca, eXoecadfxrjv.] Aovb) or X fnadden, a, e/iijm, 2 pf. iiifiriva, am mad, 2" Mid. (AaivojJLai, Jaa). Mapvajiai, /grAi (subj. fidpvuiJLai, imp. fxdpvao); a. €fxapvdadT]v. Poetic. (I.) Mapirro) {fxapT-), seize, iidpypb), efiapxpa [2 pf. fi^fiapira Epic]. Poetic. (3.) Mdo-o-ci) (itia7-), knead, fid^ta, &c. regular; 2 a. p. efidyrjv. (4.) /' Mdxo)j,ai [Ion. ixax^ofiai], fight, f. fxaxov/xaL [Hdt. fiax^cofiai, Horn, /ua- X^ofiaL or /Aaxi7a'o/Aat], p. fxeiJ.dxVH-0-h a. e/xaxeadfi-qv [Ep. also hfxaxwo-' fir]v ; Ep. pres. part, fiax^i-ofj-evos or /uaxfoy/ievoj]. [Me'Sojiat, | shiU (the lips or eyes), aor. e/Aucra, pf. fiifivKa, N. Ufaita (ya-), dwell, [evaaaa, ima-adfxrjv,] hdadrjv. Poetic. § 108, iv. 3, Note. (4.) Ndo-, distribute, f. yc/tw, ^vei/xa, (i-) pevifiijKa, pep^/xTj/xac, hefii^drjp ; vefioO- fiai, epeifidfirjp. Neofxai, go, come, or (as future) will go. Chiefly poetic. 1. New (pv), swim, -tpevaa, -pipevKa ; f. m. part, pevaoifiepoi. (2.) 2. N^ca, heap up, eptjaa, v^prifiai or p^prja-fiai. [From Ion. VT)4a>, prjTja-a, P7]7j(xai, &c.] 3. N€« and vf\Qa), spin, priffoi, iprjaa, hi^d'qp ; [Ep. a. m. v-^aaPTO.] NC^w later pIttto} (vX^-), wash, pixpcv, epitpa, pipififiai, [-€pi\i.(jdov. (5.) •JL,''OXXu|ii (probably for oX-j/U'/Ltt) rarely dXXuoj (6X-), destroy, lose, f. (5X<3 ' [dX^tro;, oX^wJ, tuXetra, -oXdiXeKa ; 2 p. 5XwXa, perish, 2 plpf. oXwXeiv (§ 102, Note 2). Mid. dXXv/xai, perish, oXov/xai, 2 a. (bXdfirju. In prose generally d7r-6XXu/it. § 108, v. 4, Note 2. (II.) V- "OlAviJiii and opivva) (6/U-, o^io-), swear, f. o/xovfiai, &fioa-a, dfidfioKa, dfiufxo- fffiac (with ofXibfjiOTai) , wfxodrjv and (hiibad-qv, d/xoadrja-ofiai, a.m. -ufio-' adfjiw. § 102, N. 2. (II.) •0|jidpYvv|it (^o/xopy-) , tf;ipc, ofxop^cj, dfidp^ofiat, ijfxop^a, (bfiop^dfiTp' ; dir- ofiopxOds. Chiefly poetic. (II.) \j*OvCvr\^i (dm-), benefit, dvrja-u), Covrjaa, (I}pr)dr]v ; 6vria-o/j.ac ; 2 a. m. (hvdfirjv or (rare) (hvrnxrjv. [Horn, imper. ovriao, pt. dj/Ty/zevosJ. § 125, 2, N. 2. (I.) ["Ovoiiai, insult, (inflected like Bibofiai) ; 6vb f- P* -o/oux^^o"o/Aat, 2 f. opvxv'^oixai.) ; [ibpv- ^ajx-qv, caused to dig, Hdt. ] (4.) '0pdvdrjv (rare), 2 a. m. wcr^\Xti) (60eX-), increase, [aor. opt. o^eXXeie Horn.] Poetic, especially Epic (4.) ''0<|>Xio-Kdvft) (o0X-, 60Xt(rK-), &« guilty, incur (a penalty), (c-) oftA-qau), HxpXrjaa (rare), wcpXrjKa, CocpXrjfmi ; 2 a. cD0Xoj' (inf. and pt. sometimes 6 (repa; Trpa-), sell, [Ep. irepda-o}, eTipaffa,] iriirpdKa, irirpdixai [Horn, ireirep'nfiiuos], eirpde-qv [Ion. -T^/iat, -77^771'] ; fut. pf. Teirpdaofiat. ■ j The Attic uses dToduxrofiai and dredd/xTjp in fut. and aor. (6.) Vn^iTTft) (ttct-, ttto-) for TTt-TeT-o;, /aZZ, f. irecrovfiai [Ion. Tretr^oAiat] ; p. ir^irrajKa, pai-t. ■jreTTTcis [Ep. ireirtTjds or -ec6sj; 2 a. ^ireaoy [Dor. ^TrerocJ. (8.) [IIiTVTifii, spread, pres. and impf. act. and mid. Epic and Lyric. See ircTdvwjti.] (I.) nXd^o) (7rXa77-), cause to wander, e'7rXa7^a. Pass, and mid. irXdtonai, wander, irXdy^oimi, will wander, iirXdyx^v^, wandered. Ionic and poetic, (4.) nXdo-cro) (TrXar-?), form, [ttXc^o-w Ion.], eirXdca, ir^irXa-), stitch, pd^u), eppaxpa, eppa/xfiai; 2 a. p. kppa7}v; a. m. eppa- ^^dixT)v. (3.) 'Pdtr (cru-), move, wrgrg, [a. effffeva, iffaevd/xrfv ;"] ecffvfiai, caaiOtjv or iavdt]v ; 2 a. m. iaa^ipL-qv (with eavro, criro, crvfievos). Poetic. (2.) . Zi])Jia£vci} (crr;yu,a/'-), show, arjfiavC}, earifiTjva (sometimes ea-fjfxava) , aecT-qfm- fffiai, i(n)fidvdir)v, crrjfxaudrjaofjiai ; mid. ar)p.avovp.ai, €(X7}fj.7)vd/x7)v. (4.) STJiro) (craTT-), rot, (tt)-^(j}, 2 p. cia-qxagg/j^n^ pres.) ; 6r]v. (3.) 2p,dw, sinear, with ?/ for d in contracted forms (§ 98, N. 2), tryic^ for d^a) (cr0a7-), sZ«7/, Att. prose gen. {rcJ)dTTft) ; (rd^u), tadXXa) ((T0a\-), ^Wp, deceive, <7a\ovfiai. (4.) 2w^(i> (trwS-), save, [also Ep. o-c^w, w. subj. (r6i7S, a-(57/, &c]; aibcrci}, cataaa, aia-ujKa, ff^auff/mi (or -w,uai), ia-(i)9rjv, crw^Vo/^ct' J cibaofiai, ia-wa-d/xrjv. (4.) 356 APPENDIX. T. (ra-), take, stem with Horn, imperat. r^. [(Ta^-), seize, stem with Hom. 2 a. pt. Teraydiv.'] Cf. Lat. tango. [TaviSw, stretch, ravvau, eravvaa, Terdwafjixii, €TaPij wza^e, rci^^w, ^rev^a, [Ep. rirevxa. as pass,,] r^ru- 7/xai [Ep. T^revyfiai, er^xOw (Ion. erei/x^^") ; fut. pf. rereij^ofxai ;] f. m. reij^ofiai, [a. ercu^d/x?;!'.] [Epic 2 a. (rii/f-) rervKetv, rervKdpirjv.] Po- etic. (2. ) Ti^Kw (raK-), melt, [Dor. rff/cw), riy^w, ?r7;^a, irrjxOvv (rare) ; 2 a. p. erd- AfT^i/ ; 2 p. riTTjKa (as mid.). (2.) Tt0Ti|ji,t (de-), put ; for inflection and synopsis, see § 123. (I.) TtKTw {t€k-), beget, bring forth, re^ofiai (poet, also t^^w, rarely reKovfjuii), cre^a (rare), irexdw (rare) ; 2 p. riroKa ; 2 a. h-CKOv, ereKSfMrju. See § 108, iii. (end). (3.) CATALOGUE OF VERBS. 357 Tiya (rt-), Avitli t, pay, fta-cj, ^riaa, r^TlKa, -Tiriafiaiy -iTiadrjv. (5.) [TiTaivw {tXtclv-), stretch, aor. (eTiTTjm) TLTTjvas. Epic for T€lvdr)v [Ion. erpd^^Tjj'j ; f. in. rpei/'O/xai, a. m. erpe-^dix-rjv ; 2 a. [^r/act- TTo;/ Ep. and Lyr.], erpdirrju, eTpairdfirju. § 109, 3, N. 2, and 4 with Note 1. This verb has all the six aorists. Tpccfxo (rpetp- for dpe« (ri;0- for dvip; § 17, 2, Note), raise smoke, smoke, ridufifiai, 2 a. p. -iT6dv6r]v ; aor. m. u^T/m/x?;*/. (4.) Yo), rain, vcrw, 5(ra, iafiai, VcrOrjv. [Hdt. f/'croftai as pass.] *a£v« {da). See § 95 ; § 96 ; § 97, 4. (4.) 4>dtrKa) (0a-), s«i/, only pres. and inipf. See ^ii\ilC. (6.) 4>do), s/ime (pres. late), jHom. imperf. 0de, fut. ])f. 7re0^o-erai.] 4>€i8o|xai. (0t5-), sjyare, 0et(ro/iai [Horn. 7re0i5^cro/ioi], icj>eL€V-, f- P- ^''fX^'^co/iui and oiaOrjaofiai ; 2 a. ijveyKou ; f. m. oiao/xai (sometimes as pass.); a. m. ijvtyKdixrjv, 2 a. m. ijveyKOfi-qv (very rare). [Ion. ijveiKa and -a/nrjv, ■fjfeiKov, ivfjveiy^iai, ijvelxOw \ Hdt. di'-oro-at or di'-Jia-at, inf. from aor. 4^a (late) ; Hom. aor. imper. olae for oto-oi', pres. imper. (pepre for 0epeTe.j (8.) 4>€V7w (01^7-) /ce, (petj^ofiaL and (pev^oOfiat (§ 110, ii. N. 2), 2 p. iricpevya (§ 109, 3); 2 a. eT]jii (0a-), say, (prjffw, €(pr} {(pda-), anticij^ate, (pddao} and (pdrjaojxaL, €6opa; f. m. dl(j3p.aL, opt. <{>6ifx-r}v for di-t-fj.r}v, imper. 3 sing. (f>6i6ifir)v). Epic 0^iw has generally i. Chiefly poetic. The present is generally intransitive ; the future and aorist active are transitive. (5. ) CATALOGUE OF VERBS. 359 *tX^» (0rX-), love, ^tXiJo-w, &c. regular. [Ep. a. m. icplXdfirjv ; inf. pres. (piXTjixemi, from Aeolic (pLXrj/Mi.] (7.) 4>Xda), bruise, [fut. ^Xctcrw (Dor. \apd'yvv|xai ; only in pres. and impf. See <|>pdor(r(i>. (II. ) ^pd^w («^pa5-), ^e/Z, 0/)aVw, €(ppaaa, irecppaKa, Tr^(ppapdpay-), fence, pTK-), shudder, pC7« {(fypvy-), roast, 0pi/^w, € vXd^ofJiat., icpvXa^dfirjv. (4.) ^6p«, ?«,«:, [e^vpaa,] vitpvpjxai, eijp67}v ; [fut. pf. Te^jjpffOfiai Find.]. ^vpdoD, mix, is regular, (pvpdcu, &c. 4>v«, (y), produce, cpua-co, €(f>v\jv, be, be born, (subj. 0i}w); 2 a. p. e^uTji' (subj. 0i;a))j fut. m. rejoice, («-) x^-'-P'^'^'^y KexdprjKa, KexdprjfJMi and Kixo-pp-ci-, 2 a. p. cxdp-qv, [Ep. a. m. XVP<''-T0, 2 a. m. Kexap^p-rju ; 2 p. pt. Kcxapv^^ > fut. pf. K€xapri(ro}, K€X(ip'ri, later x^'^va) (xa»'-)> 5'«:2'^. f- x°'^o^l^h 2 p. k^xW^ (as pres.), 2 a. exavov. Ionic and poetic. (4.) Xe^cD (x^S-), fut. x^<^ov/jiai (rarely -x^a-ofiac), ^x^aa, 2 p. -K^x^Sa ; 2 a. exe- (Tov ; a. m. €x^(^dfir]v ; p. part. Acexeo-ZA^vos. (4.) X^o) (xi'-)* pour, f. x^w [Ep. Xf«5w], a. ex^a [Ep. ex^i^a]* 'K^X^ku, K^xvfiai, ex^^Vi x^^V<^ofiai ; a. m. ix^dpt.'qv, 2 a. m. exv/xrjv. § 108, ii. 2, N. ; § 110, iii. 1, N. 2. (2.) [(XXa8-) stem of 2 pf. part. /cexXdSws, swelling, (Find.).] 360 APPENDIX. Xow, heap up, x^<^^> ^X^^^t •k^X^K'^) Kixf^<^f^^h ^X^'^^W^ X^<^^V<^onai» § 109, 2. Xpaio-jjiew (xpaiafi-), avert, help, late in present ; [Horn. xP<^i-<^I^W(^, ^XP^*-' (TfiTjaa ; 2 a. expatc/xoi']. (7.) Xpdo|jiai, use, (perhaps mid. of XP'^^)f XPMofiai, hxfi'r} ^XPVO'C', k^XPVKC; K^xpvcfJ^'- {-Wcll ?), kxPM^W' Mid. consult an oracle, [xfivf^o/mi, ixpv^^o.M^-] § 98, Note 2. For XPV^ and XPV = X/3?7f"S and XPV^^h see XPiaS"' Xp^ (impers.), irreg. pres. for xprj-o-i, there is need, (one) ought, must, subj. XPVy opt. XP^^V, inf. xPV^o-h (poet. xp^;'); imperf. xp^" or ixpw. 'Airo- Xptl, «^ suffices, inf. dTroxp^;', imperf. dw^xPVy [Ion. dvoxp^, diroxpav^ dirixpa ;] diroxpvo'ei, dTrixPV*^^' (!•) XpT]t« (XP??5-), Ion. XP'H^l*** w.'a?i<, «s^, XPW^ [^on. xp^td'w], txpv<^a., [Ion. exp^i"(ja]. Xp^s and xp^ (as if from xpdu)), occasionally have the meaning of XP^/fets. XPVt^t- (4.) XpCci), anoint, sting, xpla-o), expt> KixP^<^P^o-h expi^- dXT]d^s declined 56. dXfo-KOnat 135 (N.) dXXdart w. gen., dat., and accus. 239, 242. d(JLi(rpT|T^a>, augment 124 (N. 3). du<|>« and d}j4<^T6pos 70 ; w. art. 204 (N. 2). dv (Epic /c^), adv. 253^256 : see Contents, p. xxiii. Two uses : in apodosis 253, in protasis and final cl. 254. In apodosis, w. second- ary tenses of indie. 254 (3), 263 (2), 264 (2), 267 (2), 272 (&), 276 (2); w. optative 255 (§ 210), 263 (2), 265 (2), 269 (2), 272 (b), 276 (4); w. fut. indie. (Hom.) 254 (§ 208, 2); w. subj. used as fut. 864 GREEK INDEX. (Horn.) 255 (2), 291; w. infin. and partic. in apod. 255, 285, 273 (top). In protasis w. subj. 254 (end), 263 (2), 265 (1), 269 (1), 270 ; dropped when subj. becomes opt. 282 (3). In final clauses w. ws, Sttws, and 6(ppa 260 (N. 2). Omitted in protasis (in poetry) 269 (N. 2), 271 (N. 2), 277; in apodo- sis 268 (N. 1), 270 (N. 1); not used w. ^5et, xPWy ^^- ^ apod. 268 (N. 2) ; repeated in long apod. 256 (2) ; ellipsis of vb. 256 (3) ; used only w. first of several vbs. 256 (4). See cdv, ijv, dv(d), and Tdxa. &v (d) for idv {el &v) 263 (2). avfordi'c£(Hom.) 12 (N. 3). av- privative : see a- privative. &v (a &v) by crasis 11, 275 (N.). -dv for -6.WV in gen. pi. 31 (4). dvd w. dat. and ace. 238, 239, 242 ; w. gen. 239 (3). &va, up! 242 (N. 5). avd-yK-q w. infin. 294 (1). dvaXCo-K« and dvaXdto augment 120 (N. 1). dvdgios w. gen. 227 (N.). &v€v w. gen. 237, 229 (K). dv^X"> augment 124 (N. 3); w. par- ^ tic. 303 (1). dv^p declined 48 ; avfip 11. dvoi^o), augment 123 (§ 104, N. 1). dvTt w. gen. 236. d^ios declined 53. fi^tos and d^tow w. gen. 227 (N.). Airats, adj. of one ending 57 (N. 4); w. gen. 228 (N. 2). direipos w. gen. 228 (N". 1). d-n-KTreci) w. dat. 230 (end). dirXoos, dirXovs declined 55, 56. dird w. gen. 236 ; for iv w. dat. 242 ^ (N. 6). diroSCSwjxi and diroSCSouai 245 (N. 3). dTrdWvfii, augm. of plpf. 122 (N. 2). 'AiroXXwv, accus. 37 (N. 1); voc. 21 (1, K), 38 (N.). diroXo7eo|j.ai, augment 124 (top). dirTw and dirTO|i.ai 246 (top). dp (Hom. for Apal2 (N. 3). dpa, dpa ov, and dpa ^i\, interrog. 306 (end). dpapf(rK(i>, Att. redupl. 122, 129 (end), 134 (c). dp7vp€os, dp-yvpovs, declined 55 ; ac- cent 34 (N. 2). dpi- intensive prefix 188 (N. 1). -apiov, dimin. in 184 (8). dptrTjv or dpprjv 59 (N. 3). do-o-a or drra 76 (2). da-o-aordTTtt 77 (N. 1). do-TTip, decl. 48 (N. 1). dcrrpdirrei without subj. 193 (e). dcTTv, declined 44. -arai, -aro (for -Krai, -vto) in 3 pers. plur. 151 (end). dre w. partic. 301 (end). drcp w. gen. 237, 229. drcpos 11 (N. 2). -aro (for -vto) : see -arai. drra or drra : see do-o-a and drra. avaCvw, augment 122 (end). avTdpKT]s, ailrapKCS, accent 21 (1, K). avTiKa w. partic. 301 (N. 1). avT 13 (N. 1); changed to ^ in pf. act. 138 (&). paCvo), formation 129 (4, N. 1). pdKXos {kx) 13. Pao-iX6ia 30, 182 (a-, N.): /Sao-tXeta 30, 183 (N. 2). Poo-iXevs declined 45 ; compared 66 (3). GREEK INDEX. 365 Boo-iXcvd), denom. 186 ; w. gen. 223 (3); aor. of 247 (N. 5). 6X.£tt« {/xeXiT-) by syncope 13 (IST. 1). Bop€as, Boppas, declined 31 (N. 1). PovXop.ai, augment 120 (N. 2); ^o6- Xet in indie, (not ^oijXr]) 146 (N. 2); ^ovXoi/xrjv dv and i^ovXo/xrju 6.v 272 (6); /SoivXei or ^oiXeade w. in- teiTog. subj. 291 (end); ^ovXofjL^uii) TLvL eaTLP, &c. 232 (N. 5). poi)s declined 45, 46 ; stem in com- pos. 187 (N.). ppoTos itiop-), by sj'^ncope 13 (N. 1). pvv^o) (/3v- ye.) 129 (3). r, middle mute, palated, and sonant 8 ; w. sound of v before K,y, x, or I 8 (top) ; euph. changes before lin- gual 14 (1), bef. o-14(2);ch. tox in pf. act. 138 (6). ■yatmrip, decl. of 48. •ye'Yova as pres. 247 (N". 6). 7€Xa w. ace. and gen. 223 (N. 3): yevofxaL w. gen. 222 (2), ■y-g omitted after article 201 (N. 4). ■yf-yas declined 40. •yi-yvop-at 130, 134 (c); copul. vb. 194 (Rem.); w. gen. 221 ; w. poss. dat. 232 (4). YfyvwcTKft), redupl. in pres. 129 (end); w for 130 (top). "YXvkiIs declined 57, 58. 7pavs declined 45, 46. Ypda) and 7pd<{>o|iai 245 (N. 3); eypdcprjv 246 (top); ypdcpojxaL w. cogn. accus. 214, w. gen. 224 (2). A, middle mute, lingual, and sonant 8 ; euph. changes before lingual 14 (1), bef. PL 14 (3), dropped bef. 0- 14 (2); inserted in dvdpds (dp'/jp) 13 (IsT. 2), 48, before -arai and -aro (in Hom.) 151 (end). 8a-, intens. prefix 188 (K 1). 8a£» (5a-) 128 (3, N.). 8ap.vdw (dafi-) 129 (4, N. 1). 8avc£t» and 8av€C|;o)i.ai. 245 (N. 2). 84s, accent 22 (3, N. 1). 84, in 6 jUv ... 6 84 204, 205 (N. 1 and 2); in apodosis 274 (2). -8e, local ending 52 ; enclit. 23. 8€i, impers.: see 8€«, want. 8€£8oiKa and 8€i8ia (Hom.) 121 (top). 8eiKvvp.i, synopsis 159, 165, 166 ; in- flection of /ii-forms 159-165 ; w. partic. 305 (top) ; partic. deiKviJS declined 60. 8eiva, pron., declined 77. 8€op.ai w. gen. or w. gen. and ace. 223 (K 1). 84pKO|Jiat 133 (4, N. 1). 8€(r|ids (-0--) 181 (N. 5) heterog. 50 (2). 8€o-ir6TT]s, voc. of 30 (N. 2). 8€xaTai (Hom.) as perf. 124. 8€w, biTid, contraction 118 (N. 1). 8€a), want, contraction 118 (N. 1), in Hdt. 155 (2, a). Impers. 8€i 193 (N. 2); w. gen. and dat. (rare- ly ace.) 223 and 224, 231 (top); deiv for 6X170^ detu, almost, 298 ; Siov (ace. abs.) 302; ev6i, &c. w. d^ovres 70 (N. 2, b); ^dei in apod, without dp 268 (N. 2). See 8€0|jLat. 8if]Xot without subj. 192 (c). 8i]X6s €lp.i w. partic. 305 (N. 1). 8'r]Xd(i), inflect, of contract forms 115- 118; infin. 10 (N. 2), 118 (N. 5); pres. partic. drjXwp declined 62. Afjp.'/JT'qp declined 48 (3); accent of voc. 21. -8t]v or -d8T]v, adv. in 186 (18). -811$, patronym. in 184 (9). 8ia w. gen. and ace. 238, 242. 8iaiTdw, augm. 124 (top). 8taKov€«, augm. 124. 8iaX67op,ai, pf. 121 (top); w. dat. 233 (N. 1). 8iaT€X4« w. partic. 303 (1), 304 (N.). 8i8do-Ka), formation 130 (N. 3); w. two ace. 217 ; causative in mid. 245 (K 2). 818(0^1, synopsis 159, 165, 166 ; infl. of ^t-forms 159-165; redupl. 157 (3), 168 (2); impf. 158 (top), cona- tive 246 (N. 2); aor. in ku 137 (1, N. 1). 81KTIV, adverbial accus. 215 (2). 8iopv(r(r6>, augm. of plpf. 122 (N". 2). 8idTi 288 ; w. inf. (Hdt.) 294 (top). 866 GREEK INDEX. SiirXdo-ios, &c. (as compar. ) w. gen. 225 (N. 1). 8i\j/dci), contraction 118 (N. 2). 8i«Kde« 152 (11). SfjLois, accent 22 (3, N. 1). 8oi<6, Boioi (Honi.) 69 (N. 1). -8ov (-5d) or -T]86v, adv. in 186 (18). SoK^o) (doK-) 130 ; inipers. doKei 193 (N. 2); ^8o^e or didoKxai in decrees, &c. 298 (end); (ws) ifiol boKelv 298. Spao-eici), desider. vb. 186 (N. 1). 8pdo) 131 ; 2 a. ^Spct;/ 169 (N. 1). Svvanai 168 (1); accent of subj. and opt. 158 (N. 2); ^pw 158 (N. 3). 8vo declined 69 ; w. pi. noun 197 (N. 6). 8vor-, inseparable prefix 188 (b) ; augm. of vbs. compounded with 124. E, open short vowel 6 ; in contrac- tion 9 (3, 4); as syll. augm. 119, 120, 121, before a vowel 123 ; be- comes 71 in temp. augm. 119 (end), rarely ei 121 ; length, to -q at end of vowel verb stems 131 (1), in vbs. in /it 156 (K 1); length, to ci when cons, are dropped bef. a 15 (6), in aor. of liq. stems 137 (2), in delvai and dvai 156 (N. 1), in 2 a. p. subj. (Hom.) 153 (12, c) in 2 a. act. subj. of /ii-forras (Hom.) 171 (h), coj to el(j} in pres. (Horn.) 155 (c); changed to d in liq. stems 133 (4); ch. to in 2 pf. 132 (3), rarely in 1 pf. 133 (3, N. 2), in nouns 181 (N. 5); fut. liquid stems in e 136 ; e added to stem in pres. 130, in other tenses 134 ; inserted for vT|s w. partic. 301 (N. 1). Kico-Ti impers. 193 (N. 2); i^ijv in apod, without d*/ 268 ( N. 2). i^ov, ace. abs. 302 (2). ?g«w. gen. 229 (2). CO and cow contr. to ov 9 (2), to ev (Ion.) 25 (3). -€o for -€opd(o w. partic. 303 (3). ki>' w or € wT€ w. infin. 297 (end) ; w. fut. ind. 278 (N. 2). Ixpfjv or XP'H^ i^ apod, without dv 268 (N. 2). ?X<«> w. partic. for perf. 303 (N. 2). exofiat 246 (top); w. gen. 222 (1). 4x®P^s compared 64 (1). -€ft) for -aw in vbs. (Hdt.) 155 (1, d). -€w in fut. of liquid stems 136 (2). -6w and -ewv, Ion. gen. of 1st decl. 31. -€ws, -€«v, Att. 2d decl. in 33. 'i , augment 124 (top). KarOavciv (KaTadaveip) 12 (N. 3). K€or K€vl2 (1, N. 1), 253. K€i(Lai conjug. 178. Kcivos (for tKetvos) 75 (end). KcXevo) w. accus. and inf. 231 (2, N. 2). K^pas declined 47. K€p8a£vft) 129 (4, N. 1), 133 (6). K^ws, accus. of 83 (N. 1). KT]pva-o-€i. without subj. 192 (d), Ki\pr]\Li 168 (2). KXaCo) 128 (3). icXavo-idd), desider. vb. 186 (N. 1). -KXe'T]s, proper nouns in, decl. 43. KXcirrris, compared 66 (end). kX^vo), drops V 133 (6); 114 (d). KXii 52 (N. 3). Kvdo), contraction 118 (N. 2). KpiCa-a-civ, KpdTio-TOS 65 (1). 24 370 GREEK INDEX. Kp^ua|iai 168 (1); accent of subj. and opt. 158 (N. 2). Kpi'vo), drops 1^ 133 (6). Kpva w. gen. 229 (2). KTaojiai, augm. of perf. 121 (N. 2); perf. subj. and opt. 150 (1). KT€£v« 128 (top), 133 (4, N. 1), 134 (top). Kv8pds compared 64 (end). kvkXw 236 (N. 2). Kwc'co (kv-) 129 (3). KVCiDV, KxlvTepOS, KVVTttTOS 66 (3). KwXvift), accent of certain forms 110 (N. 3). K<5s, accus. of, 33 (N. 1). A, liquid 7, sonant 8 ; XX after syll. augm. (Hom.) 120 jN. 5). Xa-yxo-v" and Xa)i.pdvci>, augm. of perf. 121 (top). Xa|j.irds declined 40. XavOdvo) (Xa^-) 129 (top); w. partic. 304 (4). Xdo-Kw (XaK-), formation 130 (N. 3). Xc'-yo), collect, augm. of perf. 121 (top). Xiyta, say, constr. of 293 (end); X^- yov(7L 192 (N. 1, h) ; Xeyerai omitted 299 (§ 273). Xct-iro) (XtTT-), synopsis 88, 89; mean- ing of tenses 92; 2d perf. plpf., and aor. inflected 104-106. \iv, XiSoTos 65 (1). M, liquid, nasal, and sonant 7, 8 ; fi^X and fji8p for /aX and /ip 13 (N. 1). -jjia, neut. nouns in 183 (4). Hd, in oaths, w. ace. 216. Hatop.at (/xa-) 128 (3, N.). UttKpos, decl. of 53; fxaKpcp w. comp. ^234 (2). (idXa compared (/taXXoi', fiaXiara) 67 (end). MapaOwvi, &c., dat. of place 236 (N. 1). (idxo|xaiw. dat. 233 (N. 1). p-e'-yas declined 62, 63; compared 65. p,e^a)V for fxel^cav 65, 15 (end). -p,€0ov in 1st pers. dual 146 (N. 3). ^dyav 65, 15 (end). p,€ipop.ai, augm. of perf. 121 (top). p.€£cDv, p.€io-Tos 66 (5). p.€Xas declined 58, 59. jjLcXei w. dat. and gen. 223 (top), 231 (top). p.eXX(i> augment 120 (N". 2); w. infm. as periph. fut. 151 (6), 250 (K). }M'(jLVTip.ai, perf. subj. and opt. 150 (1); as pres. 247 (N. 6); w. partic. 304 (end). p.6V, iubixiv . . .6 5^ 204, 205. -H€vai,-jji6v,ininfin. 153(14), 172(9). Mcve'Xeojs and Mcvc'Xdos, accent 33 (N. 2). p,€VT&v (1)}' crasis), 11. pietrTifJLPpta 13 (N. 1). p.€o-os, compar. 64 (N. 2); w. art. 204 (N. 4). p-erd, prep. w. gen., dat., and ace. 239, 240, 242; ixiTo. (Hom.) for fxireari 242 (N. 5). p.€Tap,€X€t w. gen. and dat. 223 (top); 231 (top). p,€Tagv w. gen. 237, 229 (N.); w. partic. 301 (N. 1). p.cTairoicop.ai w. gen. 221 (end). p,€'TC(rTt w. gen. and dat. 222 (top), 231 (top). p.6T6X« w. gen. 221 (end). p-eVoxos w. gen. 228 (top). fi€v 72 (N. 2). p,expi, fvs prep. w. gen. 229 (N, ) 237; as conj. 279, with subj. without d:i'280 (N. 1). p,i^, adv., not, 307-309; w. Xva, dlTrws, &c. in final and object clauses 260 (N. 1); in protasis 263 (3); in rel. cond. sent. 275; in wishes 289 (1); w. imperat. and subj. in prohibi- tions 290, 291; w. dubitative subj. 291; w. infin. *308 (3); 282 (4); w. infin. and iba-re 279 (Rem.), 297 ; w. infin. after negative verb 295, 296. See ov (i^ and |i^ ov. |jLTi8e, p^T€, &c. 307, 309; /xi^Sets and liy)5k eh 70 (top). JJ111K€TI, 12 (2). ji^Tt]p, decl. of48(N. 1). GREEK INDEX. 371 IMfJTis (poet.) 76; accent 24 (N. 3). \Lii ov 309 (7), 295, 296; one syllable ill poetry, 11 (N. S); /xr) . . . ov in final cl. 260 (top). -jjit in Istpers. sing. 85 (3, N.), 142, 147 (1), 156. (jLiKpos compared QQ : |jLifxvi^(rK6>, augment of perf. 121 (N. 2); -n for a 130 (N. 2). See |xep,VT]iJLai. jjL^v and vtv 72 (N. 4). Mtvws, accus. of 33 (N. 1). jxio-ew w. accus. 231 (2, N. 2). fjno-eoo), middle of 245 (N. 2). fivda, |iva, declined 30. fioX- in pf. of j3Xwo-/cw 13 (IST. 1). nop- in ^por6s 13 (N. 1). -itos, nouns in 182 (3); adj. in 185 (17). fiovvos iixbpos) 25 (3). (xvpioi and |jivpioi 70 (2, N. 3). |jivp£os, [ivpia 70 (2, N. 3). jtwv [m odv), interrog. 306 (end). N, liquid, nasal, and sonant 7, 8 ; euph. cli. before lalnal and palatal 15 (5), before liquid and a 15 (6); in €v and a (accus.) 50 (3). vo^llto w. infin. 285, 293 (2) ; w. dat. like xpao^at 234 (IST. 2). vdos, vovs, declined 34. -vos, adject, in 185 (14). vovjjLT]via 235 (N. 2). -vo-i and -vti in 3d pers. plur. 15 (6), 142, 144, 145, 146, 157 {d). -VTwv in 3d pers. pi. impel". 148. vvktC and kv vvkti 235 (N. 1). vxJv or vv (Ep.) 12 (1, N. 1); enclitic P (4). v<3i, vwiv 72 (N. 2). viotrepos 74 (N. 1). S, double consonant 7 ; surd 8 ; syll. augni. before 121 (2). |€ivos (Ion.) for Jc'vos 25 (2). ivv for , rarely in 1 pf. 133 (3, N, 2), in nouns 181 (N. 5); as conn, vowel 144, 145, 147 ; as suffix 182 (1), 185 (11); at end of first part of compounds 187 (1). -o, case-ending in gen. sing. 35 (2, N.) ; for -ao in 2nd pers. sing. 14 (end), 145 (N. 1). 6, T|, Tpa£vo|iai, formation 129 (4, N. 1); w. gen. 222 (2). gr' for 6Te (not Srt) 12 (N. 2). 8t€, rel. 79, 275 ; causal 288 ; ^rav 254, 275. 5t€V or StTCU, OT€, 0TC6)V, OT^OlO-l 78 (N. 2). oTi, that, in ind. quot. 281, 282, 283 ; in direct quot. 281 (2, N.); because, causal 288, 289 ; not elided 12 . (N.,2). OTIS, OTtVa, OTlVaS, 0TT€0, OTTl 78 (top). ov length, from 15 (6); for in Ion. 25 (2). -ov in gen. sing. 28, 31, 32, 35 (2, N.); for -eao in 2d pers. mid. 145. ov, ovK, ovx 12 (2); accent 24 (end); use 263 (3), 260 (top), 307-310 ; oiiK iad' fiTTOJS, &;c. w. opt. (without &v) 270 (N. 1). See ov jt^ and p.'^ ov. o^, ol, % &c. 71, 72 ; synt. 205. ov rel. adv. 79. ovU 307 ; ovbk eh and ovMs 70 (top). ov8' ois 24 (end); oi>8k iroXXoO Set 224 (top). ovSeis 70 (top), 307; oiShes kc. 70 (top); ovdeis o'orts ov 211 (N. 4). OVK : see ov. OVKCTl 12 (2). OVK (6 €k) 11. OV |Ji^ w. fut. ind. or subj. 292. GREEK INDEX. 373 -oCv in ace. sing. (Hdt.) 47 (N. 3). oi5v6Ka for ^j'e/ca 229 (N.). ovm (6 ^7ri) 11. ovpavoOk 52. o«s, ear, accent 22 (3, N. 1). oilre 307. oiJTts (poet.) 76 (N". 1). ovTos declined 74, 75 ; use of 208 ; disting. from cKecpjs and 6'5e 208 (see N. 1); raijTa (dual) rare 197 (N. 5); w. article 200 (c), position w. art. 203 (4); in exclam. 208 (N. 2); ref. to preceding rel. 210 (N. 3); w. fi^u and 5e 208 (N. 4); raOra and roOro as adv. accus. 215 (2); o{jToai 75 (N. 2). ovTcos and ovtw 12 (3). ovx : see ov. 64>d\€\-), owe, 128 (K 1); (506X01/ in wishes 290 (N. 1, 2), 268 (N. 2). 6<}>eWft), increase 128 ("N". 1). i^eXXo), ow;e (Horn. = dd\b}), 128 (N. 1); impf. ^cpeWov in wishes 290 (N. 1). 6pa, as final part. 260 ; until 279. -o« denoni. verbs in 186 ; infl. of contr. forms 115-118. -o«, &c. Hom. form of vbs. in aw 154 (6); Hom. fut. in 6w (for dau, dw, w) 154 (endof &). n, smooth mute, labial, surd 8 ; eu- phonic ch. before lingual 14 (1), bef. fj, 14 (3); with Tr«, pf. pass. 14 (3, N.), 114 (a); Trefxireiv iro/xir-riv 214 (top). ir^VTis compar. QQ (7). tritrro), pf. pass. (cf. Trifiiru) 114 (a). Trc'irwv declined 56, 57. ire'p, enclit. 23 (4); w. partic. 301 (N. 1). ir^pav w. gen. 229 (2). Tr€pas declined 41. irepi, w. gen., dat., and ace. 240, 242 ; in comp. 233 ; not elided in Attic 12 (N. 2); iripi 20 (§ 23, 2). nepiKXe'-qs, IlepiKXT]?, declined 43. irepiopuo) w. partic. 303 (3). ■Trepi(nrwp.6vov 19 (§ 21, 2). ireo-o-o) (TreTT-) 127 (IST.). irri; 79. iTTJ, indef. 23 (2). nTiX€{8T]s (Hom. em7}%) 184 (c). TrqXiKOs ; 78. irT]viKa ; 79. irfjxvs declined 43, 44. m|i.irXi]p,t and ir£|i.7rpT]|j.i, redupl. 168 (N. 1). irXaKocis, irXttKovs, declined 59 (N". 2). irXeiv (for ir\iov) 226 (N. 2). irXeCwv or ttXc'cdv, irXcicrros '^Q. irXcKft), pf. and plpf. mid infl. Ill, 112, 113 (N. 2). irX^w (ttXi;-) 126 (2); contr. 118 (N. 1); -rrXeiv ddXaaaav 215 (N. 5). irX^v w. gen. 237, 229 (N.). tr\r\ariov w. gen. 229 (2). irX-^o-orw (7rXT77-), iirXdyrjv (in comp.) 141 (N. 2). irXvvw 133 (6). Trve«.(7rj'i;-) 126 (2). •troQtv ; TToOe'v 79. TToeC, enclitic 23 (2). TTot; 79. irof, indef. 79 ; enclitic 23 (2). TToicb) w. two accus. 217 ; w. partic. 303 (2); e5 and kukus Trotw 217 (end). 874 GREEK INDEX. iroios ; iroios 78. iroXeixe'w, TroXefJifJw w. dat. 233 (N. 1); distiug. I'rom 7roXe/>t6w 187 (N. 3). iro'Xts, declined 43, 44 ; Ion. forms 44 (N. 3). iroXXos, Ion. = ttoXi^s 63 (N. 1). iroXiJs, declined 62, 63 ; Ion. forms 63 (N. 1); compared 6Q ; w. art. 202 (end); ol iroWoi and t6 iroXv 202 (end) 220 (N. 1); ttoXv and TToXXd as adv. 67 (2); TroXXcp w. comp. 234 (2) ; ttoXXou Set and oude iroWov Set 224 (top). tro\nri\v Tre'fxireiv 214 (top). TToppo) or irpoo-ft) \v. gen. 229 (2). Iloo-eiSdwv, lloo-tiSftiv, accus. 37 (2, N. 1); accent of voc. 21 (1, N.). irocros ; iroo-ds 78. TTOTc; 79. -iroTc, indef. 79 ; enclitic 23 (2). iroTcpos; iroTcpos (or -pus) 78. TTOTCpov or TTOTCpa, interrog. 307 (5). irov; 79; w. part. gen. 220 (N. 3). iroiJ indef. 79 ; enclitic 23 (2). irovs, nom. sing. 37 (top); ace. 37 (2). irpdcs, declined 63 ; two stems of 63 (N. 2). irpaa-arui {irpdy-), perf. 138 {b); 2nd perf. 133 (3, :N'. 1), 139 {d, N. 2); seldom w. two accus. 218 (top); e5 and /caKws Trpdcrcrw 218 (top). irpe'irei im|)ers. 193 (N. 2). orpto-p^vTTJs, irpto-pvTTjs, irpco-pvs 51 (26). irpeo-pevo), denom. verb 186. irpiv, formation 281 (IstN.); w. finite moods 280 ; w. infin. 281, 299 ; Trpluij 281 (1st K). irpd, w. gen. 237 ; not elided 12 (N. 2); contracted w. augment 123 (N. 1), or w. foil, e or 188 (3); irpb Tov or irpoTov 205 (2). TrpotKa, gratis, as adv. 215 (2). irpos, w. gen., dat., and ace. 240, 241, ■^ 242 ; in compos. 233 ; irpbs, besides, as adv. 241 (N. 2). Trpoo-Scxop-evw [loi los declined 53. cnre'vSft), ^ 72 (N. 1, 2, 3); 4a 72 (top); (xcpias, o-^etas, €T6p09 74. o-£ 72 (N. 2); atpLv (noto-^O inTrag. 72 (N. 1). o-Aos for acp^repos 74 (N. 1). 0-9(0, (oi, &c., (r()>a>^, (r<|>(i)'Cv 72 (N. 2). (r<|)«l;T€pos 74 (N. 1). (r(|>(3v avTwv, &c. 74 (N,). (Txottiv (of^Xw) 148 (N. 1). 2«KpdTT]s, decl. of 43 (N. 1); ace. 49 (&); voc. 21 (1, K). Ti^p, T€p 21 (1, N.). arw({>p(i>v compared 64 (N. 4). T, smooth mute, lingual, surd 8 ; dropped before a 14 (2); dropped or ch. to a in nom. of 3 decl. 36 (1) ; VT dropped before a 15 (N. 1, 2), 37 (top). -rd (Hom.) for -ttjs in nom. of 1st decl. 31. Tfi and Taiv (dual of 6), rare 71 (N. 2), 197 (N. 5). -Ttti in 3 pers. sing. 142, 145. rdXas adj., decl. of 57 (1). T&XXa (ra &\\a) 11, 20 (§ 24, 2). Tavrd, TavT- for dacf)- {edrrrto) 16 (2, N.). Tdxa w. dv (rdx a") 256 (§ 212, N.). Tttxvs compared 64 (1), 16 (2, N.); T7]v Taxio'Trjf 215 (2). TdwV (= TOJJ/) 71 (N. 2). T^, enclitic 23 (4); w. relatives 209 (N. 4); w. oros210 (top). TcGvccSs 62 (N.), 139 (N. 3). T€tv (Ion. = (Toi) 72 (N. 2). Tilvia, drops »» 133 (6). -T€ipa, fem. nouns in 182 (h). TeXew, future in w, oO/xai 136 («); pf. and plpf. mid. infl. 112, 113 (N. 2). 376 GREEK INDEX. riKos, finally, adv. ace. 215 (2). TC'O, T€V, TCVS, T€Oii (= ffov) 73 ( N. 7). T€0, T6V (= ToO for TIUOS OV Tlfos), TCW, TC«V, Ttoio-i 76 (N. 2), -T€Ov, verbal adj. in 150 (3); impers., with subj. in dat, or ace. 306 ; sometimes plural 306 (top). -Te'os, verbal adj. in 150 (3); passive 305 (1). Tcos Doric {=ro-6s) 74 (N. 1). T€'pT|vdecl. of 59 (N. 3). -Tcpos, comparative in 64. Tc'pirw, 2 aor. vv. stem rapir- 133 (4, N. 1). Tco-o-apes (or tctt-), Ion. Tipeb> and Tip.(op^o|jLai 245 (N. 3). Tiv, Doric i=(Tot) 73 (N. 7). Tis interrog., declined 76; accent 22 (3, N. 2); subst. or adj. 208 (1); in direct and ind. questions 208 (2). tIs indef., declined 76; subst. or adj. 209; like Tras rts 209 (N.). rita, stem and root of 26 (N.). -TO in 3 pers. sing. 142, 145. ToOcv 79. Toi, enclitic 23 (4). Tot, rat, art. = ol, al 71 (N. 2). Tot, Ion. {=aoL) 72 (N. 2). Toios, Toi6(r8€, ToiovTos 78, 200 (d). Tot 'rpv\us 79. Y, close vowel 6 ; contr. w. foil, vowel 10 (5), 44; length, to v 119 GREEK INDEX. 377 (end); 125 (II.) 128, 131, to eu 125(11.) -vSpiov, diminutives in 184 (8). v8ft)p decl. of 52 (29). v€t, irapers. 193 (top); ijovros (gen. abs.) 302 (1, N.). VI diphthong 6 (3). -via in pf. part. fem. 59-61, 149 (end). vtds decl. 52 (30); om. after art. 201 (N. 4). v|i^, vfi€s (Dor.) 73 (N. 7). v|i£T£pos 74, 207 ; vfi^repos airwu, &c. 207 (N. 4). vjjiiv, vjJLtv, <5fX}i€s, i»H.|iS ^K-H^*) &c. 72. -WW, denom. verbs in 186, 128 (top). ■inrep, w. gen. and accus. 238, 242. VTrt, rough mute, labial, and .surd 8 ; not doubled 13 ; euph. changes before lingual 14 (1), bef. a£vw, synopsis of 90, 91 ; meaning of tenses 93 ; fut. and aor. inflect- ed 106-110 ; pf. mid. 112, 113, (N. 2), 114 {d), 15 (N. 4); forma- tion of pres. 127 {cJ), of fut. 136 (2), of aor. 137 (2), of perf. act. 134 (N.), of aor. pass. 140 (vi. N. 2); synt., w. partic. 304, 305. 4)avjp€i8o(iai w. gen. 222 (2). <|>€,oTepos, ^ptTip,C, conjug. 176, 177 ; w. infin. in indir. disc. 293 (end). <|>ddvw w. partic. 304 (4). ({>iXe(», 4>iX», inflect, of contract forms 115-118 ; partic. lXos compared 6Q. <|)\e'\j/ declined 39. 4>ktyieovda), desid. verb 186 (N". 1). pd^ft>, pf. and plpf. mid. 114 (c). p^v, gender 49 (1); accent of com- pounds 21 (1, N.). 4>povTC^a) vv. oTTws and fut. ind. 261 ; w. fiTi and subj. or opt. 262. povTivX.a| declined 39. < xov^cis, not contracted 59 (N. 2). o}, 6p^\l/u}, &c. 16 (2, N.) Assimilation of rel. to case of antec. 210 (end), w. antec. omitted 211 (N. 1) ; in rel. adv. 211 (N. 3) ; antec. rarely assim. to rel. 211 (N. 4). See Attraction. Assim. of cond. rel. cl. to mood of antec. clause 277, 278. Assim. (Hom.) in vbs. in dw 154 {b). Assist, vbs. signif. to, w. dat. 230 (2). Attain, vbs. signif. to, w. gen. 222 Attic dialect 2 ; why basis of Gram- mar 2. Attic 2d decl. 33 (2); redupl. 122, 120 (N. 4); future 136 (N. 1). Attraction in rel. sent. 211 ; joined w. assim. 211 (end), 212 (top). Attributive adjective (opp. to predi- cate) 196 (Rem.) ; position of ar- ticle w. 201-203. Attrib. com- pounds 190 (3). Augment 84 (c), 119-124 : see Con- tents, p. xviii. Bacchius 313 ; Bacchic rhythms 326. Barytones 19. Basis in logaoedic verse 324. Be or belong, vbs. signif. to, w. gen. 221 (top). Become, vbs. signif. to, w. gen. 221 (top). Begin, vbs. signif. to, w. gen. 222 (1) ; w. partic. 303 (1). Belong, vbs. signif. to w. gen. 221 (top). Benefit, vbs. signif. to, w. dat. 230 (2). Boeotia, Aeolians in 1. Breathings 6, 7 ; form 7 (N. 2). Bucolic diaeresis in Heroic hexam. 321 (4). Caesura 316 (1). Call : see Name. Cardinal numbers 68-70 ; decl. of 69. Care for, vbs. signif. to, w. gen. 222 (2). Cases 27 (3) ; meaning 27 (3, N. 1) ; oblique 27 (end) : endings 35 ; syntax of 212-242: see Contents, pp. xx.-xxii. Catalexis and catalectic verses 316 (3). Causal sentences, w. conj. and indie. 288, 289 ; w. opt. (ind. disc.) 289 (N.), 288 (4) ; w. relat. 279. Cause, expr. by gen. 224 ; by dat. 234 ; by partic. 300, 301 (N. 2). Caution or danger, vbs. of, w. /aiJ 262. Cease or cause to cease, vbs. signif. to, w. partic. 303 (1). Choosing, vbs. of, w. two ace. 218; w. ace. and part. gen. 221 (2). Choriambus 313 ; choriambic rhythms 325 (1). Circumflex accent 18 ; origin 18 (Rem.); on contr. syll. 20. Circumstances, partic. denot. 300, 301. Claim, vbs. signif. to, w. gen. 221 (end), 222 (1). Classes of verbs : eight of vbs. in w 125-131, two of vbs. in fit 157. Close vowels 6 (N.), 10 (5); stems ending in 35 (top). Clothing, vbs. of, w. two accus. 217. Cognate mutes 8 (2, N.). Cognate accus. 213-215. Collective noun, w. plur. verb 193 (3) ; w. pi. pai-tic. 197 (N. 3) ; foil, by pi. relat. 209 (N. 2). Collision of vowels, how avoided 8 (§8). 382 ENGLISH INDEX. Command or exhortation 290, 289 (N. 3), 262 (N. 4), 272 (N. 1), 247 (N. 8) ; verbs of commanding w. gen. 223 (3). Common Dialect 2. Comparative degree 64-67 ; w. gen. 225 (1) ; w. dat. 234 (2). Comparison of adjectives 64, irreg. 65, 6Q ; of adverbs 67 ; of some nouns and pronouns 6^ (3). Comparison, verbs denot. w. gen. 226 (2). Composition of words: see Formation. Compound words 180, 187-190 ; first part of 187, second part 188 ; meaning of (three classes) 189, 190. Compound verbs 189 ; aug- ment 123, 124 ; accent 22 (§ 26 N. 1) ; w. gen., dat., or ace. 242 (end), 226, 233. Compound nega- tives, 307 ; repetition of 309, 310. Concealing, vbs. of, w. two accus. 217 ; w. infin. and M 308 (6), 295 296. Concession 272 (5), 289 (N. 3). Conclusion : see Apodosis and Condi- tion. Condition and conclusion 263 (1) ; conditional sentences 263-274 ; see Contents, pp. xxiii. and xxiv. ; classification of cond. sent. 263- 267 ; general and particular cond. disting. 265, 266 ; comparison of Latin gen. cond. 266 (Rem. 1) ; cond. expr, by partic. 301 (4), 271 (1). See Protasis. Relative cond. sent. 275-278 : see Relative. Conjugation 84 ; of verbs in w 85- 155 ; of verbs in fit 156-179. Connecting vowel 143 (4), 144 (foot- note), 82 (foot-note) ; of indie. 144, 145 ; of subj. 146 ; of opt. 147 ; of imperat. 148 ; of infin. and partic. 149 ; in iterative forms 152 (10) ; in forms in doj 152 (11) ; omitted in perf. mid., aor. pass., and ;ut-forms 143. Consider, vbs. signif. to, w. two ace. 218 ; w. ace. and gen. 221 ; in pass. w. gen. 221 (N. ). Consonants, divisions of 7, 8 ; eu- phonic changes in 13-16 ; double 7 (2) ; movable 12 ; consonant stems 82 (3), 35. Consonant de- clension (Third) 35. Constructio praegnans 242 (N. 6). Continue, vbs. signif. to, w. partic. 303 (1). Continued action, tenses of 246. Contraction 8 ; rules of, 8-10 ; quan- tity of contr. syll. 18 (§ 20, 1); accent 20 ; of nouns : 1st decl. 30, 2d decl. 33, 3d decl. 42-47 ; of adject. 54-58 ; of partic. 61, 62 ; of verbs in aw, eio, and ow 115- 118 ; in gen. pi. of 1st decl. 29 (N.), of 2d decl. 32 (top); inreduph (ee to et) 123 (top) ; in forma- tion of words 181 (N. 3), 188 (3). See Crasis and Synizesis. Convicting, vbs. of, w. gen. 224 (2). Co-ordinate and cognate mutes 8 (2, N.). Copula 191 (N. 1). Copulative verbs 194 (Rem.); case of pred. adj. or noun with infin. of 194 (N. 3), 195 (N. 4, 5). Coronis 10 (1). Correlative pronominal adj. 78 ; adv. 79. Crasis 10, 11 ; examples 11 ; quanti- ty 18 (§ 20, 1) ; accent 20 (2). Cretic 313 ; rhythms 326. Cyclic anapaests and dactyls 315 (4). Dactyl 313; cyclic 315 ; in anapaes- tic verse 322, 314 (N. 1) ; in iam- bic verse (apparent) 319, 320 ; in trochaic verse (cyclic) 318 ; in loga- oedic verse (cyclic) 323, 324. Dactylic rhythms 321, 322. Danger, vbs. of, w, fxTrj 262. Dative case 27 (3) ; endings of 35, 28, 32 ; in 3d decl. 39 ; syntax of 230-236 : see Contents, p. xxi. Prepositions w. dative 242 (2). Declension 28 ; of Nouns 28-52 : first 28-31, second 31-34, third 34-49, of irreg. nouns 49-52; of Adjectives 53-63, first and second decl. 53-56; third 56, 57, first and third 57-59; of partic. 59-62 ; of irreg. adj. 62, 63 ; of the Article 71 ; of Pronouns 71-78. See Contents, pp. xvi., xviL ENGLISH INDEX. 383 Defend, vbs. signif. to, w. dat. 230 (2). Degi-ee of difference, dat. of 234 (2). Demanding, vbs. of, w. two ace. 217. Demes, names of Attic, in dat. 236 (N. 1). Demonstrative pronouns 74, 75 ; synt. 208 ; w. article 200 (c), posi- tion 203 (4) ; article as demonstr. (Horn.) 199, (Att.) 204, 205; rel. as dem. 209 (K 3). Denominatives 180 (&) ; denom. verbs 186. Denying, vbs. of, w. infin. and ix-q 308 (6), 295, 296. Dependent clauses, moods in 248. Dependent moods 80 (§ 89, N.) ; tenses of 248-251. Deponent verbs 80 (top) ; principal parts of 84 (6) ; pass, and mid. depon. 80 (2, N.). Deprive, vbs. signif. to, w. gen. 225 ; w. two ace. 217. Derivatives 180 (ft). Desiderative verbs 186 (N. 1). Desire, vbs. expr. w. gen. 222 (2). Despise, vbs. signif. to, w. gen. 222 (2). Determinative compounds 190 (2). Diaeresis in verse 316, 317, 319 (end), 321 (4), 322 (top), 323 (4). Dialects 2 ; dialectic changes 25 ; dial, forms of nouns and adj. 31, 34, 43 (N. 4), 44 (N. 3), 45 (N. 4), 46 (N.), 47 (N. 3) ; of numerals 69 ; of the article 71 (N. 2) ; of pro- nouns 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78 ; of verbs in w 151-153, of contract vbs. 154, 155, of vbs. in ixi 170- 172, 173, 174, 176, 177, 178, 179. Digamma 6 (N. 2), 45 (N. 1), 46 (N.), 123 (N. 2), 126 (2), 139 {d, N. 1); seen in metre 322 (1st note). Diiambus 313. Dimeter 317 (2) ; anapaestic 323, dactylic 321 (1), iambic 319 (2), trochaic 318 (1). Diminutives, suffixes of 184 (8). Diphthongs 6 ; improper 6 ( 3 and N. ) ; in contraction 9 (1, 4) ; in crasis 10 {a), 11 {h) ; elision of (poet.) 12 (top) ; augment 122. Dipody 317 (2). Direct object 191 (2), 213 (Rem.) ; of act. verb 213, 244. Direct dis- course, question, and quotations 281. Disadvantage, dat. of 231 (3). Disobey, vbs. signif. to, w. dat. 230 (2). Displease, vbs. signif. to, w. dat. 230 (2). Displeased, vbs. signif. to be, w. par- tic. 303 (1). Dispraise, vbs. expr., w. gen. 224(1); Disputing, vbs. of, w. gen. 224 (N. 2). Distich 318 (4) ; elegiac 321 (5). Distrusting, vbs. of, w. dat. 230 (2) ; w. infin. and /at? 308 (0), 295, 296. Ditrochee 313; in Ionic rhythms 325 (2). Divide, vbs. signif. to, w. two ace. 217. Dochmius 313; dochmiac verses 326. Doing, vbs. of, w. two ace. 217. Doric dialect 2 ; future 152 (6), in Attic 136 (N. 2). Double consonants 7, 14 (2), 17 (§ 19, 2). Double negatives 309, 310, 292, 295, 296. See fiT) ov and ov fi-Zj. Doubtful vowels 6. Dual 26 (end). Effect, accus. of 214 (N. 3.). Elegiac pentameter and distich 321 (5). Elisionll, 12; of diphthongs 12 (top); Trepi, TTpd, 6ti, and dat. in t not elided 12 ; accent of elided word 20 (3). Ellipsis of verb w. &v 256 (3) ; of aKoirei w. oTTWs and fut. ind. 262 (N. 4) ; of vb. of fearing w. fiifi and subj. 262 (N. 2) ; of protasis 271 (2); of apodosis 273 (N. 2). Emotions, vbs. expr., w. gen. 224 (1). Enclitics 23, 24 ; w. accent if em- phatic 24 (3, N. 1) ; at end of compounds 24 (N. 3) ; successive end. 24 (N. 2). Endings 26 (2) ; case-endings of nouns, 28, 32, 35 ; local 52 ; per- sonal endings of verbs 142-150 : see Contents, p. xviii. 384 ENGLISH INDEX. Endure, v"bs. sigiiif. to, w. partic. 303 (1). Enjoy, vbs. signif. to, w. gen. 221 (end). Envy, vbs. expr., w. gen. 224 (1) ; w. dat. 230 (2). Epic dialect 2. Epicene nouns 27 (2, N. 2). Ethical dative 232 (N. 6). Euphony of vowels 8-12 ; of conso- nants 13-16. Eupolidean verse 31 7 ( 1 st N. ) , 325 ( 7 ) . Exclamations, nom. in 213 (N.), voc. 213 (2), gen. 225 (3); relat. in 212 ; mark of 25. Exhorting, vbs. of, w. dat. 230 (2). Exhortations : see Commands. Expecting, &c., vbs. of, w. fut. pres. or aor. infin. 251 (n. 2). Extent, accus. of 216 ; adnom. gen. denoting 219 (5). Falling rhythms, 317 (3). Fearing, verbs of, w. ^77 and subj. or opt. 259, 262, sometimes w. fut. ind. 262 (N. 1), w. pres. or past tense of indie. 262 (N. 3) ; ellipsis of 262 (N. 2). Feet (in verse) 311, 312, 313 ; ictus of, 311 ; arsis and thesis, 311. Feminine nouns 27 (N. 3) ; form in participles 149 (end), in 2 pf, par- tic. (Hom.) 139 (N. 4). Feminine caesura 321 (4). Festivals, names of, in dat. of time 235. Fill, vbs. signif. to, w. ace. and gen. 223 (2). Final clauses 259-261, w. subj. and opt. 260 (1), w. subj. after past tenses 260 (2), rarely w. fut. ind. 260 (1, N. 1) ; w. &u or Ke 260 (1, N. 2) ; w. past tenses of indie. 261 (3) ; neg. fiv 260 (top). Final disting. from object clauses 259. Find, vbs. signif. to, w. partic. 303 (2). Finite moods, 80 (N,). First aorist stem, 83, 137. First passive stem, 83, 140. Fitness, &c., verbal adj. denot., for- mation of, 185 (13). Forbidding, vbs. of, w. /a^ and infin. 308 (6), 295, 296. Forgetting, vbs. of, w. gen. 222 (2) ; w. partic. 304 (end). Formation of words 180-190 ; see Contents, p. xix. Friendliness, vbs. expr. ; w. dat. 230 (2). • Fulness and want, vbs. expr., w. gen. 223 ; adject. 228 (top). Ful- ness, formation of adj. expr. 185 (15). Future 80, 82 ; tense stem formed 82, 135 (II.) ; of liquid verbs 136 (2) ; Attic fut. in w and -oOfxai 136 (N. 1) ; Doric fut. 152 (6), in Attic 136 (N. 2); second fut. pass. 141; fut. mid. as pass. 246 (N. 4). Fut. indie, expressing permission or command 247 (N. 8) ; rarely in final clauses 260 (N. 1) ; regularly in object clauses with Sttws 261 ; rarely with /^t^ after verbs of fear- ing 262 (N. 1) ; in protasis 265, 269 (N. 1), 267 (N.) ; in rel. clauses expressing purpose 278 ; with € ^ or i6dvw, not past 304 (4), 252 (N. 2) ; partic. w. dfxa, /xera^ij, evdvs, &c. 301 (N. 1, a), w. Kairrep or KaL 301 (N. 1, b), w. ws 301 ( N. 2, a), 305 (N. 4), w. are, oXov, ola, 301 (N. 2, b), w. (boTrep 302 (N. 3) ; fut. of juirpose 300 (3) ; conditional 301 (4), 271 (1); as apodosis 272 (3), w. dv 273 (top), 255, 256 ; perf. w. ?x^ forijiing peri])hr. perf. 303 (N. 2), w. et>t forming periphr. perf. subj. and o]>t. 150 (1, 2) or indie. 151 (4) ; iu gen. absol. 229, 302 (1), accus. abs. 302 (2) ; panic, alone hi gen. abs. 302 (1, N.) ; plur. w. sing, collective noun 197 (N, 3). Three uses of partic. 299 ; for details of these, in pp. 300-305, see Contents, p. xxvii. Particular and general suppositions distinguished 265, 266. Partitive genitive 219 (6), 220, 221, 222. Partitive apposition 196 (N. 2.) Passive voice 79 (1) ; personal end- ings 142 ; conn, vowels 144, w. endings 145 ; aor. ))ass. fortjicd like active 142 (1) ; use of 243- 245 ; subject of 244 ; retains one object from active constr. 244 (N. 2) ; impersonal pass, constr. 244 (end), 245 (top), 192 (end). Patronymics, suffixes of 184 (0). Pause in verse : caesura 316 (1), diaeresis 316 (end), 317. Pentameter, elegiac 321 (end), 322. Penthemim (2i feet) 322 (top). Penult 17 (tox)"). Perceive, vbs. signif. to, w. gen. 222 (2); w. partic. 303 (2andN.), 304 (end). Perfect tense 80; primary 80 (2); ten.se stem 83, 137-139 ; personal ending 142 ; connect, vowel 144, 145, w, endings 145 (2); changes in vowel of stem 131-134 ; augment 120, 121 ; Att. reduplic. 122 ; sec- ond perf. 80 (N. 1), 83, 132 (3), 139 {d), of the /xi-foi-m 167, 169. ENGLISH INDEX. 389 170 ; perf. mid. w. cr inserted 132 (2) ; perf. in Homer 139 (top). Perf. indie. 246; as pres. 247 (N. 6) ; w. fut. meaning 247 (N. 7) ; never w, du 254 (1) ; gnomic 253 (3) ; compound form 151 (4) ; 3 pers. pi. mid. in arai (for vrai) 151 (end) ; compound form 151 (4, 5), 111 (2). In dependent moods : not in indir. disc. 249 (2), imperat. 249 (N. 1), infin. 249 (N. 2) ; opt., intin., and partic. in indirect disc. 250, 251, 281 ; infin. includes plpf. 251 (N. 1), \v. &v 255 (end) ; com- pound form of pf. subj. and opt. 150 (1, 2), 85 (end). Perfect active stem 83, 138 (6). Perfect middle stem 83, 137 (end), 138. Periphrastic forms, of perf. 150 (1, 2), 151 (4, 5) ; of fut. vv. /xeWta 151 (6), 250 (N.) ; of fut. perf. 151 (3). Perispomena 19. Persevere, vbs. signif. to, w. partic. 303 (1). Person 'of verb 81 (top) ; agreement w. subj. in 193 (1) ; subj. of first or second pers. omitted 192 (N. 1), third person 192 (N. 1) ; p. of rel. pron. 209 (N. 1). See Personal Endings. Personal endings of verb 142-151 : see Contents, p. xviii. Personal pronoun 71-73, 205, 206 ; omitted 192 (N. 1) ; of third pers. in Attic 205 (a), in Hom. and Hdt. 205 (b); substituted for rel. 212 (§ 15'6). Pherecratic verses 324. Pity, vbs. expr. w. gen. 224 (1). Place, suffixes denoting 183 (6) ; ad- verbs of 79, 52, w. gen. 229 (2) ; accus. of (whither?) 216; gen. of (within which) 227 (2) ; dat. of (where?) 236. Please, vbs. signif. to, w. dat. 230(2). Pleased, vbs. signif. to be, w. partic. 303 (1). Pluperfect 80 ; formation from perf. stem 83 (IV.), 137-139: see Per- fect ; endings 142 ; conn, vowel 145 (top), w. endings 145 (2) ; in -rj for -€Lv 146 (N. 4) ; Ion. form in -ea 152 (4); augment 121 (4); Att- redupl. 122 (N. 2); second plpf. 80 (N. 1), 83, 132(3), 139 (d), of the fct-form 167, 169, 170 ; secondary- tense 80 (§ 90, 2), 248 ; as impf. 247 (N. 6), in protasis 256, 257 (top), 267 (1), w. suppos. contr. to fact 267 (2), how disting. from impf. and aor. 268 (top) ; w. au 254 (3), 267 (2); expr. in infin. by perf. 251 (N. 1), inf. w. du 255 (end); compound form w. el/mL 151 (4). Plural 26 (end) ; neut. w. sing, verb 193 (2) ; verb w. sing, collect, noun 193 (3) ; adj. or reiat. w. several sing, noun's 197, 209 (N. 2, a) ; plur. antec. of 6'crrts 209 (N. 2, 6). Position, vowels long by 17. Possession, gen. of 219 (1), 221 (top) ; dat. of 232 (4). Possessive pronouns 74, 207 ; w. ar- ticle 200 (c), 202 (top). Possessive compounds 190 (3). Our own^ your oivn, &c. 207 (N. 4). Potential opt. and indie, w. dv 272 {b). Praise, vbs. expr., w. gen. 224 (1). Predicate 191 (1) ; pred. noun and adj. w. verbs 194, 195, 198 (N. 8) ; noun without article 201 (N. 8) ; pred. adject. 196 (Rem.), 197 (N. 2, 7), 198 (N. 8), position of w. art. 203 (3) ; pred. accus. w. obj. ace. 218 ; infin. as pred. 292. Prepositions, w. gen., dat., and accus. 236-242 ; accent when elided 20 (end); anastrophe 20 (§ 23, 2), 242 ; tmesis 241 (N. 3) ; augment of comp. verbs 123, 124 ; prep, as adv. 236, 241 (N. 2), 242 (N. 5) ; in comp. w. gen., dat., or ace. 242 (end), 226, 233 ; w. rel. by as- simil. 211 (N. 1) ; w. infin. 295 (top). Present stem 82 (L), 85, 156, 157 ; foi-mation 125-131. Present tense 80 (1) ; primary, 80, 248; formation 125-131 ; endings 142 ; connect, vowel 144 (1), w. endings 145 (2) ; of /ut-form 156, 157. Pres. indie. 246 ; historic (for aor.) 246 (N. 1), 248 (Rem.) ; 390 ENGLISH INDEX. gnomic 252 (1) ; expr. attempt 246 (N. 2) ; of TJKia and oi'xojaat as perf. 246 (end) ; of elfii as fut. 247 (top); w. irdXai, &c. 247 (N. 4) ; never w. &v 254. Pres. in depend- ent moods : not in indirect disc. hovv disting. from aor. 249 (1), from perf. 249 (2) ; in indir. disc., opt. and intin. 250 (end), pres. for inipf. in opt., intin., and partic. 283 (N. 1), 251 (N. 1), 252 (N. 1), 285. Price, genitive of 227. Primary or principal tenses 80 (2), 248 ; how far recogn. in dependent moods 248 (N. 2). Primitive word 180 (2).* Principal parts of verbs 83 (5), of deponents 84 (6). Proclitics 24. Prohibitions w. fii^ 291 ; w. oi fi-q 292 (N.). Promising, verbs of, w. fut., pres., or aor. inlin. 251 (N. 2). Pronominal adj. and adv. 78, 79. Pronouns 71-79, 205-212 : see Con- tents, pp. xvii., xix. ; some encli- tic 23 (1, 2), accent retained after accented prepos. 24 (N. 1). See Personal, Kelative, &c. Pronunciation: see Preface, pp. x.-xii. Proparoxytones 19. Proiiecute, vbs. signif. to, w. gen. 224 (2). Protasis 263 ; forms of 263-267 ; expr. in partic, adv., &c. 271 (1) ; omitted 271 (2). In cond. rel. and tempor. sentences 275 ; forms 275- 277. Prove, vbs. signif. to, w. partic. 304 (end). Punctuation marks 25. Pure syllables 17 (§18, 2) ; verbs 82 (N.). Purpose : expr. by final clause 259 ; by rel. cl. w. fut. indie. 278, in Hom. by subj. 278 (N. 1); im- plied in cl. w. ews, irpiu, &c. 280 (N. 2); byinfin. 296 (end); by €(j) 4* or i(f> qtre w. infin. 297 (end); by fut. partic. 300 (3) ; sometimes by gen. 224 (N. 1), by gen. of infin. 295 (2). Quality, nouns denot. 183 (7). Quantity of syllables 17 ; relation to rhythm 312 (N.). Questions, direct and indirect disting. 281 ; direct 306, 307, of doubt, w. subj. 291 ; indirect, w. indie, or opt. 281, 282, 283, w. subj. or opt. 284. Recessive accent 19 (3). Reciprocal pronoun 74 ; reflexive used for 207 (N. 3). Reduplication, of perf. stem 84 (c), 119 (c), 120, 121 ; of 2 aor. 120 (N. 3), 134 (c) ; of present 134 (c), 12P (end)^ in verbs in fic 157 (3), 168 (2) ; in plpf. 121 (4). Attic redupl. in perf, 122, in 2 aor. 120 (N. 4), in pres. (of dpapiaKu) 129 (end). Reiiexive pronouns 73, 206 ; used for reciprocal 207 (N. 3) ; 3d pers. for 1st or 2nd 207 (N. 2). Indirect reflexives 205 (a), 206 (end). Relation, adject, denoting 185 (12). Relative pronouns 77, Homer, forms 78 (top) ; pronom. adj. 78, ad- verbs 79 ; relation to antecedent 209; antec. om. 210; assimilation of rel. to case of antec. 210, 211, of antec. to case of rel. 211 (N. 4); assim. in rel. adv. 211 (N. 3) ; attraction of antec. 211, joined w. assim. 211 (N.) ; rel. not repeated 212 ; rel. as demonstr. 209 (N. 3) ; in exclam. 212. Relative and tem- poral sentences 274-281 : see Con- tents, pp. xxiv., XXV. Release, vbs. signif. to w. gen. 225. RememlDer, vbs. signif. to, w. gen. 222 (2) ; w. partic. 304. Reminding, vbs. of, w. two ace. 217 ; w. ace. and gen. 223 (N. 3). Remove, vbs. signif. to, w. gen. 225. Repent, vbs. signif. to, w. partic. 303 (1). Represent, vbs. signif. to, w. partic. 303 (2). Reproach, vbs. expr., w. dat. 230 (2). Resemblance, vbs. implying, w. dat. 233. Respect, dative of 232 (5). ENGLISH INDEX. 391 Restrain, vbs. signif. to, w. gen. 225. Result, nouns denot. 183 (4) ; expr. by ware w. infiu. 297 (1), w. indie. 279. Revenge, vbs. expr. w. gen. 224 (1). Rhythm and metre, how related 311, 312; rising and falling rhythms 31 7 (3). See Anapaestic, Dactylic, Iambic, &c. Rhythmical series 315 (1), 316. Rising rhythms 317 (3). Romaic language 3. Root and stem defined 26 (2). Rough breathing 6. Rough mutes 8. Rule, vbs. signif. to, w. gen. 22b (3). San 6 (N. 2) ; as numeral 69. Satisfy, vbs. signif. to, w. dat. 230 (2). Saying, vbs. of, w. two accus. 217 ; constr. in indirect discourse 293 (end). Second aorist, perfect, &c. 80 (N. 1). Second aorist stem 83, 140. Second passive stem 83, 141. Second perfect stem 83, 139. Secondary (or historical) tenses 80 (2), 248; how far recogn. in de- pend, moods 248 (N. 2). See, vbs. signif. to, w. partic. 304, 303 (2, andK). Semivowels 7 (end). Sentence 191 (1); as subject 193 (N. 2). Separation, gen. of 225, 228 (N. 2). Septuagint 3. Serving, vbs. of, w. dat. 230 (2). Sharing, vbs. of, w. gen. 221 (end). Short vowels 17 ; syllables, time of 312 (1). Show, vbs. signif. to, w. partic. 304. Sibilant {