^ Frederick Slate Professor of Physics Digitized by tine Internet Arciiive in 2007 witii funding from IVIicrosoft Corporation littp://www.arcliive.org/details/firststepsinlatiOOIeigricli FIRST STEPS IN LATIX COMPLETE COURSE IIST LATIIsT EOE QUE YEAR, BASED ON MATERIAL DRAWN FROM CESAR'S COMMENTARIES, WITH EXERCISES FOR SIGHT-READING, AND A COURSE OF ELEMENTARY LATIN READING. BY R. F. LEIGHTON, Ph.D. (Lips.), AUTHOR OF CRITICAL HISTORY OF CICERO'S EPISTULAE AD FAMILIARES, HISTORY OF ROME, LATIN LESSONS, GREEK LESSONS, ETC. BOSTON: PUBLISHED BY GIIS^X & COMPANy, 1886. ILOf Copyright, 1885, By R. F. Leighton. J. S. CusHiNG & Co., Printers, Boston, Mass. PEE FACE. THE aim of this book is to furnish pupils who have given little or no attention to the study of English grammar a complete course in Latin for one year. The book opens with a short and easy review of English gram- mar. In the lessons, the changes in the forms, uses, and relations of words are explained and illustrated, so far as is practicable, from English, before introducing the Latin forms and construc- . tions. In order to avoid or to lessen the bewilderment usually produced in the mind of the young beginner by the use of a complete Latin grammar, everything not essential to the structure of a simple sentence has, at first, been carefully excluded. In short, no effort has been spared to smooth the way for the beginner, and to prepare him for the intelligent reading of Caesar or of any of the less difficult Latin authors. Much care and study have been expended on the order and arrangement of the lessons, especially in the earlier part, aiming mainly at two things : First, to introduce very early in the course the simple verb-forms, which are easier than the nouns and open the way to a wide range of expression ; and, secondly, to give not bare words and their inflections, but sentences from the start, with both questions and answers, in natural and easy succession. The vocabularies at the head of each lesson and the exercises for trans- lation, both Latin and English, will afford abundant material for drill on the forms. The teacher, however, will find it an excellent oral exercise to combine these words into new sentences (both Latin and English), requiring the pupil to give the translation. »Tlie first associations with any language, especially when learned by the young, should be such as to make it as nearly as possible a living tongue; the scientific study of it should follow, not go before, some elementary knowledge of what it is in actual speech. I do not wish to be understood as advocating the neglect of syntax 984579 IV PREFACE. or of etymology, but simply as urging that the time often given to parsing and memorizing and repeating formulas, ^vhich my experi- ence has taught me help but little in the mastery of the language, can be much more profitably employed in the oral work just men- tioned. The aim, of course, is to teach the pupil to read and write Latin ; but may not this l)e accomplished more expeditiously and pleasantly by making the language alive, — by teaching pupils to speak, write, and read Latin as they are taught to speak, write, and read a modern language? A German university student, if the classics be his specialty, learns not only to read and write Latin, but even to speak it. If Latin is to maintain its present high place in our courses of study, it must offer something better than mere mental training or grammatical drill ; it must introduce the student to the priceless treasures of art and literature which the llomans gathered from the ancient world, and which, trans- fusing with their own genius, they transmitted to coming ages. This work can be done in no way better than by teaching Latin as a living languaye. Is it not time that some one of our colleges or universities should offer opportunities for students to acquire a speaking knoicledge of the Latin language ? For those who prefer the English method of pronunciation, a few simple rules have been given. The so-called Roman method, which is a very near approach to the ancient pronunciation, is now adopted by many of our leading colleges and high schools. Great pains have been taken in these lessons to teach the euphonic changes that occur in verbs in the formation of the pei-fect and participial stems. A thorough knowledge of the pJionetic value of the letters of the Roman alphabet will help the student through most of these difficulties. This is (piite aside from the question of j)ro- nunciation, which must, after all, be governed by the prevailing- usage. The quantity of syllables, except final syllables that are short, and the final o of the first person present indicative of verbs, has been carefully marked, in order to secure accuracy of pronun- ciation ; and, if a serious attempt is made to pronounce according to the Roman method, the pupil's ear should be trained to it from the start. In enumerating the principal parts of verbs, I have Ventured to deviate so far from common usage as to substitute in place of the so-called supine tJie neuter (f the j^erfect participle. The supine in PKEFACE. -urn, called by many grammarians one of the principal parts of the verb, belongs, in fact, to only about 250 Latin verbs; then, again, •those verbs that are invariably intransitive have the perfect parti- ciple in the neuter gender only. This part, then, called in the dictionaries the supine in -um, nmst, in most cases, be the neuter of tlie perfect participle ; and 1 have ventured, in the enumeration of the principal parts of the verb, to give it this name, and also to substitute, as yani9ek and other grannnarians have done, in place of supine stem, the more correct term jmriiclpial stem. The retention of the neuter of the perfect participle, in enumerating the principal parts of the verb, instead of the masculine, is of importance fi-om the fact just mentioned in regard to intransitive verbs, and also because it can be made to conform easily to the present usage of our dictionaries. The words in the short vocabularies at the beginning of the lessons, as well as the examples to illustrate the rules of syntax, are mostly drawn from the first five chapters of Caesar's Gallic War. These vocabularies should be thoroughly connnitted to memory. The practice of selecting examples from authors of different periods and modes of expression tends, as it seems to me, rather to perplex young pupils than to give them definite ideas of the structure and formation of a Latin sentence. Xo effort is made in these vocabularies to teach the derivation of words; but, in the general vocabulary at the close of the book, the prefixes, stems, and endings of the words have been carefully indicated. In the chapter on the formation of words, attention is mainly confined to the formation of those words that tlie pupil can easily under- stand, and that can be made of service to him while studying these lessons. Exercises for sight-reading have been introduced early in the course. The lesson read at sight can be assigned as the regular lesson of the next day, and made to serve as the basis for addi- tional drill in syntax and etymology. On the third day, the pupil should be required to translate the same lesson, as a review exer- cise, into clear and accurate English, absolutely disregarding the literal construction of the words and sentences. These exercises will also afford ample means for practice in pronouncing Latin, which is best acquired in reading connected sentences, as is the case in a modern language. But in order to read Latin easily and VI PREFACE. well, the oral practice, which I liave mentioned, will he found a valuable and almost indispensable aid. My aim has been to introduce the pupil, by the aid of eas\^ examples, to the correct use of words and to the chief principles of syntax. When these examples have been studied, and the rules to be derived from them are thoroughly understood, the exercises that follow, both Latin and English, will be found sufficient to fix these principles in the memory. It is important, in fact indispen- sable to thoroughness, for the pupil to keep up the work of com- position. If the exercises to be turned into Latin are too numerous, then a part of them can be omitted until the review; but some writing in Latin should be done every day. , The book may seem to some teachers to be too large for begin- ners. But I have endeavored to keep in view the needs of young- pupils, and liave thought it better to give too much explanation rather than not enough. Then, again, the numerous examples; the explanatory notes ; the frequent illustration of Latin idioms by reference to English; the manner in wliich the paradigms are dis- played ; and the adjustment of the type, by which the pupil can learn not only the leading topics of the page, but also the relative importance of the various rules, remarks, and observations, have all necessarily added to the size of the book, but they will all, it is hoped, be found helpful to the pupil. My acknowledgments are due to several of our best teachers, wlio have generously aided me by their counsel in the plan and in the numerous details of the book. The entire work, while going through the press, has received, in addition, the valuable revision and oversight of George AV. Collokd, Professor of Latin in the Collegiate axd Polytechnic Institute, Brooklyn ; of Caskie Harrison, sometime Professor of Ancient Languages in the University of the South, now one of the Principals of the Brooklyn Latin School, to whom I am especially indebted for many valuable suggestions in the revision of the chapters on syntax ; D. A. Kennedy, Dearborn-jNIorgan School, Orange, N. J. ; and of ^Miss C. T. Davis, Professor of Latin in the Packer Collegiate Institute. R. F. L. Brooklyn, N.Y., September, 1885. CONTENTS. LESSONS. PAGES. / Review of English Grammar 1-20 Intro- ) gynopsis for Review 20 DUCTORY ) ,. ^ . ^ C Ongm of Latm Language 21 I. Alphabet; Classification of Letters 23-27 II. Pronunciation; Syllabication; Quantity; Accent 27-36 VII.-VIII. Latin Verb and Conjugation 30-41 IX.-X. First Conjugation 41-45 XL Latin Nouns and Declension 46-50 -- XII. First Declension 51-53 XIII. Subject and Predicate ; Agreement of Verbs and Subject- Nominative 53-55 XIV. Subject and Object ; Direct Object 55-57 XV.-XVII. Second Declension ; Appositive and Genitive with Nouns ; Dative with Transitive Verbs 57-64 XVIII. Prepositions 64-65 XIX.-XX. Adjectives; First and Second Declension; Agreement of Adjectives 06-71 XXL-XXII. First Conjugation ; Active Voice ; Imperative Mode ; Questions ; Vocative 71-76 XXIII.-XXXI. Third Declension; Rules of Position; Rules of Gender 76-97 XXXI. Ablative of Cause, Manner, Means, and Instrument 97-99 XXXII. Subject and Copula; Predicate Noun; Predicate Adjec- tive 99-102 XXXIII. Indicative of sum ; Predicate Genitive 102-104 XXXIV .-XXXV. Adjectives of the Third Declension 105-110 XXXVI.-XXXVIII. Comparison of Adjectives ; Ablative with Com- paratives; Genitive and Dative with Adjectives; Irregular and Defective Comparison 110-118 XXXIX. Uses of Adverbs ; First Conjugation ; Voices of Verbs . . 119-122 XL. Formation, Classification, and Comparison of Adverbs, 122-125 XLI. First Conjugation, continued 126-129 Vlll CONTENTS. LESSONS. PAGES. XLII. Second Conjugation ; Ablative of Agent 129-132 XLIII.-XLV. Second Conjugation, continued ; Stems 132-139 XLVI. Fourth Declension 140-141 XL VII. Fifth Declension 142-143 XLVIII.-LI. Third Conjugation; Laws of Euphony; Ablative of Accompaniment ; Two Accusatives 144-157 LII.-LV. Fourth Conjugation; Two Accusatives of the Same Person and Thing ; Subjective, Possessive, and Ob- jective Genitive ; Dative wdth Intransitive Verbs ; Accusative and Ablative of Time 157-167 LVI. Verbs in -io 108 LVII. Uses of the Dative : Dative of Advajitage and Disad- vantage, Dative of Possessor, Dative of Apparent Agent, Dative of Ileference, and Dative of Purpose or End 169-171 LVIII. Prepositions ; Dative with Compounds 171-174 LIX. Classes of Conjunctions 175-177 LX. Genitives in -ius; Imperative Mode, Active Voice. . . .177-180 LXI. Numerals; Accusative of Time and Space; Ablative of Difference 180-185 LXII. Imperative Passive of the Four Conjugations; Place Where 186-189 LXIII. Classification of Sentences ; Analysis of Simple Sen- tences ■ 189-192 LXIV.-LXIX. Pronouns : Personal, Reflexive, Possessive, Demon- strative ; Partitive Genitive; Determinatives; Rela- tives ; Agreement of Relatives, Interrogatives, and Indefinites 192-209 LXX. Uses of the Ablative: Ablative Proper; Instrumental Ablative; Locative; Separation, Cause, etc.; Perfect Participles denoting jiarenfxuje, etc 209-211 LXXI. Reading Latin at Sight 211-212 LXX 11. Infinitive Mode ; Exercises for Sight-Reading 213-216 LXXIII. Infinitive and Subject-Accusative; Complementary In- finitive ; Exercises for Sight-Reading 216-219 LXXIV. Participles ; Ablative Absolute ; Exercises for Sight- Reading 219-225 LXXV. Gerund and Gerundive; Exercises for Sight-Reading. .225-230 LXXVI. Inflection and Syntax of Supines ; Exercises for Sight- Reading 231-233 CONTENTS. IX LKSSOMS. PAGES. LXXVII. Locative : Names of Places; Place from which; Place ;' in which, etc 234-239 LXXVIIl.-LXXXIII. Subjunctive Mode ; Subjunctive of sum ; Dative of Possessor; Subjunctive of S.mo 230-250 LXXXII. Subjunctive in Independent Sentences : Optative, Hor- tatory Deliberative, Potential, Concessive 248-250 LXXXIIL-LXXXIV. Deponent Verbs of First Conjugation; Ablative with Deponents 250-255 LXXXIV. ])eponent Verbs of the Four Conjugations ; Semi- Deponents 253-250 LXXXV. Periphrastic Conjugations ; Dative of Agent 256-250 LXXXVI. Table of the Four Conjugations 250-208 LXXXVII, Genitive and Ablative of Quality ; Exercises for Siglit- Eeading 268-270 LXXXVIII.-XCIII, Irregular Verbs: possum, prosum ; v61o, nolo, malo ; f 6ro ; Ablative of Specification ; Abla- tive of Difference; eo; 6do; Ablative and Genitive of Price; fio 270-285 XCIII. Defective Verbs ; Instrumental Ablative ; Ablative of Measure ; Ablative of Distance ; Ablative of Ma- terial; dpus and usus; praeditus; Ablative of Manner ; Ablative of Accompaniment ; Ablative of Characteristic ; Tabular View of the Uses of the Ablative 285-200 XCIV. Impersonal Verbs ; Genitive with Verbs 291-206 XCV. Classification of Dependent Clauses ; Exercises for Sight-Keading 206-209 XCVI. Tenses in Dependent Clauses, Primary and Secondary; Sequence in Consecutive Clauses (322. Obs.); after Perfect Infinitive (350. 2) 299-305 XCVII. Subjunctive in Dependent Clauses: 1. Final Clauses; Object Clauses; Verbs of Hindering, Verbs of Fearing, etc 306-309 2. Consecutive Clauses and their Uses ; Exception in the Sequence of Tenses (see 322. Obs.) ; Relative Clauses of Result 309-314 3. Conditional Sentences and their Classification ; Rules for Sequence of Tenses not Applicable (319. Obs.); Uses of dum, m6do, and dummSdo in Conditional Clauses ; Disguised Conditions 314-320 CONTENTS. LESSONS. PAGES. 4. Comparative Clauses with Indicative and Subjunctive, 320-321 5. Concessive Clauses 321-323 6. Causal Clauses 323-325 7. Temporal Clauses : Contemporaneous Action with dum, donee, quoad ; Subsequent Action with antSquam and priusquam; Construction of cum: (1) cum inversum, (2) Iterative use of cum, (3) cum His- torical, (4) Causal and Concessive cum 325-332 8. Substantive Clauses and their Classification 333-337 9. Interrogative Clauses: Rhetorical Questions, Direct Questions, Double Questions, Indirect Questions, De- pendent Double Questions, Questions and Answers, 337-341 XCVIII. Indirect Discourse; Infinitive in Indirect Discourse; Tenses in Indirect Discourse ; Sequence of Tenses after other Modes ; Sequence of Tenses after an Infinitive or a Participle ; Reflexive Pronouns ; Pro- nouns in Indirect Discourse ; Conditional Sentences in Indirect Discourse ; Interrogative Sentences in Indirect Discourse ; Imperative Sentences in Indirect Discourse 342-355 XCIX. Relative Clauses : Simple Relative Clauses ; Relative Clauses introducing purpose, result, condition, cause, concession ; Indefinite Relative ; Relative Clauses in Indirect Discourse 355-358 Intermediate (or Parenthetic) Clauses; Attraction of Mode 358-359 Partial Indirect Discourse 359-362 Miscellaneous Exercises 363-369 Summary of Rules of Syntax 370-381 Fables 382-383 Life of Cesar 383-388 The Helvetian War, from "Woodford's Epitome of Cesar," 388-397 Notes 398-418 Sketch of Cesar's Life 402-406 Index 419-431 Latin-English Vocabulary • 1-57 English-Latin Vocabulary 58-76 INTRODUCTION. LESSON I. PAETS OF SPEECH IN ENGLISH. NOUNS. -PRONOUNS.-ADJECTIVES. Observation. In the study of English grammar, one of the first things the pupil has to do is to classify and name the various words that he meets in his exercises. He does this in the same manner that one might pick out, sort, and group objects of any kind : viz., by noting the points in which they resemble one an- other. For example, we may, from certain resemblances in form and structure, select all trees of a certain kind, and call them maples; from other resemblances, we should get another class, called oaks ; and still another class, called beeches. Then we may study each class, as the oak, and learn all that is perhaps necessary to know of the numerous individuals that compose the class. In the same manner, we may study and classify words. Noticing the various ways the different w^ords are used in sentences, we sort them out, or group them, into eight classes, which are called Parts OF Speech. Those words that name objects are called Nouns, from the Latin word nomen, which means a name. But we soon learn that we cannot talk or say anything about the noun without using another kind of word, called Verb, from the Latin verbum, a word. When a noun and a verb are combined so as to express a thought, i.e. so as to make sense, then a sentence (Lat. sententia) is formed ; as, — Trees grow. Boys run. Time Jlies. PRONOUNS. Charles went to Rome with his mother, and he came back ivithout her. In this sentence we make use of three little words, called Pronouns. They are his, he, and her. Without these words, we should be compelled to repeat the nouns, and to say : Charles ivent to Rome with Charles's mother, and Charles came hack without Charles's mother. INI^RODUCTION. 1. A Noun is the name of anything, as, a person, place, or thing; as, hoy, house, man, tree, city. 2. A Pronoun is a word used for a noun ; as, — Can you tell me zvho wrote the line? Obs. We have stated that the words of our language may ])e divided into eight classes, or parts, of speech. AVhen we examine these parts of speech, we shall soon find it necessary to divide some of the classes into other classes. For example, the word ciiy may mean any city, i.e. it is a name common to the whole class ; while the word Boston is a proper, or particulcu; name of an individual of this class. We may, therefore, subdivide nouns into common and proper. If we notice the use of nouns further, we sliall see that they undergo certain changes in form, meaning, and use; for ex- ample, the tree grows, and the trees groiv. Here we notice the word tree changes its foi'in by assuming s ; this change, or modification, in the form and meaning of the noun, tree, is called Number. 'J'he word tree, denoting one, is in tlie singular number ; and the woi-d trees, denoting more than one, is in the plural number. Let us now examine the following words : — 1. The lion is strong. 5. We praise the author. 2. The lioness is strong. 6. I, the author, have written. 3. The author writes. 7. Author, hear thou. 4. Tlie author's book is read. 8. We call the author. Obs. In Ex. 1 the pupil will notice that the word lion denotes a male , in Ex. 2 this word has been changed, or modified, in form, and now denotes a female. This modification of the noun to denote sex is called Gender . There are three genders, — masculine, feminine, and neuter.^ The clianges that we have noted so far, affect the meaning of the noun ; there are two other changes of nouns seen in Exs. 3-8, which affect the uses and relations of the words. In Ex. 3 the author is represented as doing an act, viz., ivriting ; in Ex. 4, as possessing a book; and in Ex. 5, as receiving an action. These uses of nouns are called Cases. The use of the noun in Ex. 3, as sub- ject, is called the Nominative Case; its use in Ex. 4, to denote possession, is called I^ossessive Case; its use in Exs. 5 and 8, as object, is called Objective Case". The possessive is the only case ol the noun that is indicated by a change in form. In Exs. 6-8 the M^ord author lias three different uses. In Ex. G it denotes the speaker, in Ex. 7 tlie person spoken to, and in Exs. 5 and 8 the person spoken of. This change in the use of nouns is called Person. There are three persons, — the frst person, as in PARTS OF SPEECH. Ex. ; the second person, denoting the one spoken to, as in Ex. 7 ; and the thii-d person, denoting tlie one spoken of, as in Ex. 8. MODIFICATION. These changes in the form, meaning, and use of v)ords, are called Modifications. Nouns, 3. A Noun, or Substantive, is the name of anything, as, a per- son, place, or thing; as, man, hooh, Boston. 1. A Proper Noun is the particuhir name of a person or place ; as, Brooklyn, Cicero. 2. A Common Noun is a name common to all members of a class of objects ; as, c%, river. Obs. There are two classes of common nouns, collective and abstract, that it may be well for the pupil to note: — 1. A collective noun is the name of a multitude of objects taken as a whole ; as, army, croivd, mob, legion, jury, multitude. 2. An abstract noun is the name of a quality considered as taken away, or abstracted, from the object to which it belongs ; as, beauty, virtue, prudence, mildness. 4. Nouns are modified to express Number, G-ender, Person, and Case. NUMBER. 1 . There are two Numbers : the singular ., which denotes one thing ; as, man., hoy. 2. The plural^ which denotes more than one ; as, men, boys. OENDER. 3. There are three Genders : the masculine., which denotes the male sex ; as, Hon., man. 4. The feminine., which denotes the female sex ; as, lioness, ivoman. 5. The neuter, which denotes neither male nor female ; as, boolc. PERSON. 6. There are three Persons : (1) The f7\st person., which denotes the one speaking ; as. We Americans hurrv too much. INTRODUCTION. (2) The second 2^e'i'son, which denotes the one spoken to ; as, John, bring me the book. (3) The third person^ which denotes the one spoken of ; as, The hoy has gone to school. CASE. 7. Case is the modification of a noun or pronoun to show its relation to other words. There are four cases : — (1) The Nominative, which usually denotes the subject, and answers the question who? or what? ; as, John speaks. (2) The Possessive, which denotes possession, and an- swers the question whose? ; as, John's book. Boys' slates. (3) The Objective, which denotes the relation of the direct object, or of a preposition ; as, The man strikes the hoy. Ilis wealth was gained by industry. (4) The Independent, or Case Absolute, which denotes that the noun or pronoun has no dependence on any other word. Its most common uses are — a. As the case of address ; as. The fault, dear Brutus, is not in our stars, but in ourselves. h. With a participle, forming a contracted clause ; as. The sun having risen, we departed on our journey ; i.e. = when the sun had risen, etc. c. By pleonasm, as when a noun introduces the subject of a remark, and then is left independent of the rest of the sentence ; as. The Pilgrim fathers, where are they ? PAliTS OF SPEECH. Pronouns, 5. A pronoun (Lat. pro, /o?*, and nomen, name) is a word used for a noun ; as, he, they. 1. A Personal Pronoun is one that denotes by its form the speaker, the one spoken to, or tlie one spol^en of. Tlie first person, as /, we, is the speaker ; the second person, you^ tliou^ is the one spoken to ; the third person, Ae, sAe, it^ they, is that spoken of. 2. A Relative Pronoun is one that relates to some pre- ceding word or words, called the antecedent, and connects clauses ; as, lulio, ivJncJi, that. 3. An Interrogative Pronoun is used to ask questions ; as, Who is that? Which book liave you ? What man is that? 4. An Adjective Pronoun is one that may be used both as an adjective or as a noun ; as, this, that, each, all. Adjectives. Obs. The noun does not always stand alone; other words may be added to it to explain or modify it ; as, sivift messemjers come. Here the word swift names some quality possessed by messengers, and is said to modify messengers. It is called an adjective (Lat. ad, to, and jac6re, to throw). 6. An adjective is a word used to modify a noun or pronoun ; as, clear friend, red hooh, they all remained. 1. The modification of the adjective to show diflferent degrees of quality is called comparison. There are three degrees of comparison : — a. The Positive, which expresses the simple quality ; as, dear, good, had. b. The Comparative, which expresses a greater or less degree of the quality ; as, dearer, better, ivorse. c. The Superlative, which expresses the greatest or least degree of the quality ; as, dearest, best, worst. 2. Adjectives are compared in three ways : (1) Regularly, i.e. by adding -er to the positive to form the comparative, and -esf to the positive to form the superlative ; as, high, higher, highest. (2) By use of the adverbs more and most, or less and least, with the positive of adjectives of more than two 6 INTEODUCTiON. syllables ; as, becmtiful, more beautiful^ most beautiful. (3) Irregularly ; as, good, better, best. Obs. The adjectives a, cm, and fhe are usually called Articles. EXERCISES. Mention the parts of speech and the cases of the nouns and pronouns in the following sentences : — 1. Birds fly. 2. The lion was caged. 3. The industrious boy was praised. 4. These industrious boys are praised. 5. The river flows rapidly. 6. The boy's slate is on the desk. 7. The boys are in school. 8. She plaj'^s very nicely. 9. He writes more rapidly than I do. 10. The gate of the palace opens. 11. The house that you saw is sold. 12. Tell me what you did. 13. This is the man who called on you. 14. There is no terror, Cassius, in 3'our threats. 15. The treaty being concluded, the council was dissolved. NOTES AND QUESTIONS. Write a common noun. Write the jilural of this noun. Write tlie possessive singular and plural. Write the singular of six nouns ; the plural of the same. Make a rule for forming the plural of nouns. Write the possessive case of each noun. Make a rule for forming the possessive case. Write the possessive plural. Write a pronoun. Wliat is a pronoun ? Show how pronouns are used. AVrite all the personal pronouns. Write a noun and prefix an adjective ; compare tliis adjec- tive. In how many ways may adjectives he compared ? What class of adjectives are usually compared by more and most ? LESSON II. PAETS OF SPEECH IN ENGLISH. VERBS AND THEIR MODIFICATIONS. Obs. If we say the hoy strikes, the word strikes expresses the act done by the boy, — or is, as it is called, a Verb. Some other word, however, is necessary in order to complete the meaning ; adding the word hook, we have the hoy strikes the hook, the book being the object that receives the action, which passes over from PARTS OF SPEECH. the doer. Verbs that represent the action as passing over from the subject^ or doer oh" the action, to the object, or receiver of the action, are called Transitive Veuhs (Lat. trans, across, and eo, r/o). In the sentence, the boy sleeps, the action does not j)ass over to an object ; but the verb sleeps expresses only being or state, and is called an Intransitive Verb. The hoy called his companion. Here called represents the action as having taken place in past time ; and, as tense means time, the verb is said to be in past time, or past tense. Notice further that the past tense of called is formed by adding -ed to call. All verbs that form their past tense (and perfect participle) in this way are called Regi:lar Verbs (Lat. regula, pule, these parts being formed according to a uniform rule). 7. A verb is a word that asserts action, being, or state of being ; as, sleep, am, strike. 8. Verbs are classified, according to their meaning, as — 1. Transitive Verbs, which require an object; as, The man strlhes the tcdde. 2. Intransitive Verbs, which do not require an object ; as, The horse 7'uns. 9. Verbs are classified, according to their form, as regular and irregular. 1. A Regular Verb is one that forius its past tense and past participle by adding -d or -ed to the present ; as, ?ove, loved ^ loved. 2. An Irregular Verb is one that does not form its past tense and past participle by adding -rZ or -ed to the present ; as, teach ^ taught^ tcmglit. 10. Some verbs are found only in the third person singu- lar. They have no personal subject, and are therefore called Impersonal Verbs ; as, it rains. 11. Defective Verbs want certain parts ; as, can^ ought, shall. 12. An Auxiliary Verb (Lat. auxilium, aid) is one used to aid in the conjugation of other verbs ; as shall in the sentence, The man shall tell his story. INTRODUCTION. Modifications of Verbs. MODE. Obs. 1. When I say the man strikes, I assert striking as a fact. The mo/n may strike ; in this sentence I do not assert the action as a fact, but as possible. Again, if the man strike, he will he sorry : 1 now assert the action, not as an actual fact, but as a condition oi the man's being sorry. I can also say, 7nan, strike ! but I do not assert that the man does actually strike, but simply command him to strike. The action expressed by the verb strike has been asserted \wfour different ways, or modes. The first is called the Indicative Mode ; the second, the Potential Mode ; the third, the Sub- .jiiNCTiVE Mode ; the fourth, the Imperative Mode. There is another form of tlie verb, which expresses action, but cannot assert it of a subject ; as, he wishes to strike. To strike expresses the action in a general way, without confining or limiting it to a subject ; it is, therefore, called the Infinitive Mode, i.e. icithout limit, unlimited. VOICE. Obs. 2. The man struck the hoy. In this sentence the verb struck shows that the subject, man, is the actor ; if we change the sen- tence, still expressing the same idea, to the hoy was struck hy the man, then the verli, rcas struck, shows that the subject is no longer the actor, but is acted upon, or receives the action. This change in the form of the verb is called Voice. The first form is called Active Voice; and tlie second, the Passive Voice. 13. Verl)s are modified to express voice, mode, tense, number, and person. 1. Voice is that modification of a transitive verb which shows whether the subject acts or is acted upon. There are two voices : — a. The Active Voice, which shows that the subject does the action ; as. The man strikes. b. The Passive Voice, which shows that the subject suffers the action ; as. The man is struck. 2. Mode (Lat. modus, manner) denotes the manner of asserting the action or being. There are five modes : — a. The Indicative, which asserts the action (or being) as a fact, or inquires after a fact ; as. He came. Did he come f I»AKTS OF SPEECH. 9 h. The Potential, which asserts power, possibiUty, or necessity of the action or being ; as, lie mcuj come. lie must come. c. The Subjunctive, which asserts the action or being as a mere condition, supposition, uncertainty, or wish; as. If you had come, tliis would not have happened. Obs. The Subjunctive mode has but few forms now in com- mon use, in which it differs from the forms of the Indicative and Potential ; as, If I luere in your place. If he be loved. If lie love. d. The Imperative, which asserts the action or being as a command or entreaty ; as, Cojiie thou. e. The Infinitive (infinitivus, unlimited ) , which expresses the action or being in a general way, without asserting it of any person or thing ; as. He wishes to go. That is, it is unlimited (hence its name) as to number and per- son. The verb in the otlier modes is called finite, that is, limited in number and person. He ivkhes to go. To go does duty here as a verb, expressing action, and as a verbal noun, the object of wishes. TENSE. Obs. In the sentences / strike, I struck, I shall strike, the mode, or manner, of asserting the action is the same, but the time is dif- ferent. I strike expresses the action as present; I struck, as past; and / shall strike, as future. The first form is called Present Time, or Present Tense, as tense means time; the second, tlie Past Tense; the third, the Future Tense. There are also three other forms of the verb, asserting the action as completed in the present, the past, or the future : (1) / have struck; (2) / had struck; (8) / shall have struck. The first, have struck, represents tlie action as completed at the present time, and is called the Perfect Tense, or the Present Perfect ; the second, had struck, represents the action as completed in past time, and is called the Plurerfect Tense, or Past Perfect ; the third, shall have struck, represents the action as to be completed before some other futiu'e action, and is called the Future Perfect Tense. 10 INTRODUCTION. 3. Tense expresses the time of the action or being ; the time may be present, past, oy future. There are six tenses : — a. The Present expresses action or being as present ; as. He runs. b. The Imperfect expresses action or being as going on in past time ; as, He ivas running. c. The Future expresses action or being as yet to come ; as. He loill run. d. The Perfect expresses action or being as completed in present time ; as, He has run. e. The Past Tense (aorist, or historical perfect) expresses action or being as ended in past time ; as. He ran. f. The Pluperfect expresses action as ended before some other past action or being ; as, He had run. y. The Future Perfect expresses action or being to be com- pleted before some other future action ; as. He shall have run. PERSON. If we change the subject in the first sentence to thou, or to he, we must then change the verb strike to strikest, or to strikes. Thf se changes are made for the sake of agreement between the subject and the verb, — the verb ending in -est agrees with thou in the second person, and the verb ending in -s agrees with he in the third person. Both of these subjects are singular number ; if the sub- ject is plural, the verb nnist be plural ; as, the men strike. Hence, verbs agree with their subjects in number and person. 4. Number and Person of a verb are those modifications which show its agreement with the number and person of the subject ; as, The hoy runs. The hoys run. PARTS OE^ SPEECH. 11 PARTICIPLES. Obs. In the sentence the sun rising causes the da//, the word risinf/, while not directly asserting the action of rising of the sun, still assumes such an action; causes directly asserts the action. AVe may also say, the rising sun causes the day , but here rising has become an adjective, modifying sun. Hence, the pai'ticiple may be defined as that form of the verb which partakes of the nature of an adjective, and expresses the action as assumed. 14. The Participle is a form of the verb that partakes of the nature of the verb and adjective. There are three participles : — 1. The Present, which represents the action or being as going on at the time denoted by the verb ; as, The riveY, foiving from the mountains, waters the plain. 2. The Past, which represents the action or being as com- pleted at the time denoted by the verb ; as. The soldier, covered with wounds, fell. 3. The Perfect, which represents the action or being as completed previous to the time denoted by the verb ; as. Having climhed to the top of the hill, we saw the beautiful landscape. EXERCISES. Name the mode, tense, and voice, of each of the following verbs : — 1. They sing. 13. They are chosen. 2. They have sung. 14. They were ruled. 3. I do fight. 15. He has been struck. 4. I have sung. 16. We are blamed. 5. They were calling. 17. You were being praised. 6. They will call. 18. You will be blamed. 7. They had called. 19. The boy is called. 8. They called. 20. The girl has been called. 9. They have called. 21. The king w^as wounded. 10. They are calling. 22. They will be punished. 11. They had fought. 23. They had been punished. 12. They will have fought. 24. He has been praised. 12 INTRODUCTION. NOTES AND QUESTIONS. What is a verb ? Write a sentence containing a transitive verb. How are verbs classified ? Mention the modifications of verbs. Write a verb in the indicative mode. What is a participle ? Define the word. How many modes are there ? How many tenses 1 Define tense. LESSON III. PAETS or SPEECH IN ENaLISH. ADVERBS.- PREPOSITIONS.- CONJUNCTIONS. TIONS. INTERJEC- Advei'hs, Obs. a noun and a verb are l)oth necessary in order to form a sentence. We have learned that modifying words are often added to nouns to explain or to express the idea more clearly. Words are often added to the verb for the same purpose. If we say, the hoy reads, we express the fact in a general way ; but, if we wish to speak of the manner of reading, then we say, the hoy reads hadly, adding the word hadly ; if, of the time, we add the word noic: the hoy reads norc : of the place, we add the word here: the hoy read here. We may join words to these modifiers, and say, the hoy reads very hadly, tliat is, very modifies hadly ; we may join a word to an adjective, as, that book is very good. These words that we join with verhs, adjectives, or adrerhs, to modify their meaning, are called Adverbs (Lat. ad, to, and verbum, a word, or verh). 15. An Adverb is a word used to modify verbs, adjectives, or adverbs; as, he speahs plainly ; it is reinarkahly cold jucatlier; he strihes very hard. COMPARISON. 1. Adverbs are compared in the same way as adjectives ; as, Positive. Comparative. Superlative. sweetly soon well more sweetly sooner better most sweetly soonest best PARTS OF SPEECH. 13 CLASSIFICATION OF ADVERBS. 2. Adverbs may express time^ place, manner, cause, or degree. a. Adverbs of Time answer the question, when? ; as, lately, yesterday. b. Adverbs of Place answer the question, where? ; as, there, here. c. Adverbs of Manner answer the question, in what ivay? ; as, excellently, luell. d. Adverbs of Cause answer the question, tvhy?; as, why. e. Adverbs of Degree answer the question, in what degree ? ; as, too, very. Prepositions. Obs. Adverbs modify verbs, as, the liorse stands there ; but we may wish to express the idea with more distinctness than is pos- sible even with the use of an adverb, as, the horse stands in his stall. These words, in his stall, standing for the adverb /^ere, are called a phrase, and the word in, that shows the relation between stands and stall, is called a Preposition. 16. A Preposition (Lat. prae, before, and pono, place) shows the relation between a noun or pronoun and some other word ; as, he came to town; to die for one's country. Conjunctions. Obs. In the sentence John and James read, the two words, John and James, are united by the w^ord and. In the sentence a brave and prudent man acts discretely; here the two adjectives are con- nected by and. Again, in the sentence the man works in summer and in icinter ; here the two phrases, in summer and in winter, are connected by and. The earth is round, and no one doubts it, is com- posed of two sentences, or clauses, connected by and. The words that connect other words or sentences are called Conjunctions (Lat. con, together, and jungo,yom). 17. A Conjunction is a word used to connect words, phrases, or clauses. Conjunctions are — a. Co-ordinate, when they connect words, phrases, or clauses of the same rank ; as, and, but, or, nor. 14 INTEODUCTION. h. Subordinate, when they connect clauses of different rank ; as, z/, because^ when. Interjections. 18. An Interjection is a word used to express sudden emotion or feeling; as, alas! Oh! EXERCISES. Mention the parts of speech in the following sentences : — 1. This book was given to me. 2. These birds fly very swiftly. 3. The child likes to play. 4. The brave soldiers fell in battle. 5. We saw a beautiful landscape. 6. The gallant soldier fell, covered with wounds. 7. I saw the sun sinking behind the hills. 8. The Delta of the Mississippi was once at St. Louis. 9. They made Victoria queen. 10. Alas ! how many changes have occurred. 11. Mary and Elizabeth lived and reigned in England. 12. Give me the book. 13. If he give me the book, I shall rejoice. 14. If I were in your place, I would go. NOTES AND QUESTIONS. What is a preposition ? What is a phrase 1 Write a sentence con- taining an adverb ; expand this into a phrase. Write two nouns con- nected by and ; by Imt. In tlie sentence, the earth is round, and no one doubts it, and is a co-ordinate conjunction; but in the sentence, the sea, ivhen it had spent its fury, became calm, when is a subordinate conjunction. LESSON IV. rOEMS OP THE ENGLISH VEEB. 19. The conjugation of the English verb in Latin form, i.e. the names of the tenses are those used in conjugating a Latin verb, is as follows : — FORMS OF THE ENGLISH VERB. 15 16 TNTKODUCTION. Iinpet'ative Mode. Sinn. 1. Present Tense. Plur. 1. 2. Love (you or thou). 3. 2. Love (ye). Infinitive 3Iode. Present Tense, To love. Perfect Tense, To have loved. Participles. Present, Loving. Past, Loved. Past Perfect, Having loved. PASSIVE VOICE. Indicative 3Iode, Present Tense. Future Tense. Sing. 1. I am being loved. Si)i(/. 1. I shall be loved. 2. Thou art being loved. 2. Thou wilt be loved. 3. He, she, or it is being o. He, she, or it will be loved. loved. Plur. 1. We shall be loved. Plur. 1. We are being loved. 2. Ye or you will be loved. 2. Ye or you are being loved. 3. They will be loved. 3. They are being loved. OK, Perfect Tense. Si)iq. 1. I am loved. Sing. 1. I have 1 2. Thou art loved. 2. Thou hast ^ 3. He, she, or it is loved. 3. He, she, or it has s Plur. 1. We are loved. Plur.l. We have o p 2. Ye or you are loved. 2. Ye or you have 3. They are loved. 3. They have Lm PERFECT Tense. Historical Perfect. Sing. 1. I was cf Sing. 1. I was loved. 2. Thou wast 2. 2. Thou wast loved. 3. He, she, or it was flp; 3. He, she, or it was loved. Plur. 1. We were 9 Plur. 1. We were loved. 2. Ye or you were 2. Ye or you were loved. 3. They were J 3. They were loved. THE sentp:nce. 17 Plupkufect Tkn.sk. Futukk 1'kkkkct Tknsk. Sinr/. 1, I had been loved.,. 2. Thou hadst been loved. 3. He, she, or it has been loved. Plur. 1. We had been loved. 2. Ye or you had been loved. 3. They had been loved. SiiKj. 1. I shall have been loved. 2. Thouwilt have been loved. 3. He, she, or it will have been loved. Plur. 1. We shall have been loved. 2. Ye or you will have been loved. 3. They will have been loved. Imperative Mode. TllKSENl Sbxj. 1. 2. Be (you or thou) loved. 3. Tense. Plur. 1. 2. Be (ye or you) loved. 3. Infinitive 3Iode. Pkks. Tknsk, To be loved. Pres. Pekf. Tknse, To have been loved. Pai'ticijiles. Pkesent, Being loved. Past, Been loved. Past Pekfect, Having been loved. 1. Conjugation is the regular arrangement of all the forms of a verb. Note. Conjugate in the same manner the verbs hear, teach, rule, choose, run, see. LESSON V. THE SENTENCE. 20. A Sentence is the expression of a thought in words; as, ^ro^^ melts. 21. Every sentence has two parts : — 1. The Subject/ or that about which something is said ; as, Birds fly. 18 INTllODUCTION. 2. The Predicate, or that which is said about the subject ; ' The leaves tremble. EXAMPLES. Svibject. Predicate. Birds Boys Birds fly. study, twitter. 3. The Subject is alvva^^s a noun, or some word used as a noun. The subject is sometimes modified by a word, or group of words, and the combination is then called the modified.^ or logical svhject ; as, The cold wind blows. 4. The Predicate is always a verb, or contains a verb. Tlie predicate may be modified by other words, and the com- bination is then called the niodijied, or logical predicate; as, The leaves fall quietly. T). The verb ma}' be intransitive, and then the subject and verb make complete sense, and the predicate contains nothing but the verb ; as, Time /lies. C). The verb may be transitive, and then an object is required to complete the sentence, and the verb and object together make up the predicate ; as. The man sti'ikes the table. 7. The verb may be copulative^' and then a complement is i-equired to complete the sentence. The verb and comple- ment together make up the i)redicate ; as, The man is old. 8. The anal3'sis of a sentence is the separation of it into its parts. EXAMPLE Time flies. Obs. This is a sentence, because it expresses a thought. Time is the subject, because it is that about which something is said ; flies is the predicate, because it says something of the subject. THE SENTENCE. 19 The following method of analysis will be found useful for young pupils. The subject is marked s. ; the predicate is marked (1) V.I., i.e. Verb Intransitive; (2) v.t. and o., i.e. A^erb Transitive and Object; (3) v.c. and c, i.e. Verb Copulative and Comple- ment : — s. Soldiers V.I. fight. s. Caesar V.T. o. conquers the Germans. s. The river v.c. c. is deep. EXERCISES. Analyze the following sentences : — 1. The enemy crossed the river. 2. Columbus discovered America. 3. The tiowers bloom. 4. The flowers are beauti- ful. 5. Gold is yellow. 6. A shepherd watches sheep. 7. Study pays. 8. The boy learns his lesson. 9. The sun shines bright. 10. The lady is tall. 11. Ripe fruit is healthful. NOTES ANI> QUESTIONS. 1. The subject of a sentence may be found by asking who? or what? with the verb; as, birds fly. Who or what fly? Ans. birds. The predicate may be found by asking what? about the subject; as, birds fllf. What about birds 1 Ans. They^^y, — fly is the predicate. 2. Copulative means the same as copula, a U)ik, coupler. It joins, or links, the subject with the complement; as, s7ioiv is ivhite, — snoic is the subject, is is the copula, and white the complement. There are several otlier copulative verbs besides to be; as, became, seem, appear. The adjective standing in the predicate is called the predicate adjective, and tlie noun is called the predicate noun. Define simple sentence. Of what is a sentence composed ? Define subject. What must the subject be ? What is meant by copula ? Classify verbs according to their meaning. Define object. What is a transitive verb? 20 INTKODUCTION. SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW. f Uses I The Noun -{ Classes . . . , Modifications f Uses I I Classes . . . , I [ Modijications r Uses Classes . . . . The Pronoun Verb . . Adjective Adverb Con- junctions -Modijications - Uses .... Modijication r Classes . . . [ Modificatiom )- Classes . . . Subject. Object. Complement. Principal Word in a Phrase. Connnon. Proper. Nuntber ■ Singular ; Plural. Gender t jNlasculine; Feni.; Neuter. Person: First; Second; lliird. Case, Nominative; Possessive; Objective. Same as those of Nouns. Pei-sonal. Relative. Interrogative. Adjective. Same as those of Nouns. Predicate. Form: Ilegidar; Irregular. Meanhuj : Transitive ; Intransitive. Voice: Active; l\assive. Mode ' Indicative (Potential) ; Sub- junctive; Infinitive. Tense : l*resent ; Imperfect ; Future ; Perfect ; Aorist ; I*luper- fect; Future Perfect. Person : First ; Second ; Third. ^Number' Singular; Plural. Modifier ; Complement. {Positive Degree. Comparative Degree. Superlative Degree. T'ime; Place; Manner; Degree; Cause, r Positive Degree. ■{ Comparative Degree. [^Superlative Degree. ( Co-ordinate. i Suljordinate. Parts . . SIMPLE SENTENCE. r Subject. . < Predicate. [ Complement. Meaning Declarative. Interrogative. Imperative. Exclamatory. LATIN LANGUAGE. Origin of Latin, — Tlie Latin language was spoken at Rome and in the adjoining district, the plain of Latium, from which latter it derives its name. It is closely related to the tongues spoken by the Samnites, Sabines, and other kindred races, to which the general name of SahelUan has been given. These Sabellian tribes, on first entering Italy, settled along the mountain ridges, from which they descended to the plains like streams that flood and fertilize the valleys. The Latins, who settled near the Tiber, belonged to the oldest of these successive migrations ; then came the Sabines, the Aequians, Hernicans, and Volscians, who at first pressed hard on the Latins, and hemmed them into the narrow plain between the Tiber and the Alban hills, but in course of time coalesced with them and formed one nation. Hoiv Helated, — The Latin, as well as the Greek, San- skrit, Teutonic, Celtic, and Zend, are all sister languages, and together help to form the Indo-European family. The original language from which these sprang was spoken by the progenitors of all these peoples, who Qnce lived together somewhere in Central Asia, and by successive migrations peopled India and P^urope, whence the name Indo-European. The name Aryan (pronounced dr-yan) is often applied to this parent language, and to the groups that have descended from it. TVJiere Spoken. — The conquests of the Romans caused the Latin language to spread, not only over Italy and Sicil}', but over the greater part of France and Spain. 22 LATIK LANGUAGE. Origin of the Romance Languages, — With the decay of Roman power, German tribes invaded and settled the provinces where Latin had been spoken ; and from the conse- qnent intermingUng of tongnes the various modern languages — Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese, Frovengal, Walla- chian, and Rhieto-Romanic (or Roumansch) — arose. The English language, although in its origin and its most essen- tial words a Teutonic tongue, being the successor of the Anglo-Saxon, has borrowed at different times nearly half its words directly or indirectly from tlie Latin. Golden Age of Latin, — The earliest Latin writings that have been preserved were composed about two hundred years before Christ. The language ceased to be spoken in the sixth century of our era. The best writers, as C?esar, Cicero, Sallust, Vergil, Horace, and Livy, flourished in a period — called the Golden Age of Latin Literature ^ of about one hundred years immediately preceding and follow- ing the Christian era. Periods of Roman Literature. — Roman literature may be divided into tlie following periods : — 1. The Pre-Historic Period, to Livius Andronicus, B.C. 240. II. The Archaic Period, from Livius Andronicus to Cicero, bc. 240-70. III. The Golden Age, b.c. 70 to a.d. 14. 1, The Ciceronian Period. 2. The Augustan Period. IV. The Silver Age, a.d. 14-117. V. The Period of Positive Decline (Brass and Iron Ages), A.D. 117 to the sixth century. FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. LESSON I. THE ALPHABET. 1. The Latin alphabet is the same as the English, except that it has np iv. 2. Letters are divided, according to the position of the vocal organs at the time of utterance, into vowels and consonants. 3. The vowels are a, e, i, o, u^ y. The vowels may be long, short, or common, i.e, sometimes long and some- times short. They are marked as follows : — 1. Long aeiou 2. Short agidii 3. Common aeiou 4. Diphthongs (meaning "double sonnd") are the union of two vowels in one syllable. The most common diphthongs are ae^ oe, au; the less common are eu^ ei, ui. 5. The consonants p, b, f, d., c (k^ q)^ g^ are called mutes; and m, n (nasals), r, I (liquids), ^, y, /, v (spirants), s (sibilant), semi-vowels. 6. The double consonants are a^ (= c^ or ^.s) and z {ti< or r7.s') ; j and v are consonant forms of / and ?/. 24 FIRST STp:rs in latin. CLASSIFICATION OF LETTERS.^ I. Vowels, 7. Vowels are produced when the vocal organs are open, so as to allow an uninterrupted flow of vocal sound ; when the vocal sound is interrupted, consonants are produced, Init no sharp line separates the least open vowels from the most open consonants. 8. The vowels may be divided according to their quality into — 1. Open a 2. Medial e o 3. Close i y u 9. The open vowel is pronounced like a in father^ the mouth being fully open. Starting with this sound, and by gradually contracting the vocal organs, the medial vowels, the close vowels, and the more open consonants (like i or j = ?/, 1) = w) are produced ; and at last the closure of the vocal organs beconies complete when the mutes are uttered. 10. e is a medinl vowel between open a and close i ; o is medial between open a and close ?/ ; y occurs in Greek words only. Orservattox 1 . Tlio vowel i and the consonant i (often written ;■) were not distinguished in form by the Romans. But i, com- bined with a vowel in tlie same syllable, was a consonant, and was sounded like ?/; as, major (ma-yor). It is now usually written /. Obs. 2. The vowel n and the consonant u = r, are often inter- changed ; as: m6n-ui, / have admmihhed ; ama-vi, / have loved; the ending -id in mSnui becomes -vi in amavi. II. Consofiants, 11. Consonants are divided, according to the organs of speech by which they are chiefly uttered, into — 1 . Labials (or lip-letters) . . . p, b, m, f, v. 2. Dentals (or teeth-letters) . . . t, d, n, s. 3. Linguals (or tongue-letters) . . r, 1. 4. Palatals (or palate-letters) . . i, or j = y. 5. Gutturals (or throat-letters) . . c k q, g, n, h. thp: alphabet. 25 12. Coiisoiuints are divided, according to the degree of bretitbiug required in tlieir utterance, into — 1. Smooth p, t, c (k, qu). 2. Middle b, d, g. 3. Rough f (ph), th, ch. 13. The following table shows tlie consonants according to the two classifications mentioned : — Smooth mutes .... Middle mutes .... Rough mutes .... Labials. r>entals. Gutturals. P b f (ph), V t d th c(k^qu) g ch 14. Consonants may also be classified, according to the manner in which they are uttered ; as, — 1. Surds'^ p, t, k. c, qu. 2. Sonants b, d, g. 15. The following table shows the classification of con- sonants : — Labial . . . Dental . . . Lingual . . . Palatal . . . Guttural . . . Mutes. Seuil-Vowels. Surds. Sonants. Nasals. Liquids. Spirants. Sibilants. P t c k q b d s m n n" r, 1 f, V i,orjr=y h S, Z Obs. 1. k is used only before a at the beginning of a few words. Obs. 2. q is used only before u. EUPHONIC CHANGES." 16. In Latin words, Aowels and consonants are often changed in order to secure an easier utterance. These changes are called eiqyhonw changes. 26 FIKST STE1\S IN LATIN. I. Vowel Changes, 17. Vowels fire in general changed in the direction from the strongest to the weakest, i.e. following the vowel scale on page 24, from a to I on one side, or from a to u on the other, but sometimes across from o to e. Thus : — 1. a changed to i ; a.^, conficio from con and facio. 2. i changed to o; as, virginis and virgo. 3. e changed to i; as, obsideo, from ob and sedeo. 4. a changed to e ; as, confectum from con and factum 5. o changed to u; as, corporis*^ from corpus. II. Consonant Changes. 18. A guttural (c, j, est, lie is), he is aivay. 2. in-u'-ti-lis (in, not, utilis, useful), useless. 3. ob-i'-re (ob and ire), to yo. 30. The last syllable of a word is called the ultimate^ ()]■ ultima; the next to the last, the 2?e7iultimate, or penult; and the one before the penult, the antepemd- timate, or antepenult. EXAMPLES. 1. an-ten'-n5., sail-yard. 4. in-fa'-mi-S, infamy. 2. fg-ne'-strS., irindow. 5. ma'-l^, apples. 3. im-pe-di-men'-t&, Ja^^/a^e. 0. disci' -Tp^X-VSis, pupil. Oii8. Ill tlie foregoing words j)oint out the ultimate, the penult, and the antepenult. EXERCISES. Syllabicate and pronounce the following words : — 1. scri'ba, derk; in'sula, island; aal, salt; rsi'im, frog ; ara'tra, 2^^ough. 2. ma'ppa, ttajMn ; disci'pidiis, scholar ; ar'ma, arms; al'tera, another; \)^ii^ foot ; habe'na, thong; bel'hun, icar ; sani'tas, health; pa'ries, a ivall ; do'lor, pain; magi'ster, 'master. 3. vnl'nus, wound; consuetu'do, custom; Him' \'is, sweet ; liae'diis, A.'icZ; pre'tium, jmce; cica'trix, scar; hieti'tia, joy ; re'gnum,^ kingdom; pu'er, boy ; inju'ria, i^i- J-'ry; di'xit,^ he said; ma'gnus, greed; a'mnis,^ river; ad'eo,* / go to; li'ttera, letter. NOTES AND QUESTIONS. 1. The combination r/ii can begin a syllable. 2. X is treated in syllabication as a single consonant. 3. The combination mn can begin a syllable. 4. Compounded of ad, to, and eo, T (jo. QUANTITY. 31 What is a syllable ? How is the quantity of a syllable determined'? How can the number of syllables in Latin be found ? Why does b belong to the first syllable in abest ? Wliat is the last syllable called? The last but one 'i Write three Latin words, and syllabicate each. LESSON IV. QUANTITY. 31. The quantity of syllables is the relative time occupied in pronouncing them. A syllable containing a long or short vowel is said to be long or short % 7iature^ because the Romans so pronounced it. The quantity of such syllables must be learned by observation and practice. EXAMPLES. 1. a'r§., altar. 3. ra'na.,fro(j. 2. /?/'oelium, battle. 4. ara'tTSL, plough. Obs. In the foregoing examples, note that the italicized syl- lables contain long vowels or diphthongs, and are therefore long. The syllahles not italicized contain short vowels, and are therefore short. 32. The following rules of quantity decide the length of most syllables not long or short hy 7iature. A syllable is long in quantity — 1. If it contains a diphthong. 2. If its vowel is followed by y, 2;, or 2, or any two consonants except a mute followed by I or r. 3. A syllable formed by contraction is long. 33. A syllable is short if its vowel is followed by another vowel, by a diphthong, or by the letter A. 32 FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. EXAMPLES. 1. /in gua., tongue. 5. Justus, Just. 2. annus, year. 6. 6b/lum, war. 3. arsrvLtn., jiloughed JieUl. 7. dux, leader. 4. laudo, I praise. 8, proelium, battle. Obs. In each of the foregoing examples the italicized vowel i.s followed by two consonants, or by a double consonant ; the vowel may be long (as in Ex. 5) or short (as in Exs. 1, 2), but the syl- lable in each case is long. When a short vowel is so placed, it is said to be long by jmsition. In Exs. 2, 5 the quantity of the syllable and of the vowel is the same, i.e. long or short. Exs. 4, 8 contain a diphthong, and are long. The i in proelium is short, according to 33. 34. A syllable may therefore be — 1. Long by nature as, ara. 2. Short by nature '■'• ra na. 8. Long by position .... "a/? nus, ga za.^ 4. Short by position " via.,traho. 35. In a syllable long by position merely, the vowel is pronouneed short ; as, — 1. lux, like oo in moon. 2. niix, like u in full. 36. But 7//, ?ermissive, and that usage varies considerably among the best authorities. In general, when the word, or the combination of letters, is distinctly foreign to us, it may be l^etter to retain the pin-e consonant sound, as in men-ti-e'tur, Miu'cius, ca-du'ce-us, Ly'si-as, McB'si-a, ax-i-o'ma, noc'ti-um. 36 nil ST STEPS IN LATJN. It is very common, in English pronunciation, to slur or suppress the more difficult consonant-sounds, particularly m such cases as en, gn, ps, pt, im, or x, at the beginning of a word, as in Cnidus, gnotus, pseudopteris, Tmolus, xylon. But in an accurate pronunciation of these as Latin or Greek words, the full consonant- sound will be retained. Finally, there can be no correct rule to authorize the slipshod and slovenly habit of enunciation which is frequently allowed. 'Jo cultivate a clear and vigorous utterance of unfamiliar words is one of the incidental benefits of careful instruction in a foreign tongue. LESSON VII. LATIN VERBS. 40. Verbs in Latin, ns in English, assert action^ being, or state of being. 41. Verbs are also classified, according to their meaning, into — 1 . Transitive verbs, which require an object ; as, — He beats the slave. 2. Intransitive verbs, which do not require an object; as, — The man runs. 42. Verbs have also voice., mode, tense, number, and person. 43. Verbs have two voices : — 1. The active voice, which shows that the subject does the action ; ^'*' The father loves his son. 2. The passive voice, which shows that the subject suffers the The son is loved by his father. 44. There are four modes : the indicative, subjunctive, imperative, and infinitive. The indicative, imperative, and infinitive have, in general, the same use in Latin as in P^ng- lish. The use of the subjunctive can be learned best in connection with the syntax of the verb. LATIN VERBS. 37 45. Verbs have six tenses ^ : three for incomplete action and three for completed action. I. Tenses for Incomjilete Action, 1. Present / write, / ajn writing. 2. Imperfect / was vrt^iting, I ivrote. 3. Future / shall write, I will write. II. Tenses for Completed Action. 1. Perfect I have ivritten, I ivrote. 2. Pluperfect ... . . . / had ivritten. 3. Future Perfect . . . , I shall have ivritten. Obs. The indicative mood has all six tenses ; the suhjunctive has the present, imperfect, perfect, and pluperfect; the imperative has the present and future only; and the infinitive has the present, perfect, future, and future perfect. 46. Tenses are also distinguished as, — I. Principal^ or PrUnary Tenses. 1. Present I ivrite. 2. Perfect Definite I have ivritten. 3. Future / shall ivrite. II. Historical, or Secondary Tenses, 1. Imperfect / ivas writing. 2. AoRis T, or Historical Perfect . / ivrote. 3. Pluperfect ......../ had written. 47. The present, future, pluperfect, and future perfect^" tenses have, in general, the same use in Latin as in English. 48. The imperfect tense expresses an action as going on in past time, i.e. a continued, repeated, or customary past action ; as, — - / ivas writing. I used to ivrite. 49. The perfect tense has two uses, distinguished as per- fect definite and aorist, or historical perfect, corresponding to the perfect and past tenses in English ; as, — / have written (definite). / wrote (aorist, or historical perfect) . 38 FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. 50. Verbs, like nouns, have two numbers^ singular and plural ; and three x>ersons^ first, second, and third. 51. The voice, mode, tense, number, and person of a Latin verb is indicated by the endings; as, — ^niat, lie loves. ^mabat, he was loving. 52. The various verbal forms that have voice, mood, tense, number, and person, make up thQ finite''' \qy\). liesides these, there are three other forms derived from verbs, and partaking of their signification. These are : — 1. The participle, which gives the meaning of the verb in the form of an adjective. A Latin verb has four participles : two in the active, the piesent and the future ; and two in the passive, the perfect and tlie gerundive ; as, — Active. Present Smans, loving. FuTiUE S.maturus, about to love. Passive. Perfect hiatus, loviid. Geriindive .... Smandus, deserving to he loved. 2. The gertind, which gives the meaning of tlio verb in the form of a verbal noun of the second declension. It corresponds to the English verbal noun in -ing ; as, — Smandi, of loving. 3. The supine, which gives the meaning of the verb in the form of a verbal noun of the fourth declension. It has two forms, one in -nm, the other in -ii; as, — Smatum, to love. S.matu, to he loved. 53. The principal parts of a verb are, the j^reser?^ indica- tive., tlie ^7rese?i< infinitive, the perfect indicative, and the jk'v- fect particij)le. These are called t\\Q principal parts, because all the other parts of the verb are formed from them. Obs. The supine in -urn, called by many grammarians one of the principal parts of the verb, belongs, in fact, to only about two hundred I^atin verbs ; then, again, those verbs that are invariably intransitive have the perfect participle in the neuter gender only. This part, then, called in the dictionaries the supine in -mn, must, CONJUGATION OF THE LATIN VERB. 39 in most cases, be the neuter of the perfect participle ; and I have ventured, in the enumeration of the principal parts of the verb, to give it this naiue, and also to substitute, in place of supine stem, the more correct term participial stem. NOTES AND QUESTIONS. 1. The six tenses are found only in the indicative mood. 2. The imperfect, aorist, and pluperfect tenses are sometimes called the preterite tenses, 3. A verb in any mood except the infinitive is called a ^finite verb. How many tenses in Latin 1 Define the word tense. Define voice as used in grammar. {Ans. Voice is a modification which shows whether the subject acts or is acted upon.) Define mode. Mention the primary tenses. How are voice, mode, tense, etc., expressed in English 1 {Ans. By the use of auxiliaries, or helping words.) How in Latin 1 LESSON VIII. CONJUGATION OP THE LATIN VERB. Obs. In English, the mode, tense, number, and person of verbs are indicated chiefly by certain words prefixed to the verb, but in some cases by the endings of the verbs; as, Present, he icrites ; Future, he will write; Imperfect, he was loriting. In Latin, these forms are always denoted by the endings of the verb; as, 5mat, he loves; Smabit, he ivill love ; Smabat, he was loving. Each of these Latin words shows its person by its ending, which is, therefore, called the personal ending ; hence, with Latin verbs, the personal pronouns may be, and generally are, omitted. The changing of these endings to denote some modification of meaning, or to show some relation to other words, is called Conjugation. 54. In order to determine how to conjugate a Latin, verb, it is necessary to know the Present Infinitive. EXAMPLES. Present. Infinittve. 1. ^mo, / love ; apare, to love. 2. in6neo, / advise ; m6nere, to advise. 3. rggo, I rule; rgggre, to ride. 4. audio, I hear ; audire, to hear. 40 FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. Obs. The pupil will notice that the infinitive in Latin is formed not as in English, by placing the preposition to before the simple form of the verb, )jut by adding -re. Each of these verbs has, also, a characteristic vowel befoi-e the infinitive ending, which in Smo is -a-, in mSneo is -e-, in rego is -e-, and in audio is -t-. 55. Accordingly, Latin verbs are divided into four classes, called Conjugatioiis^ distinguished from one an- other by the characteristic vowel before the ending -re of the present infinitive active, as follows : — Conjugation. Characteristic Vowels. Infinitive Kndings. I. II. III. IV. a e e i are ere ere i-re 1. The vowel before -re is called the stem-char act eristic; thus, the stem of verbs of the first conjugation ends in a, the second in c", the third in e^ the fourtli in L 2. Besides the present stem, there is often a simpler form that forms the basis of the entire conjugation, called the verb-stem. In the first, second, and fourth conjugations the verb-stem is generally the same as the present stem ; in tlie third conjugation reg- is the verb-stem, and rege- the present stem ; as, Verb-stem . . Infinitive . . Conj. I. Conj. II. Conj. III. Conj. IV. ama- ama-re, to fore. mone- mone-re, to (1(1 rise. reg-, minu- reg-ere, to rute. ra\mji-ere,tofessen. audi- audi-re, to hear. 3. The verb-stems of the first, second, and fourth couju- gations end in the vowels a, e, ? ; the verb-stem of the third conjugation ends in a consonant or in u ; hence the distinc- tion of vowel and consonant conjugations. FIRST CONJUGATION. 41 Tell to which conjugation each of the following verbs belongs : — Pkesent Indicative. Infinitive. 1. Isiudo, I praise ; ^ Isiudaie, to praise. 2. deleo, / destroy ; delere, to destroy. 3. tggo, / cover ; tgggre, to cover. 4. munio, I fortify ; munire, to fortify. 5. audio, / hear; audire, to hear. 6. habeo, / have; habere, to have. 7. haurio, / drain ; haurire, to drain. 8. niimgro, I count ; niimgrare, to count. d.fiiQio,Iflee; fUg^ie, to fee. 10. err o, I wander ; err axe, to wand e7\ 11. m6veo, / move; m6vere, to move. NOTES AND QUESTIONS. 1. Notice that the pronoun / is supplied in translating. How many conjugations are there 1 How is each distinguished 1 What is meant by the conjugation of a verb 1 How does the Latin verb express tense ? person ? number ? LESSON IX. riEST CONJUGATION. PRESENT INDICATIVE ACTIVE. 56. All verbs whose characteristic vowel before the ending -re in the Present Infinitive is -a- belong to the first conjugation. Present Tense, 57. The Present Tense is formed by adding personal endings J;o the Present Stem.^ 42 FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. PARTIAL PARADIGM. Person. rormation. Example. £:n;?li.sh. Sim/. 1 Present Stem +0 2 amo / lore. 2 " + s amas Thou lovest. 8 " + 1 amat He loves. r/nr. 1 " " + mus amamus We love. 2 " + tis amatis You love. 3 " + nt amant Theij love. Oijs. 1. Note that the vowel in the ending of the third person singnlar is shortened ; short vowels in final syllables are generally not marked. Obs. 2, Tn. English we indicate the person and number of the verb chiefly by means of pronouns standing before the verb ; as, Sing. 1. / love. Plur. 1. We love. 2. Thou lovest. 2. You love. 3. He loves. 3. They love. The verb changes its ending in but two forms ; with these excep- tions it would be impossible to tell the person or luimber of this verb unless a pronoun was used with it. In Latin the endings of the verbs were originally pronouns, and they are changed, as the pronouns in English are, to indicate the person and number of the verb ; as, lore-tve love-he love-thou dmS-mus &in&-t Sma-s VOCABUI.ARY. rnESENT. ruE8. Stem. Phes. Infinitive laudo, praise.^ lauda.^ laudare. porto, carry. porta. portare. pugno, /?>////. pugna. pugnare. v6co, call. v6ca. v6care. dono, give. dona. donare. EXERCISES. Translate into EnsrHsh : — 1. laudat.5 2. vScant. 3. pugnamus. 4. portas. .5. donatis. 6. laudamus. 7. donas. 8. pugnant. FIRST CONJUGATION. 43 NOTES AND QUESTIONS. 1. The endings were originally personal pronouns : laudas means not love, hut thou hvest. The pronoun, when used as the subject of the verb, need not, therefore, he expressed. Note, further, that the endings show the number and person of the subject, but not the gender. Obs. This is true, in general, only when the verb is of the first or second person. With the third person, a definite subject should be ex- pressed, unless implied in what precedes or follows. 2. Note that the Present Indicative = present stem + personal end- ings, and that &ma + o — amo; also, that it has lost the m (which appears in sum, inquam). The o stands for m and the preceding vowel ; as, amo = Sma-o-m. 3. Head, I praise, etc. 4. The stem is lauda, and by adding the personal ending we get lauda-o, which is contracted into laudo. 5. Remember that the present tense in English has three forms : — 1. laudo, I praise, I am praising, I do praise. 2. laudas, thou praisest, thou art praising, thou dost praise. 3. laudat, he praises, he is praising, he does praise. 6. Observe that no separate Latin word is required for the pronouns 7, thou, he, ice, they, etc. ; thus, pugnamus, u-e fight, contains the pro- noun we, and is a complete sentence in one word, i.e. contains a subject and predicate ; as, pugna-mus fight-we pugna-, signifying fight, is the stem, and -mus, signifying toe, the personal ending. How is the first conjugation distinguished ? What is meant by the characteristic vowel ? How is the stem found 1 What are the personal endings ? What do these endings show ? Does the present tense denote completed or incomplete action % Ans. The i)resent stem, and the tenses formed from it, — present, imperfect, and future, — denote incomplete action. 44 FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. LESSON X. FIEST CONJUGATION {continued). Imperfect and Future Tenses, 58. The Imperfect and Future Tenses are formed, like the Present, by adding the endings to the Present Stem. PARTIAL PARADIGM. Imperfect. Person. Formation. ^Example. English. Sing. 1 2 3 Plur. 1 2 3 Present Stem + bam + bas + bat + bamus + batis 4- bant amabam amabas amabat amabamus amabatis amabant 1 was loving. T/iou irert loving. Tie iras loving. We irere loving. You were loving. TJteij were loving. Future. Person. Sing. 1 2 3 1 2 3 Pli Formation. Present Stem + bo " + bis " + bit " + bimus " + bitis " + bunt Fxample. amabo amabis amabit amabimus amabitis amabunt Fnglish. / shall love. Thou wilt. love. He will love. We shall love. You ivlll love. The// ivlll love. 1. Analysis of the Present, Imperfect, and Futm'e Indica- tive Active : — 1. Present ind. = Pres. stem -f Personal endings. 2. Iniperf. ind. — Pres. stem + Tense-sign {-ha-) + Personal endings. 3. Future ind. == Pres. stem + Tense-sign {-hi-) 4- Personal endings. FIRST CONJUGATION. 45 Obs. The future, like the present, has lost the m in the first person singular : ^mabo = amabom as the present amo — amom (cf. sum). VOCABULARY. Present. Present Stem. 1. r6go, ask. roga-. 2. ^o, plough. Sra-. 3. p^ro, prepare. pSra-. 4. narro, narrate. narra-. EXERCISES. Analyze ; translate into English : — 1. rSgat. 6. pugnabatis. 2. narrant. 7. donabimus. 3. rSgabis.i 8. pSrabit. 4. portabant.2 9. Srabunt. 5. laudabamus. 10. vdcabis. NOTES AND QUESTIONS. 1. In translating the second person singular, as well as the second person plural, you is commonly used ; as, Smas, you love, and Smatis, you love; but ^mas is used of one person, and ^matis of more than one. 2. Observe that, in the conjugation of the imperfect and future, the stem and personal endings are the same as in the present ; that between these there is a tense-sign, -ba- in the imperfect and -bi- in the future. The elements of the verb then, in the imperfect and future tenses, are : 1st. The Stem ; 2d. The Tense-sign ; 3d. The Personal Endings ; as, lauda-ba-mus praising-were-we lauda- being the stem ; -ba-, ivere, the tense-sign ; and -mus, we, the personal ending. What is tense ? How many divisions of time 1 What is mode ? How many modes 1 How is the present tense formed ? How the future "? Write the inflection in the imperfect ; in the future. 46 FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. LESSON XI. LATIN NOUNS. INFLECTION, 59. The meaning of Latin nouns is altered by In- llection ; that is, by changing the form of the word, generally the endings, to denote some modification of its meaning, or to show its relation to other words. The Inflection of nouns, of pronouns, and of adjectives, is called Declension. The Inflection of verbs is called Conjugation. Stem (uid Suffix, 60. The body of the word, to which the suffix is attached, is called the stem; as,* militis : mllit- is the stem, and -is the termination. When the stem ends in a vowel and the suffix begins with a vowel, contraction takes place, and the final vowel of the stem sometimes disappears ; as, mensae : the stem is mensd-, and the suffix -i-s, which unite to form mensae, the s being dropped. 1. Each case-form, therefore, contains two distinct parts : the stem, which gives tlie general menning of the word ; and the case-svffix. which shows the relation of that meaning to some other word ; as, in militis. of a soldier : the general idea, soldier, is expressed by the stem milit-; the relation of, by the suffix -is. Obs. It may be found convenient to divide inflected words not only into stem and tea-mination, but into base and termination, the base^ being the part of the word that remains unchanged by inflec- tion ; as, servus (wliich stands for servos), a slave, gen. servi, of a slave. serv6- is the stem, -i is the termination, or case-suffix ; the o is dropped before i to form servi, of a slave; but serv-, to which the case-endings are added, remains unchanged by inflection, and may be called the base. LATIN NOUNS. 4T Mo(llficatio7is of Nouns, 61. In Latin, as in English, nonns have Gender, Number, Person, and Case. GENDER. 62. The gender of English nouns is determined by their meaning.^ Gender of Latin nouns is determined either by their meaning or by their endi7igs. When de- termined by their meaning, it is called Natural G-ender ; when by their endings, Grammatical Gender. 63. Rules for gender according to meaning : — 1. Names of male beings are masculine ; as, Romulus, llomulus : agricSla, /anwer; equus, horse. 2. Names of females are feminine ; as, Cornelia, Cornelia : miilier, woman ; puella, girl, 3. Some nouns without 7iatural geyider have their gender determined by their meaning ; as : (1) Rivers, winds, months, and mountains are masculine ; as, Tibgris, the Tiber ; Aquilo, north wind ; Aprilis, April. (2) Cities, countries, towns, islands, trees, poems, and gems are feminine ; as, Aegyptus, Egypt; Corinthus, Corinth. (3) Indeclinable nouns are neuter ; as, fas, divine right ; nihil, nothing. NUMBER AND PERSON. 64. Latin nouns have two numbers, singular and plural ; and three persons, firsts second^ and third. CASES. 65. In Latin ^ the same noun may have six different forms to express its relation to other words ; these forms are called the six cases of the noun. The names of the* cases are : — 48 FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. 1. The Nominative, the case of the subject of the sentence. It answers the question ivhof or what?; as, The boy reads. Who reads? — The hoy. The fire bw^ns. What burns?— The fire. Boy andj^Ve are, therefore, in the nominative case. 2. The Genitive, usually translated into English by the possessive case, or by the preposition of. It answers the question whose f of whom? ofivhat?; as, The man's coat. AVhose coat? — The man's. The heat of the fire. Of what ? — Of the fire. Man's and of the fire are genitives. 3. The Dative, usually translated by the prepositions to or fo7\ It answers the question to or for whom or what? ; as. The teacher gives a book to the boy. To whom? — To the boy. To the boy is, therefore, in the dative. 4. The Accusative, the object of a transitive verb, and of many Latin prepositions. It names the object, whom ? or what ? ; as. The man strikes the boy. Strikes whom? — The boy. The child fears the fire. Fears what? — The fire. Boy and fire are accusative. 5. The Vocative, or the case used in addressing a person or thing ; as, O boy ! O fire ! The fault, dear Brutus, is not in our stars. Boy, fire, and Brutus are in the vocative case. 6. The Ablative, usually translated by from, with, by, in, or at; as. The boy strikes the hall with the bat. With what ? — With the hat. Then with the bat is the ablative. Obs. 1. The Genitive, Dative, Accusative, and Ablative are palled the oblique cases. Obs. 2. A seventh case, the Locative, denoting the place where, is found in a few words. LATIN NOUNS. 49 GENKKAL, VIEW OF THE CASES ANI> THEIK ENGLISH EQUIVALENTS. Latin Cas«. lU'latioji to Other Words. Correspoiidiiii^f Cano ill English. Aiiswer.s wliat Ouestion. Nominative. Subject. Nominative. who ? or what f Genitive. Possessive, or of. Possession, or of with objective. whose? of whom? of what? Dative. Indirect Object. Objective, with to or for. To or for — whom ? ox what? Accusative. Direct Object. Objective. whom ? or what ? Vocative. Case of Address. Independent. Used in addressing person or thing. Ablative. 1 Adverbial. Objective, with with, in, from, or by. With, in, from, by, at — whom? or what? DECLENSION. 66. Latin nouns have five Declensions, which are distinguished by the final letters of the stem, or by the terminations of the genitive singular ; as, Declension. Genitive Eiulinsr. Characteristic. I. II. III. IV. V. ae -1 1 us (uis) ei a = a-stems.-^ 6 = o-stems. i or a consonant = consonant or /-stems. ii = w-stems. e = e-stems. Obs. The method of distinguishing the declension by the end- ing of the genitive singular had ])etter be adopted at first, because it is used in dictionaries and vocabularies to desiunate the declen- 50 FIKST STEPS IN LATIN. sion, and because the use of the stem is coufusing to young pupils. The plan of cutting ofC -rum or -urn from the genitive plural in order to find the stem, and so determine the declension, presupposes that the pupil is already able to decline the word. 1 . General Rules of Declension : — (1) Neuter nouns of all declensions have the nominative, accu- sative, and vocative singular alike; the nominative, accusative, and vocative plural are also alike, and always end in a. (2) The nominative, accusative, and vocative plural are alike in all nouns of the third, fourth, and fifth declensions, (3) The nominative and vocative are alike, except in the singular of nouns in -us of the second declension. (4) The dative and ablative plural are always alike. (5) The genitive plural always ends in -um. EXERCISES. Analyze the following sentences. State the Latin case to be used to represent each noun : — 1. The sailor lias a cottage. 2. The cottage of the sailor has a table. 3. Galba sees the gates of Home. 4. Titus wounded the man with an arrow. 5. Titus gave the book to his friend. G. The sailors of Galba wound the sailors of Titus with arrows. 7. The soldiers of Caesar defend the towers with stones. 8. Cicsar sees the walls of Rome. 9. The leaders of the people give peace to the city. NOTES AND (QUESTIONS. 1. The base is the same as the stem with the final vowel removed ; the endings, tliercfore, contain the final vowel of the stem and the suffixes, both being obscured by contraction. If the stem ends in a consonant, then the stem and base are the same, and tlie endings are the simple case-endings ; as, reg-is. Rerj- is both tlie stem and tlie base to which the case-endings may be attached unchanged. 2. Note that gender in English denotes sex, — masculine nouns denoting males, feminine nouns females, and neuter nouns neither male nor female. In Latin, this natural distinction of gender is applied only NOUNS. — FIRST DECLENSION. 51 to males und females ; the gender of all other nouns depends on artificial distinctions, and is determined by special rules. 3. ICnglisli nouns have few changes of forms. The possessive case is the only one that always has a special form. 4. The final vowel of the stem is called the stem-letter, or stem- characteristic. Define inflection. How many cases have nouns ? How is the gender of Latin nouns determined 1 What is meant by grammatical gender ? Name the cases. What is inflection ? How does inflection differ from declension 1 Wliat parts of speech are declined ? What are the properties of Latin nouns ? Define the word " projierties." How many declensions have Latin nouns? Explain the meaning of stem; of base. LESSON XII. NOUNS. - riEST DECLENSION. 67. Nouns of the First Declension end in -a and - aquae. 68. The^eclensioiT'of the following" Gr6ek nouns is in- serted for convenience of reference ; they should be omitted for the present : — Cast's. coinetes, m., co7iiet. tpitome, F., epitome. Aeneas, m., .Eneas. NoM. cometes epitome Aeneas c Gen. cometae epitomes Aeneae s DAT. Ace. Voc. A HI.. cometae cometen cometa cometa epitomae epitomen epitome epitome Aeneae Aenean (-am) Aenea Aenea Num. cometae epitomae Gen. cometarum epitomarum rt Dat. cometis epitomis ^ Arc. Voc. Abl. cometas cometae cometis epitomas epitomae epitomis Syn. Porta is tlie f/ate of a city ; janua, the door (street-door) of a house ; val-vae, /oldinf/-doors in a temple and fine buildings. NOTES AN1> QUESTIONS. 1. Nouns in -e, -as, and -es are Greek words, mostly proper names. 2. All nouns in -a are feminine unless they denote males ; as, nauta, a sailor, is masculine by signification. (See 63.) 3. The base of mensa is mens-, and to tliis the case-endings are added to form the cases. The stem of mensa is mensa-; the final -a- of the stem disappears in the dative and ablative plural. SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 53 4. As there is no article in Latin, meiisa may mean tal)la, a table, or the table, according to the sense required. 5. The pupil should learn the vocabularies so well that he can give at once the English when the Latin is pronounced, or the Latin when the English is pronounced. 0. The ending -ae is the case-ending of the genitive. (See 61.) 7. In the vocabularies, m. indicates the mascxdine gender; r,, the feminine; and N., the neuter. 8. In translating the exercises, give all possible meanings of each form. For example, iusillae may be genitive or dative singular, or nominative or vocative plural : of an island, to or for an island, ye islands, or islands. How do you distinguish nouns of the first declension 1 How the gender? How do you find the stem? (This can be found by taking away the case-ending of the genitive plural, -rum.) How do you accent agric61ae 1 What is the quantity of the penult of puella 1 How many numbers have Latin nouns ? How many cases 1 Name them. How many genders 1 LESSON XIII. SUBJECT AND PEEDIOATE. EXAMPLES. 1. agricfila v6cat, the farmer calls. 2. agric61ae v6cant, the farmers call. 3. puellae laudant, the girls praise. Obs. In the sentence the farmer calls, farmer is the subject, and is in the nominative case ; calls is the predicate. Study the other examples, and note (1) if the subject is singular, the verb is singular; (2) if the subject is plural, the verb must also be plural; and (3) that the subject and the predicate agree in person as well as in number. Hence the following rules : — SUBJECT -NOMINATIVE . 69. Rule T. — The subject of a finite verb is put in the nominative case. 54 FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. AGREEMENT OF THE VERB. 70. Rule II. ject-nominative in niiiuber and person. 71. Model for parsing nouns : — agric61a v6cat, the fanner calls : agric61a is a masculine noini, masculine by signification (64)i ; first declension, because it has -ae in the genitive singular; stem, agrlcold- ; declined, sing, a^nco/a, ac/ncolae, agricolae, agricolam, agricula, agncold, plural agricolae, ar/rtcoldrum, agricolis, agricolds, agricolae, agricolls. It is nomina- tive singular, and is the subject of v6cat, according to Rule L : Tlie subject of a finite verb is in the nominatice case. 72. Model for parsing verbs : — agricSla v6cat, the farmer calls : v6cat is a transitive verb of the first conjugation, indicative mode, present tense, third person singular, to agree with the subject agricSIa, according to Rule II. : A finite verb agrees with the subject-noniinatice in number and person. VOCABULARY. regina, -ae, f., queen. ■pH^no, -are, fight. scriba, -ae, m., clerk, con-firmo, -are, establish. delecto," -are, delight. porto, -are, carry. occiipo, -are, take possession of, seize, done, -are, gice. EXERCISES. Analyze the following sentences ; parse each word ; trans- late into English : — 1. regina laudat.^ 4. Laudas.'* 2. scribae portant. 5. Laudamus. 3. puellae laudant. G. Reglnae donant. Translate into Latin : — 1. We fight, tliey fight, he fights. 2. The"^ sailor calls. 3. The queen praises. 4. The queens praise. 5. We praise. 6. They establish. SUBJECT AND OBJECT. 55 NOTES AND QUESTIONS. 1. These figures refer to sections in this book. 2. Give the infinitive of each verb. 3. When the subject of the verb is expressed, the pronoun, although contained in the verb, is not needed in English ; thus, regina laudat, the queen praises, not tlie queen she praises. 4. The subject of laudas is implied in the ending of the verb. 5. Remember that the article is not to be translated. 6. As to the order of words in the Latin sentences, the subject usually stands first, but the predicate may be placed before the sub- ject for the sake of emphasis. What is a transitive verb ? Define subje(;t ; predicate. What part of speech must the subject always be ? Why is the u in puella short? LESSON XIV. SUBJECT AND OBJECT. EXAMPLES. 1. agrlc61a nautas v6cat, the farmer calls the sailors. 2. regina puellas laudat, the queen praises the girls. 3. amicitiam confirmat, he establishes friendship. Obs. In the sentence the farmer calls the sailors, farmer is the subject, calls the predicate, and sailors, which completes the meaning of the verb by telling ichom or luhat the farmer calls, is the direct object. Notice that this object in English is in the objective case, and follows the verb calls ; the direct object in Latin is in the accusative case, and precedes the verb. Hence the follow- DTRECT OBJECT. 73. Rule III. — The direct object of a transitive verb is put in the accusative. a. Many verbs that are transitive in Latin are translated into English by a verb and preposition ; as, pecuniam postiilat, he asks for (demands) money. 56 ' FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. 74. Model for parsing the object : — agricSla nautas v6cat, the farmer calls the sailors : nautas is a masculine noun of the first declension, masculine by signification, and first declension because it has -ae in the genitive singular; stem, nautCi-; declined, sing, nauta, nautae, nautae, nautam, nauta, nnutd, plural nautae, nautdrum, nautls, nautas, nautae, nautls. It is in the accusative plural, the object of v6cat, according to Rule III. : The direct object of a transitive verb is put in the accusative. VOCABUT.AKY. filia,! -ae, f., daughter. pikio,^ prepare. pecunia, -ae, f., money. ^ro. plough. Sniicitia, -ae, f., friendship. do,"^ give. gpisttila, -ae, f., lettei'. exspecto, expect. EXERCISES. Analyze the following sentences ; parse each word ; trans- late into English : — 1. Agricolae^ nantam vocant. 2. Vocamus. 3. Regina filiam''' aniat. 4. Regina amicitiam confirinat. 5. Laudamus. 6. Fuella epistiilam exspectabat. Translate into Latin : — 1. The queen calls. 2. The queen calls her'' daughter. 3. They establish friendship. 4. They praise, they call, they prepare. 5. The queen praises. G. We praise. 7. The girls are expecting' letters. NOTES AND QUESTIONS. 1. A few words of the first doclension have the dative and ablative plural in -abus; as, filia, a daughter ; dea, a goddess. 2. Write tlie infinitive. 3. The infinitive of do is dSre ; short a before -re. 4. See 63. 6. Render her daughter. The pronouns his, her, their, are seklom expressed in Latin, wlicn no confusion coukl arise from their omission. In translating, they are to be supplied from the context. NOUNS. SECOND DECLENSION. 57 6. Not to be translated. 7. Remember that tlie indicative has three forms in Engllsli. Whicli cases of the first declension are alike in the singular ? Whicli in the plural 1 Write the ablative singular of filia. How many ways can you translate v6cant ? Name the stem of vocant. Is vdcant a complete sentence ? why ? What is a sentence 1 What is the case of the direct object in Latin ^ What tenses express incomplete action ? Where does the direct object usually stand ? LESSON XV. NOUNS. - SECOND DECLENSION. 75. Nouns of the Second Declension end in -TGM. Cases. Singular. Plural. NOM. dominus, a lord. domini, lords. Gen. domini, of a lord. dominorum, of lords. Dat. domino, to or for a lord. dominis, to or for lords. Ace. dominum, a lord. dominos, lords. Voc. domine, lord. domini, lords. Vnr > domino, ivith, from, or hy a dominis, with, from, or hi/ lord. lords. 2. The stem of nonns of the second declension ends in -o- ; thns the stem of d6ininus is dominS-. 3. The cliaracteristic -o- becomes -?;- in the nominative of nouns in -us or -um ; it disappears in the endings -i and -is (for -o-i and -o-is). The nominative singular of dSminus was originally dSminos. 58 FIRST STEPS IX LATIN. 4. Tlie case-endings are as follows : — Cases. Siiigvilar. Plural. NOM. -US -i Gen, -i -orum DAT. -5 -is Ace. -um -OS Voc. -e -i Ahl. -5 -is 5. The genitive of nouns in -ins and -iuin ends in a single -I: as, filius, gen. fill; H6ratius, geii. Horati. The vocative of proper names in -ius contract -ie into -I witliout change of accent: as, H6rati, Iloratius; also, filius has fill in the vocative. G. Nearly all nouns in -us arc mascvlinp ; but the names of trees^ 2)lants^ etc., are feminine by the general rule (63.3(2)). VOCABULARY. servus, -i, .m., slave. Smicus, -1, M., friend. Sciilus, -1, M., eye. Gallus, -1, M., a Gaul. expugno, storm^ captwe. fHius, -1, M., son. hortus, -1, M., (jar den. postiilo, demand. Ronianus, -i, m., a Roman, pugno, fght. EXERCISES. Analyze the following sentences ; parse each word ; trans- late into Eno-lish : — S. O. V. T. 1. Regina amicum amat. 2. Amici servos vocabunt. 3. Servos laudabimus. 4. AmTcos amabatis. 5. Amici amicos amaut. G. Servi pugnant. NOUNS. SECOND DECLENSION. 59 LESSON XVI. NOOTS.-SEOOro DECLENSION. 76. Nouns in -^r, -zV, are declined as follows : TAKAniGM. Cases. Singular. Plural. NOM. magisfer, a. iiuistcr. magistri, masters. Gen. magistri, of a inasfcr. magistrorum, of masters. DAT. magistro, to ov for a m aslcr. magistris, to or for masters. Ace. magistrum, a nwster. magistros, masters. Voc. magister, master. magistri, masters. AlJL. ^ magistro, vith,fro)n, oi h)j (I magistris, ■)rith,frnm, or hy mnsfer. masters. NoM. puer, a hoi/. pueri, (fa hoij. pueri, hoys. Gen. puer5rum, of hoys. Dat. puero, to ovfor a boi/. pueris, to or for hoys. Ace. puerum, hot/. puer 5s, hoys. Voc. puer, hoy. pueri, hoys. AliL. i puer5, icith, from, or by a pueris, in'th, from, or hy hoy. hoys. 1 . deus, a god (stem deo-) , is declined as follows Cases. Singular. Plural. NoM. deus dei, dii, di Gen. dei deorum Dat. deo deis, diis, dis Aec. deum. deos Voc. deus dei, dii, di Abe. deer deis, diis, dis 2. The endings of the nominative and A^ocativc singular are wanting in nouns in -er ; thus, puer is for pugrus; the e in puer belongs to the stem, and is not dropped. Most other nouns of the second declension whose stem ends in -ro-, 60 FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. preceded by another consonant, drop us and insert e in the nominative ; as, ager, stem agro-. The -us of the nominative and vocative has been dropped, and e inserted. The follow- ing nouns retain e in all the cases: viz., puer, boy; s6cer, father -iyi-law ; gener, son-in-laic ; vesper, evening; liberi (used only in plural), cJiildren; and a few others. The Genitive and the Appositive, Kx A mpi.es. 1. Labienus legatus, Lahienus, the lieutenant. 2. Filia^ reginae, the daughter of the queen, or the queen's daughter. 3. Filia amici, the daughter of the friend, or the friend^ s daughter. Obs. In the first example, observe that the noun lieutenant de- notes the same person or thing as Labienus ; it modi^es Labienus by telling what Labienus is meant. It has the same case and the same number, and is said to be in apposition (a modifier in near position) . In the second example, of the queen, or queen's, limits daughter by telling tohat or ichose daughter is spoken of, and is, therefore, a modifier of it. The three examples repi'esent two kinds of noun modifiers, — the possessive and tlie explanatory: or, in Latin, the genitive and the explanatory. In Latin, note that the limiting word in the first example is in the same case as the word it limits ; that it denotes the same person or tiling as the noun, or name, preced- ing. In the second and third examples note : (1) that the limiting word is in the genitive ; (2) that it denotes a different person or thing from that denoted by the limited noun ; and (3) that the relation of this genitive to the limited noun is expressed in English either by of or by the possessive. Notice, finally, that the genitive stands after the noun which it limits. It may, however, be placed before the noun for the sake of emphasis; as, reginae filia, the queen's daughter. Ileuce the following rules: — APPOSITIVE. 77. Rule IV. — A noun used to describe another noun or pronoun, and denoting the same person or thing, is put in tlie same case. 1. This construction is called apposition, and the limiting noun an appositive. NOUNS. — SECOND DECLENSION. 61 GENITIVE WITH NOUNS. 78. Rule V. — A noun limiting- the nieaninj? of another noun, ami denoting- a different person or thing-, is put in the genitive. VOCABULARY. Sger, Sgri, M.,Jield. campus, -i, field. ggner, g6n6ri, m., son-in-law. fSber, fabri, m., smith. vir, vii'i, M., man. enuntio, report. liber, libri, m., book. p6pfllus, -i, m., people. narro, narrate, tell. vasto, lay waste. vicus, -1, M., village. schSla, -ae, f., school. Syn. Ager is afield in general ; arvum, the ploughed Jield ; and campus, the enclosed Jield, ov plain. EXERCISES. Analyze the following sentences ; parse each word ; trans- late into English : — 1. Servi agrnm arribunt. 2. Pueri vocant. 3. Vir! lau- dant. 4. Filiam^ reginae laudant. 5. Gener tirat. 6. Ma- gistiT vocant. 7. Fllium^ vocat. Translate into Latin : — 1. We are ploughing^ the field.'' 2. They call the boys. 3. They praise the man's sons. 4. They were praising the men. 5. The queen's daughter is calling. NOTES AND QUESTIONS. 1. What is the dative plural ? 2. Form the genitive and voeative. 3. How many forms has the indicative present 1 4. Notice the order of the Latin words. What endings do noims in -/• drop ? Is the vowel u in puer long or short 7 Which syllable of Hdratius is accented ? Of H6rati ? 62 FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. LESSON XVII. NOUNS. - SECOND DECLENSION. 79. Nouns in -um are declined as follows : — PAKAWIGM. Cases. Singular. Plural. NOM. bellum, icar. bella, loars. Gen. belli, of war. bellorum, of tears. DAT. bello, to or for war. bellls, to or for wars. Ace. bellum, ruar. bella, ivars. Voc. bellum, icar. bella, wars. Abl. bello, icilh,from, or hij tear. bellis, with, from, or by wars. 1. Like bellum, decline : — 1. templum, temple. 2. donum, (jift. 3. exemplum, example. 4. oppidum, totvn. Dative Case after Transitive Verbs* EXAMPLES. 1. Librum puSro dat, he gives the book to the hoy. 2. Galba Belgis insidias pErat, Galha prepares snares for the Belgians. Obs. In the sentence, he gives the book to the bog, or he gives the hog the hook, note that the verb gives is transitive, and that it is followed by the direct object, book, in the accusative, and an in- direct object, bog, in the dative. Hence the following rule : — INDIRECT OBJECT. 80. Rule VL — The indirect object of an action is put in the dative. 1 . After many transitive verbs the dative of the indirect object is used, together with the accusative of the direct. NOUNS. — SECOND DECLENSION. 63 2. The indirect object is Jilso used after some intransitive and passive verbs. But some verbs, transitive in English, are intransitive in Latin ; and some, intransitive in English, are transitive in Latin. VOCABUIiARY. littgra, -ae, f., letter {of alphabet), festino, hasten. littSrae (pi.), -arum, f., letter^ via, -ae, f., way, road. epistle. castrum, -i, n., fort, pi. insidiae (l)l.), -arum, snares, am- camp. hush. Belgae, -arurn, m., Belgian. oppidum, -1, N., town. jugum, -i, n., yoke. r6sa, -ae, f., rose. monstro, show. matrona, -ae, f., married tvoman. porta, -ae, f., gate. consilium, -i, n., counsel, plan. dono, give. auxilium, -i, n., aid. im-ploro, implore. Syn. Pugri, children, as a class ; libgri, children, with reference to their parents. EXERCISES. AnaWze the following sentences ; parse each word ; trans- late into English . — 1. Agricola viam nautls monstrat. 2. Matrona rosas fUiabns dant. 3. Filia^ reginae puellls libros donabit.^ 4. Titus Labienus legatus consilia Gallorum enunciat. 5. RomanTs consilia Belgarum enunciabit. 6. liomanl oppida expugnabunt. Translate into Latin : — 1. He gave the book to the boy. 2. Labienus was storm- ing the town. 3. We report the plans of the Gauls. 4. We report the plans of the Gauls to the Romans. 5. The}' sliow the wa}' to the men. NOTES AND QUESTIONS. 1. Filia is the subject, which is modified by reginae; donablt is the simple predicate, modified by the direct object libros, and the in- direct object puellls. 64 FIKST STEPS IK LATIN. 2. Note the order of the words : the indirect object usually precedes the direct. What nouns of the second declension are neuter ? What is the difference in the manner of declining mSgister and puer i What cases are alike in neuter nouns ? LESSON XVIII. PKEPOSITIONS. 81. Latin Prepositions are used either with the Ac- cusative or with the Ablative. EXAMPLES. 1. in Galliam, into Gaul. 2. in Gallia, in Gaul. 3. cum virls, ivitk (in company witlt) the men. 4. ex (or e) provincia, //-o?/* (out of) the jrroi-ince. 5. per opplda, through the towns. Obs. Note that the preposition in, with the accusative, means i7ito ; with the ablative, it means in. per means through, and is followed by the accusative ; cum is followed by the ablative, and means with (in company with). VOCABULARY. cum, prep. w. abl., with. provincia, -ae, t., province. de, prep. w. abl., from, concern- sine, prep. w. abl., loithout. ing, for. Gallia, -ae, f., Gaul, e} ex, prep. w. abl., /rom, oat UESTIONS. 1. do is irregular; it lias a short before -re, and the perfect is dSdi. 2. Translate the perfect both ways; as, he lias laid iraste, and he laid waste. 3. The preposition circum means around, and is followed hy the ac- cusative, as are also trans, across, inter, between, among, and propter, on account of. 4. Note the two objects of dSdit. ()]$s. Note that the pluperfect and future perfect have, in addition to the personal endings, a tense sign, -ra, -ri; as, amave-ra-nt, loved-had-theij, the perfect stem being amavi-; tlie i)lui)erfect tense sign -ra, had; the personal ending -nt, thej. What kind of time does the perfect denote ? What are the divi- sions of time ? How is the present stem found ? The perfect stem ? Decline filia. LESSON XXII. FIRST CONJUGATION. -ACTIVE VOICE. IMPERATIVE MODE.-QUESTIONS. 90. Simple sentences are, in Latin as in English : — 1. Declarative; as, puer laudat, the hoy praises. 2. iNTEnHOGATiVE ; as, puerne^ landat, does the hou pi'ai.^e? i]. Imperative; as, laudate, /^m/se // ^^v cirm)<. r6sa, -ae, f., rose. proelitim, -i, x., battle. narro, tell, narrate. Galba, -ae, m., Galha. porta, -ae, f., fjate. aedificitim, -T, x., huildinf/. vir, viri, m., num. insidiae, -arum (pi.)' i"'-. i^nares. copia, -ae, f., ahundance. copiae (pi.), F.,Jm'ces. Titus, -1, :\r., Titus. natura, -ae, f., nature. negotium, -i, n., business. 76 FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. Syx. "Vir, a 7>ian, a distinguished man, a liusband ; homo, -inis, a man, a Jtuman heing, includes both sexes (opposed to vir = a fellow). EXERCISES. Pronounce ; translate ; decline each noun, and give its stem ; parse the verbs : — 1. Vastate provinciam. 2. Vita, Tite, proelium. 3. Voca pueros. 4. Matronane^ puellam vocat? Vocat. 5. Nonne Galba insidias parat? G. Num poeta reglnae- rosam dat? 7. Matin-ate, virT." 8. Miitura, Cassi."* 9. Date, viri, Ro- manis arnia. Translate into Latin : — 1. Call. 2. Call (ye). 3. Call the men. 4. Does the sailor call? Yes. 5. Does the farmer plough ? (>. Tell the story. 7. Call the men, Cassins. 8. Hasten, men. 9. Haste (3^e). 10. Call the men from ^ the fields. 11. Praise (ye). 12. Praise the pupils. NOTES AND QUESTIONS. 1. -ne is an enclitic, i.e. it seems to lean on the word before it. The most common enclitics are -que {and), -ve, and -ne, used in asking questions, and also cum, with, when used witli pronouns ; as, — pu§ri puellaeque adsunt, the boi/s, and girls too, are here. -que is the enclitic ; in Enghsli, too is tlie enclitic. The -ne appended to matrona in Ex. 4 throws the accent on the penult ; as, ma-tro-na'ne. 2. Dative case. 3. See lUde VIII. 4. See 75. 5. 5. Use tlie preposition. From what stem is the imperative formed ? Does the imperative denote completed action ? Give the personal endings of the impera- tive. Note that the imperative has no first j^erson. How many tenses has the imperative "? NOUNS. — THIKD DECLENSION. 77 LESSON XXIII. NOUNS. -THIED DECLENSION. 94. NouDS whose genitive singular ends in -is belong to the Third Declension. a. The nominative endings are various : a, e, i, o, y, c, I, n, r, s, t, and x; and nouns _of all three genders belong to this declension. " 95. Nouns of the Third Declension may be divided into two classes : — 1. Nouns whose stem ends in a consonant. 2. Nouns whose stem ends in the vowel i. 96. Nouns whose stem ends in a consonant increase in the genitive ; that is, the genitive has more s} llables than the nominative ; as, judex, judic-is. 97. Nouns whose stem ends in a vowel do not increase in the genitive ; as, turris, turris. See 110 and 113. 98. Consonant stems are divided, like the consonants, into — 1. Labial stems p, b, v, m. 2. Dental stems t, d, s, n. 3. Lingual stems r, 1. 4. Guttural stems . c, g. 99. The sign of the Nominative Singular is .s, which, however, is dropped after Z, n, r, s, or combines with c or g of the stem to form x = c oy g -\- s\ t ov d disappears before s; as, st. milit- + s = milits = milis (with change of vowel) = miles. The nominative of neuter nouns is the same as the stem (with sometimes changed vowel, see 100. 2). FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. I. Consonant Stems, 100. Stems ending in a Labial : |?, h, v, w. PARADIGMS. Cases. Siiiguliir. Plviial. No.M. princeps, .^i., a chic/. principes, chiefs. Gen. principis, of a chief. principum, if chiefs. DAT. principi, fo or for a < ■hief principibus, to or for ch \fs. Ace. principem, a chief principes, chiefs. A^oc. princeps, chief. principes, chiefs. AiJi ^ principe, icifh, from, or Ih/ a principibus, with, from, or 1)1/ chief. chiefs. Cases. trabs, F., fi beam. hiems, f., winter. Case-Endings. NOM. trabs hiems -s u Gen. trabis hiemis -is 68 •3 DAT. trabi hiemi -i S Ace. trabem hiemem -em S Voc. trabs hiems -s ■ Abl. trabe hieme -e . NOM. trabes hiemes -es Gex. trabum hiemum -um 2 Dat. trabibus hiemibus -ibus s S Ace. trabes hiemes -es Voc. trabes hiemes -es A,,,.. trabibus hiemibus -ibus 1 . Note that the stems are princip-, trSb-, hi6m-. 2. In forming the nominative, the vowel before the final consonant of tlie stem is often changed. Tlie most common changes are : — (1) From i to e ; as princeps, from stem princip-. (2) From i to u ; as cSput, from stem cSpit-. (3) From i to o', as virgo, from stem virgin-. (4) From oto u; as corpus, from stem corpor- (which stands for corpos-). (5) From e to m ; as Spus, from stem dpSr. NOUNS. — THIUD DKCLKNSlON. 79 3. Tlie case-eiulings of prmceps appear distinct and sepa- rate from the stem. 4. The genitive ending -is is short. VOCABUI.AKY. inter, prep. w. ace, between, sub, prep. w. ace. or abl., tmf/er. aiiioncj. conjuro, conjurare, conjuravi, verbuin, -i, k,, ivord . plot, co/i spire. prmceps, principis, m., chief, Divitiacus, -i, m., Divitiacus. leader. fabtila, -ae, f., story, fable. Cassias, -i, m., Cassius. el6quentia, -ae, r., eloquence. Syn. Princeps (primus capio), the /ore?«o.?^,. whose example others follow, — the first in rank and authority ; primus, the first in time and 07-der (often interchangeable). 101. Decline together the following : — 1. princeps magnus, a great chief. 2. trabs longa, a lonci beam. EXERCISES. Pronounce ; translate ; decline each noun, and give its stem ; parse the verbs : — 1. Ad prmcipem Galliae. 2. Cum principe Galliae. 3. Principes circum Romam hiemaverunt. 4. Titus prin- cipes laudat. 5. Cum prlncipibns. 0. Yir principes vocat. Translate into Latin : — 1. With^ the chiefs. 2. He praises the chiefs. 3. The chiefs have passed the winter around Rome. 4. To Diviti- acus, the chiefs of the Gauls. NOTES AND QUESTIONS. 1. In company with ~ cum. 2. Appositive. How are nouns of the third declension classified ? How is the nom- inative formed from tlie stem ? How is the stem formed ? Of what genders are nouns of the third declension "? 80 FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. LESSON XXIV. NOUNS. -THIED DECLENSION. 102. Stems ending in Dentals : t^ d^ s, n. 1. Stems in t^ cl. PARADIGMS. Cases. Singular. Plural. NOM. pes, M., afoot. pedes, /ee?. Gen. pedis, of a foot. pedum, of feet. Dat. pedi, to ov for afoot. pedibus, to or for feet. Ace. pedem, ybo^ pedes, /ee^ Voc. pes, Ofoot. pedes, Ofeet. Ahl. pede, with, from, or hjj a foot. pedibus, icith,from, or hijfeet. NOM. miles, M., a soldier. milites, soldiers. Gen. militis, of a soldier. militum, of soldiers. Dat. militi, to or for a soldier. militibus, to or for soldiers. Ace. militem, soldier. milites, soldiers. Voc. miles, soldier. milites, soldiers. Ar.L. 1 milite, with, from, or />// a militibus, with, from, or by soldier. soldiers. 2. Stems in s (r). PARADIGM. Cases. Singular. Plural. NOM. flos, M., floicer. Rbre3,foicers. Gen. floris, a floicer. fl5rum, of fowers. Dat. fl5ri, to or for a flower. floribus, to ov for flowers. Ace. florem, /o?x'er. flores, flowers. Voc. flos, Ofower. flores, flowers. Abl. 1 fl5re, ivith, from, or hi/ a fl5ribus, with, from, or hy flower. flowers. NOUNS. — THIRD DECLENSION. 81 PARADIGMS. tf^oc^^c- opus, N., corpus, N., gSuUS, N., fulgur, N., ivork. body. kind. Ughtiiimj. NOM. opus corpus genus fulgur c Gen. operis corporis generis fulguris s Dat. operi corpori generi fulguri iJD Ace. opus ,i> corpus genus fulgur (T. Voc. opus corpus genus fulgur Abl. opere corpore genere fulgure NOM. opera corpora genera fulgiira Gen. operum corporum generum fulgiirum g DAT. operibus corporibus generibus fulgiiribus s Ace. opera corpora genera fulgura Voe. opera corpora genera fulgiira Abl. operibus corporibus generibus fulgiiribus 3. Stems in n. PARADIGMS. Cases. rSgio, F., region. virgo, F., virgin. nomen, N., name. NOM. regis virgo nomen i Gen. regionis virginis nommis DAT. region! virgin! n5mini Ace. regionem virginem nomen m Voc. regio virgo nomen Abl. regione virgme nomine NoM. regiones virgines nomina Gen. regionum virgmum nommum 1 Dat. regionibus virginibus nominibus ^ Ace. regiones virgines nomina Voe. regiones virgines nomina Abl. regionibus virginibus nominibus a. The stems are pSd-, milit-, flor-, 6pgr-, corp6r-, ggngr-, fulgiir-, rggion-, virgin-, nomin- ; in some instances the vowel is variable. h. Note that the dental d or t is dropped before s ; as, pes for pgds, miles for milits (with change of vowel) . FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. c. Note that s of the stem becomes r between two vowels ; as, flos, floris (lor flosis); hSnos, later form li6nor, honoris (for honosis). d. J 11 tlie nommative and vocative singular, tlie case-ending 6- is sometimes dropped; as, fulgur, rggio, virgo, nomen. Nomina- tives ill o have also lost the final n of the stem ; the stem of rSgio is region-. VOCABULARY. cSput, capitis, N., head. causa, -ae, r,, cause, reason. flumen, fluminis, n., river. legatio, legationis, f., embassy. Jura, -ae, m., the Jura. virtus, virtutis, f., valor. ob, prep. w. ace, on account of. longus, -a, -um, long. Syn. P6piilus (originally the patricians) came to include the ichole people; plebs, tlte plebeians, a part of the people without political rights, until political equality was established by the Licinian law, B.C. 3U7 ; Quirltes, the Roman people in their civil capacity. 103. Decline together the following : — 1. caput magnum, a large head. 2. miles bSnus, a good soldier. 3. miles acer, a spirited soldier. EXERCISES. Pronounce ; translate ; decline each noun, and give its stem ; parse the verbs : — 1. Milites laudant. 2. Reglna virtutem militum laudat. 3. Virgiues carmen longum cantant. 4. Ad flumen Rhoda- num. 5. Milites ob cupiditiltem gloriae pQgnant. 6. Fiin- ceps mores virls ^ dabat. NOTES AND QUESTIONS. 1. Note that the ending -is is long in plural cases of the second declension. How is the stem of nouns of the third declension found ? What cases are alike in neuter nouns ? Tlie stems of Latin words often appear in English words derived from the Latin ; as, princip-al (princip-, stem of princeps). NOUNS. — THIllD DECLENSION. 83 LESSON XXV. NOUNS. — THIED DECLENSION. 104. Stems ending in a Lingual : r, I. PAKADIGai. Cases. Singular. Plural. NOM. victor, M., a conqueror. victores, conquerors. Gen. victoris, of a conqueror. victorum, of conquerors. Dat. victori, to or for a conqueror. victoribus, to or for conquei ors. Ace. victor em, conqueror. victdres, conquerors. Voc. victor, conqueror. victdres, conquerors. Abl. i victdre, with, from, or btj a victoribus, with, from, or % conqueror. conquerors. 1. Ill the nominative and A^ocative singular of victor, not added.. IS 2. Most nouns in -er are declined like anser, but those in ■ter, and a few others, are declined like pater : — PARADIGMS. sol, H., consul, M., pater, m., anser, m., sun. consul. father. goose. NoM. s5l consul pater anser u Gen. solis consulis patris anseris * DAT. s51i consul! patri anseri s Ace. solem consulem patrem anserem yj Voc. sol consul pater anser Abl. sole consule patre ansere NOM. s51es consules patres anseres Gen. consilium patrum anserum s Dat. solibus consulibus patribus anseribus Aec. soles consiiles patres anseres Pm Voc. soles consiiles patres anseres Abt>. solibus consiilibus patribus anseribus 84 FIKST STEPS IN LATIN. VOCABULARY. consul, consiilis, m., consul. s6ror, s6r6ris, r., sister. agger, aggSris, m., mound. impgrator, -toris, m., com7«ant/er. frater, fratris, m., brother. orator, oratoris, m., orator. Caesar, CaesSris, m., Ccesar. victor, victoris, m., victor. 105. Decline together the following : — 1. consul designatus, consul elect. 2. timor magnus, great fear. EXERCISES. Pronounce ; translate ; decline each noun, and give the stem ; parse the verbs : — 1. Consul oratorem laudat. 2. Consul oratoris eloquentiam laudavit. 3. Frater sororem amat. 4. Fratrem liberavit. 5. Caesar sororem in matrimoniuni dedit ((/a (ye). 6. Caesar consul consulem Titum accusaverat. Translate into Latin : — 1. They have praised the orator. 2. They praise the orator's eloquence. 3. The brothers love (their) sisters. 4. They have liberated the consul. 5. To Caesar, the consul. 6. They accuse Caesar, the consul. 7. The judge praises the king. 8. I praise the justice of the king. NOTES AND OUESTIONS. How is the nominative singular of most nouns formed ? - (Ans. The nominative is formed by adding .s to the stem.) What exceptions ? (^Ans. Neuters, and nouns whose stem ends in a lingual.) pSter, mater, frater (gen. patris, matris, fratris), seem not to increase in the geni- tive. The stems are really pSter-, mater-, frater-, and they are con- tracted to pXtr-, matr-, fratr- ; i.e., pStris stands for p^tSris, etc. NOUNS. — THIRD DECLENSION. LESSON XXVI. NOUNS. — THIED DECLENSION. 106. Stems ending in a Guttural : c, g. 85 PARADIGMS. Cases. Singular. Plural. NOM. judex, M., a judge. judices, judges. Gen. judicis, of a judge. judicum, of judges. DAT. judici, to or for a judge. judicibus, to or for judges. Ace. judicem, judge. judices, judges. Voc. judex, judge. judices, judges. AuL. 1 judice, ivith, from, or hi/ a judicibus, with, from, or hy judge. ■ judges. rex, M., radix, F., dux, M. & F., lex, F., king. root. leader. law. NOM. rex radix dux lex u Gex. regis radicis diicis legis 1 Dat. regi radici diici legi Ace. regem radicem ducem legem rfi Voc. rex radix dux lex Abl. rege radice duce lege NoM. reges radices diices leges Gen. regum radicum ducum legum t Dat. regibus radicibus ducibus legibus s Ace. reges radices diices leges Voc. reges radices diices leges Abl. regibus radicibus ducibus legibus 1. Note that the stems are jiidic-, reg-, radio-, diic-, and Igg- ; judic- has a variable vowel. 2. The case-endings are the same as those given in 100. 3. The s of the nominative and vocative singnlar nnites with c or ^ of the stem to form ic ; as, regs = rgx. See 32. 2, 86 FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. FINAL SYLLABLES. 4. Hitherto long final syllables have been marked ; the quantity of final syllables will hereafter be marked only when not determined by the following rules : — a. Most monosyllables are long. h. Final {, o, and u are long ; a, e, and y, short. Final a is long in the ablative singular of the first declension . c. Final as, es, and as are long ; is, us, and ys, short. 0. In the increments of nouns a and o are geuerallj' long ; e, i, 7/, and ?/, short. Exc. -is is long in plural cases. VOCABULAKY. VOX, vocis, !• ., voice. gSnus, ggngris, n., kmd. sine, i)rep. w. abl., without. gloria, -ae, f., glory. rex, regis, m., king. n6vus, -a, -um, ne.w. radix, radicis, f., root. rggiila, -ae, f., rwZe. 107. Decline together the following : — 1. flumen latum, a hrond river. 2. pSter vester, your father. Syn. Flumen (fluo, tojiow), properly a stream, with the idea of fiovnng ; fliivius, general word for a river; amnis, a broad, deep river ; rivus, a brook. EXERCISES. Pronounce ; translate ; decline each noun, and give its stem ; parse the verbs : — 1. Reges pugnaverunt. 2. Regem vocavisti. 3. Re- gina judicem bonum laudabat. 4. Judex puero librum donat. 5. Sine rege. 6. Ad regem. 7. Multa genera frumenti importabimus. 8. Prlncipes Gallorum pugnave- runt. 9. Romidus fratrem liberavit. 10. Romulus uomen novae urbi dat. NOUNS. THIRD DECLENSION. NOTES AND QUESTIONS. Wliat nouns belong to tlie tliird declension ? What is meant by tlie stem of a word ? How may the stem of nouns of the third declension be found ? {Ans. 1st. The stem of nouns ending in a consonant is found by dropping -is of tlie genitive singular ; 2d, The stem of nouns ending in a vowel is found by dropiiing -s of the genitive singular ; 3d. The stem of monosyllabic nouns ending in two consonants is found by dropping -is for the singular, and -s only for the plural : as, urbs, St. urh- (sing.), jirhi- (plural). See 113.) What becomes of the s that is added to the stem to form tlie nominative in dux (gen. diic-is) ? of the d in the stem of l^pis (gen. 15pid-is) ? What is the ending of the genitive sinuular of nouns of the tliird declension '! LESSON XXVII. NOUNS. - THIED DEOLENSION. 108. Vowel stems of the Third Declension end in -i ; as, turris, stem turri-. Nouns of this class include the folloAving : — 1. Xouns ill -is and -es not increasing in the genitive. 2, Neuters in -e, -al, -ar. o. Monosyllal)les with stems ending in two consonants. 4. Most nouns in -ns and -rs. PARADIGM. Cases. Singular. Plural. XoM. turris, m., a tower. turres, toicers. Gex. turris, of a ton-er. turrium, of towers. Dat. turri, to oY for a tourer. turribus, to or for towers. Arc. turrem, or -im, a tower. turres, or -is, towers. Voc. turris, tower. turres, towers. Abl. i turre, -i, with, fmw, or hy a turribus, with, from, or /;// tower. towers. 88 FIKST STEPS IN LATIN. PARADIGMS. Cases. ignis, 31., Jire. hostis, M.&F., enemy. imbes, F., cloud. Case- Endings. s NOM. Gen. DAT. Ace. Voc. Abl. ignis ignis igni ignem ignis igne, -i hostis hostis hosti hostem hostis hoste nubes niibis niibi nubem nubis nube -is, -es -is -i -em, -im -is -e, -i t s NoM. Ge?c. DAT. Ago. Voc. Ahl. ignes ignium ignibus ignes, -is ignes ignibus hostes hostium hostibus hostes hostes hostibus nubes niibium niibibus nubes, -is niibes nubibus -es -ium -ibus -es, -is -es ibus 1. Only five or six nouns in connnon nse have -im in the accusative singular ; and about as many liave -em or -im. 2. All stems in -i- have -ium in the genitive plural ; the accusative plural is often written -v.s instead of -es. 109. Decline together the following : — 1. ignis clarus, a hrightjire. 2. collis asper, a rugged hill. VOCABUI^ARY. w. ace, hetiveen, inter, prep. among. finis, finis, m., limit ; pL, territory. niimerus, -i, :\r., number. latro, latrare, latravi, hark. cS.nis, c3.nis, m. and f., dog. hostis, hostis, m. and f., enemy. supSro, -are, -avi, conquers. pro, prep. w. abl,, hefore, for. instead of. Syn. Hostis is a foreign enemy in loar ; inimicus, a private, personal enemy: adversarius, any opponent. EXERCISES. Pronounce ; translate ; decline each noun, and give its stem ; parse the verbs : — 1. Canis^ latrat. 2. Nonne hostes agros vastant ? 3. Caesar hostes superabat. 4. Rex turres oppugnabit. NOUNS. THIRD DECLENSION. 89 5. Milites pro ITbertate pngnant. 6. Inter fines Gallorum. 7. In hostium nnmero. 8. Canes pfignant. 9. Caesar turrim oppugnabat. NOTES AND QUESTIONS. 1. Canis forms the genitive plural in -niii, as cSnum; so also panis, bread ; and juv^nis, a youth. Do nouns having /-stems increase in the genitive 1 Wliat is meant by increasing in the genitive ? How do such nouns form the nomina- tive from tlie stem ? What vowel change is common ? In what does the genitive plural usually end ? LESSON XXVIII. NOUNS. -THIED DECLENSION. 110. Neuters ending in -e, -al^ follows : — "^ -ar are declined as PARADIGMS. Cases. rnSre, sea. S^nimal, an animal. calcar, spur. Case- Endings. i ! t NOM. Gen. DAT. Acc. Yoc. Abl. mare maris mari mare mare mari. animal animalis animali animal animal animali calcar calcaris calcari calcar calcar calcari -e -is -i -e -6 -1 NOM. Gex. Dat. Acc. Voc. Abl. maria marium maribus maria maria maribus animalia animalium animalibus animalia animalia animalibus calcaria calcarium calcaribus calcaria calcaria calcaribus -ia -ium -ibus -ia -ia -ibus 90 FIRST STEPS IN Lx\TIN. 1. The stem of m^e ends in -i-, which is changed in the nominative to e. The stem of animal ends in -«/i-, the i being dropped, and the a shortened in the nominative singu- lar ; as, stem animali-, nominative animal, animal stands for animale, the final e being lost, and does not, therefore, increase in the genitive. 111. Rules for Position : — 1. Adjectives and genitives generally follow their nouns. 2. Adverbs and oblique cases, with or without prepositions, generally immediately precede the verb. 3. The indirect object generally precedes the direct object. 4. When a noun with an adjective is limited by a noun in the genitive, the adjective stands first, and the genitive between it and its noun ; as, magnum reginae pociilum, the large cup of the queen; or, the queen's large cup. 5. The rules may be reversed for the sake of emphasis ; then the emphatic j)lace for the verb is at the beginning; for the object, at the end of a sentence ; for the genitive, before tlie noun it limits ; for the adjective, before the noun ; for the adverb, at a distance from the verb ; for the indirect object, after the direct. AOCABULARY. tSlgro, tSlSrare, t61gravi, bear, tempus, temp6ris, n., time. endure. jus, juris, n., right, law, Siiimal, Snimalis, n., animal. coUis, collis, m., hill. crSmo, -are, -avi, hum. vectigal, vectlgalis, n., tax, custos, custodis, m., guard. revenue. frigus, frig6ris, n., cold, frost. nomen, nominis, n., name. 112. Decline together the following : — 1. navis longa (lit., a long ship), a ship ofivar, 2. vectigal magnum, a large revenue. 3. mare magnum, a great sea. NOUNS. — THIllD DECLENSION. 91 EXERCISES. Pronounce ; translate ; decline each noun, and give its stem ; parse the verbs : — 1. Nautae mare amant. 2. Dux hostium fines regis vastaverat. 3. Rex jura virTs dabat. 4. Propter frigora. 5. In (on) coUe. G. Miles vulnus tolerat. 7. Bonos homines laudamus. LESSON XXIX. NOUNS. -THIED DECLENSION. 113. Many nouns in -.s' and -x, generally preceded by a consonant, were originally z-stems. These are : — 1. Nouns of one syllable, with stems ending in two con- sonants. 2. Nouns of two or more syllables ending in -ns or -rs. 3. Note that these nouns are declined in the singular like consonant stems, and in the plural like vowel stems. PAllADIGMS. urbs, r., nox, F., mus, M., arx, r., city. night. mouse. citadel. NOM. urbs nox _ mus arx h* Gen. urbis noctis muris arcis .2 3 Dat. urbi nocti muri arci it Ace. urbem noctem murem arcem c« Voc. urbs nox mus arx Abt>. urbe nocte mure arce NOM. urbes noctes mures arces Gkn. urbium noctium murium arcium 1 Dat. urbibus noctibus muribus arcibus Ace. urbes, -is noctes, -is mures, -is arces Voc. urbes noctes mures arces Abl, urbibus noctibus muribus arcibus 92 FIEST STEPS IN LATIN. Rules for the Oblique Cases of Nouns of the Third Declension, ACCUSATIVE SINGULAR. 114. The accusative singular of all neuter nouns is like the nominative. The accusative singular of masculine and feminine nouns generally ends in -em ; but a few proper nouns in -zs, denoting places or rivers, have the accusative in -m, and also sitis, tussis, and vis ; a few have either -em or -im, as febris, turris, navis. ABLATIVE SINGULAR. 115. The al)lative singular commonly ends in -e ; but 1. Neuters in -e, -al, and -ar have -i in the ablative. 2. Nouns that have -hi in the accusative, and names of months in -er or -is, haxe. -i in the ablative. 0. Nouns that have -em or -im in the accusative have their abla^ tive in -e or -7: ignis, Jtre, navis, vessel, turris, toiver, civis, citizen, finis, ejid, and a few others, have -e or -I. GENITIVE PLURAL. 116. The genitive plural generally ends in -um ; but 1 . Nouns tliat have -i or both -e and -i in the ablative singular have -iwn in the genitive plural. 2. Nouns in -es and -is, not increasing in the genitive singular, have -ium in the genitive plural. 3. Nouns of one syllable ending in -s or -x preceded by a conso- nant have -iwn in the genitive plural. 4. Nouns of two or more syllables ending in -ns or -rs, and names of nations in -as and -Is, generally have -ium in the genitive plural. VOCABULARY. mons, mentis, m., mountain. sto, stare, stStT, stand. urbs, urbis, f., city. lux, lucis, f., light. pars, partis, f., /)«r^. ante, prep. w. ace, he/ore. litus, litSris, n., sliore. servo, servare, servavi,/>resert;e. NOUNS. — THIRD DECLENSION. 93 117. Decline together the following : — 1. sinistra pars, the left side. 2. rupes sinistra, a rock on the left. 3. 6pus completum, a finished work. Obs. Note that, in nouns of the third declension, the stem is the same as the nominative; as, consul, genitive consul-is, or becomes the same after the vowel is modified ; as, nomen, genitive nomin-is ; or that s is added to the stem to form the nominative ; as, hostis, genitive hosti-s. EXERCISES. Translate into English : — 1. Partem urbis occupant. 2. Consul in nrbe habitabat. 3. Romulus nomen novae urbi dat. 4. Fratres in lltore maris cum sororibus stant. 5. Ante lucem. 6. De monte in flumen. 7. In monte. 8. In pace paramus bellum. 9. Mllites arcem servabant. Syn. Oppidum is a fortified town, a fortress ; a small city or town ; urbs, a large city (with reference to its buildings ; espe- cially to Rome) ; civitas, a state, (1) a community living under the same laws ; (2) right of citizenship ; res publica, a commonwealth. NOTES AND QUESTIONS. What is the genitive plural of mons, urbs, pars ? Are these words declined in the singular like consonant stems *? What three classes of nouns of the third declension 1 [Ans. 1st. Consonant stems ; 2d. Vowel stems; 3d. Mixed stems.) What nouns have -i as the regular ending in the ablative singular 1 What nouns have -e or -i '? In what does the nominative plural of masculine and feminine nouns end ? {Ans. -es.) In what, the nominative plural of neuter nouns ? {Ans. In -a, and those whose ablative singular ends in -i only, or in -e and -/, have -la.) What nouns have -ium in the genitive plural ? How is the nominative formed from the stem '? What is the regular ending of the accusative singular 1 What nouns have -im in the accusative 'i 94 FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. LESSON XXX. THIED DECLENSION. -EULES OP GENDEE. 118. The rules for gender, when determined by the meaning, have been given under 63. EXAMPLES. 1. Caesar, m., Ccesar. 7. hostis, m. or f., enemy. 2. nauta, m., sailor. 8. civis, m. or f., citizen. 3. vir, M., man. 9. judex, m. or ¥., Judge. 4. Tullia, F., Tullia. 10. Roma, f., Rome. .5. miilier, f., ivoman. 11. Rhenus, m., Rhine. 0. puella, F., girl. 12. Martius, m., March. Obs. Examine the fore*ioiiig words, and give the gender of each noun and the rule. Note that Exs. 7-9 designate either males or females, and that they are of the common (jender (c). Rules of Gender, 119. The following are the rules for gender when de- termined by the endings of the nominative singular : — 1. Nouns of the third declension ending in -o, -or, -os., -e)', -5s, -68 (increasing in the genitive to -Idis or -Uis) are masculine. EXAMPLES. 1. sermo, -onis, m., speech. 5. pes, p6dis, M.,foot. 2. d61or, -oris, M., 7)am. G. trames, -itis, m., pa<^. 3. flos, floris, M.,y?o?/;er. 7. eques, -itis, m., y^or.^e/nan. 4. career, -eris, m., prison. 8. miles, -itis, m., soldier. 2. Nouns of the third declension ending in -as (gen. -dtis), -es (not increasing in the genitive) , -zs, -ys^ -x, -s (preceded THIRD DECLENSION. — KULES OF GENDER. 95 by a cousonaiit) ; also -do, -go (gen. -Inis), -io (abstract^ and collective^), and -us (gen. -udis^ -utis), are feminine. EXAMPLES. 1. aetas, -atis, f., age. 8. pars, partis, f., 2^cirt- 2. civitas, -atis, f., state. U. trabs, tr^bis, f., a beam. 3. nubes, -is, f., cloud. 10. imago, -inis, f., image. 4. navis, -is, f., 67i?/>. 11. in.\i].titvLd.o,-inia,F., multitude. 5. chlamys, -ydis, f., cloak. 12. 6rati5, -onis, f., speech. C. pax, pacis, f., jjeace. 13. legio, -onis, f., legion. 7. urbs, urbis, f., city. 14. virtiis, -litis, f., virtue. 3. Nouns of the third declension ending in -a, -e, -l, -y ; -c, -?, -t ; -ar, -ur, -us (genitive -oris or -em) , and -men (genitive -minis) , are neuter. EXAMPLES. 1. poema, -Stis, N., poem. 8. tempus, -6ris, n., ^me. 2. mare, -is, n., sea. 9. genus, -eris, n., class. 3. lac, lactis, n., milk. 10. nomen, -inis, n., name. 4. vectigal, -alis, N., reyenwe. 11. agmen, -inis, n., arm?/. 5. cSput, -itis, N., head. 12. IStus, -eris, n., side. 6. calcar, -aris, x., spur. 13, rete, retis, x., net. 7. guttur, -iiris, n., throat. 14. animal, -alis, n., animal. 120. The following nouns in common use are exceptions to these rules : — Exc. 1. Arbor, a tree, car o,Jiesh, and ordo, order, are feminine; aequor, the sea, marmor, mai'ble, and cor, cordis, the heart, are neuter ; ordo, ixmk, is masculine ; iter is neuter. Exc. 2. Latin nouns ending in -nis are masculine or doubtful ; as, crinis, hair, ignis, Jire, panis, bread, are masculine. The fol- lowing are masculine or fennuine : amnis, a river, cinis, ashes, finis, end, cliinis, the haunch, cSnis, a dog, funis, a rope ; the plural fin§s, boundaries, is always masculine. Exc. 3. Dens, a tooth, fons, a fountain, mens, a mountain, and pons, a bridge, are masculine. 96 FIKST STEPS IN LATIN. 121. Nouns Irregular in Declension. PARADIGMS. Cases. bos, M.& F., OX. vis, F., strength. SllS, M.& F., sivine. HJX, F., snow. sfnex.M., old man. Jupiter, M., Jitpiter. NOM. Gen. DAT. Acc. Voc. Abl. bos bovis bovi bovem bos bove vis vis (rare) Vi (rare) vim vis vi sus suis sui suem sus sue nix nivis nivi nivem nix nive senex senis seni senem senex sene Jupiter Jovis Jovi Jovem Jupiter Jove i s NOM. Gex. 1 DAT. j Acc. Voc. Abl. 1 boves bovum boum bdbus bubus boves boves bobus bubus vires virium viribus vires vires viribus sues suum \ suibus i subus sues sues ( suibus 1 subus nives nivium nivibus nives nives nivibus senes senum senibus senes senes senibus iter, N., jusjuraiidum, inaterfS,intllas, journey. N., oath. mother of a family. NoM. iter jusjurandum materfamilias u Gex. itineris jurisjurandi matrisfamilias Dat. itineri jurijurando matrifamilias s Acc. iter jusjurandum matremfamilias c2 Voc. iter jusjurandum materfamilias Abl. itinere jurejurand5 matrefamilias NOM. itinera jurajuranda matresfamilias Gex. itinerum matrumfamilias "^ Dat. itineribus matribusfamilias s Acc. itinera jurajuranda matresfamilias M Voc. itinera jurajuranda matresfamilias Abl. itineribus matribusfamilias 1. The locative case of nouns of the third declension ends like the dative, sometimes like the ablative ; as, Karthagini, or Karthagine, at Carthage; riiri, m the country. ABLATIVE. 97 EXERCISES. Determine by the foregoing rules the gender of the fol- lowing nouns : — 1. consul, -iilis, consul. 14. civitas, -atis, state. 2. sermo, -onis, discourse. 15. legatio, -onis, embassy. 3. oratio, -onis, speech. 16. lex, legis, laio. 4. dux, diiois, leader. 17. virtus, -utis, virtue. 5. multitudo, -inis, multitude. 18. frigus, -6ris, cold. 6. imperator, -oris, commander. 19. 6nus, -eris, load. 7. ISgio, -onis, legion. 20. vulnus, -eris, ivound. 8. obses, -idis, hostage. 21. crus, cruris, leg. 9. p6testas, -atis, power. 22. custos, -odis, guard. 10. Snimal, -alis, animal. 23. radix, -icis, root. 11. turris, -is, toicer. 24. princeps, -ipis, chief. 12. contentio, -onis, contention. 25. semen, -inis, seed. 13. crimen, -inis, charge. 26. litus, -6ris, shore. NOTES AND QUESTIONS. 1. An abstract noun is the name of a quality ; as, valor, virtue. 2. A collective noun denotes in the singular number, a collection of individuals ; as, aryny, legion. How many ways of determining the gender of nouns ? What are they ? What nouns are masculine by signification ? What, by ter- mination ? What nouns in common use are exceptions ? Give the rules for feminine nouns. What are the terminations of neuter nouns ' LESSON XXXI. ABLATIVE. CAUSE, MANNER, MEANS, AND INSTRUMENT. EXAMPLES. 1. pallidus ira fuit, he was pale ivith anger. 2. magno fletu auxilium a Caesare petunt, with a Jlood of tears they seek aid from Cccsar. 3. Divitiacus Gallorum animos verbis confirmat, Divitiacus encourages the minds of the Gauls hy (or, hy means of) words. 98 riKST STEPS IN LATIN. 4. ferro dimicant fratres, the brothers Jight with the sword for their country. 5. mllites ISpidibus pugnant, the soldiers Jight luith stones. Obs. In the foregoing examples the nouns that denote the cause (ira), the manner (fletu), the means (verbis), the instrument (ferro, lapidibus), by M^hich the action of the verb is performed, are in the ablative without a preposition, and are modifiers of the predi- cate. This usage is expressed by the following rule : — ABLATIVE CASE. 122. Rule IX. — The cause, manner, means, and instrument are denoted by the ablative without a preposition. 123. Rule for position : — Expressions of manner, means, and insfrwnent are placed after the direct object; those of cause usually precede it; all precede the predicate. VOCABULARY. pgdes, pgditis, u., foot-soldier, timidus, -a, -um, timid, afraid. ISpis, lapidis, M., stone. passer, passgris, m., sparrow. sSgitta, -ae, r., an arrow. musca, -ae, F.,flij. vester, -tra, -trum, your. dev6ro, -are, -avi, devour. Syx. Consilium, advice, counsel ; concilium, an assembly, a meeting (of part of the people) ; lex, a lata passed in a cSmitia, an assembly of the whole people, and regularly approved; scitum (plebiscitum), a law passed in a concilium. EXERCISES. Translate into English : — 1. Caesar urbem cremat. 2. Pater tuns urbes Galliae igne cremat. 3. Regnum copiis conciliabat. 4. Viros igne cremant. 5. Hostium sagittae regem vestrum vulnerant. C. Amate, piieri, sorores. 7. Consules oppidis nomina dant. 8. MTlites consulis laudant. 9. Virginem timidam vocant. 10. Passer magno cum gaudio^ miiscam devorabat. 11. Marci filius Gallis si2:niim tuba dat. SUBJECT AND COPULA. 99 Translate into Latin : — 1. He gives a name. 2. He gives a name to the city. 3. He gives a name to the new city. 4. The soldiers have called. 5. The soldiers have called the consul. 6. They have praised. 7. The}' have praised the eloquence of the consul. 8. The father calls (his) son. 0. The consul praised the soldier. 10. The consul praised the valor of the soldier. 11. They are fighting. 12. They are fighting with the sword. 13. The brothers are fighting with the sword. ^4. To^ the city. 15. Into the city. 16. Out of the city. 17. Away from the city. 18. With the chiefs. 19. They burn the city. 20. They burn the city with fire. NOTES AND QUESTIONS. 1. The ablative of manner commonly takes cum unless an adjective is used, then cum may be omitted. 2. Note that when there is motion towards a person or place (except names of towns), a preposition with the accusative is used; the dative is wrong. What nouns end in -I in the ablative singular '^ In -ium in the geni- tive plural ? What is the gender of mens ? Give the rule for the gender of nouns of the second declension. What is the gender of nauta ? Give the rule. The gender of nouns not provided for by the rules must be learned by practice; as, jus (gen. juris), right, and iter (gen. itineris), joumei/, march, are both neuter. Name the stems of m^e, mos, Animal, iter, ignis, mens, rex, corpus. LESSON XXXII. SUBJECT AND COPULA. EXAMPLES. 1. regina b6na, a good queen. 2. regina bona est, the queen is good. 3. Tullia, filia reglnae, poetam laudat, Tullia, the daughter of the queen, praises the poet. 100 FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. 4. Tullia filia reginae est, TuUia is the daugltter of the queen. 5. puella Smata est, the girl is loved. Obs. In the foregoing examples, note that in Ex. 1 the adjective simply modifies the noun, without the intervention of a vei'b ; in Ex. 2 the adjective is connected with the noun by means of the verb est. The first adjective is called an attributive adjective, the second is a predicate adjective, and is called the complement. In Ex. 3 note that the descri])tive noun filia stands in the same part of the sentence as the subject which it modifies; it is called an apposilive. h\ Ex. 4 the descriptive noun is used to form the predicate, and is called a 2)7-edicate noun, or complement. Note that the predicate adjective agrees with its noun in gender, number, and case, the predicate noun agi'ees with the subject in case. Note the position of the predicate adjective ; it may, however, precede the verb for the sake of emphasis. In Ex. 5 tlie verb sum helps to form the perfect tense of the verb, and is therefore called an auxiliary verb , hence, — 124. The verb sum is cither an auxiliary or a copulative verb. It is an auxiliary verb when it helps to form some of the tenses of other verbs ; it is coijulative when it joins the subject to some other word which is used to describe the subject. The woi-d thus used to describe the subject may be a noun or an adjective, and is called tiie complement. If the descriptive word is a noun, it is called a predicate noun; if it is an adjective, then it is called a predicate adjective. PREDICATE NOUN. 125. Rule X. — A noun in tlic predicate, denoting the same person or thing- as the subject, agrees with it in case. Obs. Note that a noun used to describe another noun or pro- noun, and denoting the same person or thing, is put in the same case. AVlien the descriptive noun is in the same part of the sen- tence, it is called an Appositi ve ; and when it stands in the predicate, usually after intransitive verbs of to be, to become, to remain, etc., and with passive verbs of naming, calling, choosing, appointing, etc., it is called a Predicate Nominative. PREDICATE ADJECTIVE. 126. Rule XI. — A predicate adjective agrees with its subject in g-ender, number, and case. SUBJECT AND COPUIJA. " 1<)1 127. Partial Paradigm of sum, / (int. Obs. The verb sum, 1 am, belongs to none of tlie four conjuga- tions ; it is both irregular and defective, i.e., it wants certain parts. It is used in Latin, as in English, to help conjugate the passive voice of regular verbs. PKINCIPAL PARTS. Present Stem, es-. Perfect Stem, fui-. PuESENT. Infinitive. Perfect. Future Part. sum esse fui fiiturus INDICATIVE PRESENT. Shvj. 1 sum, I am. 2 es, thou art. 3 est, he is. Pliir. 1 sumus, 7ve are 2 estis, ijou are. 3 sunt, the// are. VOCABULARY.' testis, testis, m. & f., vntJiess. bellicosus, -a, -um, adj., icarlike. Arar, Araris, ace. Ararim, m., pulcher, -chra, -chrum, adj., ile Arar (now the Saoiie). heautiful. c6m.es, -itis,-M.&F., a companion. miilier, miilieris, f., woman. c^a, -ae, f., cottage. equus, -i, m., horse. 128. Decline together the following : — 1. reliquae copiae (ph), the remaining forces. 2. puella pulchra, a beautiful girl. P). oppidum magnum, a large toivn. Syk, Festino, hasten impatiently, hurry; prSpero, hasten with energy, but without hurry or impatience. EXERCISES. Translate into English : — s. v.c. c. s. v.c. c. 1. Puella est pulchra. 2. Equus est animal. 3. Oppidum est magnum. 4. PopCdus Romanus est testis. 5. Flumeu est Arar. ^ 6. AmTci siiuuis {ice are). 7. Caesar est impe- rator. 8. Ariovistus est rex. 9. Virtus est comes sapien- tiae. 10. Puella est nnutae fllia. 11. Est {it is) casa agricolae. 12. Est- {there is) parva insula. 13. Multa animalia pulchra sunt. 102 FlilST STEPS IN LATIN. Ti ahslate iiito ^Latiii : — 1. We are, they are, you are. 2. The fields are large. 4. She is the daughter of the 3. The islands are small sailor. 5. We are Romans. 6. The cities are large. 8. We are friends. 9. It is a 10. The town is large. 7. There is a large town large town NOTES AND QUESTIONS. 1. What is the rule for the gender of Arar? 2, In English, when tlie subject is indefinite, we use the word there with some form of the verb to be; as, insxila est parva may mean the island is small, an island ts small, (there) is a small island, (it) is a small island, or the island is a small (one). What is tlie present tense of sum i AVhy is sum called a copula T What is the noun or adjective after it called ? Why 1 Note that the complement, if a noun, agrees with the subject in case ; if an adjective, in gender, number, and case. Note that the verb sumi in ail the fore- going examples is copulative. LESSON XXXIII. INDICATIVE or *S'ro/.-PEEDIOATE GENITIVE. 129. The verb sum is cunjugated in the Indicative Mode as follows : — PARTIAI. PARADIGM. Person. Present. Perfect. Aorist. Shuj. 1 2 3 Plur. 1 2 3 snm, I am. es, thou art. est, he is. sumus, ive are. estis, you are. sunt, they are. 3 fui, / have been. fuisti, thou hast been. fuit, he has been. fuimus, M-e have been. fuistis, you have been. / 2vas. Thou wast. Tie was. We were. You were. They were. PK KD 1(J ATE GENITIVE 108 PARTIAL PARADIGM. Person. Imperfect. Pluperfect. Sl7lCj. 1 eram, / was. fueram, / had heen. 2 eras, thou ivast. fueras, thou hadst heen. 3 erat, Ae was. fuerat, he had heen. FJnr. 1 eramus, ive were. fuerainus, we had heen. 2 eratis, yon were. fueratis, you had heen. 3 erant, theij v:ere. fuerant, they had heen. >S7«7. 1 Fviture. Future Perfect. ero, / shall or will he. fuero, I shall or mil have heen. 2 eris, thoa ivilt he fueris, thou unit have heen. 3 erit, he will he. fuerit, he wdl have heen. PInr. 1 erimus, ive shall or will he. faerimus, it'e shall or ivill have heen. 2 eritis, ijou will he. fueritis, you will have heen. 3 erunt, theij will he. fuerint, they will have heen. 130. Predicate Genitive. EXAMPLES. 1. haec domus Caes§.ris est, this house is Ccesar^s property, or this is Ccesars house. 2. haec hostium erant, these things ivere the enemi/s. 3. est sSpientis, it is the part of a wise man. 4. Ii6c est praeceptoris, this is the business of the instructor. Obs. Tn the foregoing examples, note that the nonn which the genitive limits is omitted; that these genitives all stand in the predicate after the verb sum, and that the M^ord to be snpplied is a general word suggested by the sense. In translating into English, we supply the words part, pj'operty, dutij, office, business, characteristic, etc. The idiom may be expressed in the following rule : — PREDICATE GENITIVE. 131. Rule XTI. — A noun in the predicate, denot- inj^ a different person or thing from the subject, is put in the genitive. 104 FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. 1. The predicate genitive occurs most frequently witli sum and facio, and the passives of piito, habeo, and existimo. 2. The genitive of Personal Pronouns is never used in this construction ; the neuter of the corresponding Possessive Pronoun is used ; as, EXAMPLE. est tuum (not tui) videre, it is your dutij to see. VOCABULARY. multitude, -mis, f., multitude. tempus, temp6ris, n., time. oratio, -oiiis, v., speech, oration. mercator, -oris, m., merchant. miser, -era, -erum, adj., wre/t7 o?7a/. Silvester, -tris, -tre, wood//. fortis, forte, brave. voliicer, v61ftcris, vSliicre, Germanus, -i, m., German, winf/ed. acer, acris, acre, sharp, severe. EXERCISES. Translate into English : — 1. Puer est tristis. 2. Timor oranes mllites occiipavit. ?). Leges sunt utiles. 4. Iter est facile. 5. Equi sunt celeres. G. Cum omnibus copiis. 7. Milites fortes erunt. 8. DiT immortales sunt. 9. Tempus breve est. 10. Consul virtntem militis fortis laudat. Translate into Latin : — 1. Tlie boys were sad. 2. The journeys are difficult. 3. The soldiers were brave. 4. The gods are immortal. 5. The horse is swift. 6. The laws are severe. 7. The consul praises the brave soldiers. 8. The soldiers will be brave. 9. They will be brave. NOTES AND QUESTIONS. 1. Endings enclosed in brackets are rare. Give the stem of acer. How are adjectives of three endings de- clined ? Give the ablative singular of acer. Ilovr are adjectives of two endings declined 1 Give the ablative singular of mitis. The geni- tive plural. What is an adjective ? LESSON XXXV. ADJECTIVES. - THIRD DECLENSION. 136. Adjectives of one ending in the nominative are strictly consonant stems, but they follow in part the declension of vowel stems ; that is, they have -i or -e in the ablative singular, -ia in the neuter plural, and -ium 108 FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. ill tlie genitive plural. In other cases they follow tlie declension of consonant stems. They all end in s, a:, Z, or 7*, and are declined like audax, hold. PARADIGMS. Cases. Singular. Plural. Masc. and Fem. Neuter. Masc. and Fem. Neuter. XoM. audax audaces audacia CxKN. audacis audacium DAT. audaci audacibus Acc. audacem audax audaces (is) audacia Voc. audax audaces audacia AUL. audaci or audace audacibus iiigens, vast • Xo.M. ingens ingentes ingentia Cen. ingentis ingentium ])AT. ingenti ingentibus Ace. ingentem ingens ingentes, -is ingentia Voo. ingens ingentes ingentia Ap.l. ingenti or ingente ingentibus 1. Present Piirticiples arc declined like Smans, except in the ubhitive siii«iular, where thev have -e. PAKADIGMS. Cast's. fellx, happy. amaiis, loring. priuleiis, j?«*M^/e/j<. M.&F. X. M. & F. N. M. & F. N. XOM. felix amans priidens Gkn. felicis amantis prudentis ^' DAT. felici amanti priidenti Acc. felicem felix amantem amans prudentem prudens x Voc. feh-x amans prudens - Ap.l. NOM. felici, -e amante, -i prudenti, -e felices felicia amante,? amantia prudentes prudentia Gkn. felicium amantium prudentium "S Dat. felicibus amantibus priidentibus s Acc. felices felicia amantis amantia prudentes prudentia Ph Voc. felices felicia amantes amantia priidentes prudentia Al5L. felicibus amantibus prudentibus ADJECTIVES. — THIRD DECLENSION. 109 PAKADIGMS. Cases. vStus, old. iens, (/oiuff. par, equal. M. & F. N. M. & F. N. M. & F. N. NOM. vetus iens par Gen. veteris euntis paris 1 Dat. veteri eunti pari Ace. veterem vetus euntem iens parem par Voc. vetus iens par Akl. vetere (-i) eunte, -i pari NOM. veteres Vetera euntes euntia pares paria Gex. veterum euntium parium t Dat. veteribus euntibus paribus a S Ace. veteres, -is Vetera euntes euntia pares paria Voc. veteres Vetera euntes euntia pares paria Abl. veteribus euntibus paribus Rules for the Oblique Cases of Adjectives of the TJiird Declension, ABLATIVE SINGULAR. 137. Most fidjectives of the third declension have -i in the ablative singular, Ijut consonant stems have -i when nscd as adjectives, -e when used as nouns. Participles in -us, when used as such, or as nouns, regularly have -e ; but as adjec- tives, -I. GENITIVE AND NEUTER PLURAL. 138. The genitive plural commonly has -ium. Consonant stems have -ium when tlie stem-characteristic is preceded by a long vowel or b}' a consonant ; -um, w^hen the stem-charac- teristic is preceded by a short vowel; as, audax, gen. plur. audacium; dives, gen. sing, divitis, gen. plur. divitum; so vetus (vgteris), vStgriim; iiber (iiberis), iiberuni; caelebs, tmmarried, caelibum. The neutei' plural has -ia ; only vgtus has vgtgra. Participles have -iu7n ; as, Smans, amantium. 139. Decline together tlic following : — 1. puella felix, a Jiapp/j (jirl. o. donum ingens, a lart/e gifl. 2. mSre ingens, a vast sea. 4. servus audax, a hold servant. 110 FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. VOCABULARY. felix, gen. felicis, liappy. recens, gen. rgcentis, recent. audax, gen. audacis, hold, auda- oriens, gen. 6rientis, rising, clous. miilier, miilieris, f., icoman. dIvSs, gen. divitis, i-lch. flens, gen. flentis, weeping. par, gen. paris, equal. vStus, gen. vStSris, old, ancient. pdtens, gen. TpbtQJitis, powerful. grex, gen. grSgis, M.,Jiock. EXERCISES. Translate into English : — 1. MTlites sunt audaces. 2. Reges sunt potentes. o. VirT (ITvites sunt. 4. Mulieres fclices erant. 5. Belgae spectant in^ orientem s5lem. 6. Consilium ducis audax est. 7. Mulieres flentes Caesarem implorant. Translate into Latin : — 1. The soldier is brave. 2. The leaders are bold. 3. The men are rieh. 4. The weeping woman implores the consul. 5. The town is old. G. The women are not happj. NOTES AND QUESTIONS. 1. Tnivards. What adjectives have but one ending ? Arc they vowel or con- sonant stems ? Do they increase in tlio genitive ? In wliat docs the abhitive singular end ? In what docs the genitive plural end ? Does the ablative always end in -/ ? ])oes the genitive plural always have -iam ? Explain when they have -i in the ablative, and when -e. LESSON XXXVI. OOMPAEISON or ADJECTIVES. ABLATIVE WITH COMPARATIVES. 140. Adjectives are compared, in Latin as in English, in three ways : 1st. Kegularly, i.e., by adding peculiar terminations ; 2d. By prefixing the adverbs mSgis and maxime, mo7'e and most; and 3d. Irregularly. coMPAiiisoN OF adjectivp:s. Ill I. liegiilar Conipai'isoii, 141. Adjectives are regularly compared by adding to the stem of the positive, after the final vowel has been dropped, the following endings : — SUPERLATIVE. Masc. Fem. Nkut. -isslmus -issima -issimum COMPARATIVE. Masc. Feji. Neut, -ior -ior -ius EXAMPLES. Positive. Stem. Comparative. Superlative. durus, liard. duro- durior, harder. durissimus, hardest, very hard. dulcis, siceet. dulci- dulcior, siveeter. dulcissimus, sireetest. prudens, sayacioas. felix, happy. prudent- felic- prudentior, more sagacious. felicior, happier. prudentissimus, most sagacious. felicissimus, happiest. 1. Note that the stems are dur6-, dulcT-, prudent-, felic-; the final vowel disappears before the initial vowel of the suffix. 2. All superlatives are declined like bSnus, b6na, bSnum. 3. All comparatives, except plus, are declined like mglior^ hptte7\ PARADIGM. Cases. Siaij^ular. Plural. Masc. & Fem. Neut. Masc. & Fem. Neut. NOM. melior melius meliores meliora Gkn. melioris meliorum Dat. meli5ri meli5ribus Ace. meliorem melius meliores, -is meliora Voc. melior melius meliores meliora Al5L. meliore, -i melioribus Obs. Xote that the ablative singular ends in -e or -i; the neuter plural in -a; the accusative phn-al, masculine and feminine, in -e*' or -IS ; and the genitive plural in -um, not -iujn. 112 FIKST STEPS IN LATIN. 142. The Construction with Comparatives. EXAMPLES. 1. servus est felicior rege, the slave is hapjjier than the king. 2. servus est felicior quam^ rex, the slave is happier than the kinq. (.)us. Ill the lirst example, Dote that tlie comparative is followed by the ablative ; in the second example, quam, tluin, is used with the comparative, and the following word is in the same case as the noun preceding the adjective. The idiom is expressed in the following rule : — ABLATIVE WITH COMPARATIVES. 143. Rule XIII. — The comparative degrree is fol- lowed by the ablative when qiiam, than, is omitted. 1. Comparatives with quam are followed (by the nomina- tive, or) by the case of the correspoudiug noun before them. EXAMPLES. 1. fortiorem vidi neminera quam M^ium, / have seen no hraver man than Marius ; or 2. Hibernia minor quam Britannia existimatur, Ireland is considered smaller than Britain. 144. ^lodel for parsing comparatives and superlatives : — servus est felicior rege, the servant is happier than the king: felicior is an adjective in the comparative degree, from the posi- tive felix; stem/eZlc-, com\). felicior^ Huper. felicisstmus. Felicior is an adjective of the third declension, and is declined like mglior, melius, etc. It is nominative singular masculine, and agrees with servus. Rule VIII. : Adjectives agree with their nouns in gender, number, and case. VOCABULARY. rapax, -acis, ravenous. aer, agris, m., the air. CicSro, Cicgronis, m., Cicero. clarus, -a, -um, clear, famous. doctus, -a, -um, learned. velox, gen. velocis, swift. gravis, -e, heavy, severe. mendax, -acis, b/ing. Syx. VulnSro, to wound by a cut or thrust; saucio, to icound hi any way. COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 113 EXERCISES. Translate into English : — 1. Vir fellx erat. 2. Vir fcllcior erat. 3. Judex sapiens est. 4. Judex siipientior erat quam rex. 5. Sumus- potentes. G. Estis potentiores. 7. Reges sunt potentissimT. 8. Cicero erat vir doctissimus. 9. Lux est velocior quam sonitus. 10. Koma clarissima^ urbs erat. 11. Galloruni omnium fortissimi sunt Belgae. 12. Jura est mons altis- siraus. Translate into Latin : — 1. The men are happy. 2. We are happier. 3. The soldiers are brave. 4. The brave soldiers are powerful. 5. The soldiers are more powerful. C. The journey was difficult. 7. Gold is heavier than silver. 8. The servants are very happy. 9. The Romans were braver than the Gauls. 10. Cicero was a very renowned orator. 11. The soldiers are braver than the general. NOTES AND fJUESTIONS. 1. Quam is a conjunction, and is not inflected; it means than. 2. The subject is included in the verb. 3. The superlative is not always translated by most; it is sometimes best rendered by r^ry. So the comparative may be translated in vari- ous ways; as, audScior, holder, nither bolder (/.r;. bolder tlian usual), ioo bold. In how many ways are adjectives compared ? Decline the compara- tive of potens, altus. To wdiat declension of adjectives do superla- tives belong- ? Wbat is the rule for tlie agreement of adjectives 'i By what case is the comparative degree followed ? 114 FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. LESSON XXXVII. OOMPAEISON or ADJECTIVES. GENITIVE AND DATIVE WITH ADJECTIVES. II. Coin2Jarison by Adverbs. 145. Adjectives ending in -us preceded by a vowel (except those in -quus) commonly form their compara- tive and superlative by means of the adverbs magis, more^ and maxime, 7nost. EXAMPLES. Positive. Coiiiiiarative. Sai»erlative. idoneus, yj7. dubius, doubtful. ndxius, Iturtfil. magis idoneus magis diibius magis noxius maxime idoneus maxime dubius maxime noxius 1. Adjectives in -quus form their comparjitives and super- latives regularly ; as, aiitiquus, ancient, antiquior, antiquissimus. 146. Dative with Adjectives. EXAMPLES. 1. victoria Germanorura pSptllo Romano perictllosa est, the victor// of the Germans is dantjerous to the Roman jyeople. 2. puella Srat matri similis, the (jirl ivas like her mother. 3. castris idoneus 16cus est, the place is suitable for a camp. Obs. Til the foregoing examples, note the adjectives periculosa, similis, and idoneus, and that each is construed with the dative. The idiom is expressed in the following rule : — DATIVE WITH ADJECTIVES. 147. Rule XIV. — The dative is vised after many adjectives to denote the object to which the quality is directed. 1. The adjectives that take the dative are chiefly those signifying useful., pleascutt, friendly., fit., like, inclined., ready., COMPAKISON OF ADJECTIVES. 115 easy^ clear, equal, and their opposites ; also those signifying near ; many compounded with con- ; and verbals in -bills. 2. Similis and dissimilis take also the genitive, espe- cially of persons, when denoting likeness or unlikeness in CllAllACTEK. GENITIVE WITH ADJECTIVES. 148. Rule XV. — Many adjectives are followed by the genitive to complete tlieir meaning". 1. The adjectives governing the genitive are those den,oting desire, knoivledge, memory, fabiess, mastery, participation, guilt, and their opposites ; and verbals in -ax. EXAMPLES. 1. avidus laudis, desirous of praise. 2. niSinor virtutis, mindful of virtue. 3. belli pSritus, stilled in war. VOCABUIiAKY. carus, -a, -um, dear. Belgae, -arum, m. pL, the Belgians. idoneus, -a, -um, suitable. p6riciil6sus, -a, -um, dangerous. iuimicus, -a, -um, unfriendly, Amicus, -a, -um, friendly, hostile. Graecus, -a, -um, Greek. Syn. Animus, the mind, the soul; mens, thought or intellectual faculty ; Snima, the life, the vital principle. EXERCISES. Translate into English : — 1. Magister discipulis carus est. 2. Locus magis id5neas castris quam urbi fuit. 3. Belgae proximi sunt GermanTs. 4. Filius patris^ simillimus est. 5. Dux inimlcus Dumnorigl fuit. C. Tullus HostTlius'-' proximo regi dissimilis fuit. 7. Ilomerus est veterrimus^ omnium Graecorum poetfirum. NOTES AND QUESTIONS. 1. See Pvule 147. 2. 2. Decline Tullus Hostilius together. 3. See 149. 1. How are adjectives compared by means of adverbs 1 What is an adverb ? Compare beatitifidly. AVhat class of adjectives are followed by the dative ? Give tlie rule. 116 FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. LESSON XXXVIII. OOMPAEISON or ADJECTIVES. 111. Irregular and Defective Comparison, 149. Adjectives in -er form their comparative reg lai-ly, but their superlative is formed by addiii p" -rim us to the nominative. EXAMPLES. Positive. Comparative. Superlative. acer, s/iarj>. acrior acerrimus miser, icretched. miserior miserrimus celer, s)rift. celerior celerrimus pulcher, bedutiful. pulchrior pulclierrimus niger, hlark. nigrior nigerrimus 1. Also v6tus, old (gen. v6t6ris) has the super, vgterrimus. 2. The following six adjectives in -ilis^ declined like mitis," form their superlative by adding -Ihnns to tlie sti in, after dropping the final vowel : — Positive. Comparative. Superlative. facilis, (-(isi/. facilior facillimus difficiHs, dij/iadt. difficilior diricillimus similis, slini/ar. similior simillimus dissimilis, unlike. dissimilior dissimillimus gracilis, slfuder. gracilior gracillimus humilis, loir. humilior humillimus 3. Compound adjectives ending in -cUais^ -ficus, -volvs, form their comparatives in -entlor, and their superlatives in -eutissriUHs (as if from positives ending in -ens)^ ; as, Positive. Comparative. Sni)erlative. maledicus, s/andcrous. beneficus, beneficent. benevolus, liencnJefif. maledicentior beneficentior benevolentior maledicentissimus beneficentissimus benevolentissimus Note. These comparatives and superlatives are formed as from the participles dicens, sa//mg, faciens, doing, v61eiis, wisJdng. COMPAKISON OF ADJECTIVES. 117 4. The following adjectives, in common use, are compared irreouliirly : — Positive. Comparative. Sviperlative. bonus, (jood. melior, better. optimus, best. malus, hdd. pejor, irorse. pessimus, ivorst. magnus, (jrcal. major, (/renter. maximus, greatest. parvus, small. minor, less. minimus, least. multus, much. plus (neut.), 7nore. pliirimus, most. f ^^«' I rich. dis, ) divitior, } ■ , ' ' richer. ditior, ) divitissimus,),..^/^^^^^ ditissimus, ) 150. Defective Comparison. 1. Seven adjectives have no positive ; they are — 1. citerior, citinius, hither, hithermost. 2. deterior, deterrimiis, luorse. 3. interior, intimus, inner, innermost. 4. ocior, ocissimus, swifter. 5. prior, ^xiyoms, former, first. G. pr6pior, proxinius, nearer, next. 7. ulterior, ultimus, farther, farthest. 2. The following are irregular in the superlative^: Positive. Comparative. Superlative. Meaning. exterus inferus superus posterus exterior inferior superior posterior extremus and extimus infimus and imus supremus and summus postremus and postumus outward, lower, upper, next. 3. The following adjectives are irregular jiivenis,! young. } senex, old. junior minor natu j senior \ { major natu \ minimus natu maximus natu 151. Compare the following : — 1. c61er, swift. 4. miser, wretched. 2. audax, hold. 5. amaiis, loring. 3. fortis, brave. C. sapiens, icise. 7. altus, high. 8. latus, broad. 9. diligens, diligent. 10. bSnus, good. 118 FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. Obs. 1. The comparative may be translated in various w^ays ; as, audacior, holder, rather hold, too hold. Obs. 2. The superlative audacissimus may mean holdest or very hold. Obs. 3. The superlative with quam denotes the highest degree possible ; as, quam plurimi, as many as possihle : quam maximum, as large as possihle. Obs. 4. Per in composition with adjectives has the force of vei-y; as, permagnus, very great. VOCABUIiARY. primus, -a, -VLm,Jirst. sxipSrior, siipgrius, higher, upper. sol, solis, M., sun. Horatius, -i, m., Horace. terra, -ae, r., earth. Labienus, -i, m., Lahiemis. luna, -ae, f., moon. Vergilius, -i, m., Vergil. pr6pior, prSpius, nearer. H6merus, -I, m., Homer. citSrior, citgrius, hither. scientia, -ae, F., hnoioledge, skill. EXERCISES. Translate into English : — 1. Nostrae flliae pulehemmae snnt. 2. Iter per provin- cinm est faciliiis. 3. Itinera erant difficillima. 4. Sol major est qnani terra. 5. Luna minor est quam terra. (). Reges cum proximis chitatibus pacem confirmant. 7. Oppidum est in citeriore Gallia. 8. Labienus summum montem^ occCq^avit. 9. Horatius erat bonus poeta, Vergi- lius melior, Homerus optimus. NOTES AND QUESTIONS. 1. These words are added for convenience of reference; they can be omitted for the present, 2. The summit of tlie mountain. How do adjectives ending in -er form their comparatives ? How may superLatives be translated ? Wliat adjectives form their superla- tives like facilis ? What is meant by comparison of adjectives ? How many degrees of comparison are there ? How is each formed ? How declined 1 USE OF ADVERBS. 119 LESSON XXXIX. USE OF ADVEEBS.-riEST CONJUGATION. PRESENT, IMPERFECT, AND FUTURE PASSIVE. EXAMPLE. mUes fortiter pugnat, the soldier Jights hravehj. Obs. In the foregoing sentence, note that the soldier Jights ex- presses a fact in a general way. We may add a word, and say the soldier fights bravely , we may add a word to bravely, and say the soldiers fight very bravely. Here very modifies bravely ; very bravely modifies the predicate. Such words as very and bravely are called Adverbs (ad, to, and verbum, ivord, or verb). This use of adverbs is expressed in the following rule : — USE OF ADVERBS. 152. Rule XVI. — Adverbs modify verbs, adjec- tives, and other adverbs. 153. Rule of position : — The adverb generally precedes the word it limits; but fSre usually stands between the adjective and the noun ; as, omnes fgre hSmines, almost all men. Voices of Verbs, 154. Transitive verbs have two voices^ the Active and the Passive. 1. The active voice shows that the subject is the actor. 2. The passive voice shows that the subject is acted upon. EXAMPLES. 1. mSgister laudat, the teacher praises. 2. discipiilus laudatur, the pupil is praised. 3. disoipulus laudatus est, the pupil has been praised. Obs. Tn the foregoing examples the form of the verb shows whether the subject is the actor, or the thing acted upon. These different forms of tlie verb are called voice. Tlie passive form in English is compovmded, and maybe resolved into some form of the verb to be, and the complement, which is the perfect participle of a transitive verb. 120 FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. 155. The Present, Imperfect, and Future Tenses, In- dicative Mode, Passive Voice, are formed by adding the verbal endings to the present stem. Thej are inflected as follows : — PARTIAI. PARADIGM. Pkesent. Person. Sinfj. 1 2 o Plur. 1 2 Formation. Pres. stem + or + ris or re + tur + mur + mini + ntur Example. amor amaris, -re amatur amamur amamini amantur Elngflish. I am loved. Thou art loved. lie is loved. We are loved. Yoii are loved. Theij are loved. Imperfect. Sing. 1 Ph Pres. stem + bar " + baris,-re " + batur " + bamur " + bamini " -f bantur amabar amabaris, -re amabatur amabamur amabamini amabantur / iras being loved. Thou wast being loved. lie was being loved. We were being loved. You were being loved. They were being loved. Future. Sing. 1 riur. 1 2 3 Pres. stem + bor " " -fberis.-re " + bitur " " -f bimur " " -f bimini " '* -f buntur amabor amaberis, -r amabitur amabimur §,mabimini amabuntur I shall be loved. Thou shalt be loved. He shall be loved. We shall be loved. You shall be loved. They shall be loved. 156. Analysis of the Present, Imperfect, and Future Passive : — 1. Notice that the passive voice of these tenses differs from the same tenses in the active voice only in the endings ; as, a. Pres. Act. — pres. st. -f personal endings ; as, ama + mus, ive love. Pres. Pass. = pres. st. -f personal endings -f passive sign ; as, Sma-mu-r, we are loved. VSE OF ADVERBS. 121 b. Impcrf. Act. = pres. st. + tense sign (-ba-) + personal endings ; as, ama-ba-mus, we ivere loving. Iinperf. Pass. — pies. st. + pei'sonal endings + passive sign ; as, Sma-ba-mu-r, loe toere loved. c. Future Act. = pres. st. + tense sign {j-bi-) + personal endings ; as, ama-bi-mus, ive shall love. Future Pass. -- pres. st. + personal endings + passive sign ; as, ama-bi-mu-r, ivc shall be loved. Tlie second person singular future has -be- instead of -lA- ; as, ama-bg-ris or -re. Obs. 1. The passive voice is a reflexive form, made by adding the reflexive stem -se- (srd-) to the active ; the s changes to r, except in the second person singular; as, Sine/. 1 amo-s(e) —amor Plur.l ama-mu(s)-s(e) — ama-mu-r 2 ama-si-s(e) — ama-ri-s 2 3 ama-tu-s(e) — ama-tu-r 3 ama-ntu-s(e) = ama-ntu-r Obs. 2. Amor is for ama-or, same as amo is for ama-o. Obs. 3. The distinction in meaning between tlie tenses denoting Incomplete action and those denoting Completed action is often obscured in English on account of the want of special forms to express incomplete action in the passive ; as, bellum paratur means, not. the tear is prepared, but the tear is jjveparing, is being prepared. The perfect bellum pS.ratum est means ivar has been prepared, and so war is jrrejKired (or aorist, war ivas prepared) . Notice the imperfect bellum parabatur, war was j^reparing, not icar was prepared. VOCABULARY. culpo, culpare, culpavi, cul- acriter, adv., sharply, fiercely. patum, blame. graviter, adv., heavily, severely. 6nus, 6n^ris, x., burden. celeriter, adv., quickly. porto, -are, -avi, -atum, carry. audacter, adv., boldly. EXERCISES. Translate into English : — 1. Laudiibitnr. 2. Onus portatur. 3. Non vocaberis. 4. Vocabaris. 5. VulnerabiminT. 6. Pueri culpantur. 7. Culpabamur. 8. Milites audacter pfignant. 9. Milites castra diligenter servant. 10. Caesar Dumnorigem graviter accusavit. 11. Milites fortiter pugnabant. 12. Germanl Helvetios facile siiperabunt. 122 FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. Translate into Latin : — 1. We are blamed. 2. They are praised. 3. You were being praised. 4. They will be praised. 5. The girls are called. 6. The boy is calling. 7. The men fight bravel}'. 8. They will be carried. 9. We were being called. 10. They will be called. 11. He is (being) praised. 12. He was being praised. 13. They blame the Romans severely. 14. They are blamed severely by the Romans. NOTES AND QUESTIONS. What is meant by voice in grammar ? IIovv many voices ? Give the meaning of tlio present passive in Latin. What verbs only can be in the passive voice ? LESSON XL. ADVEEBS. FORMATION, CLASSIFICATION, AND COMPARISON. I. Formation of Advei'bs, EXAMPLES Adjective. Stem. Adverb. 1. carus, dear. 2. dignus, ir or fill/. .'5. pulcher, henntifal. 4. miser, irretched. caro- digno- pulchro- misero- care, dearly. digne, irorthibj. pulchre, heautifulhj. misere, icretchedly. Obs. In tlic foregoing examples, note that the adjectives are all of the first and second declensions ; that the adverbs are formed by changing -o-, the characteristic vowel of the stem, into -e-. llence the rule : — 157. Adverbs are formed from adjectives of the First and Second Declensions by changing the characteristic vowel of the stem to -e-. ADVERBS. 123 KXAMPLES. Adjective. Stem. Adverb. 1. fortis, brave. forti- fortiter, braveli/. 2. gravis, licacij. gravi- graviter, heavi/;/. fj. acer, eager. acri- acriter, eafjerlij. 4. ferdx, wild. feroc- ferociter, in'/dlij. 5. sapiens, wise. sapient- sapienter, wiseli/. G. prudens, prudent. prudent- prudenter, prudentbj. Obs. Note (1) that the adjectives are all of the third declen- sion ; (2) that 1, 2, 3 add -ter to the stem ; (-5) that 4 assumes -i- before the suffix -tei'\ (4) that 5 and 6 end in -n.s, gen. -nt-is; (5) that these adjectives drop -t- from the stem before adding -ter. Hence the rule : — 158. Adverbs are formed from adjectives of the third declension by adding -ter to the stern ; but stems ending in c, A:, or g assume -^- before the sufiix -ter^ and those in -nt- drop final t of the stem before adding -ter. 159. Some adjectives of the first and second declensions have adverbs in -ter as well as in -e ; as, Adjective. Stem. Adverb. 1. durus, severe. diiro- dire and diiriter 2. firmus, ^^7-7/1. firmo- firme and firmiter o. largus, hounteons. largo- large and largiter 4. hiiinanus, courteous. humano- humane and hiimaniter 5. miser, wretched. misero- miser e aiid miseriter 160. The neuter accusative of many adjectives is used as an adverb ; neuter comparatives are especially so used. EXAMPLES. Adjective. Accusative. Adverb. 1. multus, ninch. multum multum 2. facilis, easn. facile facile 3. recens, Jate. recens recens 4. acer, eager. acrms acrius 5. dulcis, sioeet. dulce dulce 0. primus, .//V.sV. primum primum 124 FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. II. Classification of Adverbs. 161. The adverbs enumerated in the foregoing examples denote, for the most part, the manner of the action, and are therefore called adverbs of manner. Adverbs may also denote the time., the place, the degree, or the cause of the action expressed by the verb. Ill, Comparison of Adverbs, 162. The comparative of adverbs that are reguhirly com- pared is the same as the neuter accusative singular of the comparative of adjectives, and consequently ends in -ius. 1. The superlative of the adverb is formed from the super- lative of the adjective by changing the final vowel of the stem to -e. FXAMPT.KS. Adjectives. Adverbs. Positive. Positive. Comparative. Superlative. carus, dear. miser, vretrhed. audax, hold. levis, light. acer, eager. prudens, prudent. felix, happg. care \ misere \ (miseriter) j audacter \ (audaciter) leviter acriter prudenter feliciter carius miserius audacius levius acrius prudentius felicius carissime miserrime audacissime levissime acerrime prudentissime felicissime 2. If the adjectives are irregular in their comparison, the adverbs have the same irregularity. p:xampli:s. Adjectives. Adverbs. Positive. I'ositivc. Comparative. Superlative. bonus, good. malus, had. multus, mncli. magnus, great. bene male multum melius pejus pms magis optime pessime pliirimum maxime ADVERBS. 125 3. A few adverbs not derived from adjectives are com- pared. EXAMPLES. Positive. Comparative. Superlative. din, for a long time. saepe, often. diutius saepius diutissirae saepissime 4. Form from each of the following adjectives an adverb, and compare it : — 1. similis, -e, lil-e. 2. fortis, -e, brave. 3. cgler, -6ris, -ere, quick. 4. gravis, -e, Iteavy. 5. liber, -era, -gruni,/ree. 6. amicus, -a, -wva., friend hj. 7. aeger, -gra, -grum, sick. 8. Smans, gen. -ntis, looing. 9. elegans, gen. -ntis, elegant. 10. altus, -a, -um, Ingli, deep. 1 1 . cxipidus, -a, -um, greedy. 12. ferox, gen. -ocis, ^6rce. 163. Model for parsing adverbs : — railites fortiter pugnant, the soldiers flgld bravely : f ortiter is an adverb of manner (161), derived from the adjective /or/ /.s (157) ; compared, fortiter, fortius, fortisslme (157) ; of the positive degree, and modifies pugnant, according to Rule XVI. : Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. NOTES ANI> QUESTIONS. What is an adverb ? Wliat is the usual position of an adverb in a sentence? {Ans. It stands immediately before the word it limits.) How are adverbs classified ? How are adverbs formed from adjectives of the second declension ? How from adjectives of the third declen- sion 1 How are adverbs compared 1 How are English adverbs formed ? Form an adverb from brave; compare it. Write a sentence in English containing an adverb of place ; of manner ; of degree. 126 FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. LESSON XLI. riEST CONJUGATION. PERFECT, PLUPERFECT, AND FUTURE PERFECT PASSIVE. 164. The Perfect, Pluperfect, and Future Perfect Tenses_of_the Passive Voice are made up of the PexfoiiL^ Par ticiple in combination with the forms of sum. ^"~** EXAMPLE. — amare, to love. ACTIVE VOICE. PuEs. Stem. T'ehf. Stem. Part. Steji. Nom. ^ma- Sinavi- ^mato- Smatus, -a, -um PASSIVE VOICE. Pres. Stem. Preh. Inkin. Phrfect. S.ma- §.mari Smatus, -a, -um sum 1. The Participial Stem is formed b}' adding -to^ iiom. -tus (often changed to -so, nom. -sus)^ to the present stem. EXAMPLES. Present. Pres. Stem. Perf. Stem. I'art. Stem. Nom. Smo Sma- Smavi- Smato- amStus v6co v6cat- vScavi- v6cato- vdcatus laudo lauda- laudavi- laudato- laudatus 2. The Principal Parts of a verb are : — (1) The Present Indicative, > showing the present stem and the (2) Tlie Present Infinitive, ) conjugation. (3) The Perfect Indicative, showing the perfect stem. * (4) The Xeuter Nominative and Accusative of the Perfect Parti- ciple, showing the participial stem. EXAMPLES. ACTIVE VOICE. Present. Pres. Tnf. Perfect. Perf. Part» S.mo amare amavi amatum PASSIVE VOICE. Present. Pres. Inp. Perfect. ^mor ^mari amatus, -a, -um sum FIRST CONJUGATION. 127 PARTIAL PAKADIGM. Perfect and Aokist. rerson. Formation. Example. English. Perfect. Aoritit. Sing. 1 • 2 o Plur. 1 2 3 Verb-stem — + tus sum + tus es + tus est + ti sumus + ti estis + ti suiit amatus sum amatus es amatus est amati sumus amati estis amati sunt I have Thou hast He has We have You have The 1/ have s J / ivas loved. Thou wast lorcd. He icas loved. We ivere loved. You were loved. Thei/ were loved. PLUrERFECT. Person. Formation. Example. English. Sim/. 1 2 3 P/ur. 1 2 3 Verb -stem 4- tus eram ' -f tus eras ' -f tus erat « -h ti eramus ' + ti eratis + ti erant amatus eram amatus eras amatus erat amati eramus amati eratis amati orani I had been loved. Thou hadst been loved He had been loved. We had been loved. You had been loved. The]) had been loved. Future Perfect. Sinrj. 1 2 3 P/wr. 1 2, 3 Verb-stem + tus ero -f tus eris " + tus erit " -f ti erimus + ti eritis " + ti erunt amatus ero amatus eris amatus erit amati erimus amati eritis amati erunt I shall have Thou ivilt have lie shall have We shall have Yoa shall have The 11 shall have . ^ c" '^ ■^ 165= Analysis of the Perfect, Pluperfect, and Future Perfect Passive : — 1. The perfect 2. The pluperfect 3. The future perf. = parti c. stem + -5 together with sum. = partic. stem -f -s together with gram. - partic. stem -f -s together with Sro. 128 FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. OiiS. 1. The perfect participle has three endings for the three genders, and is declined like bSnus ; as, umatus, -a, -urn. It must agree, like an adjective, in gender, number, and case, with the subject. EXAMPLES. 1. puer amatus est, the hoy was loved. 2. virgo amata est, the virgin was loved. 3. iiomen amatum est, the name was loved. 4. pu6ri amati sunt, the boys were loved. 5. virgines S.matae sunt, the virgins were loved. C. nomiua Smata sunt, the names were loved. Obs. 2. In the foregoing examples, note that the participle agrees with the subject like an adjective. PuES. Tni). Act. ^mo, love. laudo, praise. porto, carry. v6co, call. gnuntio, report.^ occulto, conceal. comporto, collect. VOCABULARY. Pres. Tnf. Act. Peuf. Ind. Act. Sniare laudare portare vdcare enuntiare occultare comportare Smavi laudavi portavi v6cavl enuntiavi occultavi comportavi Perf. Part. Pass. amatum laudatum portatum v6catum enuntiatum occultatum comportatum Syx. Infans (in, not, fari, to speak), an infant ; puer, a hoy, from about seven to sixteen; Sdiilescens (adSlesco, to groiv), a youth, from about sixteen to twenty-four ; jiiv6uis, a young man or woman, from about twenty-four to forty-five. EXERCISES. Translate into English : — 1. Laudati estis. 2. Onus portatum est. 3. Reges culpatT sunt. 4. Vulneratus sum. 5. Vulnerati sumus. G. Nostra consilia hostibns- enuntiata sunt. 7. In tanta multitudine equitura nostra fuga occultata est. 8. Magna copia frumenti comportata erat. SECOND CONJUGATION. 129 Translate into Latin : — 1. You were called. 2. You were praised. 3. You have been praised. 4. You shall have been praised. 5. The corn has been collected. 6. An abundance of corn has been collected. 7. They shall have been praised. 8. We had been called. 9. They were loved. ^ 10. They were (being) loved.'* 11. They were loving.'^ 12. The work was praised. 13. The girl has been called. NOTES AND QUESTIONS. 1. Written also enuncio. 2. Dative case. 3. The aorist (perf.) passive. 4. Imperfect passive. 5. Imperfect active. From what stem is the perfect passive formed ? What are the principal parts of a verb 1 Mention the three stems. What verbs can have a passive voice ? Can they take an object in the passive voice 1 LESSON XLIL SECOND OONJUaATION. PRESENT, IMPERFECT, AND FUTURE ACTIVE.-ABLATIVE OF AGENT. 166. All verbs whose characteristic vowel before the ending -re in the Present Infinitive is e", belong to the Second Conjugation. Thus — Present. Pres. Stem. Pres. Inf. mSneo m6ne- mSne-re h&beo hSbe- hSbe-re terreo terre- terre-re tSceo tace- tace-re 130 FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. 1. The Present, Imperfect, and Future Active are formed by adding the verbal endings to the present stem. PARTIAL PARADIGM. [The personal endings are the same as in the first conjugation; the " connective vowel," or tlie final vowel of the stem, is e instead of d, and is retained in the present tense.] Present. Person. Formation. Example. English. Sing. 1 2 3 Plur. 1 2 Pres. stem + o + t + mus + tis + nt moneo mones monet monemus monetis monent I advise. Thou adrisest. He advises. We advise. Yott advise. Then fidvise. iMrEUFECT. Sing. 1 Pli Pres. stem -f bam + has + bat + bamus + batis + bant monebam monebas monebat monebamus monebatis monebant / teas advising. Thou ivast advising. lie iras advising. We were advising. You ivere advising. Theg irere advising. FiTURE. Sing. 1 Pres. ste 2 U ,i 3 a Plur. 1 « ( 2 " 3 " + bis + bit + bimus + bitis + bunt monebo monebis monebit monebimus monebitis monebunt / shall or ivill advise. Thou wilt advise. He will advise. We shall or ivill advise You will advise. They ivill advise. a. The verbal endings are the same as in the first con jugation. See 58. 1. 167. Ablative of Agent. EXAMPLES. 1. vulneratiis est sSgittls, he was wounded with arroios. 2. vulngratus est a mllite, he tvas wounded hy a soldier. SECOND CONJUGATION. 131 Obs. Tn the foregoing examples, compare the two ablatives; note that the noun sSgittis, which designates the instrument by which the action expressed by the verb is pei-formed, is in the abla- tive, without a preposition, according to llule IX. In the second sentence the ablative designates the person, or (ujent, by M-hicli the action expressed by the verb is performed, and it is accompanied by the preposition a or ab. The idiom is expressed in the follow- ing rule : — ABLATIVE OF AGENT. 168. Rule XVII. — The voluntary agent after a passive verb is put in the ablative with d or ab. Present. d5ceo, teach. timeo, fear. hSbeo, have. deleo, destroy. VOCABULARY. Pres. Stem. Pres. Inf. d6ce- d6cere time- timere habe- habere dele- delere Perfect. Participle. dScui doctum timui habui habitum delevi deletum prShibeo, restrain. prShibe- prShibere prdhibui prSlnbitum Syn. D6ceo, to teach ; edSceo, to make one learn : perdSceo, to teach thorouglthj : eriidio (e and riidis, rough), to instruct, lit. to bring from a rougli condition ; ediico, to educate, whether in a physical or moral sense. EXERCISES. Translate into English : — 1. Docemns puellam. 2. Docetis. 3. Multa castra habe- bimus. 4. Monet. 5. Timebat. 6. Reglnae timent. 7. Piiellae non timent. 8. Monebit. 9. Habebant. 10. Timet. 11. Docebunt. 12. Docebimus. Translate into Latin : — 1. We fear, we were fearing, we shall fear. 2. Ye teach, they were teaching, they will teach. 3. The girl will fear. 4. I will teach, I was teaching. 5. Ye were teaching^. 6. Thev call, thev were calling, they will call. Thon didst call. 8. You will not have fought. 9. Thou dost fear. 10. The master praises the pupil. 11. The pupil is praised 132 FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. b\' the master. 12. Tlie girl is crowned by (her) mother. 13. He was wounded by a spear. 14. He was wounded by a soldier. 15. Crassus is called by (his) friend. 16. The towns will be seized by the Belgians. NOTES AND QUESTIONS. What is the characteristic vowel of the second conjugation ? In what does the present stem end I Analyze the imperfect; i.e., mention the stem, the tense sign, the personal endings. LESSON XLIII. SECOND CONJUGATION. PERFECT, PLUPERFECT, AND FUTURE PERFECT INDICATIVE ACTIVE. 169. The Perfect Stem of a regular verb of the Second Conjugation may be formed, — 1. By adding vl^ to the present stem. (This rule is applicable to but few verbs.) 2. By dropping e of the present stem and adding ui. This is the more common way of forming the perfect stem of the second conjugation. EXAMPLES. Present. deleo, destroi/. moneo, admonish. Pres. Stem. dele- Perf . Stem. delevi- Part. Stem. deleto- monito- PRINCIPAL PARTS. Present. Pres. Inf. Perfect. Participle. deleo moneo delere monere delevi monui deletum monitum SECOND CONJUGATION. 133 170. The Perfect, Pluperfect, and Future Perfect Tenses are iutlected as follows : — PARTIAL PARADIGM. [The personal endings are the same as in the first conjugation; the cliaracteristic vowel of the stem clianges from i to e in the third per- son plural of the ])erfect, to I in the first person plural, and to e in the pluperfect and future perfect.] Perfect and Aouist. Pei'son. Sine/. 1 o 3 P/nr. 1 2 Forination. Perf. St. -f sti + t -f mus -f stis j -f runt I or re Example. monui monuisti monuit monuimua monuistis monuerunt, or monuere English. Perfect. / have advised. Thou hast advised. He has advised. We have advised. You hare advised. Theij have advised. Aorist. / advised. Thotc advisedst He advised. We advised. You advised. They advised. Pluperfect. Person. nuj. Plur. Formation. Perf. stem -f ram " + ras " 4- rat " + ramus " + ratis " + rant Example. monueram monueras monuerat monueramus monueratis monuerant English. / had advised. Thou hadst advised. He had advised. We had advised. You had advised. Theij had advised. Future Perfect. Sing. 1 2 Plur Perf. stem f ro " + ris 4- rit + rimus + ritis + rint monuero monueris monuerit monuerimus monueritis monuerint / shall have advised. Thou ivilt have advised. He wi/l have advised. We shall have advised. You ivill have advised. Theij will have advised. 134 FIRST STEPS IX LATIN. VOCABULARY. Tresent. Pres. Stem. Pres. Inf. Perfect. Participle. deieo, destroij. dele- delere delevi deletum compleo, Jill. comple- complere complevi completum m6neo, adcise. m6ne- mdnere monui mduitum taceo, he silent. tace- tacere tacui taciturn debeo, oive. debe- debere debm debitum hSbeo, have. habe- habere habul liSbitum d6ceo, teach. d6ce- dScere d6cui doc turn tgneo, hold. tene- tgnere tenul tentum m&neo, remain. man(e-) mS.nere mansi mansum augeo, increase. aug(e-) augere auxi auctum jiibeo, command. jiib(e-) jiibere jussi jussum EXERCISES. Traiislnto into English : — 1. DelGvit, deleverant, deleverint. 2. Docnerfis, docnerit. 3. Monuistis. 4. Habuerit, monnernnt, docuerunt. ;">. 1)6- cuistl pnollam. 6. Regina nionucrit. 7. Tenuimus saoittas. 8. Keglna timet. 9. Pnellae timnerunt. 10. jMonebit, monuerit, inonnerant. 11. Docueras, docuerint, docebunt, doeent. 12. Mansit, auxit, jussit. Translate into Latin : — 1. AVe have destroyed, they had destroyed. 2. We have taught, he has taught. 3. They were teaching, he had taught. 4. They taught, they are silent, they were advising. 5. You fear, 3'ou were fearing, you will fear, you have feared, you had feared. C. They command, they will command, they have commanded, they had commanded. 7. Thev have increased. NOTES AND QUESTIONS. 1. The -vl of the perfect stands for fui, perfect of sum; as, ^ma- (st. of amo) + fui = perf. Smafui — amaui = amavi; so dele- (st. of deleo) + fui = delefui = deleui = delevi; m6n(e-) -f fui = monfui = mdnuT (the final vowel of tlie stem being dropped) ; also, d6c(e-) fill - docfui = d6cui. Sometimes the final vowel of the SECOND CONJUGATION. 135 stem is woakenod to i and retained in the participial stem ; as, InSneo, mdnere, mdnui, m6nitum. 2. Some verbs drop the characteristic vowel of the stem and add -si to form the perfect; as, aug(e-) + si = augsi = auxi; in^(e-) + si ~ mansl ; jiib(e-) + si = jubsl = jussl; but indulgeo, indnhjc, in- dulgere, indulsi, indultum, wliere the rj as well as the characteristic- vowel of the stem is dropped. How many stems has a verb ? How many uses has the perfect ? How can you distinguish verbs of the second conjugation ? How do verbs of this conjugation form tlieir perfects *? LESSON XLIV. SECOND CONJUGATION. PRESENT, IMPERFECT, AND FUTURE PERFECT INDICATIVE PASSIVE. 171. The Present, Imperfect, and Future Perfect Indica- tive Passive are inflected as follows : — PARTIAL PARADIGM. [The personal endings, tlie tense signs, and passive sign, are the same as those of the first conjugation.] PllESEXT. Person. Slny. 1 2 PU Formation. Pres. stem + or " " + ris or re " + tur " " + mur " " + mini " " + ntur Example. moneor moneris, -re monetur monemur monemini monentur English. I am (being) advised. Tliou art advised. He is advised. We are advised. You are advised. Thei) are advised. Imperfect. Sii PI, Pres. stem + bar " -f baris, re " 4- batur " -f bamur " -f bamini " + bantur monebar monebaris, -re monebatur monebamur m6nebamini monebantur I teas being Thou wast being He was being We were being You were being Theg icere being 136 FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. FUTUKE. Person. Formation. Example. English. Sing. 1 2 3 Plur. 1 2 3 Pres. stem + bor " " + beris, re " + bitur " " + bimur " " -f bimini " " + buntur monebor moneberis, -re monebitur monebimur monebimini monebuntur / shall be advised. Thou wilt he advised. He rvill be advised. We shall be advised. You shall be advised. Theij shall be advised. Obs. Forinula for tlie conversion of sentences to the passive voice : — 172. The subject of the active voice becomes, in the passive voice, the Ablative of Agent (with a preposition), or Instrument (without a preposition). The object in the active voice becomes the subject in tlu; passive. EXAMPLES. 1. mSgister laudat pu6rum s. puer I V.P.V. Ab. of Agent. laudatur a mSgistro sSgitta vulngrat militem I 1 S. V. P.V. Ab. of Inst. miles vulngratur sSgitta EXERCISES. Translate into English : — 1. Deletur, timcntur, timebantnr, timebuntur. 2. Docetur, docebatur, docebitur. 3. Tenebantur, tenebat. 4. Haberis, habebaris, habeberis. 5. Onera gravia a servis timebantnr. 6. Summus mons^ a Tito Labieno tenebatur. 7. DiscipulT a magistro docentur. 8. Monebimini, monebatur, mone- batis. 9. Augentur, jubetur, jubebitur. SECOND CONJUGATION. 137 Translate into Latin : — 1. They are (being) taught, they were (being) taught, they will be taught. 2. The master teaches the pupils. 3. The pupils are taught by the master. 4. He is feared, he was feared, he will be feared. 5. We are advised, we were advised, we shall be advised. G. The boys were being taught by the master. 7. The soldiers are wounded by the arrows. NOTES AND QUESTIONS. 1. The top of the mountain; lit., the highest mountain. Define voice in grammar. From what stem are the tenses of in- complete action formed ? Give the rule for changing a sentence from the active to the passive voice. LESSON XLV. SECOND CONJUGATION. PERFECT, PLUPERFECT, AND FUTURE PERFECT INDICATIVE PASSIVE. 173. The Participial Stem of verbs of the Second Conju- gation is formed by adding -to (or -so) , nom. -tus (or -sus) , to the verb-stem. Some verbs change final e of the present stem to short i in the participial stem ; others drop the stem vowel altogether. Many verbs of this conjugation have no participial stem. EXAMPI.ES. Pres. Indicative. Present Stem. Perfect Stem. Part. Stem. deleo, destroij. dele- delevi- deleto- moneo, advise. mone- monui- monito- doceo, teach. doce- docui- docto- maneo, remain. mane- mansi- manso- haereo, stick. haere- haesi- haeso- sileo, be silent. timeo,/ear. sile- time- silui- timui- 1. The tenses of the indicative mode, formed from the participial stem, are inflected as follows : — 138 lli:«T STEi'S IN LATIN. PARTIAL PARADIGM. [The analysis of the tenses formed from the participial stem in the second conjugation is the same as in the first conjugation.] rjCKFECT AND AOUIST. 1 Person. Formation. Example. English. Perfect. Aorist. Sine/.. 1 Verb-stem — -f tus sum moiiitus sum / Itace -1 1 ivas Thou wast 2 4- tus es monitus es Thou hast ^ y. 3 + tus est monitus est lie has 4 He was '% Plur. 1 4- ti sumus moniti siimus We have We tvere 2 + ti estis moniti estis You have J5 You xvere T- 3 + ti sunt moniti sunt Theji have ' Theij were PLUrERFECT. Siiif/. 1 -1 tus eram monitus eram I had been advised. 2 -f tus eras monitus eras Thou hadst been advised. o •> -f tus erat monitus erat Tie had been advised. Plur. 1 + ti eramus moniti eramus We had been advised. 2 + ti eratis moniti eratis You had been advised. o + ti erant moniti erant Theij had been advised. Fl'TrKE rET!FECT. Sing. 1 + tus ero monitus ero I sludl have been advised. 2 -f tus eris monitus eris Thou wilt have been advised. 3 + tus erit monitus erit He ivill have been advised. Plur. 1 -f ti erimus moniti erimus We shall have been advised. 2 + ti eritis moniti eritis You ivill have been advised. 3 + ti erunt moniti erunt Theji will have been advised. VOCABULARY. fleo flere flevi fletum,^ weep. plS.ceo plScere plScui placitum,^ pleaxi. n6ceo nScere n6cul nScitum, hurt. contineo continere continui contentum,^^ hem cgnseo censere c ens HI censum/^ think. haereo haerere haesi haesum,4 stick. rideo ridere risi risum,^ laugh. SECOND CONJUGATION. 139 jiibeo jttbere jussi jusaiim,''' command. video videre vidi visum, see. timeo timere timui , fear. lateo latere latul , lie hid. Garumna, -ae, m., (/te Garonne. undique, adv., on all sides. et, coiij., and. Syn. Judico, J ud(/e ; censeo, ///i'e official opinion. EXERCISES. Translate into English : — 1. Moniti ernnt. 2. Doctus^ erat. 3. Pueri docti sunt. 4. Servi inoniti erunt. 5. rucr monitus erit. G. Undique loci iifitura Ilelvetii continentur. 7. FTlius tuns et soror inea a niagistro bono docti ernnt. 8. Roma, urbs nostra, a Romiilo rege aedifieata est. 9. Pulchra soror a fratre doce- bitur. 10. MTlites jussT sunt. 11. Aves innltae puerorum sao-ittls vulneratae sunt. Translate into Latin : — 1. The^^ have been taught, they had been taught, they will have been taught. 2. He has been advised, he had been advised, he will have been advised. 3. The boys have been taught by the master. 4. The soldieis have been wounded. 0. The soldiers have been wounded with the arrows. C. The king has been wounded by the soldier. 7. The mountain will be held by Caesar. OUESTIONS. 1. For words not given in the special vocabularies, look in the general vocabulary at the end of the book. 2. Z>// loiuj mdrrhes. Define sentence. What are the essential parts of a sentence ? Men- tion the personal endings of the present, of the imperfect, of the future indicative. LESSON XLIX. THIED CONJUGATION. PERFECT, PLUPERFECT, AND FUTURE PERFECT INDICATIVE ACTIVE. 177. The Perfect Stem of verbs of the third conjugation is i-egularly formed by adding -al to the verb-stem. KXAMPLES. Pies. Iiul. Pres. Inf. Verb-Stem. Perfect Stem. rego scribe reg-ere scrib-ere reg. 1 scrib- 1 reg + SI = regsi {see 18) = rexi scrib + si = scribsi {see 20) — scripsi THIRD CONJUGATION. 147 1. The Perfect, riuperfeet, and Future Perfect Indicative Active are inflected as follows : — PARTIAT. PARADIGM. [Tlie personal endings are the same as in tlie first and second con- jngations. Note tlie change of the characteristic vowel of the stem to short /, to long- e, and then to short e.] I'EIil'ECT AND AOKIST. Person. 1 English. Perfect. ! Aorist. Siny. 1 Perf. stem rexi / have ru hd. I ruled. 2 " + sti rexisti Thou hast ruled. Thou didst rule. o « +t rexit He has ruled. He ruled. Plar. 1 " " 4- mus reximus We have ruled. We ruled. 2 " " + stis rexistis You have ruled. You ruled. 3 ,, ^ + runt \ or re rexerunt or rexere They have ruled. They ruled. Pluperfect. Person. Formation. Example. En.irlish. Sincj. 1 Perf. stem + ram rexeram / had ruled. 2 " " 4- ras rexeras Thou hadst ruled. 8 " + rat rexerat He had ruled. Plur. 1 *' " + ramus rexeramus We had ruled. 2 " " + ratis rexeratis You had ruled. 3 " " + rant rexerant Then ^«f^ '■"^^^• Future Perfect. Sing. 1 Perf. stem + ro rexero • / shall have ruled. 2 " " + ris rexeris Thou wilt have ruled. 3 " " 4- rit rexerit He ivill have ruled. Plar. 1 " " + rimus rexerimus We will have ruled. 2 " " + ritis rexeritis You will have ruled. 3 " " -f rint rexerint They will have ruled. 178. Forniation of tlie Perfect Stem. 1. The perfect stem of the third conjugation is regularly formed by adding -si to the verb-stem. 148 FIRST STErS IN LATIN. 2. Some verbs have a reduplicated perfect; ^^e., the first consonant of the word is prefixed with a vowel, generally e. Obs. 1 . Compound verbs oiiiit the reduplication, except do, sto, disco, and posco, sometimes curro. EXAMPLE. Present. Pres. Inf. Perfect. Participle. c^AOffall. c^dgre c6cidi casum Obs. 2. The vowel of the stem is often weakened to i, and before r to e ; in the example above a is weakened to i. Obs. 3. Sometimes the reduplication has been lost. EXAMPLE. findo, sjilit. findgre fidi (which stands for fifidi). 3. The stem vowel is sometimes lengthened. EXAMPLES. Sgo, do, SgSre egi 6mo, but/, gmdre emi 4. The perfect stem has sometimes the same form as the present stem, with i added. EXAMPLES. ru-o ru-6re rul vert-o vert-6re verti 5. Sometimes the vowel of the stem is transposed and lengthened. EXAMPLE. cer-no cer-ngre cre-vi cre-tum 6. Stems of the third conjugation, like those of the third declension, are divided, according to tlieir final consonant, into : — I. Labial Stems, p, h, m : as, carp-o, pluck, carp-si; scrib-o, ?v}'ite, scrip-si; pr6m-o, pluck, pres-si. II. Dextal Stems, t, d, s, n, (s) : as, mit-to, ser^d, mi-si; claud-o, clau-si; ced-o, ces-si. III. Lingual Stems, r, I: as, gSr-o, ges-si; vel-lo, tear, vel-li (vulsT). i\. Guttural Stems, c, y) arroivs. VOCABULARY. Present. PuEs. Inf. Perfect. Participle. cingo cingSre cinxi cinctum, surround. frango frangere fregi fractum, Itreak. occido occidgre occidi occisum, kill. divide divldgre dlV13l divisum, divide. diligo diliggre dilexi dllectum, love. deligo deliggre delegi delectum, select. defendo defendgre defend! defensum, defend. vinco vincSre VlCl victum, conquer. VIVO vivgre vixi vie turn, live. laedo laedgre laesT laesum, hurt. flecto flectere flexi flexum, lend. mergo mergere mersi mersum, dip. OiiS. Form the perfect of each verb, and account for the phonic changes. THIIID CONJUGATION. 153 EXERCISES. Translate into English : — 1. Deligitnr. 2. Cingitur. 3. Puer ah omnibus dllige- batur. 4. Urbs muro^ cingitnr. 5. Urbs a- civibus defen- ditur. G. Oranes vincentur. 7. Tells occideiis. 8. A Cacsare ducebamur. 9. Non ducebaminl. 10. Bella gere- bantur. 11. Cum GermanTs pugnant. 12. Cum deeima legione venit. 13. Titus cum equitibus mittitur. Translate into Latin : — 1. They are (being) selected. 2. We are conquered, we were conquered, we shall be conquered. 3. The city will be surrounded by a wall. 4. The soldiers will be conquered by the enemy. 5. The soldiers will be killed with the weapons. NOTES AND QUESTIONS. 1. Why ablative ? 2. Why is the preposition expressed 1 • What are the personal endings of the present passive voice ? What are the future endings of this conjugation 1 What verbs have a passive voice ? What is meant by voice in grammar 1 LESSON LI. THIED CONJUGATION. PERFECT, PLUPERFECT, AND FUTURE PERFECT INDICATIVE PASSIVE. -TWO ACCUSATIVES WITH ONE VERB. 182. The Participial Stem of verbs of the third conjuga- tion is formed by adding -to-, nom. -tus (or -so-, nom. -sus), to the verb-stem. EX AMPLE. Present. Verb-Stem. Perf. Stem. Tart. Stem. NOM. dico, say. dic- dixi- dicto- dictus 154 FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. 1. The Perfect, Pluperfect, and Future Perfect Indicative Passive are inflected as follows : — PARTIAL PARADIGM. [The personal endings, tense signs, and formation, are the same as in the first and second conjugations.] Perfect and Aokist. Person. Formation. Fxample. English. Perfect. Aorist. Sing. 1 Verb-stem — + tus sum rectus sum / Jinve \ / icas ruled. 2 + tus es rectus es Thou Iiast S~ Thou wast ruled. 3 + tus est rectus est He has He was ruled. Plur. 1 + ti sumus recti sumus We have s: We icere ruled. 2 + ti estis recti estis You have a. You were rided. •> -f ti sunt recti sunt Titcji have . They were ruled. Pluperfect. Person. S'nuj. 1 Formation. Example. EnjE^lish. Verb- St. -f tus ei^m rectus eram / had been ruled. 2 " + tus eras rectus eras Thou hadst been ruled. :) *• + tus erat rectus erat He had been ruled. Phn: 1 " 4- ti eramus recti eramus We had been ruled. 2 -f- ti eratis recti eratis You had been ruled. - " -f ti erant recti erant Theij had been ruled. Fi;tl:ue Perfect. Simj. 1 Verb-st. + tus ero rectus ero I sh(dl have been ruUd . 2 + tus eris rectus eris Thou wilt have been ruled. 3 " 4" tus erit rectus erit He will have been ruled. Phir. 1 " -f ti erimus recti erimus We shall have been ruled. 2 + ti eritis recti eritis You will have been ruled. 3 " + ti erunt recti erunt They ivill huve been ruled. 183. Euphonic changes : — I. g, qu, h become c before t. EXAMPI.ES. M. F. rSgo, ride, part, stem (regtus) - rectus, -a, cSquo, cool; " (coqutus) — coctus, -a, trSho, draw, " (trShtus) — tractus, -a, N. -um -um -um THIKD CONJUGATION. 155 II. h becomes }> before t. EXAMPLES. M. F. N • scribo, write, partic. stem (scrlbtus) = scriptus, -a, -urn nubo, marry, " " (nubtus) =■■ nuptus, -a, -urn III. d and t are dropped before the t of the participial stem, which is then changed to s. EXAMPLES. laedo, injure, partic. stem (laedtus) =^ laesus, -a, -urn claudo, shut, " " (claudtus)= clausus, -a, -urn fleoto. lend, '' " | ^^f,^/ \ " flexus. -a. -um IV. In some cases, but rarely, tlie d or t of the stem becomes s. EXAMPLES. cedo, yield, partic. stem (cedtiis) — cessus, -a, -um mitto, send, " " (mittus) — missus, -a, -um V. h is sometimes assimilated, and tt becomes ss or s. EXAMPLE. jiibeo,comwan(/, partic. st. (jtibtus = jut-tus) — jussus, -a, -um VI. Verbs with present stem ending- in 11^ rr^ change the participial suffix -t- to -s-, and drop I or r of the stem. EXAMPLES. fallo, deceive, partic. st. (falltus — falsus) — falsus, -a, -um curro, run, " (currtus — cur-sus) - cursus, -a, -um Note 1. The verb-stem isfal-; fallo = falio (faljo) ; cur-, curio (cur jo). Note 2. In enumerating the principal parts of the verb, we give the neuter of the perfect participle. EXAMPLES. Pres. Ind. Pres. Inf. Perf. Ind. Participle. dico dic-gre dixi dictum 156 FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. Learn the principal parts of the following verbs, and account for the euphonic changes : — vivo vivere vixi victum, live. duco ducere duxi ductum, lead. divide dividere divisi divisum, divide. liido ludere lusi lusum, plai/. cano cangre cecini , sing. lego Idggre legi lectum, read. 34. Two A ccusatives with one Vei •b. KXAMPLES. 1. Caesarem sententiam rdgavit, he asked Coisar (his) opinion. 2. Caesar Aeduos fiumentum flagitavit, Ccesar demanded corn of the yEdiii. 3. Titus regem sermoueni celavit, Titus concealed the conversa- tion from the king. 4. Caesar sententiam a constile rdgatus est, Cmsar ims asked his opinion by the corisid. 5. pacem ab Romanis pStit, he seeks peace from the Romans. Ors. Note that in Exs. 1, 2, and 3 the verbs of asking, demand- ing, concealing, are in the active voice, and are followed by two accusatives, one of the person, the other of the thing. Tn Ex. 4 the verl) of asking is in the" passive voice, and the accusative of the person in the active becomes the subject in the passive. In Ex. 5 the person after a V(n-b of asking (pStit) is piit in the ablative with a preposition. The idiom is ex})ressed in the following rule : — TWO ACCUSATIVES.— PERSON AND THING. 185. Rule XIX. — Verbs of asking, demanding, teaching f and concealing take two accusatives, one of the person and the other of the thinj?. 1. The accusative of the thing may remain with the passive voice of verbs of teaching, and also with r6go. 2. PSto and postiilo generally take the accusative of the thing and the ablative of the person with a or ab ; quaero, the accusative of the thing and the ablative of the person with e, ex, a, ab, or de. Syn. Pgto, to leg, r6go, to ask, are general terms for either a request or a demand ; postiilo, to demand as a right ; flagito, to de- mand with earnestness ; posco, to ask as a right, as a price, or salary. rOUllTlI CONJUGATION. 157 EXERCISES. Translate into English : — 1. DuctT erant, missus est, cincti sunt. 2. Victi sunt. 3. Puerl a magistro munitT erant. 4. Castra vallo eincla' sunt. 5. Exercitus UOnianus ab llelvetiis sub jugum missus est. G. Nuntil ad exercitum nostrum missi sunt. 7. Kex et regina omnibus^ cari^ fuerunt. 8. Caesar onniia consilia Aeduos eelat. 9. Consul Caesareni seutentiam rogabat. Translate into Latin : — 1. They have been led, they have been sent. 2. He has been sent, we have been sent, he had been sent. 3. You shall have been sent. 4. The city has been surrounded by a wall. 5. The Helvetians have been sent. 6. We have been conquered, we had been conquered, we shall have been conquered. 7. He was sent, he will be sent, he has been sent, he had been sent. 8. We shall not be conquered by the enemy. 9. They asked Titus his opinion. 10. Caesar concealed his plans from the Helvetians. 11. The Helvetians seek peace from Ca^^sar. NOTES AND le. audio audls audit audimus auditis audiunt li^iiglish. I hear. Thou heurcst. lie hears. We hear. You hear. The II hear. Imperfect. Siwj. 1 I Pr Plur. 1 2 3 es. stem + bam " + bas " + bat " + bamus " + batis " + bant audiebam audiebas audiebat audiebamus audiebatis audiebant / icas hearing. Thou least hearing. He teas hearing. We ivere hearing. You ivere hearing. Thei) icere hearing Future. Sing. 1 Pres, ste 2 « ii 3 (( (( Plur. 1 " 2 " 3 " + s + 1 + mus + tis + nt audiam audies audiet audiemus audietis audient / shall or will hear. Thou icilt hear. lie will hear. We shall or will heai You will hear. Then will hear. 187. Two Accusatives of the Same Person. EXAMPLES. 1. CaesSrem consiilem creaverunt, they elected Ccesar consul. •2. consules creantur Caesar et Servilius, Caesar and Servilius are elected consuls. 3. Romiilus urbem Romam vdcavit, Romulus called the city Rome. 4. urbs Roma a Ronafllo vocata est. FOURTH CONJUGATION. 159 ()i?s. In the foregoing examples, note that the verbs of electing, calling, choosing, making, etc., are followed by two accusatives of the same person or thing ; one accusative is the direct object of the verb, and the other is an essential part of the predicate, and is called the Pkkdicate Accusative. (In Exs. 2 and 4 consiiles and Roma are predicate nondnatives after creantur and vdcata est.) The idiom is expressed in the following rule : — TWO ACCUSATIVES OF THE SAME PERSON OR THING. 188. Rule XX. — Verbs of natning, calling , choos- ing, niaJi-ing, reclioning, regarding, esfeenting, shoiv- ing, and the like, take two accusatives of the same person or thing-. VOCABULARY. Foi'm tlie infinitives of the following verbs of the fourth conjugation : — 1. mrniio, fortifg. 4. punio, punish. 2. vSnio, come. 5. dormio, sleep. 3. griidio, educate. 6. finio,Jinish. EXERCISES. Translate into English : — 1. Audimns, aiuliemus. 2. Eriidit, erudient. 3. Munitis, munies. 4. MTlites imperatorem audiunt. 5. Pummns pue- rum. G. MTlites castra muniunt. 7. Puer dormiebat. 8. Puniemns. 9. Caesar in Galliam citeriorem venit. 10. Roman! suam^ urbem Romam appellaverunt. 11. Oppi- dum appellant Genavam. 12. Caesar oppidum virtute^ suorum militum expugnavit. Translate into Latin : — 1. They hear, they were hearing, they will hear. 2. He fortifies the town. 3. They will punish the boys. 4. He sleeps, 3'ou sleep, they sleep. 5. The Romans call their city Rome. 6. The soldiers hear. 7. Wa come. 8. They punish the boy. 1). The soldiers are fortifying their-' camp. 10. He will punish the boy. 11. The soldiers wore fortify- ing their camp. 160 FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. NOTES AND QUESTIONS. 1. When suus refers to a noun in tlie plural, as is the case in this sentence, render it their) when it refers to a noun in the singular, render it his, her, or its. 2. By means of, etc. Why ablative ? 3. Their can be omitted in translating. What are the personal endings of the present ? What is the present stem of audio ? What is a predicate accusative ? How many con- jugations ? How do you distinguish each? What is the prc^eent stem of each 1 How found ? LESSON LIII. rOUKTH CONJUGATION. PERFECT, PLUPERFECT, AND FUTURE PERFECT ACTIVE. - THE SUBJECTIVE AND THE OBJECTIVE GENITIVE. 189. The Perfect Stem of a ref^iilar verb of the fourth conjugation is formed by adding -vl to the present stem. EXAMPLE. Present. Tres. Stem. Terf. Stem. PEUFEeT. audio, hear. audi- audivi- audivi 1 . The Perfect, Pluperfect, and Future Perfect Indicative Active are inflected as follows : — PARTIAL PARADIGM. [The personal endings, the tense signs, the formation, and the changes of the characteristic vowel of the stem are the same as in the first, second, and third conjugations.] Peri EOT and Aorist. Person. Forination. Example. EngH-sh. Perfect. Aorist. Sin(j. 1 2 3 Plar. 1 2 3 Perf. stem + sti " +t + mus + stis ., ( + runt ( or re audivi audivisti audivit audivimus audivistis audiverunt or audivere / have heard. Thou hast heard. He has heard. We have heard. Yon leave heard. Then fi<^*^^ heard. / heard. Thou didst hear. He heard. We heard. You heard. Then heard. FOURTH COKJUGATION. 161 Pi.T: PERFECT. Person. Formation. Example. English. Sing. 1 2 3 Plur. 1 2 3 Perf. stem + ram " " + ras " + rat " " + ramus " " + ratis " '' 4- rant audiveram audiveras audiverat audiveramus audiveratis audiverant I had heard. Thou hadst heard. He had heard. We had heard. You had heard. They had heard. Future Perfect. Sing. 1 2 3 Plur. 1 2 3 Perf. stem + ero erit erimus eritis " " erunt audivero audiveris audiverit audiverimus audiveritis audiverint I shall have heard. Thou wilt have heard. He will have heard. We will have heard. You will have heard. They ivill have heard. 2. Synopsis of Rules for Forming the Perfect Stem : — 1. Most Vowel Stems (55. 3) form the perfect stem by adding -VI (-ui) to the characteristic vowel of the present stem : as, Smo, Smavl; deleo, delevi; m6neo, mdnui; audio, audivi. 2. Most Consonant Stems form the perfect stem by adding -si to the verb-stem : as, duco, duxi ; tggo, texl. 3. Many Labial and Lingual Stems, and a few others, form the perfect stem by adding -ul to the verb-stem : as, d6mo, d6mui ; aio, aiui; tgneo, tgnui. 4. A few Consonant Stems form the perfect stem simply by adding -I to the verb-stem (this is the case when the stem vowel is long by nature or by position) : as, accendo, accendi ; verto, verti ; pr§-hendo, pr6-hendi. 5. The Perfect Stem is sometimes formed by reduplication and by adding -i to the verb-stem (the stem vowel a is generally weak- ened to i, but before ?- to e) : as, c^do, cgcidi ; tondeo, tStondi ; c^no, c6cini ; pSrio, p6p6ri. 6. Some verbs lengthen the stem vowel and add -i to form the perfect (that is, the reduplication disappears and the vowel is lengthened) : as, Iggo (Ig-ligi = 16-ig-i = legi), leg! ; f^cio (fg-fic-i r= fg-ic-1 = feci), feci ; cSpio, cepi ; Sgo, egi. Obs. The V is often dropped and the syllable contracted; as, Sma(v)grat — Smarat, audi(v)grat = audigrat. 162 FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. 190. Subjective, Possessive, and Objective Genitives. EXAMPLES. 1. oppidum Remorum, a town of (i.e., belonging to) the Remi. 2. Divitiaci stiidium, the zeal of Divitiacus (i.e., the zeal that Divitiacus manifests'). 3. amor gloriae, love of glory (i.e., a desire to obtain glory). 4. timor hostium crescit, fear of the enemy (i.e., fear towards the enemy, not fear experienced by the enemy) increases. Obs. In the first example, note that the genitive designates the possessor ; it is called the possessive genitive. In Ex. 2 the genitive designates the subject or agent of the action or feeling ; it is called the subjective genitive. In Exs. 3 and 4 the genitive designates the object towards which the action or feeling is directed ; it is called the objective genitive. Hence the qualifying genitive may be — 1. A Possessive Genitive, denoting the author or the possessor ; as, Caes^is provincia, CcBsar's province. 2. A Sub.jective Genitive, denoting the subject or agent of the action or feeling; as, ^mor Del, the love of God (i.e., the love which He feels). 3. An Objective Genitive, denoting the object of the action or feeling ; as, ^mor Dei, love to (i.e., towards) God. EXERCISES. Translate into English : — 1. Punivit, puiiTverat, puniverit. 2. Audlveram, aud!- vero. 3. Mllites castra muniverant. 4. Punlvimus puerum. 5. EriidTvi, eriidivit, erudivTstT, erudlveram. 6. Pueri^ librum tenes. 7. Legatus consilia Gallorum enuntiat. Translate into Latin : — 1. We have heard, we heard, we had heard, 'we shall have heard. 2. They have punished, they had punished, they will have punished. 3. He has slept. 4. We fortify, we have fortified, we had fortified, we shall have fortified. NOTES AND QUESTIONS. 1. Why genitive ? What is meant by the possessive genitive ? Give the rule for the genitive after nouns. What is the objective genitive ? How is the perfect stem of verbs of the fourth conjugation formed ? FOURTH CONJUGATIOISr. 163 LESSON LIV. FOURTH CONJUGATION. PRESENT, IMPERFECT, AND FUTURE INDICATIVE PASSIVE.- DATIVE WITH INTRANSITIVE VERBS. 191. The Present, Imperfect, and Future Indicative Pas- sive are inflected as follows : — PARTIAL PARADIGM. [The personal endings and tense signs are the same as in the first and second conjugations, except in the future, when the characteristic vowel of the stem becomes a or e.] Present Passive. Person. Formation. Example. English. Siny. 1 2 8 Plur. 1 Pres. stem + or " + ris or re " + tur " + mur " + mini " + imtur re audior audiris auditur audimur audimini audiuntur / am (being) heard. Thou art heard. He is heard. We are heard. You are heard. They are heard. Imperfect. Sing. 1 Pres. ste 2 « (( 3 (( (( Plur. 1 « < 2 « < 3 (( < + baris, re + batur + bamur + bamini + bantur audiebar audiebaris, -re audiebatur audiebamur audiebamin! audiebantur I teas {being) heard. Thou wast heard. He was heard. We ivere heard. You ivere heard. They were heard. Future. Sing. Plur. 1 2 3 Pres. stem -f r 4- ris or re + tur + mur + mini + ntur audiar audieris, -re audietur audiemur audiemini audientur / shall be heard. Thou wilt be heard. He will be heard. We shall be heard. You will be heard. They will be heard. 164 FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. 192. Dative with Intransitive Verbs. EXAMPI.ES. 1. haec sententia pugro plS.cet, ilia displicet, this opinion pleases the boy, that disjjleases (Jiini). 2. militis est diici parere, it is the duty of a soldier to obey the leader. 3. f ortuna f Svet f ortibus, fortune favors the brave. Obs. We have alread}' learned that the dative is the case of the indirect object, and is used to express the person or thing to or for whom or which anything is done. In the sentence, / send the book to the boy, boy in Latin must be in the dative, as mitto librum pugro ; but in the sentence Ccesar comes to the city, city in Latin is not dative, — a preposition must be used, as Caesar ad urbem vgnit. In the foregoing examples, note that the verbs are intransitive ; that they signify to favor, to please, to obey, etc. ; that they are fol- lowed by the dative generally without the sign to or for. The idiom is expressed in the following rule : — DATIVE WITH INTRANSITIVE VERBS. 193. Rule XXI. — The dative of the indirect object may be used with most intransitive verbs signifying" to favor, please, trust, assist, and their contraries ; also, to believe, persuade, cormnand, obey, serve, resist, threaten, spare, pardon, be angry, 1. Some verbs which, from their signification, might be included in the foregoing lists are transitive, and take the accusative ; as, jtivo, adjtivo, to help., laedo, to injure., delecto, to delight, offendo, to offend, and jtibeo, to command. 2. Verbs compounded with sStis, b6ne, male, take the dative. EXAMPLE. illis satisfScSre, to satisfy them, lit. to do enough for them. EXERCISES. Translate into English : — 1. Muniel)antur, punieris, puniuutur. 2, AudTtur, audie- bantur, audietur. 3. Castra a Labieno^ mOniebantur. 4. Bellum a Caesare fiuiebatur. 5. Milites castra^ munie- bant. 6. Mali puerl a magistro punientur. 7. ImprobT^ a magistratibus punientur. 8. Caesar bellum fhiit. 9, Bellum FOURTH CONJUGATION. 165 a Caesare finitur. 10. Farce puero. 11. Probus'^ invidet nemini.'' 12. Maledicimus malls. ^ Translate into Latin : — 1. He will be heard, they will be heard, they were (})eing) heard, they are (being) heard. 2. The soldiers fortify the camp. 3. The camp is fortified by the soldiers. 4. The war is (being) finished, the war will be finished, the wars were (being) finished. 5. The boys are (being) punished, the boys will be punished, the boys were (being) punished by the master. 6. The soldiers obey the leader. NOTES AND QUESTIONS. 1. See 172. 2. See 80. 2. 3. Used as a noun ; see 83. 4. 4. The genitive and ablative of nuUus are used instead of neminis and nemine. What is the passive voiee 1 In what case is the agent after a verb in the passive voice '? What are the principal parts of a verb in the passive voice 1 LESSON LV. rOUETH CONJUGATION. PERFECT, PLUPERFECT, AND FUTURE PERFECT PASSIVE. 194. The Participial Stem of the fourth conjugation is formed by adding -io, nom. -tus (or -so, nom. -sus), to the present stem. EXAMPI.E. Pres. Ind. audio, hear. Pres. Stem. audi- Perf. Stem. audivi- Partic. Stem. audito- Present. audio PRINCIPAI. PARTS. ACTIVE VOICE. Pres. Inf. Perfect. audire audivi (Neuter of) Perf. Partic. auditum PASSIVE VOICE. Pres. Ind. Pres. Inf. Perfect. audior audlrl auditus, -a, -um sum 166 FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. 1. The Perfect, Pluperfect, and Future Perfect Indicative Passive are all formed by adding to the perfect participle the present, imperfect, and future tenses of the verb sum. PARTIAl, PARADIGM. [The personal endings, tense signs, the changes of the characteristic vowel of the stem, and the formation, are tlie same as in the other conjugations.] Perfect and Aorist Passive. Person. Formation. Example. English. 1 rerfect. Aorist. Sing. 1 Verb-stem — + tus sum auditus sum / have -] / icas heard. 2 + tus es auditus es Thou hast ^ Thou wast heard. 3 + tus est auditus est Re has s He was heard. Plur. 1 + ti siimus auditi sumus We have We were heard. 2 + ti estis auditi estis You have a. You were heard. 3 + ti sunt auditi sunt They have . They were heard. Pluperfect Passive. Person. Formation. Example. English. Sincf. 1 Verb-stem — -f tus eram auditus eram' I had been heard. 2 -f tus eras auditus eras Thou hadst been heard. 3 -f tus erat auditus erat He had been heard. Plur. 1 + ti eramus auditi eramus We had been heard. 2 4- ti eratis auditi eratis You had been heard. 3 + ti erant auditi erant They had been heard. Future Perfect Passive. Sing. 1 + tus ero auditus ero I shall have been heard. 2 + tus eris auditus eris Thou wilt have been heard. 3 + tus erit auditus erit He ivill have been heard. Plur. 1 + ti erimus auditi erimus We shall have been heard. 2 + ti eritis auditi eritis You will have been heard. 3 -f ti erunt auditi erunt They ivill have been heard. 2. The Participial Stem of verbs of all four conjugations is generall}^ formed b}' adding -to (euphonically -so) , nom. -tus (or -sus) , to the present stem. FOUKTH CONJUGATION. 167 195. Accusative and Ablative of Time. EXAMPLES. 1. primo anno occisus est, he was killed in the first year. 2. multos annos m^iebit, he will 7'emain many years. Obs. In Ex. 1 note that anno answers the question when ? within what time? In Ex. 2 annos answers the question how long? This Latin idiom is expressed in the following rule : — ACCUSATIVE AND ABLATIVE OF TIME. 196. Rule XXII. — Time when^ or within which, is put in the ablative ; time hoiv long, in the accusative. 1. The use of the preposition in with the ablative, and per with the accusative, in order to express the time with greater precision, is common. EXAMPI.ES. 1. in diebus proximis decern, within the next ten days. 2. per annos vigintT certatum. est, the war was luaged for twenty years. EXERCISES. Translate into English : — 1. Eruditi sunt. 2. Punitus erat. 3. Aiiditi erant. 4. Puer punitus est. 5. Puer a magistro punitus erat. 6. Bellum finitum erit. 7. Castra a Caesare munita erant. 8. Proxima nocte castra movit. 9. Solis occasu suas copias Ariovistus in castra reduxit. 10. Multas horas pugnave- runt. 11. Multos annos bellum gerebant. Translate into Latin : — 1. He has been heard, he had been heard, he shall have been heard. 2. They hear the boy. 3. The teacher pun- ishes the boy. 4. The boy has been punished by the teacher. 5. The wars will have been finished. 6. Caesar fortifies the camp. 7. The camp has been fortified by Caesar. 8. On the next daj^ he fortifies the camp. 9. The soldiers have fought many hours. 10. He has lived many years. 168 FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. LESSON LVL THIED OONJUaATION.-YEEBS IN -to, 197. A few verbs of the third conjugation ending in -lo, 'tor (passive), are inflected in the tenses formed from the present stem Uke the fourth conjugation wherever the fourth has i followed by a vowel. PAKTIAI. ] PARADIGM. Principal Parts. capio capere cepi captum capior capi captus sum Active. Present. Passive. Indicative. Subjunctive. Indicative. Subjunctive. capio capiam capior capiar capis capias caperis (re) capiaris (re) capit capiat capitur capiatur caplmus capiamus c&pimur capiamur c&pitia c&piatis ca,pimini capiamini c&piunt c&piant capiuntur capiantur Imperfect. capiebam capSrem capiebar caperer Put CRE. capiam capiemus capiar capiemur capie3 capietis capieris (re) capiemini capiet capient capietur capientur Perf. cepi ceperim captus sum captus sim Plup. ceperam cepissein captus eram captus essem P.P. cepero captus ero Imp. cape capite capere capimini capito capitote capitor capito capiunto capitor capiuntor Inf. c&pere cepisse capi captus esse Put. capturus esse captum iri Part, capiens capturus captus capiendus Ger. capiendi, -do, -dun 1 Sup. captum, captu THIRD CONJUGATIOK. 169 VOCABUI.AKY. ciipio ctipgre ciipivi ciipitum, desire. fScio fScgre feci factum, make, do. f6dio fSdgre fodi fossum, dig. fiigio fiiggre fugl fiigitum,y?ee. jScio jScgre jeci j actum, throw, hurl. pSrio pSrgre pgpgri partum, hririg forth. quStio quStgre (no perf .) quassum, shake. rSpio rSpgre r^pui rap turn, seize. s&pio sSpgre sSpivi , taste. EXERCISES. Translate into English : — 1. Foginnt, fugiebant, fugient, fugiant. 2. Jacit, jacie- bat, jaciet, jaciat. 3. Capiraur, capiebamur, capiemur, capiamur. 4. Milites arma capiunt. 5. Arma a mllitibus capiuntur. 6. Vir fossam fodit. 7. Fossa a viro foditur. 8. Milites lapides ac tela comciebant.^ 9. Lapides ac tela a militibus coujecta erant. 10. Ffigite, milites, in urbem. NOTES AND QUESTIONS. 1. Written also conjiciebant. When does a verb in -io keep the il What is the verb-stem of cSpio'? Alls. The verb-stem of c^pio is cap-; the present stem is formed by adding -i- {= jo = io) to the verb-stem. Inflect the present of c^pio; of j^cio. The compounds of jacio are written and pro- nounced as follows : (ex -f jScio) = eicio, pronounced as if written e-yicio; so also abicio (= ab + jScio) = abyicio, etc. LESSON LVII. USES OF THE DATIVE. DATIVE OF INTEREST.- DATIVE OF PURPOSE. Obs. We have learned that the dative may be used v^^ith transi- tive or intransitive verbs ; the datives with these verbs are essential to the completion of the sense, and are usually so closely connected with their verbs that they could not be omitted. The dative is 170 FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. often merely added to a sentence, which would make complete sense without it, for the purpose of designating the person or thing interested in the action of the verb, or affected by it. This use of the dative, called dative of interest, may be stated as follows : — 198. Dative of Interest. 1. The dative of advantage and disadvantage. 2. The dative of possessor. 3. The dative of apparent agent with perfect participles and gerundives (this dative designates the person interested in doing the action, and not merely the agent). 4. The dative of reference (this dative depends not on a single word, but is loosely connected with the whole predicate, and merely designates the person or thing with reference to whom or which the action is done). 5. The dative used where the English idiom would lead us to expect the genitive. 6. The dative of purpose or end, denoting the object or end for which something is or is done. DATIVE OF PURPOSE OR END. 199. Rule XXIII. — The dative is used with sum and a few other verbs to denote the purpose or end, usually with another dative of the person or thing affected or interested. EXAMPLES. 1. ddmuB ddminis aedificata est, non muribus, a house is built for its owners, not for the mice. (See 198. 1.) 2. mihi est amicus, / have a friend, lit. there is a friend to me (emphasizes the fact of possession; see 198. 2). 3. virtus nobis colenda est, we have virtue to cultivate. (198. 3.) 4. tggimenta gSleis milites f^cSre jtlbet, he orders the soldiers to make coverings for their helmets. GSlels depends on tSgi- menta f^cSre rather than on f&cgre alone. (See 198. 4.) 5. legati Caes&rl ad pgdes proiciunt, the ambassadors threw themselves at Ccesar's feet, lit. to Ccesar at his feet. (198. 5.) 6. sanavit mihi fHium, he cured my son, out of regard to me ; sanavit filium meum, he cured my son, not caring whose son. (See 198. 5.) PREPOSITIONS. 171 7. magno usui nostris fuit, it was of great service to our men. (See 198. G.) 8. tertiam 5ciem nostris subsidio misit, he sent the third line as a relief to our men. (See 198. 6.) Obs. Note that the dative of purpose takes the place of the complement, i.e., it is a predicate dative. The two datives {purpose with another dative) occur after only a few verbs, such as esse and verbs of giving, coming, se7iding, leaving, and a few others. EXERCISES. Translate into English : — 1. Non scholae, sed vitae discimus. 2. Virtutcs liomi- nibus decori gloriaeque sunt. 3. Caesar milites castris praesidio relinquit. 4. Legiones praesidio impedlmentis erant. 5. Legatus equitatum auxilio Caesari miserat. 6. Caesar tertiam aciem nostris subsidio mIsit. Translate into Latin : — 1. Caesar sent the cavalry as an aid to the soldiers. 2. He sent the third line for a protection to the baggage. 3. Do not trust fortune. 4. He gave the book to (his) friend. 5. Caesar did not trust the Gauls. 6. The Gauls desire a revolution. LESSON LVIIL PEEPOSITIONS. 200. Prepositions show the Relation between a Noun or Pronoun and some other word. 1. Twenty-six prepositions are followed by the accusative : 1. ad, to, towards, at (opposite of 5. circa, -um, -iter, around, about ab). (circiter is used chiefly with 2. adversus, -um, against, towards. numerals ) . 3. ante, before. 6. cis, citra, on this side. 4. apud (chiefly of persons), near, 7. contra, against. at, with, at the house of, in the 8. erga, towards (usually of writings of. friendly relations). 172 FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. 9. extra, outside, beyond. 19, praeter, past, besides. 10. infra, below, under. 20. prope, near. 11. inter, between, among. 21. propter, on account of. 12. intra, within. 22, secundum, following, after, ac- 13. juxta, next to. cording to. 14. ob, /or, on account of. 23. supra, above. 15. penes, in the power of 24. trans, across, on the other side. 16. per, through, by the aid of. 25. ultra, beyond. 17. pone, behind. 26. versus, towards (placed after 18. post, behind, after, since. noun). 2. Ten prepositions are followed by the ablative : — 1. a, ab, abs, from, after, by. 6. e, ex, out of, from. 2. absque, but, for, loithout (rare 7. prae, before, in comparison ivith. in classic authors), 8. pro, before, for, instead of 3. coram, in presence of. 9. sine, without. 4. cum, with. 10. tenus, uj) to, as far as (some- 5. die,down from, from, concerning. times with genitive), 3. The following four prepositions are followed by the accusative when motion to a jjlace is implied ; by the ablative when rest in a ]}lace is implied : — in, denoting motion to a place, into with accusative ; rest in a place, IN with ablative, sub, denoting motion to a place, under with accusative ; rest in a place, UNDER with ablative, super, denoting motion to a place, above with accusative ; rest in a place, above with ablative. supter (subter), denoting motion to a place, under with accusa- tive ; rest in a place, under with ablative. Obs. 1, TSnus (with abl.), like versus (with ace), is placed after its case ; and cum is annexed to the ablative of the personal and relative pronouns. Obs. 2. A and § are used before consonants ; ab and ex before vowels and consonants. 201. The Use of Prepositions. We have learned (81. n. 2) that a preposition with its object is a prepositional phrase (or adjunct). Such a phrase enables us to ex- \ PREPOSITIONS. 173 press an idea more distinctly : as, CcEsar came there ; if we substi- tute into Gaul for there, the sentence reads Ccesar came into Gaul, expressing the thought with greater precision than with the adverb alone. The preposition with its object, into Gaul, or in Qalliam, is a phrase modifying the verb. The pupil should gradually commit the lists of prepositions to memory. 202. Dative with Verbs Compounded with a Preposition. EXAMPLES. 1. dux suis militibus adgrat, the leader was assisting his soldiers. 2. Caesar Galliae praefuit, Ccesar ruled over Gaid. 3. Caesar interfuit pugnae, Ccesar was present in the battle. Obs. Verbs compounded with certain prepositions govern the dative, when they acquire a meaning from the preposition which calls for the dative. When the simple verb is transitive, the com- pound may take both the dative and the accusative : as, junggre, to join, takes the accusative ; but adjunggre, to join to, takes the dative also ; when the verb is intransitive, it takes the dative only. Hence the following rule : — DATIVE VTITH COMPOUNDS. 203. Rule XXIV. — The dative of the indirect object is used with many verbs compounded with adf ante, con, in, inter, oh, post, pvae, pro, suh^ and super, and sometimes circum, VOCABULARY. Aquitlnia, f., Aquitania, a province in Southern Gaul. Pyrenaei, -orum, m. pl., the Pyrenees. pertineo, pertinere, pertinui, sti-etch. specto, spectare, spectavi, spectatum, look at. septentriones, -onum, m., the north. divido, dividgre, divisi, divisum, separate, divide. dives, -itis, rich. inc61o, -c616re, -c61uV , inhabit, dwell. contendo, contendere, contend!, contentum, contend, hasten. pervgnio, pervenire, pervgni, perventum, arrive at. 174 FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. EXERCISES. Translate into English : — 1. Aquitania a Garumna flumine^ ad Pyrenaeos pertmet. 2. Apud Helvetios nobilissimus et ditissimus fuit Orgetorix. 3. Gallos ab Aquitanis Garumna flumeu dividit. 4. Ger- man! trans Rhenum incolunt. 5. Spectat inter occasum solis et septentriones Aquitania."* 6. Caesar hiberms Labi- enum praeposuit. 7. Belgae ad inferiorem partem fluminis Rheni pertinent. 8. Caesar in Italiam magnis itineribus^ contendit. 9. Apud^ Ciceronem legimus. 10. Milites omnes in oppidum irrumpunt.'' NOTES AND QUESTIONS. 1. Commit to memory tlie prepositions that always require the ahlative. 2. No participial stem, .3, How is flumine parsed ? 4. Subject of spectat. 5. Why ablative ? G. Apud is used with names of authors (instead of in, with the name of the work). Translate, we read in Cicero. 7. Most of the prepositions enumerated above are often used as pre- fixes in composition with verbs, and modify their meaning : as, pon6re, to place; post-ponSre, to place after. A few prepositions are never used alone, but always occur in composition : — amb-, round, about; as, ambire, to walk around. con-, together ; as, conjungSre, to join together. dl-, dis-, asunder ; as, disc§dSre, to depart. in-, with adjectives and verbs, means not, un-; as indoctUB, unlearned ; i-gnosco not to know. r6- or red-, back, again ; as, rSfic6re, to make again, rejit. se-, aside ; as seducSre, to lead astray. ve-, 7iot (serves to negative the positive idea in the word with whicli it is compounded, or intensifies it) ; vSgrandis, not large. When do in and sub require the accusative ? How does the use of a differ from ab ? When is to the sign of the dative ? When must it be translated by ad 1 CLASSES OF CONJUNCTIONS. 175 LESSON LIX. CLASSES OP CONJUNCTIONS. 204. Conjunctions connect words, phrases, or clauses ; they are divided into two general classes, Coordinate and Subordinate. 1. Coordinate Conjunctions connect words, phrases, or clauses of the same rank. EXAMPLES. 1. luna et stella fulgSbant, the moon and the stars were shining. 2. pugri student et paellae ludunt, the hoys study and the girls play. 3. pugri puellaeque ludunt, the hoys and the girls are playing. 4. milites atque impgrator, the soldiers and the commander too. I. Coordinate Conjunctions, 205. The Coordinate Conjunctions comprise — 1. Copulative Conjunctions, denoting union: as, et, and ; -que (enclitic), and; atque, ajid ; ac, and ; et . . . et, hoth . . . ayid ; nee, neque, and not ; neque . . . neque, nee . . . nee, neither . . . nor. EXAMPLE. His father is dead, and his friends have deserted him. 2. Disjunctive Conjunctions, denoting separation: as, aut, vel, or; aut . . . aut, vel . . . vel, either . . . or. EXAMPLE. Either his father is dead or his friends have deserted him. 3. Adversative Conjunctions, denoting opposition: as, sed, autem, verum, vero, hut ; at, but, on the contrary. EXAMPLE. His father has abandoned him, but his fiends have not. 4. Illative (inferential or conclusive) Conjunctions, denoting inference: as, ergo, igitur, itSque, therefore. EXAMPLE. His father has abandoned him, therefore his friends will. 176 FIRST STEPS IK LATIN. 5. Causal Conjunctions, denoting cause: as, nam, namque, gnim, gtgnim, for. EXAMPLE. His friends will abandon him, for his father has done so. II. Suhordinate Conjunctions, v Obs. a subordinate clause is so united to another clause (or clauses) as to be dej)endent on it ; as, the messenger departed -when he was sent. Here the messenger departed is the principal, or- lead- ing clause ; 2vhen he icas sent modifies departed, and is the subordi- nate clause. Dependent clauses perform the office of a noun, an adjective, or an adverb, and hence are called noun, adjective, or adverb clauses; they are often named from the subordinate con- junctions by which they are introduced. (See 317.) 206. The Subordinate Conjunctions comprise — 1. Temporal, denoting time; as, cum, ivhen. 2. Comparative, denoting comparison ; as, quam, v61ut, as, Just as. 3. Conditional, denoting condition ; as, si, if. 4. Concessive, denoting concession; as, licet, although. 5. Final, denoting purpose or end ; as, ut, ne, that, that not. 6. Consecutive, denoting* consequence or result; as, quin, so that not; ut, so that. 7. Causal, denoting cause ; as, quid, quod, quSniam, because. 8. Interrogative, used in asking questions : as, -ne (enclitic), nonne, num, whether ; an, or ; anndn, or not. Obs. 1. Of the three words meaning and — a. et connects independent words and clauses, as in Exs. 1, 2. b. -que (enclitic) connects words or clauses that are to be con- sidered togetlier, or as a whole, as in Ex. 3. c. atque (ad, in addition to, and que, and), and also, indicates that the second word is more important than the first, as in Ex. 4. Obs. 2. Most of the causal conjunctions are subordinate. 207. Model for Parsing a Conjunction : — In Ex. 1 et is a coordinate conjunction, and connects the com- pound subject luna and stella. Hence the following rule : — 208. Rule XXV. — Conjunctions connect words, phrases, clauses, and sentences. GENITIVES IK -lUS. 177 EXERCISES. Parse tlie conjunctions in the following sentences : — 1. Neque pater neque filius virnm laudat. 2. Hostes Italiam longe lateque vastaverant. 3. LTberi erant non magni, sed bonl piilclirique. 4. Homines sunt aut felices aut infelices. LESSON LX. GENITIVES IN -ius. IMPERATIVE MODE, ACTIVE VOICE. 209. Nine Adjectives of the First and Second Declensions have their genitive singular in -ms, and dative in -z, in all genders. Tiiese adjectives are : — alius, other. totus, loliole. alter, other (of two). nullus, 7ione. iillus, any. neuter, neither. solus, alone. unus, one. titer, which (of two). 1 . The plural of these adjectives is declined like the plural of bSnus. The singular is thus declined : — PARADIGMS. Cases. Singular. Masc. Fem. Neuter. Masc Fern. Neuter. NOM. unjis una unum liter utra utrum Gex. unius unius unius utrius utrius utrius DAT. uni uni uni utri utri utri Acc. unum iinam unum utrum utram utrum Voc. Abl. uno iina iino utro utra utro NOM. alius alia aliud alter altera alterum Gex. alius alius alius alterius alterius alterius Dat. alii alii alii alteri alteri alteri Acc. alium aliam aliud alterum alteram alterum Voc. Abl. alio alia alio altero altera altero 178 FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. 210. The Imperative Mode has two tenses, the Present and the Future. 1. The Present Imperative has only the second nerson. 2. The Future Imperative has the second and third persons. 3. The first person of the Imper. is supplied by the Subjunctive. 4. The Negative of the Imperative is ne. 211. The Present and Future Imperative Active of the Four Conjugations is inflected as follows : — First Coxjugatiox. 1 Person. Formation. Example. English. Sing. 1 2 3 Pliir. 1 2 3 Pres. stem ama Love thou. Love ye. Pres. stem + te amate 13 Siny. 1 2 3 Plur. 1 2 3 Pres. stem + to « +to amato amato Thou shalt loi'^e. He shall love. Pres. stem + tote " + nto amatote amanto Ye shall love. They shall love. Second Conjugation. .^:^r. 1 i 2 3 Plur. 1 2 3 Pres. stem mone Advise thou. Pres. stem + te monete Advise ye. u p 1 Siny. 1 2 o Plur. 1 2 3 Pres. stem + to " + to moneto moneto Thou shah advise. He shall advise. Pres. stem + tote " 4- nto monetote monento Ye shall advise. They shall advise. IMPERATIVE ACTIVE. 179 Third Conjugation. a 1 Person. Formation. Kxample. English. Sing. 1 2 3 Plur. 1 2 3 Pres. stem rege Jin/a thou. Rule yc. Pres. stem + te regite 4J "S AS'iM/7. 1 2 3 P/ur. 1 2 3 Pres. stem + to " + to regito regito TJiou shall rule. lie shall rule. Pres. stem + tote " + nto regitote regunto Ye shall rule. Tlieji shall rule. Fourth Conjugation. *S'//i(/. 1 2 o Plur. 1 2 3 Pres. stem audi Hear thou. Pres. stem + te audite Hear ye. Sing. 1 2 3 P/wr. 1 2 3 Pres. stem + to " + to audito audito TJiou sJialt hear. He shall hear. Pres. stem + tote " " + nto auditote audiunto Ye shall hear. The]] shall Jicar. Obs. 1. Note that the personal endings are the same for all four conjugations. The characteristic vowel of the stem is the same as in the infinitive active, i.e., a, e, e, i (but in the third conjugation the e changes to t, and in the future third person plural to u). Note the future third person plural of the fourth conjugation. Obs. 2. Four verbs, dico, diico, facio, fero, with their com- pounds, drop the final vowel of the imperative ; as, die, due, fae, f6r. But compounds in -ftcio retain the final e ; as, conf lee. Obs. 3. For the first person of the imperative, see p. 241; for the expression of a negative command (i.e., a prohibition), see 278. 2. 180 FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. EXERCISES. / Translate into English : — 1. Lauda, exerce, scribe, obedi. 2. Laudate, exercete, scribite, obedite. 3. Disce, puer. 4. Tacete, pneri.^ 5. Mili- tes in unum locum veniunto. G. Miles ex altera parte urbis venito. 7. Spes tota Romanos deserit. Translate into Latin : — 1. Praise thou, exercise thou, write thou, obe}' thou. 2. Praise ye, exercise ye, write ye, obey ye. 3. Call the boy. 4. Learn, boys.^ 5. Call ye, punish ye, advise ye, rule ye. 6. The soldiers of both armies are brave. 7. They come to one place. 8. Which (of the two) does he praise? NOTES AND QUESTIONS. 1. Case and rule. IIow many modes ^ Define each. Does the use of the Latin impera- tive differ from the same mode in Enghsli ? How many persons has the imperative ? How is the first person supplied '^ LESSON LXL NUMEEALS. ACCUSATIVE OF TIME AND SPACE.- ABLATIVE OF DIFFERENCE. 212. Numeral adjectives express numher ; they are divided into three principal classes : — 1. Cardixals, which answer the question Iwio many : as, unus, one. ; tres, three. 2. Ordinals, which express rank or order ; they answer the ques- tion u'hich in order, or one ofhoiv many: as, primus, j^rs^ 3. DiSTRiBUTiA^ES, whicli answer the question lioio many to each, or how many at a lime : as, bini, two each, or two hy two ; bis bina mala, twice tivo apples. 4. Numeral adverbs answer the question hon^ often : as, bis, twice. NUMERALS. 181 213. The Cardinal Numbers are indeclinable, except unus, one^ duo, two^ tres, three^ and the hundreds be- gnmir ler wi th dticenti, two liundred. The hundreds are declined like the plural of bSnus; and the first three cardinals are declined as follows : — Cases. Singular. Plural. Masc. Fern. Neuter. Masc. Fem. Neuter. NOM. unus una unum uni unae una Gen. unius unius unius unorum unarum un5rum | DAT. uni uni uni unis unis unis Ace. unum unam unum unos Unas una Voc. une una unum uni unae una Al?L. uno una uno Tims unis unis duo, two. tres, three. Masc. Fern. Neuter. Masc. & Fem. Neuter. NOM. duo duae duo tres tria Gen. duorum duarum duorum trium trium DAT. duobus duabus duobus tribus tribus Ace. duos, duo duas duo tres or tris tria Voc. duo duae duo tres tria Abl. duobus duabus duobus tribus tribus 1. In the plural, unus often has the meaning of same., only. It is also used in its ordinary sense with a plural noun of a singular meaning; as, una castra, one camp. 2. Mille is either an Adjective or a ISToun : — a. As an Adjective it is indeclinable, and limits the noun ; as, EXAMPLES. 1. mille hSmines, a tJwusand men. 2. cum bis mille h6minibus, ivith two thousand men. b. As a noun it is indeclinable in the singular; in the plural it is declined like the plural of mare (110) : milia, milium, milibus, mHia, milibus. It is followed by the genitive, unless a declined numeral comes between, as in Ex. 3 ; as, EXAMPI.ES. 1. mille hSminum, a thousand men (lit., of men). 2. tria milia h6minum, three thousand men (lit., of men). 3. tria milia trScenti militgs, three thousand three hundred soldiers. 182 FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. . / . Obs. 1. The numbers between 20 and 100 are expressed either by the larger numeral first without et, or by the smaller numeral first with et ; as, viginti unus, ticenty-one, or unus et viginti, one and twenty. The numbers above 100 always have the larger number first; as, centum et sexaginta sex, or centum sexaginta sex, one hundred and sixty-six. Obs. 2. The numerals 18, 19, 28, 29, 38, 39 have the smaller numeral first, with the preposition de to indicate subtraction ; as, duSdeviginti, undeviginti, du6detriginta, etc. 3. Distributive numerals are sometimes used to show a plural signification in those nouns, the plural forms of which liave other- wise a singular meaning; as, bina castra, two c.amj)s : binae aedgs, two houses ; binae littSrae, two epistles. Duo castra would mean two forts: duae aedes, two temples; duae littgrae, two letters (of the alphabet) . Obs. 3. The year is expressed by annus with the ordinal numerals ; as, annus millesimus octingentesimus octogesimus quintus, tJie year 1885. Obs. 4. Prior is used instead of primus when only two things are spoken of ; alter is often used for sgcundus. 214. Accusative of Time and Space. EXAMPLES. 1. Romiilus septem et triginta rggnavit annos, Romulus reigned thirty-seven years. 2. fossa p6des trScentos longa est, sex pgdSs alta, the ditch is three hundred feet lony, six feet deep. 3. castra ab urbe milia passuum octo absunt, the camp is eight miles distant from the city. Obs. Note that annos, in Ex. 1, expresses duration of time ; that p§des and milia, in Exs. 2 and 3, denote the extent of space, and are also in the accusative. The idiom is expressed in the following rule : — ACCUSATIVE OF TIME AND SPACE. 215. Rule XXVI. — Duration of time and extent of space are expressed by the accusative. 1. Distance is sometimes expressed by the ablative. (See Ablative of Difference, 302.) EXAMPLE. milibus passuum sex a Caes^ris castiis consedit, he en- camped AT THE DISTANCE of SIX. MILES /rom CcBsar's camp. NUMERALS. 183 2. Duration of time may be expressed by per with the accusative, and sometimes, though rarely, by the ablative. EXAMPLKS. 1, ludi dScem per dies facti, the games were celebrated tiikougii ten entire days. 2. pugnatum est continenter horis quinque, they fought for five hours incessantly. EXERCISES. Translate into English : — 1. Amicus mens habet duos filios et duas filias. 2. Oppi- dum Remorum ab castris octo milia passuum aberat. 3. Mons decem milia trecentos pedes altus est. 4. Erant itinera duo ; unum per Sequanos ; alterum per provinciam nostram. 5. Milia passuum tria ab urbe castra posuit. 6. Quot lioras habet unus dies? Quattuor et viginti. 7. Milibus passuum sex a Caesaris castris consedit. 8. Decem annos urbs op- pugnata est. Translate into Latin : — 1. The boy has six books. 2. The men have ten apples. 3. Caesar will come with ten vessels. 4. Caesar leads out five legions from Italy. 5. The town is six miles distant. 6. The river is sixteen feet deep. 7. The river is twenty- two feet deep. 8. The mountain is four thousand feet high. 9. Three gifts, seven hostages, five kings, a thousand soldiers, eleven friends, ten towns. 10. The first friend, the second town, the third king, the ninth queen, the tenth enemy. 11. They fought five hours. 12. He lived sixty years. NOTES AND QUESTIONS. 1. The pupil should learn the declension of unus, duo, and tres, and memorize the cardinals to one hundred, and the ordinals to twenty. 2. The adjectives longus, latus, and altus usually accompany the accusative of space. What is a cardinal number 1 Decline unus. Is unus ever used in the plural 1 Mention the ordinal numbers from first to twentieth. Decline duo. 184 FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. TABL,E OF NUMERALS.i Arabic Roman Symbols. Symbols. Cardinals. Ordinals. 1 I. unus, -a, -um, one. primus, first. 2 II. duo, -ae, -o, tvjo. secundus, second. 3 III. tres, tria, th7'ee. tertius, third. 4 IV. quattuor, four. qunvtuH, foiirth. 5 V. quTnque, " etc. qulntus, fifth, etc. 6 VI. sex sextus 7 VII. septem Septimus 8 VIII. { octo octavus 9 IX. novem nouus 10 X. decern decimus 11 XI. niidecim undecimus 12 XII. duodeeim duodecimus 13 XIII. tredecim tertius decimus 14 XIV. quattiiordecim quartus decimus 15 XV. quTndecim qulntus decimus 16 XVI. sedecim sextus decimus 17 XVII. septendecim Septimus decimus 18 XVIII. dnodevTginti duodevTccsimiis 19 XIX. undeviginti undevicesimus 20 XX. vTginti vTcesimus 21 XXI. / unus et vTginti \ or viiiintT unus primus et vTcesimus or vTcesimus prTmus 28 XXVIII. duodetrlginta duodetrTcesiinus 29 XXIX. undetrigintfi undetrTcesiraus 30 XXX. trlgintfi trTcesimus 40 XL. quadraginta quadrfigcsimus 50 L. quinqufiginta qulnquagesimus 60 LX. sexagintii sexilgesimus 70 LXX. septuaginta septuagesimus 80 LXXX. octoginta octogcsimus 90 XC. nonagiuta nonagesimus 100 c. centum ccntesimus 101 CI. / centum unus \ centum et unus centesimus primus ccntesimus et prTmus 200 cc. ducenti, -ae, -a ducentesimus 300 ccc. trecenti, -ae, -a trecentesimus 400 cccc. quadringentl, -ae, -a quadringentesimus 500 D. or 10. quiugenti, -ae, -a quTugeutesimus 600 DC. sescent!, -ae, -a sescentesimus 700 DCC. septingenti, -ae, -a septingentesimus 800 DCCC. octingentT, -ae, -a octingentesimus 900 DCCCC. nongenti, -ae, -a ndngeutesimus 1000 M. OJ' CIO. mille mTllesimus 2000 MM. duo milia (millia) bis mTllesimus 5000 100. quiuque milia quinquies mTllesimus 10,000 CCIOO. decern milia decies mTllesimus 100,000 CCCIOOO. centum milia centies mTllesimus NUMERALS. 185 TABLE OF NUMERALS. — Continued. Arabic Roman Symbols. Symbols. Distributives. Numeral Adverbs. 1 I. singulT, one a piece. semel, once. 2 11. binl, two a piece, etc. bis, twice, etc. 3 III. terni or tiiui ter 4 IV. quaterni quater 5 V. quiiiT quinquics 6 YI. 80111 sexies 7 VII. septeni septies 8 VIII. octoni octies 9 IX. iioveni novies 10 X. cleni decies 11 XI. undenT undecies 12 XII. cluodeui duodecies 13 XIII. term deni terdecies or tredecies 14 XIV. quaterni deiil quattuordecies 15 XV. quTiiT deui quindccies IG XVI. sen! deiiT sedecies 17 XVII. septeni deni septiesdecies 18 XVIII. duodevlceni duodcvicies 19 XIX. iindcviceni undevicies 20 XX. vicenT vicies 21 XXI. / viceni singiili \ or viceni oct5ni semel et vicies or vicies et semel 28 XXVIII. duodetriceni duodetricies 29 XXIX. undetiiceni undetiicies 30 XXX. triceni tricies 40 XL. quadragem quadragies 50 L. quinquageni quTnquagies 60 LX. sexagcni sexagies 70 LXX. septuageni septuagies 80 LXXX. octogeni octogics 90 xc. nonageni nonagies 100 c. centeni centies 101 CI. / centeul singuli \ centeni et singuli centies semel 200 cc. duceni ducenties 300 ccc. treccul trecenties 400 cccc. quadringeul quadringenties 500 D. orio. quiugeni qulngeutics 600 DC sesceni sescenties 700 DCC. septingeui septingentics 800 DCCC. octingeni octingenties 900 DCCCC. n5ngeni nongenties 1000 M. or CIO. singula milia millies 2000 MM. bina milia bis millies 5000 100. quina milia quinquies millies 10,000 ccioo. dena milia decies millies 100,000 ccciooo. centena milia centies millies 186 FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. LESSON LXII. IMPERATIVE PASSIVE OF THE POUE OONJUaATIONS. THE PLACE TO WHICH. 216. The Imperative Passive of the Four Conjugations is inflected as follows : — First Conjugation. 4a Person. Formation. £xainple. English. Sing. 1 2 3 Plur. 1 2 3 Pres. stem + re amare Be thou loved. Pres. stem + mini amanuni Be 7je lorded. t Sing. 1 3 Plur. 1 2 3 Pres. stem + tor '' + tor amator amator Thou shall he loved. He shall be loved. Pres. stem + ntor amantor Theij shall he loved. Second Conjugation. AS//?y. 1 2 3 P/m/-. 1 2 Pres. stem + re monere Be thou advised. Pres. stem + mini monemini Be ye advised. t 5%. 1 2 Plur. 1 2 Pres. stem + tor « + tor monetor monetor Thou shalt he advised. He shall he advised. Pres. stem + ntor monentor Theg shall he advised. IMPERATIVE PASSIVE. 187 Third Conjugation. i 1 i Person. Formation. Example. Knglish. *S?'??,y. 1 2 3 P/»r. 1 2 3 Sing. 1 2 3 Plur. 1 2 3 Pres. stem + re regere Be thou ruled. Pres. stem + mini regimini Bo ijp ruled. Pres. stem + tor " + tor regitor regitor Thou shalt he ruled. He shall he ruled. Pres. stem + ntor reguntor They shall he ruled. Fourth Conjugation. s *Snir/. 1 2 3 P/ur. 1 i) o o Pres. stem + re audire Be thou heard. Pres. stem + mini audimini Be ye heard. /S/nr/. 1 2 o P/«r. 1 2 3 Pres. stem + tor " + tor auditor auditor Hum shalt be heard. He shall he heard. Pres. stem + ntor audiuntor They shall he heard. Obs. Xote that the characteristic vowel of the stem is variable in the third conjugation, weakened to i and then to w; the stem of the third person plural future of the fourth conjugation, is audiu-. 217. The Place to Which. EXAMPLES. 1. in Galliam venit, he came into Gaul. 2. in Italiam contendit, he hastens into Italy. 3. ad urbem. venit, he came to the city. 4. Romam prSfectus est, he set out for Rome. 5. C6rinthum pervenit, he came to Corinth. G. puer dSmum ibat, the hoy was going home. 7. rus ibo, / will go to the country. 188 FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. Obs. In the foregoing examples, note that in 1, 2, 3, the names of the places to which the motion is directed are not the names of towns ; in each case the preposition is expressed. In Exs. 4, 5, the nouns denoting the place to wliich the motion is directed are names of tow7is : the accusative is used without a preposition. Note, further, that d6mum, d6m6s, and rus, like names of towns, have no preposition. The idiom is expressed in the following rule : — THE NAME OF THE PLACE TO WHICH. 218. Rule XXVII. — The name of the place whither, or to which^ regularly requires the preposi- tion in or ad, 1. But with names of towns and small islands, and with ddmum, ddmos, and rus, the preposition is omitted. VOCABITI.AKY. ediico, -are, -avi, -atum, educate. strenug (adv.), briskly, vigorously. Britannia, -ae, f., Britain. attingo, -tinggre, -tigi, tactum, touch, reach. institutum, -T, x. custom; PL. institutions. ggro, ggrere, gessi, gestum, hear, carry on. vergo, verggre, , , turn, lie toward. persuadeo, -suadere, -suasT, -suasum, convince, persuade. fScile, fScilius, fScilissime, easily. EXERCISES. Translate nito English : — 1. Puer, bene edueare. 2. Puer, stremie exercere. 3. Puer, probe excolere. 4. Puer, diligenter erudire. 5. Puer, bene educator, strenue exercetor, probe excolitor, diligenter eruditor. G. In fines Vocontiorum die septimo pervenit. 7. Hora quarta Britanniam attigit. 8. Nocte ad Caesarem pervenerunt. 9. In Gallia ulteriore multos^ annos manebimus. 10. Proximo die Caesar e castiis copias suas eduxit. 11. Consul Athenas profectus est. 12. Caesar Miletum properavit. 13. Multi ex urbe rus migrabant. 14. Sero domum venisti. CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES. 189 NOTES AND QUESTIONS. The quantity of long final syllables has hitherto been marked ; the pupil should be taught to account for the quantity of all final syllables. Define the imperative. How many tenses has the imperative 1 Are the personal endings the same for all four conjugations ? After verbs of motion, how is the place to which expressed ? With names of towns, how is the place to which expressed 1 What other words omit the preposition ? LESSON LXIII. CLASSIFICATION OP SENTENCES. -ANALYSIS OF SIMPLE SENTENCES. 219. Sentences may be classified, with respect to their meaning, as: — 1. Simple, 2. Complex. 3. Compound. 220. A Simple Sentence contains but one subject and one predicate, either of which may be compound. EXAMPLES. 1. Messengers come. 2. The swift messengers come quickly. 3. The hoys and girls laugh and play. Obs. Messenger is the subject of the first sentence, and come is the predicate. In Ex. 2 the and sivift modify messengers, and are called the Modifiers of the Subject. The sivift messengers is the modified, or logical subject ; come quickly is the modified, or logical predicate. The third sentence has a compound subject, hoys and girls, connected by the coordinate copulative conjunction and, and a compound predicate. 221. A Complex Sentence is composed of one inde- pendent clause in combination with one or more de- pendent clauses. EXAMPLES. 1. The general, ivho is cautious, will succeed. 2. When the rain descended, the floods came. Obs. The first sentence contains two parts : the general loill succeed, and who is cautious. Each part contains a subject and predicate, and is called a clause ; hence the definition : — 190 FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. 222. A clause is a part of a sentence containing a subject and predicate. Obs. The clause, luho is cautious, really performs the office of an adjective, as we may use in place of it simply the word cautious, and say the cautious general ivill succeed. The adjective clause, who is cautious, performing the office of a single word, is called a Dependent Clause ; the other clause, the general will succeed, not performing the office of a single word, is called an Independent Clause. The two clauses, connected by who, are so combined that one modifies the other; they form in combination a Complex Sentence. In the second sentence, the Jloods came is the indepen- dent clause, modified by the clause ivhen the rain descended, i.e. by a clause telling ivhen the floods came ; and as this clause performs the office of a single word, an adverb, the two clauses in combina- tion form a Complex Sentence. 223. A Compound Sentence is composed of two or more independent clauses. EXAMPLE. The rain descended, and the Jloods came. Obs. This sentence consists of two parts, the rain descended and the Jloods came, each of which is independent, and makes complete sense by itself. The sentence is Compound, because it consists of two independent clauses. SIMPLE SENTENCES CLASSIFIED. 224. Simple sentences may ])e Declarative. Interrogative, Imperative, or Exclamatory. EXAMPLES. 1. Ccesar was stabled. 3. Love justice, and hate evil. 2. Was Ccesar stabbed by Brutus ? 4. What a cruel deed he has done! Modifiers, 225. The Subject or the Predicate may be modified by (1) a word, (2) a phrase, (3) a clause. EXAMPLES. 1. mllites fortes, bi-ave .soldiers. 2. oppida sine praesidio, toivns tvithout garrisons. 3. rex Albanorum, the king oj the Albans. 4. puer, qui legit, the boy, icho reads. CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES. 191 226. A Phrase is a group of words, without a subject or predicate, used in the sense of an adjective or an adverb. EXAMPLES. 1. A largp. army crime there. 2. An army of sixty thousand men came to Rome. Obs. In the first sentence, the adjective large modifies army, and the adverb there modifies came. If we wish to express the thought with greater distinctness, we should use the second sent- ence, in which the groups of words, of sixty thousand men and to Rome, liave been substituted, the one for the adjective large, and the other for the adverb there. These groups of words we call Phrases. 227. Directions for Analyzing Sentences : — Tell (1) whether the sentence is simple, complex, or compound. If the sentence is Simple, tell (2) whether it is declarative, inter- rogative, imperative, or exclamatory ; (3) mention the subject and its modifiers, (4) the predicate and its modifiers. If the sentence is Complex, analyze each clause like a simple sentence; name the connective, and tell whether the subordinate or dependent clause stands for an adjective, an adverb, or a noun, i.e., whether it is an Adjective, Adverbial, or Noun Clause. If the sentence is Com- pound, analyze each clause as a simple sentence, name the connec- tive, and the class of conjunctions to which it belongs. EXERCISES. Classify the following sentences ; name the clauses ; analyze each, and mention the modifiers : — 1. The bridge spans the river. 2. The great iron bridge spans the broad river. 3. The great iron bridge, built by a skilful engineer, spans the broad river. ^ 4. Great men are rare. 5. The man dies, but his memory lives. 6. How won- derful is the advent of spring ! 7. Are there any accidents in the providence of God? 8. Thank you, sir. 9. Has the gentleman finished? 10. While Louis XIV. reigned, Europe was at war. 11. Great men lived during the Revolution. 12. Franklin, who was a great philosopher, was born in Boston. 13. Hamilton smote the rock of the national re- 192 FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. sources, and abundant streams of revenue gushed forth. 14. There ^ is a pleasure in the pathless woods. 15. The soldiers were brave. ^ NOTES AND QUESTIONS. 1. Expand this sentence into a compound sentence. 2. There is used as an introductory word, to fill out the sentence, and is, therefore, called an expletive (Lat. explere, to Jill out). 3. Is this adjective attributive or predicate ? What is a sentence 1 Classify sentences. Write a simple sentence. Expand it to a complex, then to a compound sentence. Of what is a complex sentence composed ? What is a clause ? What is a depen- dent clause ? (Ans. A dependent clause is one used as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb.) Mention the modifiers of the subject ; of the predicate. , LESSON LXIV. PEONOU!fS. Obs. Charles went to Rome with his mother, and he came hack without her. In this sentence we use three little words called Pronouns ; they are his, he, and her. If we had not these words, we would be compelled to say : *' Charles went to Rome with Charles's mother, and Charles came back without Charles's mother." The pronouns take the place of the nouns, and hence the definition : — 228. A Pronoun is a word used for a noun. Pronouns are divided into eight classes : — 1. Personal Pronouns: 6go, /; nos, ice, etc. 2. Reflexive Pronouns : svH, of himself . 3. Possessive Pronouns : meus, my, etc. 4. Demonstrative Pronouns : hie, this, etc. 5. Determinative Pronouns: is, he, that: ipse, self, etc. 6. Relative Pronouns : qui, who, and its compounds. 7. Interrogative Pronouns : quis, who ? and its compounds. 8. Indefinite Pronouns : Sliquis, some one, etc. PRONOUNS. 193 PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 229. The Personal Pronouns are so called because they designate the person of the noun for which they stand. They are ggo, J, tu, thou, and are declined as follows : — I. Personal Pronouns of the First Person. Cases. Singular. Plural. NOM. ego, /. nos, tve. Gen. mei, of me. ndstrum and nostri, of us. Dat. mihi, to or for me. nobis, to or for us. Ace. me, me. nos, us. Voc. Abl. me, with, from, or hy me. nobis, with, from, or hy us. II. Personal Pronouns of the Second Person. Cases. Singular. Plural. NOM. tu, thou. vos, ye or you. Gen. tui, of thee. vestrum and vestri, of you. Dat. tibi, to or for thee. vobis, to or for you. Ace. te, thee. vos, you. Voc. tu, thou. vos, ye or you. Abl. te, with, from, or hy thee. vobis, with, from,, or hy you. Obs. The genitives nostrum, vestrum, are used partitively (see 236); as, unus nostrum, one of us. Nostri and vestri are used as objective genitives ; as, mSmor es nostri, he mindful of us. 1. Ego and nos are Personal Pronouns of the first person, and tu, vos, of the second. The personal pronouns of the third person, — he, she, it, they, — are wanting in Latin. 2. The pronouns of the first person may be strengthened by the addition of the syllables m6t or tS, or both : as, gg6mgt, / myself; ttltg, tutgmet, thou thyself; nosmet, vosmet, loe ourselves, you yourselves. 194 FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS. 230. The Reflexive Pronouns refer to the subject of the sentence, and do not, therefore, require a nomina- tive case. The reflexive pronouns of the first and second persons are the same as the first and second per- sonal pronouns; the reflexive of the third person is thus declined : — Singular and Plural. NoM. (Wanting.) Gex. sui, of himself J herself itself or themselves. Dat. Bihi, for himself herself itself or themselves. Ace. se, himself herself itself or themselves. Voc. Abl. se, hy himself, herself itself or themselves. 1. Tlie nse of the Personal and Reflexive Pronouns can be under- stood from the following conjugation of laudo, with subject and object expressed : — ggo me laudo, / praise myself; nos nos laudamus, ive praise ourselves ; tu te laudas, you praise yourself ; vos vos laudatis, you praise yourselves ; is (ea) se laudat, he {she) praises hijnself (herself) ; ii (eae) se laudant, they praise themselves ; also, CicSro se (i.e. CicSrSnem) laudat, Cicero praises himself; CicSro eum (i.e. CaesS.rein) laudat, Cicero praises him. 2. The I'eduplicated forms, sesg, tete, meme, for se, te, me, often occur. 3. Cum, when used with the ablative of the personal pronoun, is appended to it: as, mecum, ivith me; xobiBcmai, with you. POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. 231. The Possessive Pronouns are formed from the personal pronouns, and denote possession. They are : — meus, mea, meum, my or mine. tuus, tua, tuum, thy or thine. suus, sua, suum, his, hers, its, or their. noster, nostra, nostrum, our. vaster, vestra, vestrum, your. PRONOUNS. 195 Obs. 1. The vocative singular masculine of meus is ml Obs. 2. Note that sui and suus refer to the leading subject of the sentence ; but when no ambiguity can arise, sui sometimes refers to some other word than the leading subject. 232. Decline together : — 1 . meus frater, my brother. 2. tuum caput, thy head. 3. spes omnis nostra, our only hope. 4. sua mSnus dextra, his right hand. 233. Examples Illustrating the Uses of the Personal and Reflexive Pronouns : — 1. inter se diffgrunt, they differ (among themselves) from one another. 2. tu laudas me, sed ggo te culpo, you praise me, but I blame you. 3. Ariovistus tantos sib! spiritus sumpsgrat, Ariovistus had taken such airs upon himself. 4. SI tu et Tullia vSletis, 6go et Cicgro valemus, if you and Tullia are tcell, Cicero and I are well. 5. inter nos Smamus, we love each other. 6. inter se amant, they love each other. 7. obsides inter sese dant, they give hostages to each other. 8. puella gpistiilam manu sua scribit, the girl lorites the letter with her oivn hand. 9. nos Squitamus, ambiilatis vos, or equitamus nos, vos ambiilatis. Obs. The personal pronouns are implied in the endings of the Latin verb, and are not expressed in Latin unless they are emphatic (see 57, n. 1). Note that if there are two subjects connected by and, the verb is plural ; if the subjects are of different persons, as in Ex. 4, the verb takes the first person rather than the second, the second rather than the third. Note, also, that the first person is the first in order, not the last, as by courtesy in English. His, her, its, referring to the subject of the sentence, must be expressed by suus, sua, suum ; when not referring to the subject, the genitive (ejus) of is, ea, id, is used. 196 FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. Rule for Position : — 1. The Personal Pronouns, when connected by conjunctions to other words, stand first. Ego always precedes (see Ex. 4). 2. Contrasted words are put as near together, or as far apart, as possible (see Ex. 9). EXERCISES. Translate into English : — 1. Ego voco, tu vocas, amicus vocat. 2. Tu es tristis. 3. Nos sumus potentes, sed vos potentiores estis. 4. In me et in te et in nobis omnibus est animus immortalis. 5. Ego et f rater ambulamns. 6. Ego a te laudabor, sed tii a me punieris. 7. Ml frater, audi. 8. Ego sum mains, sed tu es bonus. 9. Caesar suos inTlites in Galliam mittet, sed in provinciam nostros. 10. Caesar Divitiacum ad se vocat. Translate into Latin : — 1. I call, thou callest, the friend calls. 2. I praise you, you praise me, we praise you. 3. He comes in company with you. 4. I give (to) you the book. o. I am sad, but you are joyful. G. I am a Roman, ])ut you are a Gaul. 7. I am praised by you. 8. My l)rotlier and I are praising you. 9. You are reading, but I am writing. 10. They differ from one another. NOTES AND QUESTIONS. Why arc reflexive pronouns so called ? Name the personal pro- nouns. How is the lack of a third personal pronoun sux)plied 1 Give the rule for the use of possessive pronouns. {Arts. Same as for adjec- tives : Adjectives, adjective promnms, etc., agree. See Rule VIII.) How can you tell after a transitive verb whether suos milites means his, her, its, or theii- soldiers 9 Tlie reflexive se is often Avritten sese ; as, puer sese laudat, the boy praises himself. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 197 LESSON LXV. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. - PAETITIYE GENITIVE. 234. Demonstrative Pronouns are so called because they point out what object is meant. They are : — 1. Hie, this^ this near me. Cases. Siiif^ular. Plural. Masc. Fern. Neuter. Masc. Fem. Neuter. XOM. hic haec hoc hi hae haec Gen. hujus horum harum horum DAT. huici his Ace. hunc hanc hoc^ hos has haec Abl. hoc hac hoc his 2. Iste, that, that near you. NOM. iste ista istud isti istae ista Gkn. istius ist5rum istarum istorum DAT. isti istis Ace. istum istam istud ist5s istas ista Ahl. isto ista isto istis 3. lUe, that, that near him. NOM. ille ilia illud illi illae ilia Gex. illius illorum illarum ill5rum DAT. illi iUis Ace. ilium illam illud iUos illas ilia Al5L. iUo ilia ill5 illis 235. Decline together : — 1. haec 2 dies, ihis day. 2. ista tua soror, that sister of thine. 3. haec ISgio, this legion. 4. illud onus, that burden. 5. istud tempus, that time. 6. h6mo iste, that (worthless) man. Obs. 1. Hic, used for what is near the speaker, is called the demonstrative of the first person ; iste, used of what is near the per- 198 FIKST STEPS IN LATIN. son addressed, is called the demonstrative of the second person ; ille, used of what is remote from both, is called the demonstrative of the third person. Obs. 2. The demonstratives are often used in the oblique cases as personal pronouns (Jiim, her, it, them) of the third person. EXAMPLE. eum et fratrem ejus video, / see him and his brother. 236. Partitive Genitive. EXAMPLES. 1. pars mlli turn, j^arf of the soldiers. 2. alter consilium, one of the (two) consuls. 3. unus mHitum, one of the soldiers. 4. nihil vini, (^nothing of wine) no wine. 5. multum aestatis, a large part of the summer. 6. magna est corporis pars Sperta, a great part of the body is exposed. Obs. In each of the foregoing examples, note that the genitive expresses the whole, and that the word which the genitive limits designates a part. This use of the genitive is called the partitive genitive. The idiom is expressed in the following rule : — PARTITIVE GENITIVE. 237. Rule XXVIII. — Words denoting a part are followed by the genitive denoting the whole. Note. Instead of the partitive genitive with numerals, the ablative with ex, out of, de, from, is regularly used with cardinals. EXAMPLES. 1. unus ex militibus, one of the soldiers. 2. quinque ex militibus, fve (of) soldiers. 3. unus de multis, one of the many. EXERCISES. Translate into English : — 1. IllP virum laudant. 2. Hoc'' bellum est saevissimum. 3. Hujus discipiili diligentiam laudo. 4. Hic piier diligens est, ille iners. 5. Horum omnium fortissimi sunt Belgae. G. Laudabo illius^ filium. 7. Pater filiam suam et filiam DEMONSTKATIVE PKONOUNS. 199 Tulliae ad se vocabat. 8. Haec sententia mihi placet, ilia displicet. 9. Hi omnes inter se differunt. 10. Oppidum abe- rat inllia passiium octo. 11. Magna est corporis pars aperta. Translate into Latin : — 1. I will give you this book, and you give me that. 2. These men, those men. 3. These places, those places. 4. This mountain, that mountain. 5. This opinion, that opinion. 6. This soldier is brave, that one is cowardly. 7. These things*^ were announced to Caesar. 8. A part of the army came. 9. The army marched six miles. 10. The wall is ten feet high. 11. Cicero was a very distinguished orator ; we shall hear him with pleasure. 12. The man calls his own son to him. NOTES AND QUESTIONS. 1. HulC is to be pronounced as a monosyllable, 2. The vocative of demonstrative, relative, interrogative, and in- definite pronouns is wanting. 3. Demonstrative pronouns may be used as personal or as adjective pronouns : as, hi omnes diffSrunt, all these differ ; ad eos mercatores saepe comineant, traders often resort to them ; ad has suspiciones, to THESE suspicions. In the former case parse them as nouns ; in the latter, as adjectives. 4. Demonstrative pronouns usually precede their nouns. 5. For his or her not referring to the subject, ejus (see 231. obs. 2) should be used when not emphatic ; illius, or hujus, if the word is em- phatic ; istius, if very emphatic, or at all sarcastic, or referring to the second person. 6. The neuter plural of pronouns, as well as of adjectives, is often used as nouns, where we use in English the word thing or things; as, haec, these things, this. Is the nominative of the pronouns he, she, it, often expressed 1 When they must be expressed, what is used 1 Ayis. Generally hic, is, or ille ; as, hIc dixit, he {this man) speaks. What is a pronoun ? Mention the dijBferent classes. Define personal pronoun. What is meant by partitive genitive ? Give the Latin for a part of the soldiers. Which is the partitive genitive ? How is all of the soldiers expressed in Latin ? Ans. mllites omnes ; all does not denote a part, but the whole. 200 FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. LESSON LXVI. DETEEMINATIVE (DEMONSTEATIVE) PRONOUNS. 238. The Determinative Pronouns are is, ea, id, this (and lie^ she^^ that; its compound idem, eadem, idem, the same ; and ipse, ipsa, ipsum, 7ie, self^ very same. They refer to some person or thing determined by the con- text : — 1. Is, this^ and /ie, she^ it. Cases. Singular. Plural. Masc. Fem. Neuter. MaBc. Fem. Neuter. NOM. is ea id ei vr ii eae ea Gen. ejus eorum earum eorum DAT. ei eis or lis Ace. eum earn id eos eas ea Ahl. eo ea eo eis or iis 2. Idem,- the same. NOM. idem eadem idem lfiXen.1 -ede. e.de„. Gen. ejusdem eorundem earundem eorundem Dat. eidem eisdem or iisdem Acc. eundem eandem idem eosdem easdem eadem Abl. eodem eadem eodem eisdem or iisdem 3. Ipse, self^ he. NOM. ipse ipsa ipsum ipsi ipsae ipsa Gen. ipsius ipsorum ipsarum ipsorum Dat. ipsi ipsis Acc. ipsum ipsam ipsum ipsos ipsas ipsa Abl. ipso ipsa ipso ipsis Obs. 1. Ipse is often called an intensive pronoun ; it should not be confounded with se; as, vir ips^ pe Jaudat, the man himself praises himself. DETERMINATIVE PRONOUNS. 201 Obs. 2. Idem often means also ; as, Cicgro 6rat orator Idem- que phiI6s6phus, Cicero was an orator, and also a philosopher (lit., ike same was a philosopher). Obs. 3. Is, that, is often used as a personal pronoun (he, she, it, they, them, etc.) of the same gender with the noun for which it stands : as, CicSro multos libros scripsit ; eos (i.e. libros) libenter ISgo, Cicero has written many hooks ; I read them (i.e. the books) with jileasure. 239. Decline together : — 1. ipse h6ino, the man himself. 2. id oppidum, that town. o . ( the cause itself. 3. ipsa causa, -I -' ( the very same cause. 4. hoc ipsum tempus, this very time. 5. idem princeps, the same chief. 6. idem bellum, the same war. EXERCISES. Translate into English : — 1. Is orabat populum. 2. Ipse tu me laudabas. 3. Ipse magister me laudabit. 4. Ipsi in eorum finibus bellum ge- runt. 5. Caesar eodem itinere ad e5s contendit. 6. Caesar Divitiacum ad se vocavit. 7. Pater filiam suam et filium ejus ad se vocat. NOTES AND QUESTIONS. 1. Idem, compounded of is and -dem, is declined like is, but it shortens isdem to idem, and iddem to idem, and clianges m to n before the ending -devi. Why are demonstrative pronouns so called? [Ans. Because they point out the noun.) Mention the demonstrative of the first person. When must his or her be expressed by ejus "? When by suus ? What are determinative pronouns "? Why so called ? Mention them. Ipse is often called an intensive pronoun, because it makes the word to which it is added more emphatic. 202 FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. LESSON LXVIL RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 240. Relative Pronouns are so called because they relate to some preceding noun or pronoun, called the antecedent; they are qui and its compounds. Qui is declined as follows : — Cases. Singrular. Plural. Masc. Fem. ]^euter. Masc. Fem. Neuter. NOM. qui quae quod qui quae quae Gen. CUJUS quorum quarum quorum Dat. cui quibus Ace. quern quam quod quos quas quae Abl. quo qua quo quibus 1. Quicumque (quicunque) and quisquis, ivlioever, are called, from their signification, general relatives. Quicumque is declined like qui. The only forms of quisquis in use are quisquis, the neuter quidquid, and the ablative quoquo. 241. Agreement of Relative Pronouns : — EXAMPLES. 1. puer qui mSgistrum Smat bdnus est, the hoy who loves the master is good. 2. puer quem mSgister ^mat bSnus est, the hoy whom the master loves is good. 3. Sgo, qui te laudavi, rex sum, /, who have praised you, am king. Obs. In Ex. 1, qui stands for puer, and connects the second statement or clause, loves the master, with the hoy is good. The word qui is said to relate to puer ; it is, therefore, called a Relative Proxoun ; it also binds the two clauses together like a conjunc- tion, and this is the real peculiarity of relatives, as all pronouns have antecedents. The word puer, which the clause qui mSgis- trum Smat modifies, is called the Antecedent. The sentence in which the relative stands is called the relative clause ; the other, the principal clause. Note (1) that qui is masculine gender, to agree with its ante- cedent, puer; (2) that it is singular number and third person, to RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 203 agree with puer, while qui, in Ex. 3, is first person, to agree with Sgo; note (3) also that the relatives, in Exs. 1 and 3, are in the nominative case ; but in Ex. 2 the relative is in the accusative case, because it is the object of Smat. Hence the following rule : — AGREEMENT OF RELATIVES. 242. Rule XXIX. — The relative pronoun agrees with its antecedent in g-ender, number, and person, but its case depends on the construction of the clause in which it stands. 1. The relative at the beginning of a sentence is trans- lated like a personal or demonstrative pronoun with a con- junction, determined by the construction. EXAMPI.ES. 1. qui proelium committunt, they engage in battle. 2. quae cum ita sint, since these (things) are so. 2. The relative is often omitted in English ; it is never omitted in Latin. EXAMPLE. liber quern milii dSdisti, the book (ivhich) you gave me. 3. In English, as is often a relative pronoun, especially after such and same. It must then be rendered by qui after idem, and by quails or quantus after talis, such^ tantus, so great. 243. Position of the Relative : — The relative generally stands at the beginning of the relative sentence, after the antecedent, and as near to it as possible; but for the sake of emphasis the relative sentence is often placed first. 1. When the antecedent is indefinite, it is often omitted alto- gether; as, qui tertiam partem inc61unt Galli appellantur, (those) who inhabit the third part are called Gauls. (Cf. the English, " who steals my purse steals trash," i.e., any one who, etc.) 244. Model for Parsing a Relative : — puer, qui mSgistrum Smat, bSnus est : qui is a relative pro- noun; decline qui, quae, quod, etc. ; masculine gender, singular, to agree with its antecedent puer, and is in the nominative case. 204 FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. the subject of amat ; Rule XXTX. The three words, qui mSgis- trum Smat, are called a clause; it is a relative clause, because introduced by a relative pronoun ; it performs the office of an adjective, i.e., it describes puer, and is therefore called an adjective clause. Since it is subjoined to the leading clause (puer b6nus est), as modifying it, it is called a subordinate clause. A sentence consisting of two clauses, one of which is subordinate, is called a complex sentence. (See 221.) EXERCISES. Translate into English : — 1. Puer, qui studet, discit. 2. Felix est is rex, quern omnes cTves amant. 3. Allobroges, qui trans Rhodanum vicos possessionesque habebant, ad Caesarem veniunt. 4. Multi homines aedificaverunt domos, in quibus non habi- taverunt. 5. Caesar vocat Castieum, cujus^ pater regnum multos annos^ obtinuerat. 6. Ab Ocelo, quod est citerioris provinciae oppiduni extremum. 7. Proximi sunt Germams, qui trans Rhenum incolunt. Translate into Latin : — 1. The boy, whom you have blamed, is m}^ brother. 2. The man has built a house, in which he has not lived. 3. He summons Casticus, whose father held the sovereignty in Gaul for many years. 4. The boy who studies will learn. 5. The Germans, w^ho dwell across the Rhine, came into Gaul. 6. Caisar will hasten into the province with the three legions which he had levied in Gaul. 7. Cajsar led from winter quarters the three legions which were wintering in Gaul. NOTES AND CJUESTIONS. 1. Cujus, whose. 2. Why accusative ? Give the rule for the use of relative pronouns. What is a pronoun ? How many classes ? What is a clause ? A relative clause ? What is the antecedent ? Define sentence. To what is a relative equivalent ? {Ans. A personal pronoun + a connective; as, the hoy who studies, etc., = the boy and he studies.) INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 205 LESSON LXVIIL INTEEEOaATIVE PEONOUNS. 245. The Interrogative Pronouns, quis and qui, with their compounds, are used in asking questions. They are declined as follows : — 1. Quis, wlio, which, what? Cases. Singular. Plural. Masc. Fem. Neuter. Masc. Fern. Neuter. NOM. quis quae quid qui quae quae Gen. CUJUS quorum Dat. cui quibus Ace. quem quam quid quos quas quae Abl. quo qua quo quibus 2. Qui, ivho, which, ivhat? is declined Hke the relative qui. 3. Quis is used both as a noun and as an adjective; quid is always used as a noun ; qui and quod are used as adjectives. EXAMPLES. 1. quid commisit, ivhat has he done ? (N"oun.) 2. quod facinus commisit, what deed has he done? (Adj.) 3. quis v6cat, who calls f (Noun.) 4. qui (or quis) homo vQcat, what man calls ? (Adj.) 4. Quis and qui are often strengthened by the addition of nam in emphatic interrogation; as, quisnam, or quidnam, who then? what then ? 5. When the question refers to one of two, liter, iitra, iitrum, which of two, is used. 6. Recollect that the interrogative particles are -ne, used when asking for information simply; nonne, when the answer yes is expected; and num, when the answer no is expected. If an inter- rogative pronoun or adverb is used, then -ne, nonne, or num is not required. There is no single word in Latin equivalent to our yes and no, in answer to questions. The answer may be expressed 206 FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. by repeating the verb with a negative adverb, if no is tlie answer ; and with or without an adverb, if yes is the answer. EXAMPLES. 1 . venitne, has he come ? venit, or venit vero, yes (he has come) . 2. matronane puellam v6cat, does the mother call the girl? v6cat, yes {she calls). 3. nonne b6nus puer est, is not the boy good ? 7. Ne is annexed to the word to which it especially refers. EXAMPLES. 1. tune puerum d6ces, do you teach the hoy? 2. dScesne puSrum, do you teach the boy? 3. puSrumne d6ces, do you teach the boy? 8. Questions in Latin, as in English, may be single or double. 7s the soldier brave ? is a single question. Is the soldier brave or cowardly? is a double question. In asking a double question in Latin, the first clause usually has utrum or -ne, and the second an. EXAMPLES. 1. utrum vir ISgit an scribit, does the inan read or torite ? 2. utrum patriam Smat, annon, does he love his country or not ? EXERCISES. Translate into English : — 1. Quis me vocat? 2. Quis scribit has litteras? 3. Quod carmen legis? 4. Quis tibi huuc librum dedit? 5. Quae est mulier quae venit? G. Uter consulum amicus vester est? 7. Quisuam te vocavit, TuUi? 8. Qui consul est Cicerone prudentior ? Translate into Latin : — 1. Who is that man? 2. Who are those soldiers? 3. What soldiers are these ? 4. AYho has called us ? 5. Which book have you? 6. Who gave you that book? 7. Who has come into the city? 8. Who was walking with you in the garden? 9. Which boy wounded you with a stone ? INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 207 LESSON LXIX. imEPINITE PKONOUNS. 246. Indefinite Pronouns are sucli as designate an object in an indefinite or a general manner. They are : — 1. Sliquis, subst., Sliqui, adj., some one (I do not know who), some, any. 2. siquis, if any one. 3. nequis, lest any. 4. quisque, each or each one. 5. quisquam, any one (where all are excluded). 6. quispiam, some one. 7. unusquisque, each (stronger than quisque). 8. quidam, subst., a, a certain (I know who, though I may not wish to say); adj., a certain, some; plural, some (uneniphatic) ; neuter, something. ' _ . ' [■ any one you please (where all are included). 11. quis,i subst., and qui, adj., any, some. 1. Quis and qui are declined like the interrogatives quis and qui. 2. Aliquis is thus declined : — Cases. Singular. Plural. Masc. Fem. Neuter. Masc. Fem. Neuter. NOM. aiiquis .Uqua i^^ aliqui aliquae aliqua Gen. alicujus aliquorum aliquarum aliquorum Dat. alicui aliquibus Ace. aliqaemallquam|ijj^^°j* aliquos aliquas aliqua Abl. aliqud aliqua aliquo aliquibus 3. Aliquis, aliqua, aliquid, are used as nouns; and aliquis, aliqua, S.liquod, as adjectives. 4. The following are declined like the Relative or Interrogative ; the neutei's in quid are used as nouns, and those in quod as 208 FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. adjectives ; the masculines and feminines are used either as nouns or adjectives : — quidam, qnaedam, quoddam or quiddam, a certain one. quispiain, quaepiam, quodpiam or quidpiam, ^ome one. quivis, quaevis, quodvis or quidvis, ) any one quilibet, quaelibet, quodlibet or quidlibet,^ {you please'). quisque, quaeque, quodque or quidque, every one. unusquisque, unaquaeque, unumquodque, each. EXAMPLES. 1. quivis h6mo, any man. 2. aliquis hfimo, a man, any man (it matters not who). 3. quidani hSmo, a certain man (whose name I could men- tion, or whom 1 could identify, if I chose). 4. aliquem ad me mittent, they will send somebody to me. 5. Sliquod b6num, some good thing. G. ^liquid b6ni (part, gen.), something good. 247. Decline together : — 1. -p^ter men^, my father. G. tbtusiWe Aiea, that lohole day. 2. is consul, that consul. 7. vir quidam Romanus, a 3. idem vir, the same man. certain Roman. 4. e^Aem ndLvia, the same shi}^. 8. iste alter, that other fellow. 5. qulvia h6in.o, any man. 9. qxiis nauta., what sailor ? 10. CicSro ipse, clarissimus orator, Cicero himself, the most famous orator. EXERCISES. Translate into English : — 1. Aliqnos^ ad eum miserunt. 2. Narravit qaidam coram me istam fabvilam. 3. Narrabit aliquis coram me illam fabulam. 4. Aliquem locum occupavit. 5. Cum aliquibus mllitum'^ venit. 6. Quidam ex mtlitibus^ decimae legionis veniebat. 7. Titus quendam Galium ad Caesarem misit. Translate into Latin : — 1. In company with those soldiers. 2. In company with these soldiers. 3. Some one praises the king. 4. A cer- USES OF THE ABLATIVE. 209 tain one is praising the king. 5. Who praises the king? 6. Some soldiers are brave. 7. A soldier came to Caesar. 8. Some one will tell this story. 9. The generals will come in company with some of the chiefs. 10. Is the soldier brave? 11. Is the soldier brave or not? 12. Cicsar sent a Gaul to Cicero. NOTES AND QUESTIONS. 1. Used only after si, ne, nisi, nam, and relatives ; as, si quis, ne quis ; but of course S.liquis, quidam, etc., may be used after the same particles: as, si quis, if any ; si ^liquis, if some. 2. Is ^iquos used as a noun or adjective ? 3. See 237. LESSON LXX. USES OF THE ABLATIVE. SEPARATION, SOURCE, CAUSE, MATERIAL, AGENT. Obs. We have learned that the ablative is used to denote the relations expressed in English by the prepositions /rom; with or hy; at or in. In expressing all these relations, the ablative performs the offices of three cases that in some languages were kept distinct. These uses of the ablative may be classified as follows : — 1. The Ablative Proper, expressing the relation from, or WHENCE. EXAMPLE. virum culpa liberat, he frees the man from blame. *2. 'The Instrumental, expressing the relation with, hy, or WHEREWITH. EXAMPLE. liostium fines ferro et igni vastant, they lay waste the enemy's territory with sword and fire. 3. The Locative, expressing the relation in, at, or where. EXAMPLES. 1. Romae vivit, he lives at Rome. 2. castris se tgnuit, he kept himself in camp. 210 FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. The general rule for the Ablative Proper may be stated as follows : — ABLATIVE PROPER. 248. Rule XXX. — Separation, cause, source, and origin are denoted by the ablative with or without a preposition. EXAMPLE. me timore libSras, you free me from fear (separation). Obs. The prepositions are omitted chiefly with verbs signifying to abstain, relieve, remove, exclude, deprive, cease, and want, and with adjectives of kindred meanings ; but, if a person is specified, the preposition must be used ; as, te ab 1116 imprSbo libSravi, / have rid you of that scoundrel. 1. Compounds with a, ab, de, e, ex, denoting separation from a person or place, take the ablative when used figuratively ; but, in a local and literal sense, they usually require a preposition with the ablative. EXAMPLES. 1. iter ab ArSre Helvetii avertSrant, the Helvetians had turned their inarch from the Aj'ar. 2. Helvetii hoc conatu desistunt, the Helvetians desist from this attempt. 2. The Ablative of Cause is used without a preposition with in- transitive and passive verbs of emotion, and with adjectives that are passive in meaning. EXAMPLE. Helvetii sua victoria insSlenter gloriabantur, the Helve- tians boasted insolently because of their victory (cause). Obs. 1. When the moving cause is a person, the preposition a or ab is used with the ablative ; or ob, per, or propter, with the accusative. Obs. 2. The ablatives causa and gratia, /or the sake of, are used with a genitive preceding, or with a possessive pronoun in agree- ment. Obs. 3. Expressions of trust and distrust (fido, confido, diffido), and many adjectives and participles expressing emotion, and fretus and contentus, are used with the ablative. 3. Perfect Participles denoting parentage or birth, — ggnitus, natus, ortus, etc., — generally take the ablative without a prep- osition. EXAMPLE. Piso amplissimo gSiiSre natus, Piso, born of a very illus- trious frimily. KEADING LATIN AT SIGHT. 211 Ablative of Agent. 4. The voluntary agent after a passive verb is jmt in the abla- tive with a or ab. KXAMPI.JES. 1. mS-gister discipiilos laudat, the teacher iwdiaes the pupih. 2. discipuli a magistro laudantur, the pupils are praised hy the teacher. EXERCISES. Translate into English : — 1. Ars utilitate laudatur. 2. Caedem a vobls depello. 3. Hostes proelio excedebant. 4. Animo constamus et corpore. 5. Itinere exercitum nostrum prohibent. 6. Dis- cipuli a magistro docentnr. 7. Omni Gallia interdicit R6- manos. 8. Proelio abstinebat. LESSON LXXI. BEADING LATIN AT SIGHT. 249. It may now be taken for granted that the pupil has become familiar with the inflectional endings, the general order of words in a Latin sentence (HI), and the principal rules of syntax. He has, also, learned many words, mostly selected from the First Book of Caesar, and it is now time for him to try to unravel the dif- ficulties of an ordinary Latin sentence. 1. In the first place, the pupil should pronounce the Latin care- fully and slowly, noticing the endings of each word, in order to determine which words are nouns and which verbs, etc. 2. Then, if the first sentence is simple, find the Subject, and determine its number and meaning. Sometimes the subject is not expressed, but is contained in the ending of the verb. It can be found by noticing the person and number of the verb, as it must be a pronoun of the person indicated by the verb. 3. N^ext find the Predicate, and translate it, noticing carefully its voice, mode, and tense. 4. Find and translate the modifiers of the subject ; and, lastly, the modifiers of the predicate. 212 FIliST STEPS IN LATIN. 5. If the sentence is complex, translate, first, the principal clause, and then the subordinate clauses in the order of their importance. It is always easier for the pupil to translate tlie principal clause first than it is to pick out woi'ds here and there with the hope of being able finally of putting them together into a sentence. When the meaning of the principal clause has been obtained, then take the subordinate clauses. 6. Consult the dictionary or vocabularies only as a last resort. The pupil must, however, remember that only the nominative singu- lar of nouns, adjectives, and i)ronouns, and the first person singular present indicative active of verbs, are given there ; i.e., the dictionary gives the meaning of words without reference to their grammatical relations. The case, pej'sori, numher, mode, tense, or voice, must be determined by the grammar. It is, therefore, essential that the declension of nouns and the inflection of the regular verbs be thoroughly memorized, so that the pupil can distinguish by the end- ings the different parts of speech, and deterndne at once the force and relation of the Avords. Siffht-Meading. FABLE. In prato eraut tres boves in maxima concordia. Sed meadow oxen greatest harmony dissidio inter eos orto, singiili a feris petlti et laniati sunt. discord arising one-by-one wild-beasts attack tear NOTES AND QUESTIONS. The pupil can discover by the forms of the words that bSves is in the nominative plural, and is tlie subject of tlie verb grant; prSto, after the preposition, is in the ablative singular, and its nominative is pratum, for which form the pupil must look in the dictionary. Concordia is also in the ablative, and is modified by the adjective maxima. Note the mode, tense, and voice of pgtiti and laniati sunt, and translate them. What is the subject of the first sentence 1 The predicate 1 Has the subject any modifiers 1 Has the predicate 'i In what case is tres ? In what case is singuli ? infinitivp: mode. 213 LESSON LXXIl. INPINITIYE MODE, ACTIVE AND PASSIVE. EXERCISE FOR SIGHT-READING. Obs. In the sentence / wish to see you, the verb, to see, names the action in an indefinite way, without limiting it to any particular subject; and hence, a verb that expresses an action in this un- limited manner is said to be in the Infinitive Mode (Lat. infinitus, toithout limit). The infinitive expresses simply the action or state implied in the verb in an abstract manner, without specifying either person, number, or time, and thus merely indicates whether an action is in progress or completed. The infinitive may be used, like a noun, as the subject or object of a vprb, but it differs from a noun in several important particulars : (1) It may be modified by adverbs, bat not by adjectives, as / wish to see you immediately; (2) it governs a noun or pronoun in the objective like a verb. In Latin, the infinitive has voice and tense like a verb, but, like a noun, admits of two cases : the nominative when it is the subject of a verb, and the accusative when it is the object of a verb. The infinitive is also used in Latin to represent the tenses of the indica- tive mode in Indirect Discourse. (For this use, see 347.) Hence the uses of the infinitive may be stated as follows : — 250. Uses of the Infinitive. 1. The infinitive is used as an indeclinable abstract noun in the nominative and accusative. 2. The infinitive is used in Indirect Discourse to represent the tenses of the indicative. (See 347.) Obs. The infinitive has voice and tense, and takes adverbial modifiers like any verb ; it governs the case of its verb. 251. In Latin there are Four Infinitives in each voice, — the Present, Perfect, Future, and Future Perfect. They are formed from the stems as follows : — ACTIVE VOICE. Present infinitive = present stem + re. Perfect infinitive = perfect stem + sse. Future infinitive = future participle and esse. Fut. perf. infiu. = future participle and fuisse. 214 FIKST STEPS IN LATIN. PASSIVE VOICE. Present inlinitive = present stem + ri for 1st, 2d, 4th conjugations. " " = verb-stem + i for 3d conjugation. Perfect infinitive = perfect passive participle and esse. Future infinitive = supine and iri (the word iri is the present in- finitive passive of eo, / go, and amatum irl has the idea of going to he loved). Fut. perf. infin. = Perfect passive participle and f6re. PAKTIAl, PARADIGM. Infinitives. — Active. 4^ Formation. Sxample. English. ama- amare to love. £ mone- rege- audl- + re monere regere audire to advise, to rule, to hear. ^ amavi- ] amavisse to have loved. 1 monui rexi- ' I + sse monuisse rexisse to have advised, to have ruled. ^ audivi- J audivisse to have heard. aiua- amaturus esse to be about to love. I s moni- rec- . + turus esse moniturus esse recturus esse to be about to advise, to be about to rule. audi- auditurus esse to be about to hear. ama- amaturus fuisse ( to love. I moni- reg- -1- turus fuisse moniturus fuisse rectiirus fuisse to have been to advise, about j to rule. ^ audi- J auditurus fuisse { to hear. Infinitives. — Passive. . ama- + ri amari to be loved. s mone- + ri moneri to be advised. I reg- audi- 4- i + ri regi audiri to be ruled, to be heard. ama- -h tus, -a, -um amatus esse to have been loved. S moni- monitus esse to have been advised. rec- esse rectus esse to have been ruled. !k audi- auditus esse to have been heard. i:nfi:nitive mode. 215 9 Infinitives. — Passive. Formation. Exami>le. English. ama- ] amatum iri to be about to be loved. 3 moni- + turn iri monitum iri to be about to be advised. rec- rectum iri to be about to be ruled. (H audi- . auditum iri to be about to be heard. ama- ' amatus fore ( loved. ^ moni- rec- . -f tus fore monitus fore rectus fore to be about to J advised, have been 1 ruled. f^ audi- auditus fore I heard. VOCABULARY. vSto, -are, vStui, vStitum, ybr&fc/. Conor, -ari, -atus sum, dep., undertake, attempt. con-fido, fidgre, fisus sum, trust, confide. rg-miniscor, -isci, no perf., dep., recall to mind, recollect. disco, discgre, didici, no partic. stem, learn. incomLmddumL, -i, n., loss, defeat. re-scindo, scindSre, scidi, scissum, cut down. vitium, -il, is;., fault, vice. consanguineus, -a, -um, related hy blood. vgtus, -gris, adj., old; vgtgres, -um, m. pl., the ancients, ancestors. pristinus, -a, -um, former, early, pristine. Sight-Reading. Cesar's description of gaul. Gallia est omnis divisa in partes tres, quarum unam in- of which colunt Belgae, aliam AquItanT, tertiam qui ipsoriim lingua another third (those) who their own in language Celtae, nostra Galli appellantur. Horum omnium fortis- in our (language) call of these simi sunt Belgae ; proximique sunt Germanis, qui trans Rhenum incolunt, quibuscum continenter bellum gerunt. Qua de causa Helvetii quoque reliquos Gallos virtute and for this also praecedunt, quod fere cottidianis proeliis cum Germanis because almost daily contendunt, cum aut suTs finibus eos prohibent, aut ipsi (they) contend while their-own (they) themselves in eorum finibus bellum gerunt. 21 G FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. NOTES AND QUESTIONS. What is the subject of the leadmg clause 1 the predicate ? The modifiers of the predicate 1 The subject of the subordinate clause 1 What kind of a clause is it 1 In what case is Galli ? Why is Ger- manis dative 1 How is qua translated 1 Define the word infinitive. Give the uses of the infinitive. How is the present infinitive formed ? Form the present infinitive of rSgo, v6co, timeo, munio, punio. How is the perfect infinitive formed 1 How the future infinitive ? With what does the participle, of which the future infinitive is com- posed, agree ? Write all the active and passive infinitives of the following words : dono, to give ; nomino, to name ; h&beo, to have ; debeo, to owe ; duco, to lead ; dico, to saij ; finio, to finish ; munio, to fortify. Write a sentence in English with an infinitive as subject; as object. LESSON LXXIII. INPimTIVE AND SUBJEOT-AOOUSATIYE.- COMPLEMEN- TARY INFINITIVE. EXERCISE FOR SIGHT-READING. 252. Infinitive and Subject-Accusative. Obs. 1. Sometimes the subject or object of a verb is a whole clause, beginuing with the word that. EXAMPLES. Subject. Predicate. 1. That Ccesar conquered Gaul is certain. Sub. Pred. Object. 2. He says that Ccesar conquered Gaul. In the first sentence, that Ccesar conquered Gaul is the subject of the verb, and is called a subject-clause ; in the second sentence, the same words become the object of the verb say, and are called an object-clause. Such clauses are expressed in Latiu by the accusative with the infinitive. EXAMPI.ES. Sulyect. Object. , ^g^^. ^ 1. Caesarem (ace.) vicisse (mfin.) Gallos -j ^ ,_ " 2. ptltat me scribgre, he thinks I am writing. 3. Divico rgspondit ita Helvgtios institutes esse, Divico replied that the Helvetians had been so educated. INFINITIVE AND SUBJECT-ACCUSATIVE. 217 4. Caesar DumnSrigem designari sentiebat, Ccesar perceived that Dumnorix was meant. 5. dicit montem ab hostibus tgneri, he says that the hill is held hy the enemy. 6. rumor 6rat Catilinam servos armasse, there ivas a report that Catiline had armed the slaves. Oks. 2. Note the translation of the foregoing sentences. The subject-accusative is translated as if it were a nominative preceded by the word that. The infinitive is translated like any finite verb. Note, further, that dicit is a verb of saying , piitat, a verb of think- ing ; rSspondit, a verb of telling , and sentiebat, a verb of per- ceiving. Hence the following rules : — SUBJECT OF THE INFINITIVE. 253. Rule XXXI. — The subject of the infinitive is put in the accusative. SUBJECT-ACCUSATIVE . 254. Rule XXXII. — Verbs of saying^ thinking, knowing, perceiving, hearing, and the like, are fol- lowed by the accusative witli the infinitive. 1. Various Impersonal Phrases, such as certum est, it is certain, nScesse est, it is necessary, justum est, it is just, etc., are followed by the accusative with the infinitive. INFINITIVE AS SUBJECT. 255. The Infinitive, with or without a subject-accusa- tive, may be used as the Subject of a Verb. EXAMPLES. 1. dulce pro patria mSri est, to die for one's country is sweet. 2. CaesSri nuntiatum est gquites accedgre, it loas announced to Ccesar that the cavalry ivas apjjroaching. Obs. The predicate adjective, agreeing with the infinitive, is neuter. COMPLEMENTARY INFINITIVE. 256. Rule XXXIII. — The infinitive without a subject-accusative is used with many verbs to com- plete their meaning. 218 FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. EXAMPLES. 1. Caesar pr6ficisci maturat. Ccescw hastens to set out. 2. pSrat bellum gerere, he prepares to wage ivar. 3. mHites pugnare possunt, the soldiers are able tojight. Obs. The Complementary Infinitive is used with certain verbs to complete their meaning ; it is generally either the direct object of a transitive verb, or an accusative of limitation, as in Ex. 3, the soldiers are able as to fighting. The verbs that the complementary infinitive is used after usually denote abilitg, obligation, intention, or endeavor , after verbs signifying to abstain, to begin, to cease, to continue, to dare, to fear, to hesitate, to be icont, and after the passive voice of verbs of saying, believing, reckoning. Note the translation of the following sentences ; parse each infinitive, and give the nde : — 1 . gratum est tecum ambiilare, it is i)leasant to walk with you. 2. p^rat bellum. gSrSre, he jyrepares to wage war. 3. aqua frigida est, water is cold. 4. sentio Squam frigidam. esse, [perceive that icater is cold. 5. audio Smicum aegrotum esse, I hear that {my) friend is sick. G. Caesar in Gallia hiSmare constituit, Ccesar determined to winter in GauL 7. miilites urbem custodire debent, the soldiers ought to guard the city. 8. libgri eorum in servitutem abduci non debent, their chil- dren ought not to be led into servitude. 9. constituerunt jumentorum quam maximum nttmSrum coemere, they determined to buy up as great a number of beasts of burden as possible. Sight-Heading, STORY OF HOKATIUS. Tullo regnante, bellum inter Albanos et Romanos exor- Tullus reigning nom. arise turn est. Forte in duobus exercitibus erant trlgemini fratres, by chance three born at one birth nec aetate nee viribus dispares, apud Romanos Horatii, neither nor unlike apud Albanos CuriatiT. Cum his agunt reges, ut pro sua arrange quisque patria dimicent ferro. Arma igitur capiunt, et in light accordingly they take PARTICIPLES, ACTIVE A:ND PASSIVE. 219 medium inter duas acies procedunt. Datur signiim, infes- with tlsque armis terul juvenes, magnorum exercituum animos hostile arms spirit gerentes, concurrunt. bearing rush together. NOTES AND QUESTIONS. Define infinitive. How many infinitives in tlie active voice ? How- many in the passive voice 1 Give the stem of the present infinitive ; of the perfect ; give the endings of each. Do infinitives have personal endings ? Of what forms is the future infinitive composed ? Mention the uses of the infinitive. What is the complementary infinitive 1 Give the rule for the complementary infinitive. What case is the subject of the infinitive 1 After what verbs may the accusative and infinitive be used ? LESSON LXXIY. PAETIOIPLES, ACTIVE AND PASSIVE. - ABLATIVE ABSOLUTE. EXERCISE FOR SIGHT-READING. EXAMPI.E. The river, Jiowing from the mountain, waters the plain. Obs. In the foregoing sentence, note that the word Jiowing is a form of the verb, but that it does not make a statement like a verb. It is used (1) as an adjective, describing river by assuming or im- plying an action ; (2) it is used as a verb, by expressing the act of Jiowing as going on at the time the river loaters the plain. Flowing Jrom the mountain is a participial phrase, modifying river. This form of the verb is called a participle (Lat. pars, part, and cSpSre, to take), because it partakes of or shares the nature of an adjective and of a verb. The principal word of the phrase is Jiowing ; its meaning is completed and made more distinct by the prepositional phrase /rom the mountain. Hence the following definition : — 257. Participles in Latin, as in English, give the meaning of the verb in the form of an adjective. 1. Participles are sometimes translated by the English participle or infinitive, and sometimes by a clause. (See 259.) 220 FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. 2. Like a verb, the Participle has different voices and tenses; like an adjective, it has declension and gender; and like both, it has two numbers. 3. Transitive verbs have usually Four Participles : two in the active voice (present and future), as amans, Smaturus ; and two in the passive voice (perfect and the gerundive, or future), as ^matus, ^maudus. 4. Intransitive verbs have usually only the participles of the active voice. 5. Participles govern the same cases as their verbs. 6. Participles agree with nouns like adjectives. FORMATION OF PARTICIPLES. [The present participle is formed by adding -7it, nom. -ns, to the present stem ; the future, by adding -tfiro, nom. -tHrus, to the modified present stem, or verb-stem ; the perfect, by adding -to, nom. -tus {-so, nom. -sHs), to the verb-stem; the gerundive, by adding -jido, nom. -ndus, to the present stem.] Pakticipleh. — Active Voice. Tense. Formation. Example. EngliHli. £ Pres. stem -f ns amans monens regens audiens loving, advising, ruling, hearing. 1 Verb-st. -f turus esse . amaturus esse monitiirus esse rectiirus esse auditiirus esse about to love, about to advise, about to rule, about to hear. Participles. — Passive Voice. i 1 Verb-stem -}- tus amatus monitus i rectus auditus having been loved, having been advised, having been ruled, having been heard. 3S Pres. stem + ndus amandus | monendus regendus audiendus to be loved, deserving to he loved, to be advised, to be rided. to be heard. PAKTICIPLES, ACTIVE AND PASSIVE. 221 7. The present stem of verbs of the fourth conjugation ends in -ie (as audie-) in the present participle and gerundive. 8. The Present Participle is declined like amans or prudens; note that the vowel is long before -ns, but short before -nt. The Perfect and Future Participles are declined like b6nus. Form and translate the Present and Future Active Participles, the Perfect Passive, and the Gerundive of the following verbs : — v6co, -are, -Svi, -atum, call. deleo, -ere, -evi, -etum, destroy/. pugno, -are, -avi, -a.tnm, Jight. fleo, -ere, -evi, -etum, weep. habeo, -ere, -m, -ituni, have. tSceo, -ere, -ui, -itum, silent. duco, -Sre, duxi, ductum, lead, vivo, -ere, vixi, victum, live. rego, -ere, rexi, rectum, ride. dico, -ere, dixi, dictum, say. munio, -ire, -ivi, -Ituni, fortify, finio, -ire, -ivi, -itum, ^^nz's^. Distinctions of Time. EXAMPLES. 1. sese omnes flentes CaesSri ad pedes projecerunt, they all, weeping, threw themselves at Ccesar^s feet. 2. G-allia in tres partes est divisa, Gaul is divided into three parts. 3. Divitiacus flens, a Caes^re haec petebat, Divitiacus, weep- ing, hegged these things from Cwsar, 4. Labienus, monte occiipato, nostros expectabat, Labienus, having taken possession of the mountain, was waiting for our men. 5. miles pugnans c^dit, the soldier falls fghting . 6. hostibus fiigatis Caesar suos rgvScavit, when the enemy were put to flight, Ccesar recalled his men. Obs. The Present Participle has usually the same meaning and use in Latin as in English. It denotes the action as going on at the time denoted by the principal verb. The Perfect Participle is used, in Ex. 2, like a predicate adjective, but the ideals conveyed of the action being completed before the time denoted by the principal verb. Note the translation of Exs. 3, 4, 5, and 6. TIME OF THE PARTICIPLE. 258. Rule XXXIV. — The participle represents the time as present, past, or future, relatively to that of the principal verb. 222 FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. ABLATIVE ABSOLUTE. 259. In Latin there is no Perfect Participle in the active voice. Its place is often supplied (1) by the Ablative Absolute (^.e., the noun and the participle are both in the ablative, a construction similar to our independent case), or (2) by a Clause with a Conjunction. EXAMPLES. 1. urbe capta (abl. abs.) elves fugerunt, the city having been taken, or being taken, or after the city had been taken, the citizens Jled. 2. urbe a CaesSre capta, cives fugerunt, when the city had been taken by Cmsar, the citizens Jled . Obs. Note that when the noun and participle are both in the ab- lative, and used independently of the rest of the sentence, the con- struction is called ablative absolute, i.e. absolute meaning, freed from dependence. (A word is said to depend on another when its case, gender, number, mode, tense, or person is determined by that word.) In English, the Independent Case is used in the same way with Participles ; as, EXAMPLES. 1. Noun -f- participle ; as, the city having been taken, the citizens fled. 2. Noun + being -}- adjective ; as, the soldiers being brave, the enemy was conquered. 3. Noun -1- being + noun ; as, he came to Rome, Ccesar being consul. Note (1) that the noun in the Ablative Absolute denotes a different person or thing from that denoted by any other word in the sentence ; note (2) that the words in the Ablative Absolute express the time or circumstance of the action in the leading clause ; note (.3) that words like a CaesSre, modifying the Ablative Abso- lute, stand between the noun and the participle. Hence the following rule: — ABLATIVE ABSOLUTE. 260. Rule XXXV. — A noun or pronoun, with a participle or an adjective, or two nouns, may he put in the ahlative, to express the Time or Circumstance of an action. ABLATIVE ABSOLUTE. 223 Translation of the Partic/ijjles, EXAMPLES. L audivlstine me id dicentem, did you hear me (lit. mying that) v^hen I said that. 2. Caesar eorum prgcibiis adductus bellum suscepit, Coisar (lit. having been influenced), because he had been influenced by their entreaties, undertook the icar. 3. milites in oppidum accept! elves interfecerunt, the soldiers (lit. having been received), lohen they had been received into the toum, killed the citizens. 4. ager colendus est, the field must be cultivated. Obs. Note the translation of each participle; that the time represented by the participle is present, past, or future, relatively to that of the principal verb. Note, finally, that the gerundive, used as an adjective, has the meaning of inust or ought, as in Ex. 4. 261. Directions for Parsing a Participle. Give the principal parts of the verb ; the stems from which each participle is formed; name the participles; mention the time de- noted by the participle ; decline ; rule. Sight-Reading, STORY OF HORATius {contmued) . Ut primo concursu increpnere arma, horror ingens spec- as at first onset resound nora. spectators tantes perstrinxit. Statim duo Eomani alius super alium seize upon exspirantes ceciderunt ; tres Albani vulnerati sunt. Ro- oxpire fall manos jam spes deserebat. Unum Horatium tres Curiatii forsake circumsteterant. Is, quamvis integer, quia tribus impar surround although unhurt because unequal erat, fugam simulavit. Jam aliquantum spatii ex eo loco flight pretend some distance ubi pugnatum est, aufugerat, cum respiciens videt unum (they) fought flee looking back Curiatium hand procul ab se esse. Horatius in eum magno not far against him impetu redit ; hoc interfecto, alterum delude, priusquam returns killed tertius posset consequT, interfecit. was able to come up 224 FIRST STEPS IN LATIK. EXERCISES. Translate into English : — 1. Sole oriente/ fugiunt tenebrae. 2. Bellum Gallicum, Caesare imperatore, gestum est. 3. Puer, me invito, abiit. 4. Gives cum liostibus urbem oppngnantibus acriter dimica- bant. 5. Hostes, victoriam adept!, in castra se receperunt. 6. Milites, pilis eonjectis, phalangem hostium perfregerunt. 7. Caesar, urbe capta,- discessit. 8. Exercitus rediit, belli casum de integro tentaturus. 9. Quis est, qui me unquam viderit legentem? 10. Hostes ainnem transgress! castra mumverunt. 11. Ex amiss!s civibus dolor fuit. 12. Caesar cum sola decima legione profecturus est. 13. Solem orien- tem^ cum maxima volnptate spectamus. Translate into Latin : — 1. WJien this was knoimi^ Caesar departed. 2. Wlien this reply had been given, the men departed. 3. Caesar, when he went to Gaul, took three legions. 4. Caesar, aftei' he had subdued Gaul,* set out for Rome. 5. He assists others ivith- out robbiyig himself.'^ 6. Under Ccesar as commander, the soldiers fought bravely. 7. Many things go on without your perceiving it.^ 8. After I had spoken, you went away. 9. Because their leader was Mlled, the soldiers ^ed. 10. The soldiers, by throwing their weapons, repulsed the line of the enemy. 11. I come to assist you. 12. Wheii the leader ordered, the soldiers assaulted the town. 13. This happened one hundred years before the founding of the city. 14. Did you hear me ivhen I said that 9 15.1 saw my friend sitting in the garden yesterday. 16. Caesar is going to set out from the camp with five legions. 17. Caesar lost his father when he was^ sixteen years (old). NOTES AND QUESTIONS. 1. Wheji the sun rises, temporal clause. 2. Remember that there is no perfect active participle ; its place is supplied by the ablative absolute, or by a clause with cum ; as, urbe capta = cum urbem cepisset GERUND AND GEIUJNJUVE. 225 0. The present indicative follows the third conjugation. See 176. 4. Observe that the ablative absolute can be used only when the subject of the subordinate clause is different from that of the principal clause (except in such phrases as se invito, against his n-ill, used in indirect discourse, and a few others not to be imitated. 5. Lit. not robbing himself, se non sp61ians. 6. Lit. you not perceiving it, te non sentiente. 7. Use Sgens, present participle. Note that verbs of the second conjugation often weaken the char- acteristic vowel of the stem to i ; as, ni6ni-tus. Sometimes this vowel disappears ; as, dSceo, doc-tus. How many participles may a transitive verb have ? What is a participle ? Give the meaning of the word. Show how the participle is used as a verb, and as an adjective. What time do participles de- note ? How are they generally best translated ? What is the meaning of absolute ? Of ablative absolute ? Have we a similar construction in English 1 Explain the English construction. Give the rule for the abla- tive absolute in Latin. When is one word said to depend on another ? What active participle is found in English, but not in Latin ? {Ans. The perfect ; as, having loved.) Give the stem and ending of the present participle of ^mo. LESSON LXXV. GEKUND AND GEEUraiVE. EXERCISE FOR SIGHT-READING. 262. The Gerund is a verbal novm of the Second Declension, used only in the Genitive, Dative, Accusa- tive, and Ablative singular. It corresponds to the English verbal noun in -ing. EXAMPLES. 1. Smandi causa, jTor the sake of loving. 2. utilis bibendo, useful for drinking. 3. ad agriim arandum, for ploughing the field. 4. dScendo discimus, we learn hy teaching. 1. The Nominative of the Gerund is supplied by the Present Infinitive. EXAMPLE. scribgre est utile, ivriting (Jo write) is useful. 226 FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. 2. The Gerund and Gerundive are formed b}' adding -7idJ and -ndus, respectively, to the present stem. PARADIGM. Gerund. rc)rinatioii. Example. English. Pres. stem + ndi -' [ amandi monendi regendi audiendi ^ of J ov in (J. ofadvis'nuj. of rxdiny. of hearing. Gerundive. Pres. stem + ndus ; [ amandus monendus regendus audiendus j to be loved, I deservimj to he loved. to he (idrised. to he ruled. to he heard. 3. Declension of the Gerund. Cases. Exainx)le. English. NoM. Gen. l^AT. Acc. Arl. amare amandi amando \ amare, or with a pro- ( I position amandum \ amando to lore. of lovirtfj. to or for loving. loCIUIJ. with, from, or hy loving. *:XAMPLES. XoM. scribgre est utile, (to write) loriting is useftd. (iEX. ars scribendl est utilis, the art of ivriting is useful. j)at. charta scribendo est utilis, paper is usefid for meriting. . ^ j scribgre disco, / learn to write ; or, I inter scribendum disco, I learn during writing. Abl. scribendo discimus, ve learn hy ivriting. Obs. Note that the accu.sative case of the gerund is found only after prepositions, and cannot be used as the direct object of a transitive verb. GERUND AND GERUNDIVE. 227 4. The (ieruiid governs the same case as its verb. EXAMPI.ES. 1. jus v6candi sgnatum, the authority (of convening^ to con- vene the senate. 2. consilium urbem cSpiendi, the design of taking the city. Obs. In the foregoing sentences the gerund is used in each, with its object in the accusative ; but instead of using the gerund with its object in the accusative, we generally use the gerundive in agreement with the noun, which then takes the case of the gerund; as, EXAMPLES. 1. jus sSnatus v6candi, the authority of convening the senate. 2. consilium urbis capiendae, the design of taking the city. 5. Equivalent Gerundive Forms : — IsToM. urbem capgre (infirx.), to take a city. Gen. urbem capiendi, or using the Gerundive = urbis cSpi- endae, of taking a city. Dat. urbem capiendo, or using the Gerundive = urbi c5pi- endae, to or for taking a city. Ace. urbem capere (infin.) ; Ace. after a preposition = (ad) urbem cS.piendum, or using the Gerundive = ad urbem cS.piendam, taking a city. Abl. urbem capiendo, or using the Gerundive = urbe capi- endo, ivith, front, by taking a city. The idiom is expressed in the following rule : — GERUNDIVE CONSTRUCTION. 263. Rule XXXVI. — Instead of the g-eruiid witli its object in the accusative, the gerundive is gener- ally used, the noun taking- the case of the gerund, and the gerundive agreeing with the noun in gender, number, and case. Obs. 1. The rule requires the following changes : — 1. The Accusative is put in the same case as the Gerund. 2. The Gerund is changed to the Gerundive. 3. The Gerundive agrees with its noun in gender, number, and case. This construction is called the gerundive construction. 228 FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. EXAMPLKS. 1. agricola li6mines misit ad agrum. arandum (gerundive), t lie farmer sent men (for plowiiig) to plow the f eld. 2. ad eas res conficiendas (gerundive) Orggtorix deligitur, Orgetorix is chosen {for executing) to execute these plans — ad eas res conficiendiim (gerund), etc. 3. ars pu€r6s educandi difficilis est, the art of training hoys is difficult. Obs. 2. In the dative, and in the ahlatire u-ith a preposition, the gerund with a direct object is rarely used. Generally after preposi- tions the gerundive construction should be used ; as, ad capiendam urbem, not ad capiendum urb em, /or taking the city. Obs. 3. The gerundive construction can l)e used only after verbs that take the accusative, so also after utor, fruor, fungor, p6tior, and vescor, which in early Latin were followed by the accusative. If the verb is intransitive, or governs any otlier case than the accusa- tive, tlu; gerundive is used imiiersonally with est in the nominative singular neuter. EXAMPLE. 1. vSletudinI parcendum est, the health must he spared (lit., there must he sparing of the health). Obs. 4. The gerundive construction cannot be used when the object is a neuter pronoun or an adjective, as it would be impossible to distinguish the gender. EXAMPLES. 1. stildium Sgendi ^liquid, desire of doing something. 2. ciipiditas plura habendi, greed for having more. 264. Gerund and Gerundive Constructions. 1. The genitive of the gerund and gerundive is used after nouns and adjectives as an objective genitive. a. The genitive of the gerund and gerundive is common with causa, /ar the sake of to express purpose. 2. The dative of the gerund and gerundive is used after adjec- tives (rarely after nouns) that are followed by the dative of nouns. 3. The accusative of the gerund and gerundive is used after the preposition ad, to denote purpose, and sometimes after inter, circa, ob ; also after verbs signifying to give, to deliver, to agree for, to have, to receive, to undertake, to demand. GERUND AND GERUNDIVE. 229 4. The ablative of the gerund and gerundive is used to express means, or cause (rarely of manner), and after the prepositions a, ab, de, e, ex, in (rarely after cum and pro). EXAMPI.ES. 1. spes urbis delendae, the hope of destroying the city; or, audiendi ctipidus, desirous of hearing. 2. 5qua utilis est bibendo, umter is useful for drinking. (See 263. Obs. 2.) 3. ad discendum propensi siimus, we are inclined to learn ; or, Caesar pontem in ArSri faciendum curat, Ccesar {takes care to have) has a bridge built over the Arar. 4. mens discendo alitur, the mind is nourished by learning. (See 263. Obs. 2.) VOCABUT.AKY. im-pello, -pellSre, -piili, -pulsum, drive against, impede. cresco, crescerS, crevi, cretum, groiu, increase. au-fugio, fiigere, fugi, fugitum, flee away. p6tior, -iri, -itus sum, take possession of. Sliquantus, -a, -um, some. pareo, parere, parui, paritum, obey. de-ligo, -ligere, -legl, -lectum, choose out. crSmo, -are, -avi, -atum, bwm. vinculum, -i, n., bond, fetter. EXERCISES. Convert the following into the gerundive construction : — 1. Ars pueros educandi difficilis est. 2. Dat operam agros colendo. 3. Jus vocandi senatum. 4. Galli legiones opprimendT consilium ceperunt. 5. Cupido urbem condendi eum cepit. 6. Agricola homines misit agrum arandi causa. 7. Ad eas res conficiendum Orgetorix deligitur. 8. Mer- catores ea important quae ad effeminandum animos pertinent. Translate into English : — 1. In ambiilando mecum cogito. 2. NatandT ars utilis est. 3. Ars civitatem gubernaudl difficillima est. 4. In 230 FIKST STEPS IN LATIN. libris tuTs legendTs hos tres dies cum miilta voluptate exegi. 5. Ars cTvitatis gubernandae est difficiUima. 6. Proficis- cendiim- mihi erat illo ipso die. 7. Hostes in spem veneraut potiendorum casu'oriim. 8. Caesar loqiiendi finem facit. 9. Asinus id5neus est onera portando. 10. Asinus idoneus est oneribiis portandTs. 11. CatilTna bellum suscepit rei- publicae dSlendae causa. 12. Ager colendus est. Sight- Reading . STORY OF HORATius (contiuued) . Jam singuli siipererant, sed uec spe nee vTribus pares. one on oacli side survive Alterius erat intactum ferro corpus, et geminata victoria untouched double ferox animus. Alter fessura vulnere fessum cursu trahebat weary running drag corpus. Nec illud proelium fuit. Romanus exsultans Alba- exult num male sustinentem arma conficit, jacentemque spoliat. holding up kill lying prostrate strip NOTES AND QUESTIONS. 1. The stem of audio is here audie-. 2. Tlie gerundive used impersonally. What is a gerund "i How is the gerund declined? Wliat is used as the nominative of the gerund ? How is the gerund formed ? Is the gerund ever used in the plural ? What is generally used instead of the gerund with its object ? Note that the gerundive has three uses: (1) The predicate use with the verh sum, to form the passive periphrastic conjugation (286) ; as, urbs delenda est, the city must he. dfstroyed, see 288. (2) The imper- sonal use (263. Obs. 3) in the neuter gender, with the verb est, witli the same force as above ; as, pugnatum est mihi, / vmst fight (lit., Jightwg must he done by me). (3) The gerundive use, which is always active in meaning, being equivalent to the gerund (see 263). With transitive verbs the personal construction is regularly used ; as, Spistiila mihi est scribenda, / vmst write a letter (lit., a letter must be ivritten by me). INFLECTION ANT) SYNTAX f)F SrPrNP:S. 231 LESSON LXXVL INFLECTION AND SYNTAX OF SUPINES. EXERCISE FOR SIGHT-READING. 265. The Supine is a Verbal Noun of the Fourth Declen- sion, used only in the accusative and ablative. The supine in -Mm, sometimes called the Former Supine, is used only after verbs of motion to express purpose^ like the P^nglish infinitive ; the supine in -u^ sometimes called the Latter Supine, is used after adjectives, and rarely after verbs, as the ablative of specification. 1. The Supine has the same form as the neuter of the perfect participle ; the Former Supine is formed by adding -turn (or -siaii) to the present stem of the 1st, 2d, and 4th, and to the verb-stem of the 3d conjugations (the final letter of which is generally modified before t^ and in the second conjugation i is inserted before /) ; the Latter Supine is formed by adding -lu (or -su). PARADIGM Former Supine. Formation. Example. English. c amatum to love. Verb-stem -f turn . monitum rectum to advise, to rule. I auditum to hear. Latter Supine. Verb-stem -f tu .] amatu to love, or to he loved. monitu rectu to advise, or to he advised. to rule, or to he riUed. auditu to hear, or to he heard. Uses of the Supine. EXAMPLES. legates mittunt rQgatum auxilium, thejj send ambassadors to ask for aid. venerunt pacem pStitum, thef/ came to ask for peace. id facile factii est, this is easy to do, or to be do?ie. 232 FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. Obs. Note, in the first two of the foregoing examples, that the supines rdgatum and pgtitum are construed with mittunt and venerunt, both verbs of motion ; tliese supines express the purpose of the motion. In Ex. 3 the supine is used with the adjective fScile, and answers the question in ichat respect? (298.) Note, further, that rdgatum and pgtitum are each followed by the accusative, the same case that the verbs r6go and p6to require. The idioms are expressed in the following rules : — FORMER SUPINE. 266. Rule XXXVII. — The supine in -um is used after verbs of motion, to express the purpose of the motion. 1. The supine in -um governs the same case as its verb. LATTER SUPINE. 267. Rule XXXVIII. — The supine in -u is used to limit the meanings of adjectives sigrnifying tvonder- fulf agreeable, easy or difficult, worthy or iimvorthy, honorable or base, and the nouns /as, nefds, and 6pu8, 1. The supine in -u takes no object. Obs. 1. The future infinitive passive ^Un&tum iri is made up of the present infinitive passive of eo, / (jo, and the supine in -um of Sjno, and is, literally translated, it is beinc/ gone (by somebody) to love ; so that the apparent (or logical) subject is really the gram- matical object. Obs. 2. The supine in -um is not very common ; only about two hundred and fifty verbs, chiefly of the first and third conjugations, have a supine ; the supine in -a is still less common. Hence the propriety of calling the third stem the particimal stem, as Vani9ek and other noted grammarians have done. EXERCISES. Translate into English : — 1. Legati totius fere Galliae ad Caesarem gratiilatum couvenerunt. 2. Orator dlgnus est auditu. 3. Divitiacus Romam ad senatum venit auxilium postulatuni. 4. Id facile dictu est. 5. Aedul legatos ad Caesarem mittunt rogatum INFLECTION AND SYNTAX OF SUJMNFS. 233 auxilium.^ 6. Fas est dictu ; nefas est dictu. 7. ExclfisT eos, quos tii ad me salutatum miseras. 8. In urbem migravl habitatum. 9. Ariovistus dixit omnes Galliae civitates ad se oppugnandum venisse. Sight'Reading, STORY OF iioRATius (coucluded) . Romani ovantes ac gratulantes Horatium accipiunt, et do- rejoice cheering mum deducunt. Princeps ibat Horatius, trium fratrum spolia home conduct first go prae se gerens. Cm obvia fiiit soror, quae desponsa fuerat before him bear him met betrothed uni ex Curiatiis, visoque super limeros fratris paludamento on sponsT, quod ipsa confecerat, flere et crines solvere coepit. make hair tear begin Movit ferocis jiivenis animum comploratio sororis in tanto stir fierce youth temper weeping gaudio publico ; stricto itaque gladio transflgit puellam, drawn therefore sword stab siraul earn verbis increpans : " Abi hinc cum immaturo amore at the same time chide go hence untimely love ad sponsum tuum, oblita fratrum, oblita patriae." Sic eat forgetting (your) brothers perish quaecumque Romana lugebit hostem. whatever NOTES AND QUESTIONS. 1. Accusative after rSgatum. What is a gerund 1 What is the gerundive ? How many cases has the gerund ? What is used as the nominative of the gerund ? Is the gerund used in the plural 1 When is the gerundive used instead of the gerund 1 Remember that the gerundive construction is preferred to the gerund construction, unless the use of the former would cause ambiguity. In connection with the prepositions, the gerundive con- struction is always used. What is a supine "? How many supines has a Latin verb 1 From what stem are they formed 1 After what verbs may supines be used ? After what other words may the supine be used "? Give the rules for the use of the supine. 234 FIKST STEPS IN LATIN. LESSON LXXVII. LOCATIVE. PLACE WHITHER? WHENCE? WHERE? 268. The name of the place wliither^ whence^ and where^ regularly requires a preposition. 1. The name of the place whither, or to which, regularly requires ad or in with the accusative. EXAMPLES. 1. in Galliam, into Gaul. 2. in urbem, into the city. 3. ad urbem, towards {the vicinity of) the city. 4. ad Romam, towards {the vicinity of) Rome. Ohs. Note that at, meaning near, not in, is, with all names of places, to be translated by ad or apud, with the accusative. 2. The name of the place whence, or from whicJi, regularly requires a, ab, de, e, or ex, with the ablative. EXAMPLES. 1. ab urbe, anmy from the city. 2. ex Africa, //-om {out of) Africa. 3. ex oppido, from the town. i. a Roma., fro7n about {the vicinity of) Rome. 3. The name of the place where, or in ichich, regularly requires in with the ablative. EXAMPLES. 1. in Gallia, in Gaul. 3. in Africa, in Africa. 2. in portu, in the harbor. 4. in castris, in the camp. Katnes of I*laces, 269. Rule XXXIX. — Relations of place are ex- pressed by a noun with a prejiosition ; but with names of towns and small islands, and also with domtiSf riis, and a few other words, the preposition is omitted, and PLACE TO WHICH. 1. The name of the place whither, or to which, is juit in the Accusative. LOCATIVE. 235 PLACE FROM WHICH. 2. The name of the place whence, or froiri which, is put in the Ablative. PLACE IN WHICH. 3. The name of the place ichere, or in lohich, takes the Locative. 270. The Locative has tlie same form as tlie Dative in the first and third declensions ; in the second declension it has the same form as the Genitive. In the plural of all three declensions, Dative, Locative, and Ablative are alike. EXAMPLES. Locative. Sing. IstDecl. Roma, Rome ; Romae, at Rome. 2d " 'BxvindCiByynn., Brundlsium ; 'Brund.isii, at Brundisium. 3d " Karthago, Crtr//?a. The consul came from Rome to Athens. 0. Caesar came into Italy. 7. The bo}' set out for home. 8. In the summer my friends and I shall depart from Rome. 9. I shall set out for Miletus, they will set out for Athens. 10. In the first watch, the soldiers departed from the camp with a great tumult. 11. Caesar set out for Rome. 12. Caesar set out from Rome. 13. Caesar wished to be first at Rome. 14. I will depart into the country at the beginning of summer. 15. My friend lived many years at Athens. 16. Your friend lived many years at my house. 17. Man}- apples lay on the ground. Sui)plementary P^xercises : — 1. I will dwell at Athens, l)ut you at Rome. 2. Many great generals were born at Rome. 3. lie died at Corinth. 4. The soldiers lie on the ground in summer. 5. Caesar, (when lie was) made qua3stor, hastened from Italy to Spain. T). He came into Italy. 7. They were with me both in peace and in war. 8. He returned from the city to the country. 9. I have lived at Athens, at Rome, and at Carthage. 10. When the speech had ])een delivered, Caesar departed. 11. He came to Rome in the consulship of Cicero. 12. In Ca^^sar's consulship, the Germans crossed the Rhine. NOTES AND QUESTIONS. 1. If urbs or oppidum is added in apposition, tlie preposition in must be used. How is the place to ivhich expressed ? Tlie place from which ? The }>lace at which, or where ? AVitli names of towns, liow is the place to tchich, the place frovi u-hich, and tlie place at irhich expressed ? With SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 239 nouns of tlio first declension, wliat form docs tlic locative take ? Write the locative of Roma, Athenae, Thebae. With nouns of the third declension, what form does the locative take ? AVrite the locative of Cures, Gades, Karthago. With nouns of the second declension, what form does the locative take? Write the locative of Argi (pi.)* Delphi (pi.)) Cdrinthus. With all plural noims, what form does the locative take ? Write the locative of Athenae, Argi, Thebae, Curgs, Delphi. Write the Latin for at home, on the ground, at Atliens, at Rome, at Cures, at Corinth, at Carthage. Is the preposition ever expressed with names of towns ? AVhen, and for what purpose ? Write in Latin : he icent to Home; he u-ent towards, or near, Home; lie came from Home; lie came from {the neighborhood of) Home. LESSON LXXVIII. SUBJUNOTIVE MODE. SUBJUNCTIVE OF SUM.-D^T\^IE OF POSSESSOR. Obs. 1. The verb asserts action or being. The Modes of the verb are used to denote the manner in which the action or being is asserted. The Indicative Mode asserts the action or being as a fact; as, I write. Here writing is asserted as an actual fact. The Imperative Mode asserts the action not as an actual or possible fact, but as a command ; as, James, write the letter. Writing is not asserted as a fact, but James is ordered to make it a fact. The Subjunctive Mode is used to express the action or being not as a fact, but as merely conceived, or thought of; as, if I should ivrite. Here irrlting is asserted not as an actual fact, but only as thought of or conceived in the mind, without regard to its becoming an actual fact. So with / may rcrite ; ivriting is not asserted as an actual fact, but only as a possible or doubtful fact. As the assertions of fact are made more often in principal sentences, it is obvious that the indicative chiefly is used in such clauses ; but the subjunctive is used, even in independent clauses, to express an action doubtfidly or indirectly, or to represent it as possible, not as 7'eal. EXAMPLES. 1. sint beati, ?nag they be happy. 2. amemus patriam, let us love our country. ?). quid f S.ciam, what am I to do ? Obs. 2. Tlie subjunctive in Ex. 1 expresses a 7vish, representing the action as desired ; the indicative would assert as a fact that they 240 FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. are happy. Ex. 2 expresses a command indirecthj, i.e. commanding an act in which the first or third person is to be the actor ; the imperative is used to express a direct command. The question in Ex. o implies doubt, or uncertainty, and hence the subjunctive is used. The indicative is used in asking questions that do not imply doubt. Obs. 3. The pupil should note that may, can, must, might, could, would, shoidd, when denoting emphasis or contrast, or meaning joe?-- mission or duty, are not the signs of the subjunctive, but require separate verbs ; as, the soldiers can Jiyht, meaning the soldiers are able to Jicjht — militgs pugnare possunt. May and miyht are usually rendered by the proper tenses of licet; can and could, by possum; must and .should, by Sportet, nScesse est, or the gerundive. Obs. 4. The translations of the subjunctive mode given below in connection with the conjugation of the verb are the most common meanings when used in independent sentences. Tlie meanings in dependent sentences will be illustrated in the exercises further on. SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. rUESENT. Singular. Plural. 1. sim, / may he. 2. sis, thou may St he. •>. sit, he may he. simus, we may be. sitis, yoii may be. sint, they may be. liMl'EUFECT. 1. essem, / should he. 2. esses, thou wouldst be. 3. esset, he ivould he. essemus, we should be. essetis, you icoidd be. essent, they ivould be. Peukect. 1. fuerim, / may have been. 2. fueris, thou may si have been. 3. fuerit, he may have been. fuerimus, we may have been. fueritis, you may have been. fuerint, they may have been. PLUPERrECT. 1. fuissem, / should have been. fuissemus, we shoidd have been. 2. fuisses, thou wouldst have been. \ fuissetis, you would have been. 3. fuisset, he would have been. fuissent, they would have been. fmTP,Jt^XOTlVE MODK. !41 TMriniATivK. Trks. 2. es, he Ihou. Fi'T. 2. esto, ihou shall he. 3. esto, Ite shall he. este, /><" //<". estdte, lie shall he. sunto, the 11 shall he. Infinitive. Participlks. Pres. esse, to he. Perf. fuisse, to have heen. FuT. fiiturus esse, or fore, to he about to he. futurus, -a, -um, ahout to he. Obs. 5. The subjunctive is sonietiines translated by the English Indicative ; sometimes by the Potential, with the auxiliaries vim/, might, luould, .should: sonietimes by tlie Subjunctive; sometinies by the Infinitive ; and it is often used for the Imperative, especially in prohibitions. EXAMPI.ES. 1. cum Sim, since I am. 5. adsum ut videam, / am here 2. sim, may I he. to see (that I may see'). 3. SI essem, if I were. G. simus, let us he, may ice he. 4. ne fugris, he thou 7iot. 7. si fuSrit, if he should have heen. Obs. 6. The Present Imperative has no first or third person. If it is required, in an imperative sentence, to use the first or third person, the subjunctive is to be used ; as, Singular. Plural. 1. sim, let me he. 2. es, he thou. 3. Bit, let him {her, it) he. simus, let us he. este, he ye. sint, let them he. 272. Instead of the regular forms of the Imperfect Sub- junctive, and the Future Infinitive of sum, the followinf> are frequently used : — Imperfect Subjunctive. Singular. Plural. forem = essem fores = esses foret — esset forent ^ essent Future Infinitive. fore = fiitiirus esse 242 FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. 273. Dative of P ossessor. EXAMPI.KS. 1. est mih! liber, / have a hook (among other things) ; or, 2. liber est meus, the book is mine (and no one else's) ; or, o. habeo librum, 1 have, I hold, I keep, a hook. Obs. From the foregoing examples the pupil will notice that possession may be expressed in three different ways ; the dative emphasizes the possessor, and is the usual Avay of expressing simple possession. The idiom is expressed in the following rule: — DATIVE OF POSSESSOR. 274. Rule XL. — The dative of the possessor is used witli the verh sum. VOCABII.AKY. obses, -idis, m. a v., hostaye. creo, -are, -Svi, -atum, make, choose, elect. persuadeo, -suadere, -suasi, -suasum, convince, persuade. divide, -vidSre, -visi, -visum, separate, divide. A116br6ges, -um, m.. the AUohrofies. testis, -is, M. & v., irituess. contineo, -tingre, -tinui, -tentum, hold in, hound. Sger, agri, m., field. IScus, -us, M., lake. Aeduus, -T, m., an Ai,diian. influo, -flugre, -fluxi, -fliixum, /7o?o into. EXERCISES. Tell the Mode, Tense, Number, and Person of the fol- lowing ; parse each word : — 1. Este, est, sunt. 2. Ero, sitis, esset. 3. Eramus, sfimus, esset. 4. Fuerit, fnissemus, sint. 5. P^iit, es, sim. G. P^iere, fueramus, essent. 7. Esse, fuisse, sunto. 8. Forent, fuerit, forem. 9. Esses, estis, essetis. 10. Multi rnihi sunt librl. 11. Sex nobis filii sunt. 12. Caesari erant multae leg-iones et fideles amIcT. FIllST CONJUGATION. — SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 24^:^) LESSON LXXIX. FIEST OONJUGATION.- SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 275. The Present and Imperfect Subjunctive Active are formed from the present stem ; the Perfect and Phiperfect from the perfect stem, by adding tlie verbal endings. SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. — ACTIVE. Pkkskxt. Singular. Plural. 1. amem, may 1 love. amemus, let us love. 2. ames, love thou. ametis, love ye. 3. amet, let him love. ament, let tliem love. Impekfect. 1. amarem, / should love. amaremus, ice should love. 2. amares, thou u-ouldst love. amaretls, you vwuld love. 3. amaret, he would love. amarent, they would love. Perfect. 1. amaverim, / maij have loved. amaverimus, we may have loved. 2. amaveris, thou viayst have loved, amaveritis, you may have loved. 3. amaverit, he may have loved. amaverint, they may have loved. Pluperfect. 1. amavissem, I should have loved. amavissemus, we should have loved. 2. amavisses, thou ivoiddst have Vd. amavissetis, you would have loved. 3. amavisset, he icould have loved. amavissent, they icould have loved. 1. The Analysis of the Tenses of the Subjunctive in the Active Voice is as follows : — Pres. Subj. : Pres. st. ama- (« changed to e) + personal endings. Impf. SuB.j. : " ama- + tense sign -re- + " " Pekf. Suii.r. : " amavi- + tense sign -ri- + " " Plup. SuB.j. : " amavi- -}- tense sign -sse- 4- " " 244 FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. 2. Translation of the Subjunctive: — 1. amet, let him love. 2. amemus, let us love. 3. cum venisset, iclien he had come, or har/ng come. 4. SI Caesar pugnet, ifCcesar {should) fujht. 5. si Caesar esset dux, if Ccesar were leader. G. Smaverit, suppose he (has) loved. 7. cum amavgrit, sitice he loved. 8. elves niei sint beati, may my felloiv-citizens he happy. 9. ne^ audiat, let him not hear. VOCABUI.ARY. trans-grSdior, -grSdi, -gressus sum, dep., crosa. extra, prep, and adv., outside of, beyond. incredibilis, -e, incredible. jungo, jungSre, junxi, junctum, Join, unite. Sagittarius, -ii, m., archer. excelsus, -a, -um, lofty. consanguineus, -a, -um, related by blood, kindred. in-fluo, -fluere, -fluxi, -fluxum, y/ort? into, empty. impSditus, -a, -um, part., hindered. EXERCISES. Tell the mode, tense, numl)er, and i)erson of the following : 1 . Anifiret, amemus, amet. 2. Amiivissem, amaverint, amarent. 8. Laudaret, laudavissent, landaverit. 4. Vocet, vocarent, vocavissent. o. Vulneres, vidneret, vulnerent. G. Exspectemus, exspectaremus, exspectavissemus. 7. Ro- gem, rogaverim, rogavissem. NOTES AND QUESTIONS. 1. Ne may ho an advorh, as ne ^met, let him not love ; ne may be a conjimction, as ne commeatu pr6hiberetur, castris idoneum 16cum delegit, he chose a suitable ji/ace for (i camp, that he raiyht not be cut off from sttpjdies (i.e. lest he shonhl be cut off, etc.) ; ne is an inter- rogative particle (always an enclitic), as audivitne, does lie hear? How many tenses has the subjunctive ? How is the imperfect formed ? SUBJUNCTIVE OF THE EOUK CONJUGATIONS. 245 LESSON LXXX. SUBJUNCTIVE OF THE EOUK CONJUGATIONS. ACTIVE VOICE. 276. The inflection of the Subjunctive Active of the four conjugations is as follows : — PAllTIAL PAKAKIGM. Tresknt. 1. amem moneam regam audiam 2. ames moneas regas audias 3. amet moneat regat audiat 1. amemus moneamus regamus audiamus 2. ametis moneatis regatis aiidiatis 3. ament moneant regant audiant Imperfect. 1. amarem monerem regerem audirem 2. amares moneres regeres audires 3. amaret moneret regeret audiret 1. amaremus moneremus regeremus audiremus 2. amaretis moneretis regeretis audiretis 3. amarent monerent regerent audlrent Perfect. 1. amaverim monuerim rexerim audiverim 2. amaveris monueris rexeris audiveris 3. amaverit monuerit rexerit audiverit 1. amaverimus monuerimus rexerimus audiverimus 2. amaveritis monueritis rexeritis audiveritis 3. amaverint monuerint rexerint audiverint Plfperfect. 1. aniavissem monuissem rexissem audivissem 2. amavisses monuisses rexisses audivisses 3. amavisset monuisset rexisset audivisset 1. amavissemus monuissemus rexissemus audivissemus 2. amavissetis monuissetis rexissetis avdivissetis 3, amavissent monuissent rexissent audivissent 246 FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. rStis, -is, F., raft. statuo, statugre, statui, sta tutum, place at. statura, -ae, f., size^ statue. nihil (indecl. neiit. noun), nothing. AOCAIJULAKY. lenitas, -atis, f., softness, smoothness. im-pedio, -ire, -ivi or -ii, -itum, hinde?'. funditor, oris, m., slinfjer. linter, -tris, f., boat. calvus, -a, -um, baUL EXERCISES. Tell the mode, tense, number, and person of the following : 1. Moneat, m(5neremus, monerent. 2. Monuerim, monu- issem, monuisseni. 3. Habeam, habeant, haberent. 4. De- leret, deleverim, delevissem. 5. Doceat, doceret, docuerit. 6. Regat, regeret, rexerit. 7. Regamus, regeremus, rexe- rimus. 8. Mittfimus, mitterent, misTssent. 9. Contendas, contenderes, contenderis. 10. Ducant, ducerent, dfixerint, duxissent. 11. Yincat, vicerit, vicisset. 12. Audiat, audiret, audiverit. 10. Audlvisset, audlremus, audiant. 14. Munias, munlres, mfuiiveris. 15. Venifitis, venlretis, veneritis. ' LESSON LXXXI. VEEBS. - SUBJUNCTIVE PASSIVE. 277. The inflection of the Subjunctive Passive of the four conjugations is as follows : — PARTIAL PARADIGM. rRKSP:NT. 1. amer monear regar audiar 2. ameris, or -re monearis, or -re regaris, or -re audiaris, or -re 3. ametur moneatur regatur audiatur 1. amemur moneamur regamur audiamur 2. amemini moneamini regamini audiamini .'}. amentur moneantur regantur audiantur VEIM'.S. SUB,IUNCTIVE PASSrVE. 247 ImI'ERK •xrr. 1. amarer monerer regerer audirer 2. amarer is, or -re monereris, or -re regereris, -re audireris, 0/ -re o. amaretur moneretur regeretur audiretur 1. amaremur moneremur regeremur audiremur 2. amaremini moneremini regeremini audiremini o. amarentur monerentur regerentur audirentur Peiifect. 1. amatus sim monitus sim rectus sim auditus sim 2. amatus sis monitus sis rectus sis auditus sis o. amatus sit monitus sit rectus sit auditus sit 1. amati simus moniti simus recti simus auditi simus 2. amati sitis moniti sitis recti sitis auditi sitis o. amati sint moniti sint recti sint auditi sint Pluperfect. 1. amatus essem monitus essem rectus essem auditus essem 2. amatus esses monitus esses rectus esses auditus esses 3. amatus esset monitus esset rectus esset auditus esset 1. amati essemus moniti essemus recti essemus auditi essemus 2. amati essetis moniti essetis recti essetis auditi essetis 8. amati essent moniti essent recti essent auditi essent EXERCISES. Tell the mode, tense, number, and person of the following : 1. Ametur, amarentur, amatus sit, amatus esset. 2. Ame- mur, amaremur, amati simus, amati essemus. 3. Lauder, laudarer, laudatus sim, laudatus essem. 4. Ediiceris, educa- reris, educatus sis, educatus esses. 5. Vocemur, vocaremur, vocati simus, vocatT essemus. 6. Moneamur, moneremur, moniti sTmus, momti essemus. 7. Docear, docerer, doctus sim. 8. Habeantur, haberentur, habitus sit. 9. Regatur, regeretur, rectus sit, rectus esset. 10. Mittamur, mitteremur. missus sit. 11. Vincar, vincantur, vincerentur. 12. Dicatur, diet! sTmus. 13. Audiatur, audiretur, auditus sit. 14. Mu- niamini, munirentur, mimitl sTmus. 15. Puuiatur, puniretur, punitT essent. 248 FIKST STEPS IN LATIN. LESSON LXXXII. SUBJUNCTIVE m INDEPENDENT SENTENCES. IMPERATIVE. 278. The Latin Subjunctive has two principal uses : — I. It is used in Independent Sentences to express — 1. A Wish {Optative Suhjunctioe) ; negative is ne. 2. An Exhortation or a Mild Command, chiefly in Prohibitions {Hortatory Subjunctice) , negative is ne. 3. A Question of Doubt or of Deliberation (Duhilatlre or Delihcr- ative Subjunctive) , negative is ne. 4. An Action as Possible, not as Real {Potential Subjunctive) ; negative is nou. 5. A Concession {Concessive Subjunctive) ; negative is ne. IL It is used in Dependent Clauses to express — 1. Condition {Conditional Clause, see 325). 2. Comparison {Comparative Clause, see 327). 3. Concession {Concessive Clause, see 328). 4. Purpose {Final Clause, see 321). 5. Ilesult {Consecutive Clause, see 322). 6. Characteristic {Relative Clause, see 323). 7. Cause {Causal Clause, see 330). 8. Time {Temporal Clause, see 331). 9. Indirect Question {Interrogative Clause, see 342). a. The Subjunctive is also used in relative clauses (see 355), in intermediate clauses (see 359), and in subordinate clauses in Indirect Discourse (see 346) . EXAMPI.ES. 1. (iitinam) militgs fortiores fuisseut, would that the soldiers had been brave. 2. pugnemus, let us Jight. 3. pugnet, let him fight. 4. ne pugnemus, let us not fight. 5. quid fScerem, what was I to do 1 6. ego censeam, / am inclined to think, or / should think. 7. sit clarus Scipio, granted that Scipio be renowned. SUBJUNCTIVE IN INDEPENDENT SENTENCES. 241) Obs. Ex. 1 expresses a vnsli^ and the verb is therefore in the Op- tative Subjunctive ; iitinam, vnmld that, that, l"re([uent]y precedes the optative subjunctive ; the negative particle is ne. Note, further, that the present and perfect imply that the wish may be fulfilled ; the imperfect and pluperfect, that the wish is not fulfilled, — the imperfect representing an unfulfilled wish in present time, the ])luperfect in past time. Exs. 2 and 3 express a nnld command, commanding an act in which the first or third person is the actor ; the verbs are in the Hortatory Subjunctive ; the negative particle is ne, not non. Ex. 4 expresses a Prohibition. Ex. 5 asks a delibera- tive or doubtful question ; the verb is in the Dubitative or Delibera- tive Subjunctive. Ex. 6 makes a cautious, polite, or modest statement, and the verb is in the Potential Subjunctive. Ex. 7 expresses a concession, and the Concessive Subjunctive is used. EXERCISES. Translate into English : — 1. Scribamus. 2. Ne scribamus. 3. Laudenuis nomen Del. 4. Mall' secernant se a bonis. ^ 5. Utinam pater veniat. G. Amenius. 7. Veniamus in urbem. 8. Sint beati.^ 9. Utinam magister discipulos laudet. 10. Utinam magister discipulos laudaret. 11. Utinam in IT tore maris ambCilarem. 12. Utinam magister discipulos laudavisset. Translate into Latin : — 1. Let us love our country. 2. Let us praise our friends. 3. May you be happy. 4. Do not write the letter. 5. Would that he were present. 6. May the pupil study. 7. May the teacher praise the pupils. 8. Would that the teacher praised the pupils. 9. Would that the teacher had praised the pupils. 10. Let him walk with his friends. NOTES AND QUESTIONS. 1. See 83. 4. 2. Note that (1) when the ivish is for something future, the present subjunctive is used, hut the perfect may he used; (2) wlien it is for something present, the imperfect subjunctive is used ; (3) when it is for .something past, the pluperfect subjunctive is used. As the present and ^Hist cannot be changed, the wish expressed by these tenses is unfulfilled. Mention the chief uses of the subjunctive. Give the uses of the subjunctive in independent clauses. "What negative is used with the subjunctive 1 What with the imperative '? How many persons has the imperative 1 How is a future, a present, and a past wish expressed 1 250 FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW. Subjunctive in 1. Optative . . 2. Hortatory . . 3. Dubitative, or Independent -^ Deliberative Sentences 4. Potential . . - 5. Concessive . . Wishes, r Exhortations. ■\ Commands. 1^ Prohibitions, f Questions of — Doubt. Deliberation. Indignation. Impossibility, r Cautious, ") ■{ Polite, or ^statements. l^ Modest J . Concession. LESSON LXXXIII. DEPONENT VEEBS OF THE PIEST CONJUGATION. - ABLATIVE WITH DEPONENTS. 279. Many verbs are used only m tiic Passive Voice, but with an Active meaning. These are called Deponent {laying aside), because they lay aside the active form and the jyassive meaning. 1. They occur in all four conjugations, and the conjugation to which they belong is determined by the characteristic vowel of the present infinitive. They are inflected like the passive of other verbs, and have also the gerund, participles, and supines of the active voice. 2. Deponents of the First Conjugation are inflected as follows : PRINCIPAL PARTS. Present. Pres. Inf. Perf. Ind. 1. miror 2. hortor 3. glorior 4. vagor mirari hortari gl5riari vagari miratus sum, admire. hortatus sum, exhort. gloriatus sum, boast. vagatus sum, irander about. DEPONENT VERBS. 251 I'AKTIAL, PARADIGM. Indicative. Pkesknt. Subjunctive. miror, I admire. mirer, may T he admired. miraris, -re, thou advdrest. mireris, -re, he thou admired. miratur, lie admires. miretur, let him he admired. miramur, ve admire. miremur, let us be admired. miramini, you admire. miremini, he ye admired. mirantur, thetj admire. mirentur, let them he admired. Imi'erfkct. mirabar, I admired. mirarer, I should admire mirabaris, -re, thon admiredst. mirareris,-re, thou wouldst admire. mirabatur, he admired. miraretur, he would admire. mirabamur, ice admired. miraremur, we would admire. mirabamini, you admired. miraremini, you would admire. TnTrabantur, they admired. mirarentur, they would admire. FUT IRE. mirabor, / shall admire. miraberis, -re, thou wilt admire. mirabitur, he will admire. mirabimur, we shall admire. mirabimini, you icill admire. mirabuntur, they will admire. Peri ^ECT. miratus sum, I have admired. miratus sim, / may have miratus es, thou hast admired. miratus sis, thou mayst have S miratus est, he has admired. miratus sit, he may have a mirati sumus, tve have admired. mirati simus, we may have •^r mirati estis, you have admired. mirati sitis, you may have mirati sunt, they have admired. mirati sint, they may have Plupe RFECT. miratus eram, T had admired. miratus essem, / should ^ miratus eras, thou hadst admired. miratus esses, thou icouldst miratus erat, he had admired. miratus esset, he would mirati eramus, we had admired. mirati essemus, we should mirati eratis, j/ou had admired. mirati essetis, you would mirati erant, they had admired. mirati essent, they icoidd J 252 FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. Fi TURK Perfect. miratus ero, / shall have admired. miratus eris, thou wilt have admired. miratus erit, he rvill have admired. mirati erimus, ive shall have admired. mirati eritis, i/ou will have admired. mirati erunt, theij loill have admired. Imperative. Singular Pre.s. 2. mirare, admire thou. Fi;t. 2. imra.tor, thou shalt admire. 3. mirator, he shall admire. Plural. miramini, admire ye. mirantor, theij shall admire. Infinitive. Prks. mirari, to admire. Peri- miratus esse, to have admired. FuT miratiirus esse, to be about to admire. F. P. miratus fore, to have been about to admire. Participles. Prks. miraLna, ad miritij. Flt. mira.iu.rvi3, about to admire. Perk mirsiina, having admired Gkr. mirsindvia, to be a din ired. Gerund. Gen. mirandi, of admirinfj. \cv. mirandum, admirintj. Dat. Toirsnidb, to,/or admirinfj. Acl. m.ira,ndb,ivith,froin, hi/ admirinfj. Supine. T, _ _, ^ J ■ , - -,- ( to (iflmire, loRAiER. miratum, IGMS. Indicative. Pres. miror vereor sequor potior miraris, or -re miratur vereris, or -re veretur sequeris, or -re sequitur potiris, or -re potitur Imp. FUT. Perk. miramur miramini mirantur mirabar mirabor miratus sum vereraur veremini verentur verebar verebor veritus sum sequimur sequimini sequuntur sequebar sequar secutus sum potimur potimini potiuntur potiebar potiar potitus sum Plu]>. miratus eram veritus eram seciitus eram potitus eram F. P. miratus ero veritus ero secutus ero potitus ero Subjunctive. Pres. Imp. Perk. mirer mirarer miratus sim verear vererer veritus sim sequar sequerer secutus sim potiar potirer potitus sim Pn;p. miratus essem veritus essem seciitus essem potitus essem Imperative. Pres. Flt. mirare mirator verere veretor sequere sequitor potire potitor Infinitive. Pres. Perk. mirari miratus (-a, -um) esse vereri veritus (-a, -um) esse sequi secutus (a, -um) esse potiri potitus (-a, -um) esse Fut. miratiirus (a, -um) esse veriturus (-a, -um) esse secuturus (-a, -um) esse potiturus (-a -um) esse F. 1'. miratus (-a, -um) fore veritus (a, -um) fbre seciitus (-a, -um) fore potitus (-a, -um) fore Participles. Pres. FlTT. mirans miraturus (-a, -um) verens veritufus (-a, -um) sequens seciitiirus (-a, -um) potiens potiturus (a -um) Perk. miratus (-a, -um) veritus (-a, -um) seciitus (-a, -um) potitus (-a, -um) Ger. mirandus (-a, -um) verendus (-a, -um) sequendus (-a, -um) potiendus (a, -um) DEPO:^! ENT VERBS. 255 Gerund. Gkn. DAT. Arc. AliL. mirandi mirando mirandum mirando verendi verendo verendum verendo sequendi sequendd sequendum sequendo potiendi p6tiend5 potiendum potiendo Supines. POKMEU Latteu miratum miratu veritum veritu secutum secutu potitum potitu Obs. 1. The future infinitive is to be given in the active form (the passive being rare) ; thus of sgquor it is sScuturus esse, not sgcutum iri. Obs. 2. The gerund and gerundive of the 3d and 4th conjuga- tions, instead of -endl, -endus, may, especially after i, end in -undl and -undus ; as, p6tiundus, fScundi. SEMI-DEPONENT VERBS. 283. Four verbs, having no perfect stems, take the form of the passive in the perfect, pluperfect, and future perfect tenses only. Thej^ form the tenses derived from the present stem regularly. Sucli verbs, being half active and half pas- sive in form, are called semi-deponents^ or neuter passives. They are : — Present. Pres. Inf. Perf. Passive. audeo gaudeo soleo fido audere gaudere solere fidere ausus sum, dare. gavisus sum, rejoice. solitus sum, am. accustomed. fisus sum, trust. Syn. Pr6ficiscor, to set out on a journey ; iter fScgre, to travel, either at home or abroad ; peregrinari, to travel abroad. EXERCISES. Translate into English : — 1. Caesar suos milites cohortatus est. 2. Omnes admi- rantur splendorem virtutis. 3. Milites agros populabantur. 4. Ml fill, verere parentes. 5. Intuemur praeclara virtutis exempla. G. Virtutis viam sequimur. 7. Amicus moritur. 256 FIRST STEPS IX LATIN. 8. Hostes url)em aggrediuntiir. 9. Piier, iie nientltus sis. 10. Magnos homines virtute metlmur, noii fortuna. 11. Prae- ceptor gaudebat. 12. CTves maxime gavisi sunt. 13. Remus Numitoris greges infestare solitus est. Translate into Latin : — 1, We admire, we fear, we approach,^ we measure. 2. You admire, 3'ou fear, you approach, you measure. 3. We ad- mire, we were admiring, we have admired, we had admired. 4. Vie rejoice, they rejoice. 5. We have rejoiced, they have rejoiced. G. We dare, we dared, we have dared. 7. We trust, we trusted, we liave trusted, we will trust. 8. The garden of the king is adorned. NOTKS AN1> QUESTIONS. 1. Use the proper tense of aggrSdior. Define deponent verbs. Why are these verbs so called 1 Of what conjugation are tliey ? How many participles may a deponent verb have ? What deponents have four partici])les ? How many stems has a deponent verb i What active forms have deponent verbs ? LESSON LXXXV. PEEIPHEASTIO CONJUGATIONS. — DATIVE OF AGENT. 284. The Periphrastic^ Conjugations are formed by combining the tenses of esse with the future active participle and with the gerundive. I. Active Periphrastic Cotijtigation. 285. The Active Periphrastic Conjugation, formed by combining the tenses of esse with the future active parti- ciple, denotes an intended or fntiire action. Obs. The subjunctive has no future tense; its place may be supplied, whenever it is necessary to distinguish accurately future from present time in su):)ordinate clauses, by the periphrastic sub- junctive, which may be called the future subjunctive. PERIPHRASTIC CONJUGATIONS. 257 PAKTIAI. PARADIGM. Indicative. Subjunctive. Pres. Imp. Put. Perf. Plup. P. P. amaturus sum, / am about to love. amaturus es, thou art about to love. amaturus est, he is about to love. amaturi sumus, we are about to love. amaturi estis, you are about to love. amaturi sunt, they are about to love. amaturus eram,^ / was about to love, etc. amaturus ero,'^ / shall be about to love, etc. amaturus fui, / have been about to love, etc. amaturus fueram, / had been about to love. amaturus fuero (not used). amaturus sim amatiirus sis amatiirus sit amatdri simus amaturi sitis amaturi sint amaturus essem amaturus fuerim amaturus fuissem Infinitive. Pres. Perf. amaturus esse, to be about to love. amaturus fuisse, to have been about to love. II. Passive* Pe7nphrastic Conjugation, 286. The Passive Periphrastic Conjugation, formed by combining the tenses of esse with the gerundive, denotes necessity or duty. PARTIAL PARADIGM. Indicative. Subjunctive. Pres. amandus sum, 1 am to be loved. amandus sim amandus es, thou art to be loved. amandus sis amandus est, he is to be loved. amandus sit amandi sumus, ive are to be loved. amandi simus amandi estis, you are to be loved. amandi sitis amandi sunt, they are to be loved. amandi sint Imp. amandus eram, I was to be loved. amandus essem Put. amandus ero,^ / shall be [worthy ) to be loved. Pkkf. amandus fui, / have been, or ivas to be loved. amandus fuerim Plup. amandus fueram, / had been to be loved. amandus fuissem P. P. amandus fuero Infinitive. Pres. amandus esse, to befit to be loved. Perf. amandus fuisse, to have been fit to be loved. FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. 287. Dative of the Agent. EXAMPLES. 1. diligentia cdlenda est nobis, ive must cultivate a habit of carefulness (lit., (a hahit of) carefulness is to us to he cultivated). 2. Caes^i omnia uno tempSre 6rat Agenda, Ccesar had to do everi/lhing at one time (lit., everytliing iras to (Uesar to he done at one time). 3. omnibus m6riendum est, all must die (lit., {tlie necessity of) dying is to all). 4. Caesari in Galliam mtturandum, Coisar had to hasten into Gaul (lit., (the necessity of) hastening into Gaul was to Ccesar) . Obs. In Exs. 1 and 2 note that with the gerundive the person upon whom the obligation rests of doing the action is expressed by the dative ; this dative expresses not merely the doer of the action, ])ut the person interested in doing it, and is, therefore, to be classi- fied under the Dative of Interest (see 193. 3). Xote that the verbs in Exs. 1 and 2 are transitive,^ and the periphrastic forms have a subject with which they agree in gender, number, and case ; in Exs. 3 and 4 the verbs are intransitive, the periphrastic forms have no subject, but are of the third person singular, neuter gendei-. The verb is here used impersonally, but the agent is in the dative. Tlie idiom may be stated as follows: — DATIVE OF AGENT. 288. Rule XLII. — The dative of the agent is used with the g^erimdive to denote the person intereste// all. G. In what two ways may this dative be translated ? LESSON LXXXVL TABLE or THE POUE OONJUaATIONS. 289. We have learned that there are three stems on which all the tenses of the verb are formed : — 1. The Present Stem, found by dropping -re of the Present TnfinitiA^e Active, on which are formed the tenses expressing in- complete action ; viz., a. The Present, Imperfect, and Future Indicative, active and passive. h. The Present and Imperfect Si^bjunctive, active aiul passive. c. The Imperative, active and passive. d. The Present Infinitive, active and passive. e. The Present Active Participle. /'. The Gerund and the Gerundive. 260 FIKST STEPS IN LATIN. TKESENT STKM. — ACTIVE VOICE. Tense, Mode, and Pei'son. 1st Con j. 2d Conj. 3d Conj. 4tli Conj. 1 . 1 Ui Sin(/. 1 aina-o ^ mune-0 reg-e-o i aiidi-0 > 2 uma-s iiK^ne-s reg-i-s audi-s H 3 Tima-t moue-t reg-i-t audi-t ^ PlurA amfi-mus moiie-mus reg-i-mus audi-mus ^ 2 ama-tis mone-tis reg-i-tis audl-tis 3 uma-nt ^ mune-nt reg-u-ut audiu-ut > ,Sm^. 1 ame-m monea-m reg-a-m audia-m 2 ame-s munea-s reg-a-s audia-s 3 fimg-t munea-t reg-a-t audia-t 4^ Plur. 1 ame-m us monea-mus reg-a-mus audia-mus S 2 ame-tis munea-tis reg-a-tis audia-tis ^ QQ 3 ame-nt mouea-nt reg-a-ut audia-nt ^ .Smry.2 ama mono reg-e audi g Plur. 2 ama-te mune-te reg-i-te audi-te Infinitive ama-re moiie-re reg-d-re audl-re Participle ama-ns mune-ns r?g-e-ns audie-ns n Gen. ama-ndi muiic-iidi reg-c-ndl audie-ndi S5 I)at. ama-udo mune-ndo reg-e-ndo audie-ndo « Ace. ama-ndum mone-ndum reg-e-ndum audie-udum O Ahl. ama-ndo mone-udo reg-e-ndo audie-udo ^ Sing. 1 ama-ba-m muiie-ba-m rgg-e-ba-m audie-ba-m 2 ama-ba-s moiie-ba-s reg-e-ba-s audie-ba-s 3 ama-ba-t mone-ba-t reg-e-ba-t audie-ba-t d PlurA ama-ba-mus mone-ba-mus r6g-e-ba-mus audic-ba-mus t n 2 ama-ba-tis munc-ba-tis rgg-e-ba-tis audie-ba-tis 3 ama-ba-iit mone-ba-nt r(^g-e-ba-nt audie-ba-ut H ■ 9 ama-bi-s mone-bi-s reg-e-s audie-s H 3 ama-bi-t mone-bi-t r6g-6-t audiC-t . O P^wr. 1 ama-bi-mus mone-bi-mus r6g-e-mus audie-mus t 2 ama-bi-tis mune-bi-tis reg-e-tis audie-tis s 3 ama-bu-nt mone-bu-iit reg-e-nt audie-nt ,S'mr/.2 ama-to mone-to rCg-i-to audl-to 3 ama-to moiie-to rog-i-to audi-to ps Plur. 2 ama-tote mone-tote reg-i-tote audl-tote 3 ama-nto mune-nto rC'g-u-nto audiu-nto TABI.E OF THF: FOUR CONJUGATIONS. 261 2. The Perfect Stem (found by adding to the present stem -VI for the 1st and 4th conjugations ; -vl, or generally -m, for the 2d; and -SI to the verb-stem of the 3d), on which are formed the tenses in the active voice that express completed action ; viz., PLurEUFECT, and FuTiinE Perfect a. The Perfect, Indicative. b. The Perfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive. c. The Perfect Infinfiive. PERFKCT STEM. Tense, Mode, and Person. 1st Conj. 2d Conj. ,3d Conj. 4th Conj. < O P Sing. 1 2 2 3 amav! amavi-sti amavi-t amavi-mus amavi-stis amavc-runt, re monui monul-sti monui-t monui-mus monui-stis monue-runt, re rexi rexl-sti rexi-t rexi-mus rexi-stis rexe-runt, re audivi audivi-sti audivi-t audivi-mus audivi-stis audive-runt, re f4 > p ,S'/«r/. 1 2 3 P^ur. 1 2 3 amavC-ri-m araave-ri-s amavC-ri-t amave-ri-nms amav6-ri-tis aniave-ri-nt monud-ri-m monue-ri-s monue-ri-t monu(5-ri-raus mouu6-ri-tis monuc-ri-nt rexe-ri-m rC'xe-ri-s rexe-ri-t rexe-ri-mus rex6-ri-tis rexe-ri-nt audive-ri-m audive-ri-s audive-ri-t audive-ri-mus audive-ri-tis audive-ri-nt Infinitive amavi-sse monul-sse rexi-sse audivi-sse i & I > 1 Sine/. 1 2 3 Plur. 1 2 3 amave-ra-m amave-ra-s amave-ra-t amavc-ra-mus amave-ra-tis amave-ra-nt monue-ra-m monu6-ra-s monuC-ra-t monuS-ra-mus monug-ra-tis monue-ra-nt rexe-ra-m rexc-ra-s rexc-ra-t rexe-ra-mus rexe-ra-tis rexe-ra-nt audiv6-ra-m audive-ra-s audiv6-ra-t audivg-ra-mus audiv6-ra-tis audive-ra-nt > i m >Smf/. 1 2 3 Plur. 1 2 3 amavi-sse-m amavi-sse-s amavi-sse-t amavi-sse-mus amavi-sse-tis amavi-sse-nt monui-sse-m monui-sse-s monui-sse-t monui-sse-mus monui-sse-tis monui-sse-nt rexi-sse-m rexi-sse-s rexi-sse-t rexi-ssc-mus rexi-ssc-tis rexi-sse-nt audlvi-sse-m audivi-sse-s audivi-sse-t audivi-sse-mus audivi-ssc-tis audivi-sse-nt >- H O ft ;2; Sing. 1 2 3 PZwr. 1 2 3 amave-ro amave-ri-s amave-ri-t amave-ri-mus amave-ri-tis amave-ri-nt monu6-ro monue-ri-s monue-ri-t monue-ri-mus monue-ri-tis monue-ri-iit rcxe-ro rexc-ri-s rcxe-ri-t rcxe-ri-mus rexe-ri-tis rexe-ri-nt audiv6-ro audive-ri-s audive-ri-t audive-ri-mus audivc-ri-tis audive-ri-nt 262 FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. THE FOUR CONJUGATIONS. -ACTIVE VOICE. Give the meani euphonic changes, each of the followi 1. audit 2. eriidiebat 3. amamus 4. d6cemus 5. rggit G. vScemus 7. vulnerat 8. Sma 9. timent 10. monebunt 11. culpabant 12. credunt lo. mittunt 14. frangitis 15. terretis 10. laudabit 17. clauslnius 18. narrant Recapitulation, ng, stem, formation, mode, tense, number, duxSrimus ^ miserunt eriidivgrant timuimus fregisti clausSris rexgramus scripsgram legSrant d6cuerunt scribe donavgrint d6mui d51uimus movSrit audivistis legist! dScuistis * principal parts, and person of Iggebat^ puniverunt pangunt patent persuasgrat d6cebunt lauda(vg)ro erudi(v)grit ducebat exercebis ertldi(vi)stl discit hSbitaverunt v6cat scripsSro dgdit tgnugrat^ narrate Supplementary Exercises : — 1. Lauda, exerce, scribe, obedi. 2. Laudemus, exer- ceamus, scrlbamiis, obediamus. 3. Utinam pater fabiihim novam narret ! 4. Fidem servemus. 5. Tacete, puerl. 0. Laudate, exercete, scrlbite, obedite. 7. Copias majores haberemus. 8. Utinam pater veniat ! 1). Ne pugnemus. 10. Dicit Caesarem oppidum expugnavTsse. 11. DIcit Cae- sarem oppidum expugnare. 12. Caesar in Gallia hiemare constituit. 13. Litteras scribamus. Translate into Latin : — 1. He praises. 2. We teach. 3. They write. 4. He hears. 5. The3Mvere teaching. 6. He will write. 7. They will hear. 8. We do not ask. 1). They are reading. TABLE OF THE FOUR CONJUGATIONS. 26:J 10. Praise the l)oy. 11. Do not blame the boy. 12. Let us hear.^ 13. May we hear? 14. AVe have praised. 15. They had taught. IG. They wrote. 17. lie has heard. 18. We have sent. 19. Thou wilt have heard. 20. lie has taught. 21. I have called, 'n. I had read. 23. I shall have written. 24. I had heard. 'Ih. They had sent. 26. They were teaching. 27. You did not fear. 28. Thou wert praising. 29. I will hear. 30. Ye write. 31. I shall have called. 32. Ye have punished. 33. Do not punish. 34. Do not write. 35. Praise ye the l)oys. 30. I gave. 37. I have given. 38. We have instructed. 39. AV^rite the letter. Supplementary Exercises': — 1. May you write the letter. 2. He determines to remain' in the city. 3. He says that Caesar is storming the town. 4. Let us instruct the boys. 5. Would that my friend had written the letter ! 6. AYould that my father had told the story ! 7. He determines to write. 8. May the teaclier praise the scholars. 9. Praise ye, teach ye, write ye, punish ye. 10. Would that the teacher had not punished the scholar ! NOTES AND QUESTIONS. 1. The first person singular is Smo for Sma-o ; rego for rege-o. 2. The translation is, — Pres. I loce, aia loving, do love, etc. Pp:rf. / have loved, etc. Imp. / was lovinrj, did love, etc. AoR. / loved, etc. FuT. I shall or icill love, etc. Plup. / had loved, etc. FuT. Perf. I shall or tvill have loved. 3. Account for the x in the perfect. 4. A few verbs of the second conjugation form tlieir jiarticipial stem without a connecting vowel ; as, doceo, doctum. 5. Verbs of the third conjugation with a short stem-syllable take their perfect stem by adding -I to the verb-stem, and lengthening the stem-syllable (« is changed to e) ; as, Sgo, egi. G. Keview the rules for the subjunctive in independent clauses. 7. Review the rules for the uses of the infinitive. 264 FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. PRESENT STEM. — PASSIVE VOICE. Tense, Mo do, and Person. 1st Conj. 2d Conj. 3i\ Conj. 4th Conj. Sinq. 1 ftma-or 1 mone-ur reg-or audi-or > 2 ama-ris, -re mone-ris, -re reg-e-ris,-re audi-ris, -re 5; 3 ama-tur mone-tur reg-i-tur audl-tur Plur.l ama-mur m( )nc-mur rt'g-i-mur audi-mur J5 2 5ma-mmi mone-mini reg-i-mini audi-mini l-( 3 ama-ntur moue-utur reg-u-ntur audiu-ntur .S'm.g. 1 a,m6-r monea-r reg-a-r audia-r 2 ame-ris, -re ni()nea-ris,-re reg-a-ris, -re audia-ris 3 ame-tiir mrmea-tur reg-a-tur audia-tur P/7/r.l ame-mur m( >nea-mur reg-a-mnr audia-mur ;^ 2 ame-mmi munefi-mini reg-a-mini audia-mini 02 3 Time-ntur monea-ntur rC'g-a-ntur audia-ntur Pi^ Sinfj.2 tlma-re moiu'-re rCg-C-re audi-re Plur.3 jlma-mlui monC'-minl reg-i-mini audi-miui Sing.l amri-ba-r iiiuiie-ba-r rdg-e-bil-r audie-ba-r 2 ama-ba-ris,-re m5ne-ba-ri8,-re rgg-e-ba-ris, -re audie-ba-ris,-re ^ 3 runa-ba-tur mone-ba-tur r^g-e-ba-tur audie-ba-tur Phn\ 1 ama-ba-mur nione-ba-mur rdg-e-ba-mur audie-ba-mur » 2 ama-ba-mini inone-bri-mini r6g-e-bri-mini audie-ba-mini «M 3 rima-ba-ntiir mone-ba-ntur rog-e-ba-ntur audie-ba-ntur i .S'/wv. 1 araa-re-r moue-re-r r^g-g-re-r audi-re-r s 2 t1ma-re-ris,-re niftnC'-rr'-ris, -re rCg-e-rc-ris, -re audi-re-ris,-re 3 ama-re-tur mune-re-tur rCg-C-re-tur audi-re-tur p PZ?/?'.l r»ma-re-raur mone-re-mur rgg-6-re-mur audi-re-mur n 2 ama-rc-mini raone-re-miiii rCg-CM'o-mTni audi-re-mini 02 3 ilraa-re-ntur mone-re-ntur r6g-o-re-utur audi-re-utur H Sin;/. 1 ama-bo-r muiie-bo-r rCg-a-r audia-r t* 2 ama-bC-ris.-re nionc-be-ris, -re r6g-e-ris, -re audie-ris, -re 5 3 ama-bi-tur nione-bi-tur r6g-e-tur audiC'-tur s Plur.l rima-bl-mur mone-bi-mur r6g-e-mur audie-mur A 2 Jlma-bi-mini mone-bl-mini r6g-e-mini audie-mini 3 ftma-bu-ntur inone-bu-ntur rgg-e-utur audie-ntur b; o s "A O /Smf/. 1 2 3 rinr. 1 2 3 ama-tu-s 2 sum -ta es -tu-m est -ti siinms -tae estis -ta sunt moni-tu-s sum -ta es -tu-m est -ti sumus -tae estis -ta sunt rec-tu-s sum -ta es -tu-m est -ti sumus -tae estis -ta sunt audi-tu-s sum -ta es -tu-m est -ti stimus -tae estis -ta sunt Sing. 1 2 3 P^«r. 1 2 3 ama-tu-s sim -ta SIS -tu-m sit -ti simus -tae sitis -ta sint munl-tu-s sim -ta SIS -tu-m sit -ti simus -tae sitis -ta sint rec-tu-s sim -ta sis -tu-m sit -ti simus -tae sitis -ta sint audi-tu-s sim -ta sis -tu-m sit -ti simus -ti sitis -ta sint Particip. ama-tu-s, -ta, -tu-m; pi. -ti, -tae, -ta moni-tu-s, -ta, -tu-m; pi. -^ti, -tae, -ta rec-tu-s, -ta, -tu-m; pl.-ti, -tae, -ta audi-tu-s, -ta, -tu-m; pl.-ti, -tae, -ta Infinitive ama-tu-s, -ta, -tu-m, -ti, -tae, -ta esse moni-tu-s, -ta, -tu-m, -ti, -tae, -ta esse rec-tu-s, -ta, -tu-m, -ti, -tae, -ta esse audi-tu-s, -ta, -tu-m, -ti, -tae, -ta esse 5 M ^wir/. 1 o 3 Plur. 1 2 3 ama-tu-s eram -ta eras -tu-m drat -ti gram us -tae gratis -ta grant moni-tu-s gram -ta gras -tu-m grat -ti gramus -tae gratis -ta -grant rec-tu-s gram audi-tu-s gram -ta gras -ta eras -tu-m grat | -tu-m grat -ti gramus -ti gramus -tae gratis -tae gratis -ta grant -ta grant 1 Sing. 1 2 3 Plur.l 2 3 ama-tu-s essem -ta esses -tu-m esset -ti essemus -tae essetis -ta essent moni-tu-s essem -ta esses -tu-m esset -ti essemus -tae essetis -ta essent rec-tu-s essem -ta esses -tu-m esset -ti essemus -tae essetis -ta essent audi-tu-s essem -ta esses -tu-m esset -ti essemus -tae essetis -ta essent s "A M ^S'm.g. 1 3 Plur. 1 2 3 ama-tu-s gro -ta gris -tu-m grit -ti grim us -tae gritis -ta grunt monl-tu-s gro -ta gris -tu-m grit -ti grlmus -tae gritis -ta grunt rec-tu-s gro -ta gris -tu-m grit -ti grimus -tae gritis -ta grunt audi-tu-s gro -ta gris -tu-m grit -ti grimus -tae gritis -ta grunt F. Inf. Act. F. P. Inf. Act. ama-tiiru-s,-ra, -rum esse ama-tiiru-s,-ra, -rum fuisse moni-turu-s, -ra, -rum esse moni-tiiru-s, -ra, -rum fuisse rec-turu-s, -ra, -rum esse rec-turu-s, -ra, -rum fuisse audi-turu-s,-ra, -rum esse audi-turu-s, -ra, -rum fuisse F. Inf. Pass. F. P. Inf. Pass. ama-tu-m iri ama-tu-s, -ta, -tu-m fore moni-tu-m iri moni-tu-s, -ta, -tu-m fore rec-tu-m iri rec-tu-s, -ta, tu-m fore audi-tu-m iri audi-tu-s, -ta, -tu-m fore F. Part. Act. ama-turu-s, -ra, -ru-m moni-turu-s, -ra, -ru-m rec-triru-s,-ra, -ru-m audi-turu-s, -ra, -ru-m F. Supines. L. Supines. ama-tu-m ama-tu moni-tu-m moni-tu rec-tu-m rec-tu audi-tu-m audi-tii 266 FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. THE FOUR CONJUGATIONS.-PASSIVE VOICE. Mecajntiilatioii, Give the meaning, stem, formation, principal parts, euphonic changes, mode, tense, number, and person of each of the following : — 1. narratur 2. docentur'^ 3. ISgebantur* 4. audiebar 5. in6neris 6. vScabgris 7. puniuntur 8. duc6ris'5 9. vincar 10. narrantur 11. mdvemur 12. dScere pugros 18. auditor 11. Smemur amati sumus docti sunt auditus est missa est eruditi sunt lectus est vScatus es munitum est puniti eramus laudatus Srat laudatae sunt pugri exerciti sunt puella ornata est mSniti erant videmini vincebaris mSnebunt aedificatis paratT eramus eruditur punitae sunt educator oppugnata est ediicati fnSrant culpabaris laudetur visi erant cingetur Supplementary P^xercises ; — 1. Discipulus a magistro laudatur. 2. Puer, bene edu- cator. 3. Laborii. 4. DTcit puer se laudiltum esse. o. Dc- ])enuis laudari. G. MTlites jussT sunt pugnare. 7. Disci j)uli fi magistro docentur. 8. Credo eum illos pueros laudaturum esse. 0. BonT discipull stfident exercerl in litterarum studils. Translate into Latin : — 1. He was told. 2. They are telling, o. I was (being) taught. 4. We are taught. 5. He is heard. G. Tliey will be taught. 7. We shall be sent. 8. He was conquered. 9. They were seen. 10. I was being called. 11. Thou wilt have been blamed. 12. He is being praised, lo. Thou wilt have been praised. 14. They have been sent. 15. They have been called. 16. They will have been heard. 17. She has been taught. 18. He has been heard. 19. Ye have been thp: four conjugations. 267 praised. 20. She has been heard. 21. The bo}' had been taught. 22. Call ye. 23. Hear ye. 24. We are led. 25. The}^ are exercised. 2G. We have been exercised. 27. We had been instructed. 28. They have been punished. 29. It has been finished. 30. He is sent. 31. The town has been stormed. 32. It is being read. Remember the formula for converting a sentence into the passive form : — S. V. T. O. magister laudat pugrum S. V. p. Ab. of Agent. puer laudatur a magistro Obs. If the ablative expresses not the Agent or Doer of the action, but only the cause, ineans, or instrument, no preposition is used. Change the following to the passive form ; translate into Latin : — 1. The master praises the boys. 2. The general punishes the soldiers. 3. The father is calling tlie boy. 4. The arrow wounds the soldier. 5. The teacher praises the boys and the girls. 6. The man writes the letter. 7. The soldiers storm the town. Supplementary Exercises : — 1. The soldiers are praised by their commander. 2. The war has been finished. 3. The soldier was killed by a jave- lin. 4. Let those boys be praised. 5. Let the letter be written. 6. I think these soldiers will finish the war. 7. They desire to depart. 8. The men are commanded to fight. NOTES AND QUESTIONS. 1. The translation is — Pres. T am being loved, or / am Perf. I have been loved, etc. loved, etc. AoR. I was loved, etc. Imp. I was being loved, etc. Plup. I had been loved, etc. FuT. / shall or will be loved, etc. F, P. / shall or icill have been loved, etc. 2. The form is inflected as follows : — Masc. Fern. Neuter. Sing. Smatus amata amatum sum, es, etc. Pltir. Smatl Smatae amata sumus, estis, etc. 268 FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. 3. See above, note 4. 4. Notice that reg + tus = rectus. 5. Verb-stem = due- -}- turn = ductum. How do you distinguish the conjugations 1 Give the present stem of the first conjugation. What is meant hy the principal parts of a verb 1 What are the principal parts in the passive voice ? How is the perfect of each conjugation formed ? What verbs take two accusatives of the same i)erson or tiling ? Give the tense-sign of the imperfect indicative active. How is tlie participial stem of each conjugation formed? AVhat is the tense-sign of the present? (Ans. It has none.) What is the tense-sign of the future perfect? {Ans. aniavS-ri-mus. ) Has the indicative any special sign to mark the mode? (^l».s-. No.) What are the personal endings of the present ? These endings were originally personal pronouns, and have, accordingly, the force of pro- nouns in English. Kemember that the verbal endings contain — 1. Tlie tense-sign ; as -ha- in Sma-ba-m. 2. Tlie mode-vowel ; as -a- in rgg-a-s. 3. The personal ending ; as -s in rgg-a-s. Are the future participle active and supines formed from this stem ? (Ans. Strictly they are not; the future participle active is an adjective form to nouns in -tor, -sor : as, lec-tor, fut. part, lec-turus ; the supine is a noun of the fourth conjugation in -/« or -su, nom. -tuni or -sutu ; but as the form is the same as the participial stem, and as the suffixes begin with t, these forms are usually referred to this stem.) LESSON LXXXVir. GENITIVE AND ABLATIVE OF QUALITY. EXERCISE FOR SIGHT-READING. 290. Genitive of Quality. EXAMPLES. 1. vir maximi consilii, a man of very great sagacity. 2. fossa quindecim pgdum, a ditch of Jifteen feet. 3. vir est excellentis ingSnii, lie is a man of excellent disposition. 4. Caesar Diimn6rigem magni animi et magnae inter Gallos auctoritatis cogiioverat, Ciesar knew that Dumnorix was (a man) of great courage and influence among the Gauls. GENITIVE AND ABLATIVE OF QUALITY. 269 291. Ablative of Quality. EXAMPLES. 1 . summa virtute Sdiilescens, a youth of the greatest valor. 2. C^tilina inggnio mS.16 fuit, Catiline loas a man of a had disposition. ?). Caesar fuisse traditur excelsa stStura, Ccesar is said to have been of tall stature. Obs. In the foregoing examples, note that the nouns added for description (as consilii, pgdum, inggnii, S.nimi, auctoritatis) are all in the genitive case, and that, in every instance, the genitive is accompanied by an adjective (as maximi, quind^cim, excellentis, magni, magnae). This genitive cannot be used without an accom- panying adjective : as, a man of talent is hSmo ingSniosus (not hSmo inggnii) ; but, a rnan of great talent is h6mo magni inggnii, Note, further, that in every instance the relation expressed is be- tween two nouns ; thus, a ditch of ff teen feet is fossa quindgcim pgdum, but when latus is added, we must say fossa quindScim pgdes lata, a ditch ff teen feet deep. (Xote that ^iml and aucto- ritatis, in Ex. 4, stand in the predicate after the intransitive verb esse understood.) A genitive added in this way to a noun for further description is called a Descriptive Genitive, or a Geni- tive OF Quality, or of Characteristic ; if it stands in the predicate after an intransitive verb, it is called a Predicate Genitive of Quality, etc. Note that in Exs. 1, 2, 3, under 291, the nouns virtute, ingSnio, and statura are added to express quality, or for further desci'iption, and that these nouns are in the ablative. Distinguish the attributive (virtute) and the predicate use (inggnio, st3.tura) . The idioms are expressed in the following rule : — GENITIVE AND ABLATIVE OF QUALITY. 292. Rule XLIII. — A noun denoting quality, quan- tity, or description, and having an adjective joined with it, may be put in tlie genitive or in the ablative. Obs. The use of the ablative is more common, but the two cases are often used indifferently, and sometimes both are found in the same sentence. EXERCISES. Translate into English : — 1. German! viii corporum ingenti magmtudine fuerunt. 2. CatilTiia fuit magna vi et am mi et corporis. 3. Bibracte est oppidum apud Aeduos maximae auctoritatis. 4. Caesar, vir summi ingenii (or summo ingenio), prudentiam cum eloquentia junxit. 270 FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. Sight -Reading. C^SAll'.S LANDING IN BRITAIN. Erat^ ob has causas siimma cliff icultas, quod naves propter for because magnitudinem, nisi in alto, constitul^ non poterant ; militi- eize deep (water) station could bus" autein — ignotis locTs,^ impeditls manibus, nifigno et gray! unknown encumber armorum onere oppressis — simnl et de nfivibus desiliendum weight load both et in fluctibus consistendum et cum liostibus erat pugnan- and wave stand-firm duin ; cum illi"' aut ex arido, aut paulum in aquam progress!, while dry (land) a-little advance omnibus meinbrls'* expeditl, notissimis locTs, audacter tela limbs free well-known dart conicerent, et equos insuefactos incitarent. hurl train push-on NOTES AND QUESTIONS. 1. Subject '^ Position? Yjixg. — there iras, 2. Pule for tliis infinitive 1 3. The construction is, militibus desiliendum 6rat, the soldiers had to leaj). Pule for militibus being in the dative ? 4. Explain these ablatives. 5. To wlioin does ill! refer 7 LESSON LXXXVIII. IKREGULAE VERBS. 293. Irregular Verbs deviate from the common inflection in some of the parts formed from the present stem. The tenses formed from the perfect and participial stems are inflected alike in all verbs. The forms called irregular are, for the most part, either syncopated or ancient forms. 1. Tlie most common Irregular Verbs are : — 1. sum, / am. 5. fgro, / hear. 2. v61o, / ivish. 6. eo, / go. 3. malo, T prefer. 7. flo, / am made, or become. 4. nolo, / am umvillinfj. 8. gdo, / eat. 9. queo, / am able. ir^KEGULATl VERBS. 271 2. Pos-sum, / am aide, I can, a compound of tin; adjective p6tis (p6te), able, and sum, is inflected as follows : — IMtlNCirAL PARTS. Pres. Tnd. 1'ki:s. Ink. Pekf. Inf. pos-sum pos-se p6t-ui I'AKADIGM. ^ARTICirLE. I'erson. FUESK.NT. Indicative. Subjunctive. 1'eufect. Indicative. Subjunctive. Si Jig. 1 2 o Plur. 1 2 pos-sum pos-sim p6t-es pos-sis pot-est pos-sit pos-siimus pos-simus pot-estis pos-sitis pos-sunt pos-sint pot-ui pot-uerim pot-uisti pot-ueris pot-uit pot-uerit pot-uimus pot-uerimus pot-uistis pot-ueritis pot-uerunt, -re pot-uerint ASing. 1 2 3 Plur. 1 2 3 Impekfkct. Pluperfect. pot-eram pos-sem pot-eras pos-ses p6t-erat pos-set pot-eramus pos-semus pot-eratis pos-setis pot-erant pos-sent pot-ueram pot-uissem pot-ueras pot-uisses pot-uerat pot-uisset pot-ueramus pot-uissemus pot-ueratis pot-uissetis pot-uerant pot-uissent Si7ig. 1 2 •> P//0-. 1 2 o Future. Future Perfect. pot-ero pot-eris pot-erit pot-erimus pot-eritis pot-erunt pot-uero pot-ueris pot-uerit pot-uerimus pot-ueritis pot-uerint Inflnitive. Participle. Pkks. pos-se Pekf. pot-uisse Pres. pot-ens Obs. In forming- the compound possum, note that p6tis drops is, and that t becomes s before s ; as, (pot-sum) = possum. In the perfect, /of fui, etc., is dropped after t. The infinitive posse, subjunctive possem, are shortened forms of pStesse and pStes- sem. Possum has no imperative, no future jmrticiple, no gerund, and no supine; p6tens is used only as an adjective. The omitted forms are wantino-. 272 FIRST STEPS IN LATIN". 3. Pro-sum, / help, I projit, is inflected like sum, but retains its original d (prod-) before a vowel, and loses it before a consonant; as, PRINCIPAL, PARTS. Pres. Ind. Pres. Ikf. Perf. Ind. Participle. pro-sum prod-esse pro-fui Person. Present. Indicative. Subjunctive. Perfect. Indicative. Subjunctive. Sing. 1 2 3 Plur. 1 2 3 pro-sum pro-sim prod-es pro-sis prod-est pro-sit pr5-sumus pro-simus prod-estis pr5-sltis pro-sunt pro-sint pro-fui pro-fuerim pro-fuisti pr5-fueris pro-fuit pro-fuerit pro-fuimus pro-fuerimus pro-fuistis pro-fueritis pro-fuerunt, -re pro-fuerint Sing. 1 2 3 Plur. 1 2 3 Imperfect. Pluperfect. pr5d-eram prod-essem pr5d-eras pr5d-esses prod-erat prod-esset prod-eramus prod-essemus prod-eratis prod-essetis prod-erant pr5d-essent pr5-fueram pro-fuissem pro-fueras pro-fuisses pr5-fuerat pro-fuisset pro-fueramus pro-fuissemus pro-fueratis pr5-fuissetis pr5-fuerant pro-fuissent Sing. 1 2 o Plur. 1 2 3 Flture. Future Perfect. prod-ero prod-eris prod-erit prod-eriraus prod-eritis prod-erunt pro-fuero pro-fueris pr5-fuerit pro-fuerimus pro-fueritis pro-fuerint Imperative. Pres. prod-es, prod-este Fit. prod-esto, prod-esto, pro-sunto Infinitive. Participle. Pres. prod-esse Perf. pro-fuisse Fut. pro-fiitiirus 4. Like sum are conjugated ab-sum, ad-sum, de-sum, in-sum, inter-sum, ob-sum, prae-sum, sub-sum (no perfect), super-sum. EXAMPLES. 1. Caesar p6test iter dSre (256), Ccesar is able to give, or can give, a passage. IRREGULAR VERBS. 273 2. Caesar p6t§rat iter dSre, Cwsar was able to give, or could give, a passage. 0. Caesar p6tSrit iter dare, CcEsar will be able to give a passage. 4. Caesar p6tuit iter dSre, Ccesar has been able to give, or could have given, a passage. Syn. Possum, / am able, because I have sufficient power ; queo, / am able, because circumstances allow. EXERCISES. Name the mode, tense, number, and person of the fol- lowing forms : — 1. Potest, poterat, poterit. 2. Possiimus, poteramus, pote- rimus. 3. Ego possum legere, tu potes scribere. 4. Caesar oppidum expugnare potest. 5. Amicisi prodesse possumus. 6. Caesar potest iter Helvetiis dare. 7. Divitiacus pluri- mum^ in reliqua Gallia poterat. 8. Caesar urbT praeerat. 9. Multi'^ supersumus. 10. Caesar equites praemittit.'' NOTES AND QUESTIONS. 1. 202. 2. •plvLTira.uia posse, to be very powerful ; see Vocabulary. 8. multi modifies nos (we), the omitted subject of supersflmus. Translate, inamj of us survive; of us is appositive. See 202. If the simple verb is transitive, the compound is transitive, and is followed by the accusative. What is an irregular verb 1 Mention the most common irregular verbs. Of what is possum compounded 1 Give its composition ; account for the euphonic changes. LESSON LXXXIX. lEEEaULAE YEEBS {continued). 294. The Irregular Verbs v61o, and its compounds, nolo and malo, are inflected as follows : — PKINCIPAI. PARTS. Pres. Ind. Pres. Inf. Perf. Ind. Participle. 1. volo 1. n51o 3. malo velle nolle malle volui nolui malui , ivlsh. , he unwilling. , prefer. 274 FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. Present. | Ind. Subj. Ind. Subj. Ind. Subj. volo velim nolo nolim malo malim VIS veils nonvis nobs mavis malis vult velit nonvult nolit mavult malit volumus velimus noltiinus noliraus mfilumus malimus vultis velitis nonvultis nolitis mavultis malitis volunt veliiit nolunt noliut malunt malint Imperfect. | volebam vellem nolebam nollem nullebam mallem volebiis velles nolobas nolles nijilebas malles volebat vellet nolebat nollet malebat mallet volebamus vellemus nolebamus nollemus malebamus mallemus volebatis velletis nolebatis nolletis malebatis mallotis volebant vellent nolt'bant uolleut malebant mallent Future. | volam, voles, volet, nolam, noles, nolet, malam, males, malet, volemus, etc. nolemus, etc. malemus, etc. Perfect. | volul voluCrim nolui noluCrim malm malugrim voluisti voludris nolulsti nolugris maluisti maluCris voluit voluCrit noluit uoluerit mfiluit malugrit voluimus volu^rimus noluimus noluCriraus maluimus miiludrimus voluistis voluCritis noluistis noluCritis maluistis maluCritis voluerunt, J ^Qi^.^^int "^!^f;^^"*'{noluermt maluerunt. { ,^.^i„^,j.int or -re j PI.UFERFECT. | voluerani voluissem noluCram noluissem maluCram maluissem voluCras voluisses nolueras noluisscs maluCras maluisses voluCrat voluisset noluerat noluisset maliierat maluisset voludramus voluissemus iiolueramus noluissemus malueramus maluisscmus volugratis voluissetis noluCratis noluissetis maluoratis maluissetis volugrant voluisseut uoluCrant iioluissent maluCrant maluissent Future Perfect. volugro noluCro malugro volugris nolueris malugris v61u6rit noluCrit malugrit volugrimus nolugrimus malugrimus v61u6ritis nolu(?ritis maluCritis volugrint noluCrint maluerint Imperative. Pres. noli, nollte FuT. nolito, noli to, nolitote, nolunto Infinitive. Pres. velle nolle malle Perf. voluis SB noluisse maluisse Participles. Pres. \ ^olens, loilling. nolens, ^ imoilling. IRREGULAR VERBS. 275 Obs. Nolo is a compound of ne (non), yiof, and v61o; malo, of mSgis, 7norc, and v61o, weakened in pronunciation to ma-lo. Notice that nolo alone lias an imperative. The omitted forms are wanting. Syn. Aveo, lo7if/ for ; desIdSro, desire what one has had, but now feels the loss of (hence, regret) ; v61o, wish ; opto, choose ; otipio, desire (general term) ; gestio, desire, and manifest it by gestures; ciipio, desire, long for anything. EXERCISES. Name the mode, tense, number, and person of the fol- lowing forms : — 1. Volumus, volebamus, volemus, velimus. 2. Ego volo legere, tii vis scribere, frater vult pingere. 3. Nolumus, nolebamus, nolemus, nolimus. 4. Puer vult audire. 5. Dum- norix quam^ plurimas civitates habere volebat. 6. Noli- scribere. 7. Malumus, malebamus, malemus, malimus. 8. Mons, quem a Labieno^ occiipari voluit, ab hostibus tenetur. 9. Caesar ab HelvetiTs discedere nolebat. Translate into Latin : — 1. You are wishing, 3'ou were wishing, you will be wish- ing. 2. They are unwilling, they were unwilling, they will be unwilling. 3. You prefer, you preferred, you will pre- fer, you have preferred. 4. I have wished, I had wished. 5. You wish to know. 6. We had been unwilling. 7. Do you prefer to read or to write? NOTES AND QUESTIONS. 1. Quam strengthens plurimas = as many as possible. 2. Proliibitions are often expressed by noli with the infinitive; translate do not write. N6I1 is softer than ne scribe. 3. Agent after a verb in the passive voice. What is meant by an irregular verb? In what tenses are they irregular ? Give the compounds of v61o. The stem of v61o is vdl-, tlie root-vowel being changed to e or ii. The form vTs stands for v61-is, vel-is, vil-is (= vis). Velle is for vel-se, so vellem for vel-sem. 276 FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. LESSON XC. IREEGULAE VEEBS icojiUnuecl) . ABLATIVE OF SPECIFICATION. 295. The irreoular verb f6ro is inflected as follows : — PRINCIPAL PARTS. Pres. Ind. Pres. Inf. Perf. Ind. fgro ferre tiili ACTIVE VOICE. Participle. latum Person. Prksent. Indicative. Subjunctive. Perfect. Indicative. Subjunctive. Sing. 1 2 3 Plur. 1 2 3 fero fers fert ferimus fertis ferunt feram feras ferat feram us feratis ferant tuli tulerim tulisti tiileris tiilit tiilerit tiilimus tiilerimus tiilistis tuleritis tiilerunt, -re tiilerint Sivg. 1 2 3 Plur. 1 2 3 Impeufect. Pluperfect. ♦ ferebam ferebas ferebat ferebamus ferebatis ferebant ferrem ferres ferret ferremus ferretis ferrent tuleram tiilissem tuleras tiilisses tiilerat tiilisset tiileramus tiilissemus tiileratis tiilissetis tiilerant tiilissent Sinq. 1 2 3 Plur. 1 2 3 Future. Future Perfect. feram feres feret feremus feretis ferent tulero tiileris tiilerit tiilerimus tuleritis tulerint Imperati ve. Put s. fer, ferte FuT. fert 0, ferto, fertote, ferunto Infinitive. P *RES. ferre Perf. tulisse FuT. latiirus esse Participl* es. Pres. ferens Put laturus, -a, -u Gerund: ferei m Supines : latum ^ latii adi, etc. IRREGULAR VERBS. 277 PASSIVE voicj:. Person. Present. Indicative. Subjunctive. Perfect. Indicative. Subjunctive. Sing. 1 3 7'lur. 1 2 3 feror ferar ferris, -re feraris fertur feratur ferimur feramur ferimini feramini feruntur ferantur latus sum latus sim latus es latus sis latus est latus sit lati sumus lati simus lati estis lati sitis lati sunt lati sint Sing. 1 2 3 Plur. 1 2 3 Imperfect. Pluperfect. ferebar ferrer ferebaris ferreris ferebatur ferretur ferebamur ferremur ferebamini ferremini ferebantur ferrentur latus eram latus essem latus eras latus esses latus erat latus esset lati eramus lati essemus lati eratis lati essetis lati erant lati essent »S'/«(/. 1 2 3 Plur. 1 2 3 FlTTlTRE. Future Perfect. ferar fereris feretur feremur feremini ferentur latus ero latus eris latus erit lati erimus lati eritis lati erunt Imperative. Pres. ferre, ferimini Fut. fertor, fertor, feruntor Infinitive. Pres. ferri Perf. latus, -a, -um, esse or fuisse Fi t. latum iri FuT. Perf. latus fore Participles. Perf. latus, -a, -um Ger. ferendus, -a, -um Obs. 1. In the Present and Imperfect Tenses of fero tlie only irregu- larity is the omission of e and i in some of the terminations : thus, fer-s = fer-is, fer-t = fer-it, fer-rem = fer-erem, fer-re = fer-ere, etc. The forms of fero are derived from three independent stems, seen in fero, tuli, latum. Obs. 2. The compounds of fero are conjugated in the same way : — af -fero (ad, fero) af -ferre at-tiili nl-\iitum, bring to. au-fero (ab, fCro) au-ferre ab-stuli ab-latum, cai-ry au-ai/. ef -fero (ex, fero) ef-ferre ex-tuli e-latum, carry out. in-fero (in, fero) in-ferre in-tfdi il-latum, carr^ m/o. of-fero (ob, fero) of-ferre ob-tuli oh-lhium, present. pro-fero (pro, fero) pro-ferre pro-tuli pro-latum, carr^;/ /or «-arc/. re-f6ro (re, fero) re-ferre ret-tuli re-latum, bring back. 278 FIRST STEPS IK LATIN. 296. Ablative of Specification. EXA3IPLKS. 1. rex nomine fuit, he ivas king in name. 2. Claudius altero pgde, lame in one foot. 3. Helvetii rgliquos Gallos virtute praecedunt, the Helvetians surpass the other Gauls in valor. 4. oppida sua omnia, nilmgro ad duSdgcim incendunt, they hum all their towns, about tivelve in number. Obs. In the foregoing examples, nomine, pSde, virtute, and niimgro, show in what respect or particular the statement is true, i.e., {lie Helvetians surpass the other Gauls in respect to valor. The principle is expressed in the following rule : — ABLATIVE OF SPECIFICATION. 297. Rule XLIV. — A noun, adjective, or verb may be followed by the ablative to denote in Avhat respect its sij^nification is taken. EXERCISES. Name the mode, tense, number, and person of the fol- lowing verbs : — 1. Ferimiis, ferebamus, feramus, feremus. 2. Quid fers, ml^ amice? i^. Ferte viro auxiliuin. 4. Populus Eomanus din injurias tulit. r>. Helvetils bellum inferre volumns. G. Ferimur, ferebamur, feremur, feramur. 7. Auxilium militibus a dnce fertur. 8. HI omnes linoufi, institutis, legibus inter se differunt. 0. Fer mihi auxilium. 10. Oppi- dum Remorum nomine Bibi'ax- longe aberat. Translate into Latin : — 1. We bear, we were bearing, we will bear. 2. They bear, they will bear. 3. He has borne, he had borne, they had borne. 4. We are borne, we were borne, we shall be borne. 5. He is borne, he was borne. 6. He has been borne, he had been borne. 7. Bear aid, they will bear aid, he has borne aid. 8. They differ in language and laws. NOTES AND (QUESTIONS. 1. 231. Ohs. 1. 2. Bibrax, gen. -actis, r. (Frencli modern name Bievre). IRREGULAR VERBS. 279 LESSON XCI. lEEEGULAE VEKBS {continued). ABLATIVE OF DIFFERENCE. r/o, and gdo, / eat, are 298. The Irregular Verbs eo, / inflected as follows : — PRINCIPAL PARTS. Pres. Ind. Pres. Inf. Perf. Ind. 60 ire ivi or -ii Participle. itum Person. Present. Indicative. Subjunctive. • Perfect. Indicative. Subjunctive. Sing. 1 2 3 Plxir. 1 2 3 eo earn IS eas it eat imus eamus itis eatis eunt eant ivi or -ii iverim or -ierim ivisti, etc. iveris, etc ivit, etc. iverit, etc. ivimus, etc. iverimus, etc. ivistis, etc. iveritis, etc. iverunt, -re iverint, et.c Sing. 1 2 3 Plur. 1 2 3 Imperfect. Pluperfect. ibam irem ibas ires ibat iret ibamus iremus ibatis iretis ibant irent j iveram ivissem, -iissem \ or -ieram or issem iveras, etc. ivisses, etc. iverat, etc. ivisset, etc iveramus, e^'. ivissemus, etc. iveratis, etc. ivissetis, etc iverant, etc ivissent, etc. Sing. 1 Plur. 1 Future. Future Perfect. ibo, ibis, ibit ibimus, etc. ivero or -iero, iveris, etc. iverimus, etc Imperative. Pres. T, ite Fut. ito, ito, it5te, eunto Infinitive. Pres. 11 •e Perf. ivisse, -iisse or -isse Fut. iturus, -a, -um, esse Participles. ] Geruni ;*REs. iens (Gen. euntis) Fut. iturus, -a, -um )ivE : eundus, -a, -um Gerund : eundi, etc Sup. itum Obs. 1. Eo is of the fourth conjugation, with variations ; the stem is i (lengthened to i, except in the future i)artieiple and in the supines), which is changed into e before a, 0, and n ; as, eo, eunt, earn, etc. Obs. 2. Eo and its intransitive compounds are used in the passive only impersonally : Ind. itur, ibatur, ibitur, itum est, etc. ; Sub.j. eatur, iretur, itum sit, etc. ; but the transitive compounds are used regularly in the passive ; iri occurs as an auxiliary in the future infini- tive passive. (Sec 251.) 280 FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. Obs. 3. The compounds of eo usually take -ii, rarely -Iri in the per- fect tenses ; as, adeo, I approach, makes adii, adieram, adissem, etc. Oi5s. 4. Tlie compounds of eo which have a transitive meaning are conjugated throughout in the passive: as, adeo, I approach; Pass. adeor, adiris, aditur, adimur, adimini, adeuntur, etc. Oi!s. 5. Ambio, / go about, retains the / throughout, and is conju- gated regularly like a verb of the fourth conjugation. Hence we find ambiebam, but occasionally ambibam, the gerund ambiendi, etc. The ])erfect participle is ambitus, though the verbal substantive is ambitus. 299. Edo, I eat. PR INC IP AI. PARTS. Pres. Ind. ' Pres. Inf. Perf. Ind. Participle. Sdo gdere or esse edi esum Person. Present. Indicative. Subjunctive. Peuke( t. Indicative. Svibjunctive. Sing. 1 2 3 Plur. 1 2 3 edo edam or edim edis or es edas or edis edit or est edat or edit edimus edamus or edimus editis or estis edatis or editis edunt edant or edint edi ederim edisti ederis edit ederit edimus ederimus edistis ederitis ederunt, -re ederint ImI'EREECT. PUUPEUFECT. SInq. 1 2 Plur. 1 2 3 edebam ederem or essem edebas ederes or esses edebat ederet or esset edebamus ederemus or essemus edebatis ederetis or essetis edebant ederent or essent ederam edissem ederas edisses ederat edisset ederamus edissemus ederatis edissetis ederant edissent SInq. 1 Plur. 1 Future. Future Perfect. edam, edes, edet edemus, efr. edero, ederis, ederit, ederimus, r/r. Imperative. Pres. ede or es, edite or este FuT. edito or esto, edito or esto, editote or estote, edunto Infinitive. Pres. edereoresse Perf. edisse Fut. esiirus, -a, -um esse Participles. Pres. edens Fut. esurus, -a, -um Supines : esum, esii Gerund : Gen. edendi, etc. Ons. 1. Edo is of the third conjugation, with variations ; ^ or i before s or Ms dropped, and the d of the stem changed to .s ,• also the original .s takes the place of the r ; as, ede-re = es-se, not es-re. Obs. 2. The passive voice is regular; only estur is generally used instead of editur, and essetur instead of ederetur. The perfect par- ticiple is esus. IRREGTTLAR VERBS. 281 300. The Ablative of Difference. KX AMPLE S. 1. sol multis partibus major est quam terra, the sun is very much (lit., hij many parts) larger than the earth. 2. altgrum iter multo expgditius Srat, the other route vms much more passable {more passable by much). ?}. hio 16cus aequo spStio ab castrls AriovistI et Caesaris abSrat, this place icas (^distant by an equal space) the same distance from the camp of Ariovistus and {from that) of Ccesar. Obs. Ill the foregoing- examples, note that the ablatives parti- bus, multo, spStio, express the measure of difference. These words follow the comparatives, major and expgditius ; the abla- tive spStio denotes extent of space, which is usually put in the accusative (see 215), but may be in the ablative, as it is in this case, denoting the degree of difference (lit., teas cdtsent by an equal distance). Hence the following rule : — ABLATIVE OF DIFFERENCE, 301. Rule XLV. — The ablative is used, with comparatives and words implying- comparison, to denote the measure of difference. Obs. The ablative of difference includes the ablative of distance. (See 215. 1.) EXERCISES. Name the mode, tense, number, and person of the fol- lowing verbs : — 1. Imus, ibamns, ibimus, efimus. 2. Ego Tibeo, tu ex itinere redls. 3. It, eiint, ibit. 4. Ivit, Tverat, ite, Itis, iveramus. 5. I, quo te fata v<5cant. G. I, lictor, deliga puerum ad palum. 7. Caesar multo gravius quentur. 8. Uno die longiorem mensem faciunt. 9. Hibernia dimidio minor (est) quam Britannia. 10. Multo major alacritas exercitui iujecta est. 11. Ite, milites. 12. Edimus, edamus, edunt. Translate into Latin : — 1. They go, they were going, they will go. 2. He was going, he will go, he goes. 3. We go, we were going, we will go. 4. Go thou, I go, I have gone, I had gone. 5. The sun is much larger than the earth. G. The tower was ten feet higher than the wall. 7. My country is much dearer to me than life. 8. They make the year one day longer. 282 FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. LESSON XCII. IREEaULAR VERBS {continued), ABLATIVE AND GENITIVE OF PRICE. - EXERCISE FOR SIGHT-READING. 302. The Irregular Verb flo, / became or am made, is inflected as follows : — PRINCIPAL PARTS. Pres. Ind. Pres. Inf. Perf. Ind. f lo figri factus sum Person. Present. Indicative. Subjunctive Perfect. Indicative. Subjunctive. Si7ig. 1 2 3 Plur. 1 2 fio fis fit or fit [fimus] [fitis] fiunt flam flas fiat fiamus fiatis fiant factus sum factus es factus est facti sumus facti estis facti sunt factus sim factus sis factus sit facti simus facti sitis facti sint Imperfect. Pluperfect. Sin(/. 1 Pliir. 1 fiebam fiebamus fierem fieremus factus eram facti eramus factus essem facti essemus P'UTrRE Plur. 1 fiam, fies, etc. fiemus Ft TIRE PEItFECT. factus ero, eris, eU fact! erimus Iini)erative. Pkes. fi, fite Infinitive. Pres. fieri Perf. factus, -a, -um, esse FuT. factum iri Participles. Perf. factus, -a, -um Ger. faciendus, -a, -um Oijs. 1. Fio (wliicli stands for fa-i-o) is used as the passive of facie, which lias no ])assive forms (except faciendus and factus) ; on the other hand, factus sum, / have become, has tlie meaning of the perfect of fio ; fieri is not really a passive form, but an old infinitive active, fierei. Obs. 2. The / in fio is always long, except in fit and when not fol- lowed by r (in present infinitive and imperfect subjunctive). OiiS. 3. Most compounds of facio with prepositions change a to i (present stem), and are inflected regularly; the passive ends in -ficior; other compounds retain a and have fio in the passive. Obs. 4. Queo, / am able, is conjugated like eo, but as it is an un- usual verb, it is here omitted ; it has a compound, nequeo, / ayn unable. IRREGULAR VERBS. 283 303. Genitive and Ablative of Price. KXAMPLES. 1. d6mum duobus tSlentis emit, lie bought a house for two talents. 2. viginti taientis unam orationem vendidit, he sold a single speech for twenty talents. 3. pace bellum mutavit, he exchanged war for peace. 4. emit hortos tanti, he purchased the gardens at so great a price. 5. virtus maximi aestimatur, virtue is valued very highly. Obs. Xote that emit, a verb of buying, vendidit, a verb of selling, mutavit, a verb of exchanging, are each followed by the ablatives talentis, pace, denoting the price, and fixing it at a defi- nite sum; the ablative is used because the price is the means by which a thing is bought, sold, or exchanged. In Exs. 4 and 5, after tlie same verbs, emit and aestimatur, the price is expressed by tanti and maximi, both being in the genitive, and both designat- ing the price indefinitely. The idiom is expressed in the following rule : — ABLATIVE OF PRICE. 304. Rule XL VI. — Price is expressed by the ablative when it is a definite sum. 1. If the price is indefinitely expressed, the genitive is used ; in this way the genitives of certain adjectives of Quantity, as tanti, quanti, pluris, minoris, magni, parvi, etc., are used. EXERCISES. Name the mode, tense, number, and person of each of the following verbs : — 1. Fiunt, fiebant, fient, flamus. 2. Fimus, fiebamus, fiemus. 3. Factus est, fact! sunt. 4. Fi, fiamus, fiant. 5. Fit, fitis, fiet. 6. Amicus fieri sapiens^ potest. 7. Duo virT consiiles^ fact! erunt. 8. Caesar cum his quinque legi- onibus ire'^ contendit. 9. Nemo fit casu bonus. 10. Fiat* lux, et lux facta est. 11. Dumnorix omnia Aeduorum vectl- galia parvo pretio redemit. 12. Vendo meum frumentum non pluris quam ceteri, fortasse etiam minoris. 13. Nulla pestis humano generi pluris stetit quam Ira. Translate into Latin : — 1. He becomes, they become, they will become. 2. They became, he will become, we have become. 3. Become thou. 284 FIRST STEPS IN LATIK. he can become good. 4. The soldier sells his country for gold. 5. The soldier values money highly. G. He sold his corn at a less price. 7. Caesar became consul. NOTE8 AND QUESTIONS. 1. Predicate adjective ? 2. Kule for consiiles ? 3. Rule ? 4. Why subjunctive ? How may jtrice he expressed ? When is the ablative used ? When the genitive ? Sight-JReading . Caesar's landing in Britain (continued). Quod liln Caesar animadvertit, naves' longas (quarum and this when (ace.) ot species erat barbaris^ inusitatior, et motus ad usuin ex- appearance unusual motion service poditior) paulum removerl ab onerarils navibus, et remis^ remove of burden oar incitari, et ad latus Tipertum liostium constituT,' atque inde ])iisli-on side open thence fundis, sagittTs, tormentis hostes submoveri' jussit. Atque, sling engine (ace.) driven order nostiTs multibus cunctantibus, maxime propter altitudinem delay chiefly depth maris, (is) qui decimae legionis aquilam fere})at, contestatus tenth appeal-to deos ut ea res legion! felTciter eveniret : " DesilTte," inquit, happily turn-out " milites, nisi vultis* aquilain hostibus prodere. Ego certe abandon at-least raeum reipfiblicae atque imperator! officium pra^estitero." duty fulfil Hoc cum magna voce dlxisset, se ex navi projecit, atque in hostes aquilam ferre coepit. Tum nostri, cohortati inter se, exhort ne tantum dcdecus adinitteretur, iiuiversi ex navT desilue- shame permit all-at-once runt. Hos item ex proximls navibus cum conspexissent, also nearest caught-sight-of subsecutT liostibus^ appropinquarunt. follow-close approach notp:s and questions. 1. The construction is jussit nSves rgmSveri, etc. 2. Why dative ? 3. AVhy ablative ? 4. See v61o. The subjunctives can be omitted until the review. DEFECTIVE VERBS. 285 LESSON XCIII. DEFECTIVE VEKBS.-INSTEUMENTAL ABLATIVE. 305. Defective Verbs want some of their parts. The fol- lowing are the most common Defective Verbs that do not use the tenses formed from the present stem : — 1. coepi, I begin. 2. rxihralxil, I remernher . 3. odi, I hate. OiiS. There is a large number of verbs that are more or less defective ; those enumerated here are the most defective of those that are commonly used. 1. Odi, coepi (for the present of which incipio is used), and mgmini are only used in the Perfect Tenses, and hence are some- times called preteritive (or past) verbs. PAKTIAI. PARADIGM. Tense. Indicative. Pekk. Pl.UP. r. P. coepi coeperam coepero memini memineram meminero odi oderam odero novi noveram novero Subjunctive. Perf. Plup. coeperim coepissem meminerim meminissem oderim odissem noverim novissem Imperative. Put. ( Wanting) memento, mementote { War ting) Infinitive. Perf. Fit. coepisse coepturus meminisse odisse osurus esse novisse Participles. Perf. Put. coeptus coepturus -osus osurus Pres. meminens Obs. 1. Instead of coepi and its tenses, the passive coeptus sum, etc., is used before an infinitive passive ; as, urbs aedificari coepta est, the city began to be built. 286 FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. Obs. 2. Novi is properly the perfect of nosco, / learn to know. Obs. 3. M6mini, odi, and novi have in the perfect, phiperfect, and future perfect the meaning of the present, imperfect, and future respectively. 2. The following have only the tenses formed from the present stem, and these are in many cases incomplete: — 1. aio, / say. 2. inquam, / say. 3. fari, to speak. 4. ciVi?ieso, I ask, heg. 5. salve, hail. 6, queo, / can. a. Aio, I say (for Sg-io, cf. ad-Sg-ium), has only the following forms : — Person. Present. Indicative. Siibjvinctive. Impeufect. Indicative. Subjunctive. Siny. 1 2 3 Plur. 1 2 3 aio ais ait aiunt aias aiat aiant aiebam aiebas aiebat aiebamus aiebatis aiebant Pkes. Pakt. aiens Obs. i between two vowels (=7) is pronounced like y; ai- is not a diphthong. h. Inquam, say /, has only the following forms : — Indicative. 1 Pres. inquam Imp. inquiebam inquis inquiebas inquit inquiebat mquimus inquiebamus inquitis inquiebatis inquiunt inquiebant FUT. Pere. inquies inquisti inquiet inquit Imperative. Pres. inque Ft T. {2Pers.) inquito Obs. Inquam, inquit, like the English say I, says he, are always used parenthetically, themselves and subjects following between commas after a word or words of the quotation. It is used, except in poetry, only in direct quotations. (See 342.) DEFECTIVE VERBS. 287 c. Fari, (.0 speak, a deponent, is used only in the following forms, unless compounded with a preposition : — Indicative. Subjunctive. Participles. Pres. fatur Fur. fabor, fabitur Terf. fatus sum, etc. fatus sim, He. Vllv. fatus eram fatus essem Pres. (fans) fantis,eersons are expressed in the following way in the present indicative, and similarly in the other tenses : — piidet me, it shames me, or / am ashamed. piidet te, it shames thee, or thou art ashamed. piidet eum, it shames him, or he is ashamed. piidet nos, it shames us, or ice are ashamed. piidet vos, it shames you, or you are ashamed. pudet eos, it shames them, or they are ashamed. Obs. 2. The impersonal verbs libet, it pleases, licet, it is laivful, and expSdit, it is expedient, are used with the dative; as, licet mihi ire, it is lawful for me to go, or / inay go. 315. Genitive with Verbs. VERBS OF MEMORY. 1. Verbs of reminding, remembering, and foj-getiing, — rScordor (rarely), mgmini, rgminiscor, and obliviscor, — are followed by the genitive (sometimes by the accusative). EXAMPLES. 1. mSmini vivorum, / am mindful of the living. 2. rgminisci virtu tis, to remember virtue. GENITIVE OF CRIME. 2. Verbs of accusing, convicting, condemning, and acquitting take the accusative of the person and the genitive of the crime. EXAMPLES. 1. praetor reum criminis absolvit, the prmtor acquitted the prisoner of the crime. 2. arguit me furti, he accuses me of theft. IMPEKSONAL VERBS. 295 VERBS OF FEELING. o. The genitive is used with the following: — (1) Misgreor, misgresco, / jiity. (Cf . 314. 2.) EXAMPLE. . misSresco infelicium, I pity the unfortunate. (2) With the impersonals refert and interest, it concerns, it interests. (See 314. 3.) EXAMPLE. interest omnium recte f ScSre, it is to the interest of all to act rightly. a. Instead of the genitive of the personal pronoun, the forms mea, tua, sua, nostra, and vestra, are used. EXAMPLE. mea nihil refert, it does not concern me. (3) The impersonal verbs misSret, paenitet, piget, piidet, and taedet, take the genitive of the object with the accusative of the person. (See 314. 2.) EXAMPLES. 1. eorum nos miseret, loe pity them. 2. me taedet vitae, / am weary of life. GENITIVE WITH OTHER VERBS. 4. Sum, and verbs of valuing, take the genitive to express the price or value indefnitely. (^Definite price is expressed by the abla- tive. See 304.) EXAMPLE. Sger nunc pluris est quam tunc fuit, the field is of more value now than it loas then. VOCABULARY. rg-cordor, -ari, -atus sum, dep., remember, recollect. mgmini, -isse, def., / remember. (See 320. Obs. 2) rgmXniscor, -isoi (no perf.), dep., recollect, remember. obliviscor, oblivisci, oblitus sum, dep., forget. misgreor, -eri, -itus sum, dep., pity. misgresco, -scgre (no perl, no partic), feel pity. refert, it concerns. 296 FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. EXERCISES. Translate into English : — 1. Mihi Ire licuit. 2. Puguandum est pro patria. 3. Remiuiscere pristinae virtiitis Helvetiorum. 4. Animus meminit praeteritorum. 5. Fratris mei me miseret. 6. Con- troversiarum et dissensionum oblTviscimini. 7. Vir reus est criminis. 8. Te fortunae tuae paenitet. 9. Roman! eum capitis damnaverunt. 10. Illud mea magn! interest. 11. Absolvunt te judices injuriarum. 12. Placuit Caesari,^ ut ad Ariovistum legatos mitteret. 13. Eum ad mortem due! oportuit. 14. Is ad mortem ducendus fuit. Translate into Latin : — 1. I may go. 2. I must fight. 3. The soldiers must fight. 4. We may go. 5. We must depart. 6. I am ashamed of my fault. 7. They accuse him of treachery. 8. A true friend never forgets a friend. 9. CiEsar acquitted the soldier of the crime. NOTKS AND yUKSTIONS. 1. Learn the definition and translation of impersonal verbs ; how classified ; and tlie synopsis under 313. 3. 2. It pleased Casar, i.e. Ccesar determined ; the clause beginning with Ut is the subject of pl&cuit. What is an impersonal verb ? Translate pugnatur, pugnandum est, mS piget. What case is used with licet ? With Sportet ? How \&inay, can, expressed in Latin? How is must, might? In what two ways can 7«us^ be expressed 1 (See Exs. 13 and 14.) What verbs govern the genitive or accusative ? What the genitive alone ? LESSON XCV. OLASSIFIOATION OF DEPENDENT CLAUSES. 316. Obs. 1. The pupil has now learned the construction of simple sentences. The rules and principles that have been applied to these sentences are applicable to all independent clauses ; it is only in dependent, or subordinate, clauses that difficulty is likely to occur. The pupil should, therefore, obtain an accurate knowledge of the CLASSIFICATION OF DEPENDENT CLAUSES. 297 various kinds of dependent clauses, for this will aid him very much in determining the tense and mode to be used. We have learned that a complex sentence must contain one or more subordinate clauses. The subordination is expressed by some connecting word, which is always some form of the relative or some word that has acquired the use of the relative. This word may be a pronoun, a conjunction, or a conjunctive adverb. EXAMPLES. 1 . The sea, when it had spent its fury, became calm. 2. The hoy, who reads, learns. 3. He came, that lie might see the city. 4. He demanded that Ccesar should not make war upon the jiEduans. 5. He says that the mountain is held hy the enemy. 6. Iv he conquers, he will rejoice. 7. His friends ivill abandon him, because his father has done so. 8. So great is the power of honesty, that we love it even in an enemy. 9. / inquired what he was doing. 10. Life is short, though it extend beyond a thousand years. Obs. 2. In Ex. 1 of the foregoing sentences, note that 'the clause when it had spent its fury, expresses time, and is combined with the leading clause, the sea became calm, by means of the subordinate temporal conjunction when; the clause is, therefore, called a Tem- poral Clause (see 206. 1). If we combine the two clauses by means of a coordinate conjunction (205), the sentence becomes compound ; as, the sea spent its fury, and then it became calm. In Ex. 2, the subordinate clause is introduced by the relative who (241. Obs.), and is called a Relative Clause. In Ex. 3, the sub- ordinate clause is introduced by the subordinate final conjunction that (206. 5) ; the clause is, therefore, called a Final Clause. The clause in Ex. 5, introduced by that, is an Infinitive Clause (341. 1). Ex. 6, if he conquers is a Conditional Clause ; and in Ex. 7, because his father had done so is a Causal Clause. A clause introduced by a consecutive conjunction is called a Consecutive Clause, as Ex. 8; one introduced by a concessive conjunction, as in Ex. 10, is called a Concessive Clause. The relative clause performs the office of an adjective, because ivho reads modifies boy = the reading boy ; it is called an Adjective Clause. The temporal clause in Ex. 1 performs the office of an adverb, and is, therefore, called an Adverb Clause ; in Exs. 4, 5, and 9, the clauses that Ccesar should not make war upon the jEduans, that the mountain is held by the enemy, and lohat he was doing, are objects of the transitive verb demanded, of inquired, and of says, i.e. each performs the office of a noun or substantive, and is, there- fore, called a Noun, or Substantive, Clause. Hence, clauses may be classified as : — 298 FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. I. CooRDixATE, see 205. 11. Subordinate ^ 7 Final. Consecutive. Conditional. Comparative. CoJicessive. Causal. Temporal. Interrogative. 9. Infinitive. 10. Relative. 1. Substantive. 2. Adjective, o. Adverb. Named from their mean- ing, as shown by some introductory word ; the same word may intro- duce clauses of different kinds, according to cir- cumstances. ^ Named from the part of > speech whose office they J perform. Obs. 3. Noun Clauses include: (1) Infinitive clauses, 342. 1; (2) some final and (3) consecutive clauses, 342. 2 and 3 ; (1) clauses introduced by quod, which give prominence to the fact stated, or present it as a ground or reason, 342. 4 ; (5) and dependent inter- rogative clauses, 342. 5. Adjective Clauses are connected to the clauses on which they depend by means of relative pronouns. Ad- verbial Clauses are connected to the clauses on which they depend by means of conditional, comparative, concessive, final, consecutive, causal, or temporal conjunctions. The pupil should note that some- times a clause connected by a final or consecutive conjunction becomes virtually the object of the verb on which it depends, and is then classed as a Noun Clause. (See 342, 2 and 3.) EXERCISES. Classify the following sentences : — 1. The bridge, which spans the river, was built by a skil- ful engineer. 2. When the war closed, Washington retired to Mount Vernon. 3. If you would be happy, you must be active. 4. When the battle was concluded, the commander began to count his loss. 5. He takes exercise, that he may recover his health. 6. The ground is dry, although it has rained. 7. The sun causes (that all things should bloom, i.e.) all things to bloom. NOTES AND QUESTIONS. What is a clause ? Mention the various classes of subordinate clauses. What is an adjective clause ? Substantive clause ? Expand the complex sentences in the foregoing lesson into compound sentences. IIovv many kinds of adverbial clauses ? Write an adjective clause. TENSES IN DEPENDENT CLAUSES. 299 LESSON XCVI. TENSES m DEPENDENT CLAUSES. 317. Primary and Secondary Tenses. Obs. We have learned that tense denotes the time of the action ; and as time admits of a threefold division, into ])resent, jxist, and future, there must be at least three tenses to represent an action in present, past, or future time. But in each of these tenses an action may be represented as incomplete or as completed, and from these two divisions arise six tenses of the Latin verb ; viz. : — 1. The Present, denoting incomplete action in the present. 2. The Future, denoting incomplete action in the future. 3. The Imperfect, denoting incomplete action in the past. 4. The Perfect, denoting completed action in the present. 5. The Fut. Perf., denoting completed action in the future. 6. The Pluperfect, denoting completed action in the past. Each of these tenses also represents the action either as in prog- ress (still unfinished) or at the close of its progress (i.e. as now finished). An action may further be represented as being simply brought to pass, without reference to its being continuous or momentary, complete or incomplete. This distinction gives rise to the indejinite or aoristic stage of action, which has no separate tense form. It is expressed by the present tense for the present, by the future for the future, and by the aorist (perfect definite) for the past. The following table will show these temporal relations : — Time. Action represented as Examples. Common Names. Present ) Incomplete. Completed. Indefinite. I am writing. I have written. I write. Present. Perfect. Present. Past ) Incomplete. Completed. Indefinite. I was writing. I had written. I IV rote. Imperfect. Pluperfect. Aorist. Future ^ Incomplete. Completed. Indefinite. I shall be writing. I shall have ivritten. I shall icrite. Future. Fut. Perf Future. The rules hitherto given will always enable the pupil to deter- mine what tenses of the subjunctive should be used in independent 300 FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. clauses. In dependent clauses, the tense of the subjunctive is always dated at the same time as the tense of the leading verb. In order to determine what tense of the subjunctive should follow (in the dependent clause) the leading verb, special rules are necessary, called the rules for the Sequence of Texses. For this purpose the tenses of the indicative mode are divided into two classes, according as they represent actions as present or future, or as past. The former are called Primary, and the latter Secondary, or Historical, Tenses. The tenses of each class can be seen from the following table: — 1. PlUMAKY. Present. Futures. Perfect. amat, he loves. amabit, he will love. amavit, he has loved. amaverit, he ivill have loved. 2. Secondary Imperfect. Aorist. Pluperfect. amabat, he ivas lovimj. amavit, he loved. amaverat, he had loved. 318. Sequence of Tenses. EXAMPLES. ' Primary. — Present and Future Time in Dependent Clauses. 1. Present — scio quid agas, / hioiv ivhat yon are doimj. scio quid egeris, / hnoyv what yon have done. scio quid acturus sis, / know what you are gointj to do. 2. Perfect — cognovi quid agas, / have learned what you are doing. cognovi quid egeris, / have learned what you have done cognovi quid acturus sis, / have learned what you are going to do. 3. Future — audiam quid agas, / shall hear ichat yon are doing. audiam quid egeris, / shall hear irhat you have done. audiam quid actiirus sis, / shall hear what you are going to do. 4. Future Perfect — cognovero quid agas, 7 shall have learned what you are doing. cognovero quid egeris, / shall have learned what you have done. cognovero quid actiirus sis, I shall have learned what you will do. TENSES IN DEPENDENT CLAUSES 301 Secondary, or Historical. — Past Time in Dependent Clauses. 5. Imi'Eufkct — sciebam quid ageres, / knew what you were doing. sciebam quid egisses, / Inew what you had done. sciebam quid acturus esses, / knew what you were going to do, G. AORIST — cognovi quid ageres, / learned ivhat you were doing. c5gn6vi quid egisses, T learned ivhat you had done. cognovi quid acturus esses, / learned what you were going to do. 7. Pluperfect — cognoveram quid ageres, / had learned what you ivere doing. cogndveram quid egisses, / had learned ichat you had done. cognoveram quid acturus esses, / had learned what you loere going to do. Obs. In the foregoing examples, note (1) that each verb in the leading, or principal, clauses, of Exs. 1, 2, 3, 4, is in a primary tense — present, perfect, future, future perfect; (2) that each verb in the dependent, or subordinate, clauses of the same examples, is likewise in a primary tense, but in the present subjunctive when the action is continued or incomplete (i.e. relatively present or future) with reference to the action denoted by the leading verb, and in the perfect subjunctive when the action is completed (i.e. .relatively past) with reference to the action denoted by the leading verb. Note, further, that each verb in the leading, or principal, clauses, of Exs. 5, 6, 7, is in a secondary, or an historical, tense, — imperfect, aorist, pluperfect, — and also that each verb in the de- pendent, or subordinate, clauses is likewise in a secondary^ or an historical, tense : in the imperfect subjunctive when the action is continued or incomplete with reference to the action denoted by the leading verb, and in the pluperfect subjunctive when the action is completed wdth reference to the action denoted by the leading verb. The pupil should note that, after a future or future perfect tense, the simple future is represented in the dependent, or subordinate clause, by the present subjunctive, and the future perfect by the perfect subjunctive; and also that, in such cases, the dependent subjunctive may be present or past, with reference either to the time of speaking or to the time of the main action : as, in audiam quid Sgas, the doing may be going on either at the time of speaking or at the time of hearing, i.e. I shall hear then what you are doing NOW, or what you are doing then (i.e. when I hear). Finally, the pupil should note that, whenever the future in the dependent clause is subsequent to the future of the leading verb, the present or imperfect of the active periphrastic subjunctive is used. Hence, the pupil will observe that the subjunctives in the dependent clauses adapt their verbs to the tenses of the verbs in the leading clauses ; 302 FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. i.e. a primary tense in the leading clause is followed by a primary tense in the subordinate clause, and that a secondary, or an his- torical, tense in the leading clause is followed by a secondary, or an historical, tense in the subordinate clause. The rule is called the rule for the Sequence of Tenses, and is, in general, the same in Latin as in English. For those dependent sentences that require the subjunctive, the rule may be stated as follows : — SEQUENCE OF TENSES. 319. Rule XLVIL — A primary tense in the lead- ing? clause is followed by a primary tense in the dependent clause ; and a secondary tense is followed by a secondary. Obs. The rules for the Sequence of Tenses are not applicable to indicative clauses (i.e. to clauses that have their verbs in the in- dicative), nor to conditional sentences (regardless of mode). For these, special rules are necessary (see 325). 320. The Sequence of Tenses may be represented as follows : — The Present Subjunctive, for „ „ - , , incomplete action, are followed by \ ,, n ^ . c ; • .• r "^ Ihe Perfect Suhjunctive, for [ completed action. The Imperfect Subjunctive, - „ , , for incomplete action, are followed by ^ m r»7 ^ . o 7 • "^ Ihe Pluperfect Subjunctive, for completed action. Primary Tenses: Present, Perfect (Definite), Future, Future Perfect, Secondary Tenses: Imperfect, Aorist (Perfect), Pluperfect, Obs. In the following examples, note that the tense of the sub- junctive is always dated at the same time as the tense of the leading verb; i.e. the tense of the Latin subjunctive is the same as the tense of the indicative or potential in the English sentence. The commonest tenses of the subjunctive in dependent clauses are the present and imperfect, the latter being used in such dependent clauses for the English aorist as well as for the real imperfect. EXAMPLES. 1. vSnio ut videam, I come to (in order tJiat 1 7nay) see. 2. veni ut viderem, / camr^ to (in order that I might) see. 3. ita mendax grat, ut nemo ei credSret, he was such a liar, that no one believed him. TENSES TN DEPENDENT CLAUSES. 303 In Exs. 1 and 2, the seeing is dated as present or past, according as the coming is present or past ; and, as may see and might see are present and imperfect (or past) potential, respectively, so we use the corresponding tenses of the Latin subjunctive. In Ex. 3, credSret is used for believed, which is an aorist ; credgret would also be used for a true imperfect (was believing). After primary tenses, the perfect subjunctive is used to represent all past tenses of the indicative or potential, except that unreal conditions (326. 3) must alwavs have their own form, regardless of the Sequence of Tenses (319). a. The Perfect (Definite) is properly a primary tense ; but as its action is commenced in past time, it is often regarded as a secondary tense, and is followed in the dependent clause by a secondary tense. b. The Present is often used in lively narration for the Aorist, or Historical, Perfect. We say in English, Cicero discusses the im- mortality of the soul, discusses being the historical present. It is used whenever the writer wishes to picture vividly some past event as present. It is then really a past tense, and is usually followed by a past tense in the subordinate clause ; though often it is followed by a primary tense, with past meaning like itself. EXAMPI.E. Helvetii legates ad CaesSrem mittunt, qui dicSrent, the Helvetians (send) sent ambassadors to Ccesar, to say (= who should say). c. The Subjunctive has no future or future perfect tense ; these tenses are, in general, represented in dependent clauses, after a primary tense, by the present or the perfect respectively (circum- stances determining whether the present subjunctive is equivalent to the present or future, etc. ; cf. Exs. in 318) ; and after a secondary tense, by the imperfect or the pluperfect. But whenever the action in the subordinate clause is to be represented as subsequent to the future of the leading verb, the periphrastic form is used, composed of the tenses of esse in combination with the future active parti- ciple. (See 285. Obs.) EXAMPI.ES. 1. respondet si id sit factum, se nSciturum nemini, he replies that, if this should be done, he will harm no one. 304 FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. 2. 16quebantur, gtiam cum vellet Caesar, sese non esse pugnaturos, they icere saying that they would not Jight, even when Ccesar should ivish it. 3. interrSgo te, quid acturus sis, / am asking you what you ivill do, or are going to do. Obs. 1. Instead of the periphrastic form, fiiturum sit (or esset) ut may be used ; and these words must he used when the verb has no participial stem, and therefore no periphrastic form (and also for the future perfect active, which is wanting in the periphrastic conjugation) ; as, non diibito quin scripturus sis = non dtibito quin fiiturum sit, ut scribas, / do not doubt that you will write. Obs. 2. The future perfect represents both the perfect definite and the aorist, transferred to the future ; as, fecSro, / sliall have done it, or / shall do it. The future perfect is used with a much greater exactness in Latin than in English ; as, ut sgmentem fScgris, Ita mgtes, as you shall have sown, so will you reap. The English idiom often uses the present, or the simple future, for the future perfect : as you sow, or as you shall sow, instead of as you shall have sown. Obs. 3. In applying the rules for the sequence of tenses, consider (1) whether the leading verb is primary or secondary ; (2) remem- ber that the tense of the Latin subjunctive is the same as the tense of the indicative or potential in the English sentence (may, can, will, and shall being present ; might, could, would, and should, past). EXERCISES. Appl}^ the rules for sequence of tenses to the following examples : — 1. scripsit ut nos mdneret, he wrote to warn us, or that he might warn us. 2. scripsit ut nos mdneat, he has written to warn us, or that he may warn us. 3. causa quae esset quaesiit, he asked what the cause ivas. 4. venit iit videat, he has come to see, in order to see, or that he may see. 5. vgnit ut videret, he came to see, or that he might see. 6. dux impgrat ut milites stStiones suas servent, the leader commands the soldiers to keep their stations, or that the soldiers should keep their stations. 7. curat ut pu6ri corpus exerceat, he takes care that he may exercise the hoy's hody (i.e. to exercise the hoy's hody). SUBJUNCTIVE IN DEPENDENT CLAUSES. 305 8. Hannibal magnum exercitum in ItSliam duxit ut cum Romanis pugnaret, Hannibal led a large army into Italy to (that he might) fight with the Romans. 9. non diibito quin Caesar hostes siiperavgrit, I do not douht that Ccesar has overcome the enemy. 10. non diibitabam quin Caesar hostes stipgravisset, / did not doubt that Coisar had overcome the enemy. 11. considSrabimus quid fSciat, we shall consider what he is doing. 12. consldgrabimus quid fec6rit, tve shall consider what he has done. 13. considSrabimus quid facturus sit, ive shall consider what he is going to do (or will do). Supplementary Exercises : — 1. Non dubitabam quTn Caesar hostes superavisset. 2. Nemo dubitabat quin milites fortissime pugnavissent. 3. Nemo dubitat quin puerum semper bene educaverim. 4. Pater curat ut ego bene educer, strenue exercear, probe excolar, diligenter erudiar. 5. Magister curabat ut discipu- lus bene educaretur, strenue exerceretur, probe excoleretur, diligenter erudiretur. 6. Non est dubium quin discipiilus a me bene monitus sit. 7. Non est dubium quin urbs a mili- tibus expugnata sit. 8. Interrogo te quid acturus sis. 9. Interrogavero te quid acturus sis. 10. Interrogabam te quid acturus esses. 11. Non dubitavi quin scripturus esses, or non dubitavi quin futurum esset ut scrlberes. NOTES AND QUESTIONS. How many tenses has the indicative mode 1 How many has the subjunctive ? What are primary tenses ? Secondary tenses 1 How do the forms of the perfect subjunctive differ from those of the future perfect indicative 1 Has the subjunctive future tenses 1 How is this lack of future tenses supplied in dependent clauses 1 What is the rule for the tense in a dependent clause containing a subjunctive ? Is the rule for sequence of tenses applicable to indicative clauses ? 306 FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. LESSON XCVII. SUBJUNCTIVE IN DEPENDENT CLAUSES. I. FINAL CLAUSES. Obs. Final Clauses are tliose that tell the purpose of an action. They are introduced by the Final Conjunctions ut, that, in ordei' that; ne (or ut ne), that . . . not, in order that . . . not, lest ; quo (= ut eo, that thereby), xohereby, in order that, when there is a comparative in the final clause ; the Relative Pronoun qui (= ut is, that he), in order that he; and the Relative Adverbs, iibi, unde, etc. — ut ibi, etc. SUBJUNCTIVE OF PURPOSE. 321. Rule XLVIII.— Final Clauses take their verbs in the present or imperfect subjunctive, according as the leadinjf verb is in a primary or secondary tense. Obs. 1. The leading verb may be in any tense, but the present or imperfect subjunctive is usually used in the final clause. The relative pronoun is used in final clauses chiefly after verbs of sending, coming, giving, choosing, etc., when the antecedent is indefinite. EXAMPI.ES. 1. ven§runt ut pacem pStSrent, they came to seek peace. 2. pugnamus ne servi simus, we fight that loe may not he slaves. :}. Caesar castella communit, quo f5oilius Helvetios pr6- hibere possit, Ccesar erects forts that he may the 'more easily keep off the Helvetians. 4. mllltes missi sunt qui (= ut ii) urbem expugnarent soldiers were sent {that they might assault), or to assault the city. 5. 15cum iibi considSret delegit, he selected a place where he might encamp (that he might there, etc.). Obs. 2. The ablative quo (= ut eo) is used in clauses denoting purpose, especially with comparatives. Obs. 3. These final clauses may be translated by to ; sometimes by that . . . may, that . . . might, etc. SUBJUNCTIVE IN DEPENDENT CLAUSES. 307 Object Clauses, 1. After verbs of admonishing and allowing^ bidding and forbidding^ beseeching and compelling^ resolving and striving^ tvilling and ivishing^ Final Clauses become object clauses^ i.e. they are the objects of the verbs on which they depend. With many of these verbs the simple infinitive, or the infinitive with subject-accusative, is often used (see 254. and 342. (2)), instead of ut with the subjunctive. EXAMPI.ES. 1. te r6go ut eum jiives, / ask you to (that you may) aid him. 2. contendit ut vincat, he strives to (that he may) conquer. 3. sgnatus censugrat, iiti {= ut) Aeduos defendSret, the senate had decreed that he should defend the jEduans. Obs. This form of final clauses is usually rendered by to (never by in order to) ; sometimes by that, with may or might, etc. These verbs have the sequence of ordinary final clauses. Verbs of Fearing. 2. After verbs of fearing, nS, lest, shows that the nega- tive is wished and the positive feared ; ut (ng n6n) shows that the positive is wished and the negative feared ; ne non is used regularly after a negative for both. EXAMPLES. 1. timeo ut ISbores sustineas, / fear that you will not endure the labors (/ wish that you may) . 2. timebam ne evSnirent ea, I feared that these things would happen (/ ivished that they would not). 3. non vSreor ne non rSdeat, / do not fear that he will not return. 4. vgreor ut rSdeat, I fear he may not return. Obs. Note that ne is translated by that; and ut, or ne non, by that not. Verbs of fearing take the present (representing the present and future indicative) or perfect (representing the perfect or future perfect indicative) subjunctive after a primary tense, the imperfect or pluperfect (representing the present, future, perfect, and future perfect indicative) after a secondary tense. 308 FIRST STEPS IN LATlN. Verbs of Hindering, , 3. After verbs of hindering^ quominus is often used instead of ne. The Sequence of Tenses is the same as that in Pure Final Clauses (see 321). EXAMPLE. nihil Gaio obstat quominus ad te scribat, noOiing prevents Gains from writing to you. Obs. 1. Purpose is not expressed in Latin prose by the infinitive, as it often is in English ; thus, they came to see, i.e. for the purpose of seeing, must be rendered by venernnt ut viderent, or some one of the following forms : — 1. venerunt ut urbem viderent (final clause with ut). 2. venerunt qui urbem viderent (final relative clause). 3. venerunt ad videndum urbem (gerund with ad, rare). 4. venerunt ad videndam urbem (gerundive with ad). 5. vSnerunt urbem videndi causa (gerund with causS). 6. venerunt urbis videndae causa (gerundive with causa). 7. venerunt urbem visuri (future participle). 8. vgnerunt urbem visum (supine). Obs. 2. For Final Clauses in Indirect Discourse, see 351. EXERCISES. Translate into English : — 1. Laudas me, ut a me invicem lauderis. 2. Laudabat me, ut a me invicem laudaretur. 3. Contendit Caesar maximis itineribus in fines Nerviorum, ut consilia eorum cognosceret. 4. Caesar milites cohortatus est, quo mortem fortius obirent. 5. Equitatum, qui sustineret hostium impe- tum, misit. 6. Postulavit ue Aeduis bellum inferret. 7. Caesar milites cohortatus est, ut fortiter castra defende- rent. 8. Timeo ne hostis veniat. 9. Timeo ut pater veniat. 10. Non timeo ne amicus non veniat. Translate into Latin : — 1. I praise you in order that I may be praised by you. 2. The soldiers came to seek^ peace. 3. He sent legates to seek for peace. 4. We come to see you. 5. We came to see you, 6. Caisar encouraged his soldiers in order that^ SUBJU^ICTIVE IN DEPENDENT CLAUSES. 309 they might meet death more bravely. 7. Caesar has encom-aged his soldiers in order that they may meet death more bravely. 8. CiXisar demanded that the enemy should not make war upon the TFkluans. 9. I fear that my friend will not come. 10. I fear lest my friend is not coming. 11. I wish you to answer me. NOTES AND QUESTIONS. 1. Tlie Enghsh infinitive expressing a purpose (equivalent to that, in order that) is to be translated by ut with the subjunctive. 2. See 321. Obs. 2. "What is a final clause? When do final clauses become object clauses after verbs of doubting ? Give the rule for the sequence of tenses in final and complementary final clauses. What is an object clause ? 2. CONSECUTIVE CLAUSES. Obs. Consecutive Clauses are those that tell the consequence, or remit, of an action. They are introduced by the consecutive con- junctions ut, so that : ut . . . non, so that . . . not; (after negatives) quin (= qui and ne, horo and not), whereby not, hut that ; quominus (= ut eo minus), that thereby the less ; and the relative pronoun qui (= ut is), that, so that. SUBJUNCTIVE OF RESULT. 322. Rule XLIX. — Consecutive Clauses take their verbs in the subjunctive mode, the tense being de- termined by the regular rule for Sequence of Tenses. Obs. In Consecutive Clauses there is an Exception in the Sequence of Tenses, the same tense being used that would be necessary if the clause were independent ; i.e., the present is used after past tenses to denote the continuance of an action or state into the present, the perfect to imply final result, and the imperfect to denote that the action is contemporaneous with that of the principal verb : as, Verres Siciliam per triennium ita vexavit, ut ea rSstitui in antiquum statura ntiUo mSdo possit, Verres so harried Sicily for three years as to make it utterly impossible for it to he restored to its priginal condition. exampi.es. 1. tantus timor exercitum occiipavit, ut omnium mantes perturbaret, so great fear seized the army that it disturbed, the minds of all. 310 FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. 2. tempestas (tanta) coorta est, quae naves reic6ret, so great a storm arose, that it drove the vessels back. 3. Sdest nemo quin videat, there is no one present that (or who) does not see. 4. non diibito quIn sapientissimus sis, / do not doubt that you are very wise. 323. Consecutive Clauses are used after — 1. Demonstratives like talis, tantus, such; sic, ita, so; tam, Sdeo, to such a degree, etc. ; and expressions implying characteristic and degree. 2. Verbs and expressions of hindering and resisting., delay- ing and omitti7ig, and the like ; also of doubt and uncertainty. These verbs are followed b}^ quin with the subjunctive, but only after a negative, or a question implying a negative. (1) For ne and quominus, with the subjunctive after verbs of hinderimj, etc., see 321. 3. EXAMPLES. 1. Germani rgtineri non pStgrant quin in hostes tela coni- cSrent, the Germans could not be restrained from hurling darts against the enemy. 2. f5c6re non possum quin cSttidie littSras ad te mittam, / cannot do ivithout (/ cannot help) sending you a letter every day. Obs. 1. The sequence of tenses after verbs of hindering, and the like, is the same as in final clauses ; after verbs of doubt and un- certainty, the same as in interrogative clauses (346). Obs. 2. After Negative Indefinite expressions (as nemo, nuUus, nihil, quis), quin is equivalent to qui non, quae non, etc. ; quin is often used in the sense of ut non, and after negative expressions of doubt and uncertainty, in the sense of ut. After negative verbs of hindering and refusing, quin may be used in the sense of quominus (see below). EXAMPLES. 1. ^dest nemo quin videat, tliere is no one present who does not see. 2. nemo est tam fortis quin perturbetur, no one is so brave as not to be disturbed. 3. non dtibitari debet quin fugrint poetae, it ought not to be doubted that there loere poets. 4. ngque rScusare quin armis contendant, and that they do not refuse to contend in arms. SUBJUNCTIVE IN DEPENDENT CLAUSES. 311 (2) Quominus is used after verbs of hindering, preventinc/, refus- ing, and the like (instead of ne). It may generally be rendered hy from with the present participle. EXAMPLE. turba impSdIvit quominus viderem, the crovxl hindered me from seeing. Obs. If verbs of hindering, etc., are negatived by non, or some equivalent v^ord, quin is generally used instead of quominus. EXAMPI.E. turba non impgdivit quin viderem, the crowd did not hinder me from seeing. 3. Verbs of effecting., the negative being non or ne, and the Sequence of Tenses the same as in Final Clauses. EXAMPLES. 1. sol efficit ut omnia floreant, the sun causes all things to flourish. 2. fortuna vestra fScit, ut irae meae tempgrem, your fortune causes that I (makes me) restrain my anger. 4. As subject of many Impersonal Verbs and phrases, such as it happens., it foUoivs, it remains^ etc. EXAMPLE. accidit ut esset luna plena, it happened that the moon ivas full. 5. Consecutive Clauses become, after many Impersonal Verbs and expressions, after verbs of effecting^ doubting., hindering., and the like. Substantive Clauses, and are the real subject or object of the verb, or the explanatory appositive to a noun (see 342. 3) . EXAMPLES. 1. fit ut quisque delectetur, it hajypens that every one is delighted (subject). 2. sol efficit ut omnia floreant, the sun causes all things to flourish (object). 3. Sportebat damnatum poenam sgqui ut igni crgmaretur, it was necessary that the punishment of being burnt should follow Qiim condemned) his condeinnation (appositive). Obs. For the Accusative with the Infinitive, or quod with the Indicative after Impersonal Verbs, see 342. 1 and 4. 312 FIKST STEPS IN LATIN. Relative Clauses of Result, 324. Relative Clauses of Kesult are used to define or to characterize an indefijiite or general antecedent. EXAMPLES. 1. sScutae sunt tempestates quae nostros in castris con- tinerent, storms {of such severity) folloiced, which {that they) kept our men in camp. 2. nemo est qui non ctipiat, there is no one hut (who does not) desires. 3. sunt qui piitent, there are some loho think. Obs. Relativb clauses of result are used to characterize the ante- cedent, especially when it is otherwise undefined, as in the foregoing- examples, and are, therefore, called relative clauses of characteiistic. The relative clause, quae . . . continerent (Ex. 1), describes the severity of the storms by saying that they kept the men in the camp, i.e. by mentioning a characteristic of it ; in Ex. 2 the relative clause follows a general negative nemo, and in Ex. 3 it follows an indefinite antecedent. 1 . Relative Clauses of Result occur also after — a. unus and solus. h. dignus, indignus, idoneus, and aptus. c. Comparatives with quam, to express disproportion. EXAMPLES. 1. soil centum grant qui creari possent, there ivere onbj one hundred who could he appoijited. 2. fabttlae dignae sunt, quae Iggantur, the fables are worthy to he read. 3. majus gaudium fuit, quam quod universum homines cSpSrent, the joy teas greater than (what) men could take in all at once. Obs. The Indicative may be used after affirmative sentences in the statement of definite facts with a definite antecedent ; but if a general characteristic is denoted, the subjunctive must be used. EXAMPLES. 1. multi sunt qui eripiunt, many are they who snatch away. 2. multi sunt qui eripiant, there are many to snatch aicay. 3. sunt qui (= the indefinite pronoun quidam) quod sentiunt non audent dicSre, so?ne dare not say ivhat they think. SUBJUNCTIVE IN DEPENDENT CLAUSES. 313 The following table shows the indefinite pronoun or adverb to be used in Negative Final or Consecutive Clauses. In English we may say either that no one^ or lest any 07ie, etc. ; but in Latin always lest any one, etc. That . . . not Negative Purpose. Negative Result. ne ut non That . . . no, that . . . not any ne ullus ut nullus That no one ne quis ut nem5 That . . . never ne unquam ut nunquam That nothing ne quid ut nihil For Consecutive Clauses in Indirect Discourse, see 351. EXERCISES. Translate into English : — 1. Tantus subito timor omnem cxercitum occupavit, ut non mediocriter omnium mentes animosque perturbaret. 2. Quid obstat quominus moenia statim oppugnemus. 3. Non dubito quin verum dixeris. 4. Nemo erat qui cuperet me e civitate expellere. 5. Nemo fuit omnium militum qui vulneraretur. 6. Vir probus dignus est qui ab omnibus diligatur. 7. Rufum Caesar idoneum judicaverat quern mitteret. 8. Tanta vTs probitatis est ut eam vel in hoste diligamus. 9. Milites retinere non possum quin lon- gius procurrant. 10. Quid te iinpedivit quominus venires. Translate into Latin : — 1. So great a storm arose that it drove the vessels back. 2. I hindered him from going home. 3. There was no one who did not rejoice. 4. There were some who thought Caesar was in the city. 5. I do not doubt that you speak the truth. 6. What prevents us from seeing the games? 7. The fear of the soldiers was so great that he did not lead them from the camp. 8. He deserves to be heard. 9. He was a suitable person to send ( = to be sent) . 314 FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. NOTES AND QUESTIONS. Mention a clause of result in English. How does it ditter from one of purpose ? After what conjunctions are consecutive clauses used 1 When is quominus used 1 What is a relative clause of character- istic ? Give an example of one. What is the antecedent ? After what verbs and expressions are consecutive clauses used ? When do con- secutive clauses become substantive clauses ? 3. CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. EXAMPLE. Condition (Protasis). — Conclusion (Apodosis). If he has money, he gives it. Obs. The foregoing sentence contains a condition, if he has money, and is, therefore, called a Conditional Sentence. The sentence is Complex, because it consists of two clauses, — a principal, or leading clause, he gives it, called the conclusion, and a subordinate, or dependent clause, if he has money, containing the condition. The clause containing the condition is called the Protasis, and that containing the conclusion, the Apodosis. The apodosis is regularly introduced by the conditional conjunc- tion if, — in Latin si, or a compound of si : as, nisi, unless (used instead of si non after negatives) ; etiamsi, etsi, although ; sin, hut if (see Conditional and Concessive Conjunctions, 331). An indefinite relative may introduce a conditional clause (see 328). Hence the following definition : — PROTASIS AND APODOSIS. 325. In Conditional Sentences, the clause containing the condition is called the protasis, and that containing the con- clusion the apodSsis. Classification of Conditional Sentences, SIMPLE PRESENT AND PAST CONDITIONS. Present or Past ( 1. If he has money, he gives it. w Indicative ( 2. If he had money, he gave it. FUTURE CONDITIONS. Fut. Ind. or Pres. ^1. If he has (or shall have) money, he will give it. or Perf . Subj . ( 2. If he had (or should have) money, he would give it. SUBJUNCTIVE IN DEPENDENT CLAUSES. 315 UNREAL PRESENT AND PAST CONDITIONS. Imperf . or Plup. Subj. 1. If he had money (lie has not), he would give it {now, present time). 2. 1/ he had had money {he had not), he ivould have given it (then, at some past time) . Obs. One of the most obvious classifications of conditional sen- tences is that of (1) present, (2) past, and (3) future conditions, the distinction being based on the time to which the condition refers. The pupil, however, should note that in Ex. 1 of the third set, the imperfect denotes present time. We may, on the other hand, classify conditional sentences as to their meaning, i.e. as to what is implied with regard to the fulfilment of the condition. In the first two examples, no opinion is expressed or implied as to the truth of the supposition, i.e. as to his having money ; but what is stated as a fact is this : granted the supposition, i.e. that he has money, and the conclusion must follow, i.e. he gives it. In Latin any present or past tense of the indicative may be used either in the condition or conclusion. If a past tense is used in this form of conditional sentences, the pupil must take care not to confound such sentences with those in the third set. Observe the distinction between if he had money, he gave it, and if he had money (he has not), he would give it (now). The next two examples transfer the con- dition to the future, and the question as to the fulfilment of the condition is, of course, at pi'esent undecided ; hence the uncertainty of such conditions being fulfilled is greater than in present con- ditions. Such conditions may be stated in two ways : the first form, if he shall have money, is used to state a supposed future case in a distinct and vivid manner ; the second form, if he should have money, is used to state a supposed future case in a less distinct and invid manner. We may say if he should have money, or if he should have had money, the first being used for continued action, and the second (i.e. the perfect) for completed action, i.e. completed at the time denoted by the verb in the apodosis, although both forms are usually rendered in English by the present. The third set of ex- amples, if he had money, he ivould give it, and if he had had money, he would have given it, transfer the conditions to past time, and hence the time for the happening of the conditions has already passed, i.e. they state the supposed case in such a manner that we perceive the condition is unfulfilled, i.e. he does not have money, and does not give it. In the first example the imperfect, a past tense, is used to state the unfulfilment or unreality of the condition in present time. In both sentences the supposed case is represented as unreal, or contrary to fact, and the conclusion states what would have been the result if the condition had been fulfilled. In Latin, the sub- junctive is used in both condition and conclusion, — in the first the imperfect, and in the second the pluperfect. The imperfect refers 316 FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. to present time, and the pluperfect to past time. Hence the follow- ing classification of conditional sentences : — SIMPLE PKP:SE^T A^l> I'AST CONDITIONS. 1. Simple Present and Past Conditions, nothing implied as to their fulfilment. Assume as a fact the supposition, and the conclu- sion must follow : Any present or past tense of the indicative in both clauses. KXAMPI.ES. a. Present ; si pgcuniam habet, dat, if he has money, he fjives it. h. Past : si pgcuniam hSbebat, dSbat, if he had money, he gave it. FUTURE conditions. 2. Future Conditions may be stated in two ways : (1) More distinct and vivid, the future indicative being used in both clauses; (2) less distinct and vivid {i.e. less probable), the sub- junctive being used in both clauses. The present subjunctive is used for continued action, the perfect subjunctive for completed action. p:xamplks. a. si pgciiniam h&bebit, dSbit, if he has (i.e. shall have) money, he will (jive it. h. si pgcuniam hSbeat, det, if he should have money, he would (jive it. c. si pgcuniam habugrit, dgdgrit, if he should have had money, he would have given it. UNREAL PRESENT AND PAST CONDITIONS. 3. Unreal Present and Past Conditions, unfulfilled in present or past time : Imperfect or pluperfect subjunctive in both clauses. EXAMPLES. a. Present : si pgcuniam hSberet, dSi-et, if he had money {he has not), he rvould give it {now, present time). b. Past : si pgcuniam hSbuisset, dedisset, if he had had money {he had not), he woidd have given it {then, at some past time). Obs. The pupil should note that the rules for Sequence of Tenses are not applicable to Conditional Sentences (see 319. Obs.). For conditional sentences in Indirect Discourse, see 355. SUBJUNCTIVE IN DEPENDENT CLAUSES. 317 MODE IN CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. 326. Rule L.- Conditional Sentences with si, nisi, nl, sin, take — SIMPLE PRESENT AND PAST CONDITIONS. 1. Any present or past tense of the indicative in both clauses when nothing- is implied as to the fulfil- ment of the condition. EXAMPI.ES. 1. si ^dest, bgne est, if he is here, it is tvelL 2. SI adgrat, b^ne Srat, if he was here, it was well. 3. SI vSlet, laetor, if he is well, I rejoice. 4. SI valebat, laetabar, if he was well, I ivas rejoicing. Obs. As stated in the rule, the mode of the conchision (apod- osis) is, as a rule, in the indicative ; but it may be also in the imperative or subjunctive, according as a command, wish, or modest assertion (278. 2) is to be expressed. Example. sT dormis, expergiscgre, if you are sleeping, awake. FUTURE CONDITIONS. 2. The future indicative in both clauses, to repre- sent the supposed future case in a distinct and vivid manner ; the present or perfect subjunctive in both clauses, to represent the supposed future case in a less distinct and vivid manner. EXAMPLES. 1. si id credes, errabis, if you shall believe that you will go tvrong. 2. si adsit, bene sit, if he should (hereafttr) he here, it loould he well. 3. SI adfuSrit, bSne sit, if you should have been here, it would he well. 4. SI id credidgris (rare), erraveris, if you helieve (= should have believed^ that, you tvould go (— have gone) wrong. Obs. 1. If the action of the condition is regarded as completed before that of the conclusion begins, the future perfect indicative is used instead of the future, or the perfect subjunctive instead of the present subjunctive. Examples. 1. SI milites hortatus grit, fortiter pugnabunt, if he shall have eiicouraged the soldiers, they will fight bravely. 318 FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. 2. si milites hortatus sit, fortiter pugnent, if he should have encouraged the soldiers, they would Jight bravely. UNREAL PRESENT AND PAST CONDITIONS. 3. The imperfect or pluperfect subjunctive in both clauses, to represent the supposed case as unreal, or cofiti^ary to fact. The imperfect denotes present time, and the pluperfect past. EXAMPLES. 1. SI Sdesset, bSne esset, if he were (now) here (he is not), it ivould he well. 2. SI adfuisset, bSne fuisset, if he had (then) been here (he was not), it zvould have been well. 3. SI vSleret, laetarer, if he were (now) well, I tvould rejoice. 4. SI vSluisset, laetStus essem, if he had (then) been well, I would have rejoiced. Conditional Clauses after Dutn, Modo, and Dummodo. 327. Conditional Clauses introduced by dum, m6do, and dumm6do (negative dum ne, m6do ne, dummSdo ne), if only., provided that., take the present or imperfect subjunctive. EXAMPLES. 1. dummddo inter me atque te murus intersit, provided that the city /rail is between us. 2. dum r§s mSneant, verba fingant, if only the facts remain, they may make up words. Obs. 1. The Apodosis — except in a few involved forms of condi- tional sentences — regularly corresponds in mode with the Apodosis (see foregoing examples). But see 326. Obs. Obs. 2. Frequently the present subjunctive of a future condi- tion becomes imperfect by sequence of tenses. For conditional sentences in Indirect Discourse, see 355. 1. Verbs in the conclusion of unreal conditions are some- times in tlie imperfect or pluperfect indicative (the indica- tive is regularly used after verbs denoting duty., necessity^ 2)ropriety, ability, and the like) ; also, the historical perfect SUBJUNCTIVE IN DEPENDENT CLAUSES. 319 of other verbs when accompanied by paene or pr6pe, and the periphrastic forms in -rus and -dus. In these cases the conditional idea is sufficiently expressed in the meaning of the words, and the regular conditional form is, therefore, neglected. EXAMPLES. 1. deleri exercitus p6tuit, si persgcuti victores essent, the army iiiiglit have been destroyed (and ivould have been), if the victors had pursued. 2. SI Romae privatus esset hoc tempSre, tSmen is 6rat deligendus, if he loere at this time a private citizen of Rome, yet he ought to be appointed. 3. pons iter paene hostibus dgdit, ni unus vir fuisset, the bridge almost furnished a passage to the enemy (and ivould have furnished it) had thei'e not been one man. DISGUISED OR OMITTED CONDITIONS. 328. A condition is sometimes introduced by an Indefinite Relative, or by a Participial, Imperative, or Interrogative Clause (instead of a regular protasis) ; or it may be contained in a single word or phrase, or otherwise implied in the context. EXAMPLES. 1 . qui sgcum 16qui pStSrit, sermonem altgrius non rSquiret, if any one (let he who) shall be able to converse ivith himself he will not need the conversation of another. 2. gpistiila accepta, prSfectus essem, if I had received a letter, I should have set out. 3. nulla prSfecto ^lia gens tanta mole cladis non obrttta esset, surely no other nation ivould have failed to be cruslied by such a weight of disaster (i.e. if such a weight of disaster had come upon it; condition implied in tanta mole). Obs. For Conditional Clauses in Indirect Discourse, see 355. EXERCISES. Translate into English : — 1. Si hoc facit, bene est. 2. Si hoc faciat, bene sit. 3. Si hoc fecisset, bene fuisset. 4. ST hoc faceret, bene esset. 5. Si tii me laudabis, ego te laudabo. 6. Si quid habet, dat. 7. Si Helvetii AUobrogibus satisfaciant, cum iis pacem faciam. 8. SI quid habuisset, dedisset. 320 FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. Translate into Latin : — 1. If I do this, it is well. 2. If I should do this, it would be well. 3. If I had done this, it would have been well. 4. If he says this, he is mistaken. 5. If he speaks the truth, he will be praised. 6. If he had had money, he would have given it. 7. If he had spoken the truth, he would have been praised. 8. If you were here, you would think differently. 9. If this were so, I should be glad. NOTES AND QUESTIONS. What is a conditional sentence ? Of how many parts does it con- sist 1 What name is given to each part 1 How may conditional sentences be classified ? Is a conditional sentence complex or com- pound ? What tenses does tlie subjunctive lack ? How is this lack sometimes supplied '^ Is the conclusion a principal or a dependent clause ? What time does each tense denote ? 4. COMPARATIVE CLAUSES. Obs. Comparative Clauses are those that illustrate or explain the leading statement, by furnishing a standard of measure. The leading clause often has some correlative word like ita, sic, so, etc. Comparative clauses are introduced by comparative conjunctions ; as if. quam, than, as. tanquam, ut, uti, -j 1 quSsi, sicut or siciiti, y as, so as. ut SI, quemadmSdum, J 1 vglut SI, vglut, just as. acsi. J MODE IN COMPARATIVE CLAUSES. 329. Rule LI. — Comparative Clauses introduced by utf utlt slcutf queniachnodutnf etc., followed by the demonstrative particles tta, sic (so), etc., regularly take the indicative or the subjunctive as in indepen- dent sentences. EXAMPLE. "^Ttt sementem fgcSris, ita mgtes, as you shall have sown, so shall you reap. SUBJUNCTIVE IN DEPENDENT CLAUSES. 321 330. Rule Lll. — Comparative Clauses introduced by dc sif ut si, quajnslf quasi, tanquam, tanquam s~i, velut, velut si, are, in fact, contlitional clauses, of which tlie conclusion is omitted or implied, and therefore take the subjunctive like other conditional sentences. EXAMPLES. 1. me adspicitis, quSsi monstrum sim, you gaze at me as {you would gaze^ if I were a monster. 2. SequSni absentis Ariovisti crudelitatem vSlut si coram a.desset, horrebant, the Sequani kept shuddering at the cruelty of the absent Ariovistus as (they would have shuddered) if he ivere (had been) present. Obs. Ordinary comparative clauses which merely illustrate a preceding statement take the indicative, unless the subjunctive is used as in independent sentences. But comparative clauses that express a condition, with the apodosis omitted, take the subjunc- tive, the tense being determined by the rule for sequence of tenses rather than the ordinary use of conditional sentences. The Eng- lish translation would lead us to expect only the imperfect and pluperfect, as it makes the comparison an unreal one (326. 3). But the tense of the subjunctive is generally controlled by the tense in the leading clause (319), although occasionally the sequence is not observed, but the rule for conditional sentences prevails. In the first example the present subjunctive is used in the comparative clause, though the unreality of the comparison is implied, because the leading verb is in the present tense ; hence, 1. The tenses follow the rules for the sequence of tenses, rather than the ordinary use of conditional sentences. In English, the translation implies the unreality of the com- parison. Obs. For Comparative Clauses in Indirect Discourse, see 351. 5. CONCESSIVE CLAUSES. Obs. Concessive Clauses are those which concede or admit some- thing opposed to the main statement, and are generally introduced in English by though or although. The concessive conjunctions take the subjunctive or indicative according to the following : — 322 FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. a. quamquam, although^ generally takes the indicative. h. quamvis (quam and vis, as much as you please^, quamtumvis, ut, ne, and cum, although^ and the relative qui (=cum, is, ggo, etc.), all take the subjunctive when used concessively. c. licet, although, is properly a verl), and takes a sub- stantive clause with the subjunctive. d. etsT, t&metsi, gtiamsT, or si, take tlie indicative or subjunctive, like conditional clauses with si. MODE IN concessivp: clauses. 331. Rule LIII. — Concessive Clauses are intro- duced by concessive conjunctions, — although, grant- ing that, — and take the indicative to represent the concession as a fact; the subjunctive to represent it as merely possible, or as contrary to the fact, KXAMPLES. 1. quamquam intellggunt, t^men nunquam dicunt, although they understand, yet they never speak. 2. quamvis fortSs sint, although they are brave. 3. ut desint virgs, although the strength fails . 4. ne sit summum mSlum dSlor, although pain may not he the greatest evil. 1. The relative qui is often concessive, equivalent to although with a personal or demonstrative pronoun, and takes the subjunctive. EXAMPLE. culpatur, qui innScens sit, he is blamed, although he is innocent. OiiS. For Concessive Clauses in Indirect Discourse, see 351. EXERCISES. Translate into English : — 1. Quamvis molestus dolor sit, malum non est. 2. Ut desint vires, tamen est laudanda voluntas. 3. Licet ^ me hortetur, non pugnabo. 4. Patres metus cepit, velut si jam ad portas hostis esset.- 5. Multi omnia recta negligunt, SUBJUNCTIVE IN DEPENDENT CLAUSES. 323 dummodo potentiam consequantar. 6. Cum ea^ ita sint, tamen, si obsides ab iis sibi dentur, cum iis pacem facial. 7. Adero ego, licet absit amicus. 8. Caesar, etsi prope exacta jam aestas erat, tamen eo^ exercitum abduxit. 9. Sicuti dixi faciam. 10. Pater meus septima hora redibit, slcut pollicitus est. 11. Sequani absentis AriovistI crude- litatem velut si coram adess^t, horrebant. Translate into Latin : — 1. Although the summer was passed, Caesar led his army into Gaul. 2. I was present, although you were absent. 3. We will do this, although we know that we shall be punished. 4. Fear seized the citizens, as if the enemy were already in the city. 5. Although they fought bravely, yet they did not conquer. 6. I shall do as I have promised. 7. You look at me as if I were a monster. NOTES AND QUESTIONS. 1. Lit., that he may encourage me is allowed. 2. See 330. 3. When the demonstrative is used substantively, remember that some noun is to be supplied in English : as, man, men, soldiers, if mas- culine ; thing or things, if neuter. 4. Thither. What are comparative clauses ? How introduced ? What are con- cessive conjunctions ? Name them. Which take the indicative ? Is a clause connected by a concessive conjunction adjective or adverbial ? 6. CAUSAL CLAUSES. Obs. Causal Clauses are those that state the cause or reason of the fact mentioned in the leading clause. They are introduced by the causal conjunctions quod, quia, because, qudniam, quando, since, cum (quum), as, since, and the relative pronoun qui, as he. 332. Rule LIV. — Causal Clauses introduced by quod, quia, quoniarrif and quandOf take the Indicative when the reason assigned is stated as a fact, and indorsed by the speaker or writer. EXAMPI.E. laudo te, quia tu me laudas, 7 praise you because you praise me. 324 FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. Obs. The statement of tlie reason which is not the real one is introduced by nou quo, non quod, iion quia, with the verb most commonly in the subjunctive. Example, non quod dSleant, not because they grieve. 1. Causal Clauses introduced b}' cum or the relative qui regularly take the subjunctive. EXAMBLiES. 1. cum vita mStus plena sit, since life is full of fear. 2. quae cum ita sint, and since these things are so. .*>. O fortunate adiilescens, qui tuae virtutis HSmerum prae- conem invenSris, fortunate youth, since you (lit. who') have obtained Homer as the herald of your valor. 2. Causal Clauses introduced by quod, quia, quoniara, take the subjunctive (in Indirect Discourse, 348) to state the reason as the assertion or opinion of some one else. EXAMPLE. Socrates accusatus est quod corrumpSret jilventutem, Socrates ivas arraigned because (as teas alleged) he corrupted the youth. QUOD WITH VERBS OF EMOTION. 3. Quod is used after verbs of joy and sorrow, praise and blame, thanks and complaint, satisfaction and anger, to give the ground of the emotion, and is followed by the subjunc- tive or indicative, according to 332 or 332. 2 ; but see 342. 4. EXAMPLES. 1. jiivat mg quod vigent studia, I am delighted because studies are flourish ing (indicative). 2. gaudet miles quod vic6rit hostem, the soldier rejoices be- cause he has conquered the enemy (subjunctive). Obs. 1. For Causal Clauses as the subject, object, or appositive, see 342. 4 ; for the Infinitive after Verbs of Emotion, see 342. (3). Obs. 2. For Causal Clauses in Indirect Discourse, see 351. EXERCISES. Translate into English : — 1. Laudabat me, quod filium meum culparera. 2. Quo- uiam jam nox est, in vestra tecta discedite. 3. Caesar ab SUBJUNCTIVE IN DEPENDENT CLAUSES. 325 Aeduis frumentum flagitabat, quod milites magna inopia urgerentur. 4. Omnes elves gaudent, quod duces mllitum cupiditates coercuerunt. 5. Succenseo tibi, quia lucrum amicitiae auteposuisti. 6. Aedui legatos miserunt questum quod Harudes agros eorum popidarentur. 7. Quoniam res ita se habet, in urbem redeamus.^ Translate into Latin : — 1. You have praised me because 1 have praised you. 2. The citizens rejoiced because Ciesar restrained the sol- diers. 3. I am angry with you, because you have preferred gain to friendship. 4. He complained because he was not assisted by them. NOTES AND QUESTIONS. 1. See 278. What is a causal clause 'i Mention the causal conjunctions. When do clauses introduced by these conjunctions take the indicative 1 When the subjunctive 1 How is cum translated when it denotes cause ? What is the construction after verbs of emotion 1 7. TEMPORAL CLAUSES. Obs. Temporal Clauses are such as denote the time of an action by mentioning something else which was (1) antecedent to, (2) con- temporaneous tvith, or (3) subsequent to it. The temporal conjunc- tions are : — 1. Antecedent: postquam (posteaquam), after that, after; ut, as; tibi, token (lit. lohere) ; simulac, or simul ac, simul, as soon as; ut primum, cum primum, the frst moment that; cum (quum), historical, when, after. 2. Contemporaneous: dum, donee, while, as long as, until; quoad, quamdiu, as long as ; cum (quum), when. 3. Subsequent : antgquam, priusquam, before. Obs. The subjunctive is used in temporal clauses only in in- direct discourse, or to express cause, doubt, purpose, desire, etc., as will be explained hereafter. 326 FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. ^ I. Antecedent Action, 333. Temporal Clauses, introduced by postquam, postea quam, iibi, tit, iit prlmum, iibi primum, simul ac, etc., take the indicative (commonly the aorist indicative or historical present) . EXAMPLES. 1 . postquam id Snimadvertit, copias suas Caesar in proxi- mum coUem subducit, after Ccesar liad observed this, he withdreio his forces to the nearest hill. 2. tibi sg pSratos esse arbitrati sunt, oppida incendunt, ichen they thought they were ready, they burnt their towns. 8. nostri, simul in arldo constiterunt, in hostes impgtum fecSrunt, our men, as soon as they got footing on dry {ground), made an attack on the enemy. 4. milites, postquam victoriam Sdepti sunt, nihil rgllqui victis fgcere, the soldiers, after they had gained a victory, left nothing to the vaiKjuished. o. postquam vidit, etc., castra pdsuit, he pitched his camp, after he saw it, etc. 6. tibi certiorSs facti sunt, ivhen they were informed. Obs. After the antecedent conjunctions, the aorist (Lat. perfect) is frequently rendered in English by the pluperfect (see Exs.). II. Contemporaneous Action, 334. KuLE LV. — Uum^ donee, quoad, while, as long as., take the indicative (any tense). EXAMPLES. 1. hoc feci, dum licuit, / did this as long as I ivas allowed. 2. intermisi, quoad non licuit, / stoppjed it as long as I was not allowed. 335. Rule LVI. — Dum, donee, quoad, until, take the indicative in the statement of a fact, the sub- junctive vi^hen purpose is expressed (i.e, if the accom- plishment of the purpose is the limit of the action). EXAMPL,ES. 1. Milo in sgnatu fuit eo die, quoad sSnatus dimissus est, Milo was in the senate on that day, until it adjourned. subjunctivp: in dependent clauses. 327 2. donee rSdiit, sllentium fuit, until he relumed, there was silence. 3. dum navgs eo convSnirent, exspectavit, he ivaited until the ships should come up, i.e. for the ships to come up. 4. exspectas dum dicat, you are waiting till he speaks (in order that he may speak). 5. impgtum hostium siistinuit, quoad cetSri pontem inter- rumpSrent, he ivithstood the onset of the enemy, until the rest could break down the bridge (in order that they might, etc.). 6. dum Caesar m6ratur, ad eum legati yenerunt, while Ccesar icas delaying, envoys came to him. Obs. Dum in the sense of while, in the time that, usnally takes the present indicative in narration (see Exs. 6 and 7), though the action is past (334. Ex. 1) ; but when it denotes purpose, it takes the subjunctive. In the later prose writers dum, while, is construed with the imperfect and pkiperfect subjunctive like cum Historical. The principle is that of Partial Indirect Discourse (see 364). in. Subsequent Action* 336. Rule IjYU. — Antequam and x^^iusquam, before^ are used with any tense of the indicative, except the imperfect and pluperfect, to express the mere priority of one event to another. EXAMPLES. 1. priusquam lucet, adsunt, they are present before it is light. 2. filios conv6cavit antgquam mortuus est, he called together his sons before he died. 3. priusquam de cgtgrTs rgbus respondeo, de Smicitia pauca dicam, before I reply to the rest, I will say a few words about friendship. 337. Rule LVIII. — Antequam and priusquam are used with the subjunctive to express (l) the inten- tional priority of one action to another (i.e. when the action is purposed or desired by the subject of the leading verb), (2) or when its non-occurrence is expressed or implied. 328 FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. EXAMPLES. 1, non prius dtlces dimittunt (320. b.), quam sit concessum, they did not dismiss the leaders till it was granted. 2. priusquam quicquam conaretur, Diviti^cuin ad se vScari jiibet (320. /;.), before he took {should take) action, he ordered Divitiacus to be summoned to him. nee prius sunt visi quam castris appr6pinquarent, and they were not seen until they ivere nearing the camp. 1. AntSquam and priusquam often have, in historical narra- tion, the same construction as cum Historical (see 339). EXAMPLES. 1. priusquam visus est Caesar, quam f^ma perferretur, Ca;s(ir appeared Itefore any tidings icere brought. 2. dtlcentis annis ante quam urbem cSpSrent, in ItSliam Gain descendSrunt, the Gauls came down into Italy two liundred years before they took the city. 2. The subjnnctive is used after antSquam and priusquam (generally a present or future stands in the leading clause) when the action is represented as possible (Potential Subjunctive, 278. 1. 4), or when the statement of a general truth is made. EXAMPLES. 1. antg videmus fulgiirationem quam s5num auditmus, we see the Jlash of lightning before hearing (i.e. before we can hear) the sound (potential). 2. collem, priusquam sentiatur, communit, he fortifies the hill before it was {could be) perceived. 3. tempestas mln&tur, antSquam surgat, the tempest threatens before it rises (general truth). 3. The subjunctive with an indefinite second person as the sub- ject {you = one, any one) is especially common. EXAMPLE. priusquam incipiSs, consults 6pus est, before you (i.e. any one) begin, there is need of deliberation. (See 308. Obs. 2.) Obs. AntSquam and priusquam are often written as separate words ; the translation is often before with the present participle. SUBJUNCTIVE IN DEPENDENT CLAUSES. 329 IT. Constructions of Cum, CUM TEMPORAL. 338. Rule LIX. — Cum Temporal (= when), intro- ducing a clause that defines the m,ere time of an action, may be used with all the tenses of the indicative. EXAMPLES. 1. cum Caesar in Galliam venit, altgrius factionis prin- cipes grant Aedui, ivhen Ccesar came info Gaul, the ^dui were at the head of one party. 2. cum verba f&ciunt, majores suos extollunt, when they speak, they extol their ancestors. CUM INVERSUM. 1. When the clauses are inverted, so that the temporal clause expresses the main statement and becomes substantially the lead- ing clause, the indicative must be used. EXAMPLES. 1. hoc fScgre noctu app^rabant, cum matresfamiliae r6- pente procurrerunt, they were preparing to do this by night, when the loomen suddenly ran forth. 2. vix agmen novissimum processgrat, cum Galli flumen transire non diibitant, scarcely had the rear advanced, when the Gauls without hesitation crossed the river. Obs. The verb in the leading clause is usually the imperfect or pluperfect indicative, often preceded by the adverbs vix, jam, etc. Stibito and rgpente are often used in the temporal clause. ITERATIVE USE OF CUM. 2. When cum (or tibi, simul Sc, or the general relatives qui- cumque, quStiens) means whenever, as often as, and designates repeated or customary action, it is followed in some writers by the subjunctive, in other writers by the indicative. EXAMPLES. 1. cum quaepiam cShors impgtum fecSrat, hostes rgfiigiebat, whenever any cohort had made an attack, the enemy retreated. 330 FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. 2. cum in jus duel debitorem vidissent, undique convSla- bant, mhenever they saw a debtor taken to court, they hurried together {made it a rule to hurry together) from all quarters. CUM HISTORICAL. 339. Rule LX. — Cum, meaning ivhen^ is used in Historical Narration with the imperfect subjunctive for contemporaneous action, with the pluperfect sub- junctive for antecedent action. EXAMPLES. 1. cum civltas armis jus suum exsgqui conaretur, Crg6- t5rix mortuus est, when the state was attempting to assert its authority hy force of arms, Orgetorix died. 2. Caesar, cum Pompejum vicisset, in Itaiiam trajecit, tvhen Ccesar had conquered Pompey, he crossed over to Italy. 3. CaesSri cum id nuntiatum esset, mtturat (320. h.) ab urbe pr6ficisci, ivhen this (had been) loas announced to Caesar, he hastened to set out from the city. Obs. Cum, followed by the imperfect or pluperfect subjunctive, is generally historical ; i.e., it is used in historical narration, a his- torical tense standing in the leading clause. The subjunctive is translated like the indicative. A notion of cause often intrudes, as in Ex. 3. Cum nuntiStum esset points out both the time and cause of Caesar's setting out. Usually the temporal clause comes first. CAUSAL AND CONCESSIVE CUM. 340. Rule LXI. — Cum Causal {—since) and ctim Concessive (= although) may be used with any tense of the subjunctive. EXAMPLES. 1. quae cum ita sint, and since these things are so. 2. Aedui, cum se defendSre non possent, legates ad CaesSrem mittunt (320. h.), the ^duans, since they were not able to defend themselves, sent envoys to Ccesar. 3. nihil me adjiivat (320. h.) cum posset, he gave me no assist- ance, although he had it in his power. SUBJUNCTIVE IN DEPENDENT CLAUSES. 331 Obs. 1. Cum, followed by the present or perfect subjunctive, is almost always Causal or Concessive, and translated by since, while, although; it cannot be historical. Obs. 2. Note the translation of the above examples: the sub- junctive is rendered by the indicative with token; the temporal clause may often be rendered by a participle. Obs. 3. The temporal conjunction cum (also ubi, ut, quando, either alone or compounded with -cumque) may mean ivhenever, and then, like the general relatives, has the construction of the protasis in conditional sentences. EXAMPLES. 1. cum r6sam vidgrat, turn incipgre ver arbitrabatur, ivhen- ever (if in any case) he had seen a rose, he thought spring had begun. 2. cum se inter turmas insinuaverunt, desiliunt, whenever (if in any case) they have worked their ivay into (among) the squadrons, they (are wont to) leap down. 3. cum quaepiam c6hors impgtum fec6rat, hostes rgfiigie- bant, whenever any cohort (had made) made an attack, the enemy retreated. Obs. For Temporal Clauses in Indirect Discourse, see 351. EXERCISES. Translate into English : — 1. Caesar, cum primum pabuli copia esse inciperet, ad exercitum venit. 2. Legati Ciceronem, cum Romae essent, audiebant. 3. Diu cum esset pugnatum/ impedimentis ^ castrisque nostri potiti sunt. 4. Haec cum flens a Caesare peteret, Caesar ejus dextram prendit. 5. Postquam copias venire vidit, flumen exercitum traducere maturavit. 6. Simul atque sTgna nostra viderunt, portas aperuerunt. Supplementary Exercises : — 1. Caesar dum reliquae naves convenirent,^ ad lioram nonam exspectavit. 2. Nee prius'* sunt visl quam castrTs appropinquarent. 3. Milites ciipide exspectabant, dum dux se e castris contra hostes educeret. 4, Donee te vidisset, 332 FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. noluit abire puer.^ 5. Donee te viderat, noluit abire piier. 6. Non exspectandum "^ sibi^ statuit dum in Santones HelvetiT pervenirent. 7. Turn, cum res magnas permulti amiserant, Romae fides cecidit. 8. Caesar priusquam eodem est pro- fectus, iQna visa est. 9. Eo postquam Caesar pervenit obsides, arma, servos^ poposcit.^ Translate into Latin : — 1. When I was at Athens, I heard Zeno. 2. When ambas- sadors came to Caisar, he demanded corn. 3. When they had advanced three days, the enemy appeared. 4. Caesar determined not to wait until the enemy should arrive. 5. After Caesar perceived that, he led his forces to the nearest hill. 6. The boy was unwilling to depart until he had seen you (i.e. he waited for the purpose of seeing you). 7. While the senate was preparing war against Caesar, he made himself dictator. 8. Before Caesar attempted any- thing, he calls Divitiacus to himself. 9. I waited until he came. NOTES AND QUESTIONS. 1. When the battle had been gohuj on for a long time. 2. Why ablative ? 3. Account for the mode; the subjunctive is common with expecto. 4. See 337. 2. Obs. 5. The subjunctive in this sentence shows that the boy waited for the purpose of seeing you, i.e. he intended to see you ; the next sentence implies only that he did see you, without implying an intention. 6. Supply esse. 7. Why dative ? 8. Note that when several nouns follow each other in the same con- struction, the Latin differs from the English either in omitting the conjunction altogether or in repeating it after each word, e.g. either obsides, arma, servos, or obsides et arma et servos; not obsides, arma, et servos, as in English. 9. See 178. 2. SUBJUNCTIVE IN DEPENDENT CLAUSES. 333 Mention the three chief uses of cum. When does cum temporal take the subjunctive ? Give the meanings and uses of dum. Give the meanings of cum. What mode is used with most of the particles of time 1 When do antSquami and priusquam take the subjunctive ? When the temporal clause refers to future time, what mode is used after cum? after antgquam? When the temporal clause intro- duced by cum contains the main statement, what mode is used? Which are correct : cum est, cum f uit, cum 6rat, cum f ufirit, cum mdnebat ? 8. SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES. Obs. a clause may perform many of the offices of a noun, and is, therefore, called a noun, or substantive, clause. That glass is malleable was known to the ancients. The de- pendent clause, that glass is malleable, is equivalent to a noun, and is the subject of was. We perceive that fire is hot. The dependent clause in this sentence is the object of the verb perceive. A peculiarity of the English is, that it has so many borrowed WORDS. The clause introduced by that is equivalent to a noun standing in the predicate after is ; the clause is, there- fore, an attributive complement explanatory of peculiarity. It is known that C^sar conquered Gaul. It has no meaning until explained by the clause introduced by that, which is equivalent to a noun, and is, therefore, in apposition with it, i.e. explanatory of it. I know nothing about what you are asking. The clause what you are asking is the object of about. In English, what is at once interrogative (as in the sentence above) and introduces substantive clauses ; or it is a compound relative (correspond- ing to qui, quae, quod), and introduces adjective clauses. Hence — 341. A Substantive Clause is one which, like a noun, is the subject or object or complement of a verb, or is used as an explanatory modifier of the subject or object. 334 FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. 342. Substantive Clauses may be classified as follows : — INFINITIVE CLAUSES. 1. The accusative with the infinitive is used as the subject of esse or of impersonal verbs, and as the object of the following : — (1) Verbs of saying, thinking, knowing, perceiving, and (for In- direct Discourse, see 348) equivalent expressions. (2) Verbs of wishing and willing, pejinitting, commanding, and forhidding (most of commanding and forhidding, except jiibeo and v6to, are followed by ut or ne with the subjunctive). (3) Verbs of emotioji (joy, sorrow, etc.), and also verbs of hoping, promising, threatening, sivearing (these verbs are sometimes followed by the complementary infinitive, see 256). EXAMPLES. 1. dicit montem ab hostibus teneri, he sags that the mountain is held by the enemy. 2. dulce pro patria mdri est, to die for one's country is sweet. 3. Caesar prdficisci maturat, Ccesar hastens to depart. 4. dicltur montem tSngri, it is said that the mountain is held. Obs. 1. In the foregoing examples the pupil will notice that the infinitive is used as subject (Ex. 2) or as object (Ex. 3), or that the infinitive with a subject accusative is the subject or object of the verb. Substantive clauses have their verbs in the infinitive or subjunctive mode, with a subject of infinitive in the accusative case. Obs. 2. All substantive clauses are regarded as of the neuter gender. The tense of the verb in the infinitive clause is determined by the mle in 319. FINAL CLAUSES. 2. Final Clauses are object clauses after verbs of fearing, and after verbs of asking, allowing, etc. See 321. 2. EXAMPI.ES. 1. nititur ut vincat, he strives to conquer (lit. that he may conquer). 2. timeo ut ISbores sustineas, / fear (that) you will not endure the labors. 3. non vgreor, nS non vSnias, / do not fear (that) you will not come. 4. vgreor ne eat, I fear (that) he will go. Obs. 1. The clause of purpose may be translated by that with may, might, shall, or should, or by the infinitive. SUBJUNCTIVE IN DEPENDENT CLAUSES. 335 Obs. 2. After negative clauses, ne non is regularly used instead of ut (see Ex. 3). CONSECUTIVE CLAUSES. 3. Consecutive Clauses are used as the subject, object, or ex- planatory appositive with many impersonal verbs (it happens, it rejimim, it follows, it is lawful, etc.) ; with ut after fScgre and effi- cgre ; with quin (after some verbs of hindering and the like), and especially after verbs of doubting, when a negative precedes ; and with tantum Sbest (ut), so far it is from. EXAMPLES. 1. ita fit ut nemo esse possit beatus (as subject), .so it comes to jyass that no man can be happy. 2. quae res, commeatus ut portari possent, efficiebat (as object), this movement rendered it possible (brought it about) that supplies could be brought. 3. accidit ut esset plena luna (as subject), it chanced to be full moon. 4. fScgre non p6tui quin sententiam dictarem, / could not but declare my opinion. 5. hSbet hoc virtus ut deleotet (as appositive), virtue has this (advantage), that it delights. Obs. The clause of result is generally translated by that, with or without can or could, sometimes by the infinitive or the participial noun in -ing, especially after verbs of hindering. INDICATIVE WITH QUOD. 4. Indicative Clauses with quod introduce a statement of fact, specification, or object of feeling. Obs. The quod-clause may be the subject of impersonal verbs, the object of verbs of emotion (see 342. 3), or an explanatory apposi- tive. It is generally translated by that, or the f act-that ; sometimes by whereas. EXAMPLES. 1. quod Regiilus rgdiit mirabile videtur, the fact that Regulus returned seems strange. 2. quod de d6m6 scribis, as to ivhat you write of the house (specification). 3. gaudemus quod civitates sua jura hSbent, ice are glad that the states have their just rights (object of feeling). 4. magnum est bSngfioium naturae quod ngcesse est m6ri, it is a great boon of nature that we must die (appositive). 336 FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. Obs. The pupil should note that, when the conjunction that introduces a clause denoting puiyose or result, it takes the subjunc- tive, according to 321, or 322 ; but otherwise it is usually the sign of the accusative with the infinitive (see 342. 1 and 254). That is to be rendered by quod when it introduces a substantive clause that contains the ground or reason, or that is the object of some verb of emotion or feeling (accusative and infinitive may also be used). INDIRECT QUESTIONS. 5. Indirect Questions are clauses (introduced by some interroga- tive word), which are the subject or object of a verb, or which depend on verbs expressing doubt or uncertainty. EXAMPLES. 1. scio quid quaer3.s, I know what you are asking (object). 2. quid dies fgrat incertum est, ichat a day will bring forth is uncertain (subject). 3. diibito an ponam, / douht whether I should not place, i.e. / am inclined to think, etc. (1) After verbs of trial, an indirect question is introduced by 81 in the sense of whether. EXAMPLE. circumfunduntur hostSs si quern aditum rgpgrire possint, the enemy pour round (to see) if they can find an entrance. Obs. 1. Diibito may also be followed by quin with the subjunc- tive if the sentence is negative ; but, if there is no negative, it is followed by indirect question ; and, when it means to hesitate, by the infinitive. Obs. 2. Note the difference in meaning between Ex. 1 and scio quod quaeris, / know what (= the thing which) yon ask, i.e. the answer to the question you ask. In Ex. 1, quid is an interrogative pronoun ; in the other example, quod is a relative. Syn. Placet, it pleases, i.e. it is one's will or determination; libet (liibet), it pleases, i.e. it agrees with one's inclination. EXERCISES. Translate into English : — 1. Milites pontem facere jussT sunt. 2. Ego bonus esse dicor. 3. Caesar milites hortatus est, ut acriter dimicarent. 4. Caesar jussit milites castra munire. 5. Caesar vetuit milites pontem reseindere. 6. Sapiens semper beatus sit^ SUBJUNCTIVE IN DEPENDENT CLAUSES. 337 necesse est. 7. Sol efficit ut omnia floreaiit. 8. Onines cTves metuebant, ne urbs ab hostibus expugnaretur. 9. Pla- cuit ei ut ad Ariovistum legatos mitteret. 10. Nunquam putavi fore^ ut supplex ad te venirem. 11. Sentimus nivem esse albam. 12. Gaudeo quod vales. NOTES AND QUESTIONS. 1. The particle ut is often omitted, especially after verbs of wishing (v61o, nolo, nialo, and fScio), necessity, etc.; also after die and fac. 2. That it would happen. When there is no supine, f6re ut (or fiiturum esse ut) is used for the future infinitive; the clause with ut is the subject of f6re. What is a clause ? How are clauses classified ? What is an inde- pendent clause ? A dependent clause '^ How are dependent clauses classified 1 Define each. Express in Latin to die for one's country is noble. With what does noble agree ? What gender must it be ? What is the gender of all substantive clauses ? 9. INTERROGATIVE CLAUSES. Obs. Questions are of two kinds: (1) Fact-Questions, or those that ask about the existence of a fact, and expect the ansv^^er yes or no: as, scribitne pSter, is my father ivriting? Ans. yes or no. Such questions (unless rhetorical) are generally asked by the help of one of the interrogative particles, -ne, nonne, num. (2) Word- Questions, or those that ask about something connected with a fact, as who, what, where, when, hoiv, why, etc., and they cannot be answered by yes or no : as, quis has littgras scripsit, who rorote this letter^ Ans. Cicero, cur non discedis, why do you not depart"^ Rhetorical Questions, Obs. Questions may be real or they may be rhetorical. A real question expects an answer; as. Who is calling? Ans. John. A rhetorical question does not expect an answer, but, under the guise of a question, contains an assertion, put for oratorical effect in the form of a question ; as, What is baser than a lie ? This is a rhetorical question, expecting no answer, but conveying the idea that nothing is baser than to lie. Sometimes no interrogative word is used in asking a question. Tn such cases an affirmative question generally expects a negative answer ; a negative question, an affirmative answer. The omission of the interrogative word is common in rhetorical questions (especially with negatives) express- ing surprise, irony, impatience, etc.; p^tere tua consilia non sentis, do you not see {you must surely) that your designs are laid bare ? 338 FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. Direct simple questions generally take the indicative ; but direct simple questions that ask what is to he done, when it is intended to imply that some such an answer as nothing, nowhere, etc., is expected, take the subjunctive (278. 1.3); as, 1. quid Sgam, v:hat am I to do? 2. quis hoc diibitet, 7vho could doubt this ? (rhetorical question) = nemo hoc diibitet, no one could douht it. Hence the rule : — DIRECT QUESTIONS. 343. Direct Simple Questions are generally introduced by interrogative words, and, as a rule, take their verbs in the indicative. 344. Direct Simple Questions may take the subjunctive when they express douht ^ deHheratlon^ or impossibility^ or imply a negative opinion on the part of the speaker or writer (278. 1. 3). EXAMPLES. 1. Romamne vgnies, will you come to Rome? (Ans. yes or no.') 2. quisnam in horto ambtilat, who is walking in the garden ? (Axs. Casar.) 8. quis paupertatem non extimescit, irho does not dread porerty ? 4. quid hoc hSmine fScias, what can one (yon) do with this man? (Ans. nothing.) 5. quis hoc cr§dat, vjho would believe this? (Axs. no one.) Double Questions, Obs. Fact-Questions may consist of two parts, i.e. they may be disjunctive (or double); as, is it this or is it that? The first membei- of a double question is introduced by the particles utrum or -ne, and the second by an (anne or -ne) ; as, utrum ea vestra an nostra culpa est, is that your fault or ours ? Occasionally the inter- rogative particle is omitted with the first member; as, el6quar an sileam, must I speak or be silent? I'he following exhibits the various forms of double questions : — quaere utrum verum an falsum sit, ^ quaere verum-ne an falsum sit, I / ask ichether it is quaero verum an falsum sit, ! u-ue or false. quaere verum falsum-ne sit, J The principle may be stated in the following rule : — SUBJITNCTIVE TN DEPENDENT CLAUSP:S. 339 345. Direct Double Questions take the same mode as simple questions, and are introduced by utrum or -ne, whether, in the first member, followed by an, anne, or ; annon, necne, or not, in the second. EXAMPLE. utrum puSri Iggunt an scribunt, are the boys reading or writing ? Indirect Questions. Obs. Interrogative sentences are further divided into direct and indirect (or independent and dependent). Who calls me f is a direct question, i.e. it is a simple independent interrogative sentence. Such sentences, as a rule, take the indicative or the deliberative subjunctive (see 278. 1. 3). He asks ivho is calling him is an indirect question ; i.e. the simple interrogative sentence, ivho is calling him, is made to depend on the verb asks, and becomes a dependent clause ; the verb is calling is, in Latin, in the subjunctive mode. Hence the following rule : — INDIRECT QUESTIONS. 346. Rule LXII. — Indirect Questions take their verbs in the subjunctive, the tense being determined by the regular rule for sequence of tenses (see 319). EXAMPLES. 1. quis me v6cat, rvho is calling me .^ (Direct.) 2. rSgat quis se v6cet, he asks who is calling him. (Indirect.) Primary Tenses — Subjunctive. rSgat, he asks, \ ^"^^ ^^ ^^°®*' '^^'^ ''' ^^^^^'^^^ ^'''''^ rSgabit, he ivill ask, ^^f , «^ vScavgrit _ who has i called, or tvho called him. quis rogavit, he has asked, r6gavSrit, he will hai^e asked. I se v6caturus sit, who is going [ to call him. Secondary Tenses — f quis se v6caret, rcho was calling rSgabat, he was asking, \ ^'""- . cvLY de sua virtute aut de ipsius diligentia desperarent, why (asked he) should they despair of their own courage or his diligence ? Obs. The personal pronoun may, of course, be retained in In- direct Discourse when the sense requires it ; in short, all changes of pronouns must conform to the sense. Example. Direct : quidvis perpgtiar, / will endure anything. Indirect : adflrmavi quidvis me perpessurum, / asserted that I would endure anything. 350 FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. CONDITIONAL SENTENCES IN INDIRECT DISCOURSE. 355. Conditional Sentences, in passing from Direct to Indirect Discourse, undergo the following changes : — 1. In Simple Coxditioxs (326. 1) the apodosis is changed to the accusative with the infinitive (the tenses of the infinitive being present, past, or future, according as the tense of the verb in the apodosis is present, past, or future). 2. The protasis is changed to the subjunctive, the tense being determined by the leading verb of saying, etc. ; but an aorist {i.e. perfect) infinitive takes the sequence of past tenses. EXAMPI.ES. o. R. SI p^cuniam hSbet, dat. o. o. Presext : dicit se, si pScuniam hSbeat, d^re. o. o. Past : dixit se, si pgcuniam hSberet, d^re. o. li. SI pgcuniam hSbuit, dSdit. o. o. dicit se, si pgcuniam hSberet, dgdisse. 3. In Future Coxditioxs (326. 2) the present and perfect subjunctive (or future indicative) of the apodosis are changed to the future infinitive (or the periphrase fSre ut, etc.). 4. The tenses (present and perfect) in the protasis remain unchanged if the leading verb of saying is in a primary tense; otherwise, they (present and perfect) are changed respectively to the imperfect and pluperfect. EXAMPLES. o. r. si p^cuniam h^beat, det. o. o. Present : dicit se, si pgcuniara hSbeat, dSturum esse. o. o. Past : dixit se, si pgcuniam h^beret, d^turum esse. 5. In Unreal Coxditioxs (326. 3) the imperfect and pluperfect subjunctive of the apodosis, v^lien active, are changed respectively t(j the future or future perfect infinitive ; tohen passive, these tenses are expressed respectively by the periphrases ftiturum esse ut or fiiturum fuisse ut, with the imperfect subjunctive. This peri- phrase must be used in the active when the verb in the apodosis has no future participle, and hence no future infinitives. 6. The tenses in the protasis remain unchanged, no matter what may be the tense of the leading verb. INDIRECT DISCOURSE. 351 EXAMPLES. o. R. SI pgcuniam hSberet, dSret. (). o. dicit or dixit se, si pScuniam hSberet, dSturum esse. o. K. SI pgcuniam h^buisset, dSdisset. 0. o. dicit or dixit se, si pgcuniam hSbuisset, dSturum fuisse. Supplementary Examples : — 1. a. si quid Caesar me vult, ilium ad me vgnire 6portet, if Ccesar wishef! anytliing of me, he ought to come to me. h. respondit, si quid Caesar se vSlit, ilium ad se vSnire 6portere, he replied that, if CUesar wished anything of him, he ought to come to him. 2. a. si stipendium rSmittatur, libenter recusem (326. 2) pSpiili Roman! amicitiam, if the tribute is {should he) remitted, I would gladly renounce the friendship of the Roman people ; oy^ a. SI stipendium remittatur, libenter rScusabo (326. 2, Obs. 1) pSpiili Roman! amicitiam, if the tribute is (shall be) remitted, I will gladly renounce the friendship of the Roman people. b. respondit, s! stipendium remittatur, libenter sese xh- cusatiirum popiil! Romani amicitiam, he replied that, if the tribute should be remitted, he ivould gladly renoujice the friendship of the Roman people. 3. a. si quid mihi a Caesare 6pus esset, ad eum venissem, f I wanted anything from Ccesar, I should hare come to him. h. respondit, si quid ipsi (354. Obs.) a CaesSre Qpus esset, sese ad eum venturum fuisse, he replied that, if he wanted anything of Ccesar, he would have come to him. INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES IN INDIRECT DISCOURSE. EXAMPLES. 1. a. quid de praeda faciendum censetis, what do you think ought to be done in regard to the booty? b. littSrSs ad sgnatum misit, quid de praeda faciendum censerent, he wrote to the senate (asking) rchat they Hiought ought to be done in regard to the booty. 2. rt. quid tibi vis, ?chat do you 7iiean (wish for yourself) ? b. ad postiilata CaesSris respondit, quid sibi vellet, to the demands of Ccesar he replied, vjhat did he mean ? 352 FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. 3. a. num rgcentium injuriarum mgmSriam depongre pos- sum, am I able to lay aside the memory of recent wroyigs ? h. respondit, num recentium injuriarum m6m6riam de ponere posse, lie replied, could he lay aside the memory of recent icrongs f 4. a. quid vgremini, aut cur de vestra virtute desperatis, irltat do yonf-ar, or irhy do you (hsjniir of your ralor? h. quid vgrerentur aut cur de sua virtute desperarent, v'hat did they far, or why did they despair of their valor? Obs. In the foregoing examples, those marked a are Direct Questions, and have their verbs in the indicative (see 343). In the corresponding examples of Indirect Discourse, marked h, these verbs have been changed to the subjunctive or to the infinitive. Note that rhetorical questions (Exs. 3 and 4) in the indicative in Direct Discourse are changed to the accusative with the infinitive in Indirect Discourse, if the subject is first or third person (Ex. 3) ; into the subjunctive, if the subject is second person (Ex. 4). Hence the rule : — 356. Interrogative Sentences general!}' take the subjunc- tive, but sometimes (especially when rhetorical) the infinitive with subject accusative. 0ns. Subjunctive Rhetorical Questions in Direct Discourse (see 344) remain, as a rule, in the subjunctive in Indirect Discourse. (Questions of Deliberation (278) always retain the subjunctive. IMPERATIVE SENTENCES IN INDIRECT DISCOURSE. KXAMPI.KS. 1. a. rgminiscSre vgtgris incommSdi pSpiili Romani, remem- ber the ancient disaster of the lloman people. b. r6minisc6rgtur v6t6ris incommSdi p6piili Romani, let him remember (said lie) the ancient disaster of the Roman people. 2. a. cum ISgione vSnl, come icith a legion. b. scribit L^bieno cum legione vgniat, he ivrites to Labienus to come (lit., that he should come) ivith a legion. Obs. In the foregoing examples, note that those marked a have their verbs in the imperative ; in the corresponding examples of Indirect Discourse, marked b, these imperatives have been changed to the subjunctive. Hence the rule : — 357. All Imperatives in Direct Discourse are changed in Indirect Discourse to the Subjunctive ; the negative is ne. INDIRECT DISCOURSE. 353 Convert; ilio following sentences into Indirect Discourse, and translate : — DIUECT DISCOUliSK. IXDIHP:CT DISCOURSE. 1. Caesar certior factus est Tres jam copiarum partes Ilel- I vetii id fliinien trudCixerunt. I Translation. Already the Helvetians have led three parts of their forces over that river. 2. LiscLis dicit Sunt nonnulli quorum aiictoritas I apud plebem pliirimum valet. 1 Translation. There are some ichose influence prevails a (jreat deal among the common peop>le. •3. Locutus est Divitiacus Ob earn rem ex civitate profugi et Roniam veni, quod neque jfirejurando neque obsidibus tenebar. Translation. For this reason I fled from the state and came to Rome, because I icas being held (i.e. refused to be held) ?} either by an oath nor by hostages. Obs. The pupil should note that clauses like the following, introduced by relative pronouns or by relative adverbs, are not strictly in Indirect Discourse ; still, Indirect Discourse, in its widest application, may include indirect questions or any subordinate clause that contains a statement made on the authority of any other person than the WTiter (see 364). EXAMPI.ES. 1. dicam quod sentio (relative clause), / will tell that which I think. 2. dIcam quid intellggam (indirect question), I will tell what I kno?v. 354 FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. EXERCISES. Translate into English, and give the Rule for all Modes and Tenses : — 1. Pner dicit, "Cupio discere." 2. Puer dicit se ciipere discere. 3. Pax est composita. 4. Nnntius allatus est pacem esse compositam. 5. "Omnia perierunt," inquit Caesar; "consnlite, nnlites, vestrae sfdntT." G. Caesar dixit omnia periTsse ; milites suae stlluti consulerent. 7. Caesar dixit se, postquain liostes fusi essent, castra mumturum esse. 8. Ariovistus dixit, se AeduTs bellum non esse illaturum. 9. Ariovistus dixit, se AeduTs bellum non esse illaturum, si stTpendium quotannis penderent. 10. Animadvertit Caesar unos ex omnilms Sequanos nihil earum rerum facere, quos ceterT facerent, sed tristes capite demisso terrain intueri. 11. Dux dixit se intellegere quid egisset hostis. Translate into Latin : — 1. Cffisar has assaulted the city. 2. The messenger said, "Cnesar has assaulted the city." 3. The messenger said that Ctesar had assaulted the city. 4. You are mistaken. 5. He thinks that you are mistaken. G. I shall not wage war upon the Tl^^duans. 7. lie answered that he should not wage war upon the TEduans. 8. Ca?sar said that the Helve- tians had departed from their territories in order that they might obtain possession of all Gaul. 9. Cffisar said that he had sent the cavalry to sustain (Z#r., in order that it might sustain) the attack of the enemy. 10. It is related tiiat, when Cresar had conquered Pompey, he crossed into Asia. 11. Ariovistus said that he would not wage war upon the ^duans, if they paid the tribute yearly. 12. The mountain is lield. 13. lie says that the mountain is held. 14. The messenger says that the mountain which he saw was held by the enemy. 15. Caesar said that he would send the cavalry which he had with liim to defend the mountain. RELATIVE SENTENCES. NOTKS AND gUKSTIONS. What is meant by Indirect Discourse 1 What is the law for tenses in Indirect Discourse ? How is the tense of a verb in a subordinate clause determined 1 Give tlie rule for modes in Indirect Discourse. After what verbs may the Indirect Discourse be used ? What change is made in pronouns in passing to Indirect Discourse 1 To what is the future in Direct Discourse changed in Indirect Discourse 1 To what the future perfect? Translate the following: he liopes to come; he promises to write. How does the English construction of such sentences differ from the Latin ? What word in English introduces Indirect Discourse 1 Is it always necessary to use tliat in translating Indirect Discourse into English ? Give the rule for imperative sentences when changed to Indirect Discourse. LESSON XCIX. EELATIVE SENTENCES. 358. Relative Clauses are introduced b}' relative pronouns and relative adverbs ; the latter are called conjunctive adverbs. Obs. a Relative Clause has the force of an adjective or adverb, limiting the antecedent ; as, puer qui legit, the hoy ivho reads — the reading hoy. The relative agrees with tlie antecedent in gender, nund)er, and person, but the case depends on the construction of the relative sentence. (See 242.) 359. Rule LXIY. — A relative clause, having- a definite antecedent, and adding- merely a descriptive fact, takes the indicative. EXAMPLE. Caesar Squites quos Labienus adduxgrat praemisit, Ccesar sent ahead the cavalry ivhich Lahienus had brought up. 360. Rule LXV. — Relative pronouns and relative adverhs take the subjunctive when they introduce clauses of puj^j^ose, result, condition^ cause, or con- cession. 356 FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. PURPOSE. Oijs. The subjunctive ^vitll qui expresses a ]\irpose chiefly after verbs of sending, giving, and choosing, with reference to the oh/ect of the sentence; a Purpose with reference to the subject beingex- pressed by ut, etc. If the construction be passive, then, of course, qui will refer to the subject. EXAMPLES. 1. legates miserunt qui pacem pgterent, theij sent envoys to (fr/io should, or that thei/ might) sue for peace. 2. legatT missi sunt qui pacem pgtgrent, envoys were sent to {lulto should) se< I- peace. RESULT. 1. Relative Clauses are often used to characterize an in- definite or general antecedent, especially after negatives, where the idea of result is not obvious. -*^ EXAMPLES. 1. sunt qui dicant, there are some who say. 2. nemo est qui non ciipit, there is no one who does not desire. (1) A Relative Clause of Characteristic is used even when the antecedent is definite; l)ut it is especially common — a. After unus and solus. h. After dignus, indiguus, idoneus, and aptus. c. After comparatives with quam, Obs. The Relative of Characteristic is equivalent to the Restric- tive Relative with the subjunctive. The Relative of Characteristic has a tendency to take the subjunctive after indefinite and general expressions (for examples, see 324) ; ))ut even then the indicative may be used when the statement is a definite fact, and not a general characteristic (i.e. with a definite antecedent) : as, sunt qui dicunt impSria . . . nequisse pSti, there are some icho assert, etc. (i.e. / knorv some who assert, etc.). Particularly to be noted is the Restrictive Relative in such phrases as quod sciam, so far as I Inow ; quod mSminerim, as far as I rememher. EXAMPLE. non is sum qui his utar, I am not such a one as to use these tilings. RELATIVE SENTENCES. 357 CONDITION. 361. Rule LXVI. — A Condition is .sometimes in- troduced by the Indefinite Kelative {qui, quae, quod ■^ si qulSf si qui, etc.), and the modes are used as in ordinary conditional clauses. EXAMPLES. 1. haec qui videat, nonne cogatur confiteri deos esse, if any one should see these things, would he not he compelled to admit that there are gods ? 2. errat longe, qui credat, he greatly errs who siqyposes (i.e. if any one supposes, he greaUy errs). CAUSE. Obs. Causal Clauses introduced by qui alone, or strengthened by ut, utpSte, quippe, generally take their verbs in the subjunc- tive, although the indicative is occasionally used. EXAMPEP]S. 1. h&beo sgnectuti gratiam, quae mih! sermonis Sviditatem auxit, / cherish gratitude to old age, which has increased, my love of conversation . 2. misgret tui me qui (— cum tu) hunc tantum hSminem. facias inimicum tibi, I pity you since you (in that you) make so great a man as this inimical to you. 3. hSbeo senectuti gratiam, quae mihi sermonis Sviditatem auxit, / cherish gratitude to old age, ivhich {because it) has increased my love of conversation . Obs. In Cicero the mode with quippe qui is the subjunctive; in Sallust, the indicative. CONCESSION. absolvite Verrem, qui (= cum is) se fateatur pecunias cepisse, acquit Verres, although he confesses {should confess) that he has taken bribes. 362. Rule LXVII. — Relative Clauses in Indirect Discourse, like other dependent clauses, take tlie subjunctive. EXAMPLE. nuntiatum est gquites qui praemissi essent rSvertisse, it was announced that the horsemen who had been sent in advance had returned. 358 FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. a. A Relative Clause, even in Indirect Discourse, may take the indicative, if it contains a statement on the authority of the narrator (=tlie present speaker or writer), or if it is a mere circumlocution. rXAMPI.ES. 1. Caesar per exploratores certior f actus est, ex ea parte vici quam Gallis concesserat, omnes noctu disces.sisse, Ccesar teas informed through his scouts that all of them had wilhdraicn during the night from that quarter of the village which he had assigned to the Gauls. 2. quis ngget haec omnia quae videmus deorum p6testate administrari, icho icould deny that this whole visible world is managed Inj the power of the gods? Obs. The statement on the authority of the present speaker or writer is equivalent to saying that the statement is a fact ; hence, the indicative is used. Tlie rehitive clause quam . . . concessg- rat, altliougli standing in Indirect Discourse, is in the indicative, because it is an explanation given by the writer himself (Ca\sar). Tlie relative chiuse quae videmus, may be considered as explana- tory (i.e. it is a circundoculion), and although introduced into the Indirect Discourse, the verb (videmus) is in tlie indicative, because the manner of making the assertion is not important enough to rise into consideration ; hence, the veil) remains in the mode in which it would naturally be, viz. the indicative. The statement is virtu- ally made on the authority of the jn-esent speaker, because he does not think it worth while to shift the responsibility ; i.e. it often depends merely upon the feeling of the writer whether he will use the indicative or subjunctive. INTERMEDIATE CLAUSES. Ons. In Latin we often find a clause subordinate to another clause tvhich is itself subordinate. When the first subordinate clause is a subjunctive (or an infinitive) clause, then the subjunctive is used in the second subordinate (or intermediate) clause, because anything depending on a potential is itself necessarily potential. The verb in the second subordinate clause is said to be in the sid^- junctive bg attraction. The verb in the second subordinate clause may be in the indicative, but, if the clause (intermediate) is in Indirect Discourse, its verb is naturally in the subjunctive (as in the foregoing lesson), unless the clause is merely explanatory, i.e. a circumlocution (362. (5bs.) containing a statement which is regarded IIELATIVE SENTENCES. 359 as true independently of the quotation. The vcilj is thou in the indicative : thus, dicit se videre ea quae video, ke saijs that he sees tohat I see (in fact) ; whereas quae videam would mean (Jie says that he sees) what as he alleges I see ; quae video is the inter- mediate clause; so nemo tam p6teiis est ut omnia quae vSlit efficSre possit, no one is so j)otcerful as to he able to accomj)lish all (hat he wishes; v61it is so closely connected with ut possit, etc., as to form an essential part of the result, and is, therefore, attracted into the subjunctive. Hence, relative clauses of characteristic in In- direct Discourse (or restrictive clauses), dependent on the sub- junctive, would have their verb in the subjunctive, while clauses containing a circumlocution or explanations of the narrator, i.e. a merely explanatory or parenthetical clause, or one that introduces a fact (on the authority of the narrator), may be in the indicative. Hence : — ATTRACTION OF MODE. 363. Rule LXVIII. — A relative or other subordi- nate clause may take the subjunctive when it depends on, and forms an essential part of, an infinitive or subjunctive clause. EXAMPLES. 1. respondit se id quod in Nerviis fecisset factiirum, he replied that he vjould do vjhat he had done in the case of the Nervii. 2. vSreor ne, dum minuere velim, laborem augeam, / fear lest, while I am wishinr/ to lessen the toil, I niay increase it. 3. tanta rerum commutatio facta est, ut nostri etiam qui vulngribus confecti prociibuissent, proelium rSdinte- grarent, so great a change of affairs vjas brought about that our men, even those ivho had fallen icorn out u'ith u'ounds, renev'ed the battle. PARTIAL INDIRECT DISCOURSE. Obs. The term Indirect Discourse is strictly applied to clauses (or citations) dependent on some word of saging, thinking, and the like (as dico, respondeo, nuntio, aio, arbitror, while inquam introduces in prose Direct Discourse). In a more general sense, the term Indirect Discourse may be used to designate all clauses which indirectly express the words or thoughts of any person other than the speaker or narrator ; and even the past thoughts or words 360 FIRST STErS IN LATIN. of the speaker or narrator himself may take this construction. On this principle, indirect questions and dependent constructions fol- lowing verbs of wishing, desirlnf/, etc., as well as final clauses, may be explained as Indirect Discourse, the indirect relation often being- confined to a dependent clause, and not extending to the whole sentence ; as, n6va nupta flet quod Ire necesse sit, the bride /.s- ireeping because she must go (srn/s she). This sentence in Indii'oct Discourse is : nova nupta dicit se flere quod ire nScesse sit. Hence — INFORMAL INDIItKCT DISCOURSE. 364. Rule LXIX. — A relative or other subordinate clause may take the subjunctive when it expresses, though not in formal indirect discourse, the thouj^ht of some other person than the speaker or writer. KXAMPLKS. 1. omnea libroa quos frater suus rgllquisset mihi donavit, he gave to me all the books which (as he said) his brother had left. 2. Socrates accusatus est quod corrumpgret jiiventutem, Socrates was arraigned because {as was alleged) he corrujited the youth. I]. Aedui quest! sunt quod Harudes fines eorum p6pala- rentur, t/ie ACdui complained because {as they said) the Harudes were laying icaste their territory. Obs. 1. The constructions following verbs of wishing, desiring, commanding, permitting, caring, striring, hindering, fearing, and the like, may be explained as Infornuil Indirect Discourse (usually called pltitio obliqua). EXAMPLES. 1. nihil indignius est quam eum qui culpa cSreat supplicio non cSrere, nothing is more unbecoming than that he who is free from fault should not be free from punislrnient. 2. milites misit, ut eos qui fug^rant persgqugrentur, he sent soldiers to {who should) pursue those ivho had fled (i.e. the fugitives). Obs. 2. Note, in the foregoing examples, that the relative clause qui cSjeat (see 361), depending on an infinitive, has its verb in the subjunctive by the ordinary rule ; in Ex. 2, the clause qui fuggrant has its verb in the indicative, because it is regarded as parenthetical, i.e. it is a circumlocution (see 362. a). :p:lative sentences. 361 Suppleinentiiry Examples : — 1. non dubito quin n6va nupta fleat quod ire ngcesse sit, 1 do not doubt th(d the bride is ■weeping beccmse she must go. 2. primum p6suit earn (causam) de qua m6do dixi, quae orta esset ex praesensione lerum futurarum, he Just mentioned that of ichieh, I hove just ,sj)oken (diroct statement), ichieh (itecording to liini) h(id its origin in a presentnund of t/ie future. '■]. nescTre quid antequam natus sis acciderit, id est semper esse puerum, not to h-no/c wluit happened before you ivere born, (that) is to be abrays a boy. 4. Ariovistus dixit se obsides quos ab Aeduis hSberet non redditiirum. 5. Caesar negavit se Helvetiis quod postiilavit dSre posse, 0. nuntiatuni est equites qui praeniissi essent rgvertisse. 7. dixit oppidum, quod vides, Ariovisti fuisse. EXERCISES. Translate into English, and give the Rule for all Modes and Tenses : — 1. Caesar dat negotium Senonibus, iiti ea quae apnd Belgas gerantur^ cognoscant, seque de his rebus certiorem faciant. 2. Caesar graviter eos aecusat quod ab iis non sublevetur^ praesertim cum eoruni precibus adductus bellurn susceperit.^ 3. Helvetii, auctoritate Orgetorigis permoti, constituerunt ea quae ad proficiscendum pertinerent^ com- parare. 4. Deus est, qui mundum regit, a. Hostes legatos miserunt, qui^ paeem peterent.^ 6. Nemo tarn potens est ut omnia quae velit^efficere possit.^ 7. DTgnus est qui laudetur. 8. Damna majora sunt quam quae (= ut ea) aestimar! pos- sint.^ 9. O fortunate adulescens, qui (= cum tu) tuae vir- tutis Homerum praeconem inveneris.^ 10. Absolvite^ virum, qui^ (=cmn is) fateatur^ pecuniiis cepisse.^ 11. Haec qui videat,^ nonne cogatur^ faterl deos esse. 12. Caesar ab Aeduis frumentum liagitabut,^ quod essent publice polHciti.^ 362 FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. Translate into Latin : — 1. The boys who study will learn. 2. The farmer sent men to plough the field. 3. There were some who thought the man should' be condemned to death. 4. The boys said that they would give you whatever they had (then). 5. Would not the man who^ should see these things be forced to confess that there are gods. 6. No one can be king of the Persians (Persarum) who has not first^ learnt'*^ the discipline of the Magi (Magorum). 7. Who could (possit) love him whom he fears? 8. He promised to give^" what I had asked. 9. The lieutenant, on-his-return" to Caesar, reported what^^ he had seen in the enemy's camp. NOTES AND QUESTIONS. 1. Exi)lain mode and tense. 2. Kelative of Purpose. 3. Acquit. 4. Though he, etc. 5. Qui videat = si quis videat, {f (inij one were to see. C. The subjunctive refers to the i)ronnses as made by tlie ^Eduans. 7. Use condemnanduin esse. 8. First -'- ante. 0. Qui non percepSrit = nisi percepSrit, unless he has learned, etc. 10. Se daturum. 11. Rgversus. 12. = that which. Wliat is a relative clause ? Mention the various classes of relative clauses. What will be the mode of a verb (in Indirect Discourse) in a relative clause that depends on an infinitive clause or another relative clause 1 May the verb in the second relative clause ever be in the indicative 1 Why has this verb a tendency to be in the sub- junctive ? Define an intermediate clause. Point out the intermediate clause in the following : He says that he sees what I see. Mention the various classes of relative clauses. Explain the meaning of circumlocu- tion. When is a relative clause equivalent to a circumlocution ? What is meant by informal indirect discourse ? SUPPLEMENTARY EXERCISES. Translate into Latin : — 1. The waves on the shores [of the sea] arc high. 2. Volsinii, a town of the Tnscans, was consumed^ by light- ning. 3. Neither you nor 1 have done this. 4. You and he praise the streams of the country. 5. The man said one thing and the boy another.- G. Homer is called the king of poets. 7. The Sequaui shuddered at the cruelty of Ariovis- tus. 8. Hear much,"^ speak little. 9. After his death the people repented of their judgment. 10. Ci^sar kept demanding corn of the iEdui. 11. The elephant is said to live two hundred years. 12. Augustus died at Nola. 13. He wandered about the banks of the river Po and the shores of the Adriatic Sea. 14. A good man forgets all injuries. 15. At what price does he give lessons?^ IG. It is not law- ful for any man ^ to lead an army against his country. 17. Having learned these things, Ctesar returns to the fleet. 18. AYliat o'clock is it? 19. Is that your fault or mine? 20. He asked whether that was your fault or mine. 21. If they (shall) give hostages, Cjesar will make peace with them. 22. Can an^^body do this? 23. Can somebody do this? 24. Plato lived eighty-one years. 25. Wherefore it pleased him to send^ legates to Ariovistus, to demand' from him that he should appoint some place central with respect to both of them for a conference, (saying) that he wished to treat with him concerning the republic, and the highest interests of both. 2G. On the 10th of April we set out for the province. 27. Is this said to have been done by night or by day? 28. The Germans have not entered a house for fourteen years. 29, It is of great consequence^ to me^ that I should see you. oGi FIKST STEPS IN LATIN. 30. On the last day of December lie set sail,^" and arrived at Athens on the 10th of January. 31. In the first of the spring the consul came to Ephesus, and, having received the troops from'^ Scipio, he made'- a speech'" in-presence-of^^ his soldiers (in which), after extolling their braver}', he exhorted them to undertake'' a new war with'" the Greeks, who had (as he said) helped Antiochus with auxiliaries. 1. Use concrematum est. 9. See 315. 3. (2), a. 2. Use aiiud . . . aiiud. 10. Use solvit. o. Use the phiral. 11. Use a. 4. Lit. tes through the midst of the cit}-. 14. This, lastly (ad extremmn) , I particularly (magn6p6re) ask you. 15. We ought not to conceal our opinions from our friends. 16. He leads his army over the river. 17. Cflesar leads the cavalry over the bridge. 18. The people appoint him general. 19. O wolf, excellent guardian, as the saying is (utajunt), for the sheep (gen,). 20. The Romans were eager for glory. 21. One man {dat.) must not light with (cum) two. 22. What pleases you also pleases me. 23. This tlnng is unlike that. 24, The life which we enjo}' is sliort. 25. We pity those who repent of their faults. 26. We love those who have repented of their faults. 27. When these things had been done,, and the whole of Gaul had been subdued,, tlie nations which dwelt beyond the Rhine sent ambassadors to (ad) Ctesar. 28. Cicero went to Athens. 29. Tlie aml)assadors came from Carthage. 30. The men fled to Rome. 31. The soldiers departed from Italy. 32. Setting forth (prdfectus) from Carthage, he made for (pgtSre) Italy. 33. He was a brave man at home and in war. 34. He will return home in the evening. 35. When my son returns from the country, I will send him to (ad) you. 36. We perceive that snow is white. 37. It is said that snow is white. 38. I believe that the souls of men are immortal. 39. Who was the man? 40. I will tell you who the man was. 41. The wall is two hundred feet long. 42. I will send you a letter. V. 1. No brave man shudders at the enemy. 2. Who was present (intSresse) at 3'our conversation? 3. Against the Tarentines, wlio were in the lowest part of (ultimus) Italy, MISCELLANEOUS EXKIICISES. 367 war was declared. 4. Plato died in (his) eighty-second year, while writing. 5. Romulus called the city after (e) his name, Rome. G. Have you been at Athens? 7. He asked the boy whether he wished to return to his father. . The price is expressed by the ablative when it is a definite sum. 1. Dignus and indignus are followed by the ablative. Ablative of Specification (p. 278). 37. A noun, adjective, or verb may be followed l)y the ablative to denote in what respect its signification is taken. Ablative with Comparatives (p. 112). 38. The comparative degree is followed by the abla- tive when quaiii, tJian^ is omitted. Ablative of Material (p. 288). 39. The material of which anything is made is regu- larly expressed by the ablative w^itli ex or cle ; but consttire, to consist^ sometimes omits the preposition. 1. Opus and usus, signifying need, are followed by the ablative of the thing needed (p. 288). 2. Most ver])S and adjectives signifying plenty and want are followed by the ablative (308. Obs. 1). Ablative of Manner (p. 289). 40. The ablative of manner generally takes the preposition cum, unless it has a modifying adjective or genitive (when cum may be omitted). 376 FIRST STEl>S IN LATIN. Ablative of AccoMrANiMp:NT (p. 289). 41. The ablative of accoinpaniiiient takes the prep- osition cum, except in a few military and other phrases. Ablative of QuALrrv (p. 2G9). 42. A noun denoting quality, quantity, or descrip- tion, and having an adjective joined with it, may be put in the genitive or in the ablative. LOCATIVE. Place in which (p. 234). 43. Tlie name of the place ivliere, oi* in ivldch^ regu- larly requires in with the ablative. Names of Towns (p. 234). 44. Names of towns and small ishmds, and also doiiius, iTis, and a few otlier words omit the preposition, and the name of the place ivJiere, or in tuhtch, takes the locative. Time (p. 1G7). 45. The time ivlien^ or within which, is put in the ablative ; time hotv lowj, in the accusative. Ablative Absolute (p. 222). 46. A noun or pronoun, with a participle or an adjective, or two nouns, may be put in the ablative, to express the time or circumstance of an action. INDICATIVE AND INFINITIVE MODES. Indicative Mode. 47. The indicative mode asserts action or being as a fact, or inquires after a fact. Subject Accusative (p. 217). 48. The infinitive with subject accusative is used after verbs of saying, thinking, knowing, perceiving, hearing, and the like. GENERAL KULES OP SYNTAX. 377 Infinitive as Suiukct, Object, or Complement (p. 217). 49. The infiintive may be used as the subject, object, appositive, or complement of a verb. GERUND AND GERUNDIVE. Gerundive Construction (p. 227). 50. Instead of the gerund with its object in the accusative, the gerundive is generally used, the noun taking the case of the gerund, and the gerundive agree- ing with the noun in gender, number, and case. 1. The gerund governs the same case as its verb, but is itself governed like a noun (225 ff.). SUPINE. Former Supine (p. 232). 51. The supine in -um is used after verbs of motion, to express the purpose of the motion. Latter Supine (p. 232). 52. The supine in -u is used to limit the meaning of adjectives signifying ivonderful^ agreeable^ easy or diffi- culty tvorthy or unworthy, Jionorahle or hase^ and the nouns fas, nefas, and opus. SUBJUNCTIVE IN INDEPENDENT SENTENCES (p. 246). 53. The subjunctive is used in independent sentences to express a ivish^ command^ exhortation^ prohibition^ or concession; also, in questions of doubt or deliberation^ and in mild or modest assertions. MODES AND TENSES IN DEPENDENT CLAUSES. Sequence of Tenses (pp. 302, 309, 347). 54. A primary tense in the leading clause is followed by a primary tense in the dependent clause ; and a sec- ondary tense is followed by a secondary. (319, 322. Obs., 350. l^md 2.) 378 FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. Subjunctive of Purpose (p. 306). 55. Final clauses take their verbs in the present or imperfect subjunctive, according as the leading verb is in a primary or a secondary tense. Subjunctive of Result (p. 309). 5G. Consecutive clauses take their verbs in the sub- junctive mode, the tense being determined by the regular rules for sequence of tenses. (See 322. Obs.) Conditional Sentences (p. 317). 57. Conditional sentences with si, nisi, ni, sin, take — Simple Present and Past ConilHions. 1. Any present or past tense of the indicative in both clauses wlien notliing is implied as to the fulfil- ment of the condition. Future Conditions. 2. Tlie future indicative in ])oth clauses, to represent the supposed future case in a dlstmct and vivid manner ; the present (or perfect subjunctive) in both clauses, to represent the supposed future case in a less distinct and vivid manner. Unreal Present and Past Conditions. 3. The imperfect or pluperfect subjunctive in both clauses, to re[)resent the supposed case as unreal^ or contrary to fact. The imperfect denotes preseyit time^ and the pluperfect past. Comparative Clauses (p. 320). 58. Comparative clauses, introduced by ut, litl, sicut, queniadnioduni, etc., and followed by the demonstrative particles Tta, sic (so), etc., regularly take the indicative or the subjunctive as in independent sentences. 1. Comparative clauses, introduced by ac si, ut si, quam si, quasi, tanquam, tanqviani si, velut, velut si, are, in fact, conditional clauses, of which the conclusion GENERAL KULES OE 8YNTAX. 379 is omitted or implied, and therefore take tlie subjunc- tive like conditional sentences ; but the tense is deter- mined by the regular rules for sequence of tenses. Concessive Clauses (p. 322). 59. Concessive clauses are introduced by concessive conjunctions, — altJiough^ granting that., — and take the indicative or the subjunctive (according to the principles stated on p. 321 f.). Causal Clauses (p. 323). 60. Causal clauses, introduced by quod, quia, quo- niani, quaiiclo, take the indicative when the reason assigned is stated as a fact, and indorsed by the speaker or writer. 1. Causal clauses introduced by cum or the relative qui regu- larly take the subjunctive. 2. Causal clauses introduced by quod, quia, qu6niam, take the subjunctive (in Indirect Discouse, 348), to state the reason as the assertion or opinion of some one else than the speaker or writer. TEMPORAL CLAUSES. Antecedent Action (p. 326). 61. Temporal clauses, introduced by postquaiii, post- eii quani, fibi, fit, fit priiiiuiii, fibi priimim, siuiul ac, etc., take the indicative (commonly the aorist indicative or historical present). Contemporaneous Action (p. 321). 62. Duin, donee, quoad, while., as long as., take the indicative (any tense). 1. Duni, donee, quoad, nntil^ take the indicative in the statement of a fact, tlie subjunctive when purpose is expressed (z.e. if the accomplishment of the purpose is the limit of the action). 380 FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. Subsequj:nt Action (p. 327). 63. Aiitequaiii and priusquain, before^ are used with any tense of the indicative, except the imperfect and pluperfect, to express the mere priority of one event to another. 1. Aiitequain and priusquam are used with the subjunctive to express (1) the intentional priority of one action to another (i.e. when the action is purposed or desired by the subject of the leading verb), (2) or when its non-occurrence is expressed or implied. CONSTRUCTIONS OF CUM. Cum Temporal (p. 329). 64. Cum temporal (= tvheii)^ introducing a clause that defines the inere time of an action, may be used with all the tenses of the indicative. Cum Historical (p. 330). 65. Cum, meaning when., is used in historical narra- tion with the imperfect subjunctive for contemporaneous action, with the pluperfect subjunctive for antecedent action. Causal and Concessive Cum (p. 330) . 66. Cum causal (= slnce^ and cum concessive (= althougli) may be used with any tense of the sub- junctive. INTERROGATIVE CLAUSES. Direct Questions (p. 338). 67. Direct simple questions are generally introduced by interrogative words, and, as a rule, take their verbs in the indicative. 1. Direct simple questions may take the subjunctive when they express doubt or deliberation., or imply a negative opinion on the part of the speaker or writer (278. 1, 3). GENERAL KULES OF SYNTAX. 381 Indirect Questions (p. 331)). 08. Indirect questions take their verbs in the sub- junctiye, the tense being determined by the reguhir rule for sequence of tenses (see 319). DEPENDENT CLAUSES. Indirect Discourse (p. 343). 69. In passing from direct to indirect discourse, principal clauses, if declarative, are changed to the infinitive with a subject accusative, and subordinate clauses to the subjunctive. Relative Clauses (p. 355). 70. A relative clause, having a definite antecedent, and adding merely a descriptive fact, takes the indicative. 71. Relative pronouns and relative adverbs take the subjunctive when they introduce clauses of purpose, result, condition, cause, or concession. Attraction of Mode (p. 359). 72. A relative or other subordinate clause may take the subjunctive when it depends on, and forms an essential part of, an infinitive or subjunctive clause. Informal Indirect Discourse (p. 3G0). 73. A relative or other subordinate clause may take the subjunctive when it expresses, though not in formal indirect discourse, the thought of some other person than the speaker or writer. ADVERBS. Uses op Adverbs (p. 119). 74. Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. CONJUNCTIONS (p. 17G). 75. Conjunctions connect words, phrases, clauses, and sentences. READING LESSONS. 1. FABLES. Note. — The figures in the following section.'; refer to the rules on p. 370 ff. 1. The Kid and the Wolf. Capella,^ stans" in tecto doinfis,'* lupum-'N'idit- praetereun- tem, et ludifieavit. Sed lupus, " Nou tu," inquit, "• sed locus tuus, me lildificat." Saepe 15cus et tempus h(5mines timidos audilces reddit. 2. The Hoy i'.athing. Puer, balneum petens in fluvio, aqua paene exstinetus est. Et videns viatorem quondam, clamavit, '' Subveni mihi ! "^'^ Sed hie exi)iobravit puero ^'^ temeritatem. Puellulus autem dixit, " Primum subvenT, deinde repreliendere ''•* licet." 3. The Fiox and the Lion. Vulpes vTdit leonem retn)us "' Captum, et stans prope, ludi- fieavit eum insolenter. Leo auteni, '' Non tu," inquit, " me ludificas,^ sed malum quod in me incidit." 4. The Ass in the Lion's Skin. Asinus, pellem^ leonis indutus, circum currebat, cetera aniinfdia-'^ terrens. Et cum vulpem videret, earn quoque terrere '■' confitus est. Sed baec, asini vagTtu"*" audlto, " Scito," inquit, "me quoque territam futuram fuisse nisi te vagientem andlssem."^' 5. The Hound and the Lion. Canis venations^' leonem vldit, et Tnsecutus est. Cum autem leo se veitriret, ac ruglret, canis metuens retrorsum HEADING LESSONS. fugit. Turn vulpes, conspicata, " O mulum caput ! " inquit ; "Teiie-^ leonem sectari? cujus' ne vocem quidem tolorare potuTsti." G. The Wolf and the Lamb. Lupus insecutus est fignum. At hie in templum confugit. Liipo auteni agiium invocante, et minitaute i)oiitificem eum sacrifiefiturum, respoudit agnus, " Mallem quideni deo sacer esse quain a te triicTdaii." 7. The Faiimer and the Snake. Agricola seiiex, liiemis tempore, serpentem invenit gelu rigentem, et miseresceus sub veste condidit. Mox serpens, incalescens, et indolem suam recilperans, benefaetorem mo- mordit interfecitque ; qui nioriens dixit, " Justa patior, qui^ animali^'^ improbo vTtam servfiverim." '^ 8. The Widow's Hen. Vidua quaedam gallTnaiii lial)uit, quae singula ova cottidie peperit. At rata, sT plus horde! ^'^ gallTnae ^^ dedisset,'^" banc blna cottidie ova parituram, ita fecit. Sed gallTna, pinguis facta, ne singula quidem postea parcre valebat. II. LIFE OF CiESAR. C^.SAR IS pkoscrihed, but pardoned by Sulla. 1. G. Julius Caesar, nobilissima genitus faimlia,"^ annum agens sextum et dccimum, patrem amisit. Paulo post Cor- neliam dilxit iixorem, cujus cum pater SuUae ^'■^ esset inimTcus, voluit Sulla Caesarem compellere "^^ ut eam dimitteret ; neque id potuit efficere. Ob eam causam Caesar bonis "^ spoliatus, cum etiam ad mortem quaereretur, mutata vcste, noctu elapsns est ex urbe, et, quamquam tunc quartanae morbo laborabat, prope per singulas noctes latrbras commutare cogebfitur ; et comprehensus a SuUae liberto, vix data pecunia^' evasit. 384 FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. Postremo per propinquos et affiues suos veniam impetravit, diu repugnante Sulla, qui cum deprecantibus ornatissimis viiis denegasset, atque illi pertinaciter contenderent victus tandem dixit, eum, quem salvuin tantopere cuperent, ali- quando optimatium partibus,^'' quas simul defendissent, exi- tio^^ futurum, multosque in eo puero inesse'*'^ Marios. Caesar's Capture by the Pirates. 2. Caesar, mortuo Sulla et compos! ta seditionc cTvilT, Rho- dum secede re '*•' statuit, ut per otium Apollonio, tunc claris- simo dicendl miigistro, operam daret ; sed in itinere a piratTs captus est, mansitque apud eos quadragintii dies.-^ Per omne autem illud spatium ita se gessit, ut pTratis ^^ terror! ^'' pariter ac veneration! ^^ esset. Interim comites servosque dimlserat ad expediendas pecunias, quibus redimeretur. Vlginti talenta piratae postuliiverant ; ille vero quinquaginta daturum'^** se spopondit. Quibus nuineratis, expositus est in lltore. Caesar Hberatus confestim M!letum,-"' quae urbs proxime aberat, pro- peravit ; ibique contracta classe, stantes adhuc in eodem loco praedones noctu adortus, Tillquot naves, mersis alils,'"' cepit, IMratasque ad deditionem redactos eo affecit supplicio, quod' illis saepe per jocum minatus erat, cum al) iis detineretur ; crucibus*^" illos suff!g! jussit. CyESAR's Ql/ESTORSIIIP IN SpAIN. 3. Caesar quaestor"^ factus in Hispaniam profectus est; cumque Alpes translret, et ad conspectum pauperis cujusdara vie! comites ejus per j(5cum inter se disputarent, an illlc etiam esset ambition!'" locus; serio d!xit Caesar, mfdle se ibi primuin esse quam Romae^^ secundum. Ita animus domi- nationis" avidus a prima aetate regnum concfipiscebat, semperque in ore habebat hos Eurlpidis, Grace! poetae, ver- sus : Nam si vidlandum est jas, regnavdl gratia violandnm est; dlils rebvs pletdtem colds. ^■'' Cum vero Oades,^'' quod est Hispaniae oppidum, venisset, visa Alexandrl'^ magn! imagine READING LESSONS. 385 ingemuit, et lacrinuls fudit. Causam qnaerentibus amicTs, " Nonne," inquit, "idonea dolendi causa est, quod nihildum mem(5rabile gesserim, earn aetatem adeptus, qua'*' Alexander jam terrfirum orbem subegerat?" Leader of the Democratic Party. 4. Caesar in captandii ■'^*' plebis gratia et ambiendls^'' hono- ribus patrimonium effudit ; aere Tdieno oppressus ipse dice- bat, sibi^" opus esse miUies sestertium,^'^ ut liaberet nihil. His artibus consulatum adeptus est, collegaque ei datus Marcus Bibulus, cui^^ Caesaris consilia baud placebant. Inito magistratu'^ Caesar legem agrariam tulit, hoc est, de dividendo egenis civibus ^^' agro publico ; cul legi '^ cum sena- tus repugnaret, Caesar rem ad p6i)iilum detulit. Bibulus collega in forum venit, ut legi^^ ferendae'" obsisteret ; sed tanta commota est seditio, ut in caput consulis cophinus stercore '^''^ plenus effunderetur, fascesque frangerentur. Tan- dem Bibulus, a satellitibus Caesaris foro^^ expulsus, domi'''' se continere per reliquum anni tempus coactus est, cfiriaque abstinere. Interea iinus Caesar omnia ad arbitrium in re- publica administravit ; unde quTdam homines faceti, quae eo anno gesta sunt, non, ut mos erat, consulibus^ Caesare et Bibiilo acta esse dice])ant, sed Julio et Caesare, unum consu- lem nomine et cognomine pro duobus appellantes. Proconsul in Gaul. 5. Caesar functus consulatu^'^ Galliam provinciam accepit. Gessit autem novem annis,"*^ quibus in imperio fuit, haec fere. Galliam in provinciae Romanae formam redegit ; Germanos, qui trans Rhenum incolunt, primus Romanorum ^^ ponte f abri- cato aggressus maximis affecit cladibus.^'^ Britannos antea ignotos vicit, iisque ^^ pecunias et obsides imperavit ; quo in bello multa Caesaris facta egregia narrantur. Inclinante in fugam exercitu, rapuit e manu militis fugientis scutum, et in primam aciem volitans pugnam restituit. In alio proelio 886 FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. aquiliferiim terga vertentem f Jiucibus ^ compreheudit, in contrariam partem retraxit, dexteramqoe ad hostem proten- dens : " Quorsum tu," inquit, " abis? Illic sunt, quibus cum dimicamus." Quo facto militibus animos addidit.^^ C^.SAR JiEGINS THE CiVIL WaR. 6. Caesar cum adhfic in Gallia detineretur, ne imperfecto be!l6 discederet, postulavit ut sib! liceret, quamvTs absent!, iterum consulatum petere ;^^ quod ei a senatu est negiitum. Eii re commotus in Italiam rediit, armis iiijilriam acceptam vindicaturus ; plurimisque urbibus'^ occupiltis Brundisium contendit, quo Pompeius consulesque confugerant. Tunc summae audaciae f acinus Caesar edidit : a Brundisio Dyrra- cliium inter oi)p6sitris classes gravissimfi liierae ^^ trfmsiit ; cessantibusque copils, qufis subsequi jusserat, ciim ad eas arcessendas •"**' frustra misisset, morae^'' impatiens castris noctu egreditur, clam solus naviculam conscendit obvolfito capTte, ne fignosceretur. Miire, adverso vento vehementer flante, intumescebat ; in altum' tamen protiniis dlrigl navi- gium jubet ; cunupie gubernator paene obrutus Ihictibus ^'^ adversae tempestati cederet : ' ' Quid times ? " ait ; " Caesa- rem vehis." C^:SAR DEFEATS POMPEY AND SUBDUES THE P]aST. 7. Deinde Caesar in Thessaliam profectus est, ul)! Pompe- ium Pharsiilico proelio fudit, fugientem persecutus est, eumque-^ in itinere cognovit occlsum fuisse. Turn bellum Ptolemaeo,^*^ Pompeii interfectori,'^ intulit a quo sibi quoque insidifis pararl videbat ; quo victo, Caesar in Pontum transiit, Pharnacemque, Mithridatis fllium rebellantem aggressus in- tra quintum al) adventu diem, quattuor vero, quibus in conspectum venerat, horls, uno proelio profligavit. Quam victoriae celeritatem inter triumphandum notavit, Tnscripto inter pompae ornamenta trium verborum titulo, Vent, vidi, vim. Sua deinceps Caesarem ubique comitata est fortuna. READING LESSONS. 387 Scipionem et Jubam, Nuiiiidiae regem, reliquifis rompeianfi- rum partiiim in Africa retoventes, devicit. Fompeil liberos in Ilispania snpeiTivit. Clementer Cisus est victoria,'''^ et omnibns/^ qui contra se arma tulcraut, pepercit. Regressus in urbeni, qninquies triumpliavit. C^SAR IS DECLARED PeRFETUAL DICTATOR, BUT IS SOON AFTER ASSASSINATED. 8. BellTs cTvTlibus confectis, Caesar, dictator^ in perpetuum creatus, agere insolentius coepit. Senatnm ad se venientem sedens excepit, et quemdam, ut assnrgeret monentem, irato vnltfi "^^ respexit. Cum Antonius, Caesaris in omnibus expe- ditionibus comes, et tunc in cclnsulfitu collega, el^^ in sella aurea sedenti pro rostrls diadema, TnsTgne regiuni, imponeret, non vTsus est eo facto offend!.''" Quare cdnjuratum est in eum a sexagiuta amplius virTs,"- Cassio et Bruto ducibus con- spirationis. Cum igitur Caesar Idibus ''^ Martils in senatum venisset, assidentem specie officii circumsteterunt, illicoque unns e conjuratTs, quasi aliquid rogaturus, propius accessit, renuentique togain ab utrdque umero apprehendit. Deinde clamantem, " Ista quidem vis est," Cassius vulnerat paullo Infra jugulum. Caesar Cascae brachium arreptum grapbio trajecit, conatusque prosilire aliud vulnus accepit. Cum Marcum Brutum, quem loco filii liabebat, in se irruentem vidisset, dixit : " Tu quoque, fill mi!" Dein iibT animad- vertit undique se strictis pugidnil)us petT, t(5ga caput obvoi- vit, atque ita tribus et vTgintl plagTs *^ confossus est. Character of Cjesar. 9. Erat Caesar excelsa statura"*^ nigris vegetTsque oculls,'*- ctipite *- calvo quam calvitii deformitatem aegi-e ferebat, quod saepe obtrectantium jocis esset obnoxia. Itaque ex omnibus honoribus sibi a senatii populoque decretis non aliud recepit autusiirpavitlibentius, quam jus laureae perpetuo gestandae. Eum vnu^ parcissimum fuisse ne inimicl quidem negarunt ; 388 FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. iinde Ciito dicere solebiit, imum ex omnibus Caesiirem ad everteodam rempublicam sobrium accessisse. Armorum ^ et eqiiitandi peritissimus erat ; laboris ultra fidem patiens ; in agmine nonnnnquam equo, saepius pedibus anteibat, cilpite deteeto, sTve sol, sTve imber esset. Longissimas vias in- credilnlT celeritate confecit, ita ut persaepe nuntios de se praevenerit, neqiie eum morabantur flumina, quae vel nando^ vel iunlxus infliltls utribus *^ traiciebat. III. THE hp:lvetian war. \_Fro7n Woodford's Epitome of Ccesar's Gallic ]V(n\^ Caisau's Description of Gaul. 1. Gallia est oninis divTsa in partes tres. Unam incolunt Belgae, aliam AquTtfinl, tertiain Celtae,^ qur"^ lingua"'' nostra Gain appellantur. Ill omnes lingua,"' institutis, legibus inter se differunt. G alios ab AquitanTs Garumna flumen dividit, a BelgTs Matrona ct Sequana. Fortissimi" sunt Belgae, prop- terea quod proxiniT sunt GermanTs,'-' qui trans Rlienum inco- lunt, quibuscum continenter bellum gerunt. Ilelvetii quoque reliquos G alios virtute"' praecedunt, quod fere cottldianTs proeliis cum GermfinTs contendunt. Una pars initium capit a flumiue Rliodiino ; continetur Garumna flumine, oceano, flni- bus Belgarum. Attingit etiam flumen^ Rhenum. Yergit ad septentriones. Belgae ab extremis Galliae finibus oriuntur, pertinent ad inferiorem partem fluminis Rlieni, spectant in septentriones et orientem solem. Aquitania a Garumna flu- mine ad Pyrenaeos montes et eam partem ocean!, quae est ad Hispiiniam, pertinet, spectat inter occasum soils et sep- tentriones. OllOETOKIX AND HIS PlAN OF EMIGRATION. 2. Apud Helvetios nobilissimus ^ et ditissimus fuit Orge- torix. Is conjurationem nobilitatis fecit, et civitati" per- suasit, ut de finibus suis cum omnibus copiis exirent. Facilius HEADING LESSONS. 389 els persuasit, quod iindiqnc loci iiatuiTi ""'^ Helvetil continentur : iiiui ex parte 11 limine Rlieno latissiino atque altissimo, qui agrum Helvetium a Germams dividit ; altera ex parte, monte Jura altissimo, qui est inter Sequanos et Ilelvetios ; tertia, lacu Lemanno et flumine Rliodano, qui Provinciam nostram ab Helvetiis dividit. The Helvetians pkepaue to leave their Country. 3. His rebus adducti, constituerunt ea quae' ad proflcis- cendum pertinerent comparare,*'' jumentorum et carrorum quara maximum numerum coemere, sementes quam maximas facere, cum proximis civitatibus amicitiam confirmare. In tertium annum profectiouem lege confirmant. Embassy of Orgetorix to the Neighboring States. 4. Ad eas res c5nf Iciendas "''^ Orgetorix deligitur. Is lega- tionem ad civitates suscepit. In eo itinere persuadet Cas- tico, Sequano, ut regnum in civitate sua occuparet, quod^ pater ante liabuerat. Itemque Dumnorigi Aeduo, qui max- ime plebl acceptus erat, ut Idem conaretur persuadet. Inter se jusjurandum dant, et totlus Galliae sese potlii posse spe- rant. Ea res est Helvetiis ^'^ enuntiata. Orgetorigem ex vin- culls causam dicere coegerunt. Damnatum poenam sequi oportebat, ut Ignl'^'^ cremaretur. Die constituta^^ Orgetorix ad judicium omnem suam familiam, et omnes clientes obaera- tosque conduxit. Per eos se eripuit. Cum civitas, ob eam rem incitata, armis jus suum exsequi conaretur, Orgetorix mortuus est. The Route selected. 5. Post ejus mortem niliilominus Helvetil id quod constl- tuerant facere ^'-^ conantur. Ubi se ptiratos esse '^^ arbitrati sunt, oppida sua omnia, vicos, privata aedificia incendunt. Trium mensium mollta clbaria quemque domo efferre jubent. Erant omnino itinera duo, quibus' itineribus*' domo exire possent: unum per Sequanos, angustum et difficile, inter 390 FIKST STEPS IN LATIN. montem Juram et fliimen Rhodfuium; alteram per provinciam nostram multo facilius atque expeditiiis, propterea quod Rhodanus nonniiUTs locis^Wado^ traiisitur. Extremum op- piduiii Allobrogum est Genava. Ex eo oppido pons ad Hel- vetios pertinet. Omnibus rebus ^*^ ad profectionem compara- tis, diem dlcunt, qua die ad rlpam Rliodani omnes conveniant. Caesari cum id uuntiatum esset, maturat ab urbe proficiscl, et ill Galliam ulteriOrem coiiteiidit. Pontcm jubet rescind!. *'' CiKSAK RECEIVES AN EMBASSY FROM THE HeLVETII. fi. Ubi de ejus adventu Ilelvetii certiores" facti sunt, lega- tos ad eum mittunt, (jur^ dlcerent ' silu^^ esse in animo sine ullo mfdeficio iter per provinciam facere.'* Caesar a lacfi Le- manno ad nuMitem Juram murum fossamque perducit. Negat se posse ^"^ iter fdlT per provinciam dare.'''* Relinquebatur una per Sequanos via, (j[ua, SCMpirinTs invitis, propter angustias ire non poterant. Ills ^* cum pcrsuadere non possent, legatos ad Dumnorigem mittunt, ut, eo deprecatore,''^ impetrarent. Dum- norix apud SequTmos plurinuim poterat, et Ilelvetiis ^^ erat amicus, quod Orgetorigis filiara in mfitrimonium duxerat. Ita- que rem suscipit, et a Sequanis impetrat, ut per fines suos Helvetios ire patiantur. The ^Edui and Other Tribes complain to C^.sar of THE Encroachments of the Helvetii. 7. Caesar in Itrdiam magnls itineribus contendit, duasque ibi legiones conscribit, et tres ex hibernis educit, et in filteri- orem Galliam, per Alpes, Tre contendit. In fines Vocontiorum die septimo pervenit ; inde in Allobrogum fines, ab Allobro- gibus in Segusianos exercitum diicit, HI sunt extra provin- ciam trans Rhodanum priml. Helvetii jam per angustias et fines Sequanorum suas copitis transduxerant, et Aeduorum agros populabantur. Aedul, cum se^ defendere non possent, legatos ad Caesarem mittunt rogatum''^ auxilium. Eodem tempdre Aedui AmbarrI, consanguine!^ Aeduorum, Caesarem HEADING LESSONS. 391 certiorem faciunt, sese, clepopulatls agrls, non facile ab oppidis vim hostium proliibcre. Item Allobroges, qui trans Rliodanum vicos possessioiiesqiie habebant, fOga*^ se ad Caesarem recipiimt. Caesar non exspectandum sibi^" statuit, dum in Santonos Helvetii pervenirent. C^SAK SURPKISES AND ROUTES OnE CaNTON OF THE HeLVETII AT THE River Arar. 8. Fliimen est Arar, quod per fines Aeduorum et Sequano- rum in Rhodauum Tnfluit, incredibili lenitate/*^ ita ut oculis, in utram partem fluat, judicari non possit. Id Helvetii, rati- bus et lintribus junctis, transibant. Ubi Caesar certior fac- tus est tres copiarum partes Helvetios -^ transduxTsse, quartam fere partem citra flumen esse, de tertia vigilia e castris pro- fectus ad earn partem pervenit, quae nondum transierat. Eos impeditos aggressus, magnam eorum partem concidit. ReliquT sese in proximas silvas abdiderunt. Is pagus appellabatur Tiguiinus : ^ nam omnis civitas Helvetia in quattuor pagos divTsa est. Hie pagus Lueium Cassium consiilem interfece- rat, et ejus exercitum sub jugum rniserat. Ita, quae pars calamitatem popiilo ^^ Romano intulerat, ea princeps poenas persolvit. C^SAR crosses the River Arar and receives a Second Embassy from the Helvetii. 9. Hoc proelio facto, reliquas copias Helvetiorum ut conse- quT posset, pontem in Arare faciendum curat, atque ita exer- citum transducit. Helvetii, repentino ejus adventu commoti, legatos ad euin mittunt, cujus legationis Divico princeps fuit, quibello'^"' Cassiauo dux Helvetiorum fuerat. Is ita cum Caesare egit : ' SI pacem populus Romanus cum Helvetils face- ret, in eam partem ituros, ubi Caesar eos^^ esse voluisset ; sin bello persequi perseveraret, reminisceretur et veteris incom- modl ^^ popull RomanI, et pristinae virtutis Helvetiorum ; se ita a patribus majoribusque suls didiclsse, ut magis virtute 392 FIKST STEPS IN LATIN. quam dolo contenderent. Quare, ne committeret, lit is locus, ubi constitissent, ex calamitate populi Eomani nomen cape- ret.' The Helvp:tii, encouka(;ed by the Success of their Cavalry, prepare to attack Caesar's Army. 10. His Caesar ita respondit : '' ' Sib!^^ mimis dubitationis darl, (piod eas res, qufis cominemorasseot, memorial' teneret. SI veteris coutumeliae '- oblTvisci vellet, mini receiitium iiijuri- arimi inemoriam depoiiere posse? Taiiien, si ol^sides ab iis sibi deotur, iiti ea^" quae poUiceantur facturos intelligat, et si Aeduis de injfiriis quas ipsis socilsque eorum intulerint, item, si Allobr6gil)us satisfaciaut, sese cum ils pacem facturum.' Divico respoiidit : ' Ita Ilelvetios a majoribus suls institfitos esse, uti obsides acci[)ere, iiou dare consueveriiit ; ejus rei popiilum Romanum esse testem.' Hoc responso dato, discessit. Postero die castra ex eo loco movent. Idem facit Caesar. Equitiltum omnem praemittit, qui' videaut, quas in partes hostes iter faciant. Qui alieiio loco cum equitatu Helvetiorum proelium committunt, et pauci de nostris cadunt. Ilelvetii audacius subsistere, nonnunquam nostros lacessere coepe- runt. Caesar suos a proelio continebat, ac satis liabebat in praesentia hostem ntpinls ''^ prolilbere. Ita dies-* circiter quindecim iter lecerunt, liti, inter novissimum hostium agmen et nostrum primura, non amplius quinis aut senis milibus^ passuum interesset. The xKdli neglect to furnish the Corn they had promised and C>*:sar calls the Gallic Chiefs to a Council. 11. Interim cottidie Caesar Aeduos^" frumentum, quod^ essent publice poUiciti, flagitare. Nam, propter frigora, non modo frumenta in agris matfira non erant, sed ne pabtili qui- deni satis magna copia suppetebat. Eo autem frumento,^ quod flumine Arare navibus subvexerat, minus iiti*'^ poterat, KEADING LESSONS. 393 quod iter iib Arfire llelvctii averterant, a quibus discederc nulcbat. Dicni ex die dficere AeduT : conferri, comportarT, adessc dicere. Ubi se diutius duel intellexit, et diem Tnstarc, quo die f ruinentum -' inllltibus metirl oporteret, convocatTs eorum principibus, quorum magnam copiam in castrls habe- bat, in his Divitiaco, et Lisco, qui summo magistrfitul ^^ praee- rat, graviter eos accusat, quod ab ils non sublevcltur ; prae- sertim cum magna ex parte eorum precibus adductus, bellum susceperit. Turn demum Liscus proponit : ' esse nonnuUos, quorum auctoritas apud plebem plurimum valeat ; lios ^^ sedi- tiosa atque improba oratione inultitudinem deterrere,^^ ne frumentum coriferant. Ab iisdem nostra consilia hostibus enuntiaii ; lios a se coerceii non posse. QuTn etiam, quod rem Caesarl enuntiarit, intellegere sese quanto id cum peri- culo fecerit, et, ob earn causam, quamdiu potuerit, tacuisse. Liscus informs C^sak that it is owing to the Treach- ery OF DUMNORIX THAT SUPPLIES ARE NOT FURNISHED. 12. Caesar hac oratione Dumuorigem,-^ Dlvitiaci fratrem, designaii*^ sentiebat ; sed quod, pluribus praesentibus, eas res jactarl nolebat, celeriter concilium dimittit, Liscum re- tinet ; dlcit llberius atque audacius. Eadem secreto ab aliis quaerit ; reperit esse vera : ' ipsum esse Dumnorigem summa audacia,"*" magna apud plebem propter liberalitatem gratia, cupidum novarum rerum;^ complures annos -^ omnia Aeduorum vectigalia parvo pretio redempta habere ; propterea quod, illo licente, contra liceri audeat nemo. His rebus suam rem fami- liarem auxisse, magnum numerum equitatiis semper circum se habere. Favere Helvetiis " propter atf initatem, odisse Caesa- rem et Romanos, quod eorum adventu potentia ejus demmQta, et DTvitiacus frater in antiquum locum gratiae atque honoris sit restitutus. Si quid accidat RomanTs, summam in spem regni per Helvetios obtinendT venire ; imperio populi RomfinT, non modo de regno, sed etiam de ea quam habeat gratia, desperare. 394 FIEST STEPS IN LATIN. DiVITIACUS BESEECHES CAESAR NOT TO TAKE SeVERE MEAS- URES AGAINST HIS BROTHER. 13. Cum ad has suspiciones certissimae resaccederent, satis esse causae arbitrabatur, quare in earn aul ipse aiiimadver- teret, aiit civitatem animadvertere juberet. His omnibus iinurn repugnabat, quod DivitiacI friltris suinmum in populum Romanum studium, summam in se voluntatem, egregiam fidem, justitiam, temperantiam cognoverat : nam ne ejus supplicio Divitiaci animum offenderet verebatur. Itaque, priusquam quicquam conaretur,*^"^ Divitiaciim '*^ ad se vocari jubet ; simul commcjnefacit quae, ipso***^ praesente, in concilio Gallorum sint dicta ; et ostendit quae separatim quisque de eo apud se dixerit. Divitiacus multis cum lacnmis obsecrare coepit, ne quid gravius in fratrem statueret : ' scire ^^ se -^ ilia esse vera, sese tamen et amore fiTiterno et existimatione vulgi commovtM-T. Quod si quid ei^"' ii Caesare gravius accidisset, cum i[)se eum locum amicitiae apud cum teneret, neminem existi- maturum non sua voluntate factum, qua ex re futurum, uti totius Galliae ^ animl a se avertercntur.' Caesar ejus dextram prendit ; Dumnorigein ad s(3 vocat ; fratrem adhibet ; quae in eo reprehendat ostendit ; nionet ut in reliquum teinpus omnes suspiciones vltet. C^CSAR PREPARES TO ATTACK THE HeLVETII. 14. Eodem die ab exploratoribus certior" f actus hostes sub monte consedTsse milia-* passuum al^ ipslus castrls octo, qualis esset'"'^ natfira montis et qualis in circuitu adscensus, qui cog- noscerent^^ misit. Renuntiatum est facilem esse. De tertia vigilia Titum Labienum, legatum, cum duobus legionibus summum juguin montis adscendere jubet. Ipse de quarta vigilia eodem itinere, quo hostes ierant, ad eos contendit ; equitatumque omnem ante se mittit. READING LESSONS. 395 Cesar's Plan is defeated by the Mistake of Considius. 15. Piiiiifi luce, cum sunimus mons t'l Tito Labicno tcne- retur, ipse tib iiostium castiis nou loiigius nillle et qulngentls passibus abesset, iieque aut ipsius adveiitus, aut Labieni, coguitus esset, Considius, eqiio admisso, ad eum accurrit ; dicit inoiitein, quein a Labieno occiq)ai'I volucrit, ab liosti- bus ^^ teiieii ; id se ex Gallicis armis atque insignibus cogno- vlsse. Caesar siiils copias in proximuin collem subdCicit, aciem Instniit. Labienus, lit erat ei praeceptum (ut iindique uno tempore in hostes impetus fieret), monte occupato, nostros exspectabat, proelioqiie abstinebat. Multo denique die, per exploratores Caesar cognovit montem a suls teneri, et Considium, perterritum, quod^ non vTdisset pro viso re- nuntiasse. Eo die, qu5 consuerat intervallo, hostes seqiiitur ; et milia passuum tria ab eorum castrls castra ponit. To SECURE Supplies Cii:sAR turns aside from the Pur- suit OF THE HeLVETII. 16. Postridie ejus die! quod omnino biduum siipererat, cum exercitui frumentum metlri oporteret, et quod a Bi- bracte, oppido Aeduorum longe maximo et copiosissimo, non amplius milibus passuum duodevTginti aberat, rei friiinen- tariae ^^ prospiciendum existimavit, ac Bibracte ^° ire contendit. Helvetii, sen quod pcrterritos Romanos discedere existimarent, sive quod re frumentaria ''^ intercludi i)osse confiderent, itinere converso, nostros a novissimo aginine insequi ac lacessere coeperunt. Cil<:SAR PREPARES FOR A GeNERAL ENGAGEMENT. 17. Postquam id animum advertit, copias suas Caesar in proximum collem subducit, CHpiitatumque, qui sustineret hostium impetum, misit. Ipse interim in colle medio tri- plicem aciem instruxit. Sarcinas in fmum locum confeni, et 396 FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. eum ab ils, qui in siiperiore acie coiistiterant, mfiniri jussit. Helvetii, cum omnibus suls earns secuti, impedimenta in unum locum contiilerunt. IpsI confertissima acie,"*^ rejecto nostro equitatu, phalange facta, sub primam nostram aciem successerunt. Caesar, primum suo"^' deinde omnium remotis'*^ equis, ut spem fugae tolleret, cohortatus suos, proelium com- misit. Milites, e loco siiperiore pilTs missis, facile hostium phalangem perfregerunt. Ea disjecta, gladils destrictis in eos impetum fecerunt. C^SAR TOTALLY DEFEATS THE HeLVETII IN A FlEKCE BaTTLE. 18. Gallls ''' magno erat impedimeuto,^"' quod, pluribus eo- rum scutTs **"' uno ictfi *"' plloruin trilnsfTxis et couligatis, cum feiTum se Inflexisset, neque evellere, neque, sinistra impedita, satis commode pugnare poterant. Tandem vulneribus defessi, et pedem referre et, quod mons siiberat circiter miUe pas- suum, eo se recipere coeperunt. Capto monte, et succedenti- l)us nostrls. Roil et Tulingl, qui agmen hostium claudebant, ex itinere nostros aggressT, circumvenere ; et id conspicatT Helvetii, qui in montem se rece})erant, rursus instare et proe- lium redintegrare coeperunt. Roman! conversa signa bipartlto intulerunt ; prima et secunda acies, ut victTs ^* ac submotis re- sisteret ; tertia, ut venientes exciperet. Ita ancipiti proelio diu atque acriter pugnatum est. The Helvetii retreat to the Territory of the LiNGONES. 19. Difitius cum nostrorum impetus sustinere non possent, alter! se, ut coeperant, in montem receperunt ; alter! ad im- ped!menta et carros suos se contiilerunt. Nam hoc toto proelio, cum ab hora septimfi ad vesperum pugnatum sit, fiversum hostom videre nemo potuit. Ad inultam noctem etiam ad imped!menta piignatum est, propterea quod pro READING LESSONS. 397 vallo caiTos objecerant. ImpedimentTs castrisque nostri potiti sunt. Ibi Orgetorigis filia atque uniis e filiis captus est. Ex eo proelio circiter milia hominum centum et triginta superfuerunt, eaque tota nocte icirunt : in fines Lingonum die^^ quarto pervenerunt, cum, et propter vulnera militum et sepulturam occTsorum, nostri eos sequT ndn potuissent. Caesar ad Lingones litteras nunti()sque misit, ne eos fru- mento neve alia re juvarent. Ipse, triduo intermisso, cum omnibus copiis eos sequi coepit. Tit?: Helvetii make Terms with Cjesar and return TO THEIR Country. 20. Helvetii, omnium rerum inopia adducti, legatos de dedi- tione ad eum miserunt. Qui cum se ad pedes projecissent, suppliciterque l(5cuti pacem petissent, atque eos in eo loco, qu(") tiim essent, adventum suum exspectare jussisset, parue- runt. Eo postquam pervenit, obsides, arma, servos, qui ad eos perfugissent, poposcit. Helvetios in fines suos reverti jussit ; et quod, omnibus frugibus amissis, domi"'"' nihil erat, Allobrogibus imperavit, ut ils frumenti copiam facerent ; ip- sos oppida vicosque, quos incenderant, restituere jussit, quod noluit eum locum ^M'acare,"*^ ne, propter bonitatem agrorum Germaul in Helvetiorum fines triinslrent. The Number of the Helvetii before and after their Migration. 21. In castrls Helvetiorum tabulae repertae sunt, litterls Graecis confectae, quibus in tabulls nominatim ratio con- fecta erat, qui niimerus domo^^ exlsset^ eorum, qui arma ferre possent, et item separatim puerl, senes, miilieresque. Summa omnium fuerat ad milia trecenta sexaginta et octo. Eorum, qui domum redierunt, repertus est numerus milium centum et decern. NOTES. I. FABLES. 1. stans, present participle, sec sto; domus, genitive, fourth declen- sion, see 174; how does it ditTer in meiining from domi ? — praetereun- tem (see praetereo) agrees with lupum, object of vidit. Account for the position of inquit. Is non tii, etc., direct or indirect discourse ? How is locus declined in the plural ? Axs. loci, m., means places in books; Idea, y.,j)laces; gen. locorum, dat. locis, ace. locos, m, ; loca, n., etc. 2. Subveni (imperative), //f/y^ — puerb, etc., reproached to the boij his rashiiess, or, as we say, he reproadicd the boi/ for his rashness. — repre- hendere (infinitive), to reproce. — licet, // is ]>ermitted, i.e. i/ou mat/ rejirove. 3. captura is a partic, from capio, agreeing with leonem. — malum (nonuiiative), understand me Iddificat. 4. pellem indutus, //a /;//(// jnit on the sl-in ; induor, although passive in form, is used in a middle or reflexive sense, as, / clothe, i.e. I put cJothinij on mij self, and maybe followed by the accusative. — videret: why sul)j.? — conatus est, a deponent verb; see 282. — haec, i.e. vulpes. — audissem for audivissem; see 89. 2. 5. tene .... sectari, i/ou hunt f LATIN. second declension are so used. — orbis terrarum must be used in pref- erence to terra, when there is a decided reference to otlier lands. 4. in ... . honoribus, in soliciting the favor nf tlic plebeians, and in can- vassing for the magistracies (honors). — dicebat .... sestertium, lit. lie used to say that there icas need to himself of 1,000 tintes 100,000 sestertii, — 100,000,000 sesterces, or nearly $4,000,000; sestertium, gen, plur. used for sestertiorum. — ut haberet nihil : after he had freed himself from debt, there would l)e notliing left of his own. — consiilatum : every Roman citizen who aspired to the consulship had to pass through a regular gradation of public offices, and the age in which he was eligi- ble to each was fixed by the Lex Annalis, b.c. 180, as follows : for the Quaestorship, which was the first of the magistracies, one must be twenty-seven years of age; for the -^'Edileship, thirty-seven; for the Praitorship, forty ; and for the Consulship, forty-three. (See Leighton's Koman History, p. 185, note 4.) — inito .... tiilit (see ineo), ivhen he had entered upon the office Qisar proposed, etc. — egenis civibus, among needy citizens. — ut .... obsisteret, that he might opjiose the law's being enacted. — forb, from the forum. The Forum was situated between the Capitoline and Palatine hills ; it was the chief place of public business (see L.'s Rom. Hist., p. 385). There were other fora, but this was dis- tinguished as Forum Romunum, or as Forum, being the most important. — domi se continere, to remain at lunne. — ciiria, from the senate-house : senatus, tlie senate, either the senators or the ])lace where they met ; curia, the building ivhere the senators assembled. — quidam, some. — non ut mos erat, 7iot as was the custom ; mos, an established custom, especially of a nation; c5nsuetudo, habit, which results in a settled usage (mos) ; caerimonia, a religions ceremony. — consiilibus Caesare et Bibiild, in the considship of Caging lionor. — quasi .... rogaturus, as if to ash something. — claman- tem, sc. eum, i.e. Caesarem. — arreptum, which lie had seized. — quem .... habebat, irhom he Itad regarded as his son. 9. erat .... statiira, desar loas of etc., see 292. — aegre ferebat, grieved (on account) ; quod .... obnoxia, it iras often the subject for the jokes of his slanderers. — sibi, /o him. — laureae gestandae, of ivearing a crown of laurel. — eum .... fuisse, that he was. — inimici : give the synonymes. — ne and quidem enclose the emphatic word as in the text. — ad . . . . rempublicam, to orertum the republic. — anteibat, see anteeo. — detectum, uncovered: see detego. — sive .... esset, whether it teas sunshint^ or rain. — Syx. pluvia, rain (general word) ; imber, rain (heavy, pouring sliower) ; nimbus, ?(/<« (from dark clouds). — longis- simas vias. Csesar was noted for the rapidity of his movements ; he is said to have travelled at the rate of one hundred Koman miles i)er day, equal to about ninety-two English miles. — innixus .... utribus, resting ujion inflated bags. III. THE HELVETIAN WAR. Sketch of C.ksak's Life. Gaius Julius C^icsar was born, by the common account, in tlie year n.c. 100 (or, by a probable reckoning, two years earlier), and was assassinated in the year b.c. 44, at the age of fifty-six. The earlier date of his birth is consistent with the fact that he was Quaestor in B.C. G8, vEdile in n.c. 65, Praetor in 02, and Consul in 59, since one was not eligible to these offices, according to the Lex Annalis, until he had entered upon the age of thirty-seven, forty, and forty-three respectively. But Ca>sar was most likely exempted by a special act, as Pompey and many other prominent political leaders had been (from the Lex Annalis). Caesar sprang from an old patrician family, but the circumstances of his early life brought him into close connection with the Marian, or demo- cratic, party ; for his aunt Julia had married Marius, and he himself, when but a bo}^ of seventeen, had taken the daughter of Cinna, one of the Marian leaders, for his wife. At the bidding of Sulla, when die- NOTES. 403 tator, Cffisar luid refused to divorce his wife, as Pompey liad done. His name was tlien placed upon the list of tlie proscribed, which means that he could be killed by any partisan of Sulla who happened to see him, and his property would be confiscated, a large reward being first paid to the assassin. Casar fled at once from the capital, and concealed himself among the Albans hills, until, by the interces- sion of the vestal virgins, and many prominent men among the nobility, Sulla was induced to grant a pardon. " You wish it," said Sulla, " and I grant it; but in this boy there are more than one Marius." Ca3sar, however, would not accept pardon, and so long as Sulla lived, he avoided the capital. While in Asia Minor, he distinguished him- self at the siege of Mytilene (or Mitylene), winning the civic crown for saving the life of a citizen. When the news of Sulla's death reached him, he returned to Rome; but, seeing that there was no prospect at liresent of the popular party regaining power, he decided to withdraw again from the capital, and to devote himself at Rhodes to the study of oratory, in which he had already gained some renown. On his way thither he was captured by pirates, with whom the Mediterranean Sea at that time swarmed, because the government at home had been for many years so inefficient and lax. The pirates demanded twenty talents — nearly twenty-five thousand dollars — for his ransom. "It is too little," said Caesar ; " you shall have fifty ; but once free, I will crucify you." And he kept his word ; for no sooner had he gained his liberty than he manned some vessels, overpowered the pirates, and conducted them to a neighboring city as prisoners. On his return to Rome, Caisar used every means to increase his popularity. His affable mannei's, and still more his unbounded liber- ality, won the hearts of the people. At the age of thirty-five (assuming the earlier date) he was Quaestor in Further Spain (n.c. 68). Two years later (n.c. 65) he was Curule A^'Ailo, an office which gave him a good opportunity to win the favor of the people, because he was to have charge of the public games and exhibitions. As ^dile, Caesar not only embellished the forum and public buildings, and exhibited three liundred and twenty pairs of gladiators equipped in silver, but in all the diversions of the tlieatre, in the processions and public tables, he far outshone the most ambitious of his predecessors. His prodi- gality was frightful, his debts enormous, amounting at this time to more than one hundred million sesterces — nearly five million dol- lars. When the chief pontiff died (b.c. 63), the most illustrious men of the state sought the office. Caesar, however, did not give way to them, although Catulus, one of his opponents, who had been Consul, 404 FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. and was now a prominent member of the senate, fearing to be defeated by one so mucli inferior in rank, station, and age, offered Caesar large sums of money to pay his debts, if he would withdraw from the con- test. On the morning of the election, Caesar is reported to have said to his mother, wlio would gladly liave had him withdraw from the struggle, " I shall tliis day be either chief pontiff or an exile." The next j'ear Caesar was Praetor, and as Propraetor he went, at the end of liis year of office, to govern Spain. Before liis departure, his old friend Crassus, the richest man at Rome, had to pay a part of his debts, and to stand security for the rest to the amount of nearly a million of dollars. Caesar is reported to have said in his reckless way that he needed a hundred million sesterces to be worth just nothing at all. In Spain he displayed that civil and military ability which after- wards made him famous. It must have been a strange sight to see this dissolute spendthrift, this profligate demagogue, with his counte- nance pale and white, withered before its time by the excesses of tlie capital, tills delicate and epilejitlc man, walking at the head of his legions, and fighting as the foremost soldier wltli the wild tribes of Lusitanla. On Ills return to Rome, Caesar found Pompey, who had just com- pleted the Mithridatic war in the East, and was arranging for his triumphal entry into the city, at variance with the senate. Caesar at once saw his opportunity; he formed a political coalition with Pompey and Crassus, one part of the bargain being that Ca'sar should have the consulship for the next year (u.c. 50), and after that the govern- ment of Gaul for five years. In accordance with this programme, Caesar was entrusted, at tlie expiration of his consulship, with the command of Clsali)ine Gaul, Illyrlcum, and the province of Narbo, or simply jn'ovinda, with three h-gions, for a term of five years. Csesar liad now attained his object. As Proconsul of Cisalpine Gaul, he could watch the progress of affairs in the capital, while the threat- ening movements of tlie tribes in Gaul opened to him the prospect of subjugating the country and training an army for the impending civil war, for Caesar no doubt then clearly saw that a struggle between him- self and Pompey for the chief power at Rome was inevitable. For a long time the Romans had felt the importance of possessing Gaul, but as yet no systematic effort had been made to extend their dominion in that quarter farther than occupying the seaboard between the Alps and Pyrenees (n.o. 121). The climate of Gaul was health- ful, the soil rich and fertile, and the intercourse with Rome easy by land and sea. Roman merchants and farmers had already emigrated NOTES. 405 in great numbers to Gaul, and disseminated Koman culture and civilization to such an extent that many of the tribes could transact business with Hoinan r.mbassadors in the Latin language. The centre of this civilization and refinement was the old Greek city Massilia ; also the resort of those vvlio liad been banished from the capital. The merchants stationed tliere carried on an extensive trade with tlie inte- rior of (jaul, and even with Britain. They transported their wares uji the Khone and Saone, and thence ])y land to the Seine and Loire, or across to the Garonne, and so to tlie Atlantic. This intercourse pro- duced a close connection between the tribes from the Khone and the Garonne to the lihine and tlie Thames. Caesar saw how essential the possession of this country was to the Koman state, and that to its con- queror Avas offered the prospect of surpassing the fame of Camillus and Marius. Of tlie population of Gaul, the vl^^dui had entered into an alliance with Koine, while the Belgfc in the north, and the Sequani in the south, sought an alliance with the Germans. The Tl^^dui, relying on the assistance of Konie, imposL'd heavy tolls on the navigation of the Saone. The Sequani complained bitterly of this, and thinking that the Koman government was too much occupied with its own conten- tions at home to furnish its clients assistance, determined to rid them- selves of tlie influence of Kome, and punish the ^Edui. For this purpose they invited the German prince, Ariovistus, with about 15,000 men, to their assistance. The itMui were defeated, and forced to pay tribute to the Sequani, to give hostages, and to swear never to wage war for their recovery, or to solicit the aid of Kome. Divitiacus, the chief magistrate of his clan, alone refused to sign the treaty, and fled to Kome to ask assistance. Ariovistus now invited other tribes across the Khine, and demanded land to settle them on; the whole frontier of Gaul, from the sources of the Khine to the ocean, was threatened by the invasion of the German tribes. These tril)es so pressed upon tlie Helvetians, who were hemmed in on the south and the west by the Alps, Lake Geneva, and the Jura Mountains, that tliey determined to aban- don their country to the Germans, and seek larger and more fertile fields in the west. Cassar, on the expiration of his consulship, had remained in the vicinity of the capital until he accomplished his politi- cal schemes. But when the news reached him that the Ilelvetii had abandoned their homes, and were advancing upon Geneva with the purpose of crossing the Khone and forcing their way through the Province, he hastily made his preparations, reached the Rhone in eight days, and by skilful negotiations delayed the advance until a 406 FIRST STErS IN LATIN. line of entrenchments had been constructed from Lake Geneva to the Jura Mountains. Defeated in the attempt to cross the river in this direction, the Helvetii were compelled to take their way along its right bank, and thus make their journey westward by a more north- erly route. Caesar hastily collected his forces, followed up the left bank of the Saone, cut to pieces in a fierce battle a part of the Helve- tian army, and pursued tlie remainder to Bibracte, where he defeated tliem in a terrible battle, and compelled the survivors to return to their native country and rebuild their homes. 1. Gallia: Gaul extended from the Pyrenees and the Gulf of Lyons on the south to the British Channel and German Ocean on the nortli. It was bounded on the west by the Atlantic Ocean, and on the east by the Rhine and Italy. It was called Transalpina (i.e. bei/ond the Alps), to distinguish it from Cisalpina (i.e. on this side of the Alps), in north- ern Italy. It included France, Belgium, part of Switzerland and Hol- land, and the part of Germany west of the Rhine. In the division wliich Ciesar here makes he does not inchxde the southeast part, called Gallia Narbonensis, or commonly Provincia, whence the modern name Provence. The Roman dominion in the Provincia was secured by the establishment of Narbo Marcius, a Roman colony on the Atax, in B.C. 121. The most remote Roman towns towards the west and north were Lug- dunum, Convenarum (or Convenae), Tolosa, Vienna, and Geneva. The country was well provided with roads and bridges. The conmierce on the Rlione, Garonne, Loire, and Seine was considerable and lucrative, and extended even into Britain. The people were tall, of fair complexion and of sanguine temperament, fond of fighting, but easily discouraged. They were skilled in working copper and gold. Copper implements of excellent workmanship, and even now malleable, have been found in the tombs in many places in Gaul. The Romans are said to have learned from them the art of tinning and silvering. The Gauls, or as they called themselves the Celts, had attained so much skill in mining, that the miners, especially in the iron-mines on the Loire, acted an im- portant part in sieges. There was no political union among the different clans, no leading canton for all Gaul, no tie, however loose, uniting the whole nation under one leadership. Sometimes one canton would ex- tend its power over a weaker one, as the Suessiones in the north, the maritime cantons in the west, the two leagues in the south, one headed by the vEdui, the other by the Sequani ; but the Celts as a nation lacked political unity, and the cantons, for the most part, existed independently NOTES. 407 side by side. In matters of religion they had long been centralized. The association of Druids embraced the British islands, all Gaul, and perhaps other Celtic communities. The Druids had a special head elected by the priests themselves, special privileges, as exemption from taxation and military service, and an annual council. The Province in Caesar's time extended from the Pyrenees to the Alps on the coast, and was bounded on the east by the Alps, on the west by the Mons Cevenna (Ce venues), southward from the latitude of Lugdu- num. (Lyons), and on the north (where it narrowed off) by the Khone, from the western extremity of Lake Geneva to the junction of the Rhone and Saone. — omnis: Cajsar means all of Gaul, except that part which had been subdued by the Romans, in opposition to Gallia in the limited sense of one of the three divisions. — est divisa, lit. has been divided ; usually translated is divided, as this form in English expresses a completed action, the participle being used as an adjective. — tres is placed at the end of the sentence as being the significant word, indi- cating the number of divisions. — iinam : supply partem as object of incolunt. — aliam, another (part.): if Caesar had been enumerating them in order, he would have used alteram or secundam. — tertiam .... appellantui', the third, those who are called in our language Gauls. — institutis, in customs ; when three or more nouns stand together, the conjunctions may be omitted altogether, or used between the first and second, and second and third, etc. — inter se, among themselves or from one another. — dividunt is to be supplied after Matrona et Sequana. — propterea quod, because (lit. because of this); distinguished between propterea, fur this reason, and praeterea, besides. — Germanis, to the Germans. — incolunt, du:ell. Give the synonymes of bellum. — quoque, also; the ablative of quisque is quoque. — virtiite, in valor; virtiis, from same root as vir, means manliood. — iina pars, one part, of the main divisions of Gaul, i.e. Gallia Celtica. — fliimine, etc.: notice that the connectives are omitted. — finibus: finis, limit; plur., fines, limits, often applied to what is included in those limits, territory. — ad, towards. — ^Belgae; hence the modern Belgium. — inferi5rem partem, i.e. towards the mouth of the river. — ad, near to. — spectat inter occasum solis, it looks between the setting of the sun, i.e. it looks northwest, i.e. from the Province. 2. apud, among ; apud with the name of a person often means at the house of; with the name of an author, in the icritings of — nobilis- simus, see 141. — ditissimus from dis (149. 4). — Is is expressed because it is emphatic. Note the position of the word Orgetorix at the end of the sentence, to give prominence to the name. — Syn. 408 riKST STErs in latin. nobilis, clarus, illustris, denote distinction : clarus is one celebrated iov his deeds ; illustris, for his rank or character; nobilis, for his noble birth; celeber and inclutus (inclitus) denote celebrity, are generally- used of things, not of persons. — civitati, the state, i.e. the people, all the inhabitants of a state under one government ; it is here the indirect object of persuasit, while the clause introduced by ut is the direct object (321. 1). — exirent is plural on account of the plural implied in civitas; why in the imperf. subj.? — continentur, are hemmed in. — una ex parte, on one side. — Helvetium, see Helvetius. — altissimo ; altus, high, when reckoned from below; deep, wlien from above down- ward. — tertia, sc. ex parte. — lacii Lemanno : now Lake Geneva. — The pupil sliould be required to describe the rivers and give the situa- tion of the places mentioned in the text. 3. adducti, induced. — pertinerent is in the subjunctive, because it is implied that these things belonged to their departure in the opinion of the Helvetians; ichich (as the Helvetians thought), pertained to their departure (364). — jiimentorum (from same root as jungo, jiigum) is both pack and draught animals. — sementes .... facere, to make as large sowings as j)ossihle ; for the force of quam with the verb possum in connection with tlie superlative, see 151. Obs. o. — proximus lias no positive ; its place is supplied by propinquus. — in ... . confirinant, they Jix by lair upon their departure for the third year. 4. Ad conf iciendas, to accomplish : con is here intensive ; it usually means, in composition, together. In how many ways may a purpose be expressed in Latin (321. 3, Obs. 1)1 — deligitur : deligo, to choose in general (not to be undecided in one's choice) ; eligo, choose, in the sense of selecting from several. — Sequano, tJie Se<]uani an. — Mi regnum .... occuparet: this clause is the direct object of persuadet, prevails upon ; persuadet is in the historical present, and may therefore be followed by the imperfect subjunctive (320. 0). Give the synonymes of regnum. — plebi, to the plebeians (see L.'s Rom. Hist.). — ut idem conaretur, that he should strive for the same thing. — ibims, «//. — Svn. omnis, all (without exception), in opposition to nemo; iiniversi (unus-verto, lit. turned into one, i.e. the parts brought into unity), all collectively, in oppo- sition to singiili ; cuncti, all united together in opposition to dispersi ; totus, the ivhole, in opposition to separate parts; wliercas integer (in- tango, lit. untouched), uninjured, still udiole. — ea, res, this design, lit. this conspiracy. — ut, when. — ex , ... dicere, to plead his cause in chains ; lit. out of chains, i.e. (being) in chains. — damnatum, sc. eum, translate, it was necessary that the punishment should follow him condemned, namely, that he should be burned; the clause ut igni cremaretur explains poenam (342. NOTES. 409 3) ; for this use of the subjunctive, see 323. 5. — Syn. ignis, fire ; flamma, flame; incendium, a conflagration ; ignis is the cause, flamma, the e//ec^ — familiam, /(owse/io/t/. — clientes, for the relations between client and patron at Eome, see L.'s Rom. Hist. ; here the word is ap- plied to the retainers of the Helvetian chief. — obaeratos, debtors. — per eos se eripuit, hij means of them he rescued himself; for the force of per, see 248. Obs. 1. — incitata, incensed. — jiis suum exsequi, to enforce {lit. follow out) their authoriti/. 5. nihilominus, lit. the less by nothing, i.e. nevertheless. — Syx. conor, trij, attempt; molior (moles), undertake a difficult icork ; nitor (lit. lean upon), strive. — Sry. aedificium is a general word for buildings of all kind ; domus, the house as the residence and home of the family ; aedes (pi.) also means a dwelling-house, composed of several apartments.— incendo, accendo, inflammo, all mean to set onflre; incendo,//om within ; accendo, from a single point, as to light a lamp ; inflammo, to put into a blaze, either from within or without; succendo, set on flrefrom beneath; cremo, destroi/ by burning. — ivivixa mensium (genitive), for three months. — quemque, each one ; jiibent, for the construction after jubeo, see 342. 1. (2). — quibus itineribus : the noun to which the relative refers is sometimes repeated, as in this case ; this repetition of the antece- dent is necessary when there are two nouns preceding, and it might be difficult to determine to which the relative referred; the relative clause is consecutive, and takes the subjunctive, see 322. — The pupil should be required to trace this route on the map. — alterum, the other (of the two). — locis, for the omission of the preposition, see 270. 2. c, — vadd transitur, is crossed by a ford. — All5br6gum. The Allobroges dwelt on the south side of Lake Geneva next to the Helvetii, where the Rhone flowed from the lake. — ad Helvetios pertinet, extends (across) to the Helvetii. The Helvetii occupied a greater part of what is now Switzerland. — diem dicunt, they appoint a day ; for the repeti- tion of the antecedent, see note above. — conveniant, are to assemble : the indicative means that they are assembling; what does this relative clause denote, purpose or result ? — Describe the Rhone. — matiirat, hastened, the historical present ; what is the object of maturat ? — ab urbe (270. 2, Obs. 2), from the city, i.e. Rome. Caesar had obtained I)reviously to the expiration of his consulship (b.c. 59) the provinces Cisalpine Gaul and lUyricum with three legions for five years ; after- wards Transalpine Gaul was added with another legion. He set out from the city as proconsul in the spring of b.c. 58. — Galliam ulterio- rem. Farther Gaul, i.e. Gaul beyond the Alps, or Transalpine Gaul. 6. certi5res facti sunt, were informed, — Syn, Jegatus, an ambassa- 410 FIRST STErS IN LATIN. do7-, a lieutenant; orator, one who pleads a cause, an envoy, an orator ; rhetor, one who gives lessons in rhetoric, a rhetorician. — qni dicerent, ^o sai/, lit. ivho should sa^, a relative clause denoting purpose. — sibi esse in anim5, that it was their intention, lit. that it was to them in mind : what is the subject of the verb esse? What is the object of dicerent ? — sine ull5 maleficio, ivithout (doing) a»y harm. The Helvetii had two ways by which they could go from home, one through the narrow pass between Mount Jura and the banks of the Rhone ; the other by tlie fords of the Rlione, which led directly into the Province. In order to prevent the Helvetii from taking the latter route, Cassar drew a line of fortifications on tlie southern side of the river, from Lake Geneva to the Jura mountains, a distance of about eighteen miles. To accomplish this work, Caisar had the 10th legion = 5000, and about 5000 or 6000 new levies = 10,000 or 11,000 infantry. — negat se posse, he sai/s he cannot ; nego is generally used in pref- erence to dice non. — iina is emphatic, one 07)1 y. — ut impetrarent, that, he being the intercessor, theij might obtain (their request). — plurimum poterat, ?«rs able to accomplish a great deal (Rule 27). — Simicus, friendli/. — in matrimonium diixerat, had married ; when speaking of a man taking a wife, ducere (ux5rem) was used, i.e. he leads her to his house; of a woman taking a husband, niibere was used, lit. nubere se viro, to veil herself for a husband, — an allusion to the veil worn during the marriage ceremony. — itaque, therefore ; itaque means and so. — What is the object of impetrat ? 7. in Italiam, iiito Italy, i.e. into Cisalpine Gaul. — duas legiones conscribit: the lltli and 12th, and the three (the 7th, 8th, and 9th) legions in winter-quarters at Aquileia, in Illyria; one legion (the 10th) was already on tlie Rhone = six in all = about 25,000 men. Tlie AUo- broges and Vocontii were both in the province. —jam, at this time, i.e. while Caesar was absent collecting troops. — Angustias, the narroiv pass between the Jura and the Rhone. — Svx. popiilor, to railage (by pillage and fire); vasto, to lay ivaste ; depopiilor, utterly to ravage. — Aedwl Ambarri, the yEdui near the Arar (or Saone). — rogatum, to ask, see 266. — depopiilatis, tlie use of the participle of the deponent verb in a passive sense, see 279. a ; the way led through the Pas-de-UEcluse. THE FORTIFICATIONS FKOMLLAKK GENEVA TO THE JUKA MT. NOTES. 411 — sese .... non facile .... prohibere, that they with difficultij could ward off, etc. — se . . . . recipiunt, betake themselves. — non exspectandum (esse) sib! statuit, he thought he ought not to wait. 8. flumen est Arar, there is a river (called) Arar; now the Saone. It unites with the Khone at the city of Lugdunuin {Li/ons), about seventy miles from Lake Geneva. — quod agrees with fliimen (Ilule 5). — incre- dibili .... possit, ivith incredible smoothness of current, so that it cannot be determined bi/ the eijes in ivhat direction it flows; lenitate, smoothness, con- trasted not only with tlie Rhone, but with the rapidity of tlie rivers in Italy. — possit, 322. — ratibus et lintribus junctis, the ablative abso- lute to supply the place of the perfect active participle ; lintribus, small boats; these were boats made of logs hollowed out. — transibant, were now crossin;/ ; note the force of the imperf. — Helvetios transduxisse, that the Helvetians had, etc. In Xapoleon's Caesar, this place of crossing the Saone is said to have been at Chalons sur Saone; according to Goler, near Lyons, between Trevoux and Villefranche. — citra fliimen, on this side of the river, i.e. on the east side. — de tertia vigilia, just at the beginning of the third icatch. The Komans divided the night into four watches (the first beginning at sunset), each of tliree hours; the third watch began at midnight and extended (it now being the month of June) to 2 o'clock a.m. — aggressus has the sense of a perfect active participle, the verb being deponent. — How does concidit differ from concidit? — is pagus, this canton, in the neigliborhood of Ziirich. — appellabatur, from appello, name, also to speak to ; voce, call, summon ; nomino, name, in the sense of appointing or electing; cito, quote. — L. Cassium, this defeat was in n.c. 107. — consiilem, see L.'s Rom. Hist., p. 50. — sub jugum. It was considered the lowest degree of military disgrace for the Roman soldiers to be obliged to pass under tlie yoke. The yoke was formed by placing two spears upright in the ground, and fastening a third across the top of the other two ; under this the con- quered army must pass in token of subjugation. — ea . . . . persolvit, icas the first to suffer punishment ; princeps is equivalent to prima. 9. consequi, to overtake. — in Arare, over and upon, i.e. a floating bridge. — faciendum, 286. — Why is ejus used, not suo ? — legates, in diplomatic language, an ambassador or envoy ; in military affairs, lieu- tenant, i.e. the commander of one or several legions ; the tribunes still ranked as formerly, among the higher officers of the legion, but their duties were in Cassar's time limited more to the management of the inter- nal affairs of the legion. Neither did a tribune take the place of a legatus in case the latter was disabled, but a quaestor, who also outranked the tribunes. — cujus . , , , fuit, the ohief of which embassy was Divico. — bello 412 riKST STEPS IN LATIN. Cassiand, in the icar with Cassius, i.e. in B.C. 107, wlien the consul Cas- sius was the commander. — egit, argue, discourse. — Syx. dux, a leader, a general ; dnctor, a guide ; imperator, a commander or emperor. — pa- cem and bello are placed prominently to mark them as significant words. This section is an indirect discourse (348), depending on di- cens {saijing) implied in egit. Compare the form of direct discourse under 348. For the use of the future indicative or present subjunctive, see 326. 2, and 355 ff. — reminisceretur .... incommodi, he should remember both the old overthroir (lit. inconvenience) ; this refers to tlie defeat of Cassius. — ne comniitteret, he should not bring it to pass ; com- mittere ut often forms a periplirase like efficere (see 342. 3) ; ne com- mlseris (350), in direct discourse. 10. his, sc. legatis. — sib! .... dari, that the less doubt is given to him ; minus, subj. ace. of dari, following respondit. — teneret memoria, held in memorg ; remembered. — veteris contiimeliae, former insult. — factiiros, sc. Helvetids. — Aeduis is governed by satisfaciant. — ipsis (see 354. 4): the dative follows the compound, intulerint, 203.— satisfaciant, />«y drnnagcs. The direct discourse (355) would be: mih! minus dubitationis datur, quod eas res, quas commemoravistis, memoria teneo. SI veteris contiiraeliae oblivisci volo, num possum recentium injiiriarum memoriam deponere ? Tamen si obsides a vdbis mih! dabuntur (dentur), uti ea, quae pollicemini, vos esse factiiros intelligam, et si Aeduis de injiiriis quas ipsis sociisque eorum intii- listis, item si Allobrogibus satisfacietis, vdbis cum pacem faciam. — h5c responso dato = cum hoc responsum dedisset. — idem, neut. ; the masculine is idem. — qui videant : what does this relative clause denote, cause, purpose, etc. (360)? — videant is plur., because equitatum im- I)lies equites as the subject. — qui, these, i.e. equites. — alieno 16c5, in an unfavorable place, lit. a place, better for the other partg ; for the; omission of the preposition, 270. 2. c. — audacius, still more boldlg. — ac . . . . prae- sentia, and deemed it sufficient for the present. — iisi, in such a icag. — novissimum agmen, the part of the army nearest to those pursuing, i.e. the ?•('(»•. — nostrum primum, our front, or van; su[)ply agmen. -non . . . . interesset, not more than five or six miles {each dag) inter veiled ; tlie distributives quinis and senis imply that this was the constant differ- ence between the armies. 11. interim, give the syns. — cottidie, everg dag, is used of things that are daily repeated ; in singiilos dies, dailg, of those things which from day to day are making advance. — quod .... flagitare, kept demanding .... which they had promised in the name of the state; flagitare, the historical infinitive, equivalent to flagitabat ; poUiciti essent refers to the prom- NOTES. 413 ise as made by tlie tT^aIuI, see 364. — frigora, tlie cold cUm*r. — non mode followed by sed (etiam), not onlj/ .... but also, places the emphasis on the last; when both sentences are negative, non mode, [non] .... sed ne quidem ( — sed etiam non), the second non in the first clause is omitted if both sentences have the same verb, and the verb is in the second clause ; if both clauses have their own verb, as in the text, both negatives are used ; ne . . . . quidem, ne and quidem enclose the emphatic word. -- pabuli, green fodder. — suppetebat, teas at. hand. — autem, besides. — quod .... subvexerat, jcldcli he had brought up the river Arar in vessels. — diem .... Aedui, the yEdui kept putting him (Caesar) off from day to day, — diicere, historical infinitive. —conferri . . . . dicere, they kept saying that it was collecting, was coming in, icas close by ; the subject of con- ferri, comportari, and adesse is friimentum; they all depend on dicere. — se diiitius dCLci, tliat he was being put off too long. — friimentum. The llonuin soldier received no meal or bread as his monthly allowance, but merely tlie grain, which he had to pound and make into bread for him- self ; 4 modii of wheat (about 50 pounds) were given monthly to each foot-soldier (nearly a bushel, if we reckon a bushel at 60 pounds); 12 modii of wheat and 42 modii of barley to each horseman. Sometimes the lloman soldier carried a supply of food for 17 days (Ammian.: Hist. Libr. 17), and occasionally sufficient for a longer time ; a supply for only 5 days is mentioned as an exception (Plut. Sert. 13). Regularly the price of the corn was deducted from the soldier's pay, which for legionaries — 225 denarii = about $37 to -$40. A modius of corn cost less than a denarius (see L.'s Rom. Ilist., p. 374). — qui .... praeerat, who held the chief magistracy ; qui refers to Liscus. — Why is ab ex- pressed before iisi why is sublevetur in the subjunctive? why present subjunctive'? — Svx. demum, a< length (not till now); denique, yina//y (in short) ; tandem, at last (after many efforts) ; postremo, lastly (last in order). — prdponit, set forth, introduces the indirect discourse (348) which follows, — plurimum valeat, is very powerful ; valeat, what would this be in the direct discourse ? — seditiosa .... oratione, by seditious and wicked speeches. — ne friimentum conferant, from contributing the corn ; conferant is plural on account of the collective noun multitiido preceding. — nostra in the direct discourse would be changed to vestra. — a se, by himself; a me in the direct discourse. — quin etiam .... enuntiaverit, moreover our plans are disclosed; quin etiam, naij even. — intellegere .... fecerit, he was well aware ivith how great peril he did that. — SvN. intellego, understand by means of reflection ; sentio, per- 414 FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. ceive by the senses or by the mind. — quamdiu potuerit, as long as he had been able. — Syn. taceo, idler no word, be silent, pass over in silence ; sileo, make no noise, be still. 12. Dumnorigem .... designari, that Dumnorix was meant. Dumno- rix led the national party among his people, as opposed to Rome, wliile his brother Divitiacus favored an alliance with the Romans. — pluribus praesentibus (abl. abs.), lit. more being j'resent, or in the presence of so manij. — eas res jactari, that these matters should be agitated: jactari, a frequentative from jaeio. — Give the syns. of concilium. — reperit esse vera, lie finds (that these statements) tilings are true. — ipsum .... audacia, that it icas Dumnorix himself, a man of the greatest boldness. — cupidum novarum rerum, desirous of a revolution. — compliires .... habere, that he has farmed for manij years all the revenues of the JEdui at a loiv price. — SvN'. vectigal, titJies (decuma), on agricidtural produce ; tribiitum, an extraordinary property tax, levied in the tribes, and paid back wlien the exigency was passed ; scriptura, rent of the pasture lands; portorium, harbor duties originally, afterwards applied to tolls paid on transit of mercliandise. The revenues among the Romans were not collected directly, but were farmed out (or leased) by the censors to contractors called publicani, who paid a fixed sum into the treasury, and collected the taxes for tlieir own use ; they so abused their privileges, that the name iniblican became a term of reproach. — illo licente, he bidding, i.e. ichen lie bid. — audeat, see 348. — rem familiarem, private }>roperty. Dumnorix is the subject of favere and odisse. — Syn. potentia, power as an attribute of a person : potestas, power as of a magistrate, ;joM'er to do anything; ditto (see dicio), power, jurisdiction. — siquid .... Romania, if anything then should happen to the Romans, i.e. in case of any disaster. — obtinendi, see 264. 1. — imperio, under the government, ablative of time and cause. — de regno, of royal poioer. 13. certissimae res, the most undoubted facts. — animadverteret, should punish him. —nnvira. repugnabat, one consideration opposed. — summum .... stiidium, the very great attachment towards the Roman people ; the clause quod, etc., is in apposition with unam, and might be intro- duced by namely. — voluntatem, good will, as a friend ; stiidiura, attach- ment, zeal, ?ls a partisan. — ejus refers to Dumnorix. — verebatur, give the synonymes. — itaque .... conaretur, therefore before he attempted any- thing : for the subjunctive, see 337. — commonefacit, reminds, lit. warns. — ipso (354. 4) praesente, ivhen he himself ivas present, i.e. Diviaticus.— de eo, concerning him, i.e. Dumnorix, — apud se, before himself, i.e. Caesar. — ne quid .... statueret, that he shoidd not determine anything too severe against his brother. — scire .... vera, (saying) that he knew those NOTES. 415 things ivere true. — Syn. populus, the people, originally only tlio patri- cians, came to include the plebeians ; plebs, common people, opposed to the patricians ; vulgus, the {(jnorant multitude. — quod .... accidisset, because if anything too severe should be done to him bg Coisar ; accidisset represents, in indirect discourse, the fut. perf. indie, (acciderit) by sequence of tenses (see 326. 2).— eum locum, that place — so high a place. — apud eum, i.e. Caesar. — futiirum, it would liappen, see 349. — animi, the affections. — fratrem adhibet, he has his brother present. 14. exploratoribus : Svx. explorator, a scout; speculator, a spy; emissarius, a secret agent. — Tolliai. passuum = 4854 ft., a little less than an English mile = 5280 ft. — qualis .... adscensus, what kind of an ascent it teas by a circuitous roitte, i.e. at various parts of its circuit. — qui cognoscerent, misit, he sent (persons) to ascertain; qui cognoscerent denotes the purpose (see 324) ; the antecedent of qui is the object of misit: what is the object of cognoscerent ? — facilem, sc. adscensum. — de quarta vigilia = al)out 2 o'clock a.m. — eodem itinera, along the same route. — quo, by irhich (271). 15. prima liice, at daybreak-. — summus mons, the summit of the moun- tain.— i^se, and ichen he himself, sc. cum. — passibus (see 215. 1); a Roman pace was the distance from where the heel is raised to where it is set down again = 5 Rom. ft. = nearly 4.G Eng. ft. ; a Rom, mile = 4840 ft., an Eng. mile = 5280 ft. — neque .... Labieni, and (when) neither his own approach nor that of Labienus. — equo admissd, ivith his horse at full s/)ee(/. — voluerit, in indirect discourse (348). — se is the subject of cogndvisse. — ex ... . insignibus, by the Gallic ar?ns and ornaments ; insignibus, lit. devices on the shields and //e/me/s. — subdiicit, draws off. — ut ei praeceptum, as he had been instructed. What is the subject of praeceptum erat ? — exspectabat, continued to look out: imperfect, see 317. 3. — multo denique die, at last, ichen much of the day had passed. — -pro viso, as seen ; lit. for .seen, — "What is the object of renuntiasse ? — quo consuerat intervall5, with the usual distance; intervallo is the antecedent of quo. IG, diei is gen. after the adverb postridie. — metiri, to measure out. — rei .... existimavit, he thought he must look out for supplies, sc. sibi esse. — Bibracte = Mont Bcuvray. — seu .... existimarent, because they be- lieved that the Bomans, being terrified, ivere departing ; the subjunctives existimarent and confiderent: sometimes the subjunctive is used after quod, quia, with verbs of saying, thinking, etc., although the idea ex- pressed is that of the writer, and the reason assigned is his own. Roby explains this subjunctive in 1746, and rems. ; Vanic^ek, 527, anm. 2. Cajsar's army was composed of four veteran legions, and two legions 416 FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. newly levied; viz.: the 10th, wliicli he liad found in the Province, the old legions (7th, 8th, and Otli) which he had brought from Aquileia, and the two new ones (11th and 12th) raised in Cisalpine Gaul = very nearly 3(3,000 legionaries. To these must be added 4000 cavalry, raised in the Province and among the JEdui, and nearly 20,000 auxiliaries, making a total of 59,000 or 00,000. Tliis estimate does not include the men assigned to other duties, as working the machines, taking care of the baggage, the army servants, etc. In the engagement Ca?sar did not employ the two legions newly raised. Tlie Helvetians had about 79,000. For the time denoted by the infinitive, see 349; discedere here is tlie imperfect infinitive. 17. poatquam id animum advertit, after tliat Ccesar perceives this ; id is governed by ad in composition. — in colle medio, on the middle of the hill, i.e. midwajj up the /////. — triplicem aciem: the triple line of battle was formed with the foiir veteran legions, viz. : the 7th, 8th, 9th, and 10th. The arrangement was such that one legion (probably the 10th) formed the riglit wing, two legions the centre, and one legion the left wing; the legions were in tlie same line. This is of importance, because the triple line of Caesar is commonly misunderstood; if the legion is considered as tlie tactical unit, tliere is but one line ; but the cohorts of each legion were arranged in three lines. The celebrated triplex acie3 is, then, the order of battle, according to which the ten cohorts, of which each legion was made up, were stationed in three lines, one behind the other; ordinarily four being in the front line, three in the second, and three in the third, a suitable space being left between the cohorts. The arrangement of the cohorts of the legion when in line of battle will be understood from the following diagram: — J In Cffisar's line of battle, then, the four legions formed a front line of sixteen cohorts, a second line of twelve, and a third line of twelve.— sarcinas, eacli soldier's Ixujgafje ; in this sense used only in the plural : each soldier carried besides his personal baggage and trenching tools NOTES. 417 provisions for a nuniher of days. The various articles of baj^ga^c were bound into bundles (sarcinae), and then l:)ound to the upper end of a pole (furca) 5 or feet long. On tlie niarcli this pole was carried on the shoulder, and rested, during a halt, on tlie ground. The poles were an invention made by Marius, and were hence called by the sol- diers " Marius' mules " (mull Mariani). The weight carried by a soldier, aside from his food and extra clothing, was 35 to 50 pounds ; the entire weight (including provisions and clothing) was, as stated above, not far from 00 to 75 pounds, sarcinae means originally both baggage and packs, or burdens ; it was used sometimes to signify the packs carried by the soldiers {Bel. Gal. II. 17), sometimes for the heavy bag- gage {Bel. Civ. I. 81) ; here it is used for both. The impedimenta were the heavy baggage, tents, engines of war, etc., which were carried in wagons or on horses. — eum, sc. 15cum. — in siiperiore acie, in the upper line [the rear), i.e. those on the top of the hill, the two legions of newly levied soldiers. — confertissima acie, in very close arraij. — phalange facta : the phalanx consisted of a large body of men in solid mass, witli their shields raised above their heads, locked and overlapped so as to form a close fence. ■ — sub .... successerunt, they advanced close up to our front line. — primum .... equis, first his own horse. — pilis : the pilum Avas a shaft of wood, a little more than six feet long, with a sharp iron head projecting about nine inches ; fragments of pila have been found at Alise. — perfregerunt, broke through, see perfringo. — ea disjecta, when this (phalanx) ivas broken apart. 18. Gallis .... impedimento, it icas a great hindrance to the Gauls. — pluribus eorum scutis, several of their shields, see synonymes of scii- tuHL — cum .... inflexisset, ivhen the iron (head) became bent. Their shields were locked over their heads, and overlapped one another ; a javelin would pierce through more than one, and bind them together. Movements of their left hands, in which the shield was held, were thus impeded. — pedem referre, tofcdl back. — e5, thither. — capt5 monte, the mountain being reached. — succedentibus nostris, our men coming close up below. — agmen .... claudebant, closed the enemy's line of march. — ex itinere, on the march. — circumvenere, perfect tense, third person, plural. — Romani .... intulerunt, the Bomans turned, and advanced in two divisions : the Romans indicated the movements of their armies by terms derived from the signum, the standard : thus signa convertere, to turn ; signa conferre, to engage ; signa inferre, to advance ; it was the third line that wheeled about and advanced, while the first and second opposed the Helvetians who had been driven back. — ut . . . . resiste- ret, that it might resist those (who had been) conquered and driven back: 418 FIKST STEPS IX LATIN. for the subjunctive, see 321. — ancipiti proelio, in a double conflict (lit. two-headed). 19, alter! .... alteri, the one }>cirtij .... llie other parli/, referring to the Helvetians, and to the Boii and Tulingi respectively. — ab hora sep- tima, from one o'clock in the afternoon ; tlie day began at sunrise, and ended at sunset; the end of the sixth hour was noon. — pugnatum sit, the battle rarjed, see 313. 1. — aversum hostem, an enemy turned about. — ad multam noctem, till late at niflil. — pro vallo, for a rampart ; the vallum Avas composed of the dirt heaped up (agger) from the ditch (fossa) against tlie stakes (valli). — eaque tota nocte, during that xohole ni(jht, 196. — n5stri, sc. milites. — potuissent, see 338. — litteras, a letter. — ne .... re jiivarent (ordering), that iheij, etc. 20, qui cum, irhen thfij. — suppliciter lociiti, sjieal-ine/ suppliantlij. — qu5 turn, essent, irhere thei/ then irere ; the subjunctive is used to indi- cate that Cajsar did not know where they were. — paruerunt, the;/ obeyed. — qui perfiigissent, icltlcli had fled to these, i.e. vhatever, etc., see 361. — ut .... facerent, lit, tliat they .should suj>})ly them iritlt corn, i.e. to •'iitj>]>ly, etc. — ipsos, them, emphatic, used to distinguish the Helvetii from the Allobrogibus (354. 4). 21, tabiilae, list.s. — litteris Graecis confectae, made out in Greek letters, wliich had been learned in Greek Massilia. — ratio confecta erat, an account had been kept. — qui numerus .... edrum, what number of them. — possent, see 364, — summa, the sum. The following brilliant description of the battle near Bibracte is from Mommsen's Ilistor}^ of Borne (vol. iv. p. 253, Eng. ed.): "The two armies posted tliemselvcs on two parallel chains of hills ; the Celts began the engagement, broke the Boman cavalry Avhich advanced into the plain, and ran onward against the Boman legions posted on the slope of the hill, but were there obliged to give way before Caesar's veterans. When the Bomans, tliereupou following up their advantage, descended in their turn to the i)lain, the Celts again advanced against them, and a reserved Celtic corps took them at the same time in the flank. The reserve of the Boman attacking column was pushed forward against the latter; it forced it away from the main l)ody upon the bag- gage and the barricade of wagons, wliere it was destroyed. The bulk of the Helvetic host was at length brought to give way, and compelled to beat a retreat in an easterly direction, — the opposite of that towards which their expedition led them. This day had frustrated the scheme of the Helvetii to establish for themselves new settlements on the Atlantic Ocean, and handed them over to the pleasure of the victor; but it had lieen a hot day also for the conquerors." INDEX. The references are to pages ; figures or letters in parentheses \o paragraphs. Tlie index is very full, and will aid pupils greatly if they are tauglit to coiisuit it. J A, sound of, 28; a or ab (prep.), 04, 171; after peto or postiilo, with abl. of agent after passives, 130, 211; with gerund, 229. Ablative, 48, 1)7 ; rule of position, 98 ; Qixdmg-dhus, 50; in -c, 92; -i, 92; in -/ of adjec., 109, 111; in -e of ad- jectives, 109, 111; in -iihus, 141; after prepositions, 172. Syntax, 97, 130; of crime, 294; duration of time, 182; uses of, 209; abl. proper, 209; instrumental abl., 209; loca- tive abl., 209; gen. rule for abl. proper, 210; compounds with prep., 210; abl. of cause, 210; or with prep., 210; instrumental abl.: (1) means or instrument, 131, 287; (2) measure, 287; (3) difference, 281, 288; (4) distance, 182, 288; (5) price, 283, 288; (G) abl. of time with adverbs, 288; (7) material, 288; (8) manner, 289, accompani- ment, 289; (10) quality and charac- teristic, 289; of agent, 130, 211; of time, 1G7; abl. absolute, 222; mean- ing of, 222; of quality, 2(59; speci- fication, 278; of difference, 281. Ablative absolute, 222. -ilhits, in dative plural of 1st declen- sion, 56. abutor, 287. ac, see atque. Accent, rules of, 33. accldit, synopsis of, 291. Accompaniment, abl. of, with cum, 152. Accusative, 55; in -im, 88, 92; pi., in -is, 88; after prepositions, 04; as objects, 55; with verbs of remembering, etc., 294; with impers., 294; with juro, etc., 1G4. Syntax, 55; as direct object, 55; with verbs of feeling, 294; after compounds, 173; with impers., 294; cognate, 373; two accusatives, 158; passive use, with verbs of asking, 150; adverbial, 373; dura- tion of time and extent of space, 107, 182; with per, 183; as subject of infinitive, 217; in indirect dis- course, ;>43; in substantive clauses, 334 f . ; of gerundive, 220 f . Accusing and acquitting, verbs of, 294. ac si, 321. Active voice, 8, 39-119; how to con- vert to passive, 130. ad. Go, 173; meaning near, 237; in comps., 173. Adjectives, 5; defined, GO; posi- tion, 07 ; like nouns, (57 ; inflection of, GO; of 1st and 2d decls., 00, 08; model for parsing, (57 ; of 3d decl., 105, 107; of two or three termina- tions, lOS; of one termination, 108; the inflection of comparatives. 111 ; cases of, used as adverbs, 123; model for parsing, 312; gen. with, 114; dat. with, 114; adj. clauses, 297; adjectives in -quvs, 114. Comparison, 110, 111; construc- tion with comparatives, 112; com- parison by adverbs, 110; rule of agreement, 00; rule of gender, 00, 105; position, 07; demonstratives as adj., 199; neut. adjs. as nouns, 420 FIRST stp:ps in latin. ()7; superlatives, 110 ff. ; with gen., 115; with dat., Ill; model for parsing, (i7. adjuro with ace, IM. Adverbs, defined, 12, 119; classified, 13, 122, 124; illustrated, 12; how formed, 122, 124; compared, 12, 124; position of, 119; numeral, 119, ISO; derived from adjectives, 123; classification of, of place, of time, etc., 13, 124; model for parsing, 125. Adverbial accusative, 37;*). Adverbial clauses, 297. Adverbial phrases, 12, 115, 119. Adversative conjunctions, 175. adversus (prep.), 173. Agent, abl. of, with a or ab, l.'M), 211; dat. of, 25S; agreement, 53; of subject, 53; of predicate, 54. aio, infl. of, 28G. -al, -ar, as neut. endings, .S7 ff. ailquis, infl, of, 207. alius, infl. of, 177. Alphabet, 23; vowels and diph- thongs, 23; consonants, 23, 24, 25; classification of, 24; see table, 25. alter, infl, of, 177. Alternative questions, 3.38, 32 ; answer to, 33', adjective ending, 108; adjective in, with gen,, 115. B, sound of, 28. -ham, tense-ending, 44 ff. Bargaining, verbs of, 28:5. belli, locative, 2;55. -ho, verb-ending, 44 ff. bdnus, declined, 0(5. bos, decl,, 96, C = G, sound of, 28; guttural, 25; for qu. cS,nis, gender of, 95; gen, pi, of, 89. Cardinal numbers, 180. ca,ro, gender of, i)5. Cases, 4, 47, 48; general view of, 49; genitive, 48; dative, 48; accusa- tive, 48; vocative, 48; ablative, 48; independent, 4. Case, defined, 4; oblique cases, 48, Case-endings, table of, 51, 58, 78, 88, 89. Case-suffix, 40. causa, used with gen,, 210, Causal clauses, 323, 324; cum and qui, causal, 324. Causal conjunctions, 17G, 32.3. celo, with two accus., 15G, Characteristic, clause of, 40, 130, 1.33, 135, 138, 144, 151, 152; charac- teristic vowel, 40 ff.; sometimes dropped, 135, 139, Cities, construction of, 2.^54 ff. civis, abl, sing, of, 92. INDKX. 421 Clausks, deliuod, liJO, 248; syntax of dependeut, 'J'.XJ ff. ; subordiMate, 17G; couditioual, 314 If. ; linal, 306 ff.; consecutive, 30!) ff.; com- parative, 320; concessive, 321; causal, 323; temporal, 325 ff.; substantive, 333 ff. ; interrogative, 337 ff.; as subject, object, or appo- sitive, 325; relative, 355 ff.; inter- mediate, 358; in ind. disc, 347; Avith causal conjunctions, 17(>. Cognate accusative, 373. Command, expression of, 178, 248; in indirect discourse, 352; mild command, 248. Common gender, 94. Comparative clauses, 320 if. ; se- quence of tenses, 321; in indirect disc, 321. Comparative conjunctions, 170, 320. Comparative suftix, 111. Comparatives, inflection of, 106, 111 ; ways of, 110; stem of, 111; mean- ing of, 110, 113, 118 ; connective vowel, 130; construction of, 112. Comparison of adjectives, 5, 62, 110, 114; ways of, 5, 110; irregular, 116; defective, 116; of adverbs, 114 ; construction of, 112 ; with quam, 112; model for parsing, 112. Complement with copula, 18, 100. Complementary infinitive, 217, 218. Completed action, tenses of, 121. Complex sentences, 189. Compound sentences, 189. Compound words, inflection of, %, 142; verbs with dative, 17;!. Concessive conjunctions, 176, 321; their use, 321, 323. Concessive clauses, 322; in indirect disc, 347. Condemning, verbs of, 2i)4. conicio, written also conjicio, 169. Conditional conjunctions, 176. Conditional clauses, 314; classified, 314 fl". ; in ind. disc, 350. Conditional particles, 314. Conditions, nature of, 314, 315; simple present and past, 314 f.. 317; in ind. disc, ^350; future, 314 f., 317; in ind. disc, 350; un- real present and past, 314 ff., 317 ; in ind. disc, 350; verbs of duty, etc., 358; in ind. disc, 350; disguised, 319; omitted, /(/.; in indirect dis- course, 350 ff.; exception in se- quence of tenses, 302, 316. confide, 210. Conjugation, in English, 7; in Latin, 39, 40, etc.; characteristic vowel, 40; the four conjunctions, 41, 71; 1st conj., 41, etc., 12(5; 2d conj,, 129, 132, 135, 137; 3d conj., 144, 14(5, 151; 4th conj., I(i5 ff . ; how trans- lated, 263 ; formation of, 42, 71 ; paradigms of four conjs., 259 ff. Conjunctions, defined, 13; illustrated, 13; classification of, 13, 175; model for parsing, 176. Connecting vowel (so called), 130. Connectives, relative used as, 202. Consecutive clause, 309; exception in sequence of tenses, 309; character- istic and result, 311; used after what, 310, 311. Consecutive conjunctions, 176. Consonants, classification of, 2(i; changes of, 2(5 ; double, 23 ; u a consonant, 24. Consonant stems, 78, 161; 3d decl., 77; of adjec, 107. constare, with abl., 288. constat, synoj)sis of, 291. contentus, with abl., 210. Continued action, see Tenses. Contraction of verbs, 72. Coordinate clauses, 298. Coordinate conjunctions, 175. Copula, 18, 99. Copulative conjunctions, 175. cor, gender of, 95. Countries, names of, gender. Crime, gen. of, 294. crinis, gender of, 95. cum, prep., 172; used with abl. of pronouns, 172; appended to abl. of pers. pron., 194 ; in temporal clauses, 329; cum inversum, 329; causal, 422 FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. 324, 330; concessive, 322, 330; not used with certain abls., 289; itera- tive use, 320; historical, 330; trans- hition of, 331. Dative endings, 51, 58, 78; in -dhus, 5(3 ; in -1, 11 ; dat. of 4th decl., in -uhus, 41. Syntax, 1(54; indirect object, ()2, l(i4; used for the locative, 235; with intransitive verbs, 1()4; with transitive verbs, (52; uses of, with verbs meaning favor, etc., 1()4; with compounds of ad, ante, etc., 173 ; with compounds of sS.tis, b§ne, etc., 164; of possession, 242; agency with gerundive, 25S; of in- terest, l(i9; of purpose or end, 170; of advantage and disadvantage, 170; of apparent agent, 170; dat. reference, 170; dat. instead of gen., 170; with adjectives, 114; of litness, 114; with impers. verbs, 2i)4. dea, inflection of, 5(3. Declarative sentence, 74. Declension, 4(5; of nouns, 49; how distinguished, 49; general rules for, 50; termination, 49; 1st decl., 51, 52; 2d decl., 57-(53; stem, 57; case-endings, 58; nom. and voc. endings wanting in nouns in -cr, 59; neut. nouns, (32; 3d decl., 77-93; 4th decl., 140; 5th decl., 142. Defective nouns, 83, 90, 142. Defective verbs, 7, 285. delecto, with ace, 1(54. Deliberative subjunctive, 248, 348. Definite, see Perfect. Definite price, 283. Demonstrative pronouns, use of, 199; used as personal pron., 198; as adjec. pron., 15)9; positiou of, 199; voc. wanting, 199; in ind. disc, 349. dens, gender of, 95. Dental stems, 80. Deponent verbs, 250; conjugation of , 251, 253; participles of, 252; abl. with, 253; synopsis of, 253 f. deus, inflection of, 59; stem of, 59. die, imper. of, 179. dies, intlection of, 142: gender of, 142. difflcllis, comparison of, 11(5. diffido, with abl., 210. dig-nus, with abl., 288; with relative clause, 312. Diphthongs, 23; sound of, 28; quan- tity of, 31. Direct discourse, 342. Direct object, 55. Direct question, 338. Disjunctive conjunctions, 175. dissimllis, infi. of., 10(5; with gen. or dat., 114, 115; compar. of, 11(3. Distance, ace. or abl., 182 f. Distributive numerals, 180; how used with pi. nouns with a sing, mean- ing, 182. do, infin. of, 5(3; irregular, 74. -5, I, sound of, 27 ; i and j interchange- able, 24; i suppx-essed in conlcio, etc.. Kill; how i)ronounced between two vowels, 28(5; of i)erfect, 71. -/, abl. in, 87, ff., 92. -/, stems of nouns, 91; of adjectives, 105, 106. -Ibam = -iehani (4th conj.), 221. idem, infl., 200; derivation of, 201; use, 201. Moneus, compared, 114; Idoneus qui, 312. -ix's in 5th decl., 142 f. igltur, meaning of, 175. ignis, gender of, 95; abl. sing., 92. -il in gen. of 2d decl., 58; contracted into -I, 58. Illative conju>xtions, 175. ille, inflection of, 197; use, 19f). -hn, ace. ending in 3d decl., 88, 92. Imperative mode, 9, 75, 177, 178; personal endings, 74, 178; negative with, 178; tenses of, 178; first per- son of, 179, 241 ; passive, 186. Imperative sentences, 74; imply- ing condition, 319; in ind. disc, 352. Imperfect tb:nse, formation, 44, 130, 145, 152, 158; uses, 96, 37, 299, 121. Impersonal verbs, 291; synopsis, 7, 291; classification, 292; passive of intrans., 293. Syntax, 294 f.; consec. clauses after impers.,311; ace. with infin. or quod with in- die, 335; subst. clauses after im- pers., 335. in, constr. of, 172; with expressions of time, 167. Incomplete action, tenses of, 121. Increment of nouns, 77. Indeclinable nouns, 47; rule of gen- der, 47. Indefinite pronouns, 207; indefinite second person, 32S. Indicative mode, meaning and use of, 8. indig-nus, 28S; relative clause witli, 312. Indirect dis(."ourse, .342; applied to what, 359; used after wliat verbs, 3)48; informal, .'360; infin. in, .344; tenses in, ;>46; reflex, pronouns in, ,348; conditional sentences in, .■)50; imperative sentences, 352; in- terrogative sentences, id. Indirect object, 62. Indirect questions, 336, 337 f. Indo-European, 21. Infinitive clause, 3;34. Infinitive verb, .347. Infinitive mode, 9, 213; meaning, !); use, 213; formation, 40, 126, 129, 144, 157, 214; present infin., 40, 12(i, 129, 144, 157; infins. of active voice, 213; of pass, voice, 214; personal endings, 214. Syntax, 213; classification of uses of, 213; when in ind. disc, .346; subj. must as a rule be expressed, 346; as subject, 217; object, 217; comple- ment, 217; with subj. ace, 216; as meaning purpose, 308 ; perfect, INDEX. 425 345; future with f6re ut, 345; rep- resents in iud. disc, M5; alter me- mlni, 345; subject of, must in ind. disc, be expressed, 34(). Inflection, delin. of, 4(1; termina- tion of, 4G If. informal ind. disc, 3<)0; after what verbs, 3(J0. inquam, 2H(); position of, 2(S(). Inseparable prepositions, 174 (7). Intensive pronouns, 200; in ind. disc, 349. inter se, 195. interest,- constr. of, 295. Interjections, defined, 14, 74. Intermediate clauses, syntax of, 358; merely explanatory, 358 f. Interrogative conjunctions, 17(5; in ind. disc, 351. Interrogative pronouns, 205; particles, 205, 337; implying con- dition, 319. Interrogative word, 74; omitted, 337, 338, 339. Intransitive verbs, 6, Hi); dat. with, 1()4. -io, noun-ending, 95. -io, verb-ending of 3d conj., 1G8. ipse, 200; inti. of , 2(X) ; use of, 200, 329; compared with se, 200, 349. iri, in f ut. infin. passive, 232. is, inflection of, 200; use of, 200 f. -is, ace. pi. ending, 88; gen. ending, 79; pi. cases of 2d decl., 158, 82. islands, names of, loc use, 234. iste, 197; use of , 197 f. It, as sign of impersonals, 292. Itaque, accent, see Vocab. Iter, inrt. of, 96; gender of. 95. -IKS, gen. sing, ending, 177; quantity, 177. J, semi-vowel, 23; sound of, 28; = 1, 24; interchangeable with j, 24. jubeo, with ace, 164; construction of, 334. Jupplter or Jupiter, infl. of, 96. jus, gender of, 99. jusjurandum, infl. of, 96. juvSnis, how compared, 117; gen. pi. of, 89. juvo, with ace, 164. K, sound of, 28. Knowing, constr. w. verbs of, 331. Knowledge, adjs. of, w. gen., 115. L, sound of, 28. Labial stems (3d decl.}, 77; gender of, 94. laedo, with ace, 164. Latin language, 21 ; origin and rela- tionship, 21. Laws of eui>hony, 149. Letters, classification of, 24 f. llbet, impers., 292. licet, synopsis of, 291. LiN(iUAL STEMS, 77; gender of, 83. I^iQuiDS, see Lingual. Literature, periods of Latin, 22. Locative case, 48; locative abla- tive, 209, 234; locative forms, 9(5, 14_1, 188. loco, without prep., 235. locus, declen.of, 70; meaning in pL, 70. M, sound of, 28; verb-ending, lost, 43. mag-ni, genitive of value, 283. Making, verbs of, 159. malo, inflection of, 273. Material, abl. of, 288. materfamllias, infl. of, 1X5. maxlme, as sign of superl., 110. May, potential, how expressed, 240. Cleans, abl. of, 287. Measure, abl. of, 287. medius (middle part of), 415. memlni, infl. of, 285; with pres. infln., 345. mSridies, infl. of, 142; gender of, 142. -met, enclitic, 193. meus (voc mi) , 195. mille, as adj. or as noun, 181; how infl., 181. milltiae, locative, 235. minoris, gen. of value, 283. 426 FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. misereor, with gen., 21)5. miseret, 292; with ace. and gen., 2i)5. Modern languages derived from Latin, 22. Modes, S, 239. Mode-signs, 24:5, 208 ; modes in de- pendent clauses, 297, 30{j I'f.; intin., 213 ff., 344. Modification, of words, 3; of subject or predicate, 190. modo, dum modo, with subj. in conditions, 310(;f.; con- secutive clauses, 'MH; with verbs of fearing, 307. -nc, enclitic, in questions, 75, 70, 244. | Necessity, verbs of, 257. necne, 339. n§fas, with supine, 232. Negative particle, 7(); as exi)ressing no in answer to questions, ."40. nego, better than dico . . . non, 410. nemo, use of, 105. ne non, ;5;35. neque, 175. nequis, 207. ne . . . quidem, 412. nescio an, ,340. nescio quis, 340. Neutkk nouns, (52 ff., 94 f. -»/ lengthens preceding vowel, 32. ni, nisi, 314 ff. nolo, 273 f. Nominative, 4, 53; sign of, 77; form- ation from stem, 1st decl., 46, 51; 2d decl., 57, 59-03; 3d decl., 77, 78, 81, 82, 83, 85, 87; summary of rules for forming the nom. of 3d decl., 87; 4th decl., 140; 5th decl., 142 f. Syntax: as subject, 53; pred. after esse, 100. non, in answer, 340. non dublto quin, 323. nonne, 75, 17<5. non quia, non quod, non quin, 324. noster, 194; in ind. disc, 349. nostri, as obj. gen., 193. nostrum, as partitive gen., 193. Nouns, defined, 1, 2; classified, 3; Latin nouns, 4(5; infl.,40; modifica- tion of, 47; paradigms, 51 ff. ; rule of agreement, (50 ff . ; model for pars- ing, 54; abstract and collective, 397; of 1st decl., 49 ff.; 2d decl., 57 ff.; 3d decl., 77ft".; classification of, 77, 93 ; 4th decl., 140 ; 5th decl., 142. -ns as adjective ending, 107 f.; gen. pi. of, 92; lengthens preceding vowel, 32. nullus, inrtec. of, 177; used for gen. and abl. of nemo, 1(55. num, force of, 74, 20(5; in indirect questions, 339. Number, 2, 3, 10, 47; of nouns, id.; of adjectives, (50; of verbs, 10, 41 ff. Numerals, 180; classification of, 180. O, sound of, 27; quantity of o final, 80. O in amo = a and o and m. O si, with subj. of wish, 248. Object defined, 4, 55; direct, 55; in- direct, 02; model for parsing the •> objective, 50. Object clauses, 307. Oblique cases, 48; oblique disc, 342, 3.(50. odi, 285. offendo, with ace, 1(34. oportet, 292. Optative subjunctive, 248. opus, tcork, infl. of, 81. opus and usus, need, with abl., 288. Ordtio obliqua, see Indirect Dis- course. INDEX. 427 Order of words, 90. Ordinal numbers, 180. ordo, gender of, i)5. -OS for -us, in nom, sing, of 2d decl., 57. Origin of Latin language, 21 ; how related, 21; where spoken, 21. P, sound of, 28. paenitet, constr, of, 205. Palatal consonants, 25. panis, gen. pi. of, 80; gender of, 95. Participial clauses, 219 ; implying condition, 319. Participal stem, 38, 137. Participles, defined, 11; illustrated, 11, 38, 219; classified, 11, 219; infi. of, 38, 108, 109, 128; abl. in -/, 109; nom. and gen. pi., 109; how trans- lated, 219, 223; in abl. abs., 222; voices of, 220; of trans, verb, 220; of intrans. verbs, 220; formation of, 220; infl. of, 221; directions for parsing, 223. Syntax, 219; time of, 221; of deponent verbs, 250; perf. pass., with passive meaning, 253; perf., 128; perf. act,, how supplied, 224; perf. partic, denoting paren- tage, etc., 210; agreement of, 220; gerundive, 220, 22(3 ff.; neut. of the perf. in enumerating the principal parts of a verb, 155. Particles, defined, 74; interroga- tive and negative, 74. Syntax of, 248, 30(5 ff.;^ conditional, 315; tem- poral, 325. Parts of speech defined, 1-14. Passive voice, 8, 119; analysis of, 120; origin, 121; pass, sign, 121. Passive sign, 120, 121 ff. pelgaus, neut., see Vocab. Penalty, gen. of, 294, penes, 172. Penult, 30; quantity of, 33, per, 64, 172; with expressions of time, 167, 183; for agent, 210; in composition, 174 (7). Perfect stem, 10, 71; analysis, 72; synopsis of rules for forming, 161; in composition, 118. Pp:rfect tense, 71 ; perfect def- inite, 37, 303 ; personal endings, 71, 133, 147, 161; used as i)resent, 286; origin of, 134; v suppressed in perfect, 72; stem, how formed, 71, 133, 147, 165; of subj. in sequence of tenses, 301 f . " Periphrastic con.jugations, 256; act., 257; pass,, 257; pass., how used, 294; meaning and formation of, 257 ; periijhrastic forms in sub- ordinate clauses, 303. Person, defined, 10; the first i^erson is the first in order, 195. Personal endings, 42, 71, 120, 121, 123, 166; meaning of, 42, etc., 121; how formed, 1(56. Personal pronouns, 5, 193 f.; re- tained in ind. disc, 349. Persons of verbs, 3, 10. Petitio obllqiia, 360. peto, with a or ab, 1.56. Phonetic changes, 25, 26, 154. Phrases, 13, 173; defined, 191; adj. and adverb, 65; prepositional, 172, piget, constr, of, 295, Place, to which, 187,234; relations of, require prep., 237 ; locative uses, 235. Plenty, verbs of, 288. Pleonasm, 4 (c). Pluperfect, 10, 72; analysis of, 72. Plural, of nouns, 3, 47, 51 fT.; of verbs, 10, 36, 39 ff. pluris, gen. of value, 283. pias, inflection of, 106, 111. posco, constr, of, l.~)(), poenitet, see paenitet, pons, gender of, 95. posse, 270 f . Possessive pronouns, 194; in ind. disc, 349. Position, rules of, 90, possum, infl. of, 271; how formed, 271. postea, 326, postquam, 326. postulo, constr. with a or ab, 156. Potential mode, 9; how expressed, 240, 42^ FIRST STKVS IN LATIN. Potential subjunctive, 'J48, 3215. Pronouns, 5; defined and classified, 5, 172; infl. of, 19;)-207; personal and reflexive, 193, 194; rule for position of, liHi; i^ossessive, 194; demonstrative, 197; determinative, 200; relative, 202; interrog., 205; indefinite, 207; pronouns strength- ened by -nu't, -fc, etc., 193; redu- plicative forms, 194; exs. illustrat- ing use of, 195; rule for position, m-). Syntax of, 203. I'RONUNCIATION, modes of, 27; Ro- man, 27, 28; phonetic, 27; English, 34. prosum, infl. of, 272. Protasis, 304. Proviso, 318. pudet, 295. pug-natur, imp3rs., synopsis of , 291. Purpose, 300; ways of expressing, 308. Qu, sound of, 28. quaero (quaeso), irreg. verb, 286; constr. of, 150. quam, with superl., 118, 275; with compar., 112, 275 ; comparative par- ticles, 320. quamllbet, 207; infl. of, see Vocab. quamsi, 320, 321. quamvis, 207; infl. of, see Vocab. quanti, gen. of value, 283. Quantity, general rules of, 31, 32, 80; of final vowels, 32,80; of other syllables, see Preface. quksi, 320, 321. -ie, enclitic, 70; as conj., 175. queo, irreg. verb, 282, 28(5. (:iUESTiONS, 74, 200; single or double, 20(5; fact questions, 337; direct, 338; indirect, 339; rhetorical, 337; dependent and independent, 339; alternative, see double, 338; in in- direct disc, 351 f. qui, relative, infl. of, 202; agreement of, 203; position of, 203; model for parsing, 203; general relative, 202; indefinite, 207, 209 ; expressing purpose, 30(5, 35(5; concessive, 322; with nescio, .340; strengthened by ut, ut pote, etc., .357. quicumque (quicunque), 212. quia, 17(i, .323. quidam, 205; indef., 207. quidem, 412. quin, in consecutive clauses, 310; witli verbs of hindering, 310; non quin, 310. quis, infl. of, 205; distinction from qui in use, 205, 207; compounds of, 205; indef. 207; with nescio, 340.' quisnam, 205. quispiam, 207. quisquam, 207. quisquis, 202. quivis, 217. quo, in final clauses, 310. quoad, .320. quod, conj., 176; clauses with, 323, 324,335; as ace. of specification, 373. quod si, see Vocab. quomlnus, 308 ff.; with verbs of hindering, 308. quoniam, 323 f. INDEX. 429 (Quotation, ;542. quum, see cum. R, sound of, 2S; substitute for s, 82. Reading Latin at sight, directions for, ill. Reciprocal {each other), how ex- pressed, 194 f. recorder, 2<)4. Reduplication, 148; of pronouns, 194; in perf., 148, 1(51; lost, 148; in compounds, 148; reduplicated forms of pronouns, 194. refert, with gen., 295. Reflexive pronouns, 194 f ., 348. Syn- tax of, 194, 348; in indirect dis- course, 349; two reflexives, ;349. Reflexive verbs, 121 ; reflex, stem, 121. Regular verbs, 7, 54 ft'. Relative clauses, 5, 202, 203; how introduced, 355; force of, 355, 297 f., 355. Syntax, 203; concessive, 322, 355; inind.disc, 357 f.; conditional, 355; characteristic and result, 35G; as causal, 355; temporal, 355. Relative pronouns, inflection of, 202; how trans, at beginning of a sentence, 203. Syntax, 203; rule of agreement, 202, 355; position, 203; how translated at the begin- ning of a sentence, 203 ; model for parsing, 203; omitted in Eng. but not in Latin, 203; as as a rel., 203. respubllca, infl. of, 142. Remembering, constr. with verbs of, 2()4. remlniscor, 294. res, infl. of, 142. Restrictive relative, 356. Result, clause of, 312, 35G. Rhetorical questions, 337; in ind. disc, 352. rog-o, constr. of, 156. Roman pronunciation, 27, 28. Roman Avriters, 22. Romance languages, origin of, 22. Rules of syntax, 306 ff.; general rules of, 371. rus. constr. of. 234. S, sound of, 28; as sign of nomina- tive, 77-93; s of the nom. and voc. is sometimes dropped, 82; s be- comes r, 82 ; s unites with c or g", 85. Second conjugation, formation of, 129 ff. Second declension, nouns of, 57 ff. sed, 175. Semi-deponents, 255. Semi-vowels, 24. senex, infl. of, 96; compar. of, 117. Sentence, parts, 17; analysis of, 18, 191 ; classification of, 74, 189 ff., 296, 298; simple, 189; complex, 189, 190; compound, 189, 190; model for analyzing, 191. Separation, abl. of, 209. Sequence of tenses, 302; rules for applying, 304; in indirect discourse, 302, 346, 347 f.; after participles, 347; after infinitives, etc., 347. si, conj., 176; conditional, 314 ff., concessive, 322. slmul ac, 326. Signs of quantity, 23; of accents, 33. slmllis, infl. of, 106; with gen. or dat., 114, 115; compar. of, 116. siquis, 207. soleo, 255. solus, infl. of, 177; with rel. clause, 312. sonants, 25. Space, ace. of, 182. Specification, abl. of, 278; ace. of, 373. See Cognate Accusative. Stem, defined, 40; noun-stem, 46; how formed, 46; 1st decl. or a- stems, 49-52; 2d decl., 57; 3d decl., 77; 4th decl., 140; 5th decl., 142; verb-stems, 40; terminations of, 40; stem-characteristic, 40; 1st conj., 40; 2d conj., 130, 137; 3d conj., 144; 4th conj., 157; labial, dental, lingual, guttural, ?<-stems, of verbs, 148, 161 ; present verb-stems, 40, 126; perfect, 71, 126, 133, 146, 147; participial, 126, 137, 163, 165; stems classified and defined, 259 f . ; stem- words, 82. 430 FIKST STpyPS IX LATIN. sub, 17'2. Subject, defined, 17, 53, 55; omitted, 42; plur. subj., 150; in indir. disc, 346; with verbs of promising, etc., 345. Subjunctive mode, 9; paradigm of, 243, 245 f . ; has no f nt., how sup- plied, 250, 239; uses of, 239; analy- sis of, 243; personal endings, 243; tenses of, 240, 303; tenses wanting, 303; how translated, 240, 241, 244; classification of uses, 250; conces- sive, 248; hortatorj^, 248; optative, 248; dubitative, 248; potential, 248; negative with, 244, 248; four con- jugations of, 245; pass, of, 24(): in independent sentences, 248; in de- pendent clauses, 248; in rel. clauses, 248, 355 ff. ; in intermediate clauses, 248, 358; in indirect discourse, 248, 243 ff.; in indirect questions, 339; how translated in indirect questions, 'MO. Subordinate clauses, 190, 248, 291 ff.; how classified, 297 f.; in in- direct disc, 342. Subordinate conjunctions, 170. Substantive clauses, defined and classified, 33:!; infinitive, 3.'I4; of purpose, 334; of result, ;5.')5; with quod, 3)35; ind. question, 'SM; gen- der of, 334. subter, 172. Suffix, defined, 40; of novxus, 4(5; of verbs, 42 ff. sum, inflection of, 101, 102. summus, compar. of, 117; meaning of, 118, 415. sunt qui, 35(5. super, 172. Superlative, defined, 5; of adjec, different ways of forming, 5; infl. of. 111; how trans., 113^ 118; of adverbs, 124. Supine, noun of 4th decl., 38, 231 ; meaning and use of, 231; not com- mon, 232; not one of the principal parts of verbs, 232; government of, 232; dependence of, 232; uses of. 231; its government, 232; sup. in -V7n not common. Stem, 231; how formed, 231. Surds, 25. Syllabication, 29. Syllables, rules for division of, 29, 34. Synopsis of tenses, 73; of impersonal verbSj 91. Syntax, 17, 53 ff . See each case and mode in index. T, sound of, 28. taedet, constr. of, 295, tanquatn, 321. tanquam si, 321 f. tanti, gen. of price, 283. Teaching, verbs of, 150. Temporal conj.,170; classification of, 325; clauses: (1) antecedent action, 320; (2) contemporaneous action, 320; (3) subsequent action, 327. Tenses, 9; liow classified, 9, 37; meaning, 9, 41, etc.; analysis of, 44; classification of, 299; denoting incomplete, complete, or indefinite action, 299; primary and second- ary, 300; endings, 260 ff.; forma- tion of, 260 ff. Syntax, 9f., 299, 30(>ff.; classification, 299; present, 299; imperf., 9f., 299; future, 9 f., 299; perfect, 9 f., 299; pluperfect, 9f., 299; future perfect, 9 f ., 2i)9; sequence of, .300 ft".; of infin., S44. Tense-signs, 45 ff., 74, 121, 145, 243, 268. Terminations, 46; of infl., 46, 51 ff.; of nouns, 51 ff.; of verbs, 40, 42 ff. terra marique, 235, 236. That, uses of, 33(5; 306 ff. Third con JUGATiON,verbs of, 144 ff. ; formation of, 144 ff,; infl., 144-155; verbs in -io, 168. Third Declension, nouns of, 77 ff. ; rules of gender, 47, 51, 57, 94, 95. Though, see Although. Threatening, infin. with, 345. Time and place, construction of, 167, 182, 188, 234 ff. Time, when, 167; how long, 182. INDEX. 431 totus, 177. Towns, names of, gender of, 47; construction with or without prep- osition, 234 ff. trans, prep., 172; comps. of, with ace, ."74. Transitive vei'hs, 7, 110. Translation of subjunctive, 241. tres, infl. of, 181. turris, abl. sing, of, 92. -tiis, noun-ending, 95. U, sound of, 27; a consonant, 24; interchanged with v, 24. "iibi, in temporal clauses, 320; ubl primum, 320. -vhas, case-ending in 4th decl., 141. ^udo, noun-ending, 95. ullus, infl. of, 177. unus, infl. of, 181; in pi., 181; with pi. nouns of a sing, meaning, 181. iiniis qui, with subj., 350. unusquisque, 207. -nrvs, future participle, 220; in in- direct discourse, .'>4(). usus, need, with abl., 288. ut, as concess., 322; comparative, 320; as final, 30t>; of result, ,309; ut ne, 30G; with subst. clauses, 333, ,3.')4; omission after, 3.37. ut, v'lien, .325, 320; ut primum, 320. ater, infl. of, 177. uterque, infl. of, 177. uti, iitlnam, with subj. of wish, 248; uti, comparative particle, 320. Utor, etc., with abl., 287; as transi- tive, 228. utrum, 3.39; utrum . . . an, 338. ut si, .320, 321. V, sound of, 28; originally not dis- tinguished from u, 28; interchange- able with u, 24; syncopated in perf., 72, 101. Value, gen. of, 283. vel, 175. velut, .320, 321. velut si, .320, 321. Verb-stem, 40. Verb, as complete sentence, 43. Verbs, defined, 0; modification, (5, .3(5, .38 ; formation, 39 ff . ; regular, 7; deponent, 253 f.; semi-deponent, 255; irregular, 7, 273; defective, 285; impersonal, 291; rule of agree- ment, 54. Syntax of, 54 ff. Verbs of perceiving, declaring, etc., 217, 3.34, 348. Verbal endings, 42, 44 ff., 130. Verbals in -ax, 115; in -hilis, 115. vero, in answers, 340. vescor, with abl., 253. vesperi, 00, see Vocab. veto, with ace. and infin., 3,34, vetus, infl. of, 109; compar., 110. -cl, in perf., 71, 134. The i is part of the stem, 71. vis, infl. of, 90. Vocative, 48, 58 ff., 182; case, 15; like nom., .59, 02, 77; except in 2d decl., .57, 77; in -l of nouns in -his, 58. Syntax, 75. Voice, 8, 119, 137; act. and pass., 8, 119; formula for converting act. to pass., 13(). volo, infl. of, 273. Vowels, 24; quality of, 24; open, close, medial, 24; vowel stems, 78, 101; characteristic vowel of the stem droj)ped, 1.39; vowel of the stem lengthened, Kil; characteris- tic vowel changed, 130, 1,33, 1.35, 138, 144, 145, 147, 151, 154, 158, 100, 103, 179; characteristic vowel of stem shortened, 72. W, not in Latin alphabet, 23; = v, 24. AVant, verbs of, 288. Way by which, abl., 237. Wish, expression of, 248. Winds, gend. of names of, 47. Wishing, constr. with verbs, ,3,34. X, sound of, 28; lengthens preceding syllable, 32. Y, sound of, 27. Year, how expressed, 182, 222. VOCABIILAEY. L — LATIN AND ENGLISH. ABBREVIATIONS. a active. abl ahUitire. ace accusative. adj adjective. adv adverb. conj conjunction. comp comparative. dat dative. def defective. dep deponent. dim diminuti^ie. F feminine. gen genitive. iraperat imperative. irapers impersonal. indoel indeclinable. inch inchoative. intr intransitive. inteij interjection. in- irregular. M masculine. N neuter. nuin numeral. part participle. perf perfect. pi 2^itiral. p.p perfect part. prep preposition. pron pronoun. tr transitive. The quantity of vowels that are long or short by position, of diphthongs, and of short final syllables, is not given. The references in the Vocabulary are to the sections of this book. a, ^b, prep, with abl. (a only be- fore consonants ; ab before vowels and consonants), fru77i, hy ; ab sinistra parte, on the left side. ab-do, -dere, -didi, -ditum, to put away, hide, conceal. ab-duco, -ducere, -duxi, -duc- tum, to lead from, ivithdraiv. ab-eo, -ire, -ivi, or ii, -itum (298. Obs. 3), to go away, depart. ab-icio (pronounced ab-jicio), -icgre, -jeci, -jectum (ab ; jScio), to throw away, abandon. abs-ens, -entis, part, (ab-sum), absent. ab-solvo, -solvere, -solvi, -s61u- tum, to unbind, acquit. abs-que, prep, with abl., luithout, but for, except. abs-tineo, -tinere, -tinui, -ten- turn (tgneo), to hold (one's self) off, abstain, refrain, spare. ab-sum, -esse, -fui, irr., to be absent, to be wanting. ac, see at-que. Acca Larentia, -ae, f., the wife of the shepherd Faustulus, who reared Romulus and Remus. ac-cedo, -cedgre, -cessi, -ces- sum (ad ; cedo), to go toivards, approach. ac-cido, -cidgre, -cidi, no p.p. (ad ; cSdo), to fall upon, hap- pen, (w. dat. pers.) befall. FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. ac-cido, -cidere, -cidi, -cisum (ad; caedo), to cut into. ac-cipio, -cipSre, -cepi, -ceptum (ad ; cSpio), to take, accept. ac-ciTiro, -currere, -ciicurri and -curri, no p.p., to run to. ac-cuso, -are, -avi, -atum (ad ; causa), to accuse, Jdame. acer, -cris, -ere, adj., sharp, keen, eager, active. ^cies, -ei, f., ayi edge : a line of hattle, Jierceness. acriter, adv. (acer), sharply, keenly, fiercely. Scus, -us, V. (acuo), (a thing sliarpened), a needle, pin. Sd, prep, ^vitl) ace, to, toicards, near to, at, besides. ad-Smo, -are, -avi, -atum, to hegin to lore. ad-do, -d§re, -didi, -ditum, to add. Join, annex to. ad-duco, -Sre, -xi, -ctum, t(f lead to, bring to (of persons). adf, see aff. Sd-hibeo, -ere, -ui, -itum (ad; hSbeo), to have iri ; to sum- mon. ad-huc, adv. (ad; hie), to this place, thus far, besides, as yet. Sd-ipiscor, -ipisci, -eptus sum, dep. (ad; Spiscor, 282), to ob- tain, win. ad-jiivo, -jiivare, -juvi, -jutum, to help, assist. ad-ministro, -are, -avi, -atum, to 7nanage, administer. admira-tio, -onis, f. (admiror), an admiring, admiration, won- der, surj)risc. ad-miror, -ari, -atus sum, dep. (282), to admire, wonder at. ad-mitto, -mittgre, -misl, -mis- sum, to let go, allow ; admisso equo, at full gallop. ad-m6neo, -ere, -ui, -itum, to ivarn, urge, admonisli. ad61e-sco, -61esc6re, -61evi, -ultum, inch. (adSleo), to grow up, groic, increase. ad-6perio, -Ire, -ui, -tum, to cover. S.d-6rior, -6rirl, -ortus sum, dep., to rise up against; to attack, assault, begin. Sd-6ro, -are, -avi, -atum, to tcor- ship, respect, entreat, beg. adp, see ads. ads, see ass. adspicio, see aspicio. Sdiilescens, -entis, part. (Sdii- lesco), young : as noun, c, a young man, a young icoman (from 15 to 30, and sometimes to 40 and later). ad-sum, adesse, affui (or adfui), to be near, be present, assist. adven-tus, -iis, m. (advgnio), a coming to, arriral. adversarius, -a,-um, adj. (adver- sus), turned toumrrls, fronting : as noun, m., «n opponent, enemy. adversus, prep. w. ace, opposite to, against, towards. adversus, -a, -um, part, (adver- to), turned towards, opposite; as noun, opponent. ad-verto, -6re, -ti sum, to turn to or toirards, to direct; Sni- mum advertere, to observe, attend to; Sminum advertere in aiiquem, to punish one. aedes, -is, f., a temple; pL, a house. aedific-ium, -ii, n. (aedifico), a building. aed-i-fico, -are, -avi, -atum (aedes ; facio), to build. Aedui, -orum, m., a tribe in Gaul between the Liger (modern Loire) and the Arar (Saone). Aeduus, -a, -um, an JEduan. aeger, -gra, -grum, adj., sick, disabled. aegre, adv. (aeger), feeble ; icith difficulty, scarcely. VOCABULARY. — I. aegrotus, a, -iim, adj. (aeger), sick-, ill. aer, -6ris, m. (ace. aera and aerem), the air, cloud, mist. aes, aeris, x., copper, money, icac/es ; aes Slienum, another's money, i.e. a debt. aes-tas, -atis, f., snmmer. aes-timo, -are, -avi, -atuni (aes), to estimate, value (304). aetas, -atis, f. (aevum), age (of old or young). af-f6ro, -ferre, -attiili, -allatum (ad; fero), to briny. af-ficio, -gre, -feci, -fectum (ad ; facio), to treat, affect, visit (with punishment, etc.). af -finis, -e, adj. (ad ; finis), hordering upon, adjacent to, kindred. affin-itas, -atis, f. (affinis), rela- tionship hy marriage, relation- ship, nearness. a-f6re, l"ut. inf. of absum, to he _ away, absent. Africa, -ae, f., Africa, especially the country near Carthage. Sger, -gri, m., a field, territory. agger, -Sris, m., a heap, mound, emhankment. ag-gr6dior, -gr^di, -gressus sum. dep. (ad ; gradior), to go to, approach, attack. ag-men, -inis, n. (Sgo), that which is led, i.e. army (on the march). a-gnosco, -noscere, -novi, -ni- tum (ad ; gnosco = nosco), to recognize, o/rn, acknowledge. agnus, -1, M., a lamh. Sgo, -ere, egi, actum, to drive ; to do ; agere cum, to treat tvith ; aggre de, talk over. agr-arius, -a, -um, adj. (S.ger), of fields ov public lands. agr-i-c61a, -ae, m. (Sger ; c61o), a cultivator of the land, a farmer. 5io, def. (305. 2), to speak, say. alacr-itas, -atis, v. (SlScer), live- liness, eagerness, alacrity. Alba, -ae, r., Alba (Longa), an ancient town of Latium, 20 miles S.E. of Kome, built by Ascauius, son of iFhieas. Alb-anus, -a, -um, adj. (Alba), of or belonging to Alba: Alban. albus, -a, -um, adj., white, fair. Alexander, -dri, m. (Defender of tnen), son of Philip and Olym- pia, surnamed " the Great," the founder of the Macedonian Empire (b.c. 850-323). Sli-enus, -a, -um, adj. (Slius), belonging to another jierson or thing : foreign, hostile; aes alie- num, debt. Sliquamdiu, adv. (Sliquis; diu), aivhile, for some time. Sliqu-ando, adv. (Sliquis), (of time past, future, or present), at some time, at last. aii-quantus, -a, -um, adj. (alius; quantus), some, considerable. Sli-quis (aliqui), -qua, -quid or -quod (alius; quis), pron. indef. (247), some one, some, any ; ^liquid, something. Sli-quot, indef. num. adj., indecl. (alius; quot), some, a few. alius, -a, -ud, adj., another, other (209) ; alius . . . alius, one . . . another. A116br6ges, -um, m., a Gallic people, bounded on the noi'th and west by the Rhodanus (Rhone), south by the Jsara (Isere), and extending east- ward to the Alps. aio, -gre, -ui, altum, to nourish, support, feed. Alpes, -ium, f., the Alps; the high mountain range between Ttalia, Gallia, and Plelvetia. alter, -tera, -tgrum, adj. (209), one of two, other, second; alter . . . alter, one . . . the other. FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. altitude, -dinis, f., heir/ht, depth. altus, -a, -um, part. (Slo), high, deep. alveus, -i, m. (alvus), a channel, trough, skiff. Ambarri, -orum, m. pL, a people of Gaul. amb-io, -ire, -Ivi or -ii, -Ttum (eo), to go about, canvass. ambi-tio, -onis, f. (ambio), a canvassing, ambition. ambo, -ae, -o, niiiii. adj., both. ambiilo, -are, -avi, -atum, to loalk. S.mic-itia, -ae, f. (BxalcM&), friend- ship. Sm-icus, -a, -um, adj. (^mo), loving, friendhj, kind. Sim-icus, -1, M., a friend. a-mitto, -niittgre, -mlsi, -mis- sum, to let go, lose, destroy. amnis. -is, m., a river (large, deep strea-ii). Smo, -are, -avi, -atum, to love. Smor, -oris, m. (amo), love. am-plector, -plecti, -plexus sum, dep., to ivind around, einbrac^^. amplius, comp. adv. (ample), more, longer, further. amplus, -a, -um, adj., gi^eat, ample, ^ spacious, f/rantl, large. Amulius, -ii, m., a king of Alba, brother ot" Xumitor, and great- uncle of Romulus. Sn, disjunctive inter, particle (34r5), irh ether, or. an-ceps, -cipitis, adj. (an; cSput), two-headed, doubtful, critical. angust-iae, -arum, v. (angustus), narrowness, a narrow pass, defle. angus-tus, -a, -um, adj. (ango), narrow, scantg. Sn-ima, -ae, f., air, breath, life. anim-adverto, -tSre, -ti, -sum (Animus; adverto), ^> turn the mind to, to attend to : Snimad- vertSre in aliquem, to jninish one. ^im-al, -alis, n. (anima), an animal (including man), living creature. an-imus, -i, :m., the soul, mind, dis- position, temper, thought. an-non, conj., or not (345). annii-lus, -i, m., ring. annus, -T, m., a year. anser, -eris, m., goose. antea, adv., before. ante-eo, -Ire, -Ivi or -ii, no p.p., N., to go before, precede, excel. ante-p6no, -Sre, -p6sul, -p6si- tum, to place before, prefer. ante . . . quam, conj., before that. ant-iquus, -a, -um, adj. (ante), former, ancient, old. Antonius, -il, m., Marcus Antoni- us, the distinguished triumvir, con([uered by Octavianus, at Actium, B.C. ')!. anxius, -a, -um, adj. (ango), tor- mented, anxious, trord)led. SpSrio, -Ire, -ul, -tum, to open, unclose, show, reve(d. Sper-tus, -a, -um, part. (Spgrio), ^ open. Apollonia, -ae, r., a town of Macedonia. Apollonius, -il, m., Apollonius, a celebrated rhetorician of Ivhodes. ap-pareo, -ere, -ui, -itum (ad; pareo), to I, gently, calmlf/. cliens, -entis, com. gen. (clueo), a client, retainer (one attached to a patron, and protected by him). coelum, see caelum, co-emo, -gmgre, -emi, -emptum (con; gmo), to purchase to- f/ethej; to bwj up. coepi, coeplsse, def. (305. 1), to he (fin, undertake. co-erceo, -ere, -ui, -itum (con; arceo), to enclose v^holly ; re- strain. co-gito, -are, -avi, -atum (con ; Sgito), to think, meditate. c6-gn6men, -inis, x. (con ; gno- men = nomen), a surname ; as Marcus (praenomen) Tullius (nomen) Cicero (cognomen), co-gnosco, -gnoscere, -gnovi, -gnitum, (con ; gncsco = nos- co), to find out : in perfect tenses, know. co-go, cogSre, coegi, coactum (con ; Sgo), to drive together, collect, force, compel. c6hors, -hortis, f., a cohort (a company of 000 soldiers). c6-hortor, -ari, -atus sum, dep. (con ; hortor), to exhort, ad- monish. col-lega, see con-lega. col-ligo, see con-ligo. collis, -is, M., high ground, a hill. col-16co, see con-loco. coll6qu-ium, see con-16quium. col-16quor, see con-16quor. c61o, c616re, c61ui, cultum, to till, cultivate, cherish ; to dwell. c6me3, -itis, com. gen. (con ; eo), a companion, associate. c6mitor, -ari, -atus sum, dep. (c6mes), to accompany, follow, attend. commea-tus, -us, m. (commeo), provisions, supplies. com-mgm6ro, -are, -avi, -atum (con ; m6m6ro), to call to mind, mention. com-mitto, -mittgre, -misi, -mis- sum (con ; mitto), to connect, join, commit. commSde, adv. (commSdus), duly, properly, icell. com-m6dus, -a, -um, adj . (con ; mSdus), /iV, serviceable. comniSn^-facio, -fScSre, -feci, -factum, to remind. com-m6veo, -mdvere, -movi, -motum (con; moveo), to move violently, shake; bellum commovere, to stir up loar. com-munis, -e, adj. (con; mu- nus), cojnmon, general. com-muto, -are, -avi, -atum (con ; muto), to exchange, alter. com-paro, -are, -avi, -atum (con; pare), to put together, prepare, collect, compare. com-pello, -pellSre, -piili, -pul- sum, to drive together, force. com-pleo, -plere, -plevi, -pletum (con; pleo), to fill full. complora-tio, -onis, f. (complo- ro), a loud iveeping, lamentation. com-plures, -a or -ia, adj., sev- eral together, very many. com-pono, -ponSre, -p8sui, -p6- situm (con ; pono), to put together or in order, to settle. com-porto, -are, -avi, -atum (con ; porto), to bring together, collect. com-prghendo, -Sre, -di, -sum (con ; prehendo), to catch hold of seize; to perceive. con-cedo, -cedSre, -cessi, -ces- sum, to grant, yield. con-cido, -cidSre, -cidi, -cisum (con ; caedo), to cut to pieces, destroy, kill. concilio, -are, -avi, -atum (con- cilium), to call together, make friendly, reconcile. 10 FIKST STEPS IN LATIN. con-ciliuni, -IT, x. (con ; c^lo, to call), a meeting, assejnblf/, council. con-clanio, -are, -avi, -atum, to cr]i out, to shout. con-ctipi-sco, -ciipiscere, -cxipi- vl or -cupii, -cupitum, inch. (con ; ciipio), to be cer>j de- sirous of, strive after. con-curro, -currgre, -curri or -ciicurri, -cursum, to run to- iietlier, assenthle, ff/ht. concur-sus, -us, m. (concurro), a concourse, assemb///, attack. con-demno, -are, avi, -atum (con; damno), to con/lriun. con-dic-io, -onis, f., terms, condi- tion. conditio, see condicio. con-do, -d6re, -didi, -ditum, to place Uxjether : to found, hide. con-duco, -duc6re, -duxi, -duc- tuni, to had together, collect ; to hire. confero, conferre, contiili, col- latum, to bring together, collect. confertus, -a, -um, part, (con- fercio, to cram together), close, crowded, crammed. confestim, adv. (confgro), im- niediatel II, s/xedilg. c6n-ficio, -ficSre, -f eci, -f ectum (con; fScio), to accomplish, finish. c6n-fido, -fidgre, -fisus sum (248. 2, Obs. .")), to trust confi- dent Iji, confide. c6n-firmo, -are, -avi, -atum, to uaike firm , establish, strengthen. c6n-fiteor, -fiteri, -fessus sum, (lej). (con; fSteor), to confess. c6n-f6dio, -f6d§re, -fodi, -fos- sum, to dig : to pierce through, stab. con-ftigio, -fiiggre, -fugi, no p.p., to flee for refuge c6n-gr6dior, -gredi, -gressus sum, dep. (con; gradior), to meet, encounter, contend, flght. con-gruo, -gru6re,-gruT, no p.p., to agree with, meet. con-icio (pronounced con-ji- cio), -ic6re, -jeci, -j ectum (con; jacio), to throu^ together, throw, hurl: in fiigam coni- cere, to put to flight. con-jungo. -ggre, -xi, -ctum, to join together, connect, unite. conjura-tio, -onis, f., a swear- ing together, conspiracy. conjura-tus, -i, m. (conjuro), a conspirator. con-juro, -are, -avi, -atum, to swear together, conspire. conjux (conjunx), -ligis, com. gen. (conjungo), a wife, hus- band, a betrothed. con-lega, -ae, m. (con; lego), associate, colleague. con-ligo, -are, -avi, -atum (con ; ligo), to bind together ; restrain. con-16co (coll-), -are, -avi, -atum, to jdace together; to settle in a jtlace ; to give a wo- man in marriage. con-16quium, -ii, x., « talking to- gether, conrersation, conference . con-16quor, -i, -ciitus, dep., con- rerse, hare :., de/ihenidon, advice, talent; consilio, on purpose, intentiomdh/. con-sisto, -sistgre, -stiti, -sti- tum, to stand still, make a stand. conspec-tus, -us, m. (conspi- cio), a. sifjht. con-spicio, -spicgre, -spexT, -spectum (con; specio), to look at, behold, observe. c6nspicor,-ari,-atus, dep., to see. conspira-tio, -onis, f. (conspi- I ro), an agreement, conspiracf/. c6nstan-tia, -ae, f. (constans), Jirniness, constancy/ . c6n-stituo, -uere, -ui, -utum (con; statuo), to place, make, determine. con-sto, -stare, -stiti, -stStum, to stand together ; consist of (308). consue-sco, -escSre, -evi, -etum, inch, (consueo), to be accus- tomed, be leant. consue-tudo, -inis, f. (consue- tus), custom, habit, usage, inter- course. consul, -iilis, m., a consul ; one of the two chief magistrates of Rome, chosen yearly. consiil-atus, -us, m. (consvil), the office of consul, consulship. constilo, -gre, -ui, -turn, to delib- erate, consider, advise, consult for : aiicui consiilgre, to con- sult for one's interest ; Sliquem consiilgre, to consult, take ad- vice of, one. consul-turn, -i, n. (consiilo), a decree, decision, resolve. con-tendo, -dgre, -di, -turn, to strive for, contend, fgld ; liasten. conten-tio, -onis, f. (contendo), a straining ; dispute. con-testor, -arl, -atus sum, dep., to call to v'ifness, invoke. continen-ter, adv. (continens), moderedelg ; continuously, with- out interruption. con-tineo, -tinere, -tinui, -ten- tum (con ; tgneo), to hold to- gether, to hold in, keep hack, re- strain, confine. con-tingo, -tingere, -tigi, -tac- tum (con; tango), to touch, border upon; impers., contin- git mill!, it is my lot (313). contin-uus, -a, -um, adj. (con- tineo), unbroken, continuous. contra, adv. and prep, with ace, over against, opposite to. con-traiio, -here, -xi, -ctum, to draw together, assemble, contract. contra-rius, -a, -um, adj. (con- tra), opposite, contrary, opjjosed, hostile. controvers-ia, -ae, f. (contro- versus), controversy, dispute. contiime-lia.-ae, f. (contiimeo), abuse, insult ; in pi., abusive epithets. con-venio, -venire, -veni, -ven- tum, to come together, assemble; con venire aliquem, to accost one : convgnit, impers., it is agreed upon (313). coiiven-tus, -us, m. (oonvgnio), a coming together ; an assembly. con-verto, -tere, -ti, -sum, to turn round, change, turn; conver- tere in fugam, to put to flight. con-v6co, -are, -avi, -atum, t(j call together, assemble, summon. co-6rior, -6riri, -ortus (con ; 6ri- or), dep., 3 and 4 conj., arise, break out (war). cophinus, -i, m., a basket. copia, -ae, f. (con ; ops), ahun^ 12 FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. dance ; pL, supplies, troops, loeaWi. copi-osus, -a, -um, adj. (copia), well supplied, abounding, plenti- ful, copious. c6quo,-<§re, coxi, coctum, to cool: coram, adv. and prep, with abl., openly; in the presence of, before. Cdrinthus, -i, f., Corinth, a city of Greece. Cornelia, -ae, f., the first wife of CtX'sar. cornu, -us, n., a horn ; the wing of an army. corpus, -6ris, n., a body, corpse. cottldi-anus or cotidi-anus -a, -um, Sid'}., daily. cottidie or cotidie (qu6t-), adv., daily. creber, -bra, -brum, adj., thick; close, frequent. credo, -dSre, -didi, -ditum (with dat. pers.), to trust ; (with ace. and inf.), believe. crSmo, -are, -avi, -atum, to hum. creo, -are, -avi, -atum, to bring forth, beget, create, elect. cre-sco,cresc6re, crevi, cretum (creo), to grow, grow up, in- crease. crinis, -is, yi., the hair. criicia-tus, -us, m. (criicio), tor- ture, tonwnt. crux, -licis, f., a cross, torture. ciibo, -are, -ui, -itum, to lie down, recline. culpa, -ae, f., crime, fault, failure. culpo, -are, -§.vi, -atum (culpa), to censure, blame. cum, prep, with abl., luith, together with, among. cum (quum), conj., ichen, since, although, though ; cum . . . tum, both . . . and. cunctor, -ari, -atus sum, dep., to linger, hesitate, delay. ciipi-de, adv. (ciipidus), eagerly, zealously, ardently. ctipid-itas, -atis, r. (ciipidus), a longing, desire, avarice. cup-idus, -a, -um, adj. (ciipio), eager, desirous, covetous, fond. ciipio, -6re, -ivi (or -ii), -itum, to long for a thing, covet; to favor (with dat.). cur, adv., ivhy? for what reason ? curia, -ae, f., a curia, one of the thirt}^ parts into which Romu- lus divided the Roman people ; the senate-house. cura, -ae, f. (quaero), trouble, care, attention, pains. Curiatius, -ii, m., an Alban fam- ily name. euro, -are, -avi, -atum (ctira), to care for ; manage, govern ; cure. curro, currgre, ciicurri, cursum, to run, hasten. currus, -us, m., a chariot. cur-sus, -lis, M. (curro), a run- ning, race, journey, voyage. custos, -odis, M., guard, loatch- man. damno, -are, -avi, -atum (dam- num — fine, damage), to con- demn, pass sentence on ; damna- re capitis, to condemn to death. damnum, -i, n., loss. de, prep, with abl. (the subject of thought), of; (of place), down from, from; (of time), during, at, concerning. dea, -ae, f. (dat. and abl. pi. de- abus), a goddess. de-beo, -bere, -bui, -bitum (de ; hSbeo), to owe, be bound, be due ; with an infinitive after it, translate it by ought, must, etc. ; impers., debet, it behooves, ought (313), decem, num. adj. indecl., ten. Decem-ber, -bris, m. (decem), the tenth month of the Roman VOCAliULAKY. 13 year, reckoned from IVIarcli ; Dccemher. dgcember, -bris, adj., of Decem- ber. de-certo, -are, -avi, -atum, to Jifjlit eaniesUi/, to contend for. dScet, dScere, dgcuit, no p.p., iiii}){'rs., it is becoming (313). dec-imus,-a,-um, ord. num. adj., the tenth. decre-tum, -i, n. (decerno), a decree, decision. dSc-us, -6ris n. (of. dgcet), that which is becoming, ornament. dedScus, -6ris, n., dishonor, dis- grace. dgd-itio, -onis, f. (de-datio), a giring one^s self up, a surrender. de-duco, -ducere, -duxi, -duc- tum, to lead away, luithdraiu ; mislead, seduce. de-fendo,-dgre,-di, -sum, to ward off, arert : to defend. de-fero, -ferre, -tiili, -latum, irr., to bear or bring from, so report; land (of ships) ; accuse, de-f gtiscor, -f gtisci, -f essus sum, dep., to become tired out ; to groiv faint. dein, see deinde. dein-ceps, adv. (dein; capio), one after the other, successively ; thereafter. deinde, adv., then, afterward, sec- ondly. de-icio (pronounced de-jicio), -icere, -jeci, -jectum (de ; jS.- cio), to throw! down, dislodge, deprive. delec-to, -are, -avi, -atum, in- tens. (delicio), to delight, please, amuse. deleo, -lere, -levi, -letum, to wipe Old, to abolish, destroy. de-ligo, -liggre, -legi, -lectum (de ; ISgo), to choose oid, select. de-ligo, -are, -avi, -atum, to bind together, bind up. de-minuo, -minuere, -minui, -minutum, to lessen, diminish.. de-mitto, -mittere, -misi, -mis- sum, to let or bring down, cast doicn, dismiss. demum, adv. (iiethermost), at last, at length, only; tum de- mum, then at length. den-arius, -a, -um, adj. (deni), consisting of or containing ten. den-arius, -ii, m., a Roman silver coin (containing originally ten asses), equal to about sixteen cents. de-nggo, -are, -avi, -atum, to de- ny, reject, refuse. deni, -ae, -a, num. distributive adj. (dScni), ten each, ten at a time, by tens, ten. denique, adv., at last, finally. dens, dentis, m., a tooth. de-pello, -pellgre, -piili, -pul- sum, to drive from, repel. de-p6no, -ponere, -p6sui, -p6si- tum, to lay aside : give up. depr6ca-tor, -oris. m. (deprg- cor), an interceder, intercessor. de-prlcor, -ari, -atus sum, dep., to beseech, pray against, depre- cate, beg. de-scendo, -dere, -di, -sum (de ; scando), to come down, de- scend. de-sero, -ere, -ui, -tum, to desert, abandon. de-signo, -are, -avi, -atum, to mark out, appoint, choose. de-silio, -silire, -silui, -sultum (de ; sSlio), to leap down. de-sisto, -sistgre, -stiti, -stitum, to leave off, give over, desist. de-spero, -are, -avi, -atum, to be hopeless, despair of. de-spondeo, -dere, -di, -sum, to promise, to betroth. de-stringo, -stringSre, -strinxi, -strictum, to unsheath, draw (the sword). 14 FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. de-suni, -esse, -fui, to he away : to fail, he icantinrj (293. 4). desiiper, adv. (de, from: super, ahove),from above. de-tggo, -tegere, -texi, -tectum, to uncover, expose; discover, reveal. de-terreo, -terrere, -terrui, -terri- tum, to frighten off', deter. de-tineo, -tinere, -tinui, -tentum (de; tgneo), to hold of, detain, hinder. de traho, -trahgre, -traxi, -trac- tum, to draw off, withdraw. detri-nientum, -i, x. (detero), Zo.s.s", damage, defeat. deus, -1, M. (176. 1), a god, divin- it//, deity. de-vinco, -vincere, -vici, -vic- tuni, to corapier, ran(juisli. de-vSro, -are, -avi, -atum, to gidp down, devour, consume. dexter, -tra, -trum, aiul -tSra, -terum, adj., to the rigid, on tin- right side, right. dextgra, -ae, v., the right hand. di^dema, -Stis, x., a royal hfiul- dress, diadem. die, iiii])erat. of dico, say. dico, dicgre, dixi, dictum, to speak, say, name, appoint, plead : dicitur, it is said. dicta-tor, -oris, m. (dicto), dic- tator ; a .sii[>reine magistrate, elected by tlie Komans only in seasons of emergency, when his power was absolute, and lasted for six months. dict-ito, -are, -avi, -atum, intens. (dicto), to say or ^>/e«r/ often, < I eel are. die-to, -are, -avi, -atum, intens. (dico), to say often, dictate, pre- scribe. dic-tum, -i, x. (dico), a saying, a ivord, command. dies, -ei, m. (175. 2), a day of 24 hours ; daylight; in dies, daily, with an idea of constant in- crease ; ad diem, at the ap- pointed time. dif-fgro, differre, distiili, dila- tum, to delay; ineaning to dif- fer ; no perf. nor p.p.; inter se differre. to differ from each other (295, Obs. 2). difficil-e, adv., 'with difficulty. dif-ficilis, -e, adj. (dis ; fScilis), hard, difficult. difficul-tas, -atis, f. (difficilis), difficulty, trouble. dif-f ido, -fidSre, -fisus sum, semi- dep. (dis; fido, 248. 2, Obs. 8), to mistrust, despair. dignus, -a, -um, adj., worthy of (307, Obs. 4) . diligens, -entis, part, (diligo), careful, attentive, diligent. diligen-tia, -ae, f., diligence, care- fulness. di-ligo, -liggre, -lexi, -lectum (dis; ISgo), to value highly, es- teem, lore. di-mico, -are, -avi or -ui, -atum, to fight, contend. dimidius, -a, -um, half: as a noun, dimidium, the half di-mitto, -mittere, -misi, -mis- sum, to send forth, dismiss, ad- journ. di-rigo, -riggre, -rexi, -rectum (dis ; rego), to direct, guide. dis, ditis, adj., see dives. dis-cedo, -cedere, -cessi, -ces- sum, to go apart, depart. disc-ipulus, -i, m. (disco), a learner, scholar, pupil. disco, discgre, didici, no p.p., to learn.. dis-icio (pronounced dis-jicio), -icere, -jeci, -jectum (dis; ji- cio), to tear asunder, scatter; break down. di-spergo, -sperggre, -spersi, -spersum (di ; spargo), to .'icat- ter about, disperse. dis-pliceo, -plicere, -plicui, -pli- VOCABULARY. 15 citum (dis; pl^ceo) (with dat.), to displease. dis-piito, -are, -avi, -atum, to discuss; arf/ue. dissens-io, -onis, f. (dissentio), difference of opinion, disagree- ment, quarrel. dissidium, -i, x., discord. dis-similis, -e, adj., unlike, dis- similar. ditior, ditissimus, conip. and superlative of dives. diu, adv. (dies), hy day, a long time, long ago; comp., diutius ; superlative, diutis- sime. div-es, -itis, adj., rich (the nom. and ace. of the neut. pi. do not occur ; comp., divitior or di- tior ; superlative, divitissimus or ditissimus). Divico, -onis, m., Divico, a Hel- vetian leader. di-vido, -vidgre, -visi, -visum, to separate, divide, distinguish. DivitiScus, -i, m., Divitiacus, an Auluan chief. do, dSre, dgdi, dStum (75. x. 8), to give ; finem dSre, to put an end. to. ddceo, -ere, -ui, -tum, to teach. doc-tus, -a, -um, part. (d6ceo), learned, versed, expjerienced . 'd61eo, -6re, -ui, -itum, to feel pain, lament, he sorry for. d61-or, -oris, m. (doleo), pain, anguish, anger. dolus, -i, M., guile, fraud, deceit. d6m-i-cil-ium, -ii, n. (d6mus), a habitation, dicelling, abode. d6mina-ti6, -onis, f. (dominor), 7'ule ; despotism. dSminus, -i, m. (d6mo), a mas- ter, lord, chief: owner. d6mo, -are, -ui, -itum, to subdue, vanquish, overcome, conquer. d6mus,-i or -us, f. (174), a house, home; dSmi, at home. donee, conj., as long as, while; until (334). dono, -are, -avi, -atum (donum), to give (with ace. of thing and dat. of person, or ace. of per- son and abl. of thing). donum, -i, x. (do), a gift, present. dormio, -ire, -ivi or -ii, -itum, to sleep, rest. Dubis, -is, M., a river of Gaul. diibita-tio, -onis, f. (diibito), a doubting, doubt, hesitation. diibito, -are, -avi, -atum, intens. (duo, thi'ough old form, dubo), to doubt, hesitate. dubius, -a, -um, adj. (duo), doubt- ful (145) ; as noun, diibium, -i, X., doubt. du-centi, -ae, -a, num. adj. (duo ; centum), two hwidred. duco, ducere, duxi, ductum, to lead; put off, consider, think; miirum diicere, to build a wall ; uxorem in matrimonium du- cere, to marry (a woman). dulcis, -e, adj., siceet, agreeable. dum, conj., ivhile, so long as, un- til, provided that (334)'. dum-m6do, conj., pi-ovided that, if only (327). DumnSrix, -igis, m., Dumnorix, an yEduan chief. duo, -ae, -o, num. adj., tico (213). du6-decim, num. adj., indecL, twelve. du6-de-viginti, num. adj., in- decl., two from twenty, eighteen. Dyrrachium, -ii, x., a sea-coast town of Illyria, formerly called Epidamnus (now Durazzo). E. e, ex, prep, with abl., out of from, of; ex itinSre, on the march; ex equo, on horseback. e-dico, -dicere, -dixi, -dictum, to declare, publish ; order. 16 FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. edo, edere or esse, edi, esum or essum (299), to eat. e-do, -dgre, -didi, -ditum, to give foi'th, publish, exhibit, display. e-duco, -ducSre, -duxT, -ductum, to lead forth, march out troops. ediico, -are, -avi, -atum, to bring up, rear, educate. ef-fero, efferre, extiili, elatum, irreg. (ex; fgro), to carry forth, to bri7ig forth, publish (295). ef-ficio, -ficSre, -feci, -fectum (ex; fS.cio), to inal-e out, bring to pass : to effect (323. 3). ef-fundo, -fundgre,-fudi, -fusum (ex ; fundo), to pour out or forth; to overflow; squander; effundSre se, to spread out. gge-nus. -a, -um, adj. (ggeo), in want, destitute, needy. ggo, mei, pron., /; i»l. nos (229). e-grSdior, -grSdi, -gressus sum, dep. (ex; grS.dior), to go out, go forth, leave. e-gr§g-ius, -a, -um, adj . (e ; grex), (out of the liei'd), excellent, re- markable. e-icio (pronounced e-jicio), -icg- re, -jeci, -jectum (e ; jScio), to cast, thrust or drive out, expel, banish ; eicSre se, to rush out. e-labor, -labi, -lapsus sum, dep., to slip a way, escape. e latus, -a, -um, part. (effSro), extdted, lofty, high. elggans, -ntis, adj., elegant. el6quent-ia, -ae, f. (elSquens), a being eloquent, eloquence. e-mineo (ex ; miineo), -ere, -ui, no sup., to stand out, excel. Smo, SmSre, emi, emptum, to buy (304). gnim, conj. (strengthened form of narai, /r>r; placed after the first word or words), for, in- deed, in fact (205. 5). e-nuntio (cio), -are, -avi, -atum, to divulge; to report. eo, Ire, ivi or ii, itum, irreg., to go (298). eo, adv. (is), thither ; to that place, so far ; therefore. With com- paratives, by so much, so much, the ; quo . . . eo, the . . . the. eodem, adv. (idem), to the same place, the same tvay. Epicureus, -a, -um, adj. Epicu- rean. gpistula, -ae, f., a letter, epistle. gques, equitis, m. (gquus), a horseman, rider; pL, gquites, cavalry; also the knights, the equi- tes, as an order in the state. 6ques-ter, -tris, -tre, adj. (Sques), belonging to Itorsemen, equestrian. S-quidem, adv., verily, truly. gquita-tus, -us, m. (fequito), a riding, cavalry. gquit-o, -are, -avi, -atum (gques), to be a Itorseman ; to ride. Squus, -1, M., a horse, steed. ergo, adv. (205. 4), therefore, ac- cordingly. e-ripio, -ripere, -ripui, -reptum (e ; rSpio), to snatch away, res- cue ; eripgre se, to snatch one's self away, to escape. e-riid-io, -ire, -ivi or -ii, -itum (e ; riidis), to free from rude- ness, educate, instruct. et, conj. (205), cmd, also, too, as ; et . . . et, both . . . a7id, not only . . . but also. gtiam, conj., and also, besides, likeivise, (205. 5) ; certainly, yes ; with comparatives, still ; mSgis 6tiam, still more. et-si, conj., even if, although (331) ; yet, but. Euripides, -is, m., a celebrated Athenian tragic poet. e-vado, -dSre, -si, -sum, to go forth, to escape from. e-vello, -vellere, -velli or -vulsi, -vuisum, /() tear out, remove. e-venio, -venire, -veni, -ventum, V0CAI3ULARY. 17 to come out : come to pass, turn out. e-verto, -tSre, -ti, -sum, to turn, drive or thrust out; to over- tJiroio, destroy. ex or e (e only before conso- nants), prep, with abl., out of, from, of. ex-cedo, -cedgre, -cessi, -ces- sum, to go out, withdraw; to exceed. excell-ens, -entis, part, (ex- cello), liigh, lofty, excellent. excel-sus, -a, -um, part, (ex- cello), elevated, lofty, high. ex-cipio, -cipgre, -cepi, -ceptum (ex; capio), to take out; to receive ; to succeed. ex-cludo, -cltidere, -clusi, -clu- sum (ex ; claudo), to shut out, exclude. ex-c61o, -c61Sre, -cSlui, -cultum, to cultivate; to improve. exemplum, -I, n. (eximo), a sample. ex-eo,-ire,-ivi or-ii, -itum, irreg., to qo out (from life), withdraiv (298). ex-erceo, -ere, -ui, -itum (ex ; arceo), to exercise, practise ; nSgotium exercere, to follow a business. exercita-ti6,-6nis, f. (exercito), exercise, practice. exerc-itus, -us, m. (exerceo), trained body of men; an army. ex-igo, -igSre, -egi, -actum (ex ; S.go), to lead out, to drive forth, expel ; exact ; finish ; pass ; ^liquid ab S.liqu6 exigire, to demand any thing from ayiy one. existima-tio, -onis, r. (existi- mo), a judging, judgment, opin- ion, character. ex-istimo, -are, -avi, -atum (ex ; aestimo), to judge, think, es- teem. exi-tium, -ii, n. (exeo), destruction. ex-pgdio, -ire, -ivi or -ii, -itum (ex; pes), (Jo free the feet from), to extricate, disengage ; set free. expgdit, inipers., it is profitable, useful (313). expgdi-tio, -onis, r. (expgdio), an expedition, excursion. expgdi-tus, -a, -um, part. (expS- dio), unimpeded, passable, with- out baggage. ex-pello, -pellgre, -piili, -pulsum, to drive out, eject, expel. experg-iscor, -pergisci, -perrec- tus sum, dep. (expergo), to be aioakened ; to awake. ex-perior, -periri, -pertus sum, dep. (ex ; pgrior, obsolete), to try; attempt. ex-pio, -are, -avi, -atum, to atone for, expiate. explora-tor, -oris, m. (explore), a searcher out, scout, spy. ex-p6no, -pongre, -pSsui, -p6si- tum, to lay or put out, set forth; explain ; to set on shore, disem- bark. exp6s-iti6, -onis, f. (expono), a setting forth, exposition; a narration. ex-primo, -primere, -pressi, -pressum (ex; premo), to press out; describe, express, utter. ex-pr6bro, -are, -avi, -atum (ex ; probrum), to reproach. ex-pugno, -are, -avi, -atum, to take by assault ; to storm, capture. ex-quiro, -rgre, -sivi, -situm (ex ; quaero), to search diligently. ex-sequor, -sgqui, -secutus sum, dep., to follow out, execute. ex-specto, -are, -avi, -atum, to await, expect ; fear. ex-spiro, -are, -avi, -atum, to breathe out; expire. ex-stinguo, -stingugre, -stinxi, -stinctum, to put out, extinguish ; to kill, destroy; aqua extinc- tus, drowned. 18 FIllST STEPS IN LATIN. exsul-to, -are, -avi, -atum, iii- tens. (ex ; salio), to leap vp ; re- joice exceedingly. ex-ter (tgrus), -era, -grum, adj. (ex), outside, foreign, strange ; comp., exterior, outer, exte- rior ; superlative, extremus or (extimus), outermost, last. ex-timesco, -timescSre, -timui, no p.p., V. A. and n., fear greathj, dread. ex-tollo, -tollgre, no perf., no p. p., to lift up, raise up, exalt. extra, adv., and prep. Avitli ace, on the outside, heyond. F. fS.-ber, -bri, m. (fScio), a carpen- ter, smith, artisan. fabrico, -are, -avi, -atum (fS- ber), to frame, make, construct, ^ build. fabricor, -ari, -atus sum, dep,, to frame, build, fashion. fa-btlla, -ae, f. (for), a story, fable. fScetus, -a, -um, adj., courteous. fScil-e, adv. (fScilis), easily. fS.c-ilis, -e, adj. (fScio), easy, courteous, affable (149. 2). fSc-iuus, -6ris, n. (fScio), a deed, crime. fScio, fScSre, feci, factum, to make, do; passive, fio, figri, factus sum, to be made, to be- come (302) ; castra fScgre, to pitch camp ; inipers., fit, it hap- pens, is usual; fiat, so be it. fac-tio, -onis, r. (fScio), a mak- ing ; a parly, faction. f ac-tum, -1, X. (fScio). a deed, act, exploit. fallo, fallere, fefelli, falsum, to deceive. fal-3-js, -a, -um, part, (fallo), fa'xe. famil-ia, -ae, r. (fa.mfllus, a servant) , family-servants, retain- ers ; family, household; pSter fSmilias or fSmiliae, master of a family. fSmili-aris, -is, m. (fSmilia), of the household ; siibst., a friend. fas, indecl., n. (for), (that which is right in the sight of heaven), divine law ; right (267). fascis, -is, m., a bundle, parcel; fasces, pL, a bundle of rods and an axe carried by the lie- tors before a chief magistrate, with which criminals were scourged and beheaded ; the fasces. fateor, fSteri, fassus sum, to confess. fa-tum, -1, N. (for), destiny, fate, calaniity. fauces, -ium, f. (found in the sing, only in the abl. ; fauce), the throat, gullet ; a defile, pass. Faustttlus, -i, M., Faustulus, the sliepherd who brought up Romulus and Rejnus. fSveo, f Jvere,favi, fautum, (ofa- yor, protect. Februarius, -ii, m., February. felic-iter, adv. (felix), auspi- ciously, fa vorably. felix, -icis, adj. {ieo, to produce'), fruitful ; happy, fortunate. fSra, -ae, f. (ferus), a ivild ani- mal, wild beast. fSre, adv., nearly, generally. fgro, ferre, tiiii, latum, irreg. (295), to bear, bring, endure; bring forth ; tell, relate ; raise, exalt ; fSrunt, they say : fertur, it is said; auxilium ferre, to bring aid ; injurias ferre, to inflict injuries; ferre legem, to propose a knv. fer-6x, -ocis, adj. (fSro), bold, ferce. ferrum, -i, n., iron; sivord, arms. VOCABULA RY. 19 fessus, -a, -um, adj., ivearied, tired, fafigiicd, v'cak; feehle. festino, -are, -avi, -atum, to hasten, liiirry, accelerate. fid-es, -ei, f. (fido), trust, faith, confidence, belief, credit ; pro7n- ise, engagement, icord. fido, fidgre, fisus sum, semi- dep. (283 and 248. 2, Obs. 3), to trust, confide. filia, -ae, f. (dat. and abl. pL, sometimes filiabus ; 75. n.), a daughter. filius, -ii, M. (vocative sing., fill ; 75. 5), a son. fin-io, -ire, -ivi or -ii, -ituni (fi- nis), to limit, hound, finish. finis, -is, M. and f., a boundary, limit, end ; fines, pL, the borders (of a territory), territory. fin-itimi, -orum, m. (finis), neigh- bors : masc. pi. of finitimus. fio, pass, of fScio (302). flagito, -are, -avi, -atum, to de- mand, fiercely ; to importune (185. 2). flecto, flectgre, flexi, flexum, to bend, direct. fleo, -ere, -evi, -etum, to weep, cry. fle-tus, -us, M. (fleo), a weeping. flo, -are, -avi, -atum, to bloio : hloio away. flore-ns, -ntis, part, (floreo), flourishing, prosperous. flor-eo, -ere, -ui, no p. p. (flos), to bloom, to be prosperous. flos, floris, M., a blossom, fioiver. fluctus, -us, M. (fluo), wave, a billow, surge. flu-men, -inis, n. (fluo ; that which flows along), a river. fluo, -6re, -xi, -xum, to floio ; dis- appear. fliiv-ius, -ii, m. (fluo), a river, running ivater, stream. f6dio, f6d6re, fodi, fossum, to dig. foed-us, -6ris, n. (fidus), a league, treaty, comjmct, agree- ment. for, fari, fatus sum, dep. (305. 2, c), to speak, say. f6re, fut. inf. of sum. fSris, -is, F., a door, gate (gen. pi., f6rum). for-ma, -ae, f., shape, form, beauty. for-sit-an, adv., perhajys (fors; sit; an). fort-as-se, adv. (forte ; an ; sit), perhaps, by chance. forte, adv. (fors), by chance, per- haps. for-tis, -e, adj. (fgro), strong, porverful, courageous, brave. fort-iter, adv. (fortis), strongly, powerfully, boldly, valiantly. f 6rum, -i, n., a market place, pub- lic square, forum ; a long open space in Eome, between the Capitoline and Palatine hills, surrounded by porticoes and the shops of bankers. fos-sa, -ae, f., a ditch, trench. frango, franggre, fregi, fractum, to break; (of ships) to v;reck. frater, fratris, m., a brother. fretus, -a, -um, adj., relying upon. frigus, -6ris, x. (frig- in frigeo), cold, coldness. frons, frondis, f., a leaf: leaves, foliage. fructu-osus, -a, -um, adj. (fruc- tus), fruilful, advantageous. fruc-tus, -us, M., fruit, profit, ad- vantage, income. fruges, -um, f. pi. (frux), fruits of the earth, crops. friiment-arius, -a,-um, adj. (fru- mentum), of corn: res fru- mentaria, corn, provisions. fru-mentum, -i, n. (fruor), co7m, grain. fruor, frui, fructus and fruitus sum, dep., to enjoy (280). frustra, adv., without effect, in vain. 20 FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. fiig-a, -ae, f, (fiigio), ajlifjht, ex- ile, hankliment. fiigio, fugere, fugi, fugituni, to flee or Jlji ; to run away ; escape. fulg-ur, -iiris, x. (fulgeo), I'ujht- ning, brightness. funda, -ae, f., sling. fund-itor, -toris, m. (funda, a sling), one iclio slings, a slinger. fundo, fundiSre, fudi, fusum, to pour; scatter, rout: lacrimas fundere, to shed tears ; hostes fundSre, to rout the enemy ; fundi, to he poured out, to Jlow. fungor, fungi, functus sum, dep., to perform (280). Gades, -ium, f., a colony in southern IJi.spania (Cadiz). Gains (Cains), -ii, m., a Roman name. Galba, -ae, m., Galba, a lloman emperor ; a chief of the Sues- si ones. gSlea, -ae, r., a helmet. Gain, -orum, m., Gauls, the peo- ple of Gaul. Gallia, -ae, f., (i((ul. Gall-icus, -a, -um, adj. (Gallia), Gallic. gall-ina, -ae, f. (gallus, a cock), a hen. Gallus, -a, -um, adj., Gallic ; as subst., a Gaul. Garumna, -ae, yi., a river of Gaul (now Garonne). gaudeo, gaudere, gavisus sum, semi-dep. (283), to rejoice. gaud-ium, -ii, x. (gaudeo), joy, gladness, delight. gelu, -us, X., cold, frost, chill. ggmina-tus, -a, -um, part. (gSmi- no), doubled, double. g6-minus, -a, -um, adj. (geno, to bring forth), twin, double. Genava, -ae, f., Geneva (on Lake Geneva, at its outlet into the lihone), a city of the AUo- broges. gener, -eri, m., a son-in-law. gen-itus, -a, -um, part, (giguo), begotten, born. genu, -us, X., the knee. ggnus, -Sris, x., birth, race, kind. German!, -orum, m. pi., the Ger- mans. Germania, -ae, f., Germany. Germanus, -a, -um, adj., Ger- man. gSro, gergre, gessi, gestum, to carry, iccar, bear, do, transact, carry on; se gSrgre, to con- duct one's self ; bellum gerSre, to carry on war; res gestae, deeds, exploits. ges-to, -are, -avi, -atum, intens. (ggro), to bear, carry, have. gigno, gignere, genui, gSnitum, to beget, produce (283. 3). glSdius, -ii, M., a sword. gloria, -ae, f., glory, fame; ambi- tion, bragging. gl6ri-or, -ari, -atus sum, dep. (gloria), to glory, boast. Gn. (Cn.), Gnams, a Roman name. Graecus, -a, -um, adj., Greek. Graecus, -i, :m., a Greek. grSphium, -ii, x., a writing-style. grat-ia, -ae, f. (gratus), favor, regard; gratiae, pi., thanks; SgSre gratias, to give thanks; fS.cere gratiam, to grant par- don, forgive ; gratia, with the gen., /or the sake of on account of; ea gratia, for this or that reason, on this or that account. grat-iilor, -ari, -atus sum, de]). (gratus), to tvish joy, congratu- late ; to give thanks. gratus, -a, -um, adj., pleasing; grateful. gravis, -e, adj., heavy, weighty ; important, grave, violent. grav-iter, adv. (grSvis), heavily, severely, weightily ; elaborately. VOCABULARY. 21 grex, gregis, m., a JiocL; herd, drove; troop, coiitpany. giiberna-tor, -oris, m. (giiberno), a steersman, pilot ; ruler, fjorer- nor. giiberno, -are, -avi, -atum, to steer or pilot a ship ; govern. H. habeo, habere, liabui, habitum, to have; to esteem; bSne se habere, to be ivell ; sic ha- bere, to he even so ; liaberi pro, with abl., to he regarded as. hS.b-ito, -are, -avi, -atum, inteiis., (hS.beo), to have possession of, to inhahit; to dwell. Haeduus, see Aeduus. haereo, haerere, haesl, haesum, to hold fast, stick. Hannibal, -alis, m., Ilannihal, the son of Hamilcar, leader of the Carthaginians in the Second Punic War. HSriides, -um, m. pL, Harudes, a German tribe in Gaul. hand, adv., not at all, not (nega- tiving single words). Helvetia, -ae, f., Helvetia, modern Switzerland. Helvetii, -orum, m. pL, Helveti- ans, a people of Gallia. Helvetius, -a, -um, adj., Helvetian, of the Helvetii : ^ger Helveti- us, the territory of the Helvetii. heri, or here, adv., yesterday, lately. heu, inter j. (an exclamation of pain or grief), oh! ah! alas! Hibernia, -ae, f., Ireland. hib-ernus, -a, -um (hiems), adj., lointry ; hiberna, -orum, x. pi. (sc. oastra), winter-fpuirters. hie, haec, hoc, pron. demonstr. (234. 2), this, this of mine ; he, she, it; the latter opposed to ille ; hoc, on this account. hie, adv., here, Itereupon. higmo, -are, -avi, -atum (hiems), to pass the vnnter. hiems (-mps), -6mis, f., the IV inter. hinc, adv. (hie), from this place; from this tirne, hereafter; hence ; hinc . . . hinc, on the one hand . . . on the other. Hispania, -ae, f., Spain. Homerus, -i, m.. Homer; the gi-eat epic poet of Greece. h6mo, -inis, com. gen., a human being; a man or woman, a mortal. h6nor (-os), -oris, m., honor, re- pute ; hSnores, pL, offices of hojior, public offices. honorific-e, adv. (honorificus), comp. hSnorificentius, sup. honorificentissime, luith hon- or, in an honorable manner. h6n6r-i-ficus, -a, -um, adj., (h6n- or; fScio), bringing honor, honorable; comp. h6n6rifi- centior, sup. h6norificentis- simus. hora, -ae, f., an hour. (The Ro- mans divided their day into twelve intervals from sunrise to sunset ; hence their hour varied in length at different seasons of the year). HSratius, -ii, m., (a), the name of the three brothers, in the time of Tullus Ilostilius, M'ho fought against the Alban Cu- riatii; (h) Iloratius Codes, who, in the war witli Porsenna, defended a bridge single-hand- ed; (c) Horace, a Roman poet. hordeum, -i, x., barley. horreo, horrere, horrui, no p.p., to bristle; to tremble, shudder; to dread. horr-or, -oris, m. (horreo), a bristling; a shaking; dread, horror; religious awe. 22 FIEST STEPS IN LATIN. hortor, -ari, -atus sum, dep., to incite, cheer, exhort, urge, hortus, -1, M., a garden. hospit-ium, -ii, n. (liospes), a place of hospitality, inn. hostis, -is, com. gen. (108), a stranger, an enemy. hum-anus, -a, -um, adj. (homo), pertaining to man, human ; court- eous, civilized. hiimSrus, see iimgrus. Ibl, adv., in that place, there. ibidem, adv., in the same place. ICO, icgre, ici, ictum, to strike, hit, smite, stab: foedus icSre, to make or conclude a treaty. ic-tus, -us, M. (ico), a hloio, thrust. Idem, eSdem, idem, proii., the same, very (238. 2) ; idem qui, the same as. idoneus, -a, -um, adj., meet, prop- er, suitable (145). idus, -tlum, F. pi., the Ides ; the fifteenth day of the months March, IVIay, July, and Octo- ber, the thirteentli day of the remaining months. igitur, conj . (205. 3), then, there- upon; therefore, consequently. ignis, -is, M.,fre (108). i-gn6sco,-gn6sc6re,-gn6vi,-gn6- tum (in ; gnosco = nosco, with dat.), to pardon, forgive, excuse, overlook. i-gnotus, -a, -um, adj. (in; gno- tus = notus), unknoivn. illatus, or inlatus, see in-fSro. ille, -a, -ud, pron. demonstr. (234. 3), that, that yonder; hie . . . ille, this . . . that, the one . . . the other. illic, adv. (ille; oe), in that place, there. il-lic6, adv. (in; I6c6), on the spot, instantly, there. imago, -inis, f., an image or like- ness, statue, picture. imber, -bris, m., a shoiver of rain. im-maturus, -a, -um, adj. (in; maturus), unripe, immature. immo (imo), adv., on the con- trary ; no indeed, yes indeed. im-mortalis, -e, adj. (in; mor- talis), undying, immortal. im-par, -S.ris, adj. (in; par), un- even, unequal, not a match for. im-pStiens, -eutis, adj. (in; pS- tiens), not able to bear, impatient. imp^di-mentum, -i, n. (impg- dio), a hindrance, impediment; impedimenta, -orum, n. pi., baggage. im-pgdio, -ire, -ivi or -ii, -itum (in; pes), to entangle, hinder, impede. impldi-tus, -a, -um, part. (impS- dio), hindered, impeded. im-pello, -pellgre, -piili, -pul- sum (in ; pello), to push against; urge on, impel. imp6ra-tor, -oris, m. (impSro), general, commander (in chief). im-perfectus, -a, -um, adj. (in; perfectus), unfnislied, imper- fect. imp6r-ium, -ii, n. (impSro), a command ; authority ; empire, government. im-pSro, -are, -avi, -atum (in; p^ro), to command ; govern, rule over; impgrare obsides S.li- cui, to demand hostages from any one. im-petro, -are, -avi, -atum (in; pStro), to accomplish ; to make a request and have it granted. impetus, -tus, M., an attack, as- sault, onset; impetuosity. im-ploro, -are, -avi, -atum (in ; ploro), to invoke with tears, call to one's assistance ; to implore. VOCABULAllY. I. 23 im-poiio, -ponere, -p6sui, -p6si- tum (in ; pono), to place upon ; place on ; impose upon ; finem imponSre, to make an end; mount (men on horses). im-porto, -are, -avi, -atum, hring in, import. im-primis, adv. (in ; primis), in the Jiist place, chiejly, especially. im-pr6bus, -a, -um, adj . (in ; pr6bus), idcked, had. im-piigno, -are, -avi, -atum (in ; pugno), to fight against, attack. in, prep, with ace. and abl. (200. 3), 1. with ace., in, into, against; in dies, from day to day; 2. with abl., in, before, in the presence of. in-calesco, -calescere, -calul, no p. p., inch, (in; cSleo), to grow warm or hot. in-cendo, -dSre, -di, -sum, to set on fire ; inflame, irritate. in-certus, -a, -um, adj., uncertain, unreliable, hesitating. in-cido, -cidere, -cidi, -casum (in ; cado), to fall in luith, at- tack ; to happen; in mentionem incidSre, to mention accident- ally ; impers., (314.3),incidit, it happens, with dat. in-cipio, -cip^re, -cepi, -ceptum (in ; cS.pio), to begin, undertake. in-cito, -are, -avi, -atum, to set in rapid motion ; to incite, spur on. in-clamo, -are, -S.vT, -atum, to call upon for assistance ; to in- voke ; revile. in-clino, -are, -avi, -atum, to bend doicn, incline, yield, give zvay ; in fugam inclinare, to be on the point of fleeing ; inclinari, to be on the point of falling. incSla, -ae, com. gen. (inc61o), an inhabitant, resident. in-c61o, -c61ere, -cSlui, no p.p., to dwell or abide in a place, to inhabit. in-c61iimis, -e, adj., uninjured, safe and sound. in-comm6dum, -i, n., trouble, misfortune, defeat. in-credibilis, -e, adj. (in; cre- do), incredible, extraordinary. in-crSpo, -are, -avi or -ui, -atum or -itum, to make a noise, rus- tle ; rebuke ; to clash. in-cuso, -are, -avi, -atum (in ; causa), to accuse, blame. in-dico, -are, -avi, -atum (in ; dico, to make knotvn, and so point), to point out. in-dignus, -a, -um, Sid]., unworthy (307. Obs. 4). ind-61es, -is, f. (61esco, to grow), inborn or native quality, nature. in-dulgeo, -dulgere, -dulsi, -dul- tum (in; dulcis), to be courte- ous, kind; to indulge, humor, give way to ; concede, allow, grant. in-duo, -dugre, -dui, -dutum, to put on, assume, clothe ; in pass., indui vestem, to put on a gar- ment. in-eo, -ire, -ivi or -ii, -itum, irreg., to go into, enter ; inire consili- um, to form apian; inire foe- dus, to make a treaty; inire gratiam, to get into the good graces of (298. Obs. 3). in-ermis, -e, adj., (in; arma), unarjned, defenceless. in-ers, -ertis, adj. (in; ars), un- skilled ; idle. in-fans, -antis, adj. (in; for), speechless; very young. As noun, com. gen., an infant, babe. in-felix, -icis, adj., unhappy. inferior, -ius, adj. (comp. of infgrus, 150. 2), lower, later, inferior. in-fgro, inferre, intuli, illatum (inlatum), irreg. (295. Obs. 2), to carry in or into; in- 24 FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. ferre signa, to advance the standards, attack : inferre pe- dem or grSdiim, to advance, attach; se inferre, to betake one's self, go. in-fgrus, -a, -um, adj. (coiiip. in- ferior, sup. infimus or imus), loii), nether. As noun, inferi, -orum, M. pi. (the inhabitants of the lower regions), tlie dead . infesto, -are, -avi, -atuni (infes- tus), to attack, molest, infest. in-festus, -a, -um, adj. (old part, of infSro), hostile; unsafe. infimus, -a, -um, adj. (superla- tive of infgrus), the lowest, last, lowest part of. in-flecto, -flectgre, -flexi, -flex- um, to bend doivn; irarp : a feet. in-flo, -flare, -flavi, -flatum, to bloiv info : inflate. In-fluo, -flugre, -fluxi, -fluxum, to flow itito,flotv upon, flo>v. infra, adv. and prep, with ace, be- hnv, beneath, under, underneath. in-gSns, -entis, adj . (in ; gens, bei/ond its kintl, so), (jrcat, vast. inicio (pronounced in-jicio), -icgre, -jeci, -jectum (in ; jS- cio), to throw or cast into, cast upon or against; infuse into, inspire; inic6re m§tum alicui, to inspire one ivithfear. in-imicus, -a, -um, adj. (in ; 3.mi cus), unfriendly, hostile. As noun, M., a private enermj or foe. in-Iquus, -a, -um, adj. (in; ae- quus), unequal, unjust ; unkind. ini-tium, -ii, x. (ineo), a begin- ning, commencement ; origin. injuri-a,-ae, f. (injurius), injury, violence ; insult, injustice. in-nascor, -nasci, -natus sum, dep., to be born in ; spring up in. in-nitor, -niti, -nisus or -nixus sum, dep., to lean or rest upon, support one's self by. 7-1 in-n6cens, -entis, adj., haymiless ; blameless, innocent; disinter- ested. in6p-ia, -ae, f. (inops), jwverty, need, want. inquam, def. (305. 2 li), I say. in-scribo, -scribSre, -scripsi, -scriptum, to ivrite upon, in- scribe ; indicate. in-sgquor, -sgqui, -sgcutus sum, dep., to follow after, pursue. in-sideo, -sidere, -sedT, -sesfeum (in ; sgdeo), to sit in ; sit upon, settle upon ; to get i)OSsession of occupy. insid-iae, -arum, f. pi. (insid- eo), an andjush ; artifce, plot; per insidias, by stratagem, craftdy. insidi-or, -ari, -atus sum, dep. (msidiae), to lie in wait for, watch for, expect. insign-e, -is, x. (insignis), a dis- tinctive mark ; badge (of office), a signal; ensign; in pi., insig- nia, -ium, badges of honor, dec- orations, ornaments. Tn-signis, -e, adj. (in; sTgnum), remarkable, distinguished, extra- ordinary. in-silio, -silire, -silui, no p.p. (in; salio), to leap or .spring into ; to leap or spring upon. m-sinuo, -are, -avi, -atum (in ; sinus), to 2^^net)'ate or enter anywliere by winding in; insin- uate ; with se, tvork one's tray into. ins61en-ter, adv. (ins61ens), un- usually ; haughtily, insolently. in-stitub, -stitugre, -stitui, -sti- tutum (in ; stStuo), to arrange, educate. institu-tum, -i, x. (instituo), custom, arrangement; in pL, institutions. in-sto, -stare, -stiti, -statum, to stand upo7i; approach; harass. VOCABULARY. — T. 25 in-struo, -struSre, -struxi, -struc- tum, to erect ; teach ; set in or- der, arrancje (of troops) ; clothe, array, ornaynent. in-suesco, -suescSre, -siievi, -suetum, to become accustomed ; to accustom or habituate one to a thing. in-siila, -ae, r. (in; salum, the sea), an island. in-sum, -esse, -fui, irreg., to be in or tipov, to belonrj to. in-tactus, -a, -uni, adj. (in; tan- go), untouched, unharmed ; 2')ure, chaste. in-tgger, -gra, -grum adj. (in; tango), untouched ; sound, ichole, unhurt ; fresh (of troops) ; blameless, pure; ex integro, afresh. intel-lSgo, -Iggere, -lexi, -lectum (inter; lego), to distinguish be- tween, to perceive ; understand. inter, prep, "with aec, between, among, during, in the midst of; inter se diff erre, to differ from each other; dare inter se, to interchange. inter-cedo, -cedere, -cessi, -ces- sum, to go between ; to be, stand, or lie between, intervene; jnotest (as tribune). inter-cludo, -cludere, -clusi, -clusum (inter ; claudo), to shut off, cut of] hinder; sur- round. inter-dico, -dicere, -dixi, -dic- tum, to forbid, interdict, prohib- it; aliquid interdlcere alicui, or aliquem aliqua re, to ex- clude one from, to forbid one the use of angthing ; interdi- cSre Slicui aqua et igni, to forbid one the use of fire and tvater, i.e., to deprive one of civil rights, to banish. inter-ea, (ace. pi. N.), adv., mean- while. inter-est, inipers. (313), it con- cerns, is of interest, is important ; interest me a, 315. 3 (2), it is my concern ; interest omnium, it is the interest of all. interfec-tor, -oris, m. (interfi- cio), a slayer, murderer. inter-ficio, -ficere, -feci, -fec- tum (inter ; facio), to destroy, kill. intgr-im, adv. (inter ; im = eum), in the meantime, meanwliile. interior, -ius, adj., comp. (150. 1), inner-, interior. intgri-tus, -us, m. (intereo), de- struction, ruin. inter-mitto, -mittere, -misi, -mis- sum, to discontinue, intervene. inter-pello, -are, -avi, -atum, to interrupt, hinder ; urge. inter-rumpo, -rumpSre, -rupT, -ruptum, tohreal: asunder, break down. inter-sum, -esse, -fui, irreg., to be between, intervene, be jjresent at ; interest, impers., see inter- est. inter-vallum, -T, x., space between, interval, distance. intra, adv. and prep, with ace., within, under (with numerals). in-tueor, -tueri, -tuitus (-tutus) sum, dep., to look at, contem- plate. in-tiimesco, -tiimescere, -tumui, no sup., to begin to swell, to stvell OY rise up, increase; to be elated; sicell icith rage. in-usitatus, -a, -um, adj., unusu- al, extraordinary. in-vgnio, -vgnire, -veni, -ven- tum, ^0 come upon , find ; invent. in-vicem, adv. (in ; vicis), by turns, alternatel]!, one another. in-victus, -a, -um, adj., uncon- quered; invincible. in-video, -videre, -vidT, -visum, to look spitefully at; envy. 26 FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. in-vitus, -a, -um, adj. (in ; v61o), nnrvilUng, reluctant. in-v6co, -are, -avi, -atum, to call on ov upon; invoke; implore. ipse, -a, -um, pron. (238. 3), self, very ; himself, herself itself. Ira, -ap, f., anger, wrath, ire. ira-cundus, -a, -um, adj. (Tra), prone to anger, irritable. ir-ascor, irasci, Iratus sum, dep. (Ira), to he angry, he in a rage. Ira-tus, -a, -um, part. act. (iras- cor), angry, angered. ir-rldeo, -ridere, -risi, -risum (in; rideo), to laugh in ridicule ; ridicule. ir-rumpo, -rumpSre, -rupl, -rup- tum (in ; rumpo), to break in, burst in. ir-ruo, -ruSre, -rul, no p. p. (in ; ruo), to rush in or into; attack furiously, assa iilt. is, ea, id, pron. (238. 1), this, that; he, she, it; is qui, the man icho, such a one that; in eo esse, to be on the point of. iste, -ta, -tud, pron., this of yours, that near you; this, that; that fellow (in contempt) (234. 2). ita, adv., thus, so ; to such an ex- tent; ita . . . ut (with subj.), in such a manner . . . that. Italia, -ae, f., Italy. itS-que, conj. (205. 4), and so; therefore, accordingly. item, adv., in like manner ; so also. iter, itingris, n. (eo), journey, march, route (121) ; ex itinSre, on the march; magnis itineri- bus, by forced marches. itgrum, adv., again, a second time, itiirus, -a, -um, part, from eo. jaceo, -ere, -ui, no p.p., to lie, lie._ prostrate, lie dead. jScio, jScSre, jecl, jactum, to throw, cast. jacta-tio, -onis, f. (jScio), a throicing ; boasting. jact-ito, -are, no perf., no p.p., frequentative (jacto), to pour forth frequently ; to make a great display. jac-to, -are, -avI, -atum, frequen- tative (jScio), to throw ; talk about. jam, adv., noic, ahead y, presently, at length; with a negative, as jam non, no longer. jam-diu, adv., long ago, already, for a long time. janua, -ae, f. (janus), a door, gate. janu-arius, -a, -um, adj. (jSnus), of ov belonging to January. As noun, M., January. Janus, -i, m., an ancient Latin divinity, represented with two faces, one in front, the other behind. j6cus, -I, M. (in pi., also j6ca, -orum), a jest, joke. J6vis, gen. of Jupiter. Jiiba, -ae, m., a king of Numidia. jiibeo, jiibere, jussi, jussum, to order, command. judex, -icis, com. gen. (jus; dice), a judge, umpire. judic-ium, -il, n. (judico), a judgment, trial, court. ju-dico, -are, -avI, -atum (jus ; dico), to judge, determine. jiig-iilum, -i, n., -us, -i, m. (jungo) (that which joins), that which joins the shoulders and neck; the throat. jflg-um, -1, N. (jungo), a yoke ; team ; a summit (of a mountain) . Julius, -il, M., Julius, the name of a lloman gens; especially Gains Julius Ccesar, and his adopted son. Gains Jidius Cce- sar Octavianus Augustus. Julius, -il, M., the month of July ; so called after Julius Cassar. VOCABULARY. — T. 27 Julius, -a, -um, adj., of Julij. ju-mentum, -i, n. (jungo), a beast of burden. jungo, junggre, junxi, junctum, to )]oi7i, harness ; s6cietatem junggre, to form a partnership. junior, -us, adj., comparative (jii- vgnis, 150. 3), younger. Ju-piter, see Juppiter. Ju-ppiter, J6vis, m. (121), Jupi- ter, son of Saturn, brother and husband of Juno, king of gods. Jura, -ae, m., a chain of moun- tains extending from the Rhine to the Rhone. jure, abl, of jus, used adverbially, by right, justly. juro, -are, -avi, -atum, to swear, take an oath. jus, juris, X., justice, law ; court of justice (ace. pi. wanting). jusjurandum, jurisjurandi, n. (121), an oath. just-e, adv. (Justus), rightly, justly. jiivgnis, -is, adj., com. gen. (109. N. and 150. 3), young, youthful ; as subst., jiivinis, -is, com. gen. (gen. pi. jiivgnuni), a young man or woman (between 17 and 45 or 46) . jiiven-tus, -utis, f. (jiivenis), youth, the season of youth. jiivo, jttvare, juvi, jutum, to help, aid. juxta, prep, with ace, near to, near ; as adv., near by, in like manner, alike. KSlendae (Cal-), -arum, f.. Ca- lends, the frst day of the month. Karthago (Car-), -inis, f., Car- thage ; a celebrated city of Africa. L. L, an abbrev. for Lucius. LSbienus, -i, m., Labienus ; an officer of Caesar in Gaul, who af- terwards went over to Pompey. ISboro, -are, -avi, -atum (ISbor), to toil, labor. lac, lactis, x., 7nilk. IScer, -era, -grum, adj., torn, man- gled, maimed. IScesso, -ess6re, -essivi, or-essii, or -essi, -essitum, to provoke, excite, assail, attack. lacrima, -ae, f., a tear; lacrimas dare, to weep. IScus, -us, M., a lake. laedo, laedgre, laesi, laesum, to strike, injure ; annoy, violate. laetor, -ari, -atus sum, dep. (lae- tus), to feel joy, be glad. lambo, -gre, -i, no p.p., to lick, lap. lanio, -are, -avi, -atum, to rend, tear in pieces. lapis, -idis, m., a stone , a stone (placed at the end of every 1000 paces), a mile-stone. laqueus, -ei, m., a noose, halter, snare. lat-e, adv. (latus), ividely ; far and ivide. lat-ebra, -ae, f., (ISteo), a hiding- place, lurking-place. later, -Sris, m., a brick or tile. latro, -are, -avi, -atum, to bark, yelp : bark at. latro, -onis, m., a robber, highway- man. latus, -a, -um, adj., broad, wide. latus, -gris, x., the side, flank, body, lungs ; lS.tgris or lS.tgrum d6- lor, pain in the side, pleurisy. la-tus, -a, -um, part. (fSro), borne, carried. laudo, -are, -avi, -atum, (laus), to praise. laurea, -ae, f., a laurel-tree ; lau- rel-crown. 28 FIRST STEPS IN LATIK. laus, laudis, f., praise, (jTorij ; \^^x6.e^, fame . lega-tio, -onis, r., an amhassy, legation. lega-tus, -i, m. (lego), an amhas- sador, lieufenanf, inessengei-. Igg-io, -onis, F. (lego), a legion; consisting of between 4200 and 0000 men. Iggi6n-arius,-a,-um, adj. (Iggio), of or belonging to a legion : le- gionary. 16go, legere, legi, lectum, to gather, select; read. Lgmannus, -i, m,, Lake Geneva. len-itas, -atis, f. (lenis), softness, smootliness. leo, -onis, isi., a lion. lex, legis, f. (lego), law, pre- cept. libent-er, adv. (libens), villinghj, cheerful hj, gladhj. libeo, -ere, -m, -itura, to please ; libet, impcrs. (314. 2), it j^lcas- es, it is agreeahle. liber, -gra, -grum, adj., free, un- restricted ; in pi., libgri, -orum, M. (the free members of the liouseliold), ch ildren . liber, -bri, the inner harh of a tree ; a hook (since the bark of a tree was used as material for ■\vritino' upon). ITberal-itas, -atis, f. (libgralis), gen erosity, lihcrality. Iib6r-e, adv. (liber), freely, franlcbi. libgri, -orum, ^r. pi. (see liber). libero, -are, -avi, -atura (liber), to free, liberate, ac/. nanc-iscor, nancisci, nactus or nanctus sum, dep., to (jet, re- ceive ; Jind. nans, -antis, part, of no. narro, -are, -avi, -atum, to tell, relitte, narrate, recount. nascor, nasci, natus sum, dep., to he horn (248. 3). nS.-to, -are, -avi, -atum (no), to .swim. na-tura, -ae, f. (nascor), nature ; disj)osition, character ; natura, naturalb/. nauta (navita), -ae, m., a sailor, seaman. nav-iciila, -ae, r., dim. (navis), a small vessel ; hoat, skiff'. navig-ium, -ii, n. (navigo), a sailintj : vessel, ship, hoat. navis, -is, f. (ace, navem or navim ; abl., nave or navi), a ship; navis longa, a ship of tear. * ne, adv. and conj., 1. adv., not, no; ne . . . quidem, not even (the word or plirase emphasized always between the ne and quidem) ; 2. conj., thcd not, lest; in final clauses, that not, lest; with verbs of fearinq-, tfiat or lest (321. 2 & 278. l\l)). -ne, interrog. and enclitic particle, ichetlier (in direct questions ne is not to be translated, except by laying emphasis upon the word to which it is joined). nee, see ngque. n6cessari-6, adv. (ngcessarius), necessardy, unavoidahly. ng-ces-se, neut. adj. (found only in iiom. and ace. sing.) (ne; cedo), unavoidahle, necessary. ngcess-itas, -atis, f. (nScesse), necessity ; force. nScess-itudo, -inis, f. (ngcesse), closely hound ; intimacy ; close relationshij). nec-ne, conj,, or not. n6co, -are, -avi (-ui), -atum, to kill. ne-dum, conj., hy no means, mucli less ; not to say, mucli more. n6-fas, X. indecl., that wliicii is nnlauful (267). neg-ligo, -ligSre, -lexi, -lectum (nee; ISgo), to neylect, disre- yard. nggo, -are, -avi, -atum, to say no; deny, refuse. ngg-otium -ii, n. (nee ; otium), a husiness, occuj/afion ; diffi- culty ; matter; nullo nggotio, icithout trouhle. ne-mo (in place of gen. neminis, nullius is used ; in place of abl. nemine, nullo, m,, or nulla, F., is used), M. and f. (ne ; li6mo), no one, nohody ; nemo non, every hody, all; non ne- mo, some. nSpos, -Otis, M, and f., a grand- son, a grand-dauyhter, a nepfiew. ng-que or nee, conj., and not; ngque (nee) . . . nSque (nee), neitfier . . . nor. VOCABULARY. — I. 33 nS-quis, -qua, -quod or (subst.) -quid, indet'. proii., lest any, that no one (246). Nervii, -orum, m., The Nervii, a people of Belgic Gaul. ne-scio, -scire, -scivi or -scii, -scitum, not to know, to he ignorant of. neuter, neutra, neutrum (gen. neutrius), neither (209). ne-ve (neu), and not, nor ; neve . . . neve, neither . . . nor. nex, nScis, f. (neco), death, murder, slaughter. ni, conj., if not, unless (326). niger, -gra, -grum, adj.. Mack, dark, dusky. nihil (nil), n., indecl., iiothing, not at all; nihil habeo quod, / have no reason that ; non ni- hil, something; nihilominus, nevertheless. nihil-dum, adv., nothing as yet. nihilo, adv. (with comparatives), by nothing, no; nihilo major, no greater. nihilominus, adv., see nihil, nil, see nihil. ni-si, conj., if not, unless (326). nitor, niti, nisus or nixus sum, dep., to rest upon, rely upon ; to strive, endeavor. nix, nivis, f., snow (121). no, nare, navi, no p.p., to swim, float. n6-bilis, -e, adj. (gnosco), that can he known; famous, nohle. nobil-itas, -atis, f. (nobilis), celebrity, fame ; the nobility, nobles. n6ceo, -ere, -ui, -itum (with dat.), to harm, hurt, injure. noctii, abl. (used adverbially), by night. nolo, nolle, nolui, irreg. (non ; v61o) (294), not to ivish, he unwilling. no-men, -inis, n. (nosco), a name ; renoivn ; nomen ha- bere, to be famous. nomina-tim, adv. (nomino), by name, expressly. nomino, -are, -avi, -atum (no- men), to name ; nomiyiate. non, adv., not, no. Nonae, -arum, f. (nonus), the Nones; the fifth day in every month of the year, except March, May, July, and Octo- ber, in which it was the seventh. So called because it was the ninth day before the Ides. non-dum, adv., not rjet. non-ne, interrog. particle (91. 1. b), notf n5n-nullus, -a, -um, adj., some, several. As noun, nonniilli, -orum, M. ^\., persons, several. non - nunquam (- numquam) , adv., sometimes, occasionally . no-nus, -a, -um, adj. (n6vem), the ninth. As noun, nona, -ae, f., the ninth hour of the day, i.e., the third hour before sunset, at which hour business was ended at Rome. nos, nostrum or nostri, pi. of ego, loe (239. 1). nosco (gnosco), noscere, novi, notum, to become acquainted ivith ; learn ; novi, perf . with pres. meaning, / know ; novS- ram, / knew (305. Obs. 2). nos-ter, -tra, -trum, possess, pron. (nos), our, our oion, ours (231) ; in pi., nostri, -orum, M., our men, our troops. nSto, -are, -avi, -atum (n6ta), to mark, indicate ; designate. no-tus, -a, -um, part, (nosco), knoivn. n6vem, num. indecl. adj., nine. N6vem-ber, -bris, m. (novem), November; the ninth month of the old Roman year (which began in March). 34 FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. Novembris,-e, adj., of November. ziovi, see nosco. n6vus, -a, -um, adj ., neic ; recent, strange; novae res, revolution ; the comparative of this adj. is wanting, superlative ndvissi- mus, latest, last; nfivissimum agmen, the rear. nox, noctis, f., ni^., jtictls. orna-tus, -a, -um, part, (orno), adorned, ornan^ented. oro, -are, -avi, -atum (6s), speak, cspec, to pray, beseech. OS, oris, N., the mouth, the face, countenance ; speech. oo-tenclo, -tendire, -tendi, -ten- Gura or tentum (ob ; tendo), lo shoui, display ; declare; prae- mia ostendere, to offer re- trards. otium, -ii, N., leisure, freedom from business ; quiet. OVIS, -is, F a s/ieep. 6vo, -are, -avi, -atum, to exult, rejoice, triump)h in an ovation. ovum, -i, N. (avis) (belonging to a bird), an egg. P., an abbreviation of Publius. pa-bulum, -i, n. (pasco), food (for animals) ; fodder. Padus, -1, M., the Po. paene, adv., nearly, almost. paenitet, paenitere, paenituit, no p. p., inipers. (314. 2), it repents, with ace. of person and gen. of thing, or infinitive in place of thing ; paenitet me facti, / repent of the action; paenitet me feolsse, / repent having done it. pagus, -1 and -us, m., a canton, village. pSlam, adv., openly, publicly ; as prep, with abl., before, in the ])resence of. pall-idus, -a, -um (palleo), pale. paludamentum, -i, n., a military cloak. pa-lus, -1, M., a stake, prop, pale. pando, pandSre, pandi, passum, to spread out, extend, throw open; passis crinibus, ?vith dishev- elled hair. pango, panggre, pegT, (panxi, pgpigi) pactum (panctum), to fasten, fx in ; settle. panis, -is, m., bread, loaf. par, paris, adj. (gen. pi., pSri- um), er, some (generally plural) ; pauca or pauci, -orum, a few tvords ; a feiv persons, etc. paulo, adv. (paulus), by a little, a little, somfirhaf. paulus (paullus), -a, -um, adj., little, small. pauper, -eris, adj., poor, needy (comp. pauperior, superl. pau- perrimus) . pauper-tas, -atis, r. (pauper), poverty. pax, pacis, f. (that which binds), peace; favor; pace tua, ivith yo ur permission . pecu-nia, -ae, f. (pecus, -iidis), money, riches, icecdth. pScus, -oris, X., a herd, flock; ccdtle. ped-es, -itis, m. (pes; eo) (one that goes on foot), a foot-sol- dier ; infantry. jjejor, -us, adj. (comp. of mS- lus), v^orse. pellis, -is, F., a shin, hide ; a gar- ment (made of skin) . pello, pell^re, pepttli, pulsum, to strike ; expel. pendeo, pendere, pependi, pen- sum, to hang, be suspended. per, prep, with ace, through, dur- ing, by means of. pSr-ago, -agere, -egi, -actum, to finish, complete. per-agro, -are, -avi, -atum (per; ager)," to lead through ; finish; (with concilium) hold. per-cipio, -cipere, -cepi, -cep- tum (per; capio), to take in, learn ; (of harvests) to gather : seize. percuncta-tio (contatio),-6nis, F. (percunctor), an inquiring of; an inrjuiry. per-duco, -ducSre, -duxi, -duc- tum, to lead through, conduct; draw out, extend. 38 FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. pSrSgrmor, -ari, -atus sum, dep., to travel about or in foreign land,^. per-eo, -ire, -ii (-ivi), no p. p., irr. (to go through), to periJi, die. per-fgro, -ferre, -tiill, -latum, n-r., to carry through, convey; accomplish; suffer, endure. per-ficio, -ficSre, -feci, -fectum (per; fScio), to make (com- pletely) ; finish; effect. per-fringo, -fringgre, -f regi, -f rac- tum (per ; frango), to break through ; to shatter. pSriciii-osus, -a, -um, adj. (pSri- ciilum),/^// of peril ; dangerous. pSri-ciilum (-clum), -i, n. (pe- rior, obsolete), a trial; risk; danger. p6ri-tus, -a, -um, adj. (pgrior, obsolete), experienced, skilful. per-magnus, -a, -um, adj., very great, very large. per-mitto, -mittSre, -misi, -mis- sum, to let through; permit. per-m6veo, -mSvere, -movi, -motum, to move Ueeply. pernic-ies, -ei (also -ii), v. (per- nSco), destruction, ruin, en-er- throw. per-paucus, -a, -um, adj., very little, very fe IV. per-p§tior, -p6ti, -pessus sum, dep. (per; potior), to endure. perpgtu-6, adv. (perpetuus), constantly, perpetually . perp6tu-um, adv. (perpetuus), fo re ve r, perp)etually . perpetuus, -a, -um, adj., continu- ing ; constant, lasting. per-saepe, adv., very eften. per-sgquor, -s§qui, -secutus sum, dep., to follow after, pur- sue. persSvero, -are, -avi, -atum (persSverus), to ])ersist, pe7\se- vere (in anything). per-solvo, -solvere, -solvi, -s6- lutum, to pay (fully), render. per-stringo, -stringere, -strinxi, -strictum, to bind firmly, fasten; seize; wound slightly ; censure. per-suadeo, -suadere, -suasi, -suasum, to convince, persuade. per-terreo, -terrere, -terrui, -ter- ritum, to frighten or terrify thoroughly. pertiuac-ia, -ae, f. (pertinax), p>erseverance, obstinacy. pertinac-iter, adv. (pertinax), firmly, stubbornly. per-tineo, -tinere, -tinui, no p. p. (per; tgneo), to stretch, extend; have reference to. per-turbo, -are, -avi, -atum, to confuse utterly ; to disturb. per-v6nio, -vfenire, -veni, -ven- tum (to come through to), to arrive at, reach. pes, pgdis, M., the foot; pgdibus, on foot. pessimus, -a, -um, adj. (superl. of mSlus), u-orst. pestis, -is, v., a plague, pest. pSto, pgtSre, petivi, pgtitum, to aim at, go to; hence, to ask (185. 2) . phalanx, -angis, f., a band of sol- diers, phalanx. Pharnkces,-is, m., kingof Pontus, defeated by Cicsar. Pharsal-icus, -a, -um, adj. (Pharsalus) , of Pharsalus, Pharsalian. pi-6tas, -atis, f., (pius), piety; love, gratitude. piget, pigere, piguit and pigi- tum est, impers. (314. 2), it vexes, annoys, troubles; piget me aiicujus rei, / dislike, a thing. pilum, -i, N., a javelin (a heavy javelin of the Roman infantry, which they hurled at the enemy at the beginning of an action, and then used their swords). pinguis, -e, adj., fat, fertile; I stupid. VOCABULARY. 39 pirata, -ae, im., a aea-rohher, pirate. piaceo, -ere, -ui, -itum, to please ; placet, impers. (314. 2), it pleases. plaga, -ae, f., a bloio, stroke. plan-ities, -iei (-ae), f. (planus), level (/round, plain. plebs, plebis, f. (pleo), the com,- mon people. ple-nus, -a, -um, adj. (pleo, to Jill) , full, filled ; complete. piu-rimus, -a, -um, adj. (superl. of multus), very much ; most; as adv., plurimum, mostly. plus, pluris, adj. (comp. of mul- tus), more. As noun in pi., plures, -ium, m., seceral. plus, adv., more, too much. poena, -ae, f., pmiishment, pen- alty ; poenas dSre, to pay the penalt]!, he punished ; poenas sumgre, to inflict punishment. poen-itet, see paenitet. poeta, -ae, m., a poet. pol-liceor, -liceri, -licitus sum, dep. (p6r-; liceor), to offer, promise. pompa, -ae, f., a procession ; suite, retinue; pajride, pomp. Pompei-anus, -a, -um, adj. {Pompeins), of Pompey, Pom- peian. Pompeius, -ii, m., Gneius Pom- p)eius Magnus; a Roman gen- eral and rival of C?esar ; de- feated at Pharsaliis, b.c. 48. pomum, -1, '}^., fruit. pone, adv. and prep, with ace, after, behind, hack. pono, ponere, p6sui, p6situm, to put, place, set, lay; castra ponSre, to pitch camp. pons, pontis, m., a hridr/e. pontifex, -ficis, m. (pons; fa- cio), a high-priest, pontiff'. Pontus, -1, M., the Black Sea (Pontus Euxinus), also a region about the Black Sea. p6pulor, -ari, -atus sum, dep. (p6pulus), to lay waste, pil- lage. p6piilus, -1, M., a people, nation. porta, -ae, f., a gate, door. porto, -are, -avi, -atum, to carry. posco, poscere, pSposci, no p. p., to heg, demand (185. 2). posses-sio, -onis, f. (possi- deo), a possessing, possession, property. pos-sum, posse, p6tui, irr. (p6tis; sum), to have the poiver, can, he able (293) ; plurimum posse, to have very great influence. post, adv., and prep, with ace, behind, back, after, beneath. post-ea, adv., afterwards, here- after. postea-quam, conj., after that, rvhen (333). posterior, -ius, adj. (comp. of postgrus), after, later; infe- rior ; latter. post-grus, -a, -um, adj. (post), coining after, following, next, en- suing, future. As noun, pos- ter!, -orum, M. pi., descendants, posterity. post-hac, adv., after this, here- after, henceforth. post-quam, conj., after that, after, as soon as, rvhen (333). postrem-6, adv. (postremus), at last, lastly, filially. postr-i-die, adv. (posterus ; dies), on the day after, on the next day. posttilo, -are, -avi, -atum, to ask, demand (185. 2). pQtens, -entis, part, (possum), able, powerful, strong. p6tent-atus, -us, m. (p6tens), rule, dominion, command. p6tent-ia, -ae, f. (p6tens), might, power. p6t-ior, -iri, -itus siim, dep. 40 FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. (p6tis), io become master of, take possession of (306. 2). p6tis, -e, adj . jwicerful : able ; possible. p6ti-us, adv., comp. of p6tis, rather, preferabhi, more. pratum, -i, ^., pjasture, meadow. prae, adv., and prep, with abl., before , in front of, in compo- sition, before, very. prae - caveo, -cavere, -cavi, -cautum, to guard against be- forehand ; be on one's guard. prae-cedo, -ced6re, -cessi, -ces- sum, to go before, precede ; surpass, excel. praeceptor, -oris, m., instructor. prae-cipio, -cipere, -cepi, -cep- tum (prae ; cSpio), to take in advance , direct, order. prae-clarus, -a, -um, adj., vei^g clear; excellent, celebrated. praeco, -onis, m., a crier, herald. prae-dico, -are, -avi, -atum, to make known (before one), pub- lish ; boast. prae-dico, -dicgre, -dixi, -dic- tum, to foretell, predict : team, command . prae-ditus, -a, -um, adj . (prae ; do), r/iftcd, endowed with (308. Obs. 4). praedo, -onis, m. (praedor), one that plunders, a plunderer. prae-mitto, -mittSre, -misi, -missum, to send before, des- patch in advance. prae-pono, -pongre, -p6sui, -p6- situm, to put in command. prae-scrlbo, -scribSre, -sorip- si, -scriptum, to icrite down beforehand, command, pre- scribe. praescrip-tum, -i, n. (praescri- bo), a precept, order, rule. prae-sens, -eiitis, adj. (prae; sura), present. praesent-ia, -ae, f. (praesens). presence; readiness; in prae- sentia, at present, now. prae-sertim, adv. (prae ; sSro), especialbj. praesid-ium, -ii, n. (praesideo), a sitting doivn before, guard; pyrotection. praestans, -antis, part, (prae- sto), pre-eminent, excellent, dis- tinguished, extraordinarij. prae-sto, -stare, -stiti, -statum, to stand before ; surpass; prae- stat (314. 3), it is better. prae-sum, -esse, -fui, irr., to be in front, be in command of gov- ern ; summae rerum prae- esse, to have the supreme com- mand. praeter, adv. and prep., along by, past, beyond; except, beside. praetgr-eo, -Ire, -ii, -itum, to go past ; pass by. praeteri-tus, -a, -um, part, (praetgreo), past, gone by, de- parted. As noun, praetSrita, -orum, N. pL, the past. praetex-ta, -ae, f. (praetexo), tlie " toga pnetexta," a mantle (with purple border, worn by niaL;isti-ates and children). praetor-ium, -ii, n. (praetor), a general's tent. praetor-ius, -a, -um, adj. (prae- tor), of the prietor . prae-v6nio, -venire, -veni, -ven- tum, to come before ; anticipate, prevent; surjyass. preci, prgcem, prgce, in pL, preces, -um, Y.,p>raiier, request. prghendo, -d6re, -di, -sum, to seize, grasp, snatch. prgmo, primgre, press!, pres- sum, to ])ress, press hard on. prendo, see prehendo. pretium, -ii, n., money ; price. prex, see prSci. pri-die, adv. (prae ; dies) , on the day before. VOCABULARY. — I. 41 prim-o, adv. (primus), ablish, betray; mS- mSria proditur, it is handed down by memory. pro-duco, -dvLcgre, -duxi, -duo- tum, to lead forth ; protract. proelium, -ii, n., « battle, combat, contest. pr6fec-ti6, -onis, f. (prSficis- cor), a going away, setting out, departure. pr6-fect-6, adv. (pro ; factum), actually, indeed, truly. pr6fec-tus, -a, -um, part. (pr6- ficiscor), having set out, gone. pro-fero, -ferre, -tiili, -latum, irreg., to carry or bring for- ward ; to reveal. pro-ficio, -ficSre, -feci, -fectum, to do beforehand ; advance ; effect. pr6-fic-iscor, -ficisci, -fectus sum, dep. inch, (pro; facio), to malce ivay forward, start; march, travel. pro-fligo, -are, -avi, -atum, to strike to the ground; conquer. pr6-fugio, -fiiggre, -fugi, no p. p., to fee forth, escape. pro-gredior, -gredi, -gressus sum, dep. (pro ; gr^dior), to go forth ; go forivard, proceed. pr6-hibeo, -ere, -ui, -itum (pro ; habeo), to hold back, hinder; prohibit. pro-icio (pronounced projicio), -icere, -jeci, -jectum (pro; jacio), to tlirow forward ; throw down; reject. pro-labor, -labi, -lapsus sum, dep., to slip forward , fall down. pro-lato, -are, -avi, -atum, in- tens., to lengthen; extend. 42 FIRST STEPS IN LATIK. pr6-ni6veo, -movere, -niovi, -motum, to move forward., ad- vance., promote. prope, adv. and prep, with ace. (prSpius, pr6xime), near, nigh; nearby; nearly; about. pro-pensus, -a, -um, inclined. prSp^ro, -are, -avi, -atum, (pr6- pgrus), to hasten. prdpinquo, -are, -avi, -atum (prSpinquus), to hasten, ac- celerate ; come niijlt ; approach. pr6p-inquus, -a, -um, adj. (pro- pe), near, neiglihoring ; akin ; similar. As noun, m., a relative, kinsman. pr6pior, -ius (gen. -oris), adj., coinp. of stem contained in pr6pe, nearer ; superlative, pr6ximus, -a, -um, nearest, last (150.1). pro-pono, -ponSre, -p6sui, -p6- sltum., to place or lay before; set forth ; determine ; mihi pro- pSsitum est (313), / have de- termined. prop-ter, adv. and prep, with ace. (pr6pe), near; on account of because. proptgr-ea, adv., on this account, therefore : proptSrea quod, because. propul-so, -are, -avi, -atum, intens. (propello), to ward off] repulse ; avert. pro-silio, -silTre, -silui, no p. p. (pro ; sSlio, -Ire, salui, or -ii, sultum), to leap forth; spring up, spring forth. prosper, -gra, -grum (86. 2), fortunate. pro-spicio, -spicSre, -spexi, -spectum (pro; spScio), to look out; to provide for any- thing (witli ace). pro-sum, prod-esse, pro-fui, (293. 3), to benefit, profit. pro-tinus (tguus), adv. (pro; tenus), straightforward, imme- diately. provincia, -ae, f., a province; a field of duty of the consuls, usually a territory out of Italy, acquired by the Romans, and brought under Roman rule. pr6-v6co, -are, -avi, -atum, to call forth, challenge, summon; ex- asperate ; pro-v6care ad p6- pttlum, to appeal to the people. pr6xim-e, adv. (prSximus), nearest, very near, next (pr6p, pr6pius, pr6xime). pr6xim-6, adv. (pr6ximus), (juite recently, very lately. prdximus, -a, -um, adj., the nearest, next ; in pidximo, close by, near at hand. prudens, -entis (contracted from providens), foreseeing; dis- creet; prudent. Pt61Smaeus, -i, m., Ptolemy, king of Egypt. public-e, adv. (publicus), pid)- licly ; on account (ftJie state. publicus, -a, -um, adj. (p6pii- lus), belonguifi to the people or state, public, c(nmnon. Publius (Crassus), -i, m., a Ro- man name. puel-la, -ae, f. dim. (puer), a girl, maiden. puell-ttlus, -1, M. dim. (puellus). a little boy: puer, -gri, m., a boy, child, (until 17) ; pL, children. ptigio, -onis, M., a dagger, dirk, pjoniard. piigna, -ae, f., a battle, dis- pute. pugn-ax, -acis, adj. (pugno), fond of fighting, warlike, com- bative ; (piarrelsomc . pugno, -are, -avi, -atum (pug- na), to fi gilt, engage. pulcher, -chra, -chrum, adj., beautiful, fair, Itandsome. VOCABULAKY. — I. 43 punio, -ire, -Zvi and -ii, -itum (poena), to pwdxh,; aveiuje. piito, -are, -avi, -atum, to think, consider, reckon, heliece. Pyrenaeus, -a, -um, adj., only with montes, the Pyrenees Mountains. Q. Q. or Qu., an abbreviation for Quintus. quadrag-esimus, -a, -um, adj. (quadraginta), fortieth. quadr-a-ginta, num. adj. indecl. (quatuor), forty. quadr-in-genti, -ae, -a, num. adj. (quatuor; centum), /our hundred. quaero (old form quaeso), quae- rSre, quaesivi, quaesitum, to seek; search; strive for (185. 2) ; quaeritur, the question is. quaes-tor, -oris, m. (quaero), a quaestor (treasurer or quarter- master). qualis, -e, interrog. and rel. adj. : 1. interrog., of what sort ; 2. rel., of which sort; such as; talis . . . qualis, such . . . as. quam, interrog. and rel. adv., hoiv ; (in comparisons) as, than ; (used to strengthen superla- tives) quam maximus, as great as possible. quam-diu, as long as. quam-ob-rem, interrog. and rel. adv., for which or lahat reason, wherefore, ivhy^ quam-quam, conj., though, al- though ; however, and yet (329). quam-vis, adv. and conj. (vis fr. v61o), however, however much, although (322. 1). quantus, -a, -um, interrog. and rel. adj. : 1. interrog., haw great f 2. rel., as great, as, such; in abl., quanto (as adv.), hy how much, by as much as; quanto magis, how much more. qua-propter, a.dv., for what, why, wherefore ? qua-re, interrog. and rel. adv. (quae ; res), from what cause, ivherefore, tvhy? quart-ana, F. (quartus), the quartan ague (recurring every fourth day). quSsi, adv. (quam, as; si, //), as if. Just as, as it tcere (330). quater, num. adv., four times. quattuor, num. adj. indecl., four. quattuor (quatuor), -dScim, num. adj. (quattuor; decem), fourteen. -que, enclitic conj., and, also. quSror, qugri, questus sum, dep., to complain of, lament. qui, quae, quod, interrog., rel., and indef. pron. : 1. interrog., which, what ; 2. rel., who, ivhich, ivhat (240 & 245); 3. (after si and ne) any; idem qui, the same as. quia, conj., because (332). qui-cumque, quae-cumque, quod-cumque, indef. relative pron. (240. 1), whoever, what- ever, whosoever, lohatsoever. quid, see quis. qui-dam, quae-dam, quod- (subst., quid-) dam, indef. pron., a certain one, somebody, something (246) ; quidam ho- mines, some persons. quidem, adv., indeed, at least; ne . . . quidem, not even (the word or phrase that ne . . . quidem modifies always comes between ne and quidem) . qui-libet, quae-libet, quod- (quid-) libet, indef. pron., any one you please, any one (246). quin, conj. (qui ; ne), who . . . not, that not, hut that; f ram (after 44 FIllST STEPS IN LATIN. verbs of liinderiiig) ; quin etiain, moreocer, nay ecen. Quinctius, -ii, m., Qulntlitx, a Koman name. quin-dgcim, num. adj. iiidecl. (quinque ; decern), ffteen. quin-genti, -ae, -a, num. adj. (quinque ; centum), /ire hun- dred. quin-ginti, see quin-genti(cen-). qui-ni, -ae, -a, num. distributive adj. (quinque), //re eacJi, hyjire. quinqu-a-ginta, num. adj. in- decl. (quinque), /('/>//. quinque, num. adj. indecl., /?re. quinqu-ies, adv. (quinque), y/re times, quin-tus, -a, -um, num. adj. (quinque), the Jifth. Quintus, -1, M., see C3.t\ilus. quippe, adv. and conj., surely, certainly, indeed ; far indeed. quis, quae, quid (quod), inter- rog. and indef. pron. : 1. inter- rog., icho, v;hat, ivhich ; quid (used adverbially), ho7tj? vhy;' icherefore ? (245 and 246) ; 2. after si and ne, indef., si quis, if any one ; ne quis, lest any one, that no one. quis-nam, quae-nam, quid-nam (quod-), int- lius Cornelius Scipio Africanus Major, and Puhlius Cornelius Scipio yl^lmilianus Africanus Minor. scriba, -ae, m. (scribo), a clerk, secretary, scribe. scribo, scribSre, scripsi, scrip- tum, to write, compose; scri- bgre leges, to draw up laws. scrip-tor, -oris, m. (scribo), ivriter. scutum, -i, N., a shield ; defence, protection. se, see sui (230). se-cedo, -ced6re, -cessi, -ces- sum, to go apart, separate, icitJi- draw ; secede; retire. se-cerno, -cerngre, -crevi, -cre- tum, to put apart ; to separate ; discern. seco, -are, -ui, -tum, to cut. secret- 6, adv. (secretus), apart, separately ; in secret. secre-tus, -a, -um, part. (s6cer- no), sejmrate ; secret, jyrivate. | sec-tor, -ari, -atus, dep. intens. (sgquor), to follow eagerly, hunt, pursue. sgc-undus, -a, -um, adj. (sg- quor), following ; hence, the second; (as not opposing)yayor- ahle ; sgcundo flumine, down stream, sed, conj., hut, yet (205. 3). sedeo, .sSdere, sedi, sessum, to sit ; be encamped, settle. sed-es, -is, f. (sSdeo), a seat; abode ; settlement. sed-i-tio, -onis, f. (sed ; eo), dis- sension, civil discord, sedition. sediti-osus, -a, -um, adj. (sedi- tio), seditious. Sggusiani (-avi), -orum, m., the Segusiani, a people west of the Rhone. sel-la, -ae, f. (s6deo), a seat, chair, stool. sgmel, num. adv., once, a single time, once for all ; non sgmel, not once alone, several times; sgmel atque itgrum, once and again, repeatedly. sementis, -is, f. (semino, to sow), a sowing. semper, adv., ever, alivays, at all times, for ever. sgn-atus, -us, m. (sgnex), a coun- cil of elders ; the senate (gen. sing., sometimes sgnati). sgnec-tus, -tutis, f., old age. s6nex, sgnis, adj. (nom. and ace. of the neuter pi. in the positive, and of the neuter sing, in the comp., are wanting), old, aged (150. 3), As noun, senex, -is, com. gen., an aged person, an old man, an old looman (from 40 and upwards) ; comp. sgnex, senior, maximus natu. seni, -ae, -a, num. distributive adj. (sex), six each, six. sgnior, -ius, adj. (comparative of sgnex), older, elder. VOCABULAKY. I. 49 S6n6nes (or Senones), -um, m. pL, a people of Gaul. sentent-ia, -ae, f. (sentio), a thinking, an ojnnion. sentio, -tire, -si, -sum, to dis- cern, perceive, observe, know. sepSira-tim, adv. (sepSro), asun- der, apart, separately. septem, num. adj. indecl., seven. Septen-trio, -onis, m., also pi., Septen-tri6nes,-uin (septem; trio), the seven plough oxen, the stars of the Great Bear ; hence, the North. sept-imus, -a, -um, num. ordinal adj. (septem), the seventh. septua-ginta, num. adj. (sep- tem), seventy. s6pul-tura, -ae, f. (sgpglio), a burying, funeral obsequies, sep- ulture. SequSna, -ae, f., the Sequdna, i.e. the Seine. SequSnus, -a, -um, adj., of the Sequani (a tribe of Gaul) ; M. pi., SequSni, -orum, the Sequani: m. sing., SequSnus, -1, a Sequanian. sgquor, sgqui, sScutus sum, dep., to follow, pursue (283). seri-6, adv. (serius, earnest), in earnest, seriously. sermo, -onis, m., talk, speech. ser-6, adv. (serus), late, too late. serp-ens, -entis, m. (serpo), a snake, serpent. serv-ilis, -e, adj. (servus), slav- ish, servile. serv-itus, -utis, f. (servus), slav- ery, servitude. servo, -are, -avi, -atum, to save, preserve ; keep. servus, -i, m., a slave, servant. sese, reduplicated form of se, ace. of sui. ses-tertius, -a, -um (semis-ter- tius), two and a half; (subst.) sestertius, -ii, m., a sesterce = two and a half asses = about four cents ; sestertium, -ii, n. (gen. pi. used as a subst.), one thousand sesterces (about \., Tulingi, a German tribe in Gaul. Tullia, -ae, r., Tullia, a Roman name. Tullius, -ii, i^r., Tullius, a Roman name. Tullus Hostilius, -1, M., third king of Rome, B.C. 672-640. turn, adv., then, at that time; cum (quum) . . . tum, both . . . and ; not only . . . but also. tiimultus, -tus, M. (tflmeo), a sivelling ; uprising; tumult, in- surrection. tiim-iilus, -i, m. (tiimeo, stvell), a mound, hillock, hill, tomb. tunc, adv., then, at that time; im- mediately. turba, -ae, f., a crowd; a dis- turbance. turma, -ae, v., a troop, squadron (of horse, consisting of thirty men). turpis, -e, adj., ugly; foul, filthy. turris, -is, f., a tower ; castle. tuus, -a, -um, pos. adj. pron., your, youi's. U. uber,-gris, x,, a teat, udder, breast. uber, -6ris, adj., rich, fruitful, fer- tile. iibi, adv., where, when; ub! pri- mum, as soon as. Ubii, -orum, m. pi., the Ubii (a German people on the right bank of the Rhine). iibi-que, adv., wherever; every- where. ulciscor, ulcisci, ultus sum, dep., to punish (an injury or the doer), avenge (an injury). ulter-ior, -ius, adj., gen. oris (comparative of ultra) (150. 1), farther, ulterior. rOCABULARY. 55 ultimus, -a, -urn, adj. (super!, of ultra), the farthest, most distant ; last. ultra, adv., and prep, with ace, beyond; on the other side of; ultra f idem, beyond belief. ultro, adv., beyond ; besides, more- over ; voluntarily. ul-tus, -a, -um, part, (ulciscor), having avenyed, punished. umbra, -ae, f., a shade, shadoiv ; an image. tlmSrus (humerus), -i, m., the shoidder. una, adv. (unus), together, at the same time. unde, adv., from tchich jAace, whence. und-i-que, adv. indef . (unde ; que), /row all sides. un-i-versus, -a, -um, adj . (unus ; versus), all together, all (in a mass), universal. un-quam (um-quam), adv., ever. unus, -a, -um, num. adj. (gen. sing., unius ; dat., uni), one, alone, sole, single (213). unus-quisque, unaquaeque, unumquodque, indef. adj. pron., each, every (246). urbs, urbis, f., a city, esp. Rome. usquam, adv., anyivhere. usque,adv.,a// the vmy,aU thetvhile, until; usque ab, all the way from; usque ad, even to, up to. usu-rpo, -are, -avi, -atum (usus ; rSpio), to use, employ. usus, -us, M. (utor), use, advan- tage; experience. u-sus, -a,-um,part. (utor), having used. ut or iiti, adv. and conj. ; inter- rog., hoiv ; rel., as, so, when, since; that, so that, in order that, that not (with words of fearing) (321 ft'.). ut-cumque (-cunque), adv., in what way soever, tvhenever. uter, utris, m., a bag ; skin. uter,utra,utrum, adj.jjron. (gen. sing., utrius ; dat., utri), in- terrog., ivhich of the two; rel., which (209). iiter-que, utrSque, utrumque, adj. pron., each (of two), both ; ex utraque parte, on eilher side. ttti, see ut. ut-ilis, -e, adj. (utor), useful; advantageous ; suitable. util-itas, -atis, f. (utilis), use, utility. ■ati-nam, adv., oh that ! I tvish that, ivould that! (278 ft'.). utor, uti, usus sum, dep., to use (280). utrim-que (utrinque), adv. (uter; que), on both sides, from both sides. •Strum, adv., whether ; see ttter. uxor, -oris, f., a wife; ducgre uxorem, to marry. vaco, -are, -avi, -atum, to be empty or vacant; be free from; (of lands) lie unoccupied. vad-um -i, n. (v^do, to go), a shoal, ford (that through which one can go). vagio, -ire, -ivi or -ii, no p.p., to cry; bray. vagT-tus, -us, M. (vagio), a cry- ing ; braying. vagor, -ari, -atus sum, dep. (va- gus, to wander about) (279. 2). valeo, -ere, -ui, no p.p., to be strong ; to be ivell, healthy; to be able ; vale, farewell, adieu. Vaigrius, -IT, M., Valerius (esp., Gains Val. Procillus), a Roman name. vSle-tudo, -inis, f. (valeo), health; also ill-health. vallum, -1, N., rampart (earthen 56 FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. wall set with j)alisades), wall, fortijicat'ion. vasto, -are, -avi, -atum (vastus), to lay icasle, ravage. vastus, -a, -um, adj., waste; huge, vast. vaticina-tio, -onis, f. (vatici- nor), a foretelling, prophecy, prediction. vectlgal, -alls, n., a toll, tax; pi., revenues (of state). vSg-etus, -a, -um, adj. (vggeo, to arouse^, vigorous, active. vShgmens, -entis, adj., eager, violent, vehement. vghgmen-ter, adv. (vShSmens), eagerly; forcibly, very, very inuch. v6ho, vghgre, vexi, vectum, to hear, carry, convey; in pass., vShi, to he carried, go, ride, sail. vel, conj., or; vel . . .^e\, either ...or; even, indeed, surely ; the very (with superlatives). vel-6x, -ocis, adj. (v61o, to fly), swift, fleet, rapid. vgl-ut (vgl-iitT), adv., just as; just as if, as if. venat-icus, -a, -um, adj. (vena- tus, hunting), for hunting. ven-do, -dSre, -didi, -ditum (venum, a sale : do), to sell (304). vSn6ra-tio, -onis, f. (vgngror, to reverence), reverence, veneration. vgnia, -ae, f., favor ; forgiveness. v6nio, vgnire, veni, ventum, to come, approach, draw near. venor, -ari, -atus sum, dep., to hunt, chase, pursue. ver, veris, n., spring. verbum, -i, n., a word; verba fScSre, to speak, discourse ; verb! causa, for example. vSreor, -eri, -itus sum, dep., to fear; he afraid of {203) ; vron.) ; both . . . and, ct . . . et ; (num. adj.), (n7d)0. boundaries, fines, -ia/7), m. (pi.). boy, jjuer, -e/-'l, M. brave, Jmiis, -e (adj.). bravely, jw-tlter (adv.). bridge, iKms, -fis, m. bright, cldras, -a, -?o« (adj.). broad, Idtus, -a, -uiu (adj.). brother, frdter, -tris, m. build, aedlfico, -d/-e, -dvl, -dtum. building, aedlftcium, -I, x. burden, d7ius, -ms, N. burn, c7-e77w, -dre, -dvl, -dtum. business, negotium, -i, N. but, sed, autem (205. 3) ; (only), tantum, mddo ; (unless), ntsi (conj.) ; (except), praeter (prep, with ace). by (a person after a passive verb), a or ah; by day, intei-- diu (adv.) ; by night, noctu (adv.) (256) ; dative agent (288) ; means, abl. (306) ; per (prep, with ace). C. Caesar, Caesar, -dris, m. call, vdco, -dre, -dvl, -dttan ; — out, evdco, -dre, -dvl, -dtum ; — to- gether, convdco, -dre, -dvl, -dtum ; (name), appello, -dre, -dvl, -dtum. camp, castra, -Drum, n. (pi.). ca.n, possum, posse, pdtui ; (= may), licet, impers. (314) with dat. candidly, dperte (adv.). care, cura, -ae, f. carefully, dittgenter (adv.). csirry, po7-to, -are, -dvl, -dtum; carry on, gtro, gere7-e, gessl, gestum; — on war against, helium In- ferro, -ferre, intull, illdtum ( inldtuni) . Carthage, Carthago, -^nis, r. cast a"way, ahtcio, -icere, -jecl, -jectum. cavalry, equites, -um, M. (pi.). cave, antrum, -i, N. ; specus, -us, f. central, medius, -a, -um; central place (with respect to both of them), locus medius. century, centuria, -ae, f. certain one, a, quldai77, quaedam, quoddam; and subst. {quid- dam^ ; (fixed), certus, -a, -um. chief, prlnceps, -ctpis, M.; (adj.), summus, -a, -um. children, puerl ; (in relation to parents), llherl, -Drum, m. ; (of age), infdns, -antis, c. choose (for a purpose), deligo, -Ugere, -lexl, -ledum; (out of a number), eUgOy -ligere, -legl, -ledum. Cicero, Cicero, -onis. citizen, clvis, -is, c. VOCABULAllY. II. 61 city, urbs, -is, f. clerk, scriba, -ae, m. cloak, pdluddjnentum, -i, n. close, claudo, -ere, -si, -sum. cloud, nuhes, -is, F. cohort, collars, -tis, f. cold, frigidus, -a, -urn (adj.) ; (jaoxm), frlgus, -oris, n. collect, comporto, -are, -dvl, -dtum; confero, -ferre, -lull, -latum. column, cdlumna, -ae, f. come, venio, -Ire, verii, ventum. commsin A,imperium,-i,J:^.; (verb), impero, -are, -dvl, -dtum (with dat., or ut with subj.). comraLander, dux, ducis, c. ; im- perdtor, -oris, m. common, communis, -e (adj.). company, with, in, cum (prep. with abL). compel, cogo, cogere, coegi, coac- tum (ace. with inf.). complain, queror, queri, questus sum. conceal, celo, -dre, -dvl, -dtum(lS5). concerning, de (prep, with abl.). concerns, it, interest, -esse, -fuit (315. 3 (2)). condemn, damno, -are, -avi, -dtum (315. 2). conference, conldquium, -l, n. confess, fdteor, fdteri, fassus. congratulate, grdtulor, -drl, -dtus (dep.). . _ conquer, vinco, vincere, vici, vic- tnm. conqueror, victor, -oris, m. consequence, it is of, mdgnl interest (334. 1). consul, consul, -ulis, m. consulship, consuldtus, -us, m., or ab. abs. ; see 260. consult, consulo, -ere, -ul, -turn, (with ace. or for noun dat.). contend, contendo, -dere, -dl, -turn. contention, contentio, -onis, f. conversation, sermo, -onis, m. convey, porto, -dre, -dvl, -dtum; — across, trdduco, -ere, -dull, -dltmn. Corinth, Corinthus, -I, f. coin, frumentum, -I, N. cottage, cdsa, -ae, v. could, past tenses of possum or subj. country, teriri, -ae, f. ; (native country), ]mt7ia, -ae, f. ; (op- posed to town), rus, ruris, N. ; (commonwealth), res puhlica, rel publicae. cowardly, Igndvus, -a, -um (adj.). Crassus, Crassus, -I, m. crime, scelus, -eris, n. ; crimen, -inis, N. ; f acinus, -oris, x. cross, transeo, -Ire, -il, -itum; trans- mitto, -mittere, -misl, -missum. crovrn, cdrono, -dre, -dvl, -dtum. cruel, crudelis, -e (adj.). cruelty, crudelitds, -dtis, f. cultivate, cola, cdlere, cdlui, cultum. culture, cultus, -us, m. cut, seco, -dre, -ul, -turn; — oif (from supplies), j:)ro/r<'6eo, -ere, -ul,-itum (with ace. and abl.). danger, periculum, -l, n. dare, audeo, -ere, ausus sum (283). dark (of color), niger, -gra, -grum. daughter, filia, -ae, f. day (opposed to night), dies, -el, M. ; (opposed to darkness), lux, iTicis, F. dear, cdrus, -a, -um. death, mors, mortis, f. ; (to sen- tence to death), capitis (315. 2). debt, aes dlienum. declare (war), indlco, -dicere, -dlxi, -dictum; renuntio, -dre, -dvl, -dtum. deed, factum, -i, n. ; (in a bad sense), fdcmus, -oris, n. deeds (exploits), res gestae, re- rum gestdrum, f. (pi.). 62 FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. deep, altuSf -a, -um (adj.). defend, dPfendo, -dere, -di, -sum. deliberate, dellbero, -are, -cwl, -at u III. deliberation, often perf. part. neut. of consiilo, delight, delecto, -are, -dv'i, -dtum (trans.) ; gaudeo, -ere, gdvisus sum (intrans.). deliver, trddo, -dere, -dull, -dttum ; (what is due), reddo, -dere, -dtdl, -dUum ; (free), libera, -dre,-dvt, -dtum; (of a speech), hdbeo, -ere, -ul, -Itum. demand, postulo, -are, -dvi, -dtum (185. 2); JldgXto, -are, -del, -dtum; (noww), postulCitum,-!, x. dense, densus, -a, -um (adj.). depart, decedo (discedo'), -cedere, -ccssi, -cessum; (set out), pr(y- ficiscor, -ficisci, -feet us sum. deserve, mereor, -erl, -itus sum; dignus sum (324. 1). deserving, diguus, -a, -um (adj.). desert, dfsero, -ere, -ul, -tum. deserter, perfuga, -ne, m. desire, ciipio, -ere, -Irl, -itum. desirous, appettns, -ntis ; ciipuhis, -a, -um (adj.). destroy (ruin), perdo, -dere, -dXdi, -ditum ; (annihilate), deleo, -lere, -leci, -letum. detain, detineo, -tXnere, -tiuui, no p.p. ; retineo, -tinere, -tXnul, no p.p. determine, cOnstttuo, -uere, -ul, -utum. devour, devoro, -are, -dvi, -dtum. dictator, dictator, -Oris, m. die, mdrior, -marl (or -Irl), -mor- tuus; obeo, -ire, -il, -itum. differ, differo, differre, no perf. nor p.p.; — from each other, inter se differo. differently, dliter (adv.). difficult, difflcUis, -e (adj.). diligence, diligentia, -ae, f. diligently, diligenter (adv.). discipline, disciplina, -ae, r. disorder, cunjusiu, -unis, r. displease, displiceo, -plicere, -pli- cul, -pllcitum. disposition, ingenium, -I, n. dissension, dissentid, -unis, f. distance, spdtium, -l, n. distant, longinquus, -a, -um (adj.) ; am distant, disto, -stare (no perf., no p.p.). distinguished, cldrus, -a, -um divide, divide, -vtdere, -visi, -vi- sum. Divitiacus, Divitidcus, -i, m. do (auxiliary in questions or commands, not translated) ; fdcio, fdcere, feci, factum. does, see do. dog, cunis, -is, m. door, jdnua, -ae, f. doubt, dubito, -are, -dri, -dtum ; (noun), dUbium, -t, n. ; there is no — , tiOn est dubium, with quin and subj. (333. 2). doubtful, dubius, -a, -um (adj.). dra"w up, instruo, -struere, -struxi, -structum. drive, pello, pellere, pepUll, pul- sum ; — back, reicio, reicere, re- ject, rejectum. due, debeo, -bere, -bui, -blfum ; par- tic, dehitus, -a, -um. duty, officium, -i, n. ; or gen. (13b. Obs.). dTvell, hdbito, -are, -dvi, -dtum; incdlo, -ere, -ul, no p.p. E. each (one), quisque, quaeque, quodque (adj.), and quidque, or quicque (subst.) ; unusquis- que : (of two), uterque, idra- que, utrumque. each other {i.e. one another), alius , , . alius, alter . . . alter. VOCABULARY. — 11. 63 eager, dvulus, -a, -um (adj.). eagle, dqiula, -ae, f. earth, teira, -ae, f. ; (world), or- his terrdrum. easily, fdcile (adv.). easy, fdcHh, -e (adj.). educate, educo, -are, -avl, -dtiuii. either ... or, vel . . . vcl ; aiil . . . aut. elect, fdcio, fdcere, feci, factum ; creo, -dre, -dvi, -dtum. elephant, elephanlus, -i, n. eloquence, eldquentia, -ae, f. embroider, dcu (306) pinfjo, pingere, pinxi, pictum. encompass, cingo, clngere, cinxl, cinctum. encourage, hortor,-dri, -dtus sum. end, conficlo, ftcere, feci, fectum; noun, finis, -is, M. (or some- times in sing. r.). endure, perjero, -ferre, -tuli, la- tum ; tdlero, -dre, -dvl, dtum; pdtior, -I, passus. enemy, hosfis, -is, c. ; the enemy (collectively), Jiostes, -ium ; (personal), Inimicus, -i, M. enjoy, fruor, frui, fructus (306. ^)- enroll, conscriho, -here, -psi, -ptum.. enter, intra, -dre, -dvl, -dtum; siib- eo, -ire, -ii, -itum. entrust, committo, -mittere, -mlsl, -mis sum. Ephesus, Ephesus, -i, f. escape, ejfugio, fugere, fugi, no p.p. establish, confirmo, -are, -avi, -dtum; stdtuo, stdtuere, statui, stdtutum. evening, vesper, -erl, m. every (one), quisque, quaeque, quodque (adj.), quidque or quic- que (subst.) ; (adj.), omnis, -e ; every tenth (man), dechuus quisque. excellent, excellens, -tis. exercise, exerceo^ -ere, -ui, -itum. exhort, hortor (or cdhortor^, -dri, -dtus sum (dep.). expect, exspecto, -dre, -dvl, -dtum. experience, usus, -us, m. extreme, extremus, -a, -um (adj.). eye, dculus, -i, m. iaithivil, fidelis, -e (adj.). f aithf ulness, /tc/e^', -el, f. ialse, falsus, -a,-um (adj.). family, fdmilia, -ae, f. far, longe prdcul (adv.). far and wide, Idte (adv.). farmer, agricdla, -ae, m. farther (adj.), ulterior, -us (adj., 150. 7). father, pater, -tris, m. fault, culpa, -ae, f. fear, timeo, -ere, -ul (no p.p.) (321, 2) ; metuo, metuere, me- tul, no p.p. ; vereor, -erl, -itus sujii (dep.) ; (noun), timer, -Oris, M. February (month of), Fehrud- riiis, -a, -um (rneusis being un- derstood). felloTv-citizen, clvis, -is, m. few, jmucl, -ae, -a, pi. (adj.) ; a — words, pauca, -drum, n. fidelity, fides, -el, f. field, dger, dgrl, m. fierce, atrox, atrocis (adj.). fiercely, acriter (adv.). fifth, quintus, -a, -um (adj.). fight, dlmico, -dre, -dvl, -dtum; pugno,-dre, -dvl, -dtum; (subst.) , pugna, -ae, f. fill, compleo, -plere, -plevl, -pic- tum; repleo, -plere, -plevl, -pictum. find (by search or inquiry), repe- rio, reperlre, reperi, repertum ; invenio, -venire, -vent, -ventum. finish, flnio, -Ire, -Ivl, -itum; con- ficio, -ficere, -feci, -fectum. 64 riBST STEPS IN LATIN. fire, ignis, -is, m. Giist, jjrlmus, -a, -um (adj.) ; (adv.), primum a,nd prlmo. fish, piscis, -is, M. flee, fugio, fugere, fugi, fvgitum. fleet, dassis, -is, f. flight, fuga, -ae, f. flo'w, jfiiw, -ere, -xl, -xum. fly, volo, -are, -dvi, -atum. folio-wing (day), posterns, -a, -um (adj., 150. 2). folly, stultitia, -ae, r. foot, pes, pedis, m. foot-soldier, pedes, -ids, m. for (see 303) ; conj., nam, enim (follows the first word or words), etenim (205. 5) ; prep., de or pro with abl. ; (sign of dat.). forage, pabulor, -arl, -citus sum (dep.). forbid, veto, -are, -m, -Uum. force, cogo, -ere, -egi, -actum. forces, copiae, -arum, f. (pi.). foresight, prndentia, -ae, F. forest, silva, -ae, f. forget, ohllviscor, ohlivisci, ohlltus sum, dep. (315. 1). form a plan, consXlium ineo, -ire, -il, -ifnm. fortify, munio, -Ire, -Irl, -Itum. fortunate, fortunCilus, a-, -um (adj.). fortune, /orAi/na, -ae, F. found, condo, -dere, -didl, -ditum. free, hher, -era, -erum (86. 2) ; be free from, vdco, -are, -dvl, -atum; set free, libera, -are, -dvl, -alum; of a slave, mdnu- initto, -mittere, -misl, -missuyn. friend, amicus, -i, m. friendship, amlcitia, -ae, v. frog, 7-ana, -ae, f. from (away from), a, ah; (out of), e, ex; (denoting cause), abl., see 248. fruit (of trees), fructus, -us, m. ; (of ^elds), fruges, -um, f. (pL). fugitive, fugiens, part, of fugio. full, plenus, -a, -inn (adj.). further, adj., ulterior, -us (adj., 150.1); (furthermore), aw/em, conj. (placed after one or more words) . fury, fiiror, -oris, m. G. gain, lucrum, -I, n. games, ludl, -drum, m. (pi.). garden, hortus, -i, m. gate, jd.nua, -ae, f. ; porta, -ae, F. Gaul (the country), Gallia, -ae, f. Gaul (an inhabitant), Gallus, -i, M. general, dux, diicis, m. ; imperator, -toris, M. German, Germdnus, -a,-um (adj.). get, acqulro, -ere, -sivi, -situm; assequor, -sequl, -cuius sum (dep.). gift, donum, -i, N. girl, piiella, -ae, f. give, do, dare, dedi, datum; give up, trddo, -dere, -dull, -ditum; — what is due, tribuo, -uere, -ul, -utum. glad, laetus, -a, -um (adj.). glory, gloria, -ae, F. go, eo, ire, il (ivi), itum (298); go on, pass, of gero, gerere, gessl, gestum ; — forth, exec, -Ire, -Ivl or -il, -itum ; — through (permeate), permeo, -dre, -dvl, -atum. god, deus, -I, M. going to (fut. act. part.), gold, aurum, -i, n. good, bonus, -a, -um (adj.). goods, merx, mercis, f. govern, rego, regere, rexi, rectum; gnberno, -dre, -dvl, -dtum; prae- sum, -esse, -ful (202). grain, frumentum, -I, N. grandfather, dvus, -l, m. VOCABULAKY. — II. great, magnus, -a, -urn (adj.). Greek, Graecus, -a, -uin (adj.) ; (noun), Graecus, -I, m. ground, humus, -i, r. ; solum, -i. n. gro"w ■weak, languesco, langues- cere, langul, no p.p. guardian, custos, -odis, m. guide (subst.), dux, ducis, m. hall, aula, -ae, f. Hannibal, Hannibal, -alls, m. happens, it, accidit, -cidere, -cidit. happy, felix, -ids (adj.) ; hedtus, -a, -um (adj.). hsLihoT, partus, -us, m. (174. 2). hard, durus, -a, um (adj.); — to do, difficilis, -e. hardship, durum, -i, n. hasten, mdturo, -are, -dvi, -dtum ; festino, -are, -dvi, -dtum; pro- pero, -dre, -dvi, -dtum. hatred, odium, -l, n. have, hdheo, habere, habui, hdbi- tum; sum, esse, fui, with dat. (274). he, is ; ille ; hie ; or implied in the third person of the verb ; in indir. disc, referring to the principal subject, se (353. 1). heal, medeor, -eri, no perf . hear, audio, -ire -ivi, -itum. heavy, gravis, -e. help, juvo, -dre, juvi, jutum; (noun), auxilium, -i, x. Helvetians, Helvetil, -drum, m. hem in, contmeo, -tineri, -tmui, -tentum (with ace). Ta.eTa.ce, proinde ; hinc (adv.). her, ejus; her own (refl.), suus, -a, -um ; emph., ipsius. herald, praeco; -dnis, m. here, be, adsum, -esse, -fui. high, altus, -a, -um (adj.). highest interests, summae res. highly, mdgm (304). hill, 7nons, montis, M. ; collis, -isj m. him, see he ; see 271. Obs. G. himself, ipse (reflex, se). hinder, impedio, -ire, -ivi -itum ; obsto, -stare, -stiti, -stdtum. his, ejus (gen. of is) ; his own, suus, -a, -um; referring to sub- ject, suus, -a, -um (emph.), ipsius (gen.); omitted when implied from the context. hither (adj.), citerior, -us (adj., 150. 1). hold, teneo, tenere, tenul, tentum. home (to), domum; (at), at — doml (270. 1). Homer, Homerus, -i, m. honor, honor, -oris, M. hope, spes, -el, r. ; (verb) spero, -dre, -dvi, -dtum. horse, equus, -i, m. horseman, eques, -itis, m. hostage, obses, -idis, c. hour, hora, -ae, f. house, domus, -us, f. hundred (one), centum. hunger, /ames, -is, f. I. I, ego (326). if, SI ; — not, si ndn ; unless, nisi (326). imitate, imitor, -dri, -dtus sum dep. immediately, statim, cdnfestim (adv.). immortal, immortdlis, -e. implore, impldro, -dre, -dvi, -dtum. in, in (prep, with abl.) ; in com- pany with, cum (prep, with abl.); in the power of, penes (prep, with ace.) ; in turn, invicem (adv. or abl. alone) ; in order that, ut, ne, etc. (see 321, 322). increase, augeo, augere, auxi, auctum. inform, cerium \cei'tidrem'] facio^ fdcere, feci, factum. 66 FIRST STErS IN LATIN. inhabitant, in cola, -ae, m. injure, noceo, -ere, -ul, -iturn (with dat.) ; ohsum, -esse, -fui (203). injury, injuria, -ae, r. inquire, quaero, quaerere, quae- sivi, quaesitwn (185. 2). insist on, fldglto, -are, -dvl, -dtum. instruct, erudio, -Ire, -ivi or -il, -U II 7)1. interests, it, interest, -esse, -fui (315. 3 (2)). into, m (prep, with ace). island, insula, -ae, f. it, see he. Italy, Italia, -ae, f. it is, est (see 127, sign of passive voice). its (referring to the subject), suus, -a, -uin ; omitted if im- plied from the context. January (month of, mensis being understood), Jani/ar/M.s,-a,-Mm. javelin, telum, -i, n. join, jungo, jungtre, junxl, junc- tum. journey, iter, itineris, n. joy, gaudium, -l, N. joyful, laetiis, -a, -um (adj.). judge, /wZea:, -dicis, m. judgment, judicium, -I, x. ; to pass — upon, senfio, -Ire, sejisi, sensus (with de and abl.). June (month of) Julius, -il, m. just, Justus, -a, -um (adv.). justice, justitia, -ae, f. keep off, prohiheo, -ere, -ui, -itum. kill, interficio, -ficere, -feci, -fec- tum ; (by cutting down), occl- do, -cidere, -cidi, -cisum. kind, bemgnus, -a, -um (adj.) ; (noun), genus, -eris, n. king, rex, rPgis, m. kingdom, regnum, -i, n. know (of things), scio, scire, scivl, scitum ; nosco, noscere, novi, nOtum ; (become ac- quainted with), cognosco, -gno- scere, -gnovi, -gnitum ; (not to know), nescio, -scire, -scivi or -scii, -scitum ; ignoi'o, -are, -dvl, -dtum; (understand), intellego, -legere, -lexi, -lectum. knowledge, scientia, -ae, f. Lacedaemonian, Ldcedaemd- nius, -a, -um (adj.). lake, Idcus, -lis, m. (174. 2). lame, claudus, -a, -um (adj.). land (a country), terra, -ae, f. ; (native land), pdtfia, -ae, f. ; (by — and sea), terrd mdrique. language, lingua, -ae, F. large, mdgnus, -a, -um (adj.); amplus, -a, -um (adj.). last, ultlnius, -a, -um (150. 1) ; (nearest, as last night), proxi- mus, -a, -um (150. 1) ; (most remote), extremus, -a, -um (150. 2) ; (at last), demum (adv.) Latin, Ldtlnus, -a, -um (adj.). la-w (statute), lex, legis, f. lawful, Justus, -a, -um (adj.) ; (it is — ), licet (314. 2) ; fas (in- decl.). lay before, prdpdno, -ponere, -pdsul, -pdsitum. lay down (place), pono, ponere, pdsul, pdsitum; — arms, ab armls discedo, -ere, -cessl, -ces- sum ; lay ^N^,&te*vasto, -are, -dvl, dtum. lead, duco, ducere, duxi, ductum ; (over), trdnsduco, -ducere, -duxl, -ductum ; (out or from), educo, -ducere, -duxl, -ductum, VOCABULARY. ir. 67 leader, dux, ducis, c. leap, salio, -li-e, -ui, or -it, -turn; (over), transtlio, -silire, -silui, no p.p. learn, disco, discere, didicl, no p.p. ; cognosco, -gnuscere, -gnovi, -gmtum. learned, doctus, -a, -urn. leave, relinquo, -linquere, -llqul, -lictum. legate, legdtus, -l, m. legion, legio, -onis, f. less (adj.), minor, -us (adj.) ; adv., minus. lest, ne, etc. (see 321 and 322). let, permitto, -mittere, -misi, -mis- sum; sino, sinere, sivi, situm; in commands and prohibi- tions (278). letter (of alphabet), littera, -ae, f. ; (an epistle), litterae, -drum, F. ; pi., or epistula, -ae, f. levy, conscribo, -scrlbere, -scripsi, -scriptum. liberate, libero, -are, -dvi, -dtum. liberty, libertds, -dtis, f. lie, Jdceo, -ere, -ui, -itum; (speak falsely), mentior, -iri, -itus sum (dep.). lieutenant, legatus, -I, m. life, vita, -ae, f. (with reference to its several stages, as boy- hood, youth, etc.), aetds, -dtis, f. ; (manner of living), victus, us, M. light, lux, lucis, F. ; (be light), luceo, lucere, luxi, no p.p. ; light, levis, -e (adj.). lightning (flash of), fulgur, -uris ; (stroke oi), fulmen, -mis, n. like, similis, -e (adj.). limb, artus, -us, m. line (of battle), acies, -ei, f. lion, leo, -onis, M, literature, litterae, -arum, r. (pi.)- live, vivo, vivere, vixl, victum ; (dwell), hdhito, -are, -dvl, -dtum. lofty, excessus, -a, -nm (ad j . ) ; (for a long time), diu (adv.). long, longus, -a, -um. look at, specto, -dre, -dvl, -dtum, or adspicio, -ere, -exi, -ectum. lose, dmiito, -mittere, -misi, -missum. love, dmo, -dre, -dvl, -dtum; (like, esteem), diligo, -ligere, -lexl, -lectum ; (subst.), amor, -oris, M. M. make, fdcio, fdcere, feci, factum ; (a magistrate), creo, -dre, -dvl, -alum; (war upon), Infero, in- ferre, intuli, illdtum; (cloak), conficio, -ficere, -feci, -f ectum ; (attack), aggredior, -gredi, -gressus sum. maker, /a&er, -hri, m. man, vir, virl, m. (an adult male person, opp. to mulier, wo- man) ; homo, -inis, c. (a hu- man being). maniple, mdnipulus, -i, n. many, multi, -ae, -a (adj.). march, iter, itineris, N. (subst.) ; (verb), iter fdcio, fdcere, feci, factum. marry (of the man), uxd'rem duco, ducere, duxi, ductum; (of the woman), viro nuho, nubere, nupsl, nitptum. master (of boys), mdgister, -trl ; (of slaves), ddminus, -i, m. may, licet, licere, licuit or licitum est (impers., 314. 2) ; possum, posse, pdtul (293, 2) ; in final clause, ut; of wish (278). May (month of), Mdius, -a, -um (adj.), (mensis being under- stood)., measure, metior, metlrl, mensus sum (dep.). meet (death), obeo, -Ire, -ii, -itum. memory, memdria, -ae, f. men (with poss. pron.), omitted, as our — , nostrl, -drum, m. 68 FIKST STEPS IN LATIN. merchant, mercdtor, -Oris, m. messenger, nuntius, -i, M. midday, m^rldies, -el, M. midnight, media nox. midst of, in, medius, -a, -inn. might, see may. migrate, mujro, -are, -di% -at urn. mile, mllle passuum. Miletus, Miletus, -l, f. military affairs, res militdris. mind, animus, -i, m. mine, mens, -a, -um. mistaken, be, erro, -are, -dvi, -alum ; fallor, falll, falsum (pass, of fallo). money, pecunia, -ae, f. monster, monstrum, -I, N. month, mensis, -is, m. moon, luna, -ae, f. more (sign of comp. degree), mdgis; (of quantity), p/w.s (witli expressions of number), amplius. morrow (on the), postei'D die. most (sign of superl. degree), jiidxime. mother, mater, mdtris, F. mountain, mans, -tis, M. mourn, lugeo, lilgere, luxl, luctum. move, moveo, movere, movi, mvtum. music, musica, -ae, F. must, oportet, or gerundive (286). my, meus, -a, -um. myself, egomet (230. 1) ; ipse, -a, -um; agreeing with ego, ex- pressed or understood. N. name, numen, -inis, n. narrow, angustus, -a, -um (adj.). naturally, ndtur-d (abl.). nature, imtura, -ae, f. near, prijpe, ad (prep, with ace). nedLxest, pruximus, -a, -um (adj.). need, opus (308. Qbs. 2) ; egeo (indigeo), -ere, -ul, no p.p. (308. Obs. 1). neither (of two), neuter, -Ira, -trum ; neither . . . nor, neque . . . neque (205. 1). never, nunquam (adv.). nevertheless, nihilummus (adv.) ; tdmen (conj.). new (opp. to antiquus), novus, -a, -um ; fresh (opp. to vetus), recens, -entis ; new^s, nuntius, -a, -um ; nuntium mittere, to send word ; or dliquid novl. next, proximus, -a, -um (adj.). night, nox, noctis, F. ; by night, nociu. no, adj., nullus, -a, -um; no one, nemo, -inis (for gen. nulllus is used) . noble, decorus, -a, -um ; nobilis, -e (adj.). none, nullus, -a, -um (adj.). nor, neque, nee, (conj.) ; neither . . . nor, nee . . . nee (neque) (205. 1). not, nun (adv.) ; Jiaud, used with adverbs and with seio ; nunne, interrog. particle ; that . . . not (in final, hortatory, impera- tive, and optative clauses), ne. nothing, nihil, N. (indecl.). nourish, nutria, -iri, -ivi, -Itum; ulo, -ere, -ul, alitum and altum. now, nunc (adv.). nowhere, nusquam (adv.). number, numerus, -I, m. Numitor, Numitor, -oris, M. oak-tree, quercus, -us, f. obey, pdreo, -ere, -ul, no p.p. ; obedio, -Ire, -ivl or -il, -Itum. object, ohsto, -stare, -stitl, -stdtum. obtain, adipiseor, -ipisel, -eptus sum (dep.) ; (possession), po- tior, -irl, -Itus sum, dep. (306. 2). of, gen. or abl. case ; see 292 ; de (prep, with abl.). Vocabulary. — ii. 69 often, saepe (adv.). old (man), senex, senis, m. ; (adj.), grandis ndtM; vetus, -eris. older (comp.), major natu. on, in (prep, with abl.) ; on this side, citrd (prep, with ace.) ; of time or instrument, abl. ; — this account, eo (adv.) or ob earn causam; — the ground that, quod, conj. (332). once (for all), semel ; — on a time, olhn'; (of time), abl. one, unus, -a, -um ; gen. -lus ; one . . . another, alius . . . alius; one . . . the other, alter . . . alter ; no — , nemo, -inis ; any one, quwis ; one of two, alter, -era, -erum ; the — who, is qui : — by — , singuli, -ae, -a, (with nouns pi. in form but sing, in meaning, 213, 1), unl, -ae, -a. only (adv.), tantum; (altogeth- er), omnino (adv.) ; if — , du7n (conj.) with subj. opinion, sententia, -ae, f. oppress, opprimo, -primere, -pres- si, -pressum. or (conj.), aut, vel (205. 1). orator, orator, -oris, m. order, or give orders, jubeo, jit- here, jussl, jussum (ace. and inf., 342. (2)) ; order special religious services, supplicdtio- nes decerno, -cernere, -crevi, -cre- tum ; in order that or to, ut, see 321 ; (with eomp.), quo (with subj., 321, Obs. 2). other, alius, -a, -ud, gen., -ius ; (of two), alter, -tera, -terum ; with each — , inter se or sese. ought, debeo, -here, -but, -bttum ; (or, see 286) ; oportet, -ere, -uit, impers. (with ace. and inf. as subject, or with subst. subj. clause, 343. 3). our, noster, -tra, -trum. ourselves, ipsi, with 1st person pi. of the verb ; reflex., nos. out of, e, ex (prep, with al)].). outside of, extra (prep, with ace). over, super (prep, with ace). o-wn (his, their, etc.), suus, -a, -um ; (our — ), noster, -tra, -trum; (my — ), meus, -a, -um ; proprius, -a, -um. ox, bos, bovis, c. part, ^ar.s, -tis, F. ; or gen. (237). pass, exigo, -igere, -tgi, -actum; — over, trdnseo, -ire, -it, -itum ; — by, praetereo, -ire, -ii, -itum. ■paXiewtly, pdtienter (adv.). pay, pendo, pendere, pependi, pen- sum; (subst.), merces, -cedis, f. peace, pOx, pdcis, F. people, populus, -i, m. perceive, sentio, sentire, sensi, sen- sum; animadverto, -ere, -ti, -ver- sus (with ace). perform, fdcio, fdcere, fe.cl, fac- tum; conficio, -ficere, -feci,-fec- tum ; — duties, fungor, fungi, functus sum, dep. (306. 1.) perish, pereo, -ire, -ii, no p.p. person, see 290. pine-tree, joinws, -us or -i, f. pity, miseret, miserere, miseruit (314. 2) ; niisereor, -erl, -eritus or -ertus (315. 3). place (subst.), locus, -i, m. ; (verb), pono, ponere, posui, pdsitum; place around, c/r- cumdo, -dare, -dedi, datum ; take place, pass, of gero, ge- rere, gessi, gestum. plain, pldnities, -el, f. plan, consilium, -i, N. ; (system), ratio, -onis, f. Plato, Plato, -onis, M. play, ludo, -dere, -s'l, -sum.. please (give satisfaction), p/aceo, -ere, -ui, -itum (dat.). pleasing, acceptus, -a, -um (adj.) ; grains, -a, -um (adj.). 70 FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. pleasure, voluptds, -atis, f. ; with pleasure, libente?^ (adv.). plough, d7'o, -are, -dvi, -atum; (noun), drdtrum, -i, n. Po, Pddus, -I, M. poet, pdeta, -ae, m. point out, monstro, -dre,-dvT, -dtuni. Pompey, Pompelus, -i, m. poor, pauper, -eris (adj.). possession, obtain, jjotior, -v-i, -Itus sum (306. 2). postman, tdbelldrlus, -i, m. power (in . . . of), j^enes (prep. with ace). powerful, patens, -tis (adj.). praise (subst.), laiis, laudls, f. ; (act of praising), lauddliO, -vnis, F. ; (verb), lauda, -are, -dvi, -dtum. prefer (wish rather), 7ndlo, mal/e, mdlul, no p.}>. (294) ; antepona, -j)anere, -posul, -pasitum (with ace. and dat.) ; praefero,-ferre, -trill, -latum (with dat.). prepare, pdro, -are, -dvl, -dtum. present, be, adsum, -esse, -ful; — at or in, intersum, -esse, -fuu preserve, conservo, -are, -uvl, -dtum. pretend, stmulo, -are, -dvi, -dtum; dlsslmulo, -are, -drl, -dtum. prevent, prohibeo, -tre, -ui, -itum (323. 1). price, pretium, -l, n. ; 304. prisoner of war, captwus, -I, m. produce, fruges, -um, f. (pi.) ; fructus, -us, M. profit, prosum, prudesse, prvfui (with dat., 203). proraise, prdmissum, -i, x.; (verb), promitto, -mitt ere, -mist, -missum; polliceor, -Itceri, -licitus sum. property, hrtrco, parcere, peperci ;'no P-P- speak, loquor, loqui, locutus sum (dep.); (of an orator), dico, dicer e, dixl, dictum. spear, sdgitta, -ae, f. speech, oratio, -onis, F. spring, ver, veris, N. stable, stdbtlis, -e (adj.). stand, sto, stare, steti, statum. standard, slgnum, -i, N. star, Stella, -ae, f. state, civitds, -dtis, F. ; res publico, gen.; reipublicae, f. stone, lapis, -idis, M. ; saxum, -i, N. stork, ciconia, -ae, F. storm (assault), expugno, -are, -dvi, -dtum; storm (noun), tem- pestds, -dtis, F. story, fdbula, -ae, f. VOCABULARY. IT. 73 strange (new), novus, -a, -um (adj.) ; (wonderful), miru's, -a, -um (adj.). stream, riviis, -i, m. strip, spolio, -are, -dvi, -atum (a))l.). strive (to do a thing), nltor, nift, msus or nixus, dep. strong, vdlidus, -a, -um (adj.); firm us, -a, -um, (adj.). strongly, ?Y7/r^i(T; Jirmiter ; fortX- ter (adv.). study, studeo, -ere, -id, no p.p. subdue, suhlgo, -tgere, tgi, -actum. Suessiones, SuessiCmes, -um, m. (pi.). suitable {^t), aphis, -a, -inn (adj.); iduneus, -a, -um., adj. with ad and ace, or with dat. (147. 1) ; also with rel. clause (324. 1) . summer, aestus, -dtis, r. ; mid — , media aestCis. summon, voco, -are, -fwl, -dtum, : or, evuco, -dre, -dvl, -dtum.. sun, srd, srdis, m. sure, certiis, -a, -um (adj.). surrender (noun), dedttio, -onis, F. ; (verb), dedo, -dere, -didi, -dl- tum; trddo, -ere, -dedi, -ditwn. surround, cingo, cingere, cinxl, cinctum ; circumsto, -stdre, -stetl, no p.p. ; circumeo, -ire, -h, -itum. sustain, sustineo, -tin ere, -tinul, -tentum. swift (rivers), 7-dpidus, -a, -um (adj.) ; (persons, etc.), veldx, -ocis (adj.). swiftness, celeritds, -dtis, F. s^wim, ndto, -dre, -dvl, -dtum. s-word, ferrum, -i, n. ; glddius, -1, M. take, cdpio, caper e, cepi, caption : (possession of), occupo, -dre, -dvl, -dtum; (place), passive of gero, gerere^ gessl^ gestum; (care), euro, -dre, -dvl, -dtum. talent, tdlentum, -I, x. ; (ability), ingenium, -i, N. teach, doceo, -ere, -ui, -tum, with two ace. (185). teacher, doctor, -oris, m. ; mdgis- ter, -trl, m. tell, narro, -dre, -dvl, -dtnm ; dlco, dlcere, dixl, dictum. temper, animus, -i, m. ten, decern. tenacious, tendx, -de is (adj.). tenth, dechnus,-a.,-um (num. adj.). Tarentine, Tdrentlnus, -a, -um (adj.). territory or territories, fines, -ium, M. (pi.). than, quam, or abl. case (143). that, il/e, ilia, illud (234); is, ea, id (238); iste, ista, istud (234 and 235, Obs. 1); (rel.) qui, quae, quod (240) ; (in final clauses), ut (utl) (321) ; (with comp.), quo (321, Obs. 2) ; — not, ue (Obs. before 321) ; (in con- secutive clauses) '^322); (after negatives, etc.), quia (323, Obs. 2; 321.3); (after verbs of fear- ing), ne (321. 2) ; would — (278.1 (1)) (321 and 322). theatre, tliedtrum, -1, n. their (referring to subject), suus, -a, -um.: ipse, ipsa, ipsum ; (of them, of these), gen. pi. of is (238) ; omitted when implied from context and notemphatic. themselves, ip)si, -ae, -a (intens., 238. 3) ; (reflex., sul, silu, se or sese), (230). then (of time), tnm (adv.) ; (secondly), deinde (adv.) ; tunc (adv.). there, ibi, illic (adv.) ; (thither), eo (adv.) ; (there is), est : (is there), estne ; (there are some), see 324. therefore, itdque, igXtur (usually following the first word of the sentence). 74 FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. these, see this ; (these things), Imec (234). they, see he ; dat. pi. of the, demon. (288). thick, densiis, -a, -um ; (wall), ldtui<, -a, -um. thing, res, re'i, f. ; neut. sing. adj. (83. 4). think, piito, -are, -avl, -atum; (form an idea), cbcjlto, -are, -avl, -at um ; ( j udge) ,judtco,-are, -avl, -alum; (as a view, be sen- sible of), senfio, -tire, -s't, -surn ; (estimate,©!' an official opinion as a senator), censeo, -ere, -ul, -nm; (an individual opinion), opinor, -url, -fitus sum, dep. third, tertius, -a, -um (ord. num. adj.). thirst (noun), slth, -is, y. ; (verb), sltio, -Ire, -ivl or -il, no p.p. thirteen, tredecim. this, Idc, hare, hoc (234) ; some- thing to be mentioned, Hie, ilia, illud. this side of, cXtra (prep.with ace). thoroughly, j;/-o /ye (adv.). those, nil, -ae, -a (234), anteced. of rel., pi. of is; tliese . . . those, hi . . . nil. though, quamrls (331) ; Uat (331); even— (^/before 331). thousand, mllle (213. 2) . three, tres, tria (num. adj.). through, per (prep, with ace.) ; (cause), abl. thrOTV, jdcio, Juctre, jecl, jactum ; — to, adicio, -ere, -Jecl, -jectum. Tiber, Tiber is, -is, m. ; (ace. -//;?). time, tempus, -oris, N. ; (season), tempestas, -at is, f. ; (times), num. adv. timid, timldus, -a, -um (adj.). Titus, Titus, -I, M. to (of motion), ad, or in, prep, with ace. (200. 3) ; (of rela- tion), dat., or by the infin. before a verb ; denoting pur- pose (321, and Obs. 2 and 3). to-day, hodie (adv.). together (in company with), una (adv.) ; (at once), shnul (adv.). to-morrow, axis (adv.). top (of), summus, -a, -um (adj.). towards, ad (prep, with ace.) ; (of time), sub (prep, with ace, or abl.) ; (into or against), in (with ace). tO"wer, turris, -is, f. to^wn, ojipldum, -l, n. train, exerceo, -ere, -ul, -Itum. transfer, transfero, -ferre, -lull, -latum. treachery, prddltio, -Dnis, f. treason, prddltio, -dnis, f. treat, dr/o, agere, egl, actum. tremble, contremisco^ -iscere, -mul. tribune, t7'lbrmus, -I, m. tribuneship, trlbunutus, -us, m. tribute, stipend iurn, -il, n. triumph, triumpho, -are, -avl, -dtum; (noun), triump)hus, -I, m. troops, cdpiae, -drum, f. (pi.). troublesome, molestus, -a, -um (adj.). true, verus, -a, -um (adj.). trust, credo, -dtre, -dull, -dltum ; fldo, fid ere, flsus sum (semi- "dep., i283^. truth (true things), vera, N. (pL), Veritas, -dtis, v. tumult, tumultus, -us, m. turn (verb), verto, vertere, vertl,ver- sum ; (adv., by turn), invicem. Tuscans, Tuscl, -drum, M. (pi.). two, duo, -ae^ -0 (num. adj.) ; (with nouns pi. in form, but sing, in meaning), blni, -ae, -a (213. 3). uncertain, incertus, -a, -um (adj.). under, siib (with vei'bs of motion) with ace. ; (with verbs of rest) with abl., or see 259. VOCABULARY. II. 75 understanding, miellerlus, -iis, .m. undertake, suscipio, -crptrc, -ccju, -ceptum. undertaking, inceptum, -l, n. ; (work), opus, -eris, n. unequal, iiiipar, -dris (adj.). unfriendly, inimlcus, -a, -um unless, ntsi (conj. ; with subj. 326). unlike, dissXnulk, -e (adj.). until (= up to), acZ, prep, with ace; dum, donee, quoad, conj. (334) ; (before), antequam, priusquam, (336) . unTvilling, be, nolo, nolle, nolui (294). un-willing, inoitus, -a,-um (adj.). unworthy, indlqnm, -a, -imi (307. Obs. 4). upon, in, snper (200) ; or see verb or other word of a phrase, as loait for ; see wait, us, objective of we, see 229. 1 ; 278. use (verb), ulor, TUi, miis sum dep. (306. 1) ; (noun), usus, -us, m. ; to — force, vhii fdcere. valor, virtus, -at is, r. value, aesttmo, -are, -avi, -dtiun ; exlstlmo, -are, -Ctrl, -alum; (noun), pretium, -1, n. Verres, Verres, -is, m. very (superlative degree) ; valde (adv.) ; mdf/ndpere (adv.) ; — easily (after neg.), satis com- modi; (self), see 238, 239, Ex. 3. vessel, ndvis, -is, f. ; vds, vdsis, ]sr. vexed at, he,piget, pigere, pu/uit and pigXtian est (impers., 3i4). victory, victoria, -ae, f. villa, villa, -ae, f. Volsinii, Vol sin il, -drum. vulture, vultur, -liris, m. W. wage, gero, gerer-e, gessl, gestum; (upon or against), Infero, in- fer re, iutull, illdtum (with dat. and ace). "wait, — for, exspecto, -dre, -del, -dtum; (remain), mdneo, ntd- nere, mansl, mansum. walk, or take a walk, amhulo, -dre, -dvl, -dtum. "Wall (general term), murus, -i, m.; (of a city), moenia, -ium, x. (pi.) ; (of a house), paries, -etis, M. ; (rampart about a camp), vdllum, -i, n. wander, erro, -are, -dvl, -dtum: (about), vdgor, -dri, -dtus sum (dep.). ■want, cdreo, -ere, -in, -itum : (to be wanting), desum, -esse, -fu. war, helium, -i, n. ; (wage — against), infero, mferre, intuit, illdtum; (in — ), helll (271. 1). warn, moneo, -ere, -ui, -itum. waste, lay, vasto, -dre, -dvi, -dtum ; pdpulor, -dri, dtus sum, dep. watch, vigilia, -ae, v. ; — men, vtgiliae, -drum, m. ; (verb), ingilo, -dre, -dvl, -dtum. water, aqua, -ae, f. wa-ve,fluctus, -Rs, m. way, via, -ae, f. we, nos, see I. weak, grow, languEsco, -uescere, -ui (no p.p.). weapon, teium, -t, n. wearied, fessus, -a, -um; (be weary, pained), (verb), taedet, taedere, taeduit or taesum est impers. (314). weeping,y?ew.s,_^enf/.s(pres.part.) well, Mne (adv.); (adj., in good health), sdnus, -a, -um (adj.). went, see go. what, interrog., qui, quae, quod (adj.) and quid (subst.) ; — rel., id quod ; see 240 and 245. 7G FIRST STEPS IN LATIN. ■whatever, qulcumque, quaecum- que, quodcumque (indef. rel. pron.) ; any — , quivis, quaems, quodvls (adj.), and quidris (subst.) indef. pron. ^vhat o'clock, quota hum. when, cum (338 and 339), vln (or an appositive) ; or 259; (when ?), qtiando ? (adv.), post- quam, posted, etc. (333). where, tdn (interrog. & rel. adv.). wherefore, quamdhrein, qudre, tmde. ■whether, nwn, ne (91. 1, a, h, c). which (of two), y7/r/- ; (rel.), see •who. while, dnm (334). ■white, alhii.«, -a, -vm (adj.). ■who (which), I'elative, qui, quae, quod (321,324:); who (what), interrog"., (/uis ((/ul). quae, quod (quid) (245). ■whoever, qu~icu)nque, (adj.) qiiae- cuuique, quodrwiique (indef. rel. pron.) ; — you please, qui- nbet, quael7hef, quodllbet, and (subst.), quidnhef, indef . pron. ■w^hose, rel., see who. ■why, cnr (adv.) ; quid (neut. ace. used adv.); (for what reason), qua dp causa. ■wide, /dtus, -a, -uni (adj.). ■will, rd/o, or (siibj. or sign of future tense) ; (noun), volun- tas, -Citis, ¥. ; testdmentum, -i, n. wind, renins, -I, M. ■winter, liiems, -is, r. ; (winter quarters), Jnherna, -drum, N. (]>!.) (to winter or pass — ), hinno, -are, -drl, -dtum. ■wise, sapiens, -ntis (adj.). ■wish, vdio, velle, vdlul (no p.p., 294); ( — well to), ciipio, -ere, -wl, -Ifum (with dat.). with, abl. case (309) ; (in com- pany — ), cum (prep., 81. Obs,, or 259) ; — each other, inter se or sese. 'within, intra (prep, with ace.) ; sign of abl. of time (196). without, sme (prep, with abl.) ; or 261. X. 5 (with partic. noun after neg. expressions) quln (323. 2). ■wolf, lupus, -I, M. ■woman, mulier, miilierisy f. wood (forest), silra, -ae, f. ; (fuel), lignum, -I, i'i.', (building- wood), materia, -ae, f. ■worthy, dlgnus, -a, -um (adj., 307. Obs. 4) ; with rel. clause with subj. (324.1). would (subj., would that, 278, 326), utlnam. ■wound, rulnero, -are, -dvl, -atMm; (noun), rulints, -eris, n. ■write, scrlbo, scrlhere, scrij^sl, scriptum. year, annus, -I, m.; (be in the year, to 136 — old), annum — ago, dgere, egt, actum ; the — after, anno post (307. Obs. G). yearly, qudtannls (adv.). yes, repeat the verb with or with- out etiam, verum, etc. (347). yesterday, herl. yet (nevertheless), tdmen ; (not yet), nondum (adv.), you, sing., tu ; pi., vos; to — (^i.e. where you are), istu, c. (adv.). your, sing., tuus, -a, -um; (of more than one), vester, -tra, -trmn. yourself, tui, t1lA, te, pers. pron. used, reflex (230 and 1). youth (young man), ddulescens, -entis, c. ; Juvenis, -is, c. ; (younger), minor ndtu (adj.); (abst. n.), adidescentia, -ae, f. Z. ' Zeno, Zeno, -onis, M. BERWICK & SMITH, PRINTERS, BOSTON. Latin Text-Books. Allen & Greenough's Latin Grammar. A Latin Grammar for schools and colleges, founded on Comparative Grammar. By J. H. Allen, Lecturer at Harvard University, and J. B, Greenough, Professor of Latin at Harvard University. i2mo. Half morocco. 348 pages. With new and greatly enlarged Index. Mailing price, $1.25; Introduction, $1.12; Allowance for old b6ok, 45 cts. 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So that while the annotation has been most faithfully done in all respects, special care has been taken with the military notes contributed by Professor Judson. It is attempted to give, in the light of the latest scholarship, a picture of the Roman soldier of Caesar, — his dress, his arms, his food. We study the tactics of the legions, and see their evolutions on the march and in battle, their work and life in camp. These 92 LA TIN. points are illustrated by forty-five cuts and diagrams, twelve elaborate plans of the most important battles and sieges, and a double-page colored map of Gaul, revised according to the most recent investigations, — features not in any other English edition. The Vocabulary attempts to give, first, the etymological mean- ing of each word so far as is possible ; second, the general meanings of the words, representing the conceptions as they appeared to the Romans ; third, such renderings as may be necessary to present the thought in a suitable English form. 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Junior Students' Latin-English Lexicon (mor.) 1.75 English-Latin Lexicon (sheep) 1.50 Latin-English and English-Latin Lexicon (sheep) 3.00 Whiton . . Auxilia Vergiliana ; or, First Steps in Latin Prosody .15 Six Weeks' Preparation for Reading Csesar . .35 Copies sent to Teachers for Examination, with a view to Introduction, on receipt of Introduction Price. Send for description of our new Illustrated Caesar (seven books). GINN & COMPANY, Publishers, Boston, New York, and Chicago. THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE STAMPED BELOW AN INITIAL FINE OP 25 CENTS WILL BE ASSESSED FOR FAILURE TO RETURN THIS BOOK ON THE DATE DUE. THE PENALTY WILL INCREASE TO SO CENTS ON THE FOURTH DAY AND TO $1.00 ON THE SEVENTH DAY OVERDUE. JAN 18 194t MAR 28 1944 .IAN 20 194t ^Kf: I -, -i^^u & ^%* ■nil 5 1944 0ct'4ycs SEP 88 1941 '^''^W^^ JUL 27 V^l- . ^8 19S4LU ^io^ W J942 ^ M NOV 18 i942. JtiL 28 10... ciPfijLiuasi •^^^ 26 1944 LD21-100m-7,'39( YB 0054 \ /■ 984579 THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY