THE NEW WORLD ENCYCLOPEDIA A LIBRARY OF REFERENCE Superbly and Profusely Illustrated with Hundreds of Subjects in Full Color, Monotone, and Text Cuts WITH A VALUABLE APPENDIX Of often sought for facts in almost every department of human knowledge, a CHRONOLOGICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD Showing the most important events in history from the earliest times, and A Most Comprehensive Narrative of the Great War Editor-in-Chief GEORGE J. HAGAR Editor of Harper's Encyclopedia of United States History; compiler of the Chronology of the World in the New Standard Dictionary; a reviser of Appleton's New Practical, Standard American, New International, Columbian, Imperial, and other Cyclopedias Assisted by many Associate Editors, Special Contributors, and United States and Canadian Government Officials NEW YORK THE CHRISTIAN HERALD Copyright 1911, by F. E. Wright Copyright 1912, by F. E. Wright Copyright 1914, by F. E. Wright Copyright 1918, by F. E. Wrigh; Copyright 1919, by F. E. Wright FOREWORD For a cyclopedia to attain the dignity of a standard work of reference, and to maintain that position, certain distinctive features are essential. The chief of these, outside variety of topics and accuracy, are independence, originality, progressiveness, convenience, lucidity, and brevity. Independence and originality cannot be acquired without departing from the old-time methods of pedantic Latinity, unfamiliar scientific and technical terms, and diffusiveness, which, even, in modern times, still seek to make knowledge the prerogative of a privileged class. Progress- iveness is obtained by adopting up-to-date methods of organization, prep- aration, and production, and employing the ingenious principle of the expansive card-index, so that the latest data may be added until the very day of printing each edition. Convenience is found in the concise disposition of matter, and its arrangement in the form of compact Volumes, of handy size for ready reference, in place of large and clumsy volumes, inconvenient to handle on account of their size and weight, which are by many supposed to represent the correct style for all cyclopedic works of reference. Lucidity and brevity are attained by the development, through the patient and laborious work of editors and compilers, of the fine and difficult art of condensation, in which the constant aim is to synthesize or crystallize the ever-growing mass of ancient and modern information into the con- crete and attractive form of "race knowledge." This term was introduced by Professor Patton, of Princeton University, to distinguish the sifted and verified knowledge of a subject useful to the whole world from the detailed knowledge required by specialist or expert, and indicates a simple and concise handling which, while meeting all reasonable demands of scholarship, brings the profoundest learning within the comprehension of any attentive or thoughtful mind. Since the beginning of the twentieth century there has been enormous activity among the publishers of leading nations to produce new cyclopedias, with the purpose of presenting the whole range of universal information according to modern standards and requirements, and of exhibiting the wonderful progress made in all departments of human knowledge and endeavor during the previous century. In the making and distribution of cyclopedias, the need of a popular reference work of more compact form than those in ordinary use was made strikingly apparent both to editors and publishers, by the thousands of questions poured daily into the offices of magazines and journals, which, by arrangement were referred to the cyclopedists for reply. In the majority of instances, the answers could have been found by reference to the venerable and ponderous types of cyclopedias. But these, wherever possessed, apparently had been relegated to the repose of library shelves, after the novelty of possession had worn off, while the trouble attendant on disturbing them for research was, apparently, greater than the slight inconvenience caused by writing and waiting for a brief answer to a simple question. Under these circumstances, the conviction grew that a more convenient form of reference work was necessary for ordinary use, one which, if kept in the home on the reading-table, in the student's room on a handy shelf, FOREWORD or in the office or store on the work-desk, would become an indispensable and authoritative source of the information needed in connection with the current news of every- day life. The ordinary skip method of reading newspapers, magazines, etc., is not conducive to self-culture. Every day interesting information is given about places and subjects of which most people know very little and re- member less from the knowledge acquired in school days. But a ready glance into a convenient reference work will put one in possession of the necessary information, and if the knowledge is acquired at the time when the subject is a topic of general discussion, it is likely to be permanently retained. The "reference habit' is one of the most delightful and profitable that can be inculcated in young persons or cultivated by men and women for the worthy purpose of extending education throughout the whole of adult life. The more convenient the form of reference work at hand, the oftener it will be used, and when this can be done with the least possible waste of time, the reference habit frequently changes the whole mental attitude, transforming an ordinary into a well-informed person. With the conviction fully confirmed that such a convenient work of reference was urgently needed, the publishers of the present work, after mature deliberation, decided upon a striking departure and a revolution in the ordinary methods of cyclopedia making. Adopting a novel and original plan which would allow them to make use of the latest sources of information right up to the date of publication, they determined to build a work which should present the modern, solid, alive, and up-to-date American view of everything worth knowing in the fewest possible words; a work for the use of students and others which would fit them to take part in the conversation or enjoy the society of any well-informed circle. The result, as embodied herein, exhibits the truly American character- istic of the exact knowledge sought; giving the pith of each subject, the essential facts, condensed to the plainest terms consistent with accuracy and clearness, and presented in a convenient form for ready reference. The salient features of each topic treated and its modern aspect follow the title and impress themselves at once upon eye and mind. The old, stereotyped, pompous, so-called cyclopedic style gives way to a bright, modern presentment of knowledge and facts. Without needless wading through a mass of words, the reader immediately grasps the knowledge sought. Every subject is condensed or distilled to an essence of crystal clearness, in order to secure the compact and convenient size aimed at. Moreover, this plan of condensation or crystallization has allowed the in- clusion of a greater number of titles than are to be found in the larger works of reference, for over 150,000 separate titles will be found in the various volumes of this work, as compared with the 50,000 or 60,000 subjects in the ordinary cyclopedias. The publishers have also aimed at making the work doubly attractive by reason of its illustrations. Text-cuts, half-tones and artistic three- color page plates, considerably beyond the plane of the average cyclopedic illustrations, contribute largely to a full understanding of the crisp de- scriptive matter. Special attention was also directed towards providing a clear type, easy for reading and restful to the eyes, instead of the small, fatiguing, eye-straining type, so frequently complained of in the larger forms of cyclopedic dictionaries. The whole work, modern in conception and treatment, accurate, clear, concise, and up-to-date in a thoroughly practical sense, is a standard, ideal FOREWORD reference library, providing a short cut to all knowledge. No work on a similar scale of convenience has been attempted hitherto, and the pub- lishers, gratified by its comprehensive scope and reliability, feel confident that its compact form will make it, though small, a powerful rival for preferential and general use in school, home, store, or office, over the larger types of cyclopedias, gazetteers, or dictionaries. When the present work was projected the world war had not assumed its monstrous proportions. Hence, the editors gave special attention to a presentation of the countries, states, provinces, departments, and cities of the world under their most advanced economic, educational, and philan- thropic conditions. To this was added the inclusion of brief sketches of the men and women whose achievements in. various directions had given them a far-reaching reputation. With the enlargement of the world war area and the enforced entrance of the United States into it, the original plan of the cyclopedia was en- larged to make it, in addition to its other features, a thorough exposition of the unparalleled struggle for human freedom and a reign of popular rights. As a result, a very large number of cities, towns, villages, and other localities that have experienced the horrors of war, and sketches of numerous high military, naval, and civic officers of the belligerent nations, have been introduced. Note has also been made of war activities in cities, towns, and places already "in the books." These various subjects, geographical and personal, have then been referred to an exceedingly comprehensive chronology of the war in a special Appendix. Part II of this Appendix treats exclusively of the activities of the United States in the war, and Part III of the general progress of the war, inde- pendently of the United States. These two parts, in connection with maps of the belligerent countries, will enable the reader to trace with clearness and accuracy the various campaigns, their progress, and special activities. Part I of this Appendix is confined to the American campaign in Mexico the futile quest of Villa. The editor and publishers wish to acknowledge here the most cordial and efficient co-operation in their task by a very large number of dis- tinguished specialists and of representatives of the United States and Canadian Governments. Among them should be especially mentioned, on the part of the United States Government: Hon. William Gibbs McAdoo, Secretary of the Treasury; Hon. Newton Diehl Baker, Secretary of War; Hon. Josephus Daniels, Secretary of the Navy; Hon. Franklin Knight Lane, Secretary of the Interior; Hon. David Franklin Houston, Secretary of Agriculture; Hon. William Cox Redfield, Secretary of Commerce; Hon. William Bauchop Wilson, Secretary of Labor; Hon. Albert Sidney Burleson, Postmaster-General; Hon. George Otis Smith, Director of the United States Geological Survey; Hon. Sam. L. Rogers, Director of the Bureau of the Census; Hon. E. E. Pratt, Chief of the Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce; and Hon. John Barrett, Director-General of the Pan-American Union. On the part of the Canadian Government: Hon. George E. Foster, M. P., Minister of Trade and Commerce; Hon. J. D. Hazen, Minister of Marine and Fisheries; and Hon. R. H. Coats, B. A., F. S. S., Dominion Statistician and Controller of the Census. a, the first letter in the English and other alpha- bets, ultimately derived from the Phoenician, is traced by some to a char- acter belonging to the Egyptian h : er- atic alphabet. Alpha, the Greek name of the letter, corresponds closely to aleph ("an ox"), the Phoenician name (see ALPHABET). The form which it has as a capital is the earliest. The sound which originally belonged to it, and which is still its character- istic sound except in English, is that heard in far, farther, palm, etc. A, in music, is the sixth note in the diatonic scale of C. Aard-vark, (that is, "earth-pig"), a burrowing insect-eating animal of the order Edentata found in South AABD-VABK. Africa. The name "pig" is given to it from the shape of its snout. It is about 5 feet long, with a thin tapering tail, and long upright ears. It is noc- turnal in its habits and very timid. Its flesh is considered a delicacy. Aard-wolf, a singular carnivorous animal, first brought from South Af- rica by the traveler Delalande. Its size is about that of a full grown for, which it resembles in both its habits and manners, being nocturnal, and con- structing a subterraneous abode. Aargau, or Argovie, a canton of Switzerland, bounded on the N. by the Rhine, which separates it from the grand-duchy of Baden, elsewhere by the cantons Zurich, Zug, Lucerne, Bern, Solothurn, and Basel; area, 543 square miles. Pop. (1913) 23t>,860, more than half of whom are Protes- tants. The capital is Aarau. Aarhans, a city of Denmark, capi- tal of a division of the same name. It is situated on the Cattegat, and has an excellent and safe harbor, which admits vessels of light draught, the construction of such craft being the chief industry of the place. It has considerable manufacturing and is the centre of a large trade, being connect- ed with the rest of the Jutland region by the State railway, and regular steamers to Copenhagen and Great Britain. The town is among the old- est in Denmark, and is noted as being the site of the first Christian church in the kingdom. Its bishop's see dates from 948. It has a cathedral commenced in 1201, which is a fair example of early 13th century Gothic architecture. Pop. (1911) 61,755. Aaron, son of Amram (tribe of Levi), elder brother of Moses, and di- vinely appointed to be his spokesman in the embassy to the court of Pha- raoh. By the same authority, avouched in the budding of his rod, he was chosen the first high-priest. He was recreant to his trust in the absence of Moses upon the Mount, and made the golden calf for the people to wor- Aaron ship. He died in the 123d year of his age, and the high-priesthood descended to his third son, Eleazar. Aaron's rod, in architecture, is a rod like that of Mercury, but with only one serpent twined around it. Ab, the eleventh month of the civil year of the Hebrews, and the fifth of their ecclesiastical year, which begins with the month Nisan. It answers to the moon of July, that is, to part of our month of July and to the begin- ning of August ; it consists of 30 days. Abaca, or MANILA HEMP, a strong fibre yielded by the leaf-stalks of a kind of plantain (Musa textilis) which grows in the Indian Archipel- ago, and is cultivated in the Philip- pines. The outer fibres of the leaf- stalks are made into strong ropes, the inner into various fine fabrics. Abaco, GREAT and LITTLE, two is- of the Bahamas group. Abacus, a Latin term applied to an apparatus used by the Chinese for facilitating arithmetical operations, consisting of a number of parallel cords or wires, upon which balls or beads are strung, the uppermost wire = ~ ABACUS. being appropriated to units, the nest to tens, &c. In classic architecture it denotes the tablet forming the up- per member of a column, and sup- porting the entablature. In Gothic architecture the upper member of a column from which the arch springs. Abaddon,, in the Bible, and in ev- ery rabbinical instance, means the an- gel of death, or the angel of the abyss or " bottomless pit." Abalone, a Californian name for the ear-shells or sea-ears, a gastropod of the family Haliotidae. The animal feeds on sea-weeds, creeping along the rocks. When in repose it draws all its parts under the saucer-like shell, and clings like a limpet to whatever it is attached. The Chinese use the body Cor food, and the shell is employed in Abbey making buttons, inlaying, and all pur- poses for which mother of pearl is used. Abatis, or Abattis, in military affairs, a kind of defense made of felled trees. In sudden emergencies, the trees are merely laid lengthwise with the branches pointed outward to prevent the approach of the enemy. Abba, Guiseppe Cesare, an Ital- ian poet ; born in 1838 at Cairo Monte- notte. He took part in the expedition of Garibaldi into Sicily in 1860, which he celebrated in his poem "Arrigo." Abbas Hilmi, Pasha, Khedive of Egypt, born in 1874, oldest son of the Khedive Mehemet-Tewfik. He succeeded his father as Khedive in 1892 ; was deposed in 1914, when Great Britain assumed a protectorate over Egypt ; and was succeeded by Prince Hussein Kaniel Pasha. Abbas I., surnamed the GREAT; born in 1557, was the seventh Shah or King of Persia of the dynasty of the Cufis. He died Jan. 27, 1628. Abbassides, the name of a race who possessed the caliphate for 524 years. There were 37 caliphs of this race who succeeded one another with- out interruption. They drew their de- scent from Abbas-ben-Abd-el-Motallib, Mahomet's uncle. Their empir* ter- minated in Mostazem in 1257. Abbe, Cleveland, an American meteorologist, born in New York city, Dec. 3, 1838. He was the "Old Prob- abilities" and meteorologist in the U. S. Signal Service in 1871-91, and meteorologist of the U. S. Weather Bureau from 1891 till his death on Oct. 28. 1916. Abbey, a monastery or religious community of the highest class, gov- erned by an abbot, assisted generally by a prior, sub-prior, and other subor- dinate functionaries ; or, in the case of a female community, superintended by an abbess. Abbeys or monasteries first arose in the East. The abbeys in Eng- land were wholly abolished by Henry VIII. at the Reformation. In the United States the word "monastery" is generally used for male religious houses ; "convent" for female. Abbey, Edwin Austin, an Amer- ican artist, born in Philadelphia, April 1, 1852. Besides illustrating many books and painting a number of no- table pictures, he designed a series of Abbot paintings for the Boston Public Li- brary, on the "Holy Grail." He was commissioned by King Edward VII. to paint the coronation scene in West- minster Abbey. He died Aug. 1, 1911. Abbot, the superior of a monastery of monks erected into an abbey or priory. Abbot is also a title given to others besides the superiors of monas- teries ; thus, bishops, whose sees were formerly abbeys, are called abbots. Among the Genoese, the chief magis- trate of the republic formerly bore the title of "Abbot of the People." Abbot, Ezra, an American Greek scholar, born at Jackson, Me., April 28, 1819. He was one of the Amer- ican committee of New Testament re- visers. He died at Cambridge, Mass., March 21, 1884. Abbot, Henry Larcom, an Amer- ican military engineer, born in Bever- ly, Mass., Aug. 13, 1831 ; graduated at the United States Military Academy in 1854 ; became brevet Major-General of Volunteers in the Civil War, and sub- sequently Colonel and Chief of Engi- neers of the United States army, and was retired in 1895. Abbot, Willis John, an Amer- can journalist and author, born in Connecticut in 1863. With the excep- tion of a "Life of Carter Harrison," his works consist principally of popu- lar histories for young people. His editorial writings are graceful and cul- tured in style, and powerful in expres- sion. Abbotsford, the home of Sir Wal- ter Scott, situated on the S. bank of the Tweed a few miles above Mel- rose. At the time Scott bought the es- tate in 1811, it was called Clarty Hole, but his antiquarian spirit moved him to connect the place with the old monks of Melrose Abbey, who formerly cross- ed the river near the house. He re- tained all of the ancient Scotch archi- tecture that could be used, and en- larged the building to its present di- mensions. The property remains in the possession of the author's descend- ants to the fourth generation. Abbott, Charles Conrad, an American archaeologist, born at Tren- ton, N. J., 1843. He has discovered palaeolithic human remains in the Del- aware valley, and shown the likeli- hood of the early existence of the Eski- Abbott mo race as far south as New Jersey. A large collection of archaeological specimens made by him is now in the Peabody Museum, Cambridge, Mass., where he was stationed in 1876-1889. Abbott, Edwin Abbott an En- glish theologian and Shakespearean scholar, born in London, Dec, 20, 1838. From the City of London School he passed, in 1857, to St. John's College, Cambridge. Abbott, Emma, American dra- matic soprano, born in Chicago, 111., in December, 1849. After years of hard work, she went abroad in 1872 and studied with Sangiovanni at Mi- lan, and Delle Sedie in Paris, and aft- erward sang in opera with great suc- cess. In 1878 she married E. J. Weth- erell, of New York. She died in Salt Lake City, Utah, Jan. 5, 1891. Abbott, Jacob, an American writer of juvenile stories, born in Hal- lowell Me., Nov. 14, 1803; died Oct. 31, 1879. He graduated from Bow- doin College, studied for the ministry, was professor of mathematics at Am- herst for four years, and in 1834 es- tablished the Eliot Church in Roxbury, after having been principal of a girls' school in Boston. After 1839 he de- voted his whole time to literature and wrote and published more than 200 volumes, among them the famous Rol- lo Books. In collaboration with his brother John, he wrote a number of histories for juvenile readers, with whom he was a great favorite. His works have a considerable sale in the first years of the 20th century. Abbott, Sir John Joseph. Cald- well, a Canadian statesman, born in 1821. He took an active part in the Senate, leading the Conservative side. On the death of Sir John Macdonald, in 1891, he become Premier, resigning in the following year on account of ill- health. He died in 1893. Abbott, John Stevens Cabot, an American author, born at Brunswick, Me., Sept. 18, 1805 ; brother of Jacob Abbott ; author of "History of Napo- leon ; "History of the Civil War ;" "History of Frederick the Great :" and numerous other works on kindred themes. He died, 1877. Abbott, Lyman, an American clergyman, borti at Roxbury. Mass., Dec. 18, 1835. At first a lawyer, he Abbott Abbreviation* was ordained minister of the Congrega- tional Church in 1860. After a pas- torate of five years, in Indiana, he went to New York, and rose rapidly to distinction through his contributions) to periodical literature. He was pas-; tor of Plymouth Church, Brooklyn, in 1888-1898, being the immediate suc- cessor of Henry Ward Beecher. He; was associated with Mr. Beecher in the editorship of the " Christian Union," j a-nd is now editor of " The Outlook," formerly the " Christian Union." Abbott, Russell Bigelow, an' American educator ; born in Brookville, Ind., Aug. 8, 1823 ; was graduated at the University of Indiana in 1847 ; and received the degree of D. D. from Galesville University in 1884. After serving for several years as principal of public schools in Muncie and New Castle, Ind., and of Whitewater Pres- byterian Academy, he was ordained in the Presbyterian Church in 1857 ; held pastorates in Brookville, Ind., seven years, in Knightstown, Ind., two years, and in Albert Lea, Minn., 15 years ; and, founding Albert Lea College in the latter city, became its president i . 1884. Dr. Abbott served as moderator of the Presbyterian Synod of Minne-j sota and several times as a delegate to the General Assembly of his church. Abbreviations, or " shortenings," are used in writing to save time and space, or, it may be, to ensure secrecy In the following list most of the abbre- viations that are likely to be met with by modern readers are alphabetically j arranged : A. or Ans. Answer. A. A. G. Assistant Adjutant-General. A. A. A. G. Acting Assistant Adju-, tant-General. r A. A. P. S. American Association for the Promotion of Science. A. A. S. Academics Americans $0-1 cius, Fellow of the American Acad- emy (of Arts and Sciences). A. A. S. S. Americance Antiquariance Societatis Socius, Member of the American Antiquarian Society. r A. B. Able-bodied seaman. A. B. Artium Baccalaureus, Bache- lor of Arts. A. B. C. F. M. American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions. Abl. Ablative. Abp. Archbishop. Abr. Abridgment, or Abridged. A. B. S. American Bible Society. A. C. Ante Christum, before the birth of Christ. Acad. Academy. Acad. Nat. Sci. Academy of Natural Sciences. Ace. Accusative. Act. Active ; Acting.* Acct. Account. A. C. S. American Colonization So- ciety. Advt. Advertisement. A. D. Anno Domini, in the year of the Lord. A. D. C. Aide-de-camp. Adj. Adjective. Adjt Adjutant. Adjt-Gen. Adjutant-General. Ad lib. Ad libitum, at pleasure. Adm. Admiral ; Admiralty. Admr. Administrator. Admx. Administratrix. Ad v. Ad valorem, at (or on) the value. Adv. Adverb. JEt. ^tatis, of age; aged. A. F. B. S. American and Foreign Bible Society. Af r. African. A. G. Adjutant-General. Agl. Dept Department of Agricul- ture. Agr. Agriculture. A. G. S. S. American Geographical and Statistical Society. Agt. Agent. A. H. Anno Hegirce, in the year of the Hegira. A. H. M. S. American Home Mis- sionary Society. Al. Aluminium. Ala. Alabama. Alas. Alaska. Alb. Albany. Aid. Alderman. Alex. Alexander. Alf. Alfred. Alg. Algebra. Alt. Altitude. A. M. Anno mundi, in the year of the world. A. M. Ante meridiem, before noon; morning. A. M. Artium Magister, Master of Arts. Am. Ass. Adv. Sci. American Asso- ciation for the Advancement of Sci- ence. Am. Assn. Sci. American Association for the Advancement of Science. Amb. Ambassador. Abbreviations Abbreviation! Amer. American. Amer. Acad. American Academy. A. M. E. Z. African Methodist Epis- copal Zion. Amt Amount. An. Anno, in the year. An. A. C. Anno ante Christum, in the year before Christ. Anal. Analysis. Ann. Annales ; Annals. Anat Anatomy. Anc. Ancient ; anciently. And. Andrew. Ang.-Sax. Anglo-Saxon. Anon. Anonymous. Ans. Answer. Ant., or Antiq. Antiquities. Anth. Anthony. A. O. S. S. Americans Orientalis So- cietatis Socius, Member of the Amer- ican Oriental Society. Ap. Apostle ; Appius. Ap. Apud, in writings of ; as quoted by. Apo. Apogee. Apoc. Apocalypse. Apocr. Apocrypha. App. Appendix. Apr. April. Aq. Water (aqua). A. Q. M. Assistant Quartermaster. A. Q. M. G. Assistant Quartermas- ter-General. A. R. Anno regni year of the reign; A. R. A. Associate of the Royal Academy. Ara. Arabic. Arch. Architect ; Architecture. Archd. Archdeacon. Ari. Arizona. Arith. Arithmetic. Ark. Arkansas. Arr. Arrive ; Arrival. A. R. S. A. Associate of the Royal Scottish Academy. 1A. R. S. S. Antiquariorum Regite Societatis Socius, Fellow of the Royal Society of Antiquaries. Art. Article. Artil. Artillery. A.-S. Anglo-Saxon. A. S., or Assist. Sec. Assistant Sec- retary. A. S. A. American Statistical Asso- ciation. Ass., Assn. Association. A. S. S. U. American Sunday-School Union. A. T. S. American Tract Society. Atty. Attorney. Atty.-Gen. Attorney-General. A, U. A. American Unitarian Asso- ciation. Aub. Theol. Sem. Auburn Theologi- cal Seminary. A. U. C. Anno urlis conditce, or ab urbe condita, in the year from the building of the city (Rome) . Aug. August. Aus. Austria ; Austrian. Auth. Ver., or A. V. Authorized Version (of the Bible). Av. Average ; Avenue. Avdp. Avoirdupois. Avoir. Avoirdupois. A. Y. M. Ancient York Masons. B. Born. B. A. Bachelor of Arts. Bal. Balance. Bait. Baltimore. Bapt. Baptist. Bar. Barometer. Bart, or bt. Baronet Bbl. Barrel. B. G. Before Christ. B. G. L. Bachelor of Civil Law. B. D. Baccalaureus Divinitatis, Bach* elor of Divinity. Belg. Belgic; Belgian^ Belgium. Benj. Benjamin. B. I. British India. Bib. Bible; Biblical. Biog. Biography ; Biographical. Bisc. Biscayan. B. LL. Baccalaureus Legum, Bach- elor of Laws. B. LL. Same as LL. B. Bis. Bales. B. M. Baccalaureus Medicince, Bach- elor of Medicine. B. M. Same as M. B. Bot. Botany. Bp. Bishop. Br. British. Br. Univ. Brown University. Braz. Brazil ; Brazilian. Brig. Brigade ; Brigadier. Brig. -Gen. Brigadier-General. Brit. Mus. British Museum. Bro. Brother. B. S. Bachelor in the Sciences. Bush. Bushel ; Bushels. B. V. Bene vale, farewell. C. Cent. C. Consul. C., or Gels. Celsius's Scale for the thermometer. C., or Cent. Centum, a hundred : Century. C., Ch., or Chap. Chapter. Abbreviations Ca. sa. Capias ad satis faciendum, a legal writ. C. A. Chief Accountant ; Commis- sioner of Accounts. Ca. resp. Capias ad respondendum, a legal writ. Cset. par. Cceteris paribus, other things being equal. Cal. California ; Calends. Cam., Camb. Cambridge. Can. Canon. Cant. Canticles. Cantab. Of Cambridge (Cantabriff- iensis ) . Cantuar. Of Canterbury. Cap. or C. Caput, capitulum, chap- ter. Caps. Capitals. Capt. Captain. Capt.-Gen. Captain-General. Car. Carat. Card. Cardinal. Cash. Cashier. C. B. Cape Breton. C. B. Companion of the Bath. C. C. County Commissioner ; County Court. C. C. Cubic centimeter. C. C. P. Court of Common Pleas. Cd. Cadmium. C. D. V. Carte-de-Visite. C. E. Civil Engineer. C. E. Christian Endeavor (Young People's Society of). Cel., or Celt. Celtic. Cent. Centigrade, a scale of 100 from freezing to boiling. Cert. Certify. Certif. Certificate. C. G. Commissary-General ; Consul- General. C. G. H. Cape of Good Hope. C. H. Court house. Ch. Church ; Chapter ; Charles. Chald. Chaldea ; Chaldean ; Chal- daic. Chanc. Chancellor. Chap. Chapter. Chern. Chemistry. Ches. Chesapeake. Chic. Chicago. Chr. Christ ; Christian. Chr. Christopher. Chron. Chronicles. Cin. Cincinnati. Circ. Circuit. Cit. Citation ; Citizen. C. J. Chief-Justice. Cl. Chlorine. Clk. Clerk. C. M. Common Meter. Abbreviations C. M. G. Companion of the Order ot St. Michael and St. George. Co. Company ; county. Coch., or Cochl. A spoonful (coch- leare). C. O. D. Cash (or collect) on deliv- ery. Col. Colorado; Colonel; Colossians. Coll. Collector ; Colloquial ; College ; Collection. Com. Arr. Committee of Arrange- ments. Com. Commerce ; Committee ; Com- missioner ; Commodore. Com. & Nav. Commerce and Naviga- tion. Comdg. Commanding. Cornm. Commentary. Comp. Compare ; Comparative ; Com- pound ; Compounded. Com. Ver. Common Version. Con. Contra, against ; in opposition. Con. Cr. Contra, credit. Conch. Conchology. Con. Sec. Conic Sections. Confed. Confederate. Cong. Congress. Conj. or conj. Conjunction. Congl. Congregational ;Conglomerate. Conn, or Ct. Connecticut. Const. Constable ; Constitution. Cont. Contra. Cop., or Copt. Coptic. Corn. Cornwall ; Cornish. Cor. Corinthians. Cor. Mem. Corresponding Member. Cor. Sec. Corresponding Secretary. Coss. Consuls (consules). C. P. Common Pleas. C. P. Court of Probate. C. P. S. Gustos Privati Sigilli, Keeper of the Privy Seal. Cr. Chromium. Cr. Creditor ; credit. C. R. Gustos Rotulorum, Keeper of the Rolls. Cs. Cases. C. S. Court of Sessions. C. S. Gustos Sigilli, Keeper of the Seal. C. S.A. Confederate States of Amer- ica ; Confederate States Army. C. S. B. Bachelor of Christian Science. C. S. D. Doctor of Christian Science. Csk. Cask. C. S. N. Confederate States Navy. C. Theod. Codice Theodosiano, in the Theodosian Code. Ct. Court. Cts. Cents. Abbreviations Abbreviation* Cub. Cubic. Cub. Ft Cubic Foot. Cur. Currency. C. W. Canada West. Cwt Hundredweight. Cyc. Cyclopedia. D. Died. D. Five hundred. D. Penny; pence (denarius). D. A. G. Deputy Adjutant-General. Dak. Dakota. Dan. Daniel ; Danish. Dat. Dative. D. B. or Domesd. B. Domesday- Book. D. C. District of Columbia. D. C. L. Doctor of Civil Law. D. C. S. Deputy Clerk of Sessions. D. D. Divinitatis Doctor, Doctor of Divinity. D. D. S. Doctor of Dental Surgery. Dea. Deacon. Dec. December ; Declination. Dec. of Ind. Declaration of Inde- pendence. Def . Definition. Def., Deft. Defendant. Deg. Degree ; degrees. Del. Delaware ; Delegate. Del., or del. Delineavit, he (or she) drew it. Dem. Democrat ; Democratic. Dep. Deputy. Dept Department. Deut. Deuteronomy. D. F. Defender of the Faith. D. G. Dei gratia, by the grace of God. D. G. Deo gratias, thanks to God. D. H. Dead-head. Diam. Diameter. Diet. Dictionary ; Dictator. Dim. Diminutive. Diosc. Dioscarides. Disc. Discount. Diss. Dissertation. Dist. District. Dist-Atty. District-Attorney. Div. Division. D. L. O. Dead-Letter Office. D M. Doctor of Music. Do. Ditto, the same. Doc. Document Dols. Dollars. D. O. M. Deo optima maximo, to God, the best, the greatest Doz. Dozen. D. P. Doctor of Philosophy. Dpt. Department. Dr. Debtor; Doctor. Dr. Drams ; Drachms. D. Sc.-~ Doctor of Science. D. T. Doctor of Theology (doctor theologice) . Duo. Duodecimo, twelve folds. D. V. Deo volente, God willing. Dwt. Pennyweight. Dyn. Dynamics. E. East E. by S. East by South. E. & O. E. Errors and omissions ex cepted. E. B. English Bible. Eben. Ebenezer. Ebor. York (Eboracum). Eccl. Ecclesiastes. Ecclus. Ecclesiasticus. E. D. Eastern District Ed. Editor; Edition, Edin. Edinburgh. Edm. Edmund. Edw. Edward. E. E. Errors excepted. E. E. T. S. Early English Text So- ciety. E. G. Exempli gratia, for example. E. G. Ex grege, among the rest E. Fl. Ells Flemish. E. Fr. Ells French. E. I. East Indies or East India. E. I. C., or E. I. Co. East India Company. E. I. C. S. East India Company's Service. Eliz. Elizabeth. E. Lon. East longitude. E. M. Mining Engineer. Emp. Emperor ; Empress, Encyc. Encyclopedia. Eng. Dept. Department of Engineers. Eng. England; English. E.-N.-E. East-North-East. Ent, Entom. Entomology. Env. Ext. Envoy Extraordinary. E. o. w. Every other week. Ep. Epistle. Eph. Ephesians ; Ephraim. Epis. Episcopal. E. S. Ells Scotch. Esd. Esdras. E.-S.-E. East-South-East Esq. Esquire. Esth. Esther. E. T. English Translation. Et al. Et alii, and others. Etc., or &c. Et cceteri, et cteterce, et ccetera, and others ; and so forth. Eth. Ethiopic ; Ethiopian. Et seq. Et sequentia, and what fol- lows. Abbreviations Abbreviations Etym. Etymology. E. U. Evangelical Union. Ex. Example. Ex. Exodus. Exc. Excellency ; exception. Exch. Exchequer ; Exchange. Ex. Doc. Executive Document. Exec. Com. Executive Committee. Execx. Executrix. Ex. gr. For example (exempli gra- tia). Exr. or Exec, Executor. Ez. Ezra. Ezek. Ezekiel. F. and A. M. Free and Accepted Masons. F., or Fahr. Fahrenheit (thermome- ter). F. A. S. Fellow of the Antiquarian Society. F. B. S. Fellow of the Botanical Society. F. C. Free Church of Scotland. Fcap, or fcp. Foolscap. F. C. P. S. Fellow of the Cambridge Philological Society. F. C. S. Fellow of the Chemical So- ciety. F. D. Defender of the Faith. F. E. Flemish ells. Feb. February. Fee. Fecit , he did it. Fern. Feminine. F. E. S. Fellow of the Entomological Society ; Fellow of the Ethnographi- cal Society. Ff. Following. Ff. The Pandects. F. F. V. First Families of Virginia, i F. G. S. Fellow of the Geological! Society. F. H. S. Fellow of the Horticultural Society. Fi. Fa. Fieri facias, cause it to be , done. Fid. Def. Defender of the Faith. Fig. Figure. Fin. Finland. Finn. Finnish. Fir. Firkin. F. K. Q. C. P. I. Fellow of King's and Queen's College of Physicians, Ireland. Fl. E. Flemish ells. Fla. Florida. F. L. S. Fellow of the Linnsean So- ciety. F.-M. Field-Marshal. F.-O. Field-Officer. Pol. Folio. For. Foreign. F. P. S. Fellow of the Philological Society. Fr. France; French. Fr. Francis. Fr. From. F. R. A. S. Fellow of the Royal As- tronomical Society. F. R. C. P. Fellow of the Royal Col- lege of Physicians. F. R. C. S. L. Fellow of the Royal College of Surgeons, London. Fred. Frederick. Fr. E. French ells. Fr., Frs. Franc ; Francs. F. R. G. S. Fellow of the Royal Geographical Society. F. R. Hist. Soc. Fellow of the Royal Historical Society. Fri. Friday. F. R. S. Fellow of the Royal So- ciety. F. R. S. S. A. Fellow of the Royal Scottish Society of Arts. F. R. S. E. Fellow of the Royal So- ciety, Edinburgh. F. R. S. L. Fellow of the Royal So- ciety, London. F. S. A. Fellow of the Society of Arts, or of Antiquaries. F. S. A. E. Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries, Edinburgh. F. S. A. Scot. Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland. F. S. S. Fellow of the Statistical Society. Ft. Foot; feet; Fort. Fth. Fathom. Fur. Furlong. F. Z. S. Fellow of the Zoological So- ciety. Ga. Georgia. G. A. General Assembly. Gal. Galatians ; Gallon. Galv. Galvanism. Galv. Galveston. G. B. Great Britain. G. B. & I. Great Britain and Ire- land. G. C. Grand Chapter; Grand Con- ductor. G. C. B. Grand Cross of the Bath. G. C. H. Grand Cross of Hanover. G. C. K. P. Grand Commander of the Knights of St. Patrick. G. C. L. H. Grand Cross of the Le- gion of Honor. G. C. M. G. Grand Cross of St. MichaeJ and St. George. Abbreviations Abbreviations G. C. S. I. Grand Commander of the Star of India. G. D. Grand Duke ; Grand Duchess. G. E. Grand Encampment. Gen. Genesis ; General. Gen. Genus ; Genera ; Genealogy. Gent. Gentleman. Geo. George. Geog. Geography. Geol. Geology. Geom. Geometry. Ger. German; Germany. Gl. Glossa, a gloss. G. L. Grand Lodge. G. M. Grand Master. G. M. K. P. Grand Master of the Knights of St. Patrick. G. M. S. I. Grand Master of the Star of India. G. O. General Order. Goth. Gothic. Gov. Governor. Gov.-Gen. Governor-General. Govt. Government. G. P. Gloria patri (" Glory be to the Father"). G. P. O. General Post-Office. G. R. Georgius Rex, King George. Gr. Greek ; Gross. Gr., Grs. Grain ; Grains. Grad. Graduated. Gram. Grammar. Grot. Grotius. G. S. Grand Secretary ; Grand Sen- tinel ; Grand Scribe. G. T. Good Templars ; Grand Tyler. Gtt. Drop; drops (gutta or guttce). H. A. Hoc anno, this year. Hab. Habakkuk. Hab. corp. Habeas corpus, you may have the body. Hab. fa. poss. Habere facias posses- sionem. Hab. fa. seis. Habere facias seisinan. Hag. Haggai. Hants. Hampshire. H. B. C. HTJdson Bay Company. H. B. M. His or Her Britannic Maj- esty. H. C. House of Commons ; Herald's College. H. C. M. His or Her Catholic Maj- esty-. H. E. Hoc est, that is, or this is. Heb. Hebrews. Heb. Hebrew. H. E. I. C. Honorable East India Company. H. E. I. C. S. Honorable East In- dia Company's Service. Her. Heraldry. Hf.-bd. Half-bound. Hg. Hydrargyrum, mercury. H.-G. Horse-guards. H. H. His or Her Highness ; His Holiness (the Pope). Hhd. Hogshead. Hier. Jerusalem ( Hierosolyma) . H. I. H. His or Her Imperial High- ness. Hind. Hindu ; Hindustan ; Hindu- stanee. Hipp. Hippocrates. Hist. History. H. J. S. Hie jacet sepultus. Here lies buried. H. M. His Majesty. H. L. House of Lords. H. M. P. Hoc monumentum posuit, erected this monument. H. M. S. His or Her Majesty's Ship. Holl. Holland. Hon. Honorable. Hort. Horticulture. Hos. Hosea. H.-P. High - priest ; Horse - power ; Half-pay. H. R. House of Representatives. H. R. E. Holy Roman Empire. H. R. H. His Royal Highness. H. R. I. P. Hie requiescit in pace, Here rests in peace. H. S. Hie situs. Here lies. H. S. H. His Serene Highness. H. T. Hoc titulum, this title; hoc, tituli, in or under this title. Hund. Hundred. Hung. Hungarian. H. V. Hoc verbum, this word ; hit verbis, in these words. Hyd. Hydrostatics. Hypoth. Hypothesis ; Hypothetical. la. Iowa. Ib., or ibid. Ibidem, in the same place. Icel. Iceland ; Icelandic. Ich. Ichthyology. Icon. Encyc. Iconographic Encyclo- pedia. I. Ch. Th. U. S. (1x07*) Jesus Christ the Son of God, the Saviour (letous Christos Theou Huiot Soter). Ictus. Jurisconsultus, Id. Idaho. Id. Idem, the same. Id. The Ides (Idus). I. E. Id est, that is. I. H. S. Jesus the Saviour of Men (Jesus Hominum Salvator). Abbreviations Abbreviations I., II., III. One, two, three, or first, second, third. Ij. Two (med.). 111. Illinois. Imp. Imperative ; imperfect. Imp. Imperial ; Emperor (Impera- tor). In. Inch ; inches. In. Indium. Incog. Incognito, unknown. Incor. Incorporated. Ind. Ter. Indian Territory. I. H. P. Indicated horse power. I. N. D. In nomine Dei, in the name of God. Ind. Indiana ; Index. , Indef. Indefinite. Inf. Infra, beneath, or below. In f. In fine, at the end of the title, law, or paragraph quoted. Inhab. Inhabitant. In lim. In limine, at the outset. In loc. In loco, in the place ; on the passage. In pr. In principio, in the beginning and before the first paragraph of a law. I. N. R. I. Jesus Nazarenus, Rex JudcBorum, Jesus of Nazareth, King of the Jews. Inst. Instant, of this month ; Insti- tutes. Inst. Institute ; Institution. In sum. In summa, in the summary. Int. Interest. Interj. Interjection. In trans. In transitu, on the pas- sage. Int. Dept. Department of the Inte- rior. Int. Rev. Internal Revenue. Introd. Introduction. I. O. O. F. Independent Order of Odd Fellows. Ion. Ionic. I. O. S. M. Independent Order of the Sons of Malta. I. O. U. I owe you. Ipecac. Ipecacuanha. I. Q. Idem quod, the same as. Ire. Ireland. I. R. O. Internal Revenue Office. Isa. Isaiah. Is., Isl. Island. I. T. Inner Temple. It Italy. Ital. Italic; Italian. IV. Four or fourth. I. W. Isle of Wight IX. Nine or ninth. J. Justice, or Judge. J. One (med.). J. A. Judge- Advocate. Jac. Jacob. J. A. G. Judge Advocate-General. Jam. Jamaica. Jan. January. Jas. James. J. C. D. -Juris Civilis Doctor, Doctor of Civil Law. J. C. Jurisconsult (Juris Consul' tus) . J. D. Junior Deacon. Jer. Jeremiah. J. G. W. Junior Grand Warden. JJ. Justices. Jno. John. Jona. Jonathan. Jos. Joseph. Josh. Joshua. J. P. Justice of the Peace. J. Prob. Judge of Probate. J. R. Jacobus Rex, King James. Jr., or Jun. Junior. J. U. D., or J. V. D. Juris utriusque Doctor, Doctor of both laws (of the Canon and the Civil Law). Jud. Judicial. Jud. Judith. Judg. Judges. Judge-Adv. Judge-Advocate. Jul. Per. Julian Period. Jus. P. Justice of the Peace. Just Justinian. J. W. Junior Warden. K. King. K. A. Knight of St. Andrew, in Rus- sia. Kal. The Kalends (Kalendce). K. A. N. Knight of Alexander Nev- skoi, in Russia. Kan. Kansas. K. B. King's Bench. K. B. Knight of the Bath. K. C. King's Counsel K. C. B. Knight Commander of the Bath. K. G. Knight of the Garter. Kg., Kgs. Keg; Kegs. K. G. C. Knight of the Grand Cross. K. G. C. B. Knight of the Grand Cross of the Bath. Kil. Kilometer. Kilo. Kilogram. Kingd. Kingdom. K. L. Knight of Labor. K. L. H. Knight of the Legion ef Honor. K. M. Knight of Malta. K. Mess. King's Messenger. Abbreviations Abbreviations Knick. Knickerbocker. Knt. or Kt. Knight. K. P. Knight of St. Patrick ; Knight of Pythias. K. S. M. & S. G. Knight of St. Michael and St. George of the Io- nian Islands. K. T. Knight of the Thistle ; Knight Templar. Kt. Knight. Ky. Kentucky. L. Fifty, or fiftieth. L. Liber, book. L., or f . s. d. Pounds, shillings, pence. , or 1. Pounds, English currency (libra). T. Pounds, Turkish currency. La. Louisiana. L. A. W. League of American Wheel- men. Lam. Lamentations. Lang. Language. Lat. Latitude ; Latin. Lapp. Lappish. Lb., or Ib. Libra, or librae, pound or pounds in weight. L. C. Lower Canada ; Lord Cham- berlain ; Lord Chancellor. L. C. B. Lord Chief Baron. L. C. J. Lord Chief-Justice. Ld. Lord : Limited. Ldp. Lordship. Leg. Legate. Legis. Legislature. Leip. Leipsic. Lev. Leviticus. Lex. Lexicon. L. G. Life Guards. L. H. A. Lord High Admiral. L. H. C. Lord High Chancellor. L. H. D. Doctor of Literature. L. H. T. Lord High Treasurer. L. I. Long Island. Lib. Liber, book. Lieut.-Col. Lieutenant-Colonel. Lieut.-Gen. Lieutenant-General. Lieut.-Gov. Lieutenant-Governor. Lieut. Lieutenant. Lin. Lineal. Linn. Linnaeus ; Linnsean. Liq. Liquor ; Liquid. Lit. Literally ; Literature. Lith. Lithuanian. L., f , or 1. Libra or librae, pound or pounds sterling. L. Lat. Low Latin ; Law Latin. LL. B. Legum Bvecalaureus, Bache- lor of Laws. E 2. LL. D. Legum Doctor, Doctor of Laws. LL. M. Master of Laws. L. M. S. London Missionary Society. Loc. cit. Loco citato, in the place cited. Lon. Longitude. Lond. London. L. P. Lord Provost. L. P. S. Lord Privy Seal. L. R. C. P. Licentiate of the Royal College of Physicians. L. R. C. S. Lincentiate of the Royal College of Surgeons. L. S. D. Pounds, shillings, and pence. L. S. Locus sigilli, place of the seal. Lt. Lieutenant. LX. Sixty, or sixtieth. LXX. Seventy, or seventieth. LXX. The Septuagint (Version of the Old Testament). LXXX. Eighty, or eightieth. M. Married. M. Mile. M. Meridies, noon. M. Mille, a thousand. M., or Mons. Monsieur. M. A. Master of Arts. M. A. Military Academy. Mace. Maccabees. Maced. Macedonian. Mad. Madam. Mag. Magazine. Maj. Major. Maj.-Gen. Major-General. Mai. Malachi. Man. Manassas. Mar. March. March. Marchioness. Marg. Margin. Marg. Tran. Marginal Translation. Marq. Marquis. Masc. Masculine. Mass. Massachusetts. Math. Mathematics ; Mathematician. Matt. Matthew. Max. Maxim. M. B. Medicines Baccalaureus, Bach- elor of Medicine. M. B. Musicos Baccalaureus, Bache- lor of Music. M. C. Member of Congress ; Master of Ceremonies ; Master Commandant. Mch. March. M. C. S. Madras Civil Service. M. D. Medicines Doctor. Doctor of Medicine. Md. Maryland. Mdlle. Mademoiselle. Mdpn. Midshipman. Abbreviations Abbreviations M. E. Methodist Episcopal ; Military or Mechanical Engineer. M.E.,8. Methodist Episcopal, South. Me. Maine. Mech. Mechanic ; Mechanical. Med. Medicine. M. E. G. H. P. Most Excellent Grand High Priest. Mem. Memorandum. Mem. Memento, remember. Merc. Mercury. Mess. & Docs. Messages and Docu- ments. Messrs., or MM. Messieurs, Gentle- men. Met. Metaphysics. Metal. Metallurgy. Meteor. Meteorology. Meth. Methodist. Mex. Mexico, or Mexican. Mfd. Manufactured. Mfs. Manufactures. Mic. Micah. M. I. C. E. Member of the Institu- tion of Civil Engineers. Mich. Michaelmas. Mich. Michigan. Mil. Military. Min. Mineralogy. Min. Minute. Min. E. Mining Engineer. Minn. Minnesota. Min. Plen. Minister Plenipotentiary. Miss. Mississippi. i M. L. A. Mercantile Library Asso- ciation. MM. Their Majesties. MM. Messieurs ; Gentlemen. Mme. Madame. M. M. S. Moravian Missionary So- ciety. M. M. S. S. Massachuset tensis Medi- cines Societatis Socius, Fellow of the Massachusetts Medical Society. Mn. > Manganese. M. N. A. S. Member of the National Academy of Sciences. Mo. Missouri ; Month. Mod. Modern. Mon. Montana ; Monday. Mons. Monsieur ; Sir. Mont. Montana. Morn. Morning. Mos., or mth. Months. Mos. Months. M. P. Member of Parliament ; Mem- ber of Police ; Methodist Protestant. M. P. S. Member of the Philological Society ; Member of the Pharma- ceutical Society. M. R. Master of the Rolls. Mr. Mister. M. R. A. S. Member of the Royal Asiatic Society ; Member of the Roy- al Academy of Science. M. R. C. C. Member of the Royal College of Chemistry. M. R. C. P. Member of the Royal College of Preceptors. M. R. C. S. Member of the Royal College Of Surgeons. M. R. 0. V. S. Member of the Roya* College of Veterinary Surgeons. M. R. G. S. Member of the Royal Geographical Society. M. R. I. Member of the Royal Insti- tution. M. R. I. A. Member of the Royal Irish Academy. Mrs. Mistress. M. R. S. L. Member of the Royal Society of Literature. M. S. Memoriw sacrum, Sacred to the memory. M. S. Master of the Sciences. MS. Manuscriptum, manuscript. MSS. Manuscripts. Mt. Mount, or mountain. Mus. B. Bachelor of Music. Mus. D. Doctor of Music. M. W. Most Worthy ; Most Worship- ful. M. W. G. C. P. Most Worthy Grand Chief Patriarch. M. W. G. M. Most Worthy Grand Master; Most Worshipful Grand Master. M. W. P. Most Worthy Patriarch. Myth. Mythology. N. North; Number; Noun; Neuter. N. Note. N. A. North America. Nah. Nahum. Nap. Napoleon ; Napoleonic. N. A. S. National Academy of Sci- ences. Nat. Ord. Natural Order. Nat. Natural. Nat. Hist. Natural History. Nath. Nathanael, or Nathaniel. Naut. Nautical. Naut. Aim. Nautical Almanac. N. B. North Britain. N. B. New Brunswick; North Brit- ish. N. B. Nota lene, mark well; take notice. N. C. North Carolina. N. D. North Dakota. N. E. New England; North-east. Neb. Nebraska. Abbreviations Neb. Nehemiah. N. e. i. Non est inventus, he is not found. Nem. con., or nem. diss. Nemine con tradicente, or nemine dissentiente, no one opposing ; unanimously. Neth. Netherlands. Neut Neuter (gender). Nev. Nevada. New Test, or N. T. New Testament. N. F. Newfoundland. N. G. New Granada ; Noble Grand. ] N. H. New Hampshire ; New Haven. N. H. H. S. New Hampshire His-i torical Society. Ni. pri. Nisi prius. N. J. New Jersey. N. L Non liquet, it does not appear. | N. lat. North latitude. N. M. New Measurement. N. M. New Mexico. N.-N.-E. North-north-east. N.-N.-W. North-north-west. N, O. New Orleans. No. Numero, number. NoL Pros. Nolle prosequi, unwilling to proceed. Nom., or nom. Nominative. Non con. Not content; dissenting (House of Lords). Non cul. Non culpabilis, Not guilty, i Non obst. Non obstante, notwith-l standing. N. o. p. Not otherwise provided for. Non pros. Non prosequitur, he does not prosecute. Non seq. Non sequitur, it does not follow. No., or Nos. Numbers. Nov. November. N. P. Notary Public. N. P. D. North Polar Distance. N. s. Not specified. N. S. New Style (after 1752) ; No- va Scotia. N. S. J. C. Our Saviour Jesus Christ (Noster Salvator Jesus Christus). N. T. New Testament. N. u. Name or names unknown. Num. Numbers ; Numeral. N. V. New Version. N, V. M. Nativity of the Virgin Mary. N.-W. North-West N.-W. T. North- West Territory. N. Y. New York. N. Z. New Zealand. O. Ohio Ob. Obtit, he or she died. Obad. Obadiah. Obs. Obsolete ; Observatory ; Obser- vation. Obt, or Obdt Obedient Oct., or 8vo. Octavo, eight pages. Oct. October. O.-F. Odd-Fellow, or Odd-Fellows. Okl. Oklahoma. O. G. Outside guardian. O. H. M. S. On his or her Majesty's Service. Old Test, or O. T. Old Testament Olym. Olympiad. O. M. Old Measurement Ont Ontario. Opt. Optics. Or. Oregon. Orig. Originally. Ornith. Ornithology. Os. Osmium. O. S. Old Style; Outside Sentinel. O. T. Old Testament O. U. A. Order of United Americans. Oxf. Gloss. Oxford Glossary. Oxf. Oxford. Oxon. Oxonia, Oxonii, Oxford. Oz. Ounce. P. Pondere, by weight P., or p. Page ; Part ; Participle. Pa., or Penn. Pennsylvania. Pal. Palaeontology. Par. Paragraph. Par. Pas. Parallel passage. Parl. Parliament. Pat Of. Patent Office. Pathol. Pathology. Pay t Payment. P. B. Primitive Baptist. P. B. Philosophies Baccalaureits, Bachelor of Philosophy. P. C. Patres Conscripti, Conscript Fathers; Senators. P. C. Privy Council; Privy Coun- cilor. P. C. P. Past Chief Patriarch. P. C. S. Principal Clerk of Sessions. P. D. Philosophic Doctor, Doctor of Philosophy. Pd. Paid. P. E. Protestant Episcopal. P. E. I. Prince Edward Island. Penn. Pennsylvania. Pent Pentecost. Per. Persia; Persian. Per, or pr. By the, or per Ib. Per an. Per annum, by the year. Per cent. Per centum, by the hun- dred. Peri. Perigee. Peruv. Peruvian. Abbreviations Abbreviations Pet. Peter; Petrine. P. G. Past Grand. Phar. Pharmacy. Ph. B. Philosophies Baccalaureus, Bachelor of Philosophy. Ph. D. Philosophies Doctor, Doctor of philosophy. Phil. Philip ; Philippians ; Philos- ophy ; Philemon. Phila., or Phil. Philadelphia. Philem. Philemon. Philom. PhUomathes, a lover of learning. Philomat h. Philomathematicus, a lover of the mathematics. Phil. Trans. Philosophical Trans- actions. Phren. Phrenology. Pinx., or pxt. Pinxit, he (she) paint- ed it. P.-L. Poet-Laureate. PL, or Plur. Plural. Plff. Plaintiff. Plupf. Pluperfect. P. M. Post meridiem, afternoon, evening. P. M. Postmaster ; Passed Midship- man. P. M. G. Postmaster-General. P. O. Post-Office. P. of H. Patrons of Husbandry. Pop. Population. Port. Portugal, or Portuguese. P. P. Parish priest. P. P. C. Pour prendre conge, to take leave. Pp., or pp. Pages. PP. Patres, Fathers. Pph. Pamphlet. P. Q. Previous Question. P. R. Populus Romanus, the Roman people. P. R. Prize Ring; Porto Rico; the Roman People (Populus Romanus). P. R. A. President of the Royal Academy. P, R. C. Post Romam conditam, from the building of Rome. Preb. Prebend. Pref. Preface. Pref. Preferred. Prep. Preposition. Pres. President. Presb. Presbyterian. Prin. Principally. Prob. Problem. Proc. Proceedings. Prof. Professor. Pron. Pronoun ; Pronunciation. Prop. Proposition. Prot. Protestant. Prot. Epis. Protestant Episcopal. Pro tern. Pro tempore, for the time being. Prov. Proverbs ; Provost. Prov. Province. Prox. Proximo, next (month). P. R. S. President of the Royal So- ciety. Prs. Pairs. Prus. Prussia ; Prussian. P. S. Post scriptum, Postscript. P. S. Privy Seal. Ps. Psalm, or Psalms. Pt. Part; Pint; Payment; Point; Port Pt. Platinum. P. T. O. Please turn over. P.-twp. Post-township. Pub. Publisher ; Publication ; Pub- lished ; Public. Pub. Doc. Public Documents. P. v. Post-village. P. W. P. Past Worthy Patriarch. Pwt. Pennyweight ; pennyweights. Q Quasi, as it were ; almost. Q. Queen. Q. Question. Q. d. Quasi dicat, as if he should say ; quasi dictum, as if said ; quasi dix- isset, as if he had said. Q. e. Quod est, which is. Q. e. d. Quod erat demonstrandum, which was to be proved. Q. e. f. Quod erat faciendum, which was to be done. Q. e. i. Quod erat inveniendum, which was to be found out. Q. 1. Quantum libet, as much as you please. Q. M. Quartermaster. Qm. Quomodo, how ; by what means. Q. M. G. Quartermaster-General. Q. p., or q. pi. Quantum placet, as much as you please. Qr. Quarter. Q. S. Quarter Sessions. Q. s. Quantum suffidt, sufficient quantity. t. Quart. u., or qy. Quaere, inquire ; query. uar. Quarterly. ues. Question. Mess. Queen's Messenger. ue. Quebec. Q. v. Quod vide, which see ; quantum vis, as much as you will. R. Recipe, take. R. Regina, Queen. R. River; Rood; Rod. Abbreviations Abbreviations R. A. Royal Academy ; Royal Aca- demician. R. A. Royal Arch. R. A. Royal Artillery. R. C. Roman Catholic. RC. Rescriptum, a counterpart. R. D. Rural Dean. R. E. Reformed Episcopal. R. E. Royal Engineers. Rec. Recipe, or Recorder. Reed. Received. Rec. Sec. Recording Secretary. Rect. Rector ; Receipt Ref. Reference. Ref. Reformed ; Reformation ; Ref- erence. Ref. Ch. Reformed Church. Reg. Register ; Regular. Reg. Prof. Regius Professor. Regr. Registrar. Regt. Regiment. Rel. Religion. Rep. Representative ; Reporter. Repts. Reports. Retd. Returned. Rev. Reverend ; Revelation ( Book of) ; Review ; Revenue ; Revise. Rhet. Rhetoric. R. H. S. Royal Humane Society ; Royal Historical Society. R. I. Rhode Island ; in stock reports, Rock Island, a railway. R. I. H. S. Rhode Island Historical Society. R. M. Royal Marines ; Royal Mail. R. M. S. Royal Mail Steamer. R. N. Royal Navy. R. N. R. Royal Navy Reserve. Ro. Recto, right-hand page. Robt Robert. Rom. Romans (Epistle to the). Rom. Cath. Roman Catholic. R. P. Reformed Presbyterian. R. P. Regius Professor, the King's Professor. R. R. Railroad. R. R. June. Railroad Junction. R. R. Sta. Railroad Station. R. S. Recording Secretary. Rs. Responsus, to answer ; Rupees. R. S. A. Royal Society of Anti- quaries : Royal Scottish Academy. R. S. V. P. Repondez, s'il vous plait, answer, if you please. R. T. S. Religious Tract Society. Rt Hon. Right Honorable. Rt. Rev. Right Reverend. Rt. Wpful. Right Worshipful. Russ. Russia ; Russian. R. V. Revised Version. R. W. Right Worthy. R. W. D. G. M. Right Worshipful Deputy Grand Master. R. W. G. R. Right Worthy Grand Representative. R. W. G. S. Right Worthy Grand Secretary. R. W. G. T. Right Worthy Grand Treasurer ; Right Worshipful Grand Templar. R. W. G. W. Right Worthy Grand Warden. R. W. J. G. W. Right Worshipful Junior Grand Warden. R. W. S. G. W. Right Worshipful Senior Grand Warden. Ry. Railway. S. Solidus, a shilling. S. South; Saint; Scribe; Sulphur; Sunday ; Sun ; Series. S. Afr. South Africa. S. A. South America ; South Austra- lia. S. a. Secundum artem, according to art. Sam. Samuel. Sansc., or Sansk. Sanscrit, or Sans- krit. Sard. Sardinia. S. A. S. Societatis Antiquariorum Socius, Fellow of the Soc. of An- tiquaries. Sat. Saturday. Sax. Saxon ; Saxony. Sax. Chron. Saxon Chronicle. S. C. Senatus Consultum, a decree of the Senate; South Carolina. Sc. Sculpsit, he (or she) engraved it. Sc. B. Bachelor of Science Sc., or scil. Scilicet, namely. Scan. Mag. Scandalum magnatum, scandal of the great or prominent. Schol. Scholium, a note. Schr. Schooner. Sclav. Sclavonic. Scot. Scottish ; Scotland. Scr. Scruple. Scrip. Scripture. Sculp. Sculpsit, he (or she) en- graved it. S. D. Salutem dicit, sends health ; South Dakota. S.-E. South-East. Sec. Secretary ; Second. Sec. Leg. Secretary of Legation. Sec. leg. Secundum legem, according to law. Sec. reg. Secundum regulam, accord- ing to rule. Sect. Section. Sem. Semlle, it seems. Abbreviations Abbreviation* Sem. Seminary. Sen. Senate ; Senator ; Senior. Sept. September ; Septuagint. Seq. Sequentia, following ; sequitur, it follows. Ser. Series. Serg. Sergeant. Serg.-Maj. Sergeant-Major. Servt. Servant. Sess. Session. S. G. Solicitor-General. Shak. Shakespeare. S. H. S. Societatis Histories Socius, Fellow of the Historical Society. Sic. Doubtful ; literally. S. I. M. Soc. for Increase of the Ministry. Sing. Singular. S. Isl. Sandwich Islands. S. J. Society of Jesus. S. J. C. Supreme Judicial Court. S. lat. South latitude. S. M. State Militia; Short Meter; Sergeant-Major; Sons of Malta. S. M. Lond. Soc. Cor. Societatis Mcdicce Londonensis Socius Cor., Corresponding Member of the Lon- don Medical Soc. Soc. Isl. Society Islands. Sol. Solomon ; Solution. SoL-Gen. Solicitor-General. S. of Sol. Song of Solomon. Sp. Spain ; Spanish. S. P. A. S. Societatis Philosophies Americana Socius, Member of the American Philosophical Society. S. P. G. Society for the Propagation of the Gospel. Sp. gr. Specific gravity. S. P. C. A. Society for the Preven- tion of Cruelty to Animals. S. P. C. C. Society for the Preven- tion of Cruelty to Children. S. P. Q. R. Senatus Populusque Ro- manus, the Senate and people of Rome. S. P. R. L. Society for the Promo- tion of Religion and Learning. Sq. ft. Square foot, or square feet. Sq. in. Square inch, or inches. Sq. m. Square mile, or miles. Sq. yd. Square yard. Sr. Senior. S. R. I. Sacrum Romanum Impe- rium. Holy Roman Empire. S, R. S. Societatis Regies Socius, Fellow of the Royal Society. S. S. Sunday-school. SS. Saints. SS., or ss. Scilicet, to wit. Ss. Semis, half ; Ses sions. S.-S.-E. South-south-east. S.-S.-W. South-south-west. St. Saint; Street; Strait. Stat. Statute. S. T. B. Bachelor of Sacred Theol- ogy. S. T. D. Sacrce Theologies Doctor, Doctor of Divinity. Ster., or Stg. Sterling. S. T. P. Sacrce Theologies Profess- or, Professor of Divinity. Str. Steamer. S ub j. S ub j uncti ve. Subst. Substantive. Sun., or Sund. Sunday. Sup. Supreme. Sup. Supplement ; Superfine. Supt. Superintendent. Surg. Surgeon ; Surgery. Surg.-Gen. Surgeon-General. Surv. Surveyor. Surv.-Gen. Surveyor-General. S. v. Sub verbo, under the word or title. S.-W. South-west Sw. Swiss. Swe. Sweden ; Swedish ; Sweden- borg ; Swedenborgian. Switz. Switzerland. Syn. Synonym ; Synonymous. Syr. Syriac. T., or torn. Tome, volume. Tab. Table; Tabular. Tan. Tangent. T. E. Topographical Engineers. Tenn. Tennessee. Ter. Territory. Tex. Texas. Text. Rec. Textus Receptus, Received Text. Tf. Till forbid. Th., or Thurs. Thursday. Theo. Theodore. Theol. Theology ; Theological. Theoph. Theophilus. Thess. Thessalonians. Tho'. Though. Thos. Thomas. Thro'. Through. Tim. Timothy. Tit. Titus. T. O. Turn over. Tob. Tobit. Topog. Topography ; Topographical. Tp. Township. Tr. Transpose ; Translator ; Trans- lation ; Trustee. T r a n s. Translator ; Translation J Transactions ; Transpose. Treas. Treasurer. Abbreviations Trin. Trinity. Tues., or Tu. Tuesday. T. S. Twin screw. Tr. S. Triple screw. Tur. Turkey. Hyp. Typographer. U. Union. U. B. United Brethren. U. C. Upper Canada. U. C. Vrbe condita, year of Rome. U. J. C. Utriusque Juris Doctor, Doctor of both Laws. U. K. United Kingdom. U. K. A. Ulster King-at-Arms. Ult Ultimo, last ; of the last month. Unit. Unitarian. Univ. University. Univt. Universalist U. P. United Presbyterian. U. S. United States. U. s. Ut supra, or uti supra, as above. U. S. A. United States Army. U. S. A. United States of America. U. S. M. United States Mail. U. S. M. United States Marines. U. S. M. A. United States Military Acad. U. S. M. C. United States Marine Corps. U. S. M. H. S. United States Ma- rine Hospital Service. U. S. N. United States Navy. U. S. N. A. United States Naval Acad. U. S. S. United States Senate. Ut Utah. V. Village. V., or vid. Vide, see. V. Violin. Vt Vermont. V., or vs. Versus, against ; Versicu- lo, in such a verse. Va. Virginia. Val. Value. Vat. Vatican. V. C. Victoria Cross ; Vice-Chair- man ; Vice-Chancellor. V. D. L. Van piemen's Land. V. D. M. Verbi Dei Minister, Minis- ter of God's word. Ven. Venerable. Ver. Verse. V. Q, Vicar General. V. g. Verbi gratia, as for example. Vice-Pres., or V. P Vice-President. Vise. Viscount. Viz., or vL Videltcet, *o wit ; name- ly; that is to say. Abbreviation* Vo. Verso, left-hand page. Vol. Volume. V. R. Victoria Regina, Queen Vic- toria. V. S. Veterinary Surgeon. Vul. Vulgate \. Version ) . W. West Wash. Washington. W. B. M. Woman's Board of Mis- sions. W. C. A. Woman's Christian Asso- ciation. W. C. T. U. Women s Christian Temperance Union. Wed. Wednesday. Wf. Wrong font. W. F. M. S. Woman's Foreign Mis- sionary Society. W. H. M. A. Woman's Home Mis- sionary Association. W. I. West Indies. Wis. Wisconsin. Wisd. Wisdom (Book of). Wk. Week. W. M. Worshipful Master. Wm. William. W. M. S. Wesleyan Missionary So- ciety. W. N. C. T. U. Woman's National Christian Temperance Union. W.-N.-W. West-north-west. W.-S.-W. West-south-west. W T t Weight. Wyo. Wyoming. W. Va. West Virginia. X., or Xt Christ. Xmas., or Xm. Christmas. Xn., or Xtian. Christian. Xnty., or Xty. Christianity. Xper., or Xr. Christopher. Yd. Yard. Ym. Them. Y. M. C. A. Young Men's Christian Association. Y. M. C. U. Young Men's Christian Union. Yn. Then. Yr. Year. Yrs. Years; Yours- Y. W. C. A.^- Young Women's Chris- tian Association. Zach. Zachary. Zech. Zechariah. Zeph. Zephaniah. Zool. Zoology. &. And. A. B. C. Mediators Abdul-Medjid A. B. C. Mediators, the diplo- matic representatives in the United States of Argentina, Bolivia, and Chile, who, under an offer of friendly offices by their respective governments, attempted a settlement of the contro- versies between the United States and Mexico. Several conferences were held at Niagara Falls and Washing- ton in 1914-15, and a plan was draft- ed for the restoration of order in Mex- ico, but no practical results followed. Abdallah-Ibn-Yarim, Moham- medan conqueror of Spain, known as "Theologian." He died 1058. Abd-el-Kader, very renowned by the persevering courage with which he opposed the aggressions of the French against his country, born in Oran in 1807. He preached a holy war against the French occupation of Algiers, and called upon the faithful to rise and expel the infidels. For a period of 15 years he contrived to defend his coun- try, and fight against the encroach- ments of France ; but in 1847 he was compelled to surrender himself a pris- oner. He died May 26, 1883. Abd-er-Rahman I., a Caliph of Cordova, born in Damascus in 731. He founded a Moorish dynasty in Spain, made Cordova his capital and became an independent sovereign. The mosque at Cordova (now used as a cathedral), ornamented with rows of cupolas, supported by 850 pillars of jas- per, was built by him. He died in 787. Abdication, Royal, a resignation of sovereign power, forced or volun- tary. Noted modern instances include Napoleon in 1814 and 1815; Charles X., of France, in 1830; Louis Phi- lippe, in 1848 ; Alexander of Bulgaria, in 1886; King Milan of Servia, in 1889; William of Wied, Mpret (Em- peror) of Albania, in 1914 ; and Czar Nicholas of Russia and King Constan- tine of Greece, both in 1917. King Manoel of Portugal was dethroned by a revolution in 1910. Abd-nl-Aziz, the 323 Sultan of the Ottoman Turks, was born Feb. 9, 1830, and succeeded his brother, Abd- ul-Medjid, in 1861. His government had great difficulties to contend with in the Cretan insurrection, the strug- gle of Rumania and Servia for full autonomy, and finally the outbreak of Mohammedan fanaticism. In 1871 the Sultan strove to get the succession settled upon his son, instead of his nephew Murad, in accordance with Turkish custom. At last a conspiracy forced him to abdicate the throne, May 30, 1876. Four days later, the unhappy Sultan was found dead, it is almost certain by foul play. Abdul-Hamid II., 34th Sultan of Turkey, born Sept. 22, 1842, the second son of Sultan Abdul-ul-Medjid ; succeeded to the throne in 1876, on the deposition of his brother, Murad V. Defeated in the war of 1877-1878 with Russia, he was compelled by the Treaty of Berlin to surrender a small portion of territory in Europe and Asia, to recognize the independence of the vassal States in Europe, and to acknowledge Bulgaria as a tributary principality. In 1895-1896, during the massacres of the Armenians, he took an active part in the negotiations with the European powers. In 1897, Greece forced war on Turkey in be- half of the Cretans, and in 1898, after another uprising in Crete, Great Britain and Russia forced Turkey to evacuate the island. A constitution granted Turkey in 1876, before his accession, was quickly suppressed by him, and he ruled despotically until 1908, when he was forced to restore it by a revolutionary party known as the Young Turks. A legislative as- sembly was elected and a large meas- ure of liberty granted, but in April, 1909, a reactionary movement at Con- stantinople led to the occupation of the city by troops favoring the Young Turks party, and the deposition and exile to Salonica of the Sultan. He was succeeded by his brother, Mohammed- Reshad, under the title of Mohammed V. At the outbreak of the war of the Balkan States against Turkey, in 1912, Abdul-Hamid was removed to Con- stantinople, through fear that Russia might restore him to the throne dur- ing the excitement of the war. Abdul-Medjid, a Sultan of Tur- key, born April 23, 1822 ; succeeded to the throne July 1, 1839, at the early age of 17. The great event of his reign was the Crimean War, in which France and England allied themselves with Turkey against the encroach- ments of Russia, and which was ter- minated by the fall of Sehastopol af- ter a long siege, in 1856. He was sue- Abdurrahman Klian ceeded by his brother, Abdul Azia Khan. He died June 25, 1861. Abdurrahman Khan, Ameer of 'Afghanistan; born in Kabul in 1844; was the eldest son of Ufzul Khan, and nephew of the Ameer Shere Ali. In July of 1880 he was formally chosen by the leading men of Kabul and ac- knowledged by the British Indian Gov- ernment as Ameer of Afghanistan. From the British Indian Government he received a subsidy of $800,000 a year, with large gifts of artillery, ri- fles, and ammunition to improve his military force. In March, 1900, he declared his sympathy with England. He died in Kabul, Oct. 3, 1901. Abel, the second son of Adam and brother of Cain. The latter was a tiller of the ground ; Abel a shepherd. Both brought their offerings before the Lord; Cain, the first-fruits of the ground ; Abel, the firstlings of the fiock. God accepted the offering of Abel ; the offering of Cain he rejected. The latter, instigated by envy, mur- dered his brother in the field. Abel, Sir Frederick Augustus, an English chemist, born in London in 1827. Was president of the Brit- ish Association in 1890. Died London, Sept. 8, 1902. Abel, Niels Henrik, a Norwe- gian mathematician, born at Findo, Aug. 5, 1802. He became a lecturer at the University of Christiania, and the school of engineering there. His works deal mainly with the theory of elliptical functions, which his discov- eries greatly enriched. He died young, April 6, 1829. Abelard, (or Abailard), Pierre, a monk of the order of St. Benedict, equally famous for his learning and his passion for Heloise; born in 1079, near Nantes, in the little village of Pallet, which was the property of his father Berenger. His inclination led him to prefer a literary life ; and in order to devote himself fully to philos- ophy he ceded his patrimony to his brothers. He studied poetry, rhetoric, philosophy, jurisprudence, and theol- ogy, the Greek, Hebrew, and Latin languages ; but scholastic philosophy chiefly engaged his attention. Having learned all that Brittany could teach him, he went to Paris, the university of which attracted students from all parts of Europe^ Guillaume de Cham- ___ Abelard peaux, a follower of Anselm and an extreme Realist, was the most skillful disputant of his time, and Abelard, profiting by his instructions, was often victorious over his master in contests of wit and logical acumen. The friendship of Qhampeaux was soon succeeded by enmity ; and Abelard, who had not yet completed his 22d year, removed to Melun, whither he was soon followed by a multitude of young men, attracted from Paris by his great reputation. Hostility still pursued him, but he left Melun for Corbeil, nearer the capital, where he was still more admired and persecuted. Soon after he ceased teaching to re- cruit his strength ; and after two years returned to Paris, and found that his former teacher had removed to a monastery outside the city. He again joined issue with him and gained so complete a triumph that he opened in Paris a school of rhetoric, the fame of which soon deprived all the others of their pupils. Shortly afterward he was appointed to his ri- val's chair in the cathedral school of Notre Dame, where he educated many distinguished scholars, among whom were the future Pope Celestin II., Pe- ter of Lombardy, Bishop of Paris, Be- renger, Bishop of Poictiers, and St. Bernard. At this time there resided close to Notre Dame a young lady, by name Heloise, niece of the canon Fulbert, then of the age of 17, and remarkable for her beauty, genius, and varied ac- complishments. Abelard became in- spired with such violent love for He- loise as to forget his duty, his lectures, and his fame. Heloise was no less susceptible. Under the pretext of fin- ishing her education, he obtained Ful- bert's permission to visit her, and finally became resident in his house. His conduct in abusing the confidence which had been placed in him opened the eyes of Fulbert. He separated the lovers, but too late. Abelard fled with her to Brittany, where she was de- livered of a son, who died early. Abe- lard now resolved to marry her secret- ly. Fulbert gave his consent, the mar- riage was performed, and in order to keep it secret Heloise remained with her uncle, while Abelard retained his former lodgings, and continued his lectures. Abelard, however, carried Ibercrombie Ab er crombie her off a second time, and placed her in the convent of Argenteuil. Fulbert erroneously believed it was intended to force her to take the veil, and under the influence of rage sub- jected Abelard to mutilation. He be- came, in consequence, a monk in the abbey of St. Denis, and Heloise took the veil at Argenteuil. After time had somewhat moderated his grief he re- sumed teaching. At the Council of Soissons (1121), no defense being per- mitted him, his " Essay on the Trin- ity " was declared heretical, and he was condemned to burn it with his own hands. Continued persecutions obliged him at last to leave the abbey of St. Denis and to retire to a place near Nogent-sur-Seine, where he built a rude hut in which he determined to live a hermit's life. Even here, how- ever, students flocked to him, and they built him an oratory, which he dedi- cated to the Holy Ghost and hence called Paraclete. Being subsequently appointed abbot of St. Gildas de Ruys, in Brittany, he invited Heloise and her religious sisterhood, on the dissolution of their monastery at Argenteuil, to re- side at the above oratory, and re- ceived them there. He lived for some 10 year? at St. Gildas. Ultimately, however, he fled from it and lived for a time in other parts of Brittany. St. Bernard of Clairvaux, the lead- ing opponent of the rationalistic school of Abelard, laid his doctrines before the Council of Sens, in 1140, had them condemned by the Pope, and obtained an order for his imprisonment. Abe- lard appealed to the Pope, published his defense, and went to Rome. Pass- ing through Cluny, he visited Peter the Venerable, who was abbot there. This humane and enlightened divine effect- ed a reconciliation between him and his enemies, but Abelard resolved to end his days in retirement. The se- vere penances which he imposed upon himself, together with the grief which never left his heart, gradually con- sumed his strength, and he died, a pat- tern of monastic discipline, in 1142, at the abbey of St. Marcel, near Cha- lon-sur-Saone. Heloise begged his body, and had him buried in the Para- clete, of which she was at that time the abbess, with the view of reposing in death by his side. In 1800 the ashes of both were carried to the Museum of French Monuments at Paris, and in November, 1817, were deposited under a chapel within the precincts of the church of Monamy. The small chapel, in the form of a beautiful marble monument, in which the figures of the ill-fated pair are seen reposing side by side, is now one of the most interesting objects in the Parisian cemetery of Pere la Chaise. Abelard was distinguished as a grammarian, orator, logician, poet, musician, philosopher, theologian, and mathematician. As a philosopher he founded an eclectic system commonly, but erroneously, termed Conceptual- ism, which lay midway between the prevalent Realism, represented in its most advanced form by William of Champeaux, and extreme Nominalism, represented in the teaching of his other master Roscellin, and largely ap- proached the Aristotelian philosophy. In ethics Abelard placed much empha- sis on the subjective intention, which he held to determine the moral value as well as the moral character of man's action. Along this line his work is notable, owing to the fact that his successors did little in connection with morals, for they did not regard the rules of human conduct as within the field of philosophic discussion. His love and his misfortunes have secured his name from oblivion ; and the man whom his own century admired as a profound dialectician is now celebrated as the martyr of love. The letters of Abelard and Heloise have been often published in the original and in trans- lations. Pope's poetical epistle " Eloisa to Abelard " is founded on them. Abelard's autobiography, en- titled " Historia Calamitatum," is still extant. The chief work on the life of Abelard is Remusat's " Abelard " (two vols. Paris, 1845). See also Compayre's " Abelard and the Origin and Early History of Universities " (1893 ; series of " Great Educators "). A complete edition of his work was published by Cousin (tw y o vols. Paris, 1849-1859). Abercrombie, John, in his day the most eminent of Scottish physi- cians, was born in 1780, at Aberdeen, where his father was a parish min- ister. His principal professional writ- ings were treatises on the pathology of the brain and on diseases of the stom- Abercrombie Abiathar ach. Dr. Abercrombie died suddenly, Nov. 14, 1844. Abercrombie, Sir Ralph, a Brit- ish general, born in 1738. He was commander-in-chief in the West Indies, in 1795; in the attempt against Hol- land, in 1799, and in the expedition to Egypt. Mortally wounded in the beginning of the battle of Alexandria (March 21, 1801), the general kept the field during the day, and died some days after his victory. Aberdeen, the chief city and sea- port in the North of Scotland, lies at the mouth and on the N. side of the river Dee, 111 miles N. of Edinburgh. Population of the parliamentary burgh X1901) 153,108. Aberdeen, George Hamilton Gordon, Earl of, born in 1784. He took office as Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs in 1828, in the min- istry formed under the Duke of Wel- lington, and in 1843 in the Peel min- istry. Entering public life as a Tory, his policy was that of non-interference in the affairs of foreign states. In 1853, Earl Aberdeen was solected to head a new ministry, which for some time was extremely popular. He en- deavored to prevent the country from entering upon the conflict with Rus- sia, but all his efforts were unavail- ing. Failing to receive sufficient sup- port to carry out his measures, he re- signed in 1855. Died Dec. 14, 1860. Aberdeen, Sir John Campbell, Hamilton Gordon, seventh Earl of, born in 1847. He served as Gov- ernor-General of Canada (1893-1898), and as Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland in 1886 and after 1905. His wife, born in 1857, is a daughter of Lord Tweedmouth and a direct descendant of Robert Bruce. She is an accom- plished orator, and organized the Irish Village at the Columbian Exposition in Chicago in 1893. For many years she has been conspicuous in plans for promoting the welfare of women. Abernethy, James, a Scotch civil engineer, born in Aberdeen in 1815. As a boy he assisted his father : on the extension of the London docks, i and afterward designed and built the j lock and dock at Aberdeen, the docks at Swansea, Newport, Cardiff and Hull, and the Cavour canal in Italy; designed the accepted plan for the im- provement of the Danube at Vienna ; reclaimed Lake Aboukir, in Egypt, and proposed the Manchester ship- canal. He was the first to apply hy- draulic power for working lock-gates. He died March 8, 1896. Abernethy, John, an eminent English surgeon, founder of the School of St. Bartholomew's ; born in London, April 3, 1764. He died at Enfield, April 28, 1831. Abert, John James, an American military engineer, born in Virginia in 1788; served in the War of 1812; was made chief of United States to- pographical engineers in 1838 ; assist- ed in developing important canals and other works ; member of the Geo- graphical Society of France. He died in 1863. Abesta, or Avesta, the name of one of the sacred books of the Persian magi, which they ascribe to their great founder Zoroaster. Abgar, or Abgarus, is the name or title of 28 princes of Edessa, in Mesopotamia. The most notable of these princes is the 14th of the name, a contemporary of Jesus, and was said to have written a letter to Jesus and to have received an answer from Him. These letters, translated into Greek from the Syriac by Eusebius of Caesa- rea, were denounced as spurious by Pope Gelasius in 494 and soon lost all credit. The letter from Abgar con- tains a request that Jesus should visit him, and heal him of a certain dis- ease. In the reply, Jesus is repre- sented as promising to send a disci- ple to heal him after His ascension. What purported to be copies of this correspondence came to light in 1900. For other fables in this connection, see Lipsius' " Die Edessenische Abgar- sage" (1880). Abgillus, surnamed Prester John, a king of the Frisons. He attended Charlemagne to the Holy Land, and did not return with him, but made great conquests in Abyssinia, which was called, from him, the empire of Prester John. He lived in the 8th century. Abiathar (the father of abun- dance ) , a high-priest of the Jews, son of Ahimelech, who had borne the sam^ office, and received David in his house. This so enraged Saul that he put Ahim- Ablb Aboukir- elech and 81 priests to death ; Abi- athar alone escaped the massacre. He afterward was high-priest, and often fave King David testimonies of his delity. But after this he conspired with Adonijah, in order to raise him to the throne of King David, his fa- ther, which so exasperated Solomon against him that he divested him of the priesthood, and banished him A. M. 3021 (B. c. 1014). Abib, a name given by the Jews to the first month of their ecclesiasti- cal year, afterward called Nisan. It answered to the latter part of March and beginning of April. Abigail, the beautiful wife of Na- bal, a wealthy owner of goats and sheep in Carmel. When David's mes- sengers T*ere slighted by Nabal, Abi- gail took the blame upon herself, and succeeded in appeasing the anger of David. Ten days after, Nabal died, and David sent for Abigail and made her his wife. ( I Sam. xxv : 14, etc. ) Abilene, city and capital of Tay- lor county, Tex.; on the Texas & Pacific railroad; 200 miles N. of Austin; has flour, cotton-seed oil, and planing mills, machine shops, cream- ery, chair and mattress factories, and large cattle trade. Pop. (1910) 9,204. Abiogenesis, name given by Prof.' Huxley to the theory of spontaneous generation, i. e., that living matter can be produced from that which is not in itself living matter. It is the antith- esis of biogenesis. Abishai, son of David's sister Zeruiah, and brother to Joab. Abo, Archipelago of, an exten- sive group of low, rocky islands in the Baltic Sea, spreading along the S. and W. coasts of Finland, opposite the city of Abo, rendering the naviga- tion difficult and dangerous. Abo, Peace of, a treaty concluded Aug. 17, 1743, between Russia and Sweden, by which Russia retained a part of Finland and restored to Swe- den the remainder on condition that the latter power should elect the Prince of Holstein-Gottorp successor to the throne. Abolitionists, in United States history, those who advocated the abo- lition of African slavery in the South- ern States. The anti-slavery agita- tion dates back even to colonial days. Agitation became acute after the set- tlement of the war troubles of 1812- 1815. In 1833, the formation of a Na- tional Anti-Slavery Society took place in Philadelphia, and in 1848 of the Free Soil Party. The abolition move- ment ivas powerfully promoted by William Lloyd Garrison, who issued a newspaper, " The Liberator," for the better dissemination of his views ; and also by Wendell Phillips, Charles Sumner and others. The more extreme agitators among them denied the duty of obedience to the Constitution, since it contained the clause warranting the Fugitive Slave Law, and they de- nounced it as " a covenant with death and an agreement with hell." In prac- tice they violated it by systematically assisting in the escape of runaway slaves. A line of stations known as the " Underground Railroad " was se- cretly arranged, along which the fu- gitives were passed from point to point, concealed from pursuers, and cared for until they reached safety in Canada. In Boston, Garrison was mobbed, and the abolition cause in the United States counted among its martyrs Elijah Lovejoy, shot in Al- ton, 111., in 1837, and John Brown, hanged in Virginia in 1859. In 1840 the abolitionists divided on the ques- tion of the formation of a political anti-slavery party, and the two wings remained active on separate lines to the end. It was largely due to the abolitionists that the Civil War, when it came, was regarded by the North chiefly as an anti-slavery conflict, and they looked upon the Emancipation Proclamation as a vindication of this view. Aboma, a large and formidable American snake, called also the ringed boa. Anciently it was worshipped by the Mexicans. Aborigines, the earliest known inhabitants of any other land. Aboukir, a small village on the Egyptian coast, 10 miles E. of Alex- andria. Aboukir bay is celebrated for the naval battle in which Nelson an- nihilated the French fleet on Aug. 1-2, 1798. This decisive victory gained Nelson the title of Baron Nelson of the Nile ; and the battle is often spo- ken of as the battle of the Nile. See APPENDIX: World War. About About, Edmond, a French novel- ist, born in Dieuze, Lorraine. Feb. 14, 1828; died in Paris, Jan. 17, 1885. Abra, a province of Luzon, Philip- pine Islands; on the N. W. coast; area, 1,484 square miles; pop. (1903) 51,860, of whom 14,037 were wild; capita], Bangued. Abracadabra, a magical word among the ancients, recommended as an antidote against several diseases. It was to be written upon a piece of paper as many times as the word contains letters, omitting the last let- ter of the former every time, and sus- pended from the neck by a linen thread. It was the name of a god wor- shipped by the Syrians, the wearing of whose name was a sort of invoca- tion of his aid. ABRACADABRA ABRACADABR ABRACADAB ABRACADA A B R A C A D A B R A C A A B R A C ABRA A B R A B A At present, the word is used chiefly in jest, to denote something without meaning. Abraham, son of Terah, and brother of Nahor and II a run, the progenitor of the Hebrew nation and of several cognate tribes. At the goodly age of 175, he was " gathered to his people," and laid beside Sarah, in the tomb of Machpelah, by his sons Isaac and Ishmael. A b r a h a m, Plains of and Heights of, a table-land near Que- bec, rising above the St. Lawrence, wher the battle of Quebec was fought between the British and French (1759). Abranyi, Kernel, a Hungarian poet, novelist, and publicist ; born in Budapest, Dec. 31, 1849. As a mem- ber of the Hungarian diet and as ed- itor of the " Pesti Naplo," he is an important political figure in Hungary. Abrogation. The term is used popularly as the equivalent of repeal, whether by statute or contrary usage. Abruzzi, Prince Lnigi Amadep, Dnke of, Italian explorer ; born in Rome, Jan. 30, 1873; a nephew of Abstinence King Humbert*; in May, 1899, he started on an expedition, in the spe- cially prepared steamer " Star of Italy," for Franz Josef Land, intend- ing, when frozen in, to use sledges in a search for the North Pole and the balloon explorer, Dr. Andrfie. He re- turned to Norway in September, 1900, after having reached a point in lati- tude 86 33' N., surpassing Nansen's furthest N. record by 19'. Absalom, the third son of David, king of Israel, remarkable for his beauty and for his unnatural rebel- lion against his father, which led to his untimely death. Abscess, a gathering of pus in any tissue or organ of the body. Abscesses may occur in almost any portion of the body. They are of three types : the acute abscess, or phlegmon, arising from an inflammatory tendency in the part ; the chronic abscess, connected with scrof- ulous or other weakness in the con- stitution ; and the diffused abscess, due to contamination in the blood. Absenteeism, a term applied to the owners of estates in a country who habitually absent themselves from that country, and spend the income of their estates in it in another coun- try. Used more particularly regard- ing Irish landlords who live elsewhere. Absinthe, a liqueur made princi- pally in Switzerland, and much used by the French ; composed of volatile oil of wormwood, oil of anise and oth- er ingredients mixed in alcohol. It is an intoxicant, more agreeable to the taste than usual alcoholic beverages, but its persistent use leads to extreme physical and mental disorders. Absolution. The Roman Catholic Church, since the fourth Lateran coun- cil in 1215 A. D., invests the priest with power in his priestly office to pro- nounce absolution from sins that have been confessed. In most other Church- es, absolution is no more than a general or formal declaration that God will forgive the sins of penitents, with exhortation to seek such forgive- ness. Abstinence, the act or habit of refraining from something to which we have a propensity, or in which we find pleasure ; but it is more particu- larly applied to the privation or spar- ing use of food. Abstinence has been enjoined and practiced for various Abt Abyssinia ends, as sanitary, moral, or religious. Abstinence of flesh on certain days is obligatory in the Roman Catholic Church. The time during which life can be supported under total abstinence from food or drink, is usually stated to vary from eight to ten days ; the period may, however, be greatly prolonged. Total abstinence, as a term, has also special reference to alcoholic drinks. Abt, Franz, a German song writer ; born in Saxony, Dec. 22, 1819. He studied theology at Leipsic, but abandoned it for music. He is well known as composer of the favorite song, " When the Swallows Homeward Fly." He visited the United States in 1872. He died March 31, 1885. Abu-Klea, a place in Egypt, on the route across the country between Korti and Metammeh, both on the great bend of the Nile below Khar- tum ; was the scene of a battle on Jan. 17, 1885, in which Sir Herbert Stew- art defeated the Mahdi's forces. Abnl-Abbas, Abd-Allah, the first of the Arabian dynasty of Ab- bassides; a caliph of incredible cruel- ty, on account of which he was called "al Suffah" ("The Sanguinary"). On assurances of amnesty, he be- guiled 90 members of the Ommiad fam- ily (the preceding dynasty) into a hall, where they were slain with whips and rods. He died in 754. Abnna, the title given by the Ethi- opian Christians to their metropolitan. He is the chief of the secular clergy. Abu-Simbel. Tbsambnl, or Ip- sanibnl, the site of two temples on the Nile, constructed by Rameses II. The principal beauties of the facade of the larger temple (119 feet broad, and more than 100 feet high) are the four sitting colossi,, each more than 65 feet in height. Abydos, a town and castle of Na- tolia, on the Straits of Gallipoli. In its neighborhood Xerxes, when he in- vaded Greece, crossed with his im- mense army the Hellespont, on a bridge of boats. Memorable also from being the scene of the loves of Hero and Leander, and from Byron having adopted its name in his " Bride of Abydos." Also an ancient city of Up- per Egypt, supposed to hare been the ancient This, and to have been sec- ond only to Thebes. Abyssinia, or Habesb, an ancient kingdom of Eastern Africa, now un- der a monarch who claims the title of emperor. Abyssinia may be said to extend between lat. 8 and 16 N., and Ion. 35 and 41 E., having Nu- bia N. and W., the Sudan W., the Red Sea littoral (Erythrsea, Danakil coun try, etc.), E., and to the S. the Galls country. The area within these limit* is about 160,000 square miles, but thf present ruler claims a much more ex tensive territory ; and latterly Abys* sinia has come to be surrounded by re- gions belonging to or influenced more or less by Italy, France, and Great Britain. The principal divisions of Abyssinia are the provinces or king- doms of Shoa in the S., Amhara in the center, and Tigre" in the N., to which may be added Lasta, Gojam, and other territories. Addis Abeba in Shoa is the present residence of the ruler, but the Abyssinian royal residences large- ly consist of houses very slightly built, and thus resemble more or less perma- nent camps rather than towns. Other towns are Gondar, Adua, Aksum, An- talo, and Ankober, none with a pop- ulation exceeding 7,000. The Abyssinians are of mixed Semi- tic and Hamitic descent They were converted to Christianity in the time of the Emperor Constantine, by some mis- sionaries sent from Alexandria. In the 6th century the power of the sover- eigns of their kingdom had attained its height ; but before another had ex- pired the Arabs had invaded the coun- try, and obtained a footing in Adel, though they were unable to extend their conquests farther. For several centuries subsequently the kingdom continued in a distracted state, being now torn by internal commotions and now invaded by external enemies (Mo- hammedans and Gallas). To protect himself from the last the Emperor of Abyssinia applied, about the middle of the 16th century, to the King of Portugal for assistance, promising, at the same time, implicit submission to the Pope. The solicited aid was sent, and the empire saved. The Roman Catholic priests taving now ingrati- ated themselves with the emperor and his family, endeavored to induce them to renounce the tenets and rites of the Coptic Church, and adopt those of Rome. This attempt, however, was Acacia Academy of Fine Art resisted by the ecclesiastics and the people, and finally ended, after a long struggle, in the expulsion of the Ro- man Catholic priests about 1630. The kingdom, however, gradually fell into a state of anarchy, which, about the middle of the 18th century, was com- plete. The king, or negus as he was called, received no obedience from the provincial governors, who, besides, were at feud with one another, and severally assumed the royal title. Abyssinia thus became divided into a number of petty independent states. A remarkable, but, as it proved, quite futile attempt to resuscitate the unity and power of the ancient kingdom was commenced about the middle of the 19th century by King Theodore, who aimed at the restoration of the an- cient kingdom of Ethiopia, with him- self for its sovereign. He introduced European artisans, and went to work wisely in many ways, but his cruelty and tyranny counteracted his politic measures. In consequence of a slight, real or fancied, which he had re- ceived at the hands of the British gov- ernment, he threw Consul Cameron and a number of other British sub- jects into prison in 1863, and refused to give them up. To effect their re- lease an army of nearly 12,000 men, under the command of Sir Robert Na- pier, was dispatched from Bombay in 1867. The force landed at Zoulla on the Red Sea in November, and march- ing up the country came within sight of Magdale, the capital of Theodore, in the beginning of April, 1868. Af- ter being defeated in a battle Theodore delivered up the captives and shut himself up in Magdala, which was taken by storm on April 13. Theo- dore was found among the slain, the general opinion being that he had fallen by his own hand. In 1885 Italy asserted a protectorate with disastrous results ; defeat by Menelek's troops at Adowa in 1896 made them abandon all claims except to the Eritrean colony on the Red Sea. Menelek transferred his capital to Adis Abeba, where British, Ameri- can and French interests became active. On Dec. 13, 1906, an agree- ment was signed between Great Brit- ain, France, and Itaty to conserve their interests in Abyssinia, by main- taining the political and territorial status quo and the open door. The principal States are Tigre on the N., Amhara in the center, and Shoa in the S. Present capital, Adis Ababa. Pop. (est.), 8,000,000. Acacia, plants which abound in Australia, in India, in Africa, tropical America, and generally in the hotter regions of the world. Nearly 300 spe- cies are known from Australia alone.| They are easily cultivated in green-- houses, where they flower, for the most' part, in winter or early spring. In Calfornia several species are cultivated in the open for tannin and for timber. The Black Watte has in its bark four times as much tannin as the best oak. Acadenras, a Greek mythical hero who upon the Tyndaridean invasion to rescue Helen after her abduction by Thesues, revealed her hiding-place and was thenceforth held in honor by the Lacedaemonians. The term 'academy' is derived from his name. Academy, the gymnasium in the suburbs of Athens in which Plato taught, and so called after a hero, by name Academus, to whom it was said to have originally belonged. The word is also applied to a high school designed for the technical or other in- struction of those who have already acquired the rudiments of knowledge; also a university. Academy, French, an institution founded in 1635 by Cardinal Riche- lieu for the purpose of refining the French language and style. It became in time the most influential of all lit- erary societies in Europe. Together with the Academy of Inscriptions and Belles Lettres, the Academy of Moral and Political Sciences and the Acad- emy of Sciences, it composes the Na- tional Institute of France. Academy of Arts, The Royal, a British institution for the encourage- ment of painting, sculpture, and de- signing; founded in 1768 by George III., with Sir Joshua Reynolds as president. Academy of Design, National, an American institution, in New York' city, founded in 1826, conducting schools in various branches of the fine arts, and holding semi-annual exhibi- tions at which prizes are awarded. Academy of Fine Arts, The, a' French institution, originally founded Academy of France Acanthus in 1648 at Paris under the name of the Academy of Painting and Sulp- ture. In 1795 it was joined to the Academy of Architecture, and has borne its present name since 1819. Academy of France at Rome, an institution for the advanced study of the fine arts in Rome, Italy, found- ed by Colbert in 1666, during the reign of Louis XIV. It was at first estab- lished in the ruined villa Mancini on the Cprso, and, in 1803, at the villa Medicis. The young artists, painters, sculptors, architects, engravers and musicians who secure the annual prizes of the Academy of Fine Arts in Paris spend four years there, with an an- nual pension of 3,500 francs and trav- eling expenses. Academy of Inscriptions and Belles Lettres, an institution found- ed at Paris by Colbert in 1663, under the name of Petite Academic. Com- parative philology. Oriental, Greek, and Roman antiquities and epigraphy have received the attention of the Academy, which has published a series of invaluable records and works. Academy of Medicine, a French institution, founded in Paris in 1820, for the purpose of keeping the gov- ernment informed on all subjects ap- pertaining to the public health. Academy of Moral and Politi- cal Science, founded at Paris in 1795, is composed of 30 members, di- vided into 5 sections, with 5 free acad- demicians, 5 foreign associates, and 30 corresponding members. Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, an institution founded in 1812. Academy of Political and So- cial Science, American, an insti- tution organized at Philadelphia in 1889 and incorporated in 1891. Academy of Sciences, an insti- tution founded at Paris, in 1666, by Colbert and approved by Louis XIV. in 1699, has now 66 members, in 11 sections, with two perpetual secreta- ries and 100 corresponding members. Academy of Sciences and Arts, American, an academy established in Boston in 1780 by the Council and House of Representatives of Massa- chusetts ; the successor of an institu- tion founded by Franklin. Academy of Sciences, The Im- perial, a Russian institution, found- ed in St. Petersburg by Catherine I., in 1725, and largely endowed by Cath- erine II. Academy of Sciences, The Na- tional, an American institution, founded in 1863, consisting of 100 members, elected from among the most distinguished scientific men of the United States ; analogous to the Roy- al Society of London. Academy of Sciences, The Roy- al, a German institution, in Berlin, founded by Frederick I., in 1700 ; is divided into four sections, devoted to mathematics, physics, philosophy, and history. Acadia, a former French colony in North America, including Nova Scotia and nearly all of New Brunswick, set- tled in 1604. It grew so slowly that it numbered only 900 inhabitants in 1684. When, by the peace of Utrecht (1713), it was given to the English, the inhabitants, having refused to take the oath of allegiance, were ordered to leave their homes, and 5,000 emi- grated to Louisiana and Georgia, and 2,000 were transported' and scattered over New England. The story of their sorrow is touchingly introduced into Longfellow's " Evangeline." Acanthus, the name of three an- cient cities of Egypt, of Caria and of Macedonia. The latter is noted for. COIN OF ACANTHUS. the canal across the peninsula of Mt Athos through which Xerxes sailed on his way to Greece. Acanthus, a genus of herbaceous shrubs, order Acanthacese, mostly trop- ical, two species of which, A. mollis and A. spinosus (the bears-breech or brankursine), are characterized by large white flowers and deeply indent- ed shining leaves. They are favorite or- namental plants in gardens. In archi- tecture the name is given to a kind of foliage decoration said to have been Acapnloo 'suggested by this plant, growing around a basket, and much employed in Roman and later styles. Acapnlco, a seaport of Mexico, on the Pacific, with a capacious, well- sheltered harbor ; a coaling station for steamers, but with no great trade. Pop. 4,000. Acclimatization, the process of accustoming plants or animals to live and propagate in a climate different from that to which they are indige- nous. The numerous varieties which many species of plants and animals present are sufficient in any view to afford considerable scope for adapta- tion to climate. Accolade, in heraldry, the cere- mony by which in mediaeval times one was dubbed a knight. Accolti, Bernardo, an Italian poet (1465-1535. Leo X. esteemed him highly, and made him apostolic secretary, cardinal, and papal legate at Ancona. He drew up the papal bull against Luther (1520). Accordion, a well-known keyed instrument with metallic reeds. The accordion was introduced into Amer- ica from Germany about 1828. Im- provements have been made on it in the flutina, the organ-accordion, and the concertina. Account, in banking, commerce law, and ordinary language, a regis- try of pecuniary transactions. Aceldama, a field purchased by the Jewish chief priests and elders with the 30 pieces of silver returned by Judas. It was used as a place of in- terment for strangers. The tradition- ary site is on a small plateau half way up the southern slope of the valley of Hinnom, near the junction of the lat- ter with the valley of Jehoshaphat. (See Matt, xxvii: 3-10; Acts i: 18. Acetic Acid, an acid produced by the oxidation of common alcohol, and of many other organic substances. Pure acetic acid has a very sour taste and pungent smell, burns the skin, and is poisonous. From freezing at ordi- nary temperatures (58 or 59) it is known as glacial acetic acid. Vinegar is simply dilute acetic acid. Acetic acid is largely used in arts, in medi- cine, and for domestic purposes. Acetylene, a gas composed of car- bon and hydrogen, colorless and with E.3 Achemsia a disagreeable odor, suggesting garlic. Subjected to pressure it will liquefy at a weight of 68 atmospheres. It is best produced by the action of water on carbide of calcium, and is used thus in bicycle lamps. The production of the gas is attended with considerable risk, as a too sudden application of water to the carbide will generate enormous quantities which is liable to explode when mixed with air and subjected to the slightest heat, even rubbing the vessel in which it is contained being sufficient to produce an explosion. The gas is much less poisonous than the or- dinary illuminating gas, and under proper conditions can be used as a safe and cheap illuminant. Achneans, one of the four races into which the ancient Greeks were di- vided. In early times they inhabited a part of Northern Greece and of the Peloponnesus. They are represented by Homer as a brave and warlike people. A confederacy or league ex- isted among the twelve towns of this region. Achard, Franz Karl, a German chemist, born in Berlin in 1754. He devoted himself to the development of the beet-sugar manufacture, and, after six years of laborious endeavor, he dis- covered the true method of separating the sugar from the plant. He was ap- pointed director of the class of physics in the Academy of Science, in Berlin, and died in 1821. Achard, Louis Amedee, a French novelist and publicist, born in 1814. He died in 1875. Achates, a friend of JEneas, whose fidelity was so exemplary that fidus Achates (the faithful Achates) be- came a proverb. Achenwoll, Gottfried, a German scholar, born in Elbing, Prussia, Oct. 20, 1719 ; became professor at the Uni- versity of Gottingen, first of philoso- phy and afterward of law ; is regarded as the founder of the science of statis- tics. He died in Gottingen, May 1, 1 T T^. Acheron, the river of sorrow, which flowed around the infernal realms of Hades, according to the mythology of the ancients. Acherosia, a lake of Campania, near Capua. Diodorus mentions that, in Egypt, the souls of the dead were Achilles conveyed over a lake called Acherusia, and received sentence according to the actions of their lives. The boat which carried them was called Baris, and the ferryman Charon, etc. Achilles, son of Peleus, king of the Myrmidons, in Thessaly, and of Thetis. His mother's desire for his safety made her try to make him in- vulnerable when a child by anointing him with ambrosia, and again by dip- ping him in the river Styx, from which he came out proof against wounds, all but the heel, by which she held him. He was the bravest of the Greeks in the Trojan War, in which he was slain. He is the hero of Homer's Iliad, and was said to be invulnerable. Achilles' Tendon, TENDON OF ACHILLES, the strong tendon which connects the muscles of the calf with the heel, and may be easily felt with the hand. The origin of name will be understood from the above article. Achmet Tewfik Pasha, a Turk- ish statesman, born in 1818, at Con- stantinople. His father was a Greek convert ; his mother was a Jewess. In 1877 the Sultan appointed him Presi- dent of the first Turkish Chamber of Deputies ; then he became Governor- General of Adrianople, and showed himself a stern ruler in the war of 1877. In 1878 he was Premier and signed the Peace of Santo Stefano. He died in June, 1891. Achromatic, in optics, transmit- ting colorless light, that is, not de- composed into the primary colors, through having passed through a re- fracting medium. A single convex lens does not give an image free from the prismatic colors, because the rays of different color made up of white light are not equally refrangible, and thus do not all come to a focus together, the violet, for instance, being nearest the lens, the red farthest off. If such a lens of crown-glass, however, is combined with a concave lens of flint- glass the curvatures of both being properly adjusted as the two mate- rials have somewhat different optical properties, the latter will neutralize the chromatic aberration of the form- er, and a satisfactory image will be produced. Telescopes, microscopes, &c., in which the glasses are thus com- posed are called achromatic. Acoustics Acids, in chemistry, a salt of hy- drogen in which the hydrogen can be replaced by a metal, or can, with a basic metallic oxide, form a salt of that metal and water. Many organic acids occur in the juices of vegetables, some in animals, as formic acid in ants. Acland, Christina Harriet Car- oline Fox, daughter of the Earl of Ilchester, born in 1750; died at Tet- ten, near Taunton, England, July 21, 1815. Her husband, Major John Dyke Acland, of the British Army, was cap- tured with Burgoyne at Saratoga. He being severely wounded, she joined him in the American lines, and ten- derly nursed him. Major Acland was so touched by the kindness of the Americans to himself and wife that, after his return to England he fought a duel with an officer who spoke in- sultingly of Americans. Acne, a genus of skin diseases con- taining those characterized by pustules, which, after suppurating imperfectly, become small, hard, red, circumscribed tubercles on the skin. Acolyte, Acolyth, and Acolo- thist, in the Roman Catholic Church, one of the inferior orders of the clergy, whose office it is to attend upon the deacons and subdeacons in the minis- try of the altar, to light and hold the candles, to bear the incense, to present the priest with wine and water, etc. Aconite, a plant familiarly known as the monk's-hood, or wolf's-bane. Its active principle is aconitine. Acorn, the well known fruit of the oak. In the early ages, acorns consti- tuted a principal part of the food of man. At present they are used for the feeding of pigs, etc. Acosta, Joseph, a Spanish Jesuit, who, from being a missionary in Peru, became provincial of his order ; born at Medina del Campo in 1547 ; died at Salamanca in 1600. His "History of the West Indies," first printed in Spanish, is universally known. Aconstics, the science of sound. We are sensible of sound when we are affected by certain vibrations in the air or other matter in contact with our organs of hearing. In ordinary cases of hearing the vibrating medium is air, but fishes hear under water, and all substances that vibrate may be em- ployed to propagate and conyey sound. Acre Actinism Sound is reflected in a manner anal- ogous to the reflection of light. When it is reflected from a plain surface the reflected sound comes as if it was prop- agated from a point beyond the sur- face at a distance equal to the dis- tance of the real point of propagation from the surface. Sounds produced in one focus of a hollow ellipsoid are reflected to the other focus. Whisper- ing galleries are instances of the re- flection of sound to a focus, or to form sound caustics. Echoes are familiar instances of reflection of sound. Lens- es have been formed of collodion filled with different gases, and by means of these sound has been refracted in a manner which is analogous to the re- fraction of light by glass lenses. Acre, an American and English measure of land, containing 4,840 square yards. Acre, or St. Jean d'Acre, a sea- port of Syria, formerly called Ptole- mais ; on a promontory at the foot of Mount Carmel. This town, capital of the pashalic of the same name, is fa- mous for the memorable sieges it has sustained. Acropolis, the high part of any ancient Greek city, usually an emi- nence overlooking the city, and fre- quently its citadel. Notable among such citadels were the Acropolis of Argos, that of Messene, of Thebes, and of Corinth, but pre-eminently the Ac- ropolis of Athens, to which the name is now chiefly applied. Acrostic, a poetical composition, disposed in such a manner that the initial letters of each line, taken in or- der, form a person's name or other complete word or words. Act, in dramatic language, a por- tion of a play performed continuously, after which the representation is sus- pended for a little, and the actors have the opportunity of taking a brief rest. Acts are divided into smaller por- tions called scenes. (See Shakespeare throughout.) In parliamentary language, an ellip- sis for an act of congress, legislature, etc. In law: (1) Anything officially done by the court. (2) An instrument in writing for declaring or proving the truth of anything. Such is a report, a certificate, a decree, a sentence, etc. In bankruptcy, an act, the commis- sion of which, by a debtor, renders him liable to be adjudged a bankrupt. Act of Settlement, an act of the Parliament of England in 1701, vest- ing the hereditary right to the English throne in Sophia, Electress of Han- over, and her Protestant descendants, constituting the source of the sover- eignty of the house of Hanover or Brunswick, the present ruling line. Act of Supremacy. (1) An act of the Parliament of England, in 1534, by which the king was made the sole and supreme head of the Church of England. (2) A re-enactment of the above, with changes, in 1559. Act of Toleration, an act of the reign of William and Mary, granting freedom of religious worship, under certain comparatively moderate con- ditions, to all dissenters from the es- tablished Church of England, except Roman Catholics and persons denying the Trinity. Act of Uniformity. (1) An act of the Parliament of England (1559), adopting a revised liturgy for the Church of England, entitled "An Act for the Uniformity of Common Prayer and Service in the Church, and Admin- istration of the Sacraments." (2) An act of Parliament (1662), requiring that the revised Book of Common Prayer and Ordination of Ministers, and no other, should be used in all places of public worship and be assent- ed to by clergymen. By this test more than 2,000 non-conforming clergymen were ejected from their churches. Acta Sanctorum, or Martyrnm, the collective title given to several old writings, respecting saints and mar- tyrs in the Greek and Roman Catholic Churches, but now applied especially to one extensive collection begun by the Jesuits in the 17th century. Actinic Rays, rays capable of producing chemical decomposition, as in photography, in the coloring of flowers and fruit. All ether waves, from all sources and of all lengths, may now be considered as actinic, some substances being decomposed by cer- tain wave lengths and other substances by different wave lengths. Actinism, the chemical principle of light. Three distinct principles ema- Actimn nate from the sun light, heat, and actinism. Numerous examples of the effects of their influence occur daily, which are erroneously attributed to the light which we see. Itjs actinism which fades colors, bleaches linen, rots fabrics, tans the human skin, puts out the fire, and performs the operations of photography. It acts principally by abstracting oxygen from the bodies which it affects. There may be actin- ism without light, or vice versa. Yel- low glass transmits the latter, but Btops the former. Dark blue glass, which transmits but little light, is quite pervious to actinism. Blue ob- jects reflect great quantities of it, while red or yellow ones reflect but little or none. The electric and lime lights give out great quantities of ac- tinism from their blue tinge ; and gas and candles but very little, from their yellow color. The amount of actinism received from the sun differs consider- ably, according to the time of year, being at its maximum about the end of March, and gradually diminishing un- til the end of December, when it ar- rives at its minimum. Actinism, in large quantities, is necessary to the proper condition of the human system. Actiuni, a promontory on the W. coast of Greece, jutting out on the N. W. extremity of Acarnania, not far from the entrance of the Ambracian Gulf (Gulf of Arta), at present called La Punta. It is memorable on ac- count of the naval battle fought here between Antony and Octavianus Sept. 2, 31 B. 0., ending in victory for Octa- vianus. Actor, in the drama, one who rep- resents some part or character on the stage. Acts of the Apostles, the fifth book of the New Testament. It con- tains a narrative of the achievements of the leading apostles, and especially of St. Paul, the greatest and most suc- cessful of them all. Its author was St. Luke (compare Luke i : 1-4 with Acts i: 1), who was Paul's companion from the time of his visit to Troas. (Acts xvi : 8-11) to the period of his life, when he penned the second epis- tle to Timothy (II Tim. iv : 11). Adab. See UD-NUN-KI. Adalbert, a great German eccle- siastic, born of a noble family about 1000 ; was appointed Archbishop of Bremen and Hamburg in 1045, and papal legate to the North in 1053. He soon extended his spiritual sway over Scandinavia, and carried Christianity to the Wends. He died at Goslar. March 16, 1072. Adam and Eve, the names of the first pair of human beings in the ac- count of the creation given in the book of Genesis. Adam is strictly a generic name, applicable to both man and woman, as used in the book of Genesis, but it came to be a proper name, used with the article, as in chapters ii, iii, and iv. The origin of the name is un- certain, but is usually connected with the Hebrew root Adam, "to be red." It is often derived from Adamah, "the ground," but this is taking the simpler from the more developed form. Adam, Juliette (Miue. Edmond Adam, ne'e Lamber), a French jour- nalist and author of many works ; born Oct. 4, 1836 ; editor of the "Nou- velle Revue" (the organ of the Ex- treme Republicans), which she found- ed in 1879. Her second husband, Ed- mond Adam, was a prominent politi- cian ; became a life senator, and died in 1877. She retired from journalism in 1899. Adam's Apple, in botany (1) the name given by Gerarde and other old authors to the plantain tree, from the notion that its fruit was that sin- fully eaten by Adam in Eden. (2) The name given, for the same reason, to a species of citrus. In anatomy, a protuberance on the fore part of the throat, formed by the " os hyoides." The name is supposed to have arisen from the absurd popular notion that a portion of the forbidden fruit, assumed to have been an apple, stuck in Adam's throat when he at- tempted to swallow it. Adam's Peak, a mountain in the middle of the island of Ceylon. It is a resort of Moslem and Buddhist pil- grims, and also notable on account of an upright shadow which it casts, ap- parently projected on vapor. Height, 7,420 feet. Adams, Abigail, wife of John Adams, second President of the United States; ".orn at Weymouth, Mass., Nov. 23, 1744. Her letters, contain** Adams in "Familiar Letters of John Adams and His Wife, Abigail Adams, during the Revolution," evince keen political sagacity, and throw valuable light upon the men and the public affairs of the time. She died at Quincy, Mass., Oct. 28, 1818. Adams, Brooks, an American es- sayist and politician, born at Quincy, Mass., 1848. He is the son of Charles Francis Adams, and a lawyer by pro- fession. Besides contributions to mag- azines, he has written "The Emanci- pation of Massachusetts" (1887), and "The Law of Civilization and Decay." Adams, Charles, an American his- torical and religious writer, born in New Hampshire in 1808 ; was a Meth- odist clergyman. He died in 1890. Adams, Charles Francis, an American statesman, born in Boston, Aug. 18, 1807 ; was candidate for Vice- president in 1848, twice elected to Congress, was Minister to England from 1861 to 1868, and member of the Geneva Arbitration Commission of 1871. His chief literary work was "Life and Works of John Adams" ( 10 vols., 1850-1856), his grandfather. He also edited the writings of his father, John Quincy Adams. He died in Bos- ton, Nov. 21, 1886. Adams, Charles Francis, Jr, an American soldier and writer, born in Boston, May 27, 1834. He graduated from Harvard in 1856, served in the Civil War from 1861 until 1866 when he retired with the brevet rank of brigadier-general in the regular army. After 1874 he chiefly gave attention to historical and financial questions, everything he published attracting widespread attention. He was presi- dent of the Union Pacific Railroad un- til 1890, and was regarded as one of the chief living authorities on railroad matters. He died March 20, 1915. Adams, Charles Kendall, an American educator and historian, born at Derby, Vt., Jan. 24, 1835; died, July 26, 1902. After graduating from the University of Michigan in 1861, he studied abroad, and after holding vari- ous professorships, became president of Cornell University in 1885. In 1892, he became President of the University of Wisconsin. He was editor of John- ston's Encyclopaedia. Adams Adams, Henry, an American his- torian, born in Boston, Mass., Feb. 16, 1838 ; grandson of J. Q. Adams. He was for some time editor of the "North American Review," and Professor of History In Harvard College. His principal work is the "History of the United States from 1801 to 1817." Adams, John, 2d President of the United States ; born in Braintree, Mass., Oct. 19, 1735. He was educat- ed at Harvard and adopted the law as a profession. His attention was di- rected to politics by the question which began to excite the colonies as to the right of the English Parliament to im- pose taxation upon them, and he took up a position strongly opposed to the claims of the mother country. In 1765 he published in the Boston "Gazette" some essays, which were reprinted in London in 1768, under the title of "A Dissertation on Canon and Feudal Law," the subject really treated in which was the government of the colo- nies and the rights of the colonists, In 1774 he was chosen a delegate from Massachusetts to the 1st Continental Congress. On his return he was ap- pointed a member of the Provincial Congress, which had already begun to take aggressive measures against the home government. In 1775 he again attended the Continental Congress at Philadelphia, in which he set himself in determined opposition to all at- tempts at reconciliation with the home government, and succeeded in persuad- ing Congress to take means of national defense. To secure the good-will of Virginia he proposed Washington for the command of the army. Next ses- sion he was appointed a member of committee on naval affairs and drew up the regulations which still form the basis of the American naval code. At the beginning of 1776 he accepted the post of chief-justice of Massachusetts, but he soon after resigned the ap- pointment. He published at this time "Thoughts on Government, applicable to the Present State of the American Colonies," in which he supported self- government by the different colonies with confederation. He seconded the motion for a declaration of independ- ence proposed by Richard Henry Lee of Virginia, and was appointed a mem- ber of committee to draw it up, He Adams was a signer of the Declaration. He was also appointed a member of the Committee on Foreign Relations. He was next appointed chairman of the board of war and ordnance, a position which he held for 18 months. Near the end of 1777 he was sent to France on a special mission, and for 10 years he resided abroad as representative of his country in France, Holland, and England. He succeeded in negotiating various loans with Holland, and after taking part in the peace negotiations was appointed, in 1785, the first min- ister of the United States to the court of St. James. He was recalled in 1788 and elected Vice-President of the re- public under Washington. In 1790 he published "Discourses on Davila," in which he opposed the principles of the French revolution. In 1792 he was reflected Vice-President, and at the following election he became President. The country was then divided into two parties, the Federalists, who favored aristocratic and were suspected of monarchic views, and the Republicans. Adams adhered to the former party. Hamilton did his utmost with his own party to prevent the election of Ad- ams, and his term of office proved a stormy one, which broke up and dis- solved the Federalist party. His re- election was again opposed by Hamil- ton, which ended in effecting the return of the Republican candidate Jefferson. Living to a great age he be- came, as one of the last survivors of the Revolution, a hero to the following generation. In 1820 he became a mem- ber of a State convention to revise the constitution of Massachusetts. He died July 4, 1826, on the 50th anniversary of the Declaration of Independence, and on the same day as Jefferson. Adams's works were ably and care- fully edited by his grandson Charles Francis Adams. Adams, John Quincy, 6th Presi- dent of the United States, son of John Adams, 2d President ; born in Brain- tree, Mass., July 11, 1767. In his llth year he accompanied his father on his first embassy to France, and was placed at school near Paris. He re- turned with his father in about 18 months, but soon went back to Europe, and attended school in Holland and at the University of Leyden. At the age Adams of 15 Francis Dana, his father's secre- tary of legation, who had been ap- pointed on a diplomatic mission to Russia, took him with him as his pri- vate secretary. After 14 months' stay in Russia he traveled back alone through Sweden and Denmark to The Hague. Soon after his father's ap- pointment as ambassador at London he returned home to complete his studies. He graduated at Harvard in 1788, entered the office of Theophilus Parsons, and in 1791 was admitted to the bar. He now began to take an active interest in politics. He wrote a series of letters to the Boston "Sen- tinel" under the signature of "Publi- cola," in reply to Payne's "Rights of Man," and in 1793 defended Washing- ton's policy of neutrality under the signature of "Marcellus." These let- ters attracted attention, and in 1794 Washington appointed him minister to The Hague. In 1798 he received a commission to negotiate a treaty of commerce with Sweden. On the acces- sion of Jefferson to the presidency he was recalled. The Federalist party had still sufficient influence in Massa- chusetts to elect him to the Senate in 1803. On the question of embargo, he abandoned his party. Having lost his reelection on this account, be immedi- ately resigned his seat and retired to the professorship of rhetoric at Har- vard, which he held from 1806 to 1809. On the accession of Madison he was appointed (1809) ambassador to Rus- sia. He assisted in negotiating the peace of 1814 with England, and was afterward appointed resident minister at London. On the accession of Mon- roe to the presidency he was offered and accepted the post of Secretary of State, and at the expiration of Mon- roe's term of office he succeeded him in the presidency (1825). In 1831 he was returned to Congress by Massa- chusetts,, and represented that State till his death, Feb. 21, 1848. Adams, Julius "Walker, an American civil engineer, born in Bos- ton, Mass., Oct. 18, 1812 ; took part of the course at the United States Mili- tary Academy ; was Colonel of the G7th New York Volunteers in the Civil War ; and was the pioneer engineer ol the East River bridge. He died Dec. 13, 1899. Adams Adelsberg Adams, Maude, an American act- ress, born at Salt Lake City, Nov. 11, 1872; daughter of an actress who was leading woman of a stock company in that city, under the stage name of Ad- ams. At 16 years of age Miss Adams joined B. H. Sothern's company in the " Midnight Bell ; " afterward she was I in Charles Frohman's stock company, and later supported John Drew. She made a great success in J. M. Barrie's " Little Minister " in 1899-1900. Adams, Oscar Fay, an American compiler and miscellaneous writer, born in Worcester, Mass. Adams, Samuel, an American statesman and Revolutionary patriot, born at Boston, Mass., in 1722. He was elected to the Massachusetts legis- lature in 1765, was a delegate to the first Continental Congress in Philadel- phia, and a signer of the Declaration! of Independence. He was active ^in: framing the constitution of his native j state, which he served as President! of the Senate, Lieutenant-Governor ! (1789-1794), and Governor (1794-! 1797). He was zealous for popular rights, and fearless in his opposition to monarchism. He died in 1803. Adams, Sarah Flower, an Eng- lish hymn-writer ; born at Great Har- low, Essex, Feb. 22, 1805. In 1834 she was married to William Bridges Adams, a noted inventor. She wrote many lyrics and hymns, the most pop- ular of which is " Nearer, My God, to Thee." She died in August, 184& Adams, "William Taylor, an American author and editor, best known by the pseudonym " Oliver Op- tic ; " born July 30, 1822. He was a voluminous and highly popular writer of fiction for young readers, his works including several series of travel and adventure. He died March 27, 1897. ' Addams, Jane, an American phi- lanthropist, born in Cedarville, 111., Sept. 6, 1860. She was graduated at Rockford College in 1881, and after post-graduate studies in Europe and the United States, became an active social reformer. She inaugurated in 1889 the establishment known as Hull House, an adaptation of the " social settlement " plan to Chicago condi- tions. She has acted as street clean- ing inspector in Chicago, and has lec- tured on the improvement of the con- dition of the poor in great cities. In 1909 she became president of the Na- tional Conference on Charities and Correction, and in 1917 was chairman of the Woman's Peace Party. Notable publications : "Democracy and Social Ethics" (1902), and "A New Con- science and an Ancient Evil" (1911). Addison, Joseph, an English es- sayist, son of the Rev. Lancelot Addi- son, subsequently dean of Lichfield ; born at his father's rectory, Milston, Wiltshire, May 1, 1672. Died at Hol- land House, June 17, 1719. He was one of England's greatest writers. Beside the independent efforts of his own he aspired to be a judge and cen- sor of the literary productions of oth- ers, and he was, perhaps, beyond any man of his day, well qualified for the task. Certainly his judgments had less force and perhaps less depth than Johnson's, but they had much more breadth, harmony, and completeness, were woven with more art into a sys- tem depending on theoretical princi- ples, and were delivered with a grace and eloquence of which the oracular moralist was no master. If his system was somewhat shallow, it had probably the merit of directing attention more to criticism, and preparing the way for better and more philosophic stan- dards of appreciation. Addison was buried in Westminster Abbey. Ade, George, an American jour- nalist and author, born in Kentland, Ind., Feb. 9, 1866. He has published ftbles, etc., and is a popular writer. Adee, Alvey Augustus, Second Assistant Secretary of State of the United States since 1886, born in As- toria, N. Y., Nov. 27, 1842 ; appointed Secretary of Legation at Madrid, 1870; Chief of Diplomatic Bureau, 1878; Third Assistant Secretary of State, 1882; Second Assistant Secre- tary of State, 1886. Appointed Secre- tary of State ad interim to fill vacan- cy, Sept. 17 to Sept. 29, 1898; was acting Secretary of State during a critical period of the Chinese troubles in Aug. and Sept. 1900. Adelsberg, a town of Austria- Hungary, remarkable for stalactical caves in its vicinity. The principal Adelnng one, in the mouth of which the Poik disappears in a vast chasm, extends to the distance of two or three miles, and is found to terminate in a lake. After proceeding 200 yards into it a vast gloomy space, called the Dome, form- ing a hall 3*00 feet long by 100 feet high, is entered. The river is heard rushing below, and on crossing it by a wooden bridge and ascending a flight of steps cut in the rock, a series of lofty halls, supported by gigantic con- cretions resembling lofty Gothic col- umns, and apparently filled with stat- ues of exquisite whiteness and delicacy, meets the view. Adelnng, Joliann Christoph, a German philologist and lexicographer ; born in Spantekow, Aug. 8, 1732. His life was devoted to an exhaustive in- vestigation of his native language, which he traced to its remotest origins with a patience and a thoroughness that have remained unsurpassed. He died in Dresden, Sept. 10, 1806. Aden, a peninsula and town be- longing to Great Britain, on the S. W. coast of Arabia, 105 miles E. of the strait of Bab-el-Mandeb, the entrance to the Red Sea. The peninsula is a mass of volcanic rocks, 5 miles long from E. to W., and rising to 1,776 feet. It is joined to the mainland by a narrow, level, and sandy isthmus. The town is on the eastern shore of the peninsula, stands in the crater of an extinct volcano, and is surrounded by barren, cinder-like rocks. Frequently the heat is intense ; but the very dry, hot climate, though depressing, is un- usually healthy for the tropics. It has a garrison and strong fortifications, and a population of over 41,000. Adirondack Mountains, the highest range in New York State, covering an area of about 12,500 square miles, and occupying parts of Clinton, Essex, Franklin, and Hamilton counties. These mountains, the geological formation of which are chiefly granite, run in five parallel ranges; the highest range, or Adiron- dack proper, is on the E. side of the district, and the peaks rise to a great height Mt. Marcy is 5,345 feet ; Gray peak, 4,900 feet; White Face, 4,870 feet, etc. This whole district, some- times called the Adirondack Wilder- ness, is covered with dense forests, ex- Administration cept the tallest peaks, and some of these forests are still unexplored. The 1,000 lakes in the valleys beautifully diversify the scenery. Adirondack Park, a large district principally forest land, set apart by the State of New York, in 1892, for the protection of the watershed of the Hudson and other rivers of the State, for public recreation, and for the prac- tical study of forestry. It covers Hamilton county, and parts of Essex, Franklin, Herkimer and St. Lawrence counties, and contains many moun- tains and lakes. Area, 4,387 square miles. Adjutant, in military language, in the United States army, an officer se- lected by the colonel, whose duties in respect to his regiment are similar to those of an adjutant general with an army. Adjutant general : the principal organ of the commander of an army in publishing orders. The same organ of the commander of a corps, or depart- ment, is styled assistant adjutant gen- eral. The adjutant general has charge of the drill and discipline of the army. Adjutant Bird, a large grallato- rial or wading bird of Asia belonging to the stork family. Adler, Felix, an American lecturer and scholar, born at Alzey, Germany, 1851. The son of an eminent Jewish rabbi, he emigrated when young to the United States, where, and at Berlin and Heidelberg, he was educated. Af- ter being for some time professor at Cornell University, he founded in New York (1876) the Society of Ethical Culture, of which he is lecturer. Sim- ilar societies have been established elsewhere in the United States and in other countries. He is an effective writer and speaker. He has published "Creed and Deed" (1878); "The Moral Instruction of Children " ( 1892) . In June, 1902, he was called to the newly-created professorship of social and political thics in the de- partment of philosophy in Columbia University. Adler, Hermann, a German writ- er, born in Hanover, May 29, 1839. He has lived most of his life in Eng- land, having been, since 1891, Chief Rabbi of the British Empire. Administration, in law, the man- agement of the personal estate of any- 'Admiral one dying intestate, or without an executor. The word is also applied to the official terms of the President of the United States, and the Governors of States, mayors, etc., and to their official advisers. Admiral, the title of the highest rank of naval officer. In 1917 the United States navy had on the active list one admiral and twenty-four rear- admirals and on the retired list seventy-four rear-admirals. After the j declaration of war against the Im- | perial German Government many re- j tired rear-admirals were recalled to active service. Admiralty Island, a mountain- ous island, 90 miles long, off the W. coast of Alaska, to the N. E. of Sitka ; belongs to the United States. Admiralty Islands, a group of 40 islands, to the N.E. of New Guinea ; Basco, the largest of them, being 60 miles in length, and is mountainous, but fruitful. The total area of the islands is 878 square miles. Together with New Britain and some adjoining groups, they were annexed by Ger- many, in 1885, and now form part of the Bismarck Archipelago. Adobe, the name given in south- western America to sun-dried bricks, and the structures built of them. Adonai, a Hebrew name for the Supreme Being; a plural form of Adon, "lord," combined with the pro- noun of the first person. In reading the Scriptures aloud, the Jews pro- nounce "Adonai" wherever the old name "Jhvh" is found in the text, and the name Jehovah has risen out of the consonants of "Jhvh," with the vowel points of Adonai. Adonis, a pheasant's eye. A genus of plants so called because the red color of the species made them look as if they had been stained by the blood of Adonis. It is a beautiful plant, with bright, scarlet flowers, and hav- ing very markedly composite leaves, with linear segments. Plants of this genus are easily cultivated. Adoption, the act of taking a stranger into one's family, as a son or daughter; or the taking of a person, a society, etc., into more intimate rela- tions than formerly existed with an- other person or society ; or the taking Adrian IV. as one's own, with or without acknow- ledgment, an opinion, plan, etc., orig- inating with another ; also the selecting one from several courses open to a person's choice. Adrian, or Hadrian, Publins JElins, a Roman emperor, born at Rome, 76 A. D. Entering the army quite young, he became tribune of a legion, and married Sabina, the heiress of Trajan, whom he accompanied on his expeditions, and became successive- ly praetor, governor of Pannonia, and consul. On Trajan's death, in 117, he assumed the government, made peace with the Persians, and remitted the debts of the Roman people. In his reign, the Christians underwent a dreadful persecution. He built a tem- ple to Jupiter, on Mount Calvary, and placed a statue of Adonis in the manger of Bethlehem ; he also had im- ages of swine engraved on the gates of Jerusalem, all of which acts indi- cate a contempt for Christianity. Ad- rian died at Baiae, in 139. Adrian I., Pope, born at Rome; succeeded Stephen III. in 772. Adrian died after a pontificate of nearly 24 years, 795. Adrian II., born at Rome; suc- ceeded Nicholas I. in the papal chair in 867. He had been married, and had a daughter by his wife Stephania, from whom he afterward separated in order to live in celibacy. During the pontificate of Adrian, Photius, Patri- arch of Constantinople, withdrew from the Church of Rome, from which time the schism between the Greek and Latin Churches dates, which continues to this day. Adrian died in 872, and was succeeded by John VIII. Adrian IV., the only Englishman who was ever raised to the dignity of the papal chair, succeeded Anastasiua IV. in 1154. His name was Nicholas Breakespere; and for some time he filled a mean situation in the monas- tery of St. Albans. Being refused the habit in that house, he went to France, and became a clerk in the monastery of St. Rufus, of which he was after- ward chosen abbot. Eugenius III. created him cardinal, in 1146, and, in 1148, made him legate to Denmark and Norway, which nations he con* verted to the Christian faith. When nominated pope, he granted to Henry Adrianople 1 1. a bull for the conquest of Ireland. In 1155, be excommunicated tbe King of Sicily; and, about the same time, the Emperor Frederic, meeting him near Sutinam, held his stirrup while he mounted his horse. Adrian took the Emperor with him, and conse- crated him King of the Romans, in St. Peter's church. The next year the King of Sicily submitted, and was ab- solved. Died, supposed of poison, in 1159. Adrianople, the third city in what was European Turkey, on the naviga- ble Maritza (ancient Hebrus), 198 miles by rail W. N. W. of Constanti- nople ; pop. over 80,000. The city was the seat of the Ottoman sultanate in 1366-1453, and contains the most mag- nificent Moslem temple extant that of the Sultan Selim. It has been con- spicuous in warfare several times. See APPENDIX: World War. Adriatic Sea, a large arm of the Mediterranean Sea, extending, in a N. W. direction, between the E. coast of Italy and the W. coast of the Bal- kan peninsula. Adulteration, a term applied to the fraudulent mixture of articles of commerce, food, drink, drugs, seeds, &c., with noxious or inferior ingre- dients. The chief objects of adultera- tion are to increase the weight or vol- ume of the article, to give a color which either makes a good article more pleasing to the eye or else disguises an inferior one, to substitute a cheap- er form of the article, or the same Bubtances from which the strength has been extracted, or to give it false strength. Laws against the practice have existed since the 13th century; it is forbidden in civilized countries. Advent, a term applied to cer- tain weeks before Christmas. An- ciently, the season of Advent con- sisted of six weeks, and this is still the duration of it in the Greek Church. In the Roman Cath- olic Church, however, and in the Protestant Churches that observe Ad- vent, it only lasts four weeks, begin- ning with the Sunday nearest St. An- drew's Day (Nov. 30), either before or after. Adventists, a sect in the United States, founded by William Miller, ind sometimes called Millerites, which believed that Christ's second coming would occur in October, 1843. When their hopes were not realized, the num- ber of believers decreased. The Ad- ventists still look with certainty for the coming of Christ, but not at a fixed time. They are now divided into the following bodies : Evangelical, Ad- vent Christian, Seventh Day, Church of God, Life and Advent Union, and Churches of God in Jesus Christ. The following table gives a summary of the various Adventist Churches in the United States as reported in 1916 in the "Bulletin of Church Statistics" for the previous year : Com- Minis- itiuni- Denominations ters Churches cants 1. Evangelical 8 18 481 2. Advent Christian. 566 637 28,990 3. Seventh Day 552 1,987 73,343 4. Church of God... 34 22 800 6. Life and Advent Union 12 12 509 6. Churches of God in Jesus Christ. 61 66 2,224 Total Adventists.. 1,233 2,742 106,347 Advocate. (1) Originally one whose aid was called in or invoked; one who helped in any business mat- ter; (2) In law, at first, one who gave his legal aid in a case, without, however, pleading. Now, in English and American law, one who pleads a cause in any court, civil or criminal. It is not, properly speaking, a technical word, but is used only in a popular sense, as synony- mous with barrister or counsel. In the army the judge-advocate is the officer through whom prosecutions before courts-martial are conducted. There is also a judge-advocate-general for the army at large. .ZEdile, in ancient Rome magis- i trates who had charge of public and I private buildings, of .aqueducts, roads. I sewers, weights, measures, the national worship, and, specially when there were no censors, public morality. .ZEgean Sea, the old name of the gulf between Asia Minor and Greece, now usually called the Grecian Archi- | pelago. .Xgina, a Greek island about 40 i square miles in area, in the Gulf of Aeronautics JEgis, the shield of Zeus, which had been fashioned by Hephaestus (Vul- can). It was the symbol of divine protection. JEneas, a Trojan prince, the hero of Virgil's great epic. JEneid, one of the great epic poems of the world. It was written in Latin by Virgil, and published after his death, which took place about 16 B. c. JEolian Harp, a harp played by yEolus in other words, by the wind. It is made by stretching strings of cat- gut over a wooden sound-box. -?olus, the god ef the winds, who was fabied by the early poets to have his seat in the floating island of ^Colia ; but the Latin and later Greek poets placed him in the Lipari isles. JEpinns, Francis Maria Tllric Theodore, a distinguished electrician, who was the first to see the affinity between magnetism and electricity in its full extent. Born at Rostock, Ger- many, in 1724 ; died at Dorpat, in Li- vonia, in 1802. Aerodynamics, the science which treats of the force exerted by air when in motion. Aeronautics, the art of aerial navigation by ballooning and aviation. Ballooning involves the use of a bag- like receptacle which is made in vari- ous shapes, of silk or other material, rendered impervious by a coating of rubber, linseed oil or suitable varnish, and inflated with hydrogen, coal-gas, or other gaseous matter, specifically lighter than air. Aviation discards anything in the shape of a balloon and utilizes aeroplanes or lifting and sustaining surfaces, with apparatus heavier than air. Aerostation or aerostatics, the science of weighing air, has, somewhat erroneously become a synonym for aeronautics. The first form in which the idea of aerial locomotion, naturally suggested itself was that of providing men with wings, and the myths of Daedalus and Icarus show that the attempts of man to soar above the earth commenced in prehistoric times. A wooden pigeon which sustained itself in the air for a few minutes is recorded as having been invented by Archytas of Taren- tum, 400 years B. c. Suetonius states that Simon Magus was killed in Rome during the reign of Nero by attempt- ing to fly from one house to another. Friar Roger Bacon (1214-94) con- structed a machine consisting of a pair of hollow copper globes, ex- hausted of air, which could rise in the air supporting a man seated on a chair. In the 13th century, Elmerus, a monk, is said to have flown more than a furlong from the top of a tower in Spain. Father Francesco Lana (1631-87), an Italian physicist, de- scribes an ingenious but impracticable flying machine. Giovanna Batista Dante, a mathematician of Perugia, made several flights above Lake Thrasimene by means of artificial wings attached to the body, near the close of the 15th century, but dis- continued them after an accident. In the 17th century, Besnier, a locksmith of Sable, France, prudently began to laap from one story windows, and at last ventured safely on flights from ele- vated positions, passing over houses, and over rivers of considerable breadth, Bishop Wilkins, Sir George Caylay end others, towards the end of the 18th century, busied themselves with speculation and experiments on the subject of aviation. Henry Cavendish, about 1766, dis- covered the great levity of hydrogen gas slightly over 14 times less than that of atmospheric air and the fol- lowing year Dr. Black, of Edinburgh, announced in his lectures that a thin bladder, filled with this gas, must ascend into the air. Cavallo made the requisite experiments in 1782, and found that a bladder was too heavy, paper not air-tight, but that soap-bub- bles filled with hydrogen rose to the ceiling of the room, where they burst. The first successful balloon was made by the Montgolfier brothers, sons of Peter Montgolfier, a paper manufac- turer of Annonay, France. It was a parallelepiped or six-sided bag of silk, containing 40 cubic ft. ; inflated with hot air from burning paper it rose to a height of 36 ft. The broth- ers, after seeing a petticoat sail to the ceiling when left to dry by a fire, had conceived the idea that a bag filled with a cloud-like substance, such as smoke, would float in the air. Larger machines were constructed with great- er success in ascension, a straw fire, fed by chopped wool from time to LATEST TYPES OP A 1 School machine in flight. 2 and 3 Inside views at an aeroplane factory. 4 Biplane ready to take flight. Copyright U. & U. IRICAN AEROPLANES 5 American warplanes on the French front. 6 Speedy biplane with 135 H.P. motor. 7 U. S. officers inspecting aeroplanes at a training camp. Aeronautics time, being kindled under the aper- ture of the balloon to produce the smoke cloud ; the true cause of ascen- sion, the rarefaction of the heated air, was not discovered till a later period. The Montgolfier successes led to Charles' experiments with hydrogen gas. Within a short time several cap- tive ascents by human beings were successfully made in heated air bal- loons, and on Nov. 21, 1783, Pilatre de Rozier and the Marquis d'Arlandes made the first independent aerial ex- pedition rising 3,000 ft. and descending safely, though not without being ex- posed to considerable danger, 9,000 ft. from their starting point. Ten days later, on Dec. 1, Messrs. Charles and Roberts ascended in a hydrogen bal- loon fitted with a safety valve, and travelled over 31 miles. Over 52 bal- loon ascents are recorded in 1784. Blanchard, the first professional aero- naut, with Dr. John Jeffries of Bos- ton, crossed the English Channel from Dover to France, in a heated air bal- loon, Jan. 1, 1785. On June 14, 1785, Pilatre de Rozier with Mr. Remain at- tempted to cross from the French side, in a combination hydrogen and heated- air balloon, but the machine caught fire 3,000 ft. in the air and both men were killed. The disaster was caused through unfortunate negligence and the cause of aeronautics did not suffer. The parachute (q. v.) was invented by Garnerin, who first made a descent Oct. 22, 1797. Following these early experiments, among notable ascensions during the 19th century taken in the interests of science were those of Messrs. Robert- son and Lhoest in 1803-04, of Gay Lussac and Biot in 1804, of Carlo Brioschi and Andreani in 1806, of Green, the English aeronaut, with Messrs. Holland and Mason in 183G, of Bixio and Barral in 1850, of Messrs. Glaisher and Coxwell in 1862, when they reached a height of 7 miles, and of Messrs. Camille Flammarion, W. de Fonvieville, and Gaston Tissandier, 1867-69. In July, 1859, Mr. John Wise, the American aeronaut with Mr. John La Mountain and two others made a remarkable journey from St. Louis, Mo., to Henderson in Jefferson Co., N. Y., a distance of 1,150 m., in 19 h. 50 m., or at an aver- age speed of nearly a mile a minute. Aeronautics Since the beginning of the 20th cent, this has been exceeded onlv by Count de la Vaulx's flight of 1,200 m. from Paris to Russia. Regular balloon corps are attached to the armies of leading nations, and in their interests numerous attempts have been made to construct dirigible balloons. Gaston and Albert Tissen- dier achieved some success in 1884, but the first notable dirigible flight was that of Col. Renard on Apr. 9, 1884, when, in a cigar-shaped balloon, with a powerful motor and a front screw, he left Chalais-Meudqn, and re- turned to his starting .point in 23 min- utes after describing an oblong course of five miles. Since then aerial navi- gation has developed along the lines of dirigible balloons and motor aero- planes. Two new forms of air-craft were developed practically during 1913, viz : the hydro-aeroplane, an aero- plane capable of rising from the sur- face of water with the aid of a float- ing device, and the flying-boat, a com- bination of a speed motor-boat that can be operated as slowly as two miles an hour or as rapidly as fifty miles, to which is attached a standard aeroplane. The apparatus can be used on the water, in the air, and, with an equipment of wheels, on the ground, with equal ease and sur- prising speed, and it quickly gave birth to a new and exhilarating sport yachting in the air. Owing to the commandeering of air- craft and the enlistment of aviators for military service in all the belligerent armies, competitive aviation was so restricted that from the outbreak of the World War the International Aviation Federation accepted no rec- ords as claimed. In 1915 many improvements were made in air-craft, the better to fit the various types for use as engines of war. Their speed and carrying capac- ity were greatly increased so that they could convey more men and also bombs and machine guns. In the United States the Congress passed an act, approved July 18, 1914, creating an aviation section of the signal corps to be composed of 60 captains and first lieutenants and 260 enlisted men. The act provided for an increase in the pay of military avia- Aeronautics Aeronautic* tors of 75 per cent., of juniors of 50 per cent., and of students of 25 per cent. Enlisted men were required to take part at regular periods in aerial flights. The Army Appropriation Act of Aug. 29, 1916, appropriated $13,000,000 for the extension of the aerial service, and plans which had been previously for- mulated for extending the service were further enlarged by the passage of the act of July 24, 1917, appropriating $640,000,000 for the construction of air craft. This latter action, it is to be noted, was taken after the United States had entered the war (April 6, 1917). The task of construction was speed- ily undertaken in various sections of the country, aviation schools were es- tablished, American inventors made many contributions to the effectiveness of the latest types of foreign machines, and experienced instructors from France and England aided in the training of the American airmen. As rapidly as construction and instruc- tion permitted machines and men were hurried to the battle-fronts of France, the first contingent being designated the Lafayette Escadrille. The war was still young when the Germans inaugurated Admiral Von Tirpits's "campaign of frightfulness," by bombing English coast sections from Zeppelins and other types of craft, killing inoffensive non-combatants, and destroying property that should have been immune, without gaining any military advantage whatever. Later the entente belligerents began retaliating in kind, seeking, how- ever, bases of supplies and munition works. No more terrible exposition of aero- nautic warfare can be found than in the record of six days in March, 1918, viz: March 9. Ten or twelve squadrons of German bombing aircraft raided Paris, killing 13 persons and wounding 50. March 10. British army aviators raided motor and munition factories and other objectives at Stuttgart, Ger- many, dropping over one and a quarter tons of bombs. March 11. Germans raided Naples, Italy, without damage of a military character, a hospital and private dwell- ings chiefly being injured. British made daylight raid on Mainz, Germany, with but slight casu- alties. March 12. Nine squadrons of German craft, aggregating nearly 60 units, attacked Paris ; 34 persons killed, 79 injured, 66 suffocated while in a refuge. British aviators dropped a ton of bombs on Coblenz, Prussia. German Zeppelins made night raid on eastern coast of England and dropped bombs on Hull. British dropped over thirteen and a half tons of explosives on various tar- gets at Mons and Bavay, on large ammunition depots northeast of St. Quentin, and on billets east of Lens, and 7 tons of bombs on billets between Lille and Cambrai. March 13. British dropped 3 tons of bombs on docks at Bruges. March 14. Zeppelins made night raid on northeast coast of England. British airplanes attacked German munition works and barracks at Frei- burg, dropping nearly 10 tons of bombs. For a concise record of bombing raids by airplanes from the beginning of the war to the end of 1917 see APPENDIX : World War. A noteworthy feature of the pacific side of aeronautics was the provision for an aeroplane mail service between New York, Philadelphia, and Wash- ington, scheduled for inauguration about May 15, 1918. Excluding the records of phenome- nal achievements in war air-flights and of most courageous operations in France by American aviators, the fol- lowing shows the most notable of recent records : Oct. 6, 1908. Wilbur Wright, in France, made first flight of more than 1 h. with a passenger. Oct. 30, 1908. Farman, in France, made first cross-country flight, 20 miles in 17 m. July 25, 1909. Louis BleYiot made first flight across English Channel in 31 m. Aug. 28, 1909. Glenn H. Curtiss, at Rheims, won first Gordon-Bennett Aviation Cup, by 12.42 miles in 15 m. 501 s. Oct. 19, 1909. Count Charles de Lambert made first flight over a city, at Paris, rounding the Eiffel Tower at height of nearly 1,500 feet, making Aeronautics Aeronautics journey of 50 kilometers in as many minutes. Jan. 7, 1910. Hubert Latham, at Mourmelon, France, broke height rec- ord with 3,600 feet. Jan. 11, 1910. Curtiss, at Los An- geles, Cal., broke record flight with passenger, 55 miles an hour. April 19, 1910. Louis Paulhan, at Rheims, made new cross-country aero- plane record, 130 miles. April 28, 1910. Paulhan won $50,- 000 prize for flight from London to Manchester, Eng., 185 miles, in 3 h. 56 m. May 29, 1910. Curtiss won $10,- 000 prize for flight from Albany to Governor's Island, N. Y., 150 miles, in 2 h. 32 m. ; also making both an American cross-country record and the world's speed record for such flights. June 2, 1910. Sir Charles S. Rolls made first round-trip flight across English Channel without stop, 42 miles in 90 m. He was killed in a flight, July 12, following. June 22, 1910. Count Zeppelin opened the first regular airship pas- senger service with his "Deutsch- land," and carried 20 passengers from Friedrichshaven to Diisseldorf, 300 miles, in 9 h. On the 28th the air- ship was wrecked in a gale. July 7, 1910. Latham broke pre- vious height record with over 5,000 feet. July 7, 1910. M. Olieslagers, at Rheims, made new world's endurance record, 158 miles without stop, in 2 h. 35 m. 30 s. July 9, 1910. M. Labouchere, at Rheims, made world's record for dis- tance, 211.14 miles, in 4 h. 37 m. 45 s. July 9, 1910. Leon Morane, at Rheims, made new speed record, 6.20 miles, in 5 m. 27 s. July 9, 1910. Walter Brooking, at Atlantic City, N. J., broke world's record for height, 6,100 feet. July 15, 1910. J. Armstrong Drexel, at Bournemouth, Eng., made an over- sea flight of 21 miles in 34 m., and Morane covered the distance in 25 m. Aug. 11, 1910. Drexel, at Lanark, Scotland, made height of 6,750 feet. Sept. 23, 1910. Chavez crossed the Alps between Switzerland and Italy and died from injuries, 27th. Oct. 15, 1910. Walter Wellman, with five others, attempted to cross the Atlantic from Atlantic City, N. J., in the dirigible balloon "America," but was compelled by storm to abandon the balloon off Cape Hat- teras on the 18th, having been in the air nearly 72 hours and covered about 850 miles. Oct. 17-19, 1910. Alan R. Haw- ley and Augustus Post, in balloon "America II," made record for sus- tained flight, from St. Louis, Mo., to Chicoutimi county, Quebec, Canada, about 1,350 miles. Oct. 29, 1910. Grahame-White, at Belmont Park, won the Bennett cup, beating world's speed record for 100 kilometers (62.1 miles) in ! m., 4 74-100 s. Oct. 31, 1910. Ralph Johnstone, at Belmont Park, made biplane height record, 9,714 feet ; was killed in flight at Denver, Nov. 17. Nov. 7, 1910. Phil O. Parmelee made fastest cross-country flight and was the first to carry freight : Dayton to Columbus, O., 65 miles in 65 m. Nov. 23, 1910. Drexel. at Phila- delphia, Pa., claimed height of 9,970 feet, world's record ; claim rejected by Aero Club, but accepted by U. S. Weather Bureau. Dec. 9, 1910. M. Legagneux, at Pau, France, in monoplane, made height of 10,499 feet ; world's record. Dec. 10, 1910. Captain Bellanger, French Army Aviation Corps, broke speed records, Vincennes to Mour- melon, 100 miles, in 70 m. April 12, 1911. Prier flew from London to Paris (251 miles) in 2 h. 56 m. with stop. Aug. 2, 1911. Vedrines, from Lon- don to Dieppe to Paris (267 miles) in 3 h. 50 m. Dec. 2, 1911. Prevost, with one gassenger, made altitude flight at ourcy, France (9,840 ft.). Feb. 17, 1912. Tabuteau broke the world's record for 2 hours' flight by covering a distance of 227 kilom. 454 metres (141^ miles). March 14, 1912. Salmet flew from London to Paris (222 miles) in 2 h. 57 m., taking this short route with- out stop. July 27, 1912. H. E. Honeywell won American National Champion- ship balloon race from Kansas City, 914 m. Aeronautics Afghanistan Aug. 15, 1912. R. E. Scott, late U. S. A., won Michelin bomb-dropping contest, France. Sept. 9, 1912. Jules Vedrines (France) won international contest for Bennett Cup, Chicago ; average speed, 105.03 m. per h. Oct. 6, 1912. Pierre Daucourt (France) made new world record for single-day cross-country flight, 570 miles, in 8 h. 48 m. Oct. 27, 1912. World's distance record broken in balloon race for Bennett Cup, Stuttgart, Bienaine of France covering 1,364 miles, Le Blanc of France, 1,240, and Watts of U. S., 1,000. Feb. 9, 1913. H. Faller made dura- tion record with five passengers, Ger- many, 1 h. 10 m. 17 s. March 11, 1913. J. Perreyon alone made height record, France, 19,600 ft. ; and June 3, made similar record with one passenger. 16,270 feet. March 19-21, 1913. E. Rumpel- mayer made balloon distance record, Lamotte-Voltchy-Iar, 1,503 miles. April 15, 1913. F. Champel made duration record with four passengers, over circuit, France, 3 h. 1 m. 17 s. Sept. 29, 1913. M. Prevost won international contest for Bennett Cup, Rheims, France, average speed, 101.82 miles per h. Dec. 22. 1913. German military officer made balloon flight of 1,740 miles in 87 h. Feb. 11, 1914. M. Parmelin (France) made flight over Mont Blanc from Geneva, Switzerland, to Aosta, Italy, rising to height of 17,384 ft. June 24, 1914. Walter S. Brock (U. S.) won race from London to Manchester and return, 322 m. in 4 h. 42 m. 26 s. July 11, 1914. Walter S. Brock won race from London to Paris and return, 502 m. in 7 h. 3 m. 6 s. Reinhold Boehm (Ger.) set endur- ance record at Johannisthal, Ger- many, at 24 h. 12 m., covering 1,350 m. July 14, 1914. Seinrich Oebreich (Ger.) made altitude flight at Leipsic, reaching 24,606 ft. July 27, 1914. Achillo Laudini (It.), with passenger, crossed the Monte Rosa range of the Alps from Novara, Italy, to Visp, Switzerland, at elevation of over 15,000 ft., in about 3 h. Oct. 8, 1914. Capt. H. L. Muller (U. S. A.) made altitude flight at San Diego, Cal., reaching 17,441 ft. April 30, 1916. Theodore Mac- Cauley (U. S.), in hydroplane with 6 passengers, remained in the air 1 h. 10 m. 51 s., traveled 85 m., and as- cended 950 ft., at Newport News. Nov. 2, 1916. Victor Carlstrom (U. S.), in military biplane in attempt to fly from Chicago to New York that was interrupted by engine trouble, traveled 652 m. in 6 h. 7^ m., and made 480 m. between Chicago and Erie, Pa., without a stop in 4 h. 1 m. Nov. 19, 1916. Miss Ruth Law (U. S.) flew from Chicago to Hornell, N. Y., 590 m., without a stop ; then went on to Binghamton, N. Y., making 967 m. in 8 h. 26 m. Aug. 29, 1917. Capt. G. Laureami made flight from Turin to Naples and return, 920 m., in 10 h. 33 m. Oct. 22, 1917. Lieut. A. Baldioli made cross-country run between Nor- folk, Va., and Mineola, L. L, 330 m., in 2 h. 55 m. Afghanistan, the land of the Af- ghans, a country in Asia, bounded on the E. mainly by India, S. by Baluchistan, W. by Persia, and N. by the Russian Transcaspian territory, Bokhara and the Russian Pamir territory ; length about 560, breadth about 450 miles ; area about 225,000 square miles ; pop. about 5,000.000. The inhabitants belong to different races, but the Afghans proper form the great mass of the people. These call themselves Pushtaneh or Pukta- neh, Afghans being the Persian name._ ^They^ are an Iranic race, and are divided into a number of tribes, nmpng which the Duranis and Ghilzais are the most important, the latter being the strongest of all the tribes. A tradition, evidently mod- ern and legendary, gives them an Israelitish origin. The Afghans are bold, hardy, and warlike, fond of freedom and resolute in maintaining it, but of a restless, turbulent tem- per, and much given to plunder. The boundary between Afghanistan and British India was long uncertain, but in 1893 an arrangement was come Africa Africa to between the Ameer Abdur-Rah- man, and Sir Mortimer Durand. The boundary then agreed on was demarcated shortly afterward and is so drawn as to leave Chitral, Bajaur, Swat, Chilas, and Wazir- istan to Great Britain, while Af- ghanistan is given the territories of Asmar, Birmal, and Kafiristan. The Ameer's annual subsidy was also in- creased from 12 to 18 lacs, and restric- tions on the import of arms, etc., were removed. Abdur-Rahman died in Ka- bul, Oct. 3, 1901. He was succeeded by his son, Habibulla Khan, who was said to be more friendly to Russian influence than his father was, a fact which for a time excited much anxiety in Great Britain. Africa, one of the three great di- visions of the Old World, and the third in area of the five continents, lies nearly due S. of Europe and S. W. of Asia. It is of a compact form, being nearly equal at its extreme points in length and breadth. The N. section of the continent, however, has an average breadth of nearly double the S. This great change of form arises mostly from the greater pro- jection of the upper part toward the W., and the transition on this side from the broad to the narrow section is effected suddenly by an inward turn of the W. coast, which faces S. for nearly 20 of longitude, forming the Gulf of Guinea, the greatest indenta- tion of the coast. Africa is united to Asia at its N. E. extremity by the Isthmus of Suez, now crossed by a great ship canal. From this point the coast runs in a W. and somewhat N. direction to the Strait of Gibraltar, the point of great- est proximity to Europe. This N. coast forms the S. shore of the Med- iterranean Sea, and brings all the N. countries of Africa into close proxim- ity with the European and Asiatic countries lying contiguous to that great ocean highway, which formed the chief medium of communication between the principal divisions of the ancient world. The center of Africa possesses an exuberant tropical vegetation. The open pastoral belt at the extremities of the tropics is distinguished by a rich and varied flora. A special char- acteristic of the vegetation of the S. extremity of Africa is the remarkable variety, size, and beauty of the heaths, some of which grow to 12 or 15 feet, in the fertile parts of Nubia. The fauna of Africa is extensive and varied, and numerous species of mammals are peculiar to the conti- nent. According to a common view of the geographical distribution of ani- mals, the N. of Africa belongs to the Mediterranean sub-region, while the rest of the continent forms the Ethi- opian region. Africa possesses nu- merous species of the order quadru- mana (apes and monkeys), most of which are peculiar to it. They abound especially in the tropics. The most remarkable are the chimpanzee and the gorilla. The lion is the typical carnivore of Africa. Latterly he has been driven from the coast settlements to the interior, where he still reigns king of the forest. There are three varieties, the Barbary, Senegal, and Cape lions. The leopard and pan- ther rank next to the lion among car- nivora. Hyenas of more than one species, and jackals, are found all over Africa. Elephants in large herds abound in the forests of the tropical regions, and their tusks form a prin- cipal article of commerce. These are larger and heavier than those of Asiatic elephants. The elephant is not a domestic animal in Africa as it is in Asia. The rhinoceros is found, like the elephant, in Middle and Southern Africa. Hippopotami abound in many of the large rivers and the lakes. The zebra and quagga used to abound in Central and Southern Af- rica, but the latter is said to be now entirely extinct Of antelopes, the most numerous and characteristic of the ruminating animals of Africa, at least 50 species are considered pecu- liar to this continent, of which 23 used to occur in Cape Colony. The giraffe is found in the interior, and is exclusively an African animal. Sev- eral species of wild buffaloes have been found in the interior, and the buffalo has been naturalized in the N. The camel, common in the N. as a beast of burden, has no doubt been introduced from Asia. The horse and the ass (onager) are natives of Bar- bary. The cattle of Abyssinia and Bornu have horns of immense size, hut extremely light In Barbary and Africa the Cape of Good Hope the sheep are | broad-tailed; in Egypt and Nubia they are long-legged and short-tailed. Goats are in some parts more nu- merous than sheep. The ibex breed ex- tends to Abyssinia. Dogs are numer- ous, but cats rare, in Egypt and Barbary. There is a marked distinction be- tween the races in the N. and E. of i the great desert and those in the Cen- tral Sudan and the rest of Africa and I the S. The main elements of the population of North Africa, including Egypt and Abyssinia, are Hamitic and Semitic, but in the N. the Ham- i ite Berbers are mingled with peoples ! of the same race as those of prehis- toric Southern Europe, and other types of various origins, and in the E. and S. E. with peoples of the negro type. The Semitic Arabs are found all over the N. region, and even in the Western Sahara and Central Su- dan, and far down the E. coast as traders. The Somalis and Gallas are mainly Hamitic. In the Central Su- dan and the whole of the country between the desert and the Gulf of Guinea the population is pure negro people of the black, flat- or broad- nosed, thick-lipped type, with narrow heads, woolly hair, high cheek-bones, and prognathous jaws. Scattered among them are peoples of a probably Hamitic stock. Nearly the whole of the narrow S. section of Africa is in- habited by what are known as the Bantu races, of which the Zulu or Kaffir may be taken as the type. The languages of the Bantu peoples are all of the same structure, even though the physical type vary, some resembling the true negro, and others having prominent noses and compara- tively thin lips. The Bushmen of South Africa are of a different type from the Bantu, probably the remains of an aboriginal population, while the Hottentots are apparently a mixture of Bushmen and Kaffirs. Scattered over Central Africa, mainly in the forest regions, are pigmy tribes, who are generally supposed to be the re- mains of an aboriginal population. The bulk of the inhabitants of Mada- gascar are of Malay affinities. The total population is estimated at about 175.000,000. As regards religion, a great pro* portion of the inhabitants are heath- ens of the lowest type. Mohamme- danism possesses a large number of adherents in Northern Africa and is rapidly spreading in the Sudan. Christianity prevails chiefly among the Copts of Egypt, the Abyssinians, and the natives of Madagascar, the latter having been converted in recent times. Elsewhere the labors of the missionaries have also been attended with promising success. Over a great part of the continent, however, civil- ization is at a low ebb, and in the Kongo region cannibalism is exten- sively prevalent. Yet in various re- gions the natives who have not come in contact with a higher civilization show considerable skill in agriculture and various mechanical arts, as in weaving and metal working. Political Divisions. By diplomatic arrangements, mainly since 1884, great areas in Africa were allotted to Great Britain, France, Germany, Por- tugal, Belgium, and Italy, as being within their respective spheres of in- fluence, in addition to colonial pos- sessions proper. The areas claimed by the European powers prior to the outbreak of the World War were esti- mated as follows: France, 4,000,000 square miles ; Great Britain, 2,700,- 000; Germany, 1,000,000; Portugal, 825,000 ; Kongo Free State, 900,000 ; Italy, 200,000; Spain, 80,000. In 1910 the former British colonies of Cape Colony, Natal, Transvaal, and Orange River were federated as prov- inces in a Union of South Africa, with Gen. Louis Botha as the first premier, and the seat of the executive govern- ment at Pretoria and the legislative at Cape Town. Other British colonies are Lagos, Gold Coast, Gambia, Sier- ra Leone, and Mauritius. Egypt and Tripoli were long under Turkish rule, but Tripoli became an Italian colony in 1912, and Egypt a British protec- torate in 1914. The Kongo Free State now belongs to Belgium. Abyssinia and Morocco are the chief native African independent States. Germa- ny lost to the British, German South- west Africa in 1915, Kameroon coun- try in 1916, and German East Africa also in 1916. Commercial Conditions. The an- nual commerce of Africa amounts to over $700,000,000, of which $429,000,- Agamemnon |000 represents the value of the im- foorts. Necessarily in so large an area Vith so many tribes and peoples who keep no records of their transactions, a considerable amount of commerce .must pass without being recorded in |any way. Railroad development in Africa has !been rapid in the past few years and seems but the beginning of a great system which must contribute to the rapid development, civilization, and enlightenment of the " Dark Conti- nent." Already railroads run N. from Cape Colony about 1,500 miles and S. from Cairo about 1,200 miles, thus completing 2,700 miles of the proposed '* Cape to Cairo " railroad, while the intermediate distance is about 3,000 miles. At the N. numerous lines skirt the Mediterranean coast, especially in the French territory of Algeria and lin Tunis, aggregating Lbout 2,500 miles; while the Egyptian railroads are, including those under construc- tion, about 1,500 miles in length. Those of Cape Colony are over 3,000 miles in length, and those of Portu- guese East Africa and the Transvaal are another 1,000 miles in length. In- cluding all of the railroads construct- ed or under actual construction, the total length of African railways is nearly 12,500 miles, or half the dis- ! tance around the earth. A large pro- portion of the railways thus far con- structed are owned by the several colonies or states which they traverse, about 2,000 miles of the Cape Colony system and nearly all of that of Egypt belonging to the state. That the gold and diamond mines Jof South Africa have been and still ;are wonderfully profitable is beyond ^question. The Kimberley diamond .mines, about 600 miles from Cape Town, now supply 98 per cent, of the diamonds of commerce, though their existence was unknown prior to^ 1867, and the mines have thus been in op- eration but about 30 years. It is esti- mated that $350,000,000 worth of rough diamonds, worth double that sum after cutting, have been produced from the Kimberley mines since their opening in 1868-1869, and this enor- mous production would have been greatly increased but for the fact that the owners of the various mines there formed an agreement to limit the out- E. 4. ' Agapemone put so as not to materially exceed the world's annual consumption. Equally wonderful and promising are the great Witwatersrand gold fields of South Africa, better known as the Johannesburg mines. Gold was discovered there in 1883, and in 1898 before the Boer War, which temporarily suspended work, the an- nual yield had reached over $55,000,- 000. Since the opening of the 20th century, the development of the prin- cipal European colonies has progressed more rapidly than previously, not- withstanding the Herreros war in Ger- man S. W. Africa, and the maladmin- istration of the Congo Free State. The projection of railroads into the inte- rior from seaboard towns, many to eventually connect with the Cape to Cairo route, is a powerful factor in internal development. On that line, at the great Victoria Falls of the Zambesi River, a cantilever bridge, 560 ft. long, built across the gorge by the American Cleveland Bridge Co., was opened in 1905. Works, costing $3,000,000, develop electric power at the falls and operate railroads, copper and coal mines, within a radius of 600 miles. Agamemnon, king of Mycenae and Argos, son of Atreus and Eriphyle, brother of Menelaus and commander- in-chief of the Grecian army at the siege of Troy. Returning from Troy, Agamemnon was treacherously mur- dered by his wife; who, during his absence, had formed an attachment with ^Egisthus, son of the noted Thy- estes. This catastrophe is the sub- ject of the " Agamemnon " of JEschy- lus, one of the most sublime composi- tions in the range of the Grecian drama. Agana, town and seat of adminis- tration of Guam, the largest of the Ladrone Islands, ceded by Spain to the United States after the war of 1898. It is an important naval and cable station, between San Francisco and Luzon in the Philippines. Agape, a love feast, a kind of feast held by the primitive Christians in connection with the administration of the sacred communion. Agapemone, the name given by the Rev. Henry James Prince, a clergy- man who seceded from the English Church, to a religions society founded Agassis on the principle of a community of goods, which he established at Char- linch, near Taunton, England, in 1845. New attention was called to this sect in September, 1902, when J. H. Smyth Piggott, successor to Prince, publicly declared in the church of the sect at Clapham, near London, that he, in his own person, was Christ, who had come again, and was received as such by his congregation. An angry mob sought to attack him, but he was protected by the police. Agassiz, Alexander, an Ameri- can zoologist and geologist, son of J. L. R. Agassiz, born in Neuchatel, Switzerland, Dec. 17, 1835. He came to the United States with his father in 1849 ; graduated from Harvard in 1855 ; and received the degree of B. S. from the Lawrence Scientific School in 1857. In 1859 he went to Cali- fornia as assistant on the United States Coast Survey. From 1860 to 1865 he was assistant curator of the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard University ; and, from 1860 to 1869, superintendent of the Calu- met and Hecla mines, Lake Superior. On the death of his father in 1873, he was appointed curator of the Museum of Comparative Zoology, holding that position until he resigned in 1885. In 1900 he completed a series of deep sea explorations for the United States government. His chief works are r 'List of Echinoderms" (1863); " Exploration of Lake Titicaca " (1875-1876) ; "Three Cruises of the Blake" (1880). He died at sea. March 28, 1910. Agassiz, Jean Louis Rodolplie, a Swiss naturalist ; born in Motier, Switzerland, May 28, 1807. In 1846 he came to the United States on a lecturing and exploring tour. The professorship of zoology and geology in Harvard College was offered him in 1847, and as he had previously been offered the use of the United States survey vessels for exploring purposes he accepted the offer. While at Har- vard he wrote several volumes, some of which were of a popular nature, but most of them were devoted to scientific research. Among his more important works were : " Principles of Zoology," in connection with Dr. A. Gould (1848) ; " Lake Superior, its Physical Char- Agave acter" (1850); "Contributions to the Natural History of the United States " (4 vols. 1857-1862) ; " Zo- ulogie Gene-rale" (1854); "Methods of Study in Natural History " (1863). His contributions to the de- velopment of the principles of natural science in his special departments are very numerous and of high authority. In 1855 he was enabled by the liber- ality of Nathaniel Thayer to make, for the sake of his failing health, a long-contemplated voyage to Brazil. He was accompanied by his wife, who wrote an account of the voyage. In 1871 he visited the S. shores both of the E. and of the W. coast of North America. After some years of un- successful efforts to get a government marine station established, he was en- abled by private munificence to fit up one on Penekese Island in Buzzard's bay. Agassiz's last work was the or- ganization of this establishment, ol which he wrote an account in 1873 to the British Association. He died in Cambridge, Mass., Dec. 14, 1873. His widow, ELIZABETH CAEY AGAS- SIZ, was born in Boston, Mass., in 1823; died June 27, 1907. She closely identified herself with her husband's scientific work, accompanying him on many of his travels, and supplement- ing his researches with her own lit- erary work. Probably she will be best remembered for her early agitation for the collegiate education of women, and as the president of the Harvard Annex, now Radcliffe College, from its institution till November, 1899, when she resigned. Mrs. Agassiz pub- lished " Louis Agassiz ; His Life and Correspondence," and was joint au- thor, with Alexander Agassiz, of "Seaside Studies in Natural History." Agate, a mineral classed by Dana as one of the cryptocrystalline vari- eties of quartz, some of the other min- erals falling under the same category being chalcedony, carnelian, onyx, hornstone, and jasper. Agave, an extensive genus of plants. The best-known species is the American aloe, called maguey by the Mexicans. Its hard and spiny leaves form impenetrable hedges. The fiber makes excellent cordage. The expressed juice is employed as a substitute for soap; also manufactured into a cider- Age like liquor, called pulque by the Mexi- cans. Age, any period of time attributed to something as the whole, or part, of its duration ; as the age of man, the several ages of the world, the golden age. Ageda, the name of a plain, 90 miles from Buda, where the Jewish rabbis held a meeting, in 1650, to de- bate whether the Messiah had come ; the question was decided in the nega- tive. Agesilaus, King of Sparta (397- 3GO B. c.), was elevated to the throne chiefly by the exertions of Lysander. He was one of the most brilliant sol- diers of antiquity. He died in his 84th year. Agincourt, now Azinconrt, a email village in the center of the French department of Pas-de-Calais, celebrated for a bloody battle between the English and French, Oct. 25, 1415. The battle lasted three hours, and was a signal victory for the Eng- lish, due mainly to the archers. Agnew. Cornelius Rea, an American physician, born in New York, Aug. 8, 1830 ; Professor of Dis- eases of the Eye and Ear in New York College of Physicians and Sur- geons. He was a graduate of Colum- bia College, and later studied in Eu- rope ; was surgeon-general of the State of New York at the beginning of the Civil War, when he became medical director of the New York State Volunteer Hospital. As mem- ber of the United States Sanitary Commission, he contributed largely to its success. In 1868, he founded the Brooklyn Eye and Ear Hospital. He was interested in the public schools of New York ; became founder of the Columbia College School of Mines, and, in 1874, one of the trustees of the college. His writings are chiefly monographs on diseases of the eye and ear. He died April 8, 1888. Agnew, David Hayes, an Amer- ican surgeon and medical writer, born Nov. 24, 1818; for many years Pro- fessor of Surgery at the University of Pennsylvania. He died 1892. Agnosticism, a word used by Professor Huxley, to express the thought, that beyond what man can know by his senses, or feel by his Agrarian higher affections, nothing can be known. Facts, or supposed facts, both of the lower and the higher life, are accepted, but all inferences de- duced from these facts as to the ex- istence of an unseen world, or of beings higher than man, are consid- ered unsatisfactory, and are ignored. Agnostics, positivists, and secularists have much in common, and many peo- ple exist to whom any one of the three names might be indifferently applied. Agouti, a South American animal. The agoutis live for the most part upon the surface of the ground, not climbing nor digging to any depth; and they commonly sit upon their haunches when at rest, holding their food between their forepaws, in the manner of squirrels. By eating the roots of the sugar-cane, they are often the cause of great injury to the plant- ers. The ears are short, and the tail rudimentary. The animal is nearly 2 feet long. It is found in Guiana, Brazil, Paraguay, and some of the Antilles. It feeds voraciously on veg- etable food. Agra. (1) A former division of British India; now a part of the United Provinces of Agra and Oudh; area, 83,198 square miles ; pop. (1911) 34,624,040. (2) The capital of Agra district, on the right bank of the Jumna, 139 miles S. E. of Delhi, by rail, and 841 miles N. W. of Cal- cutta. The city is considered espe- cially sacred through Vishnu's incar- nation there as Parasu Rama. Pop. (1911) 185,449. Agrarian, as adjective (1) gener- al, pertaining to fields or lands; (2) special, pertaining to laws or cus- toms, or political agitation in connec- tion with the ownership or tenure of land. The agrarian laws, in the ancient Roman republic, were laws of which the most important were those carried by C. Licinius Stolo, when tribune of the people, in B. c. 367. The second rogation, among other enactments, provided (1) that no one should oc- cupy more than 500 jugera (by one calculation, about 280, and by an- other, 333, acres) of the public lands, or have more than 100 large and 500 small, cattle grazing upon them ; (2) that such portion of the public lands above 500 jugera, as was in possession Agricola Agricnltnral College* of individuals should be divided among all the plebeians, in lots of seven jugera, as property; (3) that the occupiers of public land were \ bound to employ free laborers, in a certain fixed proportion to the extent of their occupation. When, at a later | period, efforts were made to revive the j Licinian rogations, such opposition was excited that the two Gracchi lost their lives in consequence, and this, with their other projects, proved abortive. It is important to note that the land with which the Licinian, or agrarian, laws dealt was public land, belonging to the State, and not, as is popularly supposed, private prop- j erty. The homestead laws of the .United States are inspired by a pur- pose similar to the old Roman agrarian agitation the distribution of lands among the people. " Agrarian " in Germany is the name of a political party which seeks to secure special protection for agricultural products. Agricola, Cnaeus Julius, Roman statesman and general, born in 37 : A. D. He went to Britain in 77 A. D., | strengthened the Roman power, and extended it to the Scotch Highlands. He died in 93. Agricola, John, a polemical writer of celebrity, born at Eisleben, Saxony, in 1492 ; died at Berlin, in 1566. From being the friend and scholar, he became an antagonist, of Martin Luther. He entered into a dispute with Melanchthon, advocating the doctrine of faith in opposition to the works of the law, whence the sect of which he became leader received the name of Antinomians. Agricola, Rudolphus, the fore- most scholar of the " New Learning," in Germany, was born near Gron- ingen, in Friesland, Aug. 13, 1443. His real name, ROELOF HUYSMANN (husbandman), he Latinized into Ag- ricola ; and from his native place he was also called Frisius, or Rudolf of Groningen. He died at Heidelberg, Oct. 28, 1485. Agricultural Chemistry, that department of chemistry which treats of the composition of soils, manures, plants, etc., with the view of improv- ing practical agriculture. The sci- ence is comparatively young. The most important bases of agricultural chemistry to-day are the experimental stations which are found in agricul- tural colleges, and in many of the universities in the United States and elsewhere. The literature on the sub- ject is particularly rich. Agricultural Colleges, educa- tional institutions, chiefly under gov- ernment patronage, for the promotion of scientific farming. In 1862, the United States Congress passed a so- called land grant act, by which land scrip, representing 30,000 acres for every Senator and Representative, was issued to the States and Territories, the object being to provide a special fund for the creation of State and Territorial agricultural colleges. The land granted to the States by the act of Congress of 1862 amounted to 10,929,215 acres, of which 1,090.924 acres remained unsold in 1916. From the sale of lands permanent funds were created amounting to $14.493.441 and yielding an income of $964,579 for the benefit of the colleges. The total appropriation for the year ended June 30, 1915, from the U. S. Treasury in aid of colleges of agri- culture and the mechanic arts under the acts of Congress of 1890 and 1907 was $2,500,000, each of the forty- eight States and the two insular pos- sessions receiving $50,000. In 1916 there were 52 agricultural colleges for white students with an enrollment of 114,905, and nineteen for colored students with an enrollment of 10,070 The property held for the benefit of the land-grant colleges had a total value of $171,800,597 in 1915, and th, total income from the National ano 1 State governments and private funds was $36,027,005. Several of the land-grant colleges in Southern States have established courses of study in textile industry, with special reference to the manu- facture of cotton goods. These insti- tutions have provided buildings f regular cotton-mill design, equipped with machinery and apparatus for textile work. The Act of 1862 was supplemented by a second (Aug. 30. 1890), so that under both acts, each State and Terri- tory having an agricultural college re- ceives an appropriation annually from the United States treasury for its sup- port. MODERN AGRICUU I Tractor and Power Plow in Operation. 2 Combined Reaper and Thresher Agrippa Agriculture, the art of cultivating the ground more especially with the plow and in large areas or fields, in order to raise grain and other crops for man and beast ; including the art of preparing the soil, sowing and plant- ing seeds, removing the crops, and also the raising and feeding of cattle or other live stock. This art is the basis of all other arts, and in all countries is coeval with the first dawn of civiliza- tion. At how remote a period it must have been successfully practised in Egypt, Mesopotamia, and China we have no means of knowing. Egypt was renowned as a wheat country in the time of the Jewish patriarchs, who themselves were keepers of flocks and herds rather than tillers of the soil. During the Middle Ages agriculture ad- vanced but slowly, the tools remained unchanged, and the work was done la- boriously and by rule of thumb, with- out thought of scientific methods. The first treatise on farming in English, was published in 1534, but it was not until more than 200 years later that real progress was made, after the introduction of clover into English fields. Potatoes were cultivated in the 16th century, and early in the 17th the Dutch gave particular attention to the cultivation of root crops. So each decade saw some improvement and growth, but it was not until the devel- opment of the virgin lands of the United States called for improved ma- chinery and methods, that agriculture advanced with leaps and bounds. Un- der scientific culture, old lands are re- claimed and made as fruitful as ever ; irrigation and the choice of crops j suited to the soil, bring into profitable use lands once so hopeless as to be called desert, and the world's food sup- ply promises to keep up with the growth of population. As a result of the new conditions, to be a thoroughly trained and competent agriculturist requires a special educa- tion, partly theoretical, partly practi- cal. In particular, no scientific culti- vator can now be ignorant of agricul- tural chemistry, which teaches the con- stituents of the various plants grown as crops, their relation to the various soils, the nature and function of differ- ent manures, &c. In most countries there are now nsr'cultiirpl schools or colleges supported by the state. In the From the beginning of the World War till July, 1917, when Congress sanctioned an embargo on the expor- tation of specified commodities, under the belief that many shipments to neutral countries found their way into Germany, the United States was the granary of the world. The following figures, relating especially to the grain crops in the calendar year 1916, in- dicate the wonderful resource of the country in this branch of the agricul- tural industry : Corn: Acreage, 105,954.000; pro- duction, 2.583.241.000 bushels; farm value, $2,295,783,000. All wheat: Acreage. 52.785.000; production, 639,886,000 bushels ; value, $1,025,765,000. Oats: Acreage, 41.539,000; pro- duction, 1,251,992,000 bushels ; value, $656.179,000. Barley: Acreage, 7,674,000; pro- duction, 180,927,000 bushels; value, $159,534,000. Rye: Acreage, 3,096,000; pro- duction, 47,383,000 bushels; value, $57,857,000. Buckwheat : Acreage, 845,000 ; production, 11,840,000 bushels ; value, $13.364,000. Flax seed: Acreage, 1,605,000; production, 15,459,000 bushels ; value, $38,350,000. Rice: Acreage, 878,000; produc- tion, 41,982,000 bushels; value, $37,- 186.000. Total farm value, $4,284,018,000. Agriculture, Department of, an executive department of the United States Government, established by Congress in 1889 ; originally a bureau. It disseminates throughout the United States, by daily, monthly, and annual reports, the latest and most valuable agricultural information, and intro- duces and distributes new and desir- able seeds, plants, etc. Agrippa II., Herod, tetrarch of Abilene, Galilee, Iturea and Trachon- itis, born in 27 A. D. During his reign he enlarged Caesarea Philippi and named it Neronias, in honor of Nero. Maintained in his power by the Romans, he remained faithful to their interests, and tried to dissuade the Jews from rebelling. After the fall of Jerusalem he retired to Rome, where he died. Before him the Apos- tle Paul made his memorable defense. Agne Ague, an intermittent fever, in whatever stage of its progress or whatever its type. A person about to be seized by it generally feels some- what indisposed for about a fortnight previously. Then he is seized with a shivering fit, which ushers in the cold stage of the disease. This passes at length into a hot stage, and it again into one characteristic of great per- spiration, which carries off the disor- der for a time. The remedy is quinine or some other anti-periodic. Agnilar, Grace, an English nov- elist, born at Hackney, June 2, 1816; was the daughter of Jewish parents of Spanish origin. She died in Frank- fort-on-the-Main, Sept. 16, 1847. Agninaldo, Emilio, a leader in the Philippine insurrection of 1896, and their chief in the Spanish-American War of 1898. He was born at Imus, in the island of Luzon, in 1870, and received all the advantages of such educational facilities as existed in Manila under the Spanish rule. In course of time he became mayor of Cavite Viejo, and because of the inter- est he took in the troubles of 1896, was forced to go to Hong Kong, re- maining there in exile on condition of a considerable payment by Spain. He returned in 1898, and succeeded in rais- ing a revolt against Spain. He or- ganized a provisional government in June 1898, of which he became presi- dent later. During the next year he attacked the American troops, and aft- | er many conflicts was captured by a stratagem, and in 1901 took the oath of allegiance to the United States and ceased to be a troublesome factor in the Philippine problem. He proved himself to be a man of great cunning, of marked ability, and of extraordi- nary personal magnetism. Aliasuerns, a King of Persia, the husband of Esther, to whom the Scriptures ascribe a singula^ deliver- ance of the Jews from extirpation, which they commemorate to this day by the annual feast of Purim. Ahmedabad, (better Ahmadabad) , chief town of a district in Guzerat, India, second among the cities of the Province of Bombay. Pop. 148,412. Aliriman, a Persian deity, the de- mon or principle of evil, the principle of good being Oromasdes or Ormuzd. Air-engine Al, a species of sloth, with three toes, on each foot, in this respect dif- fering from the unau, which has but two. It extends from Brazil to Mexico. Ailantlius, Aliantus, or Alian- thus, a tree introduced into the Uni- ted States in 1784. During the first half-dozen years it outstrips almost any other deciduous tree, the leading stems grow 12 or 15 feet in a single season. In four or five years, there- fore, it forms a bulky head, but after that period it advances more slowly. The odor of ailanthus trees is disgust- ing to many persons, and for this rea- son they are not so much in favor as when first introduced. Ainu, or Aino, the name of an un- civilized race of people inhabitating the Japanese island of Yezo, as also Sag- halien, and the Kurile Islands, and be- lieved to be the aboriginal inhabitants of Japan. They do not average over 5 feet in height, but are strong and ac- tive. They have matted beards 5 or 6 inches in length, and black hair which they allow to grow till it falls over their shoulders. Their complexion is dark brown, approaching to black. They worship the sun and moon, and pay reverence to the bear. They sup- port themselves by hunting and fishing, Air, the gaseous substance of which our atmosphere consists, being a me- chanical mixture of 79.19 per cent, by measure of nitrogen and 20.81 per cent, of oxygen. The latter is abso- lutely essential to animal life, while the purpose chiefly served by the nitro- gen appears to be to dilute the oxygen. Oxygen is more soluble in water than nitrogen, and hence the air dissolved in water contains about 10 per cent, more oxygen than atmospheric air. The oxygen therefore available for those animals which breathe by gills, is very much diluted with water. Air-brake. See BRAKE. Air-engine, an engine in which air heated, and so expanded, or compressed air is used as the motive power. They may be said to be essentially similar in construction to the steam-engine, though the expansibility of air by heat is small compared with the expansion that takes place when water is con- verted into steam. Engines working by compressed air have been found very useful in mining, tunneling, &C^ Air-gun and the compressed air may be con- veyed to its destination by means of pipes. In such cases .the waste air serves for ventilation and for reducing the oppressive heat. Air-gun, an instrument for the projection of bullets by means of con- densed air, generally in the form of an ordinary gun. Air-pump, an apparatus by means of which air or other gas may be re- moved from an inclosed space ; or for compressing air within an inclosed space. An ordinary suction-pump for water is on the same principle as the air-pump ; indeed, before water reaches the top of the pipe the air has been pumped out by the same machinery which pumps the water. Airships. See AERONAUTICS ; FLYING MACHINE. Aisne, a river of France in the de- partment of the same name ; an af- fluent of the Oise ; scene of a French defeat in 1915. See APPENDIX : World War. Aix-la-Chapelle (Ger. Aachen), the capital of a district in Rhenish Prussia, situated in a fertile hollow, surrounded by heights, and watered by the Wurm, 39 miles W. by S. of Cologne. Pop. (1905) 144,095. Ajaccio, the chief town of the Island of Corsica, which forms a De- partment of France. It is the hand- somest city of Corsica, and the birth- place of Napoleon I., whose house is still to be seen. Pop. 18,846. Ajax, the name of two heroes of the Trojan War. Ajax, son of Tela- mon, King of Salamis, was next in warlike prowess of Achilles. Aked, Charles F., Baptist min- ister, born in Nottingham, England, in 1864. He visited the U. S. several times, and in 1907-11 was pastor of the Fifth Ave. Baptist Church, N. Y. C. Akron, city and capital of Sum- mit county, Ohio ; on the Ohio canal and the Baltimore & Ohio and other railroads ; 40 miles S. E. of Cleve- land. It is the trade center of a large farming and manufacturing section ; has one of the largest pri- vate printing offices in the world and extensive manufactories of rubber Alabama goods ; is the seat of Buchtel College (Universalist) ; and has a property valuation exceeding $27,500,000. Pop. (1910) 69,067. Akers, Benjamin Paul, an American sculptor, born in 1825. Studied in Florence and was espe- cially noted for the rapidity of his work. He died in May, 1861. Alabama, a State in the East South Central Division of the North American Union ; bounded by Ten- nessee, Georgia, Florida, Mississippi, and the Gulf of Mexico ; area, 52,250 square miles ; admitted into the Union, Dec. 14, 1819 ; seceded, Jan. 11, 1861 ; readmitted, June 25, 1868 ; number of counties, 67; pop. (1900) 1,828,697; (1916) 2,332,608; capital, Mont- gomery. The State has large wealth in its mineral resources, which include coal, iron, asbestos, asphalt, pottery and porcelain clays, marble, granite, phos- phates, natural gas, gold, silver, and copper. The most valuable of these at present are coal and iron. The coal is all bituminous, and the iron is red and b,rown hematite. The value of all mineral products in 1915 was $29,457,407; coal, $8,545,555; iron, $23,757,124. In the S. part of the State the soil is a light alluvial and diluvial ; in the central, the cotton belt, limestone and chalk lands predominate ; and in the N. part, which contains the Tennessee valley, there are very rich mineral lands. Besides the agricultural, min- eral, and grazing lands, there are large tracts of valuable yellow pine forests. The most valuable productions are cot- ton and corn. In 1916 the cotton out- put was valued at $48,956,000; the corn at $47,622,000; and all farm crops at $118,687,000. In 1914 there were reported 3,242 manufacturing establishments, em- ploying $227,505,000 capital and 78,717 wage earners, paying $33,897,- 000 for wages and $107,412,000 for materials for use in manufacturing, and yielding products valued at $178,- 798,000. Under the Federal Reserve banking system of 1913, Alabama is in the Sixth district, of which Atlanta, Ga., is the reserve city. Official reports for the year ended June 30, 1916, Alabama Claims Aladdin excluding Federal Reserve banks, showed a total of 361 reporting banks, with $21,704,000 capital, $86,792,000 in deposits, $10,555,000 in surplus, and total liabilities and assets balanc- ing at $142,292,000. Commercial activities at the Port of Mobile were seriously affected by the World War, the imports of mer- chandise during the calendar year 1916 being reduced to $3,990,389, and the exports to $32,660,338. The school population was reported in 1916 at 774,976, of whom 473,150 were enrolled in the public schools, and 292,540 were in average daily attendance. There were over 7,000 public schools, white and colored pupils being taught separately ; 10,212 teachers ; public school property valued at $2,127,054,930. For higher instruction, there were 174 public high schools ; 52 private secondary schools ; 9 public normal schools ; 9 universities and colleges for men and for both sexes ; and a State Agricul- tural and Mechanical College at Auburn. The strongest denominations numer- ically in the State are the Baptist, Methodist, and Presbyterian bodies, and all church property has a value exceeding $15,000,000. The railroad mileage, exclusive of switching and terminal lines, exceeds 5,500, having been greatly increased by the demands of industrial activ- ities. The governor is elected for four years ; legislature meets quadren- nially ; Senate has 35 members, House 106 ; Representatives in Con- gress, 9 ; State Democratic. Alabama Claims, a series of claims made in 1871, by the United States against the English Govern- ment for damages done to shipping during the Civil War, after a formal discussion between the two govern- ments in 1865, and fruitless conven- tions for their settlement in 1868 and 1869. These damages were inflicted chiefly by the "Alabama," an armed vessel of the Confederate States, which was fitted out in a British port and permitted to sail in violation of existing international law. A tribunal, created in 1871 to pass upon these claims, held its sessions in Geneva, Switzerland, during the year 1872, and awarded the Unted States the sum of $15,500,000 in gold, in satis- faction of all claims at issue. The Geneva tribunal was important as es- tablishing an example of arbitration in place of war in the settlement of international differences, which, in this case, barely averted a war, and in defining the attitude of neutrals toward nations at war. Alabama, The, a Confederate cruiser which devastated American shipping during the Civil War. She was a bark-rigged steamer of 1,040 tons, built under secret instructions at Birkehhead, England. Her desti- nation was suspected by the United States minister, but when orders for her detention were finally obtained, she had departed (July 31, 1862). She made for the Azores, where she was equipped and manned by an Eng- lish crew, under the command of Capt. Raphael Semmes, of Maryland. She then proceeded to capture and burn vessels bearing the American flag, and the destruction wrought in less than two years amounted to 65 vessels, and about $4,000,000 in property. . In June, 1864, she put into Cherbourg, France, for repairs. Here she was in- tercepted by the Federal corvette "Kearsarge," Captain Winslow, and, after an hour's severe battle, the Ala- bama was sunk. The vessel was vir- tually a British privateer, and the course of the British authorities in permitting her to leave on her mission of piracy showed connivance and sym- pathy with the Confederacy (see ALA- BAMA CLAIMS preceding). ^yhen the Alabama was sinking, a private British yacht, in rescuing survivors (including Captain Semmes), also saved them from capture by the Fed- eralists. Alabaster, in mineralogy, mas- sive gypsum, white, delicately shaded or banded. Aladdin, the hero of an Arabian Nights' tale. A poor boy in China, he secures possession of a lamp and ring possessing magical powers. Rubbing the lamp brings to the service of the owner the powers of the slave of the lamp, who gratifies every desire. The lamp is lost, but the slave of the ring enables Aladdin to recover it, and he Alamo lives happily ever afterwards, enjoying wealth and health. Alamo, The, a mission church at San Antonio, in what is now Bexar co., Tex., converted into a fort. In 1836 it was occupied by about 150 of the revolutionists in the Texan War of Independence. Though attacked by 4,000 Mexicans under Santa Ana, the Texans held it from Feb. 23 to March 6, when Santa Ana took it by storm. All but seven of the garrison perished, six of these being murdered after their surrender, and one man escaping to report the affair. In this garrison were the celebrated David Crockett and Col. James Bowie, inventor of the bowie-knife. The memory of this massacre became an incitement to the Texans in subse- quent encounters, and "Remember the Alamo !" became a war-cry in their struggle for freedom. Alaska, a Territory in the West- ern Division of the North American Union, comprising the extreme north- western part of the American conti- nent; bounded by the Arctic and Pacific Oceans, Bering Sea, British Columbia, and the Northwest Terri- tories of Canada ; gross area, as far as determined, 590,884 square miles ; purchased from Russia, in 1867, for $7,200,000; seat of government, Juneau; pop. (1915) 64,751. When the United States acquired this region, and till gold mining set in, fur sealing was the only industry. Oats, wheat, rye, barley, and buckwheat, among cereals ; pota- toes, turnips, peas, onions, and many minor vegetables ; a variety of fruit and excellent hay are grown to ad- vantage. Large tracts for farming have been reclaimed from wild areas, and agricultural experiment stations have been established at Sitka, Ram- part, Fairbanks, Kadiak, and Matan- aska. The waters of Alaska contain over 100 species of food fish, but the principal fisheries are those confined to salmon, cod and herring. In con- nection with the Alaska coast there are at least 125,000 square miles of cod fishing banks, the greater part of which still awaits develop- ment. Whales and halibut also Alaska abound, but as yet they do not sup- port distinct industries. Alaska's greatest wealth is found in its vast mineral resources, which are still subject to systematic exploitation. Lignite coal, native copper, cinnabar, graphite, iron ore, white marble, sul- phur, mica, kaolin, manganese, as- phalt, petroleum, and mineral springs are found in various sections. Until recently the quest of gold was the leading mineral industry, but this has been supplanted, largely through government promotion, by profitable operations in coal, copper, silver, pe- troleum, gypsum, marble, and tin. Gold was discovered here, on the Kenai peninsula, in 1848, but mining did not set in systematically till about 1880. It is interesting to note here that while the territory cost the United States in 1867 the sum of $7,200,000, the production of gold alone up to 1916 amounted in value to $260,488,175. And all minerals, with the output of fur sealing and the fisheries, brought the total to $612,- 614,004 a striking result of "Se- ward's folly." Means of communication greatly retarded the economic development of the territory. Now, the old trails and wagon roads are giving way to the modern railroad. In 1898 an aerial railway was completed over Chilkoot Pass, which greatly reduced the time between tidewater and the headwaters of the Yukon, and in 1914, after a prolonged agitation, Congress appro- priated $35.000,000 for the construc- tion of a government railroad. The territory is well provided with banking, educational, religious, and manufacturing activities, and has a considerable trade with the United States and foreign countries through the port of Juneau. During 1915 the exports of merchandise, precious metals, and copper had a value of $55,000,000. and the imports, $28,000,- 000. The World War greatly reduced these figures in 1916. When first occupied Alaska was constituted a military district; in 1884 it was given a district govern- ment ; and in 1912, a civil government with a legislature, consisting of a Senate of 15 members and a House of 30. It is represented in Congress by one delegate. Alaska-Yukon Alaska- Yukon-Pacific Exposi- tion, an international exhibition held at Seattle, Wash., from June 1 to Oct. 16, 1909, to exploit the re- sources of Alaska and Yukon terri- tories. Albani, Marie Emma (Lajeu- nesse), a dramatic soprano and opera Binger, born in 1852, at Chambly, near Montreal, Canada. After study- ing with Lamperti, at Milan, she made her debut at Messina (1870), in "La Sonnambula," under the name Albani, in compliment to the city of Albany, where her public career began. In 1878 she married Ernest Gye, of the Covent Garden Theater. Albania, the name given to a re- gion of West European Turkey be- tween the Adriatic Sea, Greece, Mace- donia, and Montenegro. The inhab- itants form a peculiar people, the Albanians, called by the Turks Ar- nauts, and by themselves Skipetar. The Albanians are half civilized mountaineers, frank to a friend, vindictive to an enemy. They are constantly under arms, and are more devoted to robbery than to cattle rearing and agriculture. They live in perpetual anarchy, every village being at war with its neighbor. Many of them serve as mercenaries in other countries, and they form the best soldiers of the Turkish army. At one time the Albanians were all Chris- tians ; but after the death of their last chief, the hero Skanderbeg, in 1467, and their subjugation by the Turks, a large part became Mohammedans. The Albanians took a conspicuous part in the massacres in Macedonia in 1903. In the early part of the World War Prince William of Wied became emperor, but was forced to retire by Essad Pasha. The Italians occupied Avlona, Dec. 25, 1914, and Allied warships scattered an Austrian squadron bombarding Durazzo, Dec. 29, 1915. See APPENDIX: World War. Albany, a city of the United States, capital of the State of New York, with a population (1910) of 100,253. Settled by the Dutch in 1610- 14. The State capitol is one of the grandest buildings in America. Al- bany has a university, an observatory, Albert and a State Library with over 90,000 volumes. Albany Congress, an assembly of representatives of the most important British North American colonies, which was called together in 1754 by the British Government to consult in regard to the threatening French war. Two plans were proposed : First, a league with the Indians, which was carried out, and, second, a proposal offered by Franklin for a political union. In this a common president was proposed and a great council, rep- resenting the different colonies. This plan was rejected by the British crown, because it gave too much power to the colonies, and by the colonies because it gave top much power to the crown. The significance of this con- gress lies in the fact that it stimulated the union of the colonies. Albert I., King of the Belgians, was born April 8, 1875, son of Prince Philippe of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha and Princess Marie of Hohenzollern- Sigmaringen ; succeeded his uncle, King Leopold II., on Dec. 17, 1909 ; married Princess Elizabeth of Bavaria, Oct. 2, 1900; offspring, Prince Leopold, born Nov. 3, 1901, Prince Charles, born Oct. 10, 1903, Princess Marie-Jose', born Aug. 4, 1906. At the outbreak of the World War (1914), the Germans violated the guaranteed neutrality of Belgium by invading it in order to get into France for a dash on Paris. A reign of terror was immediately inaug- urated, and*the King and government were forced into flight. ^ France promptly offered protection and asylum, resulting in the temporary establishment of the capital at Havre. See APPENDIX: World War. Albert, Prince (Albert Francis Augustus Charles Emmanuel), Prince of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, hus- band of the late Queen Victoria, of England ; the second son of Er- nest I., Duke of Saxe-Coburg, and of his first wife Louise, only daughter of the Duke of Saxe- Gotha ; born Aug. 26, 1819. He died Dec. 14, 1861, after a short illness, and was buried in St. George's Chapel, Windsor, whence his remains were afterward removed to the mausoleum built by the queen at Frogmore. Alberta Alberta, a N. W. Province of Can- ada (the former Territory of Alberta with parts of Athabaska and Assini- boia, organized 1881), admitted to the Federation, Sept. 1, 1905. It lies N. of the State of Montana and E. of British Columbia, with the Rocky Mountains on the W. Area, 255,285 square miles; pop. (1911) 374,663. From the peaks 11,000 to 13,000 ft. high, with abundant forests, coal and other minerals in the foothills, the land slopes N., E., and S., to well- watered rolling prairies, containing the great cattle ranges of Canada, of which the chief centres are McLeod and Calgary, the capital. Sheep are raised in the south and cattle and horses in the north. Around the grow- ing towns of Lethbridge and Raymond, Mormons from Utah and Idaho, with irrigation works, have placed large tracts under wheat and beet cultiva- tion, and facilitated by neighboring coal fields work flour and sugar mills, exporting the products. The Cana- dian Pacific R. R. Co. is placing 1,500,- 000 acres of land under irrigation be- tween Calgary and Medicine Hat, and is offering advantageous inducements for practical farmers to settle in the province. The revenue of the Province in 1915 was $5.628,763; expenditure, $5,402.195 ; and the public debt (1913) was $22,733,533. Taxation is almost wholly confined to land values. Albertus Magnus, or Albert the Great, Count of Bollstadt, Bish- op of Ratisbon, a distinguished scholar of the 13th century ; born in Lauin- gen, Suabia, in 1193, or according to some authorities in 1205. Among the sciences studied or illustrated by him were chemistry, botany, mechanics, optics, geometry, and astronomy. He fell into dotage some time previous to his death, in 1280. Albertus was probably the most learned man of his age, and of course did not escape the imputation of using magical arts and trafficking with the Evil One. Albigenses, a religious sect op- posed to the Church of Rome, coming first into prominence in the 12th cen- tury, and taking its name from Albiga, the old form of Albi, a city of South- ern France, now capital of the de- partment of Tarn. What their doc- trines were has not been determined, as no formal statement of them was Albret ever drawn up. They inveighed against the vices and worldliness of the clergy, and there was sufficient truth in their censures to dispose their hearers to be- lieve what they advanced, and reject what they decried. They had increased very much toward the close of the 12th century in the S. of France, about Toulouse and Albi, and in Ray- mond, Count of Toulouse, they found a patron and protector. As the con- demnation of their doctrines by the Church produced no effect, ecclesias- tical officials were specially sent by the Pope to endeavor to extirpate the heresy. The assassination of the papal legate and inquisitor, Peter of Castelnau, in 1208, led to the procla- mation of a crusade against them by Pope Innocent III., and after a strug- gle of many years, in which hundreds of thousands perished, they were vir- tually extirpated by the sword and the Inquisition. Albinos, the name given to those persons from whose skin, hair, and eyes the dark coloring matter is ab- sent. The skin of albinos, therefore, no matter to what race they belong, is of a pale milky hue, their hair is white, while the iris of their eyes is pale rose color. Their eyes are not well suited to endure the bright light of day, and they see best in shade or by moonlight. The peculiarity of al- binism or leucopathy is not confined to the human race, having been observed in horses, rabbits, rats, birds, and fishes. Albion, the oldest name by which the island of Great Britain was known to the Greeks and Romans. Alboni, Marietta, an Italian contralto, born in Romagna, 1823. She made her debut as Orsini in " Lu- crezia Borgia." After singing in Eu- rope for some years, she made a suc- cessful tour of the United States. On the death of her husband, Count Pe- poli, in 1866, she left the stage, and in 1877 she married M. Ziegir, a French officer. She died in France in 1894. Albret, Jeanne d', daughter of Margaret, Queen of Navarre, born in 1528. She married Antoine de Bour- bon in 1548; gave birth in 1553 to a son, who was afterward Henry IV. of France; and on the death of her father, in 1555, became Queen of Na- Albright varre. She lost her husband in 1562, and eagerly began to establish the Reformation in her kingdom. Being invited to the French court to assist at the nuptials of her son with Mar- garet of Valois, she suddenly expired, not without suspicion of having been poisoned. Died in 1572. Albright, Jacob, an American minister of the Methodist Church, born in 1759. His work lay among the Germans of Pennsylvania. Be- coming impressed with the decline of religious life and of the doctrines and morals of the surrounding churches, he began a work of reform in 1790. He traveled about the country at his own expense, preaching his mission, until he founded in 1800 the EVAN- GELICAL ASSOCIATION. He died in 1808. Albnera, a village of Spain, in the province of Badajoz, on the Albuera river; 13 miles S. E. of Badajoz. Here (May 16, 1811) a British and Portuguese army of 32,500, under General Beresford, defeated in a san- guinary battle a French army of 23,- 000 under Marshal Soult, the total loss being 16,000, about equally di- vided. Albumen, or Albumin. In chem- istry, the name of a class of albumin- oids that are soluble in water, as serum and egg albumen. Albuminuria, a disease character- ized by the presence of albumen in the urine. It may be acute or chronic. Acute albuminuria is a form of in- flammation of the kidneys. Chronic albuminuria, the commoner and more formidable malady, arises from grave constitutional disorders. It is often attended by cf produces .dropsy. Whether acute or chronic, but espe- cially when the latter, it is generally called Bright's disease, after Dr. Bright, who first described it with ac- curacy. Albuquerque, Alfonso d% " the Great," Viceroy of the Indies, was born in 1453, near Lisbon. Albuquer- 3ue landed on the Malabar coast in 503, with a fleet and some troops ; conquered Goa, which he made the seat of the Portuguese Government, and the center of its Asiatic com- merce; and afterward Ceylon, the Sunda Isles, the Peninsula of Malacca, Alcohol and (in 1515) the Island of Or muz at the entrance of the Persian Gulf. He died at sea near Goa, Dec. 16, 1515. Alcseus, a Greek lyric poet ; native of Mitylene ; flourished in the 6th cen- tury B. c. Of his poems we have only fragments. Alcala de Henares, a town in Spain, Cervantes' birthplace, on the Henares, 21 miles E. of Madrid by rail. Here was printed in 1517, in six folio volumes, at an expense of 80,000 ducats, the great Compluten- sian Bible. Alcazar, the name of many castles and palaces in Spain. Ciudad-Ro- drigo, Cordova, Segovia, Toledo and ALCAZAR IN SEGOVIA. Seville _ have alcazars. The one at Seville is an imposing relic of the Arab dominion. Alcibiades, a famous Grecian statesman and warrior, son of Clinias and Deinomache, born in Athens about 450 B. c. After a brilliant and erratic career, distinguished equally by great achievements and lack of moral prin- ciple he was assassinated in 404. Alcohol, a colorless, inflammable liquid, of agreeable odor, and burning taste, termed also spirit of wine, and ethylic or vinic alcohol. Alcohol Aldrich Alcohol, Denatured, alcohol for use in the industries, in which medi- : cinal properties have been destroyed; authorized by Congress in 1905. Alcott, Amos Bronson, an American philosophical writer and educator, one of the founders of the transcendental school of philosophy in New England, born in Wolcott, Conn., Nov. 29, 1799. He died in Boston, March 4, 1888. Alcott, Louisa May, an Ameri- can author, daughter of the preced- ing, born in Germantown, Pa., Nov. 29, 1832. She died in Boston, Mass., March 6, 1888. Few writers are more popular with children than Miss Alcott Alcnin, an English ecclesiastic, born at York in 735. He died in 804. He made with his own hand a copy of the Scriptures, which he pre- sented to Charlemagne, and which be- came of great assistance to later ed- itors. Alden, Henry Mills, an Ameri- can editor and prose writer, born at Mount Tabor, Vt., Nov. 11, 1836. He was graduated at Williams College and Andover Theological Seminary ; settled in New York in 1861, became managing editor of " Harper's Weekly " in 1864, and editor of "Har- per's Monthly Magazine " in 1868. He has published " The Ancient Lady of Sorrow," a poem ; " God in His World " ; etc. Alden, John, a magistrate of the Plymouth colony, born in 1599. His name is familiarized by the poem of Longfellow, " The Courtship of Miles Standish." He was originally a ! cooper of Southampton, was employed ' in making repairs on the ship " May- flower," and came over in her with the Pilgrim Fathers. By some ac- counts he was the first to step ashore ', at Plymouth. In Longfellow's poem he is in love with and eventually mar- ries Priscilla, with whom he had previ- ously pleaded the cause of Miles Standish. He was for over 50 years a colonial magistrate. He died in 1687. Alden, "William Livingston, an American humorous writer and jour- nalist, born at Williamstown, Mass., Oct. 9, 1837. He was for a time at United States Consul-General Rome. He died Jan. 14, 1908. Alder, the common name for a genus of plants (alnus), of the oak family. In the Eastern United States it is a very common shrub, branching freely from the roots, and forming dense clumps along the banks of streams and in other wet places. On the W. coast it often attains a height of from 40 to 60 feet in favorable loca- tions. It is found in temperate and cold regions. Alderman, a title pertaining to an office in the municipal corporations of the United States and England. Alderman, Edwin Anderson, an American educator, born in Wilming- ton, N. C., May 15, 1861. In 1896 he was chosen President of the Univer- sity of North Carolina; in 1900, of Tulane University (New Orleans); in 1904, of the University of Virginia. Alderney, a British island in the English channel. Aldershot Camp, a permanent camp of exercise on the confines of Hampshire, Surrey, and Berkshire, 35 miles S. W. of London. Aldine Editions, the books print- ed by Aldus Manutius and his family, in Venice (149071597). They com- prise the first editions of Greek and Roman classics ; others contain cor- rected texts of modern classic writers, carefully collated with the MSS. Aldrich, Nelson Wilmarth, United States senator from Rhode Is- land, recognized as the leading Ameri- can authority on the protective tariff, and generally understood to be the real author of the McKinley Law as adopted. Born, Foster, R. I., No- vember 6, 1841. President Providence Common Council, 1871-73; Speaker R. I. General Assembly, 1876 ; in Con- gress 1879 to 1883, when he resigned to take seat in Senate. He died April 16, 1915. Aldrich, Thomas Bailey, an American poet, essayist, and writer of fiction, born in Portsmouth, N. H., Nov. 11, 1836. He spent his early youth in Louisiana, but at the age of 17 entered a mercantile house in New York. Removing to Boston in 1866, he became editor of "Every Satur- day," and, in 1881, editor of the "At- Ale lantic Monthly." He became equally eminent as a prose writer and poet. He died March 19, 1907. Ale, a malt liquor, stronger than ordinary beer. It was the current name in England for malt liquor in general before the introduction of "the wicked weed called hops " from the Netherlands, about the year 1524. The two names, ale and beer, are both Teutonic, and seem originally to have been synonymous. Alemanni, or Alamanni, a con- federacy of several German tribes which, at the commencement of the 3d century after Christ, lived near the Roman territory, and came then and subsequently into conflict with the imperial troops. It is from the Ale- manni that the French have derived their names for Germans and Ger- many in general, namely, Allemands and Allemagne, though strictly speak- ing only the modern Suabians and Northern Swiss are the proper de- scendants of that ancient race. Alembert, Jean le Bond d', one of the most distinguished mathema- ticians and literary characters of the 18th century ; born in Paris, Nov. 16, 1717. He died Oct. 29, 1783. Alembic, a simple apparatus some- times used by chemists for distillation. Aleppo, a city of Turkey in Asia, in Northern Syria, and capital of the vilayet of Aleppo ; on the Koeik river, ' 71 miles E. of the Mediterranean. The foundation of Aleppo dates back to about 2,000 years B. C. It was nearly destroyed by an earthquake in 1822, when it lost two-thirds of its 250,000 inhabitants. The present in- habitants are Turks, Greeks, Arme- nians, and Jews. Pop. about 127,000. Aleutian Islands, or Catherine Archipelago, a group of about 150 islands, extending W. from Alaska pen- insula for a distance of 1,650 miles ; belongs to Alaska Territory. The is- lands are mountainous, with several volcanic peaks. The principal islands are Umnak and Unalaska. The in- habitants are nearly all Aleuts, a peo- ple allied to the Eskimos. These is- lands were discovered by Bering in 1728. Pop. about 3,000. Alewife, a North American fish, belonging to the same family as the herring and the shad. Alexander Alexander VI., Pope, Rodrigo Len- zuoli Borgia, a Spaniard, of Valencia, son of Isabelle Borgia, whose family name be took, born Jan. 1, 1431. At first he studied law, and then was ap- pointed by his uncle, Pope Calixtus III., a cardinal before he was 25 years old. In 1458 he was made Archbishop of Valencia. After the death of Innocent VIII. he was crowned Aug. 26, 1492, with great pomp and solemnity. To his son John, Duke of Gandia, he pre- sented the duchy of Benevento, in 1487, which was separated from the estates of the Church. His daughter, Lucretia Borgia, was married to Gio- vanni Sforza, Lord of Pesarp, after- ward to Alfonso di Biseglia, then thirdly to Alfonso d'Este, Prince of Ferrara. His son, Caesar, who after- ward got complete control of him, was made Archbishop of Valencia, and, in 1493, was appointed cardinal. After- ward, in order to create for him a secular principality, he made an alli- ance with Louis XII. of France. Caesar Borgia, therefore, left the Church and became Duke of Valen- tinois. In 1501 he became Duke of the Romagna. On May 4, 1493, Alex- ander issued a bull dividing the New World between Spain and Portugal ; on May 23, 1498, the execution of Sa- vonarola took place by his order ; and in 1501 he instituted the censorship of books. Alexander died Aug. 18, 1503, from poison said to have been intended for Cardinal Corneto. Alexander I., Emperor of Russia, son of Paul I. and Maria, daughter of Prince Eugene, of Wurtemberg; born Dec. 23, 1777. On the assassination of his father, March 24, 1801, Alex- ander ascended the throne. One of the first acts of his reign was to con- clude peace with Great Britain, against which his predecessor had de- clared war. In 1803 he offered his services as mediator between England and France, and two years later a convention was entered into between Russia, England, Austria, and Sweden for the purpose of resisting the en- croachments of France on the terri- tories of independent States. He was present at the battle of Austerlitz (Dec. 2, 1805), when the combined armies of Russia and Austria were de- feated by Napoleon. Alexander was compelled to retreat to his dominions Alexander at the head of the remains of his army. In the succeeding campaign the Russians were again beaten at Eylau (Feb. 8, 1807), and Friedland (June 14), the result of which was an interview, a few days after the battle, on a raft anchored in the Nie- men, between Alexander and Napo- leon, which led to the treaty signed at Tilsit, July 7. The Russian emperor now for a time identified himself with the Napoleonic schemes. The seizure of the Danish fleet by the British brought about a declaration of war by Russia against Great Britain and Sweden, and Alexander invaded Fin- land and conquered that long-coveted duchy, which was secured to him by the peace of Friedrichshamn (1809). His having separated himself from Napoleon led to the French invasion of 1812. In 1813 he published the fa- mous manifesto which served as the basis of the coalition of the other Eu- ropean powers against France. After the battle of Waterloo, Alexander, ac- companied by the Emperor of Austria and the King of Prussia, made his sec- ond entrance into Paris. He died in the Crimea, Dec. 1, 1825. Alexander II., Emperor of Rus- sia ; born April 29, 1818 ; succeeded his father Nicholas in 1855, before the end of the Crimean War. After peace was concluded the new emperor set about effecting reforms in the em- pire, among the first being the putting of the finances in order. The greatest of all the reforms carried out by him was the emancipation of the serfs by a decree of March 2, 1861. The czar also did much to improve education in the empire, and introduced a reorgan- ization of the judicial system. During his reign the Russian dominions in Central Asia were considerably ex- tended, while to the European portion of the monarchy was added a piece of territory, S. of the Caucasus, formerly belonging to Turkey in Asia. A part of Bessarabia, belonging since the Cri- mean War to Turkey in Europe, but previously to Russia, was also restored to the latter power. The latter addi- tions resulted from the Russo-Turkish War of 1877-1878, in which the Turks were completely defeated, the Russian troops advancing almost to the gates of Constantinople. Toward the end of the czar's life several attempts at Alexander his assassination were made by Ni- hilists, and at last he was killed by an explosive missile Sung at him in a street in St Petersburg, March 13, 1881. He was succeeded by his son, Alexander III Alexander HI., of Russia, son of Alexander II., was born Maich 10, 1845, and married the daughter of the King of Denmark in 1866. After his father's death, through fear of assas- sination, he shut himself up in his palace at Gatschina. His coronation was postponed till 1883, and was cele- brated with extraordinary magnifi- cence, and with national festivities lasting several days. Through the fall of Mery, the subjugation of the Turk- omans in Central Asia was completed. In 1885 hostilities with England with regard to the defining of the frontier between the Russian territories and Afghanistan, for a time seemed immi- nent. In European affairs he broke away from the triple alliance between Russia, Germany, and Austria, and looked rather to France. He was ag- grieved by the new Bulgarian spirit. His home policy was reactionary, though strong efforts were made to prevent malversation by officials, and stern economics were practiced. The liberties of the Baltic Provinces and of Finland were curtailed, the Jews were oppressed, and old Russian or- thodoxy was favored. Several Ni- hilist attempts were made on his life, and he kept himself practically a pris- oner in his palace. He died at Li- vadia, Nov. 1, 1894. Alexander III., King of Scot- land, born in -1241, in 1249 succeeded his father, Alexander II. Riding on a dark night between Burntisland and Kinghorn, he fell with his horse and was killed on the spot, March 12, 1286. A monument (1887) marks the scene of his death. His death led to the at- tempt of Edward I. of England to destroy the liberties of Scotland, which resulted in the crushing defeat of the English under Edward II. at Ban- nockburn. Alexander I., King of Servia, born Aug. 14, 1876 ; son of King Milan I. In 1889 Milan abdicated and pro- claimed Alexander king, under a re- gency till he should attain his ma- jority (18 years). On April 13, 1893, when in his 17th year, Alexander sud- Alexander Alexander the Great denly took the royal authority into his own bands, and summarily dismissed the regent. On Aug. 5, 1900, he mar- ried Mme. Draga Maschin. He was the fifth of his dynasty, which was founded by Milos Todorovic Obrenovic in 1829. On the night of June 10, 1903, the military at Belgrade re- volted, soldiers surrounded the palace, and the leaders broke into the royal apartments and murdered King Alex- ander and Queen Draga, and also two brothers of the Queen and members of the Cabinet. This extinguished the Obrenovitch dynasty, except as repre- sented by a natural son of former King Milan, whom the latter had acknowl- edged and made legitimate. Alexander, Archibald, an Amer- ican clergyman, of Scottish de- scent, was born in Virginia, April 17, 1772, and died at Princeton, N. J., Oct. 22, 1851. He studied theology, and performed itinerant missionary work in various parts of Virginia ; be- came president of Hampton-Sidney College in 1796, and pastor of a Pres- byterian church in Philadelphia in 1807. On the establishment of Prince- ton Theological Seminary in 1812, he was appointed its first professor, a position which he held till his death. His eldest son. JAMES WADDELL ALEX- ANDER (1804-1850), was a Presbyte- rian minister in Virginia, New Jer- sey, and at New York ; and afterward professor in Princeton Theological Seminary. He contributed to the " Princeton Review," wrote more than 30 children's books, a life of his father, and miscellaneous works. JOSEPH ADDISON ALEXANDER, third son (1809- 1860), graduated at Princeton in 1826, lectured there on Biblical Criti- cism and Ecclesiastical History, and for the last eight years of his life filled the chair of Biblical and Ecclesiastical History. He was engaged at the time of his death, along with Dr. Hodge, on a commentary of the New Testament. He is best known by his commentaries and "Prophecies of Isaiah" (1846- 1847; revised edition, 1864), and the " Psalms Translated and Explained " (3 volumes, 1850) , both of which have had a large circulation, and have been reprinted in England. Alexander Archipelago, or Al- exander Islands, a group of islands on the W. coast of North America, extending from 54 40> N. to 58 25' N. ; belong to Alaska Territory. Alexander Jarostowitz Nevski, St., Grand Duke of Vladimir and Prince of Novgorod, born in 1219; a Russian national hero and patron saint of St Petersburg, where Peter the Great founded in his honor the magnificent monastery and the reli- gious order that bear his name. He died in 1263. Alexander, John White, Ameri- can portrait painter, born in Pitts- burg, Pa., Oct. 7, 1856 ; studied at Mu- nich, Paris, and in Italy ; became a societaire of the Beaux Arts in Paris ; was appointed one of the American jurors on paintings for the Paris Ex- position in 1900. Died June 1, 1915. Alexander of Hales, a noted English philosopher and theologian, born at Hales, Gloucestershire. He died in Paris, 1245. Alexander Severus, (in full, MARCUS AURELIUS ALEXANDER SEV- ERUS) , a Roman emperor ; born in Ace (the modern Acre), Phoenicia, in A. D. 205. Alexander was favorable to Christianity, following the predilec- tions of his mother, Julia Mammaea, and he is said to have placed the statue of Jesus Christ in his private temple, in company with those of Or- pheus and Apollonius of Tyana. He was murdered A. D. 235. Alexander the Great, the 3d King of Macedon bearing the name which he made so famous : born in Pella, 356 B. c. Alexander first appeared on the stage of universal history in 339 B. c. At the age of 16 the regency of Greece was intrusted to him by Philip when he set out on an expedition against Byzantium ; and in that capacity it fell to his lot to lead his first army against an Illyrian rising, to found his first Alexandria in the upper valley of the Strymon, and to receive a depu- tation of envoys from the King of Per- sia. In the year after his appoint- ment to the regency Alexander showed eminent military capacity at the battle of Chaeronea (338), and, on the mur- der of Philip, ascended the throne in 336, before he had reached his 20th year. In tho autumn of 336 Alexander marched into Greece, and was con- Alexandria Alexandrian Library firmed iu the chief command against Persia by the Amphictyones at Ther- mopylae. In 335 he advanced to the Haemus range (the Balkans), and showed great ability in his campaign against the Thracians, crossing the Danube apparently out of mere bravado in the face of the enemy without losing a single man. He had no real friends among the Greek States. The Thebans, hearing a false report of his death, became overt ene- mies, proclaimed their independence, and slew some Macedonian officers. Alexander appeared in Boeotia with amazing dispatch, and took Thebes by storm on the third day of the siege. Leaving Antipater to govern in Eu- rope, he crossed over into Asia in the spring of 334 with 30,000 foot and 5,000 horse. The Persian empire, the conquest of which he undertook, was at least 50 times as large as his own and numbered about 20 times as many inhabitants. It extended from the Hellespont to the Punjab, from Lake Aral to the cataracts of the Nile. But it was a vast congeries of subject prov- inces having no internal bond, and no principle of cohesion but the will of the king. Alexander entirely subdued Persia, and formed the idea of con- quering India. He passed the In- dus in 327, and made an alliance with Taxiles, under whose guidance he reached the Hydaspes (modern Jhelum). Here, after a severe strug- gle, and unsatisfactory victory, he built a fleet, in which he /sent part of his army down the river, while the rest proceeded along the banks. In 323 Alexander arrived at Baby- lon, where he found numberless envoys from nations near and far, come to pay their homage to the young con- queror. He was engaged in very ex- tensive plans for the future, including the conquest of Arabia and the reor- ganization of the army, when he fell ill of a fever. He died in 323, after a reign of 12 years and eight months. The day before a rumor had gone abroad that the great general was dead, and that his friends were con- cealing the truth. The dying king caused his army to defile past his bed, and feebly waved them a last farewell. Alexandria, a city of Egypt, founded by Alexander the Great in 331 B. c. The situation of the city, E. 5. at the point of junction between the East and West, rendered it the center of the commerce of the world, and raised it to the highest degree of pros- perity. In the Middle Ages it suf- fered reverses, and gradually declined, and when, in 1517, the Turks took the place, the remains of its for- mer splendor wholly vanished, walls and buildings being reduced to ruins. It is now again one of the most impor- tant commercial places on the Medi- terranean. Recent improvements, to cost $10,000,000, are expected to make the western harbor one of the best on the Mediterranean. Of the few remaining objects of an- tiquity the most prominent is Pom- pey's Pillar, as it is erroneously called. Of the so-called Cleopatra's Needles two obelisks of the 16th century B. c., which long stood there one was taken to England and erected on the Thames Embankment in 1878; and the other was set up in Central Park, New York. Pop. 319,766. Alexandria, independent city and port of entry of Virginia; on the Po- tomac river and the Baltimore & Ohio and other railroads; 6 miles S. of Washington; has a good harbor, large shipments of grains, and con- siderable manufacturing interests; is the seat of the Virginia Theological Seminary (P. E.) and was the headquarters of General Braddock in 1775. Pop. (1910) 15,329. Alexandrian Codex, an impor- tant manuscript of the sacred Scrip- tures in Greek, now in the British Mu- seum. It is written on parchment, in finely formed uncial letters, and is without accents, marks of aspiration, or spaces between the words. Its probable date is the middle of the 5th century. Alexandrian Library, a remark- able collection of books, the largest of the ancient world, was founded by the first Ptolemy. Theodosius the Great permitted all the heathen temples in the Roman empire to be destroyed, the magnificent temple of Jupiter Serapis, containing the library, was not spared. A mob of fanatic Christians, led on by the Archbishop Theophilus, stormed and destroyed the temple, together, it is most likely, with the greater part of its literary treasures, in 391 A. D. It was at this time that the destrnc- Alexins Comnenns Alger tion of the Library was begun, and not at the taking of Alexandria by the Arabs, under the Caliph Omar, in 641, when its destruction was merely com- pleted. Alexius Comnenns, Byzantine Emperor, was born in 1048, and died in 1118. He was a nephew of Isaac the first emperor of the Comneni, and attained the throne in 1081, at a time when the empire was menaced from various sides, especially by the Turks, the Normans and the Crusaders. From these dangers he extricated himself by policy or warlike measures, and maintained his position during a reign of thirty-seven years. Alfalfa, a prolific forage plant belonging to the Legume family, large- ly grown in the United States, and in parts of Spanish America. Crops are gathered three or four times a season. Alfieri, Vittorio, Count, an Italian dramatist, born in 1749 ; died 1803. His style founded a new school in Italian drama. Alfonso X., surnamed " the As- tronomer," " the Philosopher," or "the Wise" (El Sabio), King of Leon and Castile, born in 1226 ; suc- ceeded his father, Ferdinand III., in 1252. Alfonso was the founder of a Castilian national literature. He died in 1284. Alfonso XII., King of Spain, the only son of Queen Isabella II. and her cousin, King Francis of Assisi, was born Nov. 28, 1857. He left Spain with his mother when she was driven from the throne by the revolution of 1868. His mother had given up her claims to the throne in 1870 in his favor, and in 1874 Alfonso came for- ward himself as claimant, and in the end of the year was proclaimed by Gen. Martinez Campos as king. Al- fonso was successful in bringing the Carlist struggle to an end (1876), and henceforth he reigned with little disturbance until his death in 1885. He married first his cousin Maria de las Mercedes, daughter of the Duke de Montpensier; second, Maria Chris- tina, Archduchess of Austria. Alfonso XIII., King of Spain, son of the late Alphonso XII. and Maria Christina, daughter of the late Karl Ferdinand, Arch-Duke of Austria, born pfter his father's death, May 17, 1886. as a male, becoming heir to the throne. During his minority his mother was made Queen Regent and directed his education with great care. He form- ally ascended the throne May 17, 1902. On May 31, 1906, he married the British Princess Victoria Ena of Bat- tenberg. The wedding festivities were marred by an attempt to assassinate the royal pair, several persons being killed by a bomb. In the early part of the World War he declared a policy of strict neutrality. Later a number of Spanish vessels were torpedoed and sunk by Teuton submarines. In 1917 parts of Spain were threatened with revolution. See APPENDIX: World War. Alfred the Great, King of Eng- land, and one of the most illustrious rulers on record ; born in Wantage, in Berkshire, 849 A. D. He defeated the Danes, who were allotted that portion of the E. of England which is now oc- cupied by the modern counties of Nor- folk, Suffolk, Cambridge, and Lincoln. Alfred occupied himself with great zeal in literary pursuits and in the advancement of learning. This illus- trious prince died, Oct 28, 901, in the 30th year of his reign. Algae, the general name for the sea-weeds and similar plants, mostly growing in salt and fresh water. Algebra, that department of math- ematics which enables one, by the aid of certain symbols, to generalize, and, therefore, to abbreviate, the methods of solving questions relating to num- bers. It is now regarded as the most extensive department of mathematics. Alger, Cyrus, an American in- ventor, born in West Bridgewater, Mass., Nov. 11, 1781. He learned the iron foundry business, and in 1809 es- tablished himself in South Boston, where he soon made himself widely known by the excellence of the ord- nance be manufactured. He supplied the United States Government with a large quantity of cannon-balls during the war of 1812; produced the first gun ever rifled in America, as well as the first perfect bronze cannon ; and supervised the casting of a mortar which was the largest gun of cast-iron that had then been made in the United States. Subsequently he made im- provements in the construction of time Alger fuses for bomb-shells and grenades ; patented a method of making cast-iron Chilled rolls ; and was the original de- signer of the cylinder stove. He died in Boston, Mass., Feb. 4, 1856. Alger, Horatio, an American writer of juvenile books, born at Re- vere, Mass., Jan. 13, 1834. He died in Natick, Mass., July 18, 1899. Alger, Russell Alexander, an American merchant, capitalist, and politician, born in Lafayette, O., Feb. 27, 1836. He served in the Civil War, rising from a captaincy to the rank of brevet Major-General of Volunteers. He acquired a large fortune in West- ern enterprises, particularly the lum- ber business. He was Governor of Michigan from 1885 to 1887 ; a candi- date for the Republican presidential nomination in 1888; Commander-in- Chief of the Grand Army of the Re- public 1889-90 : U. S. Secretary of War 1897-99; published "The Spanish- American War," 1901 ; became U. S. Senator for Michigan 1902; re-elected 1903; died suddenly Jan. 24, 1907. Alger, William Rounseville, an American Unitarian clergyman and writer, born at Freetown, Mass., Dec. 30, 1822. His chief works are " His- tory of the Doctrine of a Future Life" (1863) ; "Genius of Solitude" (1865) ; and " Friendships of Wom- en" (1867). He occupied pulpits in New York, Denver, Boston, and San Francisco. He died Feb. 7, 1905. Algeria, a French colony in the N. of Africa ; bounded on the N. by the Mediterranean, on the E. by Tunis, on the W. by Morocco, and on the S. by the desert of Sahara. The country now Algeria was for many years the seat of a piratical despotism, tribu- tary to the Sultan of Turkey, but virtually independent. After the Americans had gained independence the Algerians were encouraged by the British to prey on American com- merce, so that the United States might be prevented from rivalling Great Britain in the Mediterranean. American merchantmen were cap- tured by the Algerian pirates, and the crews were ransomed or enslaved. In November, 1795, the United States made a humiliating treaty agreeing to pay to the Dey of Algiers a tribute equal to $22,000 yearly for "protec- Algonkian tion " to American commerce. When the War of 1812 broke out the Dey of Algiers ignored the treaty, and at- tacked and plundered American ves- sels. Promptly upon the conclusion of peace with England the American government proceeded to take ven- geance on the Algerians, and a powerful squadron under Captains Decatur and Bainbridge was sent to the Mediterranean. The Algerians had a strong navy, and met the Amer- icans with a superior force in ves- sels and guns. The Mashouda, the Algerian flagship, was captured after a sanguinary struggle. The Dey in terror acceded to all American de- mands, agreed to forego tribute, and gave up the American captives, who kissed the American flag and wept for joy. In the following year, 1816. the British bombarded Algiers, and forced the Dey to agree to put a stop to piracy an agreement that was not kept. In 1827 the French began the work of conquering Algiers, and after a struggle of about thirty years they completely subdued the country, and made it a peaceful and flourishing colony of France. Algeria IB govern- ed by a governor-general, who is assist- ed by a council appointed by the French government. The settled por- tion of the country, in the three de- partments of Algiers, Constantine, and Oran, is treated much as if it were a part of France and each department sends two deputies and one senator to the French chambers. The rest of the territory is under military rule. Area of Algeria proper, 221,771 square miles; pop. (1911) 5,563,828, includ- ing 752,043 Europeans. Area of Al- gerian Sahara 141,563 square miles ; pop. 494,306. Principal cities, Al- giers (capital), pop. 172,397; Oran, 123,086; Constantine, 65,173; B6ne, 42,039; Philippeville, 27,137; and Mostaganem, 23,166. Algonkian, or Algonquin, an Indian linguistic stock, originally the most extensive in North America. The constant wars with the English, French, and Dutch colonists depleted their numbers. They degenerated into mere mercenaries, fighting on either side for revenge or gain. After the War of 1812, in which they took the side of the British, the United States Government resolved to send Alliainbra them as far W. as possible. After 1840, few of them remained E. of the Mississippi. In Canada, they were not removed from their homes, but were limited as to territory. War and disease have thinned their number, until only 37,000 remain in the United States, and 63,000 in Canada. The chief occupations of the Algon- k'ians were hunting, fishing and corn raising. In character they were brave, strong, and intelligent, but lacking in steadfastness. They were not so united as the Iroquois, owing to the multipli- city of their languages. Alhambra, the famous palace of the Moorish kings of Granada, situat- ed on a hill N. of the town of Gra- nada. In spite of its neglected condi- tion, the Alhambra is the most re- markable and most perfect specimen of Moorish art to be found in Europe. Alien and Sedition Acts, a series of enactments during the administra- tion of John Adams, the purpose of which was to restrain the activity of those who sympathized with France. The extreme partisan spirit of these acts caused a reaction, which was ex- pressed in the Kentucky and Virginia resolutions. Alimentary Canal, the alimen- tary tube ; the great tube or duct by which food is conveyed into the stom- ach, and from which the waste and undigested food is excreted. Alison, Sir Archibald, a Scot- tish historian and writer, born at Kenley, Shropshire, Dec. 29 1792. His mangum opus "The history of Europe from 1789 to 1815" was first issued hi 10 volumes in 1833-1842. He subsequently brought down the narra- tive to 1852, the date of the birth of the second French empire. Died 1867. Alizarine, a substance contained In the madder root, and largely used In dyeing reds of various shades. Form- erly madder root was largely employ- ed as a dye-stuff, but the use of the root has been almost superseded by the employment of alizarine, prepared arti- ficially from one of the constituents of coaMar. It forms yellowish-red pris- matic crystals, nearly insoluble in cold, ; but dissolved to a small extent by boil- ing water, and readily soluble in alco- hol and ether. It possesses exceeding- ly strong tinctorial powers. Allegheny Alkali, a strong base, capable of neutralizing acids, so that the salts formed are either completely neutral, or, if the acid is weak, give alkaline reactions. It was formerly restricted to the hydrates of potassium, sodium, lithium and ammonium, but now in- cludes the hydrates of alkaline earths (baryta, strontia and lime) and many organic substances. Alkalies are more or less soluble in water. Caustic pot- ash is used in surgery as a cautery. Alkaloid, a term applied to a class of nitrogenized compounds having cer- tain alkaline properties, found in liv- ing plants, and containing their active principles, usually in combination with organic acids. Their alkaline quali- ties depend upon the nitrogen they contain. Their names generally end in ine, as morphine, quinine, acon- itine, caffeine, &c. Most alkaloids oc- cur in plants, but some are formed by decomposition. The only property com- mon to all alkaloids is that of combin- ing with acids to form salts, and some exhibit an alkaline reaction with col- ors. Alkaloids form what is termed the organic bases of plants. Although formed originally within the plant, it has been found possible to prepare several of these alkaloids by purely artificial means. Allah, compounded of the article al and ilah i. e., "the god," a word cognate with the Hebrew Eloah), the Arabic name of the supreme god among the heathen Arabs, adopted by Mo- hammed for the one true God. See MOHAMMED and MOHAMMEDANISM. Alleghanies, a word used as syn- onymous with the APPALACHIAN MOUNTAINS (q. v.), sometimes ap- plied only to that portion of the sys- tem which extends from Pennsylvania to North Carolina, and which forms the watershed between the Atlantic and the Mississippi. Allegheny, a former city in Alle- gheny co., Pa.; at the confluence of the Allegheny and Monongahela riv- ers, which here form the Ohio; and on several railroads; opposite the city of Pittsburg, the county-seat. Allegheny was laid out as a town in 1788: created a borough in 1828, and consolidated with Pittsburg in 1907. Pop. (1890) 105,287; (1900) 129,- 896. gee PITTSBUBG. Allegheny River All-Hallows' Ere Allegheny River, a river of Penn- sylvania and New York ; a headstream of the Ohio. Its length is about 400 miles, and it is navigable for about 150 miles above Pittsburg. Allen, Charles Grant Blairfin- die, generally known as Grant Allen, an English author, born 1848, died 1899. His best known and most pop- ular works are on scientific subjects, although he also wrote many novels. Allen, Charles Herbert, an American diplomatist, born in Lowell, Mass., April 15, 1848; was graduated at Amherst College in 1869 ; became associated with his father in the lum- ber business in Lowell ; served in both branches of the State Legislature, and in Congress in 1885-1889 ; was defeat- ed as the Republican candidate for governor of Massachusetts in 1891 ; and succeeded Theodore Roosevelt as Assistant Secretary of the Navy, in May, 1898. On the passage by Con- gress of the Porto Rico Tariff and Civil Government bill, in April, 1900, the President appointed him the first civil governor of Porto Rico, an office which he resigned in July, 1901. Allen, Edward P., an American Roman Catholic clergyman, born in Lowell, Mass., March 17, 1853 ; now fifth Bishop of Mobile, Ala. Allen, Elizabeth Akers, an American poet, born (ELIZABETH CHASE) at Strong, Me., Oct. 9, 1832. She was married in 1860 to Paul Akers, the sculptor, who died in 1861, and in 1865 to E. M. Allen, of New York. Allen, Ethan, an American Revo- lutionary hero, born at Litchfield, Conn., Jan. 10, 1737. His services in the War of Independence, as Colonel of the " Green Mountain Boys," cap- turing Fort Ticonderoga " in the name of the Great Jehovah and the Conti- nental Congress," his attack on Mon- treal, sufferings as a prisoner in Eng- land, skillful diplomacy in behalf of Vermont, etc., are well known. He died near Burlington, Vt., Feb. 12, Allen, James Lane, an Amer- ican novelist, born near Lexington, Ky., in 1850. His fame rests mainly upon his powerful and popular novels of manners and people in the " blue jfrass " region and elsewhere. Allen, Joel Asaph, an American mammalogist, born in Springfield, Mass., July 19, 1838. He went with Agassiz on his expedition to Brazil in 1865 ; became assistant in ornithology at the Cambridge Museum of Compar- ative Zoology in 1870, and was ap- pointed curator of the department of vertebrate zoology in the American Museum of Natural History, New York, in 1885. Allen, Joseph Henry, an Amer- ican Unitarian minister, educator, his- torian, and essayist, born at North- borp, Mass., Aug. 21, 1821. He was senior editor of the " History of Uni- tarianism." He died in 1898. Allen, Thomas, an American landscape and animal painter, born at St. Louis, Mo., Oct. 19, 1849. After an education in St. Louis, he grad- uated from the Royal Academy at Dusseldorf, Germany. He studied in France ; exhibited his first picture at the Academy of Design in New York, and at the salons at Paris ; became vice-president of the Boston Art Stu- dents' Association ; member of the committee of the School of Drawing and Painting of the Boston Museum of Fine Arts. Allen, William, an American preacher and miscellaneous writer, born at Pittsfield, Mass., Jan. 2, 1784 ; died at Northampton, Mass., July 16, 1868. Allen, William Henry, an Amer- ican naval officer, born at Providence, R. I., in 1784. He entered the navy in 1800, and was in some of the great- est naval battles in Amei lean history. He died Aug. 15, 1813, from a wound received the previous day in a naval fight, and was buried in England. Allentown, city and capital of Lehigh county, Pa.; on the Lehigh river and canal and several rail- roads; 60 miles N. W. of Philadel- phia. It has large manufacturing in- terests, including iron, silk, hardware, furniture, shoes, wire, .hosiery, and thread; is the seat of Muhlenberg College (Luth.) and Allentown Col- lege for Women (Ref.); and has a property valuation exceeding $35,- 000,000. Pop. (1910) 51,916. All-Hallows' Eve, the 31st of Oc- tober, the evening before All-Hallows (commonly known as Hallow E'en). Alliance Alliance, a city in Stark county, O., on the Mahoning river and the Pennsylvania Co.'s railroad; 57 miles S. B. of Cleveland; has large rolling mills, steel-casting and boiler works, and manufactories of gun-carriages, steam hammers, and electric cranes; seat of Mt. Union College (M. E.). Pop. (1910) 15,083. Allibone, Samuel Austin, an American bibliographer, born at Philadelphia, April 17, 1816. He was at one time librarian of the Lenox Library, New York. He died at Lucerne, Switzerland, Sept. 2, 1889. Allison, William Boyd, an American legislator, born in Perry, O., March 2, 1829; was brought up on a farm ; and subsequently educated at Allegheny College, Pa., and Western Reserve College, O. He practiced law in his native State till 1857, when he removed to Dubuque, la. In the early part of the Civil War he served on the governor's staff, and was actively engaged in raising troops for the Union army. In 1863-1871 he was a representative in Congress ; and on March 4, 1873, entered the United States Senate as a Republican, to which he was re-elected in 1878, 1884, 1890, and 1896. He was a delegate to the Republican National Convention in Chicago, in 1860 ; and several times has been a conspicuous candidate for the presidential nomination of his party. He died Aug. 8, 1908. Allopathy, a system of medicine the object of which is to produce in the bodily frame another condition of things than that in or from which the disease has originated. Allopathy is opposed to homeopathy, which aims at curing diseases by producing in antagonism to them symptoms similar to those which they produce. Up-to- date doctors practise what they believe to be good in both systems, and the distinction is now largely nominal. Alloy, a compound or mixture of two or more metals. All-Saints' Bay, in the State of Bahia, on the coast of Brazil, forms a superb natural harbor, in which the navies of the whole world might ride at anchor. Its length from N. to S. is 37 miles ; its breadth from E. to W., 27. The town of Bahia lies just with- in it. Almagro All-Saints' Day, a festival insti- tuted by Pope Boniface IV., early in the 7th century, on the occasion of his transforming the Roman heathen Pantheon into a Christian temple or church, and consecrating it to the Vir- gin Mary and all the martyrs. Allspice, a kind of pepper, consist- ing of the dried berries of pimenta officinalis, a tree belonging to the or- der myrtaceae (myrtle blooms). It is imported almost entirely from Ja- maica, and is hence called Jamaica pepper. Allston, Washington, an emi- nent American painter, poet, and ro- mancer, born at Waccamaw, S. C., Nov. 5, 1779 ; graduated at Harvard in 1800; studied at the Royal Acad- emy, London, and . in Rome, and re- turned to Boston in 1809. He died in Cambridge, Mass., July 9, 1843. Alma, a river in the Crimea, Rus- sia, flowing westward into the Bay of Kalamita, about half way between Eu- patoria and Sebastopol. On the steep banks of the stream, through the chan- nel of which the British troops waded amid a shower of bullets, a brilliant victory was won on Sept. 20, 1854, by the allied armies of England and France, under Lord Raglan and Mar- shal St. Arnaud, over the Russian army commanded by Prince Menschi- koff. It was the first battle of the Crimean War. Almaden, a town in Spain, 50 miles S. W. of Ciudad Real, situated in the chain of the Sierra Morena. It is famous for its 12 rich quicksilver mines, employing about 4,000 miners, and yielding an annual output of 2,- 500,000 pounds. Almagro, Diego d', a Spanish conquistador, was born in 1464 or 1475, and was a foundling who de- rived his name from the town near which he was found. After serving in the army, he sailed to seek his for- tune in the New World, where he amassed considerable wealth by plun- der, and became one of the leading members of the young colony of Dar- ien. In 1522 he formed, with Pizarro, the design of conquering Peru an undertaking crowned 10 years after- ward with marvellous success. Receiv- ing permission from the Spanish court to conquer for himself a special prov- Almanac ince S. of Pizarro's territory, he marched on Chile in 1536, penetrated as far as the Coquimbo, and returned in 1537, just when the Peruvians had flown to arms and shut up the Span- iards in Cuzco and Lima. As these towns lay S. of Pizarro's district, they were claimed by Almagro. He dis- persed the Peruvian army before Cuz- co, and advanced against Lima, hoping to make himself sole master of the country. But on April 6, 1538, he was defeated in a desperate engage- ment with the Spaniards under Pizar- ro near Cuzco ; and on the 26th he was strangled in prison, and his corpse be- headed in the market place of Cuzco. His half-caste son, Diego, collecting some hundreds of his father's follow- ers, stormed Pizarro's palace, and slew him (1541) ; then proclaimed himself captain-general of Peru ; but, defeated in the bloody battle of Chu- pas, Sept 16, 1542, fie was executed along with 40 of his companions. Almanac, an annual compilation, based on the calendar, embracing in- formation pertinent to the various days of the year, the seasons, etc., with astronomical calculations and miscellaneous intelligence more or less detailed, according to the special pur- pose for which it is prepared. Alma-Tadema, Sir Laurenz, dis- tinguished figure painter, born in Friesland, Jan. 8, 1836; educated principally at the Antwerp Academy; elected to the Royal Academy, London, in 1879; officer of the Legion of Honor, 1878; and member of the leading academies of Europe; studio in Lon- don. He died June 24, 1912. Almohades, the name of a Mos- lem dynasty that ruled in Africa and Spain during the 12th and 13th cen- turies. Almond, the fruit of the almond tree, which grows usually to the height of 12 or 14 feet. Its pink flowers, composed of five petals, grow in pairs, and appear very early in spring. The almonds which are consumed in the United States are imported, some- times in the shell, and often without, from France, Spain, Italy, and the Levant. Almonte, Jnan Nepomnceno, a Mexican general, believed to be the eoa of the priest Morelos, born in Alphabet 1804. As a boy he took part in the war for independence. He took part in the battles of Buena Vista and Cerro Gor- do in 1847. In 1861, when Juarez at- tained power, he deposed Almonte, who, led by party hatred and ambi- tion, invited the French expedition to Mexico. In the beginning of 1862 he joined the French troops of occupation at Vera Cruz; but, as the Mexicans saw in him only a tool of the French plans, they renounced the idea of making him French dictator, support- ed by French bayonets. The French general, himself, deprived him of pow- er, but when, on the 10th of June, 1863, he reached the City of Mexico with the French, he was placed by the conquerors at the head of the Regency of the Mexican Empire. The Emperor Maximilian appointed him field-mar- shal, but, after Maximilian's death, he fled to Europe, and died in Paris, March 22, 1869. Almqnist, Karl Jonas Ludvig, a notable Swedish poet, novelist and miscellaneous writer, born in Stock- holm, Nov. 28, 1793. He died in Bre- men, Sept 26, 1866. Aloe, any species of the genus de- scribed under botany (below), or even of one, such as agave, with a close an- alogy to it. The American aloe is the agave americana, an amaryllid. The aloe of Scripture is probably the agallochum. Alopecia, a variety of baldness in which the hair falls off from the beard and eyebrows, as well as the scalp. Alpaca, the name given to a spe- cies of llama, which has for a long time back been domesticated in Peru. Alpha and Omega, the first and last letters of the Greek alphabet, sometimes used to signify the begui- ning and the end, or the first and the last of anything ; also as a symbol of the Divine Being. They were also formerly the symbol of Christianity, and engraved accordingly on the tombs of the ancient Christians. Alphabet, so called from alpha and beta, the first two Greek letters, is the name given to a set of graphic signs, called letters, denoting element- ary sounds, by the combination of which words can be visibly repre- sented. Nearly 200 alphabets, ancient and modern, are known, of which Alpine Plants Altar about 50 are now in use. Most of them are developments from the prim- cations connect it with nearly all the mountain systems of Europe. The culminating peak is Mont Blanc, 15,- 781 feet high, though the true center is the St. Gothard, or the mountain mass where it belongs, from the slopes of which flow, either directly or by affluents, the great rivers of Central Europe, the Danube, Rhine, Rhone, and Po. Alsace-Lorraine (German, El- sass-Lothringen ) , since its cession by France, in 1871, a State or " imperial territory" (Reichsland) of the Ger- man empire. Area, 5,604 square miles, population, 1,874,014 of whom eighty per cent speak German. It is governed as a subject province. On May 9, 1902, Emperor William directed that a bill be laid before the Federal Council abolishing para- graph 10 in the imperial constitution, which imposed practically a dictator- ship on the reichsland of Alsace-Lor- raine. This imperial action was wholly unexpected, and excited the marked gratitude of the people affected. The bill was passed, and resulted in the establishment of a Landtag of two chambers, the upper house consisting of representatives of the churches, universities, and profes- sional classes, and the lower one of 60 members elected by secret ballot. Alsace-Lorraine was lost to Ger- many by the Peace of Ryswick in 1697, and France held control till the Peace of Frankfort, after the Franco- Pruslsian War of 1870, restored the territory to Germany. The French never abandoned the hope and expec- tation of recovering the territory, and one of their first movements after the opening of the World War resulted in operations (the battle began Aug. 19, 1914) by which a portion of the terri- tory was occupied. In all the early rumors of mutual peace terms, the French insisted that this territory should be wholly restored, while the Germans declared that under no cir- cumstances would they surrender this Reichsland. See APPENDIX: World War. Altar, an erection made for the of- fering of sacrifices for memorial pur- poses, or for some other object. An altar designed for sacrifice is mem- tioned in Scripture as early as the ""* i E i. A A A \ a A A Naa K a 5 4 ^ I B B ff I B B b 3' j E Z, y 1 r. r sr < C Ice;?}? i <=, *o> A A A ^ & t> D &od 1 t rn m ^ \ E e 1 E ee n t Ko. ^ s y YF F [ F ff i > & J t I z It t 2 z i i a? B B H H M B H hh n <=: *=>. e e e e$ to ID \\ 9 \ j 1 i t 1 1 j t II <= \ y A K K K K. K K k n 12 m* >L t. ^ A A A u L I 1 5 15 & > 7 1 /A M MM r /A o?m o l -* J 1 >v N 1>Y r H nti ) 13 w*. $ 1 r 1 , D + X x D It O o y i; E ** I n r TT rrcr p P P Q n Si f r r M a r a .' a &, 9 9 9 9 Q qq p M <=> <* 1 A p P ? P F R P r i I' tM * w } 1 C C <7 $ S /fs ty 12 1 & 4 T T T r T T C t n M III IV V XI ALPHABETS. itive Phoenician alphabet, which was itself ultimately derived from the Egyptian hieroglyphic picture-writing. Alpine Plants, the name given to those plants whose habitat is in the neighborhood of the snow, on mountains partly covered with it all the year round. As the height of the snow-line varies according to the lati- tude and local conditions, so also does the height at which these plants grow. Alps, the highest and most exten- sive system of mountains in Europe, included between lat. 44 and 48 N., and long. 5 and 18 E., covering the greater part of Northern Italy, several departments of France, nearly the whole of Switzerland, and a large part of Austria, while its extensive ramifi- Alterative time of Noah (Genesis viii : 20). Abraham, Isaac and Jacob built sev- eral altars in places .where for a brief or more lengthened period they so- journed. Most of these appear to liave been for sacrificial purposes.and one or two seem to have been for me- morial ends; but the most unequivocal case of the memorial altar was subse- quently. (Josh, xxii: 10-34; Gen. xii: 7, 8; xiii: 4, 18; xxii: 9; xxvi: 25; xxxiii: 20; xxxv: 1, 7.) Alterative, a kind of medicine which, when given, appears for a time to have little or no effect, but which ultimately changes, or tends to change, a morbid state into one of health. Altgeld, John Peter, author, lawyer, and judge, born in Germany, in December, 1847. When but a few months old he was taken to Mansfield, Ohio. He was Judge of the Supreme Court at Chicago, in 1886-1891, and Governor of Illinois in 1893. His pardon of the Anarchists caused much controversy. He died March 12, 1902. Altitude, ni mathematics the per- pendicular height of the vertex or apex of a plane figure or solid above the base. In astronomy it is the ver- tical height of any point or body above the horizion. Alton, city in Madison county, 111.; on the Mississippi river and sev- eral trunk line railroads; 3 miles above the mouth of the Missouri, 25 miles N. of St. Louis. It is built on a high bluff, with picturesque sur- roundings; has a costly bridge span- ning the Mississippi; contains the Cathedral of Sts. Peter and Paul (R. C.) and several collegiate and charitable institutions; and flhips lime, coal, and stone. Pop. (1910) 17,528. Altoona, city in Blair county, Pa.; on the Pennsylvania railroad, at the 1 . base of the Alleghany mountains; 117 miles E. of Pitts- burg. It is a mining, manufactur- ing, lumbering, and farming trade center for Central Pennsylvania; and, besides extensive machine shops of the Pennsylvania railroad, has large car works, rolling and planing mills, and other industrial plants, with annual product valued at over $15,000,000. Pop. (1910) 52,127. Altranstadt, an important village in the Prussian Province of Saxony, Alva near Lutzen. Through the Treaty of Altranstadt of Aug. 30, 1707, Charles XII. obtained from the Emperor Jo- hann Joseph I. religious liberty and toleration for the Protestants of Si- lesia. Altruism, a term used in psychol- ogy and ethics to denote disposition and conduct directed toward the well- being of others. It is contrasted with egoism, or self-seeking disposition and conduct. Alum, the name given to double salts of sulphate of aluminum with sulphates of potassium, sodium, am- monium, or of other monatomic met- als, as silver, thallium, caesium, ru- bidium. They crystallize in octo- hedra. Alum has a sweet astringent taste, reddens litmus paper, and dis- solves in its own weight of boiling water. Aluminum, a metal discovered by Wohler in 1827, as a gray powder, but in 1847 in the form of small, glittering metallic globules. It is a white metal, somewhat resembling silver, but pos- sessing a bluish hue, which reminds one of zinc. It is very malleable and ductile, in tenacity it approaches iron, and it takes a high polish. Alva, or Alba, Ferdinand Al- varez de Toledo, Duke of, prime minister and general of the Spanish armies under Charles V. and Philip II., was born in 1508, of one of the most illustrious families of Spain. He entered the army a mere youth, and fought in the wars of Charles V. in France, Italy, Africa, Hungary, and Germany. He is more specially remembered for his bloody and tyran- nical government of the Netherlands (1567-1573), which had revolted, and which he was commissioned by Philip II. to reduce to entire subjection to Spain. Among bis first proceedings was to establish the " Council of Blood," a tribunal which condemned, without discrimination, all whose opinions were suspected, and whose riches were coveted. The present and absent, the living and the dead, were subjected to trial and their property confiscated. Many merchants and me- chanics emigrated to England ; people by hundreds of thousands abandoned their country. The most oppressive taxes were imposed, and trade was Alvary Amazon brought completely to a standstill. As a reward for his services to the faith, the Pope presented him with a conse- crated hat and sword, a distinction previously conferred only on princes. Resistance was only quelled for a time, and soon the provinces of Hol- land and Zealand revolted against his tyranny. A fleet which was fitted out at his command, was annihilated, and he was everywhere met with insuper- able courage. Hopeless of finally sub- duing the country, he asked to be re- called, and, accordingly, in December, 1573, Alva left the country, in which, as he himself boasted, he had executed 18,000 men. He died Jan. 12, 1582. Alvary, Max, a German tenor, son of the painter, Andreas Achen- bach, whose name, however, he never used, born at DUsseldorf, May 1, 1858. He was first a merchant ; then an architect in Cologne ; studied singing with Lamperti in Milan, and with Stockhausen in Frankfort-on-the- Main; and joined the court opera in Weimar. In 1884 he went to New York, where for five years he distin- guished himself as " Tannhauser," " Siegfried," " Tristan," " Loge," "Walter Stolzing," and other Wag- nerian characters. In 1890, he re- turned to Germany and sang at the City Theater in Hamburg. He re- turned to the United States again in 1896. He died near Grosstabarz, Nov. 7, 1898. Amadene, a common name in the house of Savoy. Amadeus I., of Spain, born in 1845, brother of King Victor Emmanuel of Italy, was elected King of Spain in 1870, abdicated in 1873, and died in 1890. Amalfi, a city and seaport, in the Proviace of Salerno, Italy ; on the Gulf of Salermo; 22 miles S. E. of Naples. It contained a cathedral with bronze doors cast in Constanti- nople in 1066, and a Capuchin mon- astery, which, in recent years, became a popular hotel. On Dec. 24, 1899, a portion of fie rocks and land facing the Gulf suddenly slid into the water, carrying down the ancient monastery building and other structures. Amalgam, the union or alloy of any metal with quicksilver (mercury). Amana, a communistic German col- ony in Iowa, 28 miles W. of Iowa City, founded by the Amanites, who branched out from the so-called " In- spiration Congregation," consisting of seven villages, with over 2,000 inhabi- tants, which, through agriculture, wool and cotton spinning, have attained great prosperity. Amanita, a genus of fungi, nearly allied to the mushrooms. Several of YOUNG AMANITA. ADULT AMANITA. the species are edible, notably the de- licious orange (A. caesarea), but the majority are poisonous. Amarillo, city and capital of Pot- ter county, Tex.; on the Fort Worth & Denver City railroad; 82 miles N. W. of Memphis; is in a stock raising and farming section; and is a ship- ping point for cattle and horses. Pop. (1910) 9,957. Amaryllis, a genus of plants, the typical one of the order amaryllida- ceae. Amati, a family of Cremona, in the 16th and 17th centuries, famous for their violins, which are at the present time valued very highly on ac- count of their tone, which is beautiful and pure, though not very strong. They are sometimes called Cremona violins. Amaurosis, a disease of the eye, arising from impaired sensibility of the retina. Amazon, a river of South America, the largest in the world, formed by a great number of sources which rise in the Andes ; general course N. of E. ; America length, including windings, between 3,000 and 4,000 miles ; area of drain- age basin, 2,300,000 square miles. Amazon, or Amazone (from a = without, and mazos^the breast, from the story that the Amazons cut off their right breast to prevent its inter- fering with the use of the bow), a na- tion on the river Thermpdon, the mod- ern Termeh in Pontus, in Asia Minor, said to consist entirely of women re- nowned for their love of manly sports, and as warriors. Men were excluded from their territory, and commerce was held only with strangers, while all male children born among them were killed. Amber, as a mineral, called also succinite, from Latin succinum = am- ber. Its color is generally yellow, but , sometimes reddish, brownish, or whit- ; ish and clouded. It is resinous in lus- ter, always translucent, and sometimes transparent. It is brittle, and yields easily to the knife. Ambergris, a substance derived from the intestines of the sperm whale, and found floating or on the shore. Ambos Camarinea, a province of Luzon, Philippine Islands, com- prising two former provinces, and forming a long peninsula with its main frontage on the Pacific Ocean facing N. E. and E.; area, with de- pendent islands, 3,161 sq. m.; pop. (1903) 239,405, of whom 5,933 were wild; race, chiefly Vicoles. Ambrose, St., a celebrated father Of the Church; born in 333 or 334 A. B., probably at Treves, where his father was prefect; died in 397. He introduced the Ambrosian chant, and compiled a ritual known by his name. Ambrosia, in Greek mythology, the food of the gods, as nectar was their drink. Ambrosian Library, a public li- orary in Milan, founded by the Cardi- nal Archbishop Federigo Borromeo, a relation of St. Charges Borromeo, and opened in 1609 ; now containing 160,- 000 printed books and 8,000 MSS. It was named in honor of St. Ambrose, the patron saint of Milan. Ambrosins, Johanna, a German poet and story writer, born at Leng- wethen, East Prussia, Aug. 3, 1854. Daughter of an artisan, and married in 1874 to a peasant's son by the name of Voigt, she led the hard life of a peasant woman till middle age. Ambulance, a hospital establish- ment which accompanies an army in its movements in the field for the pur- pose of providing assistance and surgi- cal treatment to the soldiers wounded in battle. The name is also given to one of the carts or wagons used to transfer the wounded from the spot where they fell to the hospital. Also to the vehicles used in cities to con- vey the very sick or injured to hospitals. Shortly after the outbreak of the World War patriotic American citi- zens fitted up and sent to France a large number of ambulances, organ- ized volunteer units to operate them, and established, as a part of the field service, base and temporary hospitals in close proximity to the firing lines. Amen, a Hebrew word of assever- ation, equivalent to "Yea," "Truly." Amendment, in law, the correc- tion of any mistake discovered in a writ or process. In legislative proceedings, a clause, sentence, or paragraph proposed to be substituted for another, or to be in- serted in a bill before Congress, and which, if carried, actually becomes part of the bill itself. As a rule amendments do not overthrow the principle of a bill. In public meetings, a proposed alter- ation of the terms of a motion laid before a meeting for acceptance. A Mensa et Tnoro, a legal term used when a wife is divorced from her husband (as far as bed and board are concerned), liability, however, re- maining on him for her separate main- tenance. Amentb.es, the unseen world of the ancient Egyptians, the Hades of the Greeks, who borrowed their ideas about the lower world from Egypt. America, or the New World, the largest of the great divisions of the globe except Asia, is washed on the W. by the Pacific, on the E. by the At- lantic, on the N. by the Arctic, and on the S. by the Antarctic Ocean. On the N. W. it approaches at Bering Straits within 48 miles of Asia, and on the N. E. Greenland approaches within 370 miles of the European is- land Iceland; but in the S. the dis- America tance between the American mainland and the E. continent is much greater, the shortest distance between its E. coast and the W. coast of Africa being 1,600 miles, and between its W. coast and the E. coasts x of Asia and Aus- tralia from six to eight times more. The extreme points of America are N., the point of Boothia Felix, in the Strait of Bellot, lat. 71 56' N., Ion. 94 34' W. ; S., Cape Froward, lat. 53 53' 45" S., Ion. 71 18' 30" W., or, if the archipelago of Tierra del Fuego is included, Cape Horn, lat. 55 59' S., Ion. 67 16' W. ; W., Cape Prince of Wales, lat. 65 33' N., Ion. 167 59' W. ; and E., the Point de Guia, lat 7 26' S., Ion. 34 47' W. The entire American continent has a length of about 9,500 miles ; a maxi- mum breadth, between Cape Prince of Wales and Cape Charles in North America, of 3,500 miles ; a coast-line of 43,200 miles; and a total area, in- cluding the islands, estimated at about 15,896,000 square miles. The climate of America, even in the equatorial regions, is characterized as comparatively cool and humid. This is justly ascribed to the vast extent of territory that may be classed as insular to the copious waters of the interior, together with the mag- nificent vegetation produced by them to the configuration of the surface and the nature of the soil to the possession of a polar shore and to the prevailing winds. The rainy zone is disproportionately extended in America ; and as the continent stretches over all the zones, the vege- tation is remarkably diversified, from the lowly moss of the N. to the lord- ly banana of the tropics. The giant coast chain of the Andes everywhere rises above the snow-line. From the sterile Peruvian coast, burned up by tropical heats, one can look up to summits covered with perpetual snow and ice ; and one may climb from the gigantic equatorial vegetation of Qui- to to heights where only the condor testifies to the existence of organic life, and wings his flight over snow fields and glaciers. In Peru the cul- ture of cereals is carried on at the height of 12,000, and near Quito at 9,000 feet. The N. and S. of Amer- ica have the same length of day ; out in the seasons, which depend not mere- America ly on astronomical but on a variety of local causes, the analogy does not hold, and very remarkable discrepan- cies appear. Thus, for example, the E. coast of Brazil has the rainy sea- son from March to September, while Peru, lying under the very same lati- tude, has it from November to March. Within the tropics the transition from the rainy to the dry season takes place almost instantaneously ; but in re- ceding from the tropics on either side the change of seasons becomes more and more gradual, till at last in the polar zones, nature, bound in icy chains, affords for living existence only a short awakening out of a long winter sleep. If America, in respect of the devel- opment of vegetable life, takes prece- dence of all other quarters of the globe, it cannot advance the same claim in respect of the animal world, though it must be admitted that here too it has its own peculiar features. The American jaguar and cougar, or puma, have not the majesty of the Asiatic tiger or the African lion ; the tapir is only a very humble represen- tative of the elephant or hippopota- mus, and the llama falls far short of the camel. Still, America has many animals whieh belong only to itself. It has its own species of bears (the grizzly being most formidable), wolf, and deer, the bison and musk ox, with special kinds of squirrels, etc. To it also belong the Virginia stag, the wild sheep of California, the opos- sum, and raccoon. Characteristic of Central and South America are sloths, ant-eaters, and armadillos, the con- dor among the heights of the Andes, the most beautiful parrots as well as peculiar monkeys in the woods, the humming bird with its rich metallic plumage, the rattlesnake, the alliga- tor or cayman on the banks of the streams, the electrical eel in the trop- ical waters, swarms of mosquitoes on the wide plains, and sea fowl in such numbers on the W. coast as to have furnished large deposits of guano, to which some of the richest countries of Europe are indebted for the means of extending and largely increasing the product of their agriculture. The independent States of both North and South America are now all republican in their form of American. Federation Americanism* government, though it was only in 1889 that Brazil became a republic instead of an empire. The differ- ent independent States are as follows : In NORTH AMERICA 1. The United States ; 2. Mexico ; 3. Ni- caragua ; 4. Honduras ; 5. Guatema- la; 6. Costa Rica; 7. (San) Salva- dor. In the WEST INDIES 8. Cuba ; 9. Haiti ; 10. San Domingo. In SOUTH AMERICA 11. Venezuela ; 12. Colombia ; 13. Peru ; 14. Ecuador ; 15. Bolivia ; 16. Argentine Republic ; 17. Uruguay ; 18. Paraguay ; 19. Chile; 20. Brazil; 21. Panama. The European colonies in America are : the Dominion of Canada, including the provinces of Ontario, Quebec, ^Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Manitoba, British Columbia, Prince Edward Island, and the Northwest Territories, etc. ; Newfoundland : and the Bermu- das, all belonging to Great Britain ; Greenland, belonging to Denmark ; and St. Pierre and Miquelon to France. The WEST INDIAN ISLANDS comprise the republics of Haiti, San Domingo, and Cuba ; Porto Rico, for- merly Spanish, is now a territory of the United States ; the British pos- sessions of Jamaica, Trinidad, Bar- bados, Grenada, St. Vincent, Tobago, St. Lucia, Antigua, Montserrat, St. Christopher, Anguilla, Nevis, Virgin Islands, Dominica, the Bahamas, Turk's Island, etc. ; the French pos- sessions of Guadeloupe and depen- dencies (including St. Bartholo- mew's), Martinique, the N. part of the island of St. Martin's ; the Dutch possessions, the S. side of St. Mar- tin's Curasao and its dependencies ; Santa Cruz, St. Thomas and St. John's, known as the Danish West Indies, purchased by the United States for $25,000,000 in 1917, and renamed the Virgin Islands of the United States. In South America the Brit- ish possess (besides the Falkland Island) a part of Guiana, the re- mainder being owned respectively by the French and Dutch. The merit of first unlocking the American continent to modern Europe belongs to the Genoese Christopher Columbus, who, after a voyage of discovery as dangerous as it was fortunate, discovered, in October, 1492, Guanahani, one of the Bahamas, and named it San Salvador. It is certain, however, that Europeans had in the earlier part of the Middle Ages, and on dif- ferent occasions, discovered the American coasts. Northmen proceed- ing from Iceland discovered the N. polar land of Greenland. The Ice- lander Bjorne Herjulfson in 986, got a glimpse of the coasts of Massachu- setts and Rhode Island, which in the year 1000 were visited by Leif the Lucky, and named by him Vinland. In 1388 and 1390 Niccolo and Anto- nio Zeni undertook voyages to the North Atlantic Ocean, and were wrecked on Frieslanda, probably the Faroe Islands ; thereafter they saw a part of the N. E. coast of Amer- ica, probably Nova Scotia, which they named Drogno. These discoveries, however, had no influence on the en- terprise of Columbus, and cannot de- tract in the least from his merit ; they were forgotten, and had never been made known to the inhabitants of the S. of Europe. Though Colum- bus was the first of his time who set foot on the New World, it has taken its name not from him, but from Amerigo Vespucci. The main- land was first seen in 1497 by Sebas- tian Cabot, who sailed under the patronage of Henry VII. of England. American Federation of La- bor, a general representative organ- ization of the labor unions and socie- ties of the United States ; founded at Columbus, O., in December, 1886, as the successor of a somewhat similar association which dated back to 1866. Its principal objects are to promote the interests and influences of trades unions, to aid in creating new unions, and to advance the general cause of organized labor. It does not under- take, however, to exercise any ab- solute authority over affiliated socie- ties, as is done by the Knights of Labor. It has been especially active in agitating for "eight-hour legis- lation. In 1917, the Federation com- prised 109 national and international unions, 5 departments, 45 state branches, 718 city central unions, 689 local unions ; membership, 2,045,793. American Indians. See INDIANS, AMERICAN. Americanisms, a word defined as a term, phrase, or idiom of the Eng- lish language as spoken in America Americanisms for in the United States) which either (a) originated in America; or, (b) is peculiar to America; or, (c) is chiefly employed in America. The fol- lowing is a list of a few of the more noteworthy Americanisms : Around or round. About or near. To hang around is to loiter about. Backwoods. The partially cleared forest regions in the western states. Bayou. In Louisiana, a term given to a small stream. The same as "creek." Bee. An assemblage of persons to unite their labors for the benefit of an individual or family or to carry out a joint scheme. Bogus. False ; counterfeit. Boss. An employer or superinten- dent of laborers; a leader. Bulldoze, to. To intimidate, Bunco. A swindling game. Buncombe or Bunkum. A speech made solely to please a constituency ; talking for talking's sake, and in an inflated style. Calculate. To suppose, to believe, to think. Camp-meeting. -A meeting held in the fields or woods for religious pur- poses, and where the assemblage en- camp and remain for several days. Car. A carriage or wagon of a railway train. The Englishman "trav- els by rail," the American takes, or goes by, the cars. Carpet-bagger. A needy political adventurer who carries a 11 his earthly goods in a carpet-bag ; originally ap- plied to politicians from the Northern States who sought offices in the South after the Civil War. Caucus. A private meeting of the leading politicians of a party to agree upon the plans to be pursued in an approaching election. Chunk. A short, thick piece of wood or any other material. Corn. Maize. In England, wheat or grain in general. Corn-husking or Corn-shucking. An occasion on which a farmer invites his neighbors to assist him in strip- ping the husks from his corn. Creek. A small tributary of a large river. Used chiefly in the West. Dead-heads. People who have free admission to entertainments, or who have the use of public conveyances, or the like, free of charge. Down East. In or into the New Americanisms England States. A down-easter is a New Englander. Drummer. A commercial traveler. Dry goods. A general term for such articles as are sold by linen- drapers, haberdashers, hosiers, etc., in England. Fix, to. To put in order, to pre- pare, to adjust. To fix the hair, the table, the fire, is to dress the hair, lay the table, make up the fire. Fixings. Arrangements, dress, em- bellishments, luggage, furniture, gar- nishments of any kind. ^ Fork. Used in the Southwest in a similar sense to " creek." Freeze out. To get rid of objec- tionable persons. Gerrymander. To arrange politi- cal divisions so that in an election one party may obtain an advantage over | its opponent, even though the latter may possess a majority of votes. Grab. To gain a privilege without proper payment. Greenback. A former kind of pa- per money. Guess, to. To believe, to suppose, to think. Gulch. A deep, abrupt ravine, caused by the action of water. Happen in, to. To happen to come in or call. llatchet, to bury or take up the. To end or begin war. Help. The labor of hired persons collectively; the body of servants be- longing to a farm or household or fac- tory. Hoe-cake. A cake of corn meal baked on or before the fire. Hoodlum. A rough. How ! Indian abbreviation of "How do you do?" Jolly, to. To flatter, to tease, to poke fun at Johnny cake. A cake made of corn meal mixed with milk or water. Log-rolling. The assembly of sev- eral parties of wood-cutters to help one of them in rolling their logs to the river after they are felled and trimmed ; also employed in politics to signify a like system of mutual co- operation. Lynch law. An irregular species of justice executed by the people or a mob, without legal authority or trial. Mail letters, to. To post letters. Make tracks, to. To run away. American Municipal League American Party Mush. A kind of hasty-pudding. Nickel. A five-cent coin. Rations. A term applied to every variety of small wares. One-horse. A one-horse thing is a thing of no value or importance; a mean or trifling thing. Oxbow. The bend in a river or the land inclosed within such a bend. Peart (in the South). Equal to smart or well. Piazza. A veranda. Picayune. A trifle. Pickaninny. A negro child. Pile. A quantity of money. Planks. In politics, the several principles which appertain to a party ; " platform " is the collection of such principles. Pull. A special individual favor. Reckon, to. To suppose, to think. Right smart. Very well. Roast, to. To criticise severely. Scab. A non-union workman. Scalawag. A scamp, a scapegrace. Shake. To leave a person. Skedaddle, to. To run away, a word introduced during the Civil war. Smart. Used in the sense of con- siderable, a good deal, as a smart chance ; also equal to well, as " right smart," very well. Stakes, to pluck or pull up. To remove. Stampede. The sudden flight of a crowd, or of cattle or horses. Stiff. In medical schools, a corpse. Store. Same as shop in Great Britain; as a book store, a grocery store. Strike oil, to. To come upon pe- troleum ; hence, to make a lucky hit, especially financially. Stump' speech. A speech calcu- lated to please the popular ear, such speeches in newly settled districts being often delivered from the stumps of trees. Ticker. A watch ; also a telegraph receiver. Ticket, to vote the straight. To vote for all the men or measures on the ticket. Truck. The small produce of gar- dens ; truck patch, a plot in which the smaller fruits and vegetables are raised. Turn down, to. To reject or ig- nore ; used of office seekers especially. Vamose, to. To run off. Vendue. An auction ; to vendue, to sell at auction. Whoop it up. To create an ex- citement. WUt. To become soft or languid, to lose energy, pith, or strength. American Municipal Iieagne, an organization with branches in all important American and Canadian cities, founded for the promotion of municinal administration. American Party, The, the name of three separate organizations which at different times held a prominent place in the political affairs of the United States. The first, organized about 1852, at a time when the Whig Party was near its dissolution was, in fact, a secret society, and was bet- ter known in later years as the "Know Nothings," from the assumed ignor- ance of its members when questioned in regard to the objects and name of the order. Its principal doctrine was opposition to all foreigners and Ro- man Catholics, and its motto was " Americans must rule America." The first National Convention of the Par- ty was held in February, 1856, at which resolutions were adopted, de- manding a lengthening of the resi- dence necessary to naturalization, and condemning President Pierce's admin- istration for the repeal of the Mis- souri Compromise. A number of the members withdrew because of the re- fusal to consider a resolution regard- ing the restriction of slavery. Mi Hard Fillmore, of New York, was nominated for President, and Andrew Jackson Donelson for Vice-President, which nominations were subsequently in- dorsed by a Whig Convention. Fill- more carried but one State, Maryland ; his popular vote being about 850,000. The party was successful in carrying the State elections in Rhode Island and Maryland in 1857, but never gained any popularity in the Western States. A second party, bearing the same name, but directly adverse to the first in that it was founded in opposi- tion to secret societies, was organized for political purposes by the National Christian Association, at the adjourn- ment of a convention held by the lat- ter body at Oberlin, O., in 1872. The organization was completed and the name adopted at a convention in Syra- cuse, N. Y., in 1874. At Pittsburg, American Protective Asso. America's Cup .Tune 9, 1875, a platform was adopted in which were demanded recognition of the Sabbath, the introduction of the Bible into public schools, prohibi- tion of the sale of liquors, the with- drawal of the charters of secret socie- ties, and legislative prohibition of their oaths, arbitration of internation- al disputes, the restriction of land monopolies, resumption of specie pay- ment, justice to the Indians, and a direct popular vote for President and Vice-President. James B. Walker of Illinois was nominated for President. In 1880, the party again made nom- inations, and in 1884, S. C. Pomeroy was nominated, but withdrew in favor of John P. St. John, the Prohibition candidate. The third party to be called by the name of American Party was organized at a convention held at Phil- adelphia, Sept. 10-17, 1887. Its prin- cipal aims, as set forth in its plat- form, were, to oppose the existing system of immigration and naturaliza- tion of foreigners ; to demand its re- striction and regulation so as to make a 14-years' residence a prerequisite of naturalization ; to exclude from the benefits of citizenship all anarchists, and other dangerous characters ; to de- fend free schools ; to condemn alien proprietorship ; to declare for the permanent separation of Church and State, and in favor of the enforce- ment of the Monroe Doctrine. But little has been heard of the American Party in the past few years. American Protective Associa- tion, popularly known as the "A. P. A.," a secret order organized through- out the United States, with branches in Canada, which has attracted much attention by its aggressive platform and active agitation. Its chief doc- trine, as announced in its declaration of principle, is that " subjection to and support of any ecclesiastical pow- er not created and controlled by Amer- ican citizens, and which claims equal, if not greater, sovereignty than the Government of the United States of America, is irreconcilable with Amer- ican citizenship ; " and it accordingly opposes " the holding of offices in Na- tional, State, or Municipal Govern- ment by any subject or supporter of such ecclesiastical power." Another of its cardinal purposes is to prevent all public encouragement and support of sectarian schools. It does not con- stitute a separate political party, but seeks to control existing parties, and to elect friendly and defeat objection- able candidates, by the concerted ac- tion of citizens affiliated with all par- ties. The order was founded March 13, 1887, and claims a membership of about 2,000,000. American Psychological Asso- ciation, an organization founded in 1892 for the advancement of psychol- ogy as a science. American Social Science Asso- ciation, a society organized in 1865. American Society of Civil En- gineers, an association instituted in 1852 ; holds two meetings each month (excepting in July and August) at headquarters, 220 W. 57th st., New York city ; membership, 2,200. American Society of Mechani- cal Engineers, an organization char- tered in 1881 ; annual dues, members and associates, $15 ; juniors,$10 ; en- trance fee, members and associates, $25, juniors, $15 ; membership unlim- ited ; holds two meetings annually ; headquarters, 12 W. 31st St, New York city. American System, a term used by Henry Clay and applied to his plan of protective duties and internal im- provements, as proposed in the de- bates in Congress which resulted in the tariff law of 1824. At present it is used to denote the policy of protec- tion to home industries by means of duties on imports. America's Cnp, a yachting trophy, originally known as the Queen's Cup, offered as a prize to the yachts of all nations by the Royal Yacht Squadron of Great Britain, in 1851. The first contest for it was held Aug. 22 of that year, when it was won by the Ameri- can yacht " America," whose owners deeded it in trust to the New York Yacht club. The subsequent success of American yachts in keeping the cup caused it to become known as the " America's " Cup. In 1903 Sir Thomas Lipton pre- sented Shamrock III. as challenger for the America's Cup, Reliance, built by the Herreshoffs, being presented as defender of the Cup by an American syndicate, with Mr. Iselin as manager. Several of the races were called off America's Cup America's Cup RECORD OF CONTESTS FOR THE AMERICA S CUP. Date. Names of Yachts. Course. Time. H. M. S. Aug. 22, 1851 Aug. 8, 1870 Oct. 16, 1871 Oct. 18, 1871 Oct. 19, 1871 Oct. 21, 1871 Oct. 23, 1871 Aug. 11, 1876 Aug. 12, 1876 Nov. 9, 1881 Nov. 10, 1881 Sep. 14, 1885 Sep. 16, 1885 Sep. 9, 1886 Sep. 11, 1886 Sep. 27, 1887 Sep. 30, 1887 Oct. 7, 1893 Oct. 9, 1893 Oct. 13, 1893 Sep. 7, 1895 Sep. 10, 1895 Sep. 12, 1898 Oct. 20, 1899 Oct. 3, 1901 Oct. 4, 1901 Sep. 3, 1903 America From Cowes, around the Isle of ( 10 37 00 i N. Y. Y. C. course, about 39 miles i iN. Y. Y. C. course... 3 58 21 4 37 38 6 10 44 6 46 45 3 07 41 3 18 15 4 02 25 4 17 35 5 39 02 6 09 23 4 16 17 5 11 55 5 23 54 5 34 53 7 18 45 7 46 00 4 17 00 4 45 39 4 54 32 5 33 47 6 06 05 6 22 24 5 63 14 5 04 53 5 26 41 5 38 43 6 49 10 7 18 09 4 53 18 5 12 41 5 42 56 5 54 45 4 05 47 4 11 35 3 25 01 3 55 38 3 24 3C 3 25 ISr 4 59 54 5 08 44 3 55 56 3 55 09 4 48 48 * 3 38 09 3 44 43 3 12 35 3 16 10 4 32 57 4 33 38 4 00 28 t Cambria > I ( 20 miles to windward off Sandy / Hook lightship, and return ) j N. Y. Y. C. course Columbia I Columbia \ 29 miles to windward off Sandy ) i Hook lightship and return ) {IK. Y. Y. C. course j Livonia Madeleine 1 N Y Y C course 5 Countess of Dutferin. Madeleine 5 20 miles to windward off Sandy I .( Hook lightship, and return ) [ N. Y. Y. C. course j Countess of Dufferin. C 16 miles to leeward from buoy 5 \ i off Sandy Hook lightship, and ( ( return \ Puritan [N. Y Y C course ( ( 20 miles to leeward off Sandy i Genesta Mayflower 1 N. Y. Y. C. course < Galatea ( 20 miles. to leeward off Sandy ) > N. Y. Y. C. course j Thistle 1 Volunteer c 20 miles off Scotland lightship, > Thistle Vigilant t 15 miles to windward off Sandy ) Valkyrie (Irregular course: 10 miles to a) Vigilant i!5 miles to windward off Sandy > Defender 15 miles to windward off Sandy j Hook, and return } Valkyrie III Defender Valkyrie III 3 15 miles to windward off Sandy ) Hook, and return > Defender Valkyrie III ( 15 miles to windward off Sandy > Hook, and return ) (15 miles to windward off Sandy ) f Hook, and return ) Columbia Shamrock II fSO miles triangular course j 1 15 miles leeward and back ---i Columbia Reliance j 15 miles to leeward off Sandy ) / Hook, and return J Shamrock III * Did not finish. Shamrock II. finished first, but lost race on time allowance of 43 seconds. t Reliance won by 1 1 minutes. Amerigo Vespucci Amharlo on account of the time limit, Reliance being ahead in all of them, as well as in the three races which decided the contest. In the final race, Thursday, Sept. 3, Reliance started at 1:01:56 THE AMERICA'S CUP. p. m., Shamrock at 1 :02 :00 p. m. Re- liance turned the outer mark at 3 :40 :30, to Shamrock III.'s 3 :51 :40. Reliance won the race in four hours and twenty-eight minutes. Amerigo Vespucci. See VES- PUCCI. Ames, Adalbert, an American military officer, born in 1835 ; gradu- ated at West Point, 18G1 ; became Brigadier-General and brevet Major- General United States Volunteers, in the Civil War; Provisional Governor of Mississippi, 1868; resigned army commission, 1870; United States Sen- ator from Mississippi, 1870-1873, Governor 1874-1876; and Brigadier- General United States Volunteers in the war with Spain, 1898. Ames, Charles Gordon, an American clergyman, editor, and lec- turer, born in Dorchester, Mass., Oct. 3, 1828. He graduated at the Geauga Seminary, Ohio ; was ordained in 1849 as a Free Baptist, but later became a Unitarian, and pastor of the Church of the Disciples, Boston. He was eu- itor of the Minnesota " Republican " and the " Christian Register," of Bos- ton. He wrote " George Eliot's Two Marriages." He died April 15, 1912. Ames, Eleanor Kirk, an Ameri- can author, born at Warren, R. I., Oct. 7, 1831. Among her many books are " Information for Authors," " Beecher as a Humorist," " The In- fluence of the Zodiac on Human Life," etc. She died June 24, 19G& Ames, Fisher, an American ora- tor and statesman, born in Dedham, Mass., April 9, 1758. Admitted to the bar in 1781, he became a member of Congress in 1789, where he gained a national reputation by his oratory. Two of his finest efforts were in sup- port of John Jay's treaty with Great Britain, and a eulogy on Washington before the Massachusetts Legislature. He was elected president of Harvard College in 1804, but declined. A bril- liant talker, he was distinguished in conversation for wit and imagination, while his character was spotless. His works consist of orations, essays, and letters (2 vols., 1854). He *.ied in Dedham, July 4, 1808. Ames, Mary Clemmer, an Amer- ican author, born in Utica, N. Y., ia 1839 ; was a frequent contributor to the Springfield " Republican," and afterward to the New York " Inde- pendent." Married to and divorced from the Rev. Daniel Ames, she be- came, in 1883, the wife of Edward Hudson at Washington. Among her works are a volume of " Poems " (1882) ; and biographies of Alice and Phoebe Gary. She died in Washing- ton, D. C., Aug. 18, 1884. Ametabola, a class of wingless in- sects, which do not undergo netamor- phosis. They include bird lice, etc. Amethyst, a precious stone, a va- riety of quartz, named by Dana ame- thystine quartz. The Oriental amethyst is a rare purple variety of sapphire. The best specimens are brougLt from India, Armenia, and Arabia. Amharic, or Amarinna, a Se- mitic language with an intermixture of African words; since the 14th cen- Amherst College Ammonite tury the court and official language of Abyssinia. Amherst College, an educational Institution in Amherst, Mass. ; found- ed in 1821 and incorporated in 1825. Amiel, Henri Frederic, a dis- tinguished Swiss essayist, philosophi- cal critic, and poet, born at Geneva, Sept. 27, 1821. He died in Geneva, March 11, 1881. Animen, Daniel, an American na- val officer, born in Brown county, O., May 15, 1820; entered the United States navy, July 7, 1836. He was executive officer of the North Atlantic Blockading Squadron at the outbreak of the Civil War. From 1861 to 1865 he rendered signal service in the at- tacks on Port Royal, Fort Macallister, Fort Fisher, and both the ironclad at- tacks on Fort Sumter. On June 4, 1878, he was retired with the rank of Rear-admiral. He was the designer of the Ammen life raft and harbor de- fense ram. Among his works are "The Old Navy and the New," and "Navy in the Civil War" J1883). He died in Washington, D. C\, July 11, 1898. Ammergau, Ober- and TTnter, two adjoining villages in Upper Ba- varia, in the higher part of the valley of the Ammer, 42 miles S. W. by S. of Munich. Ober-Ammergau is noted for the performance of the " Passion Play," a series of dramatic represen- tations of the sufferings of Christ, which is produced every tenth year by about 500 performers, in accord- ance with a vow made at the time of the pestilence of 1634. During the in- tervening years, the actors give a series of representations of Old Tes- tament legends. The performance gen- erally lasts seven or eight hours, often without intermission, and is partly a religious service and partly a popular festival. In 1889, a theater was built just outside the place, with a stage and auditorium capable of seating 6,000 persons. On the height near by is a colossal memorial of " Christ on the Cross, with Mary and John," modeled by Halbig, the gift of King Ludwig II. Ammiamis Marcellinus, a Ro- man historian, born of Greek parents at Antioch, in Syria, about 330. Animon, the eponymic ancestor of ft people, known in Hebrew and Bibli- cal history as the "children of Ani- mon " or Ammonites ; frequently men- tioned in the Old Testament Ac- cording to the account in Genesis (xix: 38), Ammon was the son of Lot. Ammon, a god of the ancient Egyptians, worshipped especially in Thebes (No-Ammon), and early rep- resented as a ram with downward branching horns, the symbols of pow- er; as a man with a ram's head; and as a complete man with two high feathers on his head, bearded, sitting on a throne, and holding in his right hand the scepter of the gods, in his left the handled cross, the symbol of divine life. The worship of Ammon. spread at an early period to Greece, and afterward to Rome, where he was identified with Zeus and Jupiter. Ammonia, a colorless, pungent gas, with a strong alkaline reaction. It can be liquefied at the pressure of seven atmospheres at 15. Ammonia is obtained by the dry distillation of animal or vegetable matter containing nitrogen; horns, hoofs, etc., produce large quantities; hence its name of spirits of hartshorn. Guano consists chiefly of urate of ammonia. But ammonia is now obtained from the liquor of gasworks, coal containing about 2 per cent, of nitrogen. It is used in medicine as an antacid and stimulant ; it also increases the secre- tions. Fxternally, it is employed as a rubefacient and vesicant. Ammonia is used as an antidote in cases of poi- soning by prussic acid, tobacco, and other sedative drugs. AMMONITES. Ammonite, a large genus of fossil chambered shells. Ammonites Amsterdam Ammonites, a Semitic race of people, living on the edge of the Syr- ian Desert ; according to Gen. xix : 38, the descendants of Lot, and closely akin to the Moabites. They inhabited the country lying to the N. of Moab, between the rivers Arnon and Jabbok. Their chief city was Rabbath-Ammon. The Israelites were often at war with them. From the name of their princes, it is evident that their lan- guage was closely akin to Hebrew. Their chief deity was Moloch. Amnesty, an act of oblivion passed after an exciting political period. Its object is to encourage those who have compromised themselves by rebellion or otherwise to resume their ordinary occupations, and this it does by giving them a guarantee that they shall never be called upon to answer for their past offenses. Amor, the god of love among the Romans, equivalent to the Greek Eros. Amorites, a powerful tribe of Ca- naanites, who inhabited the country N. E. of the Jordan, as far as Mount Hermon. Amos, one of the so-called minor prophets of the Hebrews, was a herds- man of Tekoa, in the neighborhod of Bethlehem, and also a dresser of syca- more trees. During the reigns of Uzziah in Judah, and Jeroboam II. in Israel (about 800 B. c.) be came for- ward to denounce the idolatry then prevalent. Amoy, a seaport town and one of the treaty ports of China; on a small island of the same name in the Prov- ince of Fukien ; 325 miles E. by N. E. of Canton, and directly opposite the island of Formosa. During the in- ternational military operations in China, in 1900, the city was occu- pied by the Japanese. Ampere, the practical unit of elec- tric current strength. It is the mea- sure of the current produced by an electro-motive force of one volt through a resistance of one ohm. In electric quantity it is the rate of one coulomb per second. Ampere, Andre Marie, a French mathematician and physicist, was born at Lyons in 1775. He died at Marseilles, June 10, 1836. Amphibia, in zoology, animals Which can live indiscriminately on land or water, or which at one part of their existence live in water and at another on land. Amphictyonic Council, a cele- brated council of the States of ancient Greece. The members of this confed- eration bound themselves by an oath not to destroy any city of the Am- phictyons, nor cut off their streams in war or peace, and to employ all their power in punishing those who did so, or those who pillaged the prop- erty of the god, or injured his temple at Delphi. Ampliion, in mythology, the son of Jupiter and Antiope; the eldest of the Grecian musicians. To express the power of his music, and, perhaps, of his eloquence, the poets said, that, at the sound of his lyre, the stones voluntarily formed themselves into walls ; that wild beasts, and even trees, rocks, and streams, followed the musician. Amphipolis, an important city of Thrace or Macedonia; at the mouth of the Strymon river; 33 miles from the .ZEgean. The site is now occupied by the Turkish town of Yenikeui. Amphitheater, " a double theater. The ancient theaters were nearly semi- circular in shape ; or, more accurately, they were half ovals, so that an am- phitheater, theoretically consisting of two theaters, placed with their concavities meeting each other, was, loosely speaking, a nearly circular, or, more precise 1 y, an oval building. The Romans built amphitheaters wherever they went. Remains of them are still to be found in various parts of Eu- rope ; but the most splendid ruins ex- isting are those of the Coliseum at Rome, which was said to have held 87,000 people. Amsterdam, a city in Montgom- ery county, N. Y.; on the Mohawk river and several trunk line rail- roads; 33 miles N. W. of Albany; is especially noted for its manufactures of knit goods, carpets, steel springs, and paper. Pop. (1910) 31,267. Amsterdam ("dam" or "dike of the Amstel"), the capital of the Netherlands. Almost the whole city, which extends in the shape of a cres- cent, is founded on piles driven 40 or 50 feet through soft peat and sand to a firm substratum of clay. Amulet The population, which from 217,024 in 1794, sank to 180,179 in 1815, rose steadily to 580,960, as reported on Dec. 31, 1911, of whom the ma- jority belong to the Dutch Re- formed Church. Of the remainder, about 80,000 are Catholics, 30,000 German Jews, and 3,200 Portuguese Jews. The chief industrial establish- ments are sugar refineries, engineer- ing works, mills for polishing diamonds and other precious stones, dock- yards, manufactories of sails, ropes, tobacco, silks, gold and silver plate and jewelry, colors, and chemicals, breweries, distilleries, with export houses for corn and colonial produce ; cotton-spinning, book-printing, and type-founding are also carried on. The present Bank of the Netherlands dates from 1824, Amsterdam's famous bank of 1609 having been dissolved in 1796. Amulet, anything hung around the neck, placed like a bracelet on the wrist, or otherwise attached to the person, as an imagined preservative against sickness, witchcraft, or other evils. Amulets were common in the ancient world, and they are so yet in nations where ignorance prevails. Amundsen, Roald, a Norwegian explorer ; born in Christiania in 1872. He came from a family long identified with sea life ; was educated at the University of Christiania ; and on the urging of his family began studying medicine, but soon abandoned it to engage in polar research. In 1898-9 he was with the Belgica Antarctic expedition ; in 1903-5 he was the first navigator to take a ship from the At- lantic to the Pacific by way of the Northwest Passage ; and on Dec. 14, 1911, he succeeded in reaching the South Pole. Amur, a river formed by the junc- tion (about 53 N. lat., and 121 E. long.) of the Shilka and the Argun, which both come from the S. W. the former rising in the foothills of the Yablonoi Mountains. From the junction, the river flows first S. E. and then N. E., and, after a total course of 3,060 miles, falls into the Sea of Okhotsk, opposite the island of Sakhalin. ^ Its main tributaries are the Sungari and the Ussuri, both from the S. Above the Ussuri, the Amur is the boundary between Siberia and Anabaptist* Manchuria; below it, the river runs through Russian territory. Amylic Alcohol, one of eight al- cohols having the same chemical formu- la, but with different properties. Two of these are large constituents of fusel oil. The union of some of these alcohols with the compound ethers, produce odors resembling pineapple, strawberries, etc. Therefore fusel oil is often used in making artificial fruit flavors. The poisonous properties of fusel oil, make such products highly dangerous and justify the prohibitive legislation which has been enacted in some of the States. Anabaptist*, a name given in re- proach A. D. 253 by Stephen, Bishop of Rome, to the Christians of Asia Minor, Cappadocia, Galatea and Cilicia, who held that no baptism was valid but that administered to adults by immersion. They are mentioned by Tertullian and Agrippinus. The sect appeared in 1520. The most eminent of its early leaders were Thomas Munzer Mark Stubner, and Nicholas Storck. They had been disciples of Luther; but, be- coming dissatisfied with the moderate character of his reformation, they cast off his authority, and attempted more sweeping changes than he was pre- pared to sanction. During his ab- sence, they, in 1521, began to preach their doctrines at Wittenberg. Laying claim to supernatural powers, they saw visions, uttered prophecies, and made an immense number of prose- lytes. The ferment which the exciting religious events taking place in Cen- tral Europe had produced in men's minds, had made them impatient of social or political as well as of spir- itual despotism ; and, in 1525, the peasants of Suabia, Thuringia, and Franconia, who had been much op- pressed by their feudal superiors, rose in arms, and commenced a sanguinary struggle, partly, no doubt, for religious reformation, but chiefly for political emancipation. The Anabaptists cast in their lot with the insurgent peas- antry, and became their leaders in battle. After a time the allied princes of the empire, led by Philip, Land- grave of Hesse, put down the rebellion, and Munzer was defeated, captured, put to the torture, and ultimately be- headed. In 1532, some extreme Ana* Anabasis Anam baptists from Holland, led by a baker called John Matthias, and a tailor, John Boccoldt, called also, from the place whence he came, John of Ley- den, seized on the city of Munster, in Westphalia, with the view of setting up in it a spiritual kingdom, in which, at least nominally, Christ might reign. The name of Munster was changed to that of Mount Zion, and Matthias be- came its actual king. Having soon after lost his life in a mad, warlike exploit, the sovereignty devolved on Boccoldt, who, among other fanatical freaks, once promenaded the streets of his capital in a state of absolute nud- ity. On June 24, 1535, the Bishop of Munstex retook the city by force of arms, and Boccoldt was put to death in the most cruel manner that could be devised. The excesses of the Ana- baptists were eagerly laid hold of to discredit the Reformation. Anabasis, the name given by Xen- pphon to his celebrated work describ- ing the expedition of Cyrus the young- er against his brother Artaxerxes Mnemon, King of Persia. Anaconda, a large serpent of the boa family, common in inter-tropical America. The head is comparatively small, conical, very flat below, and truncated in front. The color is gray- ish-brown or olive above, with two rows , of large black spots running down the back and tail ; the sides are adorned with black rings on a yellow ground ; the under surface is ochre- yellow with black spots. The anaconda is the largest of living snakes, some- times reaching a length of over 30 feet. Brazil and Guiana form its chief habitat. It always lives in or in the neighborhood of water; lies in wait for its prey in the water, or stretched on the sand ; seldom attacks man ; and during the dry season buries itself and becomes torpid. Anacreon, a renowned lyric poet of Greece, born at Teos in Ionia, 562 ( ?) B. o. He died 477 B. 0. Anaemia, bloodlessness ; a morbid state of the system produced by loss of blood, by deprivation of light and air. The patient is characterized by great paleness, and blood-vessels, easily traceable at other times, be- come unseen after great hemorrhage, or in cases of anaemia. Anaesthesia (Greek, "lack of sensation"), a term used to express a loss of sensibility to external im- pressions, which may involve a part or the whole surface of the body. It may occur naturally as the result of disease, or may be produced artificial- ly by the administration of anaesthet- ics, such as ether, etc. The fact that sulphuric ether could produce insensibility was shown by the American physicians, Godwin (1822), Mitchell (1832), Jackson (1833), Wood and Bache (1834) ; but it was first used to prevent the pain of an operation in 1846, by Dr. Morton, a dentist of Boston. The employment of general anaes- thetics in surgery has greatly increased the scope of the surgeon's usefulness, and has been a great boon to suffering humanity. It is, however, fraught with a certain amount of danger. However much care may be taken in its administration, an occasional fatal accident occurs from the action of the anaesthetics employed. In these cases, there is generally disease of the heart, or a hyper-sensitive nervous system, predisposing to sudden sinking, or to shock. Local anaesthesia, artificially pro- duced, is of great value in minor op- erations, and, in painful affections of limited areas of the body. It may be induced by the application of cold, or of medical agents. Anagram, the letters of any word read backward, or transposed to make a new word or sentence, which has some reference to the original. Anatmac, a term signifying, in the old Mexican language, " near the water," the original name of the an- cient kingdom of Mexico. Analogy, similitude of relations between one thing and other. The thing to which the other is compared is preceded by to or with. When both are mentioned together they are con- nected by the word between. Analysis, in ordinary language, the act of analyzing ; the state of being analyzed; the result of such investi- gation. The separation of anything physical, mental, or a mere conception into its constituent elements. Anam, or Annam, a name given by the Chinese in the 3d century A. . Anarajapnra to an empire occupying the E. side of the Indo-Chinese peninsula, along the China Sea. It comprised Tonkin in the N. ; Cochin-China in the S. ; and the territory of the Laos tribes S. W. of Tonkin ; with an aggregate area of 196,500 square miles, and a popula- tion of 15,000,000. Since the French occupation in 1884 Anam while theo- retically still a native monarchy, ad- ministratively forms the central divi- sion of French Indo-China with an area of 61,500 square miles. The King rules with a council of six members under the supervision of a French resident at Hu6. Pop. 5,554,822. Anarajapura, or Anuradha- poora, a ruined city, the ancient cap- ital of Ceylon, built about 510 B. c., and said to have covered an area of 200 square miles. The spacious main streets seemed to have been lined with elegant structures. There are still several dagobas in tolerable preserva- tion, but the great object of interest is the remains of the sacred Bo-tree planted over 2,000 years ago, and the oldest historical tree in the world. Anarchists, a revolutionary sect or body setting forth as the social ideal the extreme form of individual freedom, and holding that all govern- ment is injurious and immoral, that the destruction of every social form now existing must be the first step to the creation of a new world. Their recognition as an independent sect may be dated from the secession of Bakunin and his followers from the Social Democrats at the congress of the Hague in 1872, since which they have maintained an active propaganda. The congress at London in 1881 de- cided that all means were justifiable as against the organized forces of modern society. There have been comparatively few recognized anarch- istic outrages in the United States. A number of violent manifestations popularly charged to anarchists were really the out-croppings of labor troubles ; but acknowledged anarch- ists stirred up considerable apprehen- sions after the United States was drawn into the World War, till the Federal authorities got after them. Anastasius, the name of four Popes, the first and most eminent of whom held that office for only three years (398-401). He enforced celi- Anatomy bacy on the clergy, and was an oppo- nent of the Manichseans and Origen. Anathema, a word originally sig- nifying some offering or gift to the gods, generally suspended in the tem- ple. It also signifies a thing that has been devoted to destruction (the equivalent of the Hebrew Cherem) ; and was ultimately used in its strong- est sense, implying perdition, as in Rom. ix., 3: Gal, i., 8-9. In the Ro- man Catholic Church, from the 9th century, a distinction has been made between excommunication and anathe- matizing; the latter being employed only against obstinate offenders. Anatomy, in the literal sense, means simply a cutting up, but is now generally applied both to the art of dissecting or artificially separating the different parts of an organized body (vegetable or animal) with a view to discover their situation, structure, and economy ; and to the science which treats of the internal structure of or- ganized bodies. The branch which treats of the structure of plants is called vegetable anatomy or phytotomy, and that which treats of the structure of animals animal anatomy or zootomy, a special branch of the latter being human anatomy or anthropotomy. Comparative anatomy is the science which compares the anatomy of differ- ent classes with quadrupeds, or that of quadrupeds with fishes ; while special anatomy treats of the construction, form, and structure of parts in a sin- gle animal. The history of anatomy is virtually the history of medicine, the practice of which is based upon the revelations of anatomical study. Among the ancient writers or auth- orities on human anatomy may be mentioned Hippocrates the younger (460-377 B.C.), Aristotle (384-322 B.C.), Herophilus and Erasistratus of Alexandria, (about 300 B.C., ) . Celsus (53 B.C. 37 A.D.), and Galen of Per- gamus (140-200), the most celebrated of all the ancient authorities on the science. From his time till the revival . of learning in Europe in the 14th cen- tury anatomy was checked in its pro- gress. In 1315 Mondino, professor at Bologna, first publicly performed dis- section, and published a System of Anatomy, which was a text-book in the schools of Italy for about 200 years. In the 16th century Fallopio of Anaxagoras Padua, Eustachi of Venice, Vesalius of Brussels, Varoli of Bologna, and many others, enriched anatomy with new discoveries. In the 17th century Harvey discovered the circulation of the blood, Asellius discovered the man- ner in which the nutritious part of the food is conveyed into the circulation, while the lymphatic system was de- tected and described by the Dane T. Bartoline. Among the renowned anat- omists of later times we can only men- tion Malpighi, Boerhaave, William and (John Hunter, the younger Meckel, Bichat, Rosenmuller, Quain, Sir A. Cooper, Sir C. Bell, Carus, Job, Mul- ler, Hseckel, Owen, and Huxley, and the Americans, Jeffries Wyman, Dwight, Leidy, Marsh, and Cope. Anaxagoras, a famous Greek phi- losopher of the Ionic school, born about 500 (?) B. c. He explained eclipses anc! advanced physical science. Anaximander, a Greek mathema- tician and philosopher, successor of Thales as head of the physical school of philosophy, was born at Miletus, in 611 B. c. He is said to have discov- ered the obliquity of the ecliptic, and he certainly taught it. He appears to have applied the gnomon, or style set on a horizontal plane, to determine the solstices and equinoxes. The inven- tion of maps is ascribed to him. Anaximenes, a philosopher of Miletus, flourished about 556 B. c. Pliny attributes to him the invention of the sun-dial. Anchoret, Anachoret, or An- chorite, any person who, from reli- gious motives, has renounced the world, and retired into seclusion. Anchovy, a fish which belongs to the herring family. In general, its length is from 4 to 5 inches ; but specimens are found Ty% inches long. Anchovy Pear, a tree, with large leaves, which grows in the West In- dies. The fruit which is eaten, tastes like that of the mango. Ancus Marcius, the fourth King of Rome was the grandson of King Numa Pompilius. He died in 616 B. c., after reigning 24 years. Andalusia, a large and fertile re- gion occupying the S. of Spain. Its shores are washed both by the Mediter- ranean and the Atlantic; and, though it is not now a political division of Anderson Spain, it is more frequently spoken of than the eight modern provinces into which it has been divided. Its breeds of horses and mules have long been celebrated. The mountains yield silver, copper, lead, iron, and coal ; and some ores are extensively worked. The Andalusians speak a dialect of Spanish, manifestly tinctured with traces of Arabic. Andalusia is divided into the Provinces of Almeria, Jaen, Malaga, Cadiz, Huelva, Seville, Cor- dova, and Granada. The chief towns are Seville, Cordova, and Cadiz. Area. 33,663 square miles. Pop. 3,450,209 Andamans, a group of thickly wooded islands toward the E. side of the Bay of Bengal, about 680 miles S. of the Hooghly mouth of the Ganges, with a British convict settlement. In 1872 Lord Mayo, Viceroy of India, was assassinated on Viper Island, by a Mussulman convict. Pop. 18,190. Andersen, Hans Christian, a Danish novelist, poet, and writer of fairy tales: born in Odense, April 2, 1805. Hans learned to read and write in a charity school. After many struggles he became a success- ful author, and his fairy tales gained worldwide fame. He died in Roli- ghed, Aug. 4, 1875. Andersen's tales show humor and tenderness. Anderson, city and capital of Madison county, Ind.; on a branch of the White river, a notable hydrau- lic canal, and several railroads; 35 miles N. E. of Indianapolis; is abun- dantly supplied with natural gas, and manufactures iron, steel, glass, wire, paper, brass, lumber and machinery. Pop. (1910) 22,476. Anderson, Alexander, an Amer- ican wood engraver, born in New York city, April 21, 1775 ; began engraving on copper and type metal when 12 years old, without instruction and with a knowledge of the art gained solely by watching jewelers. He pro- duced the first wood engravings ever made in the United States, and for many years was the only engraver on wood in New York. He made the plates for the fractional paper curren- cy issued by the Federal government, and for the cuts in the first editions of Webster's Spelling Book. He died 1870. Anderson, Elizabeth Garrett, an English physician, born in London Anderson in 1837. From 1876 to 1898 she was Dean of the London Medical School for Women. Anderson, Martin Brewer, an American educator, born in Bruns- wick, Me., Feb. 12, 1815 ; was chosen President of the newly organized Uni- versity of Rochester (N. Y.), in 1853, holding the post till 1888. He died Feb. 26, 1890. Anderson, Mary (Mrs. Navar- re), an American actress, born in Sacramento, Cal., July 28, 1859. She played for the first time in Louis- ville, in 1875, in the character of Ju- liet. Her success was marked and immediate, and during the following years she played with increasing popu- larity in the principal cities of the United States in various rOles. In 1883 she appeared at the Lyceum Theater, in London, and speedily be- came well known in England. Since her marriage in 1890 to Antonio Na- varro de Viana, of New York, she has retired from the stage, but it was stated in September, 1903, that she would probably consent to give the- atrical readings in the United States. Anderson, Rasmus Bjorn, an American author, born in Albion, Wis., Jan. 12, 1846, of Norwegian pa- rents. He was educated at Norwegian Lutheran College, Decorah, la. ; be- coming Professor of Scandinavian Languages in the University of Wis- consin in 1875-1884, and United States Minister to Denmark in 1885. Anderson, Robert, an American military officer ; born near Louisville, Ky., June 14, 1805; was graduated at the United States Military Academy in 1825, and entered the artillery ; was private secretary to the United States minister to Colombia in 1825- 1826 ; instructor at the Military Acad- emy for a while ; on ordnance duty in 1828-1835; served in the Black Hawk War in 1832 as colonel of vol- unteers, taking part in the battle of Bad Axe ; and in the Florida War in 1837-1838 on General Scott's staff, and was made assistant adjutant-gen- eral on the staff in May of the latter year. He was with General Scott in .his campaign in Mexico, taking part I in the engagements at Vera Cruz, Cer- ro Gordo, Amozoque, and at Molino del Rey, where he was severely wounded. Andersonville He was commissioned major and was placed in command of Charleston har- bor, to succeed Colonel Gardiner, with headquarters at Fort Moultrie, in 1860. After arriving at Fourt Moul- trie he informed the government of the weakness of the forts in the harbor, and urged the necessity of immediately strengthening them. As the govern- ment did not respond, and he was left to his own resources, he began to strengthen Castle Pinckney and Fort Moultrie. Fearing that Fort Moultrie would be attacked at any moment he applied to the government for instruc- tions. Receiving none he decided to remove with his garrison to Fort Sum- ter. This he did on the evening of Dec. 26. The Confederates were much surprised the next day on discovering the change, and asked him to explain his conduct in acting without orders, to which he replied that he did it to save the government works. He was attacked and surrendered the fort after a heavy bombardment, April 12-13, 1861. In 1861 he was promoted Brig- adier-General, U. S. A., and placed in command of the Department of Kentucky and of the Cumberland, but failing health caused him to retire from active service in 1863, when he was brevetted Major-General. He died in Nice, France, Oct 26, 1871. Anderson, Rufus, an American missionary, born in North Yarmouth, Me., Aug. 17, 1796; was graduated at Bowdoin College in 1818, and Andoyer Theological Seminary in 1822; Assist- ant Secretary of the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Mis- sions in 1824-1858; a founder of Mount Holyoke Seminary. He died in Boston, May 30, 1880. Andersonville, a village in Geor- gia, noted as having been the seat of a Confederate States military prison. Between Feb. 15, 1864, and April, 1865, 49,485 prisoners were received, of whom 12,926 died in that time of va- rious diseases. What was formerly a hamlet is now a town adorned with gravel walks and trees, and containing several churches. The cemetery is laid out in a neat fashion with tablets that mark the burial places of the dead. The long trenches where the soldiers were buried have since been laid ct-t as a National cemetery, for the bodies of Northern dead. Andersson Andersson, Carl Jan, an African traveler ; born in the province of Wermland, Sweden, in 1827. He died in the land of the Ovampos, in West- ern Africa, in July, 1867. Andes, The, or, as they are called by the Spanish in South America, Cor- dilleras, a range of mountains, of such vast extent and altitude as to render them one of the most remark- able physical features of the globe. It follows the whole of the W. coast of South America, from Cape Horn to the Isthmus of Panama and the Car- ibbean Sea. Sometimes it is spoken of as a continuation of the Rocky mountains in North America, but there seems to be no other reason for doing this than the continuity of the two divisions of America, and the fact that both ranges lie in the W. of their respective continents. There is a suf- ficiently marked break between the ridges of the Isthmus of Panama and the range of the Andes of South Amer- ica, and a still more distinct hiatus be- tween the Sierras of Central America and Mexico and the Rocky mountains. Andorra, a valley in the Eastern Pyrenees, between the French depart- ment of Arige and the Spanish pro- vince of Lerida, part of Catalonia. It is inclosed by mountains, through which its river, the Balira, breaks to join the Segre at Urgel ; and its inac- cessibility naturally fits it for being the seat of the interesting little re- public which here holds a kind of semi- independent position between France and Spain. Area (divided into six communes), 175 square miles. Popu- lation about 15,000. Andover Theological Semi- nary, a noted Congregational institu- tion at Andover, Slass. ; founded in 1807. Andral, Gabriel, a French phy- sician and pathologist, born in Paris, Nov. 6, 1797. He died Feb. 13, 1876. Andrassy, Julius Count, Hun- garian statesman, born March 8, 1823. He was a conspicuous member of the Congress of Berlin in 1878; negotiat- ed the German-Austrian alliance with Bismarck in 1879; and the same year retired from public life. He died Feb. 18, 1890. Andre, John, a British military officer, born in London in 1751 ; enter- ___ Andre ed the army in 1771 ; went to Canada in 1774 ; and was made prisoner by the Americans in 1775. After his ex- change, he was rapidly promoted, and in 1780 was appointed Adjutant-Gen- eral, with the rank of Major. His prospects were of the most flattering kind when the treason of Arnold led to his death. The temporary absence of Washington having been chosen by the traitor as the most proper season for carrying into effect his design of delivering to Sir Henry Clinton the fortification at West Point, then un- der his command, and refusing to con- fide to any but Major Andre the maps and information required by the Brit- ish general, an interview became neces- sary, and Sept. 19, 1780, Andre left New York in the sloop-of-war " Vul- ture," and on the next day arrived at Fort Montgomery, in company with Beverly Robinson, an American re- siding at the lines, through whom the communications had been carried on. Furnished with passports from Ar- nold, Robinson and Andr6 the next day landed and were received by the traitor at the water's edge. Having arranged all the details of the proposed treason, Arnold delivered to Andre" drafts of the works at West Point and memoranda of the forces under his command, and the latter returned to the beach in hopes of being immediate- ly conveyed to the " Vulture." But the ferrymen, who were Americans, re- fused to carry him, and as Arnold would not interpose his authority, he was compelled to return by land. Un- fortunately for him he persisted, against the advice of Arnold, in re- taining the papers, which he concealed in his boot. Accompanied by Smith, an emissary of Arnold, and provided with a passport under his assumed name of Anderson, he set out and reached in safety a spot from which they could see the ground occupied by the English videttes. At Tarrytowii he was first stopped, and then arrested, by three Americans. Andr< offered them his money, horse, and a large re- ward, but without avail. They ex- amined his person, and, in his boots, found the fatal papers. He was then conveyed to Colonel Jameson, com- mander of the American outposts. On the arrival of Washington, Andre was conveyed to Tappan and tried by Andre a board of general officers, among whom were General Greene, the presi- dent, Lafayette, and Knox. Every ef- fort was made by Sir Henry Clinton to save him, and there was a strong disposition on the American side to do po. His execution, originally appoint- ed for Sept. 30, did not take place till Oct. 2. If possession could have been obtained of the traitor, the life of Andr6 would have been spared. His remains, which were buried on the spot, were afterward removed to Lon- don, and now repose in Westminster Abbey. Andre, Louis Joseph. Nicolas, a French military officer, born in Nuits, Burgundy, March 29, 1838. He was graduated at the Polytechnic School, and in 1865 became captain, serving in that capacity throughout the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-1871. He became Major in 1877, Lieutenant- Colonel in 1885, and Colonel in 1888. He was made General of Brigade in 1893, and placed in charge of the Poly- technic School. He married, in 1875, Mile. Chapuis, a talented singer of the Opera Comique. On May 29, 1900, he was appointed Minister of War by President Loubet, succeeding General the Marquis de Gallifet , who held the office during the exciting period of the Dreyfus revision. Died March 18, 1913. Andrea, Jakob, a German Pro- testant theologian, born in Wiirtem- berg, March 25, 1528; died in Tubin- gen, Jan. 7, 1590. Andrea, Johann Valentin, a very original thinker and writer, born in 1586, near Tubingen. He studied at Tubingen, became a Protestant pas- tor, and died in 1654 at Stuttgart, where he was chaplain to the court. Eminently practical in mind, he was grieved to see the principles of Chris- tianity made the subject of mere empty disputations, and devoted his whole life to correct this prevailing tendency of his age. Andree, Solomon Auguste, a Swedish aeronaut, born Oct. 18, 1854 ; educated for a civil engineer. In 1882, he took part in a Swedish meteoro- logical expedition to Spitsbergen. In 1884 he was appointed chief engineer to the patent office, and from 1886 to 1889 he occupied a professor's chair at Stockholm. In 1892 be received Andrew* from the Swedish Academy of Sci- ences a subvention for the purpose of undertaking scientific aerial naviga- tion. From that time Dr. Andree de- voted himself to aerial navigation, and made his first ascent at Stockholm in the summer of 1893. In 1895 he pre- sented to the Academy of Sciences a well-matured project for exploring the regions of the North Pole with the aid of a balloon. The estimated cost amounted to about $40,000. A na- tional subscription was opened, which was completed in a few days, the King of Sweden contributing the sum of $8,280. With two companions, Dr. S. T. Strindberg and Herr Fraenckell, he started from Dane's island, Spitzber- gen, July 11, 1897. His balloon was 07^4 feet in diameter, with a capacity of 170,000 cubic feet. Its speed was estimated at from 12 to 15 miles an hour, at which rate the Pole should have been reached in six days, pro- vided a favorable and constant wind had been blowing. Two days after his departure, a message was received from Dr. Andr6e by carrier pigeon, which stated that at noon, July 13, they were in latitude 82.2, and longitude 15.5 E., and making good progress to the E., 10 southerly. This was the last word received from the explorer. Andrew, the first disciple, one of the apostles of Jesus. His career after the Master's death is unknown. Tradition tells us that, after preach- ing the gospel in Scythia, Northern Greece, and Epirus, he suffered mar- tyrdom on the cross at Patrse, in Achaia, 62 or 70 A. D. Andrew I., King of Hungary, in 1046-1049; compelled his subjects to embrace Christianity ; he was killed in battle in 1058. Andrew, John Albion, war gov- enor of Massachusetts. Was born at Windham in 1818, died 1867. His "Let- ters and Life" was published in 1904. Andrews, Christopher Colum- bus, an American diplomat and writer, born at Hillsboro, N. H., Oct. 27, 1829; was brevetted Major-Gen- eral in the Civil War; United States Minister to Sweden from 1869 to 1877, and Consul-General to Brazil from 1882 to 1885. Andrews, Elisha Benjamin, an American educator, born in Hinsdale, Andrews N. H., Jan. 10, 1844; he was grad- uated at Brown University, 1870, and Newton Theological Seminary, 1874 ; President of Brown University in 1889-1898 ; became Superintendent of Public Schools in Chicago in 1898, and Chancellor of the University of Nebraska in 1900; resigned in 1908. Andrews, Ethan Allen, an American educator and lexicographer, born at New Britain, Conn., April 7, 1787. He died in 1858. Andrews, Jane, an American ju- venile story writer, born in Massachu- setts in 1833. She died in 1887. Andrews, John N., an American military officer, born in Delaware, in 1838; was graduated at West Point in 1860 ; served with distinction through the Civil War ; commissioned Colonel of the 12th United States in- fantry in 1895 ; and appointed a Brig- adier-General of Volunteers for the war against Spain in 1898. Andrews, Lorrin, an American missionary, born in East Windsor, Conn. , April 29, 1795 ; was educated at Jefferson College and Princeton Theological Seminary, and went as a missionary to the Hawaiian Islands in 1827. He founded, in 1831, the La- hainaluna Seminary, which later be- came the Hawaii University, where he served 10 years as a professor. He translated a part of the Bible into the Hawaiian language. In 1845 he be- came a judge under the Hawaiian Government and Secretary of the Privy Council. He produced several works on the literature and antiquities of Hawaii, and a Hawaiian diction- ary. He died in 1868. Andrews, Stephen Pearl, an American writer, born at Templeton, Mass., March 22, 1812; was a promi- nent abolitionist, practiced law in the South, and settled in New York in 1847. He died at New York, May 21, 1886. Andromache, a daughter of JEtion, King of Thebes in Cilicia, and wife of Hector. After the conquest of Troy she became the prize of Pyrrhu?, son of Achilles, who carried her to Epirus and had three sons by her, but afterward left her to Helenus, brother of Hector, to whom she bore a son. Euripides has made her the chief character of a tragedy. Angel Andromeda, in classical mythology a daughter of Sepheus, King of Ethi- opia and Cassiope. It was fabled that she was chained to a rock by order of Jupiter Ammon, and then exposed to the attacks of a monster. Perseus re- leased, and afterward married her. On her death she was changed into the constellation which bears her name. In astronomy, a constellation, fanci- fully supposed to resemble a woman chained. Andros Islands, a group of islands belonging to the Bahamas. Andros, Sir Edmund, an Eng- lish provincial governor, born in 1637 ; was governor of New York in 1674- 1682, and of New England, with New York included, in 1686-1689. His harsh execution of the orders of the Duke of York caused him to be gener- ally execrated, and, after his attempt to deprive Connecticut of its royal charter, he was seized by the people of Boston and sent to England under charges. He was also Governor of Virginia in 1692-1698, and of the Is- land of Jersey in 1704-1706. He died in 1714. Anemometer, an instrument de- signed to measure the velocity of the wind, on which its strength depends. Anemone, a genus of plants be- longing to the crowfoots. ^ In zoology, it is a popular name given to various radiated animals which present a superficial resemb- lance to the anemone. Anemoscope, an instrument for rendering visible the direction of the wind. In that commonly used there is a vane exposed to the wind acting upon an index moving round a dial- plate on which the 32 points of the compass are engraved. Aneroid, not containing any li- quid ; used chiefly in the expression, " aneroid barometer." Anenrism, a morbid dilation of the aorta, or one of the other great arter- ies of the body. Angel, a messenger, one employed to carry a message, a locum tenens, a man of business. In a special sense an angel is one of an order of spiritual beings superior to man in power and intelligence, vast in number, holy in character, and thor- oughly devoted to the worship and ser- Angel Fish vice of God, who employs them as his heavenly messengers. Their existence is made known to us by Scripture, and is recognized also in the Parsee sacred books. Angel Fish, a fish of the shark family, the reverse of angelic in its look, but which derived its name from the fact that its extended pec- toral fins present the appearance ot wings. It is called also monk-fish, fiddle-fish, shark-ray, and kingston. Angelica, a genus of plants mostly herbaceous and perennial, natives of the temperate and colder regions of the northern hemisphere. Wild angel- ica (A. sylvestris) is a common plant in moist meadows, by the sides of brooks, and in woods. The garden an- gelica is a biennial plant, becoming perennial when not allowed to ripen its seeds. Angelico, Fra, the commonest designation of the great friar-painter in full, " II beato Fra Giovanni An- gelico da Fiesole," " the blessed Brother John the angelic of Fiesole." Born in 1387 at Vicchio, in the Tus- can province of Mugello, in 1407, he entered the Dominican monastery at Fiesole, in 1436 he was transferred to Florence, and in 1445 was summoned by the Pope to Rome, where thence- forward he chiefly resided till his death in 1455. Angell, George Thoradike, an American reformer, born in 1820, He was graduated at Dartmouth, 1846, and admitted to the bar, 1851. He was active in promoting measures for the prevention of crime, cruelties, and the adulteration of food, and founded the American Humane Educational Society. He died in 1909. Angell, James Bnrrill, an Amer- ican educator and diplomatist, born in Scituate, R. I., Jan. 7, 1827; was graduated from Brown University in 1850. He became president of the University of Vermont in 1866 and of the University of Michigan in 1871; was minister to China in 1880-81 and to Turkey in 1897-98 ; again president of the University of Michigan in 1900- 10. He died April 1, 1916. Angell, Joseph Kinnicnt, an American lawyer, born in Providence, R. I., in 1794; best known for his works on "Treatise on the Right of Angle Property in Tide- Waters," and " The Limitation of Actions at Law and in Equity and Admiralty." He died in 1857. Angelo (Michelangelo). See MI- CHELANGELO BUONABOTTI. Angelns, The, a painting by J. P. Millet. It represents two French peasants who have stopped their work in the field to listen to the Angelus bell, and to pray. The American Art Association bought the picture in 1899 for about 580,000 francs, exhibited it about the country and sold it in 1890 for $150.000. Angelns, in the Roman Catholic Church, a short form of prayer in honor of the incarnation, consisting mainly of versicles and responses. Angina Pectoris, the name first given by Dr. Heberden in 1768, and since then universally adopted as the designation of a very painful disease, called by him also a disorder of the breast; by some others, spasm of the chest, or heart stroke, and popularly breast pang. It is characterized by intense pain in the prsecordial region, attended by a feeling of suffocation and a fearful sense of impending death. These symptoms may continue for a few minutes, half an hour, or even an hour or more. During the paroxysm the pulse is low, with the body cold, and often covered with clammy perspiration. Death does not often result from the first seizure, but the malady tends to return at more or less remote intervals, generally prov- ing fatal at last. There are several varieties of it : an organic and func- tional form ; and again a pure or idio- pathic and a complex or sympathetic one have been recognized. Angina is produced by disease of the heart. It especially attacks elderly persons of plethoric habits, men oftener than women, generally coming on when they are walking, and yet more, it they are running up stairs or exerting great effort on ascending a hill. Stim- ulants should be administered during the continuance of a paroxysm ; but it requires a radical improvement of the general health to produce a permanent effect on the disorder. Angle, the point where two lines meet, or the meeting of two lines in a point. Technically, the inclination ot two lines to one another. Angler Fish Angler Fish, a fish called also sea devil, frog, or frog fish. It has an enormous head, on which are placed two elongated appendages or filaments, the first of them broad and flattened at the end. These, being movable, are maneuvered as if they were bait; and when small fishes approach to examine them, the angler, hidden amid mud and sand, which it has stirred up by means of its pectoral and ventral fins, seizes them at once; hence its name. Angles, a German tribe who ap- pear to have originally dwelt on the E. side of the Elbe between the mouth of the Saale and Qhre, and to have re- moved N. from their old abodes to the modern Schleswig, where they dwelt between the Jutes and Saxons. In the 5th century they joined their pow- erful N. neighbors, the Saxons, and tools part in the conquest of Britain, which from them derived its future name of England. Anglesey, or Anglesea, an island and county of England, in North Wales, in the Irish Sea, separated from the mainland by the Menai Strait. It is about 20 miles long and 17 miles broad. The Menai Strait is crossed by a magnificent suspension bridge, 580 feet between the piers and 100 feet above high-water mark, allow- ing the largest vessels which navigate the strait to sail under it ; and also by the great Britannia tubular bridge, for the conveyance of railway trains, Holyhead being the point of departure for the Irish mails. HOOKS BAITED WITH WOBMS. Anglican Church, The, means collectively that group of autonomous churches which are in communion with, or have sprung from, the mother ^ Angling Church of England. They are the following: The Church of Ireland, the Episcopal Church of Scotland, the Protestant Episcopal Church of the United States of America, the Church of Canada, the Church of Australia, the Indian Church, and the Church of South Africa, which are all autono- mous bodies under the jurisdiction of their own metropolitans, and not amenable to the ecclesiastical courts of the Church of England, though they all look to the Archbishop of Canter- bury as patriarch. In addition tc these autonomous churches in connec- tion with the Anglican communion, there are 12 missionary bishops, repre- senting the English church in various remote regions of Asia, Africa, and America ; and three or four represent- ing the Protestant Episcopal Church of America. The Reformed Episcopal Church of America and the Free Church of England are not recognized as authentic branches of the Anglican Church. The American Church, le- gally the Protestant Episcopal Church, according to the U. S. census of 1910, had 6,845 organizations, 77 dioceses and missionary districts, 5,368 clergy, 886,942 communicants, and church property valued at $125,040,498. ARTIFICIAL FLIES. Angling, the art of catching fish with a hook, or angle (Anglo-Saxon, ongel), baited with worms, small fish. Anglo-American Com. Aniline flies, etc. We find occasional allusions to this pursuit among the Greek and Latin classical writers ; it is mentioned several times in the Old Testament, and it was practiced by the ancient Egyptians. The oldest work on the subject in English is the " Treatyse of Fysbinge with an Angle." printed by Wynkyn de Worde in 1496, along with treaties on hunting and hawking, the whole being ascribed to Dame Juliana Berners, or Barnes, prioress of a nun- nery near St. Alban. Walton's inim- itable discourse on angling was first printed in 1653. Anglo-American Commission, a joint international commission ap- pointed in 1898, by the United States and Great Britain, to negotiate a plan for the settlement of all controversial matters between the United States and Canada. This commission settled the Alaskan boundary. Anglo-French Treaty, a diplo- matic agreement between England and France, signed April 8, 1904. By this treaty, France gave up her claims to certain sovereign rights on the New- foundland shore ; the rights and privi- leges of the two nations in Egypt, Morocco, and Africa generally, are set forth, and the position of France in Siam, Madagascar, etc., defined. Anglo-Japanese Alliance, a protective agreement for the mutual defense of interests in eastern Asia and India, effected by treaties in 1902 and 1905, between Great Britain and Japan. Anglo-Saxons, the name used, with doubtful propriety, by modern historians to include the Angles, Sax- ons, and Jutes, who settled in Britain in the 5th and 6th centuries after Christ, and thus became the ancestors of the English people. These tribes came from Germany, where they in- habited the parts about the mouths of the Elbe and Weser, and the first body of them who gained a footing in Eng- land are said to have landed in 449, and to have been led by Hengist and Horsa. The Jutes settled chiefly in Kent, the Saxons in the S. and middle of the country, and the Angles in the N. Among the various Anglo-Saxon States that afterwards arose those founded by the Angles first gained the preponderance, and the whole country came in time to be called after them Engla-land, that is, the land of the Angles. Angora Cat, Goat, etc., a variety of these common animals, generally supposed to have originated in Angora. They are characterized by the length and silkiness of the hair, which makes the goat a valuable animal to raise. In America, each generation of the goat has a poorer fleece, the excellent quality being retained only by frequent crossings with the original stock. Angostura Bark, the aromatic bitter medicinal bark obtained chiefly from Galipea officinal is, a tree of 10 to 20 feet high, growing in the north- ern regions of South America ; natural order rutacse. The bark is valuable as a tonic and febrifuge, and is also used for a kind of bitters. Angonleme, Louis Antoine de Bourbon, Due d', the eldest son of Charles X. of France, and Dauphin during his father's reign, born at Ver- sailles Aug. 6, 1775. On the rev- olution in July, 1830, he signed, with his father, an abdication in favor of his nephew, the Due de Bordeaux ; and when the Chambers declared the family of Charles X. to have forfeited the throne, he accom' panied him into exile, to Holyrood, to Prague, and to Gorz. He died, 1844. Anhalt, a duchy of North Ger- many, lying partly in the plains of the Middle Elbe, and partly in the valleys and uplands of the Lower Harz, and almost entirely surrounded by Prussia; area, 906 square miles. The united principality is now incor- porated in the German Empire, and has one vote in the Bundesrath and two in the Reichstag. Pop. (1910) 331,128. The chief towns are Dessau, Bernburg, Kothen, and Zerbst. Ani, the name given to a division of the Cuculidae, or cuckoos; the typ- ical anis are found in South America, the West Indies and Florida. They are about the size of our blackbird. Anichini, Ludwig, a Venetian engraver of great celebrity. On see- ing his pieces, Michael Angelo is said to have exclaimed that the art of engraving had reached perfection. Aniline, an organic substance used as the basis of brilliant and durable dyes. It is found in small quantities in coal-tar, but the aniline of com- Annato merce is obtained from benzene or ben- zole, a constituent of coal-tar, consist- ing of hydrogen and carbon. It is a colorless oily liquid somewhat heav- ier than water, with a peculiar vinous smell, and a burning taste. Its name is derived from anil, the Portuguese Und Spanish name for indigo, from the dry distillation of which substance it was first obtained by the chemist Un- ?erdorben in 1826. The manufacture of aniline or coal-tar dyes as a branch of industry was introduced in 1856 by Mr. Perkin of London. Animal, an organized and sen- tient living being. Life in the earlier periods of natural history was attri- buted almost exclusively to animals. With the progress of science, how- ever, it was extended to plants. In the case of the higher animals and plants there is no difficulty in assign- ing the individual to one of the iwo great kingdoms of organic nature, but in their lowest manifestations, the veg- etable and animal kingdoms are brought into such immediate contact that it becomes almost impossible to assign them precise limits, and to say With certainty where the one begins and the other ends. From form no ab- solute distinction can be fixed between animals and plants. Many animals, such as the sea-shrub, sea-mats, etc., so resemble plants in external appear- ance that they were, and even yet popularly are, looked upon as such. Animal Chemistry, the depart- ment of organic chemistry which in- vestigates the composition of the fluids and the solids of animals, and the chemical action that takes place in animal bodies. Animal Magnetism. (See HYP- NOTISM). Anise, an umbelliferous plant, cul- tivated in Malta and Spain for the sake of its aromatic and carminative seeds which form a profitable article of export and commerce. Its scent tends to neutralize other smells. Anjon or Beagne, Battle of, between the English and French ; the latter commanded by the Dauphin of France March 22, 1421. The Eng- lish were defeated ; the Duke of Clar- ence was slain by Sir Allan Swinton, a Scotch knight, and 1,500 men per- ished on the field; the Earls of Som- erset, Dorset and Huntingdon were taken prisoners. This was the first battle that turned the tide of success against the English. Anna Comnena, daughter of Alex- ius Comnenus I., Byzantine emperor. She was born 1083, and died 1148. After her father's death she endeav- ored to secure the succession to her husband, Nicephorus Briennius, but was baffled by his want of energy and ambition. She wrote (in Greek) a life of her father Alexius, which, in the midst of much fulsome panegyric, con- tains some valuable and interesting in- formation. She forms a character in Scott's " Count Robert of Paris." Anna Ivanovna, Empress of Russia ; born in 1693 ; the daughter of Ivan, the elder half-brother of Peter the Great. Anna died in 1740. Annals, a history of events in chronological order, each event being recorded under the year in which it occurred. The name is derived from the first records of the Romans, which were called annales pontificum as drawn up by the pontifex maximus (chief pontiff). The name was applied in later times to historical wor^o in which the matter was treated with special reference to chronological ar- rangement as to the Annals of Tacitus. Annapolis, the capical of Mary- land, on the Severn, near its mouth, about tffo miles from Chesapeake Bay. It contains a college (St. John's), a state-house, and the United States naval academy. It has a fine harbor, and is the seat of an extensive oyster industry. Pop. (1910) 8,690. Annapolis Convention, a con- vention that met in Annapolis, Md., Sept. 11, 1786, to consider changes in the Articles of Confederation, but effected nothing. Ann Arbor, city and capital of Washtenaw county, Mich.; on the Huron river; 38 miles W. of De- troit; manufactures farm implements, woolen goods, furniture, carriages, and organs; and is the seat of the State University. Pop. (1910) 14,817. Annato, or Arnotto, an orange- red coloring matter, obtained from a shrub cultivated in Guiana, St. Do- mingo, and the East Indies. It is sometimes used as a dye for silk and cotton goods, and is much used in COPYRIGHT, 1913, BY F. E. WRIGH1 FUR-BEAR ANIMALS Anne of Austria Anniversaries medicine for tinting plasters and oint- ments, and for giving a rich color to cheese and butter. Anne of Austria, daughter of Philip III. of Spain, was born at Ma- drid in 1602, and in 1G15 was married to Louis XIII. of France. Richelieu, fearing the influence of her foreign connections did everything he could to humble her. In 1G43 her husband died, and she was left regent, but placed under the control of a council. But the parliament overthrew this ar- rangement, and intrusted her with full sovereign rights during the minority of her son, Louis XIV. She, how- over, brought upon, herself the hatred of the nobles by her boundless confi- dence in Cardinal Mazarin, and was forced to flee from Paris during the wars of the Fronde. She ultimately quelled all opposition, and was able, in 1661, to transmit to her son, unim- paired, the royal authority. She spent the remainder of her life in retire- ment, and died Jan. 20, 1666. Anne, Qneen of Great Britain and Ireland, was born at Twick- enham, near London, Feb. 6, 1664 ; the second daughter of James II., then Duke of York, and Anne, his wife, daughter of the Earl of Clarendon. She was educated according to the principles of the English Church. In 1683 she was married to Prince George, brother to King Christian V. of Denmark. On the arrival of the Prince of Orange in 1688, Anne wished to remain with her father ; but she was prevailed upon by Lord Churchill (afterward Duke of Marlborough) and his wife to join the triumphant party. After the death of William III., in 1702, she ascended the English throne. Her character was essentially weak, and she was governed first bv Marl- borough and his wife, and afterward by Mrs. Masham. Most of the prin- cipal events of her reign are connected with the War of the Spanish Succes- sion. The only important acquisition that England made by it was Gibral- tar, which was captured in 1704. An- other very important event of this reign was the union of England and Scotland, under the name of Great Britain, which was accomplished in 1707. She died, July 20, 1714. The reign of Anne was distinguished not only by the brilliant successes of the E. 7. British arms, but also on account of the number of admirable and excellent writers who nourished at this time, among them Pope, Swift, and Addison. Annealing, a process to which many articles of metal and glass are subjected after making, in order to render them more tenacious, and which consists in heating them and allowing them to cool slowly Annelida, a class of animals be- longing to the sub-kingdom articulata, the annulosa of some naturalists. They are sometimes called red blooded worms, being the only invertebrated animals possessing this character. Annexation, a national acquisi- tion of territory. The term is properly used when adjoining territory is an- nexed, but in a loose way it is applied to the extension of a nation's sov- ereignty over any land. Annihilationism, the theory of the utter extinction of man's being, both bodily and spiritual, either at death or at some later period. Arch- bishop Whately says that in the pas- sages in Scripture in which 'death,' 'destruction,' 'eternal death,' are men- tioned, the words may be taken as sig- nifying literal death, real destruction, the utter end of things. Of late those who hold to this theory have adopted the term ' conditional immortality.' Anniston, city and county seat of Calhoun Co.. Ala. The city is the cen- tre of a region of coal, iron, and tim- ber, and the seat of a large cotton trade. Pop. (1910) 12,794. Anniversaries, the yearly recur- rence of the date upon which any past event, of historical or personal in- terest, has taken place. A number of anniversaries of interest to Americans are included in the following : Jan. 1, 1863, Emancipation Procla- mation, by Lincoln. Jan. 8, 1815, Battle of New Or- leans. Jan. 17, 1706. Franklin born. Jan. 17, 1781, Battle of the Cow- pens, S. C. Jan 19, 1807, Robert E. Lee born. Jan. 27, 1859, German Emperor born. Feb. 12, 1809, Abraham Lincoln born. Feb. 15, 1P98, battleship "Maine" blown UD. Anniversaries Annunciation Feb. 22, 1732, George Washington 1x>rn. Feb. 22-23, 1847, Battle of Buena Vista. March 5, 1770, Boston massacre. March 15, 1767, Andrew Jackson born. April 9, 1865, Lee surrendered at Appomattox. April 12, 1861, Fort Sumter fired upon. April 12, 1777, Henry Clay born. April 13, 1743, Thomas Jefferson born. April 14, 1865, Lincoln assassinated. April 19, 1881, Primrose Day in England, Lord Beaconsfield died. April 19, 1775, Battle of Lexington and Concord. April 30, 1789, Washington was inaugurated first President. May 1, 1898, Dewey destroyed the Spanish fleet at Manila. May 13, 1607, first English settle- ment in America, at Jamestown. May 13, 1783, the Society of the Cincinnati was organized by officers of the Revolutionary army. May 20, 1775, Mecklenburg, N. C., Declaration of Independence. June 14, 1777, American flag adopt- ed by Congress. June 15, 1215, King John granted Magna Charta at Runnymede. June 17, 1775, Battle of Bunker Hill. June 18, 1815, Battle of Waterloo. June 28, 1776, Battle of Fort Moul- trie, Charleston, S. C. July 1, Dominion Day in Canada. July 1-2, 1898, general assault on Santiago de Cuba. July 1-3, 1863, Battle of Gettys- burg. July 3, 1898, Cervera's fleet de- stroyed off Santiago. July 14, 1789, the Bastile was de- stroyed. July 16, 1898, Santiago surrendered. July 21, 1861, Battle of Bull Run. Aug. 13, 1898, Manila surrendered to the Americans. Aug. 16, 1777, Battle of Benning- ton, Vt. Sept. 8, 1781, Battle of Eutaw Springs, S. C. Sept. 10, 1813, Battle of Lake Erie, Perry's victory. Sept. 11, 1814, Battle of Lake Champlain, McDonough's victory. Sept. 12, 1814, Battle of North Point, near Baltimore. Sept. 13, 1847, Battle of Chapulte- pec. Sept. 14, 1847, City of Mexico taken bv United States troops. Sept. 17, 1862. Battle of Antietam. Sept. 19-20, 1863, Battle of Chick- am auga. Sept. 20, 1870, Italians occupied Rome. Oct. 7, 1780, Battle of King's Moun- tain, N. C. Oct. 8-11, 1871, great fire of Chi- cabo. Oct. 12, 1492, Columbus discovered America. Oct. 17, 1777, Burgoyne surrendered at Saratoga. Oct. 19, 1781, Cornwallis surren- dered at Yorktown. Nov. 5, 1604, Guy Fawkes Day in England, the gunpowder plot discov- ered. Nov. 9, 1872, great fire of Boston. Nov. 25, 1783, British evacuated New York. Dec. 14, 1799, Washington died. Dec. 16, 1773, Boston "Tea Party." Dec. 22, 1620, Mayflower pilgrims landed at Plymouth Rock. Dec. 25-26, 1776, Battle of Tren- ton, N. J. Anno Domini, A. D., the year of Our Lord, in Latin. The Christian era began Jan. 1, in the middle of the fourth year of the 194th Olympiad, the 753rd year of the building of Rome, and in 4714 of the Julian pe- riod. This era was invented by a monk, Dionysius Exiguus, about 532. It was introduced into Italy in the 6th century, and ordered to be used by bishops by the Council of Chelsea, in 816, but was not generally employed for several centuries. Charles III. of Germany was the first who added " in the year of our Lord" to his reign, in 879. Annuity, a fixed sum of money paid yearly. In the United States the granting of annuities is conducted by private companies or corporations. The purchase of annuities, as a sys^ tem, has never gained much foothold the endowment plan of life insur- ance, by which, after the lapse of a term of years, the insured receives a sum in bulk, being preferred. Annunciation, the declaration of the angel Gabriel to the Virgin Anode Anste/ Mary informing her that she was to become the mother of our Lord. An- nunciation or Lady Day is a feast in honor of the Annunciation, celebrated on the 25th of March. Anode, the name given by Fara- day to what is called by Daniell the zincode, and by various other writers the positive pole of an electric bat- tery ; or, more precisely, the " way " or path by which the electric current passes out and enters the electrolyte on its way to the other pole. Anodyne, a medicine which alle- viates pain, though, if given in too large doses, it induces stupor. Anointing, rubbing the body or some part of it with oil, often per- fumed. From time immemorial the nations of the East have been in the habit of anointing themselves for the sake of health and beauty. In the Mosaic law a sacred character was attached to the anointing of the garments of the priests and things belonging to the ceremonial of wor- ship. The custom of anointing still exists in the Roman Catholic Church in the ordination of priests and the confirmation of believers and the sac- rament of extreme unction. The cere- mony is also frequently a part of the coronation of kings. Anomalure, a genus of rodent an- imals inhabitating the W. coast of Af- rica, resembling the flying-squirrels, but having the under surface of the tail " furnished for some distance from the roots with a series of large horny scales, which, when pressed against the trunk of a tree, may subserve the same purpose as those instruments with which a man climbs up a tele- graph pole to set the wires." Anonymous, literally " without name," applied to anything which is the work of a person whose name is unknown or who keeps his name se- cret. Pseudonym is a term used for an assumed name. Anoplotherium, an extinct ge- nus of the ungulata or hoofed quad- rupeds, forming the type of a distinct family, which were in many respects intermediate between the swine and fhe true ruminants. These animals were pig-like in form, but possessed long tails, and had a cleft hoof, with two rudimentary toes. Some of them were as small as a guinea-pig, others as large as an ass. Anosmia, a disease consisting in a diminution or destruction of the power of smelling, sometimes constitu- tional, but most frequently caused by strong and repeated stimulants, as snuff, applied to the olfactory nerves. Anquetil-Duperron. Abraham Hyacinthe, a French orientalist, born in 1731. He died in 1805. Anselm of Canterbury, a Chris- tian philosopher and theologian ; re- garded by some as the founder of scholasticism ; born in Aosta, Pied- mont, between April 21, 1033, and April 21, 1034. In 1092 he went to i England. In the following year he ' was nominated by William Rufus Archbishop of Canterbury, and was consecrated on Dec. 4, 1093. He died in Canterbury, April 21, 1109; was canonized in 1494. Ansgar, or Anshar, called the | Apostle of the North, was born in 801 in Picardy, and he took the monastic vows in boyhood. In the midst of many difficulties he labored as a mis- sionary in Denmark and Sweden ; dy- ing in 804 or 865, with the reputation of having undertaken, if not the first, the most successful, attempts for the propagation of Christianity in the North. Anson, George, Lord, a cele- brated English navigator, born in 1697; entered the navy at an early age and became a commander in 1722, and captain in 1724. He was for a long time on the South Carolina sta- tion, fiis victory over the French admiral, Jonquiere, near Cape Finis- terre in 1747, raised him to the peer- age. He died in 1762. Ansonia, a city in New Haven county, Conn.; on the Naugatuck river and the New York, New Haven & Hartford railroad; 10 miles W. of New Haven; is widely noted for its extensive manufactures of clocks, and brass, copper, and woolen goods. ;Pop. (1910) 15,152. Ansted, David Thomas, an Eng- lish geologist, born 1814; died 1880. Anstey, F., pseudonym of THOMAS ANSTEY GUTHRIE, an English humor- ist, born in Kensington in 1856; grad- uated from Cambridge in 1875, was Ant called to the bar in 1880, and joined "Punch" staff in 1887. Ant, the name that is commonly applied to various genera of hymenop- terous or membranous-winged insects. Most of the species live in large com- panies or societies, composed of three sorts of individuals males, females, and neuters. The males and females have long wings, which are not so much veined as in other insects of the same section, and are only temporary ; the neuters, which are simply females with imperfectly developed organs, are smaller than the males and females, and are destitute of wings. The neu- ters perform all the labors of the ant- hill ; they excavate the galleries, pro- cure food, and wait upon the larva? till they are fit to leave their cells, ap- pearing always industrious and solici- tous. Male and female ants survive, at most, till autumn, or to the commence- ment of cool weather, though a very large proportion of them cease to exist long previous to that time. The neu- ters pass the winter in a state of tor- por, and of course require no food. The zoological characters of the ant family, which includes the familiar ants, are found in the females being of larger size than the males; in the sexes being winged, while the neuters are wingless ; and in the antennae pos- sessing a long basal joint. Antacid, an alkali, or any remedy for acidity in the stomach. Dyspepsia and diarrhrea are the diseases in which antacids are chiefly employed. The principal antacids in use are mag- nesia, lime, and their carbonates,' and the carbonates of potash and soda. Antananarivo, the capital of Madagascar, situated in the central Province of Imerina ; of late years al- most entirely rebuilt, its old timber houses having been replaced by build- ings of sun dried brick on European models. It contains two royal pal- aces, immense timber structures, one of which is surrounded with a massive stone veranda with lofty corner tow- ers. It has manufactures of metal work, cutlery, silk, "etc. Pop. about 100,000. See MADAGASCAR. Antarctic, relating to the southern pole or to the region near it. The Antarctic Circle is a circle parallel to Antelope the equator and distant from the south pole 23 28', marking the area within which the sun does not set when on the tropic of Capricorn. The Antarc- tic Circle has been arbitrarily fixed on as the limits of the Antarctic Ocean, it being the average limit of the pack- ice ; but the name is often extended to embrace a much wider area. The south- polar region is much colder than the northern, temperatures of 100 having been frequently noted by the Discov- ery Expedition ( 1902-1904) . The mam- mals in the south polar region are seals and cetaceans. Lieutenant Shackle- ton, in command of a British expedi- tion, reached a point 111 m. from the South Pole in 1908, and discovered the south magnetic meridian. Scme- what later, Captain Robert F. Scctt reached a point still further, and re- turned to England to prepare a second expedition. Meanwhile, early in 1909, the Norwegian, Roald Amundsen, sailed in the Fram and was lost sight of until late in 1911. At that time he was in the Antarctic Seas, not far from the point previously reachec 1 by Capt. Scott and Sir Ernest Shackleton. Not long after, he reached the South Pole (Dec. 14, 1911) and hoisted his country's flag. It was not until March that he could communicate the news of his discov- ery, which he did from Tasmania. See SOUTH POLAR EXPLORATIONS. Ant-eater, a genus of mammalia, belonging to the order Edentata. This peculiar group of animals is exclusive- ly found in the S. part of the Amer- ican continent, where they aid in di- minishing the numbers of immense hordes of ants, which desolate the country in the vicinity of their dwell- ings. Antediluvian, before the flood or deluge of Noah's time ; relating to what happened before the deluge. In geology the term has been applied to organisms, traces of which are found in a fossil state in formations preced- ing the diluvial, particularly to extinct animals such as the paleotherium, the mastodon, etc. Antelope, the name given to the members of a large family of rumi- nant ungulata or hoofed mammalia, closely resemblitij the deer in general appearance, but essentially different in nature from the latter animals. Wall Antennae known species are the chamois (Eu- ropean), the gazelle, the a (Idas, the eland, the koodoo, the gnu, the spring- bok, the sasin or Indian antelope, and the prongbuck of America. Antennae, the name given to the movable jointed organs of touch and hearing attached to the heads of in- sects, myriapods, etc., and commonly called horns or feelers. They present a very great variety of forms. Antenor, a Grecian sculptor, who lived at Athens about 500 B. c. Anthelion, a luminous ring, or rings, seen by an observer, especially in Alpine and polar regions, around the shadow of his head projected on a cloud or fog bank, or on grass cov- ered with dew, 50 or 60 yards distant, and opposite the sun when rising or setting. It is due to the refraction of light. Anthem, orginally a hymn sung in alternate parts ; in modern use, a sa- cred tune or piece of music set to words taken from the Psalms or other parts of the Scriptures. Anthemius, a Greek mathemati- cian and architect of Lydia ; designed the Church of St. Sophia at Constan- tinople, and is credited with the in- vention of the dome ; died A. D. 544. Anther, an organized body con- stituting part of a stamen, and gen- erally attached to the apex of the fila- ment. Anthology, the name given to sev- eral collections of short poems which have come down from antiquity. Anthon, Charles, an American classical scholar, born in New York city, Nov. 19, 1797. He was for many years Professor of Ancient Languages at Columbia College. A beautiful edi- tion of Horace first made him famous among scholars. His best known work was an edition of Lempriere's " Clas- sical Dictionary" (1841). He was also the editor of over 50 classical text-books. He died July 29, 1867. Anthony, Henry Brown, an American legislator, born in 1815 ; was graduated at Brown University in 1833 ; became editor and publisher of the " Journal," in Providence, R. I. ; elected Governor of Rhode Island in 1849 and 1850; United States Sen- ator from 1859 till his death ; and Anthony was elected President pro tern, of the United States Senate in 1803, 1871, and 1884. He died in 1884. Anthony, St., the founder of monastic institutions, born near Hera- clea, in Upper Egypt, A. D. 251 ; died 356. His day, the 17th of Jan., is a popular celebration in the Church. Anthony's Fire, so called from him, a disease of the Middle Ages that dried up and blackened every limb it attacked, as if it were burnt. Anthony, St., Falls of, a noted fall in the Mississippi river, now within the city limits of Minneapolis, Minn. The perpendicular fall is 17 feet, with a rapid below of 58 feet. An island divides the river into two parts. The entire descent of the stream for three-quarters of a mile is 65 feet. The falls and surrounding scenery, especially during the spring floods, are exceedingly picturesque. Anthony, Snsan Brownell, an American reformer, born in South Adams, Mass., Feb. 15, 1820; was of Quaker parentage ; educated at a Friends' school in Philadelphia, and taught school in New York in 1835- 1850. In 1847 she first spoke in pub- lic, taking part in the temperance movement and organizing societies. In 1852 she assisted in organizing the Woman's New York State Temperance Society ; in 1854-1855 she held con- ventions, in each county in New York, in behalf of female suffrage. In 1857 she became a leader in the anti-slavery movement, and in 1858 advocated the coeducation of the sexes. She was in- fluential in securing the passage by the New York Legislature, in 1860, of the act giving married women the posses- sion of their earnings, and guardian- ship of their children. In 1868, with Mrs. E. C. Stanton and Parker Pills- bury, she began the publication of the " Revolutionist," a paper devoted to the emancipation of woman. In 1872 she cast ballots at the State and Con- gressional election in Rochester, N. Y., to test the application of the 14th and 15th Amendments of the United States Constitution. She was indicted for illegal voting, and fined, but the fine was never exacted. Her last public appearance of note was as a delegate to the International Council of Wom- en, in London, England, in 1899. In Anthracene Antilles 1900 her birthday was celebrated by an affecting popular demonstration in Washington, D. C M and she retired from the presidency of the National American Woman Suffrage Associa- tion. She died March 13, 1906. Anthracene, a substance obtained in the distillation of coal-tar. Anthracite, glance, or blind coal, a non-bituminous coal of a shining luster, approaching to metallic, and which burns without smoke, with a weak or no flame, and with intense heat. It is found in large quantities in the United States, chiefly in Penn- sylvania. Anthrax, a fatal disease to which cattle, horses, sheep, and other animals are subject, always associated with the presence of an extremely minute mi- cro-organism (Bacillus anthracis) in the blood. It is also called splenic fever, and is communicable to man, appearing as carbuncle, malignant pus- tule, or wool-sorter's disease. In re- cent years the disease has become quite prevalent in the United States, especially among furriers and people wearing fur coats and collars. Anthropoid, resembling man : a term applied especially to the apes, which approach the human species. Anthropology, the science of man in the widest sense of the term. Anthropometry, the measure- ment of the human body to discover its exact dimensions and the propor- tions of its parts, for comparison with its dimensions at different periods, or in different races or classes. Anti-Christ, anyone who denies the Father and the Son ; or who will not confess that Jesus Christ is come in the flesh, or who, leaving the Church, pretends to be the Christ (or Mes- siah), and thus becomes a rival and enemy of Jesus, the true Christ. Anticosti, an island in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, which it divides into two channels, with lighthouses at dif- ferent parts of the coast. It is about 140 miles long, and 30 miles broad in the center. Pop. (1900) 250. Antidote, c, medicine to counteract the effects of poison. For ARSENIC, use tablespoonful of " dialized iron," four doses in two hours, followed by castor oil ; PHOSPHOEUS, MATCHES, 44 ROUGH os RATS," large amounts of gum arable, emetics and epsom salts ; CARBOLIC ACID, use epsom salts, sweet oil, white of eggs ; CHOLORAL, ipecac in water, 25-35 grains, hypodermic in- jection of 20th part of grain of strych- nine, friction, warmth and artificial respiration ; OPIUM, MORPHINE, empty the stomach, inhale ammonia, and give half grain permanganate of potash once an hour. Keep the patient from sleep, and give frequent doses of 30 grains tincture of belladona, to keep up circulation. Antietam, a small river in Penn- sylvania and Maryland which empties into the Potomac six miles N. of Har- per's Ferry. On Sept. 17, 1862, a bat- tle was fought on its banks near Sharpsburg, between a Federal army of 87,164 men, under General McClel- lan, and a Confederate army variously reported at from 40,000 to 97,000 men, under General Lee. The Fed- eral casualties aggregated 12, 469, and the Confederate, from 12,000 to 25,- 000. General Lee recrossed the Po- tomac on the following day, and the general consensus is that the battle was a Federal victory. Antifebrin, a neutral chemical product derived from acetate of ani- line at an elevated temperature by a dialytic action in which water is set free. Anti-Federalists, members of a political party, in the United States, which opposed the adoption and ratifi- cation of the constitution, and failing in this, strongly favored the strict con- struction of that instrument. Thomas Jefferson was its leader, but he par- tially abandoned the principles of the party when he sanctioned the Louisi- ana Purchase. Antigua, one of the British West Indies, the most important of the Lee- ward group ; 28 miles long, 20 broad ; area, 108 square miles ; discovered by Columbus, 1493. Pop., including Bar- buda and Redonda (1911) 38,899. Antilles, another name for the West Indian Islands. Subdivided into Greater Antilles and Lesser Antilles. Antigone, in Greek mythology the daughter of CEdipus and Jocasta. cele- brated for her devotion to her father and to her brother Polynices, for burying whom against the decree of King Creon she suffered death. Antimaclms Antimachus, a Greek epic and elegiac poet ; flourished about 400 B. c. Anti-Masonic Party, a political organization in opposition to Free- masonry. In 1828 this party polled 33,000 in New York State; in 1829, about 70,000 ; and in 1830, about 128,- 000. Anti-Mission Baptists, a sect in the United States who also called themselves "Old School Baptists," founded about 1835. They do not be- lieve in Sunday schools, colleges or theological seminaries, holding that the salvation of men does not depend upon human instrumentalities, but upon divine grace only. Antimony, in chemistry, a triad metallic element, but in some less sta- ple compounds it appears to be pentad. Antinomianism (Greek, anti, "against," and nomos, "law"), the doctrine or opinion that Christians are freed from obligation to keep the law of God. It is generally regarded, by advocates of the doctrine of justifica- tion by faith, as a monstrous abuse and perversion of that doctrine, upon which it usually professes to bo based. Antinons, a young Bithynian whom the extravagant love of Adrian has immortalized. He drowned him- self in the Nile in 122 A.D. Adrian set no bounds to his grief for his loss. He gave his name to a newly-discov- ered star, erected temples in his honor, called a city after him, and caused him to be adored as a god throughout the empire. Antioch (ancient, Antiochia), cap- ital of the Greek kings of Syria ; on the Orontes ; about 21 miles from the sea. It was founded by Seleucus Ni- cator, in 300 B. c., and was named after his father Antiochus. Famous in ancient times, and the place where the disciples of Christ were first called Christians, it is now a poor place with about 20,000 inhabitants. Antiochus III., surnamed the Great, born B. c. 242, succeeded in B. c. 223. The Romans defeated him by sea and land, and he was finally overthrown by Scipio at Mount Sipy- lus, in Asia Minor, B. c. 190, and very severe terms were imposed upon him. He was killed while plundering a tem- ple in Elymais to procure money to pay the Romans. Antipope Antiochus IV., called Epiphanes, youngest son of the above, is chiefly remarkable for his attempt to extir- pate the Jewish religion, and to es- tablish in its place the polytheism of the Greeks. This led to the insurrec- tion of the Maccabees, by which the Jews ultimately recovered their inde- pendence. He died B. c. 164. Antipaedobaptist, one who is op- posed to the doctrine of infant bap- tism. Antiparos, one of the Cyclades (islands), in the Grecian Archipelago, containing a famous stalactitic grotto or cave. Antipater, a general and friend of Philip of Macedon, father of Alex- ander the Great. He died in B. c. 317, at an advanced age. Antipater, procurator of Judea for the Romans from 47 to 43 B. c. He received the appointment from Ju- lius Caesar ; and died from poison in the last mentioned year. He was the father of Herod the Great Antipathy, a special dislike ex- hibited by individuals to particular ob- jects or persons, usually resulting from physical or nervous organization. Antiperiodics, medicines which prevent or relieve the paroxysms of certain diseases which exhibit a peri- odic character. Antiphlogistic, a term applied to medicines or methods of treatment that are intended to counteract in- flammation, such as blood letting, pur- gatives, diaphoretics, etc. Antiphony, opposition or contra- riety of sound ; also the alternate chanting or singing in a cathedral, or similar service by the choir, divided into two parts for the purpose, and usually sitting upon opposite sides. Antipodes, the name given rela- tively to the people or places on oppo- site sides of the earth, so situated that a line drawn from one to the other passes through the center of the earth and forms a true diameter. The longi- tudes of two such places differ by 180. The difference in their time is about 12 hours, and their seasons are reversed. Antipope, a pontiff elected in op- position to one canonical!}- chosen. Antipyretics Antipyretics, medicines, which reduce the temperature in fever. Antipyrine, an alkaloid exten- sively used in medicine as an antipy- retic, and possessing the valuable property of materially reducing the temperature of the body without the production of any distressing bodily symptoms. Hence, it is much resort- ed to in fevers, pneumonia, acute rheu- matism, phthisis, and erysipelas. To produce a more rapid action the drug is often injected hypodermically. Antiquaries, those devoted to the study of ancient times through their relics, as old places of sepulcher, re- mains of ancient habitations ; early monuments, implements or weapons, statues, coins, medals, paintings, in- scriptions, books, and manuscripts, with the view of arriving at a knowl- edge of the relations, modes of living, habits, and general condition of the people who created or employed them. The American Antiquarian Society was organized in 1812, and has its headquarters in Worcester, Mass. Antique, a province of Panay, Philippine Islands, on the W. coast; area, with dependent islands, 1,340 square miles; pop. (1903) 131,245, of whom 2,921 were wild; chief native race, Visayan; is rich in minerals. Anti-Rent Party, a party which gained some political influence in New York, and which had its origin in the refusal of tenants, who were dissat- isfied with the patroon system to pay rent The matter was settled by com- promise in 1850. The patroons were early Dutch settlers who received vast tracts of land in what is now New York, on conditions which made them virtually feudal lords of the soik The tenants rebelled against these condi- tions, and popular sympathy being with them, the heirs of the patroons were brought to terms by legislation inimical to the system under which they held their lands, while at the same time the rights of property were sustained. Antiscorbutics, remedies against scurvy. Lemon juice, ripe fruit, milk, salts of potash, green vegetables, potatoes, fresh meat, and raw or light- ly boiled eggs, are some of the princi- pal antiscorbutics. Antithesis Anti-Semites, the modern oppo- nents of the Jews in Russia, Rumania, Hungary, and Eastern Germany. In France the second trial of Capt. Alfred Dreyfus, in 1899, aroused an intense anti-Semitic feeling. The cruel massacre of Jews in Kishineff, Russia, by an anti-Semitic mob, in 1903, excited indignation throughout the civilized world. Antisepsis, the exclusion of mi- crobes or bacteria from wounds, etc., by the use of antiseptics or other means in order to prevent putrefac- tion, infection, or blood-poisoning. Antiseptic, a substance which has the effect of counteracting the ten- dency to putrefaction. Garrod makes disinfectants and antiseptics the sec- ond order of his Division III. Chem- ical agents used for other than their medicinal properties. Antiseptics pre- vent chemical change by destroying the putrefactive microbes or bacteria, the chemical composition of the body still in many cases remaining the same ; while disinfectants decompose and remove the infectious matter it- self. Antiseptics are called also coly- tics. Among them may be named car- bolic acid, alcohol, sulphurous acid, chloride of sodium (common salt), etc. Antiseptic Surgery, treatment to kill germs in accidental wounds, and surgical operations. Antispasmodi.es, medicines which are used to prevent or allay spasms. In all spasmodic diseases, cold baths or sponging, sun-baths, moderate exer- cise, and a plain but nutritious diet should be employed ; late hours, a close atmosphere, exhausting emotions, or excessive mental or bodily work should be avoided. Antisthenes, a Greek philosopher and the founder of the school of Cyn- ics, born at Athens about B. C. 444. He held virtue to consist in complete self denial and disregard of riches, honor, or pleasure of every kind. He himself lived as a beggar. He died in Athens at an advanced age. Antithesis, a sharp opposition or contrast between word and word, clause and clause, sentence and sen- tence, or sentiment and sentiment, es- pecially designed to impress the lis- tener or reader. Antitoxine Antitoxine, the name given to a new remedy for diphtheria. The de- crease of deaths from this disease since the introduction of this remedy is remarkable, and in most large cities it is provided free to all unable to pay for the medicine. Anti- Trade, a name given to any of the upper tropical winds which move northward or southward in the same manner as the trade-winds which blow beneath them in the opposite di- rection. Antitrinitarians, all who do not eceiye the doctrine of the Divine Trinity, or the existence of three per- sons in the Godhead ; especially ap- plied to those who oppose such a doc- trine on philosophical grounds, as con- trasted with Unitarians, who reject the doctrine as not warranted by Scrip- ture. Antlers, bony outgrowths from the frontal bones of almost all the members of the deer family. Except in the reindeer, they are restricted to the males. Ant Lion, the larva of an insect, of the order of neuroptera, remarkable for its ingenious methods of captur- ing ants and other insects, on which it feeds, by making pitfalls in the sand. Some species are common in North America. Antoinette, Marie (MABIE AN- TOINETTE JOSEPH JEANNE DE LOR- RAINE), Archduchess of Austria and Queen of France ; the youngest daugh- ter of the Emperor Francis I. and of Maria Theresa ; born in Vienna, Nov. 2, 1755. She became wife of the dauph- in, afterward Louis XVI. of France, and perished with him in the Revolu- tion. Louis was executed on Jan. 21, 1793. The dauphin, their son, who afterward perished miserably in con- finement, was next separated from the queen, and on Aug. 2, 1793, Marie An- toinette was transferred to the Con- ciergerie to be brought before the Rev- olutionary tribunal. The act of ac- cusation was completed on Oct. 14. She was condemned at 4 A. M. on Oct. 16, 1793, and at 11 A. M. was led from the Conciergerie to the place of exe- cution. She died with the firmness that became her character. Antonelli, Giacomo, Cardinal, born 1806 ; was educated at the Grand Antonius Seminary of Rome, where he attracted the attention of Pope Gregory XVI., who appointed him to several impor- tant offices. On the accession of Pius IX., in 1846, Antonelli was raised to the dignity of cardinal-deacon ; two years later he became president and minister of foreign affairs, and, in 1850, was appointed Secretary of State. During the sitting of the CEcumenical Council (1869-1870) he was a prominent champion of the papal interest. He strongly opposed the assumption of the united Italian crown by Victor Emmanuel. He died in 1876. Antoninus, Wall of, a barrier erected by the Romans in Britain, across the isthmus between the Forth and the Clyde, in the reign of An- toninus Pius. Antoninus Pins (TlTUS AUBE- LIUS FULVUS), Roman emperor, of a family originally from Nemausus (now Nimes), in Gaul; was born in Lavinium, in the neighborhood of Rome, A. D. 86. He died A. D. 161. His remains were deposited in the tomb of Hadrian. His adopted sons built a pillar to his memory, the frag- ments of which were found at Rome in 1705. Antonins, Marcus (Mark An- tony), Roman triumvir, born 83 B. c., was connected with the family of Caesar by his mother. When war broke out between Caesar and Pompey, Antony led reinforcements to Caesar in Greece, and, in the battle of Phar- salia he commanded the left wing. He afterward returned to Rome with the appointment of master of the horse and governor of Italy (47). In B. C. 44 he became Caesar's colleague in the consulship. In the struggle for the empire of Rome which followed the murder of Caesar, Antony was over- come by Octavianus (afterward called Augustus), Caesar's nephew and heir. His passion for Cleopatra, Queen of Egypt, enthralled his faculties, and made him an easy prey to his great political rival. Antony lost, in the naval battle at Actium (B. c. 31), the dominion of the world. He followed Cleopatra to Alexandria, and, on the arrival of Octavianus his fleet and cavalry deserted, and his in- fantry was defeated. Plutarch says that Antony commanded his slave Ant Thrush Apartment House Eros to slay him, but the slave killed himself instead. Moved by this exhi- bition of heroic affection and deceived by a false report which Cleopatra had disseminated of her death, he fell upon his own sword (B. c. 30). On being told that Cleopatra was still alive, he caused himself to be carried into her presence, that he might die in her arms. Ant Thrush, a name given to certain passerine or perching birds having resemblances to the thrushes and supposed to feed largely on ants. Antwerp, the chief port of Bel- gium, and the capital of a province of the same name, on the Scheldt, about 50 miles from the open sea. It is strongly fortified, being completely surrounded on the land side by a semi- circular inner line of fortifications, the defenses being completed by an outer line of forts and outworks. The cathe- dral, with- a spire 400 feet high, is one of the largest and most beautiful speci- mens of Gothic architecture in Bel- gium. There are numerous and varied industries. Pop. (1911) 308,618. After the German invasion of Bel- gium at the outbreak of the World War, this beautiful city became an early victim of Teutonic ruthlessness. It was occupied by the invaders on Oct. 9, 1914, after its most magnificent buildings had been wrecked or dam- aped by shell-fire. See APPENDIX: World War. Anns, the opening at the lower or posterior extremity of the alimen- tary canal through which the excre- ment or waste products of digestion are expelled. Aorta, the great arterial trunk, which rises from the left ventricle of the heart, and with its branches, ex- tends throughout the whole body. The blood travels through the aorta at the rate of 300 to 500 millimetres a second. Aoudad, a remarkable species of sheep, with certiin affinities to the goats. It inh-xbits mountainous re- gions in Abyssinia and Barbary. Apaches, a tribe of North Ameri- can Indians, formerly very fierce and numerous, living in portions of Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona, and belong- ing to the Athabascan family. They were long the scourge of the frontiers, and resisted obstinately every attempt to civilize them. Long after the an- nexation of their territory by the United States they continued their raids in spite of severe defeats. An attempt made by the United States Government to confine the Apaches within a reserved territory in Arizona led to bloodshed in 1871. The number of the Apaches proper within the United States may be put at nearly 7,000. Apartment House, a structure built to accommodate a number of families each in its own set of rooms, which form a separate dwelling with AMERICAN APARTMENT HOUSE. an entrance of its own. The term is chiefly used in the United States, where such dwellings are of compara- tively recent introduction ; but houses of this kind have long been built in Europe. Nearly every large American city now has many such buildings, some costing over $1,000,000 each and containing suites of rooms from five to twenty-five each in number, with yearly rentals as high as $20,000. Ape Apocalyptic 'Writings Ape, a common name of a number of quadrumanous animals, inhabiting the Old World (Asia and the Asiatic islands, and Africa), and including a variety of species. The word ape was formerly applied indiscriminately to all quadrumanous mammals ; but it is now limited to the anthropoid or man- like monkeys. The family includes the chimpanzee, gorilla, orang-ou- tang, etc. Apelles, the most famous of the painters of ancient Greece and of an- tiquity, was born in the 4th century B. C., probably at Colophon. His re- nown was at its height about B. C. 330, and he died about the end of the century. Apennines, a prolongation of the Alps, forming the " backbone of Italy." On the S. slopes volcanic masses are not uncommon. Mount Vesuvius, the only active volcano on the continent of Europe, is an in- stance. The lower slopes are well clothed with vegetation, the summits are sterile and bare. Apepi, in heathen mythology, the Great Serpent or Typhon, the embodi- ment of evil. Aperient, a medicine which, in moderate doses, gently but completely opens the bowels ; examples, castor-oil, Epsom salts, senna, etc. Aphasia, in pathology, a symptom of certain morbid conditions of the nervous system, in which the patient loses the power of expressing ideas by means of words, or loses the appropri- ate use of words, the vocal organs the while remaining intact and the intelli- gence sound. There is sometimes an entire loss of words as connected with ideas, and sometimes only the loss of a few. In one form of the disease, called aphemia, the patient can think and write, but cannot speak ; in an- other, called agraphia, he can think and speak, but cannot express his ideas in writing. In a great majority of cases, where post mortem examina- tions have been made, morbid changes have been found in the left frontal convolution of the brain. Aphelion, that part of the orbit of the earth or any other planet in which it is at the point remotest from the sun. Aphis, a genus of insects, the typi- cal one of the family aphidae. The species of aphides are very numerous, and are generaly called after the plants on which they feed. Aphonia, in pathology, the great* er or less impairment, or the complete loss of the power of emitting vocal sound. Aphrodite, one of the chief di- vinities of the Greeks, the goddess of love and beauty, so called because she was sprung from the foam (aphros) of the sea. Aphrodite has had the most important place in the history of art as the Greek ideal of feminine grace and beauty. Apia, the principal town and com- mercial emporium of the Samoan Is- lands in the South Pacific Ocean; on the N. coast of the island of Upolu, about midway between the E. and W. extremities of the island. It has a small harbor, which is usually a safe one. In 1899, during a hurricane, sev- eral United States' and German war- vessels were wrecked here, a British man-of-war alone escaping. Apis, a bull to which divine honors were paid by the ancient Egyptians, who regarded him as a symbol or Osiris. At Memphis he had a splendid residence, containing extensive walks and courts for his entertainment, and he was waited upon by a large train of priests, who looked upon his every movement as oracular. He was not suffered to live beyond twenty-five years, being secretly killed by the priests and thrown into a sacred well. Another bull, characterized by certain marks, as a black color, a triangle of white on the forehead, a white cres- cent-shaped spot on the right side, &c., was selected in his place. His birth- day was annually celebrated. Apocalypse, the name frequently given to the last book of the New Tes- tament, in the English version called the Revelation of St. John the Divine. Apocalyptic Number, the mystic number 666 found in Rev. xiii. 18. As early as the 2d century ecclesiastical writers found that the name Antichrist was indicated by the Greek characters expressive of this number. Apocalyptic 'Writings, writings such as, like the prophecies of Daniel, their prototype, set forth in a figura- Apoplexy tive and pictorial manner the future progress and completion of the world's history, especially in its religious as- pects. The two apocalyptic books re- ceived into the canon of Scripture are the books of Daniel and the Apoca- lypse especially so-called, the Revela- tion of St. John,, Apocrypha, in the early Chris- tian Church, (1) books published anonymously; (2) those suitable for private rather than public reading; (3) books deemed unau then tic though purporting to be written by sacred authors ; (4) dangerous books written by heretics. Apodal Fishes, the name applied to such malacopterous fishes as want ventral fins. They constitute a small natural family, of which the common eel is an example. Apogee, that point in the orbit of the moon or a planet where it is at its greatest distance from the earth ; prop- erly this particular part of the moon's orbit. Apollinarians, a sect of Chris- tians who maintained the doctrine that the Logos (the Word) holds in Christ the place of the rational soul, and con- sequently that God was united in him with the human body and the sensitive soul. Apollinaris, the author of this opinion, was, from A. D. 362 till at least A. D. 382, Bishop of Laodicea, in Syria. Apollo, son of Zeus (Jupiter) and Leto (Latona). From being the god of light and purity in a physical sense he gradually became the god of moral and spiritual light and purity, the source of all intellectual, social, and political progress. Apollodorus, a famous Athenian painter, about B. c. 408. Apollodorus, born in Damascus, and lived in the reigns of Trajan and Hadrian. His fame as an architect caused the former to employ him in building a great stone bridge over the Danube, and other works. Apollodor- us subsequently falling into disgrace with the Emperor Hadrian, was put to death by his command. Apollonius, a Pythagorean philos- opher, born at Tyana, about the be- ginning of the Christian era. He died at Ephesus about A. D. 97. Apollonius of Ferga, Greek mathematician, called the " Great Ge- ometer," flourished about 240 B. c., and was the author of many works, only one of which, a treatise on " Con- ic Sections," partly in Greek and partly in an Arabic translation, is now extant. Apollonius of Rhodes, a Greek poet, born in Egypt, but long residing at Rhodes, where he founded a school of rhetoric. He afterward became keeper of the famous library of Alex- andria, B. c. 149. Apollonius of Tyre, the hero of a Greek metrical romance, very popu- lar in the Middle Ages. Apollos, a Jew of Alexandria, who learned the doctrines of Christianity at Ephesus from Aquila and Priscilla, became a preacher of the gospel in Achaia and Corinth, and an assistant of Paul in his missionary work. Some have regarded him as the author of the Epistle to the Hebrews. Apollyon, a name used in Rev. ix : 11 for the angel of the bottomless pit. Apologetics, the department of theology which treats of the establish- ment of the evidences and defense of the doctrines of a faith. Christian apologetics, generally called simply apologetics, treats of the evidences of Christianity, and seeks to establish the truth of the Bible and the doctrines educed from it. Apologue, a story or relation of fictitious events intended to convey some useful truths. It differs from a parable in that the latter is drawn from events that pass among mankind, whereas the apologue may be founded on supposed actions of brutes or inan imate things. JEsop's fables are good examples of apologues. Apology, a term at one time ap- plied to a defense of one who is ac- cused, or of certain doctrines called in question. Apoplexy, a serious malady, com- ing on so suddenly and so violently that anciently anyone affected by it was said to be attonitus (thunder- struck), or sideratus (planetstruck). When a stroke of apoplexy takes place, there is a loss of sensation, voluntary motion, and intellect or thought, while respiration and the action of the heart and general vascular system still con- Apostate tinue. The disease now described is properly called cerebral apoplexy, the brain being the part chiefly affected. Apostate, literally designates any- one who changes his religion, what- ever may be his motive ; but, by cus- tom, the word is always used in an in- jurious sense, as equivalent to one who, in changing his creed, is actuated by unworthy motives. Apostle, one who is sent off or away from ; one sent on some impor- tant mission ; a messenger ; a mission- ary. The name given, in the Chris- tian Church, to the 12 men whom Jesus selected from His disciples as the best instructed in His doctrines, and the fittest instruments for the propagation of His religion. Their names were as follows : Simon Peter, Andrew, hie brother ; James the great- er, and John, his brother, who were sons of Zebedee ; Philip of Bethsaida, Bartholomew, Thomas, Matthew ; James, the son of Alpheus, commonly called James the less ; Lebbeus, his brother, who was surnamed Thaddeus, and was called Judas, or Jude ; Simon the Canaanite, and Judas Iscariot. Of this number, Simon Peter, John, James the greater, and Andrew were fishermen ; and Matthew, a publican or tax-gatherer. When the apostles were reduced to 11 by the suicide pf Judas, who had betrayed Christ, they chose Matthias by lot, on the proposi- tion of St. Peter. Soon after, their number became 13, by the mi- raculous vocation of Saul, who, under the name of Paul became one of the most zealous propa- gators of the Christian faith. Apostles' Islands, or The Twelve Apostles, a group of 27 islands in Lake Superior. They be- long to Wisconsin. They were first settled in 1680 by the French. Apostolic, or Apostolical, per- taining or relating to the apostles. Apostolic Church. The Church in the time of the apostles, constituted according to their design. The name is also given to the four churches of Rome, Alexandria, Antioch, and Jeru- salem, and is claimed by the Roman Catholic Church, and occasionally by the Episcopalians. Apostolic Constitutions and Canons. A collection of regulations attrib- Apo strophe uted to the apostles, but generally sup- posed to be spurious. They appeared in the 4th century ; are divided into eight books, and consist of rules and precepts relating to the duty of Chris- tians, and particularly to the 1 cere- monies and discipline of the Church. Apostolic Delegate. A permanent representative of the Pope in a for- eign country. It is sometimes con- founded with the word ablegate, the latter meaning a temporary represen- tative of the Pope for some special function. Apostolic Fathers. The Christian writers who, during any part of their lives, were contemporary with the apostles. There are five Clement, Barnabas, Hennas, Ignatius, Poly- carp. Apostolic King. A title granted by the Pope to the Kings of Hungary, first conferred on St. Stephen, the founder of the royal line of Hungary, on account of what he accomplished in the spread of Christianity. Apostolic See. The see of the Popes or Bishops of Rome ; so called because the Popes profess themselves the successors of St. Peter, its founder. Apostolic Succession. The uninter- rupted succession of bishops, and, through them, of priests and deacons (these three orders of ministers being called the apostolical orders), in the Church by regular ordination from the first apostles down to the present day. All Episcopal churches hold the- oretically, and the Roman Catholic Church and many members of the Eng-; lish Church strictly, that such succes- sion is essential to the officiating priest, in order that grace may be communicated through his administra- tions. Apostrophe. In rhetoric, a fig- ure of speech by which, according to Quintilian, a speaker turns from the rest of his audience to one person, and addresses him singly. In grammar, the substitution of a mark like this (') for one or more let- ters omitted from a word, as tho' for though, 'twas for it was, king's for kinges. The mark indicating such substitu- tion, especially in the case of the pos- sessive. Apothecary Apping Apothecary, the name formerly given to members of an auxiliary branch of the medical profession. In the United States, state laws generally require that apothecaries shall be duly examined and licensed. Apotheosis, a deification; the placing of a prince or other distin- guished person among the heathen deities. Appalachian Mountains, also called Alleglianies, a vast mountain range in 'North America, extending for 1300 miles from Cape Gaspe, on the Gulf of St. Lawrence, S. W. to Ala- bama. The highest peaks rise over 6,600 feet (not one at all approaching the snow level), but the mean height is about 2,500 feet. Lake Champlain is the only lake of great importance in the system, but numerous rivers of considerable size take their rise here. Magnetite, hematite, and other iron ores occur in great abundance, and the coal measures are among the most ex- tensive in the world. Gold, silver, lead, and copper are also found, but not in paying quantities, while marble, lime- stone, fire clay, gypsum, and salt abound. The forests covering many of the ranges yield large quantities of valuable timber, such as sugar maple, white birch, beech, ash, oak, cherry tree, white poplar, white and yellow pine, etc., while they form the haunts of large numbers of bears, panthers, wild cats, and wolves. Appanage, properly, lands as- signed as portions to the younger sons, or sometimes the brothers of the French king, who in general took their titles from the appanages which they held. Apparition, according to a belief held by some, a disembodied spirit manifesting itself to mortal sight ; ac- cording to the common theory an illu- sion involuntarily generated, by means of which figures or forms, not present to the actual sense, are nevertheless depictured with a vividness and in- tensity sufficient to create a temporary belief of their reality. Such illusions are now generally held to result from an overexcited brain, a strong imagi- nation, or some bodily malady. Appeal. The distinction between an appeal, which originated in the civil law, and a writ of error, which is of common law origin, is that the former carries the whole case for review by the higher court, including both the facts and the law ; while the latter removes only questions of law. Appendicitis, a disease caused by inflammation, suppuration, and conse- quent gangrene in the tissue of the vermiform appendix, usually due to insufficient circulation of blood in the part itself. Appendicitis usually occurs between the ages of 10 and 50 years. It is rare above or below those ages. It is more frequently among males than fe- males, the exact proportion being un- known. The probable cause of this difference is of very recent discovery and is not even known generally among the medical profession. Dr. Clado, a French surgeon and investigator, sought an explanation of the compara- tive immunity of the female sex from the malady and discovered that the appendix in woman has an extra blood vessel (a small branch of the ovarian artery I that does not exist ia man. This discovery was not only a bit of new knowledge of great value, but was an additional proof of the theory that disease of the appendix is often due in part to its want of vital resistance. Appiani, Andrea, a painter, born at Milan in 1754. Napoleon appoint- ed him court painter, and portraits of almost the whole of the imperial fam- ily were painted by him. He died in 1817. Appian Way, the great Roman highway constructed by the below- mentioned Appius Claudius, from Rome to Capua, and afterward ex- tended to Brundusium, and finished B. o. 312. It was built of stones four or five feet long, carefully joined to each other, covered with gravel, fur- nished with stones for mounting and descending from horseback, with mile- stones, and with houses at which to lodge. Appins, Claudius Crassinns, a Roman decemvir (451 to 449 B. c.). Being passionately in love with Vir- ginia, daughter of Virginius, a re- spectable plebeian absent with the army, he persuaded M. Claudius, his client, to gain possession of her, under the pretense that she was the daughter Apple of one of his slaves. Virginius, hur- riedly recalled from the army by his friends, appeared and claimed his daughter ; but, after a mock trial, she was adjudged to be the property of Marcus Claudius. To save his daugh- ter from dishonor, the unhappy father seized a knife and slew her. The pop- ular indignation excited by the caise was headed by the senators Valerius and Horatius, who hated the decem- virate. The army returned to Rome with Virginius, who had carried the news to them, and the decemviri were deposed. Appius Claudius died in prison, by his own hand (as Livy states), or was strangled by order of the tribunes. Apple, the fruit of the pyrus ma- lus, a species of the genus pyrus. All the different kinds of apple trees now in cultivation are usually regarded as mere varieties of the one species which, in its wild state, is known as the crab- tree. The uses of the apple for cul- inary and conserving processes are sufficiently well known. Cider, the fermented juice of the apple, is a favorite drink in some places of the United States. Apple of Discord, in Greek my- thology, the golden apple thrown into an assembly of the gods by the god- dess of discord (Eris), bearing the in- scription " For the fairest." Aphro- dite (Venus). Hera (Juno), and Pal- las (Minerva) became competitors for it, and its adjudication to the first by Paris so inflamed the jealousy and hatred of Hera to all of the Trojan race (to which Paris belonged) that she did not cease her machinations till Troy was destroyed. Apple of Sodom, a fruit described by old writers as externally of fair ap- pearance, but turning to ashes when plucked ; probably the fruit of sola- num sodomeum. Appleton, city and capital of Outagamie county, Wis.; on the Fox river and railroads; 100 miles N. W. of Milwaukee; is in a farming and lumbering section; has excellent water power for manufacturing and large industrial and mercantile inter- ests; and is the seat of Lawrence University. Pop. (lylO) 16,776. Appleton, John Howard, an 'American chemist, born in 1844 ; was Approximation graduated at Brown University in 1863 ; was instructor in chemistry there in 1863-1868; and in the last year became professor of that depart- ment. Appleton, Nathan and Samuel, American merchants and philanthro- pists, brothers, born in 1779 and 1766 respectively ; engaged in the manufac- ture of cotton goods ; were founders of the city of Lowell, Mass. ; and widely known for their active benevolence. Nathan set up the first power loom ever used in the United States, in hij Waltham mill. Nathan died in 1861 ; Samuel in 1853. Appomattox Court Honse, a village in Appomattox county, Va., 20 miles E. of Lynchburg. Here, on April 9, 1865, General Lee surrendered to General Grant, and thus virtually con- cluded the Civil War. Apportionment Bill, a bill adopted by the United States Con- gress every 10 years, and directly af- ter the completion of the Federal cen- sus, which determines the number of members that each State is entitled to send to the National House of Repre- sentatives, and provides for the neces- sary reorganization of the Congress- ional electoral districts. The appor- tionment based on the enumeration of 1910 was one representative to 212,- 407 population. Apprenticeship, in law, a con- tract by which a person who under- stands some art, trade, or business, and called master, undertakes to teach the same to another person, commonly a minor, and called the apprentice, who, on his part, is bound to serve the master, during a definite period of time, in such art, trade, or business. Appropriation, a specific sum set apart by the legislative power for a designated purpose. In the United States all bills for appropriating money originate in the House of Rep- resentatives ; but may be amended in the Senate. The same procedure is observed in the several States. Approximation, a term used in mathematics to signify a continual ap- proach to a quantity required, when no process is known for arriving at it exactly. Although, by such an approx- imation, the exact value of a quantity Apraxin cannot be discovered, yet, in practice, it may be found sufficiently correct. 1 Apraxin, Feodor Mateievitch, a Russian admiral, born in 1671. He may be considered as the creator of the Russian navy, and was the most powerful and influential person at the court of Peter the Great, who made him chief-admiral. He died in 1724. Apricot, a fruit, that of the prunus armeniaca ; also the tree on which it grows. It is wild in Africa and in the Caucasus, where the mountains in many places are covered with it ; it is found also in China and some other countries. It is esteemed only second to the peach. April, the fourth month of the year. April-fools' Day. The first day of April, so called from the old custom of sending any one, on this day, upon a bootless errand. This strange custom of April-fools' day exists throughout Europe, and in those parts of the United States where the traditions of the mother-country prevail. One of the explanations of the custom is as follows : In the Middle Ages, scenes from Biblical history were often rep- resented by way of diversion, without any feeling of impropriety. The scene in the life of Jesus, where He is sent from Pilate to Herod, and back again from Herod to Pilate, was represented in April, and may have given occasion to the custom of sending on fruitless errands, and other tricks practiced at this season. iLPTEBYX OB K1W1K1WI. Apteryx, a genus of birds, the typical one of the family apterygidse. Two species are known the A. aus- tralis and A. mantelli, both from New Aquarian* Zealand. The natives call the former, and probably also the latter, Kiwiki- wi, which is an imitation of their pe- culiar cry. The A. australis is some- what less in size than an ordinary goose. It runs when pursued, shelters itself in holes, and defends itself with its long bill ; but unable as it is to fly, its fate, it is to be feared, will soon be tbat of the dodo it is now almost extinct. Apulia, formerly a part of Sapy- gia (so called from Sapyx, son of Dae- dalus) , including the modern Italian provinces of Capitanata, Terra di Bari, Terra d'Otranto, etc. Area 7,- 376 square miles ; pop. (1915) 2,237,- 791. Apnre, a navigable river of Ven- ezuela, formed by the junction of sev- eral streams which rise in the Andes of Colombia ; it falls into the Orinoco. Apnrimac, a river of South Amer- ica, which rises in the Andes of Peru ; and being augmented by the Vilca- mayu and other streams forms the Ucayale, one of the principal head- waters of the Amazon. Aq.na, a word much used in phar- macy and old chemistry. Aqua fortis (=1 strong water), a weak and impure nitric acid. It has the power of eat- ing into steel and copper, and hence is used by engravers, etchers, etc. Aqua marina, a fine variety of beryl. Aqua regia, or aqua regalis, a mixture of nitric and hydrochloric acids, with the power of dissolving gold and other no- ble metals. Aqua Tofana, a poisonous fluid made about the middle of the 17th century by an Italian woman, Tofana or Toffania, who is said to have procured the death of no fewer than 600 individuals by means of it It consisted chiefly, it is supposed, of a solution of crystallized arsenic. Aqua vitse (=water of life) , or simply aqua, a name familiarly applied to whisky, corresponding in meaning with the usquebaugh of Ireland, the eau-de- vie (brandy) of the French. Aquamarine, a name given to some of the finest varieties of beryl of a sea-green or blue color. Varieties of topaz are also so called. Aquarians, or Aqnarii, Chris- tians in the primitive Church who ] used water instead of wine in the | Lord's Supper. Aquarium Aquarium, an artificial tank, pond, or vessel, filled with salt or fresh water, and used, in the former case chiefly for the purpose of keeping alive marine animals in circumstances which render it easy to study their habits, and in the latter for cultivat- ing aquatic plants. Aquarius, in astronomy (1) the llth of the 12 ancient zodiacal con- stellations, now generally called signs of the Zodiac. It is generally quoted as " Aquarius, the Water bearer." Aquatic Animals, animals living in or about water. Aquatic Plants, plants growing in or belonging to water. Aqueduct, an artificial channel or conduit for the conveyance of water from one place to another ; more par- ticularly applied to structures for con- veying water from distant sources for the supply of large cities. There are a number of important aqueducts in America. For 125 years, the city of Otumba, in Mexico, re- ceived its supply of water through the aqueduct of Zempoala, which, how- ever, has not been used since 1700, though the aqueduct is said to be in almost perfect condition. It is 27 miles long. New York is supplied with water from Croton river, which falls into the Hudson above Sing Sing. The first aqueduct was constructed between the years 1837 and 1842, is 88 miles long, with a general declivity of 13^4 inches to the mile, and is 8 feet 5 inches in height, and 7 feet 8 inches in greatest breadth. Stone, brick, and cement are used for the en- casing masonry. When the conduit reaches the Harlem river, the water is conveyed in iron pipes over a splen- did bridge, 150 feet above the river. An aqueduct for supplying Boston with water was first built in 1846- J848, and exactly 30 years later a Dew aqueduct was built from the Sud- bury river to Boston, and was carried across the Charles river and Waban valley by two fine bridges. As the supply of water did not prove suffi- cient for the growth of the city, a large reservoir was built, taking a large part of the town of Boylston, Mass., so that it was supposed the supply of water, when the valley was filled would suffice for many years. E.8. Arabesque Aqueous Humor, the limpid wa- tery fluid which fills the space between the cornea and the crystalline lens. Aqueous Rocks, mechanically formed rocks, composed of matter de- posited by water. Called also sedi- mentary or stratified rocks. Aqnifoliaceae, a natural order of plants ; the holly tribe. The species consists of trees and shrubs, and the order includes the common holly and the Paraguayan tea tree. Aquila, a native of Pontus, cele- brated for his close translation of the Hebrew Scriptures into Greek. Aquila, Kaspar, a German Prot- estant theologian, born in Bavaria, Aug. 7, 1488; assisted Luther in the translation of the Old Testament ; be- came pastor at Saalfeld in 1527; was outlawed by Charles V. in 1548; fled the country; and after 1552 returned to Saalfeld, where he died Nov. 15. 1560. Aquinas, Thomas, or Thomas of Aquino, was of the family of the Counts of Aquino, and was born about 1226, in the castle of Rocca Secca, near Aquino, a small town half-way between Rome and Naples. He treat- ed Christian morals according to an arrangement of his own, and with a comprehensiveness that procured him the title of the " Father of Moral Phi- losophy." He died at the Cistercian, abbey of Fossa-Nuova, March 7., 1274. Aquinas was canonized by John XXII. in 1323, and proclaimed a " Doctor of the Church," by Pius V. in 1567. Aquitania, later Aquitaine, a Roman province in Gaul, which com- prehended the countries on the coast from the Garonne to the Pyrenees, and from the sea to Toulouse. It was brought into connection with England by the marriage of Henry II. with Eleanor, daughter of the last Duke of Aquiline. The title to the province was for long disputed by England and France, but it was finally secured by the latter (1453). Arabesque, a style of ornamenta- tion in which are represented men, animals (the latter consisting of mythic as well as actual forms) ; plants, with leaves, flowers, and fruit; mathematical figures, etc. ; the whole put together in a whimsical way, 80 Arabia that, for instance, the animals not merely rest upon the plants, but grow out of them like blossoms. ARABESQUE ARCHWAY. Arabia, the extreme S. W. part of Asia, called by the natives Jeziret el Arab, that is, the Peninsula of the Arabs; and by the Turks and Per- sians, Arabistan. Arabia is encom- passed on three sides by the sea, name- ly, on the N. E. by the Persian Gulf, on the S. E. by the Indian Ocean, and on the S. W. by the Red Sea. Arabia includes also the peninsula of Sinai, between the Gulf of Suez and that of Akabah. The whole area of the vast country thus described does not prob- ably fall much short of 1,000,000 square miles. The population of Arabia has been estimated by some at 12,000,000, by others at no more than 4,000,000. The former number is certainly too high, and it is believed that between 5,000,- 000 and 6,000,000 is very near the truth. The Arabs present, as a nation and as individuals, much that is peculiar in their mental and physical develop- ment. They are of middle stature, of a powerful make, and have a skin of brownish color. Their features ex- press dignity and pride ; they are nat- urally active, intelligent, and courte- ous ; and their character is marked by temperance, bravery, and hospitality, along with a strong propensity for poetry. On the other hand, they are revengeful in their disposition and predatory in their habits. The women Arack have the entire education of the chil- dren in their early years. The mode of life of the Arabs is either nomadic or settled, or in other words, they either live in tents and derive their subsistence from the rear- ing of cattle, wherever sufficient pas- ture is obtainable, and from the trans- port of caravans through the desert ; or from the pursuits of agriculture and commerce. The nomadic tribes in Arabia are termed Bedouins, Beduins, or Bedawins ; those following settled occupations, Hadji and Fellahs. A considerable trade, partly overland, partly maritime, is carried on, chiefly in coffee, dates, figs, spices, and aro- matic substances of various kinds, though the present amount of traffic is scarcely a shadow of what it was in the times previous to the discovery of the passage by the Cape of Good Hope. Commerce is partly in the hands of foreigners^ chiefly Jews and Banian Hindus. In 1916 the Arabs declared their independence. Grand Shereef Hussein Ben Ali became sov- ereign of an independent Kingdom of Arabia, with capital at Mecca, in July, Arabian Nights' Entertain- ments, or " The Thousand and One Nights," a celebrated collection of Oriental tales, which have, since their introduction to the civilized world, become the delight of all who peruse them. This collection, which had long been famous throughout the East, was brought to the notice of Europeans by the translation of An- toine Galland, a great French Orien- talist, in 1704. It speedily became translated into the other principal Eu- ropean languages, fixed popular ad- miration, and tp this day retains its place in popular literature. Aracari, the name given in Brazil to several scansorial birds. They have smaller bills than the toucans proper, and are of brighter colors, being gen- erally green, with red or yellow on their breasts. Arachnida, the class of animals which contains spiders, scorpions, and mites. Arack, or Arrack, a spirituous liquor manufactured in the East In- dies from a great variety of substances. It is often distilled from fermented Arafat rice, or it may be distilled from the juice of the cocoanut and other palms. Arafat, or Jebel er Rahmeh, a hill in Arabia, about 200 feet high, with stone steps reaching to the sum- mit, 15 miles S. E. of Mecca ; one of the principal objects of pilgrimage among Mohammedans, who say that it was the place where Adam first re- ceived his wife, Eve, after they had been expelled from Paradise and sep- arated from each other 120 years. A sermon delivered on the mount consti- tutes the main ceremony of the Hadj or pilgrimage to Mecca, and entitles the hearer to the name and privileges of a Hadji or pilgrim. Arago, Dominique Francois, an eminent French astronomer and physi- cist ; born near Perpignan, Feb. 26, 1786. He died in 1853. As Minister of War and Marine after the fall of Louis Philippe he was instrumental in abolishing negro slavery in the French colonies. Arago, Eticnne Vincent, a French poet, journalist, and play- wright, born at Perpignan, Feb. 9, 1802. He died in 1892. Aragon, once a kingdom, now di- vided into the three provinces of Sara- gpssa, Huesca, and Teruel, in the N. E. of Spain ; greatest length from N to S.. 190 miles; breadth. 130; area, 17,980 square miles; pop. (1910) 950,633. It is bounded on the N. by the Pyrenees, and borders on Navarre, the Castiles, Valencia, and Catalonia. < Aragnay, or Araguaya, a large river of Brazil, which rises in about 19 S. lat., near the Parana, flowing to about 6 S. lat, where it joins the Tocantins. The united stream, after a course of 1,000 miles, falls into the delta of the Amazon in S. lat. 1 40'. Many tribes of warlike Indians dwell on its banks. Aral Lake, separated by the pla- teau of Ust-Urt from the Caspian Sea, is the largest lake in the steppes of Asia. It lies wholly within the limits of Russian Central Asia, embracing an area of about 24,000 square miles. Aram, Eugene, a self-taught scholar whose unhappy fate has been made the subject of a ballad by Hood and a romance by Lord Lytton, born in Yorkshire. England, in 1704. In 1734 he opened a school at Knares- Araucania borough. About 1745 a shoemaker of that place, Daniel Clarke, was sud- denly missing under suspicious cir- cumstances; and no light was thrown on the matter till 13 years afterward, when an expression dropped by one Richard Houseman respecting the dis- covery of a skeleton supposed to be Clarke's, caused him to be taken into custody. From his confession an or- der was issued for the apprehension of Aram, who had long quitted York- shire, and was at the time acting as usher at the grammar school at Lynn. He was brought to trial on Aug. 3, 1759, at York, where, notwithstand- ing an able and eloquent defense which he made before the court, he was con- victed of the murder of Clarke, sen- tenced to death, and executed. Aramaean, or Aramaic, a Se- mitic language nearly allied to the Hebrew and Phrenician, anciently spoken in Syria and Palestine and eastward to the Euphrates and Tigris, being the official language of this re- gion under the Persian domination. Arapahoes, a tribe of American Indians located near the head-waters of the Arkansas and Platte rivers. Arapaima, a genus of tropical fishes, including the largest known fresh water forms. They are found in the rivers of South America, and are sometimes taken in the Rio Negro, 15 feet in length, and 400 pounds in weight. They are shot with arrows or harpooned, and are highly esteemed as food. Ararat, a celebrated mountain in Armenia, forming the point of contact of Russia with Turkey and Persia, to all of which it belongs. It rises, an isolated cone, on the S. border of the plain of the Aras of Araxes. The summit of the Great Ararat rises 16,- 964 feet above the sea-level. It is covered with perpetual snow and ice for about 3 miles from its summit downward in an oblique direction. Mount Ararat was the resting place of the ark when the flood abated. Araucania, the country of the Araucos or Araucanian Indians, in the south of Chile. The Chilean prov- ince of Arauco, lying between the Andes and the Pacific Ocean, and bounded on the N. by Concepcion, on the S. by Valdivia, was formed in Arbitration 1875, with an area of 2,446 square miles, and a population of 59,237. A large part of the territory in Arauco and the more southerly province of Valdivia, is occupied by Indians, who have of late mostly submitted to Chil- ean authority. Arbitration, an adjudication by private persons, called arbitrators, ap- pointed to decide a matter or matters in controversy, either by written or oral submission, by agreement of the disputants. It differs from a reference which is made by the order of a court of law. The proceeding generally is called a submission to arbitration ; the parties appointed to decide are termed arbitrators, not referees : and their ad- judication is called an award. This mode of settling disputes has been approved by some legislatures, and there are statutes in a number of States regulating the proceedings. It cannot be said that the legal re- quirements have helped to any great extent in the settlement of disputes be- between labor and capital. Either or both sides claim that an injustice has been done, and while a modus vivendi may be determined, it is only that mat- ters may be arranged for a more suc- cessful outcome of the next difficulty. The settlement of the great coal strike of 1902 by the arbitrators selected by President Roosevelt, ended the conflict for the time being, but did not satisfy either party to the dispute. The first general treaty of arbitra- tion ever drawn between nations was signed Jan. 11, 1897, in Washington, by Richard Olney, Secretary of State for the United States, and Sir Julian Pauncefote, Ambassador of Great Britain to the United States, for Great Britain. This treaty was placed before the United State Sen- ate, Jan. 11, 1897 accompanied by a special message from President Cleve- land, but the Senate refused to ratify it. Since then similar treaties have been made and ratified between Italy and the Argentine Republic and be- tween the Argentine Republic and Uruguay. The International Peace Convention at The Hague, in 1899, es- tablished an International Court of Arbitration which has been ratified by the United States and other signatory powers. In 1903, Holland accepted Mr. Carnegie's offer of $1,500.000 Are for a Temple of Peace and Interna- tional Law Library at The Hague, for the sessions of the Court. Arbor Day, a day set apart to encourage the voluntary planting of trees by the people. The custom was inaugurated by the Nebraska State Board of Agriculture in 1874, which recommended that the second Wednes- day in April annually be designated as Arbor Day, and that all public school children should be urged to ob- serve it by setting out young trees. The custom has since been extended, till now nearly every State and Terri- tory in the country has set apart one day by legislative enactment or other- wise, for this purpose ; several of the States making the day a legal holiday, others making it a school holiday. Arbor Vitae (lit. 'tree of life'), the name of several coniferous trees of the genus Thuja, allied to the cy- press, with flattened branchlets, and small imbricated or scale-like leaves. The common Arbor Vitse (Thuja oc- cidentalis) is a native of North Amer- ica, where it grows to the height of 40 or 50 feet. The young twigs have an agreeable balsamic smell. Arbutus, a genus of plants belong- ing to the order of ericaceae (heath worts). Trailing arbutus is a creep- ing or trailing plant; with rose colored blossoms, found chiefly in New Eng- land in the spring. Commonly called Mayflower. In the Southern States it is known as Ground Laurel. Arc, in geometry, a portion of the circumference of a circle, cut off by two lines which meet or intersect it. Its magnitude is stated in degrees, minutes, and seconds, which are equal to those of the angle which it subtends. In mathematical geography, an arc of the earth's meridian, or a merid- ional arc, is an arc partly measured on the surface of the earth from N. to S., partly calculated by trigonometry. It was by these measurements that the earth was discovered to be an oblate spheroid. In electricity, a voltaic arc is a lu- minous arc, which extends from one pencil of charcoal to another, when these are fixed to the terminals of a battery in such a position that their extremities are one-tenth of an inch apart. Arcade Arcade, a series of arches of any form, supported on pillars, either in- closing a space before a wall, or any building which is covered in and paved ; or, when used as an architec- tural feature for ornamenting the towers and walls of churches entirely closed up with masonry. The cloisters of the old monasteries and religious houses were, strictly speaking, arcades. The term is also applied to a covered passage having stores on either side of it Arcadia, the classical name of Middle Peloponnesus, now forming the modern province of Arkadia, in the Morea, Greece. Arcesilans, a Greek philosopher, founder of the New Acr.demy, was born at Pitane in JEolia, Asia Minor, 316 B. c. He died B. c. 241. Arch, in architecture, a series of wedge-shaped stones or bricks, so ar- ranged over a door or window in an edifice for habitation, or between the piers of a bridge, as to support each other, and even bear a great superin- incumbent weight The curved arch was known to the Assyrians and the Old Egyptians. There is no mention of the genuine arch in Scripture, the term "arches," in Ex.ek. xl : 16, being a mistranslation. The arch was brought into extensive use by the Romans, and everywhere prevailed till the 12th century A. D. when the arcl pointed at the apex, and called in consequence the pointed arch the one so frequently seen in Gothic architecture appeared in Europe as its rival. The forms of both curved and pointed arches may be varied in- definitely. Arch, Triumphal, a structure raised by the Romans to celebrate a victory, or some great historical event ; or to add an additional luster to the commemoration of the military ex- ploits of a victorious general. The practice has been adopted by some of the modern nations of which France is the foremost. Arch, Joseph, an English reform- er, born in Barford, Warwickshire, in 1826, and, while still a farm laborer, became a Primitive Methodist preach- er. In 1872 be founded the National Agricultural Laborers' Union, and thereby, according to Justin M'Carthy, Archelan* " began the emancipation of the rural laborers." He afterward visited Can- ada to inquire into the labor and emi- gration questions; and, in 1885-1886, he represented in Parliament the northwest division of Norfolk, which again returned him in 1892 and 1895. Archaeology, the science which makes us acquainted with the antiqui- ties of nations that have lived and died, and the remains of various kinds which throw a light upon the history of those now existing. Every country owns, in a greater or less degree, relics of antiquity highly interesting to the archaeologist. In Mexico and Cen- tral America, evidences have been found of the existence of a clever and ingenious people who had died before the discovery of America. Archaeopteryx, a unique fossil bird from the oolitic limestone of Sol- enhofen, of the size of a rook, and dif- fering from all known birds in having two free claws representing the thumb and forefinger projecting from the wing, and about twenty tail vertebra free and prolonged as in mammals. Archangel, a seaport, capital of the Russian government of same name, on the right bank of the northeastern Dwina, about 20 miles above its mouth in the White Sea. Below the town the river divides into several branches and forms a number of islands, on one of which, called Sollenbole, is the harbor. The port is closed for six months by ice. Archangel, was long the only port which Russia possessed. Pop. 20,- 993. Archdeacon, an ecclesiastical dig- nitary next in rank below a bishop, who has jurisdiction either over a part of or over the whole diocese. He is usually appointed by the bishop, under whom he performs various duties, and he holds a court which decides cases subject to an appeal to the bishop. Archduke, a duke whose authori- ty and power is superior to that of other dukes. In the present day, this title is not assumed by any excepting the princes of the imperial House of Austria. Archelaus, a Greek philosopher, the disciple and successor of Anaxa- goras. Archelaus is said to have had Socrates for his pupil at Athens. Flourished about 440 B. c. Arclielaus Architecture Arclielaus, son of Herod the Great. His reign is described as most tyrannical and bloody. The people at length accused him before Augustus (Judea being then dependent upon Rome). The Emperor, after hearing bis defense, banished him to Vienne, in Gaul. To avoid the fury of this monster, 7 A. D., Joseph and Mary re- tired to Nazareth. Archer, Branch T., a Texan pa- triot, born 1790; died 1856. In 1831 he left Virginia where he had practiced medicine, and settled in Texas where he took an active part in ^all the troubles that preceeded the indepen- dence of the territory. He was one of the commissioners who asked aid from the United States government, arid was speaker of the Texas House of Repre- sentatives, and Secretary of War for the new Republic. Archer, William, a Scottish crit- ic, born at Perth, Sept. 23, 1856. He graduated at Edinburgh University, 1876, and was called to the bar, 1883. He has long been dramatic critic for various London papers. Archer Fish, the toxotes aculator, which shoots water at its prey. It is | found in the East Indian and Polyne- sian Seas. Archery, the art of shooting with a bow and arrow. This art, either as a means of offense in war, or as sub- sistence and amusement in time of peace, may be traced in the history of | almost every nation. It always, how- ever declines with the progress of time, which introduces weapons more to be depended on, and not so easily \ exhausted as a bundle of arrows. ! With the ancients, the sagitarii, or archers, were an important class of troops. The English archers were famous in the Middle Ages, and turned the side in important battles. Archilochus, a Greek poet, flour- ished in the 7th century B. c. Of his life, nothing is definitely known. He was classed by the ancients with the greatest poets, Homer, Pindar, Sopho- cles ; but of his works only a few frag- ments have come down to us. Archimedes, the most famous of ancient mathematicians, was a native of Syracuse. He possessed equal knowledge of the sciences of astrono- my, geometry, hydrostatics, mechanics, and optics. Among his inventions were the combination of pulleys for lifting heavy weights, the revolving screw, and a spherical representation of the motion of the heavenly bodies. His inventive genius was especially ex- emplified in the defense of Syracuse when besieged by Marcellus. It is said that on this occasion he devised a burning-glass, formed of reflecting mirrors of such power that by it he set tire to the enemy's fleet. This well known story is, however, believed to be equally an invention. Upon the city being taken by storm, Archimedes, then in his 74th year, was among those who lost their lives, B. c. 212. Archimedes, Principle of, a well known principle in hydrostatics, the discovery of which is attributed to the celebrated philosopher whose name it bears. This important theorem may be thus defined : When a solid is im- mersed in a fluid, it loses a portion of its weight, and this portion is equal to the weight of the fluid which it dis- places, that is, to the weight of its own bulk of the fluid. Archimedian Screw, or Spiral Pump, a machine invented by Archi- medes, the celebrated Syracusan phi- losopher, while studying in Egypt. Ob- serving the difficulty of raising water from the Nile to places above the reach of the flood tides, he is said to have de- signed this screw as a means of over- coming the obstacle. It consists of a pipe twisted in a spiral form around a cylinder, which, when at work, is sup- ported in an inclined position. The lower end of the pipe is immersed in water, and when the cylinder is made to revolve on its own axis, the water is raised from bend to bend in the spiral pipe until it flows out at the top. The Archimedian screw is still used in Holland for raising water, and draining low grounds. Archipelago, a term applied to such tracts of sea as are interspersed with many islands. It is more es- pecially applied to the numerous is- lands of the ^Bgean Sea, or that part of the Mediterranean lying between Asia Minor and Greece. Architecture, the art of bui'iing, especially with a view to beauty or magnificence. It is an art which is ever advancing as the needs of civil- ized man change and increase. Some Archives Arctic Expeditions of the architectural work of the an- cients has never been surpassed in later ages in massiveness and in ; beauty, and the grand architectural monuments of the Middle Ages are ' the chief redeeming features of that j period of intellectual gloom. The ' architecture of the twentieth century bids fair to keep abreast of the mar- vellous progress of other arts, and nowhere is it achieving more signal triumphs than in the United States, with its mighty office-buildings, its magnificent public structures, and its residences including every comfort and improvement. Archives, the place in which rec- ords are kept ; also the records and papers which are preserved, as evi- dence of facts. Archons, the chief magistrates of ancient Athens, chosen to superintend civil and religious concerns. Archytas, an ancient Greek math- ematician, statesman, and general, whc i flourished about 400 B. c., and belong- ed to Tarentum, in Southern Italy. The invention of the analytic method in mathematics is ascribed to him, as well as the solution of many geometri- cal and mechanical problems. Arc Light, that species of the electric light in which the illuminating source is the current of electricity passing between two sticks of carbon kept a short distance apart, one of them being in connection with the pos- itive, the other with the negative ter- minal of a battery or dynamo. Arcon, Jean Claude Lcmi- ceaud d% a French engineer, born in 1733. He distinguished himself by the invention of the famous floating batteries used at the siege of Gibral- tar, in 1782. He died in 1800. Arctic Circle, a small circle or the globe, 23 28' distant from the North Pole, which is its center. It is opposed to the Antarctic circle, which is at the same distance from the South Pole. Arctic Expeditions, expeditions projected to explore the regions sur- rounding the North Pole. The ob- ject with which these enterprises were commenced by the English was to ob- tain a passage by way of the polar re- gions to India, Egypt being in Moham- medan hands, and fear, which now seems absolutely ludicrous, being felt that the Portuguese would successfully debar daring English seamen from using the route by the Cape of Good Hope. When the utter hopelessness of finding either a northwestern or a northeastern passage to India through the polar regions became apparent, it was felt that Arctic expeditions might still profitably be sent out for purely scientific exploration, one main object now being to make as near an ap- proach as possible to the Pole. They have continued at intervals to our own times, and are not likely ever to cease. Two of the most notable events in their history which have hitherto occurred have been the discovery of the northwest passage by Captain Mc- Clure, of the " Investigator," on Oct. 26, 1850, and the tragic deaths of Sir John Franklin and his crew, about the year 1848, the catastrophe being ren- dered all the more impressive to tBe public mind by the uncertainty which long hung over the gallant explorers' fate. In September, 1895, Lieut. Robert E. Peary, of the United States navy, returned from an Arctic expedition, after an absence of two years. He did not get so far north as some of his predecessors, but in scientific re- sults his expedition surpassed all others of recent years. His surveys and maps extend our knowledge of the coast northward 2. He started on another expedition in 1897. On Aug. 13, 1896, Dr. Fridtjof Nansen, of Nor- way, returned from an Arctic expedi- tion, after an absence of more than three years. The most northerly point reached by him was 86 14' N, latitude, or 200 miles nearer the Pole than ever reached before. He found no indications of land N. of 82 N. latitude, and in the higher latitudes no open sea, only narrow cracks in the ice. The following are the farthest points of N. latitude reached by Arctic ex- plorers, up to present date : Year Explorers North Latitude 1607. Hudson A .- 80 23' 0" 1773. Phipps 7. 80 48' 0" 1806. Scoresby 81" 12' 42" 1827. Parry 82" 50' 0" 1874. Meyer (on land)... 82 0' 0" 1875. Markham and Parr (Nares' expedition. 83" 20' 86" 1876. Payer 83" 07' 0* Arctic Ocean Are Year Explorers North Latitude 1882. Lockwood (Greely's party) 83 24' 0" 1896. Nansen 86 14' 0" 1900. Abruzzi 86 33' 0" 1908. Peary 87 6' 0" 1909. April 6. Peary The Pole In 1902 Lieutenant Peary attained lat. 84 17', 404 statute miles from the Pole. He pushed the advance on the American side 30 miles beyond his own best record in 1901. In 1906 he came within 200.36 miles of his goal, when he was forced back by insur- mountable obstacles. The Baldwin (1902) and the Fiala (1905) expedi- tions, which proceeded by way of Franz Josef Land, did not reach such high latitudes. In 1909 tidings of Arctic discovery were highly sensa- tional in character. On Sept. 1 Dr. Frederick A. Cook telegraphed that he had discovered the Pole on April 21, 1908, and five days later Peary an- nounced that he had reached it on April 6, 1909. On their return the rival claimants were honored at home and abroad, but a scientific investiga- tion of their records resulted in credit- ing the achievement to Peary. Arctic Ocean, in its widest sense, that portion of the ocean which ex- tends from the Arctic circle (lat. 66 32' N.) to the North Pole, or more re- etrictedly from about lat 70 N. As- suming the former limit, the Arctic Ocean is found entering deeply, in the form of gulfs, bays, etc., into the N. parts of the continents of Europe, Asia, and America. The water of the Arctic Ocean is extremely pure, shells being distinctly visible at a great depth ; it also presents rapid transi- tions of color, chiefly from ultramarine to olive-green, the latter variations of color being produced by myriads of minute animals, belonging for the most part, to the Coelenterata and Mollusca. Arctic Kegions, the regions round the North Pole, and extending from the pole on all sides to the Arctic circle in lat. 66 32' N. The Arctic or North Polar circle just touches the N. headlands of Iceland ; cuts off the S. and narrowest portion of Green- land ; crosses Fox Strait N. of Hudson bay, whence it goes over the American continent to Bering Strait. Thence it runs to Obdorsk at the mouth of the Obi ; then, crosing Northern Russia, the White Sea, and the Scandinavian peninsula, returns to Iceland. Arct-urus, in astronomy, a fixed star of the first magnitude, called also Alpha Bootis. It is one of the very brightest stars in the northern heav- ens. Ardahan, a village of about 300 houses, in the portion of Turkish Ar- menia, ceded in 1878 to Russia, 35 miles N. W. of Kars. Its position gives it strategic importance. Its fortress was dismantled by the Rus- sians in the war of 1854-1856 ; in 1878 the Berlin Congress sanctioned the ces- sion to Russia of Ardahan, which had been captured early in the war. On account of the severity of the climate, the houses of Ardahan are mainly con- structed underground. Ardennes, an extensive hill-coun- try and forest, occupying the S. E. corner of Belgium, between the Moselle and the Meuse, but extending also into France and Rhenish Prussia. It con- sists of a broken mass of hills, for the most part of no great elevation, which gradually slope toward the plains of Flanders. Enormous supplies of coal are found in the north, a very impor- tant element in Belgium's industrial wealth. The region was the scene of important military operations in the early part of the World War. Arditi, Luigi, an Italian musi- cian and composer, born in. Piedmont, July 16, 1822 ; studied music at the Conservatoire of Milan. Famous first as a violinist, then as a conductor, he conducted Italian opera and concerts in places as remote from one another as New York and Constantinople. He died in May, 1903. Ardmore, city and capital of Car- ter county, Okla.; in what was the Chickasaw Nation, Ind. Terr. ; on the Santa Fe and other railroads; 100 miles S. of Oklahoma City; is in a cotton-growing, natural gas, petro- leum, coal, and asphalt section; has a Carnegie library, two colleges, water, electric light, and telephone services, and cotton compressers and oil mill; and is chiefly engaged in the cotton industry. Pop. (1910) 8,618. Are, the unit of the French land measure, equal to 100 square meters, or 1,076.44 square feet. Arena Arena, the inclosed space in the central part of the Roman ampmtnea- ters, in which took place the combats of gladiators or wild beasts. It was usually covered with sand or saw dust to prevent the gladiators from slip- ping, and to absorb the blood. Arecibo, city, seaport, and capital of department of same name, Porto Rico; on the Arecibo river, 40 miles W. of San Juan; settled in 1616; greatly damaged by hurricane in 1899; has a roadstead available only by small vessels. Pop. (1910) 9,612. Areolar Tissue, a tissue widely diffused through the body, and com- posed of white and yellow fibers, the former imparting to it strength, and the latter elasticity. Areometer, an instrument de- signed to measure the specific gravity of liquids. Areopagus, the name of a hill or rocky eminence lying to the W. of the Acropolis at Athens, which was the meeting-place of the chief court of judicature of that city; hence called the Council of Areopagus. It was of very high antiquity, and existed as a criminal tribunal long before the time of Solon. Solon enlarged its sphere of jurisdiction, and gave it extensive powers of a censorial and political na- ture. Some say that the Apostle Paul was taken before this council ; but the Scripture does not bear out this idea. It would seem, rather, that the Athen- ians had taken him to the hill in or- der to hear him expound his new doc- trines. Arequipa, a city of Peru, capi- tal of the Department of the same name ; 40 miles from the Pacific Ocean, on the Chile river ; altitude, 7.850 feet above sea level. Gold and silver are mined in the vicinity. A great earth- quake occurred, Aug. 13 and 14, 1868, which destroyed more than $12,000,000 worth of property, and the lives of more than 500 persons. Its public buildings and dwellings are one or two stories high and constructed of stone. Near at hand Harvard University has an observatory, at an altitude of over 8,000 feet. Area, the Greek god of war, or more particularly of its horror and tu- mult. He is represented in Greek Argenionr poetry as a most sanguinary divinity delighting in war for its own sake. Aretaeus, a Greek physician of Cappadocia, who flourished about 100 A. D. He is considered to rank next to Hippocrates in the skill with which he treated diseases; was eclectic in his method ; and in the diagnosis of dis- ease is superior to most of the ancient physicians. Aretino, Pietro, an Italian poet and dramatist, born at Arezzo, April 20, 1492. His "Letters" are a val- uable contribution to the history of the times. He died in Venice, Oct. 21, 1556. Argali, the name for some species of the genus ovis, or sheep, which in- habits the mountains and steppes of Northern Asia. They are very keen- sighted, quick of hearing, and possess a delicate sense of smell. They attach themselves closely to one locality, and are noted for their great powers of leaping, even from heights of 20 or 30 feet. The Big-horn sheep of the Rocky Mountains are sometimes called Amer- ican argali. Argali, Sir Samuel, an ear/y English adventurer in Virginia, born about 1572 ; planned and executed the abduction of Pocahontas, the daughter of the Indian chief Powhatan, in order to secure the ransom of English prison- ers. He was Deputy Governor of Vir- ginia (1617-1619), and was accused of many acts of rapacity and tyranny. By carrying on trade in violation of the law he managed to acquire a fortune, and was shielded from justice by the Earl of Warwick. He died in 1639. Argand. Lamp, a lamp named after its inventor, Aim Argand, a Swiss chemist and physician (born 1755, died 1803), the distinctive fea- ture of which is a burner forming a ring or hollow cylinder covered by a chimney, so that the flame receives a current of air both on the inside and on the outside. Argemone, a genus of plants be- longing to the poppy-worts. It has three sepals and six petals. The^A. Mexicana, believed, as its name im- ports, to have come from Mexico, has conspicuous yellow flowers. From having its calyx prickly, it is often called Mexican thistle. The seeds are a more powerful narcotic than opium, Argent Argent, in coats or arms, the her- aldic term expressing silver ; repre- sented in engraving by a plain white surface. Argenta, a town in Pulaski county, Ark.; on the Arkansas river, and the Choctaw, Oklahoma & Gulf and other railroads; nearly opposite Little Rock; chiefly engaged in the live-stock and cotton industries. Pop. (1910) 11.13& Argentina, formerly called the United Provinces of La Plata, a vast country of South America ; extreme length, 2,100 miles ; average breadth a Tittle over 500 miles ; total area, 1,153,418 square miles. It is bounded on the N. by Bolivia ; on the E. by Paraguay, Brazil, Uruguay, and the Atlantic; on the S. by the Antarctic Ocean; and on the W. by the Andes. With the exception of the N. W., where lateral branches of the Andes run into the plain for 150 or 200 miles, and the province of Entre Rios, which is hilly, the characteristic feature of the country is the great monotonous and level plains called pampas. In the N., these plains are partly forest-cov- ered, but all the central and S. parts present vast treeless tracts, which af- ford pasture to immense herds of horses, oxen, and sheep, and are varied in some places by brackish swamps, in others by salt steppes. European grains and fruits, includ- ing the vine, have been successfully in- troduced, and are cultivated in most parts of the republic, countless herds of cattle and horses and flocks of sheep are pastured on the pampas, and mul- tiply there very rapidly. Gold, siver, nickel, copper, tin, lead, and iron, be- sides marble, jasper, precious stones, and bitumen, are found in the moun- tainous districts of the northwest, while petroleum wells have been dis- covered on the Rio Vermejo; but the development of this mineral wealth has hitherto been greatly retarded by the want of proper means of transport. As a whole, there are not extensive forests in the country, except in the region of the Gran Chaco (which ex- tends also into Bolivia), where thera is known to be 60,000 square miles of timber. Thousands of square miles are covered with thistles, which grow to a great height in their season. Cacti also form great thickets. Peach and Argon apple trees are abundant in some dis- tricts. The native fauna includes the puma, the jaguar, the tapir, the llama, the alpaca, the vicuna, armadilos, the rhea or nandu, a species of ostrich, etc. The climate is agreeable and healthful, 97 being about the highest tempera- ture experienced. The native Indians, few in number, give little trouble to white settlers, although some of the Gran Chaco tribes are warlike and have killed foreign travellers. Some tribes, still in a savage state, inhabit less known districts and live by hunt- ing and fishing. The typical inhabi- tants of the pampas are the Gauchos, a race of half-breed cattle- rearers and horsebreakers, almost continually in saddle, galloping the plains. A. is divided into 14 provinces and 10 territories. Buenos Aires, the cap- ital, is connected with other large towns including Rosario, La Plata, Tucuman, Cordoba, Santa F6, Men- doza, Parana, etc., by extensive and modern lines of railroads and tele- graphs. Industries and commerce have increased with the arrival of large numbers of immigrants, averag- ing about 300,000 yearly. In 1915 the imports aggregated $220,085.951, and the exports $541,532,224. The chief foreign trade, in order of importance, was with Great Britain, the United States, Italy, France, and Brazil, and was largely affected by the World War. The government is republican, sim- ilar to that of the United States, and the President is elected for six years. The population was estimated in 1914 at about 9.000,000, Buenos Aires having 1,700,000. The constitution bears date of May 15, 1853, with amendments in 1866 and 1898. Argillaceous Rocks. Rocks in- cluding slate, in which clay prevails. Argol, a salt deposited by wine on the inside of bottles and barrels. It may be purified in hot water, and clarified by adding clay, and recrys- tallizing. In repeating the process it becomes white and is called cream of tartar. Argon, a constituent gaseous ele- ment discovered in our atmosphere by Lord Rayleigh and Prof. Ramsay, in 1894. There is still much doubt con- cerning its true status. Argonaut Argonaut, one of the heroes who accompanied Jason in the ship " Argo " when he sailed on his mythic voyage in quest of the golden fleece (generally used in the plural). The tales describing the return of the Ar- gonauts differ very essentially. The word is also applied to a genus of cephalopod mollusks, the typical one of the family argonautidse. The best known species is the argonaut, or pa- per sailor. The shell is thin and translucent. Aristotle supposed that it floated with the concave side up, the animal holding out its arms, after the manner of sails, to catch the breeze. Poets have since repeated the fable. Argonne, a rocky, forest-clad pla- teau, extending along the borders of Lorraine, Germany, and Champagne, France, watered by the Meuse, Marne, and Aisne rivers ; noted as the scene of Dumouriez's campaign against the Prussians in 1792, of military move- ments preceding the battle of Sedan in 1870, and of struggles for the pos- session of Alsace-Lorraine in the World War. Argos, a town of Greece, in the N. E. of the Peloponnesus, between the gulfs of JEgina and Nauplia or Argos. This town and the surround- ing territory of Argolis were famous from the legendary period of Greek history onward, the territory contain- ing, besides Argos, Mycenae, where Agamemnon ruled, with a kind of sov- ereignty, over all the Peloponnesus. Argosy, a poetical name for a large merchant vessei ; derived from Ragusa, a port which was formerly more celebrated than now, and whose vessels did a considerable trade with England. Argot, the jargon, slang or pecu- liar phraseology of a class or profes- sion ; originally the conventional slang of thieves and vagabonds, invented for the purpose of disguise and conceal- ment. Argument, a term sometimes used as synonymous with the subject of a discourse, but more frequently appro- priated to any kind of method employ- ed for the purpose of confuting or at least silencing an opponent. Argus. (1) In classical mythol- ogy, a son of Arestor, said to have had 100 eyes, of which only two slept at Arlan ! one time, the several pairs doing so in ! succession. When killed by Mercury, his eyes were put into the tail of the peacock, by direction of Juno, to whom this bird was sacred. Argus was deemed a highly appropriate name to give to a vigilant watch dog. (2) In zoology, a genus of birds. It contains the argus, or argus pheas- ant. The male measures between five and six feet from the tip of the bill to the extremity of the tail, and is an em- inently beautiful bird, the quill-feath- ers of the wings, which often exceed three feet in length, being ornamented all along by a series of ocellated spots, about 80,000 in number. Argyle, Campbells of, a historic Scottish family, raised to the peerage in the person of Sir Duncan Campbell of Lochow, in 1445. JOHN, second Duke and Duke of Greenwich, son of Archibald, born 1G78, died 1743 ; served under Marlborough at the battles of Ramilies, Oudenarde, and Malplaquet, and assisted at the sieges of Lisle and Ghent. He incurred considerable odium in his own country for his ef- forts in promoting the union with England. Ariadne, a daughter of Minos, King of Crete, who, falling in love with Theseus, then shut up by her father in the labyrinth, gave him a clue by which he threaded his way out. Arian, a follower of Arius, Pres- byter of Alexandria in the 4th cen- tury A. D., or one holding the system of doctrine associated with his name. In the year 317, Alexander, Bishop of Alexandria, having publicly expressed his opinion that the Son of God is not only of the same dignity as the Father, but of the same essence (in Greek, ousia), Arius, one of the Presbyters, considered this view as leaning too much to Sabel- lianism, and, rushing to the other extreme, he declared that the Son of God was only the first and noblest of created beings, and though the universe had been brought into existence through His instrumentality by the Eternal Father, yet to that Eternal Father He was inferior, not merely in dignity, but in essence. The views of Arius commended themselves to multi- tudes, while they were abhorrent to still more ; fierce controversy respect- ing them broke out, and the whole Ariel Aristolmlus Christian world was soon compelled to take sides. It would occupy too much space to detail the vicissitudes of a highly checkered struggle ; suffice it to say that the Arians greatly weak- ened themselves by splitting into sects, and the doctrines regarding the rela- tion of the three Divine Personages authoritatively proclaimed at Nice* were at last all but universally adopt- ed. They may be found detailed in what are popularly termed the Nicene and the Athanasian Creeds. They were held almost without a dissentient voice through the Middle Ages, and were cordially accepted by the leading reformers. Ariel, the name of several person- ages mentioned in the Old Testament ; in the demonology of the later Jews a spirit of the waters. In Shakespeare's " Tempest," Ariel was the " tricksy spirit " whom Prospero had in his ser- vice. Aries, in astronomy, the constel- lation Aries, or the Ram, one of the ancient zodiacal constellations, and generally called the first sign of the zodiac ; also the portion of the eclip- tic between and 30 longitude, which the sun enters on March 21st (the vernal equinox). Arimanes, or Aliriman, the principle of evil in the Persian theol- ogy, which perpetually counteracts the designs of Ormuzd or Oromazdes, who denotes the principle of good. Arimatlifea, a town of Palestine, identified with the modern Ramleh, 22 miles W. N. W. of Jerusalem. Arion, an ancient Greek poet and musician, born at Methymna, in Les- bos, flourished about B. c. 625. He is said to have been rescued from drowning by a dolphin, which at- tracted by his music, bore him to land. A fragment of a hymn 'M Poseidon, ascribed to Arion, is extant. Ariosto, I/udovico, an Italian poet, born at Reggio, Sept. 8, 1474. i Was one of the three great epic poets I of Italy, and styled " The Divine " by his countrymen. He died in Ferrara, June 6, 1533. Arista, Don Mariano, a Mex- ican statesman, born in 1803. Of Spanish descent, he at an early age entered the army, in which he at- tained to the rank of major-general. He served with distinction in the war against the United States, was, in 1848, appointed Minister of War, and, in 1850, President of the Republic. He was succeeded as President in 1852, by Don Juan Cebellos. He died in 1855. Aristarchns, a Greek grammar- ian, who criticised Homer's poems with the greatest severity. Aristarchus of Samos, a famous astronomer, born 267 B. c. First as- serted the revolution of the earth about the sun. His work on the mag- nitude, and distance of the sun and moon, is still extant. He is also re- garded as the inventor of the sun-dial. Aristides, a statesman of ancient Greece, for his strict integrity sur- named " The Just." He died at an advanced age about B. c. 468, so poor that he was buried at the public ex- pense. It was customary in Athens for citizens to vote by a ballot of shells hence called ostracism from the Greek word for shell for the exile of any citizen who might be un- popular, without any specific charge being made against him. Aristides was, on one occasion the victim of os- tracism, and a citizen who voted against him gave as a reason, that he was tired of hearing him called " The Just." Aristippns, a disciple of Socrates, and founder of a philosophical school among the Greeks, which was called the Cyrenaic, from his native city Gy- rene, in Africa ; flourished in 380 B. C. His moral philosophy differed widely from that of Socrates, and was a science of refined voluptuousness. His writings are lost. Aristobulus, name of several roy- al personages of Judea : ARISTOBULUS I., son of John Hyrcanus, high priest of the Jews ; from 105-104 B. C. King of Judea. He is supposed to have been the first of the Hasmoneans to take the title of king. In the single year of his reign he conquered por tions of Iturea and Trachonitis, and compelled the people to accept Juda- ism. ARISTOBULUS II., son of Alex- ander Jannsenus, was named as high priest by bis mother, Queen Regent Alexandra, while to Hyrcanus II. : his elder brother, the throne was given. In a contest for the throne, he was Aristobnlns Arizona defeated by Pompey in 63 B. c., and carried captive to Rome. He died about 48 B. c. ARISTOBULUS III., a grandson of Hyrcanus II. ; his sister, Mariamne, was the wife of Herod I., who appointed him high priest, but, fearing his popularity, had him assas- sinated about 30 B. c. ARISTOBULUS III. was the last male of the Hasmo- nean family. Aristobulus, an Alexandrian Jew and peripatetic philosopher, who lived about 170 B. c., was considered by the early fathers as the founder of the Jewish philosophy in Alexandria. | Aristocracy, a form of govern- ! ment by which the wealthy and noble, | or any small privileged class, rules i over the rest of the citizens ; now mostly applied to the nobility or chief persons in a State. Aristophanes, the greatest of the Greek writers of comedy (B. c. 448?- ' 380?), born at Athens. Aristotle, the most renowned of Greek philosophers, born at Stagira, Macedonia, 384 B. c. ; was for 20 years a student of philosophy in the school of Plato at Athens, but at the same time a teacher, in the meantime mas- tering and digesting all the accessible results of philosophical and scientific research and speculation in his time. After Plato's death, he opened a school of Philosophy at the court of Hermias, King of Atarnous, in Mysia, who had been his fellow student in Plato's Academy, and whose adopted daugh- 1 ter he afterward married. At the in- j vitation of Philip of Macedon, he un- '. dertook the education of his son, Alex- ! ander. When Alexander succeeded to the throne, the philosopher returned to Athens and opened a school in the Lyceum, so called from the neighbor- , ing temple of the Lycian Apollo. He taught in the Lyceum for 13 years, and to that period we owe the compo- j sition of most of his numerous writ- | ings. _ The number of his separate treatises is given by Diogenes Laer- tius as 146 ; only 46 separate works ! bearing the name of the philosopher I have come down to our time. He died at Chalcis, Euboea, in 322 B. C. Arithmetic, in its broadest sense, the science and art which treat of the properties of numbers. This defini- tion, however, would include algebra, which is considered a distinct branch. Algebra deals with certain letters of the alphabet, such as x, y, z, a, b, c, etc., standing as symbols for numbers; arithmetic operates on numbers them- selves, as 1, 2, 3, 4, etc. Viewed as a science, arithmetic is a branch of mathematics ; looked on as an art, its object is to carry out for practical purposes certain rules regarding num- bers, without troubling itself to in- vestigate the foundation on which those rules are based. Ari Thorgilsson, the father of Icelandic literature (1067-1148). Arizona, a State in the Mountain Division of the North American Union ; bounded by Nevada, Utah, New Mexico, California and the Mex- ican State of Souora ; gross area, 113,956 square miles ; organized as a Territory Feb. 14. 1863 ; admitted into the Union as a State, Feb. 14, 1912. Number of counties, 14; pop. (1900) 122,212; (1916) 255,544; capital, Phoenix. A. abounds with mineral wealth in- cluding coal, iron, gold, silver, copper, lead, platinum, quicksilver, tin, etc. ; mining, ranching and lumbering are the chief industries. Of the total area, embracing over 72,500,000 acres, only about 5,000,000 acres is farming land. The rainfall is so small that irrigation is depended upon to make agriculture profitable. The construction of irrigating canals and water storage reservoirs is being steadily promoted and over 500,000 acres are now productive thereby. In the calendar year 1916 farm crops had a value of $13.597.000 and all farm property, over $80,000,000. The pine timber land covers an area of nearly 4,000,000 acres, giving the Ter- ritory resources for timber and build- ing material unsurpassed anywhere in the country. , The State is rich in mineral re- sources, largely copper, coal, iron, gold, silver, lead, quicksilver, and precious stones. The value of all productions in 1915 was $91,541,403, copper yielding $80,495,152. In 1914 the manufacturing industries had a combined output valued at $64.090,000 on a capital of $40,300,000. the lead- ing industry being the smelting and refining of copper. The governor is elected for two Ark years. Legislature meets biennially ; Senate, 19 members, House, 35. One Representative-at-Large in Congress. State officials and Legislature Demo- cratic in 1917. Ark, a chest or coffer for the safe- keeping of any valuable thing ; a de- pository. The large floating vessel in which Noah and his family were pre- served during the deluge. The Ark of the Covenant, in the synagogue of the Jews, was the chest or vessel in which the tables of the law were preserved. Arkansas, a State in the West South Central Division of the Nofth American Union ; bounded by Mis- souri, Tennessee, Mississippi, Louisi- ana, Texas and Oklahoma ; gross area, 53,850 square miles ; admitted into the Union, June 15, 1836 ; seceded, March 4, 1861; readmitted June 22, 1868; number of counties, 75 ; pop. (1900) 1,311,564; (1916) 1,739,723 ; capital, Little Rock. The State contains semi-anthracite, cannel, and bituminous coal ; iron and zinc ores ; galena, frequently bearing silver ; manganese ; gypsum, oil-stone of superior quality ; marble ; alabas- ter ; rock crystal ; copper ; granite ; kaolin ; marl ; mineral ochers, and salt. In 1915 the value of all mineral pro- ductions was $6,558,693. The soil varies with the geological characteristics and surface conditions already described. Agriculturally, the most valuable soil is found in the river bottom-lands, and as the surface rises from these bottoms the soil be- comes less productive. There are large submerged tracts that only require proper drainage to make them valu- able to the farmer. The uplands gen- erally are well timbered and well wa- tered. The various crops of 1916 had a value of $175.057,000, cotton lead- ing with $107,430,000. In 1914 there were 2,604 manufac- turing establishments reported, em- ploying $77,162,000 capital and 41,979 persons ; paying $20,752,000 for wages and $44,907,000 for materials; and having a combined output valued at $83,940,000. The principal articles were lumber, sawed and worked ; flour and grist ; cotton-seed oil and cake ; foundry and machine shop products ; and brick and tile. The public schools ar,e liberally Arkansas maintained and well attended. In 1914 the school census was reported at 635,462, of whom 439,624 were en- rolled in public schools and 298,597 were in average daily attendance. There were 10,361 teachers in the public schools, 6,429 buildings used for public school purposes and public school property valued at $11,950,315. The principal universities and colleges are Arkansas College (opened 1872, Presb.) ; University of Arkansas (1872, non-sect.) ; Philander Smith College (1877, Meth. Epis.) ; Hendrix College (1884, Meth. Epis. S.) ; Ouachita College (1886, Bapt.) ; Arkadelphia College (1890, Meth. Epis.) ; Arkansas-Cumberland College (1891, Cumb. Presb.) ; Central Col- lege (1892, Women, Bapt.) ; and Mountain Home College (1893, Bapt.). In 1916 the net State revenue was $3,810,994; net expenditure, $4,010,- 281 ; the assessed valuation of all tax- able property, $447,020,270; the tax levy, $3,577,503 ; and the net debt, $2,- 183,538. There were over 5,400 miles of steam railroad in operation. Under the National Banking Act of 1913, the State is included in Federal Reserve District No. 8. The Governor is elected for a term of two years and receives a salary of $5,000 per annum. Legislative ses- sions are held biennially, and are lim- ited to 60 days each. The Legislature has 35 members in the Senate and 100 in the House. There are 7 Repre- sentatives in Congress. In 1917 the State was Democratic. Arkansas Post, a village in Ar- kansas county, Ark. ; on the Arkansas River ; 117 miles S. E. of Little Rock. Its elevated location gave it consider- able military importance during the Civil War. The Confederates estab- lished strong works here, which were reduced by a combined assault of a portion of the United States army, under General McClernand, and a na- val command under Admiral Porter, on Jan. 11, 1863. Arkansas, University of, a co- educational institution organized in 1872, with academic and technical de- partments in Fayetteville, law and medical departments in Little Rock, and normal school for colored students in Pine Bluff. Armenia Armenia Armenia, together with Kurdistan, forms a part of the Turkish Empire in Asia. The total area is about 75,000 square miles, and the popula- tion was recently estimated at, from 2,500,000 to about 5,000,000, but a serious plan of extermination was steadily pursued by Turkey through- out 1915-16. Tradition assigns the cradle of the human race to Armenia. In 1916 the country was divided into three vilayets or governments Erzerum, Mamuret ul Aziz, and Diarbekir, with the districts of Bitlis and Van. The inhabitants are of the Christian faith, most of them belonging to the Gregorian Church, which greatly re- sembles the Greek Church in doctrine and ritual. There are many, how- ever, who acknowledge_ the authority of Rome, although retaining their own distinctive ritual. Sheep, cattle, and wool are largely exported, and there is a growing silk industry in Diar- bekir. Armenia was at one time subdivided into First, Second and Third Armenia, to which a Fourth was afterward added ; but the division by which it was almost universally known was into Armenia Major and Armenia Minor, or the Greater and the Less Armenia. It would seem to have stretched from the Caspian Sea and the Persian prov- ince of Azerbijan on the E. to Asia Minor on the W., and from the Kur or Cyrus river on the N. to Kurdistan and Mesopotamia on the S. Armenia Major comprised the larger and E. portion of this area, extending W. as far as the Euphrates and the Anti- Taurus, and having an area of about 84.000 square miles. Armenia Minor extended from the Euphrates to Asia Minor, and its area may be stated at about 53,000 square miles. The Euphrates thus intersects Armenia almost centrally, and forms the natural boundary between the two divisions now described. The terri- tory of this kingdom became parti-' tioned among Turkey, Persia, and Russia, Turkey possessing the largest share. The inhabitants are chiefly of the genuine Armenian stock ; but besides them, in consequence of the repeated subjugation of the country, various other races have obtained a footing. Of these the principal are the Turco- mans, who still maintain their no- madic habits, and from whom the country has received the name of Tur- comadia. In the S. portion are the predatory Kurds and the Turks ; on the Tchorak, Georgians ; and through- out the whole country, Greeks, Jews, and Gypsies. Armenians are scattered over various countries, and being strongly addicted to commerce, play an important part as merchants. They are found over all Western Asia ; about 200,000 are in Constanti- nople and its vicinity ; numbers are in Russia, Hungary, and Italy ; some in Africa and the United States, and many in India, chiefly in the great marts, Bombay, Madras, and Calcutta. The Armenians received Christian- ity as early as the 3d century. Dur- ing the Monophysitic disputes, being dissatisfied with the decisions of the Council of Chalcedon (451), they sep- arated from the Greek Church in the year 536. The Popes have at different times attempted to gain them over to the Roman Catholic faith, but have not been able to unite them perma- nently and generally with the Roman Church. There are, however, small numbers here and there of United Ar- menians, who acknowledge the spirit- ual supremacy of the Pope, agree in their doctrines with the Catholics, but retain their peculiar ceremonies and discipline. At different times force has been used to make them conform to the religion of Mohammed ; but the far greater part are yet Monophy- sites, and have remained faithful to their old religion and worship. They have suffered the usual fate of Chris- tian populations subject to Turkey, and the massacres of Armenians in 1895, 1896, and 1915-16, excited the horror of the civilized world. In the early part of the World War, while the British Expeditionary Force was fighting under adverse conditions in Mesopotamia, the Russian army in the Caucasus, after a long period of apparent inactivity, was striking hard blows at the Turks in the mountain- ous region of Armenia. On Jilne 17, 1916, the Russians broke the Turkish center at Kopri-Keui ; on Feb. 16, captured Erzerum ; on March 19, en- tered Ispahan ; and on April 17, forced the capitulation of Trebizond. See APPENDIX: World War. Armenian Literature Armistice Armenian Literature. Previous to the introduction of Christianity by Gregory (A. D. 300), the Armenians had adhered to the Assyrian or Medo- Persian system of culture ; but except- ing a few old songs or ballads, no re- mains of that early period exist. After their conversion to Christianity, the Greek language and its literature soon became favorite objects of study, and many Greek authors were translated into Armenian. The Armenian lan- guage has an alphabet of its own, con- sisting of 36 letters, introduced by Meisrob in 406. The most flourishing period 1 of Armenian Literature ex- tends from the 4th to the 14th century. The numerous Armenian theological writers and chroniclers of this era sup- ply materials for a history of the East during the Middle Ages which have hitherto been too much neglected. These Armenian writers generally copied the style of the later Greek and Byzantine authors ; but in adherence to facts and good taste, they are su- perior to the general order of Oriental historians. In the 14th century litera- ture began to decline, and few remark- able works were afterwards produced, but since the time of their dispersion, the Armenians have preserved recollec- tions of their national literature ; and wherever they are found in Amster- dam, Lemberg, Leghorn, Venice, As- trakan, Moscow, Constantinople, Smyrna, Ispahan, Madras, or Calcutta the printing-office is always a fea- ture in their colonies. The most inter- esting Armenian settlement is that of the Mechitarists on the island of San Lazaro, near Venice. The Bible translated into Armenian (the Old Testament from the text of the Septuagint) by Meisrob and his scholars is esteemed the highest model of classic style. Translations of sev- eral Greek authors, made about the same time, have been partly preserved, and contain some writings of which the originals have been lost namely, the Chronicle of Eusebius ; the Discourses of Philo ; Homilies by St. Chrysostom, Severianus, Basil the Great, and Ephraim Syrus. Several old geograph- ical and historical works have been preserved. Among philosophical and theological writers may be mentioned : David, the translator and commenta- tor of Aristotle, Esnik, and Joannes Ozniensis. The "Lives of Armenian Saints, 12 vols. Ven. 1814," contains many notices of the history of Ar- menia. In poetry and fiction Arme- nian Literature is poor. Somal, in his work entitled "Quadro della Storia Litteraria di Armenia" (Venice, 1829), gives a general view of the con- tents of Armenian Literature. The Armenian belongs to the Indo-Ger- manic group of languages, but has many peculiarities of structure. It is harsh and disagreeable to the ear. The old Armenian, the language of litera- ture, is no longer a living tongue ; while the new Armenian, split up into four dialects, contains many Turkish words and grammatical constructions. Armida, one of the most prominent female characters in Tasso's "Jerusa- lem Delivered." As the poet tells us. when the Crusaders arrived at the Holy City, Satan held a council to de- vise some means of disturbing the plans of the Christian warriors, and Armida, a very beautiful sorceress, was employed to seduce Rinaldo and other Crusaders. Rinaldo was con- ducted by Armida to a remote island, where, in her splendid palace, sur- rounded by delightful gardens and pleasure-grounds, he utterly forgot his vows, and the great object to which he had devoted his life. To liberate him from his voluptuous bondage, two messengers from the Christian army Carlo and Ubaldo came to the island, bringing a talisman so powerful that the witchery of Armida was destroyed. Rinaldo escaped, but was followed by the sorceress, who was defeated by Rinaldo, who persuaded her to become a Christian. The story of Armida has been made the subject of an opera by Gluck and by Rossini. Arminianism, the doctrine of Arminius, a Protestant divine, who maintained that God had predestinat- ed the salvation or condemnation of individuals only from having foreseen who would and who would not accept of offered mercy. Arminius, Jacobus, a Protestant divine, born at Oudewater, Holland, 1560, founder of the sect of the Ar- minians. A life of perpetual labor and vexation of mind at last brought on a sickness, of which he died, 1609. Armistice, the term given to a truce or suspension of hostilities be- A COMPRESSED STEEL INGOT. BENDING AN ARMOR PLATE FOR A CONNING TOWER. MAKING AND TESTING HEATING AN ARMOR PLAT1 MACHINING AN ARMOR PLATE DR PLANING AN ARMC THE BOLT HOLES. FORGING AN ARMOR PLATE. TESTING AN ARMOR PLATE. STEEL ARMOR PLATES. Armitage tween two armies or nations at war, by mutual consent. Armitage, Edward, an English historical and mural painter, born in London, May 20, 1817. Armitage, Thomas, an American clergyman ; born at Pontefract, Eng- land, Aug. 2, 1819 ; was an important influence in the Baptist Church in New York city, and the prime mover in the establishment of the American Bible Union in 1850. He was presi- dent of that bodv from 1856 to 1875. Died, Yonkers, N. Y., Jan. 21, 1896. Armor, a word formerly applied to all such contrivances as served to defend the body from wounds or to annoy the enemy. Hence it was di- vided into two kinds, defensive and offensive. A complete suit of defen- sive armor anciently consisted of a casque or helm, a gorget, cuirass, gauntlets, tasses, brassets, cuishes and covers for the legs, to which the spurs were fastened. This was called armor, cap-a-pie, and was worn by cavaliers and men-at-arms. The infantry had only part of it, viz., a pot or head- piece, a cuirass and tasses. The horses had armor which covered the head and neck. In the World War trench fighters on both sides were pro- vided with metal helmets and German infantry were said to wear a metallic covering for the chest and stomach. The word is also applied to the pro- tection given to warships, war motors, etc., usually plates of steel. Armored Train, one of the mod- ern instruments of war that received severe tests in the American opera- tions against Filipino insurgents in 1898-1899, and in those of the British against the Boers in 1899-1900. Armor-Piercing Shells, projec- tiles so constructed as to bore through the metallic plates with which modern ships of war are coated. Armor Plates, slabs of metal with which the sides of war vessels are cov- ered to render them shot-proof. Armour, Philip Danforth, an American philanthropist, born in Stockbridge, N. Y., May 16, 1832; re- ceived a common school education ; ; was a Drainer in California in 1852- i 1856 ; in the commission business in Milwaukee in 1856-1863; and later became the head of a large meat-pack- E. 9. Armstrong ing concern in Chicago. He founded the Armour Mission and the Armour Institute of Technology, both in Chi- cago ; the former at a cost of about $250,000, and the latter with an en- dowment of $1,500,000, subsequently increased. He died Jan. 6, 1901. Arms, a term applied to weapons of offense, which are divisible into two distinct sections firearms, and arms used without gunpowder or other ex- plosive substance. ABMOH-PIEBCING SHELLS. Arms, Coat of, or Armorial Bearings, a collective name for tha devices borne on shields, banners, etc., as marks of dignity and distinction, and, in the case of family and feudal arms, descending from father to son. They were first employed by the cru- saders, and became hereditary in fam- ilies at the close of the 12th century. They took their rise from the knighta painting their banners or shields each with a jigure or figures proper to him- self, to enable him to be distinguished in battle when clad in armor. Arms, Stand of, the Get of arms necessary for the equipment of a sin- gle soldier. Armstrong, Sir Alexander, an English physician, born in Ireland Armstrong about 1820; was educated at Trinity College, Dublin, and at the University of Edinburgh; and became widely known as an explorer. He died July 5, 1899. Armstrong, John, an American author and soldier; born at Carlisle, Pa., Nov. 25, 1758 ; served in the War of the Revolution on the staff of Gen- eral Gates ; was United States Min- ister to France, 1804-1810, afterward to Spain; and Secretary of War, 1813-1814. Author of " Newburg Let- ters," begun in camp, 1783, anony- mously, and intended to arouse Con- gress to redress army grievances. They gave General Washington displeasure. He died at Red Hook, N. Y., April 1, 1843. Armstrong, Samuel Chapman, an American educator, born in Ha- waii in 1839, a son of Richard Arm- strong, an American missionary to the Sandwich Islands. In 1860 he came to the United States; in 1862 was graduated at Williams College; and in June of the same year he organized a company for the 125th Regiment of New York Infantry, and with it was assigned to the Army of the Potomac. At Harper's Ferry he was captured and held prisoner for three months. After the close of the war he was mus- tered out of the volunteer service with the rank of brigadier-general. During his service he volunteered for the com- mand of a regiment of colored troops, with whom he served two years. In 1866 he took up the work of the Freed- man's Bureau and at first had the oversight of the colored people in 10 counties of Virginia. After two years in this work he procured help from the American Missionary Association and personal friends in the North and founded a school which afterward be- came famous as the Hampton Normal and Agricultural Institute. The United States Government, recognizing the great value of his work for colored youth here, began sending Indian youth to the Institute in 1878, and since then the two races have been educated together. General Armstrong served as president of the Institute till his death, May 11, 1893. Armstrong, William George, ! Lord, an English inventor, born in I 1810 at Newcastle, where his father ! was a merchant. During the Crimean ; Army "Worm War, Armstrong was employed by the War Office to make explosive appa- ratus for blowing up the ships sunk at Sebastopol. This led him soon af- terward to consider improvements in ordnance, and he devised the form of cannon that bears his name. Cam- bridge and Oxford conferred honorary degrees on Armstrong, who was raised to the peerage as Baron Armstrong in 1887. He died Dec. 27, 1900. Army, the national military of a country, usually divided into a stand- ing, and the reserves, in the United States known as militia, who are called to arms only in emergency. On Aug. 7, 1917, the United States War Department issued orders provid- ing for important changes in the or- ganization of the army selected for service abroad. The force was to be apportioned into (1) armies, (2) army corps, (3) divisions, and the ordinary artillery and the machine gun strength was to be greatly en- larged. The various changes were for the purpose of bringing the American contingents into closer co-ordination with the armies of the Entente Allies. Army Corps, one of the largest divisions of an army in the field, com- prising all arms, and commanded by a general officer ; subdivided into di- visions, which may or may not com- prise all arms. Army Hospital Train, a rail- way contrivance for military pur- poses, introduced by the Surgeon-Gen- eral of the United States Army during the war with Spain, in 1898, for the purpose of conveying sick and wounded soldiers, on their arrival from Cuba, at Florida ports, to the various military hospitals in the United States. This train had a full staff of physicians, surgeons and trained nurses, and was completely equipped with everything necessary for the medical and surgical treatment of the soldiers. It is believed to have been the first train service completely organized for such purpose. Army War College, a depart- ment of the United States military educational establishment authorized by Congress in 1900. Army Worm, the very destructive larva of the moth, so called from its habit of marching in compact bodies of enormous number, devouring al- Arnaud most every green thing it meets. It is about 1% inches long, greenish in color, with black stripes, and is found in various parts of the world, but is particularly destructive in North America. Arnaud, Henri, the pastor and military leader of the Vaudois of Pied- mont ; born in 1641. At the head of his people he successfully withstood the united forces of France and Sa- voy, and afterward did good service against France in the War of the Spanish Succession. He had to re- tire from his country, and was fol- lowed by a number of his people, to whom he discharged the duties of pas- tor till his death, which occurred in 1721. Arnaud, Jacques Achille Le- roy De Saint, Slarshal of France ; born in Bordeaux, Aug. 20, 1796. In March, 1854, he was appointed to the command of the French army which was engaged in the war against Rus- sia. He died Sept. 29 following. Arndt, Ernst Moritz, a German writer and patriot, born at Schoritz, Isle of Rugen, Dec. 29, 1769. He died in Bonn, Jan. 29, 1860. Arndt, Johann, a German Lu- theran clergyman, born at Ballenstedt, Anhalt, in 1555. His " True Chris- tianity " was translated into most Eu- ropean languages, and is yet popular in Germany. Its object is edification. He died at Celle, Hanover, in 1621. Arne, Thomas Augustine, an English musical composer, born in London, March 12, 1710. He wrote the music for the revival of Milton's " Masque of Comus," in which first appeared the song of " Rule Britan- nia," since acknowledged as the na- tional air of England. He died in 1778. Arnee, one of the numerous In- dian varieties of the buffalo, remark- able as being the largest animal of the ox kind known. It measured about 7 feet high at the shoulders, and from 9 to 10 * feet long from the muzzle to the root of the tail. It is found chiefly in the forests at the base of the Himalayas. Arneth, Alfred von, an Aus- trian historian, born in Vienna, July 10, 1819. He died in Vienna, July 81, 1897. Arnold Arnica, a genus of plants belong- ing to the order asteraceae, or com- posites ; also the English name of plants. As an outward application, arnica is in constant use as a remedy for sores, wounds, bruises, and ail- ments of a similar kind. It ia also employed as an internal medicine. Arnim, Acliim von, a German poet and novelist, born in Berlin, Jan. 26, 1781. He died at Wiepersdorf, Jan. 31, 1831. Arnim, Elizabeth von, better known as BETTINA, wife of the Ger- man novelist Louis Achim von Arnim, and sister of the poet Clemens Bren- tano ; born in Frankfort-on-the-Main, April 4, 1785. She died in Berlin, Jan. 20, 1859. Arnim, Harry, Graf von, a Ger- man diplomatist, born in Pomerania, in 1824 ; from 1864 to 1870, was Prus- sian ambassador at Rome, where he supported the anti-infalliblists during the Vatican Council. He was reward- ed with the title of Graf, but, as Ger- man ambassador to France (1872- 1874), he fell into Prince Bismarck's disfavor, and, on a charge of purloin- ing State documents, was sentenced to three months', to six months', and to five years' imprisonment. He had, however, retired into exile, and died at Nice, May 19, 1881. Arno, a river of Italy, which rises in the Etruscan Apennines, makes a sweep to the South and then trends westward, divides Florence into two parts, washes Pisa, and falls, 4 miles below it, into the Tuscan Sea, after a course of 130 miles. Arnold, Abraham Kerns, an American military ofBcei, born in 1837; was graduated at the United States Military Academy in 1859; en- tered the cavalry branch of the army; served through the Civil War and re- ceived a Congressional medal of honor for gallantry in action ; and after the war served against the Indians on the frontier. In 1898, he was commis- sioned a Brigadier-General and served in the field during the war with Spain ; and in 1899 became command- er of the 2d Division, 7th Army Corps, in Cuba. He died Nov. 23, 1901. Arnold, Sir Arthur, an English statesman and author, born in 1833. He acted as assistant commissioner to Arnold Arnold of Brescia administer the Public Works Act dur- ing the cotton famine, 1863-1866; knighted in June, 1895. Arnold, Benedict, an American military officer, born in Norwich, Conn., Jan. 14, 1741. He was set- tled in extensive business at New Haven when the War of Independence broke out. After the news of the bat- tle of Lexington, he raised a body of volunteers, and received a colonel's commission. After commanding, for a short time, a small fleet upon Lake Champlain, he was with General Montgomery, charged with the diffi- cult duty of leading a force of 1,100 men across the wilds of the country to Quebec, to stir up rebellion there, and displace the British garrison. In this unsuccessful attempt Montgomery was killed and Arnold severely wound- ed. After this, we find him in vari- ous important commands, but as often involved in quarrels with Congress and his fellow-officers. It would be of little interest now to enter into a de- tail of his grievances. He seems to have been a singularly brave, but reck- less and unprincipled, man. Washing- ton valued him for his acts of daring, and would gladly have overlooked his faults; but Congress and his brother- officers regarded him with dislike, and sought every possible means to humble and annoy him. After many disputes about the honor that was due to him for his services, he was invested with the government of Philadelphia. There his imprudence was most marked; -indeed, it would be difficult to clear him from the charge of actual dishon- esty. He was brought before a court- martial; four charges were urged against him ; two of these were found proven, and he was sentenced to be reprimanded by the commander-in- chief. Arnold could not bear the af- front, nor longer endure the difficul- ties into which he had brought him- self. He, accordingly, formed the dis- graceful design of deserting to the ranks of the enemy, and put himself in communication with Sir Henry Clinton, the British commander. Major Andre was sent by Sir Henry to negotiate with Arnold, and they had an interview near West Point, which fortress Arnold had offered to surrender to the enemy. On :-is way to the British camp, however, the young officer fell into the hands of the Americans, and the whole plot was of course discovered. The news of An- dre's capture reached Arnold just in time to enable him to make his es- cape and reach the British camp in safety. There he retained his rank of brigadier-general, and fought with as much daring against the cause of American independence as he had be- fore fought against the royal forces. He took command in an expedition against Virginia, and again in an in- cursion into his native State. After- ward he served in Nova Scotia and the West Indies, and at last settled in London, England, whose he died, June 14, 1801. Arnold, Sir Edwin, an English poet and journalist, born in Rochester, June 10, 1832. He graduated from Oxford in 1854 ; taught for a while in Birmingham ; and became principal of the Sanskrit College at Poona, in the Bombay Presidency, where he render- ed important service to the govern- ment during the great rebellion in In- dia. Returning to London in 1861, he joined the editorial staff of the " Daily Telegraph." He has twice visited the United States. He died March, 1904. Arnold, Edwin Lester, an Eng- lish author, son of Sir Edwin Arnold. Arnold, George, an American poet, born in New York, June 24, 1834; died at Strawberry Farms. N. J., Nov. 3, 1865. Arnold, Hans, pseudonym of BERTHA VON BULOW, a German story writer, born at Warmbrunn, Silesia. Sept. 30, 1850. Arnold, Isaac Newton, an American lawyer, politician, and author, born at Hartwick, N. Y., Nov. 30, 1815 ; was a member of Congress from 1861 to 1865. He died in Chi- cago, 111., April 24, 1884. Arnold, Matthew, an English poet, critic, and essayist, born at Lale- ham, Dec. 24, 1822 ; graduated at Ox- ford in 1844, and was Professor of Poetry there from 1857 to 1867. Ar- nold first became known as a poet ot classical taste by the volume of poems and selections issued under his name in 1854. He died in Liverpool, April 15, 1888. Arnold of Brescia, one of the reformers prior to the Reformation, a Arnold of Winkelried Arrack disciple of Abelard of Paris, and of Berengarius. As early as the middle of the 12th century, his bold spirit, his scriptural knowledge, and his elo- quence, had succeeded in arousing France and Italy against the abuses of the Roman Church. Driven by the clergy from Italy, he sought refuge in Zurich, where he made many converts. At length, through" the instigation of St. Bernard of Clairvaux, he was charged with heresy, and excommuni- cated by Pope Innocent II. At this juncture, serious popular tumults oc- curred at Rome, and Arnold, hasten- ing thither, was received with great cordiality, and soon vested with su- preme power. In 1155, however, Ad- rian IV. interdicted and expelled him from the city. For a time he lived in Gampagna, but was seized, and taken back to Rome, where he was executed, and his ashes were thrown into the Tiber. Arnold of Winkelried, a Swiss hero, who, at the battle of Sempach, in 1386, sacrificed himself to insure victory to his countrymen. The Aus- trian knights, dismounted, had formed themselves into a phalanx, which the Swiss vainly strove to pierce ; when Arnold, rushing on the spear points of the enemy, and burying several in his breast, thus opened a gap in the fence of steel. The Swiss rushed in through the opening, and routed the Austrians with great slaughter. Arnold, Thomas, an English clergyman and historian, born in Cowes, Isle of Wight, June 13, 1795. He entered Oxford University in 1811, and was elected a fellow of Oriel Col- lege in 1815. While in this place he vras the friend and contemporary of the poet Keble, of Copleston, and of Archbishop Whately. In 1828, Ar- nold was elected to the head-master- ship of Rugby School, which office he held until his death, and raised it, by the enlightened system of education he inaugurated, to the highest rank among the great public schools of Eng- land. He died June 12, 1842. Arnold, Thomas, an English writer on literature, and editor of old texts, son of Dr. Arnold, of Rugby, and brother of Matthew Arnold, born at Laleham, Nov. 30, 1823. He pub- lished a manual of English literature that is widely used. He was one of those engaged in the Tractarian move- ment, and was closely connected with Cardinal Newman. He died in 1900. Arnolfi, di Cambio, or di Lapo, an Italian architect and sculptor, born in Florence, in 1232. He died in 1300. Arnott, Neil, a Scottish physicist, born in Aberdeen, in 1788. He died in 1874. Arnotto, the waxy-looking pulp which envelops the seeds in the ar- notto-tree. This is detached by throwing the seed into water, after which it is dried partially, and made up first into soft pellets, rolled in leaves, in which state it is called flag, or roll arnotto. Afterward, becom- ing quite dry, it is formed into cakes, and becomes cake arnotto. The South American Indians color their bodies red with it ; farmers here and else- where use it to stain cheese, and some dairymen also use it to color butter; the Spaniards put it in their chocolate and soups ; dyers use it to produce a reddish color, and varnish makers, to impart an orange tint to some varnishes. Arpostook, an American river ; rises in Piscataquis county, Me. ; flows more than 120 miles in a circuitous course, receiving many important trib- utaries ; and enters the St. John River in New Brunswick. It was an im- portant factor in the settlement of the long-pending dispute concerning the boundary between the United States and British America. Arpad, the conqueror of Hungary, and founder of the Arpad dynasty, which reigned till 1301, was born in the second half of the 9th century. He died in 907. Arpent, formerly a French meas- ure for land, equal to five-sixths of an English acre ; but it varied in differ- ent parts of France. Arquebus, a hand-gun ; a species of firearm resembling a musket, an- ciently used. It was fired from a forked rest, and sometimes cocked by a wheel, and carried a ball that weighed nearly two ounces. A larger kind used in fortresses carried a heav- ier shot. Arrack, a term used in the coun- tries to which the Arabs have pene- trated, for distilled spirits. Arras Arras, a city of France ; capital of the Department of Pas-de-Calais ; 27 miles S. W. of Lille, 60 miles S. E. of Calais, 100 miles N. N. E. of Paris, at the junction of the Scarpe and Crin- chon rivers; pop. (1901) 25,813. It was a noted place before the Christian era ; was strongly fortified by Vau- ban ; and has been the seat of many historic conflicts, most recently giving its name to a great series of battles between the Allies and the Teuton forces early in 1917. See APPENDIX: World War. Arrow, a missile weapon, designed to be propelled by the impulse com- municated by the snapping of the string of a bow, temporarily bent into an angular form, back to its normal state of rest in a straight line. It is one of the most ancient of weapons. Arrow Lake, an expansion of the Columbia river, in British Columbia, Canada ; about 95 miles long from N. to S. ; often regarded as forming two lakes Upper and Lower Arrow Lake. Arrowroot. In botany, the Eng- lish name of the botanical genus ma- ranta. The root is a fleshy corm, which, when washed, grated, strained through a sieve, and again repeatedly washed, furnishes the substance so much prized as food for invalids. Arrow-smith, Aaron, an Eng- lish cartographer, born in 1750, died in 1823. He raised the execution of maps to a perfection it had never be- fore attained. Arm Islands, a group of over 80 islands in the Dutch East Indies, ly- ing W. of New Guinea, with a united area of about 2,650 square miles and a population of some 15,000. The in- habitants resemble the Melanesians of New Guinea. Arsaces, founder of the Parthian monarchy. He induced his country- men to rise against the Macedonian yoke, 250 B. c., on which they raised him to the throne. Arsaces was slain in battle, after a reign of 38 years. He was the first of a long line of mon- archs of the same name, the last of whom was put to death about 226 A. D. Arsenal, a place appointed for the making, repairing, keeping and issu- ing of military stores of all kinds. Art The principal arsenals of the United States in 1917 were the Allegheny (Pa.) ; Augusta (Ga.) ; Benecia (Cal.) ; Columbia (Tenn.) ; Fort Monroe (Va.) ; Frankford (Pa.) ; In- dianapolis (Ind.) ; Kennebec (Me.) ; New York (N. Y.) ; Rock Island (111.) ; San Antonio (Tex.) ; Water- town (Mass.) ; and Watervliet (N. Y.). There were regular powder dep6ts at St. Louis (Mo.), and Dover (N. J.), and many special ones estab- lished in consequence of the World War. Arsenic, (symbol As, atomic weight 75), a metallic element of very com- mon occurrence, being found in combi- nation with many of the metals in a variety of minerals. It is of a dark- gray color, and readily tarnishes on exposure to the air, first changing to yellow, and finally" to black. In hard- ness it equals copper ; it is extremely brittle, and very volatile, beginning to sublime before it melts. It burns with a blue flame, and emits a smell of gar- lic. Its specific gravity is 5.76. It forms alloys with most of the metals. Combined with sulphur it forms orpi- ment and realgar, which are the yel- low and red sulphides of arsenic. It is usually seen in white, glassy, translu- cent masses, and is obtained by sub- limation from several ores containing arsenic in combination with metals, particularly from arsenical pyrites. Of all substances arsenic is that which has most frequently occasioned death by poisoning, both by accident and design. The remedies are hydrated ses- quioxide of iron with copious draughts of gummy liquids. Arsinoe, a city of ancient Egypt on Lake Mccris, said to have been founded about B. c. 2300, but renamed after Arsinoe, wife and sister of Ptol- emy II. of Egypt, and called also Crocodilopolis, from the sacred croco- diles kept at it. Arson, the malicious and willful burning of a dwelling-house or out- house belonging to another person by directly setting fire to it, or even by igniting some edifice of one's own in its immediate vicinity. It is a penal offense, whether successful or not. Art, the power of doing something not taught by nature or instinct ; as, Art to walk is natural, to dance is an art ; power or skill in the use of knowl- edge ; the practical application of the rules, or principles of science. A sys- tem of rules to facilitate the perform- ance of certain actions ; contrivance ; dexterity ; address ; adroitness. Art, Metropolitan Museum of, a spacious edifice in Central Park, New York, erected by the city for the purpose to which it is devoted. It was incorporated in 1870, and pos- sesses an art collection amounting in value to over $2,000,000. Artaxerxes I., surnamed Longi- manus, was the third son of Xerxes, King of Persia, and, having murdered his brother Darius, ascended the throne 465 B. c. He died in 424 B. c. and was succeeded by his only son, Xerxes. This prince is generally sup- posed to have been the Ahasuerus of Scripture, who married Esther, and by whose permission Ezra restored the Jewish religion at Jerusalem. Some modern authors, nevertheless, identify Ahasuerus with Xerxes. Artemis, an ancient Greek divin- ity, identified with the Roman Diana. She is variously represented as a hun- tress, with bow and arrows ; as a god- dess of the nymphs, in a chariot drawn by four stags ; and as the moon goddess, with the crescent of the moon above her forehead. Artemisia, wormwood ; named af- ter Artemis, the Greek goddess, cor- responding to the Roman Diana. Several species, locally known as sage brush, are found on the table-lands of the Rocky mountains and on the West- ern plains of the United States. Arteritis, an inflammation occur- ring in the arteries. It may be acute or chronic. Artery. The largest arteries which leave the heart are the aorta and the pulmonary artery ; both spring from the base of the heart in front. They branch and anastomose to a large ex- tent. The contractility of the arteries forces the blood to the extremities from the heart, the valves of which Srevent its return. The prominent ifference between blood drawn from the arteries and that from the veins is to be found in the bright scarlet color of the former and the dark red, Amost black, of the latter. Arthur Artesian 'Wells, deep wells bored through impervious rock strata to a porous water bearing rock strat- um whence the water flows to the sur- face and is discharged from the bore. It is also applied, though less correct- ly, to deep wells where the waters rise to within a short distance of the sur- face even if no real flow is establish- ed. The principal condition of an ar- tesian well is a pervious stratum pro- tected above and below by a water- tight bed. These layers come to the surface in some elevated regions where they get their rain flow, then pitch downward to a considerable depth and then rise again, thus forming a great basin which retains the water. Rain water and surface water fill the porous stratum to the brim. If it be tapped any, the water will rise in the bore and be discharged as long as the sup- ply equals the demand. Arteveld, or Artevelde, the name of two men distinguished in the history of the Low Countries. (1) JACOB VAN, a brewer of Ghent, born about 1300; was selected by his fel- low townsmen to lead them in their struggles against Count Louis of Flanders. A proposal to make the Black Prince, son of Edward III. of England, governor of Flanders, led to an insurrection, in which Arteveld lost his life (1345). (2) PHILIP, son of the former, at the head of the forces of Ghent, gained a great victory over the Count of Flanders, Louis II., and for a time assumed the state of a sov- ereign prince. His reign proved short- lived The Count of Flanders re- turned with a large French force, fully disciplined and skillfully commanded. Arteveld was rash enough to meet them in the open field at Roosebeke, between Courtrai and Ghent, in 1382, and fell with 25,000 Flemings. Arthralgia, pain in a joint The term is more particularly applied to articular pain in the absence of ob- jective disease. Arthritis, any inflammatory dis- temper that affects the joints, particu- larly chronic rheumatism or gout. Arthur, a prince of the Silures, and King of Britain in the time of the Saxon invasions in the 5th and 6th centuries. The existence and exploits of Arthur and of his paladins, the Arthur Knights of the Round Table, whether they have any real foundation or are but a mere historical fable, have been for ages the theme of minstrels and poets, even down to the present day ; examples of which are the famous romaunt of the " Mort d'Arthur " and the " Idylls of the King." Arthur, Chester Alan, 21st President of the United States, born in Fairfield, Vt., Oct. 15, 1830, his father being pastor of Baptist church- es in Vermont and New York. He chose law as a profession, and prac- ticed in New York. He became an active leader in the Republican party. During the Civil War he was energetic as quartermaster-general of New York in getting troops raised and equipped. He was afterward collector of customs for the port of New York. In 1880 he was elected Vice-President, succeeding as President on the death of James A. Garfield, in 1881, and in this office he gave general satisfaction. He died in New York city, Nov. 18, 1886. Arthur, Joseph Charles, an American botanist, born in 1850 ; was graduated at the Iowa Agricultural College in 1872; took advance courses at Johns Hopkins, Harvard, and Bonn Universities ; was instructor in botany at the Universities of Minnesota and Wisconsin, and for several years bo- tanist to the Agricultural Experiment Station, Geneva, N. Y., subsequently becoming Professor of Vegetable Phys- iology and Pathology at Purdue Uni- versity, and botanist to the Indiana Experiment Station. Arthur, Timothy Shay, an American author, born in Newburg, N. Y., in 1809. He died in Philadel- phia, Pa., March 6, 1885. Artichoke, a well-known plant cultivated chiefly for culinary pur- poses. The so-called Jerusalem arti- choke is a species of sunflower which grows wild in parts of South America and yields roots or tubers resembling those of the potato and used as food. Article, in grammar, a part of epeech used before nouns to limit or define their application. Articles of Confederation, the title of the compact which was made by the 13 original States of the United States of America. It was adopted and carried into force on March 1, Articles 1781, and remained as the supreme law, until the first Wednesday of March, 1789. Articles of War, a code of laws for the regulation of the military forces of a country. In the United States the articles of war form an elaborate code, thoroughly revised in 1880, but subject at all times to the legislation of Congress. Articles, The Six, in English ec- clesiastical history, articles imposed by a statute (often called the Bloody Statute) passed in 1541, the 33d year of the reign of Henry VIII. They de- creed the acknowledgment of trans- substantiation, the sufficiency of com- munion in one kind, the obligation of vows of chastity, the propriety of pri- vate masses, celibacy of the clergy, and auricular confession. Acceptance of these doctrines was made obligatory on all persons under the severest pen- alties ; the act, however, was relaxed in 1544, and repealed in 1549. Articles, The Thirty-nine, of the Church of England, a statement of the particular points of doctrine, 39 in number, maintained by the English Church ; first promulgated by a convo- cation held in London in 1562-1563, and confirmed by royal authority; founded on and superseding an older code issued in the reign of Edward VI. The five first articles contain a profession of faith in the Trinity ; the incarnation of Jesus Christ, His de- scent to Hell, and His resurrection; the divinity of the Holy Ghost. The three following relate to the canon of the Scripture. The eighth article de- clares a belief in the Apostles', Ni- cene, and Athanasian creeds. The ninth and following articles contain the doctrine of original sin, of justifi- cation by faith alone, of predestina- tion, etc. The 19th, 20th, and 21st de- clare the Church to be the assembly of the faithful ; that it can decide nothing except by the Scriptures. The 22d rejects the doctrine of purgatory, indulgences, the adoration of images, and the invocation of saints. The 23d decides that only those lawfully called shall preach or administer the sacra- ments. The 24th requires the liturgy to be in English. The 25th and 26th declare the sacraments effectual signs of grace (though administered by evil men), by which God excites and con* Artillery firms our faith. They are two : bap- tism and the Lord's Supper. Baptism, according to the 27th article, is a sign of regeneration, the seal of our adop- ! tion, by which faith is confirmed and ! grace increased. In the Lord's Sup- per, according to article 28th, the bread is the communion of the Body of Christ, the wine the communion of His Blood, but only through faith (ar- ticle 29) ; and the communion must be administered in both kinds (article 30). The 28th article condemns the doctrine of transubstantiation, and the elevation and adoration of the Host ; the 31st rejects the sacrifice of the mass as blasphemous ; the 32<1 per- mits the marriage of the clergy ; the 33d maintains the efficacy of excom- munication. The remaining articles relate to the supremacy of the king, the condemnation of Anabaptists, etc. They were ratified anew in 1604 and 1628. Artillery, all sorts of great guns, cannon, or ordnance, mortars, howitz- ers, machine-guns, etc., together with all the apparatus and stores thereto belonging, which are taken into the field, or used for besieging and defend- ing fortified places. It is often di- vided into (1) horse artillery; (2) field artillery; and (3) garrison artil- lery. Artillery, The Ancient and Honorable, of Boston, Mass., was formed in 1637, and was the first reg- ularly organized military company in America. Arandelian Marbles, a series of ancient sculptured marbles discovered by William Petty, who explored the ruins of Greece at the expense of and for Thomas Howard, Earl of Arundel, who lived in the time of James I. and Charles I., and was a liberal patron of scholarship and art. After the Restoration they were presented by the grandson of the collector to the University of Oxford. Among them is the " Parian Chronicle," a chronolog- ical account of the principal events in Grecian, and particularly in Athenian, history, during a period of 1318 years. Arundel Society, a society insti- tuted in London in 1848 for promoting the knowledge of art by the publica- tion of fac-similes and photographs. Aryan Race' Aruspices, or Haruspices, a class of priests in ancient Rome, of Etrurian origin, whose business was to inspect the entrails of victims killed in sacrifice, and by them to foretell future events. Aryan Languages, a great fam- ily of languages, sometimes, though rarely, and not quite accurately, called Japhetic ; more frequently designated as the Indo-European or Indo-Ger- manic family of tongues. They have reached a higher development than those of the second great family, the Semitic, better described as the Syro- Arabian family, and are far in ad- vance of the next one that compris- ing the Turanian tongues. Like the Syro-Arabian forms of speech, they are inflectional ; while those of Turan- ian origin are only agglutinate. Aryan Race, a designation, since about 1845, of the ethnological divi- sion of mankind otherwise called Indo- European or Indo-Germanic. That division consists of two branches geo- graphically separated, an eastern and western. The western branch compre- hends the inhabitants of Europe, with the exception of the Turks, the Mag- yars of Hungary, the Basques of the Pyrenees, and the Finns of Lapland; the eastern comprehends the inhabi- tants of Armenia, of Persia, of Af- ghanistan, and of Northern Hindu- stan. The evidence on which a family relation has been established among these nations is that of language, and from a multitude of details it has been proven that the original mother tongue of all these peoples was the same. It is supposed that the Aryan nations were at first located somewhere in Cen- tral Asia, probably E. of the Caspian, and N. of the Hindu Kush and Paro- pamisan Mountains. From this cen- ter successive migrations took place toward the N. W. The first swarm formed the Celts, who at one time oc- cupied a great part of Europe; at a considerably later epoch came the an- cestors of the Italians, the Greeks and the Teutonic people. The stream that formed the Slavonic nations is thought to have taken the route by the N. of the Caspian. At a later period the remnant of the primitive stock would seem to have broken up. Part passed southward and became the dominant race in the valley of the Ganges, while Asclepiadei the rest settled in Persia and became the Medes and Persians of history. It is from these eastern members that the whole family takes its name. In the most ancient Sanskrit writings (the Veda), the Hindus style them- selves Aryas, the word signifying " ex- cellent," " honorable," originally "lord of the soil." Asa, son of Abijah, and third King of Judah, conspicuous for his earnest- ness in supporting the worship of God and rooting put idolatry, and for the vigor and wisdom of his government. He reigned from 955 to 914 B. c. Asafetida, Asafoetida, or As-* saf oetida, the English name of two, if not more, plants growing in Persia and the East Indies. The extract is a useful medicine in hysteria, asth- ma, tympanites, dyspnoea, pertussis, and worms ; it is sometimes given also as a clyster. Asama, an active volcano of Ja- pan, about 50 miles N. W. of Tokio, 8,260 feet high. Asbestos, a variety of hornblende, which itself is classed by Dana as a synonym or subdivision of emphibole. Asbury, Francis, the first Meth- odist bishop consecrated in America, born at Handsworth, Staffordshire, Aug. 20, 1745. When 16 years old he became an itinerant Wesleyan preach- er, and in 1771 he was sent as a mis- sionary to America, where he was con- secrated in 1784. During a long life of almost incessant labor it is esti- mated by his biographer that he trav- eled about 270,000 miles (mostly on horseback), preached about 16,500 sermons, and ordained more than 4,000 preachers. He died in Richmond, Va., March 31, 1816. Asbury Park, a city and popular summer resort in Monmouth county, N. J.; on the Atlantic Ocean and the Pennsylvania and Central of New Jersey railroads; 6 miles S. of Long Branch. Wesley Lake separates it from Ocean Grove. Pop. (1910) 10,- 150; summer pop. 20,000. Ascalon, Ashkelon, or Askelon, one of the five cities of the Philis- tines, on the Mediterranean, W. S. W. of Jerusalem, on the main road from Egypt through Gaza to Cen- tral Palestine. Ascension (discovered on Ascen- sion Day), an island of volcanic ori- gin belonging to Great Britain, near the middle of the South Atlantic Ocean, lying about lat. 7 55' S. ; long. 15 25' W.; 800 miles N. W. of St. Helena ; area, about 3G square miles ; pop. 165. It is retained by Great Britain mainly as a station at which ships may touch for stores. Ascension, in astronomy, right as- cension is the distance of a heavenly body from the first point of Aries (the ram), measured upon the equator. Ascension Day, the day on which our Saviour's ascension is commemo- rated the Thursday but one before Whitsuntide, sometimes called Holy Thursday. Asceticism, the condition or prac- tice of ascetics. Ascetics, a name given in ancient times to those Christians who devoted themselves to severe exercises of piety and strove to distinguish themselves from the world by abstinence from sensual enjoyments and by voluntary penances. Ascliam. Roger, an English scholar and author, born at Kirby Wiske, near Northallerton, in 1515 ; graduated at Cambridge, and strug- gled with poverty until patrons came to his relief. He was famous for his general knowledge and acquirements in Greek and Latin, and is classed with Spenser, Sir Thomas More, and Sir Philip Sidney. His death, in London, Dec. 30, 1568, was occasioned by his too close application to the. composition of a poem, which he in- tended to present to the queen on the anniversary of her accession. Asclepiad, a kind of verse used by Horace and other writers. Asclepiades, the descendants of the god of medicine, ^Esculapius, by his sons Podalirius and Machaon, spread, together with the worship of the god, through Greece and Asia Mi- nor. They formed an order of priests, which preserved the results of the medical experience acquired in the temples as an hereditary secret, and were thus, at the same time, physi- cians, prophets, and priests. Asclepiades, a Greek physician, born at Prusa, Bithynia, who flour- ished during the early part of the 1st Asclepias century B. c. He is said to have been the first who distinguished between acute and chronic diseases, and the invention of laryngotomy is also as- cribed to him ; but his knowledge of anatomy was apparently very slight. Asclepias, a genus of plants. The species are found chiefly along the eastern portion of North America, in Bermuda, etc. Though all more ^ or less poisonous, they are used medici- nally. Ascot Heath, a race-course in' Berkshire, England, 29 miles W. S. \ W. of London, and 6 miles S. W. of [Windsor. Asdood, or Asdond, a small sea- port of Palestine, on the Mediterra- nean, 35 miles W. of Jerusalem. It was the Ashdod of Scripture, one of the five confederate cities of the Phil- istines, and one of the seats of the worship of Dagon (1 Sam. v: 5). Asgard, the Heaven of Scandina- vian mythology. Ash, a genus of deciduous trees, having imperfect flowers and a seed vessel prolonged into a thin wing at the apex (called a samara). There are a good many species, chiefly indig- enous to North America and Europe. Ashanti, formerly an independent Kingdom on the Gold Coast of West Africa ; constituted a British protec- torate Aug. 27, 1896; definitely an- nexed by Great Britain Sept. 26, 1901 ; capital Coomassie ; area, 20,000 square miles; pop. (1911) 287,814. It is in great part hilly, well watered, and covered with dense tropical vege- tation. The chief town is Coomassie, which, before being burned down in 1874, was well and regularly built with wide streets, and had from 30,- 000 to 50,000 inhabitants. Horrible human sacrifices were a feature of Ashanti worship when the country was independent. In 1896 a British expedition, from the Gold Coast, forced the submission of the King, who, with his principal chiefs, was sent to Sierra Leone. A railway has been built from the modern port of Sekondi 168 m. to Coomassie, tele- graph and telephone lines installed, good roads made, and steamer river traffic established, to the improve ment of commerce. Modern agricul- ture is rapidly extending. Ashtaroth Ashburton Treaty, a treaty signed at Washington in 1842, by Lord Ashburton for Great Britain, and Daniel Webster for the United States; defined the boundaries be- tween the United States and Canada. Asheville, city and capital of Buncombe county, N. C.; at junction of the Swananoa and French Broad rivers, and on the Southern railroad; 275 miles W. of Raleigh. It is on the Blue Ridge Mountains, 2,350 feet above the sea; is a noted winter and summer resort; and has several col- leges, and normal and industrial schools, Nearby is George Vander- bilt's famous estate of Biltmore. Pop. (1910) 18,762. Ashland, city, port of entry, and capital of Ashland county, Wis.; on Lake Superior and several trunk line railroads; 315 miles N. of Milwaukee; has a magnificent harbor fringed with enormous ore docks; is a notable ship- ping point for the ore of the great Go- gebic iron range; and besides iron ore has a large lake traffic in lumber and brownstone. The noted Apostle Is- lands are nearby. Pop. (1910) 11,594. Ashmun, Jehndi, an American missionary, born at Champlain, N. Y., in April, 1794; became a professor in the Bangor Theological Seminary. On June 19, 1822, he sailed for Li- beria, and there founded a colony, which, when he left, six years later, had increased to 1,200 inhabitants. He died Aug. 25, 1828. Ashtabula, a city in Ashtabula county, O.; on the Ashtabula river and the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern railroad; 3 miles S. of Lake Erie, 54 miles N. B. of Cleveland; is a port of entry, with a fine harbor and extensive trade in iron ore and coal; manufactures leather and woolen goods, farm implements, machinery, gas fixtures, and stoves and fur- naces. Pop. (1910) 18,266. Ashtaroth, or Astaroth, plural of Ashtoreth and Astarte, a god- dess worshipped by the Jews in times when idolatry prevailed ; the principal female divinity of the Phoenicians, as Baal was the principal male divinity; and the plural Ashtaroth indicate probably different modifications of the divinity herself. Ashtoreth is the As* Ashwanipi tarte of the Greeks and Romans, and is identified by ancient writers with the goddess Venus (Aphrodite). She is probably the same as the Isis of the Egyptians, and closely connected with the Asherah of Scripture. Ashwanipi, or Hamilton, the great river of Labrador, has its source near the head waters of the E. branch of the Moisic, and after a course of 600 miles, enters the Atlantic through Esquimaux Bay, or Hamilton Inlet. About 100 miles up occur the falls, one of the grandest spectacles in the world. Ash. Wednesday, the first day of Lent, so called from a custom in the Western Church of sprinkling ashes that day on the heads of penitents, then admitted to penance. Alia, the largest of the land divi- sions of the world, occupies the north- ern portion of the Eastern Hemisphere in the form of a massive continent, which extends beyond the Arctic cir- cle, and by its southern peninsulas nearly reaches the equator. The ori- gin of its name remains unknown. Europe and Asia constitute but one continent, extending from W. to E., and having the shape of an immense triangle, the angles of which are Spain in the W., the peninsula of the Tchuktchis in the N. E., and that of Malacca in the S. E. The Arctic Ocean in the N., the Pacific in the E., and the Indian Ocean, continued by its narrow gulf, the Red Sea, which nearly reaches the Mediterranean, in- close the continent of Asia. The area covered by Asia and its islands is 17,- 255,890 square miles ; that is, almost exactly one-third of the land surface of the globe (32 per cent). It is one- seventh larger than the surface of both Americas together, by one-half larger than that of Africa, and more than four times larger than Europe. Geographically speaking, Europe is a mere appendix to Asia, and no exact geographical delimitation of the two continents is possible. The line of sep- aration from Africa is better defined by the narrow Red Sea; but Arabia participates so largely in the physical features of Africa that it is in a sense intermediate between the two conti- nents. Only four rivers, the Mississippi, Amazon, Kongo, and Nile, surpass the Asia largest rivers of Asia, the Yenisei and the Yang-tse-kiang, both as to length and drainage areas ; but owing to the scarcity of rain over large parts of Asia, the amount of water carried down by the largest rivers is, as a rule, disproportionately small as com- pared with American or European rivers. The predominant feature of Asia's hydrography is the existence of very wide areas having no outlet to the sea. On the great plateau of Eastern Asia, the region which has no outlet from the plateau, and whose water does not reach even Lake Aral or the Caspian, covers a surface larger than that of Spain, France, and Ger- many together. It is watered only by the Tarim, which supplies some irri- gation works in its upper parts, and enters the rapidly drying marshes of Lob-nor. This area is steadily in- creasing, and since 1862 we have had to add to it the drainage area (as large as England and Wales) of the Keruleu, which empties into Dalai- nor, but no longer reaches the ArguS, a tributary of the Amur. The Ulyasu- tai River and the Tchagantogoi now no longer reach Lake Balkash ; and the Urungu, which obviously joined the Upper Irtysh at no very remote date, empties into a lake separated from the Black Irtysh by a low isth- mus not 5 miles wide. If we add to this the drainage basins of Lake Bal- kash with its tributaries, the Hi and other smaller rivers ; the great Lake Aral, with the Syr-daria (Jaxartes) and Amudaria (Oxus), as also the numerous rivers which flow toward it or its tributaries, but are desiccated by evaporation before reaching them, and finally the Caspian with its tribu- taries, the Volga, Ural, Kura, and Terek, we find an immense surface of more than 4,000,000 square miles ; that is, much larger than Europe, which has no outlet to the ocean. The plateaus of Iran and Armenia, two separate areas in Arabia, and one in Asia Minor, represent a surface of 5,- 567,000 square miles. A succession of great lakes or in- land seas are situated all along the northern slope of the high plateaus of Western and Eastern Asia, their lev- els becoming higher as we advance farther E. The Caspian, 800 miles long and 270 wide, is an immense sea, A*ia Aria even larger than the Black Sea, but its level is now 85 feet below the level of the ocean ; Lake Aral, nearly as wide as the ^Egean Sea, has its level 157 feet above the ocean ; farther E. we have Lake Balkash ( 780 feet ) , Zaison (1,200 feet), and Lake Baikal (1,550 feet). Many large lakes ap- pear on the plateaus of Tibet (Tengri- nor, Bakha), and on the high plateau of the Selenga and Vitim (Ubsa-nor, Ikhe-aral, Kosogol, Oron) ; and small- er lakes and ponds are numerous also in the plateau of the Deccan, Ar- monia, and Asia Minor. Three large lakes, Urmia, Van, and Goktcha, and many smaller ones, lie on the highest part of the Armenian plateau. On the Pacific slope of the great plateau, the great rivers of China and the Amur, with its tributaries, have along their lower courses some large and very many small lakes. More than 120 active volcanoes are known in Asia, chiefly in the islands of the S. E., the Philippines, Japan, the Kurile, and Kamchatka, and also in a few islands of the Seas of Bengal and Arabia, and in Western Asia. Numerous traces of volcanic eruptions are found in Eastern Tian-shan in the northwestern border ridges of the high Siberian plateau, and in the S. W. of Aigun, in Manchuria. Earthquakes are frequent, especially in Armenia, Turkestan, and around Lake Baikal. There are gold mines of great wealth in the Urals, the Altai, and Eastern Siberia ; and auriferous sands are found in Korea, Sumatra, Japan, and in the Caucasus Mountains. Silver is extracted in Siberia ; platina, in the Urals; copper, in Japan, India, and Siberia ; tin, in Banca ; mercury, in Japan. Iron ore is found in nearly all of the mountainous regions, espe- cially in Asia Minor, Persia, Turke- stan, India, China, Japan, and Si- beria; but iron mining is still at a rudimentary st^ge. Immense coal-beds are spread over China and the islands of the Pacific (Hainan, Japanese Archipelago, Sakhalin), Eastern Si- beria, Turkestan, India, Persia, and Asia Minor. They cover no less than 500,000 square miles in China alone ; but the extraction of coal is as yet very limited. Graphite of very high quality is found in the Sayans and Northern Siberia. The diamonds of India, the sapphires of Ceylon, the' rubies of Burma and Turkestan, the topazes, beryls, etc., of the Urals and Nertchinsk, have a wide repute. Lay- ers of rock-salt are widely spread, and still more so the salt lakes and springs. The petroleum wells of the Caspian shores already rival those of the United States. A variety of mineral springs, some of them equal to the best waters of Western Europe, art widely spread over Asia. The aggregate population of Asia is estimated at 865,000,000, being thus more than one-half of the entire popu- lation of the globe. This population, however, is small, giving only an aver- age of 49 inhabitants per square mile. It is unequally distributed, and reach- es 557 per square mile in some prov- inces of China, denser than in Bel- gium (539 per square mile), and 520 in some parts of Northwestern India. It is greatest in those parts of Asia which are most favored by rains. Seven-tenths have scarcely more than from 3 to 20 inhabitants per square mile; and nearly one-tenth is quite uninhabited. The inhabitants of Asia belong to five different groups ; the so-called Caucasian (fair type) in Western Asia and India ; the Mongo- lian in Central and Eastern Asia, as also in the Indo-Chinese Peninsula ; the Malay in Malacca and the Indian Archipelago ; the Dravidas in South- eastern India and Ceylon ; and the Ne- gritos and Papuas in the virgin forests of the Philippine Islands and Celebes ; also a sixth great division comprising the stems which inhabit Northeastern Asia, the Hyperboreans, whose affini- ties are not yet well known. The Mongolian race alone embraces nearly seven-tenths of the population of Asia ; the Malay, about two-tenths, and the Caucasian about one-tenth. The Eu- ropeans reckon about 6,000,000 (Rus- sians) in Caucasus, Turkestan and Siberia; some 150,000 (English) in India; and 45,000 in the Dutch Indies. Asia has been the birthplace of re- ligions; the Jewish, Buddhist, Chris- tian and Mohammedan having their origin in Asia, where they grow up under the influence of still older re- ligions, the Babylonian and that of Zoroaster, both also of Asiatic origin. At present the inhabitants of Asia be- long chiefly to the Buddhist religion. Asia Minor Aspasia which has 530,000,000 to 560,000,000 of followers, i. e., nearly one-third of mankind. The old faith of Hinduism has 187,000,000 of followers in India. Most of the inhabitants of Western Asia, as also of part of Central Asia, follow the religion of Islam ; they may number about 90,000,000. The Chris- tians number about 20,900,000 in Ar- menia, Caucasus, Siberia and Turke- stan. Jews are scattered mostly in Western and Central Asia. A few fire-worshippers, Guebres or Parsi of India and Persia, are the sole rem- nant of the religion of Zoroaster ; while vestiges of Sabseism are found amidst the Gesides and Sabians on the Tigris. Asia Minor (Asia the Less, as distinguished from Asia in the widest extent), is the name usually given to the western peninsular projection of Asia, forming part of Turkey in Asia. The inhabitants, some 7,000,000 in number, consist of the most various races. The dominant race are the Os- manli Turks, who number about 1,200,- 000, and are spread over the whole country; allied to these are the Turk- omans and Yuruks, speaking a dialect of the same language. The latter are found chiefly on the tableland, leading a nomadic life ; there are also hordes of nomadic Kurds. Among the moun- tains E. of Trebizond are the robber tribes of the Lazes. The Greeks and Armenians are the most progressive elements in the popu- lation, and have most of the trade. Ask, in Scandinavian mythology, the name of the first man created. Ac- cording to the legend, one day three gods, Odin, Haener and Loder, found two trees by the seaside, an ash and an elm. From these trees they created the first man and first woman, Ask and Embla, and gave them the earth as their dwelling place. Askew, Anne, a victim of reli- gious persecution, born in 1521 ; was a daughter of Sir William Askew of Lincolnshire, and was married to a wealthy neighbor named Kyme, who, irritated by her Protestantism, drove her from his house. In London, whith- er she went, probably to procure a di- vorce, she spoke against the dogmas of the old faith, and, being tried, was condemned to death as a heretic. Being put to the rack to extort a confession concerning those with whom she cor- responded, she continued firm, and was then taken to Smithtield, chained to a stake, and burned, in 1546. Askja, a volcano near the center of Iceland, first brought into notice by an eruption in 1875. Its crater is 17 miles in circumference, surrounded by a mountain-ring from 500 to 1,000 feet high, the height of the mountain itself being between 4,000 and 5,000 feet Asmodai, or Asmodeus, an evil spirit, who, as related in the book of Tobit, slew seven husbands of Sara, daughter of Raguel, but was driven j away into the uttermost parts of I Egypt by the young Tobias under the direction of the angel Raphael. As- modai signifies a desolator, a destroy- ing angel. He is represented in the Talmud as the prince of demons who drove King Solomon from his king dom. Asp, a species of viper found in Egypt, resembling the cobra da capello, and having a very venomous bite. When approached or disturbed it ele- vates its head and body, swells out its neck, and appears to stand erect to attack the aggressor. Hence the an- cient Egyptians believed that the asps were guardians of the spots they in- habited, and the figure of this reptile was adopted as an emblem of the pro- tecting genius of the world. Cleopatra is said to have committed suicide by means of an asp's bite, but the inci- dent is generally associated with the horned viper. Asparagus, a plant of the order liliaceae, the young shoots of which, cut as they are emerging from the ground, are a favorite culinary vegetable. Aspasia, a celebrated Grecian, be- longing to a family of some note in Miletus, and was early distinguished for her graces of mind and person. She went to Athens after the Persian War, and, by her beauty and accom- plishments soon attracted the atten- tion of the leading men ef that city. She engaged the affections of Pericles, who is said to have divorced his for- mer wife in order to marry her. Their union was harmonious throughout; he preserved for her to the end of his life the same tenderness; she re- Aspen, mained the confidant of the states- man's schemes, and the sharer of his etruggles. She survived Pericles some years, and is reported to have married an obscure Athenian, Lysicles, whom she raised by her example and pre- cept to be one of the leaders of the republic. Aspen, a tree, the trembling pop- lar. The tremulous movement of the leaves which exists in all the poplars, but culminates in the aspen, mainly arises from the length and slender character of the petiole or leaf-stalk, and from its being much and laterally compressed. Aspern, a small village of Austria, on the Danube, about 2 miles from Vienna. Here, and in the neighbor- ing village of Esslingen, were fought the tremendous battles of the 21st and 22d of May, 1809, between the French grand army, commanded by Napoleon, and the Austrians under the Archduke Charles. The French, after this con- tinuous fighting, with vast loss to both sides, were obliged to retreat, and oc- cupy the island of Lobau. Asphalt, or Asphaltum, the most common variety of bitumen ; also called mineral pitch. Asphalt is a compact, glassy, brittle, black or brown mineral, which breaks with a polished fracture, melts easily with a strong pitchy odor when heated, and when pure burns without leaving any ashes. It is found in the earth in many parts of Asia, Europe and the United States, and in a soft or liquid state on the surface of the Dead Sea, which, from its circumference, was called Asphaltites. It is of organic origin, the asphalt of the great Pitch Lake of Trinidad being derived from bituminous shales, containing vegeta- ble remains in the process of trans- formation. Asphalt is produced arti- ficially in making coal gas. During the process, much tarry matter is evolved and collected in retorts. If this be diMHed. naphtha and other volatile matters escape, and asphalt is left behind. What is known as asphalt rock is a limestone impregnated with bitumen, found in large quantities in the United States and in Switzerland, France, Alsace, Hanover, Holstein, Sicil>, and other parts of Europe, the Aspinwall purest forms taking the names of elat- erite, gilsonite, albertite, maltha, brea, etc. In the trade there is wide dis- tinction between these and the sand- stones, and limestones impregnated with bitumen, which are known as bi- tuminous or asphaltic limestone, sand- stone, etc. The latter are usually shipped without being previously treated or refined, and are used prin- cipally in street paving. This class is known as bituminous rock. The production of all kinds of asphalt in the United States in 1915 was 740,254 short tons, valued at $5.242,073; im- ports for consumption, $680,357; ex- ports, $1,174,637. Asphodel, (Asphodel us), a genus of plants, order Liliacesp. consisting of perennials, with fasciculated fleshy roots, flowers arranged in racemes, six stamens inserted at the base of the perianth, a sessile almost spherical ovary with two cells, each containing two ovules ; fruit a capsule with three cells, in each of which there are, as a rule, two seeds. They are fine garden- plants, native of Southern Europe. The king's spear, A. luteus, has yellow flowers blossoming in June. Asphodel- us ramosus, which attains a height of 5 feet, is cultivated in Algeria and else- where, its tubercles yielding a very pure a'cohol, and the residue, together with t^e stalks and leaves, are used in mak'ng pasteboard and paper. The asphodel was a favorite plant among the ancients, who were in the habit ox planting it round their tombs. Asphyxia, suspended animation ; an interruption of the arterialization of the blood, causing the suspension of sensation and voluntary motion. It may be produced by breathing some gas incapable of furnishing oxygen, by submersion under water, by suffoca- tion, from an impediment to breathing applied to the mouth and nostrils, by strangulation, or by great pressure, external or internal, upon the lungs. If asphyxia continues unrelieved for a short period, it is necessarily followed by death. Aspinwall. (See COLON). Aspinwall, William, an Ameri- can physician, born in Brookline, Mass., May 23, 1743; was graduated at Harvard University in 1764; stud- ied medicine in Philadelphia; was ft Aspinwall volunteer in the fight at Lexington ; and afterward became surgeon in the Revolutionary army, having partial charge of the military hospital at Ja- maica Plains. After the war, he be- came deeply interested in the subject of vaccination, and, building a small- pox hospital at Brookline, established that remedy in American practice. He died April 16, 1823. Aspinwall, William H., an American merchant, born in New York city, Dec. 16, 1807 ; was trained to commercial business by his uncles, and became a member of the firm of Howland & Aspinwall in 1837. He is best remembered as the chief pro- moter of the Panama railroad, and of the Pacific Mail Steamship Company. The eastern terminus of the railroad was named in his honor, but has since officially been given the name of Co- lon. He died in New York city, Jan. 18, 1875. Asquith, Herbert Henry, an English lawyer, born in Morley, Sept. 12, 1852 ; was educated at Oxford University, became a barrister at Lin- coln's Inn in 1876; was appointed Secretary of State for the Home De- partment ; Ecclesiastical Commis- sioner in 1882-1885 ; became Q. C. in 1890, and P. C. in 1892 ; was elected to Parliament from East Fife in 1896 on the Liberal ticket; and be- came Prime Minister and First Lord of the Treasury in 1908. Ass (asinus), a genus closely re- lated to the horse. It differs from the latter in having short hair at the root of the tail and a long tuft at the end, in the absence of warts on the hind legs, and in the persistence of stripes, except in albinos. The upright mane, the long ears, the cross stripe on the shoulders, and the dark bands on the back, are also characteristic. The stupidity for which the animal has for long b*en proverbially reproached seems largely the result of human in- fluence. The female carries her foal 11 months. The mule is a hybrid bred between mare and male ass ; while the hinny is the rare result of hybridism between horse and female ass. Assam, a province at the N. E. extremity of British India, with an area of 53,015 square miles. In 1874 it was formed into a separate adminis- Assassination tration (including Cachar) under a chief commissioner ; in 1905 it was united with Eastern Bengal to form a lieutenant-governorship ; and in 1912 it was again made a separate province ; capital, Shillong ; pop. (1911) 6,713,635. Assassination, the act of taking the life of anyone by surprise or treacherous violence, either by a hired emissary, by one devoted to the deed, or by one who has taken the task upon himself. Generally, the term is applied to the murder of a public personage. History abounds in records of po- litical assassinations from that of Julius Caesar on March 15, B. c. 44. The following are the most notable ones since 1800, including the many royal victims : Czar Paul, Russia March 24, 1801 Due de Berri, France Feb. 14, 1820 * Duke Charles III., Parma. March 27, 1854 * President Lincoln April 15, 1865 Prince Michael, Servia Tune 10, 1868 Marshal Prim, Spain Dec. 28, 1870 Archbishop Darboy, France. May 24, 1871 Earl Mayo. India Feb. 8, 1872 Sultan Abdul Aziz, Turkey. June 4, 1876 Czar Alexander, Russia . . March 13, 1881 * President Garneld Sept. 19, 1881 Lord Cavendish, Ireland May 6, 1882 President Carnot, France. . .June 24, 1894 * Premier Stambouloff, Bulgaria July 18, 1895 Shah Nasr-ed-Din, Persia May 1, 1896 Premier Canovas del Castillo, Spain April 22, 1897 President Borda, Uruguay. .Aug. 25, 1897 President Barrios, Guatemala Feb. 18, 1898 Empress Elizabeth, Austria.Sept. 10, 1898 President Heureuax, Santo Domingo July 26, 1899 Governor Goebel, Kentucky. Jan. 30, 1900 King Humbert, Italy July 29, 1900 * President McKinley Sept. 14, 1901 King and Queen, Servia. . . June 11, 1903 Gov.-Gen. Bobrikoff, Finland June 16, 1904 Von Plehve, Russia July 28, 1904 Premier Delyannis, Greece. Tune 13, 1905 Gr. Duke Sergius, Russia. . .Feb. 17, 1905 King and Crown Prince, Portugal Feb. 1,1908 Prince Ito, Japan Oct. 26, 1909 Premier Stolypin, Russia.. .Sept. 14, 1911 President Caceres, Santo Domingo Nov. 11, 1911 Premier Canaleias, Spain.. .Nov. 12, 1912 Nazin Pasha, Turkey Jan. 23, 1913 Premier Araujo, Salvador Feb. 4, 1913 President Madero, Mexico.. Feb. 23, 1913 * Date of death. Assassins Vice-Pres. Suarez, Mexico. .Feb. 23, 1913 King George, Greece . March 18, 1913 Archduke Francis and wife, Austria-Hungary June 28, 1914 Jean L. Jaures, Fr. Socialist July 31, 1914 President Sam, Haiti July 28, 1915 Assassins, or Ismail!, a sect of religious fanatics who existed in the llth and 12 centuries. They derived their name of assassins originally from their immoderate use of hasheesh, which produces an intense cerebral ex- citement, often amounting to fury. Their founder and law giver was Has- san-ben-Sabah, to whom the Orientals gave the name of Sheikh-el- Jobelz, but who was better known in Europe as the "Old Man of the Mountain." They believed assassination to be meri- torious when sanctioned by his com- mand, and courted danger and death in the execution of his orders. In the time of the crusades, they mustered to the number of 50,000. Assay Offices, in the United States, government establishments in which citizens may deposit gold and silver bullion, receiving in return its value, less charges. The offices are in New York city; Boise City, Ida.; Helena, Mont. ; Denver, Col. ; Seattle, Wash.; San Francisco, Cal. ; Char- lotte, N. C. ; Deadwood, S. D. ; Salt Lake City, Utah ; Carson City, Nev. ; and New Orleans, La. Assembly, General, official name of the supreme ecclesiastical court of the Established Church of Scotland, of the Free Church of Scotland, of the Presbyterian Church in Ireland, and of the two Presbyterian Churches in the United States. The term is also used in the United States to des- ignate the dual legislative body of the several States, the branches being com- monly spoken of as the Senate and the House (of Representatives). Assembly, National, a body set up in France on the eve of the Revo- lution. The members bound themselves by oath not to separate until they had furnished France with a constitution, and the court was compelled to give its assent. In the 3,250 decrees passed by the Assembly were laid the foun- dations of a new epoch, a_nd having accomplished this task, it dissolved it- self, Sept. 30, 1791. The term is also applied to a joint meeting of the Sen- Assiniboia ate and Corps Legislatif, for the pur- pose of electing a chief magistrate or the transaction of other extraordinary business. Assets (French, assez, enough), property or goods available for the payment of a bankrupt or deceased person's obligations. Assets are per- sonal or real, the former comprising all goods, chattels, etc., devolving upon the executor as salable to discharge debts and legacies. In commerce and bankruptcy the term is often used as the antithesis of liabilities, to desig- nate the stock _ in trade and entire property of an individual or an asso- ciation. Assideans, Chasideans, or Cha- sidim, one of the two great sects into which, after the Babylonish cap- tivity, the Jews were divided with re- gard to the observance of the law the Chasidim accepting it in its later developments, the Zadikim professing adherence only to the law as given by Moses. From the Chasidim sprang the Pharisees,' Talmudists, Rabbinists, Cabbalists, etc. Assignates, the name of the na- tional paper currency in the time of the French Revolution. Assignee, a person appointed by another to transact some business, or exercise some particular privilege or power. Formerly the persons ap- pointed under a commission of bank- ruptcy, to manage the estate of the bankrupt on behalf of the creditors, were so called, but now trustees, or receivers. Assignment, in law and com- merce, the act of signing over to an- other, rights or property which have hitherto belonged to one's self. An assignment of estate is a transfer, or making over to another, of the right a person has in any estate. In general, assignments should be recorded in the office prescribed by law, or are void as against those claiming under subse- quent assignments. Assiniboia, the smallest of the four districts into which a portion of the Northwest Territories of Canada was divided in 1881 and Sept. 1, 1905, merged into the provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan. Its area was 89,- 535 square miles and pop. 67,385. Coal mines are worked and irrigation is improving the district. Assouan Assouan (also ESWAN; the an- cient Syene), is the southernmost city of Egypt proper, on the right bank of the Nile, and beside the first or low- est cataract. Near are the islands of Philse and Elephantine, recently sub- merged almost completely by the great Nile dam. On the left bank are cata- combs. There are some remains of the ancient city, as granite columns and part of a temple. In the neigh- borhood are the famous granite quar- ries from which so many of the huge obelisks and colossal statues were cut to adorn the temples and palaces of ancient Egypt. From Syene, this kind of granite came to be known as syenite. Pop. about 4,000. Assnmpsit, a verbal promise made by anyone, or which he may in justice be held to have more or less directly made. Assyria, an ancient Semitic king- dom of Asia, the native name of which was Ashur or Asshur, and thus also called by the Hebrews. The area was fluctuating at first small, but, though it gradually increased, it probably never exceeded about 200,000 square miles. The Assyrians were far advanced in art and industry, and in civiliza- tion. They constructed large build- ings, especially palaces, of an impos- ing character, the materials being burned or sun-dried brick, stone, ala- baster, slabs for lining and adorning the walls internally and externally, and timber for pillars and roof. The Assyrians understood and applied the arch ; constructed tunnels, aque- ducts, and drains ; used the pulley, the lever, and the roller ; engraved gems in a highly artistic way; understood the arts of inlaying, enameling, and over- laying with metals ; manufactured porcelain, transparent and colored glass, and were acquainted ^with the lens ; and possessed vases, jars, and other dishes, bronze and ivory orna- ments, bells, gold earrings and brace- lets of excellent design and workman- ship. They had also silver ornament- al work. Their household furniture gives a high idea of their skill. Asten, Friedrich Emil von, a German astronomer, born at Koln, 1842. His investigations have related mostly to comets. Astor Aster, a genus of plants, so called because the expanded flowers resemble stars. In the United States these as- ters grow wild in the meadows and on the prairies. Aster, Ernst Ludwig von, a German military engineer, born in Dresden, Oct. 5, 1778. He died in Berlin, Feb. 10, 1855. Asthma, a chronic shortness of breath, from whatever cause it may arise. Till a comparatively recent pe- riod good medical writers used the term in this wide sense, and non-pro- fessional writers and the public do so still. Asthma, or spasmodic asthma, is " a difficulty of breathing, recur- ring in paroxysms, after intervals of comparatively good health, and usual- ly accompanied by fever." It is most common in persons possessing the nervous temperament. Aston, William George, an English author, born near London- derry, in 1841 r is a standard author- ity on Japanese subjects. Astor, John Jacob, an American i merchant, born in Waldorf, Germany, July 17, 1763. In 1783 he came to the United States intending to engage in the selling of musical instruments ; but while on the voyage was induced by a fellow passenger to engage in buying furs from the Indians and sell- ing them to dealers. On reaching New York he entered the employ of a Quaker furrier, with whom he learned the details of the trade, and then be- gan business on his own account. Soon afterward he became American agent for a London fur house, and, while ar- ranging for his supplies, he opened the first wareroom for the sale of mu- sical instruments in the United States. His success in the fur business led him to become the owner of a number of vessels, in which he shipped furs to London and brought merchandise therefrom. In furtherance of a scheme for becoming independent of the Hud- son Bay Company and establishing a thoroughly American system of fur trading, he sent out expeditions to open up intercourse with the Indians on the Pacific coast, by which the present city of Astoria at the mouth of the Columbia river in Oregon was planted in 1811. An interesting out- 1 line of his projects in this connection Astor is given in Washington Irving's " As- toria." Mr. Astor acquired large ; wealth, invested heavily in real estate : in New York city ; and at his death left a fortune estimated at $20,000,- 000, and the sum of $400,000, with, which to found a public library in \ New York city. He died March 29, 1848. See NEW YOBK PUBLIC Li- BBABY. Astor, John Jacob, an Ameri- can capitalist, born in Rhinebeck, N. Y., July 13, 1864; son of William, grandson of John Jacob, and cousin of William Waldorf Astor; was grad- uated at Harvard University in 1888 ; spent three years in European travel ; ' and then became manager of the fam- ily estate. He was appointed Col- onel on the staff of Gov. Morton; was commissioned a Lieutenant-Col- onel of Volunteers in May, 1898, and served on inspection and staff duty in the United States and Cuba till the , surrender of Santiago. He presented : the United States Government with a completely equipped mountain bat- tery which cost over $75,000, and which rendered the government valu- 1 able services during the war with Spain. He published "A Journey to Other Worlds; a Romance of the Future" (1894). He was lost on the "Titanic," April 15, 1912. Astor, William Backhouse, an American capitalist, born in New York city, Sept 19, 1792; eldest son of John Jacob Astor ; was associated with his father in business ; increased the family fortune to $45,000,000; gave $550,000 to Astor Library. Died in New York, Nov. 24, 1875. Astor, William Vincent, head of the Astor family in the United States, was born in New York city, Nov. 15, 1891 ; educated at Harvard ; succeeded to a vast estate in money and prop- erty at the drowning of his father, John Jacob Astor, in the "Titanic" disaster ; married Helen D. Hunting- ton, April 30, 1914; and with his wife engaged in patriotic relief work in France in 1917. Astor, William Waldorf, capi- talist, born in New York city, March 31, 1848; admitted to the bar 1875. He was elected to the New York As- sembly in 1871. and to the Senate in 1879 ; and was United States Minister Astrology to Italy in 1882-1885. On the death of his father, John Jacob Astor, he became head of the Astor family, and inherited a fortune of $100,000,000. He removed to England in 1890 ; be- came the owner of the " Pall Mall Ga- zette " and " Pall Mall Magazine ; " was naturalized a British subject on July 1, 1899 ; and was created a baron Dec. 31, 1915. He published " Valen- tino " (1885) and " Sforza " (1889), both romances. Astrakhan, a Russian city, capi- tal of the government of the same name, on an elevated island in the Volga, about 30 miles above its mouth in the Caspian, communicating with opposite banks of the river by numer- ous bridges. It is the chief port of the Caspian, and has regular steam communication with the principal towns on its shores. Pop. (1897) 113,001, composed of various races. Astrakhan, a name given to sheep-skins with a curled woolly sur- face obtained from a variety of sheep found in Bokhara, Persia, and Syria ; also a rough fabric with a pile in im- itation of this. Astral Spirits, in the demonology of the Middle Ages, spirits dwelling in the heavenly bodies. As the belief in spirits and witchcraft reached its height in the 15th century, the demon- ologist, or special students of this sub- ject, systematized the strange fancies of that wild period ; and astral spirits were made to occupy the first rank among evil or demoniacal spirits. Astringents, substances which produce contraction and condensation of the muscular fiber : for instance, when applied to a bleeding wound they so contract the tissues as to stop the hemorrhage. Astringents are use- ful in various diseases. Astrolabe, in its etymological sense, any instrument for taking the altitude of a star or other heavenly body, a definition which would include not merely the astrolabe properly so called, but also the sextant, the quad- rant, the equatorial, the altitude and the azimuth circle, the theodolite, or any similar instrument. Astrology, originally a discourse concerning the stars ; subsequently the true science of astronomy; now the Astronomy pseudo science which pretends to fore- tell future events by studying the po- sition of the stars, and ascertaining their alleged influence upon human destiny. Astronomy, the science that treats of all the heavenly bodies, including the earth, as related to them. It is the oldest of the sciences, and .the mother of those generally called exact as mathematics, geodesy and physics. Asymptote, in geometry, a line which is continually approaching a curve, but never meets it, however far either of them may be prolonged. This may be conceived as a tangent to a curve at an infinite distance. Atacama, the name formerly, of two provinces, (1) Chilian and (2) Bolivian ; most of the latter was trans- ferred to Chile in 1884. (1) A north- ern Province of Chile, with an area of 30,720 square miles, and a popula- tion (1895) of 59,713 About 1,000 silver and 250 copper mines are work- ed, and gold is also found in consider- able quantities. Atahualpa, the last of the Incas, succeeded his father in 1529 on the throne of Quito, whilst his brother Huascar obtained the Kingdom of Peru. They soon made war against each other, when the latter was de- feated, and his kingdom fell into the hands of Atahualpa. The Spaniards, taking advantage of these internal dis- turbances, with Pizarro at their head, invaded Peru, and advanced to Atahu- alpa's camp. Here, while Pizarro's priest was telling the Incas how the Pope had given Peru to the Spaniards, fire was opened on the unsuspecting Peruvians, Atahualpa was captured, and, despite the payment of a vast ransom in gold, was executed (1533). Atalanta, in the Greek mythology, a famous huntress of Arcadia. She was to be obtained in marriage only by him who could outstrip her in a race, the consequence of failure being death. One of her suitors obtained from Aph- rodite (Venus) three golden apples, which he threw behind him, one after another, as he ran. Atalanta stopped to pick them up, and was not unwill- ingly defeated. There was another At- alanta belonging to Bceotia, who can- not very well be distinguished, the same stories being told about both. Atelier Atavism, in biology, the tendency to reproduce the ancestral type in ani- mals or plants which hare become con- siderably modified by breeding or cul- tivation ; the reversion of a descendant to some peculiarity of a more or less remote ancestor. Ataxy, Ataxia, in medicine, irreg- ularity in the animal functions, or in the symptoms of a disease. (See Lo- COMOTOB ATA.XY). Atcheen (also A CHIN or ATCHIN ; called by the Dutch ATJEH), until 1873 an independent State in the N. W. part of Sumatra, now a Province of the Dutch Indies, with an area of 20,471 square miles, and a population estimated on Dec. 31, 1905, at 582,175. During the earlier half of the 17th century Atcheen was a powerful sul- tanate, but under the Dutcn natie resistance lasted till 1906, 200 years. Atchison, city and capital of At- chison county, Kan.; on the Missouri river and several railroads; 50 miles N. of Kansas City; has an immense trade in livestock and grains; con- tains large grain elevators, flour mills, and many factories; and is the seat of the State Soldiers' Orphans' Home and Midland (Luth.) and St. Bene- dict's colleges. Pop. (1910) 16,429. Atchison, David Rice, an Amer- ican legislator, born in Frogtown, Ky., Aug. 11, 1807 ; was educated for the bar, and began practicing in Missouri, in 1830. In 1843, while Judge of Cir- cuit Court, he was appointed United States Senator to fill a vacancy. He was twice elected to the last office, and during several sessions was Presi- dent pro tern, of the Senate. During Sunday, March 4, 1849, he was the legal President of the United States, as Gen. Taylor, the President-elect, was not sworn into office until the fol- lowing day. The city of Atchison, Kan., was named after him. He died in Clinton county, Mo., June 26, 1886. Ate, in Greek mythology, the god- dess of hate, injustice, crime and ret- ribution. Ate is seldom personified. Ateles, a genus of South Ameri- can monkeys, of the division with long prehensile tails, to which the name Sapajou is sometimes applied. Atelier, in French, a workshop; a studio ; more especially applied to an artist's work-room. Ateliers Nation- AtkaVasca Athanasian Creed aux, or National Workshops. Since 1845, it has been the custom in France, daring severe winters, or in times of distress caused by stagnation of trade, to open temporary workshops, in or- der to give employment to mechanics who were out of work. These work- shops were called Ateliers de Charite, until 1848, when the Provisional Gov- ernment of the Republic reopened a .vast number of these establishments under the name of Ateliers Nation- aux. They were under the control of a department called "The Committee of the Government for the Workmen ;" they were all, however, badly organ- ized, and failed calamitously. The principle on which they were conduct- ed was, that every workman should have a living provided for him on a fixed scale. The result was, that workmen soon left private employers, and entered the national work-shops. The numbers who flocked in soon be- came alarming. More than 100,000 men enrolled themselves, and insubor- dination soon began to show itself. Danger was imminent, and the Na- tional Assembly ordered the dissolu- tion of the ateliers nationaux, an act which became the pretext for the terri- ble insurrection which ensanguined Paris in June, 1848. Athabasca, a river, lake and dis- trict of Canada. The Athabasca river rises on the E. slopes of the Rocky Mountains in the district of Alberta, flows in a N. E. direction through the district of the same name, and falls into Lake Athabasca after a course of about 600 miles. Lake Ath- abasca, or Lake of the Hills, is about 190 miles S. S. E. of the Great Slave Lake, with which it is connected by means of the Slave river, a continua- tion of the Peace. It is about 200 miles in length from E. to W., and about 35 miles wide at the broadest part, but gradually narrows to a point at either extremity. The district of Athabasca, formed 1882, on Sept. 1, 1905, was merged in the provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan. It is in- tersected by the Athabasca and Peace .rivers and, as yet, has a scanty popu- lation. The name is also given to a family of Indians. The area of the district was about 251,300 sq. m. Athabascan Indiana, a linguistic stock of North American Indians, ex- tending from British North America and Alaska to Mexico, who derive their name from Lake Athabasca in British North America. Athaliah., daughter of Ahab, King of Israel, and wife of Jehoram, King of Judah, was born about 927, and died about 878 B. c. She was a woman of abandoned character, and fond of power ; who, after the death of her son Ahaziah, opened her way to the throne by the murder of every prince of the royal blood. She reign- ed six years; in the seventh, the high- priest Jehoiada placed Joash, the young son of Ahaziah, on the throne of his father, and Athaliah was put to death. Athanasian Creed, a formulary or confession of faith, said to have been drawn up by Athanasius, Bishop of Alexandria, in the 4th century, to justify himself against the calumnies of his Arian enemies. That it was really composed by this father seems more than doubtful; and modern ^di- vines generally concur in the opinion of Dr. Waterland, that it was written by Hilary, Bishop of Aries, in the 5th century. It is certainly very ancient ; for it had become so famous in the 6th century as to be commented upon, together with the Lord's Prayer and Apostles' Creed, by Venantius Fortu- natus, Bishop of Poitiers. It was not, however, then styled the Athanasian Creed, but simply the Catholic Faith. It is supposed to have . received the name of Athanasius on account of its agreeing with his doctrines, and being an excellent summary of the subjects of controversy between him and the Arians. The true key to the Athana- sian Creed lies in the knowledge of the errors to which it was opposed. The Sabellians considered the Father, Son and Holy Spirit as one in per- son; this was "confounding the per- sons : " the Arians considered them as differing in essence ; this was " divid- ing the substance ; " and against these two errors was the creed originally framed. This creed was used in France about the year 850; was re- ceived in Spain about 100 years later, and in Germany about the same time. It was both said and sung in Eng- land in the 10th century ; was com- monly used in Italy at the expiration of that century, and at Rome a little Athanasins Athletes later. This creed is appointed to be read in the Church of England. Athanasius, St., one of the fa- thers of the Christian Church, born at Alexandria about 296 A. D. He became Patriarch of Alexandria in 328, being afterward deposed and re- instated five times. He died in Alex- andria, May 2, 373. Atheism, literally, disbelief in a God, if such an attainment is possi- ble; or, more loosely, doubt of the ex- istence of a God; practically, a denial that anything can be known about the supernatural, supposing it to exist. Athel, or .aJthel, an Old English word meaning noble in blood, descent, or mind; frequently a part of Anglo- Saxon proper names. Athenaeum, or Atheneum, a public place frequented by professors of the liberal arts, and where rhetori- cians declaimed, and the poets read aloud their works. At Athens these assemblies first took place in the tem- ple of Minerva, whence the name. Athens, city and capital of Clarke county, Ga.; on the Oconee river and several railroads; 67 miles E. of At- lanta; is principally engaged in cot- ton-growing, trade, and manufactur- ing; and is the seat of the State Uni- versity, State College of Agriculture, State Normal School, and Lucy Cobb and Knox institutes. Pop. (1910) 14,913. Athens, anciently the capital of Attica and center of Greek culture, now the capital of the Kingdom of Greece. It is situated in the central plain of Attica, about 4 miles from the Saronic Gulf or Gulf of Mgina., an arm of the ^3gean Sea running in between the mainland and the Pelo- ponnesus. It is said to have been founded about 1550 B. c. by Cecrops, the mythical Pelasgian hero, and to have borne the name Cecropia until under Erechtheus it received the name of Athens in honor of Athene. It disputed with Sparta the su- premacy of Greece, which was then virtually the civilized world, and was beaten in the struggle. It remained, however, the centre of art and culture until long after the rise of Rome, to which with the rest of Greece it be- came subject The modern city mostly lies north- ward and eastward from the Acropo- lis, and consists mainly of straight and well built streets. Among the principal buildings are the royal pal- ace, a stately building with a facade of Pentelic marble (completed in 1843), the university, the academy, public library, theater, and observa- tory. The university was opened in 1836, and has 1,400 students. There are valuable museums, in particular the National Museum, and that in the Polytechnic School, which embraces the Schliemann collection, etc. These are constantly being added to by exca- vations. There are four foreign ar- chaeological schools or institutes, the French, German, American, and Brit- ish. Tramways have been made in the principal streets, and the city is con- nected by railway with its port, the Piraeus. From tie beginning of the World War the city was almost con- stantly in a state of turmoil because of revolutionary demonstrations or the actions of the Allies, as King Constantine, though professing strict neutrality was popularly believed to be leaning toward the side of his wife's brother, the German emperor. Pop. (1907) 167,479. See APPENDIX: World War. Atherton, George William, an American educator, born in Boxford, Mass., June 20, 1837; was Pro- fessor of Political Economy and Con- stitutional Law in Rutgers College, N. J., in 1869-1882; and became Presi- dent of the Pennsylvania State College in 1882. He died July 24, 1906. Atherton, Gertrude Franklin, an American author, born in San Francisco, Cal. ; daughter of Thomas L. Horn and Gertrude Franklin, and great-grandniece of Benjamin Frank- lin ; was educated in California and Kentucky, and married the late George H. B. Atherton. She began her liter- ary work while living in San Fran- cisco, in 1878, and has made a specialty of describing Spanish life in California as it was previous to 1846. Athletes, combatants who took part in the public games of Greece. The profession was an honorable one; tests of birth, position, and character were imposed, and crowns, statues, special privileges, and pensions were ( among the rewards of success. ID Athos Atlantic Ocean 1896, the ancient Olympic games were revived at Athens (the 776th Olympiad) under the personal patron- age of the King of Greece; in 1900 they were held at the Paris Exposi- tion; in 1904 at the St. Louis Expo- sition; in 1906 at Athens; in 1908 at London. Athos, Mount, or Hagion-Oros, or Monte-Santo, a famous moun- tain of Turkey in Europe, on a pen- insula projecting into the JEgean Sea, between the Gulfs of Contesa and Monte-Santo. In modern times, Athos has been occupied for an extended period by a number of mpnks of the Greek Church, who live in a sort of fortified monasteries-, in number about 20, of different degrees of magnitude and importance. These, with the farms or metochis attached to them, occupy the whole peninsula ; hence it has derived its modern name of Monte-Santo. Atkinson, Edward, an American political economist, born in Brook- line, Mass., Feb. 10, 1827; was .edu- cated in private schools and at Dart- mouth College. He has become widely known by his papers and pamphlets on trade competition, banking, railroad- ing, fire prevention, the money ques- tion, etc. He died Dec. 11, 1905. Atkinson, George Francis, an American botanist, born in Raisin- ville, Mich., Jan. 26, 1854; was grad- uated at Cornell University in 1885 ; Associate Professor of Entomology and General Zoology in the University of North Carolina, in 1886-1888 ; Pro- fessor of Zoology and Botany in the University of South Carolina; and Botanist of the State Experiment Station in 1888-1889; Professor of Biology in the Alabama Polytechnic Institute, and Biologist of the Experi- ment Station in 1889-1892; became Professor of Botany in Cornell Uni- versity, and Botanist of the Experi- ment Station there in 1896. He is a member of numerous scientific socie- ties, and author of "Biology of Ferns," "Elementary Botany," and many tech- nical papers. Atlanta, city and capital of the State of Georgia and of Fulton coun- ty ; on the Atlanta and West Point, the Central of Georgia, the Georgia, the Seaboard Air Line, the Southern, and the Western and Atlantic rail- roads ; 171 miles N. by W. of Augusta. The city is not only the largest in the State, but, commercially and histor- icallv, is one of the most important in the South. In 1914 it became the cen- tral reserve city of the Sixth Federal Reserve Banking District under the act of Congress of 1913. After being besieged by the Federal army, under General Sherman, and bombarded for 40 days, it was cap- tured Sept. 2, 1864. General Sherman, before starting on his march to the sea, burned the city. After the war, the city recuperated more rapidly than any other in the South. In 1881 an exposition of the Cotton States and in 1895 a great Cotton States and Inter- national Exposition were held here, the last in Piedmont Park, in which* the United States and many of the North- ern States, besides European and South American countries, took part. Pop. (1900) 89,872; (1910) 154,839. Atlantic City, a city and widely noted health and pleasure resort, in Atlantic county, N. J. ; on Absecon Beach island; 60 miles S. E. of Philadelphia. It is a city of hotels, shops, and cottages, with superior railroad facilities, and has the largest patronage of any seaside resort in the country. Its famous board-walk is over 5 miles long and 20-60 feet wide. Permanent pop. (1910) 44,461. Atlantic Ocean, the name given to the vast expanse of sea lying be- tween the W. coasts of Europe and Africa, and the E. coasts of North and South America, and extending from the Arctic to the Antarctic Seas. Its greatest breadth is between the W. coast of Northern Africa and the E. coast of Florida, 4,150 miles. Its least breadth, between Norway and Greenland, is about 930 miles. 'iue great currents of the Atlantic are the Gulf Stream, the equatorial current which may be divided into the main equatorial current, the N. equatorial current, and the S. equa- torial currents, the North African and Guinea current, the South connecting current, the Southern Atlantic cur- rent, Cape Horn current, Rennel current, and the Arctic current. The Gulf Stream is a continuation of the main equatorial current, and partly of the N. equatorial current, Atlantic Telegraph Atlee both W. drift currents produced by the trade winds. The former passes across the Atlantic to the American coast, upon which it strikes from Cape St. Roque to the Antilles. On being turned by the coast it runs along it at a rate of 30 to 50 miles per day, and sometimes at a higher speed, till it enters the Gulf of Mexico, from which having previously received part of the waters of the N. equatorial current, it issues between Florida and Cuba under the name of the Gulf stream. It afterward flows nearly parallel to the coast of the United States, sepa- rated from it by a belt of cold water. Off Cape Hatteras it spreads into an expanding channel, reaching a breadth of 167 miles, and consisting of three warm sections with two cold belts in- terposed. On passing Sandy Hook it turns E. and continues to be recog- nizable, partly by a blue color derived from the silt of the Mississippi, till about Ion. 30 W., where, with a greatly diminished temperature, it is found flowing nearly due E. Atlantic Telegraph, lines laid on the bed of the Atlantic Ocean. The union of the Old and New Worlds by means of the electric telegraph, prob- ably the boldest feat of electric engi- neering ever projected, was first sug- gested by Prof. Morse in 1843. When Lieut. Maury of the United States navy discovered that between Ireland and Newfoundland the bed of the ocean was nearly level and covered with soft ooze, and Cyrus W. Field and others had thoroughly discussed the practical methods, a company was formed for the purpose, in 1856, to which the Governments of Great Brit- ain and the United States gave liberal guarantees. This company, after a fruitless attempt to lay an electric ca- ble in 1857, finally succeeded in 1858. The result was not encouraging. The current obtained through the wire was so weak that a congratulatory message from the Queen to the Presi- rent, consisting of 90 words, took 67 minutes to transmit. After a few more messages, the cable became use- less. In consequence of this failure, it was not until 1865 that capital was found to make another attempt. The paying-out journey was com- menced at Valentia, but when the ves- sel was 1,064 miles from that port, the cable broke from an accidental strain. After a fruitless effort to fish up the broken cable from the bottom, it was abandoned for the season. In 1866 another line, so modified in con- struction as to be both lighter and stronger than the previous one, was successfully laid by the " Great East- ern." The 1865 cable was then, by means of the same vessel, grappled for, and brought up from a depth of two miles, spliced, and completed to Trin- ity Bay. _The practicability of laying an elec- tric wire across the Atlantic being thus demonstrated, many lines have been projected, and several of them carried out. Marconi's wireless tele- graph system has introduced a new era in transatlantic telegraphy, but has not, so far, been developed suffi- ciently to interfere with the business of the cable companies. Atlantides, a name given to the Pleiades, which were fabled to be the seven daughters of Atlas or of his brother Hesperus. Atlantis, or Atlantica, an island, said by Plato and others to have once existed in the ocean immediately be- yond the Straits of Gades; that is, in what is now called the Atlantic Ocean, a short distance W. of the Straits of Gibraltar. Atlantis is rep- resented as having ultimately sunk beneath the waves, leaving only iso- lated rocks and shoals in its place. Geologists have discovered that the coast-line of Western Europe did once run farther in the direction of Amer- ica than now; but its submergence seems to have taken place long before historic times. Atlas, in Greek mythology, the name of a Titan whom Zeus con- demned to bear the vault of heaven. The same name is given to a collection of maps and charts, and was first used by Gerard Mercator in the 16th cen- tury, the figure of Atlas bearing the globe being given on the title-pages of such works. Atlee, Washington Lemuel, an American surgeon, born in Lancaster, Pa., Feb. 22, 1808; became noted as a pioneer in ovariotomy and the removal of uterine fibroid tumors. He died Sept 6. 1878. Atxnometer Atmometer, an instrument invent- ed by Sir John Leslie for iiieasuring the quantity of moisture exhaled in a given time from any humid sur- face. Atmosphere, literally, the air sur- rounding our planet, and which, as the etymology implies, is, speaking broad- ly, a "sphere" (not, of course, a solid, but a hollow one). With strict accuracy, it is a hollow spheroid. Its exact height is unknown. At 2.7 miles above the surface of the earth, half its density is gone, and the remainder is again halved for every further rise of 2.7 miles. Some small density would remain at 45 miles high. At 80 miles, this would have all but disap- peared. But from sundry observa- tions, made at Rio Janeiro and else- where, on the twilight arc, M. Liais infers that the extreme limit of the atmosphere is between 198 and 212 miles. In the lower strata of the at- mosphere, the temperature falls at least a degree for every 352 feet of ascent ; hence, even in the tropics, mountains of any considerable eleva- tion are snow-capped. The atmosphere appears to us blue, because, absorbing the red and yellow solar rays, it re- flects the blue ones. It revolves with the earth, but being extremely mobile, winds are generated in it, so that it is rarely long at rest. Evaporation, con- tinually at work, sends into it quanti- ties of water m a gaseous state ; clouds are formed, and in due time descend in ram. The atmosphere always con- tains free electricity, sometimes posi- tive and sometimes negative. There appears to be no atmosphere around the moon ; but the case seems different with the sun, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn. Atmospheric Pressure, the pres- sure exerted by the atmosphere, not merely downward, but in every direc- tion. It amounts to 14.7 pounds of weight on each square inch, which is often called in round numbers 15. On a square foot it is =2,160 pounds, or nearly a ton. It would act upon our bodies with crushing effect were it not that the pressure, operating in all di- rections, produces an equilibrium. If any gas or liquid press upon a surface with a force of 15 pounds on a square inch, it is generally described as hav- ing a pressure of one atmosphere; if 60 pounds, of four atmospheres ; if 120 pounds, of eight atmospheres, and so on. Atmospheric Railway. ( See PNEUMATIC DISPATCH). Atomic Theory, a theory as to the existence and properties of atoms ; es- pecially, in chemistry, the theory ac- counting for the fact that in compound bodies the elements combine in certain constant proportions, by assuming that all bodies are composed of ultimate atoms, the weight of which is different in different kinds of matter. It is as- sociated with the name of Dalton, who systematized and extended the imper- fect results of his predecessors. On its practical side the atomic theory asserts three Laws of Combining Pro- portions : ( 1 ) The Law of Constant or Definite Proportions, teaching that in every chemical compound the na- ture and proportion of the constituent elements are definite and invariable ; (2) The Law of Combination in Mul- tiple Proportions, according to which the several proportions in which one element unites with another, invariably bear towards each other a simple rela- tion ; (3) The Law of Combination in Reciprocal Proportions, that the pro- portions in which two elements com- bine with a third also represent the proportions in which, or in some sim- ple multiple of which, they will them- selves combine. Without expressly adopting the atomic theory, chemists have followed Dalton in the use of the terms atom and atomic weight, yet in using the word atom it should be held in mind that it merely denotes the pro- portions in which elements unite. Atonement, in theology, the sac- rificial offering made by Christ I'M ex- piation of the sins, according to the Calvinists, of the elect only ; according to the Arminians, of the whole human race. Atrato, a river of Colombia, inter- esting because it has repeatedly been made to bear a part in schemes for a ship-canal across the Isthmus of Pana- ma. Rising on the Western Cordillera at an altitude of 10,560 feet, above sea-level, it runs 305 miles northward through low, swampy country, and falls by several mouths, interrupted by bars, into the Gulf of Darien. It is navigable by steamers for fully 250 Attock miles, being 750 to 1,000 feet wide, and 8 to 70 feet deep. A route, sur- veyed by the United States Govern- ment in 1871, proposed to connect the Atrato and the Jurador, flowing into the Pacific, by a canal 48 miles long. At the Paris International Congress (1879), for deciding the best route for the interoceanic canal, that route was, with various others, discussed and re- jected in favor of De Lesseps' line from Limon to Panama. Gold-dust is found in and about the Atrato. Atrium, in ancient times, the hall or principal room in an ancient Ro- man house. In a large house ^ the rooms opened into it from all sides, and were lighted from it. Atrophy, a wasting of the flesh due to some interference with the nu- tritive processes. It may arise from a variety of causes, such as perma- nent, oppressive and exhausting pas- sions, organic disease, a want of prop- er food or of pure air, suppurations in important organs, copious evacuations of blood, saliva, semen, etc., and it is also sometimes produced by poisons, for example, arsenic, mercury, lead, in miners, painters, gilders, etc. Atropin, or Atropine, a crystal- line alkaloid obtained from the deadly nightshade (atropa belladonna). It is very poisonous and produces persist- ent dilation of the pupil. Attache, a military, naval or sub- ordinate member of the diplomatic ser- vice attached to an embassy or lega- tion. Attachment, in law, the taking into the custody of the law the person or property of one already before the court, or of one whom it is sought to bring before it Attack, the opening act of hostil- ity by a force seeking to dislodge an enemy from its position. Attainder, the legal consequences of a sentence of death or outlawry pronounced against a person for trea- son or felony, the person being said to be attainted. In the United States, the Federal Constitution declares that " No bill of attainder shall be passed, and no at- tainder of treason, in consequence of a judicial sentence, shall work corrup- tion of blood or forfeiture except dur- ing the life of the person attainted." Attar, Ferid eddin, a celebrated Persian poet, born near Nishapur in 1119; died about 1229 (?). Attar, or Otto, of Roses (oil of roses), an essential oil obtained from the petals of three species of roses, viz. : rosa centifolia, moschata and damascena. Atterbury, Francis, an English prelate, born March G, 1662, and ed- ucated at Westminster and Oxford. He died Feb. 15, 1732, and his body was interred in Westminster Abbey. Attic, pertaining to Attica or to Athens. Pure ; elegant ; classical ; poignant ; characterized by keenness of intellect, delicacy of wit, purity of elegance, soundness of judgment and most expressive brevity; as, the Attic Muse. Attic dialect is that dialect of the Greek language which was spoken hi Attica. It was the most refined and polished of all the dialects of an- cient Greece. Attica, a State of ancient Greece, the capital of which, Athens, was once the first city in the world. Atticns, Titns Pomponins, a noble Roman, the contemporary of Cicero and Caesar. Attila, the famous leader of the Huns, was the son of Mundzuk, and the successor, in conjunction with his brother Bleda, of his uncle Rhuas. The rule of the two leaders extended over a great part of Northern Asia and Europe, and they threatened the Eastern Empire, and twice compelled the weak Theodosius II. to purchase an inglorious peace. Attila caused his brother Bleda to be murdered (444), and in a short time extended his do- minion over all the peoples of Ger- many and exacted tribute from the Eastern and Western emperors. He invaded Italy and conquered and de- stroyed Aquileia, Padua, Vicenza, Ve- rona, and Bergamo, laid waste the plains of Lombardy, and was march- ing on Rome when Pope Leo I. went with the Roman ambassadors to his camp and succeeded in obtaining a peace. Attila went back to Hungary, and died on the night of his marriage with Hilda or Ildico (453), either from the bursting of a blood vessel or by her hand. Attock, a town and fort of the Punjab, on the left or E. bank of the Attorney Aublet Indus. The great railway bridge across the Indus here was opened in 1883. It has five arches 130 feet high, and renders continuous the railway connection between Calcutta and Pesh- awur (1,600 miles). Attorney, a person appointed to do something for and in the stead and name of another. An attorney at law is a person qualified to appear for an- other before a court of law to prose- cute or defend any action on behalf of his client. Attorney-General. In the United j States the Department of Justice is presided over by the Attorney-General, whose duty it is to furnish all legal I advice needed by Federal authorities, and conduct all litigation in which the United States is concerned. The ! States have similar officers. Attraction, in natural philosophy, a force in virtue of which the material particles of all bodies tend necessarily to approach each other. Capillary attraction, meaning the attraction excited by a hair-like tube on a liquid within it, is, properly speaking, a variety of adhesion. In magnetism, the power excited by a magnet or loadstone of drawing and attaching iron to itself. In electricity, the power possessed by an electrified body of drawing cer- tain other bodies to itself. Atwater, Lyman Hotchkiss, an American theologian, born in Hamp- den, Conn., Feb. 23, 1813; died in Princeton, N. J., Feb, 17, 1883. Atwater, Wilber Olin, an Amer- I ican chemist, born in Johnsburg, N. Y., May 3, 1844; was graduated at Wesleyan University in 1865 ; made a i special study of chemistry in the Shef- field Scientific School of Yale and the Universities of Leipsic and Berlin ; became Professor of Chemistry in East Tennessee University in 1873 ; was director of the Connecticut Agri- i cultural Experiment Station in 1875- i 1877, and was appointed director of the Storrs (Conn.) Experiment Sta- tion in 1887. He was connected for several years with the United States Depa rtment of Agriculture ; published many papers on chemical and allied subjects; and, after 1894, gave much attention to nutrition investigations. He died in 1907. Atwill, Edward Robert, an American clergyman, born in Red Hook, N. Y., Feb. 18, 1840 ; was grad- uated at Columbia College in 1862, and at the General Theological Sem- inary 1864 ; consecrated the first Prot- estant Episcopal bishop of West Mis- souri, Oct. 14, 1890. D. Jan. 24, 1011. Atwood, Isaac Morgan, an American educator, born in Pembroke, N. Y., March 24, 1838; was ordained in the Universalist Church in 1861 ; held several pastorates ; edited " The Christian Leader " 1867-1873 ; became an associate editor of the " Universal- ist Leader ; " and was chosen president of the Canton (N. Y.) Theological Seminary in 1879. Atwood, Melville, an Anglo- American geologist, born in Prescott Hall, England, July 31, 1812 ; studied lithology, microscopy, and geology early in life, and engaged in gold and diamond mining in Brazil. In 1843 he made a discovery that greatly en- hanced the value of zinc ore. After coming to the United States, in 1852, he invented the blanket system of amalgamation. He also established the value of the famous Comstock sil- ver lode, by an assay of minerals in that region. He died in Berkeley, Cal., April 25, 1898. Anber, Daniel Francois Es- prit, a French operatic composer, born Jan. 29, 1782, at Caen, in Nor- mandy ; was originally intended for a mercantile career, but devoted him- self to music, studying under Cheru- bini. He died in Paris, May 13, 187L Anberlen, Karl August, a Ger- man Protestant theologian, born at Fellbach, Wiirtemberg, Nov. 19, 1824 ; died at Basel, May 2, 1864. Anbert, Joachim Marie Jean Jacques Alexandra Jules, a French general and military writer; born in 1804 ; prominent in several campaigns, and was made commander of the Legion of Honor in 1860. He is best known to the public as a jour- nalist and historical writer. He died in 1890. Aubertin, Charles, a French scholar, born in St. Didier, Dec. 24, 1825. Aublet, Albert, a French paint- er, born in Paris ; studied historical painting under Gerome ; won a first- Aubry class medal in the Paris Exposition of 1889, and the Legion of Honor in 1890. Aubry de Montdidier, a French soldier, supposed to have been mur- dered by his comrade, Richard de Macaire, in 1371. His dog peristed in pursuing and harassing Macaire, and this coming to the ears of King Charles V., he ordered a fight be- tween them. The dog was victori- 1 ous, and has since been famous in story as the "Dog of Montargis;" ; from the place of the fight. Auburn, city and capital of An- ; droscoggin county, Me.; on the An- : droscoggin river and the Maine Cen- tral railroad; 35 miles N. of Port- land; is chiefly engaged in the manu- facture of boots, shoes, cotton goods, furniture, and farm implements; has many points of local interest, includ- ing a 60-foot fall of the river. Pop. (1910) 15,064. Auburn, city and capital of Cay- uga county, N. Y.; on Central & Hudson River and the Lehigh Val- ley railroads. It contains a State ar- mory, Auburn Theological Seminary (Presb.), a State prison on the " silent " system, a State Insane asy- lum, a statue of William H. Sew- ard, and important industrial plants. Pop. (1910) 34,668. Auclimuty, Richard Tylden, an American philanthropist, born In New York city in 1831; practiced architecture for many years; with his wife founded the New York Trade Schools, at a cost of $250,000. J. Pierpont Morgan, in 1892, gave it an endowment of $500,000. Died 1893. Auckland, a town in New Zealand, in the North Island, founded in 1840, and situated on Waitemata harbor, one of the finest harbors of New Zea- land, where the island is only 6 miles across, there being another harbor (Manukau) on the opposite side of the isthmus. It was formerly the cap- ital of tue colony. Pop. (1911), in- cluding suburbs, 102,676. Auckland Islands, a group lying in the Pacific Ocean to the S. of New Zealand. The largest of these islands is about 30 miles long by 15 broad, and is covered with dense vegetation. They are almost entirely uninhabited, belong to the British and are a sta- tion for whaling ships. Auersperg Auction, the public disposal of goods to the highest bidder. Audiometer, or Audimeter, an instrument devised by Prof. Hughes, the inventor of the microphone. Orig- inally its object was to measure with precision the sense of hearing. Audiphone, an invention to assist the hearing of deaf persons in whom the auditory nerve is not entirely de- stroyed. Audit, an examination into ac- counts or dealings with money or property, along with vouchers or other documents connected therewith, espe- cially by proper officers, or persons ap- pointed for the purpose. Andsley, George A slid own, a Scottish-American architect, born in Elgin, Scotland, Sept 6, 1838; estab- lished himself in the United States in 1892, and subsequently became promi- nent both as an architect and author. Audubon, John James, an American naturalist of French extrac- tion, born near New Orleans, May 4, 1780; was educated in France, and studied painting under David. In 1798 he settled in Pennsylvania, but, hav- ing a great love for ornithology, he set out in 1810 with his wife and child, descended the Ohio, and for many years roamed the forests in every direction, drawing the birds which he shot. In 1826 he went to England, exhibited his drawings in Liverpool, Manchester and Edinburgh, and final- ly published them hi an unrivaled work of double-folio size, with 435 colored plates of birds the size of life ("The Birds of America," 4 vols., 1827-1839), with an accompanying text ( " Ornithological Biography," 5 vols., 8 vo., partly written by Prof. Macgillivray). On his final return to the United States he labored with Dr. Bachman on an illustrated work en- titled " The Quadrupeds of America " (1843-1850, 3 vols.). He died in New York city, June 27. 1851. Anerbacn > Berthold, a German novelist, born at Nordstetten, Wtir- temberg, Feb. 28, 1812. He died at Cannes, France, Feb. 8, 1882. Auersperg, Anton Alexander, Graf von, a German poet, born at Laibach, April 11, 1806. He died at Gratz, Sept. 12, 1876. His poems are very popular in Germany. Auerstadt Auerstadt, a village in the Prus- j sian Province of Saxony, 10 miles W. j of Naumburg. It is famous for the great battle which took place there Oct. 14, 1806, between the French un- der Davoust, and the Prussian army under Duke Charles of Brunswick, which ended in a great victory for the former. The Prussians, who num- bered fully 48,000, left nearly half of their men dead or wounded on the ground, while the French (30,000) es- caped with a loss of only 7,000. Na- poleon, who had, on the same day, defeated the main army of Frederick William III. at Jena, made Davoust Duke of Auerstadt. Augeas, a fabulous king of Elis, in Greece, whose stable contained 3,000 oxen, and had not been cleaned for 30 years. Hercules undertook to clear away the filth in one day in re- turn for a 10th part of the cattle, and executed the task by turning the river Alpheus through it Augeas, having broken the bargain, was deposed and slain by Hercules. Augsburg, Confession of, name given to the celebrated declaration of faith, compiled by Melanchthon, re- vised by Luther and other reformers, and read before the Diet of Augsburg, June 25, 1530. It consisted of 28 arti- cles, seven of which refuted Roman Catholic errors, and the remaining 21 set forth the Lutheran creed. Soon after its promulgation, the last hope of reforming the Roman Catholic Church was abandoned, and complete severance followed. An answer by the Roman Catholics was read Aug. 3, 1530; when the Diet declared that it had been refuted. Melanchthon then drew up another confession. The first is called the unaltered, and the sec- ond, the altered form. Augsburg, Diet of, the most cel- ebrated of the numerous diets held at Augsburg. Pope Clement VII. refus- ing to call a general council for the settlement of all religious disputes, the Emperor Charles V. summoned one to meet at Augsburg, June 20, 1530. On the 25th the famous " Con- fession " was read ; later an answer was made by the Catholics, whereupon the Protestants were ordered to con- form in all points to the Church of Rome, Charles V. giving them till August April 15, 1531, to reunite with the Mother Church. On Nov. 22, the em- peror announced his intention to ex- ecute the edict of Worms, made severe enactments against the Protestants, and reconstituted the Imperial Cham- ber. The Protestants put in a counter declaration, and the Diet closed. Augsburg, League of, a league concluded at Augsburg, July 9, 1686, for the maintenance of the treaties of Miinster and Nimeguen, and the truce of Ratisbon, and to resist the en- croachments of France. The contract- ing parties were the Emperor Leopold I., the Kings o f Spain and Sweden, the Electors of Saxony and Bavaria, and the circles of Suabia. Franconla, Upper Saxony and Bavaria. Augur, Christopher Colon, an American military officer; born in New York, July 10, 1821 ; was gradu- ated at the United States Military Academy in 1843 ; became Major of the 13th United States Infantry in 1861; Colonel of the 12th Infantry in 1866; Brigadier-General, United States army, March 4, 1869; Major- General in the volunteer service in 1862; mustered out of that service in 1866; and was retired in the regular army, July 16, 1885. He commanded a division in the battle of Cedar Mountain, being severely wounded. He died in Washington, D. C,, Jan. 16, 1898. Augur*, a college of diviners in ancient Rome, who predicted future events and read the will of the gods from the occurrence of certain signs, connected with thunder and light- ning ; the flight and cries of birds ; the feeding of the sacred chickens ; the ac- tion of certain quadrupeds or serpents ; accidents, such as spilling the salt, etc. The answers of the augurs and the signs were called auguries ; bird-pre- dictions were auspices. Nothing was undertaken without the augurs, and by the words " alio die " ( " meet on another day "), they could dissolve the assembly of the people and annul de- crees passed at the meeting. August, the eighth month of our year, named by the Roman Emperor Augustus, after himself, being asso- ciated with several of his victories and other fortunate events. Before this it was called Sextilis or the sixth month Augusta (counting from March). July had been named for Julius Caesar and the Senate to please Augustus decreed that August should have equal length, tak- ing a day from February. Augusta, city and capital of Rich- mond county, Ga., on the Savannah river and the Southern and other rail- roads; 120 miles N. W. of Savannah. The city is noted for its diversified manufactures, which had in 1914 a value of over $12,000,000, and its large trade in cotton, lumber, fruit, and vegetables. Pop. (1910) 41,040. Augusta, city and capital of the State of Maine and of Kennebec county; on the Kennebec river and the Maine Central railroad; 63 miles N. E. of Portland. The city has abundant water power for numerous factories, and besides several State buildings, has* a National Arsenal and (4 miles out) a National Soldiers' Home. Pop. (1910) 13,211. Augusta, Victoria, Duchess of Schleswig - Holstein - Sonderburg-Au- gustenburg, born Oct. 22, 1858; daughter of the late Duke Friedrich; married Prince Friedrich Wilhelm, afterward Wilhelm II., Feb. 27, 1881; became Empress of Germany and Queen of Prussia on the accession of her husband to the throne in 1888. Augnstiue, or Austin, St., the Apostle of the English, flourished at the close of the 6th century. Augrnstulus, Romulus, the last of the Western Roman emperors ; reigned for one year (475-476), when he was overthrown by Odoacer and banished. Augustus, Cains Julius Caesar Octavianus, originally called CAIUS OCTAVIUS, the celebrated Roman em- peror, was the son of Caius Octavius and Atia, a daughter of Julia, the sis- ter of Julius Caesar. He was born 63 B. c., and died A. D. 14. He was the first emperor of Rome in the full sense of exercising imperial power as a recognized monarch, and he was also one of the greatest, if not the greatest of the emperors, a liberal pa- tron of art, and broad and sagacious in the exercise of his authority. He is said to have " found Rome of brick and left it of marble." Auk, the name given to several sea birds, especially the great and the lit- Aurifaber tie auk. The great auk is from two to two and a half feet high, with short wings almost useless for flight. In the water, however, it makes way with astonishing rapidity. It is es- sentially a northern bird. It seems to be rapidly verging to extinction. Aulic, an epithet given to a coun- cil (the Reichshofrath) in the old German Empire, one of the two su- preme courts of the German Empire, the other being the court of the im- perial chamber ( Reichskamrmrge- richt). It had not only concurrent jurisdiction with the latter court, but in many cases exclusive jurisdiction, in all feudal processes, and in crim- inal affairs, over the immediate feuda- tories of the emperor and in affairs which concerned the Imperial Govern- ment. The title is now applied in Germany in a general sense to the chief council of any department, po- litical, administrative, judicial or mili- tary. Aurelian, Lucius Domitius Aurelianus, an Emperor of Rome, distinguished for his military abilities and stern severity of character ; was the son of a peasant of Illyricum. He was born about 212 A. D., and lost his life, A. D. 275, by assassination, the result of a conspiracy excited by a secretary whom he intended to call to account for peculation. Aureola, or Aureole, in paint- ings, an illumination surrounding a holy person, as Christ, a saint, or a martyr, intended to represent a lu- minous cloud or haze emanating from him. Aureus, the first gold coin which was coined at Rome, 207 B. C. Its value varied at different times, from about $3 to $6. Auricles of the Heart, those two of the four cavities of the heart which are much smaller than the others, and each of which, moreover, has falling down upon its external face a flattened appendage, like the ear of a dog, from which the name of the whole struc- ture is derived. Auricula, a beautiful garden flow- er. It is a native of the Alpine dis- tricts of Italy, Switzerland, and Ger- many, and occurs also in Astrakhan. Aurifaber, the Latinized name of JOHANN GOLDSCHMIDT, one Of Lu- Auriga ther's companions, born in 1519, be- came pastor at Erfurt in 1566; died there in 1579. He collected the un- published manuscripts of Luther. Auriga, in astronomy, the Wag- oner, a constellation of the northern hemisphere containing 68 stare, in- cluding Capella of the first magnitude. Auringer, Obadiah Cyrus, an American poet, born at Glens Falls, N. Y., June 4, 1849. Aurora, a city in Kane county, 111.; on the Fox river and the Chi- cago & Northwestern and other rail- roads; 38 miles W. of Chicago; is the farming and manufacturing cen- ter of Kane and adjoining counties; has large cotton and woollen mills and locomotive and car works; and claims the first electric lighting sys- tem in the United States. Pop. (1910) 29,807. Aurora Borealis, a luminous me- teoric phenomenon appearing in the N. most frequently in high latitudes, the corresponding phenomenon in the southern hemisphere being called au- rora austral is, and both being also called polar light, streamers, etc. Aurungzebe, known as the Great Mogul, or Emperor of Hindustan, born Oct: 22, 1618. He was the son of Shah of Jehan, and properly named Mohammed, but received from his grandfather that of Aurungzebe (Or- nament of the Throne), by which he is known to history. Aurungzebe died at Ahmednagar, in the Deccan, Feb. 21, 1707, master of 21 provinces, and of a revenue of about $200,000,000. Auscultation, the art of discov- ering diseases within the body by means of the sense of hearing. Being carried out most efficiently by means of an instrument called a stethoscope, it is often called mediate auscultation. Auspices, among the Romans, omens, especially those drawn from the flight or other movements of birds, or, less properly, from the occurrence of lightning or thunder in particular parts of the sky. These were sup- posed to be indications of the will of heaven, and to reveal futurity. Austen, Jaue, an English novelist, born at Steventon, Hampshire, of which parish her father was the rec- tor, Dec. 16, 1775 ; died, July 18. 1817. Austin Austerlitz, a small town of Mo- ravia, on the Littawa, 13 miles S. EL of Briinn. In the vicinity, on Dec. 2, 1805, was fought the famous battle that bears its name, between the French army of 80,000 men, com- manded by Napoleon, and the com- bined Russian and Austrian armies, numbering 84,000, under their respec- tive Emperors ; in which the former achieved a signal victory. Austin, capital of the State of Texas, and county-seat of Travis co. ; on the Colorado river; 230 miles N. W. of Galveston. It derives large power for manufacturing from the riv- er. Besides the State Capitol, the city contains the main building of the State University, four State asylums, the State Confederate Home. The Capi- tol, which cost $3,000,000, is in a square of 10 acres. The recent con- struction of a dam in the river has given the city a large and beautiful stretch of water, known as Lake Mc- Donald. The city was originally known as Waterloo ; was named after Stephen F. Austin ; became the capital of the Republic of Texas in 1839 ; and the capital of the State in 1872. Pop. (1900) 22,258; (1910) 29,860. Austin, Alfred, an English poet, critic, and journalist, born at Head- ingly, near Leeds, May 30, 1835. He graduated from the University of Lon- don in 1853, was called to the bar in 1857, and was editor of the " National Review," 1883-1893. He was ap- pointed poet laureate of England in 1896. He died June 2, 1913. Austin, George Lowell, an American physician and writer, born in Massachusetts in 1849 ; died in 1893. Austin, Henry, an American law- yer and legal writer, born in Boston, Mass., Dec. 21, 1858; wrote several valuable law books. Austin, Jane Goodwin, an Amer- ican novelist, born in Worcester, Mass., Feb. 25, 1831 ; was educated and thenceforth lived in Boston. She died in Boston, March 30, 1894. Austin, John, an English writer on jurisprudence, born fn Creeling Mill, Suffolk, March 3, 1790. From 1826 to 1835 he filled the chair of , Jurisprudence at London University. I Died in Weybridge, Surrey, in Decem- Austin Australia her, 1859. His wife, SARAH, one of the Taylors of Norwich, born in 1793, produced translations of German works, and other books bearing on Germany or its literature. She died in Weybridge, Surrey, Aug. 8, 1867. Her daughter, LADY DUFF GOBDON, translated several German works. Austin, Stephen Fuller, an American pioneer, born in Austinville, Va., Nov. 31, 1793; a son of Moses Austin, the real founder of the State of Texas, who, about 1820, obtained permission from the Mexican Govern- ment to establish an American colony in Texas, but died before his plans were accomplished. Stephen took up the work unfinished by his father, and located a thrifty colony on the site of the present city of Austin, in 1821. Subsequently he was a commissioner to urge the admission of Texas into the Mexican Union ; was imprisoned there for several months; and, in 1835 was a commissioner to the United States Government to secure the recognition of Texas as an inde- pendent State. He died in Columbia, Tex., Dec. 25, 1836. Australasia, a division of tbe globe usually regarded as comprehend- ing the islands of Australia, Tasmania, New Zealand, New Caledonia, the New Hebrides, the Solomon Islands, New Ireland, New Britain, the Ad- miralty Islands, New Guinea, and the Arru Islands, besides numerous other islands and island groups ; area, 3,2d9- 199 square miles, pop. about five mil- lions. It forms one of three portions into which some geographers have di- vided Oceania, the other two being Malaysia and Polynesia. Australia, Commonwealth of, a British possession which includes the island continent of Australia prop- er (the largest island in the world) and the island of Tasmania, is situ- ated in the Southern Hemisphere, and comprises in all an area of about 2,974,581 square miles, the mainland alone containing about 2,948,366 square miles. It k bounded on the W. and E. by the Indian and Pacific Oceans respec- tively: lies between long. 113 9' E. and 153 39' E., while its northern and southern limits are the parallels of lat. 10 41' S. and 39 8* S., or, including Tasmania, 43 39' S. On its north are the Timor and Arafura seas and Torres Strait ; on its south the Southern Ocean and Bass Strait. The continent is a large plateau, fringed by a low-lying, well-watered coast, particularly on the eastern side. No less than 1,149,320 square miles belong to the tropical zone, and 1,020,- 720 to the temperate zone. The area and population (exclusive of aborigines) of the different states composing the Commonwealth were reported as follows on Dec. 31, 1915 : Area States and Territories Sq. M. Pop. New South Wales 309,460 1,869,084 Victoria 87,884 1,417,803 gueensland 670,500 680,446 outh Australia 380,070 439,222 Western Australia 975,920 318,016 Tasmania 26,215 201,025 Northern Territory 523,620 4,563 Federal Territory 912 1,829 Total 4,455,005 4,931,988 The government is based on the Constitution Act of 1900. A gover- nor-general represents the Crown. The Senate consists of thirty-six mem- bers, six for each Original State, di- rectly chosen by the people of the State for a term of six years. The House of Representatives consists of seventy-five members, directly elected for three years. A Referendum is pro- vided. State governors are appointed by the Crown, and State Parliaments retain legislative authority in regard to all matters not transferred to the Federal Parliament. The executive power is vested in the governor-general, with an Executive Council of seven Ministers ; the judi- cial in Federal Supreme Court, called the High Court of Australia, and other courts vested with Federal ju- risdiction. Trade, commerce, and in- tercourse among the States is abso- lutely free. The Commonwealth makes uniform customs and excise duties. The estimated revenue of the Com- monwealth for the fiscal year 1915-16 was $142,453.000; estimated expen- diture, $315,420,455 ; contributions to the States, $31,734,975. During the year the revenue was augmented by loans aggregating $303,007,800. The largest expenditure was for defence, $248,649,875. The total debt of the Australia Australian Commonwealth on March 1, 1916, was $446,806,750, of which $175,225,100 was a 4^% war loan and $149,892,- 080 a war loan from the British Gov- ernment. The total net debt of the States on June 30, 1915, was $1,672,- 876,170, or about $340 per capita. Production and industry in the cal- endar year 1913 yielded the following values. Agricultural ? 231,300,000 Pastoral 289,330,000 Dairying, Poultry, etc 101,705,000 Forestry and Fisheries 31,690,000 Mining 129,040,000 Manufacturing 307,930,000 Total $1,090,995,000 The leading farm crops in 191415 were wheat, 24,892,402 bushels ; oats. 4,341,104; maize, 8,455,561; hay, 1,- 733,944 tons ; and sugar-cane, 2,104,- 239 tons. The live-stock comprised 78,600,334 sheep, 11,051,573 cattle, 2,- 521,272 horses, and 862,447 swine. The value of all minerals produced in 1914 was $111,322,945, gold leading with $43,649,735. Coal yielded $23,- 098,445. Commercial relations in 1914-15 showed : imports of merchandise, spe- cie, and bullion, $322,159,185; ex- ports, $302,962,880. The principal ex- ports were wool, wheat, skins, hides, butter, copper and zinc, mutton and lamb, flour, coal, and beef. During the World War the government con- trolled the export of the principal food-stuffs. The Commonwealth gov- ernment owns a line of steamships, operated in trade only. Internal communication is afforded by 20,062 miles of railway, besides 2,- 055 miles of private lines ; 8,409 post- ing and receiving offices which in 1914 handled 520,518,000 letters and post- cards, 136,200,000 newspapers, etc., and 4,286,000 parcels ; and 4,624 tele- graph offices, with 108,931 miles of wire, dealing with 17,000,000 cable- grams and telegrams. Invalid and old-age pensions are granted to a maximum annual amount of $260 per capita, totalling in 1916, $14,432,080 to 114,380 persons, and maternity allowances of $25 on the birtn of each child are granted, 33,- 250 claims being passed in 1915-16. In 1917 the seat of the Parliament was at Melbourne and a made-to-order Federal Capital was under construc- tion at Canberra, in New South Wales on plans drafted by an Ameri- can engineer. The principal cities and towns, with their population, 1911, are Sydney (N. S. W.), 725,400; Melbourne (Vic.), 651,000; Adelaide (S. A.), 196,567; Brisbane (A.), 154,000; Perth (W. A.), 106,792; Newcastle (N. S. W.), 65,500; Ballarat (Vic.), 44,000; Ben- digo (Vic.), 42,000; Hobart (Tas.), 39,107; Broken Hill (N. S. W.), 30,- 972; Geelong (Vic.) 28,900; and Charters Towers (A.), 26,000. At the outbreak of the World War Australia responded promptly and ef- fectively to the call of the mother country. The Commonwealth has a considerable naval fleet. That and a strong military force were quickly mobilized for service at home and wherever needed. See APPENDIX : World War. Australia, South, one of the orig- inal States in the Commonwealth of Australia ; occupies the middle of Aus- tralia, and stretches from sea to sea. At first as the colony of South Aus- tralia it extended between Ion. 132 and 141 E., and from the Southern Ocean to lat. 26 N. It now has an area of about 903,690. Pop. (1911) 418,172. Australia, Western, one of the original States in the Commonwealth of Australia ; embraces all that por- tion of Australia W. of Ion. 129 E., bounded E. by South Australia, and N., W., and S. by the Indian Ocean ; area, 975,920 square miles; capital, Perth. The coast-line measures about 3,000 miles, and, except on the S., is indented by numerous bays, creeks, and estuaries. From 1850 to 1868 it was a place for the transportation of con- victs. In 1890 the State received au- tonomous government. On Oct. 16, 1906, the Legislature adopted a motion to secede from the commonwealth, the union being detrimental to the devel- oping interests of the State. Pop. (1911) 294,181. Australian Federation, a poli- tical union of all the Australian colo- nies, the agitation for which began in 1852. Feb., 1899, a unanimous agree- ment was reached by the colonial pre- miers in conference at Melbourne, re- garding the unsettled questions re- Austria ferred to them by the colonial Legisla- tures, thus insuring the success of the federation project. In 1900, a bill making Federation effective was intro- duced into Parliament, at London, and passed, the only amendment offered having reference to the royal preroga- tive. Later in that year the Earl of Hopetoun was appointed by the Queen first Governor-General. He resigned in May, 1902. Austria, or Austria-Hungary , an extensive monarchy in Central Eu- rope, inhabited by several distinct nationalities, and consisting of two semi-independent countries, each with its own parliament and government, but with one common sovereign, army, and system of diplomacy, and also with a parliament common to both. The Austrian empire extends from about lat. 42 to 51 N., or, exclusive of Dalmatia and the narrower part of Croatia, from about lat. 44 30' to 51 N., and from Ion. 8 30' to 26 30' E., the total area in round num- bers is 240,000 square miles. Its Greatest length from E. to W. is about 60 miles ; its greatest breadth from N. to S., with the exclusion above stated, is about 400 miles ; bounded S. by Turkey, the Adriatic Sea, and the kingdom of Italy ; W. by Switzerland, Bavaria, and Saxony ; N. by Prussia and Russian Poland ; and E. by Rus- sia and Rumania. On the shores of the Adriatic, along the coasts of Dal- matia, Croatia, Istria, etc., lies its only sea frontage. Besides being divided into the two great divisions above mentioned, the Austrq-Hungarian monarchy is fur- ther divided into a number of govern- ments or provinces. The following table gives their name, area, and pop- ulation : Area in Pop. Dec. _ Divisions sq. m. 31,1910 Austrian Provinces Lower Austria 7,658 3,531,814 Upper Austria 4,268 853,006 Salzburg 2,763 214,737 Styria 8,662 1,444,157 Carinthia 3,989 396,200 Carniola ..'. 3,845 525,995 Coast land 3,079 893,797 Tyrol and Vorarl- berg 11,312 1,092,021 Bohemia 20,065 6,769,548 Moravia 8,583 2,622,271 Silesia 1,988 756,949 Galicia 30,321 8,025,675 Austria Area in Pop. Dec. Divisions sq. m. 31, 1910 Austrian Provinces Bukowina 4,033 800,098 Dalmatia 4,956 645,666 115,882 28,571,934 Hungarian Provinces Hungary Proper 108,977 18,142,200 Croatia and Slayonia 16,418 2,602,544 In military service. . . 141,743 Total Hungary 125,395 20,886,487 Total Empire 241,277 49,458,421 None of the European States, with the exception of Russia, exhibits such a diversity of race and language as does this dual Empire. In Austria alone the following ethical elements on the basis of language were devel- oped in the census of 1910 : German, 9,950,266; Bohemian, Moravian, and Slovak, 6,435,983; Polish, 4,967,984; Ruthenian, 3,518,854 ; Slovene, 1,252,- 940; Servian and Croatian, 783,334; Italian and Ladin, 768,422; Ruma- nian, 275,115; and Magyar, 10,974. In Hungary the corresponding ele- ments were : Magyar, 10,050,575 ; German, 2,037,435; Slovak, 1,967,- 970; Rumanian, 2,949,032; Rutheni- an, 472,587; Croatian, 1,883,162; Servian, 1,106,471; all others, 469,- 255. Hence in the entire Empire the linguistic elements were : German, 11,987,701 ; Bohemian, Moravian, and Slovak, 9,656,893; Polish, 4,967,984; Ruthenian, 3,991,441 ; Servian and Croatian, 3,772,967; Italian and La- din, 768,422; Rumanian, 3,224,147; Magyar, 10.061,549; all others, 469,- 255. The Slavs, who amount to above 19,000,000, or 45 per cent, of the total population, are the chief of the com- ponent nationalities of the monarchy in point of numbers, forming the great mass of the population of Bohemia, Moravia, Carniola, Galicia, Dalmatia, Croatia and Slavonia, and Northern Hungary, and half the population of Silesia and Bukowina. This prepon- derance, however, is only apparent, as none of the other races are split up into so many branches differing so greatly from each other in language, religion, civilization, manners, and customs. These branches are the North Slavic Czechs, Moravians, and Slovaks, the Ruthenians and Poles, and the South Slavic Slovenians, MODERN 1 Seven-passenger eight-cylinder touring car. 2 Six-cylinder touring car 66 H.P. 3 Twin-six brougham, six-passenger. DMOBILES 4 Half-ton Light Delivery Wagon. 5 One-and-a-half-ton Delivery Truck. 6 Five-ton Heavy Service Truck. Austria Automobile* Croats, Serbs, and Bulgarians. The Germans are scattered over the whole monarchy, and form almost the sole population of the archduchy of Aus- tria, Salzburg, the greatest portion of Styria and Carinthia, almost the whole of Tyrol and Vorarlberg, con- siderable portions of Bohemia and Mo- ravia, the whole of the W. of Silesia, etc. ; and they are also numerous in Hungary and Transylvania. The Mag- yars or Hungarians form the great bulk of the inhabitants of Hungary and of the E. portion of Transylvania. To the Italic or Western Romanic stock belong the inhabitants of South Tyrol and parts of the coast lands and Dalmatia. A considerable portion of the S. E. of the empire is occupied by members of the Rumanian (or East- ern Romanic) stock, who form more than half the population of Transyl- vania, besides being spread over the S. E. parts of Hungary, Bukowina, and part of Croatia and Slavonia. The number of Jews is also very con- siderable, especially in Galicia, Hun- gary, Bohemia, and Moravia. There are also several other races whose numbers are small, such as the Gyp- sies, who are most numerous in Hun-, gary and Transylvania, and the Al- banians in Dalmatia and neighboring regions. The population is thickest in Lower Austria, Bohemia, Silesia, and Moravia ; thinnest in Salzburg The State religion of Austria is the Roman Catholic, and next in numbers is the Greek Church. Calvinism and Lutheranism are also professed by a large body of the people ; the former mostly in Hungary and Transylvania, the latter in the German provinces and in Galicia. The civil power exercises supreme control in all ecclesiastical matters, the emperor being, in every- thing but the name, head of the Church. Military service is obligatory on all citizens capable of bearing arms who have attained the age of 20, and lasts up to the age of 42, either in the ac- tive army, in the landwehr, or the landsturm. The period of service in the active army is 12 years, of which three are passed in the line, seven in the reserve, and two in the landwehr. The history of Austria-Hungary in the last few years has been most eventful. On Oct. 7, 1909, without any previous hint, the annexation of the Turkish provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the sanjak of Novi Bazar was proclaimed. Turkey vain- ly protested against the act, as a viola- tion of the provisions of the Treaty of Berlin. On June 28, 1914, the Austrian Archduke Francis Ferdi- nand, heir to the throne, and his wife, the Duchess of Hohenberg, were as- sassinated while on a visit to Sara- jevo, ^Bosnia, by an alleged Servian. This incident was made the immediate pretext for the greatest war in his- tory. The venerable Emperor, Francis Joseph, died Nov. 21, 1916, and was succeeded by his grand nephew, the Archduke Charles Francis Joseph, as Charles I. For a summary of the participation of Austria-Hungary in the war see APPENDIX: World War. Author's Guild, American, an organization founded in New York city, in 1892, and incorporated, in 1895, has for its objects the promo- tion of a professional spirit among authors and a better understanding between authors and their publishers, and, in general, the protection of lite- rary^ property and the advancement of the interests of American authors and literature. The guild has a pension fund for members who become needy. Autocracy, a word signifying that form of government in which the sov- ereign unites in himself the legislative and the executive powers of the State, and thus rules uncontrolled. Such a sovereign is, therefore, called an auto- crat. Nearly all Eastern governments are of this form. Among European rulers, the Emperor of Russia alone bears the title of Autocrat, the name indicating his freedom from constitu- tional restraint of every kind. Automobiles, a term under which are comprised horseless carriages, mo- tor vans, motor omnibus, and all the motor traction vehicles adapted for use on ordinary roads having no rails. Electricity, steam and gasoline or naphtha are the three main sources of power that do the bidding of the man behind the lever. Other sources of power, such as compressed air, liquid air, carbonic acid gas and alcohol, have been experimented with ; but are regarded as impracticable by experts. The modern automobile, which was led up to by the bicycle with its rub- Autonomy her tires, found its first great devel- opment in France, encouraged by the perfection of the highways in that country. The United States census of 1914 on manufactures credited the au- tomobile industry with having 300 es- tablishments for producing complete cars, which employed $312,870,000 capital, paid wage earners $79,307,- 000, used materials costing $292,598,- 000, and had an output valued at $503.230,000. The manufacture of au- tomobile bodies and parts had 971 es- | tablishments, $94,854.000 capital, and an output valued at $129,601,000. The total registration of cars in the United States was 1.127,940, an increase in three years of 605,001. A tremendous increase of motors for trucking, ambu- lance, and artillery use developed dur- ing the World War. In the calendar year 1916 the exports of American made automobiles and parts aggre- gated 80.850, valued at $96,595,861, the largest number going to Europe. Autonomy, the arrangement by which the citizens of a State manage their own legislation and government; and this evidently may, with certain restrictions, be the case also within limited bodies of the same people, such as corporations, religious sects, etc. Autopsy, eye-witnessing, a direct observation ; generally applied to a post mortem examination, or the dis- section of a dead body. Autumn, the season of the year which follows summer and precedes winter. Astronomically, it is consid- j ered to extend from the autumnal equi- nox, Sept. 23, in which the sun enters Libra, to the winter solstice, Dec. 22, ! in which he enters Capricorn. Pop- ularly, it is believed to embrace the months of September, October and November. Auvergne, a province of Central France, now merged into the Depart- ments of Cantal and Puy-de-Dome, and an arrondissement of Haute- Loire. It contains the Auvergne Moun- tains, the highest in France. Anxetophone, a device which greatly increases the sound produced by the graphophone (q. v.). Auzout, Adrian, a French math- ematician ; inventor of the micrometer, ^ which is still in use among astron- Avebury omers to measure the apparent diam- eter of celestial bodies. He was the first who thought of applying the tel- escope to the astronomical quadrant. He died in 1691. Ava, Arva, Yava, or Kava, a plant possessing narcotic proprieties. Until recently it was ranked in the genus piper (pepper). It is a native of many of the South Sea islands, where the inhabitants intoxicate them- selves with a fermented liquor pre- pared from the upper portion of the root and the base of the stem. Avalanches, masses of snow or ice that slide or roll down the decliv- ities of high mountains, and often occasion great devastation. They are most common in July, August and September. Sudden avalanches, larger or smaller, constitute one of the special dangers of Alpine climbing. Avars, a people, probably of Tu- ranian origin, who at an early period may have migrated from the region E. of the Tobol in Siberia to that about the Don, the Caspian Sea, and the Volga. A part advanced to the Dan- ube in 555 A. D., and settled in Dacia. They served in Justinian's army, aid- ed the Lombards in destroying the kingdom of the Gepidae, and in the 6th century conquered under their khan, Bajan, the region of Pannonia. They then won Dalmatia, pressed into Thuringia and Italy against the Franks and Lombards, and subdued the Slavs dwelling on the Danube, as well as the Bulgarians on the Black Sea. But they were ultimately lim- ited to Pannonia, where they were overcome by Charlemagne, and nearly extirpated by the Slavs of Moravia. After 827 they disappear from history. Traces of their fortified settlements are found, and known as Avarian rings. Avatar, more properly Avatara, in Hindu mythology, an incarnation of the Deity. Of the innumerable avatars the chief are the 10 incarna- tions of Vishnu, who appeared succes- sively as a fish, a tortoise, a boar. Avdyeyev, Michael Vassilye- vich, a Russian novelist (1821-1876). Avebnry, a village of England, in Wiltshire, occupying the site of a so- called Druidical temple, which origi- nally consisted of a large outer circle Avebnry of 100 stones, from 15 to 17 feet in height, and about 40 feet in circum- ference, surrounded by a broad ditch and lofty rampart, and inclosing two smaller circles. Avebnry, Lord. See LUBBOCK. Avellaneda, Nicholas, an Ar- gentine statesman, born in Tucuman, Oct. 1, 183G; Minister of Public in- struction in 1868-1874, and President of the Republic in 1874-1886; pub- lished several historical and economi- cal works. He died Dec. 26, 1885. Avellaneda y Arteaga, Ger- trudis Gomez de, a distinguished Spanish poet, dramatist and novelist, born in Puerto Principe, Cuba, March 23, 1814. She died in Madrid, Feb. 2, 1873. Ave Maria ("Hail, Mary"), the first two words of the angel Gabriel's salutation (Luke i: 28), and the be- ginning of the very common Latin prayer to the Virgin in the Roman Catholic Church. Average, formerly the apportion- ment of losses by sea or elsewhere in just proportions among different indi- viduals; now the medium or mean proportion between certain given quantities. It is ascertained by ad- ding all the quantities together and dividing their sum by the number of them. Averell, William Woods, an American military officer, born in Cameron, N. Y., Nov. 5, 1832; was graduated at the United States Mili- tary Academy in 1855 ; served on the frontier and in* several Indian cam- paigns till the beginning of the Civil War, when he was appointed Colonel of the 3d Pennsylvania Cavalry, and assigned to the command of the caval- ry defenses of Washington. During the war he distinguished himself on numerous occasions as a cavalry raid- er and commander, and at its close was brevetted Major-General of volun- teers. He was retired in 1888. He was United States Consul-general at Montreal in 1866-1869. He died in Bath, N. Y., Feb. 3, 1900. Avernus, or Averno, a lake in the neighborhood of Naples, about 2% miles N. W. of Puzzuoli, and near the coast of Baiae, the waters of which were so unwholesome and putrid that DO birds ever visited its banks. The Avignon ancients made it the entrance of hell, by which Ulysses and .ements were the building of the DeiaAare Breakwater and the appli- cation of iron-screw piles for the foun- dation of lighthouses upon sandy I shoals and coral reefs. He died hi I Philadelphia, Oct. 8, 1872. Bache, Sarah, an American phi- lanthropist, born in Philadelphia, Pa., Sept. 11, 1744; was the only daugh- ter of Benjamin Franklin, and the wife of Richard Bache. During the Revolutionary War she organized and became chief of a band of patriotic ladies who made clothing for the sol- diers, and in other ways relieved their Bufferings, especially during the severe i winter of 1780. At one time she had nearly 2,500 women engaged under her direction in sewing for the army. She personally collected large sums of money to provide the material for this work, and also for the purchase of medicines and delicacies for the soldiers in the hospitals, where she also personally acted as nurse. She died Oct. 5, 1808. Bacheller, Irving, an American novelist, born in Pierpont, N. Y., Sept. 26, 1859. He was graduated at St. Lawrence University in 1879 and be- came a reporter of the Brooklyn " Times." Subsequently he estab- lished a newspaper syndicate. He has written several novels, notable for originality, and for fresh, and fasci- nating pen pictures of American life. Bachelor, a term applied anciently to a person in the first or probation- ary stage of knighthood who had not yet raised his standard in the field. It also denotes a person who has taken the first degree in the liberal arts and sciences, or in divinity, law, or medi- cine, at a college or university ; or a man of any age who has not been mar- ried. A knight bachelor is one who has been raised to the dignity of a knight without being made a member of any of the orders of chivalry such as the Garter or the Thistle. Bachelor's Buttons, the double flowering buttercup with white or yel- low blossoms, common in gardens. Bachman Bacliman, John, an American clergyman and naturalist, born in Duchess county, N. Y., Feb. 4, 1790; became pastor of a Lutheran church in Charleston, S. C. He is best known by reason of his association with Au- dubon in the making of the " Quad- rupeds of North America," he writ- ing the principal part of the text, which Audubon and his sons illustrat- ed. He died in Charleston, S. C., Feb. 25, 1874. Bacillus, a name given to cer- tain filiform bacteria, which have as- sumed much importance of late, prin- cipally because of their constant presence in the blood and tissues in splenic fever and malignant pustule. See BACTERIA. Back, Sir George, an English ex- plorer, born in Stockport, Nov. 6, 1796. He died in London, June 23, 1878, after visiting both polar regions. Backgammon, a favorite game of calculation. It is played by two persons, with two boxes, and two dice, upon a quadrangular table, or board, on which are figured 24 points, or fle'ches, of two colors, placed alter- nately. The board is divided into four compartments, two inner and two outer ones, each containing six of the 24 points (alternate colors). The players are each furnished with 15 men, or counters, black and white. Backliuysen, Ludolf, a cele- brated painter of the Dutch school, particularly in sea pieces, born in 1631. He died in 1709. Backus, Truman Jay, an Amer- ican educator, born in Milan, N. Y., Feb. 11, 1842; was graduated at the University of Rochester in 1864 ; and became President of the Packer Col- legiate Institute in Brooklyn, N. Y. After going to Brooklyn he served on several State commissions. Died 1908. Bacolor, a town in the Island of Luzon, Philippine Islands; 10 miles N. W. of Manila. Bacon, a word applied to the sides of a pig which have been cured or preserved by salting with salt and saltpeter, aad afterward drying with or without wood smoke. Bacon, Alice Mabel, an Ameri- can educator, born in New Haven, Conn., Feb. 26, 1858; was educated Bacon privately and took the Harvard exam- inations in 1881 ; taught at the Hamp- ton Normal and Agricultural Insti- tute in 1883-1888, and in Tokio, Ja- pan, in 1888-1889; returned to the Hampton Institute in 1889, and found- ed the Dixie Hospital for training colored nurses in 1890. Bacon, Benjamin Wismer, an American educator, born in Litchfield, Conn., Jan. 15, 1860; in 1896 became Professor of New Testament Criticism and Exegesis in Yale University. Bacon, Edwin Mnnroe, an American editor and author of many historical works relating to Boston and New England ; also of "Direct Election and Law Making by Popular Vote ;" born in Providence, R. I., Oct. 20, 1844. Bacon, Francis, Viscount St. Al- bans, one of the most remarkable men of whom any age can boast ; a reform- er of philosophy, by founding it on the observation of nature, after it had consisted, for many centuries, of scholastic subtleties and barren dia- lectics ; born in London, Jan. 22, 1561, his father being Sir Nicholas Bacon, lord keeper of the great seal. He contracted an advantageous mar- riage; was made solicitor-general and then attorney-general ; in 1617 became lord keeper of the seals; in 1618 was made lord high chancellor and created Baron of Verulam, and in 1621 Viscount St Albans. He might have lived with splendor without de- grading his character by those acts which stained his reputation. He was accused before the House of Lords of having received money for grants of offices and privileges under the seal of State. He was unable to justify himself, and, desiring to avoid the mortification of a trial, confessed his crimes and threw himself on the mercy of the peers, beseeching them to limit his punishment to the loss of the high office which he had dishon- ored. The lords sentenced him to pay a fine of 40,000, and to be im- prisoned in the Tower during the pleasure of the king. He was also declared forever incapable of place or employment, and forbidden to sit in Parliament or to appear within the verge of the court. He survived his fall only a few years, and died in Bacon Highgate, April 9, 1626. Efforts have been made to prove him the real au- thor of the works of Shakespeare, and the controversy still goes on. Bacon, Henry, an American paint- er, born in Haverhill, Mass., in 1839. He served in the Civil War, studied art in Paris under Cabanel and Ed- ward Frere, and painted, among oth- ers, " Boston Boys and Gen. Gage " *' Paying the Scot ; " etc. Bacon, John, an English sculp- tor, born in London, Nov. 24, 1740. He died Aug. 4, 1799. Bacon, John Mosby, an Ameri- can military officer, born in Kentucky, April 17, 1844; served in the Union army, through the Civil War; was appointed Captain in the 9th United States Cavalry, in I860, and Colonel of the 8th Cavalry, in 1897. On May 4. 1898, he was appointed Brigadier- General of Volunteers and placed in command of the Department of Da- kota. In October of that year he put down the outbreak of the Pillager band of the Chippewa Indians in Cass county, Minn. Subsequently, he was assigned to duty in Cuba, with head- quarters at Neuvitas, till May 8, 1899, when he was retired. D. Mch. 19, 1913. Bacon, Leonard, an American clergyman, born in Detroit, Mich., Feb. 19, 1802 ; graduated at Yale in 1820, after which he studied theology at Andover, Mass. * In 1825 he became pastor of the First Congregational church in New Haven, Conn., where he died Dec. 24, 1881. He was joint- editor of the "Independent" for 16 years and from 1866-1871 was Prof, of Didactic Theology at Yale. Bacon, Nathaniel, an Anglo- American lawyer, born in Suffolk, England, Jan. 2, 1642 ; became the leader in BACON'S REBELLION (q. v.) in Virginia, and died Oct. 29, 1676. Bacon, Robert, American states- man, b. Cape Cod, Mass., 1858; was graduated at Harvard in 1880 ; mem- er of the banking firm of J. Pierre- pont Morgan & Co., in 1894-1903; U. S. Assistant Secretary of State in 1905-9; Ambassador to France in 1909-12. Bacon, Roger, an English monk, and one of the most profound and original thinkers of his day, was born about 1214, near Ilchester, Somerset- shire. He died in Oxford, in 1294. Bactria Baconian Philosophy, the in- ductive philosophy of which it is some- times said that Lord Bacon was the founder. This, however, is an exag- gerated statement. What Lord Bacon did for this mode of ratiocination was to elucidate and systematize it; to point out its great value, and to bring it prominently before men's notice; lending it the support of his great name at a time when most of his con- temporaries were satisfied with the barren logic of the schools. The great triumphs of modern science have aris- en from a resolute adherence on the part of its votaries to the Baconian method of inquiry. Bacon's Rebellion, a popular uprising of the Virginian colonists, headed by Nathaniel Bacon, in pro- test against certain government abus- es, which prevailed under the ad- ministration of Sir William Berkeley. Bacon compelled Berkeley to take refuge on* a warship, and burned all the public buildings at Jamestown. He died at the most critical moment, and the rebellion came to an end. Bacteria, a class of very minute microscopic organisms or microbes which are regarded as of vegetable nature, and as being the cause of ac- companiment of various diseases, as well as of putrefaction, fermentation, and certain other phenomena. Some of the better known of these organ- isms are so exceedingly minute, that under the highest power of improved microscopes they appear no larger than the periods of ordinary type. Various classifications have boen pro- posed for them, for they differ largely in size, form, and mode of multiplica- tion. Bacteriology, that branch of biology which treats of bacteria. The study of these microscopic organisms has developed into one of the most important branches of modern bio- logical science. Their importance to mankind rests chiefly in the fact that their nourishment consists of albumi- nous substances, which they convert into complex chemical compounds, many of which are highly poisonous. Bactria, a province of the an- cient Persian empire^ lying N. of the Paropamisus (Hindu Rush) Moun- tains, on the Upper Oxus. It corre- i', I9IO, BY I. E. WRIGHT ORDERSAND DECORATIONS OF HONOUR, PLATE I i. Order of Christ (Pontifical) ; 2. Society of the Cincinnati (United States) ; 3. Order of the Thistle, with Collar Attachment (Great Britain, Scotland); 4. Order of the Garter the Great George, with Collar Attachment (Great Britain) ; 5. Order of St. Gregory the Great (Pontifical) ; 6. Order of the Golden Fleece (Spain) ; 7. Guelfic Order of Hanover; 8. Order of the Bath, Military Class (Great Britain) ; 9. Grand Army of the Republic (United States); 10. Order of St. Michael and St. George (Great Britain); n. Order of the Rose (Brazil); 12. Order of St. Patrick, with Collar Attachment (Great Britain, Ireland) ; 13. Order of the Holy Ghost (France) ; 14. Order of the Tower and Sword (Portugal); 15. Order of the Holy Sepulchre (Pontifical); 16. Legion of Honour ( France) 17. Military Order, Loyal Legion (United States); 18. Order of the Star of India (England, India); 19, Order of St. Andrew (Russia). Baczko Badger sponded pretty nearly with the mod- ern Balkh. Here many scholars locate the original home of the Aryan or Indo-European family of nations. Its capital, Bactra, or Zariaspa, was also the cradle of the Zoroastrian religion. Baczko, Ludwig von, a German historian and scholar, born in Lick, Prussia, June 8, 1756 ; died March 27, 1823. Badajoz, the fortified capital of the Spanish province of Badajoz, on the left bank of the Guadiana. It was besieged by Wellington on March 16, and taken April 6, 1812, by one of the most bloody assaults in history, the British charging over the dead bodies of their comrades. Badakshan, a territory of Cen- tral Asia, tributary to the Ameer of Afghanistan. The inhabitants profess Mohammedanism. Pop. 100,000. Badeau, Adam, an American mil- itary officer, born in New York city, Dec. 29, 1831; educated at private schools. He served with gallantry in , the Union army during the Civil War ; was on the staff of General Sherman in 1862-1863, and secretary to Gen- eral Grant in 1864-1869; and in the latter year was retired with the rank of Captain in the regular army and of Brevet Brigadier-General of Volun- teers, and was appointed Secretary of Legation in London. He was Consul- General in London, 1870-1881, and during this period was given leave of absence to accompany General Grant on his tour around the world (1877- 1878). In 1882-1884 he was Consul- General in Havana. After the death of General Grant he brought suit against his heirs for payment of ser- vices which he asserted had been ren- dered in the preparation of General Grant's " Memoirs," but lost his case. He died in Ridgewood, N. J., March 19. 1895. Baden, Grand Duchy of, one of the more important States of the Ger- man empire, situated in the S. W. of Germany^ to the W. of Wiirtemberg. It is divided into four districts, Con- stance, Freiburg, Karlsruhe, and Mannheim ; has an area of 5,819 square miles; pop. (1910) 2,142,833. Baden sends three members to the German Bundesrath, or Federal Coun- cil, and 14 deputies to the Diet. Two- thirds of the population are Roman Catholics, the rest Protestants. Baden-Baden, a town in the Grand Duchy of Baden ; pop. (1910) 22,066. It is chiefly celebrated for its medicinal springs, which were known at the time of the Romans. Its gaming tables, the most renowned in Europe, were closed with the rest of the licensed German gaming houses in 1872. Baden-Powell, Robert Steven- son Smyth, a British military offi- cer ; born in London, Feb. 22, 1857. In the war in South Africa in 1899- 1902, he signally distinguished himself by his defense of Mafeking, Cape Col- ony. In recognition of his heroism, the queen promoted him to be a Major- General. See BOY Scours. Badeni, Connt Cassimir Felix, an Austrian statesman ; born in Po- land, Oct 14, 1846; Prime Minister of Austria-Hungary, 1895; died, 1909. Badge, a distinctive device, em- blem, mark, honorary decoration, or special cognizance, used originally to identify a knight or distinguish his followers, now worn as a sign of of- fice or licensed employment, as a token of membership in some society, or gen- erally as a mark showing the relation of the wearer to any person, occupa- tion, or order. Badger, a plantigrade, carnivorous mammal, allied both to the bears and to the weasels, of a clumsy make, with short, thick legs, and long claws on the fore feeL The species known are the American and European. The American badger is only found in the remote W. sections of the Unit- ed States and in some parts of the British possessions in North America. It is more carnivorous than the Eu- ropean badger. The weight of the American species is from 14 to 18 pounds. Badger, George Edmund, an American statesman, born in New- bern, N. C., April 13, 1795; was grad- uated at Yale College in 1813, and was a judge and U. S. Senator. He served in the State Convention called to pass on the question of se- cession, although oposed to that measure, and after making a strong speech in defense of the Union, was afterward known as a member of the Badger Conservative Party. He died in Ral- eigh, N. C., April 13, 1866. Badger, Oscar L., an American naval officer, born in Windham, Conn., Aug. 12, 1823; entered the United States navy, Sept. 9, 1841 ; became Lieutenant-Commander, July 16, 1862; Commander, July 25, 1866; Captain, Nov. 25, 1872 ; Commodore, Nov. 15, 1881 ; and was retired Aug. 12, 1885. He served on the steamer " Mississippi " during the Mexican War, taking part in the attack on Al- varado, in 1846; led the party that attacked and destroyed the village of Vutia, Fiji Islands, while on the sloop "John Adams," in 1855-1856; and in the Civil War commanded the iron- clads " Patapsco " and " Montauk," in the operations in Charleston harbor in 1863 ; and was Acting Fleet Cap- tain on the flag ship " Weehawken " in the attack on Fort Sumter, Sept. 1, 1863. He died in Concord, Mass., June 20, 1899. Badgley, Sidney Rose, a Cana- dian architect, born near Kingston, Ont, May 28, 1850. He has planned and erected churches in almost all parts of Canada and the United States. Badliam, Charles, an English ed- ucator, born in Ludlow, July 18, 1813; died in Sydney, Australia, Feb. 26, 1884. Badlam, Stephen, an American military officer, born in Milton, Mass., March 25, 1748; entered the Revolu- tionary army in 1775 ; became com- mander of the artillery, in the Depart- ment of Canada. On the announce- ment of the adoption of the Declara- tion of Independence, he took posses- sion of the heights opposite Ticonder- oga, and named the place Mt Inde- pendence. Subsequently he rendered good service at Fort Stanwix, and in 1799 was made Brigadier-General. He died in Dorchester, Mass., Aug. 24, 1815. Bad Lands, tracts of land in the N. W. part of the United States. The absence of vegetation enables the rains to wash clean the old lake beds, and in many instances to disclose remark- able fossils of extinct animals. They were first called Bad Lands (mau- yaises terres) by the French explorers in the region of the Black Hills in South Dakota. Baffin Badminton, a popular game, close- ly resembling lawn tennis, played with battledore and shuttlecock on a rec- tangular portion of a lawn. Badrinath, a peak of the main Himalayan range, in Garhwal dis- trict, Northwestern Provinces, India; 23,210 feet above the sea. On one of its shoulders, at an elevation of 10,400 feet, stands a celebrated temple of Vishnu, which some years attracts aa many as 50,000 pilgrims. Baedeker, Karl, a German pub- lisher, born in 1801 ; originator of a celebrated series of guide-books for travelers. He died in 1859. Baeyer, Adolf von, a German chemist, born in Berlin, Oct. 31, 1835 ; son of Johann Jakob Baeyer ; became Professor of Chemistry at Strasburg in 1872, and at Munich, in 1875, suc- ceeding Liebig at the latter. He made many important discoveries in organic chemistry, especially cerulein, eosin, and indol. Baeyer, Johann Jakob, a Prus- sian geometrician, born in Miiggels- heim, Nov. 5, 1794 ; died in Berlin, Sept 10, 1885. Baez, Buenaventura, a Domin- ican statesman, born in Azua, Haiti, about 1810 ; aided in the establish- ment of the Dominican Republic; was its President in 1849-1853 ; was then expelled by Santa Ana and went to New York city; was recalled in 1856, on the expulsion of Santa Ana, and again elected President; and was re- elected President in 1865 and 1868. During his last term, he signed treat- ies with the United States (Nov. 29, 1869), for the annexation of Santo Domingo to the United States, and for the cession of Samana Bay. The treaties failed of ratification in the United States Senate and caused the downfall of Baez. He died in Porto Rico, March 21, 1884. Baffin, William, an English nav- igator and discoverer, believed to have been born in London about 1584. In 1615 he took service as pilot of the " Discovery," in search of a northwest passage, and made a care- ful examination of Hudson Strait His recorded latitudes and notes of the tides are in remarkable agreement with those of a later date. In the following year, with Capt By- Baffin Land lot, he discovered, charted, and named Smith Sound, and several others, and explored the large inlet now associated with his name. His last voyages, 1616-1621, were to the East. At the siege of Ormuz, which the Eng- lish were helping the Shah of Persia to recover from the Portuguese, he was killed, Jan. 23, 1622. Baffin Land, a Canadian island, crossed by the Arctic Circle; area, 236,000 square miles. Baffin Sea (erroneously styled a Bay), a large expanse of water in North America, between Greenland and the lands or islands N. of Hudson Bay. This sea was discovered by the | English navigator, Baffin, in 1616, | while in search of a passage to the ' Pacific Ocean. Bagamoyo, a town of German East Africa, on the coast opposite the island of Zanzibar; pop. (1899), about 13,000. It is- an important trad- ing station for ivory, gum and caout- chouc. Bagasse, the sugar cane in its dry, crushed state, as delivered from the mill, and after the main portion of its juice has been expressed ; used as fuel in the su|;ar factory, and called also cane trash. Bagatelle, a game played on a long, flat board, covered with cloth like a billiard-table, with spherical balls and a cue, or mace. Bagby, George William, an American physician and humorist, born in Buckingham co., Va., Aug. 13, 1828; died in Richmond, Va., Nov. 29, 1883. Bagdad, capital of the Turkish vilayet and city of the same name, in the southern part of Mesopotamia (now Irak Arabi). Bagdad was found- ed in 762, by the Caliph Almansur, and raised to a high degree of splen- dor, in the 9th century, by Haroun A) Raschid. It is the scene of a number of the tales of the " Arabian Nights." In the 13th century it was stormed by Hulaku, grandson of Genghis-Khan, who caused the reigning caliph to be slain, and destroyed the caliphate. The vilayet has an area of 54,540 square miles, and an estimated population of 900,000, and the city an estimated population of 225,000. Germany had E. IS. Bagley a concession for the construction of a railway which would extend the An- atolian line from Konia to Adana, Mosul, Bagdad, and Bassa, with many branch lines, but the great war inter- rupted the work. See APPENDIX : World War. Bagehot, Walter, an English economist, born in Somersetshire, Feb. 3, 1826 ; died March 24, 1877. Baggage, a term supposed to be derived from the old French word bague, meaning bundle. As ordinar- ily used, it includes trunks, valises, portmanteaus, etc., which a traveler carries with him on a journey. Baggesen, Jens, a Danish poet ; born in Korsor, Zealand, Feb. 15, 1764; died in Hamburg, Oct 3, 1826. Bagirmi, or Baghermi, a coun- try in Central Africa, bounded on the W. by Bornu and a portion of Lake Tchad, and with the powerful Sultan- ate of Wadai to the N. E. Its area is estimated at nearly 71,000 square miles. The country was first vis- ited by Earth in 1852. Most of it was recognized as in the German sphere by the Anglo-German agree- ment of 1893; but it came under French control in 1900. Bagley, Wortn, an American na- val officer, born in Raleigh, N. C., April 6, 1874 ; was graduated at the United States Naval Academy in 1895 ; promoted to Ensign, July 1, 1897, and was detailed as inspector to the new torpedo-boat " Winslow " in November following. This boat went into commission the next month, and he was appointed her executive officer. In April, 1898, the "Winslow" was assigned to the American fleet off the coast of Cuba, and on May 9, while on blockading duty at the harbor of Cardenas, with the " Wilmington " and " Hudson," drew the fire of sev- eral Spanish coast-guard vessels. All the American vessels escaped untouch- ed. Two days afterward, the three vessels undertook to force an entrance into the harbor, when they were fired on by Spanish gunboats. The " Wins- low " was disabled, and with difficulty was drawn out of range of the en- emy's guns. The " Wilmington " then silenced the Spanish fire, and as the action closed, Ensign Bagley and four sailors on the " Winslow " were in- Bagpipe stantly killed by a shell, be being the first American naval officer to fall in the war with Spain. Bagpipe, a musical wind instru- ment of very great antiquity, having been used among the ancient Greeks for many ages, and is the favorite musical instrument of the Scottish Highlanders. Bagration, Peter Ivanovich, Prince, a Russian general, descended from the royal family of the Bagra- tidse of Georgia and Armenia, born in 1765. In the campaign of 1812, he commanded the Second Russian Army of the West He was mortally wound- ed in the battle of Borodino, and died Oct. 7, 1812. Bahama Channel, Old and New, two American channels; the former separates the Great Bahama Bank and Cuba; the latter, also called the Gulf of Florida, is between the Great and Little Bahama Banks and Florida, and forms a part of the channel of the great Gulf Stream, which flows here at the rate of from 2 to 5 miles an hour. Bahama Islands, or Lncayos, a group of islands in the West Indies, forming a colony., belonging to Great Britain, lying N. E. of Cuba and S. E. of the coast of Florida, the Gulf Stream passing between them and the mainland. They extend a distance of upward of GOO miles, and are said to be 29 in number, besides keys and rocks innumerable. Of the whole group about 20 are inhabited, the most populous being New Provi- dence, which contains the capital, Nassau, the largest being Andros, 100 miles long, 20 to 40 broad. They are low and flat, and have in many parts extensive forests. Total area, 4,404 square miles. Pop. (1911) 55,- 944. Bahia, formerly San Salvador, a city of Brazil, on the Bay of All Saints, in the State of Bahia. The harbor is one of the best in South America ; and the trade, chiefly in sugar, cotton, coffee, tobacco, hides, piassava, and tapioca, is extensive. Pop. (1911) 290,000. The State, area, 164,649 square miles ; pop. about 2.- 118,000, has much fertile land, both along the coast and in the interior. Ball Bahia Honda, a seaport of Cuba, on the coast of the Gulf of Mexico, and lying on a small bay, bearing the same name. The town and bay are about 50 miles W. of Havana, being commanded by a small fort. Bahr, Johann Christian Felix, a German philologist, born at Darm- stadt, June 13, 1798; died Nov. 29, 1872. Bahrein Islands, a group of islands in the Persian Gulf, in an in- dentation on the Arabian coast. The Bahrein Islands are chiefly noted for their pearl-fisheries, which were known to the ancients, and which employ in the season from< 2,000 to 3,000 boats with from 8 to 20 men each. Total pop., est. at 110,000. Bahr-el-Ghazal, the name of the old Egyptian province which incloses the district watered by the southern tributaries of Bahr-el-Arab and Bahr- el-Ghazal, since the overthrow of the Khalifa in 1899 known as the Anglo- Egyptian Sudan. Slatin Pasha has drawn attention both to the fertility of the province and to its strategical importance. To the W. of it lies the Ubangi district of French Kongo ; and it was thence that Major Marchand made his way through the Bahr-el- Ghazal to Fashoda in the summer of 1898. Bahr Yusuf , or Bahr el Yusnf , an artificial irrigation channel from the left bank of the Nile below Sint. to the Fayum ; 270 miles long. Ac- cording to Koptic traditions it was constructed during Joseph's adminis- tration. Baikal, an extensive lake of East- ern Siberia; crescent-shaped, and sur- rounded by high and wild mountains rising 3,000 to 4.000 feet above its surface. Length, S. W. to N. E., 370 miles; breadth, 20 to 70 miles; alti- tude, about 1,400 feet; greatest ascer- tained depth, 4,500 feet; average depth of its southern part, about 800 feet Bail. (1) Of persons: Those who stand security for the appearance of rn accused person. The word is a col- loctive one, and not used in the plural. They were so called because formerly the person summoned was bailie 1 , that is, given into the custody of those who were security for his appearance. Bailey (2) Pecuniary security given by re- sponsible persons that an individual charged with an offense against the law will, if temporarily released, sur- render when required to take his trial. Bailey, Gamaliel, an American journalist, born in Mount Holly, N. J., Dec. 3, 1807; with J. G. Birney, founded the anti-slavery journal, the "Cincinnati Philanthropist" (1836), the office of which was destroyed by a mob, though it continued to be pub- lished till 1847. He established the well-known newspaper, the Washing- ton "National Era 5 ' (1847), in which the famous novel, " Uncle Tom's Cabin," appeared first. He died at sea, June 5, 1859. Bailey, Jacob "Whitman, an American scientist, born in Auburn, Mass., April 29, 1811; was graduated at the United States Military Acad- emy, in 1832; and from 1834 till his death was Professor of Chemistry, Mineralogy and Geology at the Mili- tary Academy. He was the inventor of the Bailey indicator and of many improvements in the microscope, in the use of which he achieved high dis- tinction; and he is regarded as the pioneer in microscopic investigation. He was President of the American As- sociation for the Advancement of Sci- ence in 1857; held membership in the principal scientific associations of the world ; and was the author of numer- ours papers on the results of his re- searches. He died in West Point, N. Y., Feb. 26, 1857. Bailey, James Montgomery, an American author, born in Albany, N. Y., Sept. 25, 1841; died in Danbury, Conn., March 4, 1894. Bailey, Joseph, an American mil- itary officer, born in Salem, O., April 28, 1827 ; entered the Union army as a private in 1861, and signally distin- guished himself in the Red River cam- paign under Gen. N. P. Banks, in 1864, by building a dam and deepen- ing the water in the channel, which enabled Admiral Porter's Mississippi flotilla to pass the Red River rapids in safety, and so escape a perilous sit- uation. For this engineering feat, Bailey, who, before entering the army was a plain farmer, was breveted Brigadier-General, promoted Colonel, voted the thanks of Congress, and Bailiff presented by the officers of the fleet with a sword and purse of $3,000. Subsequently, he was promoted to full Brigadier-General, and was engaged on engineering duty till his resigna- tion, July 7, 1865. He died in Ne- vada, Mo., March 21, 1867. Bailey, Liberty Hyde, an Amer- ican horticulturist and editor, born in South Haven, Mich., March 15, 1858; became chairman of the Roosevelt Commission on Country Life in 1908. Bailey, Philip James, an English poet, born in Nottinghamshire, April 22, 1816; died Sept. 6, 1902. Bailey, Samuel, an English po- litical and mental philosopher, born in Sheffield, in 1791; died in 1870. Bailey, Theodorus, an American naval officer, born in Chateaugay, N. Y., April 12, 1805; entered the navy in 1818; served on the W. coast of Mexico during the Mexican War; commanded frigate " Colorado," of the Western Gulf Blockading Squad- ron, in 1861-1862; and in the last year commanded the right column of Admiral Farragut's squadron in the passage of Forts St. Philip and Jack- son, and led the fleet at the capture of the Chalmette batteries and the city of New Orleans. In 1862-1865 he com- manded the East Gulf Blockading Squadron. He was commissioned Rear-Admiral and retired in 1866. ! He died in Washington, D. C., Feb. 10, 1877. Bailey, Vernon, an American scientist, born in Manchester, Mich., June 21, 1863; received a university education ; and became chief field naturalist of the United States Bio- logical Survey. Bailey, William Whitman, an American botanist, born in West Point, N. Y., Feb. 22, 1843. He was educated at Brown and Harvard, hav- ing been a pupil of Prof. Asa Gray. In 1867 he was botanist of the United States Geological Survey of the 40th Earallel; in 1867-1869 assistant li- rarian of the Providence Athenaeum. He was Professor of Botany at Brown University in 1881-1906. He died Feb. 20, 1914. Bailiff, essentially a person in- trusted by a superior with power of superintendence. In the United States the word bailiff has no precise mean- Baillie Baird ing. The term is most frequently used to denote a court officer whose duty it is to take charge of juries and wait upon the court. Baillie, Joanna, a Scotch author ; born in Bothwell, near Glasgow, Sept.. 11, 1762 ; died Feb. 23, 1851. Baillie, Robert, the " Scottish Sidney," was a native of Lanarkshire, who first came into notice in 1676 through his rescue of a brother-in-law, the Rev. Mr. Kirkton, from the clutches of Archbishop Sharp's prin- cipal informer. In 1683 he took a prominent part in a scheme of emi- gration to South Carolina, as he saw no other refuge 7 from the degrading tyranny of the government. Accused of conspiring against the King's life, and of hostility to monarchical gov- ernment, he was tried at Edinburgh and condemned to death upon evidence at once insignificant and illegal. The sentence was carried into execution- on the very day that it was passed, Dec. 24, 1684. Bailly, Jean Sylvain, a French astronomer and statesman, born in Paris, Sept. 15, 1736. The Revolu- tion drew him into public life. As mayor of Paris his moderation and im- partial enforcement of the law failed to commend themselves to the people, and his forcible suppression of mob violence, July 17, 1791, aroused a storm which led to his resignation. He was condemned by the Revolu- tionary Tribunal, and executed on Nov. 12, 1793. Bailment, " a delivery of a thing in trust for some special object or purpose, and upon a contract, express or implied, to conform to the object or purpose of the trust." (Story, on " Bailment.") The party who deliv- ers the thing bailed to another is call- ed the bailor; the one receiving it is called bailee. Various degrees of dili- gence are required of the bailee, ac- cording to the nature of the bailment. Baily, Edward Hodges, an Eng- lish sculptor, born at Bristol in 1788. He died in London in 1867. Bain, Alexander, a Scotch writer on mental philosophy and education, born in Aberdeen in 1818. His most important works are " The Senses and the Intellect" (1855); "The Emo- tions and the Will" (1859), together forming a complete exposition of the human mind. He died Sept., 1903. Bain, Alexander, a Scotch elec- trician, born in Watten, Caithness, in 1810; went to London and began a series of electrical experiments in 1837 ; invented electric fire alarm and sounding apparatus, and the auto- matic chemical telegraph by which high speed telegraphy was for the first time possible. He died in 1877. Bainbridge, 'William, an Amer- ican naval officer, born in Princeton, N. J., May 7, 1774 ; became a Captain in 1800 ; and commanded the frigate " Philadelphia " in the war against Tripoli. In 1812 he was given com- mand of a squadron including the " Constitution," " Essex," and " Hor- net." With the " Constitution " as his fiagship, he conquered, in Decem- ber of that year, the British frigate " Java," carrying 49 guns. Later he commanded a squadron in the Medi- terranean, and was afterward station- ed at various American coast cities. He died in Philadelphia, July 28, 1833. Bairaktar (more correctly Bai- rak-dar), signifying "standard bear- er," the title of the energetic Grand Vizier Mustapha. Born in 1755, of poor parents, he entered the military service at an early age, and rose to high command. He deposed the Sul- tan Mustapha IV., and when the Janissaries revolted, demanding Mus- tapha's restoration, and besieged the seraglio, Bairaktar defended himself bravely. When he saw that the flames threatened to destroy the palace, and that he was in danger of falling alive into his enemies' hands, he strangled Mustapha, threw his head to the be- siegers, and. then blew himself up. Bairam, the name of the only two festivals annually celebrated by the Turks and other Mohammedan nations. The first closes the fast of the month Ramadhan or Ramazan. The second commemorates Abraham's offering of Isaac. Baird, Absalom, an American military officer, born in Washington, Pa., Aug. 20, 1824; was graduated at the United States Military Academy and assigned to the artillery in > 1849. He became Captain and Major in the regular army in 1861, and in the vol- unteer army was commissioned a Baird Brigadier-General, April 28, 1862, and brevetted Major-General, September 1864, for his conduct in the Atlanta campaign. On March 13, 1865, he was brevetted Major-General, United States army, for his meritorious ser- vices in the field during the war. In 1885, he was promoted Brigadier- General and Inspector-General, Unit- ed States army, and in 1888 was re- tired. He died July 14, 1905. Baird, Charles 'Washington, an American historian and religious writer, son of Robert Baird : born at Princeton, N. J., Aug. 28, 1828; died in Rye, N. Y., Feb. 10, 1881. Baird, Henry Carey, an Ameri- can political economist, nephew of Henry C. Carey, bora in Bridesburg, Pa., in 1825. He was a publisher at Philadelphia. A strong protectionist, his economical views generally were similar to those of his distinguished uncle, and made public in numerous pamphlets. He died Dec. 31, 1912. Baird, Henry Martyn, an Amer- ican author and educator, born in Philadelphia, Pa., 1832; died 1906. Baird, Robert, an American his- torian, born in Fayette county, Pa., Oct. 6, 1798; died at Yonkers, N. Y., March 15, 1863. Baird, Spencer Fullerton, a distinguished American naturalist, born at Reading, Pa., Feb. 3, 1823. His writings cover nearly every branch of natural history. He died at Wood's Holl, Mass., Aug. 19, 1887. Bairenth, or Bayrenth, a city and capital of the Bavarian province of Upper Franconia, 43 miles N. N. E. of Nuremberg by rail. A mag- nificent National theater for the per- formance of Wagner's music, finished in 1875, was in the following year opened with a grand representation of his Nibelungen trilogy. On Feb. 14, 1883, the great master (who died in Venice) was buried in the garden of his villa here. Baize, a sort of coarse woolen fab- ric with a rough nap, now generally used for linings, and mostly green or red in color. Bajazet, or Bayazeed, I., an Ot- toman Sultan, born 1347, succeeded his father, Amurath I., in 1389. He was the first of his family who as- sumed the title of Sultan. After de- Baker feating Hungarians, Germans, and French ac Nicopoli, on the Danube, Sept. 28, 1396, Bajazet is said to have boasted that he would feed his horse on the altar of St. Peter at Rome. His progress, however, was arrested by a violent attack of the gout. Bajazet was prepar- ing for an attack on Constantinople, when he was interrupted by the ap- proach of Timur the Great, by whom he was defeated at Angora, in Ana- tolio, July 28, 1402. He was taken captive, and died about nine months afterward, at Antioch in Pisidia. He was succeeded by Mohammed I. Mod- ern writers reject as a fiction the story of the iron cage in which Bajazet was said to have been imprisoned. Baker, Sir Benjamin, an Eng- lish engineer, born near Bath, in 1840. In 1877 he superintended the removal of Cleopatra's Needle from Egypt to London. In conjunction with Sir John Fowler he drew the plans for the great bridge over the Firth of Forth. He died May 19, 1907. Baker, Benjamin W., an Amer- ican educator, born in Coles county, 111., Nov. 25, 1841 ; was brought up on a farm ; served in the Union army through the Civil War ; was graduated at the Illinois State Normal Univer- sity in 1870; became a Methodist Episcopal clergyman in 1874 ; and was financial secretary of the Illinois Wes- leyan University in 1883-1893 ; presi- dent of Chaddock College in 1893- 1898; of the Missouri Wesleyan Col- lege in Cameron, in 1898-1906; then pastor in Florida. Baker, Edward Dickerson, an American soldier and politician, born in London, England, Feb. 24, 1811; came to the United States in youth. He was elected to the Illinois Legisla- ture in 1837, became a State Senator in 1840, and was sent to Congress in 1844. He served under General Scott in the war with Mexico and was elect- ed United States Senator from Oregon in 1860. He entered the Federal army at the outbreak of the Civil War, and was killed at the battle of Ball's Bluff, Oct. 21, 1861. Baker, Frank, an American zool- ogist ; was graduated in the medical department of Columbian University in 1880 : was Professor or Anatomy in the University ot Georgetown ; and Baker Baksheesh became superintendent of the National Zoological Park, in Washington. D. C., in 1900. Baker, Harriette Newell (Woods) (pseudonyms " Madeline Leslie" and "Aunt Hatty"), an American writer of juvenile stories, born in 1815. She was a daughter of Rev. Leonard Woods and wife of Rev. Abijah R. Baker; died in 1893. Baker, John Gilbert, an English botanist, born in Guisbrough, York- shire, Jan. 13, 1834; was appointed assistant curator at the herbarium at Kew in 1866. His voluminous writ- ings include works on the flora of dis- tricts so diverse as the North of Eng- land, Madagascar, and Brazil. Baker, Lafayette C., an Ameri- can detective, born in Stafford, N. Y., Oct. 13, 1826 ; was chief of the Secret Service Bureau during the Civil War ; and reached the military rank of Brig- adier-General. He superintended the EursuSt of Wilkes Booth, President incoln's assassin. He died at Phila- delphia, Pa., July 2, 1868. Baker, Marcus, an American cartographer, born in Kalamazoo, Mich., Sept 23, 1849; was graduated at the University of Michigan in 1870 ; became connected with the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey, in 1873, and with the United States Geo- logical Survey, in 1886; and was made secretary of the United States Board on Geographic Names. He was cartographer to the Venezuela Bound- ary Commission, and after spending many years surveying and exploring prepared, with William H. Dall, the "Alaska Coast Pilot." He died Dec. 12, 1903. Baker, Newton. Diekl, an Amer- ican lawyer ; born in Martinsburg, W. Va., Dec. 3, 1871 ; was private secre- tary to Postmaster-General Wilson in 1896-7; began law practice in 1897; was city solicitor of Cleveland, O., in 1902-12 ; mayor of that city in 1912- 14 and 1914-16 ; and was appointed Secretary of War March 7, 1916. He was recognized for many years as a leader of the Ohio bar and of the mu- nicipal reform movement in Cleveland. Baker, Sir Samuel White, a distinguished English traveler ; born in London, June 8, 1821. He was trained as an engineer, and at the age ! of 24 he went to Ceylon, where he I founded an agricultural settlement at Nuwara Eliya in 1847. In the early ! part of 1861, accompanied by his (sec- ond) wife, he set out for Africa on a journey of exploration. When he had ; ascended the Nile as far as Gondokoro he met Speke and Grant returning after their discovery of the Victoria Nyanza lake, and learned from them that another large lake in the district had been spoken of by the natives. This lake he determined to discover, and after many adventures he and his wife beheld the Albert Nyanza from a height on March 14, 1864. On his re- turn home he was received with great honor and was knighted. In 1869 he returned to Africa as head of an ex- pedition sent by the Khedive of Egypt to suppress the slave trade and to an- nex and open up to trade a large part of the newly explored country, being raised to the dignity of pasha. He re- turned home in 1873, having finished his work, and was succeeded by the celebrated Gordon. In 1879 he explor- ed the island of Cyprus, and subse- quently he traveled in Asia and America. He died Dec. 30, 1893. Baker, William Bliss, an Amer- ican artist, born in New York in 1859, and is especially noted for his landscapes. He died in Ballston, N. Y., in 1889. Baker, Mount, an occasionally active volcano in Whatcom county, Wash., belonging to the Cascade Range ; very active in 1880; height 10,827 ft. Baker's Dozen, a familiar phrase said to have originated in an old cus- tom of bakers who, when a heavy pen- alty was inflicted for short weight, used to give a surplus to avoid all risk of incurring a fine. Baking Powder, a mixture of bi- carbonate of soda and tartaric acid, usually with some flour added. The water of the dou?h causes the libera- tion of carbonic acid, which makes the bread ' rise.' Bakony Wald, a thickly-wooded mountain range dividing the Hunga- rian plains, famous for the herds of swine fed on its mast. Bakshish, an Eastern term for a present or gratuity. A demand for bakshish meets travellers in the East i everywhere from Egypt to India. Baku Balata Baku, a Russian port on the W. shore of the Caspian, occupying part of the peninsula of Apsheron, and a noted centre of oil production. Some of the wells have had such an outflow of oil as to be unmanageable, and the Baku petroleum now com- petes successfully with r.ny other in the markets of the world. Baku is the station of the Caspian fleet, is strongly fortified, and has a large shipping trade. Pop. (1913) 232,200. Bakuniu, Michael, a Russian anarchist, the founder of Nihilism, born in 1814 of rich and noble family. Wherever he went, he was influential for disturbance, and after undergoing imprisonment in various States, wan handed over to Russia, in 1851, by Austria, imprisoned for five year^, and finally set to Siberia. Escaping thence through Japan, he joined Herzen in London, on the staff of the " Kolo- kol." His extreme views, however, ruined the paper and led to a quarrel with Marx and the International ; and having fallen into disrepute with his own party in Russia, he died suddenly and almost alone at Berne, in 1878. He demanded the entire abolition of the State as a State, the absolute equalization of individuals, and the extirpation of hereditary rights and of religion, his conception of the next stage of social progress being purely negative and annihilatory. Balaam, a heathen seer, invited by Balak, King of Moab, to curse the Israelites, but compelled by miracle to bless them instead (Num. xxii-xxiv). Balaena, the genus which includes the Greenland, or right whale, type of the family balaenidse, or whale-bone whales. Balseniceps, a genus of wading birds, belonging to the Sudan, inter- mediate between the herons and storks, and characterized by an enormous bill, broad and swollen, giving the only known species (also called shoe-bird) a peculiar appearance. Balsenidse, the true whales, the most typical family of the order ceta- cea and the suborder cete. They are known by the absence of teeth and the presence in their stead of a horny sub- stance called whale-bone, or baleen. Balaenoptera, fin-back whales. A genus of balaenidse, characterized by the possession of a soft, dorsal fin, and by the shortness of the plates of ba- leen. Balaenoptera boops is the north" ern rorqual, or fin-fish, called by sail- ors the finner. It is the largest of known animals, sometimes reaching 100 feet in length. Balaklava, a small seaport in the Crimea, 8 miles S. S. E. Sebasto- pol. In the Crimean War it was captured by the British, and a heroically fought battle took place here (Oct. 25, 1854), ending in the repulse of the Russians by the British. The charge of the Light Brigade was at this battle. Balance, an instrument employed for determining the quantity of any substance equal to a given weight. Balance Electrometer, an in- strument invented by Cuthbertson for regulating the amount of the charge of electricity designed to be sent through any substance. Balance of Power, a political principle which first came to be rec- ognized in modern Europe in the 16th century, though it appears to have been also acted on by the Greeks in ancient times, in preserving the re- lations between their different States. The object in maintaining the balance of power is to secure the general in- dependence of nations as a whole, by preventing the aggressive attempts of individual States to extend their ter- ritory and sway at the expense of weaker countries. Balance of Trade, a term for- merly used by political economists to signify an excess of imports over ex- ports, or of exports over imports in the foreign trade of a country, which required to be balanced by an export or import of the precious metals. After the outbreak of the great war in Europe the world's balance of trade came to the United States because it was the greatest source of supplies. Balata, the product of the bullet- tree its milk or juice, in fact which is a large forest tree, ranging from Jamaica and Trinidad to Ven- ezuela and Guiana. The tree grows to a height of 120 feet, and has a large, spreading head. A tree of aver- age size yields three pints of milk. The milk is dried in hollow wooden trays. When it is sufficiently dry it is re- Balbo moved from the trays in strips and hung up on lines to harden. Balbo, Count Cacsare, an Ital- ian author, born at Turin, in 1789. He is chiefly remarkable from the fact that his first important work, " Le Speranze d'ltalia," published in 1844, may be regarded as having given the programme of the Moderate Party of Italian politics, and as having to- gether with the writings of d'Azeglio, Durando, and others, created the Lib- eral Party, in opposition to the Re- publican Party as represented by Maz- zini. Balbo was an accomplished historian and translator. He died in June, 1853. Balboa, Vasco Nunez de, a cel- ebrated Spanish discoverer, born at Xeres de los Caballeros, in 1475. He accompanied Rodrigo de Bastidas in his expedition to the New World, and first settled in Haiti (or, as it was then termed, Hispaniola). Though an adventurer in search of fortune, his great ambition seems to have been to extend the boundaries of geographical knowledge, and especially to be able to announce to Europe the existence of. another great ocean. On Sept 1, 1513, he began his perilous enterprise. Accompanied by a small band of fol- lowers, he began to tread the almost impenetrable forests of the Isthmus of Darien, and, guided by an Indian chief, named Ponca, clambered up the rugged gorges of the mountains. At length, after a toilsome and danger- pus journey, Balboa and his compan- ions approached, on Sept. 25, the sum- mit of the mountain range, when Bal- boa, leaving his followers at a little distance behind, and advancing alone to the W. declivity, was the first to behold the vast unknown ocean, which he afterward took solemn possession of in the name of his sovereign, and named it the Pacific Ocean, from the apparent quietude of its waters. Sur- rounded by his followers, he walked into it, carrying in bis right hand a naked sword, and in his left the banner of Castile, and declared the sea of the South, and all the regions whose shores it bathed, to belong to the crown of Castile and Leon. Dur- ing his absence, however, a new gov- ernor had been appointed to super- sede Balboa in Haiti ; where, on his return, jealousy and dissensions Baldness springing up between them, Balboa, accused of a design to rebel, was be- headed in 1517, in violation of all forms of justice. Balcony, a gallery or projecting framework of wood, iron or stone, in front of a house, generally on a level with the lower part of the win- dows in one or more floors. Baldachin, a structure in form of a canopy, supported by columns, and often used as a covering for in- sulated altars. Bald Mountain, the name of several eminences in the United States, of which the following are the principal: (1) In Colorado, height, 11,493 feet; (2) in Califor- nia, height, 8,295 feet; (3) in Utah, height, 11,976 feet; (4) in Wyom- ing, in the Wind River Range, height, 10,760 feet; and, (5) in North Car- olina, height 5,550 feet. The last one was the cause of much excite- ment in May, 1878, because of inexpli- cable rumblings which lasted for about two weeks. The mountain shook as if in the throes of an earthquake, immense trees and rocks were hurled down its sides, and, for a time, fears were entertained lest a volcanic erup- tion should follow. A subsequent ex- amination showed that a large sec- tion of the mountain had been split asunder, but no further disturbance occurred. Baldness, an absence of hair on the head. Congenital baldness (com- plete absence of hair at birth) is sometimes met with ; but, in most cases, is only temporary, and gives place, in a few years, to a natur- al growth of hair. Occasionally, how- ever, it persists through life. Senile baldness (calvities) is one of the most familiar signs of old age. It com- mences in a small area at the crown, where the natural hair is first re- placed by down before the skin be- comes smooth and shining. From this area the process extends in all directions. It is more common in men than women. A precisely simi- lar condition occurs not unfrequently at an earlier age (presenile baldness). It is generally due to hereditary ten- dency ; but is favored by keeping the head closely covered, especially with a waterproof cap. The best author- Baldric ities agree that this form of bald- ness is incurable. Great loss of hair frequently fol- lows severe illnesses or other causes which produce general debility. As health returns, the hair usually re- turns with it. Baldric, a broad belt formerly worn over the right or left shoulder diagonally across the body, often high- ly decorated and enriched with gems, and used not only to sustain the sword, dagger, or horn, but also for purposes of ornament, and as a mili- tary or heraldic symbol. The fashion appears to have reached its height in the 15th century. In the United States it now forms a part of the uniform of Knights Templar and oth- er fraternal organizations. Baldwin, the name of a long line of sovereign Counts of Flanders, of whom the most celebrated was Bald- win IX., who became, afterward, Em- peror of Constantinople, under the name of Baldwin I. Baldwin II., the last Frank Em- peror of Constantinople, born in 1217. He was the son of Pierre de Courte- nay, and succeeded his brother Robert in 1228. Driven from his throne he died in obscurity in 1273. Baldwin, Charles H., an Amer- ican naval officer, born in New York city, Sept. 3, 1822. He entered the navy as a midshipman, in 1839. Serv- ing on the frigate " Congress " during the war with Mexico, he figured in several sharp encounters near Mazat- lan. He commanded the steamer "Clif- ton " at the passage of Forts Jackson and St. Philip, and at the first attack on Vicksburg. He became Rear-Ad- miral in 1883, receiving the command of the Mediterranean Squadron. He died in New York city, Nov. 17, 1888. Baldwin, Frank Dwight, a U. S. military officer; born in Michigan, June 26, 1842; entered the volunteer army in 1861 and the regular army in 1866 ; became colonel of the 4th United States Infantry, July 26, 190! ; and was promoted Brigadier-General, U. S A., June 9, 1902. He was awarded a Congressional medal of honor for ser- vice at the battle of Pine Tree Greet Ga., July 20, 1864, and another for gallantry in an action against Indians in Texas. He greatly distinguished Balen himself in the Philippines, in the early part of 1902. Baldwin, James Mark, an Amer- ican psychologist, born in Columbia, S. C., Jan. 12, 1861; educated at Princeton College, Leipsic, Berlin, and Tubingen Universities; President of the American Psychological Associa- tion in 1897-1898. Baldwin, John Denison, an American journalist, politician, poet, and writer on archaeology, born at North Stonington, Conn., Sept. 28, 1809; died at Worcester, Mass., July 8, 1883. Baldwin, Maurice Scollard, a Canadian clergyman, born in Toronto, June 21, 1836 ; was graduated at Trin- ity College in that city, in 1862; be- came rector of St. Luke's Church in Montreal ; was Dean of Montreal in 1882-1883; and in the last year was made Bishop of Huron. Baldwin, Theodore Anderson, American military officer, born in New Jersey, Dec. 21, 1839; entered the army as a private, May 3, 1862, and served in that grade and as quarter- master's sergeant in the 19th United States Infantry, till May 31, 1865, when he became First Lieutenant. He was promoted Captain, July 23, 1867 ; Major of the 7th Cavalry, Oct. 5, 1887; Lieutenant-Colonel of the 10th Cavalry, Dec. 11, 1896 ; and Colonel of the 7th Cavalry, May 6, 1899. From Oct. 6, 1898, till Jan. 31, 1899, he served as a Brigadier-General of Vol- unteers. Retired in 1903. Balearic Islands, a group of is- lands, S. E. of Spain, including Ma- jorca, Minorca, Iviza, and Formentera. The islands form a Spanish province, with an area of 1,935 square miles ; pop. (1913) 329,831. Baleen, whale-bone, in the rough or natural state. Bale-Fire, in its older and strict meaning, any great fire kindled in the open air, or in a special sense, the fire of a funeral pile. It has frequently been used as synonymous with beacon- fire, or a fire kindled as a signal, Sir Walter Scott having apparently been the first to use the term in this sense. Balen, Hendrik van, painter, born at Antwerp, in 1560. His works, chiefly classical, religious, and allegori- cal some of them executed in part- Baler Balfonr nership with Breughel are to be found in most of the leading galler- ies. Three of his sons also followed the art, but the best of them, John van Balen (1611-1654), was inferior to his father. He died in 1632. Baler, a town in the N. E. part of Luzon, Philippine Islands, on the Pacific coast. The population is sev- eral thousand, mostly natives. The most conspicuous edifice is a native Catholic church. The town is noted for the heroic defense of a Spanish garrison in 1899, during a siege by the Filipinos, lasting 11 months. The Spaniards were commanded by Lieut. Saturnine Martin Cerezo, who refused to surrender the town even when di- rected to do so by his superiors in Manila. He entrenched himself in the church and heroically resisted the be- siegers until his supplies gave out, when he surrendered with all the hon- ors of war, July 2, 1899. Baler was occupied by the American troops and garrisoned with two companies of the 34th Volunteer Infantry, under Major Shunk, in March, 1900. Bales, Peter, a famous caligraph- er, born in 1547. He was one of the early inventors of shorthand. He died about 1610. Balestier, Charles Wolcott, an American novelist, born in Rochester, N. Y., Dec. 13, 1861; studied in Cor- nell University ; and became connected with a New York publishing house. He was brother-in-law of Rudyard Kipling. He died in Dresden, Sax- ony, Dec. 6, 1891. Balfe, Michael William, com- poser, was born in Dublin, May 15, 1808. His musical talent received early culture, and in his ninth year he made his debut as a violinist, having begun to compose at least two years earlier. In 1826 he wrote the music for a ballet, " La Perouse," performed at Milan; and in 1827 he sang in the Italian Opera at Paris with great ap- plause, his voice being a pure, rich baritone. In 1833 he returned to Eng- land, and in 1846 was appointed con- ductor of the London Italian Opera. He died at Rowley Abbey, his estate in Hertfordshire, Oct. 20, 1870. Balfonr, Sir Andrew, a Scottish botanist and physician, born in Fife- shire, in 1630. He planned with Sir Robert Sibbald, the Royal College of Physicians at Edinburgh, and was elected its first President. Balfonr, Arthur James, a Brit- ish statesman ; born in Scotland, July 25, 1848; educated at Eton and at Trinity College, Cambridge ; entered Parliament in 1874 ; was private sec- retary to his uncle, the Marquis of Salisbury, in 1878-1880, and accom- panied him to the Berlin Congress; was member of Parliament for Hert- ford in 1879, and for the East Divi- sion of Manchester in 1885 ; president of the Local Government Board in 1885 ; Secretary for Scotland in 1886 ; with a seat in the Cabinet; Lord Rec- tor of St. Andrew's University in 1866; Secretary for Ireland in 1887- 1891 ; member of the Gold and Silver Commission in 1887-1888; Lord Rec- tor of Glasgow University in 1890; Chancellor of Edinburgh University in 1891; First Lord of the Treasury in 1891-1892; became the leader of the Conservative opposition in the House of Commons in 1892. In 1895 he again became First Lord of the Treasury and leader of the House. He was an effective speaker. As Chief Secretary for Ireland, he was success- ful. He passed the Crimes Act and Law Act, secured a free grant for railways, made a tour of investigation and created the Congested Districts Board. On the resignation of Lord Salisbury. Mr. Balfonr became prime minister, July 12, 1902. Iii 1903 lie issued a pamphlet on "Insular Free Trade," which caused a sensation as the first blow at British free trade from a British premier. In 1917 he headed a distinguished mission to the United States after Congress had de- clared the existence of a state of war against the Imperial German Govern- ment. Congress gave him and his as- sociates an exceptionally grand recep- tion, and he met extreme cordiality on every hand. Balfonr, Nesbit, a British mili- tary officer, born in Dunbog, Scotland, in 1743 ; was promoted Lieutenant- General in 1798 and General in 1803 ; distinguished himself during the Amer- ican Revolution ; was wounded in the battle of Bunker Hill; fought at the battles of Elizabethtown, Brandy- wine, Germantown, and Long Island ; and was present at the capture of Bali New York. He was appointed com- mandant at Charlestown, in 1779. He died in Dunbog, in October, 1823. Bali, an island of the Indian Arch- ipelago E. of Java, belonging to Hol- land ; greatest length, 85 miles, great- est breadth, 55 miles ; area, about 2,260 square miles. It is divided into eight provinces under native rajahs, and forms one colony with Lombok, the united population being estimated Dec. 31, 1912, at 1,207,310. Baliol, or Balliol, John, King of Scotland ; born about 1249. On the death of Margaret, the Maiden of Nor- way, and grandchild of Alexander III., Baliol claimed the vacant throne by virtue of his descent from David, Earl of Huntington, brother to William the Lion, King of Scotland. Robert Bruce (grandfather of the King) opposed Baliol ; but Edward I.'s decision was in favor of Baliol, who did homage to him for the kingdom, Nov. 20, 1292. Irritated by Edward's harsh exercise of authority, Baliol concluded a treaty with Prance, then at war with Eng- land; but, after the defeat at Dunbar he surrendered his crown into the hands of the English monarch. He was sent with his son to the Tower, but, by the intercession of the Pope, in 1297, obtained liberty to retire to his Norman estates, where he died in 1315. His son, Edward, in 1332, land- ed in Fife with an armed force, and having defeated a large army under the Regent Mar (who was killed), got himself crowned King, but was driven out in three months. Baliol College, Oxford, founded between 1263 and 1268 by John de Baliol, father of John Baliol, King of Scotland. Balista, or Ballista, a machine used in military operations by the an- cients for hurling heavy missiles, thus serving in some degree the purpose of the modern cannon. They are said to have sometimes had an effective range of a quarter of a mile, and to have thrown stones weighing as much as 300 Ibs. The balistse differed from the catapultae, in that the latter were used for throwing darts. Balkan Peninsula, a region in Eu- rope named from the Balkan Moun- tains; between the Adriatic and Ionian Seas on the W., and the Black Sea, Sea Ball of Marmora, and JEgean Sea on the E. ; comprising Bulgaria, Servia, Montenegro, Rumania, Eastern Rume- lia, European Turkey, and Greece ; area, about 125,500 square miles ; pop. est. 17,700,000, about half Slavs. This region was the scene of a war declared by Bulgaria, Montenegro, Servia, and Greece against Turkey and by Tur- key against these allies in mid-Octo- ber, 1912. On Nov. 3, beaten at every point, Turkey sued for peace through the Powers. It was also the scene of important military operations in the great war, for a summary of which see APPENDIX : World War. Balkhash. (Kirghiz Tengis ; Chi- nese Sihai), a great inland lake, near the E. border of Russian Central Asia, between 44 and 47 N. lat. and 73 and 79 E. long. Lying about 780 feet above sea level, it extends 323 miles VV. S. W. ; its breadth at the W. end is 50 miles ; at the E. from 9 to 4 miles ; the area is 8,400 square miles. Its principal feeder is the river Hi. It has no outlet. Ball, Ephraim, an American in- ventor, born in Greentown, O., Aug. 12, 1812 ; was brought up in the car- penter's trade ; in 1840 established a foundry for making plow castings ; in- vented a plow, a turn-top stove, the Ohio mower, the World mower and reaper, the Buckeye machine, and the New American harvester ; and for many years before his death had an extensive manufacturing plant at Can- ton. He died in Canton, O., Jan. 1, 1872. Ball, John, a priest, was one of the leaders in the rebellion of Wat j Tyler, and was in several respects a I precursor of Wyclif, having been re- I peatedly in trouble for heresy from 1 1366. He was hanged, drawn, and quartered in 1381. Ball, Sir Robert Stawell, an English astronomer, born in Dublin, July 1, 1840 ; studied at Trinity Col- lege. He was knighted Jan. 25, 1886. Ball, Thomas, an American sculp- tor, born in Charlestown, Mass., June 3, 1819. Chief works : Equestrian statue of Washington, in Boston ; Webster statue in New York, and "Emancipation," in Washington, D. C. He died Dec. 11, 1911. Ballad Ballot Reform Ballad, a narrative song, from the French ballade, Italian ballata, an old kind of song of a lyric nature. Bal- lata is derived from ballare, to dance. Ballantine, James, a Scottish | artist and poet, born in Edinburgh, June 11, 1808; was brought up as a house painter, but afterward learned drawing under Sir William Allen, and was one of the first to revive the art of glass painting. He was commis- sioned to execute the stained glass windows for the House of Lords. He died Dec. 18, 1877. Ballantine, William Gay, an American educator, born in Washing- ton, D. C., Dec. 7, 1848; and Presi- dent of Oberlin College in 1891-1896. Dr. Ballantine was one of the editors of the "Bibliotheca Sacra," in 1884r- 1891. Ballarat, or Ballaarat, an Aus- tralian town in Victoria, chief center of the gold mining industry of the State. Ballinger, Richard Achilles, an American lawyer; born in Boones- boro, la., July 9, 1858; admitted to the bar in 1886; Commissioner of the General Land Office in 1907-1909; Secretary of the Interior in 1909-11. | His controversy with Gifford Pinchot, | Chief Forester, on conservation inter- | ests in Alaska, led to a Congressional ' investigation in 1910. Resigned and resumed law practice in Seattle. Balloon. See AERONAUTICS ; FLY- ING MACHINE. Ballot, a means of expressing an individual choice for a public or other ' officer, or a measure of public impor- ' tance ; the medium through which a voter indicates his preference at an election. The term ballot, at a club or private j election, is applied to a ball used for i the purpose of voting. In casting a ball for or against an individual, the | arrangement sometimes is that if the vote be designed in his favor, then a white ball is used, but if it be intended to be against him, then one of a black color is used whence the phrase " to blackball one." Other methods, how- ever, may be adopted ; thus, a ball of any color put through a hole into one drawer may indicate a favorable vote, and into another an unfavorable one. The ballot, as a political institution, is known from early times, having been made use of in ancient Greece and Rome. At Athens, the verdicts given in the courts by the dicasts were indicated by balls of stone or metal, black or pierced balls indicating con- demnation, while white or unpierced meant acquittal. When the measure called ostracism was resorted to, the votes were given by means of shells, on which the voters wrote the name of the citizen whom they wished banished. The method known as petalism was employed at Syracuse, the voters using olive leaves as ballots. At Rome the ballot was introduced in the election of magis- trates in 139 B. c., and subsequently in trials and legislation, the people voting at first viva voce, but later writing upon tablets the names of their candidates. In the republic of Venice a system of voting by ballot prevailed for many centuries. In the United States it was in use in early colonial times; in France it has been in operation in elections since 1851 ; and in several of the Aus- tralian colonies since 1855. Ballot Reform, is a term applied to such improvements in method? of voting as tend to eliminate unfairness at elections. Nearly every State in the Union has adopted some plan in- tended to make the ballot wholly se- cret. There is a single ballot, usually called a blanket ballot, because of its size, on which the voter indicates his choice for a straight vote by marking a cross in the circle at the head of the column containing the nominees of his party, and for a scat- tered or split vote, by making a cross in the space before the desired name. Two forms of the single ballot are in use: (a) One, following the Austra- lian plan, in which the titles of the officers are arranged alphabetically, the names of the candidates and the party following ; (b) one which groups all names and offices by parties. In New York State the single bal- lot has one column for each organiza- tion that had made regular nomina- tions, and another column containing only the titles of the offices to be filled, with a space on the left to indicate the choice by making a cross, and a space beneath the title of office, in which the voter could write the name Ballon Balsam of any person for whom he desired to vote, whose name was not printed in any of the party columns of the ballot. Each of the columns is headed by a registered party emblem, the circle in which to indicate the choice for a straight vote, and the name of the party organization. Corruption is baffled, if not defeated by the practical inability of a voter to show how he is voting. A new feature of ballot reform is the substitution for the ballot paper, which is folded and deposited by hand, of voting machines, which are contriv- ances that both record the votes and count them, enabling the inspectors to see at any moment how many votes have been cast, and for whom. No machine has as yet come into gen- eral use, but several States have authorized their employment, and oth- ers have referred the question of their adoption to local option. Ballon, Hosea, an American Uni- versalist clergyman, journalist, and historian, born at Halifax, Vt., Oct. 18, 1796; was the first President of Tufts College (1854-1861), and was very successful as editor of the " Uni- versalist Magazine." He died at Som- erville, Mass., May 27, 1801. Ballon, Matnrin Murray, an American journalist, son of Hosea Ballou, born in Boston, April 14, 1820 ; died in Cairo, Egypt, March 27, 189o. Ball's Bluff, a spot on the right bank of the Potomac river in Loudon county, Va., about 33 miles N. W. of Washington; where the bank rises about 150 feet above the level of the river. It is noted as the scene of a battle between a Union force under Col. Edward D. Baker, and a Confed- erate force under the command of Gen- eral Evans, Oct. 21, 1861. The battle resulted in the defeat of the Union force and the death of Colonel Baker. Balm, a tree the specific name being given because it was once sup- posed to be the. Scriptural " Balm of Gilead " an opinion probably er- roneous, for it does not at present grow in Gilead, either wild or in gar- dens, nor has it been satisfactorily proved that it ever did. It is a shrub or small spreading spineless tree, 10 to 12 feet high, with trifoliate leaves in fascicles of 2-6, and reddish flow- ers haying four petals. It is found on both sides of the Red Sea, in Arabia, Abyssinia, and Nubia. It does not occur in Palestine. Balm of Gilead Fir, a tree which furnishes a turpentine-like gum. It is a North American fir, having no geographical connection with Gilead. Balmaceda, Jose Manuel, a Chilian statesman, born in 1840 ; early distinguished as a political orator ; ad- vocated in Congress separation of Church and State; as Premier, in 1884, introduced civil marriage; elect- ed President in 1886. A conflict with the Congressional Party, provoked by his alleged cruelties and official dis- honesty, and advocacy of the claim of Signer Vicuna as his legally elected successor, resulted in Balmaceda's ov- erthrow and suicide in 1891. Balmerino, Arthur Elphin- stoae, Lord, a Scottish Jacobite, born in 1688. He took part in the Jacobite rebellion of 1715, and fought at Sheriffmuir. Having joined the young Pretender in 1745, he was taken prisoner at Culloden, tried at West- minster, found guilty, and beheaded in 1746. His title was from Balmerino, in Fife. Balmoral Castle, the Highland residence of King Edward, beautifully situated on the S. bank of the Dee, in the county of, and 45 miles W. of Ab- erdeen. It stands in the midst of fine and varied mountain scenery, is built of granite in the Scottish baronial style, was enlarged in 1888, and has a massive and imposing appearance. The estate, which is the King's private property, comprises 25,000 acres, most- ly deer forest. Balsa, a kind of raft or float used on the coasts and rivers of Peru and other parts of South America for fish- ing, for landing goods and passengers through a heavy surf, and ^for other purposes where buoyancy is chiefly wanted. It is formed generally of two inflated sealskins, connected by a sort of platform on which the fisherman, passengers or goods are placed. Balsam, the common name of suc- culent plants of the genus impatiens, having beautiful irregular flowers, cul- tivated in gardens and greenhouses. Balsam Balsam, an aromatic, resinous substance, flowing spontaneously or by incision from certain plants. A great variety of substances pass under this name. But in chemistry the term is confined to such vegetable juices as consist of resins mixed with volatile oils, and yield the volatile oil on dis- tillation. Balta, Jose, a Peruvian states- man, born in Lima, in 1816; retired from the army with the rank of Colo- nel in 1855 ; Minister of War in 1865 ; one of the leaders in the insurrection which overthrew the unconstitutional President, Prado, in 1868; and was President of Peru, in 1868M872. He was murdered in a military mutiny in Lima, July 26, 1872. Baltic and North Sea Canal, a German ship canal, starting at Hol- tenau, on the Bay of Kiel, and joining the river Elbe 15 miles from its mouth; called by the Germans the Kaiser Wilhelm Canal. The Emperor William I. commenced the works on June 6, 1887, so far as laying the foun- dation of the Holtenau locks was con- cerned, while William II. opened the canal gates in 1895. The work was thus actually completed in the esti- mated time, eight years, and the esti- mate of cost, $40,000,000, had not been exceeded. Baltic Provinces (in Russia), a term very commonly used to compre- hend the five Russian governments bordering on the Baltic, viz., Courland, Livonia, Esthonia, Petrograd, and Finland ; in a restricted sense it desig- nates the first three only. The Baltic provinces once belonged to Sweden, except Courland, which was a depen- dency of Poland. The bulk of the population is composed of Esths and Letts; the Germans number above 200,000, the Russians only 65,000. The three provinces combined have an area of 35,614 square miles, and a population (1914) of 3,049,500. Baltic Sea, the great gulf or in- land sea bordered by Denmark, Ger- many, Russia, and Sweden, and com- municating with the Kattegat and North Sea by the Sound and the Great and Little Belts. Its length is from 850 to 900 miles; breadth, from 100 to 200; and area, including the Gulfs of Bothnia and Finland, 184,496 Baltimore square miles, of which 12,753 are oc- cupied by islands. Its mean depth is 44 fathoms, and the greatest ascer- tained depth, between Gottland and Courland, 140. Baltimore, a coextensive city and county of Maryland; sixth city in the United States in pop. in 1900; (1910) 558,485; on an expansion of the Patapsco river and seven railroads ; 38 miles N. E. of Washington, D. C., and 14 miles from Chesapeake Bay. The city covers an area of 28 square miles, and the expansion of the river gives it a. spacious and secure harbor (con- sisting of an outer bay accessible to the largest ships, and an interior basin for small vessels), which has become the seat of a very large foreign and coastwise trade. The entrance to the harbor is defended by Fort McHenry, an important military post, which successfully resisted an attack by the British fleet in the War of 1812. The city is laid out in general at right angles, with streets averaging 60 feet in width, and is built up with red brick", made from clay beds near the city, white marble and granite, both from quarries near by, and with iron. The city is the largest oyster can- ning place in the world, the indus- try employing over 5,000 vessels and boats of all kinds and several thousand persons. It also ranks very high in the various manufactures of tobacco, and in the exportation of corn and grains in general. On Sept. 11, 1814, the British forces under General Ross landed near Bal- timore and attempted to carry the city by assault. The American forces were placed at a great disadvantage, and were unable to resist the invasion ; but in the assault the British com- mander was killed, and his troops abandoned their purpose. On the fol- lowing day, the British fleet bombard- ed Fort McHenry without practical success. During the Civil War the city was a scene of almost continual excitement. On April 19, 1861, a fatal assault was made on portions of the Sixth Massachusetts and the Seventh Pennsylvania Regiments as they were passing through the city on their way to Washington-; in the following month General Butler occupied Fed- eral Hill; in 1863-1864 the city was fortified to resist a threatened attack Baltimore Baliac by the Confederates ; and in the latter year the National Republican Conven- tion, which renominated President Lincoln, met in the city. On Sunday, Feb. 7, 1904, a fire broke out in the centre of the city, and raged for two days, destroying property of the value of $50,000,000. It necessitated the re- construction of that portion of the city, and enabled other important im- provements, wider streets, new build- ings, electric lighting and transit, improved harbor accommodation, etc., to be effectively accomplished in the "Monumental City." Baltimore is the oldest Roman Catholic See in the United States, dating from 1789. It has long been one of the most important commercial centers of the country, having, in the calendar year 1916, imports of mer- chandise valued at $38,941.666, and exports valued at $291,167,696. Ac- cording to the Federal census on manufactures in 1910 the city had 2,502 establishments, employing $164,- 437,000 capital and 71,444 wage earners, paying $107,024,000 for ma- terials, and yielding products valued at $186,978,000. During the year ended Sept. 30, 1916, the exchanges at the Baltimore clearing house aggre- gated $2.192.008,000, an increase in a year of $464,175,000. Baltimore, George Calvert. Lord, an English colonist, born in Yorkshire about 1580 ; was for some time Secretary of State to James L, but this post he resigned in 1624 in consequence of having become a Ro- man Catholic. Notwithstanding this he retained the confidence of the King, who, in 1625, raised him to the Irish peerage, his title being from Balti- more, a fishing village of Cork. He had previously obtained a grant of land in Newfoundland, but, as this colony was much exposed to the at- tacks of the French, he left it, and ob- tained another patent for Maryland. He died (1632) before the charter was completed, and it was granted to his son, Cecil, who deputed the governor- ship to his brother, Leonard. Baluchistan, a country in Asia, the coast of which is continuous with the N. W. seaboard of India, bounded on the N. by Afghanistan, on the W. by Persia, on the S. by the Arabian Sea, and on the E. by Sind. It has an area of about 134,630 square miles, and a population (1911) of 834,703. In 1910 it was divided into (1) Brit- ish and administered territory ; (2) native States of Kalat and Las Bela ; (3) and the Marri and Bugti tribal areas. The British province had an area of 54,228 square miles and pop. of 414,412, and the native States an area of 80,410 square miles and a pop. of 420,291. Balustrade, a range of balusters, together with the cornice or coping which they support, used as a parapet for bridges or the roofs of buildings, or as a mere termination to a struc- BALUSTBADE. ture; also serving as a fence or in- closure for altars, balconies, terraces, staircases, etc. Balzac, Honore de, a French au- thor, born at Tours, May 20, 1799; died in Paris, August, 1850. From 1819 to 1830 he led a life of frequent privation and incessant industry, pro- ducing stories which neither found nor deserved to find readers, and incurring mainly through unlucky business speculations a heavy burden of debt, which harassed him to the end of his career. He first tasted success in Ids 30th year on the publication of "The Last of the Chouans," which was soon afterward followed by "The Magic Skin," a marvellous interweaving of the supernatural into modern life, and the earliest of his great works. After writing several other novels, he formed the design of presenting in the "Hu- man Comedy" a complete picture of modern civilization. All ranks, pro- fessions, arts, trades, all phases of manners in town and country, were to Bambarra be represented in bis imaginary sys- tem of things. In attempting to carry out this impossible design, he produced what is almost in itself a literature. His work did not bring him wealth ; his yearly income, even when he was at the height of bis fame, is said to have rarely exceeded 12,000 francs. In 1849, when his health had brok- en ^ down, he traveled to Poland to visit Madame Hanska, a rich Polish lady, with whom he had corresponded for more than 15 years. In 1850 she became his wife, and three months after the marriage, in August of the same year, Balzac died at Paris. Bambarra, one of the Sudan States of Western Africa. The in- habitants, a branch of the Mandigoes, number about 2,000,000, and are su- perior to their neighbors in intelli- gence. The country is within the French sphere. Bamberger, Heinrich von, an Austrian pathologist, born in Prague in 1822 ; was graduated in medicine in 1847; became Professor of Special Pathology and Therapeutics, first ir the University of Wiirzburg, and, in 1872, in the University of Vienna. He died in 1888. Bambino, the figure of our Sa- viour represented as an infant in swaddling clothes. The " Santissimo Bambino " in the Church of Ara Cceli at Rome, a richly decorated figure carved in wood, is believed to have a miraculous virtue in curing diseases. Bamboo, a giant grass some- times reaching the height of 40 or more feet, which is found everywhere in the tropics of the Eastern Hemi- sphere, and has been introduced into the West Indies, the Southern States of America, and various other regions of the Western world. Bamboo is put to all sorts of uses. Bows, arrows, quivers, the shafts of lances, and other warlike weapons can be made from the stems of bamboo, as can ladders, rustic bridges, the masts of vessels, walking sticks, water pipes, flutes, and many other objects. The leaves are everywhere used for weav- ing and for packing purposes. Finally, the seeds are eaten by the poorer class- es in parts of India ; and in the West Indies the tops of the tender shoots are pickled. Bancroft Ban, Bann, Banne, Bain, or Bane, a proclamation, public notice, or edict respecting a person or thing. I. Military and feudal : A procla- mation in time of war. II. Historical. The ban of the em- pire : A penalty occasionally put in force under the old German Empire against a prince who had given some cause of offense to the supreme au- thority. III. Law, etc. Banns (plural) : The publication of intended marriages, proclamation that certain parties named intend to proceed to marriage, unless any impediment to their union be proved to exist. Ban, in Austro-Hungary : (1) Formerly : A title belonging to the warden of the Eastern Marshes of Hungary. (2) Now : The Viceroy of Temesvar, generally called the Ban of Croatia. The territory he rules over is called a banat or banate. Banana, a fruit originally East Indian, but much cultivated in warm countries over the whole globe. Banana, an island in West Afri- ca, N. of the mouth of the Kongo; also a seaport of the Kongo Free State on_ the island. It has lost com- mercial importance in recent years. Banana-Bird, a bird belonging to the family sturnidse (starlings), and the sub-family oriolinse, or orioles. It is tawny and black, with white bars on the wings. It occurs in the West Indies and the warmer parts of Con- tinental America. Banat, a large and fertile region in Hungary, consisting of the coun- ties of Temesvar, Torontal and Kris- so; principal town, Temesvar. The region originally belonged to Hun- gary; was occupied by the Turks in 1652-1716; and was reunited to Hun- gary in 1779. The population ex- seeds 1,500,000. Banca, an island belonging to the Dutch East Indies, between Sumatra and Borneo, 130 miles long, with a width varying from 10 to 30; pop. 80,921, a considerable proportion be- ing Chinese. II is celebrated for its excellent tin, of which the annual yield is above 4,000 tons. Bancroft, Aaron, a Unitarian clergyman, born in Reading, Mass., Nov. 10, 1755 ; graduated at Harvard, Bancroft in 1778 ; became pastor in Worcester in 1785, where he remained nearly 50 years. Besides a great number of ser- mons his works include a " Life of George Washington" (1807). He was the father of the historian, George Bancroft. He died at Worcester, Mass., Aug. 19, 1839. Bancroft, George, an American historian, born near Worcester, Mass., Oct. 3, 1800. He was educated at Harvard and in Germany, where he made the acquaintance of many liter- ary men of note. In 1824 he pub- lished a translation of Heeren's " Poli- tics of Ancient Greece," and a small volume of poems, and was also em- ployed in collecting materials for a history of the United States. Between 1834 and 1840 three volumes of his history were published. In 1845 he was appointed Secretary of the Navy, and effected many reforms and im- provements in that department. He was American Minister to England from 1846 to 1849, when the Univer- sity of Oxford conferred on him the honorary degree of D. C. L. He took the opportunity, while in Europe, to perfect his collections on American history. He returned to New York in 1849, and began to prepare for the press the fourth and fifth volumes of his history, which appeared in 1852. The sixth appeared in 1854, the sev- enth in 1858, the eighth soon after, but the ninth did not appear until 1866. From 1867 to 1874 he was Jlinister Plenipotentiary at the Court of Berlin. The 10th and last volume of his great work appeared in 1874. An additional section appeared, first as a separate work, in 1882 : " His- tory of the Formation of the Constitu- tion of the United States," and the whole came out in six volumes in 1884-1885. He settled in Washing- ton on returning from Germany, in 1875, and died there, Jan. 17, 1891. Bancroft, Hubert Howe, an American historian, born in Granville, Ohio, May 5, 1832. In 1852 he went to California to establish a book busi- ness, and began to collect documents, maps, books and MSS. for a complete " History of the Pacific States " from Mexico to Alaska. In 1905 he gave his library of 60,000 volumes and 500 original MSS. to the University of California. E. 13. Band Fish Bancroft, The, a steel gunboat of the United States navy ; built express- ly for a practice ship for the cadets of the United States Naval Academy; launched in 1892. Bandai-San, a volcano in Japan; 140 miles N. of Tokio. Its summit consists of several peaks, the highest of which is 6,035 feet above the ocean, and 4,000 feet above the surrounding plain. On July 15, 1888, there was a terrible explosion of steam which blew out a side of the mountain, mak- ing a crater more than a mile in width, and having precipitous walls on three sides. The debris of broken rock and dust poured down the slope and over an area of 27 square miles, killing 461 persons and covering many villages. Banda Islands, a group belonging to Holland, Indian Archipelago, S. of Ceram, Great Banda, the largest, be- ing 12 miles long by 2 broad. They are beautiful islands, of volcanic ori- gin, yielding quantities of nutmeg. Goenong Api, or Fire Mountain, is a cone-shaped volcano which rises 2,320 feet above the sea. Pop. about 7,000. Banda Oriental, a State of South America, now usually called UBU- GUAY. Bandel, Ernst von, a Bavarian sculptor, born in 1800, at Ansbach ; studied art at Munich, Nuremberg, and Rome ; and from 1834 lived chiefly at Hanover, engaged off and on, for 40 years, on his great monument of Arminius, near Detmold, 90 feet high, which was unveiled by the Emperor Wilhelm on Aug. 16, 1875. He died near Donauworth, Sept. 25, 1876. Bandelier, Adolph Francis Alphonse, a Swiss-American archae- ologist, born in Berne, Aug. 6, 1840; settled early in the United States, where he did important work under the Archaeological Institute of Amer- ica. His studies were chiefly among the Indians of New Mexico and Arizona, Central America and Mexico. He published many papers on the sub- ject. Died March 19, 1914. Band Fish. The red band fish. It is about 15 inches long. Its bril- liant appearance, when seen moving in the water, has suggested the names of fire-flame and red ribbon, by which it is also known. The home of the genus is in Japanese waters. Bandicoot Bandicoot, the largest known spe- cies of rat, attaining the weight of two or three pounds, and the length, including the tail, of 24 to 30 inches. It is a native of India, and is very abundant in Ceylon. Its flesh is said to be delicate and to resemble young pork, and is a favorite article of diet with the coolies. Bandiera, Attilio and Emilio, two brothers of a Venetian family, lieutenants in the Austrian navy, who attempted a rising in favor of Italian independence in 1843. The attempt was a failure, and they fled to Corfu ; but, misled by false information they ventured to land in Calabria with 20 companions, believing that their ap- pearance would be the signal for a general insurrection. One of their accomplices had betrayed them, and the party was captured at once by the Neapolitan police. Attilio and Emilio were shot along with seven of their comrades in the public square of Co- senza, on July 25, 1844. Bandinelli, Baccio, son of a fa- mous goldsmith of Florence, and one of the best sculptors of his time, was born at Florence in 1493. Among his best works are his colossal group of " Hercules," with Cacus at his feet, his " Adam and Eve," his copy of the " Laocoon," and the exquisite bassi- rilievi which adorn the choir of the Duomo in Florence, where he died in 1560. Bauer, Johan Gnstafsson, a Swedish general in the Thirty Years' War, born in 1596 ; made his first campaigns in Poland and Russia, and accompanied Gustavus Adolphus, who held him in high esteem, to Germany. After the death of Gustavus, in 1632, he had the chief command of the Swedish army, and, in 1634, invaded Bohemia, defeated the Saxons at Witt- stock, Sept. 24, 1636, and took Tor- gau. He ravaged Saxony again in 1639, gained another victory at Chem- nitz, and, in 1640, defeated Piccolo- mini. In January, 1641, he very near- ly took Ratisbon by surprise. He died in 1641. Bang, Herman, a Danish novel- ist, born in 1857. He came into no- tice about 1879, from which time he published a number of novels and some poems. He died in 1912. Bangkok Bangalore, a town of Hindustan, capital of Mysore, and giving its name to a considerable district in the E. of Mysore State. Pop. 180,366. Bangkok, the capital city of Siam, situated on both banks of the Menam, about 20 miles from its mouth. The population in 1910, 628,675, nearly half of whom are Chinese, the others, including Burmese, Annamese, Cam- bodians, Malays, Eurasians, and Eu- ropeans. The foreign trade of Siam centers in Bangkok, and is mainly in the hands of the Europeans and Chi- nese. The approach to Bangkok by the Menam. which can be navigated by ships of 350 tons burden (large sea-going ships anchor at Paknam, be- low the bar at the mouth of the river), is exceedingly beautiful. The internal traffic of Bangkok is chiefly carried on by means of canals, there being only a few passable streets in the whole city. Horses and carriages are rarely seen, except in the neigh- borhood of the palaces. The native houses on land of bamboo or other wood, like the floating fiouses are raised upon piles, six or eight feet from the ground, and are reached by ladders. The circumference of the walls of Bangkok, which are 15 to 30 feet high, and 12 broad, is about 6 miles. Bangkok is now the permanent res- idence of the King. The palace is sur- rounded by high walls, and is nearly a mile in circumference. It includes temples, public offices, accommodation for officials and for some thousands of soldiers, with their necessary equip- ments, a theater, apartments for a crowd of female attendants, and sev- eral Buddhist temples, or chapels. Several of the famous white elephants are kept in the courtyard of the pal- ace. Throughout the interior are dis- tributed the most costly articles in gold, silver, and precious stones. The chief exports are rice, sugar, pepper, cardamoms, sesame, hides, fine woods, ivory, feathers, and edible birds' nests. The imports are tea, manufactured silks and piece goods, opium, hard- ware, machinery, and glass wares. In 1893, a treaty was concluded at Bang- kok, by which Siam made large ces- sions to France, two French gunboats having forced their way to the capital after an ineffective defense. Bangor Bangor, city, port of entry, and capital of Penobscot county, Me.; at juriction of the Penobscot and Ken- duskeag rivers and on the Maine Central railroad; 140 miles N. E. of Portland; has exceptional power for manufacturing from the Penobscot river; is chiefly engaged in the lum- ber industry; and is the seat of a noted theological seminary. Pop. (1910) 24,803. Bangs, John Kendrick, an American humorist and editor, born in Yonkers, N. Y., May 27, 1862. He was long famous for his light verse and humorous stories. Bangs, Lemuel Bolt on, an American physician ; born in New York, Aug. 9, 1842 ; was president of the American Association of Genito- urinary Surgeons (1895) and editor of "American Text-Book of Genito- Urinary Diseases." D. Oct. 4, 1914. Bangweolo (also called Bemba), a great Central African lake, discover- ed by Livingstone in 1SG8, which is 150 miles long by 75 in width, and 3,700 feet above the sea. On its S. shore Livingstone died. Banian, or Banyan, an Indian trader, or merchant, one engaged in commerce generally^ but more particu- larly one of the great traders of West- ern India, as in the seaports of Bom- bay, Kurrachee, etc., who carry on a large trade by means of caravans with the interior of Asia, and with Africa by vessels. Banim, John, an Irish novelist, dramatist, and poet, born in Kilkenny, April 3, 1798 ; died in Kilkenny, Aug. 13, 1842. Banishment (the act of putting under ban, proclamation, as an out- law), a technical term for the punish- ment of sending out of the country under penalties against return. Banister, John, an Anglo-Amer- ican scientist, born in England ; set- tled in the West Indies, and later in Virginia, in the vicinity of James- town, where he devoted himself to the study of botany. He died in 1692. His son, JOHN, born in Virginia, was educated in England, and studied law there ; became Colonel in the Virginia militia; member of the Virginia As- sembly ; and prominent in the patri- Bank Note otic conventions of the Revolutionary period ; was a Representative from Virginia in the Continental Congress in 1778-1779, and one of the signers of the Articles of Confederation. He died near Hatchers Run, Va., in 1787. Banjermassin, a former Sultan- ate in the S. E. of Borneo, with an area of 5,928 square miles, and a pop- ulation of about 300,000, chiefly Mo- hammedans. Tributary to Holland since 1787, it was annexed on the death of the last Sultan in 1857, and is now governed by the Dutch Resi- dent for the S. and E. of Borneo, who has an assistant at Martapura, where the Sultans formerly lived. Banjo, a musical instrument with five strings, having a head and neck like a guitar, with a body or sound- ing-board hollow at the back, and played with the hand and fingers. It is the favorite instrument of the plan- tation negroes of the Southern States and their imitators, and seems to have had its origin in the bandore, a musi- cal instrument like a lute or guitar, invented by John Ross or Rose, a fa- mous violin-maker, about 15G2. Bank, primarily an establishment for the deposit, custody and repay- ment on demand, of money ; and ob- taining the bulk of its profits from the investment of sums thus derived and not in immediate demand. The term is a derivative of the banco or bench of the early Italian money dealers. ^ Bank Acceptances, commercial notes for discouut which the Federal Reserve Banking Act of 1913 per- mitted National banks to accept. This system of financing trade has been in operation abroad for many years and to some extent in the United States, but has never been extended to do- mestic business lest the credit privi- lege should be overdone. The process is about the same as having an ordi- nary note discounted at a bank, but is largely restricted to foreign business. Bankes, Henry, an English statesman and historian ; born in Lon- don in 1757 ; died Dec. 17, 1834. Bankiva Fowl, a fowl living wild 'in Northern India, Java, Sumatra, etc. Bank Note, an engraved certifi- cate representing its face value in spe- cie. In the production of bank notes, the principal purpose is to render their Bankruptcy Laws Bank* forgery impossible, or at least easy of detection. This is sought to be effect- ed by peculiarity of paper, design, and printing. In the United States, the bank notes at present in circulation are manufac- tured by the Government Bureau of Engraving and Printing, the paper being made by a private concern, un- der a patented process, the chief in- gredients being a mixture of linen and cotton fiber, into which are in- troduced threads of silk, so arranged as to be perceptible after the notes are printed. This style of paper is furnished only to the government. Su- perior skill is exercised in engraving the plates, nearly all parts of them being executed by the geometrical lathe and the ruling machine the work of which it is impossible to imitate successfully by hand. The printing of the notes is done in colored inks of the best quality, sometimes as many as four shades being used. The great ex- pense of the machines used in the en- graving, and the superior quality of the work generally, renders successful counterfeiting almost impossible. The notes, when badly worn, are returned to the United States Treasury, other notes being issued in their stead. Bankruptcy Laws, regulations passed by a competent authority with a view to distributing the property of an insolvent equitably among his cred- itors and free the debtor from further obligation. In England, before 1841, only a tradesman could be a bankrupt. This distinction was then abolished. It was abolished in the United States in 1869. The act " to establish a uniform system of bankruptcy throughout the United States," was passed by both Houses of the 55th Congress, and by the approval of Pres- ident McKinley, became a law on July 1, 1898. The provisions under which a man can be thrown into bankruptcy against his will are as follows: (1) Where a man has disposed of his property with intent to defraud. (2) Where he has disposed of his property to one or more creditors to give a preference to them. (3) Where he has given a preference through legal proceedings. (4) Where a man has made a volun- tary assignment for the benefit of his creditors generally. (5) Where a man admits in writing that he is bank- rupt. The last two provisions are practically voluntary proceedings. Un- der the common law, a man is consid- ered insolvent when he cannot pay his debts when they are due ; under the new law, he is deemed insolvent only when his property, fairly valued, is in- sufficient to pay his debts. Only two offenses are cited under the new law : one when property is hidden away after proceedings in bankruptcy have been begun, and the other when per- jury is -discovered. Discharges are to be denied in only two cases ; one, in which either of the offenses detailed has been committed, and the other, when it is shown that fraudulent books have been kept. The term of imprisonment for either of these of- fenses is not to exceed two years. The law provides a complete sys- tem throughput the United States, and for its administration by the United States courts in place of the different systems formerly in existence in the various States administered by State courts. In bankruptcy proceedings, a bankrupt debtor may turn over all his property to the court, to be adminis- tered for the benefit of his creditors, and then get a complete discharge from his debts. A bankrupt may of his own motion offer to surrender his property to the administration of the United States court and ask for his discharge in voluntary bankruptcy, or creditors may apply to the court to compel a bankrupt to turn over his property to be administered under the act for the benefit of the creditors in voluntary bankruptcy. The bankrupt who has turned over all his property and conformed to the provisions of the act, is entitled to a judgment of court discharging him from any future lia- bility to his creditors. Banks, Sir Joseph, an English naturalist, born in London in 1743. He died in 1820, and bequeathed his collections to the British Museum. Banks, Nathaniel Prentiss, an American legislator and soldier, born in Waltham, Mass., Jan. 30, 1816. At first a factory worker, he studied law, and became successively a member of the State and National Legislatures. He was Speaker of Congress in 1856, , and in 1858, and in 1859 he was elect- I ed Governor of his native State. On Banks Banks the outbreak of the Civil War, he took a command in the army, at first on the Potomac, then at New Orleans, and finally on the Red river. Relieved of his command in 1864, he re-entered Congress, voting mainly with the Re- publican party. He died in Waltham, Sept. 1, 1894. Banks, Thomas, an English sculptor, born in 1735. He died in 1805. Banks in ike United States, financial institutions comprising (1) National banks; (2) Suite banks; and (3) savings banks, consisting of (a) mutual savings banks; and (b) stock savings banks. These are gen- eral throughout the entire country. In addition to these, are (1) co-opera- tive banks, common to New England, especially Massachusetts; (2) loan and trust companies, established in nearly all the large cities; and (3) building and loan associations, now represented in most of the States and Territories. The last three classes partake of some of the features of regular banking, es- pecially in the reception of money on deposit, subject to call, and the pay- ment of interest thereon. The first three kinds of banks only are heie considered. The first bank in the United States was organized in Philadelphia in 1780, and a Bank of North America was planned in 1781 and opened in 1782. The Massachusetts Bank was incor- porated in 1784; that of New York was chartered in 1791, although, since 1784, under Alexander Hamilton's " Articles of Association," it had been doing business. Alexander Ham- ilton also originated a plan for a United States bank, with a capital of $10,000,000, three-fourths to be paid in United States stock, at 6 per cent., which plan was adopted and approved by Washington in 1791. The bank was reorganized in 1816 with a capital of $35,000.000, the United States sub- scribing $7,000,000, with interest at 6 per cent., but in consequence of a gen- eral financial depression, was, the next year, in great danger of failure. Congress refusing to renew the char- ter, a State bank, called the United States bank, was chartered in Penn- sylvania, and eventually failing, the whole account was settled in 1856. The $28,000,000 deposited by share- holders was totally lost, while the Gov- ernment realized $6,093.167 upon its investments of stock. State banks were afterward chartered in the inter- ests of individual and dominant polit- ical parties. The charters were some- times fraudulently obtained and cur- rency issued to three times the amount of their capital, and, in 1814, 1837, and 1857, many of them suspended payment A reform movement in bank currency was inaugurated in Massachusetts in 1825, and a " safety- fund " system, recommended by Mr. Van Buren, adopted in 1829. In 1838 the Free Bank Act passed the New York Legislature, which authorized any number of persons to form a bank- ing association, subject to certain specified conditions and liabilities. On Feb. 25, 1863, the National banking system was organized, but the act establishing it was modified by that of June 3, 1864. This provided for a National Bank Bureau in the Treasury Department, whose chief officer is the Comptroller of the Cur- rency. Under it National banks could be organized by any number of indi- viduals, not less than five, the capital t9 be not less than $100,000 except in cities of a population not exceeding 6,000 ; in these banks could be estab- lished with a capital of not less than $50,000. In cities having a popula- tion of 50,000 the capital stock could not be less than $200,000. One third of the capital was required to be in- vested in United States bonds, which were deposited in the Treasury for se- curity, upon which notes were issued equal in amount to 90 per cent, of the current market value, but not exceed- ing 90 per cent of the par value ; and these notes were receivable at par in the United States for all payments to and from the Government, except for duties on imports, interest on the pub- lic debt, and in redemption of the na- tional currency. On March 3, 1865, an act was passed by which the cir- culation of the State banks was taxed 10 per cent., which drove their notes out of existence. Various laws have since been passed in relation to National banks. On March 14, 1900, President McKin- ley approved a new currency act, which, among other things, established Bannock the gold dollar as the standard unit of value, and placed at a parity with that standard all forms of money is- sued or coined by the United States. The bill also made a number of im- portant changes in the regulations governing National banks. The new law permitted National banks, with $25,000 capital, to be organized in places of 3,000 inhabitants or less, whereas the minimum capital previ- ously was $50,000. It also permitted banks to issue circulation on all classes of bonds deposited up to the par value of the bonds, instead of 90 per cent, of their face, as before. More recent features of banking inj the United States are the Oklahoma scheme for guaranteeing the deposits of banks, which Attorney-General Bonaparte nullified, as far as Na- j tional banks were concerned, in 1908 ; j the combined savings and insurance j banks of Massachusetts, known as ! "Brandeis banks," established in I 1908 ; the 1 SCHOOL SAVINGS BANKS i (or. v.) founded by J. H. Thiry, in j New York, in 1885; and the POSTAL' SAVINGS BANKS (q. v.), established by Congress in 1910. At the special session of Congress in 1913 an elabo- rate scheme was introduced for re- forming the national banking laws. This resulted in the establishment of the Federal Reserve System, under which it was obligatory for National banks and permissible for State banks to become associated in the new organ- ization (see FEDEBAL RESERVE SYS- TEM; FEDERAL FARM BANKS). On Nov. 17, 1916, there were 7,584 i National banks in operation, having a combined capital of $1,071,116,000; deposits, $12,489,279,000; circulation, $665,259.000; loans and discounts, $8,345,784,000; reserve, $2,472,622,-' 000 ; and resources, $15,520,205,000. Bannock, a tribe of North Amer- ican Indians belonging to the Shoshoni stock. They are divided into two sec- tions, inhabiting Nevada and Montana. Bannockbnrn, a village of Stir? lingshire, Scotland, 3 miles S. S. E. of Stirling, on the Bannock Burn, a lit- tle affluent of the Forth. In the great battle of Bannockburn, fought on June 24, 1314, Robert Bruce, with 30,000 Scotch, gained a signal victory over Edward II., with 100,000 English, and secured his throne and the independ- Bantry Bay ence of Scotland. The English are said to have lost 30,000, and the Scotch 8,000 men. Not far off was fought the battle of Sauchieburn. In September, 1903, it was reported that Andrew Carnegie was negotiating to acquire ownership of the battlefield in order to preserve it as a national memorial. Banquo, a famous Scottish thane of the llth century. In conjunction with Macbeth, cousin of -Duncan, the King, he obtained a victory over the Danes, who had landed on the Scot- tish coast. Macbeth, shortly after- ward, violently dethroned Duncan, and caused him to be secretly assass- inated. Banquo, though not an ac- complice, was a witness of the crime ; and being subsequently regarded by Macbeth with fear and suspicion, the latter invited him and his son to sup- per, and hired assassins to attack them on their return home during the darkness of night. Banquo was slain, but the youth made his escape. Shakespeare has interwoven this oc- currence with the theme of his tragedy of " Macbeth." Banshee, a fay, elf, or other su- pernatural being, supposed by some of the peasantry in Ireland and the Scot- tish Highlands to sing a mournful dit- ty under the windows of the house when one of the inmates is about to die. Bantam, a variety of the common domestic fowl, originally brought from the East Indies, and supposed to de- rive its name from the above town. It is remarkable for its small size, being only about one pound in weight, and for a disposition more courageous and pugnacious than even that of a game- cock. Banting, William, an English* man of notable corpulence, born in 1797, who, by adopting a simple diet was able to relieve himself of his su- perfluous flesh. The dietary recom- mended was the use of butcher's meat principally, and abstinence from beer, farinaceous food, and vegetables. He died in 1878. Bantry Bay, a deep inlet in the S. W. extremity of Ireland, in County Cork. Here a French force attempted to land in 1796. The coast around is rocky and high. Bantu Bantu, the ethnological name of a group of African races dwelling be- low about 6 N. lat, and including the Kaffirs, Zulus, Bechuanas, the tribes of the Loango, Kongo, etc., but not the Hottentots. Banvard, John, an American artist, poet, and dramatist, born in New York about 1820 ; died in 1891. Banvard, Joseph, an American Baptist clergyman and historian, brother of the preceding, born in New York in 1810; died in 1887. Banyan Tree, a species of the genus ficus. It is regarded as a sacred tree by the Hindus. BANYAN TREK. Bapanme, a small town of N. France, 15 miles S. S. E. of Arras and 25 miles N. W. of St. Quentin, the scene of the great battle of Jan. 3, 1871, when the Germans were forced back behind Somme. The town also figures in the Peace of the Pyrenees, in 1659, by which it was ceded to Louis XIV., and in the great Arras campaign of 1917. See APPEN- DIX: World War. Baptism (from the Greek baptize, from bapto, to immerse or dip), a rite which is generally thought to have been usual with the Jews even before Christ, being administered to prose- lytes. From this baptism, however, that of St. John the Baptist differed Baptist* because he baptized Jews also as a symbol of the necessity of perfect purification from sin. Christ himself never baptized, but directed his disci- ples to administer this rite to converts (Matt xxviil: 19); and baptism, therefore, became a religious ceremony among Christians, taking rank as a sacrament with all sects which ac- knowledge sacraments. Three modes of administering the rite have been adopted immersion, pouring and sprinkling. The question, on which I there have been innumerable disputes, , turns upon the meaning of the Greek I preposition following the verb. The j advocates of baptism by immersion, as the only valid form, claim that the I preposition is "in ;" the advocates of sprinkling contend that the preposi- 1 tion is, "with." The Greek Church adopted the custom of immersion ; but the Western Church adopted or al- lowed the mode of baptism by pouring or sprinkling, since continued by most Protestants. Baptists, a Protestant denomina- tion based on the belief that immer- sion is the only Scriptural mode of baptism, and that those only are proper subjects for this ceremony who are converted and profess personal faith !n Christ. They thus reject both in- fant baptism and baptism by sprink- ling or pouring of water as invalid. There are, however, other sects, in- cluding the Mennonites, the Chris- tians, the Disciples of Christ, etc., who accept the prominent principles of the Baptists in whole or in part, and yet are not classified with them, owing to some minor differences. The Baptists reject the name of Anabaptists as a term of reproach, holding that it is in- correct, because their members gener- ally receive the rite on their admis- sion to the church, and because they were not identified with the Baptists of Munster. The Baptists first ap- peared in Switzerland, in 1523, and soon spread to Germany, Holland, and other continental countries, whence they were driven to England by perse- cution on account of their rejection of infant baptism. The history of the Baptists in England prior to the 16th century is still a matter of contro- versy. The first regularly organized church was Arminian, and was estab- lished in 1610 or 1611. A Calvinistic Baptist Baptist Church was founded about 1633. Those holding Arminian views received the name of General Bap- tists, and those holding Calvinistic views the name of Particular Baptists. In 1640 there were seven Baptist con- gregations in London. The Baptists in the United States spring historically from the English and Welsh Baptists ; but the first Bap- tist church was organized by Roger Williams, who was a minister in the Massachusetts Colony previous to his immersion. He was persecuted for holding principles which inclined to Anabaptism, and for antagonizing the authorities of the colony in ecclesiasti- cal matters. After being immersed, in 1639, by Ezekiel. Holliman, whom he in turn immersed with 10 others, he organized a Baptist Church in Providence, R. I. In 1644 he obtained a charter which granted to the people of Rhode Island entire freedom of conscience. There were other Bap- tists, however, who emigrated from England in the 17th century, and, be- fore the end of the 18th century, be- came numerous in New England, New York, Pennsylvania, Virginia, Geor- gia, and other States. In all the British colonies, excepting Rhode Is- land, the Baptists were persecuted for a long time. In Massachusetts laws were issued against them in 1644 ; sev- eral of them were imprisoned in 1651 ; others exiled in 1669; and a Baptist meeting-house was closed in 1680. New York issued laws against them in 1662, and Virginia in 1664. This per- secution had greatly abate'd at the be- ginning of the 18th century. After the Revolutionary War the Baptists increased with great rapidity, especial- ly in the South and Southwestern States, and have steadily increased ever since. There are at present three bodies of Regular Baptists, the Northern, the Southern, and the Colored, all of whom agree in doctrinal and ecclesias- tical principles, but each has its own associations, State Conventions, and general missionary and other associa- tions. In 1845 a controversy concern- ing slavery, which had been going on for some time, caused a division be- tween the Baptists in the Northern and those in the Southern States, af- ter which the Northern Baptists con- Baptiii tinued to support the Home Mission Society and the American Baptist Missionary Union, on an anti-slavery basis. In 1879 the question of re- uniting the divisions was agitated, but nothing was accomplished. The Southern Division is the largest branch of white Baptists. After the division of 1845 the Southern churches estab- lished the Southern Baptist Conven- tion, which holds annual meetings, where the promotion and direction of the denominational interests are con- sidered, such as Sunday-schools, and home and foreign missions. It is com- posed of representatives from associa- tions, other organizations, and from, the churches. The Colored Baptists compose the largest body of Regular Baptists, although many Colored Bap- tists are not members of this division ; those only being included who have separate churches, State Conventions, and associations. The Colored Bap- tists of the North are generally mem- bers of churches belonging to white as- sociations. In 1866 the first State Convention of Colored Baptists was organized in North Carolina, the sec- ond in Alabama, and the third in Vir- ginia, both in 1867, and the fourth in Arkansas in 1868. There are (1900) Colored conventions in 15 States and the District of Columbia. Besides these associations there are the Amer- ican National Convention, which delib- erates upon questions of general con- cern ; the Consolidated American Mis- sionary Convention, the General As- sociation of the Western States and Territories, the New England Mission- ary Convention, and the Foreign Mis- sionary Convention of the United States. Besides the three large divisions of Baptists, there are 10 smaller ones. (1) Six Principle Baptists date back to Roger Williams and the year 1639 for their origin. They. differ from the Regular Baptists in holding the Ar- minian instead of the Calvinistic creed, and in the practice of the laying on of hands in the reception of mem- bers. (2) Seventh Day Baptists, in the United States, date their origin back to 1671, when Stephen Mumford, from England, organized the first church in Newport, R. I. Their only difference from other Baptists is found in their keeping the seventh day as Baptist "the Sabbath of the Lord." (3) Freewill Baptists. The first church of this sect was founded by Benjamin Randall in New Durham, N. H., in 1780. At first their organizations were called simply Baptist churches, but later the word " Freewill " was applied to them, in allusion to their doctrine concerning the freedom of the will. (4) Original Freewill Baptists date back to 1729, when a number of General Baptist churches were found- ed in North Carolina. In 1759 many of these general churches became Cal- vinistic. Those which did not join the Calvinistic association were called " Freewillers," because they held the doctrine of the freedom of will. (5) General Baptists are thus named, be- cause they originally differed from the Regular Baptists in holding that the atonement was for the whole race and not merely for those effectually called. They date back to the beginning of the 18th century. (6) Separate Baptists originated in the great Whitefield revi- val. In doctrine they generally agree with the Freewill Baptists. (7) Unit- ed Baptists. A sect which sprang from the opposition to the great revi- val of George Whitefield. They hold moderate Calvinistic views. (8) Bap- tist Church of Christ. A sect organ- ized in 1808 in Tennessee, where half their number is found. They have a mild form of Calvinism with a general atonement. (9) Primitive Baptists are variously known as Primitive, Old School, Regular, and Antimission Baptists. Their organization occurred about 1835. They do not believe in the establishment of Sunday-schools, mission, Bible, and other societies, which they hold are unscriptural be- cause they are human institutions. (10) Old Two-Seed-in-the-Spirit-Pre- destinarian Baptists. A conservative body of Baptists who are strongly Cal- vinistic, believing firmly in predestina- tion. The phrase " Two-Seed " is un- derstood to mean their belief that there are two seeds, one of the good and one of the evil. The doctrine is supposed to have been originated by Elder Daniel Parker, who preached in Tennessee in 1806-1817, in Illinois till 1836, and later in Texas, where he died. All Baptist denominations are con- gregational in polity, with the possible Barataria Bay exception of the Original Freewill Baptists. Each church, under its of- ficers of pastor and deacons, manages its own affairs. According to a spe- cial Census report on " Religious Bodies" (2 vols., 1910), there were in the United States in 1906, 14 dis- tinct Baptist bodies, with a total of 54,880 organizations, 52,338 places of worship, 43,790 ministers, 5,662,234 communicants, property valued at $139,842,656. and 2,898,914 Sunday school scholars. Baptist Young People's Union o America, an association repre- senting numerous young people's so- cieties connected with the Baptist Churches in all the States and in Canada. Organized in June, 1891, in Chicago, 111., which place has since been its headquarters. Bar, in hydrography, a bank of sand, silt, etc., opposite the mouth of a river, which obstructs or bars the en- trance of vessels. The bar is formed where the rush of the stream is ar- rested by the water of the sea, as the mud and sand suspended in the river water are thus allowed to be deposited. It is in this way that deltas are form- ed at the mouths of rivers. The navi- gation of many streams is kept open only by constant dredging. Barabbas, a noted robber in Christ's time, who was awaiting j death for sedition and murder. It 1 was a custom of the Roman govern- j ment to conciliate the Jews, to re- lease one Jewish prisoner, whom they might choose, at the yearly Passover. Pilate desired thus to re- lease Jesus, but the Jews demanded Barabbas. Baracoa, a seaport town in the province of Oriente, Cuba; on the N. E. coast; 90 miles E. N. E. of Santiago; is the oldest settlement in Cuba and one of the oldest in the New World (1514); has a small, shal- low harbor. Pop. (1907) 27,852. Baranoff Island, one of the Alex- ander Islands, Alaska. It is about 75 miles long. On its coast is the town of Sitka. The island derives its name from the Russian trader, Bar- anofif, who, in 1799, took possession of it. Barataria Bay, in the S. E. part 1 of Louisiana, extending N. from the Baratier Barbecue Gulf of Mexico, between the parishes of Jefferson and Plaquemine. This bay is about 15 miles long by 6 wide. It, and the lagoons branching out of it, were rendered notorious about the years 1810-1812 as being both the headquarters and rendezvous of the celebrated Lafitte and his buccaneers. Baraticr, Johann Fhilipp, a German litterateur, remarkable for the precocity of his intellect, was born in 1721. At the age of 7 he under- stood Greek and Hebrew, and two years later he compiled a Hebrew dic- tionary. He was 13 when he trans- lated the " Itinerary of Benjamin of Tudela." Excess of work and, per- haps, a too rapid development of his intellectual faculties brought about a languid malady, and, at the age of 19 years he died. Barbacan, a projecting watch tower, or other advanced work, be- fore the gate of a castle or forti- fied town. The term barbacan was more especially applied to the out- work intended to defend the draw- bridge, which in modern fortifications is called the tete du pont. Barbadoes, or Barbados, the most eastern of the West India Is- lands, first mentioned in 1518, and occupied by the British in 1625 ; length 21 miles, breadth, 13; area, 106,470 acres, or 166 square miles ; mostly under cultivation. Capital, Bridgetown. It is more densely peo- pled than almost any spot in the world, the population on Dec. 31, 1914, being estimated at 176,397, or over 1,062 to the square mile. The climate is very hot, though moderated by the constant trade winds ; and the island is subject to dreadful hurricanes. Barbaro, Francesco, one of the most distinguished Italian authors of the 15th century, born at Venice, in 1398; died in 1454. Barbaroux, Charles Jean Ma- rie, one of the greatest of the Giron- dists, was born at Marseilles, March 6, 1767. He opposed the party of Marat and Robespierre, and even di- rectly accused the latter of aiming at the dictatorship; consequently, he was, in May, 1793, proscribed as a royalist and an enemy of the Repub- lic. He fled to Calvados, and thence with a few friends to the Gironde, where he wandered about the coun- try, hiding himself as he best could for about 13 months. At last, on the point of being taken, he tried to shoot himself ; but the shot miscarried, and he was guillotined at Bordeaux, June 25, 1794. Barbary, a general name for the most northerly portion of Africa, ex- tending about 2,600 miles from Egypt to the Atlantic, with a breadth varying from about 140 to 1,550 miles; comprising Morocco, Fez, Al- geria, Tunis and Tripoli (including Barca and Fezzan). The principal races are the Berbers, the original inhabitants, from whom the country takes its name ; the Arabs, who con- quered an extensive portion of it dur- ing the times of the caliphs ; the Bed- ouins ? Jews, Turks, and the French colonists of Algeria, etc. The coun- try, which was prosperous under the Carthaginians, was, next to Egypt, the richest of the Roman provinces, and the Italian States enriched them- selves by their intercourse with it. In the 15th century, however, it be- came infested with adventurers who made the name of Barbary corsair a terror to commerce, a condition of things finally removed by the French occupation of Algeria. Barbary Ape, or Magot, a mon- key the macacus inuus, found in the N. of Africa, and of which a col- ony exists on the Rock of Gibral- tar. It is the only recent European quadrumanous animal. It is some- times called the magot, and is the spe- cies occasionally exhibited, when young, by showmen in the streets, Barbazan, Arnanld Gnilhem, Sire de, a French captain, who waa distinguished by Charles VI. with the title of " Chevalier Sans Reproche," and by Charles VIII. with that of " Restaurateur du Royaume et de la Couronne de France," born about the end of the 14th century. He was kill- ed at Bullegneville, in 1432. Barbecne. 1. A beef dressed whole, as is done in an election cam- paign. To do this, the carcass of the animal, split to the backbone, is laid upon a large gridiron, under and around which is placed a charcoal fire. 2. A large gathering of people, gen- erally in the open air, for a social en- Barbel tertainment or a political rally, one leading feature of which is the roast- ing of animals whole to furnish the numerous members of the party with needful food. Barbel. 1. A small fleshy thread or cord, of which several hang from the mouth of certain fishes. 2. A knot of superfluous flesh grow- ing in the channels of a horse's mouth. Barber, one who shaves beards and dresses hair. In early times the op- erations of the barber were not confined, as now to shaving, hair- dressing, and the making of wigs; but included the dressing of wounds, blood-letting, and other surgical op- erations. It seems that in all coun- tries the art of surgery and the art of shaving went hand in hand. The title of barber-chirurgeon, or barber- surgeon, was generally applied to bar- bers. The State of New York in 1903 adopted a law regulating the business of barbers, enforcing stringent sani- tary rules in their shops, and appoint- ing a commission to enforce the law. Barber, Edward Atlee, an American archaeologist, born in Balti- more, Md., Aug. 13, 1851 ; was grad- uated at Williston Seminary in 1869, end was assistant naturalist in the United States Geological Survey in 1874-1875. Subsequently be was en- gaged in gold dredging. His writ- ings include a history of the ancient Pueblos and a large number of mag- azine articles on ceramics. Barber, Francis, an American general, born at Princeton, N. J., 1751 ; died 1783. He graduated at what is now Princeton University in 1767, entered the Revolutionary Army as a major in 1776, and rose steadily through meritorious service to the rank of Adjutant-General. He was acci- dently killed by a falling tree, after re- covering from severe wounds received at the battles of Momnouth, Newton, and at Yorktown. Barber, John Warner, an Amer- ican author, born in Windsor, Conn., in 1798 ;. died in 1885. His writings were mainly historical and include : State Annals ; " Historical Scenes in the United States," " Religious Events," " Elements of General His- tory," " Our Whole Country, Histori- cal and Descriptive." Barbierl Barberini, a celebrated Floren- tine family, which since the pontifi- cate of Maffeo Barberini (Urban VIII., 1623 to 1644), has occupied a distinguished place among the nobil- ity of Rome. Barberry, or Berberry, the Eng- lish name of the berberis. The com- mon barberry is planted in gardens or in hedges, being an ornamental shrub, especially when covered with a profusion of flowers or loaded with fruit It has yellow flowers with an unpleasant smell, which, however, are much frequented by bees. Their juice is acid, hence they are used for pre- serves and confectionery. Barber's Itch, a disease of the skin of the face caused by the en- trance of a fungus into the hair folli- cles of the beard. Barbet. Birds haying short, conical bills, with stiff bristles at the base, short wings, and broad and rounded tails. It is from the bristles, which have an analogy to a beard, that the name is derived. These birds are found in the warmer parts of both hemispheres, the most typical coming from South America. Barbette, a mound of earth on which guns are mounted to be fired over the parapet. In fortification. En barbette: Placed so as to be fired over the top of a parapet, and not through em- brasures. Barbiano, Abrecht da, an Ital- ian military officer ; formed the first regular company of Italian troops or- ganized to resist foreign mercenaries, about 1379. This organization, named the " Company of St. George," proved to be an admirable school, as from its ranks sprang many future officers of renown. He became Grand Consta- ble of Naples in 1384, and died in 1409. Barbier, Henri Auguste, a French poet, born in Paris, April 29, 1805; died in Nice, Feb. 13, 1882. Barbier, Jules, a French drama- tist, born in Paris; 1825: d. 1901. Barbieri, Giovanni Francesco, otherwise known as GUERCINO (the squinter) DA CENTO, an eminent and prolific historical painter, born near Bologna in 1590. He died in 1666. Barbonr PAOLO ANTONIO BARBIERI, a cele- brated still-life and animal painter, was a brother of Guercino; born 1596, died 1640. Barbour, Erwin Hinckley, an American geologist, born near Ox- ford, O. ; was graduated at Yale Col- lege in 1882 ; was assistant paleontol- j ogist in the United States Geolog- ical Survey in 1882-1888; Stone Pro- fessor of Natural History and Geol- ogy in Iowa College in ISS^lSdl ; became Professor of Geology in the University of Nebraska, and acting State Geologist in 1891 ; and curator of the Nebraska State Museum in j 1892. In 1893 he took charge 9f the annual Morrill geological expeditions, and since then he has also been en- gaged in the United States Geologi- cal and Hydrographic Surveys. Barbour, John, a Scottish poet, born about 1616. His great epic, " The Bruce," tells the story of Rob- ert Bruce and the battle of Ban- nockburn. It was written in 1375 and brought him favor from the King. He died in Aberdeen, March 13, 1395. Barbour, John Humphrey, an American educator, born in Torring- ton, Conn., May 29, 1854. He was rector of Grace Church, Hartford, till 1889, and then became Professor of New Testament Literature and In- terpretation at the Berkeley Divinity School. He died in Middletown, Conn., April 29, 1900. Barbour, William McLeod, a Congregational clergyman, born in Fochabers, Scotland, May 29, 1827; professor in Bangor Theological Sem- inary in 1868-1877; Professor of Di- vinity and college pastor in Yale, 1877-1887 ; became principal and Pro- fessor of Theology in the Congrega- j tional College in Montreal, Canada, ' in 1887. He died in 1892. Barca, a commissariat of the Ital- ian colony of Eritrea ; area, 12,700 square miles; pop. (1908) 36,862;! capital, Agordat. The name was ; formerly applied to the whole country extending along the N. coast of Africa, ; between the Great Syrtis (now the Gulf of Sidra) and Egypt, and bounded on the W. by Tripoli, and on the S. by the Libyan Desert. It was at one time considered a depart- ment of Tripoli ; at another as an in- Barclay de Tolly dependent province, governed directly from Constantinople. Barcelona, the most important manufacturing city in Spain, in prov- ince of same name; pop. (1910) 587,- 411. The province of Barcelona has an area of 2,681 square miles, and pop. 1,163,242. Barcelona manufac- tures silk, woolens, cottons, lace, hats, firearms, etc., which form its princi- pal exports. It imports raw cotton, coffee, cocoa, sugar, and other colo- nial produce ; also Baltic timber, salt fish, hides, iron, wax, etc. Next to Cadiz it is the most important port in Spain. The harbor was extended and its entrance improved in 1875. Barcelona is noted for labor disturb- ances. Barclay, Robert, the apologist of the Quakers, born in 1648, at Gor- donstown, Moray, and educated at Paris, where be became a Roman Catholic. Recalled home by his fa- ther, he followed the example of the latter and became a Quaker. His first treatise in support of his adopted principles, published at Aberdeen in the year 1670, under the title of " Truth Cleared of Calumnies," to- gether with his subsequent writings, did much to rectify public sentiment in regard to the Quakers. He died in 1690. He was a friend of and had influence with James II. Barclay de Tolly, Michael* Prince, a Russian military comman- der, of Scottish descent, born in Li- vonia in 1755. He began his military career in the campaigns against the Turks, the Swedes, and the Poles. He was wounded at Eylau, when he was made lieutenant-general. In March, 1808, he surprised the Swedes at Umea, by a march of two days over the ice which covered the Gulf of Bothnia. He was made governor- general of Finland, and, in 1809, ap- pointed Minister of War. He was author of the plan of operations which was followed with signal advantage by the Russian army in the campaign of 1812. After the battle of Baut- zen, May 26, 1813, he was appointed commander-in-chief of the Prusso- Russian army ; and under him Witt- genstein commanded the Russians; Bliicher the Prussians ; and the Grand Duke Constantine the Impe- rial Guard. .On the day the allies _enr Barclay- Allardice Bariatinski tered Paris he was created General Field-Marshal. He died in 1818. Barclay- Allardice, Robert, known as Captain Barclay, the pe- destrian, was born in 1779, and suc- ceeded to the estate of Urie, near Stonehaven, in 1797. He died May 8, 1854. His feat of walking 1,000 miles in 1,000 consecutive hours took place at Newmarket, in June to July, 1809. Barcocliba, or Barcokecas ("son of a star"), a famous Jewish impostor, whose real name was Sim- eon, and who lived in the 2d cen- tury A. D. After the destruction of Jerusalem by Titus, the Jews, at dif- ferent periods, sought to regain their independence ; and Barcochba, seeing his countrymen still impatient of the Roman yoke, resolved to attempt their emancipation. With this view he sought to sound the dispositions of his co-religionists of Egypt, Mesopo- tamia, Greece, Italy and Gaul, and sent forth emissaries, who traveled over all the provinces of the Roman Empire. When all was ready Bar- cochba, solemnly announced himself as King and Messiah, and seized by surprise on many fortified places. All who refused to submit to him, par- ticularly the Christians, were put to death. The revolt was crushed by the Romans after a five years' conflict in which Barcochba perished miser- ably. Bard, a poet by profession, espe- cially one whose calling it was to celebrate in verse, song, and play the exploits of the chiefs or others who patronized him, or those of contem- porary heroes in general. Bards of this character flourished from the earliest period among the Greeks, and to a lesser extent among the Ro- mans. Tacitus seems to hint at their existence among the Germanic tribes. It was, however, above all, among the Gauls and other Celtic nations that they flourished most. Bard, Samuel, an American phy- sician, born in Philadelphia, April 1, 1742 ; practiced in Philadelphia and New York ; was the principal mover in the establishment of the medical school of Kings (Columbia) College; president of the New York College of Physicians and Surgeons that suc- ceeded the medical school. He died in Hyde Park, N. Y., May 24, 1821. Barebone, or Barbone, Praise- God, a member of the legislative body assembled by Cromwell in 1653, after the dissolution of the Long Parlia- ment. The royalists facetiously dis- tinguished him by calling the con- vention "Barebone's Parliament." Barefooted Friars, monks who use sandals, or go barefoot. They are not a distinct body, but may be found in several orders of mendicant friars for example, among the Carmel- ites, Franciscans, Augustinians. There were also barefooted nuns. Barents, Willem, a Dutch navi- gator. He was one of the early Arc- tic explorers; his attempt being to find a northeast passage to China. In his first voyage he reached lat. 77- 78', and in his last, 80 11'. He com- manded several exploring expeditions around Nova Zembla and Spitzber- gen, on one of which he had seven vessels loaded with rich goods for Eastern trade. In the summer of 1596, he set out with two ships, wh.ch were frozen in at Ice Haven in Sep- tember. The following June they at- tempted to reach the mainland in boats, but most of them were lost. Barliam, Rev. Richard Harris, a humorous writer, born in 1788 at Canterbury ; educated at Paul's School, London, and at Brasenose, Oxford. He published an unsuccessful novel, Bald- win, wrote nearly a third of the arti- cles in Gorton's Biographical Diction- ary, and contributed to Blackwood's Magazine. In 1824 he was appointed priest in ordinary of the chapel-royal, and afterwards rector of St. Mary Magdalene and St. Greorgy-by-St- Paul, London. In 1837, on the start- ing of Bentley's Miscellany, he laid the main foundation of his literary fame by the publication in that period- ical of the Ingoldsby Legends. He died in 1845. Bariatinski, Alexander Ivano- vich., Prince, a Russian field-mar- shal, born in 1814, and educated with the future Czar, Alexander II. While a young officer in the hussars, some love passages with a Grand Duchess caused his transfer to the Caucasus, where his success against the famous Shamyl secured him, in 1852, the rank Baring of lieutenant-general. He died in Ge- neva, March 9. 1879. Baring, family name of the found- ers of one of the greatest financial and commercial houses in the world ; now known as Baring Brothers & Co. The father of the founders was JOHN BARING, a German cloth manufac- turer, who started a small business at Larkbear, near Exeter, England, in the first half of the 18th century. Two of his sons, FRANCIS and JOHN (1730-1816), established in London in 1770 the now existing house. In 1885, the then head of the firm, i Edward Charles Baring, was raised to the peerage, as Baron Revelstoke. Barite, or Baryta, a mineral called also baroselenite, sulphate of baryta and heavy spar. It is found In the United States and on the conti- nent of Europe. It is sometimes trans- parent, sometimes opaque. Baritone, or Barytone, a male voice, the compass of which partakes of those of the common bass and the tenor, but does not extend so far downward as the one, nor to an equal height with the other. Barium, the metallic basis of bary- ta, which is an oxide of barium ; spe- cific gravity 4 ; symbol Ba. It is only found in compounds, such as the com- mon sulphate and carbonate, and was isolated by Davy for the first time in 1808. It is a yellow, malleable metal, which readily oxidizes, decomposes wa- ter, and fuses at a low temperature. Bark, the exterior covering of the stems of exogenous plants. It is composed of cellular and vascular tis- sue, is separable from the wood, and is often regarded as consisting of four layers. Bark contains many valua- ble products, as gum, tannin, etc. ; cork is a highly useful substance ob- tained from the epiphloeum ; and the strength and flexibility of bast make it of considerable value. Bark used for tanning is obtained from oak, hemlock-spruce, species of acacia, growing in Australia, etc. Angos- tura bark, Peruvian, or cinchona bark, cinnamon, cascarilla, etc., are useful barks. Bark, or Barque, a three-masted vessel of which the foremast and mainmast are square-rigged, but the mizzenmast has fore-and-aft sails only. Barker Bark, Peruvian, is the bark of various species of trees of the genus cinchona, found in many parts of South America, but more particularly in Peru, and haying medicinal proper- ties. Its medicinal properties depend upon the presence of quinine, which is now extracted from the bark, im- ported, and prescribed in place of nauseous mouthfuls of bark. Barker, Albert S., an American naval officer, born in Massachusetts, March 31, 1843 ; was graduated at the United States Naval Academy in 1859 ; served on the frigate " Missis- sippi " in the operations to open the Mississippi river in 1861-1863, taking part in the bombardment and passage of Forts Jackson and St. Philip and the Chalmette batteries, the capture of New Orleans, and the attempted pas- sage of Port Hudson, where his vessel was destroyed. He became Captain May 5, 1892; commanded the cruiser " Newark " during the war with Spain ; subsequently succeeded to the command of the battleship " Oregon," which he took to Manila; became a Rear- Admiral, and was placed in com- mand of the Norfolk Navy Yard in 1899 ; and in July, 1900, became com- mandant of the Brooklyn Navy Yard. He died Jan. 29, 1916. Barker, Fordyce, an American physician, born in Wilton, Franklin co., Me., May 2, 1819; died in New; York city, May 30, 1891. BABK. Barker, Matthew Henry, an English novelist ; born at Deptford in 1790. Died in London, June 29, 1846. Bark Louse Bark Louse, or Scale Insect. The bark lice are very small insects, whose females are wingless, their bod- ies resembling scales. They sting the bark of trees with their long, slender beak, drawing in the sap, and, when very numerous, injure or kill the tree. On the other hand, the males have two wings, but no beak, and take no food. Barksdale, "William, an Ameri- can statesman and military officer, born in Rutherford county, Tenn., Aug. 21, 1821. He entered Congress in 1853, but gave up his seat when his State seceded, and took command of a regiment of Mississippi volunteers. He was made a Brigadier-General after a campaign in Virginia, and was killed at Gettysburg, July 2, 1863. Barley. Barley is the hardiest of all the cereals, and was originally a native of Asia, but it is now cultivated all over the world, even as far N. as Lapland. In former times, it was largely used as an article of food, but the greater proportion of the barley now grown is used in the preparation of malt and spirits. Barleycorn, John, a personifica- tion of the spirit of barley, or malt liquor, often used jocularly, and in humorous verse. Barlow, Francis Channing, an American military officer, born in Brooklyn, N. Y., Oct. 9, 1834; was graduated at Harvard College in 1855 ; studied law in New York, and prac- ticed there. In 1861 he enlisted as a private in the 12th Regiment, New York State National Guard, which was among the first troops at the front He was promoted Lieutenant after three months' of service; Colo- nel during the siege of Yorktown ; dis- tinguished himself in the battle of Fair Oaks, or Seven Pines, for which he was promoted Brigadier-General ; fought in almost every subsequent bat- tle of the Army of the Potomac. He was severely wounded at Chancellors- ville, May 2, 1863, and at Gettysburg, July 1, 1863. He was mustered out of the service with the rank of Major- General of volunteers. In 1866-1868, he was Secretary of State of New York; in 1871 became Attorney-Gen- eral; and in 1873 resumed law prac- tice in New York. He died in New York city, Jan. 11, 1896. Barnacle Barlow, Joel, an American poet and diplomatist ; born in Reading, Conn., March 24, 1754. In the course of his adventurous career he fell in with the French army and was a sharer in its memorable retreat from Russia. Being overcome by cold and privation, he died near Cracow, Dec. 22, 1812. Barmecides, an illustrious family of Khorassan, the romance of whose history is equally familiar to Eu- ropeans and Americans in the " Thou- sand and One Nights " (Arabian Nights' Entertainments), and to Ori- entals in the pages of their historians and poets; and who flourished at the Court of the early Abbasside Caliphs. BarmeCj or Barmek, the founder of the family, transmitted the honors con- ferred on him by the Caliph Abd-al- Malik to his son, Khalid, and from him they passed to his son, Yahia, who, becoming tutor to the famous Haroun-al-Raschid, acquired an influ- ence over that Prince; which, with Haroun's personal affection for the family, carried his sons, Fadl, or Fazl, Giaffar, Mohammed, and Mousa, to the highest dignities of the Court. The virtues and munificence of the Bar- mecides were, for a long period, dis- played under favor of Haroun, as well as to the admiration of his subjects; but one of the brothers, Giaffar, hav- ing at last become an object of suspi- cion to the cruel and treacherous ca- liph, Yahia and his sons were sudden- ly seized, Giaffar beheaded, and the others condemned to perpetual impris- onment. The year 802 is assigned as the date of this tragedy. Barnabas, St., or Joseph, a dis- ciple of Jesus, and a companion of the Apostle Paul. He was a Levite, and a native of the Isle of Cyprus, and is said to have sold all his property, and laid the price of it at the feet of the apostles (Acts iv: 36, 37). He was a beloved fellow laborer with Paul. Barnacle, a common crustacean belonging to the group of stalked cir- ripedia. It fixes itself to the bottoms of vessels and other inanimate and also animate objects, and its head being thus attached kicks food into its mouth with its legs. The term is often applied to persons who are superfluous fixtures in some institution or organ- ization. Barnard Barnard, Edward Emerson, an [American astronomer, born in Nash- ville, Tenn., Dec. 16, 1857; graduated at Vanderbilt University in 1887 ; was astronomer in Lick Observatory, Cali- fornia, in 1887-1895, and then became Professor of Astronomy in Chicago University and Director of the Yerkes Observatory. His principal discover- ies are the fifth satellite of Jupiter in 1892, and 16 comets. He has made photographs ef the Milky Way, the comets, nebulae, etc. The French Acad- emy of Sciences awarded him the Le- lande gold medal in 1892, and the Arago gold medal in 1893, and the Royal Astronomical Society of Great Britain gave him a gold medal in 1897. He is a member of many American and foreign societies, and a contribu- tor to astronomical journals. Barnard, Frederick Augustus Porter, an American educator, born in Sheffield, Mass., May 5, 1809 ; was graduated at Yale College in 1828 ; in- structor there in 1830 ; Professor of Mathematics and Natural Philosophy in the University of Alabama in 1837- 1848, and afterward of Chemistry and Natural History till 1854; Professor of Mathematics and Astronomy in the University of Mississippi, 1854-1861 ; its president in 1856-1858; and its Chancellor in 1858-4861. He was president of Columbia College, New York city, in 1864-1888. He died 1889. Barnard, Henry, an American educational reformer, born at Hart- ford, Conn., in 1811 ; died there in 1900. He was graduated at Yale in 1830; entered the legal profession, be- came interested in politics, and during service in the legislature distinguished himself by his interest in the public school system, and the vigor with which he urged reforms. He was in succession School Commissioner of R. I. ; Superintendent of Schools in Con- necticut ; President of the University of Wisconsin ; President of St. John's College, Annapolis, and was first Uni- ted States Commissioner of Education. He organized the Bureau, and in his reports suggested or supported the re- forms that have since been made. Barnard College, an educational (non-sectarian) institution for women only, in New York city; organized in 1889, and named in honor of Fred- erick A. P. Barnard, through whose Bar* Burners efforts its foundation was largely due. It was made essentially a part of Co- lumbia University, certain courses of study in the University and the use of its library being open to the students of Barnard. In January, 1900, the college was formally incorporated with Columbia University. Bn.rE.ardo, Thomas J., an Eng- lish philanthropist; founder of the Barnardo Homes for homeless chil- dren ; had his attention first turned in this direction by the condition in which he found a boy in a ragged school in East London in 1866. Fol- lowing up the subject, he began to rescue children who had found their only shelter at night under archways, or in courts and alleys. These were introduced to his homes, where they received an industrial training, were saved from a possible career of crime, and enabled to achieve an honorable position in life. He died in 1905. Barnato, Barney, a South Afri- can speculator. His real name is be- lieved to have been Bernard Isaac. He was born in London, England, about 1845, of Hebrew parents. He began business there as a dealer in diamonds, and in five years earned enough to buy shares in the Kimberley diamond mines. He established a partnership with Ce- cil Rhodes, and, when, in 1886, gold was discovered, secured possession of the greater part of the region. He committed suicide by jumping from the deck of the steamer " Scot," bound from Cape Town to Southampton, June 14, 1897. Barnave, Antoine Pierve Joseph Marie, a French orator, was born at Grenoble in 1761. The Con- stituent Assembly appointed him their President in January, 1791. After the flight of- the King, he defended Lafay- ette against the charge of being privy to this step, and, upon the arrest of the royal family, was sent, with Petion and Latour-Maubourg, to meet them, and to conduct them to Paris. When the correspondence of the court fell into the hands of the victorious party, Aug. 10, 1792, they pretended to have found documents which showed him to have been secretly connected with it, and he was guillotined Nov. 29, 1793. Barn Burners, the nickname given to the radical element of the Demo- Barnegat Bay cratic Party in New York State, which supported Van Buren in the campaign of 1848. Barnegat Bay, a bay on the E. coast of New Jersey, about 25 miles in length. Barnegat Inlet connects the bay with the Atlantic. Barnes, Albert, an American Presbyterian minister, born in Rome, N. Y., Dec. 1, 1798. For 37 years pastor of the First Presbyterian Church in Philadelphia ; he was best known by his " Notes " on the New Testament (of which over 1,000,000 volumes are said to have circulated), Isaiah, Job, Psalms, etc. He died at Philadelphia, Dec. 24, 1870. Barnes, Joseph K., an American medical officer, born in Philadelphia, July 21, 1817 ; was educated in the medical department of the University of Pennsylvania; became Assistant Surgeon in the army in 1840, and served at various posts through the Mexican War. At the beginning of the Civil Wir he was summoned from Oregon, and assigned to duty in the ! office of the Surgeon-General. In 1863, i he was appointed a Medical Inspector, j with the rank of Colonel, and in Sep- tember of the same year was promoted to Brigadier-General. In 1865 he was brevetted Major-General, United States Army. He was Surgeon-Gen- eral of the army from 1864 till 1882, when he was retired. He died in Washington, D. C., April 5, 1883. Barnes, William, an English poet and philologist, born in Dorset- shire, Feb. 22, 1800; died in Winter- .bourne Came, in October, 1886. Barne veldt, Jan Van Olden, Grand Pensionary of Holland, born in 1549. He had scarcely reached his 20th year when he was called to the office of Councilor and Pensionary of .Rotterdam; and such was the opinion even then entertained of his eminent abilities and integrity that he was al- lowed an important share in the man- agement of those transactions with France and England by which the United Provinces sought to maintain themselves against Spain, whose yoke they had just thrown off. His con- duct in the high office of Grand Pen- sionary of Holland and West Fries- land, which he afterward filled, not only secured the independence, but re- BLlfl. Barnnm stored the trade and improved the finances of the United Provinces. Af- ter the election of Maurice of Nassau to the dignity of Stadtholder, Barne- veldt became the champion of popular liberties, and opposed with determina- tion the ambitious designs of the new prince. The latter finally carried the day and Barneveldt was adjudged to death as a traitor and heretic, by 26 deputies named by Maurice. The sen- tence was carried into effect in 1619. Barney, Joshua, an American na- val officer, born in Baltimore, Md., July 6, 1759. He was captured by the British in March, 1778, but was exchanged in August of the same year ; was captured again and held a prison- er till he escaped in 1781. In April, 1782, he took the British ship "Gen- eral Monk," off Cape May; in Novem- ber, 1782, he carried dispatches to Dr. Franklin in France, and brought back a sum of money lent by the French government. 1794 he went with Mon- roe to France, and for six years served in the French navy. In 1814, he com- manded the fleet stationed in Chesa- peake Bay. He died in Pittsburg, Pa., Dec. 1, 1818. Barn Owl, a bird of prey belong- ing to the family strigidae. It is called also the white owl, the church owl, the screech owl, the hissing owl, the yellow owl, the howlet, and the hoolet. It is found in the United States and in Europe. Barnnm, Frances Courtenay (Baylor), an American novelist, born in Arkansas, 1848. Barnnm, Phineas Taylor, an American showman, born at Bethel, Conn., July 5, 1810 ; after various un- successful business ventures, finally es- tablished Barnum's Museum in New York (1841), which was twice burned. He introduced Tom Thumb, Jenny Lind, Commodore Nutt, Admiral Dot, the woolly horse, Jumbo, etc., to the American public. In 1871 he estab- lished his great circus. He was mayor of Bridgeport, and four times member of the Connecticut Legislature. His benefactions were large and frequent. He was a lecturer on temperance and other popular subjects. He died at Bridgeport, Conn., April 7, 1891. Barnnm, William H., an Amer- ican statesman, born in Boston Cor- Barnwell ners, N. Y., Sept. 17, 1818. He died in Lime Rock, Conn., April 30, 1889. Barnwell, Robert Woodward, an American statesman, born in Beau- fort, S. C., Aug. 10, 1801 ; was grad- uated at Harvard University in 1821 ; became a lawyer ; was a member of Congress from South Carolina in 1829-1833; a United States Senator from that State, 1850-1851; Commis- sioner from South Carolina to confer with the Federal Government regard- ing the proposed secession of the State, in 1860 ; member of the Provisional Confederate Congress, 1861-18G2; a Confederate Senator in 186^1866; and then president of the University of South Carolina (an office he had held in 1835-1841) till 1873. He died in Columbia, S. C., Nov. 25, 1882. Baroda, the second city of Guz- erat, and third in the Presidency of Bombay, India ; capital of the terri- tory of the Guicowar in the State of the same name. It is 248 miles N. of Bombay, with which it is connected by railway. Baroda occupies an im- portant situation between the coast and the interior, and its trade is con- siderable. Pop. (1911) 99,345. Barometer, an instrument for measuring the weight of the air and the variations of its pressure in order to determine changes in the weather, the height of mountains, and other phenomena. This most useful instru- ment had its origin in an experiment of Torricelli, an Italian, who flour- ished about the middle of the 17th century. Baron, in the feudal system of the Middle Ages, the title baron, derived from the Latin varo, which signifies a man, and, sometimes, a servant, was given, at first, to the immediate tenant of any superior. In England, baron is the lowest grade of rank in the House of Lords. Baronet, originally a term appar- ently in use as early as the time of Edward III. for certain landed gen- tlemen not of the dignity of lords, summoned to the English Parliament to counterbalance the power of the clergy. Subsequently it became the name given to three titled orders. Baronins, or Baronio, Caesar, an Italian ecclesiastical historian, born in 1538. He owes his fame to his work, " Ecclesiastical Annals," comprising valuable documents from the papal archives, on which he labored from the year 1580 until his death, June 30, 1607. Barony, the lordship or fee of a baron, either temporal or spiritual. Barotse, or Marotse, an impor- tant Bantu tribe inhabiting the banks and the regions E. of the Upper Zam- bezi, from about 14 to 18 S. lat. In Livingstone's time the Makololo were the dominant tribe in these parts of South Africa, but since then they have been almost entirely annihilated by the Bantus, who now occupy the vast territory from the Kabompo river to the Victoria Falls. Barouche, a four-wheeled carriage with a falling top and two inside seats in which four persons can sit, two fronting two. Barr, Amelia Edith, an Anglo- American novelist, born in Ulvertqn, Lancashire, England, March 29, 1831. She was the daughter of the Rev. Wil- liam Huddleston, and in 1850 married Robert Barr. She came to the United States in 1854, and lived for some years in Texas ; but after her hus- band's death (1867) removed to New York, where her first book, " Romance and Reality," was published in 1872. She is a prolific writer, and her nov- els are very popular. Barr, Robert, a Scottish author, born in Glasgow, Sept. 16, 1850; he spent his childhood in Canada, drifted into journalism, joined the staff of De- troit " Free Press," and wrote under the name of " Luke Sharp." He went to London in 1881 and founded " The Idler" with Jerome K. Jerome. He died Oct. 22, 1912. Barracan, strictly, a thick, strong stuff made in Persia and Armenia of camel's hair, but the name has been applied to various wool, flax, and cot- ton fabrics. Barracand, Leon Henri, a French poet and novelist, born at Ro- mans, Drome, May 2, 1844. Barrack, a hut or small lodge. The plural, barracks, is now generally applied to a large structure, either erected expressly for the housing of troops or one which has been impro- vised for that purpose. Barracuda Barracuda, a pike-like seafish al- lied to the mullets, common on both coasts of America. The great barra- cuda reaches a length of 8 feet and a weight of 40 pounds. It is as savage as a shark. Its flesh is pleasant flav- ored, but is not always eaten, as there are times when it it not wholesome. Barranquilla, the principal port of the Republic of Colombia, in the Department of Bolivar, near the left bank of the Main channel of the Mag- dalena, 15 miles distant from the sea. A railway connects it with the seaport of Sabanilla, 20 miles to the north- west. Trade is largely in the hands of the Germans. A United States consul is resident at Barranquilla. Pop. (1912) 48,907. Barras, Paul Francois Jean Nicolas, Comte de, a French Jaco- bin, born in Provence, in 1755, of an ancient family ; served as second lieu- tenant in the regiment of Languedoc until 1775. July 14, 1789, he took part in the attack upon the Bastille, and Aug. 20, 1792, upon the Tuileries. In 1792 he was elected a member of the National Convention, and voted for the unconditional death of Louis XVI. In February, 1795, he was elected President of the Convention, and, in that capacity, declared Paris in a state of siege, when the Assembly was attacked by the populace. After- ward, when the Convention was as- sailed, Bonaparte, by Barras's advice, was appointed to command the artil- lery; and that general on the 13th Vendemaire (Oct. 5, 1795), decisively repressed the royafist movement. Na- poleon's coup d'etat (Nov. 9, 1799), effectually overthrow his power. He died in Paris, Jan. 29, 1829. Barre, a city in Washington county, Vt.; on the Winooski river and the Central Vermont and other railroads; 6 miles S. B. of Mont- pelier; is widely noted for its granite quarries and interests connected therewith. Pop. (1910) 10,734. Barre, Isaac, a British soldier, born at Dublin in 1726. Gazetted as an ensign in 1746, he became friendly with General Wolfe, under whom he rose to the rank of Lieutenant-Colo- nel. He was wounded in the cheek at Quebec, was beside Wolfe when he fell, and figures in West's picture of "The Death of Wolfe." He entered Parliament in 1761, and held office successively under Lord Bute, Pitt, Rockingham, and Lord Shelburne. In Pitt's second administration he ex- posed the corruptions of the ministry, was a strong opponent of Lord North's ministry, and opposed the taxation of America. He died in London, July 20, 1802. Barren Grounds, a large tract in the Northwest Territories of Canada, extending N. from Churchill river to the Arctic Ocean, between Great Bear and Great Slave Lakes and Hudson Bay. It largely consists of swamps, lakes, and bare rock. Barrett, John, an American di- plomatist, born in Grafton, Vt., Nov. 28, 1866; was graduated at Dart- mouth College in 1889, and the same year went to the Pacific coast and was engaged in journalism till 1894. Dur- ing 1894-1898 he was United States Minister Resident and Consul-General at Bangkok, Siam, and, after the ex- piration of his term of office, repre- sented several American newspapers in Manila, Philippine Islands. After the American victory in Manila Bay he made a special study of conditions in the Philippine Islands, and, return- ing by way of London, addressed a joint assembly of members of the House of Commons and the London, Chamber of Commerce, on the condi- tion of trade in the Far East. He re- turned to the United States in the summer of 1899, and later held sev- eral diplomatic appointments ; became Director-General of the Pan-American Union in 1907. Barrett, I*awrence, an American actor, born in Paterson, N. J., April 4, 1838. His first appearance on the stage was in 1853. In 1856 he ap- peared as Sir Thomas Clifford in "The Hunchback" at Chambers Street Theater, New York city, and in 1857 he supported Mr. Burton, Charlotte Cushman, Edwin Booth, and other eminent actors. He served as a cap- tain in the 28th Massachusetts Infan- try in the early part of the Civil War. Later he acted at Philadelphia, Wash- ington, and at Winter Garden, in New York, where he was engaged by Mr. Booth to play Othello to his lago. After this he became an associate manager of the Varieties Theater, ia Barrett Barrow New Orleans, where for the first time he played the parts of Richelieu, Ham- let, and Shylock. He gained steadily in distinction both as manager and actor. His last appearance was on March 18, 1891, in the character of Adrian du Mauprat to the Richelieu of Mr. Booth. He died in New York city, March 21, 1891. Barrett, Wilson, an English dram- atist, born in Essex, Feb. 18, 1846; died July 22, 1904. Barrie, town and capital of Sim- coe county, Ontario, Canada; on an arm of Lake Simcoe and the Grand Trunk railroad; 64 miles N. W. of Toronto; founded in 1832; incorpo- rated in 1871; has steamers to all lake ports. Pop. (1911) 6,420. Barrie, James Matthew, a Scot- tish author ; born in Kurriemuir, For- farshire, May 9, 1860. He went to London in 1885, to engage in journal- ism. His peculiar talent for depicting Scottish village life and rustic char- acters with fidelity, pathos, and poetic charm, brought him fame. He was created a baronet in 1913. Barrier Reef, a coral reef which extends for 1,260 miles off the N. E. coast of Australia, at a distance from land ranging from 10 to 100 miles. Barrili, Antonio Ginlio, an Ital- ian novelist, born in Savona, in 1836. Engaging in journalism when only 18, he assumed the management of "II Movimento" in 1860, and became pro- prietor and editor of "II Caffaro" in Genoa in 1872. He took part in the campaigns of 1859 and 1866 (with Garibaldi in Tyrol) and in the Roman expedition of 1867, and sat in the Chamber of Deputies in 1876- 1879. He was one of the most prolific writers of modern Italy. D. in 1909. Barrios, Gerardo, a Central American statesman, born about 1810 ; became President of Salvador in 1860. He was deposed by Duenas as the out- come of the war with Guatemala, and, while endeavoring to bring about a revolution in order to become presi- dent again, he was captured and exe- cuted, in 1865. Barrios, Jnsto Rufino, a Guate- malan statesman, born in San Marcos, about 1834 ; opposed President Cerna in the revolutionary movements of 1867, and was active in overthrowing the regime established by that presi- dent (1871). Two years later, when Granados took command of the army, Barrios became President and, by suc- cessive elections, he held the office till his death. His administration was marked by prosperity and freedom. A war with Salvador resulted from a proclamation intended to bring about the union of all the Central American nations in one republic. In an assault upon Chalchuapa, Barrios, putting himself at the head of a deserted regi- ment, was killed April 2, 1885. His widow lives in New York. Barrister, Barraster, or Barre- ter, in England, a member of the le- gal profession who has been admitted to practice at the bar; a counselor at law. The term corresponding to bar- rister is in the United States counselor at law ; but the position of the latter is not quite the same. Barren, James, an American na- val officer, born in Virginia in 1709; became Lieutenant in the navy in 1798, and was soon promoted to Cap- tain. He commanded the " Chesa- peake " in 1807, and was attacked by the British ship " Leopard " as a re- sult of his refusal to allow the " Ches- apeake " to be searched for deserters. The " Chesapeake," which was quite unprepared, discharged one gun pre- vious to striking her colors. She was captured and three alleged deserters were found. Barren was court-mar- tialed and suspended for five years. Upon his restoration, as the outcome of a long correspondence with his per- sonal enemy, Commodore Decatur, a duel was fought and Decatur was killed. Barren became senior officer in the navy in 1839. and died in Norfolk, Va., April 21, 1851. Barren, Samuel, an American naval officer, born in Hampton, Va., about 1763 ; in 1805 commanded a squadron of 10 vessels in the expedi- tion against Tripoli. On his return to the United States was appointed Com- mandant of the Gosport Navy Yard, but died immediately afterward, Oct. 29, 1810. Barrow, an artificial mound or tumulus, of stones or earth, piled up over the remains of the dead. Such erections were frequently made in an- Barrow cient times in the New and Old Worlds. When opened they are often found to contain stone cysts, calcined bones, etc. Barrow, Frances Elizabeth, an American author, born in Charleston, S. C., Feb. 22, 1822, was educated in New York, where she was married to James Barrow. She wrote, under the name of AUNT FANNY, numerous books for children. She died in New York city, May 7, 1894. Barrow, Sir John, a notable Eng- lish writer on travels, born at Drag- leybeck, Lancashire, June 19, 1764; died in London, Nov. 23, 1848. Barrows, John Henry, an Amer- ican educator, born in Medina, Mich., July 11, 1847; was graduated at Oli- vet College in 1867 ; subsequently stud- ied in Yale College, Union and An- dover Theological Seminaries, and at Gottingen; was pastor of the First Presbyterian Church, in Chicago, for 14 years ; organized and was president of the World's Parliament of Re- i ligions, at the World's Columbian Ex- ' position in Chicago, in 1893. He de- I livered a course of lectures on Chris- tianity in the principal universities in India, under the patronage of the Uni- versity of Chicago, in 1896-^1897, and became President of Oberlin College in 1898. He died in Oberlin, O., June 3, 1902. Barrundia, Jose Francisco, a Central American statesman, born in Guatemala, in 1779. He became President of the Central American Republic in 1829; retaining office for something over a year. In 1852 he was again elected President. He came to the United States in 1854, as Min- ister from Honduras, to propose the annexation of that territory to the United States, but died suddenly be- fore anything was accomplished, in New York city, Aug. 4. Barry, Ann Spranger, an Eng- lish actress, born in Bath, 1734. As Desdemona she had, during her whole career, no competitor. She died in London, in 1801, and is buried in Westminster Abbey. Barry, Sir Charles, an English architect, born in London, in 1795. He was knighted in 1852, and died sud- denly in 1860. Barry Barry, John, an American naval officer, boru in Tacumshane, Ireland, in 1745. He settled in Philadelphia, in 1760. When the Revolutionary War broke out he was appointed com- mander of the "Lexington," with which he captured the British tender "Edward," in 1776. He afterward took command of the "Raleigh," which was captured by the British "Experiment ;" but in his next com- mand, the "Alliance," he captured the British ships "Atlanta" and "Tre- passy." He was chosen to convey La- fayette and Noailles back to France; and, in 1794 was appointed commo- dore. He died Sept. 13, 1803. Barry, Spranger, an Irish actor, the great rival of Garrick, born in Dublin, in 1719. He was brought up as a silversmith ; but his matchless form and voice led him to try the stage. He died in London, in 1777. Barry, Thomas Henry, an Amer- ican military officer, born in New York, Oct. 13, 1855 ; graduated at the United States Military Academy in 1877; was a brigadier-general of vol- unteers, serving in the China relief expedition and in the Philippines, in 1900-1 : promoted brigadier-general, U. S. A., Aug. 18, 1903, and major- general, April 29, 1908; commanded the pacification army in Cuba in 1907-9 ; superintendent United States Military Academy 1910-13 ; comman- der of the Eastern Department of Governor's Island, N. Y., 1913-17; then appointed to the newly-created Central Department. Barry, William Farquhar, an American military o^icer, born in New York city, Aug. 18, 1818; grad- uated at the United States Military Academy in 1838 ; and first saw active service in the Florida war (1852- 1853). In the Mexican War he acted as aide-de-camp to General Worth. At the outbreak of the Civil War he was made chief of artillery, and or- ganized the artillery of the Army of the Potomac. He subsequently be- came chief of artillery to Sherman, and took part in the march to the sea. In 1865 he was brevetted Major-Gen- eral. In 1867 he had charge of the Artillery School at Fort Monroe. He died near Baltimore, Md.. July 18 1879. Barry Barry, William Taylor, an American statesman, born in Lunen- bure. Va^ Feb. 5, 1784. He served in the War of 1812; and from 1814- 1816 was United States Senator from Kentucky. In 1828 he was appointed Postmaster-General under Jackson ; and was on his way as Minister to Snain when he died in Liverpool, Aug. 30, 1835. Barry more, Ethel (Mrs. Rnssell G. Colt), an American actress, born in Philadelphia, Pa., Aug. 15, 1879; made her debut with John Drew in 1896; appeared in leading roles with Henry Irving, and subsequently starred. Barrymore, John (John Ely the), an American actor, born Feb. 15, 1882, member of a notable theatrical family ; made his debut in Chicago in 1903; later appeared in London and Australia; became leading man in a players' film company. Bart, Earth, or Baert, Jean, a French sailor, born at Dunkirk, 1650, the son of a poor fisherman. He be- came captain of a privateer, and, after some brilliant exploits, was appointed captain in the Royal Navy. In recog- nition of his services, he was made commodore and ennobled. He died in 1702, and is regarded to this day as the typical naval hero of France. Bartn, Heinrich, a German trav- eler, born in Hamburg in 1821. His explorations, which extended over an area of about 2,000,000 square miles, determined the course of the Niger and the true nature of the Sahara. He died in 1865. Barthelemy - Saint - Kilaire, Jules, a French statesman ; born in Paris, Aug. 19, 1805. He was on the side of the Moderate party in the revolution of 1848, and during the troublous times of 1870-1871 he was closely associated with M. Thiers. In 1875 he became a life senator, and in the cabinet of M. Jules Ferry, consti- tuted 1880, he was appointed minis- ter of foreign affairs. The chief event of his tenure of this office was the oc- cupation of Tunis. He died in Paris, Nov. 25, 1895. Bartlioldi, Frederic Angnste, a French sculptor, born in Colmar, Al- sace, April 2, 1834; received the cross of the Legion of Honor in 1865 ; prin- Bartnolome-w cipal works : the " Lion of Belfort ; " statue of Lafayette, in Union Square, New York ; bronze group of Lafayette and Washington, in Paris (1895) ; and the colossal figure in New York harbor, " Liberty Enlightening the World." He died in Paris, Oct, 1904. Bartholomew, Edward Shef- field, an American sculptor, born at Colchester, Conn., in 1822; studied in New York and in Rome, where he lived during the latter part of his life. Among his works are " Blind Homer. Led by His Daughter," " Eve,' 1 " Youth and Old Age," etc. He died in Naples, May 2, 1858. Bartholomew Fair, or Bar- tlemy Fair, a celebrated fair, which was long held in Smithfield, England, at Bartholomew-tide. Bartholomew, Massacre of St., the slaughter of French Protestants in Paris, beginning Aug. 24, 1572. Af- ter the death of Francis II., Catherine de' Medici had assumed the regency for her son, Charles IX., then only 10 years old, and was compelled, in spite of the opposition of the Guises, to issue an edict of toleration in favor of the Protestants. The party of the Guises now persuaded the nation that the Catholic religion was in the great- est danger. The Huguenots were treated in the most cruel manner; Prince Conde took up arms ; the Guis- es had recourse to the Spaniards, Conde to the English, for assistance. Both parties were guilty of the most atrocious cruelties, but finally con- cluded peace. The queen-mother caused the king, who had entered his 14th year, to be declared of age, that she might govern more absolutely un- der his name. Duke Francis de Guise had been assassinated by a Huguenot, at the siege of Orleans ; but his spirit continued in his family, which consid- ered the Admiral Coligny as the au- thor of his murder. The king had been persuaded that the Huguenots had designs on his life, and had con- ceived an implacable hatred against them. Meanwhile, the court endeav- ored to gain time, in order to seize the persons of the prince and the admiral by stratagem, but was disappointed, and hostilities were renewed with more violence than ever. In the battle of Jarnac, 1569, Conde was made pris- Bartholomew oner and shot by Captain de Montes- quieu. Coligny collected the remains of the routed army ; the young Prince Henry de Beam (afterward Henry IV., King of Navarre and France), the head of the Protestant party after the death of Conde, was appointed coinmander-in-chief, and Coligny com- manded in the name of the Prince Henry de Conde, who swore to re- venge the murder of his father. The advantageous offers of peace at St. Germain-en-Laye (Aug. 8, 1570) blinded the chiefs of the Huguenots, particularly Admiral Coligny, wnc was wearied with civil war. The king appeared to have entirely disengaged himself from the influence of the Guises and his mother; he invited the old Coligny, the support of the Hugue- nots, to his court, and honored him as a father. The most artful means were employed to increase this delu- sion. The sister of the king was mar- ried to the Prince de Beam (Aug. 18, 1572), in order to allure the most distinguished Huguenots to Paris. Some of his friends endeavored to dis- suade the admiral from this visit ; but he could not be convinced that the king would command an assassination of the Protestants throughout his kingdom. On Aug. 22, a shot from a window wounded the admiral. The king hastened to visit him, and swore to punish the author of the villainy ; but, on the same day, he was induced by his mother to believe that the ad- miral had designs on his life. " God's death ! " he exclaimed : " kill the ad- miral ; and not only him, but all the Huguenots ; let none remain to dis- turb us ! " The following night Cath- erine held the bloody council which fixed the execution for the night of St. Bartholomew, Aug. 24, 1572. Af- ter the assassination of Coligny, a bell from the tower of the royal palace, at midnight, gave to the assembled com- panies of burghers the signal for the general massacre of the Huguenots. The Prince of Conde and the King of Navarre saved their lives by going to mass, and pretending to embrace the Catholic religion. By the king's or- ders, the massacre was extended through the whole kingdom ; and if, in some provinces, the officers had honor and humanity enough to dis- obey the orders to butcher their inno- Bartlett cent fellow citizens, yet instruments were always found to continue the massacre. This horrible slaughter con- tinued for 30 days, in almost all the provinces; the victims are calculated at 30,000. At Rome, the cannons were discharged, the Pope ordered a jubilee and a procession to the Church of St. Louis, and caused the Te Deum to be chanted. Those of the Huguenots who escaped fled into the mountains and to Rochelle. The duke of Anjou laid siege to that city, but, during the siege, received the news that the Poles had elected him their king. He con- cluded a treaty, July 6, 1573, and the king granted to the Huguenots the exercise of their religion in certain towns. The court gained nothing by the massacre of St Bartholomew. Bartholomew, St., the apostle, probably the same person as Nathan- ael, mentioned, in the Gospel of St. John, as an upright Israelite, and one of the first disciples of Jesus. Bartholomew, St., an island, one of the West Indies, in the Leeward group, belonging to France, being transferred by Sweden in 1878. It is a dependency of Guadeloupe. The island has a mountainous surface and is about 24 miles in circumference. Bartlett, Edwin Julius, an American chemist, born in Hudson, O., Feb. 16, 1851 ; the author of many papers on chemical subjects. Bartlett, Sir Ellis Ash me ad, an English politician, born in Brooklyn, N. Y., of American parents, in 1849; educated in England ; was Civil Lord of the Admiralty in 1885-1886, and 1886-1892, and brother of William Ashmead Bartlett, who married the BARONESS BTTRDETT-COUTTS. He died in London, Jan. 18, 1902. Bartlett, Homer Newton, an American composer, born in Olive, N. Y., Dec. 28, 1846. He wrote a large number of anthems, quartets, and glees, etc. He died in 1905. Bartlett, John, an American au- thor and publisher, born in Plymouth, Mass., June 14, 1820; became a pub- lisher in Cambridge. 1836, and head of the firm of Little, Brown & Co., 1878. He died Dec. 3, 1905. Bartlett, John Russell, an American author: born in Providence, R. L, Oct 23, 1805 ; was educated for Bartlett Barton a mercantile career. After 1837, he entered the book-importing trade in New York. In 1850, he was appoint- ed one of the commissioners to fix the Mexican boundary. In 1855, be was made Secretary of State of Rhode Isl- and. He wrote various valuable rec- ords, genealogies, local histories, etc. His best known work is his "Diction- ary of Americanisms" (1850). He died in Providence, May 28, 1886. Bartlett, John B., an American naval officer, born in New York in 1843; was appointed an acting mid- shipman in the navy from Rhode Isl. in 1859. During the Civil War, he took part in many important naval conflicts, from New Orleans to the capture of Fort Fisher. Subsequently he was on surveying duty in Nicaragua and on the United States Coast Sur- vey : was promoted to Captain, July 1, 1892; and was retired July 12, 1897. After the declaration of war against Spain, in 1898, he was re- called to active service, and on July 9, succeeded Rear-Admiral Erben as commander of the Auxiliary Naval Squadron for the protection of the Atlantic coast cities. He died at St. Louis, Nov. 22, 1904. Bartlett, Josiah, an American physician and statesman, born in Amesbury, Mass., in 1729; was one of the signers of the Declaration of In- dependence, and a member of the Con- tinental Congress (1775-1776) ; be- came Chief Justice of New Hampshire (1788) ; and first Governor of New Hampshire under the new State Con- stitution. He died in 1795. Bartlett, Panl Wayland, Ameri- can sculptor ; born at New Haven, 1865. His chief works are the eques- trian statue of General McClellan in Philadelphia, and the statue of Lafa- yette, presented to France by the chil- dren of America, and now in Paris. Bartlett, Samuel Colcord, an American educator, born in Salisbury, N. H., Nov. 25, 1817. In 1877 he ac- cepted the presidency of Dartmouth College, which he held until 1892, when he resigned. He died in Han- over, N. H., Nov. 16, 1898. Bartlett, William Francis, an American military officer, born in Haverhill, Mass., Jan. 6, 1840; was a student in Harvard University at the outbreak of the Civil War, but left to enter the army ; was wounded in the battle of Ball's Bluff, suffering the loss of a leg ; but continued in the service ; was twice wounded at Port Hudson ; and in the battles of the Wilderness, while leading the 57th Massachusetts Regiment, was again wounded, taken prisoner, and sent to Libby Prison. At the close of the war, he was made a Major-General of Vol- unteers for distinguished services in the field. He died Dec. 17, 1876. Bartolini, Lorenzo, an Italian sculptor, born at Vernio, in Tuscany, in 1777 ; went to Paris while still a young man. His chief patron was Na- poleon, who, in 1808, sent him to Car- rara, to establish a school of scupl- ture. Besides an immense number of busts, he. produced several groups, the most celebrated are " Charity," " Her- cules and Lycas." He died 1850. Bartolomeo, di San Marco, Fra, or Baccio Delia Porta, one of the most distinguished masters of the Florentine School of painting, born at Savignano, in Tuscany, in 1469. He was a warm adherent of Savonarola, after whose tragical end in 1500 he took the habit of the clois- ter. He died in Florence in 1517. Bartolozzi, Francesco, an en- graver, born at Florence in 1725, or acording to others, in 1730, died at Lisbon 1813. In Venice, in Florence, and Milan he etched several pieces on sacred subjects, and then went to Lon- don, where he received great encour- agement. After forty years' residence in London he went to Lisbon on the in- vitation of the Prince Regent of Port- ugal to take the superintendence of a school of engravers, and remained there till his death. Barton, Andrew, one of Scot- land's first great naval commanders; flourished during the reign of James IV., and belonged to a family which for two generations had produced able and successful seaman. In 1497 he commanded the escort which accom- panied Perkin Warbeck from Scotland. After doing considerable damage to English shipping he was killed in 1512. Barton, Clara, an American phi- lanthropist ; born in Oxford, Mass., in 1830; was educated at Clinton, N. Y . and early became a teacher, and Barton Bascinet founded at Bordentown, N. J., a free school, opening it with six pupils. In 1854 it had grown to 600, when she became a clerk in the Patent Office in Washington. On the outbreak of the Civil War she resigned her clerkship, and became a volunteer nurse in the army hospitals and on the battle-field. On the breaking out of the Franco- Prussian War, in 1870, she aided the Grand Duchess of Baden in preparing military hospitals, assisted the Red Cross Society, and, at the request of the authorities, superintended the dis- tribution of work to the poor of Stras- burg, in 1871, after the siege, and in 1872 did a like work in Paris. At the close of the war, she was decorated with the Golden Cross of Baden and the Iron Cross of Germany. On the organization of the American Red Cross Society in 1881, she was made its President In 1889 she had charge of movements in behalf of sufferers from the floods at Johnstown, Pa. ; in 1892 distributed .relief to the Rus- sian famine sufferers ; in 1896, per- sonally directed relief measures at the scenes of the Armenian massacres; in 1898 took relief to the Cuban re- concentrados, and performed field work during the war with Spain ; and in 1900 undertook to direct the re- lief of sufferers at Galveston, but broke down physically. In 1903 she undertook the re-organization of the Red Cross Society in the United States. She died April 12, 1912. Barton, George Hnnt, an Amer- ican geologist, born in Sudbury, Mass., July 8, 1852; was graduated at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1880; assistant on Hawaiian Gov- ernment survey, 1881-1883 ; assistant in Geology in the Massachusetts Insti- tute of Technology in 1883-1884 ; then Assistant Professor of Geology there; also occupied the corresponding chair in Boston University and the Teach- ers' School of Science ; and was As- sistant Geologist of the United States Geological Survey. In 1896 he was a member of the sixth Peary expedition to Greenland. He is the author of many technical papers. Barton, William, an American military officer, born in Warren, R. I., May 26, 1748 ; learned the trade of a hatter ; but joined the Revolutionary Army soon after Bunker Hill. On ! the night of July 10, 1777, he per- j formed the exploit which made him I famous. Leading 38 men, in four whale-boats, across Narragansett Bay, he surprised and captured the British General, Prescqtt, at his headquarters, and hurried him away to Washing^ ! ton's camp in New Jersey. Barton received a sword from Congress, and was brevetted Colonel. He was after- ward a member of his State Conven- tion which adopted the Federal Con- stitution. He died in Providence, Oct. 22, 1831. In his later years, like some other heroes of the Revolution, he was much reduced in circumstances and spent some time in a debtors' prison. Barton, William Paul Crillon, an American botanist, born in Phila- delphia, Pa., Nov. 17, 1786; died in Philadelphia, Feb. 29, 1856. Bartram, John, an American bot- anist, born in Chester county, Pa., March 23, 1699; died at Kingsessing, near Philadelphia, Pa., Sept 22, 1777. Bartram, William, an American botanist and ornithologist, born in Kingsessing, Pa., Feb. 9, 1739 ; a son of John Bartram. He compiled a list of American birds, which was the best of its kind up to the time of Wilson. He died in Kingsessing, July 22, 1823. Barnch, in Church history, a son of Neriah, who was a friend of Jere- miah's, and at least occasionally acted as his amanuensis (Jer. xxxii : 12; xxxvi : 4,. 17, 32 ; xliii : 6 ; xlv : 1 ; li : 59). Two apocryphal books or let- ters have been attributed to him. Barye, Antoine Louis, a French sculptor, born in Paris, Sept. 24, 1795 ; died in Paris, June 25, 1875. Baryta, or Barytes, or Oxide of Barium, the earth present in the min- erals witherite (carbonate of barium) and heavy spar (sulphate of barium). Basalt, a word said to have been, derived from an African word, and to have meant basaltoid syenite, from Ethiopia or Upper Egypt. In general the name is given to any trap rock of a black, bluish, or leaden gray color, and possessed of a uniform and com- pact texture. Bascinet, or Basnet, a light hel- met sometimes with, but more fre- quently without, a visor, in general use for English infantry in the reigns of Edward II. and III., and Richard II. Baicom Bascom, Florence, an American educator; daughter of Dr. John Bas- com, was educated at the University of Wisconsin, and at Johns Hopkins University, receiving from the first the degree of B. A. and B. L. in 1882, B. S., in 1884, and M. A. in 1887 ; and from the latter that of Ph. D., in 1892. She was the first woman to whom Johns Hopkins granted a degree, and the first to receive a Ph. D. from any American college. Subsequently, she was engaged in teaching ; became pro- fessor at Bryn Mawr College ; and, in 1899, was chosen to supervise the geo- logical survey of Chester county, Pa. Bascom, Henry Bidleman, an American clergyman, born in Han- cock, N. Y., May 27, 1796. In 1850 he was made a Bishop of the Metho- dist Episcopal Church. He edited the " Quarterly Review " from 1846 till 1850. His writings were published in 185S. He died in Louisville, Ky., Sept. 8, 1850. Bascom, John, an American edu- cator and philosophical writer, born at Geneva, N. Y., in 1827. He was President of the University of Wis- consin, in 1874-1887, and in 1891- 1901 was Professor of Political Sci- ence in Williams College. He wrote many works. He died Oct. 3, 1911. 2MJ-BAS6. CATCHER, BASE BALL DIAMOND. Base Ball, a field game played principally in the United States. It Basel originated in the English school-boy game of " rounders ;" but it has been so improved and so generally played as to merit its name of " the Na- tional game of America." The play- ing of baseball has become largely a business or a " profession," and skilled players receive large salaries. As an amateur game, however, it is also most popular. Basel Confession of, a Calvin- istic confession introduced by CEcolam- padius at the opening of the Synod of Basel (1531). It was adopted by the Protestants of Basle in 1534. Sim- ple and comparatively moderate in its terms, it occupies an intermediate place between Zwingli and Luther. Basel, Council of, a celebrated Ecumenical council of the Church, convoked by Pope Martin V. and his successor, Eugenius IV. It was open- ed Dec. 14, 1431, under the presidency of the Cardinal Legate Juliano Cesa- hini of St. Angelo. The objects of its deliberations were to extirpate here- sies (that of the Hussites in particu- lar), to unite all Christian nations under the Catholic Church, to put a stop to wars between Christian princes, and to reform the Church. But its first steps toward a peaceable reconciliation with the Hussites were displeasing to the Pope, who author- ized the Cardinal Legate to dissolve the Council. That body opposed the pretensions of the Pope. On the Pope continuing to issue bulls for its dis- solution the Council commenced a for- mal process against him, and cited him to appear at its bar. On his refusal to comply with this demand the Coun- cil declared him guilty of contumacy, and, in May, 1439, it declared Eu- genius, on account of his disobedience of its decrees, a heretic, and formally deposed him. Excommunicated by Eugenius, they proceeded, in a regular conclave, to elect the Duke Amadeus of Savoy to the papal chair. Felix V. the name he adopted was ac- knowledged by only a few princes, cit- ies, and universities. After this the moral power of the Council declined; its last formal session was held May 16, 1443, though it was not technical- ly dissolved till May 7, 1449, when it gave in its adhesion to Nicholas V. the successor of Eugenius. Baslian Bashan, a rich, hilly district, ly- ing B. of the Jordan, and between the mountains of Hermon on the N., and those of Gilead and Ammon on the S. The country takes its name (" fat," " fruitful ") from its soft and sandy soil. It is celebrated in Scripture for its stately oaks, fine breeds of cattle, and rich pasturage. i Baslif ord, James Whitford, an American clergyman, born in Fayette, Wis., May 27, 1849; graduated at the Theological School of Boston Uni- versity in 1876; became instructor of Greek at the University of Wiscon- sin in 1874; president of the Wesley- an University of Ohio iu 1889; and a bishop in 1904. Baslii Bazouks, a body of irreg- ular troops in the service of the Turk- ish Sultan. They are principally of Asiatic races, and formed a contin- gent of the Turkish army during the Russian War, 1853-1856. As light cavalry they are considered excellent. Bashkirtseff, Marie, a Russian author, born in Russia in 1860. She died in Paris in 1884. Basil, St., sur mimed THE GREAT, Bishop of Csesarea, in Cappadocia, where he was born about 326. Af- ter extensive travels, St. Basil re- tired to the Desert of Pontus, and there founded an order of monks. He succeeded Eusebms in the See of Csesarea in 370. He died in 380. Basilan, the largest island of the Sulu Archipelago, Philippine Islands. This island is very mountainous, and most of it is covered by virgin forests. The soil is extremely rich and produces e variety of valuable crops, including j cotton, coffee, sugar, chocolate, tobac- co, indigo, and spices of all sorts. Ba- silan has about 15,000 inhabitants and three excellent harbors. The name Basilan is also applied to the whole group of 34 adjacent islets. The lead- ing port is Isabela, on Basilan Strait. Basilica, originally the hall or court-room in which the King admin- istered the laws made by himself and the chiefs who formed his council. Many of the oldest and most splendid of the Roman churches are built on the plan of the basilica, and are call- ed basilicas in consequence. Basilisk, a fabulous creature for- merly believed to exist, and variously Bas-Relief regarded as a kind of serpent, lizard, or dragon. The name is now applied to a genus of saurian reptiles with a crest along the back and tail. Basket Ball, an indoor game play- ed upon a circumscribed space on a floor, usually by five players on each side. At each end of this playing space a basket is placed at a height of about 10 feet. The ball is round, somewhat lighter than a foot-ball, and is passed from one player to another by throwing, or striking with the hands only ; the ultimate object being to lodge it in the opponent's basket, which action counts one point. The rules as to interference, playing out of bounds, etc., are adapted from those of foot-ball. Baskett, James Newton, an American zoologist, born in Kentucky, Nov. 1, 1849; graduated at the Mis- souri State University in 1872. He has devoted himself to the study of comparative vertebrate anatomy, with ornithology as a specialty. Basking Shark, a shark, called in English also the sun fish and the sail fish ; it is the largest known shark, sometimes reaching 36 feet in length, but it has little of the ferocity seen in its immediate allies. It is called basking because it has a habit of ly- ing motionless on the water, as if en- joying the warmth of the sun. Basques, or Biscayans (in their own language, Euscaldunac) , a re- markable race of people dwelling part- ly in the S. W. corner of France, but mostly in the N. of Spain adjacent to the Pyrenees. They are probably de- scendants of the ancient Iberi, who occupied Spain before the Celts. They preserve their ancient language, for- mer manners, and national dances, and make admirable soldiers, especially in guerrilla warfare. Bas-Relief, that is, low relief, as applied to sculpture; a representation of one or more figures, raised on a flat surface or background, in such a man- ner, however, as that no part of them shall be entirely detached from it. Alto-rilievo, or high relief, is that in which the figures project half of their apparent circumference from the back- ground. Mezzo-rilievo, or middle re- lief, is a third species, between the two. But, generally speaking, the Bass first term is made to comprehend both the others. I Bass, in music. (1) The string (Which gives a bass sound. (2) An instrument which plays the bass part ; especially of the violoncello or bass- viol, and the contrabasso or double bass. (3) The lowest of the prin- cipal human voices ; those higher in pitch being, respectively, baritone, tenor, alto or contralto, mezzo-soprano, soprano. Bass, the name of a number of fishes of several genera, but originally belonging to a genus of sea fishes of the perch family, distinguished from the true perches by Laving the tongue covered by small teeth and the preoper- culum smooth. Bass, Edward, first Protestant Episcopal Bishop of Massachusetts, born in Dorchester, Nov. 23, 1726. During the Revolution he omitted from the church service all refer- ence to the royal family and the British Government For this he was expelled from the Society for Propagating the Gospel. In 1797 he was consecrated Bishop of Massa- chusetts, and finally also of New Hampshire and Rhode Island. He died in Newburyport, Mass., Sept. 10, 1803. Basset, a name used with some latitude in France for any very short- legged dogs, but especially for various breeds of sporting dogs resembling (though considerably larger than) the dachshund. Bassett, James, a Canadian-Amer- ican missionary, born in Glenford, Ontario, Jan. 31, 1834; served as a chaplain in the Union army in 1862- 1863 ; and afterward in 1871, he went as a missionary to Persia under the direction of the Presbyterian Board. There he finally obtained the estab- lishment of a United States legation in Persia. He died in 1906. Bassett, John Spencer, an American historian, born in Tarboro, N. C., Sept. 10. 1867; Professor of History in Trinity College, N. C., in 1893-1906, then at Smith College. Bassia, the mohra or moho tree. A large tree growing in the East Indies ; it is also found in Africa. The flowers have a heavy, sickening smell, and an intoxicating spirit is Bastille distilled from them. It is the Indian butter tree. Bassora, or Bussora, a town of Asiatic Turkey, on the W. bank of the Euphrates, here called the Shat- el-Arab, 56 miles from its mouth in the Persian Gulf. The population, once 150,000, had sunk in 1854 to 5,000, but the establishment of the English Tigris and Euphrates Steam- ship Company has altogether changed the prospects of Bassora and the town now probably contains at least 40,000 inhabitants, most of them actively en- gaged in commerce. Bass Strait, a channel beset with islands, which separates Australia from Tasmania, 120 miles broad, dis- covered by George Bass, a surgeon in the Royal navy, in 1798. Basswood, the American lime tree or linden, a tree common in North America, yielding a light, soft timber. Bastard, an illegitimate child. Ac- cording to the Roman law, one born out of wedlock might be legitimated by subsequent marriage and acknowledg- ment of his parents. The Roman law has been long adopted in Scottish law, and in that of some of the United States. Bastian, Adolf, a German trav- eler and ethnologist, born in 1826. He has travelled ve^ry extensively and his numerous writings throw light on almost every subject connected with ethnology or anthropology, as well as psychology, linguistics, non-Christian religions, geography, etc. D. in 1905. Bastian, Henry Charlton, an English biologist, born in Truro in 1837 ; was an advocate of spontaneous generation. He died Nov. 17, 1915. Bastion-Lepage, Jules, a French painter, born at Damvilliers, Nov. 1, 184& De died at the height of his fame, Dec. 10, 1884. Bastille, properly means any strong castle provided with towers, but as a proper name is applied to a famous castle which once existed in Paris, in which State prisoners and other persons arrested by lettres de cachet were confined. It was founded by Hugues d' Aubriot in 1369, and completed by the addition of four towers in 1383. The lettres de cachet mentioned above were issued in the name of the king, but the names of Bastion the individuals were inserted by the ministers, who were the depositaries of these letters. The invention of the lettres de cachet immediately opened the door to the tyranny of ministers and the in- trigues of favorites, who supplied themselves with these orders, in order to confine individuals who had become obnoxious to them. These arrests be- came continually more arbitrary, and men of the greatest merit were liable to be imprisoned. On July 14, 1789, the Bastille was surrounded by a tu- multuous mob, who first attempted to negotiate with the governor, Delaunay, but this failing attacked the fortress. For hours they continued the siege without being able to effect more than an entrance into the outer court of the Bastille, but at last the arrival of some of the Royal Guard with a few pieces of artillery forced the governor to let down the second drawbridge and admit the populace. The governor was seized, but on the way to the Hotel de Ville he was torn from his captors and put to death. The next day the de- struction of the Bastille, commenced. A bronze column has been erected on its site. The event considered by it- self was of no great national impor- tance, but it marked the beginning of the French Revolution. Bastion, a projecting mass of earth or masonry at the angle of a fortification, having two faces and two flanks, and so constructed that every part of it may be defended by the flank fire of some other part. Basutoland, a native province and British South African possession, bounded by the provinces of the Orange Free State, Natal, and the Cape of Good Hope; area, 11,716 square miles ; pop. (1911) 404,507 na- tives and 1,396 Europeans ; capital, Maseru. The province is divided into seven districts, and each district into wards, mostly presided over by hered- itary chiefs. The Basutos belong chiefly to the Bechuanas, and have made greater advances in civilization than any other South African race. Bat, the common name of all ani- mals of the class mammalia which are furnished with true wings, and so are capable of really flying or propelling themselves in the air. Bats are now generally placed by naturalists ill the Batchelder order cheiroptera, although, like many other animals of that great order, most of them are by no means exclusively LONG-EARED BAT. carnivorous. Upward of 130 species have been described, and there is great probability that the actual number ex- isting is very much greater. Batanes, a group of small islands in the extreme N. of the Philippines, over which, and Cagayan, nearby, American control was established in March, 1900. Pop. (1903) 46,787. Batangas, a province of Luzon, Philippine Islands; on the S. W. coast of the main body of Luzon; area, 1,108 square miles; pop. (1903) 257,715, all civilized; dominant race, Tagalog; capital, Batangas. It con- tains 22 pueblos. Batavia, properly the name of the island occupied by the ancient Ba- rtavi, became at a later date the Latin name for Holland and the whole kingdom of the Netherlands. Batavia, village and capital of Genesee county, N. Y.; on Tona- wanda creek and the New York Central & Hudson River and other railroads; 37 miles E. of Buffalo; is in a farming section; has varied in- dustries; and is the seat of the State Institution for the Blind and the Dean Richmond Memorial Library. Pop. (1910) 11,613. Batavia, a city and seaport of Ja- va, on the N. coast of the island, the capital of all the Dutch East Indies, founded in 1619. Its inhabitants are chiefly Malay, with an admixture of Chinese and a small number of Eu- ropeans. Pop. (1905) 138,551. Batchelder, Richard Napoleon, an American military officer, born in Lake Village, N. H., July 27, 1832; Batcheller Bates entered the Union army at the begin- ning of the Civil War; and was bre- vetted Brigadier-General, United States Volunteers, March 13, 1865; became Brigadier-General and Quar- termaster-General, United States Army, June 26, 1890 ; and was retired July 27, 1896. He was awarded aj Congressional medal of honor for dis- tinguished gallantry during the Civil War. He died Jan. 4, 1901. Batcheller, George Sherman, an American jurist ; born in Batchel- lerville, N. Y., July 25, 1837; grad- uated at Harvard University ; was ad- mitted to the bar in 1858 ; entered the Union army at the beginning of the Civil War; was taken prisoner at Harper's Ferry, and exchanged in 1863. In 1889 he became Assistant Secretary of the United States Treas- ury; in 1890, United States Minister- Resident, and Consul-General to Portu- gal; and in 1897, a member of the International Tribunal of Egypt again. In the last year he received from King Humbert the decoration of the great cordon of the Order of the Crown of Italy, in recognition of his services as President of the Universal Postal Congress which met in Wash- ington in May, 1897. D. in 1908. Bate, William Brimage, an American legislator, born near Cas- talian Springs, Tenn., Oct. 7, 1826. In the Civil War he rose from pri- vate to the rank of Major-General in the Confederate army, and was three times dangerously wounded. He was an Elector-at-Large for Tennes- see on the Democratic ticket in 1876; was elected Governor in 1882 and a U. S. Senator, 1887, 1893, 1899. He died Mar. 9. 1905. Bateman, Kate Josephine, an American actress, born in Baltimore, Md., Oct. 7, 1842. About 1851 she and her sister Ellen began to act, they being known as the Bateman Sisters. She became rich and famous, and, hav- ing married George Crowe, an Eng- , lish physician, identified herself with ! the management of a London theater. Bates, Alfred E., an American military officer, born in Monroe, Mich., July 15, 1840; was a Briga- dier-General, U. S. V., in the war with Spain in 1898. He died Oct 13, 1909. Bates, Arlo, an American author, born in East Machias, Me., Dec. 16, 1850. He graduated from Bowdoin in 1876, when he engaged in literary work in Boston, and afterward be- came Professor of English Literature in the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Bates, Charlotte Fiske, an American poet and miscellaneous prose-writer, born in New York city, Nov. 30, 1838. She was married in 1891 to Adolphe Roge, who died in 1S96. Bates College, an educational in- stitution at Lewiston, Me. This was the first college in the East to provide for the higher education of women. In 1916 it had a faculty of 30, and 472 students. Bates, Ed-ward, an American lawyer, born in Belmont, Va.. Sept. 4, 1793. He was Attorney-General of ti*e United States in Lincoln's first administration ; and had been a candi- date for the presidential nomination in 1860. He died in St. Louis, Mo., March 25, 1869. Bates, Harriet Leonora (Vose), better known as ELEANOB PUTNAM, an American story and sketch writer, wife of Arlo Bates, born in 1856 ; died in 1886. Bates, Henry Walter, an Eng- lish naturalist, born in Leicester, Feb. 18, 1825. In 1848 he began an ex- ploration of the Amazon region in Brazil. He died in London, Feb. 16, 1892. Bates, John Coalter, an Amer- ican military officer, born in St. Charles co., Mo., Aug. 26, 1842; edu- cated at Washington University, St Louis; entered the regular army as a Lieutenant in the llth United States Infantry, May 14, 1861 ; served on the staff of General Meade from the battle of Gettysburg to the close of the war ; promoted Captain, May 1, 1863; Ma- jor, May 6, 1882; and Colonel of the 2d United States Infantry, April 25, 1892. On May 4, 1898, he was ap- pointed a Brigadier-General of Volun- teers ; on July 8, was promoted Major- General for his services in the Santi- ago campaign ; on April 13, 1899, was honorably discharged under this com- mission, and on the same day was re- commissioned a Brigadier-General of Bates Volunteers. In February, 1899, he was appointed Military Governor of the province of Santa Clara, Cuba, and in April following, was ordered to duty in the Philippines, where he sev- eral times greatly distinguished him- self in the latter part of that year and the early part of 1900. In March, 1900, he was assigned to the com- mand of the department of Southern Luzon ; was promoted Major-General, U. S. A., June 9, 1902, and Feb. 1, 1906, was promoted Chief of Staff and Lieutenant-General ; retired. Bates, Joshua, an American finan- cier, born in Weymouth, Mass., in 1788. Mr. Bates was the principal founder of the Boston Public Library, and in 1852, the first year of its ex- istence, he made it a gift of $50,000, and later gave it 30,000 volumes. Died in London, Sept. 24, 1864. Bates, Katharine Lee, an Amer- ican story writer, poet, and educator, born in Falmouth, Mass., Aug. 12, 1859 ; was called to the chair of Eng- lish Literature in Wellesley College in 1891 ; has edited collections of bal- lads, etc. ; and written juvenile stories. Bates, Samuel Penniman, an American historian, born in Mendon, Mass., Jan. 29, 1827 ; State Historian of Pennsylvania, 1866-73; died 1902. Batfish, a fish found in the waters of Florida and the West Indies ; noted for its peculiar shape. Its ventral and pectoral fins resemble the legs of a frog. Bath, Order of the, in heraldry, etc., an order of knighthood, so called because the recipients of the honor were required formerly to bathe the evening before their creation. It was instituted by Henry IV. in 1399, and, falling into disuse, was revived by George I. in 1725. Bath Chair, a small carriage or chair on wheels, drawn by a chairman, and intended for the conveyance of in- valids or others for short distances. Bathometer, an instrument for measuring the depth of sea beneath a vessel without casting a line. Bathori, a Hungarian family, which gave Transylvania five princes, and Poland one of its greatest kings. Bathori, Elizabeth, niece of Stephen, King of Poland, and wife of Baton Count Nadasdy, of Hungary ; a histor- ical monster. By means of large bribes, she induced an old man servant and two female servants to kidnap and convey to her, either by stratagem or force, young girls from the neigh- boring country, whom she slowly put to death in the dungeons of her castle by the most horrible tortures. In- quiry was at length made into the ap- palling rumors, when it was discover- ed that this female fiend had murdered in cold blood, not fewer than 650 maidens. The domestics who assisted her were either beheaded or burned alive. The Countess, who merited cer- tainly the greater punishment, died quietly in 1614, in her fortress of Esej, where she had been confined for life. Bath-sheba, the wife of Uriah. David caused her husband to be slain, and afterward took her to wife. These sins displeased Jehovah, who sent the prophet Nathan to David, with the parable of the ewe lamb. David bit- terly repented, but yet was punished. Bath-sheba was the mother of Solo- mon, whose succession to the throne she took pains to secure. COLLAB AND BADGE, OBDEB OF BATH. Baton, a short staff or truncheon, in some cases used as an official badge, as that of a field marshal. The con- ductor of an orchestra has a baton for the purpose of directing the per- Baton Rouge Battle formers as to time, etc. In heraldry the bastard bar is a baton sinister. Baton. Rouge, city and capital of the State of Louisiana and of East Baton Rouge parish; on the Missis- sippi river and several railroads; 89 miles N. W. of New Orleans; built on a bluff commanding a fine view j of its environment. Besides the State : Capitol, it contains the State Uni- ,' versity, State Penitentiary, State '. Asylums for the Deaf, Dumb, and ; Blind, insane asylum, and many charitable institutions. It was the State capital in 1847-1864 and since 1880. The State ordinance of seces- sion was adopted here in 1861, and the city was held by Federal troops in 1862-65. Pop. (1910) 14,897. Batonm, or Batumi, a Russian port on the E. coast of the Black Sea. | Battering Ram, an ancient mili- j tary contrivance used for battering I down walls. It existed among the i Assyrians, the Greeks, and the Ro- mans. It consisted of a pole or beam of wood, sometimes as much as 80, 100, or even 120 feet in length. It was suspended by its ex- tremities from a single point, or from two points in another beam above, j which lay horizontally across two BATTEBING BAM. posts. When at rest it was level, like the beam above it. When put in ac- tion against a wall, it was swung hori- zontally by men who succeeded each other in constant relays, the blow which it gave to the masonry at each vibration being rendered all the more effective that one end of it was armed with iron. Battery, in law, the unlawful beating of another, or even the touch- ing him with hostile intent. In mil- itary usage, a certain number of artil- lerymen united under the command of a field officer, and the lowest tacti- cal unit in the artillery. In a bat- tery there are gunners who work the guns, and drivers who drive the horses by which these guns are transported from place to place. Batteries are usually distinguished as horse, field, and garrison. Batthyanyi, one of the oldest and most powerful of the noble families of Hungary, which traces its origin as far back as the invasion of Pan- nonia by the Magyars, in 884 A. D., and has given to Hungary many dis- tinguished warriors, statesmen, and churchmen. Battle, a town in Sussex, Eng- land, 6 miles N. W. of Hastings. An uninhabited heathland then, Senlac by name, it received its present name from the battle of Hastings, fought here on Oct. 14, 1066, which won England for the Normans. Battle, Cullen Andrews, an American military officer ; born in Powelton, Ga. ; June 1, 1829. At the outbreak of the Civil War he enter- ed the Confederate army, and during the war was wounded seven times, promoted Brigadier-General on the field of Gettysburg, and Major-Gen- eral in October, 1864. After the war he devoted most of his time to jour- nalism in Newbern, N. C. D. in 1905. Battle, Kemp Plnmmer, an American educator ; born in Frank- lin Co., N. C., Dec. 19, 1831; grad- uated at the University of North Car- olina in 1849; was a member of the State Convention of North Carolina in 1861 that passed the ordinance of secession ; State Treasurer, 1866- 1868; president of the University of North Carolina, in 1876KL891; and afterward Professor of History there. Battle, Lorenzo, an Uruguayan military officer ; born in Montevideo, in 1812. He was minister of war in 1866-1868; and president of the re- public in 1868-1872, when he resigned and resumed military service. Battle Bauxite Battle, Trial by, or Wager of (originally battel), an old method of deciding disputes by personal combat. Battle Creek, a city in Calhoun county, Mich. ; on the Kalamazoo river and the Michigan Central and other railroads ; 45 miles S. W. of Lansing ; is largely engaged in man- ufacturing, producing, among other commodities, a vast amount of break- fast and health foods. It is the seat of Battle Creek College (Adv.), and one of the largest sanitaria in the country. Pop. (1910) 25,267. Battle-Ground, a town in Tip- Eecanoe Co., Ind., where the famous attle of Tippecanoe was fought be- tween the United States troops under General Harrison and the Indians un- der Tecumseh and his brother, "The Prophet," on Nov. 7, 1811. Battleship, a term specifically ap- plied to a warship designed for fight- ing in the first line of battle, and to be able to give and receive the sever- est possible blows ; hence its armor is the least vulnerable, its guns are the heaviest, and the qualities of the cruiser and armored cruiser are sub- ordinated to its protection and arma- ment. The development of the battle- ship has been one of rapid progress among the maritime nations of Eu- rope, and from the rivalry to secure the most formidable type have come, in recent years, the Dreadnaught and Super-Dreadnaught classes. In 1916 the United States navy had twenty- six vessels classed as battleships of the first line and an equal number classed as battleships of the second line. Each bore the name of a State, and all ranged in displacement from 10,288 tons to 32,000. Several of the most powerful ones are popularly des- ignated as Dreadnaughts and Super- Dreadnaughts, but the official class- name is battleship. Batnm, or Batonm, a port on the east coast of the Black Sea, acquired by Russia by the Treaty of Berlin, on condition that its fortifications were dismantled and it were thrown open as a free port. It rapidly grew to be the main outlet for Transcaucasia, in- cluding the traffic in petroleum, im- mense quantities of which are shipped ; its harbor was enlarged for alleged commercial reasons ; an arsenal was E 15. built outside it ; it was connected by a military road with Kars ; and finally, in July, 1886, the Russian govern- ment declared it to be a free port no longer. Its importance as a naval and military station to Russia, is unques- tionably great, and it will probably rank as one of the strongest positions on the Black Sea. The water is of great depth close inshore, and the ship- ping lies under protection of the over- hanging cliffs of the Gouriel Moun- tains. Pop. (1913) 44,900. Baudelaire, Charles, a French poet, born April 9, 1821; died 1867. He was the herald, if not the founder of the so called decadent school of Freach literature. He seems to have striven to be as offensive as possible in the expression of his peculiar views of lifo, nature and God, yet his work will live because of its wonderful tech- nique, which is not equalled in French poetry. Bandry, Paul, a French painter, born Nov. 7, 1828, at La Roche-sur- Yon ; died Jan. 17, 1886. Bauer, Wilhelm, a German in- ventor, born in Dillingen, in 1822. He served as an artilleryman during the Scbleswig-Holstein War (1866), and, meanwhile, conceived the plan of a submarine vessel for coast defense. It was subsequently adopted by Russia. He afterward made improvements in torpedoes. He died in 1875. Bauemfeld, Eduard von, an Austrian dramatist, born in Vienna, Jan. 13, 1802 ; died Aug. 9, 1890. Banm, Friedrich, a German mili- tary officer in the British service in the Revolutionary War. He arrived in Canada in 1776, and in Burgoyne's expedition acted as Lieutenant-Colonel of the Brunswick dragoons. He was sent out with 800 men and two pieces of artillery on a foraging expedition. Near Bennington. Vt., be was attack- ed by the New Hampshire militia un- der Stark, and utterly defeated. He himself was killed Aug. 16, 1777. Bauxite, a mineral occurring in round, concretionary, disseminated grains: found extensively in France and other parts of Europe, and in the United States, principally in Alabama and Georgia. The purest bauxite is called aluminum ore, because com- mercial aluminum is made from it. Pa-asset Bausset, Louis Francois, Car' dinal, born in Pondiccherry, India, Dec. 14, 174& His father, who held an important position in the French Indies, sent young Bausset to France when he was but 12 years of age. He was educated by the Jesuits, and be- came bishop of Alais in 1784. After the restoration of Louis XVIII., in 1815, he entered the Chamber of Peers ; the following year he became a member of the French Academy; and, in 1817, he received the appointment of Cardi- nal. He died in Paris, June 21, 1824. Bautain, Louis Eugene Marie, a French philosopher, born in Paris, Feb. 17, 1796; died Oct. 18, 1867. Bavaria, a kingdom of Central Europe, in the S. of Germany, com- posed of two isolated portions of un- equal size. Bavaria is estimated to contain an area of 30,346 English square miles, and is divided into eight circles (kreise). The total population in MHO was 6,887,291. Bavaria is one of the most favored countries in Germany, in respect of the fruitfulness of its spiL In the plains and valleys the soil is capable of producing all kinds of crops. The forests of Bavaria, composed chiefly of fir and pine trees, cover nearly a third of its entire surface, and yield a large revenue to the State; much timber being annually exported, together with potashes, tar, turpentine, and other products peculiar to these wooded re- gions. The principal mineral products are salt, coal, and iron. Some of the mining works belong to the State, and contribute something to the public rev- enue; but the minerals are not wrought to the extent they might be. In the rearing of cattle and sheep the Bavarians are somewhat backward. Swine are reared in great numbers in all parts of the country, and poultry and wild fowl are abundant. The wolves and bears, with which the for- ests of Bavaria were at one time in- fested, are nearly extinct ^ The manufactures of Bavaria are singly not very important, being most- ly on a small scale, and conducted by individuals of limited capital. The principal articles manufactured are linens, woolens, cottons, silks, leather, paper, glass, earthen and iron and steel ware, jewelry, etc., but the sup- ply of some of these articles is inade- Bavaria quate to the home consumption. Of leather, paper, glass, and ironware, rather large quantities are exported. The optical and mathematical instru- ments made at Munich are the best on the Continent, and are prized accord- ingly. But the most important branch of manufacture in Bavaria is the brewing of beer the universal and favorite beverage of the country. There are over 7,500 schools in Ba- varia, attended by more than 1,091,800 pupils. Attendance at school is com- pulsory up to 16 years of age. There are three universities in Bavaria two of which (Munich andWurzburg) are Roman Catholic, and one (Erlan- gen) Protestant. The capital, Munich, contains a library of 800,000 volumes, including 25,000 MSS. ; several scien- tific and literary institutions, acade- mies, and national societies, and ex- tensive collections of works of art. The religion of the State is Roman Catholicism, which embraces more than 70 per cent, of the population. The Protestants number about 21 per cent. ; the Hebrews 1 per cent., the re- mainder being Mennonites, etc. Bavaria was formerly a member of the Germanic Confederation, and now forms part of the German empire. The executive is in the hands of the king. The legislature consists of two cham- bers one of senators, and one of deputies ; the former composed of princes of the royal family, the great officers .of the State, the two arch- bishops, the heads of certain noble families, a bishop named by the king, the president of the Protestant Gen- eral Consistory, and any other mem- bers whom the king may create hered- itary peers; the latter, of members chosen indirectly, one to every 38,000 persons of the total population. In 1805 Bavaria was raised, by the treaty of Presburg to the rank of a kingdom, with some further accessions of territory, all of which were con- firmed by the treaties of 1814 and 1815. In the war of 1866 Bavaria sided with Austria, in consequence of which it was obliged, by the treaty of August 22 in the same year, to cede a small portion of its territory to Prussia, and to pay a war indemnity of 30,000,000 florins. Soon after Ba- vaia entered into an alliance with Prussia, and in 1867 joined the Zoll- Baxter verein under Prussian regulations. In the Franco-German War of 1870-1871 Bavaria took a prominent part, and since 1871 it has been one of the con- stituent States of the German empire, represented in the Bundesrath by 6 ; in the Reichstag by 48 members. In 1886 King Louis II. committed suicide from alienation of mind. His brother Otto succeeded, but he being also in- sane, his uncle Luitpold became re- gent. The latter died Dec. 12, 1912, and was succeeded by his son, pro- claimed King as Ludwig III., Nov. 5, 1913. Bavaria staunchly supported the Kaiser's policies in the great World War. Baxter, Richard, an English Nonconformist preacher and theologi- cal writer ; born in Shropshire in 1615. He early entered the Church, and, taking sides with the Parliamen- tary party, became chaplain to one of the regiments of the Commonwealth. But, either his Republican opinions were offensively prominent or his enemies took advantage of his public preaching to denounce him ; for, after enduring much persecution, he, then 70 years old, was brought before Judge Jeffreys, who abused him in court, and fined him 500, with imprison- ment till paid. Baxter was a prolific writer, a large portion of his works being polemical. D. Dec. 8, 1691. Baxter, Sylvester, an American publicist, born in West Yarmouth, Mass., Feb. 6, 1850; was educated in Germany ; spent many years as a newspaper correspondent in various parts of the world ; "father" of the Greater Boston movement. Bay, an arm or inlet of the sea extending into the land, with a wider mouth proportionally than a gulf. Bay, a berry, and especially one from some species of the laurel ; also the English name of the laurus nobilis. A fine tree, with deep green foliage and a profusion of dark purple or black berries. Bayadere, a name originally given by the Portuguese to the singing and dancing girls of Hindustan. They are of two kinds those who are em- ployed as priestesses in the temples, and those who go about the country as itinerants. The former class cele- brate with song and dance the festi* Bay City vals of the gods ; the latter are em- ployed by the grandees of India to amuse and cheer them at their ban- quets. Bayamo, or San Salvador, a town in the interior of the E. part of the island of Cuba, situated in a fer- tile and healthy district on the north- ern slope of the Sierra Maestra. It is connected by a railway With Manzan- illa. Bayard, or more properly Bayart, Pierre du Terrail, Chevalier de, called the " knight without fear and without reproach " ; born in 1476, in the castle of Bayard, near Grenoble, was one of the most spotless charac- ters of the Middle Ages. He was sim- ple and modest; a true friend and tender lover; pious, humane, and mag- nanimous. He died April 30, 1524. Bayard, Thomas Francis, an American statesman and diplomatist, born in Wilmington. Del., Oct. 29, 1828. He was admitted to the bar in 1851 and practiced law until 1868, when he succeeded his father, James A. Bayard, in the United States Senate. In the Democratic National Convention of 1872 he received 15 votes for the presidential nomination, and in 1880 and 18&4 his name was voted on in the National conventions. In 1885 Mr. Bayard was chosen Sec- retary of State, and in 1892, was ap- pointed United States Ambassador to the Court of St. James, being the first to bear that title. Mr. Bayard filled this office with high honor to himself and his country. During his official residence in London he was the recipient of marked attentions, and by his public utterances and his engaging personality promoted the best feeling in both social and govern- ment circles. He died in Dedham, Mass., Sept. 28, 1898. Bay City, city and capital of Bay county, Mich., on the Saginaw river and several railroads; 13 miles N. of Saginaw; includes since 1905 the former city of West Bay City, on the opposite side of the river. The city is a port of entry; is in a rich farming section; and is engaged in manufacturing, the salt industry, the fisheries, and the cultivation of beet sugar and chicory. Pop. (1910) 45,166. Baycux Bayenx, an ancient city of Nor- mandy, in the French Department of Calvados, on the Aure. The Gothic cathedral the oldest, it is said, in Normandy was rebuilt after a fire by William the Conqueror, in 1077; bat the present edifice dates mainly from 1100 to the 13th century. Baycnx Tapestry, a celebrated roll of linen cloth or canvas, 214 feet in length and 20 inches wide, contain* Ing, in 72 distinct compartments, a representation, in embroidery, of the events of the Norman invasion of Eng- land, from Harold's leave-taking of Edward the Confessor, on his depart- ure for Normandy, to the battle of Hastings. It contains the figures of 623 men, 202 horses, 55 dogs, 505 ani- mals of various kinds nt hitherto enumerated, 37 buildings, 41 ships and boats, and 49 trees in all 1,512 fig- ures. These are all executed by the needle, and are believed to have been the handiwork of Matilda, the queen of William the Conqueror, and by her presented to the Cathedral of Ha. you x. This piec of tapestry is exceedingly valuable, lx>th as a work of art of the referred to, and as correctly represent ing the costume of the time. It has been engraved, and several works upon the subject nave been pub- lished. Bay Islands, a small group in the Bay of Honduras, 150 miles 8. E. of Knlizc. The cluster was proclaimed a British colony in 1852, but in 1859 they were ceded to the Republic of Honduras. Bayle, Pierr, French critic and miscellaneous writer, the son of a Cal- vinfst preacher, born at Carlat (Lan- guedoc) in 1047, died at Rotterdam 1700. His chief work is n Dictionary of History and Criticism, which he first published in 1. This work, much enlarged, has passed through many editions. It is a vast store- house of farts, discussions, and opin- ions, and though it was publicly << -n- xured by the Rotterdam consistory for its frequent impurities, its pervading Hecptirism, nnd tacit atheism, it long remained n favorite look both with literary men and with men of the world. The articlen in his dictionary, in themselves, are generally of little value, and serve only as a pretext for Bayonet the notes, in which the author dis- plays, at the same time, his learning and the power of his logic. Bayley, James Roosevelt, an American theologian, born in New York city, Aug. 23, 1814; studied at Trinity College, Hartford, and became minister of the Protestant Episcopal Church ; but, in 1842, was converted to the Roman Catholic faith ; and, af- ter studying at Paris and Rome, be- came a priest in 1844. After serving as secretary to Archbishop Hughes, be was consecrated the first Bishop of Newark, N. J., in 1853. In 1872 he became Archbishop of Baltimore, Md. He was the founder of Seton Hall College and several other institutions. He died in Newark, N. J., Oct. 3, 1877. Bayley, William Shirley, an American geologist, born in Baltimore, Md, Nov. 10, 1801; graduated at Johns Hopkins, in 1883; since 1887 has been Assistant Geologist of the Lake Superior division of the United States Geological Survey, and since 1886 associate editor of the "Ameri- can Naturalist" Baylor University, a coeduca- tional institution in Waco, Tex. ; now under the auspices of the Baptist Church. Bayly. Ada Ellen, an English novelist, best known as EDNA LYAJLL. Bayly, Thomas Haynes, an Eng- lish song-writer and author; born in Bath, Oct 13, 1797. After deserting successively both law and church, Bay- ly, during a short sojourn in Dublin, first discovered his powers as a ballad writer nnd achieved his earliest suc- cesses. He died April 22, 1839. Baynes, Thomas Spencer, an English editor, born in Wellington, Somerset, in 1823. He studied under Sir William Hamilton at Edinburgh, and in 1804 he was appointed to the Chair of Logic, Rhetoric, and Meta- physics in St. Andrews University, a post he held till his death, in London, in 1887. Bayonet, a straight sharp-point- ed weapon, generally triangular, in- tended to be fixed upon the muzzle of a rifle or musket, which is thus trans- formed into a thrusting weapon. It was probably invented about 1040, in Bayonne (though this is doubtful). but was not universally introduced Bayonne until after the pike was wholly laid aside, in the beginning of the 18th cen- tury. About 1690 the bayonet began to be fastened by means of a socket to the outside of the barrel, instead of being inserted as formerly in the in- side. A variety of the bayonet, called the sword bayonet, is widely used. Bayonne, a city in Hudson county, N. J.; on New York harbor. Newark bay, and the Contra] Railroad of New Jersey; 7 miles S. W. of New York city; is principally engaged in shipping coal and refining petroleum; and has a fine residential section. Pop. (1910) 55,545. Bayonne Conference, a confer- ence held at Bayonne, in June, 1565, between Charles IX. of France, the queen mother, Catherine de Medic-is, Elizabeth, Queen of Spain, and the Duke of Alva, envoy of Philip II., to arrange plans for the repression of the Huguenots. It is generally believed that the massacre of St. Bartholo- mew's Day was determined upon at this meeting. Bayonne, Treaty of, a treaty of peace agreed to May 4, 1808, and signed on the next day, between Na- poleon I. and Charles IV., King of Spain. The latter resigned his king- dom, and Napoleon I. engaged to main- tain its integrity, and to preserve the Roman Catholic religion. His son, Ferdinand VII., confirmed the cession May 10. Bayrenth. See BEYBOUT. Bayrlioffor, Karl Theodore, a German Hegelian philosopher, and radical politician, born in Marburg in 1812, was Professor of Philosophy there, taking the chair in 1845. In 1846 his radical views caused his ex- pulsion. During the brief rule of lib- eralism in Hesse, be was chosen pres- ident of the Chamber; but, in 1853. he was forced to flee to the United States. He died in Jordan, Wis., Feb. 3, 1888. Bay Rum, an aromatic, spirituous liquid, used by hair dressers and per- fumers, prepared in the West Indies by distilling rum in which bay leaves have been steeped. Bay Salt, a general term for coarse grained salt, but properly ap- plied to salt obtained by spontaneous B as tan or natural evaporation of sea water in large shallow tanks or bays. Bay Window, a window projecting beyond the line of the front of a house, generally either in a semi-hex- agon or semi-octagon. Bazaine, Francois, Achille, a French military officer, born in Ver- sailles, Feb. 13, 1811. He served in Algeria, in Spain against the Carlists, in the Crimean War, and joined the Mexican expedition as general or di- vision, in 1862, and, in 1864, was made a marshal of France. He com- manded the 3d Army Corps in the Franco-Prussian War, when he capit- ulated at Metz, after a seven weeks' siege, with an army of 175,000 men. For this act he was tried by court- martial in 1871, found guilty of trea- son and condemned to death. This sentence was commuted to 20 years' seclusion in the Isle St. Marguerite, from which he escaped and retired to Spain. He died in Madrid, Sept 23, 1888. His widow, who had clunk faithfully to him in his adversity, and had plotted successfully for his escape, died in Mexico City, Jan. 8, 1900. She was a woman of aristocratic birth and much beauty. Bazan, Emilia Par do, a Span- ish author, born in Coruna, in 1852; published works on history and phil- osophy, and was the author of " Stud- ies in Darwinism," " Saint Francis of Assisi," and many novels. These, translated into English, have become very popular. Bazar, an exchange; a market place; a place where goods are ex- posed for sale. Bazar is a term orig- inally derived from the Arabic, and literally signifies the sale or exchange of goods. The name has of late years been adopted in many American and European cities, and is applied to places for the sale of fancy goods, etc. Baztan, or Bastan, a Pyrenean valley in the extreme N. of Spain; having a length of 9 miles, and an average breadth of 4 miles. It is in- habited by about 8.000 people, who form, under Spanish supervision, a sort of diminutive republic, at the head of which is the mayor of Elizon- do. The citizens of this republic rank with the Spanish nobility and hold special privileges, which were granted Bdellium them for former services to the Span- ish crown. Bdellium, in Scripture, is in He- brew bedholachh, rendered in the Sep- tuagint of Gen. ii: 12, anthrax (lit- erally, burning coal). Some modern writers, following the Septuagint translation, make it a mineral, as are the gold and the onyx stone, with which it is associated in Gen. ii : 12. Others think that it was the gum de- scribed below; while the Rabbins, Bo- chart, and Gesenius consider that it was a pearl, or pearls. Beach, Alfred Ely, an American publisher and inventor, born in Spring- field, Mass., in 1826; son of Moses Yale Beach, editor of the old New York " Sun." In 1846 he established the " Scientific American," in connec- tion with Orson D. Munn. For nearly 50 years he was editor of this paper and director of its patent business. He died in New York city, Jan. 1, 1896. Beach, Amy Marcy Cheney, an American composer, and one of the chief of the few women who are dis- tinguished as creative musicians. She was born in New Hampshire, Sept. 5, 1867. Her most important works are "The Gaelic Symphony," for full or- chestra, a "Jubilate," written for the dedication of the Woman's Building at the Chicago Exposition, and a cyclus of fourteen songs. Beach, Moses Tale, an American publisher and inventor, born 1800 ; died 1868. He became owner of the New York " Sun " three years after its establishment. His inventions relate to the manufacture of paper, and in- clude a rag-cutting machine. Beaconsfield, Benjamin Dis- raeli, Earl of, an English states- man and author; born in London, England, Dec. 21, 1804 ; the eldest son of Isaac D'Israeli, the well-known au- thor of the " Curiosities of Litera- ture " ; his mother also being of Jew- ish race. Little is known of his early education, though it is certain he never attended a public school or a university. In 1817 he was baptized into the Church of England. He ac- quired a good reputation as an author, and sought eminence in politics. His first appointment to office was in 1852, when he became chancellor of the exchequer under Lord Derby. In .' Beale February, 1868, he reached the summit of his ambition, becoming premier on the resignation of Lord Derby, but being in a minority after the general election he had i to give up office the following Decem- i ber. In 1874 he again became prime minister with a strong Conservative majority, and he remained in power for six years. This period was marked by his elevation to the peerage in 1876 as Earl of Beaconsfield, and by the prominent part he took in regard to the Eastern question and the con- clusion of the treaty of Berlin in 1878, when he visited the German capital. In the spring of 1880 Parliament was rather suddenly dissolved, and the new Parliament showing an over- whelming Liberal majority, he re- signed office, though he still retained the leadership of his party. Not long after this, the publication of a novel called " Endymion " (his last, " Lo- thair," had been published 10 years before) showed that his intellect was still vigorous. His physical powers, however, Were now giving way, and he died April 19, 1881, after an ill- ness of some weeks' duration. His wife had died in 1872 after having been created Viscountess Beaconsfield. Bead Snake, a beautiful little snake, variegated with yellow, car- mine, and jet black. Though venom- ous, it rarely uses its fangs. It is about two feet long. Beagle, a small hunting dog. Beagle Island, an island discov- ered by Admiral Fitzroy, during a voyage in the " Beagle," to survey Patagonia, in 1828-1834. The chan- nel of the same name is on the S. side of the Island of Tierra del Fuego. Beal, George Lafayette, an American military officer, born in Nor- way, Me., May 21, 1825. When the Civil War broke out, he was captain of the Norway Light Infantry. On Jan. 15, 1866, he was mustered out of service with the brevet of Major-Gen- eral of Volunteers. In 1880-:1885 he was adjutant-general of Maine, and in 1888-1894, State treasurer. He died in Norway, Me., Dec. 11, 1896. Beale, Edward Fitzgerald, an American diplomatist, born in Wash- ington, D. C., Feb. 4, 1822 ; graduated Beale at the United States Naval Academy in 1842, and at the beginning of the Mexican War was assigned to duty in California, under Commodore Stock- ton. After the war, he resigned his naval commission and was appointed Superintendent of Indian Affairs for California and New Mexico. He was commissioned a Brigadier-General in the army by President Pierce. He served in the Union army in the Civil War, and at its close engaged in stock raising in Los Angeles, Cal., till 1876, when President Grant appointed him United States Minister to Austria. He died in Washington, D. C., April 22, 1893. Beale, Lionel Smith, an English physiologist and microscopist, born in London, Feb. 5, 1828. He is a mem- ber of the Royal Medical and Chirur- gical, the Microscopical, and other English and foreign societies, and is the author of a number of medical and scientific works. Beall, John Young, a Confeder- ate guerilla, born in Virginia, Jan. 1, 1835 ; was appointed an acting master in the Confederate naval service in 1863. On Sept 19, 1864, he and a number of followers were shipped on the Lake Erie steamer " Philo Par- sons " as passengers, and at a given signal, took possession of the vessel, making prisoners of the crew. They also scuttled another boat, the " Isl- and Queen," and tried to wreck a railroad train near Buffalo, N. Y. In spite of a proclamation of Jefferson Davis assuming the responsibility of this expedition, Beall was hanged on Governor's Island, New York, Feb. 24, 1865, on the ground that, if act- ing under orders, he should have shown some badge of authority. Beam, a long, straight and strong piece of wood, iron, or steel, especially when holding an important place in some structure, and serving for sup- port or consolidation ; often equivalent to girder. In a balance it is the part from the ends of which the scales are suspended. In a loom it is a cylin- drical piece of wood on which weavers wind the warp before weaving; also, the cylinder on which the cloth is rolled as it is woven. In a ship, one of the strong transverse pieces stretch- ing across from one side to the other Bean to support the decks and retain the sides at their proper distance ; hence, a ship is said to be on her beam ends when lying over on her side. Beaming, the art of winding the web on the weaver's beam in a manner suitable for weaving, with regard to firmness and evenness. It is to some extent a special employment, followed by workmen trained as beamers. Bean, a well known cultivated plant which may be primarily divided into the garden bean and the field bean. Of the former, there are numer- ous sub-varieties. The earliest is the mazagan, which is small seeded ; while the largest is the Windsor. The field bean runs into two leading sub-varie- ties, a larger and a smaller one. The navy bean is the common white bean used as an article of diet. The word is also applied to any leguminous plant resembling a bean, though not of the genuine genus. Such, for example, as the Florida bean, which is the seed, not the fruit, of a West Indian plant. These seeds are washed up on the Florida shore, and are sometimes used as food, and some- times they are polished and used as ornaments. Bean, Nehemiah S., an Ameri- can inventor, born in Gilmanton, N. H., in 1818; learned the machinist's trade. In the winter of 1857-1858 he built his first steam fire engine, which he named the " Lawrence, and sold it to the city of Boston. In 1859 be took the management of the Amos- keag Locomotive Works in Manches- ter, where he had been employed in 1847-1850. During 1859 he built the " Amoskeag Steam Fire Engine, No. 1," the first of a class of engines which now is used everywhere. He died in Manchester, N. H., July 20, 1896. Bean, Tarleton Hoffman, an American ichthyologist, born in Bain- bridge, Pa., Oct. 8, 1846 ; graduated at Columbian University in Washington, in 1876. He was curator of the De- partment of Fishes, United States National Museum, in 1880-1895; represented the United States Fish Commission at the World's Colum- bian Exposition in 1893, and at At- lanta in 1895. Paris in 1900, and St. Louis in 1904; became New York State Fish Culturist in 1906. Bear Bear, the English name of the va- rious species of plantigrade mammals belonging to the ursus and some neigh- boring genera. The term plantigrade, applied to the bears, intimates that they walk on the soles of their feet; not, like the digitigrade animals, on their toes. Though having six incisor teeth in each jaw, like the rest of the carnivora, yet the tubercular crowns of the molar teeth show that their food is partly vegetable. They grub up roots, and, when they can obtain it, greedily devour honey. They hiber- nate in winter. The best known spe- cies is ursus arctos, the brown bear, the one sometimes seen dancing to the amusement r* f children in the streets. They are wild in this country, on the continent of Europe, and in Asia. The grizzly bear, black bear and Polar bear are well known in menageries. In Stock Exchange parlance, a bear is one who contracts to sell on a specified day certain stock not be- longing to him, at the market price then prevailing, on receiving imagi- nary payment for them at the rate which obtains when the promise was maJe. It now becomes his interest that the stock on which he has specu- lated should fall in price ; and he is tempted to effect this end by circulat- ing adverse rumors regarding it ; while the purchaser, called a " bull," sees it to his advantage to make it rise. The origin of the term is uncertain. In astronomy, the word is applied to one or other of two constellations, Ursa Major and Ursa Minor, called respectively the Great Bear and the Little Bear. When the word Bear stands alone, it signifies Ursa Major. Beard, the hair that grows on the chin, lips, and adjacent parts of the face of men, and sometimes, though rarely, of women. Its growth is the distinctive sign of manhood. Beard, Daniel Carter, an Amer- ican artist and author, born in Cincin- nati, O., June 21, 1850 ; first engaged in civil engineering, but later stud- ied art and has since become known as a Book and magazine illus- trator. He founded and became teach- er of the Department of Animal Draw- ing in the Woman's School of Applied Design, believed to be the first class of this character in the world. Bear Lake Beard, George Miller, an Amer- ican physician and hygienic writer, born at Montville, Conn., May 8, 1839 ; made a specialty of the study of stimulants and narcotics, hypnotism, spiritualism, etc. He died in New York, Jan. 23, 1883. Beard, Henry, an American paint- er, born in Ohio, in 1841 ; son of James Henry Beard, and nephew of William Holbrook Beard ; served in the Union army during the Civil War; and, after his removal to New York city, in 1877, was chiefly en- gaged in illustrating books and period- icals. He died in New York, Nov. 19, 1889. Beard, James Henry, an Amer- ican painter, born in Buffalo, N. Y., in 1814. In his childhood his parents removed to Ohio. He became a por- trait painter in Cincinnati, and paint- ed the portraits of Henry Clay and other distinguished men. He died in Flushing, N. Y., April 4, 1893. Beard, William Holbrook, an American painter, born in Paines- ville, O., April 13, 1825; brother of James H. Beard ; was a traveling por- trait painter from 1846 till 1851, when he settled in Buffalo, N. Y. He made many studies of decorative archi- tecture. He died in New York city, Feb. 20, 1900. Beard Moss, a lichen of gray color, forming a shaggy coat on many forest trees. Beardsley, Aubrey, an English author and illustrator, born in Bright- on, in 1874; died in Mentone, France, March 16, 1898. Beardsley, Samuel, an American jurist, born in Hoosic, N. Y., Feb. 9, 1790. He became Associate Judge of the Supreme Court of New York in 1844, and three years later succeeded Judge Bronson as Chief Justice. On his retirement he devoted himself to the practice of his profession. He died in Utica, N. Y., May 6, 1860. Bearer Company, a British or- ganization for removing wounded sol- diers from the field of battle to the dressing station or temporary hospital. Bear Lake, Great, an extensive sheet of fresh water in the Northwest Territory of Canada. Bear River Bear River, a river of the United States, 400 miles long ; rises in the N. of Utah, and flows N. into Idaho; turns abruptly S., re-enters Utah, and empties into Great Salt Lake. Bear's Grease, the fat of bears, esteemed as of great efficacy in nour- ishing and promoting the growth of hair. The unguents sold under this name, however, are in a great measure made of hog's lard or veal fat, or a mixture of both, scented and slightly colored. Beast Fables, stories in which animals play human parts, a widely spread primitive form of literature, often surviving in more or less devel- oped forms in the more advanced civ- ilizations. Beat, in music, the beating or pul- sation resulting from the joint vibra- tions of two sounds of the same strength, and all but in unison. Also a short shake or transient grace-note struck immediately before the note it is intended to ornament. Beatification, in general, the act of rendering supremely blessed, also the state of being rendered supremely blessed. In a special sense an act by which the Pope declares, on evidence which he considers himself to possess, that a certain deceased person is in the enjoyment of supreme felicity in Heaven. It is the first step toward canonization, but it is not canoniza- tion itself. Beaton, David, Cardinal Arch- bishop of St. Andrew's, Scotland, born in 1494. He became Abbot of Arb- roath in 1525, Lord Privy Seal three years later, was sent on several mis- sions to France, received a cardinal's hat in 1538, and in the following year became Primate. On the death of James V., he, by craft and determina- tion, secured to himself the chief pow- er in Church and State, being named Lord High Chancellor of Scotland, and Papal Legate. He opposed an alliance with England, and especially distinguished himself as a persecutor of the Reformers. The trial and burn- ing of George Wishart for heresy took place under his direction, and, a short time afterward Beaton was assassinat- ed at St. Andrew's, in May, 1546. With his death, church tyranny came to an end in Scotland. Beaufort Seattle, James, a Scottish poet and miscellaneous writer, born at Laureucekirk, Kincardineshire, Oct. 25, 1735. In 1765 he published a poem, the "Judgment of Paris," and in 1770 his celebrated "Essay on Truth," for which the University of Oxford conferred on him the degree of LL. D. ; and George III. honored him, when on a visit to London, with a private conference and a pension. He died in Aberdeen, Aug. 18, 1803. Beatty, Sir David, a British nav- al officer born in Cheshire, -England, Jan. 17, 1871 ; was appointed a naval cadet in 1884 ; became a lieutenant in 1892 ; accompanied Lord Kitchener's expedition to Egypt ; was in China at the Boxer uprising ; was promoted to rear-admiral in 1910 and vice-admiral in 1914; won the first sea battle in the World War off Helgoland Bight ; and commanded the battle-cruiser di- vision of the British fleet in the great naval battle off Jutland, May 31, 1916. Sir David married Ethel, only daughter of the late Marshall Field of Chicago. See APPENDIX : World War. Beatty, John, an American legis- lator, born in Bucks county, Pa., Dec. 19, 1749 ; was educated at Princeton, and took up the study of medicine with Dr. Rush of Philadelphia. He fought with distinction through the Revolutionary War, reaching the rank of Colonel; was Delegate to the Con- tinental Congress in 1783-1785; Speaker of the House; served in the convention which adopted the Fed- eral Constitution ; was a member of Congress in 1793-1795 ; and Secretary of State of New Jersey in 1795-1805. He died in Trenton, N. J., AprU 30, 1826. Beatty, John, an American mili- tary officer, born near Sandusky, O., Dec. 16, 1828. He fought on the Union side in the Civil War, rising from private to Brigadier-General, and showing intrepid courage at Stone River, 1862-1863. He was a member of Congress in 1868-1874; Repub- lican Presidential Elector-at-Large in 1884 ; and author of " High Tariff or Low Tariff, Which?" He died Dec. 21, 1914. Beaufort, Margaret, an English countess, born in 1441 ; daughter of John, first Duke of Somerset, and Beanharnais mother of Henry VII., King oi Eng- land. In the Wars of the Roses, she and her son, Henry, became more or less dangerous to the Yorkists and were for a long time in retirement or exile. Henry was attainted by a Par- liament under Richard III., and Mar- garet's estates forfeited. After the accession of her son as Henry VII. she took no part in public affairs. Her life forms one of the romantic episodes of English history. She was devoutly religious, and founded several religious institutions. Beauharnais, Eugene de, Viceroy of Italy, and a Prince of the French Empire, son of Alexandre de Beau- harnais and Josephine, born in Paris in 1781. After his mother's marriage to Napoleon, he, in 1796, became aide- de-camp to the latter, and served with distinction in the campaigns of Italy and Egypt Beauharnais was wound- ed at Acre, contributed to the victory of Marengo, was created Prince of the Empire in 1805, and Viceroy of Italy. In 1806, he married the Princess Ama- lie Augusta, of Bavaria, and in the same year was adopted by the Em- peror as his son, and appointed gover- nor of Lombardy and Venice. He served in the campaign of 1809, de- feated the Austrians at Raab, and distinguished himself at Wagram. His military talents were particularly evinced in the retreat from Moscow, and in the following campaigns of 1813-1814. To Beauharnais may be mainly ascribed the victory of Lutzen. After the fall of Napoleon, he retired to Munich, was allowed, by the Treaty of Fontainebleau and the Congress of Vienna, to retain his extensive posses- sions in Italy, and took his place as Duke of Leuchtenberg among the Ba- varian nobles. His children subse- quently ranked as members of the im- perial family of Russia. He died Feb. 21, 1824. Beaumarchais, Pierre Angus- tin, Baron de, born in Paris, Jan. 24, 1732. He was a mar of singular versatility of talent, being by turns politician, artist, dramatist, and mer- chant. At the beginning of the Amer- ican War of Independence (1777), Beaumarchais entered into a specula- tion for supplying the colonies with arms, ammunition, etc. ; he lost sev- eral vessels, three of which were taken Beauregard in one day by the English cruisers in coming out of the river of Bordeaux, but the greater number arrived in America, and inspired the colonists with renewed hope. He died in Paris. May 18, 1799. Beaumont, city and capital of Jefferson county, Tex.; on the Neches river and the Gulf & Interstate and other railroads; 30 miles N. of the Gulf of Mexico; is in a region abounding in petroleum and yellow pine and cypress forests; raises con- siderable rice; ships large quantities of lumber and shingles; and has rice, saw, shingle, stave, and heading mills, foundry and machine shops, and car works. Pop. (1910) 20,640. Beaumont, a picturesque town in N. France, near the left bank of the Meuse, 12 miles E. by S. of the bat- tlefield of Sedan and the same dis- tance from the Belgian border. It was conspicuous in the Franco-Prussian war of 1870, and later in the great World War. See APPENDIX: World War. Beaumont, Francis, and Fletch- er, John, two eminent English dra- matic writers, contemporaries of Shakespeare, and the most famous of literary partners. The former was born at Grace-Dieu, in Leicestershire, in 1584. At the age of 16 he pub- lished a translation, in verse, of Ovid's fable of " Salmacis and Hermaphrodi- tus." He died March 6, 1616, and was buried in Westminster Abbey. JOHN FLETCHEB was born at Rye, Sussex, in December, 1579. His father was successively Dean of Peter- borough, Bishop of Bristol, Worcester, and London. The " Woman Hater," produced in 1606-1607, is the earliest work known to exist in which he had a hand. He died in 1625. Beaumont, William, an Ameri- can surgeon, born in Lebanon, Conn., in 1785. His experiments on diges- tion with the Canadian St. Martin, who lived for years after receiving a gunshot wound in the stomach which left an aperture of about two inches in diameter, were of great importance to physiological science. He died in St. Louis, Mo., April 25, 1853. Beau regard, Pierre Gust are Toutant, an American military offi- cer, born in St. Martin's parish, La., Beaux May 28, 1818; was graduated at the United States Military Academy and appointed a brevet Second Lieutenant of Artillery in 1838. He distin- guished himself in the Mexican War, where he won the brevet of Major. He resigned his commission after the secession of Louisiana in Feb- ruary 'following; was appointed com- mander of the Confederate forces at Charleston, S. C., and there opened the hostilities of the Civil War by bombarding Fort Sumter, on April 11. After the evacuation of the fort by Major Anderson, General Beaure- gard was transferred to Virginia, where he commanded the Confederate forces in the battle of Bull Run, on July 21. In March, 1862, he was or- dered to the Army of the Mississippi, under Gen. Albert S. Johnston, and in ' April following fought the battle of Shiloh, gaining a victory over the Na- tional forces the first day, but being defeated by General Grant on the sec- ond day. Failing health kept him from active duty till June, 1863, when he took charge of the defense of Charleston against the combined land and naval forces. He remained in command there till April, 1864, when he was ordered to Richmond to strengthen its defenses. On May 16, he attacked General Butler in front of Drury's Bluff, and forced him back to his intrencbments between the James and the Appomattox rivers. He attempted to aid General Jo- seph E. Johnston in opposing Gen- eral Sherman, but in April surren- dered with the former to the latter. lAiter the war he became president of the New Orleans, Jackson and Missis- sippi Railroad Company, Adjutant- General of the State, and a manager of the Louisiana State Lottery. In 1866 the chief command of the Ru- manian army was tendered him, and in 1869 that of the army of the Khedive of Egypt, both of which he declined. He died in New Orleans, Feb. 20, 1893. Beaux, Cecilia, an American art- ist, born in Philadelphia about 1877. She won nearly every prize for which she competed in America, and became a member of the National Academy in 1892, and also of the Socite des Beaux-Arts in Paris. Her work is exclusively portraiture. Beaver Beaver, a quadruped "of the order Rodentia, or gnawers, the only species of its genus. It is very widely dis- BEAVEB. tributed, being found in the N. parts of Europe, Asia, and America, nowa- days most abundantly in the N. and thinly peopled parts of North Amer- ica, dwelling in communities on the banks of rivers and lakes. At one time immense numbers of these animals were killed for their fur, which was largely used in making hats, but in more recent times they have suffered less persecution on this account, their fur now not being held in the same estimation. The beaver is about two feet in length; its body thick and heavy; the head compressed, and somewhat arched at the front, the upper part rather narrow; the snout much so. The eyes are placed rather high on the head, and the pupils are rounded; the ears are short, elliptical, and al- most concealed by the fur. The skin is covered by two sorts of hair, of which one is long, rather stiff, elastic, and of a gray color for two-thirds of its length next the base, and termin- ated by shining, reddish-brown points ; the other is short, thick, tufted, and soft, being of different shades of sil- ver-gray or light lead color. The hair is shortest on the head and feet. The hind legs are longer than the fore, and are completely webbed. The tail is 10 or 11 inches long, and, except the part nearest the body, is covered with hexagonal scales. Bcauvais Beauvais, a town of N. France, at the confluence of the Therain and Ave- lon, 49 miles N. by W. of Paris. It was besieged by the English in 1346 and 1433, and by the Duke of Bur- gundy in 1472, and was in the field of operations during the World War. See APPENDIX : World War. Beaver, James Ad dams, an American military officer and states- man, born in Millerstown, Pa., Oct. 21, 1837 ; was graduated at Jefferson College, Canonsburg, Pa., in 1856; and studied law with H. N. McAllis- ter, Bellefonte, Pa., whose partner he afterward became. On the outbreak of the Civil War he was made Lieu- tenant-Colonel of the 45th Pennsyl- vania Volunteers. At the battle of Ream's Station, he was se- verely wounded and lost a leg; and was retired with the rank of Brig- adier-General of Volunteers (Dec. 22, 1864). He then resumed the practice of law ; became Major-Gen- eral of the Pennsylvania State Mi- litia ; was defeated as a Republican andidate for Governor in 1882 ; elected in 1887; President of the Board of Trustees of the Penn- sylvania State College; Vice-Modera- tor of the Presbyterian General As- sembly in 1888 and 1895 ; and mem- ber of the Commission on Investiga- tion of the War Department in 1898. He died Jan. 31, 1914. Bebeerine, in chemistry, an un- crystallizable basic substance, extract- ed from the bark of the greenheart tree of Guiana. In pharmacy, the sulphate of bebeerine is a ^ very yalu- ble medicine, being used like quinine as a tonic and febrifuge. Bebek, a beautiful bay on the European side of the Bosphorus, with a palace of the Sultan, known as the Humayunabad, and built in 1725. Bebel, Ferdinand August, a German Socialist, born in Cologne in 1840. He settled in Leipsic in 1860, joined various labor organizations, and became one of the editors of the "Volkstaat" and the better known " Vorwarts." Membership in the North German Reichstag was fol- lowed by his election to the German Reichstag, of which he was a member from 1871 to 1881, and which he en- tered again in 1883. He died Aug. 13, 1913. Becker Bee, a celebrated abbey of France, in Normandy, near Brionne, now rep- resented only by some ruins. Lan- f ranc and Anselm were both connected with this abbey. Beccaria, Cesare Bonesana, Marquis de, an Italian political philosopher, born at Milan, March 15, 1738. He is chiefly known as author of the celebrated "Treatise on Crimes and Punishments," which first appear- ed in 1764, and advocated great re- forms in criminal legislation. He died in Milan, Nov. 28, 1794. Becerra, Caspar, a Spanish painter and sculptor, born in 1520. He studied under Michael Angelo at Rome, and is credited with the chief share in the establishment of the fine arts in Spain. He died in 1570. Beche, Sir Henry, an English geologist, born in 1796. He founded the Geological Survey of Great Brit- ain, which was soon undertaken by the Government, De la Beche being appointed director general. He also founded the Museum of Practical Ge- ology, and the School of Mines. He died in 1855. Bechnanaland, an extensive tract in South Africa, inhabited by the Be- chuanas, extending from 28 S. lat. to the Zambesi, and from 20 E. long, to the Transvaal border. The colony was annexed to Cape Colony and the protectorate placed under a British commissioner in 1895. Beck, James Burnie, an Ameri- can lawyer, born in Dumfriesshire, Scotland, Feb. 13, 1822; came to the United States when a youth, and set- tled in Kentucky. He was elected a Democratic Representative to Con- gress in 1866, 1868, 1870, and 1872, and United States Senator in 1876, 1882, and 1888. He died in Wash- ington, D. C., May 3, 1890. Beck, James Montgomery, an American lawyer, born in Philadel- phia, Pa., July 9, 1861 ; was admitted to the bar in 1884 ; and was assistant attorney-general of the United States in ISge-^OO. During the World War he published a number of critical re- views of conditions which attracted wide attention. Becker, George Ferdinand, an American geologist, born in New York, Jan. 5, 1847 ; graduated at Har- Becker vard University in 1868; was Instruc- tor of Mining and Metallurgy in the University of California in 1875- 1879; attached to the United States Geological Survey since 1879, and Special Agent of the 10th Census, 1879-1883. He was appointed a spe- cial agent to examine into the mineral resources of the Philippine Islands in 1898. Becker, Karl Ferdinand, a German musician, born in Leipsic, July 17, 1804; died in Leipsic, Oct. 26, 18771 Becker, Karl Ferdinand, a Ger- man philologist, born in Liser, April 14, 1775; died in Offenbach, Sept. 5, 1849. Becker, Karl Friedrick, a Ger- man historical writer, born in Berlin, 1777 ; wrote various popular works on historical topics. He died in Ber- lin, March 15, 1800. Becket, Thomas, the most cele- brated Roman Catholic prelate in the English annals ; born in London in 1117 or 1118. He was the son of Gilbert, a London merchant. His mother is said to have been a Saracen lady, to whose father Gilbert was pris- oner in Jerusalem, having become a ! captive during the Crusades. The lady is said to have fallen in love with the prisoner, to have assisted him in obtaining his liberty , and afterwards to have followed him to London, where she found him with the greatest difficulty. After studying at Oxford and Paris, Becket studied civil law at Bologna, Italy, and returning to England was made Archdeacon of Can- terbury and Provost of Beverly. In 1158 Becket was appointed high- chancellor, and at this time was a complete courtier, conforming in every respect to the humor of the king. Henry II. raised his favorite to the primacy, on the presumption that he would aid him in those political views, in respect to Church power, which all the sovereigns of the Norman line em- braced, and which, in fact, caused a continual struggle till its termination by Henry VIII. Becket was consecrated archbishop in 1162, and immediately affected an austerity of character which formed a very natural prelude to the part which he meant to play. Pope Alex- Becket ander III. held a general council at Tours in 1163, at which Becket at- tended and made a formal complaint of the infringements by the laity on the rights and immunities of the Church. On his return to England he began to act in the spirit of this rep- resentation, and to prosecute several of the nobility and others holding Church possessions, whom he also pro- ceeded to excommunicate. Finding himself the object of the king's dis- pleasure, he soon after attempted to escape to France ; but being intercept- ed, Henry, in a Parliament at North- ampton, charged him with a violation of his allegiance, and all his goods were confiscated. After much negotiation a sort of reconciliation took place in 1170, on the whole to the advantage of Becket, who, being restored to his see, with all his former privileges, behaved on the occasion with excessive haughti- ness. After a triumphal entry into Canterbury the young Prince Henry, crowned during the lifetime of his father, transmitted him an order to re- store the suspended and excommuni- cated prelates, which he refused to do, on the pretence that the Pope alone could grant the favor, though the lat- ter had lodged the instruments of cen- sure in his hands. The deposed prelates thereupon im mediately appealed to Henry in Nor- mandy, who in a state of extreme ex- asperation exclaimed, " What an un- happy prince am I, who have not about me one man of spirit enough to rid me of a single insolent prelate, the perpetual trouble of my life ! " These rash and too significant words in- duced four of the attendant barons, Reginald Fitz-Urse, William de Tracy, Hugh de Morville, and Richard Brete, to resolve to wipe out the king's re- proach. Having laid their plans, they forthwith proceeded to Canterbury, and having formally required the arch- bishop to restore the suspended prel- ates, they returned in the evening of the same day (Dec. 29, 1170), and placinc soldiers in the courtyard, rushed with their swords drawn into the cathedral, where the archbishop was at vespers, and advancing toward him threatened him with death if he still disobeyed the orders of Henry. Becket, without the least tokei> of Beckwith Bede fear, replied that he was ready to die for the rights of the Church; and magnanimously added, " I charge you in the name of the Almighty, not to hurt any other person here, for none of them have been concerned in the late transactions." The confederates then strove to drag him out of the church; but not being able to do so, On account of his resolute deportment, they killed him on the spot with re- peated wounds, all which he endured without a groan. Thus perished Thomas Becket in his 52d year, a martyr to the cause which he espoused, and a man of un- questionable vigor of intellect. He was canonized two years after his death. In the reign of Henry III. his body was taken up and placed in a magnificent shrine erected by Arch- bishop Stephen Langton; and of the popularity of the pilgrimages to his tomb the " Canterbury Tales " of Chaucer will prove an enduring testi- mony. Beckwitli, Sir George, an Eng- lish military officer, born in 1753. His scene of action was largely in America in the United States, and the West Indies. He fought with the English in the American Revolution in 1776-1782, and was intrusted with important diplomatic commissions in 1782-1791, as there was then no Brit- ish Minister to the United States. In 1804, he was made governor of St. Vincent, and four years later gov- ernor of Barbadoes. As England was then at war with France, he organ- ized an expedition and conquered Mar- tinique, for which he obtained the thanks of the House of Commons. Later (1810) he conquered Guade- loupe, the last possession of the French in that part of the world. When he returned to England, after nine years' service in the West In- dies, a set of silver plate was given to him by the legislature of the Bar- badoes, and the King conferred upon him armorial distinction. He died in London, March 20, 1823. Beckwitli, James Carroll, an American genre painter, born in Han- nibal, Mo., Sept. 23, 1852; was a pu- pil of Carolus Duran, and became a member of the National Academy in 1894. Beckwith, John Watrus, an American Episcopal bishop, born in Raleigh, N. C., Feb. 9, 1831; was graduated at Trinity College, Hart- ford, in 1852 ; ordained priest in 1855 ; and was elected Bishop of Georgia, being consecrated in Savan- nah, April 2, 1868. He was an elo- quent and powerful preacher, and pub- lished several sermons and addresses. He died in Atlanta, Ga., Nov. 24, 1890. Becquerel, Antoine Cesar, a French physician, and member of the Institute, born in Chatillon-sur-Loing, March 7, 1788. In early life he served in the French army in Spain as an officer of engineers. He invented a new psychometer in 1866. He died in Paris, Jan. 18, 1878. His son, AUEX- ANDRE EDMOND (1820-1891) and his grandson ANTOINE HETNRI (1852-1908), son of Alexandre, were also eminent physicists, and made valuable re- searches on the nature and chemical effects of light, and the magnetic properties of many substances. The latter discovered the luminous ema- nations called " Becquerel Rays." Bed, in ordinary language, an ar- ticle of domestic furniture to sleep upon. In law, a divorce from bed and board, is the divorce of a husband and wife, to the extent of separating them for a time, the wife receiving support, under the name of alimony, during the severance. In mechanics, a bed is the founda- tion piece or portion of anything on which the body of it rests, as the bed piece of a steam engine ; the lower stone of a grinding mill; or the box, body, or receptacle of a vehicle. Bede, or Bseda, generally known as the Venerable Bede, the greatest figure in ancient English literature, was born near Monkwearmouth, Dur- ham, about G73. Left an orphan at the age of six, he was educated in the Benedictine Abbey at Monkwear- mouth, entering the monastery of Jar- row, where he was ordained priest in his 30th year. His industry was enormous. Bede wrote homilies, lives of saints, hymns, epigrams, works on grammar and chronology, and the great " Ecclesiastical History of Eng- land," in five books, gleaned from na- Bede tive chronicles and oral tradition. This was translated from Latin into Anglo-Saxon by King Alfred. The first editions were issued from Stras- burg in the 15th century. He died in the monastery of Jarrow, May 26, 735. Bede, Cuthbert, pseudonym of EDWARD BRADLEY, an English author, born in Kidderminster in 1827 ; died in Lenton, Dec. 12, 1889. Bedell, Gregory Tliurston, an American clergyman, born in Hudson, N. Y., Aug. 27, 1817 ; in early life was rector of the Protestant Episcopal Church of the Ascension, New York city. In 1859 he was consecrated As- sistant Bishop of Ohio, and in 1873 Bishop of that State. He died in New York city, March 11, 1892. Bedford, Gunning, an American patriot, born in Philadelphia, Pa., about 1730; was a lieutenant in the French War ; entered the Revolution- ary army with the rank of Major; was wounded at White Plains ; became Muster-Master-General in 1776; was a delegate to the Continental Con- gress ; and was elected Governor of Delaware in 1796. He died in New- castle, Del., Sept 30, 1797. Bedford, Gunning, an Amer- ican lawyer, born in Philadelphia, Pa., in 1747; was graduated at Princeton in 1771 ; became a lawyer ; acted for a time as aide-de-camp to General Washington ; represented Del- aware in the Continental Congress in 1783-1786; and became Attorney- General of the State, and United State? Judge for the District of Dela- ware. He died in Wilmington, Del., March 30, 1812. Bedford, Gunning S., an Amer- ican physician, born in Baltimore, Md., in 1806; introduced into the United States obstetrical clinics for the gratuitous treatment of poor women. He died in New York city, Sept. 5, 1870. Bedford Level, an eastern dis- trict of England, comprising about 450,000 acres. It was a mere waste of fen and marsh, until the time of Charles I., when, in 1634, a charter was granted to Francis, Earl of Bed- ford, who undertook to drain the level, on condition of being allowed 95,000 acres of the reclaimed land. He ac- Bee complished the undertaking at an enormous expense, and it now forms one of the most fertile and grain-pro- ductive districts of the kingdom. Bedlam, a contraction from Beth- lehem, a famous English hospital for lunatics. Bedloe's Island, an island in New York harbor ; ceded to the United States Government, in 1800; the site of Fort Wood, erected in 1841 and mounted with 77 guns ; now the loca- tion of Bartholdi's colossal statue of " Liberty Enlightening the World." Bedmar, Alfonso de la Cueva, Marquis of, Cardinal Bishop of Ovk- do, a Spanish diplomatist, born in 1572. He was created Cardinal in 1622, was afterward Spanish gover- nor of the Netherlands, made himself detested by the Flemings, and retired to Rome, where he died in 1655. Bedouins, a Mohammedan people of Arab race, inhabiting chiefly the deserts of Arabia, Syria, Egypt, and North Africa. They lead a nomadic existence in tents, huts, caverns and ruins, associating in families under sheiks or in tribes under emirs. Bee, the common name given to a large family of hymenopterous or membranous-winged insects, of which tne most important is the common hive or honey bee (apis mellifica). It be- longs to the warmer parts of the East' era Hemisphere, but is now natural- ized in the Western. A hive com- monly consists of one mother or queen, from 600 to 800 males or drones, and DRONE BEE. from 15,000 to 20,000 working bees, formerly termed neuters, but now known to be imperfectly developed fe- males. The last mentioned, the small- est, have twelve Joints to their anten- na?, and six abdominal rings, and are provided with a sting ; there is, on the "Beech Beeclier outside of the hind legs, a smooth, hollow, edged with hairs, called the basket, in which the kneaded pollen or bee bread, the food of the larvae, is QUEEN BEE. stored for transit. The queen has the same characteristics, but is of larger size, especially in the abdomen ; she has also a sting. The males, or drones, differ from both the preceding by hav- ing 13 joints to the antennae ; a rounded head with larger eyes, elon- gated and united at the summit; and no stings. The queen has two large ovaries, consisting of a great number of small cavities, each containing 10 or 17 eggs. The inferior half-circles, except the first and last, on the abdo- men of working bees, have I each on their inner surface two cavities, where the wax secreted by the bee from its saccharine food, is formed in layers, and comes out from between the ab- dominal rings. Respiration takes place WOBKEB BEE. by means of air tubes which branch out to all parts of the body, the bee being exceedingly sensitive to an impure atmosphere. Of the organs of sense the most important are the antennae, deprivation of these resulting in a spe- cies of derangement. The majority of entomologists regard their function as in the first place auditory, but they *.re exceedingly sensitive to tactual impressions, and are apparently the principal means of mutual communi- cation. Bees undergo perfect meta- morphosis, the young appearing first as larvae, then changing to pupae, from which the images or perfect insecti spring. The bumblebees, or bumblebees, ot which over 60 species are found it North America, belong to the genus bombus, which is almost world wide in its distribution. Of these species soli- tary females which have survived the winter, commence constructing small nests when the weather begins to be warm enough ; some of them going deep into the earth in dry banks, oth- ers preferring heaps of stone or gravel, and others choosing always some bed of dry moss. In the nest the bee col- lects a mass of pollen and in this lays KOYAL CELLS. some eggs. The cells in these nests are not the work of the old bee, but are formed by the young insects similarly to the cocoons of silk worms ; and when the perfect insect is released from them by the old bee, which gnaws off their tops, they are employed as honey-cups. The bumblebees, how ever, do not store honey for the win- ter, those which survive till the cold weather leaving the nest and penetrat- ing the earth, or taking up some other sheltered position, and remaining there till the spring. Beech, a tree. The wood is brittle and not very lasting, yet it is used by turners, joiners, and millwrights. The fine thin bark is employed for making baskets and band-boxes. Beeclier, Catherine Esther, an American author and educator, daugh- ter of Lyman, and sister of Henry Ward Beecher, born in Easthampton, L. I., Sept. 6, 1800. The latter part of her life was devoted to Beecher training teachers and supplying them to needy fields, especially in the West- ern and Southern States. She wrote numerous works on education and on the woman question. She died in El- mira, N. Y., May 12, 1878. Beecher, Henry Ward, an Amer- ican clergyman, born in Litchfield, Conn., June 24, 1813. He was the eon of Lyman Beecher; graduated from Amherst in 1834; studied in Lane Theological Seminary, near Cincinnati, Ohio ; and began clerical duty as pastor of a church in Law- renceburg, Ind., removing to Indian- apolis in 1839. From 1847 until his death he was Pastor of Plymouth Congregational Church in Brooklyn. He was one of the founders of the " Independent " and of the " Christian Union" (now the "Outlook"). He was also a prominent anti-slavery ora- tor, as well as a famous lecturer. He died in Brooklyn, N. Y., March 8, 1887. Beecher, Lynian, an American clergyman, born in New Haven, Conn., Oct. 2, 1775. His ancestors were Pu- ritans. He graduated from Yale in 1796, and became pastor of the Pres- byterian Church in East Hampton, L. I. ; then of a Congregational church in Litchfield, Conn., in 1S10; and then of the Hanover Street Congrega- tional Church in Boston, Mass. In 1832 he became President of Lane Theological Seminary, near Cincin- nati, Ohio. His influence throughout the country was very great, especially on the questions of temperance and of slavery. His " Six Sermons on In- temperance " had a great effect, and have been frequently republished and translated into many languages. His sermon on the death of Alexander Hamilton, in 1804, with his " Remedy for Dueling" (1809), did much toward breaking up the practice of dueling in the United States. He died in Brooklyn, N. Y., June 10, 1863. Beecher, Thomas Kinnicntt, an American clergyman, son of Ly- man, and brother of Henry Ward Beecher, born in Litchfield, Conn., Feb. 10, 1824. He became pastor in Brooklyn in 1852, and in Elmira, N. Y., in 1854. He was a very success- ful lecturer and an effective writer on current topics. He died in Elmira, N. Y., March 14, 1900. E. 16. Beers Beechey, Frederick William, an English naval officer, born in Lon- don, Feb. 17, 1796. He died in Lon- don, Nov. 29, 1856. Beechey Island in the Arctic Archipelago was named after him. Bee Eater, in the singular the English name of a genus of birds, more fully called the yellow throated bee eater of Africa. Beelzebub. (1) The fly-god, a god worshipped in the Philistine town of Ekron. (II. Kings i: 3) (2) An evil spirit. (3) Any person of fiendish cruelty, who is nicknamed by his ad- versaries, or, in cpntempfc of moral sentiment, appropriates the appella- tion to himself and cherishes it as if it were an honorable title. Beer, an alcoholic drink made from the malted grains of barley, boiled with hops and then fermented with yeast. The manufacture of ale or beer is of very high antiquity. Herodotus ascribes the invention of brewing to Isis, and it was certainly practised in Egypt. Xenophon mentions it as being used in Armenia, and the Gauls were early ac- quainted with it. Pliny mentions an intoxicating liquor made of corn and water as common to all the nations of the west of Europe, and in England ale-booths were regulated by law as early as the 8th century. A rude pro- cess of brewing is carried on by many uncivilized races ; thus chica or maize beer is made by the South American Indians, millet beer by various Afri- can tribes, etc. The beers common In the United States are: lager beer that is, store beer, the name being given to it because it is usually kept for four to six months before being used. In brewing it the fermentation is made to go on rather slowly and at a low temperature ; Schenk beer, brewed in winter for immediate use; bock beer, brewed extra strong and served during the spring months. The alcohol in beer averages about 4 per cent. Beerboliin-Tree, Herbert, an English actor, born in London, in 1853. In 1897 he opened his new theatre, Her Majesty's, in the Hay- market. He died July 2, 1917. Beers, Henry Augustin, an American author, born in Buffalo, N. Beerslieba Y., July 2, 1847. He graduated from Yale in 1859 ; became tutor there in 1871, and Professor of English Liter- ature in 1880. Beersheba (now Bir-os-Seba, "the well of the oath"), the place where Abraham made a covenant with Abiinelech, and in common speech, representative of the southernmost limit of Palestine, near which it is sit- uated. It is now a mere heap of ruins near two large and five smaller wells, though it was a place of some impor- tance down to the period of the cru- sades. Beet, a genus of plants distin- guished by its fruit being inclosed in a tough woody or spongy five-lobed en- larged calyx. The garden beet, or beet of general cultivation, is of bi- ennial duration, and has a tender fleshy root. Red beet is principally used at table, in salad, boiled, and cut into slices, as a pickle, and sometimes stewed with onions; but if eaten in great quantity it is said to be injurious to the stom- ach. The beet may be taken out of the ground for use about the end of August, but it does not attain its full size and perfection till the month of October. When good it is large and of a deep red color, and when boiled is tender, sweet, and palatable. Beethoven, Ludwig von, one of the greatest musical composers of modern times, was born in Bonn, in 1770. His genius was very early dis- played, and his musical education was begun by his father, and continued by the court organist, who introduced him to the works of Sebastian Bach and Handel. He soon attempted composi- tion, and showed wonderful facility in improvisation. About 1790, he set- tled at Vienna, where Mozart quickly recognized his marvellous powers. When about 40 years of age, he was attacked with deafness, which became total, and lasted through life. He be- came, gradually, the victim of mor- bid irritability and hopeless melan- choly, ending in confirmed hypochon- dria, and, finally, dropsy and delirium. He continued to compose, however, long after he had ceased to hear him- self play, and received homage and honors from all parts of Europe. He died unmarried, in Vienna, March 26, Beet Sugar 1827. Vast power, intense passion, and infinite tenderness- are manifested in all his compositions, which abound no less in sweetest melodies than in' grand and complicated harmonies. A statue of Beethoven, by Ilulmel, was erected at Bonn, in 1845. Beet Sugar, the sugar obtained from the beet ; similar to cane sugar , but inferior in sweetening power. Beet root contains an average of about 10 per cent, of saccharine matter; sugar cane, 18 per cent. Of the varieties, the white Selvig beet is richest. Of the 985,508,640 pounds of sugar produced in the United States in 1901, about one-third was from beets and two-thirds from cane, and of the 599,- 774,613 pounds of beet sugar imported, 484,344,004 pounds came unrefined. The annual statement of the American Beet Sugar Company furnishes ample proof of the advance which has been made by the beet sugar industry in the United States. In 1880 the domestic production of beet sugar was 357 tons, and in 1901 it had increased to 124,- 859 tons, a gain in 20 years of nearly 350 per cent. The quantity of beet sugar pro- duced in the United States in the year ending June 30, 1910, was 1,025,000,000 pounds, against 73,000,- 000 pounds in 1899, an increase of 952,000,000 pounds as compared with an increase of 181,000,000 pounds of cane sugar in the same period. Of the total beet sugar production, Ha- waii furnished 1,111,000,000 pounds; Porto Rico, 569,000,000; and the Philippines, 176,000,000. In 1905 there >vere ol beet sugar factories in the United States which had a combined product valued at $24,393,794; and in 1909 there were 1,273 beet sugar factories in Europe, which used 40,067,000 tons of beets, and pro- duced 5,740,000 tons of sugar, and, excluding the United States, the world's production was 6,061,000 tons. The beet sugar industry was started by Marggraf, in Germany, in 1747, who was the first to discover that sugar could be extracted from the com- mon beet. The first factory for its manufacture was erected by Archard, at Kunern, in Silesia, in 1802. Na- poleon issued an imperial decree in the early part of his reign establish- ing this industry in France, and in Beetle 1812 he ordered the building of 10 fac- tories and placed Delessert in charge of their construction. In 1830 at- tempts were made in the United States ,to introduce the cultivation of the cugar beet. It was not, however, till 1876 that the first successful beet sugar factory was built, being erected in Alvarado, Cal. Beetle, a name often used as syn- onymous with the term Coleoptera, but restricted by others to include all those insects that have their wings protected by hard cases or sheaths, called elytra. Beetles vary in size from a mere point to the bulk of a man's fist, the largest, the elephant beetle of S. America, being 4 inches long. The so called 'black beetles' are not prop- erly beetles at all, but cockroaches, and of the order Orthoptera. Beggars, a term first applied to the 300 Protestant deputies under Henri de Brederode and Louis de Nas- sau, who protested against the estab- lishment of the Inquisition in Holland, in April, 1566. The Dutch patriots assumed this designation when they rebelled against Spain in 1572. Beghards, Begnards, or Be- gards, various spellings of a name said by some to be derived from their begging favor from God in orayer, and to the fact that they were religious mendicants. Begonia, an extensive genus of suc- culent-stemmed herbaceous plants, or- der Begoniacese, with fleshy oblique leaves of various colors, and showy unisexual flowers, the whole perianth colored. Tfiey readily hybridize, and many fine varieties have been raised from the tuberous-rooted kinds. From the shape of their leaves they have been called elephant's ear. Almost all the plants of the order are tropical. Begnines, Beguins, or Begui- nse. Associations of praying women which arose in the Netherlands in the 13th century, the first being formed at Nivelles, in Brabant, in A. D. 1226, and spread rapidly in the adjoining countries. They used to weave cloth, live together under a directress, and leave on being married, or indeed whenever they pleased. They still ex- ist in some of the Belgian towns, notably at Ghent, where they are re- nowned as makers of lace, though un- Beliistnn der different rules from those formerly observed. Begum (a feminine form corre- sponding to beg, or bey), an Indian title of honor equivalent to princess, conferred on the mothers, sisters, or wives of native rulers. The Begum of Oudh is well known in Indian his- tory. Beliaim, or Behem, Martin, a German mathematician and astrono- mer, born in Nuremberg about 1430. He colonized the Island of Fayal, where he remained for several years, and assisted in the discovery of the other Azores ; was afterward knighted, and returned to his native country, where, in 1492, he constructed a tep restrial globe, still preserved. He died in Lisbon in 1506. Behemoth, the animal described in Job xi: 15-24. It is probably the hippopotamus, which, in the time of Job, seems to have been found in the Nile below the cataracts, though now it is said to occur only above them. A second opinion entertained is that Job's behemoth was the elephant; while a few scholars make the less probable conjecture that it was the rhinoceros. BEGONIA. BEX. Behistun, or Bisutun, a moun- tain near a village of the same name in Persian Kurdistan, celebrated for the sculptures and cuneiform inscrip- tions cut upon one of its sides a rock rising almost perpendicularly to the height of 1,700 feet. These works, which stand about 300 feet from the ground, were executed by the orders Bell ni Bel and the Dragon of Darius I., King of Persia, and set forth his genealogy and victories. To receive the inscriptions, the rock was carefully polished and coated with a hard, siliceous varnish. Their prob- able date is about 515 B. c. They were first copied and deciphered by Rawlin- BO n. Bclim, Ernst, a German geog- rapher, born in Gotha, Jan. 4, 1830 ; died in Gotha, March 15, 1884. Behn, Aphra, or Afra, or Aph- ara, an English author ; born in Wye, in 1640. Early in life she spent several years in the West Indies, where she met the Indians, who be- came the model of her famous " Oroo- noko." She was the first woman writer in England who earned a live- lihood by her pen. She died in Lon- don, April 16, 1689. Behring, another spelling of BEE- ING. Beissel, Johann Conrad, a Ger- man mystic, born in Eberbach, in 1690. He settled in Pennsylvania in 1720, and established the German Seventh-Day Baptists, at Ephrata, in 1728. He died in Ephrata, in 1768. Beit, Alfred, So. African finan- cier, b. Hamburg, 1853, d. London, July 16, 1906. He was associated with Cecil Rhodes (q. v. ) and left an immense fortune in benefactions. Beitzke, Heinrich Imdwig, a German historian, born in Muttrin, Feb. 15, 1798 ; died in Berlin, May 10, 1867. Bejapoor, a ruined city of Hin- dustan, in the Bombay Presidency, one of the largest cities in India until its capture by Aurungzebe in 1686. The ruins are chiefly Mohammedan, the principal being Mahomet Shah's tomb, with a dome visible for 14 miles. Pop. 13,245. Beke, Charles Tilstone, an English geographer, explorer, and au- thor, born in London, Oct. 10, 1800. In 1834 he published " Origines Bib- licae ; or, Researches in Primeval His- tory," one of the first attempts to reconstruct historv on the principles of the young science of geology. He explored Abyssinia, Godjam and the countries lying to the W. and S., pre- viously almost entirely unknown to Europeans. He died in London, July 31, 1874. Bekker, Immannel, a German scholar distinguished by his recensions of the texts of Greek classics, born in Berlin, May 21, 1785 ; died in Berlin, June 7, 1871. Bel, in Accadian, Assyrian and Bab- ylonian mythology, a god ; mentioned in Scripture, in Is. xlvi : 1 ; Jer. 1:2,' li : 44 ; in the Septuagint, in Baruch vi: 40, and in the apocryphal addi- tions to the Book of Daniel, as well as by classical authors. It has been discovered that, prior to 1600 B. c., the highly interesting Turan- ian people called Accadians, the in- ventors of the cuneiform writing, who wielded extensive authority in Western Asia before the Semitic As- syrians and Babylonians had come into notice, worshipped as their first triad of gods, Anu, ruling over the heaven ; Elu, Belu, or Bel, over the earth ; and Ea, over the sea. Bel's three children, or three of his children, were Shamas, the sun-god ; Sin, the moon-god ; and Ishtar, the Accadian Venus. Sayce shows that some first born children were vicariously offered in sacrifice by fire to the sun-god. From the Accadians, human sacrifice passed to various Semitic tribes and nations. Bel's name Elu identifies him with the Phoenician El, who, in a time of trouble, offered his first born son, " the beloved," on a high place, by fire. It is not settled whether or not Bel was the same also as the Phoeni- cian Baal. To the wrath of Bel the deluge was attributed. In Scripture times he was known exclusively as a Babylonian divinity, being distinguish- ed from both Nebo and Merodach. In the later Babylonian Empire, how- ever, Merodach came to be generally identified with Bel, though sometimes distinguished from him, being called " the lesser Bel." Bel and the Dragon, one of the books of the Apocrypha, or, more pre- cisely, certain apocryphal chapters ad- ded to the canonical Book of Daniel. The Jews consider them as no part of their Scriptures. They were penned probably by an Alexandrian Jew, the language used being not Hebrew, nor Aramaean, but Greek. The Church of Rome accepts Bel and the Dragon as part of the Holy Scripture ; most, if not all, Protestant churches reject it. The story of Bel and the Dragon tells Belcher how Daniel enlightened Cyrus, who is represented as having been a devout worshiper of Bel, by proving that the immense supplies of food laid before the idol were really consumed, not by it or by the inhabiting divinity, but by the priests and their families. On Cyrus urging that the dragon, also worshipped, was at least a living God, Daniel poisoned it, for which he was thrown into a lions' den, where the Prophet Habakkuk fed him. Ulti- mately he was released, and his perse- cutors put to death. Belcher, Sir Edward, an Eng- lish naval officer, born in 1799. Knighted in 1843, and for five years employed on surveying service in the East Indies, he was, in 1852 appointed to the command of the unfortunate expedition sent out by the government to search for Sir John Franklin. He died March 18, 1877. Belcher Channel, an inlet of Jones' Sound (Baffins Bay), is named from him, its discoverer. Belem, a town in Portugal, W. of Lisbon ; noted for a monastery found- ed in 1500, to commemorate the voy- age of Vasco da Gama, and now used as an orphan asylum. Belemnite, a genus of fossil chambered shells. Belfast, a seaport and municipal and parliamentary borough of Ireland (in 1888 declared a city), principal town of Ulster, and county town of Antrim, built on low, alluvial land on the left bank of the Lagan, at the head of Belfast Lough. Previous to about 1830 the cotton manufacture was the leading industry of Belfast, but nearly all the mills have been con- verted to flax spinning. The iron ship- building trade is also of importance, and there are breweries, distilleries, flour mills, oil mills, foundries, print works, tan yards, chemical works, rope works, eta The commerce is large. An extensive direct trade is carried on with British North Amer- ica, the Mediterranean, France, Bel- gium, Holland, and the Baltic, besides ports of the British Islands. Belfast is comparatively a modern town. It returns four members to Parliament. Pop. (1911) 386,947. Belgium, a kingdom of Europe, bounded N. by Holland, N. W. by the Belgium North Sea, W. and S. by France, and E. by the duchy of Luxemburg, Rhen- ish Prussia, and Dutch Limburg ; greatest length, 165 miles; greatest breadth, 120 miles ; area, about 11,400 square miles. For administrative pur- poses it is divided into nine provinces Antwerp, South Brabant, East Flanders, West Flanders, Hainaut, Liege, Limburg, Luxemburg, and Na- mur. Pop. (1912) 7,571,387. The greater part of the country is well adapted for agricultural opera- tions, and the inhabitants have so hap- pily availed themselves of their nat- ural advantages that they early began, and in some respects still deserve, to be regarded as the model farmers of Europe. The mineral riches of Belgium are great, and, after agriculture, form the most important of her national inter- ests. They are almost entirely con- fined to the four provinces of Hainaut, Liege, Namur, and Luxemburg, and consist of lead, manganese, calamine or zinc, iron, and coal. All these minerals, however, are insignificant compared with those of iron and coal. The coal field has an area of above 500 square miles. The export is about 5,000,000 tons, forming one of the largest and most valuable of all the Belgian exports, and employing about 125,000 persons. Nearly the whole of this coal is taken by France. The industrial products of Belgium are very numerous, and the superiority of many of them to those of most oth- er countries is confessed. The fine linens of Flanders, and lace of South Brabant are of European reputation. Scarcely less celebrated are the car- pets and porcelain of Tournay, the cloth of Verviers, the extensive foun- dries, machine works, and other iron and steel establishments of Liege, Se~ raing, and other places. The cotton and woolen manufactures, confined chiefly to Flanders and the province of Antwerp, have advanced greatly. Other manufactures include silks, beet sugar, beer. Prior to 1914 there were 17 active pig iron works ; 46 iron manufactories ; 15 steel works ; 123 sugar factories ; and 25 refineries ; and 240 distilleries. The railways have a length of about 2,900 miles, three-fourths belonging to the State. The value of the general Belgium commerce in 1913 was : imports, $916,725,000 and exports $715,365,- 000. In the first six months of 1914, immediately preceding the outbreak of the great war and the German viola- tion of Belgian territory, the imports were $460,630,000 and exports $370,- 795,000. The Belgian population is composed of two distinct races Flemish, who are of German, and Walloons, who are of French extraction. Almost the entire population belong to the Roman Catholic Church. Prot- estantism is fully tolerated, and even salaried by the State, but cannot count above a mere fraction (some 10,000) of the population among its adherents. Education is in a very un- satisfactory state. At the census of 1890 nearly 27 per cent, of the popu- lation above 15 years of age could neither read nor write. French is the official language of Belgium and in general use among the educated class- es, and there can scarcely be said to be a national literature. The Belgian constitution combines monarchical with a strong infusion of the democratic principles. The execu- tive power is vested in a hereditary king ; the legislative in the king and two chambers the Senate and the Chamber of Representatives the for- mer elected for eight years, the latter for four, but one-half of the former renewable every four years, and one- half of the latter every two years. The senators are elected partly directly, partly indirectly (by the provincial councils) and must be 40 years of age. Their numbers depend on popu- lation. The deputies or representatives are elected directly, one for every 40,- 000 inhabitants at most. In 1914 the Senators numbered 120, and the Rep- resentatives 186. According to a new military law passed in 1913 the army is recruited by annual calls to the colors by vol- untary engagements, the calls com- prising 49 per cent, of those inscribed on the rolls. Military service is com- pulsory for those called to the colors. Active army service is eight years, fol- lowed by five years in the reserves. The field army consisted of six army divisions and two cavalry divisions. The army estimates for 1914 aggre- gated $20,219,250. After being for centuries under Belgium Spanish, Austrian and French dom- ination, Belgium was united by the Congress of Vienna to Holland, under the title of the kingdom of the Nether- lands. A most injudicious measure of the Dutch government, an at- tempt to assimilate the language of the provinces by prohibiting the use of French in the courts of justice, excited an opposition, which, en- couraged by the success of the French revolution of 1830, broke out into revolt. The electoral system, more- over, gave the preponderance to the N. provinces, though inferior in population, and the interests of the provinces were diametrically opposed in matters of taxation. Belgium was agricultural and manufacturing, Holland commercial ; the one wished to tax imports and exports, the other property and industry. In the cham- bers three different languages were spoken, Dutch, German, and French ; and the members frequently did not understand each other. Nothing but the most skillful government could have overcome these difficulties, and no statesman appeared fitted to grapple with them. The revolutionary movement became general in the S., and the Dutch troops, at first success- ful before Brussels, were finally re- pulsed, and compelled by the arrival of fresh bands of insurgents from all quarters to retire. The Flemings sa- luted the volunteers of Liege, Mons, and Tournay by the ancient title of Belgians, and this name, which prop- erly distinguished only a section of the people of the S. provinces, became henceforth recognized as the patriotic designation of the whole. A convention of the great powers assembled in London to determine on the affairs of the Netherlands and stop the effusion of blood. It favored the separation of the provinces, and drew up a treaty to regulate it. In the meantime the National Congress of Belgium offered the crown to the Duke of Nemours, second son of Louis Philippe, and, on his declining it, they offered it, on the recommendation of England, to Leopold, Prince of Saxe- Coburg, who acceded to it under the title of Leopold L, on July 21, 1831. In November of the same year the five powers guaranteed the crown to him by the treaty of London. Belgrade During the reign of Leopold, a pros- perous period of 34 years, Belgium became a united and patriotic com- munity. Arts and commerce flour- ished, and a place was taken in the family of nations upon which the Bel- gian people could look with compla- cency. Leopold II. succeeded his fa- ther in 1865. In recent years the chief feature of Belgian politics has been a keen struggle between the cler- ical and the liberal party. At the elec- tions in June, 1878, the liberals gained a majority, which they lost in 1884, and failed to regain in 1890, but, after a revision of the constitution, they were returned by a large majority in 1894. In 1908 Belgium annexed the KONGO FREE STATE (q. v.). King Leopold II. died Dec. 17, 1909, and was succeeded by his nephew, as Ax- BEBT I. (q. v.). Belgium was the first victim of Teutonic ruthlessness in the war in Europe. It was invaded by the Ger- mans, notwithstanding that Germany was one of the guarantors of its in- tegrity, Aug. 3, 1814 ; the capital was removed to Antwerp, Aug. 18, to Os- tend, Oct. 8, and to Havre, France, Oct. 12. See APPENDIX : World War. Belgrade, a city and capital of Servia, on the right bank of the Dan- ube in the angle formed by the junc- tion of the Save with that river, con- sists of the citadel or upper town, on a rock 100 feet high ; and the lower town, which partly surrounds it. Of late years many modern improvements have been introduced and many fine edifices have been built. It man- ufactures carpets, silks, etc. The city suffered severely in the various move- ments that led to the crushing of Servia. See APPENDIX: World War. Pop. (1911) 90,890. Belisarius, the great general of the Roman Emperor Justinian, was a native of Illyria. He commanded an expedition against the King of Persia about 530; suppressed an in- surrection at Constantinople ; con- quered Gelimer, King of the Vandals, and put an end to their dominion in Africa ; was recalled and honored with a triumph. In 535, Belisarius was sent to Italy to carry on war with the Goths, and took Rome in 537. He was there unsuccessfully besieged by Vitiges, whom he soon after besieged in turn, and captured at Ravenna, but was recalled, through jealousy, before he had completed the conquest of Italy. Belisarius recovered Rome from Totilus in 547, and was recalled the next year. He was afterward sent against the Huns. He was charged, in 563, with conspiracy against Jus- tinian, but was acquitted. That he was deprived of sight, and reduced to beggary, appears to be a fable of late invention. Died in 565. Belize, or BH+fsh Honduras, a British colony washed on the E. by the Bay of Honduras, in the Carib- bean Sea, and elsewhere surrounded by Guatemala and Mexico. It forms the S. E. part of the peninsula of Yucatan, and measuring 180 by 60 miles, has an area of 7,562 square miles. Since 1862 Belize has ranked as a British colony, with a lieutenant- governor, whose rank was raised, in 1884, to that of governor. Pop. (1901) 36,998. Belize, the capital, is a depot for foreign goods for Central America, and has a population of about 6,600. Belknap, George Eugene, an American naval officer, born in New- port, N. H., Jan. 22, 1832; was ap- pointed midshipman in the navy in 1852, rose to Rear-Admiral in 1889; and was retired in 1894. He took part in the capture of the Barrier Forts on the Canton river, China, in 1856; and in the Civil War. In 1873, while engaged in deep sea sounding in the North Pacific Ocean, he made dis- coveries concerning the bed of the ocean that found high favor among scientists. He was appointed Superintendent of the United States Naval Observatory in 1885. He died in 1903. Belknap, William Worth, an American military officer, born in Newburg, N. Y., Sept 22, 1829 ; grad- uated at Princeton, and read law in Keokuk, la., where he was elected to the Legislature in 1857. In 1861 he entered the Union army as Major of the 15th Iowa Volunteers and was engaged at Shiloh, Corinth, and Vicks- burg ; but became most prominent in Sherman's Atlanta campaign. He was promoted to Brigadier-General, July 30, 1864, and Major-General, March 13, 1865. He was collector of internal revenue in Iowa from 1865 to Oct. 13, 1869, when he was ap- Bell Bell pointed Secretary of War, which of- fice he occupied till March 7, 187G. He resigned in consequence of accusa- tions of official corruption. Subse- quently he was tried and acquitted. He died in Washington, D. C. f Oct. 12, 1890. Bell, a holloa, sounding instru- ment of metal. The metal from which bells are usually made ( by founding ) , is an alloy, called bell-metal, com- monly composed of 80 parts of copper and 20 of tin. Bells, as the term is used on ship- board, are the strokes of the ship's bell that proclaim the hours. Eight bells, the highest number, are rung at noon and every fourth hour after- wards, i. e:, at 4, 8, 12 o'clock, and BO on. The intermediary periods are indicated thus: 12:30, 1 bell; 1 o'clock, 2 bells ; 1 :30, 3 bells, etc., until the eight bells announce 4 o'clock, when the series recommences 4:30, 1 bell; 5 o'clock, 2 bells, etc. The even numbers of strikes thus al- ways announce hours, the odd numbers half hours. Bell, Alexander Graham, in- ventor of the telephone, was born in Edinburgh, March 3, 1847; son of Alexander Melville Bell. He was ed- ucated at Edinburgh and in Germany, and settled in Canada in 1870. In 1872 he came to the United States and introduced for the education of deaf mutes the system of visible speech contrived by his father. He became Professor of Vocal Physiology in Boston University, and at the Phil- adelphia Exhibition, in 1876, exhibit- ed his telephone, designed and partly constructed some years before. He was also the inventor of the photo- phone in 1880, of the graphophone in 1887, and of kindred instruments. Bell, Alexander Melville, a Scotch elocutionist, born at Edin- burgh in 1819. He is inventor of the system of visible speech, in which all the possible articulations of the hu- man voice have corresponding 'char- acters designed to represent the re- spective positions of the vocal organs. This system has been successfully em- ployed in teaching the deaf and dumb to speak. Besides writing on this subject he has written on elocution, stenography, etc. Died Aug. 7, 1905, Bell, Andrew James, a Cana- dian educator, born in Ottawa, May 12, 1856 ; educated at the University of Toronto, and at Breslau Universi- ty ; became Professor of Latin and Literature in Victoria University, in 1889. He is an active member of the Canadian Institute, and has contrib- uted some important papers to its " Transactions." Bell, Benjamin Taylor A., a Scotch-Canadian mining expert, born in Edinburgh, July 2, 1863 ; was edu- cated in Edinburgh ; went to Canada in 1882. In 1890 he organized the General Mining Association of the Province, and in 1892 he was instru- mental in uniting the coal, gold, and other mineral interests of Nova Scotia into a like organization. Bell, Henry, a Scotch engineer, born in Linlithgowshire in 1767. In 1798 he turned his attention es- pecially to the steamboat, the prac- ticability of steam navigation hav- ing been already demonstrated. In 1812 the "Comet," a small 30-ton vessel built at Glasgow under Bell's directions, and driven by a three horse-power engine made by him- self, commenced to ply between Glasgow and Greenock, and continued to run till she was wrecked in 1820. This was the beginning of steam navi- gation in Europe. Bell is also cred- ited with the invention of the " dis- charging machine " used by calico printers. He died in Helensburgh, in 1830. A monument has been erected to his memory at Dunglass Point on the Clyde. Bell, Henry Haywpod, an Amer- ican naval officer, born in North Caro- lina, about 1808; was appointed a midshipman irom that State in 1823. Shortly after the outbreak of the Civil War, he became Fleet Captain of the Western Gulf Squad- ron. He commanded one of the three divisions of the fleet which cap- tured New Orleans, and was sent to raise the United States flag over the custom house and the city hall. In 1866 he was promoted to Rear-Ad- miral ; and, in 1867, retired. He was drowned at the mouth ef the Osaka river, Japan, Jan. 11, 1868. Bell, Isaac, an American philan- thropist, born in New York city. Aug. Bell 4, 1814 ; died in New York city, Sept. 30, 1S97. Bell, James Franklin, an Amer- ican military officer, born in Shelby- ville, Ky., Jan. 9, 1856; was gradu- ated at the United States Military Academy in 1878 ; was promoted to First Lieutenant, Dec. 29, 1890 ; Cap- tain, March 2, 1899, and Colonel of the 36th United States Infantry, July 5 following. In an action with the Filipino insurgents near Porac, Lu- zon, Sept. 9, following, he so signally distinguished himself that President McKinley directed that a Congression- al medal of honor be presented to him. He had much to do with the estab- lishment of the United States War School for Cavalry and Light Artil- lery at Fort Riley, Kan. ; was chief of staff, U. S. A., 1906-10; became commander of the Eastern Depart- ment, Governor's Island, New York, in March, 1917. Bell, John, an American states- man, born near Nashville, Tenn., Feb. 18, 1797; "was admitted to the bar in 1816 ; member of Congress from 1827 to 1841; Speaker in 1834, and Secre- tary of War in 1841. During this period he became from an ardent free trader, a protectionist and supporter of the Whigs, and favored the recep- tion of petitions for the abolition of slavery in the District of Columbia ; afterward (1858) he vigorously op- posed the admission of Kansas as a slave State. He sat in the United States Senate from 1847 to 1859, and, in 18GO, was nominated for the Presi- dency by the " Constitutional Union " Party, but received only 39 electoral votes, cast by the States of Tennes- see, Kentucky and Virginia. He after- ward took no active share in politics, and died at Cumberland Ironworks, Sept. 10, 1869. Bell, Liberty, a famous bell which was rung when the Continental Congress declared the independence of the United States in 1776. The order for founding it was given in 1751. The State House of Pennsylvania, in Phil- adelphia, work on which had been sus- pended for a number of years, was then approaching completion. The lower floors were already occupied by the Supreme Court in the Chamber, while in the other assembled the Free- Bell men of the Province of Pennsylvania, then consisting of one body. A com- mittee was appointed by the Freemen, with Peter Norris as chairman, and empowered to have a new bell cast for the building. The commission for the bell was, in the same year, awarded to Robert Charles, of London, the specification being that the bell should weigh 2,000 pounds and cost 100 sterling. It was to be made by the best workmen, to be examined care- fully before being shipped, and to con- tain, in well shaped letters around it, the inscription : " By order of the Province of Pennsylvania for the State House in the City of Philadel- phia, 1752." An order was given to place underneath this the prophetic words from Leviticus xxv : 10 : " Pro- claim liberty throughout the land and to all the inhabitants thereof." The reason for the selection of this text has been a subject of much conjecture, but the true reason is apparent when the full text is read. It is as follows : "And ye shall hallow the 50th year and proclaim liberty throughout the land and to all the inhabitants there- of." In selecting the text the Quakers had in memory the arrival of William Penn and their forefathers more than half a century before. In August, 1752, the bell arrived, but though in apparent good order, it was cracked by a stroke of the clapper while being tested. It was recast successfully, and placed in position in June, 1753. Af- ter the Declaration of Independence it rang out the memorable message of " Liberty throughout the land and to all the inhabitants thereof." For 50 years the bell continued to be rung on every festival and anniversary, until it eventually cracked. An ineffectual attempt was made to cause it to con- tinue serviceable by enlarging the cause of its dissonance and chipping the edges. It was removed from its position in the tower to a lower story, and only used on occasions of public sorrow. Subsequently, it was placed on the original timbers in the vesti- bule of the State House, and, in 1873, it was suspended in a prominent posi- tion immediately beneath where a larger bell, presented to the city in 1866, now proclaims the passing hours. In 1893 it was taken to Chi' BeU ^ cago and placed on exhibition at the World's Columbian Exposition. Bell, Lilian, an American novel- ist, born in Kentucky in 1867. Bell, Robert, a Canadian geolo- gist, born in the township of Toronto, Ont, June 3, 1841; author of about 130 reports and papers, a list of which is found in the " Biblio of the Royal Society." Bell, Samuel Dana, an Ameri- can jurist, born in Francestown, N. H., Oct. 9, 1798; died in Winchester, N. H., July 31, 1868. Belladonna, a European plant, atropa belladonna, or deadly night- shade, natural order solanaceae. It is native in Great Britain. All parts of the plant are poisonous, and the in- cautious eating of the berries has often produced death. The inspissated juice is commonly known by the name of extract of belladonna. It is narcotic and poisonous, but is of great value in medicine, especially in nervous ail- ments. It has the property of causing the pupil of the eye to dilate. The fruit of the plant is a dark, brownish- black shining berry. The name signi- fies beautiful lady, and is said to have been given from the use of the plant as a cosmetic. Bellamy, Edward, an American writer, born in Chicopee Falls, Mass., March 29, 1850. He was educated in Germany ; admitted to the bar ; was on the staff of the " Evening Post " of New York in 1871-1872; and on his return from the Sandwich Islands in 1877, he founded the Springfield " News." He is best known by his novel "Looking Backward" (1888), a socialistic work, of which an im- mense number of copies were sold in two years. He died in Chicopee Falls, Mass., May 22, 1898. Bellamy, Mrs. Elizabeth Whitfield, (Groom), an American novelist, writing under the pseudonym KAMBA. THORPE, born at Quincy, Fla., 1839. She died in 1900. Bell Bird, a bird, called also the arapunga. It is pure white in color, about a foot in length, and has a voice like the tolling of a bell. It inhabits Guiana. Belle de Nnit, a name sometimes given to the Marvel of Peru (mira- Belligerent bilis jalapa), sometimes also to cer- tain tropical American and West In- dian species of convolvulacese, with extremely beautiful and fragrant flow- ers, which open only during the night. Belle - Isle, or Belle - Isle - en Mer, a French island in the Bay of Biscay, Department of Morbihan, 8 miles S. of Quiberon Point ; length, 11 miles ; greatest breadth, 6 miles. Pop. about 10,000, largely engaged in the pilchard fishing. The capital is Le Palais, on the N. E. coast. Belle-Isle, a rocky island 9 miles long, at the E. entrance to the Strait of Belle-Isle, the channel, 17 miles wide, between Newfoundland and the coast of Labrador. Belle-Isle, an island in the James river, near Richmond, Va., where Union prisoners were confined during the Civil War. Belles Lettres, polite, or elegant literature : a word of somewhat vague signification. Rhetoric, poetry, fiction, history, and criticism, with the lan- guages in which these works are written come under this head. Belleville, city and capital of St. Clair county, 111.; on the Illinois Central and other railroads; 14 miles S. E. of St. Louis, Mo.; is in a wheat, corn, oats, hay, and vegetable section; has valuable coal mines nearby; and manufactures traction engines, glass, stoves and ranges, machinery, bricks, and farming im- plements. Pop. (1910) 21,122. Bellville, city, port of entry, and capital of Hastings district, Ontario, Canada; on the Moira river, Quinte bay, and Grand Trunk railroad; 113 miles E. of Toronto; has a fine har- bor; superior water-power, and steamer connection with Canadian and United States points; is the seat of Albert College (M. E.); and is chiefly en- gaged in manufacturing and farming. Pop. (1911) 9,876. Belligerent, a nation or a large section of a nation engaged in carry- ing on war. When a revolted party of great numerical strength are able to form a regular government and rule over the whole, or part of the territory which they claim, humanity dictates that they should not be treated as rebels guilty of treason, but should, if captured, be regarded as prisoners Bellingliam Bellows of war. To attain this result, it is needful for those who have risen in arms against the government to make every effort to obtain for their party the position of belligerents. In the contest between the Federals and Con- federates, in the war of 1861-1865, the latter, at the commencement of the struggle, claimed the privilege of belligerents. Their demand was ac- ceded to by the British Government, on which the Federal authorities took umbrage, contending that the recognition had been premature. Bellingliam, city, port of entry, and capital of Whatcom county, Wash.; on Bellingham bay and sev- eral railroads; 80 miles N. of Seattle; comprises the former cities of Fair Haven and Whatcom, united in 1903; has an excellent harbor on Puget sound, state normal school, two Car- negie libraries gnd varied manufac- tures. Pop. (1910) 24,298. Bellingham, Richard, an Eng- lish colonial governor, born in 1592 ; arrived in Boston in 1634, and in the following year became deputy gover- nor of Massachusetts. In 1641 he was candidate for governor against Win- throp, and was elected ; was re-elected in 1654 and 1665 ; and held the gover- norship at the time of his death. In 1664 he refused to go to England at the command of the King, to defend his administration. He became Majpr- General in the same year. He died Dec. 7, 1672. Bellini, the name of a Venetian family which produced several re- markable painters. GIOVANNI BELLI- NI, born in 1426, died in 1512, was the founder of the older Venetian school of painting, and contributed greatly to its progress. His best works are altar pieces. Bellinzona, a town of Switzer- land, capital of the canton of Ticino ; charmingly situated on the left bank of the Ticino, about 5 miles from its embouchure in in the N. end of Lago Maggiore. It occupies a position of great military importance. Bellman, Carl Michael, a Swe- dish poet, born in Stockholm, Feb. 4, 1740. His poems were often improvisa- tions, and the airs of his songs were largely of his own composition. As singer of the rollicking life of a capi- tal city, he is unsurpassed. A colossal bronze bust of Bellman, by Bystrom, was erected in the Zoological Garden at Stockholm in 1829, and there a popular festival is held yearly in his honor. He died in Stockholm, Feb. 11, 1795. Bello, Andres, a Spanish-Ameri- can diplomatist and author, born in Caracas, Venezuela, Nov. 30, 1780. From 1810 to 1828 he represented Venezuela in London ; in 1829, became an official of the Bureau of Finance; in 1834, Minister of Foreign Affairs for Chile; in 1842, the first rector of Santiago University. He was the au- thor of " Principles of International Law" (1832), and his entire works were printed after his death at the expense of the State. He died in San- tiago, Chile, Oct. 15, 1865. Bellona, the goddess of war, and sister or wife, or sister-wife and chari- oteer of Mars. Bellot, Joseph Rene, a French naval officer, born in Paris in 1826. In 1851 he joined the expedition to the Polar regions in search of Sir John Franklin, and took part in sev- eral explorations. He was drowned in an attempt to carry despatches to Sir Edward Belsher over the ice, in 1853. His diary was published in 1855. Bellot Strait, the passage on the N. coast of North America, which separates North Somerset from Boo- thia Felix, and connects Prince Re- gent Inlet with Franklin Channel. Its E. entrance was discovered in 1852 by Lieut. Joseph Rene Bellot. Bellows, an instrument for blow- ing the fire in manufactories, forges or private houses. Bellows, Albert F., an American painter born in Milford, Mass., Nov. 20, 1829 ; was one of the first to suc- ceed with water colors. He died in Auburndale, Mass., Nov. 24, 1883. Bellows, Henry 'Whitney, an American Unitarian clergyman and writer, born at Walpole, N. H., June 11, 1814; became pastor of All Souls Church, New York, 1839; was chief founder and long editor of the " Chris- tian Inquirer" (1846); chief origi- nator of the United States Sanitary Commission, and its President during the Civil War (1861-1865). He was Bellows Fish. an effective preacher and public speak- er. He died in New York, Jan. 30, 1882. Bellows Fish, called also the trum- pet fish or sea snipe. It is 4 or 5 inches long, and has an oblong, oval body and a tubular elongated snout, which is adapted for drawing from among sea-weed and mud the minute Crustacea on which it feeds. Bell Rock, or Inch. Cape, a dan- gerous reef surmounted by a light- house, situated in the German Ocean, about 12 miles from Arbroath, nearly opposite the mouth of the river Tay. It is said that in former ages the monks of Aberbrothock caused a bell to be fixed on this reef, which was rung by the waves, and warned the mariners of this dangerous place. The reef is partly uncovered during the ebb tides. Bell-Smith, Frederic Marlett, an English artist, born in London, Sept. 26, 1846; went to Canada in 1866. He was for seven years Art Di- rector at Alma College, St. Thomas, and teacher of drawing in the public schools of London, Ont. About 1888 he became a portrait and figure paint- er ; but he is best known as a painter of landscapes. Belmont, a town in the E. part of Cape Colony, midway between Orange River Junction and Kimber- ley. It was the scene of one of the earliest engagements in the war of 1899-1900, between the Boers and the British under Gen. Lord Methuen. The town was attacked by the British on Nov. 23, 1899, while on the march to the relief of Kimberley, and the battle resulted in a victory for them. Two days later Lord Methuen took Graas Pan, 10 miles N. of Belmont, after again defeating the Boers. Belmont, August, an American banker, born in Alzey, Germany; ed- ucated at Frankfort, and was appren- ticed to the Rothschild's banking house in that city when 14 years old. In 1837 he went to Havana to take charge of the firm's interests, and soon afterward was sent to New York city, where he established himself in the banking business and as the represent- ative of the Rothschilds. He was Consul-General of Austria, in 1844- 1850 ; became Charge d'Affaires at Beloit The Hague in 1853; and was Minis- ter-Resident there in 1854-1858. He was a delegate to the Democratic Na- tional Convention in 1860, and when a portion of the delegates withdrew and organized the convention in Balti- more, he was active in that body, and through it became Chairman of the National Democratic Committee, an office he held till 1872. He was an active worker in the party till 1876, when he closed his political career. He died in New York city, Nov. 24. 1890. Belmont, August, an American banker, born in New York city, Feb. 18, 1853 ; son of the preceding. He was graduated at Harvard University in 1875 ; at once entered his father's banking house, and on the death of his father became head of the firm of August Belmont & Co., also repre- senting the European banking firm of the Rothschilds. In February, 1900, he organized the Rapid Transit Sub- way Construction Company to back John B. McDonald, who had been awarded the $35,000,000 contract for the construction of the rapid transit system in New York city. He became largely interested in railroad and banking affairs. Belmont, Perry, an American lawyer, born in New York, Dec. 28, 1851 ; son of August Belmont ; grad- uated at Harvard University in 1872, and at Columbia College Law School in 1876 ; was admitted to the bar and practiced in New York till 1881, when he was elected as a Democrat to Con- gress, and served till 1887, being a member of the Committee on Foreign Affairs. In 1885 he was appointed Chairman of the Committee on For- eign Affairs, and in 1888 United States Minister to Spain. He was one of the principals in the execu- tion of the great contract for the construction of a rapid transit sys- tem in New York city, in 1900. Beloit, a city in Rock county, Wis.; on the Rock river and the Chicago & Northwestern and other railroads; 84 miles S. W. of Milwau- kee; is the seat of Beloit College (Cong.); has ample power from the river for its factories; and, besides one of the largest wood-working ma- chinery plants in the world, manu- Belsliazzar Ben factures wind-mills, towers and tanks, shoes, and building paper. Pop. (1910) 15,125. Belsliazzar, the last of the Baby- lonian kings, who reigned conjointly with his father Nabonadius. He per- ished B. C. 538, during the successful storming of Babylon by Cyrus. Belt, in astronomy, a varying num- ber of dusky, belt-like bands or zones encircling the planet Jupiter parallel to his equator, as if the clouds of his atmosphere had been forced into a series of parallels through the rapidity of his rotation, and the dark body of the planet was seen through the com- paratively clear spaces between. In physical geography, two pas- sages or straits connecting the Baltic with the German Ocean, viz. (a) the Great Belt, between the islands of Seeland and Laland on the N. and Fuhnen and Langeland, on the W. (b) The Little Belt, between the mainland of Denmark on the W., and the island of Fuhnen on the E. Beltane, a superstitious observ- ance now or formerly practiced among the Scottish and Irish Celts, as well as in Cumberland and Lancashire. The Scotch observe the Beltane fsti- val chiefly on the 1st of May (old style), though in the W. of that coun- try St. Peter's Day, June 29, was pre- ferred. In Ireland there were two Beltanes, one on the 1st of May, and the other on the 21st of June. The ceremonies varied in different places, but one essential part of them every- where was to light a fire. At Cal- lander, in Perthshire, the boys went to the moors, cut a table out of sods, sat round it, lit a fire, cooked and ate a custard, baked an oatmeal cake, di- vided it into equal segments, black- ened one of these, drew lots, and then compelled the boy who drew out the blackened piece to leap three times through the fire. Merry-makings came at length to attend the Beltane festi- val. Beluga, a species of fish the great or Hausen, sturgeon. It is sometimes 12 to 15 feet in length, and weighs 1,200 pounds, or in rare cases even 3,000. The best isinglass is made from its swimming bladder. Its flesh, though sometimes eaten, is occasional- ly unwholesome. It is found in the Caspian and Black Seas and the large rivers which flow into them. The word is also applied to a cetacean. It is called also the white whale. It is from 18 to 21 feet in length, and in- habits Davis Straits and the other portions of the Northern Seas, and sometimes ascends rivers. Being, the Roman name of the Assyrian and Babylonian divinity called Bel in Isaiah xlvi : 1. Belns, a Phoanician river at the base of Mt. Carmel. Its fine sand, according to tradition, first led the Phoenicians to the invention of glass. Belns, Temple of, an enormous temple in ancient Babylon, rebuilt by Nebuchadnezzar, about 604 B. c. Its site is thought, by some authorities, to be the modern Bers-Nimrud, and by others, Babil. Belvedere, in architecture the up- permost story of a building open to the air, at least on one side, and fre- quently on all, for the purpose of ob- taining a view of the country and for enjoying cool air. A portion of the Vatican has this name. Bembo, Fietro, an Italian schol- ar, born at Venice in 1470. Pope Paul III. conferred on him, 1539, the hat of a cardinal, and soon after the bishoprics of Gubbio and Bergamo. He died in 1547. Bemis, Edward Webster, an American economist, born in Spring- field, Mass., April 7, I860; graduated at Amherst College in 1880 ; was Pro- fessor of Economical Science in the Kansas State Agricultural College, 1897-9 ; later engaged in economic research work in Cleveland, O., Chi- cago, 111., New York city, and else- where ; author of numerous papers and articles on city administration. Bemis (incorrectly BEMUS) Heights, a village in Saratoga coun- ty, N. Y., on the Hudson river, fam- ous as the scene of the first battle of Stillwater, Sept. 19, 1777. Ben (Hebrew, "son"), a prepos- itive syllable signifying in composition " son of," found in many Jewish names, as Bendavid, Benasser ? etc. Ben, a Gaelic word signifying mountain, prefixed to the names of many mountains in Scotland N. of the Firths of Clyde and Forth; as, Ben Nevis, Ben MacDhui, etc. Benaiah Benaiah, the name of 12 different persons mentioned in the Bible, the one chiefly important being a son of Jehoida, a chief priest. He was made commander-in-chief in Joab's place by Solomon. Benalcazor, Belasazor, or Ve- lalcazor, Sebastian de, the name given to SEBASTIAN MOVANO from his native town ; a Spanish soldier who figured in the Spanish conquests in South America. His gallant conduct attracted the attention of Pizarro, w.ho promoted him. He took the city of Quito, made an expedition into Co- lombia and reduced Popayan, and was appointed governor of that part of the country in 1538. He was forced to resign this office in consequence of legal complications and died when about to return to Spain, in 1550. Benares, a town in Hindustan, Northwest Provinces, administrative headquarters of a district and division of the same name, on the left bank of the Ganges, from which it rises like an amphitheater, presenting a splen- did panorama of temples, mosques, palaces, and other buildings, with their domes, minarets, etc. Fine ghauts lead down to the river. It _is one of the most sacred places of pil- grimage in all India, being the head- quarters of the Hindu religion. The principal temple is dedicated to Siva, whose sacred symbol it contains. It is also the seat of government and other colleges, and of the missions of various societies. Benares carries on a large trade in the produce of the district and in English goods, and manufactures silks, shawls, embroid- ered cloth, jewelry, etc. The popula- tion in (1911) 203,804. Benbow, John, an English admi- ral, born in Shrewsbury about 1650, died 1702. For his skill and valor in an action with a Barbary pirate he was promoted by James II. to the com- mand of a ship of war. William III. employed him in protecting the En- glish trade in the Channel, which he did with great effect, and he was soon promoted to the rank of rear-admiral. In 1701 he sailed to the West Indies with a small fleet, and in August of the following year he fell in with the French fleet under Du Casse, and in the heat of action a chain-shot carried Benedict away one of his legs. At this critical instant, being most disgracefully aban- doned by several of the captains under his command, the whole fleet effected its escape. Benbow, on his return to Jamaica, brought the delinquents to a court-martial, by which two of them were condemned to be shot He him- self died of his wounds. Bench Warrant, a warrant is- sued by the court before which an in- dictment has been found to arrest the accused, that he may appear and find bail for his appearance at the trial. It is used extensively in the United States to bring into court persons who have neglected to obey an order of court, such as delinquent jurymen. Bencoolen, a seaport on the W. coast of Sumatra Island, Dutch East Indies ; capital of a Residency of the same name. It was founded in 1685 by the English and ceded to the Dutch in 1824. Area of Residency, 9,399 square miles ; pop. of Residency, 214,- 272; of town, 5,000. Bendemann, Eduard, a German painter, born in Berlin, Dec. 3, 1811s died in Dusseldorf, Dec. 27, 1889. Bendire, Charles Emil, a Ger- man-American military officer and or- nithologist, born in Darmstadt, Ger- many, April 27, 1836, came to the United States in 1852, and entered the army in 1854. He served through the Civil War, becoming a Captain in the 1st Cavalry. After the war he was transferred to the West, and was retired April 24, 1886. During his stay in the West he applied himself to the study of ornithology, and collected a vast amount of material in various branches of natural history. In 1870 he began to collect the eggs of North American birds, which finally number- ed more than 8,000 specimens, and this collection he presented to the United States National Museum. He is the author of " The Life Histories of North American Birds, with Spe- cial Reference to their Breeding Hab- its and Eggs." Benedetti, Vincent, Count de, a French diplomatist of Italian ex- traction, born in Bastia, Corsica, April 29, 1817; died in Paris, March 28, 1900. Benedict, a married man ; from the Latin benedictus (a happy man). Benedict VII. Benedict VII., Pope, succeeded John XIII. in 972. After the death of the Emperor Otho I., the Romans imprisoned Benedict, who was stran- gled in the castle of St. Angelo, in 974. Benedict XIV., Pope, was born at Bologna in 1075, of the noble fam- ily of Lambertini. Benedict was learned, not only in theology, but in history and literature, and had also a taste for the fine arts. His works were published at Rome, in 12 vol- umes quarto. He died in 1758, and was succeeded by Clement XIII. Benedict XV., Pope (Giacoma Cardinal Delia Chiesa), born in Pog- li, Italy, Nov. 21, 1854 ; was educated at the Academy of Noble Ecclesiastics in Rome ; ordained in 1878 ; became archbishop of Bologna in 1907, a car- dinal in 1914, and Pope, in succession to Pius X., on Sept 3, 1914. He had a thorough training in diplomacy, which was utilized in attempts to ameliorate conditions in the warring countries and to bring about a speedy peace. See APPENDIX : World War. Benedict, St., the founder of the Order of the Benedictine Monks, was born at Nursia, in the Dukedom of Spoleto, in Italy, in 480 A. D. Authors are not agreed upon the time and place of his death. Benedict, Frank Lee, an Amer- ican novelist and poet, born in New York in 1834. Benediction (from the Latin be- nedicere, literally, " to speak well of ;" "to commend"), a solemn invocation of the Divine blessing upon men or things. The ceremony in its simplest form may be considered almost coeval with the earliest expressions of religi- ous feeling. The Sabbath is said to have been blessed. Christ " took bread | and blessed it," and " lifting up His hands," blessed His disciples. In the primitive Church the custom gradual- ly developed itself in various liturgi- cal forms. In Protestant churches a form of benediction is used at the close of religious services. In the Ro- man Church a priestly benediction has been defined as a formula of impera- tive prayer, which, in addition to the desire which it expresses, transmits a certain grace or virtue to the object over which it is pronounced. Benevolence Benedictns, the name given to the hymn of Zacharias (Luke i: 68), used as a canticle in the morning ser- vice of the Episcopal Church to fol- low the lessons. This position it has occupied from very ancient times. It is also used in the Church of Rome. Benefice, under the feudal sys- tem, an estate held by feudal tenure. Formerly, and even sometimes yet, the word was applied to an ecclesiasti- cal living of any kind, any church en- dowed with a revenue, whether a dig- nity or not. Benefit of Clergy, the advantage derived from the preferment of the plea " I am a clergyman." When in medieval times, a clergyman was ar- raigned on certain charges he was permitted to put forth the plea that with respect to the offense of which he was accused, he was not under the jurisdiction of the civil courts, but, being a clergyman, was entitled to be tried by his spiritual superiors. The cases in which the benefit of clergy might be urged were such as affected the life or limbs of the offender, high treason, however, excepted. The ex- emption has never been recognized in Ame.rica, and is abolished in Great Britain. Benevento (ancient Beneventum), a city of Southern Italy, 32 miles N. E. of Naples, and is the capital of a province of same name. Near Bene- vento, in 1266, was fought the great battle between Charles of Anjou and his rival, Manfred, in which the latter was killed, and his army totally de- feated. During the reign of Napo- leon I., Benevento was formed into a principality conferred on Talleyrand. In 1815, it again reverted to the Pope. In 1860, it was annexed to the king- dom of Italy. Pop., province (1911), 254,726; city, 25,123. Benevolence, in the history of the law of England, was a species of forced loan or contribution, levied by kings without legal authority. It was first so called in 1473, when asked from his subjects by Edward IV. as a mark of good will toward his rule. James I. tried, but with little success, to raise money by this expedient, and it was never again attempted by the crown; Charles I. expressly declining to have recourse to it. Benezeth Benhani Benezcth, Anthony, a French- iAjnerican philanthropist, was born in St. Quentin's, France, Jan. 31, 1713; lived from infancy in England and the United States. The greater part of his writings were in the form of tracts against the slave trade and in favor of the American Indians. He died in Philadelphia, Pa., May 3, 1784. Benfey, Theodor, a German Ori- entalist and comparative philologist, born of Jewish parents near Got- tingen, Jan. 28, 1809. In 1862 he was appointed to the chair of San- skrit and Comparative Philology in the University of Gottingen, which he held till his death, June 26, 1881. Benga, an African tribe, living on the Spanish island, Corisco, off the W. coast, having moved from the in- terior within a few generations. The American Presbyterian Board of Mis- sions have translated books into the language, which closely resembles the Kamerun and Dualla. Bengal, a province in British In- dia, formerly a presidency, reconsti- tuted a province in 1912 ; comprises the deltas and . lower valleys of the Ganges ; area, 78,412 square miles ; pop. (1911) 45,483,077; area with the native States of Cooch Behar and Hill Tippera included, 83,805, pop. 46,305,655. The chief town and port is Calcutta, pop. (1911) 1,222,315. The English first got a firm footing in Bengal about 1644, and in 1707, Calcutta was erected into a presidency, and the foundation of British power in India laid. A bill conferring upon agricultural tenants a transferable interest in their hold- ings and protecting them against evic- tion was passed in 1885. Bengal, Bay of, that portion of the Indian Ocean which lies between Hindustan and Farther India, or Bur- ma, Siam, and Malacca, and may be regarded as extending S. to Ceylon and Sumatra. It receives the Ganges, Brahmaputra, and Irrawadi. Bengal, or Bengola, Light, a kind of firework, giving a vivid and Bustained blue light It is used for signals at sea. Bengongh, John 'Wilson, a Ca- nadian poet, born in Toronto, April 5, 1851 : studied in the Whitley District and Grammar School. In 1873 be es- tablished the " Grip," a humorous weekly, in Toronto. His political car- toons in this paper were highly artis- tic. He is also widely known as a lecturer and a poet. Bengnela, a district belonging to the Portuguese on the W. coast of South Africa; bounded N. by Angola, and S. by the Kunene river; founded by the Portuguese in 1617. Benguet, a province of Luzon, Philippines; separated from the cen- tral W. coast by the province of La Union; area, 990 square miles; pop. (1903) 22,745; capital, Baguio, 143 miles N. of Manila; native races, Ilocano and Igarrotes. Ben-Hadad, or Benhaddad, the name of three kings of Syria. The first was a contemporary of Asa, King of Judah (929-873 B. c.), I Kings, xv. The second (860-824 B. c.) of the time of Ahab, King of Israel, I Kings, xx. The third at the time of Jehoahaz, King of Israel (856-839 B. C.), II Kings, xiii. Benhani, Andrew Ellicott Kennedy, an American naval officer, born in New York, April 10, 1832; entered the navy in 1847 ; was com- missioned Rear-Admiral in 1890, and was retired in 1894. During the Civil War he served in the South Atlantic and West Gulf Blockading Squadrons. In April, 1893, he commanded one of the divisions in the great naval display at New York ; in 1894, as commander of a squadron at Rio de Janeiro, Bra- zil, he forced the commander of the in- surgents' squadron to raise the block- ade of the city and to cease firing on American vessels ; in 1898 was naval gize commissioner in Savannah, Ga. e died Aug. 11, 1905. Benhani, Henry W., an Ameri- can military engineer, born in Ches- hire, Conn., in 1816; was graduated at the United States Military Academy in 1837; and became Colonel of the United States Engineers, and Brevet Major-General, United States army. He commanded the engineer brigade and laid several pontoon bridges under fire during the Chancellorsville bat- tles ; constructed and commanded the defenses at City Point ; devised the picket shovel ; and made many im- provements in the construction of pontoon bridges, in which he was a Beni recognized expert. He died in New York, June 1, 1884. Beni, a river of Bolivia, South America ; formed by the union of all the streams flowing down the Eastern Cordillera. Beni-Hassan, a village of Mid- dle Egypt, on the E. bank of the Nile, remarkable for the grottoes or cata- combs in the neighborhood. Beni-Israel, a race in the W. of India (the Konkan sea board, Bom- bay, etc.) who keep a tradition of Jewish origin, and whose religion is a modified Judaism ; supposed to be a remnant of the ten tribes. Benin, a former negro kingdom of West Africa, on the Bight of Benin, extending along the coast on both sides of the Benin river, W. of the lower Niger, and to some distance inland. The chief town is Benin (pop. 15,- 000), situated on the river Benin, one of the mouths of the Niger. In February, 1897, the Benin coun- try was included within the Niger Coast Protectorate, and a British Resident was installed in the chief town. The whole territory was then between 3,000 and 4,000 square miles in extent, contained about 400 towns and villages, and had a population of which no trustworthy estimate could be formed. Benin, Bight of, part of the Gulf of Guinea, West Africa, which extends into the land between the mouth of the river Volta and that of the Nun. Benjamin, the youngest son of Jacob and Rachel (Gen. xxxv: 16- 18). Rachel died immediately after he was born, and with her last breath named him Ben-oni, the " son of my sorrow ;" but Jacob called him Ben- jamin, " son of my right hand.'* .The tribe of Benjamin, small at first, was almost exterminated in the days of the Judges, but afterward it great- ly increased. On the revolt of the ten tribes, Benjamin adhered to the camp of Judah ; and the two tribes ever afterward closely united. King Saul and Saul of Tarsus were both Benjamites. Benjamin, Jndali Philip, an American lawyer, born in St. Croix. iWest Indies, Aug. 11, 1811; was of E. 17. Bennett English parentage and of Jewish faith. He was educated at Yale Col- lege ; admitted to the bar in New Or- leans, in 1832 ; and elected to the United States Senate in 1852 and 1858. At the beginning of the Civil War, he resigned from the Senate and declared his adhesion to the State of Louisiana. In 1861 he accepted the office of Attorney-General in the Cab- inet of Jefferson Davis, and afterward became successively Confederate Sec- retary of War and Secretary of State. After the war he went to London, England, where he was admitted to the bar in 1806. He gained a suc- cessful practice, and in 1872 was for- mally presented with a silk gown. He wrote a " Treatise on the Law of Sale of Personal Property" (1868). He died in Paris, May 7, 1884. Benjamin, Park, an American journalist, poet, and lecturer, born at Demerara, British Guiana, Aug. 14, 1809. He studied law originally. His poems, of a high order of merit, have never been collected. He died in New York, Sept. 12, 1804. Benjamin, Park, an American lawyer, editor, and miscellaneous writer, son of the preceding, born in New York, May 11, 1849. A gradu- ate of the United States Naval Acad- emy (1867), he ser-ved on Admiral Farragut's flagship, but resigned in 1869. As a lawyer he has been a patent expert. He edited the " Scien- tific American " (1872-1878). Benjamin, Samuel Green Wheeler, an American traveler, artist, and miscellaneous writer, born at Argos, Greece, Feb. 13, 1837. He was United States Minister to Persia (1883-1885). He died July 19, 1914. Bennett, Charles Wesley, an American Methodist clergyman and educator, born at East Bethany, N. Y., July 18, 1828; was Principal of Genesee Wesleyan Seminary (1869- 1871), Professor of History and Logic at Syracuse University (1871- 1885), Professor of Historical Theol- ogy at Garrett Biblical Institute, Evanston (1885-1891). He died at Evanston, 111., April 17, 1891. Bennett, Edmund Hatch, an American lawyer, born in Manches- ter, Vt, April 6, 1824 ; was gk-aduated at the University of Vermont in 1843. Bennett Benson and admitted to the bar in 1847. From 1871 he was Professor and Dean at the Law School of Boston Univer- sity. He died Jan. 2, 1898. Bennett, James Gordon, a Scotch-American journalist ; founder and proprietor of the New York " Herald," born in Newmill, Keith, Sept. 1, 1795. Trained for the Ro- man Catholic priesthood, he emigrated to the United States in 1819, where he became in turn teacher, proof read- er, journalist, and lecturer; he founded the New York " Herald," May 6, 1835, price one cent. He spared no effort and expense in se- curing news, and laid the foundation of its after enormous success. It was the first newspaper to publish the stock lists and a daily money article. He died in New York, June 1, 1872. Bennett, James Gordon, an American journalist, born in New York city, May 10, 1841; son of James Gordon Bennett, founder of the New York " Herald," of which he became managing editor in 18G6, and from that time largely controlling, and becoming proprietor on the death of his father in 1872. In 1870 he sent Henry M. Stanley on the explor- ing expedition which resulted in the finding of Dr. Livingstone, and, in conjunction with the London " Daily Telegraph," supplied the means for his journey across Africa by- way of the Kongo in 1874-1878. He founded the "Evening Telegram " in New York, and established daily editions of the " Herald " in Paris and London. He early gave much attention to yachting. He resides mainly in Paris, collecting foreign news, and directing by telegraph the management and policy of his newspapers. The New York " Her- ald " was incorporated in 1899. Bennett, Joseph H., an Amer- ican philanthropist, born in Julius- town, N. J., Aug. 16, 1816. He en- gaged in the clothing business in Phila- delphia, Pa., when 16 years old. His property was said to be worth $3,000,- 000, and it is estimated that he gave $1,000,000 to charity. He bequeathed $500,000 to the University of Penn- i Bylvania for its proposed college for women. He died in Philadelphia, Sept 29, 1898. Bennett, Sanford Fillmoie, an American hymnologist, born in Eden, I N. Y., in 1836. He settled in Elk- horn, Wis., in 1860, and became editor of the " Independent." Resigning this place, he entered the 40th Wisconsin Volunteers and served with them throughout the war. In 1867 he aided J. P. Webster, the composer, in preparing "The Signet Ring," a Sun- day School hymn book, to which he contributed about 100 hymns. "The Sweet Bye and Bye " was one of the first of these. Many of Mr. Bennett's hymns and songs have been published in sheets. He died in Richmond, 111., June 12, 1898. Ben-Nevis, the most lofty moun- tain in Great Britain, in Invernes- shire, immediately E. of Fort William and the opening of the Caledonian canal, at the S. W. extremity of Glen- more. It rises to the height of 4,406 feet, and in clear weather yields a most extensive prospect. An observa- tory was established on its summit in May, 1881, by the Scottish Meteoro- logical .Society. Benningsen, or Bennigsen, Levin August, Baron, a Russian general, born in Hanover in 1745. He entered the service of Catherine II., and distinguished himself by great gallantry. He died in 1826. Bennington, town and county- seat of Bennington co., Vt. ; on the Bennington and Rutland and the Leb- anon Springs railroads; 36 miles E. of Troy, N. Y. Bennington is histor- ically famous on account of the battle fought Aug. 16, 1777, when General Stark with his " Green Mountain Boys " defeated a large British detach- ment sent from General Burgoyne's army to capture the public stores near N. Bennington. Pop. (1910) 6,211. Benson, William Shepherd, an American naval officer, born in Ma- con, Ga., Sept. 25, 1855 ; was gradu- ated at the United States Naval Acad- emy in 1877; promoted to captain, July 24, 1909, and rear-admiral, May 11, 1915 ; was commandant of the Philadelphia navy yard in 1913-15 ; and was appointed chief of the newly- created Bureau of Operations in 1915. His last duty was rendered extremely onerous by the entrance of the United States into the great war in 1917. Benteen Benteen, Frederick William, an American military officer, born in Petersburg, Va., Aug. 24, 1834; was educated in his native State ; and at the outbreak of the Civil War went to Missouri and organized a company of Union volunteers. His most brilliant service after the war was in his cam- paigns against the Indians. He died in Atlanta, Ga., June 22, 1898. Bent Grass, a genus of grasses, distinguished by a loose panicle of small, flowered, laterally compressed spikelets. The species are numerous and are found in almost all countries and climates. Bentliam, Jeremy, an English jurist, born in London, Feb. 15, 1748 ; educated at Westminster and Oxford ; entered Lincoln's Inn, in 1763. He was called to the bar, but did not practice, and, having private means, devoted himself to the reform of civil and criminal legislation. He died in London, June 6, 1832, leaving his body for dissection. His remains are to be seen at University College, London. Bentley, Richard, a celebrated English divine and classical scholar, distinguished as a polemical writer ; born near Wakefield, in Yorkshire, Jan. 27, 1662. He died at the mas- ter's lodge at Trinity, July 14, 1742. Benton, Thomas Hart, an Amer- ican statesman, born near Hillsboro, N. C., March 14, 1782 ; settled in Ten- nessee, where he studied law, and was elected to the Legislature. In 1812 he raised a regiment of volunteers, and also served on General Jackson's staff. After the war, he started a newspaper in St. Louis, by which he became involved in several duels. On the admission of Missouri as a State, he was chosen United States Senator in 1820, and, in this post, during 30 years' continuous service, took a lead- ing part in public affairs. A deter- mined opponent of Calhoun's nullifica- tion scheme, he afterward supported Jackson in his war on the United States bank, and earned the sobriquet of " Old Bullion " by his opposition to the paper currency. He died in .Washington, April 10, 1858. Benzene, or Benzol (C B H 8 ), a carbon compound, best obtained from the destructive distillation of coal-tar. It is the source from which is derived Berbera all the aniline colors, and artificial flavors. Benzine (C 9 H 14 ), a liquid hydro- carbon obtained from a fractional dis- tillation of petroleum. It may also be got by distilling 1 part of crystal- lized benzoic acid intimately mixed with 3 parts of slacked line. It is quite colorless, of a peculiar, etheral, agreeable odor, is used by manfactur- ers of india-rubber and gutta-percha, on account of its great solvent powers, in the preparation of varnishes, and for cleaning gloves, removing grease- spots from woollen and other cloths, etc., on account of its dissolving fats and resins. It is highly inflammable, and must be used with great caution. It must not be confounded with ben- zene. Benzoin, a solid, fragile, vegeta- ble substance, of a reddish-brown color. Benzoin is obtained from the tree called Styrax benzoin, and per- haps from some others. On making incisions into the bark, it flows out in the form of a balsamic juice, having a pungent taste and an agreeable odor. Beothnkan, (red man, or Indian), a linguistic stock of North American Indians, inhabitants of the region of the Exploits river in Northern New- foundland, and believed to have been limited to a single tribe, the last known survivor of which died hi 1829. Beowulf, an Anglo-Saxon epic, the only manuscript of which belongs to the 8th or 9th century, and is in the Cottonian Library (British Museum). The poem, which is the longest and most important in Anglo-Saxon liter- ature, is in many points obscure, and the manuscript is somewhat imperfect. Beranger, Pierre Jean de, the national poet of France; born in Paris, Aug. 19, 1780. He died in Paris, July 16, 1857, and received the honor of a public funeral, at which the most eminent men in France, both of the world of literature and politics, attended. Berand, Jean, a painter of great power, born in St. Petersburg, of French parentage, in 1845. His sub- jects are usually chosen from Parisian life. His latest works have been modern- ized scenes from the New Testament. Berbera, a seaport of British Somaliland, Eastern Africa, with a Berber* good harbor, on a bay of the Gulf of Aden. It was conquered by Egypt in 1875, but in July, 1884, the British Government took possession of it, and a small Indian force is now stationed here. It is the scene of a large an- nual fair, which brings over 30,000 people together from all quarters in the East. Coffee, grains, ghee, gold dust, ivory, gums, cattle, ostrich feathers, etc., are brought hither from the interior, and exchanged for cot- ton, rice, iron, Indian piece goods, etc. Berbers, a people spread over nearly the whole of Northern Africa, from whom the name Barbary is de- rived. The chief branches into which the Berbers are divided are, first, the Amazirgh, or Amazigh, of Northern Morocco, numbering from 2,000,000 to 2,500,000. They are for the most part quite independent of the Sultan of Morocco, and live partly under chief- tains and hereditary princes and part- ly in small republican communities. Second, the Shuluh, Shillooh, or Shel- lakah, who number about 1,450,000, and inhabit Southern Morocco. They are more highly civilized than the Am- azirgh. Third, the Kabyles in Algeria and Tunis, who are said to number 900,000; and fourth, the Berbers of the Sahara, who inhabit the oases. Their language has affinities to the Semitic group, but Arabic is spoken along the coast. They are believed to represent the ancient Mauritanians, Numidians, Ga>tulians, etc. Berbice, a river of British Guia- na ; flows generally N. E. into the At- lantic. It is navigable for small ves- sels for 165 miles from its mouth, but beyond that the rapids are numerous and dangerous. Berea College, a co-educational (non-sectarian) institution, in Berea, Ky. ; organized in 1858. Under the guidance of the able men who directed its course, this institution did an al- most incredible work among the moun- taineers both black and white in the Southern States. In the winter of 1903-3904, the Kentucky legislature forbade co-education of white and blacks, and Berea was obliged to estab- lish branch for its colored students. Berean, a Scottish religious sect founded by the Rev. J. Barclay in 1773. and also called Barclayans. Beresfcrd Berengarins, of Tours, a theo- logian of the llth century. He was born at Tours in 908, long held an ec- clesiastical office there, and was after- ward archdeacon of Angers. He was thoroughly versed in the philosophy of his age, and did not hesitate to ap- ply reason to the interpretation of the Bible. He denied the dogma of tran- substantiation, and was charged with heresy. He died on the Isle of St. Cosmos, near Tours, in 1088. Berenice, a daughter of Herod Agrippa I., who was the son of Aristo- bulus, who was the son of Herod the Great (Acts xii ; Matthew ii). She was the sister of Herodes Agrippa II., before whom Paul preached A. D. 63 ( Acts xxv : 13 ), and the wife of Hero- des of Chalcis, who seems to have been her uncle, and left her a young widow. After the capture of Jerusa- lem she went to Rome (A. D. 75), and Titus is said to have been so much at- tached to her that he promised to mar- ry her ; but on the death of his father he sent Berenice from Rome, much against his will and hers, when he found that the proposed match was disagreeable to he people. Beresford, Lord Charles de la Poer, an English naval officer, born in Ireland, Feb. 10, 1846; became a Cadet in 1857; Lieutenant, 1868; Captain, 1882; and Rear-Admiral, 1897. In 1882 he commanded the " Condor " in the bombardment of Alexandria, and was especially men- tioned and honored for his gallantry. In December, 1899, was appointed the second in command of the British squadron mobilized in the Mediterranean Sea. Lord Beres- ford accompanied the Prince of Wales on his visit to India in 1875-187G, as naval aide-de-camp, and held the same relation to the Queen in 1896-1897. He has served several terms in Parliament. Besides the numerous honors for gallantry a3 an officer he has received three med- als for saving life at sea under trying circumstances. In 1898 he visited China at the request of the Associated Chambers of Commerce of Great Brit- tain to make a study of the compli- cated commercial conditions existing there ; and on his return, in 1899, he passed through the United Statea JJeresiiia and was received with distinguished honors by official and commercial bod- ies. He has done much to promote the " open door " policy as a condi- tion of international commerce in China. Beresina, or Berezina, a river of Russia in Europe ; rendered famous on account of its disastrous passage by the French army during the retreat of Napoleon I. from Russia, in 1812. Berezpvsk, a village in the Rus- sian province of Perm, near Ekaterin- burg, gives name to a famous gold field, wrought since 1744. Berg, Frederick William Rambert, a Russian general, chiefly notorious for the severity with which he treated the unfortunate population of Poland during the insurrection of 1863, and which excited the horror and indignation of the civilized world. Bergamot, a fruit tree, a variety or species of the genus citrus, various- ly classed with the orange, citrus au- rantium, the lime, atrus limetta, or made a distinct species as citrus ber- gamia. It is probably of Eastern ori- gin, though now grown in Southern Europe, and bears a pale yellow, pear- shaped fruit with a fragrant and slightly acid pulp. Its essential oil is in high esteem as a perfume. Ber- gamot is also a name given to a num- ber of different pears. Bergen, a seaport on the W. coast of Norway, the second town of the kingdom, about 25 miles from the open sea, on a bay of the Byford. The trade is large, timber, tar, train oil, cod liver oil, hides, and particular- ly dried fish (stock fish) being export- ed in return for corn, wine, brandy, coffee, cotton, woolens, and sugar. In 1445 a factory was established here by the Hanseatic cities of Germany. Pop. (1910) 76,867. Bergerac, Savinien Cyrano de, a French author, born in Paris in 1619, distinguished for his courage in the field, and for the number of his duels, more than a thousand, most of them fought on account of his mon- strously large nose. He died in 1655. His writings are often crude, but full of invention, vigor, and wit. He was made the hero of a drama bearing his name, written by Edmond Rostand, the French playwright, which had a Beriberi phenomenal success in the United States in 189^1900, and was the oc- casion of a suit for plagiarism. Bergerat, Auguste Entile, a French journalist, playwright and novelist, born in Paris, April 29, 1845. son-in-law of Theophile Gautier, and since 1884, particularly known as the amusing chronicler of the " Figaro " under the pseudonym of " Caliban." He "also wrote two novels. Bergh., Henry, an American phi- lanthropist, born in New York in 1823; was founder and President of the American Society for the Preven- tion of Cruelty to Animals (1866), founder of the American Society for the Prevention of Crueity to Children (1881), Secretary of Legation and acting Vice-Consul at St. Petersburg (1862-1864). He died in New York city, March 12, 1888. Bergh, Pieter Theodoor Hel- vetius van den, a Dutch dramatist and poet, born in 1799; died in 1873. Bergnans, Heinrich, a German geographer, born in Cleves, Prussia, May 3, 1797 ; died in Stettin, Feb. 17, 1884. Bergman, Ernest von, a Ger- man surgeon, born in Riga, Dec. 16, 1836. He was educated at Vienna, Dorpat, and Berlin. He served in the Prussian army during 1866-1870; was Professor of Surgery in the Uni- versity of WUrzburg in 1878-1882; and became Director of the Surgical Clinic at Berlin University in 1882. He died March 25, 1907. Bergman, Torbern plof , a Swe- dish physicist and chemist, born in Catherineberg, March 20, 1735. His theory of chemical affinities greatly in- fluenced the subsequent development of chemistry. He died July 8, 1784. Bergmann, Carl, a German mu- sician, born in Ebersbach, Saxony, April 11, 1821. Being implicated in the Revolution of 1848, he left Ger- many for the United States in 1849. An enthusiastic Wagnerite, he was himself the composer of an opera, a symphony and many concert pieces. He died in New York city, in August 1876. Beriberi, Beriberia, Berriber- ri, or Barbiers, an acute disease characterized by oppression of breath- ing, by general oedema, by paralytic Bering Berlii weakness, and by numbness of the lower extremities. It is generally fatal It occurs frequently in Ceylon among the colored troops, and on some por- tions of the Indian coast. Bering, or Bearing, Vitus, a Danish explorer, born in Jutland, in 1680. After making several voyages to the East and West Indies, he en- tered the service of Russia, while still young; became a captain-commander in 1772 ; and was sent by the Empress Catharine in charge of an expedition (planned by Peter the Great before his death), the object of which was to determine if Asia and America were united. Crossing Siberia he sailed from the river Kamchatka in July. 1728; and reached lat 67 18' N., having passed through the strait since called after him, without knowing it. Discovering that the land trended greatly to the W. he concluded that the continents were not united, and returned ; without, however, seeing America. In another voyage, in 1774, he touched upon the American coast, in lat 58 21' N. ; and gave name to Mount St. Elias. In returning his ship was cast upon an island, since named after him, an outlier of the Aleutian group, and here he perished, in December, 1741. Bering Sea, that part of the North Pacific Ocean between the Aleutian Islands, in 55, and Bering Strait, in 66 N., by which latter it communi- cates with the Arctic Ocean. The United States having claimed the ex- clusive right of seal fishing in the Ber- ing Sea in virtue of the purchase of Alaska from Russia, and this right having been disputed by the British, it was decided in August, 1893, by an arbitration tribunal, to which the question was referred, that no such right existed, but at the same time regulations for the protection of the fur seal were drawn up and agreed to between the two powers, the chief being the prohibition of seal fishery within the zone of 60 miles round the Pribilof Islands, inclusive of the terri- torial waters, and the establishment of a close season for the fur seal from May 1 to July 31 inclusive, applying to the part of the Pacific and Bering Sea, N. of 35 and E. of the 180th meridian from Greenwich. Bering Strait, the channel which separates Asia and America at their nearest approach to each other. It was discovered by Bering in 1728, and first explored by Cook in 1788. Berkeley, a town in Alameda county, Cal.; on the Southern Paci- fic railroad; 8 miles N. E. of San Francisco; is the seat of the State University and of the State Institu- tion for the Deaf, Dumb, and Blind. Pop. (1910) 40.434. Berkeley, Dr. George, Bishop of Cloyne, born in Ireland in 1685 ; be- came fellow of Trinity College, Dublin, in 1707 ; in 1724 Dean of Derry. He published proposals for the conversion of the American savages to Chris- tianity by the establishment of a col- lege in the Bermuda Islands. He arrived at Rhode Island in 1728, but, the plan lacking support, he returned and became Bishop of Cloyne. He died suddenly at Oxford in 1753. Berkeley holds an important place in the history of philosophy. His most celebrated philosophical work is : Trea- tise on the Principles of Human Knowledge, 1710, in which his philo- sophical theory is fully set forth. Berkeley, Sir John, one of the proprietors of New Jersey, born in 1607. He was a prominent Royalist during the contest of Charles I. with Parliament. Charles II. granted him, with Sir George Carteret, a proprie- tary interest in New Jersey and Caro- lina. He died Aug. 28. 1678. Berkeley, Sir William, an Eng- lish colonial Governor, born near Lon- don, about 1610. In 1632 he was a Commissioner of Canada, and in 1641 became governor of Virginia. In 1676 he resigned and returned to England. He died July 13, 1677. Berkshires, The, or Berkshire Hills, a range of mountains in the N. W. of Alassachusetts; in Berk- shire county; stretching 16 miles N. and S. Berlin, town and capital of Waterloo county, Ontario, Canada; on the Grand river and the Grand Trunk and other railroads; 63 miles W. of Toronto; contains a Roman Catholic college and several manu- facturing plants. Pop. (1911) 15,186. Berlin, the capital of the Prus- sian dominions and of the German em- Berlin pire, the residence of the Emperor of Germany and foreign ambassadors ; in the province of Brandenburg ; the 'largest city in Germany, and, for the beauty and size of its buildings, the regularity of its streets, the impor- tance of its institutions of science and art, and its activity, industry, and trade, one of the first in Europe. It is situated on a dreary sandy plain, 4).bout 126 feet above the level of the gea, on both sides of the Spree, a slug- gish stream, here about 200 feet broad, which winds through the city from S. E. to N. W., and divides into several branches and canals. The main stream and its branches are spanned by a large number of bridges. The literary institutions of the city are numerous and excellent. They in- clude the university, the academy of sciences ; the technical high school, the mining academy, the high school of agriculture, the academy of arts, the school of music, the seminary for Oriental languages, the military acad- emy and school of engineering, many gymnasia and real-schools ; an institu- tion for instructing the deaf and dumb, etc. The chief libraries are the royal library, founded in 1659, and now containing 900,000 volumes and 25,000 manuscripts ; and the univer- sity library, with about 300,000 vol- umes. The public museums and pic- ture galleries are on a scale adequate to the importance of the city. The Evangelical Lutheran Cathedral dedi- cated 1905, in the presence of Kaiser Wilhelm II., is one of the finest modern churches in the world. The most important branches of manufacturing industries are steam engines and other machinery ; brass- founding, the making of lamps and other articles of metal ; printing and the kindred arts, spinning and weaving, the making of sewing machines, paper, tobacco and cigars, pottery and porcelain, pianos and harmoniums, artificial flowers, brew- ing, etc. A considerable quantity of the manufactures are exported In the royal iron-foundry, busts, s*atues, bas-reliefs, etc., are cast, together with a great variety of ornaments of un- rivaled delicacy of workmanship. Ber- lin is well supplied with city and other railways. Berlin has rapidly risen to be the first city in Germany. Bermudas Pop. (1910) 2,071,257. On Feb. 1, 1916, the population was officially stated as 1,828,418. Berlin, University of, a cele- brated institution of learning in Ber- lin, Germany. It is, with the excep- tion of Bonn, the youngest of the Ger- man universities, but is probably the most famous of them all. Berlioz, Hector, a French com- poser, born in La Cote St. Andre, Dec. 11, 1803. He forsook medicine to study music at the Paris Conserva- toire, where he gained the first prize in 1830 with his cantata, " Sardan- apale." He died in Paris, March 9, 1869. After his death appeared " Me- moires," written by himself. Berm, or Berme, in fortification, a narrow, level space at the foot of the exterior slope of a parapet, to keep the crumbling materials of the para- pet from falling icto the ditch. In engineering, a ledge or bench on the side or at the foot of a bank, para- pet, or cutting, to catch earth that may roll down the slope or to strengthen the bank. In canals, it is a ledge on the opposite side to the tow- path, at the foot of a talus or slope, to keep earth which may roll down the bank from falling into the water. Slopes in successive benches have a berme at each notch, or, when a change of slope occurs, on reaching a different soil. Bermuda Cedar, a species of ce- dar which covers the Bermuda Is- lands. The timber is made into ships, boats and pencils. Bermuda Grass, a species of grass, called in Bermuda, devil grass. It grows in the American Southern States and in Southern Europe. It is much esteemed for pasture. Bermuda Hundred, a locality in Chesterfield county, Va. ; the scene of a battle in the Civil War between the Union troops under General Butler, and the Confederates under General Beauregard. The battle was fought May 16, 1864, and resulted in a de- feat for Butler. Bermudas, The, or Spmer's Islands, a group of small islands, about 300 in number, in the North Atlantic Ocean, belonging to Great Britain, stretching N. E. by E. and S. W. by W. about 20 miles, the light- Beriuudez house on Gibb's Hill being 580 miles S. E. of Cape Hatteras; area, about 30 square miles. The principal islands are those of Bermuda, St. George, Ire- land, and Somerset. The protection af- forded to shipping by their numerous bays, and their position in the track of the homeward bound West India ves- sels, have led to the conversion of the Bermudas into a maritime rendezvous, and likewise, into a British naval sta- tion for West Indian fleets. The har- bor of St. George's Island has been greatly improved, is fortified, protected by a breakwater, and has water and space enough to float the largest fleet. The principal productions are fruits, vegetables, maize, and tobacco. Pineap- ples are very abundant and largely ex- ported. The climate is mild and salu- brious ; almost realizing the idea of a perpetual spring. Fish abounds, and forms a profitable source of industry to the inhabitants. Breadstuffs, etc., are imported from the United States, and manufactured goods from Eng- land. Hamilton, on Bermuda Island, is the seat of the colonial government. Pop. (1914) 20,443. These islands were discovered by Bermudez, a Span- iard, in 1522, and settled by the Eng- lish in 1607, and are supposed to be the " still vexed Bermoothes," men- tioned in Shakespeare's " Tempest." They are a favorite winter resort. Berinudez, Remigio Morales, a Peruvian statesman, born in Tarapaca Province, Sept. 30, 183G; began busi- ness in the nitrate trade in his native province. In 1854, as a lieutenant, he joined the revolutionary army, which finally overthrew General Ech- inique's government. In 1864 he joined the revolution against Presi- dent Castilla. In the war with Chile, he led the force that marched to Africa. When Caceres was elected President, in 1886, Bermudez was chosen Vice-President, and was elect- ed President in 1890. He died in Lima, March 31, 1894. Bern, or Berne, a Swiss canton, bounded on the N. by France. It is the most populous, and next to the Grisons, the most extensive canton of Switzerland, its area being 2,657 square miles, and its pop. (1913) 660,- 640, more than one-sixth of the Swiss people. Bernard Bern, the chief city of the above canton, was, by the decision of the Council of the Confederation, in 1848, declared to be the political cap- ital of the Commonwealth. Pop. (1913) 94,700. Bern was founded by Duke Berthold V., of Zahringen, in 1191, and was made a free and im- perial city by a charter from the Em- peror Frederick II., dated May, 1218. Bernadotte, Jean Baptiste Jules, a French general, afterward raised to the Swedish throne, was the son of an advocate of Pau, born Jan. 26, 1764. He enlisted at 17, became sergeant-major in 1789, and subaltern in 1790. In 1794 he was appointed a General of Division, and distin- guished himself greatly in the cam- paign in Germany, and on the Rhine. In 1798 he married Mademoiselle Clary, sister-in-law of Joseph Bona- parte. The following year he became for a short time Minister of War, and on the establishment of the Empire was raised to the dignity of Marshal of France, and the title of Prince of Ponte-Corvo. On the death of the Prince of Holstein-Augustenburg, the heir apparency to the Swedish crown was offered to the Prince of Ponte- Corvo, who accepted with the consent of the Emperor, went to Sweden, ab- jured Catholicism, and took the title of Prince Charles John. In the main- tenance of the interests of Sweden, a serious rupture occurred between him and Bonaparte, followed by his acces- sion, in 1812, to the coalition of sov- ereigns against Napoleon. At the bat- tle of Leipsic, he contributed effectual- ly to the victory of the allies. At the close of the war strenuous attempts were made by the Emperor of Austria and other sovereigns to restore the family of Gustavus IV. to the crown ; but Bernadotte, retaining his position as Crown Prince, became King of Sweden on the death of Charles XIII., in 1818, under the title of Charles XIV. During his reign agriculture and commerce made great advances, and many important public works were completed. He died March 8, 1844, and was succeeded by his son Oscar. Bernard, Charles de (properly BERNARD DU GRAIL DE LA VILLETTE), at French novelist, born in Besancon, Bernard Feb. 25, 1804; died in Neuilly, March 6, 1850. Bernard, Claude, a French phy- siologist, born in 1813 ; died in Paris in 1878. Bernard, Sir Francis, an Eng- lish administrator, born in Nettleham, in 1714 ; was Governor of New Jer- sey in 1758-1760, and of Massachu- setts Bay in 1700-1769. He did a great deal toward precipitating the Revolution by his aggressive attempts to strengthen the royal authority. He was finally recalled on account of the unpopularity resultant on his bring- ing troops into Boston. He died in Aylesbury, England, June 16, 1779. Bernard, Mountague, an Eng- lish lawyer, born in Gloucestershire, Jan. 28, 1820. In 1872 he assisted Sir Roundell Palmer in preparing the British case for the Geneva Arbitra- tion Tribunal. He died at Overross, Sept. 2, 1882. Bernard, Great St., a celebrated pass of the Pennine Alps in Switzer- land in the canton Valais, on the mountain road leading from Martigny to Aosta in Piedmont. The dogs kept at St. Bernard to as- sist the brethren in their humane la- bors are well known. In the midst of tempests and snowstorms the monks, accompanied by some of these dogs, set out for the purpose of track- ing those who have lost their way. Bernard, Little St., a mountain of Italy, belonging to what are called the Graian Alps, about 10 miles S. of Mont Blanc. The pass across it is one of the easiest in the Alps, and is supposed by many to be that which Hannibal used. The Hospice at the summit of the pass has an elevation of 7,192 feet. Bernard, St., Abbot of Clair- vaux, was born of a noble family in Burgundy, in 1091. He was educated at the University of Paris. At the age of 23 he entered the recently founded monastery of Citeaux, accom- panied by his brothers and 20 of his companions. He observed the strict- est rules of the Order, and so distin- guished himself by his ability and ac- quirements that he was chosen to lead the colony to Clairvaux, and was made abbot of the new house ; an office which he filled till his death. In 1128 Bernardino he prepared the statutes for the Order of Knights Templar. He was founder of 160 monasteries ; and was the chief promoter of the second crusade. St. Bernard died at Clairvaux in 1153, and was canonized in 1174. Bernard, Simon, a French engi- neer, born in Dole, April 28, 1779. He served under Napoleon as his aide- de-camp ; was wounded at the battle of Leipsic ; superintended the defense of Torgau, and was present at Water- loo. In 1816 he came to the United States ; was commissioned a Brigadier- General of Engineers ; and planned an elaborate system of seacoast defenses, the most important of the works built by him being Fort Monroe. In 1831 he returned to France ; was made aide- de-camp to Louis Philippe, and de- signed the fortifications of Paris. In 1834 he was appointed Minister of War. He died in Paris, Nov. 5, 1839. Bernard, William Bayle, an Anglo-American dramatist, born in Boston, Mass., Nov. 27, 1807. Hia first work was a nautical drama called the " Pilot." This proved suc- cessful and encouraged him to pursue a literary career. He wrote in all 114 plays, of which the best known is " Rip Van Winkle." He died in Brighton, England, Aug. 5, 1875. Bernard Dog, St. The St. Ber- nard, as bred to modern ideas, is an immense red or orange colored dog, marked with white on muzzle, neck, chest, feet, and tip of tail. Many of the finest St Bernards measure over 30 inches high at the shoulder and weigh over 150 pounds. Bernard of Chartres, surnamed SYLVESTRIS, a writer of the 12th cen- tury. Bernard of Treviso, an Italian alchemist, born in Padua in 1406; died in 1490. Bernardino, the name given to the Cistercian monks, a branch of the old Benedictines, from St. Bernard, who, entering the order, gave it such an impulse that he was considered its second founder. Bernardino, St., of Siena, born in 1380 at Massa-Carrara, of a distin- guished family, made himself famous by his rigid restoration of their prim- itive rule among the degenerate order of the Franciscans, of which he be- Bemhard Berrien came a member in 1404. He died in 1444, and was canonized in 1450. Bernliard, Karl, pseudonym of NICOLAI DE SAINT AUBAIN, a cele- brated Danish novelist, born in Co- penhagen, Nov. 18, 1798; died in Copenhagen, Nov. 25, 1865. Bernhardi, Tlieodor von, a German historian and diplomat, born in Berlin, Nov. 6, 1802 ; died at Kun- ersdorf, Silesia, Feb. 12, 1887. Bernliardt, Rosinc Sarah, a French actress, born in Paris, Oct. 22, 1844. At an early age her Jewish parents placed her in a convent at Versailles. When 14 years old she left the convent, and entered the Paris Conservatoire, and there studied trag- edy and comedy. In 1862 she made her debut at the Theatre Francais, in Racine's " Iphigene " and Scribe's " Valerie," but, not achieving a suc- cess, she retired for a time from the stage. Her first great success was as Marie de Neuberg, in Victor Hugo's "Ruy Bias," in January, 1867. Be- coming very popular by her represen- tations, notably in " Andromaque " and " La Sphinx," she was recalled to the Francais, and was soon recognized as the foremost actress in French tragedy. In 1879 she visited London with the company of the Comedie Francaise and was warmly received ; in 1880, 1887, 1891, 1896, 1900, and 1910-1911 made successful tours in the United States, and between and after these dates visited Switzerland. Hol- land, South America, Italy, Algeria, Australia, etc. In 1916-17 she was again in the United States and sub- jected to a severe surgical operation. She has also done considerable work in painting, sculpture, and literature. Bernhardy, Gottfried, a Ger- man classical philologist, born in Landsberg-on-the-Warthe, March 20, 1800 ; died in Halle, May 14, 1875. Bernier, Francois, a __ French physician and traveler, born in Angers about 1625 ; set out on his travels in 1654, and visited Egypt, Palestine, and India, where he remained for 12 years as physician to the Great Mogul Emperor Aurungzebe. He died in Paris in 1688. Bernina, a mountain of the Rhae- tian Alps, 13,290 feet high, in the Swiss canton of Grisons, with remark- able and extensive glaciers. Its sum- mit was first attained in 1850. Bernini, Giovanni Lorenzo (known also as IL CAVALIERE BEB- NINI), an Italian painter, born in Naples in 1598, and obtained, among his contemporaries, the reputation of being the modern Michael Angelo, on account of his success as painter, stat- uary, and architect. He died in 1680. Bernoulli!, or Bernoulli, a fam- ily which produced eight distinguished men of science. The family fled from Antwerp during the Alva administra- tion, going first to Frankfort, and aft- erward to Basel. JOHN, born iu Basel, in 1667, wrote with his brother, James, a treatise on the differential calculus ; developed the integral cal- culus, and discovered, independently of Leibnitz, the exponential calculus. He died in 1748. Bernstorff, Count Johann, a German diplomat, born in London, Eng., Nov. 14, 1862 ; was educated in Dresden and Ratzeburg ; entered the diplomatic service in 1889 ; filled im- portant posts in various countries till 1908, when he became ambassador to the United States ; continuing in that relation till the declaration of a state of war against the Imperial German Government, April 6, 1917. Berqnin, Lonis de, the first prot- estant martyr in France, born in 1490. He was a gentleman of Artois, a friend of Badius, the savant. When, in 1523, the police began to seize Lu- ther's works, with a view to suppress- ing Protestantism, they found among Berquin's books some manuscripts of his own writing that were pronounced heretical. As he refused to retract, he was thrown into prison. Francis I., whose counselor he was, obtained for him his freedom, but he was burned alive in Paris, April 17, 1529. Berrian, William, an American Episcopal clergyman and writer, born in New York in 1787; was rector of Trinity Church, New York (1830- 1862). He died in New York city, Nov. 7, 1862. Berrien, John McPherson, an American statesman, born in New Jer- sey, Aug. 23, 1781 ; graduated at Princeton College in 1796, and was ad- mitted to the bar in Georgia when 18 Berro Bertillon System years old. He represented Geor- gia in the United States Senate in 1825-1829 and 1840-1852 ; was Attor- ney-General of the United States in 1829-1831, and a delegate to the Bal- timore Convention in 1844. In 1829 he delivered a speech so clear and im- pressive against certain measures be- fore Congress that the title of " Amer- ican Cicero " was given him. He died in Savannah, Ga., Jan. 1, 1856. Berro, Bernardo Prndencio, an Uruguayan statesman, born in Monte- video about 1800. He was President of the republic in 1860-1864. The revolution of Flores was successful soon after the expiration of his term. In 1868 he stirred up a revolt against Flores, was imprisoned, and soon af- terward shot through a window in his cell, in April, 1868. Berry, a succulent fruit, in which the seeds are immersed in a pulpy mass inclosed by a thin skin. Popu- lary it is applied to fruits like the strawberry, bearing external seeds on a pulpy receptacle, but not strictly berries. Berryer, Antoine Pierre, a French advocate and statesman, born in Paris in 1790. In 1814 he pro- claimed at Rennes the deposition of Napoleon, and remained till his death an avowed Legitimist. In 1840 he was one of the counsel for the defense of Louis Napoleon after the Boulogne fiasco. He gained additional reputa- tion in 1858 by his defense of Monta- lembert, and was counsel for the Pat- terson-Bonapartes in the suit for the recognition of the Baltimore marriage. He died in 1868. Bersaglieri, a corps of riflemen or sharpshooters, introduced into the Sardinian army by Gen. Delia Mar- mora, about 1849. They took part in the Russian War and also assisted at the battle of the Tchernaya, Aug. 16, 1855. They were likewise employed in the Italian Wars of 1859 and 1866. Bersezio, Vittorio, an Italian novelist and playwright, born at Pev- eragno, Piedmont, in 1830. Bert, Paul, a French statesman and physiologist, born in Auxerre, Oct. 17, 1833. While engaged in public life, M. Bert still pursued with ardor his scientific investigations, attracting World-wide attention by his experi- ments in vivisection. Appointed by the French Ministry to the governor- ship of Tonquin and Annam, he went out there in 1886, but died Nov. 11, of the same year. The anti-religious views of M. Bert excited much contro- versy. Bertlielot, Pierre Eugene Mar- cellin, a French chemist, born in Paris, Oct. 25, 1827. In 1878 he be- came president of the committee on ex- plosives, which introduced smokeless powder. His labors also led to the discovery of dyes extracted from coal- tar. He died March 18, 1907. Bcrtliier, Alexander, Prince of Neufchatel and Wagram, Marshal, Vice-Constable of France, etc. ; born in Versailles, Nov. 20, 1753; killed himself, June 1, 1815. Berthold of Ratisbon, a cele- brated German preacher and Francis- can monk ; ranked as the most power- ful preacher of his time in the Ger- man world. It is said that as many aa 60,000 people flocked to hear him in the open fields. His sermons have been preserved. He died in 1272. Bertillon, Alphonse, a French anthropologist, born in Paris in 1853; is widely noted as the founder of a system of identification of criminals. In 1880, while Chief of the Bureau of Identification in the Prefecture of Po- lice, he established his system of meas- urements which has given marvelous results for their precision. The sys- tem has since been adopted by the police authorities of the large cities of Europe and the United States. He was one of the expert witnesses in handwriting in the trial of Capt. Dreyfus in 1899, and soon after its close was removed from his office. He was author of numerous works bear- ing upon his system. He died Feb. 13, 1914. Bertillon System, a system of identification of criminals, introduced into France by Alphonse Bertillon. The system depends upon accurate measurements of various portions of the human body, especially the bones, which in adults never change. The parts measured are the head, ear, foot, middle finger, the extended forearm, height, breadth, and the trunk. These measurements are placed upon a card, and together with photographs of the Bertram! Bessarioi bodily features, take the place of the ] which regulate the combinations form- old portraits in the rogues' gallery. Bertram!, Eugene, a French op- eratic manager, born in 1835 ; died in Paris, Jan. 21, 1900. Bertrand Henri G., Count, a French military officer, born in Cha- teauroux in 1773, and early entered the armies of the Revolution as engi- neer. He accompanied the expedition to Egypt, and directed the fortifica- tion of Alexandria. He distinguished himself at Austerlitz and became Na- poleon's adjutant; and, after the bat- tle of Aspern, in 1809, for his share in saving the French army by bridges, he was created count and governor of II- lyria. After serving with credit in the subsequent campaigns, he retired with the Emperor to Elba, was his confidant in carrying out his return to ing the structures of the animal and vegetable kingdoms ; and of thus open- ing the way for the discoveries of Mulder, Liebig, Dumas, and others. To him, chemistry is indebted for the discovery of several new elementary bodies, more especially selenium, thor- ium, and cerium ; and to his skill as a manipulator may be traced many of the analytical processes at present in use. He died Aug. 7, 1848. All the scientific societies of the world enroll- ed his name among their members. Berzelium, (See CABOLINITJM). Besancon, a city in the N. E. of France, the capital of the Depart- ment of Doubs, on the river Doubs. It contains Roman remains, including an amphitheater, aqueduct and trium- phal arch of Mars, as well as a cathe- France, and finally shared his banish- j dral of diversified architectural style, ment to St Helena. On Napoleon's and the Renaissance palace of Cardi death, Bertrand returned to France, where, though sentence of death had ancon. been pronounced upon him a sen- tence which Louis XVIII. had wisely recalled he was restored to all his dignities, and, in 1830, appointed Granwelle, who was born in Bes- Commandant of the Polytechnic School. In 1840, he formed part of the expedition which brought back the remains of Napoleon to France. He died in Chateauroux, Jan. 31, 1844. Berwick, or more fully, Berwick- on-Tweed, a seaport town of Eng- land, formerly a Parliamentary bor- ough and (with small adjoining dis- trict) a county by itself, but now in- Victor Hugo was also a na- tive of Besancon. Watch-making is the principal industry. Pop. (1911) 57,978. Besant, Annie, an English thc- osophist and author, born in London, Oct. 1, 1847 ; was married in 1867 to the Rev. Fank Besant, brother of Sir Walter Besant, but was legally sepa- rated from him in 1873. In 1889 she joined the Theosophical Society, and has since been active in theosophical propaganda in Great Britain and the United States. Besant, Sir Walter, an English ,*. */ * X.VrUUl.r MJ * LO^li, LSI! I, U\J TT 1AJ. . . *. -r^ , . corporated with Northumberland, and ! novelist ; born in Portsmouth, _ T i? _ 3! _. lonH Anor 14 1 K.-5h \vn pnilpn giving name to a Parliamentary divi- sion of the county. Beryl, a colorless, yellowish, bluish i or less brilliant green variety of em- ' land, Aug. 14, 1836 ; was educated in London and at Christ's College, Cam- erald, the prevailing hue being green | j v ine a of Alabama ; 70 miles wide, ex- tending entirely across the State, be- tween 33 and 31 40'; so called from the fact that the negroes greatly pre- dominate in numbers. Blackberry, a plant common in the northern portions of the United States and in most parts of Europe, and also in Northern Central Asia. Black Bird, a well known bird. There are two American species, red winged blackbird, and the crow black- bird. Blackburn, a town and parliamen- tary borough of England, 21 miles N. N. W. from Manchester. It is pleas- antly situated in a sheltered valley and has rapidly improved since 1850, Blackburn is one of the chief seats of the cotton manufacture, there being upward of 140 mills as well as works for making cotton machinery and steam engines. The cottons made in the town and vicinity have an annual value of about 5,000,000. Pop. (1911) 133,064. Blackburn, Joseph Clay Styles, an American lawyer, born in Wood- ford county, Ky., Oct. 1, 1838; was graduated at Center College, Danville, Ky., in 1857. He was admitted to the bar in 1859, and practiced in Chi- cago. During the Civil War he served in the Confederate army, and after the war resumed practice in Ken- tucky. In 1871 he was elected to the Kentucky Legislature, and in 1874 to Congress ; and was a United States Senator in 1885-1897. During the presidential campaign of 1896 he was a leader in the free coinage silver movement Blackburn, Luke Pryor, an American physician, born in Fayette county, Ky., June 16, 1816 ; was grad- uated at Transylvania University, Lexington, Ky., hi 1834, and began practicing in that city. When cholera broke out in the town of Versailles he went there and gave his services free during the epidemic. In 1846 he went to Natchez, Miss., and in 1848, when yellow fever appeared in New Or- leans, as health officer of Natchez, ho originated the first quarantine against New Orleans that had ever been known in the Mississippi valley. Dur- ing the Civil War he was a surgeon on the staff of General Price. In 1875, when yellow fever broke out in Memphis, he hastened to the city and organized a corps of physicians and. BlAckburn nurses, and in 1878 gave his services to the yellow fever sufferers at Hick- man, Ky. He was elected Governor of Kentucky in 1879. He founded the Blackburn Sanitarium for Nervous and Mental Diseases in 1884. He died in Frankfort, Ky., Sept. 14, 1887. Blackburn, 'William Maxwell, an American Presbyterian clergyman and educator, born at Carlisle, Ind., Dec. 30, 182a He became President of the University of North Dakota in 1884 and of Pierre University, South Dakota, in 1885, and President-Emer- itus of the last (now Huron College) iu 1898. He died in 1900. Black Cap, a European passerine bird of the warbler family. It ranks next to the nightingale for sweetness of song. The American black cap is a species of tit-mouse, so called from the coloring of the head. Black Death, The, one of the most memorable of the epidemics of the Middle Ages, was a great pesti- lence in the 14th century ; which de- vastated Asia, Europe and Africa. The whole period of time during which the black death raged with de- structive violence in Europe was from 1347 to 1350 ; from this latter date to 1383 there were various pestilences, bad enough, indeed, but not as vio- lent as the black death. Blackfeet Indians, a tribe of American Indians, partly inhabiting the United States, partly Canada, from the Yellowstone to Hudson Bay. Blackfisli, a fish caught on the coast of the United States, especially in the vicinity of Long Island. Black Flags, an organization of Chinese rebels who established them- selves in the Red River valley in Ton- quin, after the suppression of the Tai- ping Rebellion in Southern China (1850-1854). From their warlike character and desperate deeds they were called Black Flags as distin- guished from the peaceable Yellow Flags. They were responsible for the massacre in 1884 of missionaries and native Christians. Black Forest, a great forest, sit- nated in Baden and Wurtemberg, near the source of the Danube. Black Friars, friars of the Do- minican Order: so called from their costume. Black Hills Black Friday, the Friday, Sept. 24, 1869, when the attempt of Jay (Sould and James Fisk, Jr., to create a corner in the gold market by buying all the gold in the banks of New York city, amounting to $15,000,000, cul- minated. For several days the value of gold had risen steadily, and the speculators aimed to carry it from 144 to 200. Friday the whole city was in a ferment, the banks were rapidly selling, gold was at 162^, and still rising. Men became insane, and everywhere the wildest excitement raged, for it seemed probable that the business houses must be closed, from ignorance of the prices to be charged for their goods. But in the midst of the panic it was reported that Secre- tary Boutwell of the United States Treasury had thrown $4,000,000 on the market, and at once gold fell, the excitement ceased, leaving Gould and Fisk the winners of $11,000,000. The day noticed above is what is gen- erally referred to as Black Friday in the United States, but the term was first used in England, being applied j in the first instance to the Friday on , which the news reached London, Dec. i 6, 1745, that the young Pretender, Charles Edward, had arrived at Der- i by, creating a terrible panic ; and finally to May 11, 1866, when the failure of Overend, Gurney & Co., London, the day before, was followed by a widespread financial ruin. Black Hand, common name in j the United States for an offshoot I of two long-established societies of an intricate and powerful order of Italian criminals, known in their re- spective strongholds of Naples and Sicily as the " Camorra " and " Ma- fia." The habit of the members of signing blackmail and threatening letters with the words " black-hand," or a rude representation of one, gave these desperadoes in the United States their distinctive name. Black Hawk, a famous chief of the Sac and Fox Indians, born in 1767. He joined the British in 1812, and fought against the United States in 1831-1832. He died in 1838. Blackheath, a village and heath, in Kent, England, about 6 miles S. E. of London Bridge. Black Hills, a mountainous re- gion in the S. W. of South Dakota, Black Hole Black Sea extending into the E. part of Wyom- ing ; long. 103 to 105 s . It was pur- chased from the Indians in 1876, for whom it had been one of the finest hunting grounds in the West. In I 1877-1878 thousands of miners went ' there, and in 1880 there had already j sprung into existence three towns, i Deadwood, Central City, and Lead- ville. Around these lay also groups of smaller towns and villages. From 1880 the gold mines yielded about $4,- 000,000 annually, and the silver mines about $3,000,000 annually. Black Hole of Calcutta, a small chamber, 20 feet square, in the old ' fort of Calcutta, in which, after their | capture by Surajah Dowlah, the whole garrison of 146 men were confined during the night of June 21, 1756. Only 23 survived. The spot is now marked by a monument. Blackie, John Stuart, a Scot- tish author, born in Glasgow in July, 1809; died in Edinburgh, March 2, 1895. Black Lead, Graphite, or Plum- bago, a mineral consisting chiefly of carbon, but containing also more or less of alumina, silica, lime, iron, etc., to the extent of 1 to 47 per cent, ap- parently mixed rather than chemically combined. Black lead is the popular name, and that by which it is general- ly known in the arts, though no lead enters into the composition of the mineral ; graphite is that generally preferred by mineralogists. Black List, a list of bankrupts or other parties whose names are official- ly known as failing to meet pecuniary engagements. The term is also ap- plied to a list of employes who have been discharged by a firm or corpora- tion and against whom some objection is made and reported to other firms ^or corporations to prevent them obtain- ing employment. Blackmail, a certain rate of mon- ey, corn, cattle or the like, anciently Said, in the N. of England and in cotland, to certain men who were al- lied to robbers, to be protected by them from pillage. It was carried to such an extent as to become the sub- ject of legislation. Blackmail was levied in the districts bordering the Highlands of Scotland till the middle of the 18th century. In the United States, the word is applied to money extorted from persons under threat of exposure for an alleged offense; hush- money. Black Monday. (1) A name for Easter Monday, in remembrance of the dreadful experiences of the army of Edward III., before Paris, on Easter Monday, April 14, 1360. Many soldiers and horses perished from the extreme cold. (2) The 27th of Feb., 1865, a memorable day in Melbourne, Australia, when a destructive sirocco prevailed in the surrounding country. Black Mountains, the group which contains the highest summits of the Appalachian system, Clingman's Peak being 6,701 feet, Guyot's Peak, 6,661. Black Republic, a name applied to the Republic of Haiti, which ia under the dominion of the African race. Black Republicans, in the United States, a name applied to members of the Republican Party by the Pro- Slavery Party. Black River, the name of several -ivers in the United States: (1) An affluent of the Arkansas river, in Ar- kansas, 400 miles long. It is naviga- ble to Poplar Bluff, 311 miles; (2) a river in New York, rising in the Adi- rondacks, and emptying into Lake On- tario near Watertown, length 200 miles; (3) a river in Wisconsin, flow- ing S. W., and emptying into the Mis- sissippi river near Lacrosse; length 200 miles ; (4) a river rising in the S. E. o Missouri, flowing nearly S., and entering the White river, of which it is the chief tributary, at Jacksonport, Ark.; length, 350 miles, of which 100 miles are navigable. Black Rock Desert, a tract of nearly 1,000 square miles, N. of Pyra- mid Lake, in Nevada. In summer it is a barren level of alkali and in winter covered in places with shallow water. Called also " Mud Lakes." Black Rood of Scotland, a cross of gold in the form of a casket, al- leged to contain a piece of the true Cross. Black Sea (ancient Pontus Eux- inus), a sea situated between Europe and Asia, and mainly bounded by the Russian and Turkish dominions, being Black Sheep connected with the Mediterranean by the Bosporus, Sea of Marmora, and Dardanelles, and by the Strait of Kertsch with the Sea of Azov, which is, in fact, only a bay of the Black Sea; area of the Black Sea and the Sea of Azov about 175,000 square miles, with a depth in the center of more than 150 fathoms and few shoals along its shores. The water is not so clear as that of the Mediterranean, and is less salt on account of the many large rivers which fall into it. Black Sheep, a tribe of Turko mans, so called from their standard. A black sheep : a disgrace to the family ; a mauvais sujet ; a workman who will not join in a strike. Black Snake, a common snake in North America, reaching a length of 5 or 6 feet, and so agile and swift as to have been named the racer, with no poison fangs, and, therefore, compara- tively harmless. Blackstone, Sir William, an English jurist, born in London, July 10, 1723; educated at the Charter House and Pembroke College, Oxford. In 1743 he was elected fellow of All- Soul's College, Oxford, and in 1746 was called to the bar; but, having attended the Westminster law courts for seven years without success, he re- tired to Oxford. Here he gave lec- tures on law, which suggested to Mr. Viner the idea of founding a profes- sorship at Oxford for the study of the common law ; and Blackstone was, in 1758, chosen the first Vinerian Professor. In 1765 he published the first volume of his famous " Com- mentaries on the Laws of England." He died Feb. 14, 1780. Black Tin, tin ore when dressed, stamped, and washed ready for smelt- ing, forming a black powder. Black Walnut, a valuable timber tree of the United States and its fruit. The great size often reached by this tree, the richness of the dark brown wood, the unique beauty of the grain sometimes found in burls, knots, feathers and in the curl of the roots, all conspire to make this the most choice and high priced of all our na- tive woods. Blackwell, Mrs. Antoinette Lonisa (Brown), an American wom- an suffragist and Unitarian minister, Blaine born at Henrietta, N. Y., May 20, 1825. A graduate of Oberlin (1847), she " preached on her own orders," at first in Congregational churches, be- coming at length a champion of wom- en's rights. She married Samuel C., a brother of Dr. Elizabeth Blackwell (1856). Blackwell, Elizabeth, an Amer- ican physician and medical and ethical writer, born at Bristol, England, 1821. She was the first woman who ob- tained the degree of M. D. in the United States (1849), beginning prac- tice in New York (1851). Died 1910. Blackwell, Lucy Stone, an American woman suffragist, born in West Brookfield, Mass., Aug. 13, 1818; was graduated at Oberlin Col- lege in 1847; became a lecturer on woman suffrage, and a contributor to the press. In 1855 she married Henry B. Blackwell, a merchant of Cincin- nati. She died in Dorchester, Mass., Oct. 20, 1893. Blackwell's Island, an island be- longing to the city of New York, in the East river, containing about 120 acres. On it are the penitentiary, almshouse, lunatic asylum for females, workhouse, blind asylum, hospital for incurables, and a convalescent hospi- tal. Blackwood, William, a Scotch publisher, born at Edinburgh, Nov. 20, 1776. He started as a bookseller in 1804, and soon became also a pub- lisher. After his death the business, which had developed into a large pub- lishing concern, was carried on by his sons, and the magazine still keeps its place among the leading periodicals. He died Sept 16, 1834. Blaeu, Blaenw, or Blanw, a Dutch family celebrated as publish- ers of maps and books. Blaine, James Gillespie, an American statesman, born in West Brownsville, Pa., Jan. 31, 1830. He graduated at Washington College, Pa., in 1847. In 1854 he removed to Au- gusta, Me., and engaged in journalism. He was one of the founders of the Republican Party, and in 1856 was a delegate to the first Republican Na- tional Convention, which nominated Fremont for the Presidency. In 1858 he was elected to the Legislature of Maine, and in 1862 to the House Blair Blake of Representatives of the National Congress. He became Speaker of the House in 1869, and held that office for six years; was a member of the Sen- ate from 1876 to 1881; was twice Secretary of State (1881-1882 and 1889-1892). He was defeated for the Presidency in 1884, by Grover Cleveland. Besides his numerous speeches and writings on the public questions of his day, his best known work is his " Twenty Years in Con- gress " (2 vols., 1884-1886), a his- torical production of great and per- manent value. He died in Washing- ton, D. C., Jan. 27, 1893. Blair, Austin, an American law- yer, born in Caroline, N. Y., Feb. 8, 1818; was elected Governor of Michi- gan in 1860, becoming one of the War Governors. In 1866-1870 he was a member of Congress. He died in Jackson, Mich., Aug. 6, 1894. Blair, Francis Preston, an American journalist and politician, born in Abingdon, Va., April 12, 1791 ; died at Silver Spring, Md., Oct. 18, 1876. Blair, Francis Preston, Jr., an American military officer and legis- lator, born in Lexington, Ky., Feb. 20, 1821 ; son of the preceding. He was a Representative in Congress i from Missouri in 1857-1859 and 1861- 1863 ; became a Major-General in the Union army in the Civil War, taking an active part in the Vicksburg cam- paign and Sherman's march to the sea ; was an unsuccessful Democratic candidate for Vice-President in 1868, and United States Senator in 1870- 1873. He died in St. Louis, July 5, 1875. Blair, Henry William, an Amer- ican legislator, born in Campton, N. H., Dec. 6, 1834 ; received an acade- mic education ; was admitted to the bar in 1859 ; served through the Civil War, becoming Lieutenant-Colonel of the 15th New Hampshire Volunteers, and being twice wounded. After serv- ing in both branches of the State Legislature he was a member of Con- gress in 1875-1879 and 1893-1895, and a United States Senator in 1879- 1891. Blair, Hugh, a Scotch clergyman and educational writer, born in Edin- burgh, in 1718; was noted for the eloquence of his sermons, and also for "Lectures on Rhetoric" (1783), which attained great popularity, " Blair's Rhetoric " being familiar to all students. He died in 1800. Blair, John Insley, an American philanthropist, born in Belvidere, N. J., Aug. 22, 1802 ; was in early life a merchant and banker; subsequently becoming the individual owner of more miles of railroad property than any other man in the world. He ac- quired a very large fortune; loaned the Federal Government more than $1,000,000 in the early part of the Civil War; built and endowed at a cost of more than $600,000, the Pres- byterian Academy in Blairstown, N. J. ; rebuilt Grinnell College, Iowa ; erected Blair Hall and made other gifts to Princeton University ; was equally liberal to Lafayette College; and had erected more than 100 church- es in different parts of the West, be- sides laying out many towns and vil- lages on the lines of his numerous railroads. He died in Blairstown, N. J., Dec. 2, 1899. Blair, Montgomery, an American lawyer, born in Franklin county, Ky., May 10, 1813 ; was graduated at the United States Military Academy in 1835; resigned from the army in 1836; admitted to the bar in 1839; began practice in St. Louis. He acted as counsel for the plaintiff in the widely known Dred Scott case. In 1861-1864 he was Postmaster-Gen- eral. In 1876-1877 he acted with the Democratic Party in opposing Mr. Hayes' title to the office of President. He died in Silver Springs, Md., July 27, 1883. Blake, Edward, an English states- man, born in Cairngorm, Ont., Cana- da, Oct. 13, 1833; was educated at Upper Canada College and Toronto University ; called to the bar in 1856 ; and engaged in practice in Toronto. He entered public life in 1867; was Premier of Ontario in 1871-1872, Minister of Justice in 1875-1877, and the recognized leader of the Canadian Liberal Party. In 1892 he was invited by the leaders of the Anti- Parnellites in Ireland to enter the British House of Commons as the rep- resentative of an Irish constituency. Consenting, he removed to South Long- ford, was elected for that district, and Blake in 1895 was re-elected. In 1896 he was appointed a member of the Judi- ciary Committee of the Privy Council. Blake, Eli 'Whitney, an Ameri- can inventor, born in Westboro, Mass., Jan. 27, 1795; graduated at Yale University in 1816. He began busi- ness with his uncle, Eli Whitney, in the manufacture of fire-arms ; and in 1834 founded, near New Haven, Conn., the pioneer factory for the manufacture of domestic hardware. He died in New Haven, Conn., Aug. 17, 1886. Blake, Mrs. Lillie (Deverenx) TJmstead, an American advocate of woman's rights, and novelist, born at Raleigh, N. C., 1835. Her first hus- band, Frank G. Quay Umstead, died in 1859; she married Grenfill Blake in 1866, who died in 1896. Blake, William Phipps, an American mineralogist, born in New York city, June 1, 1826; was grad- uated at the Yale Scientific School in 1852. He became Geologist and Min- eralogist to the United States Rail- road Expedition in 1853; was Mining Engineer in connection with explora- tions in Japan, China, and Alaska in 1861-1863; appointed Professor of Geology and Mineralogy in the College of California, 1864 ; Director of the School of Mines in the University of Arizona, 1900 ; died 1910. Blakeley, Johnston, an Ameri- can naval officer, born near Seaford, Ireland, October, 1781 ; entered the United States navy as a midshipman in 1800; commanded the "Enterprise" in the early part of the War of 1812 ; and was captain of the " Wasp " when she captured the English " Rein- deer " in June, 1814. Soon after this he sailed with the " Wasp " on an- other cruise, but the vessel was lost at sea with all on board. Blanchard, Jonathan, an Amer- ican educator, born in Rockingham, Vt, Jan. 19, 1811 ; graduated at Lane Theological Seminary in 1832; and was ordained a Presbyterian minister in 1838. He was American Vice-Presi- dent of the World's Anti-Slavery Con- vention in London in 1843; and in 1846 became President of Knox Col- lege at Galesburg, 111. He was Presi- dent of Wheaton College, 111., in 1880-1882; and, on resigning, was Blanco chosen president-emeritus. He died in Wheaton, 111., May 14, 1892. Blanco, Antonio Guzman, a Venezuelan military officer, born in Caracas, Feb. 29, 1828. He became prominent in the Federalist revolts, 1859-1863, and when his party tri- umphed, was made first Vice-President in 1863 under Falcon, who was de- posed in the Revolution of 1868. Blanco led a successful counter revo- lution in 1870, became President, and retained the office till 1882. In 1893 he was appointed Minister to France, where he resided till his death, July 29, 1899. Blanco, Jose Felix, a Venezue- lan historian, born in Mariana de Caracas, Sept. 24, 1782. At different times he acted in the capacity of priest, soldier, and statesman. He was one of the leaders in the Revolu- ton at Caracas, April 19, 1810, and was the first editor of the great his- torical work, " Documentos para la historia de la vida publica del Liber- tador," etc. He died in Caracas, Jan. 8, 1872. Blanco, Pedro, a Bolivian states- man, born in Cochabamba, Oct. .19, 1795. He joined the Spanish araay in 1812, but soon deserted to the patriots, and served with them till the end of the Revolution. In 1828 he became a general, and in the same year, when Sucre fell, was made President of Bolivia, but was superseded in the Revolution of Dec. 31, 1828. He was shot in Sucre, hi January, 1829. Blanco, Ramon y Arenas, Mar- quis de Pena Plata, Captain-Gen- eral of the Spanish army hi Cuba during the Spanish-American War; was born at San Sebastian, Spain, in 1833, and began his military career at the age of 22, entering the army in 1855 as a Lieutenant; was promoted to a captain in 1858, and won the rank of Lieutenant-Colonel in the war with San Domingo. When the Span- iards were driven from the island Blanco went to the Philippines as governor of Mindanao. When he re- turned to Spain he was assigned to the Army of the North, and in the war with the Carlists made a brilliant record. He successfully stormed Pena Plata, for which achievement he was created a Marquis of that name. He Blanco Encalada Blarney Bucceeded General Weyler in command of the army in Cuba, where his career terminated with the U. S. occupation. He died April 4, 1906. Blanco Encalada, Manuel, a Spanish-American military officer, born in Buenos Ayres, Sept. 5, 1790; distinguished himself in the Chilian War of Independence. He was chosen President of Chile in July, 1826, but soon resigned, and was made General of the army. He unsuccessfully in- vaded Peru in 1837, and was not al- lowed to retire till he had signed a treaty of peace. Chile annulled this treaty, and he was court-martialed, but freed. In 1847 he was Intendant of Valparaiso, and in 1853-1858 Min- ister to France. He died in Santiago, Chile, Sept 5, 1875. Bland, Richard Parks, an Amer- ican legislator, born in Kentucky, Aug. 19, 1835 ; received an academical education, and, between 1855 and 1865, practiced law in Missouri, Cali- fornia, and Nevada, and was engaged for some time in mining. In 1865 he settled in Rolla, Mo., and practiced | there till 1865, when he removed to | Lebanon in the same State. He was j a member of Congress in 1873-1895 j and from 1897 till his death. In 1896 he was a conspicuous candidate for the Presidential nomination in the Democratic National Convention, but on the fourth ballot his name was withdrawn, and the vote of his State was cast for William J. Bryan. Mr. Bland was best known as the leader in the Lower House of Congress of the Free-Silver movement, and the author of the Bland Silver Bill. At the time of his death he was a mem- ber of the Committees on Coinage, Weights and Measures, and Expendi- tures on Public Buildings. He died! in Lebanon, Mo., June 15, 1899. Bland, Theodoric, an American military officer, born in Prince George county, Va., in 1742; studied medicine in the University of Edinburgh, and for a time practiced in England. He returned home in 1764, and was active in his profession until the outbreak of the Revolutionary War, when he sided with the colonists, and became Captain of the First Troop of Vir- ginia cavalry. In 1777 he joined the main arm; as a Lieutenant-Colonel, and later became a ColoneL He dis- tinguished himself at the battle of Brandywine, and was placed in com- mand of the prisoners taken at Sara- toga, who were marched to Charlotte- ville, Va. In 1780-1783 he was a member of the Continental Congress, and was a Representative from Vir- ginia to the 1st Federal Congress in 1789. He died in New York city, June 1, 1790. Bland Silver Bill, one of the most notable measures of American Congressional history. The original bill, as introduced by Representative Bland and passed by the House late in 1877, provided simply for the free and unlimited coinage of silver by all the mints of the United States. This programme represented the full policy of the Silver men. The silver dollar had been demonetized by the act of 1873, and its coinage had been wholly abandoned. The Bimetallists desired to restore it to perfect equality with gold as a standard of value, and the original Bland bill, permitting owners of silver bullion to have their com- modity coined into dollars by the mints, was intended as the means to accomplish that object But the Sen- ate amended the measure materially. The free coinage clause was stricken out, and, as a concession to the Silver men, it was directed that the Secre- tary of the Treasury should purchase monthly not less than $2,000,000 and not more than $4,000,000 worth of silver bullion, at the market price of the metal, and coin it into standard silver dollars, which should be unlim- ited legal tender for all debts. The amended bill was reported by Senator Allison, Chairman of the Finance Committee, and hence received the name of the Bland-Allison Act It was vetoed by President Hayes, but passed over his veto, Feb. 28, 1878, by 196 to 73 in the House, and 46 to 19 in the Senate. The silver purchase clause in this act was repealed by the Sherman Act of 1890. Blank Verse, verse which is void of rhyme. Blarney, a village in Ireland, 4 miles N. W. of the city of Cork, with Blarney Castle in its vicinity. A stone called the Blarney Stone, near the top of the castle, is said to confer on those who kiss it the peculiar kind of Blashfield persuasive eloquence alleged to be characteristic of the natives of Ire- land. Blashfield, Edwin Howland, an American artist, born in New York city, Dec. 16, 1848; studied in Paris under Leon Bonnat ; and began ex- hibiting in the Paris Salon in 1874. lie returned to the United States in 1881, and has since distinguished him- self by the execution of large decora- tive works. Blasphemy, slander or even well merited blame, applied to a person or in condemnation of a thing . The word is particularly applied to any profane language toward God ; blasphemy against the Holy Ghost means the sin of attributing to Satanic agency the miracles which were ob- viously from God. Blast Furnace, a structure built of refractory material in which metal- lic ores are smelted in contact with fuel and flux, the combustion of the fuel being accelerated by air under pressure. Blasting, the operation of break- ing up masses of stone or rock in situ by means of gunpowder or other ex- plosive. In ordinary operations, holes are bored into the rock of from one to six inches in diameter, by means of a steel pointed drill, by striking it with hammers or allowing it to fall from a height. After the hole is bored to the requisite depth it is cleaned out, the explosive is introduced, the hole is tamped or filled up with broken stone, clay or sand, and the charge exploded by means of a fuse or by electricity. Blaratsky, Helene Petrovna, a noted theosophist; born in Yekaterin- oslay, Russia, in 1831 ; founded the Theosophical Society in New York in 1875. She died in London, May 8, 1891. Blazonry, the art of describing a coat of arms in such a way that an accurate drawing may be made from the verbal statements given. Bleaching:, the art of whitening linen, wool, cotton, silk, wax, also the materials of which paper is made, and other things. Bledsoe, Albert Taylor, an American clergyman and writer; born Blennerhasset in Frankfort, Ky., Nov. 9, 1809. He was Assistant Secretary of War, of the Southern Confederacy, and both an Episcopal and a Methodist minis- ter. He died in Alexandria, Va., Dec. 1, 1877. Bleeding, or Hemorrhage, one of the most serious accidents which can happen to an animal, and consti- tutes the most anxious complication in surgical operations. Blenheim, a village situated in the circle of the Upper Danube, in Bavaria, on the Danube. Here was fought, Aug. 13, 1704, the famous bat- tle of Blenheim (or, as it is more com- monly called on the European Conti- nent, the battle of Hochstadt, from another village of this name in the vicinity), in which Marlborough and Prince Eugene, commanding the al- lied forces of England and the Ger- man empire, gained a brilliant victory over the French and Bavarians. Blennerhasset, Harman, an Englishman of Irish descent, noted for his connection with Aaron Burr's con- spiracy, born in Hampshire, Oct. 8, 1764 or 1765 ; was educated at Trin- ity College, Dublin ; studied law ; and came to the United States in 1797. In the following year he built a beau- tiful residence on a little island in the Ohio river below Parkersburg, where Aaron Burr, after his fortunes were broken and he did not feel safe in New York, was received as a guest. Burr proposed his scheme for taking Mexico, where, in case of success, Burr was to be Emperor and Blen- nerhasset a duke and ambassador to England. Large sums were expended to fit out the expedition and when Burr was arrested, and Blennerhas- set as a suspected person with him, creditors seized the island and home, and Blennerhasset found himself bankrupt. After this all projects failed with him. In his last years he was supported by the charity of a rel- ative. He died on the Island of Guernsey, Feb. 1, 1831. His wife was a daughter of Governor Agnew, of the Isle of Man, and the author of many poems, including " The Desert- ed Isle," " The Widow and the Rock," etc. After her husband's death she petitioned Congress for a reparation of her losses, but died before any ac- tion was taken. Their son, Joseph Blesbok Lewis Blennerhasset, was a lawyer in Missouri. Blesbok, an antelope of South Africa with a white marked face, a general purplish chocolate color, and K saddle of a bluish color; found in great numbers in the late Boer repub- lics in South Africa and much hunted. Blessington, Margaret, Count- ess of, was born near Clonmel, Ire- land, 1789, died at Paris 1849. At the age of fifteen, she was married to a Captain Farmer, who died in 1817 ; and a few months after his death his widow married Charles John Gard- iner, earl of Blessington. After the earl's death in 1829, Lady Blessington took up her abode in Gore House, Kensington. Her residence oecame the fashionable resort for all the celeb- rities of the time ; and that notwith- standing a doubtful connection which she formed with Count D'Orsay, with whom she lived till her death. No name is more frequently mentioned by writers of the time. Bligh, William, the commander of the English ship " Bounty " when the crew mutinied in the South Seas and carried her off, was born at Ply- mouth in 1753. The "Bounty" had been fitted out for the purpose of pro- curing plants of the bread fruit tree, and introducing these into the West Indies. Bligh left Tahiti in 1789, and was proceeding on his voyage for Jamaica when he was seized, and, with 18 men supposed to be well af- fected to him, forced into *he launch, sparingly provisioned, and cast adrift ; but Bligh, with 12 of his companions, arrived in England in 1790, while the mutineers settled on Pitcairn Island, where their descendants still exist. Bligh became Governor of New South Wales in 1806, but his harsh and despotic conduct caused him to be de- posed and sent back to England. He afterward rose to the rank of Admiral, and died in London in 1817. Blight, a diseased state of culti- rated plants, especially cereals and grasses. The term has been very vaguely and variously used, having, in fact, been applied by agriculturists to almost every disease of plants in turn, however caused, especially when the plant dies before reaching maturity. It is now applied scientifically only to _____ BUM such diseases as are caused by para- site fungi or bacteria, as apple-blight, cherry-blight, potato-blight, etc. Blind Fish, the name of several species of fish inhabiting the Amer- can cave streams. They are all small, the largest not exceeding five inches. Bliss, Cornelius Newton, an American merchant, born in Fall River, Mass., Jan. 26, 1833; was ed- ucated in New Orleans; entered his stepfather's counting room there ; en- gaged in the commission business in Boston, and became head of the dry goods commission house of Bliss, Fabyan & Co., New York city, in 1881. He was a member of the Pan- American Conference ; Chairman of the New York Republican State Com- mittee in 1877-1878; and Treasurer of the National Republican Commit- tee in 1892 and 1896; declined to be a candidate for Governor of New York in 1885 and 1891 ; and was Sec- retary of the Interior Department in Prpsident McKinley's cabinet in 1897- 1898. He died Oct. 9, 1911. Bliss, Daniel, an American mis- sionary, born in Georgia, Vt., Aug. 17, 1823 ; was graduated at Amherst Col- lege in 1842, and at the Andover The- ological Seminary in 1855 ; was or- dained a Congregational minister, Oct. 17, 1855 ; in missionary work in Syria in 1855-62 ; became President of the Protestant College in Beyrout, 1866. He died July 18, 1916. Bliss, Edwin Elislia, an Ameri- can missionary, born in Putney, Vt., April 12, 1817; graduated at Amherst College in 1837, and at Andover Theo- logical Seminary in 1842; was or- dained as a missionary in 1843, and joined the American Mission in Tur- key. He died in Constantinople, Dec. 29, 1892. Bliss, Frederick Jones, an Amer- ican explorer, born in Mt. Lebanon, Syria, Jan. 23, 1859; son of Daniel Bliss ; was graduated at Amherst Col- lege in 1880, and at the Union Theo- logical Seminary in New York in 1887; was principal of the prepara- tory department of the Syrian Prot- estant College of Beyrout for three years ; was appointed Explorer to the Palestine Exploration Fund in 1890, and is best known for his excavations and finds in Jerusalem in 1891-1897. Bliss Bliss, Porter Cornelius, an American diplomatist, born in Erie county, N. Y., Dec. 28, 1838 ; became private secretary to James Watson Webb, United States Minister to Bra- zil ; explored the Gran Chaco for the Argentine Government ; compiled the various Indian dialects and investi- gated the antiquities of that region ; and, in 1866, became private secretary to Charles A. Washburn, United States Minister to Paraguay. In 1870-1874 he was Secretary of the Legation in Mexico. Died Feb. 2, 1885. Bliss, Tasker Howard, an Amer- ican military officer, born in Lewis- burg, Pa., Dec. 31, 1853 ; was gradu- ated at the United States Military Academy in 1875 and at the Artillery School in 1884 ; Professor of Military Science at the Naval War College in 1885-8; served through the Porto Rican campaign in 1898; chief of Cu- ban Customs Service in 1898-1902; special envoy to negotiate a reciproc- ity treaty with Cuba in 1902 ; in serv- ice in the Philippines in 1905-9 ; com- manded the provisional brigade on the Mexican border in 1911 ; brigadier- general, July 21, 1902 ; major-general, Nov. 20, 1915 ; became assistant to the Chief of Staff, U. S. A., in 1915. Bliss, William Dwight Porter, an American clergyman, born in Con- stantinopk, Turkey, in 1856; was graduated at Amherst College in 1878, and the Hartford Theological College in 1882; was ordained a Congrega- tional clergyman : became an Episco- pal priest in 1887; organized the first Christian Socialist Society in the United States in 1889. Blizzard, a modern American word whose origin is in doubt. As applied to a severe snow storm the word came into general use in the American newspapers during the bitterly cold winter of 1880-1881, although some papers claim its use as early as the '70's. It is employed in the Western States to describe a peculiarly fierce and cold wind, accompanied by a very fine, blinding snow which suffocates as well as freezes men and animals ex- posed to it. These storms come up very suddenly and overtake the trav- eler without premonition. The sky becomes darkened, and the snow is driven by a terrible wind which comes Blockade with a deafening roar. The blizzard which will long be remembered in the Eastern States began March 11, 1888, and raged until the 14th, New York and Philadelphia being the cities most affected. The wind at one time blew at the rate of 46 miles an hour. The streets and roads were blocked, rail- road trains snowed up for days, tele- graphic communication cut off, and many lives were lost. Block, a pulley or a system of pulleys ro- tating on a pintle mounted in its frame or shell with its band and strap. There are many kinds of blocks, as a pulley block, a fiddle block, a fish block, a fly block, a heart block, a hook block, etc. A block and tackle is the block and the rope rove through it, for hoist- ing or obtaining a purchase. Blockade, the act of surrounding a city with a hostile army, or, if it be on the seaj coast, of placing a I hostile 'army around its landward side, and ships of war in front of its sea defenses, so as, if possible, to pre- vent supplies of food and ammunition from entering it by land or water. The object of such an investment is to compel a place too strong or too well defended to be at once captured by assault, to surrender on account of famine. The investment of a place by sea is to prevent any ships from entering or leaving its har- bor. The practice seems to have been introduced by the Dutch about 1584. To break the blockade is to forcibly enter a blockaded port, if not even to compel the naval force investing it to withdraw. To raise a blockade is to desist from blockading a place or to compel the investing force to do so. To run a blockade is to surreptitiously enter or leave a blockaded port at the risk of being captured. As a blockade seriously interferes with the ordinary commercial right of trading with every BLOCK AND TACKLE. Block Books place, international law carefully lim- its its operation, by certain provisions regarding the rights of nations not in- terested in the war. Block Books, before, and for a short time after, the invention ot printing, books printed from wooden blocks each the size of a page and having the matter to be reproduced, whether text or picture, cut in relief on the surface. Block House, a fortified edifice of one or more stories, constructed chiefly of blocks of hewn timber. Block houses are supplied with loopholes for musketry and sometimes with em- brasures for cannon, and when of more than one story the upper ones are made to overhang those below. Block Island, an island in the At- lantic off the coast of Rhode Island, to which it belongs; named from Adrian Block, a Dutch navigator who discovered it in 1616. Block Printing, the method of printing from wooden blocks (pro- ducing block books) , as is still done in calico printing and making wall paper. Block System, in railroad par- lance, the division of a railroad into a certain number of telegraphic dis- tricts, the distance between which is determined by the amount of traffic, each block station having signaling in- struments by which the signal man can communicate with the operator on each side of him. When a train enters any block a semaphore signal is lowered, and no train is allowed to follow until the one in front has reached the end of the block. Blodget, Lorin, an American phy- sicist, born near Jamestown, N. Y., May 25, 1823 ; was educated at Ho- bart College ; appointed Assistant Professor at the Smithsonian Institu- tion, Washington, D. C., in charge of researches on climatology, in 1851. He is credited with having laid the foundation of American climatology. He died in Philadelphia, Pa., March 24, 1901. Blodgett, Samuel, an American inventor ; born in Woburn, Mass., April 1, 1724. He took part in the French and Indian War ; was a mem- ber of the expedition against Louis- burg, in 1745 ; and subsequently be- came a judge of the Court of Com- Bloemf ontei mon Pleas, in Hillsboro county, N. H. He was the inventor of an apparatus by which he recovered a valuable cargo from a sunken ship near Plymouth, Mass., in 1783. In 1793 he began the construction of the canal around Amoskeag Falls in the Merrimac which now bears his name, but did not live to complete the work. He died in Haverhill, Mass., Sept. 1, 1807. Blodgett, Henry Williams, an American jurist, born in Amherst, Mass., July 21, 1821 ; was educated at Amherst Academy ; studied surveying and engineering ; was admitted to the bar in 1844 ; and settled in Wauke- gan, 111., to practice, in the following year. He served in the Lower House of the Legislature in 1852-1854, and in the State Senate in 1859-1865 ; and was United States District Judge for the Northern District of Illinois from 1869 till 1893, when he retired. He was appointed one of the counsel on the part of the United States before the Arbitration Tribunal on the Ber- ing Sea fur seal controversy between the United States and Great Britain, in 1892. Died, Feb. 9, 1905. Bloemf ontein, city and capital of the former Orange Free State (name changed by the British, May 29, 1900, to Orange River Colony), South Af- rica ; on the Modder river, 200 miles W. by N. of Durban, the base of Brit- ish operations in the war against the Boers. It occupies an elevated site ; is connected with Natal and Cape Colony by telegraph; and is the seat of an Anglican bishopric, and a col- lege. In the war between Great Brit- ain and the South African and Orange Free State Republics in 189^1900 it was the seat of important military op- erations. In June, 1899, a confer- ence was held here between President Kruger of the South African Repub- lic and Sir Alfred Milner, the British Commissioner of Cape Colony, with a view of averting war. After the ap- pointment of Lord Roberts to the su- preme command of the British forces operating against the Boers, he led an expedition against the city and forced its surrender on March 13, 1900, President Steyn escaping capture. Soon afterward the part of the repub- lic occupied by the British was for- mally placed under British adminis- tration. Blois Bloody Falls Blois, the capital of the French Department of Loir-et-Cher, 99 miles S. S. W. of Paris, on the Loire. Blondel, a French minstrel and poet of the 12th century, a confidential servant and instructor in music of Richard Co?ur de Lion. While his master was the prisoner of the Duke of Austria, Blondel, according to the story, went through Palestine and all parts of Germany in search of him. He sang the king's own favorite lays before each keep and fortress till the song was at length taken up and an- swered from the windows of the cas- tle of Loewenstein, where Richard was imprisoned. Blondiu, Charles, a French rope dancer, born at St. Omer, Pas-de- Calais, in 1824, was trained at Lyons, where he made such rapid progress that he was designated " The Little Wonder." After making a several years' tour of the United States, on June 30, 1859, before a crowd of 25,- 000 persons, he crossed the Falls of Niagara on a tight-rope in five min- utes ; on July 4, he crossed blindfold, trundling a wheelbarrow; on Aug. 19, he carried a man on his back ; on Sept 14, 1860, he crossed on stilts in the presence of the Prince of Wales. His last appearance was in 1888. He died Feb. 22. 1897. Blood, the fluid which circulates through the arteries and veins of the human body and that of other animals, which is essential to the preservation of life and nutrition of the tissues. In insects and in others of the lower animals there is an analogous fluid which may be colorless, red, bluish, greenish, or milky. The venous blood of mammals is a dark red, but in pass- ing through the lungs it becomes oxi- dized and acquires a bright scarlet color, so that the blood in the arteries is of a brighter hue than that in the veins. The central organ of the blood circulation is the heart. The specific gravity of blood varies from 1.045 to 1.075. and its normal temperature is 99 Fahr. 1000 parts contain 783.37 of water, 2.83 fibrin, 67.25 albumen, 126.31 blood corpuscles, 5.16 fatty mat- ters and salts. The blood corpuscles or globules are characteristic. These are minute, red and white bodies float- ing in the fluid of the blood. The red ones give color, and are flattish discs, oval in birds and reptiles, and round in man and most mammals. In man they average l-3300th inch in diame- ter, and in the Proteus, which has them larger than any other vertebrate, l-400th inch in length and l-727th in breadth. The white or colorless cor- puscles are the same as the lymph or chyle corpuscles, and are spherical or lenticular, nucleated, and granulated, and rather larger than the red globules. Blood, Council of, the name pop- ularly applied to the Council of Trou- bles, established by the Duke of Alva, in the Netherlands, in 1567. Although it had no charter or authority from any source, it was omnipotent and superseded all other authorities. In the first three months alone its vic- tims numbered 1,800, and soon there was hardly a Protestant house in the Netherlands that had not furnished a victim. Blood-hound, a variety of hound or dog, so called from the ability which it possesses to trace a wounded animal by the smell of any drops of blood which may have fallen from it. Blood Indians, a tribe of North American Indians of the Siksika Con- federacy, dwelling in the Northwest Territories of Canada ; known also as Kino Indians. Blood Poisoning, a name loosely used of pya?mia and allied diseases. Blood-vessels, the tubes or ves- sels in which the blood circulates. They are divided into two classes- arteries and veins which have two points of union or connection the first in the heart, from which they both originate, and the other in the minute vessels or network in which they terminate. Bloody Assizes, the name given by the people to those courts which were held in England by the infamous Judge Jeffreys, in 1685, after the sup- pression of the Duke of Monmouth's rebellion. Upward of 300 persons were executed after short trials ; very many were whipped, imprisoned and fined; and nearly 1,000 were sent as slaves to the American plantations, some of whom established families. Bloody Falls, the lowest cataract of the Copper Mine river in the North* FIG 4 SECTION OF THF HEAR KEY TO FIG. I A THE GSEAT ARTERIAL TRUNK B THE GREAT BRANCH C. THE LEFT CAROTID ARTERY D. THE LEFT SUBCLAVIAN ARTERY E. THE TWO ILIAC ARTERIES F. THE GREAT VEIN (ASCENDING VtNA CWA) G THE GREAT VEIN 'DESCENDING VENACAVA) KEY TO FIG. 4 1 THE GREAT VEIN (DUCINDINGVCHAWI 2 THE GREAT VFIN (*SCENOING VDIACWA) 3 UPPER PART OF THE CAVITY OF THE RIGHT AURICLE 4 UPPER PART OF THE RIGHT VENTRICLE 5 THE THREE POINTED VALVE 6 VALVES AT THE ORIFICE OF THE PULMONARY ARTERY FIG. 5 SECTION OF AIR TUBE FIG.I PLAN OF THE ARTERIES FIG. 3 THREE VALVES AT THE COMMENCEMENT OF THE PULMONARY ARTERY FIG. 2 SECTION OF VEIN (SHOWING VALVES) COPYRIGHT, 1913, BY F. E. WRIGHT CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD 'Bloody Mary west Territories of Canada ; so named because of a massacre here of Eski- mos by Chippewa Indians, in 1770. Bloody Mary, an epithet popular- ly applied to Mary, Queen of Eng- land, on account of the persecutions of the Protestants during her reign. Bloomer, Amelia Jenks, au American reformer, born in Homer, N. Y., May 27, 1818; died in 1894. She will be remembered because of her adoption of a costume of a short skirt and Turkish trousers. Bloomfield, a town in Essex county, N. J.; on the Morris canal, several railroads, and a trolley line connecting it with all nearby cities; 10 miles N. W. of New York city; founded in 1685; is the seat of a German theological seminary and of a noted mountainside hospital; manu- factures organs, hats, shoes, rubber goods, electric elevators, and paper; and is theresidenceof many New York business men. Pop. (1910) 15,070. Bloomfield, Maurice, an Ameri- can educator, born in Bielitz, Aus- tria, Feb. 23, 1855; came to the United States in 1857; became an Associate in Johns Hopkins Univer- sity in 1881; and subsequently Pro- fessor of Sanskrit and Comparative Philology there. Bloomington, city and capital of McLean county, 111.; on several rail- roads; 60 miles N. E. of Springfield; is the seat of the Illinois Wesleyan University, of a Roman Catholic college, and of the general offices of the Chicago & Alton railroad; and nearby are the State Normal Uni- versity and the State Soldiers' Or- phans' Home. The city has important manufactures, is in a rich corn and oat section, and has large interests in raising cattle, swine, and fine horses. Pop. (1910) 25,768. Blouet, Paul (MAX O'REtr), a French lecturer and author, born in Brittany, France, March 2, 1848. After the publication of his first book, " John Bull and His Island v (1883), he devoted himself to litera- ture. He made several lecturing tours of the United States. Died in Paris, June, 1903. Blount, James H., an American legislator, born in Macon, Ga., Sept. 12, 1837. He made his first appear- Blow Fly ance in public affairs in 1872, when he was elected to Congress from the Sixth District of Georgia. He held his seat by successive re-elections till 1893, when he declined a further term. As he finished his last term the House paid him the unusual honor of suspending its proceedings to give the members an opportunity to testify to their appreciation of his worth. In his last term he was Chairman of the Committee on Foreign Affairs, and his familiarity with American relations with other countries led President Cleveland to appoint him a Special Commissioner to Hawaii in March, 1893, for the purpose of investigating the deposition of the royal government and the establishment of the Ameri- can protectorate over the kingdom. On his arrival in Honolulu he at once caused the American flag to be hauled down from the Provisional Govern- ment House, and the United States marines to be withdrawn from the locality. This proceeding led to con- siderable excitement in the United States; the withdrawal of United States Minister Stevens from Hono- lulu ; the appointment of Commission- er Blount as his successor ; and a renewal both in Washington and Hon- olulu of the agitation for the annexa- tion of Hawaii to the United States. On the completion of his mission Min- ister Blount resumed private practice at his home. Died March 6, 1903. BLOW-FLY. Blow Fly, the name popularly given to such two winged flies as de- posit eggs in the flesh of animals, thus making tumors arise. Several species of musca do this, so do breeze flies, etc. Blowing Machine "BVacher Blowing Machine, an apparatus for producing an air blast for metal- lurgical purposes. Blowitz, Henry Georges Steph- ane Adolphe Opper de, a French journalist, born in Pilsen, Austria, Sept 28, 1832 ; settled in France ; was successively appointed Professor of German in the Lycee of Tours and at Limoges, Poitiers, and Marseilles ; was naturalized a French citizen in 1870 ; and became the Paris corre- spondent of the London " Times " in 1871. He died January 19, 1903. Blowpipe, a small instrument used in the arts for glass blowing and soldering metals, and in analytical chemistry and mineralogy, for de- termining the nature of substances by the action of an intense and continu- ous heat. Its utility depends on the fact, that when a jet of air or oxygen is thrown into a flame, the rapidity of combustion is increased, while the ef- fects are concentrated by diminishing the extent or space originally occu- pied by the flame. Blowpipe, a kind of weapon much used by some of the Indian tribes of South America, both in war and for killing game. It consists of a long, straight tube, in which a small poi- soned arrow is placed, and forcibly expelled by the breath. Blubber, the fat of whales and other large sea animals, from which train oil is obtained. The blubber lies under the skin and over the mus- cular flesh. It is eaten by the Eski- mos and the seacoast races of the Japanese Islands, the Kuriles, etc. The whole quantity yielded by one whale ordinarily amounts to 40 or 50, but sometimes to 80 or more hundred weights. Blncher, Gebhard Leberecht Ton, a distinguished Prussian Gen- eral, born at Rostock, Mecklenburg- Schwerin, Dec. 16, 1742. He entered the Swedish service when 14 years of age and fought against the Prussians, but was taken prisoner, in his first campaign, and was induced to enter the Prussian service. Discontented at the promotion of another officer over his head, he left the army, devoted himself to agriculture, and by indus- try and prudence acquired an estate. After the death of Frederick II. he became a Major in his former regi- ment, which he commanded with dis- tinction on the Rhine in 1793 and 1794. After the battle of Kirrweiler in 1794 he was appointed Major-Gen- eral of the Army of Observation sta- tioned on the Lower Rhine. In 1802, in the name of the King of Prussia, he took possession of Erfurt and Muhlhausen. Oct. 14, 1806, he fought at the battle of Auerstadt. After the Peace of Tilsit he served in the De- partment of War at Konigsberg and Berlin. He then received the chief military command in Pomerania, but at the instigation of Napoleon was afterward, with several other distin- guished men, dismissed from the ser- vice. In the campaign of 1812, when the Prussians assisted the French, he took no part ; but no sooner did Prus- sia rise against her oppressors than Blucher, then 70 years old, engaged in the cause with all his former activ- ity, and was appointed commander-in- chief of the Prussians and the Rus- sian corps under General Winzinger- ode. His heroism in the battle of Lutzen (May 2, 1813), was rewarded by the Emperor Alexander with the Order of St. George. The battles of Bautzen and Hanau, those on the Kat/bach and Leipsic, added to his glory. He was now raised to the rank of Field-Marshal, and led the Prus- sian army which invaded France early in 1814. After a period of obstinate conflict the day of Montmartre crowned this campaign, and, March 31, Blucher entered the capital of France. His King, in remembrance of the victory which he had grained at the Katzbach, created him Prince of Wahlstadt, and gave him an estate in Silesia. On the renewal of the war in 1815 the chief command was again committed to him, and he led his army into the Netherlands. June 15 Napoleon threw himself upon him, and Blucher, on the 16th, was de- feated at Ligny. In this engagement his horse was killed, and he was thrown under his body. In the battle of the 18th Blucher arrived at the most decisive moment upon the ground, and taking Napoleon in the rear and flank assisted materially in completing the great victory of Belle Alliance or Waterloo. He was a rough and fearless soldier, noted for Bine Law* his energy and rapid movements, which had procured him the name of Marshal Vorwarts (Forward). He died at Krieblowitz, Silesia, Sept. 12, 1819. Blue, one of the seven colors into which the rays of light divide them- selves when refracted through a glass prism, seen in nature in the clear ex- panse of the heavens; also a dye or pigment of this hue. Blue, Victor, an American naval officer, born in Marion, S. C., Dec. 6, 1865 ; entered the United States Naval Academy in 1883 ; was commissioned a passed naval cadet in 1887 ; trans- ferred to the Engineer Corps in 1889, and promoted to Ensign, Dec. 12, 1892. After serving on the "Alli- ance " and " Thetis " he was assigned to duty at the Naval Academy in 1896, and early in 1898 was promoted to Lieutenant, junior grade. In the war against Spain he traversed the enemy's lines during the bombardment of Santiago, and reported the location of Cervera's vessels. Chief of Staff, Pacific fleet, 1910-11 ; and became chief of the Bureau of Navigation, with the rank of rear-admiral, 1913. Blue Beard, the name of the blood thirsty husband in the familiar tale of " Blue Beard," best described in Perrault's "Tales" (1697). The original of this monstrous personage was a character celebrated in Breton legend, Gilles de Laval, Baron de Retz (1396-1440), famous in the wars of Charles VII. According to tradition he used to entice the children of peas- ants into his castle, and there sacri- fice them to the Devil and practice sorcery with their remains. After 14 years of such a course he grew so bold that his crimes were discovered, and a heap of children's bones found in his castle. He was condemned to death, strangled, and his corpse burned at the stake at Nantes in 1440. Another Breton legend repre- sents de Retz with a red beard about to marry a beautiful girl after haying already made away with seven wives. The bride expostulates at the altar. De Retz offers her fine clothes, cas- tles, all his possessions, finally his body and soul. " I accept ! " shrieks the bride, turning into a blue devil and making a sign which transforms de Retz's beard from red to blue. .20 Henceforth he belonged to Hell, and became the dread of the country round, under the name of Blue Beard. Bine Berry, a name given in the United States to the genus vaccinium, that which contains the bilberry, called in Scotland the blae berry. Bine Bird, a beautiful bird. Its whole upper parts are sky blue, shot with purple, with its throat, neck, breast, and sides reddish chestnut, and part of its wings and its tail feathers black. Bine Book, a printed volume, is- sued by authority of the British Par- liament containing a report. Bine Bottle, a two-winged fly, the body of which has some faint resem- blance to a bottle of blue glass. Blnefields, town, seaport, and cap- ital of the former Mosquito Indian Reservation ; now the Department of Zelaya, Nicaragua, on the Atlantic coast near the mouth of the Bluefielda river, and 165 miles E. of Managua. The reservation lies along the Atlan- tic coast extending S. almost to Gray- town, one of the termini of the pro- jected Nicaragua canal. Bine Fish, a species of coryphsena found in the Atlantic ; also, a fish like a mackerel but larger, found on the Atlantic coast, and sometimes called horse mackerel and salt water tailor. Bine Grass, a grass cultivated for pasturage in Northern and Central Kentucky, deriving its name from the underlying strata of blue limestone which gives it a luxuriant growth. Bine Hen State, a sobriquet for the State of Delaware. During the War for Independence, a certain pop- ular officer of Delaware, named Cap- tain Caldwell, asserted that a game cock to be unconquerable must be " a blue hen's chicken." This name was at once applied to his regiment and later to the State and its people. Bine Jay, a common North Amer- ican bird of the crow family, and oc- cupying in the New World the place held by the jays of the Old. Bine Laws, a name given to cer- tain rulings or decisions of colonial magistrates reported by Rev. Samuel A. Peters, a Church of England cler- gyman, of Connecticut, as the actual laws of the New Haven _ colony.. Blue Monday Though one of them forbade a woman to kiss her child on the Sabbath or a fast day, and another provided in what fashion men should cut their hair, they have been soberly accepted by great numbers of people as actually enacted laws, illustrative of Puritan illiberality. They appear in Peters' 44 General History of Connecticut," and were evidently a somewhat spite- ful satire upon the Puritan legislation, which contained many statutes con- cerning Sabbath observances and the vices of drinking and gambling that would now be deemed inquisitorial. The term is generally applied to any law one does not like that affects per- sonal habits. Blue Monday, in Bavaria and some other parts of Europe, a name formerly given to the Monday before Lent, when the churches were deco- rated with blue. It was kept as a holiday by classes whose ordinary avo- cation required them to labor on Sun- days. As this led to violent disturb- ances the custom was legally abol- ished. Blue Mountains, a beautiful wooded range of mountains in Oregon, from 8,000 to 9,000 feet high, which, with the Powder River Mountains, separate the Columbia valley from the Great Basin. Blue Mountains, the central mountain range of Jamaica, the main ridges of which are from 6,000 to 8,000 feet high. Bine Point, the S. extremity of Patchogue Bay, Long Island, N. Y., which lends its name to the well known oysters blue points. Bine Print Paper, paper sensi- tized by potassium ferricyanide and citric acid ; used for making blue print photographs and print plans, mechanical drawings, etc., giving white lines on blue ground. Blue Ridge, the most easterly range of .the Alleghany Mountains. It forms the continuation of the chain called South Mountain in Pennsylva- nia and Maryland. It is known as the Blue Ridge till it crosses the James river; thence to North Carolina as Al- leghany Mountains ; and in North Car- olina again as Blue Ridge. Bine Stockings, a literary wom- an, generally with the imputation that Blunt she is more or less pedantic. Boswell, in his " Life of Johnson," states that in his day there were certain meet- ings held by ladies to afford them op- portunity of holding converse with eminent literary men. The most dis- tinguished talker at these gatherings was a Mr. Stillingfleet, who always wore blue stockings. His absence was so felt that the remark became com- mon, " We can do nothing without the blue stockings." Hence the meet- ings at which he figured began to be called sportively Blue Stocking Clubs, and those who frequented them blue stockings. Blum, Robert, a German Liberal leader, born in very humble circum- stances at Cologne, Nov. 10, 1807; was secretary and treasurer of a thea- ter at Cologne, and subsequently at Leipsic, until 1847, when he estab- lished himself as bookseller and pub- lisher. His leisure was devoted to literature and politics, and in 1840 he founded at Leipsic the Schiller So- ciety, which celebrated the poet's an- niversary, as a festival in honor of political liberty. When the revolu- tionary movement broke out in 1848, he was one of its foremost leaders. At Vienna he joined the insurgents, was arrested, and was shot on Nov. 9. Blumenbach, Johann Fried- Rich, a German naturalist, born in Gotha, May 11, 1752. He advocated the doctrine of the unity of the human species, which he divided into five va- rieties, Caucasian, Mongolian, Negro, American, and Malay. His anthrop- ological treatises, and memoirs of his life by Marx and Flourens, were translated into English. He died in Gottingen, Jan. 22, 1840. Blunderbuss, a short gun, unri- fled and of large bore, widening toward the muzzle. It is by no means to be ranked with arms of precision, but is loaded with many balls or slugs, which scatter when fired, so that there is a certainty of some one of them hit- ting the mark. Blunt, Edmund March, an American author, born in Ports- mouth, N. H., June 20, 1770; was noted for his publication of the "American Coast Pilot" (1796), de- scribing all the coasts of the United States, and containing a vast amount Blunt of invaluable information for seamen. . More than 30 editions of this work have been published, and it is still in use in the United States and the prin- cipal European countries, having been translated into nearly every foreign language. He also compiled a num- ber of nautical books and charts. He died in Sing Sing, N. Y., Jan. 2, 1862. Blunt, George William, an lAmerican hydrographer, born in New- buryport, Mass., March 11, 1802; a eon of Edmund March Blunt. He went to sea when 14 years old and served as a sailor till nearly 21 ; and in 1822-1866 was a publisher of charts and nautical books in New York. He made original surveys of many American harbors ; was one of the committee that organized the pres- ent system of pilotage for New York city ; made several revisions of the " American Coast Pilot ;" and was in- fluential in causing the Federal Gov- ernment to adopt the French system of lighthouses and to organize the Lighthouse Board. He died in New York city, April 19, 1878. Blunt, Stanhope English, an American military officer ; born in Boston, Mass., Sept. 29, 1850; was graduated at the United States Mili- tary Academy and commissioned 2d lieutenant in 1872. He rose through the ranks to colonel in the ordnance department; retired in 1912. Blushing, a sudden reddening of the skin, induced by various mental states, particularly those involving shame or humiliation, shyness or mod- esty. Blyden, Edward Wilmot, a ne- fro author, born at St. Thomas, W. ., Aug. 3, 1832. After vainly seek- ing, in 1845, admission to some col- lege in the United States, he went to Liberia, and graduated at the Alex- ander High School, of which he after- ward became principal. In 1880 he became President of Liberia College. He was commissioner to the Presby- terian General Assembly of the United States in 1861 and 1880. He died Feb. 8, 1912. Blythe, Herbert (better known as MAUBICE BARRYMORE) , an American actor ; born in India in 1847 ; was graduated at Cambridge University, England ; studied for the civil service ; Boardman was admitted to the bar but did not practise this profession, giving it up for the stage. Died March 25. 1905. Boa, the name of a genus of rep- tiles belonging to Cuvier's tribe of serpents proper. The species properly belonging to this genus are among the largest of the serpent tribe, some of them, when full .grown, being 30, and even 40 feet long. Though destitute of fangs and venom, nature has endowed them with a degree of muscular power which renders them terrible. Hap- pily, they are not common in situa- tions much frequented by mankind, but are chiefly found in the vast marshy regions of Guiana and other hot parts of the American continent. Boabd.il (properly Abu-Abdallah, and nicknamed Ez-Zogoiby, " the un- lucky"), the last Moorish King of Granada, dethroned his father, Abu-1- Hasan, in 1481, and two years later was defeated and taken prisoner by the Casti Hans near Lucena. He was set free on condition of paying tribute, and returned to Granada to struggle with his father and with his heroic uncle, Es-Zaghal, for the throne. Going to Africa, he there flung away his life in battle. Boadicea, Queen of the Iceni, in Britain, during the reign of Nero. Having been treated in the most igno- minious manner by the Romans, she headed a general insurrection of the Britons, attacked the Roman settle- ments, reduced London to ashes, and put to the sword all strangers to the number of 70,000. Suetonius, the Roman general, defeated her in a de- cisive battle (A. D. 62), and Boadicea, rather than fall into the hands of her enemies, put an end to her own life by poison. Boanerges, a Greek word trans- lated in Mark iii:.17, "sons of thun- der." It is of doubtful etymology, but is probably the Aramaic pronun- ciation of Hebrew beni regesh, regesh in Hebrew meaning tumult or uproar, but in Arabic and Aramaean thunder. It is an appellation given by Christ to two of His disciples, the brothers James and John, apparently on ac- count of their fiery zeal. Boardman, George Dana, an American missionary, born in Liver- Boardman more, Me., Feb. 8, 1801. He studied at Andover and was ordained in the Baptist Church. In 1825 he went to Burma, where he labored assiduously in spreading Christianity. The mis- sion planted by him became the cen- tral point of all Baptist missions in Burma. He died In Burma, Feb. 11, 1831. Boardman, George Dana, an American clergyman and author, born in Tavoy, British Burma, Aug. 18, 1828; son of the American Bap- tist missionary of the same name. He was educated in the United States, graduating at Brown University in 1852, and at Newton Theological In- stitution in 1855. He became pastor at Barnwell, S. C. ; afterward at Rochester and Philadelphia. D. 1903. Boardman, Mabel T., an Amer- ican executive widely known for her activities in the American National Red Cross, of which she was a vice- chairman in 1917. Of her work Pres- ident Taft wrote : "The moving spirit of the American Red Cross today is Miss Mabel Boardman. It is due to her indefatigable industry, her wide acquaintance, her high character as a woman, and the confidence that wealthy and benevolent men have in her that the association has become so prosperous and powerful for good." Boas, Franz, a German ethnolo- gist, born in Minden, Westphalia, July 9, 1858; studied at Heidelberg, Bonn, and Kiel Universities, in 1877- 1882; traveled in the Arctic regions in 1883-1884; was assistant in the Royal Ethnographical Museum in Berlin, and privat decent in geogra- phy at the University in 1885-1886; and teacher oi ; anthropology in Clark University, Worcester, Mass., in 1888-1892 Boat Bill, the English name of a genus of birds belonging to the true herons. The bill, from which the English name comes, is very broad from right to left, and looks as if formed by two spoons applied to each other on their concave sides. It in- habits the hot and humid parts of South America. Boatswain, an officer on board a ship, whose function it is to take charge of the rigging, cables, cordage, anchors, sails, boats, flags and stores. Bock He must inspect the rigging every morning and keep it in good repair; and must either by himself or by dep- uty steer the life boat. If on a ship of war he must call the men to their duty by means of a silver whistle given him for the purpose ; besides taking into custody those condemned by a court martial, and, either by himself or by deputy, inflict on them the pun- ishment awarded. Boaz, a Bethlehemite of means, who took upon himself the duty of providing for Ruth, as the near rela- tion of her dead husband's family. From him Jesus Christ was directly descended. Bobbin, a reel or other similar contrivance for holding thread. Bobbin Ket, a machine made cot- ton net, originally imitated from the lace made by means of a pillow and bobbins. Bobolina, a Greek woman, cele- brated for her courage in aid of the Greek revolt. After her husband had been slain by the Turks in 1812, she resolved to avenge his death. In 1821, she equipped three vessels at her own expense, fought with extraordinary courage at Tripolitiza and Naupha and was killed in action, in 1825. Bob-o-link, Boblink, Reed Bird, or Rice Bird, a common American bird found from Paraguay to Canada, the only one of its kind, and that difficult to classify. Sqms place it near the Baltimore bird, others near starlings, but both the characteristics and the character of the bob-o-link exhibit much that is unique. The name originally Bob Lin- coln is an imitation of the bird's note. In song, the full throated male bob-o-Iink is unique, rivaling the lark, inimitable by the mocking bird. Bob White, popular name of a small game bird of the United States, given because of its peculiar call. In the Northern States it is known as QUAIL, and in the Southern as PART- EIDGE. Boccaccio, Giovanni, an Italian novelist and poet, son of a Florentine merchant, born in 1313 ; died in Cer- taldo, in 1375. Bock, Karl Ernst, a German anatomist, born in 1809; died in COPYRIGHT, IfciiJ, BY F. E. WRIGHT BOATS OF VARIOUS CLIMES Bock Beer Bog 1847. His title to fame rests chiefly on his " Handbook of Human Anat- omy." Bock Beer. (See BEER). Bode, John Elert, German astron- omer, born 1747, died 1826. His best works are his Astronomical Almanac and his large Celestial Atlas (Him- melsatlas), giving a catalogue of 17,- 240 stars (12,000 more than in any former chart). Bode's Law is the name given to an arithmetical formula, previously made known by Kepler and Titius of Wittenberg, expressing ap- proximately the distances of the plan- ets from the sun. It assumes the se- ries 0, 3, 6, 12, 24, 48, 96, etc., each term after the second being double the preceeding term ; to each term 4 is add- ed, producing the series 4, 7, 10, 14, 28, 56, 100, etc. These numbers are, with the exception of 28, roughly propor- tional to the distances between the planets and the sun. The law has no theoretical foundation. Bodin, Jean, a French political writer; born in 1530, or 1529. His great work " De la Rgpublique " (1576) has been characterized as the ablest and most remarkable treatise on the philosophy of government and legislation produced from the time of Aristotle to that of Montesquieu. Ac- cording to his view, the best form of government is a limited monarchy. He died in Laon in 1596. Bodleian, or Bodleyan, libra- ry, a library founded at Oxford, Eng- land, by Sir Thomas Bodley, in 1597. All members of Oxford University who have taken a degree are allowed to read in it, as are literary men of all countries. Bodmer, Georg, a Swiss inven- tor, born in Zurich, Dec. 6, 1786. He invented the screw and cross wheels ; and made valuable improvements in fire arms and in various kinds of ma- chinery, particularly in that of wool spinning. He died in Zurich, May 26, 1864. Bodmer, Johann Jakob, a Swiss literary critic, born near Zurich, July 19, 1698; was the first to make Eng- lish literature known in Germany ; and wrote dramas, and epics. He was leader of the movement which released German literature from French clas- sicism. He died Jan. 2, 1783. Boece, or Boyce, Hector, a Scot* tish historian, born in Dundee about 1465 ; died in 1536. Boehm. Sir Joseph Edgar, & British sculptor, born in Vienna, July 6, 1834. He executed busts of Glad- stone, John Bright, John Ruskin, etc., and designed the effigy of Queen Vic- toria for the coinage commemorative of the 50th year of her reign. He died in London, Dec. 12, 1890. Boehme, Jacob, a German mysti- cal writer, born in 1575. A sect, tak- ing their name from Boehme, was formed in England. He died in 1624. Bosotia, a division of ancient Greece, lying between Africa and Phocis, and bounded E. and W. by the Euboean Sea and the Corinthian Gulf respectively, had an area of about 1,100 square miles. With Attica, Bceotia now forms a department of the "old territory" of Greece, with a pop. (census of 1907) of 407,063. Boerhaave, Hermann, a cele- brated Dutch physician, one of the most influential medical authorities living in the 18th century ; born in Woorhout, near Leyden, Dec. 12, 1668. He died Sept 23, 1738. Boers (Dutch, boer, a peasant or husbandman), the name commonly ap- plied to the South African colonists of Dutch descent. Boethus, a Greek sculptor, bom in Chalcedon in the 2d century B. c. He is celebrated for his statues of children. Boethius, Anicius Manlius Se- verinns, a Roman statesman and philosopher, called " the last of the classic writers " ; born in Rome or Milan, of an ancient family, about A. D. 470; was educated in Rome, in a manner well calculated to develop his extraordinary abilities. Theodoric, King of the Ostrogoths, then master of Italy, loaded him with marks of favor and esteem, and raised him to the first offices in the empire. Later, however, he was accused of a treasonable correspondence with the court of Constantinople. He was ar- rested, imprisoned, and executed A. D. 524 or 526. Bog, a piece of wet, soft, and spongy ground, where the soil is com- posed mainly of decaying and decayed vegetable matter. Such ground is Bogardns valueless for agriculture until reclaim- 1 ed, but often yields abundance of peat for fuel. Bogardus, Everardus, a minis- ter of the Dutch Reformed Church in New Amsterdam, now New York; husband of Anneke Jans. The latter owned a farm of 60 acres, comprising now one of the most valuable sections of New York city. The Bogardus heirs have for many years endeavored unsuccessfully, to recover this proper- ty, which is held by the corporation of Trinity Church. He died Sept 27, -10"! i Bogardus, James, an American Inventor, born in Catskill, N. Y. t March 14, 1800; was apprenticed to a watchmaker, and early showed the bent of his mind by improvements in the construction of eight-day clocks, and by the invention of a delicate en- graving machine. The dry gas meter is his invention, as is also the trans- fer machine to produce bank note plates from separate dies ; and in 1839 his plan for manufacturing postage stamps was accepted by the British Government Later he introduced improvements in the manufacture of india rubber goods, tools, and machin- ery; and invented a pyrometer, a deep ea sounding machine, and a dynamo- meter. He died in New York, April 13, 1874. Boggs, Charles Stuart, an Amer- ican naval officer, born in New Bruns- wick, N. J., Jan. 28, 1811 ; entered the navy in 1826; served on the "Princeton" in the Mexican War; was assigned to the gunboat " Va- runa" in Farragut's Gulf Squadron in 1861. In the attack on Forts St Philip and Jackson, in April, 1862, he destroyed six Confederate gunboats and two rams, and in the last mo- ments of the fight his own vessel was sunk. In 1869-1870 he served with the Europe'an fcquadron; in the lat- ter year was promoted to Rear-Ad- miral; and in 1873 was retired. He died in New Brunswick, April 22, 1888. Bogomilian, a Sclavonic Chris- tian sect, founded in the 12th cen- tury by a monk called Basil. His tenets were akin to those of the Mani- cheans and of the Gnostics. He be- i lieved that the human body was ere- 1 Bohemia ated by a demon cast from Heaven, and was burned for his heresy. Bogoslof Islands, a volcanic trip- let in the Aleutian chain. The first appeared May, 1796 ; the second Sept., 1883 ; the third May, 1906, after the San Francisco earthquake. Bogota, capital of the Republic of Columbia, situated within the limits of the department of Cundinamarca, on a tableland which, at an elevation of 8,694 feet above the sea, separates the basin of the Magdalena from that of the Orinoco. The tableland has an area of about 400 square miles, and is bounded on all sides by mountains, which, though lofty enough to give shelter, are yet below the line of per- petual snow. This extensive plain a temperate zone on the verge of the equator, with a salubrious climate and an average temperature of 60 F. is exceedingly fertile, being as rich in pasture as in grain. The few manu- factures of the city include soap, leather, cloth, and articles made from the precious metals. In 1912 the de- partment of Cundinamarca had an area of 8,046 square miles and pop. of 713,968 ; Bogota had a pop. of 121,- 257. Bogne, David, one of the found- ers of the London Missionary Society, was born in Berwickshire, in 1750. Bogue also took an active part in the establishment of the British and For- eign Bible Society and the Religious Tract Society. He was on the point of going as a missionary to India in 1796, when the East India Company refused to sanction the scheme. Bogue died at Brighton, Oct. 25, 1825. Bohemia, a former Kingdom, now a Province of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy (Austrian or Cisleithan por- tion) bounded by Bavaria, Saxony, the Prussian Province of Silesia, Mo- ravia, and the Archduchy of Austria ; area about 20,060 square miles, of which less than 1 per cent, is not till- able. Population (1910) 6,769.548, (over 2,000,000 Germans). In 1916 Bohemia had 130 deputies in the Reichsrath. The prevailing religion is the Roman Catholic, the coun- try being an archbishopric with three bishoprics. The language of the country is the Czech dialect of the Slavonic in some districts, and in most BENDING ROLLS COMBINED SHEARING AND PUNCHING MACHINE MODERN PLATE W RIVETING MACHINE KING MACHINERY Bohlen Lectures Boise of the cities, German is spoken. Bo- hemia is surrounded on all sides by mountains, and has many large for- ests. Its plains are remarkably fer- tile. The chief rivers are the Elbe and its tributary the Moldau, which is even larger. Bohlen Lectures, a lecture course on a foundation of $10,000 furnished by John Bohlen, a lay member of the Protestant Episcopal Church. They are delivered each year in Philadel- phia, Pa., by eminent representatives of that Church. Bohol, one of the Philippine Islands, belonging to the Visayas or Bisayas group. It has an area of about 1,300 square miles and a popu- Jation of 245,000. Sugar cane is grown and the island is reputed rich in gold deposits. Boiardo, Matteo Maria, Count of Scandiano, one of the greater Italian poets, was born in 1434 at Scandiano, a village situated at the foot of the Lombard Apennines. He died at Reggio, in 1494. Boieldieu, Francois Aurien, a French musical composer, born in 1775; died in 1835. Boies, Horace, an American law- yer, born in Aurora, Erie co., N. Y., Dec. 7, 1827. His opposition to the tar- iff and prohibition policy of the Re- publican Party caused him to unite with the Democrats ; and, in 1890- 1894, he served two terms as Governor of Iowa, being defeated for a third term in 1893. He was a conspicuous candidate for the presidential nomina- tion in the National Democratic Con- ventions in 1892 and 1896 ; and in the campaign of 1896 he supported Mr. Bryan. Boii, a powerful Celtic people who dwelt originally in Transalpine Gaul, part of whom settled in the modern Bohemia, and bequeathed their name to that country. Boil, a disease called by medical men furunculus. It is a phlegmonous tumor, which rises externally, attend- ed with redness and pain, and some- times with a violent, burning heat. Ultimately it becomes pointed, breaks, and emits pus. A substance called the core is next revealed. It is purulent, but so thick and tenacious that it looks solid, and may be drawn out in the form of a cylinder, more pus fol- lowing. The boil then heals. A! blind boil is one which does not sup- purate. Boileau, Nicolas, a French poet, born at Paris, Nov. 1, 1636. He died March 13, 1711. Boiler, the name applied to any vessel or cauldron for boiling large quantities of liquor, but most com- monly used as the designation of a metallic vessel in which water is con- verted into steam by the action of fire, the steam being intended by its expansive force to give motion to a steam engine, or to be used for a va- riety of manufacturing purposes. Boilers may be subdivided into the fol- lowing clases : (a) Shell or tank boilers, (b) Water-tube boilers. Boiling, in general, the change of a substance from the liquid to the paseous state which takes place throughout the liquid. The boiling point, in science, is the point or de- gree of the thermometer at which any liquid boils. Boisard, Francois Marie, a French fabulist, born in 1774; died in 1833. Bois d'Arc (sometimes corrupted into BODOCK), also bow-wood, or ps- age orange, a tree which is a native of the Southern United States. Its large, beautiful orange like fruits are scarcely eatable, but its pines make it useful as a hedge plant. Its wood is strong, and hard, and elastic, and hence was used by the Indians in the manufacture of their bows. Bois de Bologna, a pleasant grove near the gates on the W. of Paris, so named after the suburb Bou- logne-sur-Seine. Boise, city, capital of the State of Idaho, and county-seat of Ada co. ; on the Boise river and the Union Pacific railroad; 45 miles S. W. of Idaho City. It occupies the site of a for- mer trading post of the Hudson Bay Company; is in an agricultural and a rich mining region; and is supplied with pure hot water from a flowing boiling well. The city is said to be the only one in the world having a natural supply of hot water. Pop. (1910) 17,358. Boise, James Robinson, an American educator, born in Bland- Boisgobey ford, Mass., Jan. 27, 1815; died in Chicago, Feb. 9, 1895. Boisgobey, Fortune-Abraham du, a French novelist, born in Gran- ville, Sept 11, 1821; died February, 1891. Bok, Edward William, an Amer- ican editor; born in 1863. He edited the " Ladies' Home Journal," and is a popular literary authority. Boker, George Henry, an Amer- ican poet and dramatist ; born in Philadelphia, Pa., Oct. 6, 1823. He graduated from Princeton in 1842; studied law ; and was United States minister to Turkey in 1871-1875, and to Russia in 1875-1879. He died Jan. 2, 1890. Bokhara, a Russian vassal State in Central Asia, bounded on the N. by the Russian provinces of Syr-Daria and Samarkand, on the E. by the province of Ferghana, on the S. by Afghanistan, and on the S. W. by the Russian Trans-Caspian province and the Khanat of Khiva. Area, 83,000 square miles ; pop. about 1,250,000. It formerly occupied considerably more territory than it does now, hav- ing been reduced by the conquests and encroachments of Russia, which have been only partially compensated by additions. Bokhara, the capital of the above state, is 8 or 9 miles in circuit and is surrounded by a mud wall. It is poorly built, consisting of extremely narrow streets and paltry houses. The principal edifices are the palace of the amir, crowning a height near the cen- cer of the town and surrounded by a brick wall 70 feet high ; and numer- ous mosques, the largest of which is enameled with tiles of azure blue, and has a tower 210 feet high. The trade was formerly large with India, but has now been almost completely ab- sorbed by Russia. The pop. is esti- mated at 75,000. Boldrewood, Rolf, pseudonym of THOMAS ALEXANDER BBOWNE, an Australian author, born in England in 1827. Boleyn, Anne, second wife of Henry VIII. of England, was the eld- est daughter of Sir Thomas Boleyn, and Elizabeth Howard, daughter of the Duke of Norfolk. She was born according to some accounts, in 1507, , Boliva* but according to more probable ones about 1501. About 1522 she became lady of honor to Queen Catharine, whom she soon supplanted. The king, passionately enamored of her, found an unexpected opposition to his wishes, and Anne firmly declared that she could be had on no terms but those of marriage. She knew that the king already meditated a divorce from his wife, Catharine of Arragon ; but she also knew what difficulties the Catho- lic religion opposed to the execution of this plan. Cramner offered his ser- vices to bring about the accomplish- ment of the king's wishes, and thua gave the first occasion to the separa- tion of England from the Roman Church. But the impetuous Henry did not wait for the ministers of this new religion to confirm his divorce; on the contrary, he married Anne in January, 1533, having previously created her Marchioness of Pembroke. Cranmer declared the first marriage void, and the second valid, and Anne was crowned queen at Westminster with unparalleled splendor. In 1533 she became the mother of the famous Elizabeth. She could not, however, retain the affections of the king, as inconstant as he was tyrannical ; and as she had supplanted her queen while lady of honor to Catharine, she was now supplanted herself by Jane Sey- mour, her own lady of honor. She was tried and condemned to death on false charges of infidelity, and was executed May 19, 1536. Bolingbroke, Henry St. John, Viscount, an English statesman and political writer; born in Battersea, near London, of an ancient family, in 1678. He died in Battersea in 1751. Bolivar, Simon, an American military officer and statesman (named EL LIBERTADOR, from his having res- cued Central South America from the Spanish yoke), born in Caracas, July 24, 1783. At Venezuela he en- tered upon his military career as a colonel in the service of the newly founded republic. At length, in 1821, the Independent troops were successful in the battle of Carabobo, where the Royalists lost upward of 6,000 men, and which decided the cause against Spain. On Aug. 20 of the same year a Republican Constitution was adopt- ed, and decreed to continue, as then Bolivia defined, till 1834. Bolivar was chosen President, and he turned his attention to the internal administration of the country. In 1823 he assisted the Pe- ruvians to obtain their independence, and was declared their liberator, and invested with supreme authority. On Feb. 10, 1825, however, he convoked a Congress, and resigned his dictator- ship. He now visited the Upper Prov- inces of Peru, which, calling a con- vention at Chuquisaca, gave the name of Bolivia to their country, in honor of their liberator, and appointed him Perpetual Protector, and to draw up a constitution. On May 25, 1826, he presented his Bolivian code to the Congress of Bolivia, which was after- ward adopted, with some dissatisfac- tion, however, although it was also subsequently adopted by the Congress of Lima, where, under its provisions, he himself was elected President for life. He now set out for Colombia, where disaffection and party strife were at their height. His conduct here was misconstrued, and he was supposed to be assuming the powers of a dictator. In 1829 new disturb- ances arose, and, in 1830, a conven- tion was called for the purpose of framing a new constitution for Colom- bia. The proceedings were begun by Bolivar, who once more tendered his resignation. This was his last act which had relation to public affairs. He died at San Pedro, near Cartha- gena, Dec. 17, 1830. Bolivia, a republic of South Amer- ica ; bounded on the N. by Peru and Brazil ; on the E. by Brazil and Para- guay ; on the S. by the Argentine Re- public and Chile ; and on the W. by Peru and Chile ; area 514,155 square miles; pop. (est. 1915) 2,889,970; capital and largest city La Paz; pop. (1915) 100,097. The boundary dis- putes of Bolivia with Brazil and with Chile were settled by treaties in 1903 and 1904 respectively ; that with Peru was settled by direct negotiations in 1911-12 ; and that with Paraguay, long pending was still unsettled at the end of 1916. Agriculture is still in a backward condition, although it is estimated that fully 4,940.000 acres are under cultivation. Wheat, maize, barley, beans, and potatoes are produced for local consumption ; coffee is raised chiefly for export; sugar cane is Bollworm grown for distillation; and rubber, cinchona, and cocoa are important and increasing products. Rubber is produced on 40,642,000 acres, and makes Bolivia rank as the second rub- ber exporting country of South Amer- ica, Brazil ranking first. Cattle, sheep, and llamas are extensively bred. Bolivia has a very large mineral wealth in silver, copper, tin, lead, zince, antimony, bismuth, gold, borax and salt, producing one quarter of the total tin output of the world. The metallic exports in 1915 had a value of $28,535,055, to which tin contrib- uted $19,813,740. The constitution (Oct 28, 1880) vests the executive power in a Presi- dent, elected by direct popular vote, for a term of four years, and ineligi- ble for re-election at the end of his term of office. The legislative au- thority rests in a Congress, compris- ing a Senate of 16 members, elected for six years, and a Chamber of Deputies of 70 members, elected for four years. There are also two Vice- Presidents, and a Ministry divided into the Departments of Foreign Re- lations and Worship, Finance, Justice and Industry, Government and Public Works, War and Colonization, and Education and Agriculture. The suffrage is possessed by all who can read and write. The republic is di- vided into eight departments and these into provinces and cantons. The Roman Catholic is the recognized re- ligion of the republic, and the exercise of other forms of worship is permit- ted. Primary instruction is free and nominally obligatory, and is under the care of the several municipalities. In 1913 there were 798 miles of railroad open and about 2,300 miles of cart roads connecting important towns, and 2,730 miles of State and 1,080 of private telegraph lines. Imports 1915, $7.893.225 ; exports, $33,951,355. In 1879 Chile declared war against Bolivia. Peru came to the aid of the latter and the Chilians de- feated their allied opponents. As a result of this war Bolivia mortgaged to Chile the Littoral Department, which has an area of 29,910 square miles, and contains the important port of Antofagasta, thus losing her entire seacoast. Bollworm, the caterpillar of the nocturnal moth, Heliothis Armigera. Bolo The creature feeds on almost every va- riety of vegetable and cultivated crop, and is known in each locality by the name of the plant on which it feeds, as the corn-worm, tobacco-worm, cot- ton-worm, etc. Its first choice is cot- ton, and then corn, and in the South where both crops grow it has proven very destructive wherever it has been permitted to make headway. There are 4 or 5 broods each year ; the July brood attacks corn, the August brood eats the cotton, and the last brood con- tinues the race. It is as the cotton- worm that it is called boll-worm, as the young grub eats the unfolded boll or bud of the cotton plant. The gen- eral government is making strenuous efforts to kill the pest. Bolo, a short, broad, lance-shaped weapon ; used by the Filipinos in their FILIPINO BCLO. operations again?, the American troops. The blade is about 18 inches in length by nearly 3 inches in breadth at its broadest dimension. It Boma tapers from the middle toward the haft as well as toward the point, mak- ing it strongly resemble the ancient short sword. It is not double edged, however, but tapers from a thick back to an extremely keen edge. In April 1904, the United States troops operat- ing in the Philippines, were supplied with bolos. Bologna, one of the oldest, largest and richest cities of Italy, capital of the Province of same name, in a fer- tile plain at the foot of the Apen- nines, between the rivers Reno and Savena, surrounded by an unfortified brick wall. In the 12th and 13th cen- turies it was one of the most flourish- ing of the Italian republics ; but the feuds between the different parties of the nobles led to its submission to the papal see in 1513. Several attempts were made to throw off the papal yoke, one of which, in 1831, was for a time successful. In 1849 the Austrians obtained possession of it. In 1860 it was annexed to the dominions of King Victor Emmanuel. Population (1915) 189,770. Bolognese School, an Italian school of painting, founded in the 14th century, probably by Franco. The great master of the school was Fran- cesco Francia, a contemporary of Ra- phael, celebrated for the purity and serenity of his Madonnas. Bolometer, a most sensitive elec- trical instrument invented by Langley in 1883 for the measurement of ra- diant heat. Bolt on Abbey, a notable English structure in Yorkshire ; in a highly-pic- turesque district on the river Wharfe, 6 miles E. of Skipton, and 21 N. W. of Leeds. Founded for Augustinian canons about 1150, it has been cele- brated by Wordsworth in " The White Doe of Rylstone " and "The Force of Prayer." Bolton, Sarah Tittle, an Ameri- can poet, born in Newport, Ky., Dec. 18, 1815. She is known for her pa- triotic and war poems, including " Pad- dle Your Own Canoe," " Left on the Battlefield," etc. She died in Indian- apolis, Ind., Aug. 4, 1893. Boma, city and capital of the former Kongo Independent State, an- nexed to Belgium by treaty of 1907, till 1876 was the extreme inland post Bomb Bombay of the Dutch and Portuguese traders. It contains the establishment of the governor-general and also the local government of the administrative dis- trict of the same name. It has an ex- tensive import and export trade. Area of colony, 909,654 square miles ; pop. officially estimated, 15,000,000. Bomb, in ordnance, the same as a bomb shell ; a hollow iron ball, spheroid, or anything similar, filled with gunpowder, and provided with a time or percussion fuse. It is fired from a mortar or howitzer. Modern political upheavals have in- duced a traffic in packages of ex- plosives, which have been christened bombs. These terrific agents of de- struction have been used with murder- ous effect in the larger European cit- ies : St. Petersburg, Madrid and Paris ; also in Chicago. The anar- chists have regularly established fac- tories for the production of these mis- siles, in which the elements are com- bined with great nicety and scientific precision. The usual method of con- struction is to fill a hollow sphere with some high explosive together with pieces of scrap iron, nails, bul- lets, or anything that will wound. Bomba, a title popularly conferred upon King Ferdinand II. of Naples and by which he will be recorded in history. This appellation he received from the violation of his solemn oath to the citizens of Palermo, which city he perfidiously bombarded in 1840 ; thus outraging his own plighted word, the laws of humanity, and the consti- tutional policy he had sworn to ob- serve. Bombardier Beetle, a name ap- plied to many coleopterous insects. They are called bombardier beetles on account of a remarkable property they possess of violently expelling from the anus a pungent acrid fluid, which, if the species be large, has the power of producing discoloration of the skin, similar to that produced by nitric acid. It also changes blue vegetable colors to red, and then to yellow. Found in this country and the tropics. Bombardment, an attack with bombs. Specifically, the act of throw- ing shells and shot into a town, fort, or ship. Bombax, also known as the silk cotton tree. The fruit is larger than a swan's egg, and when ripe opens in five parts, displaying many roundish, pea-lake seeds enveloped in dark cot- ton. This tree yields a gum, given in conjunction with spices in certain stages of bowel complaints. The five leaved silk cotton tree rises to a great height. Its native country is South America and the adjacent West India Islands, where its immense trunk is scooped into canoes. Bombay, the third largest of the provinces of British India. It stretch- es along the west of the Indian penin- sula, and is irregular in its outline and surface, presenting mountainous tracts, low, barren hills, valleys, and high tablelands. It is divided into a Northern, a Central, and a Southern Division, the Sind and Aden Divisions and the island of Bombay. Total area, 123,059 square miles ; pop. (1911) 19,- 672,642, including the city and terri- tory of Aden in Arabia, 80 square miles (pop. 46,165). The native or feudatory States connected with the province (the chief being Kathiawar) have an area of 63,864 square miles ; pop. (1911) 7,411,675. The Portu- guese possessions, Goa, Daman, and Diu, geographically belong to it. Many parts, the valleys in particular, are fertile and highly cultivated ; other districts are being gradually de- veloped by the construction of roads and railroads. The southern portions are well supplied with moisture, but great part of Sind is the most arid Eortion of India. The climate varies, eing unhealthful in the capital, Bom- bay, and its vicinity, but at other places, such as Poonah, very favorable to Europeans. The chief productions of the soil are cotton, rice, millet, wheat, barley, dates, and the cocoa palm. The manufactures are cotton, silk, leather, etc. The great export is cotton. The administration is in the hands of a Governor and council. The chief source of revenue is the land, which is largely held on the rayatwar (small farmer) system. Of the entire population in 1911, 14,922,- 965 were Hindus. Bombay, the chief seaport on the W. coast of India, and capital of the Province of the same name; at the southern extremity of the island of Bombay is divided into two portions, one known as the Fort, and formerly Bombazine Bonaparte surrounded with fortifications, on a narrow point of land with the harbor on the E. side and Back Bay on the I W. ; the other known as the City, a I little to the N. W. In the Fort are Bombay Castle, the Government offi- ces, and almost all the merchants' warehouses and offices ; but most of the European residents live outside of the mercantile and native quarters of the city in villas or bungalows. Bom- bay has many handsome buildings, both public and private, as the cathe- dral, the university, the secretariat, the high court, the post and telegraph offices, etc. Various industries, such as dyeing, tanning, and metal work- ing, are carried on, and there are large cotton factories. The commerce is very extensive, exports and imports of merchandise reaching a total value I of over $300,000,000 annually. The harbor is one of the largest and safest in India, and there are commodious docks. There is a large traffic with steam vessels between Bombay and Great Britain, and regular steam com- munication with China, Australia, Singapore, Mauritius, etc. The island of Bombay, which is about 11 miles long and 3 miles broad, was formerly liable to be overflowed by the sea, to prevent which substantial walls and embankments have been constructed. The harbor is protected by formidable rock batteries. After Madras, Bom- bay is the oldest of the British pos- sessions in the East, having been ceded i by the Portuguese in 1661. Pop. 1 (1911) 979,445. Bombazine, a mixed silk and woolen twilled stuff, the warp consist- ing of silk and the weft of worsted. Black bombazine has been much in use for mourning garments. Bomb Lance, a harpoon used in whale fishing which carries a charge of explosive material in its head. Bombon, a large, fresh water lake in Luzon, Philippine Islands, about 50 miles S. of Manila. It is 105 square miles in area. There is a small island in the center, from which rises the volcano of Taal, the lowest in the world, its height being only 850 feet. The waters of the lake find an outlet to the sea through the Pansipit river. Bona Dea, a mysterious Italian goddess of fertility, who is variously described as the wife, sister, or daugh- ter of Faunus. She was worshipped at Rome from the most ancient times, but only by women, even her name being concealed from men. Her sanc- tuary was a grotto on Mons Aven- tinus ; but her festival ( the 1st of May) was celebrated in the house of the consul. The solemnities were per- formed generally by high bom vestals. At this celebration, no males were al- lowed to be present ; even portraits of men were veiled. During the celebra- tion in the house of Caesar the in- famous Clodius was discovered dis- guised as a female musician. The symbol of the goddess was a serpent. Bona Fides, literally, good faith ; honesty, as distinguished from mala fides (bad faith). The law requires all persons in their transactions to act with good faith; and a contract, when the parties have not acted bona fide, is void at the pleasure of the in- nocent party. Bonanno, an Italian architect and sculptor of the 12th century. In 1174 he commenced, with Wilhelm of Inns- bruck, the famous Leaning Tower of Pisa. He was also the designer of the celebrated bronze doors of the cathedral of that city, which were, all but one, destroyed by a conflagration in 1596. Bonaparte (pronounced in Italian in four syllables ; in French and Eng- lish in three), the name of a famous family, which was spelt Buonaparte by the Emperor Napoleon and his father till 1796, though the more usual, modern form also occurs in old Italian documents. In the 13th cen- tury and afterward, several families named Bonaparte figure with distinc- tion in Italian records at Florence, San Miniato, Sarzano, and Genoa. But as the name of Bonaparte occurs in Corsica as early as the 10th cen- tury, it is probable that the island may have been their original home. In the 16th century mention is again found of the Bonapartes in Corsica, where in Ajaccio they occupied a re- spectable position as a patrician or leading family. In the 18th century this family was represented by three male descendants, all residing at Ajac- cio : the archdeacon, LUCIEN BONA- PARTE ; his brother, NAPOLEON BONA PASTE; and his nephew, CHABLES. Bonaparte CHARLES BONAPARTE, father of the Emperor Napoleon, was born at Ajac- cio in 1746 ; studied law at Pisa ; and married, in 1767 without the con- sent of his uncles a beautiful young patrician lady, named Letizia Ramo- lino. He died in 1785. MARIA LETIZIA RAMOLINO, mother of Napoleon I., lived to see her fam- ily placed on the thrones of Europe, and also witnessed their downfall. She was born at Ajaccio in 1750. Af- ter the death of her husband she lived for some time in Corsica, and in 1793, when the island came under British rule, removed with her family to Mar- seilles, where she lived in poverty, mainly supported by the pension given to Corsican refugees. After her son became First Consul she removed to Paris, and when her son was crowned in 1804 received the title Madame Mere, and was made patroness of all the benevolent institutions of the em- pire. A brilliant court household was given to her, which, however, was never pleasing to her modest tastes. Remembering former adversities, and foreboding reverses of the splendid success of her sons, she was prepared for all that followed. After the down- fall of Napoleon, Letizia lived with her stepbrother, Cardinal Fesch, in winter at Rome, and in summer at Al- bano, and submitted to her change of fortune with remarkable dignity. She died in 1836, leaving a considerable property, the result of saving habits during her prosperity. JOSEPH BONAPARTE, eldest brother of Napoleon, was born at Corte, in Corsica, in 1768. After the coronation of Napoleon Joseph Bonaparte was made commander-in-chief of the army of Naples ; in 1805, ruler of the Two Sicilies; and in 1806, King of Naples. In 1808 Joseph Bonaparte was sum- marily transferred by his brother to the throne of Spain, and Murat took his place as King of Naples. For Jo- seph, this was no favorable change ; he found himself unprepared to cope with the Spanish insurgents, and after the defeat of the French at Vittoria in 1813, he returned to his estate at Mor- fontaine, in France. After Waterloo Joseph sailed to the United States, became an American citizen, and lived for some years at Bordentown, N. J., where he employed himself in agri- Bonaparte J culture, and was highly esteemed by | his neighbors. In 1832 he returned to Europe, and be died at Florence in 1844. LUCIEN BONAPARTE, Prince of Ca- nino, and brother of Napoleon, was born at Ajaccio in 1775, and received his education in the college of Autun, the military school at Brienne, and the seminary at Aix. Lucien was a Republican in opinion, and, therefore, opposed to the absolute rule of his brother; and his second marriage to the widow of a stockbroker did not improve their relations. On condi- tion that he would divorce his wife, the crowns of Italy and Spain were offered him ; but he refused them, and preferred living in retirement at his estate of Canino, in the Province of Viterbo, near the frontiers of Tus- cany, where he devoted his time to art and science. Here he enjoyed the friendship of the Pope, who created him Prince of Canino and Musignano ; but, having denounced in his private capacity the arrogant and cruel policy of his brother toward the Court of Rome, he was advised to leave the city in which he was at that period residing. In 1810 he took ship for America, but fell into the hands of the English. After the defeat at Waterloo, Lucien Bonaparte alone seems to have preserved his presence of mind. He immediately advised his brother to dissolve the Chambers, and assume the place of absolute dictator. After the second ascent of the throne by Louis XVIII., Lucien lived in and near Rome, and died at Viterbo in 1840. Louis BONAPARTE, third brother of Napoleon, born in 1778, was educated in the ' artillery school at Chalons, where he imbibed anti-Republican principles. After rising from one honor to another he was made King of Holland in 1806; but, in fact, was never more than a French Governor of Holland, subordinate to the will of his brother. Yet he seems to have done his best to govern in the interests of his Dutch subjects, and when he found his efforts useless, he resigned in favor of his son in 1810. He re- turned to Paris in 1814, where he was coldly received by the Emperor. After living for some years in Rome where he separated from his wite Bonar he removed in 1826 to Florence, where he lived in retirement. He died at Leghorn in 1846. The amiable and accomplished HORTENSE EUGENIE BEAUHARNAIS, the adopted daughter of Napoleon, Queen of Holland and Countess St. Leu, was born at Paris in 1783. She became the wife of "Louis Bonaparte, Napoleon's third brother, and their son, Charles Louis Napoleon, became Emperor of the French as Napoleon the Third. She died at Arenenberg in 1837, and was buried near the re- mains of her mother, Josephine, at Ruel, near Paris. JEROME BONAPARTE, youngest broth- er of Napoleon, was born at Ajaccio in 1784. After receiving his education in the college at Juilly, he served as naval lieutenant in the expedition to Haiti. When war broke out between France and England in 1803, Jerome was cruising off the West Indies, and was compelled to take refuge in the port of New York. While in the United States he married Elizabeth Patterson (1785-1879), daughter of a merchant in Baltimore. He fought in the war against Prussia, and in 1807 was made King of Westphalia. His administration of his kingdom was careless, extravagant, and burdensome to his subjects. The battle of Leipsic brought the reign of Jerome to a close. He fought by the side of the Emperor at Waterloo. After his brother's ab- dication he left Paris and visited Switzerland and Austria, but ulti- mately settled in Florence. At the outbreak of the February Revolution (1848), Jerome Bonaparte was in Paris, where he was appointed Gover- nor of the Invalides, and in 1850 was made a French marshal. He died in 1860. His marriage with Elizabeth Patter- son having been declared null by Na- poleon, Jerome was forced, after he had gained the Westphalian crown, to marry Catharine, daughter of King Frederick I. of Wurtemberg. After the battle of Waterloo, her father wished to annul the marriage ; but she declared her resolution to share through life the fortunes of her hus- band. Jerome Bonaparte left in the United States one son, Jerome Na- poleon (1805-1870), by his first mar- riage, who was a wealthy resident, Bond though he never became a naturalized citizen. He left two sons, (1) JEROME NAPOLEON BONAPARTE, born in Balti- more, hi 1832. He served with credit in the United States and French ar- mies. (2) CHARLES JOSEPH BONA- PARTE, b. Baltimore, 1851 ; graduated in law at Harvard ; became a promi- nent public man ; U. S. Sec. of Navy 1905; and in 1906 U. S. Atty. Gen. By his second wife, Jerome Bonaparte had three children. Of the Emperor Napoleon I. and his brothers, Joseph and Louis, male issue is now extinct. The Emperor's brothers, Lucien and Jerome, are represented by living de- scendants. (See NAPOLEON). Bonar, Horatins, a celebrated Scotch hymnist, born in Edinburgh, Dec. 19, 1808; wrote "Hymns of Faith and Hope," many of which have been taken into the hymnals of most of the Protestant Churches. He also wrote more than 20 volumes on theo- logical and religious subjects. He died July 31, 1889. Bonaventnra, St., an Italian friar of the Order of St. Francis, born in Tuscany in 1221. He died July 15, 1274, from sheer ascetic exhaus- tion. Bona Vista, a bay, cape, and town on the E. coast of Newfoundland. The town is a port of entry, and one of the oldest settlements in the island. Bonchamp, Charles, Marquis de, a Vendean leader, was born in Anjou, May 10, 1760. He served as a volunteer in the American Revolu- tionary War, and was a captain in the French army at the outbreak of the French Revolution. A strong Royalist, he naturally disliked the Revolution, and consequently lived in retirement until chosen leader of the Anjou insurgents. In the encounter at Cholet, Oct. 17, 1793, Bonchamp received a fatal shot in the breast, and when his followers vowed to re- venge his death on 5,000 Republican prisoners, the dying hero exclaimed : " Spare your prisoners. I command it ! " This, his last command, was obeyed. Bond, a written acknowledgment or binding of a debt under seal. The person who gives the bond is called the obligor, and he to whom it 10 given the obligee. Bond Bone Manure Bond, in masonry, a stone or brick which is laid with its length across a wall, or extends through the facing course into that behind, so as to bind the facing to the backing. Bond, George Phillips, an Amer- ican astronomer, born in Dorchester, Mass., May 20, 1825; a son of Wil- iian Cranch Bond ; assisted his father in the Harvard College Observatory, and at the time of the la tier's death wns appointed director. He discov- ered independently 11 new comets, and was the author of an elaborate me- moir on the appearance of Donati's comet in 1858. Died Feb. 17, 1865. Bond, Sir Robert, an English colonial statesman; born in Torquay, England, Feb. 25, 1857; was edu- cated for the bar, but early entered political life; became premier and colonial secretary of Newfoundland in 1900; was long conspicuous in international negotiations concerning the Newfoundland fisheries; and con- cluded the Bond-Blaine convention in 1890 and the Hay-Bond treaty, which the United States Senate rejected, in 1902. Bond, William Cranch, an American astronomer, born in Port- land, Me., Sept 9, 1789; began life as a watch maker, and constructed the first ship's chronometer made in the United States. He established a pri- vate observatory at Dorchester, Mass., which was at the time the finest in the country. Invited to move his ob- servatory to Cambridge, he accepted the invitation of the Harvard College authorities, and in 1840 was appointed Astronomical Observer to the univer- sity, and later to the directorship of the observatory erected there in 1843- 1844. He was the inventor of the method of registering the beats of a clock by galvanic circuit, together with the observed transits of stars over the wires of a transit instrument, upon a chronograph, and he invented the spring governor, which bears his name, for controlling the motion of the chronograph barrel. His most im- portant work was in connection with the determination of longitudes, both of points in the United States from the Harvard College Observatory, and that of the observatory itself from Greenwich by the observation of a vast number of ocultations of stars by the moon, both at Dorchester and Cambridge. He died Jan. 29, 1859. Bonded Warehouses, places where taxable imports or manufac- tures may be left in government cus- tody, under bond for payment of the duty, till the importer or manufac- turer is prepared to make full pay- ment of duty. Bondi, Clemente, one of the most popular poets of modern Italy ; born in Mizzano, in, the duehy of Parma, June 27, 1742; died in Vienna, June 20, 182L Bone. The bones are the hardest and most solid parts of animals; they constitute the frame, serve as points of attachment to the muscles, and af- ford support to the softer solids. They are the instruments, as muscles are the organs, of motion. In the mam- malia, birds, fish, and reptiles, the whole system of bones united by the vertebral column is called the skele- ton. Bone, or Bona, a town and sea' port of Algiers, 85 miles N. E. of Con- stantine, at the mouth of the Sey- bouse river. It is built on the site of Aphrodisium, the port of ancient Hip- po. The Vandals having destroyed Aphrodisium, an Arab town arose on its ruins. The city having outgrown its former limits, the present ramparts are beyond the old walls. Bone has been modernized to some extent, many old buildings being removed to make room for new ones. The surface is irregular and some of the streets steep. There are mosques, a cathedral and other churches and a synagogue. Bone Ash, ash made of calcined bones. Bone Bed, in geology, a bed con- taining numerous fragments of fossil bones, teeth, etc. Bone Back, animal charcoal. It is obtained by charring bones. It has the power of absorbing gases, remov- ing the coloring matter and alkaloids, etc., from their solutions. It is used to disinfect ulcers, etc., also to decol- orize sugar and other organic sub- stances ; its properties can be re- stored by heating it to redness in closed vessels. Bone Manure, one of the most im- portant fertilizers in agriculture. The value of bones as manure arises chief- Boner ly from the phosphates and nitro- fenous organic matters they contain, t is of most service, therefore, where the soil is deficient in -Ibis re- spect, or in the case of crops whose rapid growth or small roots do not en- able them to extract a sufficient sup- ply of phosphate from the earth, tur- nips, for instance, or late sown oats and barley. Boner, John Henry, an Ameri- can poet and literary worker, born at Salem, N. C., Jan. 31, 1845. Boneset, or Thorough-wort, a useful annual plant, indigenous to the United States, and easily recognized by its tall stem, 4 or 5 feet in height, passing through the middle of a large, double, hairy, leaf, and surmounted by a broad, flat head of light purple flowers. It is much used as a domes- tic medicine. Bongabong, a town in the S. E. part of Luzon, Philippine Islands, with an estimated popplation of 20,- 000. It lies in a mountainous dis- trict, and attained military impor- tance as the headquarters of a regi- ment of United States troops. The town has a municipal government based upon popular election. Bonheur, Rosa, (properly MARIE ROSA), celebrated French artist and painter of animals was born at Bor- deaux, March 22, 1822. She received early tuition from her father, a draw- ing teacher, and when only 18 years of age, exhibited at the Salon, two pictures, " Goats and Sheep," and "Two Rabbits eating Carrots." Among her famous pictures are, " Ploughing in the Nivernais," " Haymaking in Auvergne," " The Normandy Horse Fair," and " Deer in the Forest " (the last two in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York city). She died at By, May 25, 1899. Boniface, St., a saint of the Ro- man calendar, and a native of Eng- land, who was sent by Gregory II. to convert the Germans. Gregory III. made him an archbishop. Born in Devonshire in 680, slain by some peas- ants in Friesland, in 755. His let- ters were printed in 1616. Bonington, Richard Parkes, an English painter in oil and water col- ors, born near Nottingham. Oct. 25, 180L He died Sept. 23, 1828. Bonner Bonivard, or Bonnivard, Fran- cois de, cadet of a family holding large possessions under the House of Savoy, was born about 1496 at Seys- sel, on the Rhone, and in 1513 became prior of St. Victor at Geneva. Fall- ing under the suspicion of the Duke of Savoy, he was taken prisoner by him in 1519. After 20 months' imprison- ment he was set free, but in 1530 he was again seized, and taken to the castle of Chillon at the E. end of the Lake of Geneva, where he was im- prisoned for six years, the last four in that subterranean vault which the genius of Byron has made famous by his poem on the sufferings of " The Prisoner of Chillon." He died in 1570, leaving the town his books, which were the nucleus of the Geneva library. Bonn, a German town in the Rhenish Province of Prussia, beauti- fully situated on the left bank of the Rhine, with magnificent promenades and prospects in the environs. It has some trade and manufactures, but is chiefly important for its famous uni- versity, founded in 1777 by Elector Maximilian Frederick of Cologne, and for its cathedral, which has a crypt of the llth century and mediaeval wall paintings. Enlarged and amply endowed by the King of Prussia, in 1818, the university is now one of the chief seats of learning in Europe, with a library of more than 200,000 volumes, an anatomical hall, mineral- ogical and zoological collections, mu- seum of antiquities, a botanical gar- den, etc. The teachers in the five fac- ulties number about 150, and the stu- dents nearly 2,000. Lange, Niebuhr, Ritschl, Brandis, and other names famous in science or literature are connected with Bonn, and Beethoven was born here. Bonn was long the residence of the Electors of Cologne, and finally passed into the hands of Prussia by the arrangements of the Congress of Vienna, in 1815. Pop. (1910) 87,978. Bonner, Edmund, an English prelate of infamous notoriety, was born about 1495, of obscure parentage. He took a doctor's degree at Oxford, in 1525, and, attracting the notice of Cardinal Wolsey, received from him several offices in the church. On the dealth of Wolsey he acquired the favor Bonncr Bonsai of Henry VIII., who made him one of his chaplains, and sent him to Rome to advocate his divorce from Queen Catharine. In 1540 he was consecrated Bishop of London, but on the death of Henry ( 1547 ) , having refused to take the oath of supremacy, he was deprived of his see and thrown into prison. On the accession of Mary he was restored to his bishopric, and he distinguished himself during this reign by a persecution of the Protest- ants, 200 of whom he was instrumental in bringing to the stake. After Eliza- beth succeeded he remained unmolest- ed until his refusal to take the oath of supremacy, on which he was com- mitted to the Marshalsea (1560), where he remained a prisoner until his death in 1569. Bpnner, Robert, an American publisher, born near Londonderry, Ireland, April 28, 1824. He came to the United States in early youth, and learned the trade of a printer, In 1844 he removed to New York, and, in 1851, purchased the " Ledger," then an insignificant paper. He made it remarkably successful. As a result he became very rich, and gratified his taste for fast horses by purchas- i ing the most celebrated trotters in the : world, though withdrawing them from | the race course. Among these are "Peerless," "Dexter," "Maud S.," which he bought from William H. Vanderbilt for $40,000, her record of speed being 2.09%, which he afterward reduced to 2.08%, and " Sunol." He made large gifts of money to Prince- ton University and was widely known for his many benefactions. He re- tired from active control of the " Led- ger " in 1887, giving it into the hands i of his sons. He died in New York city, July 6, 1899. He prided himself on the facts that he had never raced a horse for money, never made a bet, never borrowed a dollar, and never gave a note in his life. Bonnet, a head dress ; a dress or covering for the head worn by wom- en ; a cap or head covering, much used before the introduction of hats, and still worn by the Scotch Highlanders. Bonneville, Benjamin L. E., an American soldier and explorer, born in France, in 1793 ; explored in the Rocky Mountains and California ; fought in the Mexican War; was E.21. wounded at Churubusco ; served as su- perintendent of barracks and recruit- ing officer in Missouri during the Civil War of 1861-1865. He died in Port Smith, Ark., June 12, 1878. Bonney, Charles Carroll, Ameri- can lawyer, born at Hamilton, N. Y., Sept. 4, 1831; finished his studies at Colgate University, which gave him the degree LL.D. After a teaching and lecturing career in Illinois, aid- ing in the establishment of the State's educational system, he joined the Illinois bar in 1852. He was presi- dent of the International Law and Order League (1885-93); president of the World's Congress Auxiliary of the Chicago Columbus Exposition (1893); and president of the World's Religi- ous Parliament Extension. He wrote valuable legal text-books. D. 1903. Bonnivard. See BONIVABD. Bonnycastle, Charles, an Anglo- American mathematician, born in Woolwich, in 1792. He was Professor of Mathematics at Woolwich Military Academy, Professor of Natural Philos- ophy in the University of Virginia (1825-1827) and of Mathematics there from 1827. He died in Char- lottesville, Va., October, 1840. Bonnycastle, Sir Richard Henry, an English military engi- neer, born in 1791 ; spent the greater part of his life in British North America ; died in 1848. Bonpland, Aime, a French bo- tanist, born in Rochelle, Aug. 22, 1773. While pursuing his studies at Paris he made the acquaintance of Alexander von Humbpldt, and agreed to accom- pany him in his celebrated expedition to the New World. During this expe- dition he collected upward of 6,000 Slants, previously unknown, and on is return to France, in 1804, was made Director of the Gardens at Na- varre and Malmaison. On the Restor- ation be proceeded to South America, and became Professor of Natural His- tory at Buenos Ayres. Subsequently, while on a scientific expedition up the river Parana, he was arrested by Dr. Francia, the Dictator of Paraguay, as a spy and detained for eight years. He afterward settled in Brazil, where he died in 1858. Bonsai, Stephen, an American journalist, born in Virginia in 1865. Book of Mormon He was educated at Concord and Hei- delberg. In the Bulgarian-Servian War he was special correspondent of the New York " Herald," serving in the same capacity in Macedonia and Cuba. He served as Secretary of Le- gation of the United States in Pekin, Madrid, Tokio, and Korea in 1891-6 ; appointed Commissioner of Public Utilities in the Philippines in 1914. Bontebok, an antelope of South Africa, allied to the blesbok. Bonzano, Giovanni, Apostolic Delegate to the United States, born in Vigevano, Province of Pavia, Italy, in 1867 ; was ordained in Rome in 1890; served as vicar-general of the diocese of yigevano; appointed a Papal domestic prelate in 1904, rector of the Pontifical Urban College in Rome in 1906, and Apostolic Delegate to the United States, Feb. 1, 1912; and consecrated Archbishop of Mili- tene on March 3 following. Booby, (Sula fusca), a swimming bird allied to the gannet, and so named by early mariners, owing to the stupid- ity with which it allowed itself to be killed without attempting to escape. Book Binding, the art of stitch- ing or otherwise fastening together and covering the sheets of paper or similar material composing a book. Bookkeeping, the art of keeping books in which pecuniary transactions are so unremittingly and so accurate- ly entered that one is able at any time to ascertain the exact state of his financial affairs, or of any portion of them, with clearness and expedition. It is generally divided into bookkeep- ing by single and bookkeeping by double entry. In the former every entry is single, i. e., is placed to the debit or credit of a single account, while in the latter it is double, that is, it has both a debtor and creditor account. In other words, by single entry each transaction is entered only once in the ledger, and by double entry twice. Book of Common Prayer, the book that forms the liturgy of the Church of England. It is a develop- ment from the " Breviary Missal " and "Manual" compiled in the llth century by Osmund, BisBop of Salis- bury. A revision of the " Breviary " was made in 1516, by order of Cardi- nal Wolsey, and it was again revised in 1531, and the "Missal" in 1533. In 1542 a Committee of Convocation was appointed whose work, a litany, in English, was issued in 1544. In 1547 Cranmer's rendering of the " Mis- sal " into English appeared as the " Order of Communion." In 1548 the first version of the present " Book of Common Prayer " was reported to the convocation and adopted by Parlia- ment, as a part of the Act of Uni- formity of 1548-;1549. A second re- vision was sanctioned by Parliament in 1552. This was repealed by Queen Mary, and restored by Elizabeth, with changes in 1559. The Puritans sup- pressed the book, but it was restored at the Restoration. The Savoy Confer- ence of 1661 modified it by concession to the Puritans. It was adopted in Ireland in 1662 and has since been used by the Anglican Church, in ita various branches. It consists of va- rious tables, Morning and Evening Prayers, the /Litany, Prayers and Thanksgivings, Collects, Epistles and Gospels chosen in accordance with the Church calendar, Order of Commun- ion and other special services, as Matrimony, and Burial of the Dead, the Catechism, the Psalter services connected with the imposition of the clerical and lay offices, and Articles of Religion. The " Prayer Book " of the Protestant Episcopal Church of the United States is a revision of the Anglican book, authorized in 1789, and revised again, 1886-1893. Book of Martyrs, a history of the persecution of Reformers in Eng- land, by John Fox. Book of Mormon, a book form- ing the authoritative scriptures of the members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints. Joseph Smith, an American, of Manchester. N. Y., professed to have heard in 1823 the" Angel Moroni reveal to him in visions that the Bible of the Western Conti- nent was buried in a box near his resi- dence. This, according to his own account, he at length found a vol- ume six inches thick, with leaves of thin gold plate, eight inches long by seven broad, bound together with three gold rings ; on which leaves was a mys- tic writing that he characterized as reformed Egyptian. With the book he professed to have found a pair of magic spectacles, by means of which he was able to read the contents, Bookplate which he dictated to an amanuensis. This book consists of an alleged his- tory of America from 600 B. c., when Lehi and his family (descended from the dispersion after the building of the Babel tower) landed in Chile. Be- tween the descendants of Nephi, Lehi's youngest son, and the offspring of his older brothers, who are the North American Indians, long conflicts were waged ; the Nephites finally being al- most annihilated. There remained a fragment, among whom were Mormon and his son, Moroni. They collected the records of their people, and bur- ied them in the hill of Cumorah, on the Divine assurance that they would be found by the Lord's prophet. Be- sides this history, the book, as it final- ly was received, has various moral and religious teachings. Bookplate, an English name for labels of ownership frequently placed on the inside covers of books. Bookworm, any grub which feeds on the paper of books. Most people are familiar with the effects of the bookworm's ravages ; but the creatures are extremely rare in the United States, especially since so many chem- ical substances have been introduced into the manufacture of paper. In the United States books in libraries, though usually free from the ravages of the bookworm, are inrested and damaged by a small cockroach. Boom, a beam, tree, or pole. In navigation, a long pole run out from any part of a ship to stretch the foot of any particular sail ; whence, jib boom, main boom, studdingsail boom, etc. In fortification, in marine de- fenses, a strong chain or cable stretched across the mouth of a river or harbor, to prevent the enemy's ships from entering, and having a number of poles, bars, etc., fastened to it ; whence the name ; as, to cut or burst the boom. In navigation, a pole set up as a sea mark to point out the channel to seamen, when navigat- ing in shallows. The word is also ap- plied to a hollow, roaring sound ; as the boom of a cannon ; the reverberat- ing cry of the bittern ; and likewise to a sudden rise in the market value of real estate, stocks or commodities; an enthusiastic popular movement in favor of any person, cause or thing; Boot as, a real estate boom, a political boom; a boom in sugar. Boomerang, a missle weapon in- vented and used by the native Aus- tralians, who are generally deemed the lowest in intelligence of any tribe or race of mankind. It is a curved stick, round on one side and flat on the other, about three feet long, two niches wide, and three-quarters of an inch thick. It is grasped at one end and thrown sickle-wise, either upward into the air, or downward so as to strike the ground at some distance from the thrower. On throwing it downward to the ground, it rebounds in a straight line, pursuing a ricochet motion until it strikes the object at which it is thrown. The most singu- lar curve described by it is when it is thrown at an angle of about 45. Boone, city and capital of Boone county, la.; on the Chicago & North- western and other railroads; 37 miles N. W. of Des Moinesi is in a fire and pottery clay section; has large milling, manufacturing, and coal min- ing interests; and contains extensive railroad and machine shops. Pop. (1910) 10,347. Boone, Daniel, the pioneer of Kentucky, born in Bucks county, Pa., Feb. 11, 1735. He was a Colonel in the United States service, and signal- ized himself by his many daring ex- ploits against the Indians, and also by his extensive surveys and explorations of the State of Kentucky. In 1793 he removed to Upper Louisiana, then belonging to the Spaniards, and was appointed by them commandant of a district there. He was one of the most successful of the enterprising American pioneers of the 18th cen- tury, and may be said to have ex- plored and aided in the settlement of the country from the Alleghany Moun- tains to the frontier of Missouri. Many places have been named in his honor. Died in Missouri, Sept. 26, 1820. Boot, an article of dress, general- ly of leather, covering the foot and ex- tending to a greater or less distance up the leg. Hence the name was given to an Instrument of torture made of iron, or a combination of iron and wood, fastened on to the leg, between which and the boot wedges were in- troduced and driven in by repeated blows of a mallet, with such violence Bootes Booth as to crush both muscles and bones. The special object of this form of torture was to extort a confession of guilt from an accused person. Bootes. In astronomy, a constella- tion called also Arctophylax, or the Bear river. It contains 54 stars, in- cluding 1 of the first magnitude, Arc- turus, 7 of the third, and 10 of the fourth. Booth, Balling-ton, General of the Volunteers of America, born in Brighouse, England, July 28, 1859. He is a son of Gen. William Booth, founder of the Salvation Army, with which body he was officially connect- ed until 1896, when he seceded and founded the Volunteers, a religious military body organized in the interest of the unchurched masses. His wife, MAUDE, has ably seconded her hus- band's efforts, and is very popular on the lecture platform. Booth, Barton, an eminent Eng- lish actor, born in 1681; died in 1733. Booth, Edwin Thomas, an American actor, born near Belair, Md., Nov. 13, 1833; the fourth son of Junius Brutus Booth. When 16 years of age, he made his first ap- pearance on the stage, in the part of Tressel, his father acting as Richard III. Two years later he himself suc- cessfully assumed the part of Richard in place of his father, who unexpect- edly refused to fulfill an evening's en- gagement. The following year the two went to California, where the son remained for several years, visit- ing Australia meanwhile. Meeting with little pecuniary success, in 1856, he returned tp the Atlantic States, and from that time forward was recog- nized as a leading member of his pro- fession. He visited England (1861- 1862), and in 1864 produced "Ham- let " at New York for 100 nights con- secutively. In 1869 he opened a splendid theater in New York, whose building cost over $1,000,000, but j which involved him in pecuniary ruin. ' He revisited California in 1876, and in the spring of 1877 was able to set- tle with his creditors, having" earned , during the season over $600,000. ] Booth visited Great Britain and Ger- many in 1880-1882, and was every- where received with enthusiasm. He died in New York, June 7, 1893. Booth, John Wilkes, an Ameri- can actor, born in Hartford county, Md., in 1838; another son of JUNIUS BRUTUS BOOTH. He sided with the Confederates in the Civil War, and to avenge the defeat of their cause he formed a conspiracy against the life of President Lincoln. He mortally wounded the President, while the lat- ter was attending a performance in Ford's Theater, in Washington, on April 14, 1865; broke his own leg in escaping from the building; and con- cealed himself in Virginia till the 26th, when, on being discovered, and refusing to surrender, he was shot. Booth, Junius Brutus, an An- glo-American tragedian, born in the parish of St. Pancras, London, May 1, 1796. He received a classical edu- cation, but early manifested a predi- lection for the stage, and when 17 years of age appeared in some unim- portant parts. Subsequently he played Richard III., at Covent Garden, a part in which he suddenly became famous. In 1821 he went to the United States, where for the ensuing 30 years he followed his profession with much success. He died suddenly on board a Mississippi river steamer, Nov. 12, 1852. Booth, Mary Louise, an Ameri- can journalist and author, born in Yaphank, Long Island, N. Y., April 19, 1831 ; was widely known as the editor of " Harper's Bazar," which place she held from 1867 till her death in New York city, March 5, 1889. Booth, William, founder and General of the Salvation Army, was born at Nottingham, England, April 10, 1829, was educated there, and from 1850 to 1861, acted as minister of the Methodist New Connection. From the first he was zealous in hold- ing evangelistic services, but the new departure which led to the creation of the Salvation Army on military lines began ir 1865 with mission work among the lower classes in the East End of London. Since 1878 Booth's movement has been known as the Sal- vation Army, of which he had con- tinued to be the mainspring and con- trolling power, directing its move- ments at home and abroad from his headquarters in London. His enthusi- Booth-Tucker Borden asm and wonderful organizing power gave much life to the religious military system, of which he was really ''gen- eral." The property of the Salvation Army is held for its exclusive use by Booth. His wife was associated with him in the publication of several hymns and religious works dealing with the movement, till her death in 1890. He died Aug. 21, 1912. Booth-Tucker, Emma Moss, daughter of William Booth of the Sal- vation Army, and wife of F. St. George Booth-Tucker, was born in 1860, and died in Oct. 1903, the victim of a railway accident. She held the rank of Consul, and with her husband, directed the army in the United States. She possessed remarkable executive ability, and was loved by all with whom she came in contact. Booth-Tucker, Frederick St. George de Lautour, commander of the Salvation Army in the United States, was born in India, in 1S53. He held important official posts in In- dia, but resigned them in 1881 to join the Salvation Army. Upon his marriage with Emma Moss Booth, daughter of Gen. William Booth of the Salvation Army, he prefixed Booth to his own name of Tucker. In 1896 he became commander of the United States branch of the Salvation Army. Bora, Katharina von, wife of Luther, was born in 1499. She took the veil early ; but feeling unhappy in her situation, applied, with eight other nuns, to Luther. The nuns were re- leased from their convent, and, in 1525, Luther married her, having him- self by this time laid aside the cowl. After Luther's death she kept board- ers for her support. She died at Tor- gau, in 1532. Borax, the anhydroborate of sodium, forms large transparent six-sided prisms, which dissolve readily in wat- er, effloresce in dry air, and when heated melt in their water of crys- tallization, swell up, and finally fuse to a transparent glass. In this state borax dissolves metallic oxides which frequently impart to it characteristic colors. From this property borax is employed in soldering metals, as it removes films of oxide, and leaves the metals in metallic contact with each other and with the solder. It ia also employed in making fine glaze for porcelain, as it renders the materials more fusible. In medicine it is em- ployed in ulcerations and in skin dis- eases. Borcligrevink, Carsten Ege- bert, a Norwegian explorer and lec- turer, born hi Christiania, in 1864, his mother being English and his father a Scandinavian. He went to sea at an early age, but returned to go to college. In 1898 he went to Australia, joined the Survey Depart- ment, and scaled Mount Lindsay. In 1894-1895 he was in Antarctic waters, a region fully explored by him in 1897, when he attempted to reach the South Pole without success. In 1899 (Feb. 17) he had, however, reached Kobertston Bay. Returning to Lon- don in 1900 he reported having reached lat. 78.50 S., long. 195.50 E. In 1902 he investigated volcanic con- ditions at St. Pierre. Bordeaux, a city and port of France, capital of the Department of Gironde, on the Garonne river, about 70 miles from the sea. It is built in a crescent form round a bend of the river, which is here lined with fine quays and crossed by a magnificent stone bridge, and consists of an old and a new town. The former is mostly composed of irregular squares and narrow, crooked streets ; while the latter is laid out with great regular- ity, and on a scale of magnificence hardly surpassed by any provincial town in Europe. The chief exports are wine and brandy ; sugar and other colonial produce and wood are the chief imports. Shipbuilding is the chief industry, and there are sugar re- fineries, woolen and cotton mills, pot- teries, soap works, distilleries, etc. On Sept. 2, 1914, when the Germans were attempting the capture of Paris, the French government removed to Bordeaux. See APPENDIX : Wofld War. Pop. (1911) 261,678. Borden, Robert Laird, a Cana- dian statesman ; born in Halifax, N. S., in 1854 ; engaged in law practice ; elected to the Dominion Parliament, 1896 ; became Conservative leader, 1901 ; succeeded Sir Wilfred Laurier as Premier, 1911. Borden, Simeon, an American inventor and surveyor, born in the present Fall River, Mass., Jan. 29, Borgia 1798. He instructed himself in math- ematics and devised successful survey- ing instruments. The first American geodetic survey was his work. In 1846 he began the construction of railroads. He died in Fall River, Oct. 28, 1856. Bordentown, a city in Burling- ton co., N. J., on the Delaware river, the Delaware and Raritan canal, and the Pennsylvania railroad; 57 miles S. W. of New York city. It is noted as being a former residence of Joseph Bonaparte, brother of Napoleon I. and for many years the house and grounds belonging to the estate possessed much interest. Pop. (1910) 4,250. Bore, or Eagre, a sudden influx of the tide into the estuary of a river from the sea, the inflowing water ris- ing to a considerable height and ad- vancing like a wall against the cur- rent. Chief among American bores are those of the rivers emptying into the Bay of Fundy ; in Europe the eagres of the Severn and Trent, Eng- land ; and the mascaret of the Seine, France. See also EAGRE. Bore, in metallurgy, a tool bored to fit the shank of a forged nail, and adapted to hold it while the head is brought to shape by the hammer. The depression in the face of the bore is adapted to the shape required of the chamfered under part of the head. The word is also applied to the cavity of a steam engine cylinder, pump bar- rel, pipe, cannon, barrel of a firearm, etc. Boreas, a bellowing \vind; the Northern wind; a cold, Northerly wind. In mythology, the son of As- trseus and Eos, usually worshipped as the god of the North Wind. The as- siduity with which the worship of Boreas was cultivated at Athens pro- ceeded from gratitude, the North Wind having on one occasion destroyed the fleet of the Persians when meditating the invasion of Attica. A similar cause induced the inhabitants of Me- galopolis to consider Boreas as their peculiar divjnity, in whose honor they instituted an annual festival. Boreas was usually represented with wings dripping with golden dewdrops, and the train of his garment sweeping along the ground. Borghese, a Roman family, which derives its origin from Sienna, and [which held the highest offices in this republic from the middle of the 15th century. Pope Paul V., who belonged to this family, and ascended the papal chair in 1605, loaded his relations with honors and riches. Borghese, Princess Marie Pauline, the beautiful sister of Na- poleon; born in Ajaccio, Oct. 20, 1780. She died in Florence, June 9, 1825. She left many legacies, and a donation, the interest of wlych was to enable two young men of Ajaccio to study medicine and surgery. The rest of her property she left to her brothers, the Count of St Leu and the Prince of Montfort. The whole prop- erty amounted to 2,000,000 francs. Borgia Cesare, the natural son of Pope Alexander VI., and of a Ro- man lady named Vanozza, born in 1478. He was raised to the rank of Cardinal in 1492, but afterward di- vested himself of the office, and was made Due de Valentinois by Louis XII. t In 1499 he married a daughter of King John of Navarre, and accom- panied Louis XII. to Italy. He then, at the head of a body of mercenaries, carried on a series of petty wars, made himself master of the Romagna, at- tempted Bologna and Florence, and had seized Urbino when Alexander VI. died, 1503. ^ He was now attacked by a^ severe disease, at a moment when his whole activity and presence of mind were needed. He found means, indeed, to get the treasures of his father into his possession, and assem- bled his troops in Rome ; but enemies rose against him on all sides, one of the most bitter of whom was the new Pope, Julius II. Borgia was arrested and carried to Spain. He at length made his escape to his brother-in-law, the King of Navarre, and was killed before the castle of Viana, March 12, 1507. He was charged with the mur- der of his elder brother, of the hus- band of his sister Lucretia, and the stiletto or secret poisoning was freely used against those who stood in his way. With all his crimes he was a patron of art and literature. Borgia, Imcretia, daughter of Pope Alexander VI., and sister of Ce- sare Borgia, was born in 1480. She was accused of almost every species of crime ; but several modern writers maintain that the charges against her Boring are false or much exaggerated. She patronized art and literature. She died in 1523. Boring, a process in mechanical and engineering operations, variously performed according to the medium dealt with. Bornemann, Wilhelm, a Low German dialect poet, born in Garde- legen in 17G6. He is one of the fore- most representatives of modern Low German poetry. He died in 1851. Borneo, an island, next to Austra- lia and Papua, the largest in the world, is situated in the Indian Archi- pelago. It is bounded on the E. by the Sea of Celebes and the Macassar Strait. S. by the Sea of Java, W. and N. by the Gulf of Siam and the China Sea. Of the estimated total area of 300,000 square miles and pop. of 1,- 846,000, Great Britain claims an area of 31,106 square miles and pop. of 208,183, and the Netherlands an area of 212,737 square miles and pop. of 1,250,000. British Borneo is north of the Madei Mountains ; Dutch Borneo to the south. The lowlands are malarious and un- healthful ; the north highlands temper- ate. Nutmegs, cloves, cinnamon, pep- per, betel, ginger, rice, millet, sweet potatoes, yams, cotton in Amuntai, sugar cane in Sambas and Montrado, indigo, tobacco, coffee in Sambas, pine- apples, cocoanuts, etc., are cultivated. The mountains and forests contain many monkeys, among which is the orang outang. Tapirs, a small kind of tiger, small Malay bears, swine, wild oxen or banteng, and various kinds of deer abound. The elephant is only found in the N., and the rhinoceros in the N. W. The few domesticated ani- mals are buffaloes, sheep, goats, dogs, and cats. A few horses are seen in Banjermassin. Among the birds are eagles, vultures, argus pheasants, pea- cocks, flamingoes, pigeons, parrots, and also the swifts, which construct the edible nests prized by the Chinese for making soup. The rivers, lakes, and lagoons swarm with crocodiles, and many kinds of snakes, frogs, liz- ards, and leeches. Fish is plentiful, and the coasts are rich in tortoises, pearl mussels, oysters, and trepang. Brilliant butterflies and moths are in great variety. Among the mineral products are coal, gold, and copper, Borniy especially in Montrado ; antimony, iron, tin, platina, nickel, diamonds and other precious stones, rock crystals, porcelain clay, petroleum, and sulphur. The diamond mines are chiefly in Lan- dak and Pontianak ; Sambas produces the greatest quantity of gold ; the kingdom of Brunei, Kutei, and Ban- jermassin, the largest amount of coal. The Pengaron coal field, worked by the Dutch Government, is one of the most important. Tfie population consists of threa classes, the Dyaks or Dayaks, who are the. aboriginal heathen inhabitants, and constitute the great bulk of the population; the Mohammedans or Ma lays for this name is extended so as to include all professors of Islam, whether true Malays, Buginese, Ja- vanese, Dyaks, or Arabs ; and the Chi- nese. The Dyaks live chiefly in the interior, and employ themselves with tillage and the collecting of gutta percha, resin, gums, rattans, gold dust, and wax. They are divided into nu- merous tribes. The Malays (taking the name ethnographically ) dwell on the coasts, are traders and bold sail- ors. They are more civilized than the Dyaks, cultivate the grounds around their houses, lay out gardens, keep cat- tle, and live partly by fishing. The Chi- nese, chiefly from Canton, have pene- trated far into the interior. The prin- cipal exports are gold, gold dust, dia- monds, coal, rattans, gutta percha, edi- ble nests, cotton, wax, timber, dye woods, mats, resins, sandalwood, cam- phor, etc. ; the imports, earthenware; iron, steel, and copper work, piect goods, yarns, woolen and silk fabrics, medicines, provisions, wines, spirits, rice, sugar, tea, tobacco, opium, tre- pang, gambir, gunpowder, etc. Hornier, Henri, Vicomte de, a French dramatist, member of the Academy, born at Lunel, Dec. 25, 1825. His plays are notable for splen- dor of diction. He is the author of several successful novels and ro- mances. He died in 1868. Bornn, formerly a negro kingdom of Central Africa; now divided between England, France and Germany; bounded on the E. by Lake Tchad, and N. by the Sahara. The soil is fertile, yields plentiful crops of tropical produce. Wild beasts are very numerous. Coats of Boro Bndor Bosnia mail are made both for horses and their riders. The population, which is estimated at about 5,000,000, are mostly of negro race, and called Bor- nuese or Kanuri. The ruling race, called Shuwas, are of Arab descent and bigoted Mohammedans ; but many traces of fetichism remain among the masses. Whatever they have of civil- ization is derived from the Arabs. The shores and islands of Lake Tchad are inhabited by negro pirates. The slave trade is eagerly prosecuted in Bornu. Boro Budor (the "Great Bud- dha"), the ruin of a splendid Bud- dhist temple in Java, Kadu Residency, near the junction of the Ello and ! Progo, is the most elaborate monu- ment of the Buddhist style of architec- ! ture anywhere existing. Buddhism was I early introduced into Java, and Jav- anese chronicles place the building of the temple in the beginning of the 7th century ; there are no inscriptions, but it was probably finished between 1400 and 1430. Borodino, a village of Russia, 70 miles W. of Moscow ; on the Kaluga, an affluent of the Moskwa. It gave name to the great battle fought be- tween the French army under Napo- leon and the Russians under Kutusoff, Sept. 7, 1812. Out of 257,000 men engaged, between 70,000 and 80,000 were killed and wounded. The Rus- sians retreated on the following day, but in the most perfect order, and, therefore, claim this battle as a vic- tory; but the French, who name the battle from the Moskwa, have always maintained a similar claim. Borough, originally a fortified town. In England, a corporate town or township ; a town with a properly ! organized municipal government. If it sends a representative or representa- tives to Parliament it is a Parliamen- tary borough, if not, it is only a muni- cipal borough. The name is given to the five local divisions of the city of New York. Borroxnean Islands, a group of four email islands on the W. side of Lago Maggiore, Northern Italy. Borrow, George Henry, traveler, linguist, and writer on gypsy life, born in Norfolk, England, in 1803. Chief works, " The Bible in Spain," " Laven- , *ro," "The Romany Rye," Died 1881.1 Borsippa, a very ancient city of Babylonia, the site of which is marked by the ruins Birs Nimrud. Bpscawen, Edward, a British admiral, son of the first Viscount Fal- irouth, born in Cornwall, Aug. 19, 1711. His chief exploit was a great victory, in 1759, over the Toulon fleet, near the entrance of the Straits of Gibraltar. He died in Surrey, Jan. 10, 176L Bosch Bok, the bush buck, a name given to several South African species of antelope. Bosch Vark, the bush hog or bush pig of South Africa, one of the swine family, about 5 feet long, and with very large and strong tusks. The Kaffirs esteem its flesh as a luxury, and its tusks, arranged on a piece of string and tied around the neck, are considered great ornaments. Boscobel, a locality in Shropshire, England, remarkable historically as the hiding place of Charles II. for some days after the battle of Worcester, Sept. 3, 1651. Bosna-Serai, or Serajeyo, the capital of Bosnia, on the Migliazza, 570 miles W. N. W. of Constantinople. It contains a palace, built by Moham- med II., to which the city owes its name. It was formerly surrounded with walls, but its only defense now is a citadel, built on a rocky height at a short distance E. from the town. Bosna-Serai is the chief mart in die province, the center of the commercial relations between Turkey, Dalmatia, Croatia and South Germany, and has, in consequence, a considerable trade, with various manufactures. It was here that the Archduke Francis Fer- dinand, heir to the Austrian throne, and his wife, were assassinated on June 28, 1914, by an alleged Servian plotter. The act was the immediate cause of the great war. See APPEN- DIX: World War. Pop. (1910) 51,- 919. Bosnia, a former Turkish prov- ince in the N. W. of the Balkan Pen- insula, W. of Servia ; with the prov- ince of Herzegovina and the sanjak of Novi-bazar annexed to Austria-Hun- gary in 1908; area (including Herze- govina and Novi-bazar), 19,768 square miles (of which Bosnia Proper occu- Bosporus pies 16,000) ; pop. (1910) 1,898,044, mostly of Slavonian origin, and main- ly speaking the Servian language. The principal religions are Moham- medanism, Catholic and Greek. Bosnia, in anctent times a part suc- cessively of Illyria, Pannonia and Dal- matia, was, during the great migra- tions occupied by Slavs or Slavonized Illyrians, at first dependent on Hun- gary; but it became a kingdom in 1376, under Tivartko, a native prince. Occupied by the Turks in 1401, it was annexed in 1463, but not recognized by Europe as a Turkish Province till 1699. Extortionate taxation caused a rebellion of the Christians, in 1849, suppressed by Omar Pasha ; but a more determined rising in 1875, which the Turks failed to put down, led to the occupation of the Province by the Austro-Hungarians, which the Moslem population opposed in a fierce but un- availing struggle. The Treaty of Ber- lin formally intrusted the administra- tion to Austria-Hungary, the nominal supremacy of the Sultan being recog- nized in 1879. Since 1880 Austrian methods of government have been gradually introduced. Bosporus, or Bosphorus, the strait, 19 miles long, joining the Black Sea with the Sea of Marmora, called also the Strait of Constantinople. It is defended by a series of strong forts ; and by agreement of the European powers no ship of war belonging to any nation shall pass the Bosporus without the permission of Turkey. Over this channel (about 3,000 feet wide) Darius constructed a bridge of boats on his Scythian expedition. The Cimmerian Bosporus was the name given by the ancients to the strait that leads from the Black Sea into the Sea of Azov. There was also, anciently, a kingdom of the name of Bosporus, so called from this strait, on both sides of which it was situated. Boss, an elevated or thickened por- tion, usually around an aperture, or a swage or stump used in shaping sheet metal. In Gothic architecture it is the protuberance in a vaulted ceiling formed by the junction of the ends of several ribs, and serving to bind them together. Boss, Lewis, an American astron- omer, born in Providence, R. I., Oct. E6, 1846 ; was graduated at Dartmouth Boston College, in 1870; astronomer of the Northern Boundary Survey for the de- termination of the line between the W. part of the United States and Brit- ish America ; and, since the completion of that work, Director of the Dudley Observatory, Albany, N. Y. He was chief of the United States party sent to Chile in 1882 to observe the transit of Venus ; elected to the National Academy of Science in 1889, and as honorary foreign associate of the Roy- al Astronomical Society, in 1890 ; best known for his work on star declina- tions. He died Oct. 5, 1912. Bossuet, Jacques, Benigne, il- lustrious French preacher and theo- logian, was born in 1627, died in 1704. In 1652 he was ordained priest, and made a canon of Metz. In 1670 he was appointed preceptor to the Dau- phin, and in 1681 he was raised to the see of Meaux. He drew up the fa- mous propositions adopted by the as- sembly of French clergy, which secur- ed the freedom of the Gallican Church against the aggressions of the Pope. He was unrivalled as a pulpit ora- tor, and greatly distinguished for his strength and acumen as a controver- sialist. His wife was largely occupied in controverting Protestantism. Boston, a city, capital of the State of Massachusetts ; the commercial me- tropolis of New England; and the fifth city in population in the United States according to the Federal cen- sus of 1910. It is built at the W. end of Massachusetts Bay, and comprises Boston proper, East Boston, South Boston, Roxbury, Dorchester, Charles- town, Brighton, West Roxbury, and adjoining territory, giving it, in 1910, an area of about 47% square miles. Old Boston, or Boston proper, occu- pied a peninsula of about 700 acres, of uneven surface, originally contain- ing three hills, known as Beacon, Copp, and Fort. These hills caused the early settlers to call the place Tri- mountain, since changed to Tremont. Boston, East Boston, Charlestown, and South Boston contain the slips of the ocean steamers. Extending about two miles along the harbor and sep- arated from Boston proper by an arm of it, is South Boston, containing large railroad docks and warehouses. Several bridges across Charles river connect the city with Charlestown Boston and Cambridge. The harbor is an in- dentation of Massachusetts bay, em- bracing about 75 square miles, with numerous arms, and containing many islands presenting picturesque views. The population of the city, according to the Federal census of 1880, was 448,477; 1900, 560,892; 1910, 670,- 585; State census (1915) 745.439. Boston is especially noted for its magnificent park system. Among the attractions of the system are the Com- mon, a park of 84 acres in the heart of the city ; the Public Garden, sep- arated from it by Charles street, and comprising 22 acres; the Back Bay Fens; the Jamaica Pond; Bussey Park ; the Arnold Arboretum ; Marine Park at City Point; and the Charles River Embankment. In the Common is a Soldiers' and Sailors' Monument, erected near the site of the famous Old Elm, which was destroyed in a gale in 1876. In the Public Garden are an equestrian statue of Washing- ton, a bronze statue of Edward Ever- ett, a statue of Charles Sumner, one representing " Venus Rising from the Sea," and a monument commemorat- ing the discovery of ether as an anaes- thetic. The State House stands on Beacon Hill, and is a structure 490 feet long, and 211 feet wide, with a colonnade in front and an imposing gilded dome. Statues of Daniel Webster and Horace, Mann ornament tne terrace in front of the building, and within it are statues and busts of a number of the eminent men of Boston and Massachu- setts, a collection of battle flags, and a variety of interesting historical arti- cles. The new building of the Public Library, which was occupied in 1895, is, next to the Library of Congress, the largest one in the country, The Old State-house, erected in 1748, at the head of State street, contains an historical museum in its upper floors, and business establishments in its lower. The City Hall, one of the most striking buildings of the city, on School street, is built of white Con- cord granite in the Italian Renaissance style, and is surmounted by a dome over 100 feet high. What is consid- ered the most interesting building, his- torically, in the United States, next to Independence Hall in Philadelphia, to Faneuil Hall, known as " The Cra- Boston die of Liberty " erected in 1742, de- stroyed by fire in 1761, rebuilt in 1768, and remodeled to its present size in 1805. The basement of the building is now used as a market, and the sec- ond floor for large public gatherings. Occupying the site of the Old Redoubt on Breed's Hill, in the Charlestown district, is the famous Bunker Hill Monument In the Charlestown dis- trict also is located the United States Navy Yard, which, among other ob- jects of interest, contains the largest rope walk in the country, and an im- mense dry dock. Boston is widely noted for the num- ber and high character of its educa- tional institutions. The institutions for higher education include Boston College (Roman Catholic), opened in 1872 ; Massachusetts Institute of Tech- nology (non-sectarian), opened in 1865 ; Boston Normal School ; Massa- chusetts Normal Art School ; Kinder- farten Training School, and Training chools for Nurses at the Almshouse and Hospital, City Hospital, Chil- dren's Hospital, Massachusetts Gen- eral Hospital, Massachusetts Homoeo- pathic Hospital, New England Baptist Hospital, New England Deaconess' Home and Hospital, New England Hospital for Women and Children, St. Elizabeth's Hospital, Somerville Hos- pital, and Women's Charity Club Hos- pital. In the public school system, there were 12 high schools^ and of various secondary schools there were 12. Boston was settled in 1630, by a party of Puritans from Salem. It was named after a town in Lincolnshire, England, from which most of the col- onists had come. In 1632 the first meeting house was erected, and in 1635 a public school was built. In the same year the first grand jury hi the country met here. A memorable massacre occurred here in 1770, and in 1773 several cargoes of English tea were thrown overboard in the harbor, by citizens exasperated by the impo- sition of taxes. During the early part of the Revolution the British were quartered in the town.' The .bat- tle of Bunker Hill was fought on Breed's Hill, within the present city limits, June 17, 1775. Washington forced the British to evacuate in 177ft The city charter was granted in 1822, Boston and in 1872 a great fire broke out in the business portion of the city and destroyed about 65 acres of buildings. This part of the city was soon rebuilt, and, since then, Boston has been one of the most prosperous cities in the United States. Boston is the central reserve city of the First Federal Reserve District un- der the banking act of 1913, and the exchanges at its clearing house in the year ended Sept. 30, 1916, aggregated $10,180,120,000, an increase in a year of $2,698,779,000. The commercial transactions in the calendar year 1916 were : Imports of merchandise, $202,- 990,325 ; exports, $183,924,962, a con- siderable increase over the totals of each of the two preceding years. The manufacturing interests in 1910 showed 3,155 establishments, $175,- 182,000 capital, 85,158 wage earners, $124,577,000 cost of materials used in manufacturing, and $237,457,000 value of products, printing and pub- lishing ($28.021,000), and boots and shoes ($26,147,000) leading. In 1917 the net public debt was $86,- 517,831, and the assessed valuation of all taxable property $1,608,701,- ! oOO. Boston, a seaport in Lincolnshire, England, 107 miles N. E. of London. Its name is a contraction of Botolph's town, and it is commonly supposed to occupy the site of the Benedictine Ab- bey founded on the Witham by St. Botolph in 654, and destroyed in 870 by the Danes. Foxe, the martyrolo- gist, and Herbert Ingram, founder of the " Illustrated London News," were natives of Boston. Boston Tea Party, The, a fa- mous exploit preceding the American Revolution. In order to make as em- phatic a protest as possible against the British crown's policy of taxing imports, a party of Bostonians, dis- guised as Indians, threw into the water on the night of Dec. 16, 1773, the cargoes of three English tea ships that had just arrived in the harbor. Enraged at this act, Parliament passed (March, 1774) the Boston Port Bill, taking away from that town the privileges of a port of entry from June 1, 1774, on. This bill aroused much indignation in the colonies and was an important factor in precipi- j tating the outbreak of hostilities. Botany Bay Boswell, James, a Scotch biog- rapher : the son of Lord Auchinleck; born in Edinburgh, Oct. 29, 1740. In 1791 appeared his " Life of Johnson," a work which he had been long pre- paring, and which at once gave read- ers the same delight as it has ever since inspired. A second and enlarged edition came out in 1793. By this time Boswell's health had greatly suf- fered from his too convivial habits, and he died in London May 19, 1795. Bosworth, Francke Hunting- ton, physician and author, born at Marietta, Ohio, Jan. 25, 1843, gradu- ate of Yale, and of Bellevue Hospital Medical College, where he became throat specialist. His publications treat mainly of his specialty. Botanic Gardens, establishments in which plants from all climates are cultivated for the purpose of illus- trating the science of botany, and also for introducing and diffusiug useful or beautiful plants from all parts of the world. Until modern times their sole design was the cultivation of medici- nal plants. In the United States the chief are those of New York, Wash- ington, Philadelphia, and Cambridge. Botany, or Phytology, the sci- ence which treats of the vegetable kingdom. It thus forms one of the two great divisions of biology, or the science of organization and life, the other being zoology. During the 19th century, and especially in the latter half of it, enormous progress was made in the study of vegetable anatomy, histology, and physiology, and crypto- gamic botany was carried to great perfection. This was mainly due to the great improvement of the micro- scope, but much of the work done was inspired by the wider conceptions in- troduced into the science by the work of Darwin, Wallace, an< ^ other scien- tific evolutionists. Botany Bay, a bay of New South Wales, Australia, 5 miles S. of Syd- ney. It was discovered by Captain Cook, on his first voyage, in 1770, and named by him from the great number of new plants found in its vicinity. In 1787 it received England's first penal colony in the East ; and, though it was supplanted the very next year by Port Jackson, yet it long continued to be the popular designation, not merely of this penal settlement, but of the Bot Fly Australian convict settlements gener- ally. Bot Fly, a stout bodied, hairy fly, with antennae inserted in rounded pits, and with rudimentary mouth parts, developing from thick, spiny maggots, which are parasites in cat- tle, horses, sheep, etc. Botha, Lonis, a Boer statesman, born in Greytown, Natal, about 1863. He began life as a farmer, and, as a young man, had a share in the estab- lishment of the Transvaal Republic. Later he fought in the Kaffir cam- paign. He was elected to the Volks- raad at Pretoria. Upon the outbreak of the Boer War with England in 1899, he was given a subordinate com- mand, and, upon the death of General Joubert, in March, 1900. he became commander of the Boer forces. In 1910 he became premier of the South African Union, and on July 8, 1915, he forced the surrender of German South-West Africa, renamed the South-West Africa Protectorate. See APPENDIX: World War. Bothnia, Gulf of, the N. part of the Baltic Sea, which separates Swe- den from Finland ; length about 450 miles, breadth 90 to 130, depth from 20 to 50 fathoms. Its water is but slightly salt, and it freezes in the win- ter, so as to be crossed by sledges and carriages. Both well, James Hepburn, Earl of, known in Scottish history by his marriage to Queen Mary ; born about 1526. It is believed that he was deeply concerned in the murder of Darnley, Mary's husband. He made love to the widowed queen, and seiz- ing her at Edinburgh, he carried her a : prisoner to Dunbar Castle, and pre- vailed upon her to marry him. Mary was soon a prisoner in Edinburgh, and Bothwell was forced to flee to Den- mark, where he died in 1576. Botocndos, the most barbarous of the Indian tribes of Brazil, inhabit- ing the East Coast range, between the Rio Pardo and Rio Doce. They wear pieces of wood in their lower lips and ear lobes. Bo Tree, the peepul, or sacred fig tree of India and Ceylon, venerated by the Buddhists and planted near their temples. Bottle Nose Botrychium, the rattlesnake fern, from its growing in such places as 'those venomous reptiles frequent. Bottesini, Giovanni, an Italian violinist, born in Crema, in Lombar- dy, Dec. 24, 1832. A concert tour, begun in 1840, and extending to the United States, established his fame as the greatest master of the double bass fiddle. He died in Parma, in 1889. Bottger, or Bottiger, Johann Friedricli, a German alchemist, the inventor of the celebrated Meissen porcelain, born in Schleiz, Feb. 4, 1682. He found refuge in Saxony, where the Elector erected a laboratory for him, and forced him to turn his attention to the manufacture of porce- lain, resulting in the invention asso- ciated with his name. He died in Dresden, March 13, 1719. Botticelli, Sandro, (for Alessan- dro), an Italian painter of the Floren- tine school, born in 1447, died 1515. Working at first in the shop of the goldsmith Botticello, from whom he takes his name, he showed such talent that he was removed to the studio of the distinguished painter Fra Lippo Lippi. Frem this master he took the fire and passion of his style, and added a fine fantasy and delicacy of his own. He paints flowers, especially roses, with incomparable skill. In 1481 Botticelli was in charge of the decorations in the new chapel of the Vatican, and painted a number of the portraits of the popes, and three of the large frescoes : Life of Moses, Temp- tation of Christ, and the Punishment of Korah, Dathan and Abiram. He also drew illustrations for Dante's In- ferno. His Madonnas are the best ex- amples of his work, for nowhere else does he show such feeling and energy. The best known of his paintings is the " Primavera " or " Spring " in the Florence Academy of Fine Arts. In his later years Botticelli became an ardent disciple of Savonarola, and is said by Vasari to have neglected his painting for the study of mystical the- ology. Bottle Gourd, a gourd called also the white pumpkin. The Hindus cultivated it largely as an article of food. Bottle Nose, a cetacean, the bottle nosed whale, very destructive to food Botts fishes, and of comparatively little eco- nomic value itself. Botts, John Minor, an American legislator, born in Dumfries, Va., Sept. 16, 1802. He studied law and, in 1833, entered the Virginia legislature. He was elected to Congress in 1839 and was frequently re-elected. Upon the outbreak of the Civil War he as- serted his devotion to the Union, and, in 1862, he suffered imprisonment on that account. After the war he was one of Jefferson Davis' bondsmen ; and attended the Convention of South- ern Loyalists, in Philadelphia. He died in Culpepper, Va., Jan. 7, 1869. Boucher, Jonathan, an American loyalist during the period prior to the Revolutionary War. He was born in England in 1738, came to America at the age of 21, and later became rector of William and Mary College in Vir- ginia. With all the force of a vigorous nature he opposed the Revolution with voice and pen, until he was forced to leave the country and return to Eng- land. In a volume of collected dis- courses, which he dedicated to Wash- ington with whom he was on terms of intimate friendship, he sets forth the position of the American loyalists dur- ing the agitation that led up to the Revolution. Boncicanlt,. Dion, a dramatic author and actor, born in Dublin, Dec. 26, 1822 ; educated at London Univer- sity. He produced his first dramatic work, " London Assurance," before he was 19 years old. It was signally suc- cessful, and its success determined his career in life. Once embarked in the profession of a play writer, Boucicault produced piece after piece in rapid succession, and greatly increased the reputation which his first attempt had brought him. Boucicault distinguished hjmself equally in comedy, farce and melodrama. When he went upon the stage, as he soon did, he added a high reputation as an actor to the reputa- tion he had previously gained as an author. From 1853 to 1860 he was in the United States, where his popular- ity was scarcely less than it had been in England. His chief works include " The Octoroon," " Colleen Bawn," " Arrah-na-Pogue," " Used up," " The Corsican Brothers," "The Shaugraun." Died, New York city, Sept. 18. 1890. Bo nil 16 Bondinot, Ellas, a distinguished American patriot and philanthropist, born in Philadelphia, May 2, 1740; was President of the Continental Con- gress (1782), and first President of the American Bible Society (1816- 1821). He died in Burlington, N. J.. Oct. 24, 1821. Bougainville, Louis Antoine de, a French navigator, born in Par- is, Nov. 11, 1729. At first a lawyer, he afterward entered the army and fought bravely in Canada, under the Marquis of Montcalm. After the bat- tle in which Montcalm was killed, Bougainville returned to France and served with distinction in the cam- paign of 1761, in Germany. After the peace he entered the navy, and be- came a distinguished naval officer. Bougainville then made a voyage round the world, which enriched ge- ography with a number of new discov- eries. In the American War of In- dependence he distinguished himself at sea, but withdrew from the service after the Revolution. He died in Paris, April 31, 1811. Boughton, George Henry, an English-American landscape and genre painter, born near Norwich, England, in 1834. His parents came to the United States in 1839, and settled in Albany. He studied art without a master, and, in 1853, went to London and Paris to continue his studies. He died in London, Jan. 19, 1905. Boughton, Willis, an American educator, born in Victor, N. Y., April 17, 1854. He has won note in the work of university extension. Bouguereau, Guillaume Adolphe, a French painter, born 1825. His admirers consider him pre- eminent as a painter of flesh, but there is a certain theatric air about his work that fails to recommend it to the most discriminating. He was president of the SocietiS des Artistes in 1885. His paintings always attract atten- tion and are well known through re- productions, his pictures of child-life being especially striking. Among his later works are " Psyche et 1 "Amour," " L'Admiration," and " Compassion," He died April 19, 1905. B o u i 1 1 e, Francois Claude, Amour, Marquis de, a French gen- eral, born in Cluzel, Nov. 19, 1739 j Bonlainvilliers entered the army at the age of 14 and served with distinction in Germany during the Seven Years' War. In 1768 he was appointed governor of the island of Guadeloupe, and afterward commander-in-chief of all the French forces in the West Indies. When war broke out in 1778, he successively took from the British, Dominica, Tobago, St Eustache, Saba, St. Martin, St. Christopher's, and Nevis. Louis XVI. nominated him a member of the As- sembly of Notables in 1787-1788; in 1790 he was made commander-in-chief of the army of the Meuse, the Saar, and the Moselle. His decision of char- acter prevented the dissolution of the army and the outbreak of civil war. For his share in the attempted escape of Louis XVI. he had to flee from France. In 1791 he entered into the service of Gustavus III., of Sweden, and afterward served in the corps of the Prince of Conde. He rejected a proposal, made in 1793, that he should take the chief command in La Vendee ; and went to England, where his advice in West Indian affairs was useful to the government He died in London, Nov. 14, 1800. Boulainvilliers, Henry, Count, a French author, descended from an ancient family in Picardy, born in St. Saire, Normandy, Oct 11, 1658 r died in Paris, Jan. 23, 1722. Bonlanger, Georges Ernest Jean Marie, a French soldier, born in Rennes, April 29, 1837. After a successful career in Algeria and in the East he became Minister of War. In the ministerial crisis of 1887 he lost his portfolio, and was appointed to the command of the 13th Army Corps, but was retired March 28, 1888. In Jan- uary, 1889, be was elected Deputy to the National Assembly by 81,000 ma- jority, in consequence of which the Floquet ministry resigned. In August, 1889, he was charged with embezzle- ment, treason and conspiracy, and found guilty by the Senate ; the elec- tions in the 12 cantons were annulled, and he was sentenced to deportation. He died in Brussels, Sept. 30, 189L Bonlder, a large, rounded block of stone, which, whether lying loose on the surface of the ground or imbedded in the soil, is of different composition from the rocks adjacent to which it DOW rests. Bounty Jumper Bonlder Formation, a forma- tion consisting of mud, sand, and clay, more frequently unstratified than the reverse, generally studded with frag- ments of rocks, some of them angular, others rounded, with boulders scatter- ed here and there through the mass. Boulevard, a French word for- merly applied to the ramparts of a fortified town, but when these were leveled, and the whole planted with trees and laid out as promenades, the name boulevard was still retained. Modern usage applies it also to many streets which are broad and planted with trees. Boulogne* or Bo-alogne-STir- Mer, a fortified seaport of France, Department of Pas de Calais, at the mouth of the Liane. It consists of the upper and lower town. The former is surrounded with lofty walls, and has well planted ramparts; the latter, which is the business part of the town, has straight and well built streets. In the castle, which dates from 1231, Louis Napoleon was imprisoned in 1840. Napoleon, after deepening and fortifying the harbor, encamped 180,- 000 men here with the intention of in- vading England at a favorable mo- ment ; but, upon the breaking out of hostilities with Austria, in 1805, they were called to other places. Pop. (1911) 53,128. Bonltpn, Matthew, an English mechanician, born in Birmingham, Sept. 3, 1728. He engaged hi busi- ness as a manufacturer of hardware, and invented and brought to great perfection inlaid steel buckles, buttons, watch chains, etc. The introduction of the steam engine at Soho led to a con- nection between Boulton and James Watt, who became partners hi trade, in 1769. He died in Soho, Aug. 16, 1809. Bounty, a grant or benefaction from the Government to those whose services directly or indirectly benefit it, and to whom, therefore, it desires to accord some recompense, OF at least recognition. Bounty Jumper, a term used during the Civil War in the United States to denote one who enlisted in the United States military service to secure the bounty paid by the Gov- ernment for volunteers, and then de- serted. Bouquet de la Grye Bonrke Bouquet de la Grye, Jean Jacques Anatole, a French hydro- graphical engineer, born in Thiers, May 20, 1827. He became a member of the Institute ; commander of the Legion of Honor, and a member of the Academy. A project which he long urged was to make Paris a sea- port by means of a ship-canal up the Seine, He died in 1909. Bourbon, an ancient French fam- ily which has given three dynasties to Europe, the Bourbons of France, Spain, and Naples. The first of the line known in history is ADHEMAB, who, at the beginning of the 10th cen- tury, was Lord of the Bourbonnais (now the Department of Allier). The power and possessions of the family increased steadily through a long series of Archambaulds of Bourbon, till, in 1272, BEATRIX, daughter of Agnes of Bourbon and John of Burgundy, mar- ried Robert, sixth son of Louis IX. of France, and thus connected the Bour- bons with the royal line of the Ca- pets. Their son, Louis, had the bar- ony converted into a dukedom and be- came the first Due de Bourbon. Two branches took their origin from the two sons of this Louis, Duke of Bour- bon, who died in 1341. The elder line was that of the Dukes of Bourbon, which became extinct at the death of the Constable of Bourbon in 1527, in the assault on the city of Rome. The younger was that of the Counts of La Marche, afterward Counts and Dukes of Vendome. From these descended ANTHOXY of Bourbon, Duke of Ven- dome, who, by marriage, acquired the kingdom of Navarre, and whose son, HENRY of Navarre, became Henry IV. of France. By the death of the Count of Cham- bord, in 1883, the elder line of the Bourbons of France became extinct, and the right of succession merged in the Count of Paris, grandson of King Louis Philippe, representative of the younger, or Orleans line. Bourbon, Charles, Duke of, or Constable of Bourbon, son of Gil- bert, Count of Montpensier, born in 1489, and, by his marriage with the heiress pf the elder Bourbon line, ac- quired immense estate. He received from Francis I., in the 20th year of his age, the sword of Constable, and in the war in Italy rendered important services by the victory of Marignano and the capture of Milan. On May G, 1527, his troops took Rome by storm, and the sacking and plundering continued for months. But the Bour- bon himself was shot as he mounted the breach at the head of his soldiers. He was but 38 years of age. Bourbonnais, a village of Illinois in Kankakee county, 55 miles south of Chicago. Noted since 1S65 as the seat of the R. C. College of St. Viateur's, and of Notre Dame Academy. Bonrdalone, Louis, a Jesuit, and one of the greatest preachers France ever produced, was born in 1632. The extreme popularity of his sermons in- duced his superiors to call him to Paris, and he became the favorite preacher of Louis XI V. Died in 1704. Bourdon (named after Mr. Bour- don of Paris, who invented it in 1849 ) , a barometer consisting of an elastic flattened tube of metal bent to a circu- lar form and exhausted of air, so that the ends of the tube separate as the atmospheric pressure is diminished, and approach as it increases. Bourgeoisie, a name applied to a certain class in France, in contradis- tinction to the nobility and clergy as well as to the working classes. Bourget, Paul, a French novel- ist, born in Amiens, Sept. 2, 1852. He was admitted to the Academy in 1894. He ranks among the first of the present day French novelists. Bonrinot, John George, a Ca- nadian publicist, born in Sydney, Nova Scotia, Oct. 24, 1838. He was educated at Trinity College, Toronto; founded and edited the " Halifax Re- porter," became clerk of the Dominion Parliamemt in 1880 ; was created a member of the Order of St. Michael and St. George in 1890; and in 1892 became President of the Royal So- ciety of Canada. Died, Oct. 12, 1902. Bonrke, John Gregory, an American military officer, born in Philadelphia, Pa., June 23, 1846. He was graduated at West Point in 1869, and saw much service against the In- dians, rising through various grades to the rank of major. He became an expert in American ethnological lore. He was an officer of great courage and ability. He died in Philadelphia, Pa., June 8, 1896. Bonrmont Bonrmont, Louise Angustc Victor de Ghaisne, Cpmte dc, Marshal of France, born in Anjou, Sept. 2, 1773 ; died in Anjou, Oct. 27, 1846. Bourne, Hugh, founder of the sect of Primitive Methodists, born iii Staffordshire, England, April 3, 1772. In the course of his life he visited Scotland, Ireland, Canada, and the United States, where his ministrations were attended with great success. He died in Bemersly, Oct 11, 1852. Bourrienne, Fauvclet de, a French diplomatist, born in 1769, and educated along with Bonaparte at the School of Brienne, where a close intimacj sprang up between them. Bourrienne went to Germany to study law and languages, but, returning to Paris in 1792, renewed his friendship with Napoleon, from whom he ob- tained various appointments, and, lat- terly, that of minister plenipotentiary at Hamburg. Notwithstanding that his character suffered from his being" involved in several dishonorable mone- tary transactions, he continued to fill high State offices, and, in 1814, was made prefect of police. On the abdi- cation of Napoleon he paid his court to Louis XVIII., and was nominated a Minister of State. The Revolution of July, 1830, and the loss of his wealth affected him so much that he lost bis reason, and died in a lunatic asylum in 1834. Bourse, an exchange where mer- chants, bankers, etc., meet for the transaction of financial business. Used especially of the Stock Exchange of Paris. Bousaa, or Bnssang, a city of Africa, in the Sudan, on the Niger, Dear which are rapids. It was here that Mungo Park met his death in 1805. Pop. est. 12,000 to 18,000. Boutelle, Charles Addison, an American legislator, born in Damar- iscotta, Me., Feb. 9, 1839; served in the navy during the Civil War, enter- ing as an acting master, and being promoted to lieutenant for gallantry in action. In 1870 he became the edi- tor of the Bangor " Whig and Cou- rier." He was elected to Congress in 1882, and held his seat till December, 1900, when he resigned, and was made a captain on the retired list of the Bowditcu navy. He was author of the bill (1890) authorizing the construction of the first modern battleship of the United States Navy. He died in Waverly, Mass., May 21, 1901. Bontwell, George Sewell, an American statesman, born in Brook- line, Mass., Jan. 23, 1818; was ad- mitted to the bar in 1836; served in the state Legislature in 1842-1851; Governor of Massachusetts in 1851- 1852 ; was organizer of the Republican Party in 1854 ; appointed the first commissioner of the newly established Department of Internal Revenue in 1862 ; a Representative in Congress in 1863-1869 ; one of the managers of the impeachment trial of President John- son ; Secretary of the Treasury in 1869-1873 ; and a U. S. Senator, 1873- 79. He died Feb. 28, 1905. Bouvard, Alexis, a Swiss mathe- matician and astronomer, born in 1767; went to Paris about 1785 to study mathematics and astronomy, and in 1793 obtained a position in the Paris Observatory. He is celebrated for his researches in the theory of planetary motions, especially those of Jupiter and Saturn. Later he took up the theory of Uranus, and was the first to suggest that the discrepancies between the old and new observations could only be reconciled by the hypoth- esis of another undiscovered disturb- ing planet, an opinion which he re- tained till his death, three years be- fore the discovery of Neptune. Bovidse, the ox family of ruminat- ing animals, containing not merely the oxen, but many others animals, placed in other families, such as the bison, buffalo, yak, zebu, etc. They are generally of large size, with broad, hairless muzzles; most of them have been domesticated. Bowditch, Henry Ingersoll, an American physician, born in Salem, Mass., Aug. 9, 180& He discovered the law of soil moisture as a cause of consumption in New England; intro- duced several new features in surgical treatment, and was author of many general and special works in medical science. He died in Boston, Mass., Jan. 14, 1892. Bowditcn, Henry Pickering, an American educator, born in Boston, Mass., April 4, 1840;. was graduated Bowdoin at Harvard in 1861, and subsequently studied chemistry and medicine, and, after the Civil War, in which he reached the rank of major in the Union service, he took a special course in physiology in France and Germany. In 1871-1876 he was Assistant Pro- fessor of Physiology in the Harvard Medical School, and in 1876 was elected to the full chair. He was a member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, as well as of nu- merous medical societies, and has pub- lished many papers on physiological subjects. He died March 13, 1911. Bowdoin, James, an American patriot, born in Boston, Aug. 8, 1727. He was prominent in Massachusetts during the Revolution. He became governor of his State in 1785, and, in the following year, suppressed Shay's rebellion. Bowdoin College was named after him. He died in Boston, Nov. 6, 1790. Bowdoin College, a co-education- al institution in Brunswick, Me. ; or- ganized in 1794 under the auspices of the Congregational Church ; but is now non-sectarian. Its several departments have about 400 students, and 40 in- structors. Bowen, Henry Chandler, an American editor and publisher, born in Woodstock, Conn., Sept. 11, 1813. He received a common school educa- tion and entered business. In 1848 he helped found " The Independent," in New York. He died in Brooklyn, N. Y., Feb. 24, 1896. Bowen, Herbert Wolcott, United States Minister to Venezuela, who acquired world-wide repute as a diplomatist by his management in be- half of Venezuela of negotiations with England, Germany, and Italy, which brought to a close the blockade of Venezuela ports by those powers in 1902-1903. Mr. Bowen was born in Brooklyn, N. Y., Feb. 29, 1856 ; studied at the Brooklyn Polytechnic, in Europe and at Yale, and was graduated with honor from the Columbia Law School in 1881. He practiced law in New York, and was appointed in 1890 Consul and Consul-General to Barce- lona, and afterward Minister to Per- sia. In June, 1901, he was appointed Minister to Venezuela. When the al- lies began war on Venezuela to compel E. 22. Box payment of certain claims President Castro requested Mr. Bowen to act in behalf of Venezuela in arranging terms for a settlement. He was a successful diplomat, but in June, 1905, was dis- missed from government service owing to injudicious charges against his predecessor, Assist. Sec. of State F. B. Loomis. Bower Birds, the name given to certain birds found in Australia. The name is given because these birds are in the habit of building bowers as well as nests. Bowery, The, a New York street. It begins at Chatham Square and ter- minates at Cooper Union. It was long notorious for the resorts located along its length, but its character has under- gone improvement. Bowie, James, an American fron- tiersman, born in Burke county, Ga., about 1790. He took part in the re- volt of Texas against Mexico, and fell in the Alamo massacre, March 6, 1836. He gave his name to the bowie knife. Bowling, an ancient English game, still exceedingly popular. The favor- ite form in the United States is played indoors, in an " alley " 50-65 feet long and about 6 feet wide. At the further end 10 " pins," generally of ash wood, are set up in the form of a triangle. The players roll wooden balls at these, with the object of knocking down as many as possible at each throw. Bowman, Edward Morris, Amer- ican organist and musical theorist, b. Barnard, Vt., in 1848 ; studied in Ber- lin, Paris, and London, under famous masters ; and was the first American A. R. C. O. of London. In 1877 he pub- lished " Bowman- Weitzmann's Manual of Musical Theory ;" in 1891 succeed- ed Dr. F. L. Ritter at Vassar; was organist of the Bapt. Temple, Brook- lyn, 1895-1905; then of Calvary Church, N. Y. C. He died Aug. 27, 1913. Bowne, Borden Parker, an American philosophical writer, born in Leonardsyille, N. J., Jan. 14, 1847. He was religious editor of the New York "Independent," 1875-1876, be- coming Professor of Philosophy at Boston University in 1876. D. 1910. Box, the English name of buxus, a genus of plants. In its wild state Boxers it is a small tree. It is found all over the world in some form of spe- cies. It is an evergreen. Boxers, members of a Chinese se- cret society which aims ostensibly at the expulsion of foreigners. The origin of the Boxers appears to have been due to fanatic opposition to Christian missionaries, and to the en- croachments of European powers upon Chinese territory. Early in 1900 the native popu- lation in Shantung were found to be rallying around the standard of the Boxers and adopting its motto, " Up- hold the dynasty, drive out the for- eigners." The Diplomatic Corps at Peking called upon the Imperial Gov- ernment to suppress the movement. In May, 1900, they began a concerted movement upon the Chinese capital which, notwithstanding the protests of the Diplomatic Corps, re- mained unchecked. The situation had been rendered ad- ditionally threatening by the action of the allies in opening fire upon the forts at Taku. On June 17 the warships of the Powers were in force at that port ; when fired upon by the Chinese they opened a bombardment. The demonstration before Taku had been Deprecated by the United States com- mander, Admiral Kempff, who did not participate in the bombardment. His warning that hostilities would unite the Chinese against the foreigners was justified by events. In June, 1900, Peking was reduced to a state of siege by the Boxers. The position of the foreigners in the capi- tal became precarious. The entire Diplomatic Corps was cut off from communication with the outside world. After capturing Tien-Tsin the forces of the powers advanced on Peking, de- feating the Chinese who opposed them, and rescuing the legations from de- struction. The troops were just in time to save the inmates of the lega- tions, and a large number of native Christians from outrage and, massacre. The Chinese court fled from Peking, and after many months of desultory warfare and negotiation China con- sented to pay full indemnity and to punish the officials guilty of inciting the Boxers. The society is still a menace to foreigners. Boxing. See PUGILISM. Boycotting Box Tortoise, a name given to one or two North American tortoises that can completely shut themselves into their shell. Boyaca, a Department of Colom- bia, touching Venezuela. In the W. it is mountainous; in the E. it has vast prairies, and is watered by the Meta and its tributaries. The Muzo emer* aid mine is the richest in the world, and the Department is rich in salt springs, coal, .iron, plumbago, and copper ore. Area, 16,460 square miles; population (1912) 586,499. Capital, Tunja. i>oyar, Boiar, or Boyard, a name first used by the Bulgarians, Serbs and Russians, subsequently adopted by the Moldavians and Walla- chians, and synonymous with bojarin, used by the Bohemians, Poles, and other Slavic tribes, to qualify the high- est social condition ; corresponding in certain respects to that of an English peer. Boycotting, a practice which owes its name to Capt. C. C. Boycott (died June 21, 1897), of Lough Mask House, in Mayo, Ireland, and agent, in 1880, of Lord Erne, an Irish noble- man. The former gentleman having given offense about agrarian matters to the people among whom he lived, dur- ing the land agitation of 1880-1881, no one would gather in his crops. The case being reported in the " Press," about 60 Orangemen, belonging to the North of Ireland, each man carrying a revolver, organized themselves into a " Boycott relief expedition." The Government gave them a strong es- cort of cavalry, besides foot soldiers and constabulary, artillery also being added on the return journey. The crops were gathered in and sent away, and the Captain himself brought off to a region of greater security. The ob- ject of a boycott is to put a person outside the pale of the society, amid which he lives, and on which he de- pends; socially to outlaw him, to re- fuse to sell to, and decline to buy from, him ; to refuse to work for or to em- ploy him. In the United States and in England the boycott is made use of by trade unionists as a strike measure. It has in some instances been enjoined by the courts, and in some States laws have been passed against it. Boyd Boyd, Belle, a Confederate spy, born in Martinsburg, VV. Va., May 9, 1843. She rendered aid to the South- ern cause by detecting the Federal plans of campaign and revealing them to the Confederates. Gen. " Stone- wall " Jackson sent her a letter of thanks. She died at Kilbourn, Wis., June 11, 1900. Boyd, Thomas Duckett, an American educator, born in Wythe- ville, Va., Jan. 20, 1854. He was graduated at Louisiana State Univer- sity, and has held important posts in the educational institutions of Louisi- ana. Since 1896 he has been Presi- dent of Louisiana State University. Boyden, Seth, an American in- ventor, born in Foxboro, Mass., Nov. 17, 1788; was brought up on a farm, and attended a district school. Me- chanically inclined, he spent much time experimenting in a blacksmith shop. His first invention was a ma- chine for making nails, and in 1809 he undertook to manufacture both nails and files. Soon afterward he in- vented a machine for splitting leather, and in 1815, he took it to Newark, N. J., where he engaged in the leather business. In 1816 he invented a ma- chine for cutting brads, and followed this by the invention of patent leather, which he manufactured till 1831, when he began making malleable iron cast- ings, on a system of his own. In 1835 he turned his attention to steam en- gines ; substituted the straight axle for the crank in locomotives ; and invented the cut-off now used instead of the throttle valve. In 1849 he went to California, but was unsuccessful, and returned to New Jersey, where he ap- plied himself to farming, and devel- oped a variety of strawberry previous- ly unequaled in size or quality. He died in Middleville, N. J., March 31, 1870. Boyer, Jean Pierre, President of the Republic of Haiti, was a mulatto, born in Port-au-Prince in 1776. He was educated in France, and, in 1776, entered the military service. He was unanimously elected President of the Republic in 1818. He arranged the financial affairs, collected funds into the treasury, improved the admin- istration, and encouraged arts and sci- ences. After the death of Christophe, be united the monarchical part of the Boyton island with the Republic in 1820 ; and, in 1821, the eastern district also, which had hitherto remained under the dominion of Spain; and he urgently sought the recognition of the inde- pendence of the youthful State by France, which was obtained, in 1825, upon payment of an indemnity of 150,- 000,000 francs. Boyer carried on the government of the Republic of Haiti for 15 years from this time with the most perfect peace ; but his policy, which was rather arbitrary, and direct- ed to the object of depressing the ne- groes in favor of his own race, result- ed in a victorious insurrection in 1843. Boyer fled to Jamaica. In 1848 he went to Paris, and died there, July 9, 1850. Boyesen, Hjalmar Hjorth, an American novelist, born at Frederiks- varn, Norway, Sept. 23, 1848. He came to the United States in 1869; returned to Europe in 1872 and studied Germanic Philology at Leipsic two years; then, returning to this country, he was Professor of German in Cor- nell University for six years, and then of Germanic Languages and Litera- ture in Columbia College till his death. He died in New York, Oct. 4, 1895. Boy Scouts, a semi-military or- ganization, founded' in England in 1910 and introduced into the United States the same year. The object is to develop patriotism, discipline, cour- age, and self-control in boys, as well as to put the Golden Rule into daily practice. The unit of the organiza- tion is the " patrol " of from six to eight boys; a "troop" comprises two or more "patrols;" and the "scout master " is the officer in charge of a troop. Lieut.-Gen. Sir Robert Ba- den-Powell was the father of the boy scout movement in England, and Ernest Thompson, Seton in the United States. In both countries the idea took at once with boys and found general favor among their elders. In 1910 the founder visited New York in its interest. Boyton, Paul, an Irish-Ameri- can swimmer, born in Dublin, June 29, 1848; served in the United States navy in 1863-1865. He invented a life-pre- serving suit, in which in 1874, he leaped from a vessel off the coast of Ireland, and, after remaining seven hours in the water, reached land safe- Bozrah Bradford ly. On May 28, 1875, he crossed the [English Channel in this suit, swim- ming across in 24 hours. In 1876 he made the run from the Bayou Goula to New Orleans, La., 100 miles, in 24 hours. In May, the same year, he descended the Danube from Linz to Budapest, 460 miles, in six days. Later he went from Oil City, Pa., to the Gulf of Mexico, 2,342 miles, hi 80 days, being exposed at first to great cold and later to extreme heat. In November, 1879, he descended the Connecticut river from Canada to Long Island Sound. On Sept. 17, 1881, he started from Cedar Creek, Mont, to swim to St. Louis, Mo., and accomplished the long jour- ney, 3,580 miles, Nov. 20. In 1888 he made a voyage down the Ohio river. He published an account of his travels. Bozrah, an ancient city of Pales- tine, E. of the Jordan, and about 80 miles S. of Damascus. Bozzaris, Marcos, a Greek pa- triot, born in 1789. He was a Su- liote, and distinguished himself by his devotion to his country, in defending it against the Turks. He fell in a night attack upon a body of the Turco- Albanian army, who were advancing with the view of taking Missalonghi, which he had successfully defended for a considerable time, Aug. 20, 1823. Brabant, the central district of the lowlands of Holland and Belgium, extending from the Waal to the sources of the Dyle, and from the Meuse and Limburg plains to the Lower Scheldt. It is divided between the Kingdoms of Holland and Belgium, into three provinces, (1) Dutch or North Brabant, area 1,920 square miles, pop. (1913) 657,672; (2) Bel- gian Province of Antwerp, area 1,093 square miles, pop., 1,004,909 ; and (3) the Belgian Province of South Brabant, area, 1,268 square miles, pop., 1,522,941. Brachiopoda, animals with arm- like feet ; one of the great classes into which the moluscous sub-kingdom of the animal kingdom is divided. Bracken, or Brake, a species of fern very common in the United States and Europe generally, and often cov- ering large areas on hillsides and waste grounds. Braddock, a borough in Alle- gheny county, Pa.; on the Mononga- hela river and the Pennsylvania and other railroads; 10 miles S. E. of Pittsburg; has extensive iron and steel, wire, chain, car, and ice plants, and large coal-mining interests. It was the scene of Gen. Braddock's defeat. Pop. (1910) 19,357. Braddock, Edward, a British soldier, born in Perthshire, Scotland, about 1695, entered the Coldstream Guards in 1710, and was appointed Major-General in 1754. Nine months later he sailed as commander against the French in America, and, with a force of nearly 2,000 British and provincial troops, reached the Monon- gahela, on July 8, 1755. On the 9th he pushed forward to invest Fort Duquesne, on the present site of Pittsburg, Pa. On the right bank of the river he was attacked by a party of 900 French and Indians, and 63 out of 86 officers, and 914 out of 1,373 men engaged, were either killed or wounded. Braddock was carried from the field, and died July 13. Bradford, city in McKean co., Pa.; on several railroads; 67 miles S. of Buffalo, N. Y.; is in a noted petroleum, natural gas, and coal-mining region; has oil pipe-lines to seaboard; and manufactures machinery, glass, boil- ers, motor-cycles, chemicals, and tanks and well supplies. Pop. (1910) 14,544. Bradford, a municipal and par- liamentary borough and important manufacturing town in the W. Riding of Yorkshire, England, the chief seat in England of the spinning and weav- ing of worsted yarn and woolens. Pop. (1911) 288,458. 1 Bradford, Joseph, an American journalist and dramatic author, born near Nashville, Tenn., Oct. 24, 1843. His real name was WILLIAM RAN- DOLPH HUNTER. Besides satirical verses he wrote a number of poems which were highly esteemed, especially those on the death of Victor Hugo and of General Grant. He died in Boston, Mass., April 13, 1886. Bradford, Royal B., an Ameri- can naval officer, born in Turner, Me., July 22, 1844. He was graduated at the United States Naval Academy in 1865, and received promotion through various grades to the rank of Coir Bradford mander. He made a specialty of equipment, and after 1897 was chief of the Bureau of Equipment of the Navy. He died Aug. 4, 1914. 1 Bradford, William, an Ameri- can painter, born in New Bedford, Mass., in 1827. He entered business early in life, but abandoned it for art His subjects were the ice fields of the North Atlantic. He died in New York city, April 25, 1892. Bradford, William, an Ameri- can colonial governor and author, born in Austerfield, Yorkshire, England, in March, 1588. He was one of the sign- ers of the celebrated compact on the Mayflower ; and, in 1621, on the death of the first governor, John Carver, was elected to the same office, which he continued to fill (with the exception of a brief period when he declined re- election) until his death. His admin- istration was remarkably efficient and successful, especially in dealing with the Indians. He died in Plymouth, Mass., May 9, 1657. Bradlee, Nathaniel, an Ameri- can architect, born in Boston in 1829 ; began the study of architecture in 1846. He achieved wonderful suc- cess, having been the architect of over 500 prominent buildings in the city of Boston. In 1869 he made a national reputation by moving bodily the large brick structure known as the Hotel Pelham to the corner of Tremont and Boylston streets. The work attracted wide attention, both in this country and in Europe. He subsequently su- perintended the removal of the Boyls- ton Market He died in 1888. Bradley, John Edwin, an Amer- ican educator, born in Lee, Mass. He was graduated at Williams College, in 1865. He served as principal of the High School at Pittsfield, Mass., and at Albany, N. Y. In 1892-1900 he was President of the Illinois College. Bradley, Joseph Philo, an Amer- ican jurist, born in Berne, N. Y., March 14, 1843; was graduated at Rutgers College in 1836; admitted to the bar in 1839; and became a Justice of the United States Supreme Court in 1870. As a member of the Electoral Commission he cast the vote which gave the Presidency to General Hayes, in 1877. He died in Washing- ton, D. C., Jan. 22, 1892. Bragg Bradstreet, Anne, the earliest American poet, born in Northampton, England, in 1612. She was a daugh- ter of Gov. Thomas Dudley. In 1630 she emigrated to America with her husband, Simon Bradstreet, Governor of Massachusetts. Her poems are quaint and literal in style. She died Sept 16, 1672. Brady, Cyras Townsend, author and P. E. clergyman, born in Alle- gheny, Pa., Dec. 20, 1861; graduated 1883 at the United States Naval Acad- emy ; and was ordained priest in 1890. His published writings include several volumes of fiction, and semi-historical works, all exceedingly popular. Bragg, Braxton, an American military officer; born in Warren Co., N. C., March 22, 1817; graduated at West Point, in 1837; was appointed Second Lieutenant in the 3d Artillery ; served with distinction under General I Taylor in the Mexican War ; and re- | tired to private life in 1856. At the outbreak of the Civil War, he became a Brigadier-General in the Confeder- ate army, and was stationed at Pensa- cola to act against Fort Pickens. In 1862, having been appointed a general of division, with orders to act under Gen. A. S. Johnston, commanding the Army of the Mississippi, he took an important part in the two days" bat- tle of Shiloh. On Johnston's death he was appointed to his command, with the full rank of General, and succeed- ed General Beauregard as commander of the Department, in July of the same year. The last command he re- signed in December, 1863. His chief success was at Chickamauga, in Sep- tember, 1863, when he inflicted a de- feat on the army of General Rose- crans, but was himself, in turn, de- feated by General Grant, which led to his temporary removal from command in January, 1864, and he was appoint- ed military adviser to Jefferson Davis. In 1864, he assumed command of the Department of North Carolina. After the war he was chief engineer of the State of Alabama, and superintended the improvements in Mobile Bay. He died in Galveston, Tex., Sept. 27, 1876. Bragg, Edward Stnyvesant, an American legislator, born in Unadilla, N. Y., Feb. 20, 1827; educated at Geneva, now Hobart, College, and ad- mitted to the bar in New York, in Bragi 1848. He removed to Fond du Lac, Wis., served in the Union army during the Civil War, and won his way to the rank of Brigadier-General. He was a member of the Union Conven- tion, at Philadelphia, in 1866; Repre- sentative in Congress in 1877-1885; and a delegate to the Democratic Na- tional Conventions of 1872, 1884, 1892, and 1896. In the Convention of 1884, he seconded the renomination of Gro- ver Cleveland, when he uttered the memorable phrase, " We love him for the enemies he has made." In 1888 he was appointed minister to Mexico; and in June, 1902, became the first United States consul-general in Ha- vana under the new republic of Cuba, retiring the same year on account of a letter which he wrote reflecting on the Cubans. He died June 20, 1912. Bragi, the Scandinavian god of poetry. He is represented as an old man with a long flowing beard, like Odin; yet with a serene and unwrin- kled brow. His wife was Idunna. Brake, Tycho, a Swedish astron- omer, born in Knudstrup, near Lund, Dec. 14, 1546. He was descended from a noble family, and was sent, at the age of 13. to the University of Copen- hagen, where he had not been more than a year, when an eclipse of the sun turned his attention to astronomy. His uncle destined him for the law, but Brahe, while his tutor slept, busied himself nightly with the stars. In 1573 he married a peasant girl. After some time spent in travel, Brahe received from his sovereign, Frederic II., the offer of the island of Hven or Hoene, in the Sound, as the site for an observatory, the King also offering to defray the cost of erection, and of the necessary astronomical instrur ments, as well as to provide him with a suitable salary. Brahe accepted the generous proposal, and, in 1576, the foundation stone of the castle of Uraienburg ("fortress of the heav- ens ") was laid. Here, for a period of 20 years, Brahe prosecuted his obser- vations with the most unwearied in- dustry. So long as his munificent pat- ron, Frederick II., lived, Brahe's posi- tion was all that he could have de- sired, but on his death in 1588 it was greatly changed. For some years, un- der Christian IV., Brahe was just tol- erated; but in 1597 his persecution Brainard had grown so unbearable that he left the country altogether, having been the year before deprived of his ob- servatory and emoluments. After re- siding a short time at Kostock and at Wandsbeck, near Hamburg, he accept- ed an invitation of the Emperor Ru- dolf II. who conferred on him a pen- sion of 3,000 ducats to Benatek, a few miles from Prague, where a new Uranienburg was to have been erected for him; but he died at Prague on Oct. 24, 1601. Brahma, the name of the first of the three gods who constitute the triad of principal Hindu deities. The epi- thets applied to this divinity are very numerous. Brahman, Brahmin, Bramin, or Brachman, one of the Aryan conquerors of India, who discharged priestly functions, whose ascendency, however, over his fellows was intellec- tual and spiritual, but not yet political or supported by the caste system ; also one of the four leading castes of India. Brahmanism, or Brahminism, the system of religious belief and prac- tice introduced and propagated by the Brahmans. Brahmaputra, a large river of Asia, whose sources, not yet explored, are situated near Lake Manasarovara, in Tibet, near those of Indus. Brahmo-Spmaj, or the Thiestic Church of India, was founded in 1830 by an enlightened Brahman, who sought to purify his religion from im- purities and idolatries. Brain, the encephalon, or center of the nervous system and the seat of consciousness and volition in man and the higher animals. Brainard, David Legge, an American explorer, born in Herkimer county, N. Y., Dec. 21, 1856. He re- ceived a common school education and enlisted as a private in the United States army in 1876. He rose to dis- tinction in various conflicts with the Indians and in the Greeley and other Arctic Expeditions, and was promoted to Colonel, June 8, 1912. In 1899 he became Chief Commissary at Manila. Brainard, John Gardiner, Cal- kins, an American poet, born in New London, Conn., Oct. 21, 1796 ; died in New London, Conn., Sept. 26, 1828. Brain* Bramante d'TJrbino Braine, Daniel Lawrence, an American naval officer, born in New York city, May 18, 1829. He entered the United States navy in 1846 and became a Rear-Admiral. He served with distinction through the Mexican and Civil Wars. In 1873 he obtained the surrender by Spain of 102 sur- vivors of the " Virginius " prisoners. He died in Brooklyn, N. Y., Jan. 30, 1898. HUMAN BBAIN. Median Longitudinal Section through Head and Upper Part of Neck, to Show Relation of Brain to Cranium and the Spinal Cord. C, cerebrum; cb, cerebellum; sc, spinal cord; spc, spinal column; mo, medulla oblongata passing, through foramen magnum, into the spinal cord; pv, pons Varolii; cp, cerebral peduncles or crura cerebri; cqa, anterior corpora quadrige- mina; cqp, posterior corpora quadnge- mina; pg, pineal gland; pb, pituitary body; cc, corpus collosum, divided trans- versely; f, fornix; mg, marginal gyrus; f^i gyrus fornicatus; ctng, calloso-mar- ginal suleus; O, occipital lobe; po, parieto-occipital fissure; cf, calcarine fis- sure; dm, dura mater, separating cere- brum from cerebellum. Brainerd, David, an American missionary, born at Haddam, Conn., April 20, 1718. He entered Yale Col- lege in 1739, but three years later was expelled for declaring that one of the college tutors had no more of the grace of God than a chair. That same year he was licensed to preach, and sent as a missionary to the Indians in Massa- chusetts. He labored afterward among the Indians in Pennsylvania, and with much success in New Jersey, baptizing there no fewer than 77 converts, of whom 38 were adults. He died in Northampton, Mass., Oct. 9, 1747. Brain Fever, a term in common use for inflammation of the lining membranes of the brain, meningitis; or of the brain itself, cerebritis. Brain fever is characterized by violent head- ache, intolerance of light, excitement, extreme sensitiveness, hyperffimia, de- lirium, convulsions, and coma. Braintree, a town in Norfolk county, Mass.; on the New York, New Haven & Hartford railroad; 10 miles S. of Boston; is noted as the birth-place of many of the Adams family; and is chiefly engaged in granite quarrying. Pop. (1910) 8,066. Brake, a device for regulating or stopping motion by friction. Rail- road air-brakes consist of a cylinder and piston under each car, connected by tubes with a reservoir for com- pressed air, automatically filled by a special engine under control of the engineer. Braniah, Joseph, an English in- ventor; born in Yorkshire in 1749; especially known for an ingenious lock, and for the hydraulic press. He died in Pimlico, Dec. 9, 1814. Bramante d'TTrbino (real name DONATO LAZZARI), an Italian archi- tect, born in 1444. Showing an early taste for drawing, he was brought up to the profession of a painter, but he quitted it to dedicate bis talents to architecture, which he cultivated with uncommon success. He first designed and commenced in 1513, the erection of St. Peter's at Rome, carried on and finished by other architects after his death. He was a great favorite with Pope Julius II., who made him super- intendent of his buildings, and, under that pontiff, he formed, the magnificent project of connecting the Belvidere Palace with the Vatican by means of two grand galleries carried across a valley. He built many churches, mon- asteries, and palaces at Rome, and in other I'talian cities, and was employed by Pope Julius as an engineer to forti- fy Bologna, 1504. Bramante painted portraits with ability, and he was Brambanan skilled in music and poetry. He died in 1514. Brambanan, a district of the Province of Surakarta, Java, rich in remains of Hindu temples, of which there are six groups, with two appar- ently monastic buildings. The edifices are composed entirely of hewn stone, and no mortar has been used in their construction. The largest is a cruci- form temple, surrounded by five con- centric squares, formed by rows of de- tached cells or shrines, embracing an area of 500 feet square. In several of these dagobas the cross-legged figures of Buddha remain but the larger fig- ures which must have occupied the central temples have disappeared from all but one. Bramble, or Blackberry, a plant having prickly stems, which somewhat resemble those of the rasp- berry. The flowers do not appear till the summer is considerably advanced, and the fruit ripens toward the end of it, continuing to be produced till the frosts of winter set in. The fruit is too well known to need description. In the United States blackberries are extensively cultivated for their fruit. Bramwcll, John Milne, a Brit- ish physician and author, born at Perth, New Brunswick, Canada, 1852. He graduated from the University of Edinburgh, and made a specialty of hypnotism, combining with consider- able success the Parisian and Nancy methods of hyponosis. His published writings include " What is Hypno- tism?" Bran, the skins or husks of ground maize, wheat, rye, or other grain, separated from the flour. The nutritive value of these husks in- creases as we proceed from the out- side of the grain toward the interior. The outer skin, or coarse bran, is very indigestible, owing to the presence of a layer of silica. Branch, that part of a plant which is produced from a lateral leaf bud on the primary axis or stem. It is looked upon as part of the stem, and not as a distinct organ. Branchia, the gills of fishes and various other inhabitants of water. They are the apparatus for enabling the animal to extract oxygen from the water, instead of being dependent on, Brandenburg the atmosphere. Brand, Sir John Henry, a Boer statesman, born in Cape Town, Dec. 6, 1823. Queen Victoria knighted him in recognition of his aid. Brandford i was named in his honor, and Lady- brand was named in honor of his wife. I He died July 15, 1888. Brandeis, Louis Dembitz, an American jurist, born in Louisville, Ky., Nov. 13, 1856; was admitted to the bar in 1878 ; began practice in Boston in 1879 ; gave special atten- i tion to railroad problems ; was spe- cial counsel for the Interstate Com- merce Commission in 1913-14, also in various Federal and municipal inves- tigations ; chairman of the Provisional Committee for General Zionist Affairs in 1914-15 ; widely known as an effi- ciency expert ; was confirmed as an Associate Justice of the United States Supreme Court, June 1, 1916. Brandenburg, a province of Prussia, surrounded mainly by Meck- lenburg and the provinces of Pome- rania, Posen, Silesia, and Prussian Saxony. The soil consists in many parts of barren sands, heaths, and moors ; yet the province produces much frain, as well as fruits, hemp, flax, to- acco, etc., and supports many sheep. The forests are very extensive. The principal streams are the Elbe, the Oder, the Havel, and the Spree ; but the first two merely skirt the territory. Brandenburg carries on an active trade in manufactured articles, and is well situated for commerce, since it has many canals, rivers, good roads, and is intersected by the railways from Berlin to Leipsic, etc. The province of Brandenburg includes, besides some other districts, the greater part of the former mark of Brandenburg, which formed the cradle of the Prussian mon- archy, and the center round which the present extensive kingdom has grown up. > It is divided into the three ad- ministrative divisions of Berlin, Pots- dam, and Frankfort, and it has a total area of 15,376 square miles, with a pop.. (census 1910) 4,092,616. Most of the inhabitants are Lutherans ; the rest are chiefly Roman Catholics and Jews. From 1685 to 1688 many French refugees, Walloons, and inhab- itants of Lorraine and of Palatinate, settled here. It is now the most impor- tant Prussian province, including as it Brandes does the capital (Berlin) , and the gov- ernments of Potsdam and Frankfort. Brandes, Georg, a Danish liter- ary critic of Jewish family ; born in Copenhagen, Feb. 4, 1842, where he graduated at the university in 1864. Several books on aesthetic and philoso- phic subjects brought on him a charge of skepticism which was not removed by an epoch-making series of lectures, delivered before large audiences. In 1882 he returned to Copenhagen, his countrymen having guaranteed him an income of 4,000 crowns, with the one stipulation that he should deliver public lectures on literature. Branding, an ancient mode of punishment by inflicting a mark on an offender with a hot iron. It is gen- erally disused under the English civil ! law, but is a recognized punishment for some military offenses, as deser- tion. It is not, however, now done by a hot iron, but with ink, gunpowder, or some other preparation, so as to be visible, and not liable to be obliterated. The mark is the letter " D," not less than an inch in length, and is marked on the left side two inches below the armpit Brandt, Sebastian, a German author ; born in Strasburg, in 1458 ; studied law and the classics with zeal at Basel, where he received permis- sion to teach ; and soon became one of the most influential lecturers in that city. The Emperor Maximilian showed his regard for Brandt by ap- pointing him an imperial councilor. His fame rests wholly upon " The Ship of Fools," a satire on the follies and vices of the time (1494). Its distinguishing note is its abounding humor ; but it owed its great popular success very largely to the clever j woodcuts with which it was illustrat- ed. He died in Strasburg in 1521. Brandy, a spirit produced by the distillation of both white and red wines, and largely manufactured in the United States. Brandy wine Creek, in Pennsyl- vania and Delaware, is formed of two ! forks, the E. and W., which effect a junction in Chester county of the first named State, and, taking a S. E. course, empties into Christiana creek at Wilmington. Here, Sept 11, 1777, was fought a severe battle between Brass the British and German troops, 18,000 strong, under Howe, and the Ameri- cans numbering 13,000 men, under Washington. The consequence of this battle was the occupation of Philadel- phia by the British troops. Branner, John Casper, geolo- gist, born in New Market, Tenn., 1850, graduated at Cornell University in 1874 : was attached to the Brazilian i Imperial Geological Commission 1875- 1877, and in 1899 became vice-presi- i dent of Leland Stanford University. His geological works are valuable. Brant, Joseph, a Mohawk chief, born in Ohio in 1742. He participat- ed in the campaign of 1755, and held the post of secretary to Col. Johnson, superintendent-general of Indian af- fairs. On the outbreak of the Ameri- can Revolution, Brant took an active part in raising an Indian force to op- pose the colonists, and was present at the action of Cherry Valley, and in other engagements. In 1786 he vis- ited England and collected funds for an Anglican Church, the first erected in Canada West. He passed the clos- ing years of his life at Burlington Bay, on Lake Ontario, on an estate granted him by the British Govern- ment One of Brant's sons command- ed a mixed Canadian and Indian force during the War of 1812. He died in Canada, Nov. 29, 1807. Brantford, city and capital of Brant county, Ontario, Canada; on the Grand river and the Grand Trunk and other railroads; 65 miles S. W. of Toronto; contains many beautiful churches, Wickcliffe Hall (Y. M. C. A.), Court-house and county build- ings of white brick, City Hospital, Technical School, and a number of benevolent homes; and manufactures farm implements, brass and iron cast- ings, engines and mill machinery. Pop. (1911) 23,132. Brasenose, one of the colleges of Oxford University, founded in 1509. Brass, an alloy of copper and zinc, of a bright yellow color, hard, ductile, and malleable. The best brass con- sits of two parts by weight of copper to one of zinc. Before zinc was ob- tained in its metallic form brass was manufactured from calamine (native carbonate of zinc) mixed with copper and charcoal. Even now this process Brasses is easier than the direct fusion togeth- er of the two metals. The proportion of copper and zinc vary. Brasses, Monumental, large plates of brass, or of the mixed metal called latten or laton, inlaid on slabs of stone, and usually forming part of the pavement of a church. Brassey, Lady Anne, an English descriptive writer born in London, about 1840. After her marriage she spent half of her life at sea, on Lord Brassey's. yacht, the "Sunbeam." She died at sea Sept 14, 1887. Brassey, Thomas, an English en- gineer and railroad contractor, born in Baerton, Cheshire, Nov. 7, 1805. After receiving an ordinary education, be was, at the age of 16 years, ap- prenticed to a surveyor, whom he suc- ceeded in business. After building parts of the Grand Junction and the London and Southampton railways, he contracted in 1840, in partnership with another, to build the railway from Paris to Rouen. In a few years he held under contract, in England and France, some 10 railways, involving a capital of $180,000,000, and employ- ing 75,000 men. In partnership with Betts and Peto he undertook the Grand Trunk of Canada, 1.100 miles in length. He died Dec. 8, 1870. His son THOMAS, 1st Lord Brassey, born 183G, is an active British statesman. He has written " Work and Wages," "The British Navy," and other eco- Domical works. Brassicacese, an order of plants toore generally called cruciferae (cruci- fers). Among the well known plants ranked under the order may be men- tioned the wall flower, the stock, the watercress and other cresses, the cab- bage, the turnip, etc. Bravi, the name formerly given in Italy, and particularly in Venice, to those wno were ready to hire them- selves out to perform any desperate undertaking. The word had the same signification in Spain. Bravo, Nicholas, a Mexican statesman, born in 1790. He partici- pated in the revolution against Spain (1810-1817), and later aided Iturbide in establishing a republic. Under Santa Ana he twice acted as Presi- dent He died in 1854. , Brazil Bravura, an air requiring great skill and spirit in its execution, each syllable being divided into several notes. It is distinguished from a sim- ple melody by the introduction of florid passages, a style of both music and execution designed to task the abilities of the artist Braxy, a disease in sheep. Thia term is frequently applied to totally different disorders, but the true braxy is undoubtedly an intestinal affection, attended with diarrhoea and retention of the urine. Bray, a small English parish, neat Maidenhead, Berkshire, of which Si- mon Aleyn was vicar from 1540 to 1588, during the reigns of Henry VIII., Edward VI., Mary, and Eliza- beth. He kept his vicarage by chang- ing his faith according to that of the State for the time being, becoming a Protestant with Henry, Catholic again in the reign of Mary, and Protestant again on the accession of Elizabeth. His principle was to live and die Vicar of Bray, and to it he adhered. Bray, Anna Eliza, an English woman^ of_ letters, born in London, Dec. 25, 1790. Her maiden name was Kempe; was married to Charles A. Stothard, son of the famous artist, and, after his death, became the wife of the Rev. Edward A. Bray, Vicar of Tavistock. She died in London, Jan. 21, 1883. Brazil, now called officially the UNITED STATES OF BBAZIL, a vast re- public in South America, occupying a space nearly equal to one-half of that entire continent It is of extremely irregular outline and varying dimen- sions; its greatest diameter being, E. to W., or from Cape Augustin to the Yavari or Jabary river, which sepa- rates it from Peru, 2,630 miles; and, N. to S., from Cape Orange E. of Oyapok bay, to the S. extremity of Lake Mirim, 2,580 miles ; area 3,209,- 878 square miles. It is bounded S. E., E., and N. E. by the Atlantic Ocean; N. by French, Dutch, and English Guiana, and Venezuela ; W. and S. W. by Colombia, Peru, Bolivia, Para- guay, and the Argentine provinces of Missiones, and by the republic of Uru- guay. Its entire coast-line, from the extreme S. point already mentioned, to the head of the Bay of Oyapok is Brazil upward of 3,700 miles. Throughout this vast extent of coast there are few- great indentations, though in some parts smaller harbors and inlets are pretty numerous, many of the former excellent and generally surrounded by flats. With the exception of the Rio Fran- cisco and the Parana, all the large rivers of Brazil empty themselves on its N. shores, and nearly all run par- allel courses from S. to N., traversing the vast plains which occupy the cen- ter and N. W. portions of the coun- try, and presenting means of internal communication, unequaled in any oth- er part of the globe. Brazil is divided, politically, into 21 States (formerly provinces) of which there are at least nine each exceeding Great Britain in superficial extent It is, however, difficult to obtain the area of the States, and of the whole coun- try, the existing data being very un- satisfactory and conflicting. The fol- lowing table gives the areas of the States and the population as officially reported in 1900: Area in States. sq. Miles. Pop. 1900. Alagoas 22,583 642,249 Amazonas 732,439 249,756 Bahia 164,643 2,117,956 Ceara 40,247 849,127 Espirito Santo 17,312 209,783 Goyaz 288,536 255,284 Maranhao 177,561 459,508 Matto Grosso 532,683 118,525 Minas Geraes 221,951 3,594,471 Para 443,903 445,356 Parahyba 28,854 490,734 Parana 85,451 327,130 Pernambuco 49,573 1,178,150 Piauhy 116,523 334,328 Rio de Janeiro (city) . 538 730,951 Rio de Janeiro 26,634 926,035 Rio Grande do Norte. 22,195 274,317 Rio Grande do Sul... 91,335 1,149,070 Sao Paulo 112,307 2,282,279 Santa Catharina 28,632 320,289 Sergipe 15,093 356,264 Total 3,218,991 17,318,556 In 1913 the population was es- timated at 24,308,219 exclusive of perhaps 600,000 uncivilized Indians, and the area 3,290,564 square miles. The most important towns in Brazil are the capital, Rio de Janeiro, Bahia, Pernambuco, Para or Belem, San Brazil Paulo, Parahyba, Ceara, and Porto Algre. In remarkable contrast to the coun- tries on the W. side of the South American continent, Brazil has no mountains of very great elevation. The higher mountains of Brazil, most of them occurring at greater and lesser distances from the E. coast, extend generally in a direction more or less from S. to N., though numerous in- ferior ranges traverse the country in various other directions. The river system of Brazil is unequaled, per- haps, in any other part of the world for the number and magnitude of the streams of which it is composed, the surface of the whole N. W. portion being interlaced with rivers of every length and volume; presenting the complex appearance of vessels in the human body, to which the Amazon and its larger tributaries may be said to stand in the relation of main ar- teries. By far the greater portion of these numberless streams have more or less of a N. direction, and finally find their way, either directly or through their principals, to the Amazon. The largest river of Brazil, and the largest, it is believed, in the world, though not the longest, is the Amazon, which en- ters the country from the W., about lat 4 30' S. ; Ion. 70 W., and after a. N. E. course from the point named of about 800 miles, flows into the Atlan- tic near the equator. In order of mag- nitude follow the Rio Negro and Me- deira, both tributaries of the Amazon ; the former flowing from the N. W., the latter from the S. W. The other large rivers in this portion of the country are the Branco, a tributary of the Rio Negro ; the Tapajos and Xingu, other two large tributaries of the Amazon ; the Araguay, Tocantins, Maranhao, and Paranahyba. The next in size is the Rio Francisco, which, after flowing N. for about 800 miles, suddenly turns due E., and subsequently S. E., falling into the sea about lat. 11 S. Passing along the coast, S. from the embouchure of the Francisco, the following considerable rivers occur the Vazabarris, Itapi- curu, Paraguassu, Belmonte or Jequit- inhonha, in the State of Bahia ; Doce, State of Espirito-Santo ; and the Pa- raiba-do-Sul, the S. boundary of the same State. In this enumeration of Brazil Brazil the rivers having their embouchures j on the E. coast of Brazil, we have j omitted an immense number of smaller j streams, perhaps not many below a hundred. In the interior of the S. ' portion of the country occur the large ! rivers Uruguay, Yguazu, Paranapan- ! ema, Tieta, Para, Paraguay, and Pa- | rana, with numerous smaller streams | - smaller in comparison to these, but still large rivers winding in all di- rections through every province. Al- though unrivalled in the number and magnitude of its rivers, Brazil has comparatively few lakes of any great \ extent. The largest is the Lagoa dos Patos, a lagoon in the State of Rio Grande do Sul, the extreme S. of the Brazilian States ; it is about 150 miles in length, and 35 miles in breadth at the widest part, and is separated from the sea by a narrow strip of land only ; it discharges its water into the ocean by a channel called the Rio Grande. Farther N. several smaller lakes oc- cur, the largest of which may be from 20 to 30 miles in length. There are hardly any others worth mentioning. The mineral wealth of Brazil is con- siderable, and includes gold, silver, and iron, diamonds, topazes, and other precious stones. Among the earliest discovered and first wrought gold mines were those of Jaragua, but they j have long ceased to be regularly worked, the precious metal being found more easily and in greater abundance mingled with the sands and alluvial deposits of rivers. The process of separation, the gold being in small par- ticles, is effected by repeated washings, which are continued till nothing but the pure metal remains at the bottom of the vessel. The entire quantity of gold produced has now greatly fallen off, being hardly a fourth of what it formerly was, owing chiefly to the auriferous sand having been exhausted. Large quantities of diamonds have been obtained in Brazil. The district from which most stones have been de- rived is Diamantina in Minas Geraes, adjoining the Serra do Espinhaco. The diamonds have been hitherto found in the beds of rivers only, and are washed from the sand and stones with which they are mingled much in the same way as the gold. The largest known Bra- zilian diamond was found in the Rio Bogagens, and weighed 254^ carats. The negro who found a diamond weighing 17 carats, used to obtain his liberty, a variety of proportionate re- wards being appointed for those of lesser value. About 20,000 negroes were at one time employed in the dia- mond mines. The government re- ceived one-fifth of the total value of all the gold and diamonds found in the country. Notwithstanding the sounding names of these two items of the mineral wealth of Brazil, neither of them has been nearly so profitable, nor so beneficial to the general inter- ests of the country as the homeliest of its agricultural productions. In the short space of a year and a half the exports of sugar and coffee amounted to more than the value of diamonds found throughout a period of 80 years within the limits of Brazil. As almost the whole of Brazil lies S. of the equator, and in a hemisphere where there is a greater proportion of sea than land, its climate is generally more cool and moist than that of coun- tries in corresponding latitudes in the Northern Hemisphere. This is partic- ularly applicable to the flat portions of the country, where impenetrable for- ests occupy the alluvial plains, and, by preventing the sun's rays reaching the earth, cut off one of the principal sources of heat radiation. In the S. parts of Brazil, in consequence of the gradual narrowing of the conti- nent, the climate is of an insular char- acter cool summers and mild win- ters. The quantity of rain that falls in Brazil differs widely in the amount in different localities. The N. States generally are subject to heavy rains and violent storms ; but the S. regions rejoice in a settled, mild, and salu- brious climate. The rainy season commences in October, and usually lasts till March, setting in with heavy thunder-storms. At Rio, where the climate has been much modified by the clearing away of the forests in the neighborhood, the mean temperature of the year is 72 ; and the rains have been so diminished as to have seriously reduced the supply of water to the city. Generally the climate of Brazil is delightful, diffusing and maintaining a perpetual summer throughout this favored land. In the N. parts the air in the lower tracts is somewhat sultry and oppressive ; but vegetation is vig- orous and profuse, the ground being Brazil Brazil covered with flowers, and the trees with a foliage that is ever green ; while the nights are deliciously cool. Near the coast the temperature is modified by the trade wind, which, after tra- versing the Atlantic, fans the shores of Brazil, imparting a refreshing cool- ness to the atmosphere. The soil of Brazil, so far as its capabilities have been tested, is highly fertile. Altogether but a comparative- ly small portion has yet been subjected to this test, probably not more than a hundredth part of the surface being under cultivation, and this portion is almost entirely limited to the coast, and to the N. E. part of the country, which seems peculiarly well adapted for the cultivation of maize, sugar, and coffee. The pastures, moreover, are of vast extent, and, as they afford food for immense numbers of horned cattle, they form one of the principal sources of the wealth of the country. Being almost wholly within the limit of the palm region, the vegetation of Brazil is characterized generally by the peculiar physiognomy which tha' beautiful family of vegetables impresses on tropical countries. Of these nearly 200 species are known as native to the country. The chief food-supplying plants are sugar, coffee, cacao, rice, maize, wheat, manioc (cassava), beans, bananas, yams, lemons, oranges, figs, etc. the two first, sugar and cof- fee, being the staple products of the republic. The manioc is a native of Brazil, and its farina is almost the only kind of meal used in that coun- try. An acre of manioc is said to yield as much nutriment as six acres of wheat. The Indians find in this beautiful and useful plant a compen- sation for the rice and other cereals of the Old World. But it is in the boundless forests of Brazil that the vigor of the vegetative power is ex- hibited in its most imposing form. Rubber, drugs, dyes, fibers, vegetable ivory, and cabinet woods are all prod- ucts of the Brazilian forests. Among the trees are the andaacu, or Purga da Paulistas, the seeds of which yield a purgative oil; the cacao or chocolate tree ; the Brazil-wood tree, used, under the name of Pernambuco wood, for dyeing silk of a crimson color ; the rosewood tree, the fustic, mahogany, and a variety of others well adapted ; for various purposes. The beauty, va- i riety, and abundance of the flowers of this extraordinary country are no less remarkable than any other of its vege- table productions. The principal domestic animals of Brazil are horned cattle and horses; the numbers of the former are prodigi- ous, covering the boundless plains of the interior. The greatest part of them live in a wild or semi-wild state. Horses are numerous in the S. prov- inces ; they are of a middling size, from 12 to 14^j hands high, but strong, live- ly, and swift. Mules are reared in the S. States. Sheep are in little repute, the meat being ill flavored and the wool of indifferent quality. Goats and hogs are abundant. The woods of Brazil swarm with wild animals, including the puma, jaguar, sloth, ar- madillo, etc. Wild hogs are also com- mon, as well as an amphibious animal called the water hog or capybara, re- sembling a hog in form, but of the size of a heifer. Monkeys are likewise nu- j merous ; and vampire bats are in some localities so destructive as to prevent the rearing of cattle. Among the feathered tribes are, the smallest, the humming-bird, and one of the largest, the rhea or ostrich. There are also parrots in great variety, and a power- ful eagle, the harpy. Water-fowl, es- pecially geese and ducks, abound in certain seasons on the lakes and la- goons at the S. extremity of Brazil. The reptiles consist of the boa constric- tor and other species of serpents, some of them venomous, especially the jar- raraca, which is much dreaded by th natives. When full grown it is usu- ally about six feet long, and is nearly allied to the rattlesnake genus. It prevails over all the S. States. Its bite is attended with great suffering, and with the most serious conse- quences, even where death is averted. In the marshy countries of the S. the boa or python is said to attain a length of over 20 feet Other im- portant reptiles are several species of alligator and different kinds of turtle, which, on the Amazon in particular, supply abundance of food. The in- sects of Brazil are, many of them, re- ' markable for the beauty of their col- ors and their size, especially the but- terflies and moths, of which as many as 14,000 species are known. In Brazil some localities insects are so numerous in the woods that their noise is heard in a ship at anchor some distance from the shore. The white ants are especially numerous and destructive. The scorpions of Brazil attain a length of six inches. Most of the bees of the country are stingless, there being no fewer than 30 species of that descrip- tion. The shores and rivers abound with fish. Among the most valuable of those caught on the former is the garopa, which attains a length of from 12 to 20 feet, and is well flavored; they are most numerous on the coast of Bahia, where great quantities are annually taken and exported. The numbers of fish caught in the Amazon and other rivers of the country are very great, constituting a principal part of the subsistence of the inhab- itants. In every town schools for teaching the first rudiments are now to be found, to which the children of all citizens are admitted free. There are no universities, but there are govern- ment colleges of law, medicine, etc. In all large towns there are professor- ships of Latin, Greek, English, French, philosophy, rhetoric, geometry, chem- istry, botany, etc. ; and printing Eresses are now common throughout razil. The varied population of Brazil con- sists of people of pure Portuguese blood, who form a comparatively small minority of the whole ; of full-blooded negroes, who form the largest unmixed element in the population ; of abor- igines or native Indians ; and of peo- ple of mixed race, the most numerous of all ; besides a certain number of German and other European immi- grants. The Portuguese portion of the population have made Portuguese the national language of the country. The native Indians are copper-colored, robust, well-made, but of short stature. They generally go naked, paint their skins, and are fond of ornament- ing their heads with feathers. A number are nominally Christians. They belong to various tribes of which the chief are the Tupi, Guarani, and the Onagua. In recent years there has been a considerable immigration of- European colonists, the majority Italians. Italy enjoys a " favored nation " tariff with Brazil. In Dec.. ___ BrarU 1906, it was reported that the German govt. offered exemption from military service to German settlers in Rio Grande. Commercial activities in 1915 showed imports (excluding spe- cie), $150,440,000; exports, $264,850,- 000 (coffee, $160,950,000). Exports comprise coffee (the most valuable product), sugar, rubber, cotton, hides, drugs, gums, and diamonds. There are over 16,000 m. of railroad, over 42,000 m. of telegraph wire and ex- tending telephonic systems. A feature of the telegraphic system is the cable laid on the bed of the Amazon river and giving Para, Manaos and other towns on its banks telegraphic con- nection with the rest of the world. There is now no established religion in Brazil, but practically all excepting 100,000 of the population are Catho- lics. Until recently the government was monarchial, hereditary, constitu- tional, and representative. Since the overthrow of the empire in 1889 repub- lican institutions have been estab- lished, each of the old provinces being now a State, whose internal affairs are administered without interference from the central federal government. At the head of affairs is a president, by whom, and the national congress, legislation is carried on. The con- gress consists of a chamber of 212 deputies and a senate of 63 members, the former elected by direct vote as representative of the different States ; while the senators are chosen by di- rect vote, three for each State and the Federal District for nine years. On Jan. 1, 1915, the foreign debt was $409,728,800 ; internal debt, $172.649,- 935 ; State and municipal debts, $158,- 436.135. The revenue of the republic in 1915 aggregated $194,570,275; and the ex- penditures $134,652,575. The mili- tary budget for 1915 was $36,270,- 695. The navy comprised two dread- naughts, two old battleships, three protected cruisers, and twenty-three gunboats, destroyers, torpedo boats, etc. Brazil was discovered Jan. 26, 1500, by Vincente Yanez Pincon, one of the companions of Columbus, and was sub- sequently taken possession of by Pedro Alvares de Cabral. Emanuel, King of Portugal, had equipped a squadron for a voyage to the East Indies, under the Brazil command of Cabral. The admiral, quitting Lisbon, March 9, 1500, fell in accidentally, April 24, with the conti- nent of South America, which he at first supposed to be a large island on the coast of Africa. In this conjec- ture he was soon undeceived, when the natives came in sight. Having discov- ered a good harbor, he anchored his vessels, and called the bay Puerto Se- guro. On the next day he landed with a body of troops, and having erected the cross, took possession of the coun- try in the name of his sovereign, and called it Terro da Vera Cruz ; but the name was afterward altered by King Emanuel to that of Brazil, from the red wood which the country produces. The value of Brazil to Portugal con- tinued steadily to increase after the discovery of the gold mines in 1698, and the discovery of the diamond mines in 1728. Up to the year 1810 Brazil had sent to Portugal 14,280 hundred- weights of gold and 2,100 pounds of diamonds, which foreign countries, and especially Great Britain, at last succeeded in purchasing at the Lisbon market. Rio Janeiro now became the mart for the proceeds of the Brazilian mines and native productions. But the administration was anything but adapted to promote the prosperity of the country. The attention of the gov- ernment was turned almost exclusively to the gold washings and to the work- ing of the diamond mines ; and the policy of the administration consisted in the exaction of taxes and duties, which were collected from the fortified ports, to which trade was solely con- fined. Foreigners were excluded or jealously w itched, and trade was par- alyzed by numerous restrictions. In the interior, the lands situated on the great rivers, after being surveyed, were frequently presented, after the year 1640, by the kings of the house of Braganza. to the younger sons of the Portuguese nobility, whom the sys- tem of entails excluded from the pros- pect of inheritance. These grantees enlisted adventurers, purchased negro slaves by thousands, and subjected the original inhabitants or drove them from their districts, and ruled their dominions with almost unlimited sway. The missions of the Jesuits also re- ceived similar donations from the kings. Brazil On the invasion of Portugal in 1808 by the French, the sovereign of that kingdom, John VI., sailed for Brazil, accompanied by his court and a large body of emigrants. Soon after arriv- ing there he began to improve the con- dition of the country by placing the ad- ministration on a better footing, and throwing open its ports to all nations. On the fall of Bonaparte the king raised Brazil to the rank of a kingdom, and assumed the title of King of Por- tugal, Algarve, and Brazil. The revo- lution which took place in Portugal in 1820, compelled the king to return to that country; he next year sailed for Lisbon, leaving Pedro, his eldest son and successor, as lieutenant and regent. But as the Portuguese Cortes was not willing to grant the entire equality of civil and political relations demanded by the Brazilians, and had expressly declared that Brazil was to be divided into governments, and ruled by the ministry of State at Lisbon, and the prince-regent was to be re- called to Portugal such violent con- vulsions were excited in Rio Janeiro and various parts of Brazil, December, 1821, that it was explicitly declared to the prince-regent that his departure would be the signal for establishing an independent republic. The prince, therefore, resolved to remain in Bra- zil, and gave a public explanation of his reasons, Jan. 9, 1822, to his father, to the Cortes in Portugal, and to the people of Brazil. The Portuguese troops were removed from Brazil. The prince-regent assumed, May 13, 1822, the title of " perpetual defender of Brazil," and in June convened a Na- tional Assembly, composed of 100 dep- uties, to frame a separate constitution for the country. The National Assem- bly of Brazil declared the separation of that country from Portugal, Aug. 1, 1822. and Oct. 12, appointed Dom Pedro the constitutional Emperor of Brazil. The new emperor retained, at the same time, the title of " perpetual defender of Brazil." The king, after some slight and in- effectual attempts to re-establish the former relations between Portugal and Brazil, acknowledged the independence of the latter country in 1825. Some years afterward a series of tumultuary proceedings ended in the abdication of Dom Pedro, who left Brazil on April Brazilian Grass Brazos 7, 1831, leaving his son, who was un- der age, as his successor. The rights of the latter were recognized and pro- tected, and a regency of three persons appointed by the Chamber of Deputies to conduct the government during his minority. In 1840 the young emperor was declared of age, being then in his 15th year, and was crowned on July 18, 1841. The new government had considerable difficulty in crushing the republican and revolutionary party, which kept up a series of struggles in several provinces for some years. In 1845 the insurgents had all laid down their arms, but in 1848 a new rising took place, which was put down not without difficulty in the following year. In 1851 a war broke out with Rosas, dictator of Buenos Ayres, in which Brazil was joined by Paraguay, Uruguay, Corrientes, and Entre Rios, and which ended in favor of the allies. From this war Brazil received a cer- tain impulse. The trade now in- creased, the finances of the country improved, and the government began to further the development of the country by constructing roads, encour- aging immigration, and fostering the education of the people. In 1853 the Bank of Brazil was founded, and the construction of railways began. In 1859 a minister for agriculture, com- merce, and public work was appointed, and a large government loan for the construction of railways was author- ized. In 1863, in consequence of the arrest of three English naval officers, a misunderstanding arose with Eng- land, which led to the termination of diplomatic relations for a time between the two countries. Meanwhile (No- vember, 18G4) hostilities had been commenced by the Paraguayans under President Lopez against Brazil, in consequence of the interference of the latter in the affairs of Uruguay; and in May, 1865, an alliance for the pur- pose of carrying on war against Par- aguay was concluded between Brazil, the Argentine Confederation, and Uru- guay. This war, the brunt of which had to be borne by Brazil, lasted till 1870, the Paraguayans having main- tained a heroic resistance, and having only given up the contest on the death of their leader, Lopez, in battle against the Brazilians (March 1, 1870). This struggle was attended with an im- mense expenditure of men and money to Brazil, but it established her repu- tation as a great power and secured the freedom of the navigation of the La Plata river system. For some years after this a movement toward greater freedom went on in Brazil. In 1888 it took the form of a total abol- ition of slavery without compensation, and in 1889 it received further devel- opment in a revolution which over- threw the monarchy. On Nov. 16 a provisional government was formed, the emperor with his family sailed for Europe, and a new constitution pro- claimed the Republic of the Federated United States of Brazil. In 1893-94 an insurrection, confined chiefly to the navy, was suppressed after some fight- ing by Pres. Peixoto. In 1906 the Third International Congress of Amer- ican Republics assembled at Rio de Janeiro, the object being to improve in every way possible the relations between North, Central, and South American republics. Mr. Elihu Root, Secretary of State, headed the delega- tion from the U. S., and discussions of the Monroe and Drago doctrines were features of the Congress. Brazilian Grass, an incorrect popular name applied to a substance used in the manufacture of a very cheap kind of hats, known as Brazil- ian grass hats. Brazil Nuts, the seeds of a Bra- zilian tree. The nuts or seeds are largely exported from Para, whence they are sometimes called Para nuts. Brazil Tea, a tree the mate, the leaves of which are used in South America as a substitute for Chinese or India tea. Brazil Wood, a kind of wood used for dyeing, and extensively im- ported from the West Indies, Brazil, and other tropical countries. Brazing, the act of soldering to- gether the surfaces of iron, copper, brass, etc., with an alloy composed of brass and zinc, sometimes with the ad- dition of a little tin or silver. Brazos, a large river of the United States, in Texas, rising in the N. W. part of the State, and flowing into the Gulf of Mexico, after a course of 900 miles, 40 miles W. S. W. of Galves- ton. During the rainy season, from February to May inclusive, it is navi- Breach Breakwater gable by steamboats for about 300 miles. Breach, the aperture or passage made in the wall of any fortified place by the ordnance of the besiegers for ! the purpose of entering the fortress, j Breach, in law, any violation of a ' law, or the non-performance of a duty imposed by law. Bread. In the earliest antiquity we find the flour or meal of grain used as food. Bread, as is well known, is made from the flour or meal of the cereals, Indian corn, millet, and rice being principally used for the purpose in the more S. countries, rye, barley, ! and oats in the more N., and wheat in the intermediate and temperate re- gions ; but other vegetable products, such as beans, peas, lentils, turnips, carrots, potatoes, and even the bark of trees, are also sometimes employed < either alone or mixed with the flour of the cereals Breadfruit. The breadfruit is ai large, globular fruit of a pale-green BEEADFBTJTT. color, about the size of a child's head, marked on the surface with irregular Bix-sided depressions, and containing a white and somewhat fibrous pulp, which when ripe becomes juicy and yellow. The tree that produces Jt grows wild in Tahiti and other is- lands of the South Seas. It is about 40 feet high, with large and spreading branches, and has large bright green ; E. leaves, deeply divided into seven or nine spear-shaped lobes. The eatable part of this fruit lies between the skin and the core, and it is as white as snow and somewhat of the consistence of new bread. When gathered it is generally used immediately ; if it be kept more than 24 hours, it becomes hard and choky. The inhabitants of the South Sea Islands prepare it as food by dividing the fruit into three or four parts and roasting it in hot embers. Its taste is insipid, with a slight tartness. As the climate of the South Sea Is- lands is not very different from that of the West Indies, it was thought de- sirable that some of the trees should be transferred in a growing state to the British islands there ; and it was for this purpose that the " Bounty " sailed in 1787 to the South Seas, un- der the command of the well-known Bligh. This expedition being unsuc- cessful, a second, also under Bligh, was fitted out in 1791. He arrived in safety at Tahiti, and after an ab- sence from England of about 18 months, landed in Jamaica with 352 breadfruit trees in a living state, hav- ing left many others at different places in his passage thither. From Jamaica these trees were transferred to other islands; but the negroes, having a general and long-established predilec- tion for the plantain, the breadfruit is not much relished by them. Where, however, it has not been generally introduced as an article of food, it is used as a delicacy; and whether em- ployed as bread or in the form of pud- ding, it is considered highly palatable by the white inhabitants. Breakwater, a pier, wall, mole, sunken hulk, or anything similar, placed at the entrance of a harbor, at the exposed part of an anchorage, or in any such situation, with the view of deadening the force of the waves which roll in from the ocean. There are several notable breakwaters in this country one of the longest and most notable being that in Lake Michigan, protecting the harbor of the city of Chicago. It is peculiar in its con- struction, being built perpendicalarly and encased with wooden beams. The Delaware breakwater, in Delaware Bay, is built with sloping sides, being much broader at its base than on top. Bream Breech Bream, the carp bream. It is of a yellowish white color, which changes, through age, to a yellowish brown. The sides are golden, the cheeks and gill covers silver white, the fins, light colored, tinged, the ventral one with red and others with brown. It is found in deep waters and lakes. It is sought after by anglers, who, how- ever, consider the flesh insipid. Breastwork, in fortification, a hastily constructed parapet made of material at hand, such as earth, logs, rails, timber, and designed to protect troops from the fire of an enemy. In architecture, the parapet of a build- ing. In shipbuilding, a railing or bal- ustrade standing athwartships across a deck, as on the forward end of the quarter deck or roundhouse. The beam supporting it is a breastbeam. Breckinridge, Clifton B,., an American legislator and diplomatist, born in Lexington, Ky., Nov. 25, 1846 ; received a public school education and served in the Confederate army and navy. After the war he attended Washington College (now Washing- ton and Lee University) for three years, and engaged in mercantile busi- ness in Pine Bluff, Ark. He was elected to Congress in 1882 as Repre- sentative-at-large. On July 19, 1894, he was appointed United States Min- ister to Russia, serving until 1897. Breckinridge, or Breckenriclge, John, an American statesman, born in 1760. In 1795 he was made Attor- ney-General of the new _State of Ken- tucky, and he served in its Legislature from 1797 to 1800. He entered the United States Senate, in 1801, becom- ing four years later Attorney-General in Jefferson's cabinet, in which office he died in 180& Breckinridge, John Cahell, Vice-President of the United States, born near Lexington, Ky., Jan. 21, 1821 ; practiced law in Lexington un- til 1847, when he was chosen major of a volunteer regiment for the Mexican War. He sat in Congress in 1851- 1855, and in 1856 was elected Vice- President, with James Buchanan as President. In 1860 he was the pro- slavery candidate for the presidency, but was defeated by Abraham Lin- coln. A United States Senator from March to December, 1861, he then en- tered the Confederate army, was ap^ pointed a Major-General, in 1862, and held some important commands during the Civil War. He was Secretary of War in Jefferson Davis' cabinet at the close of the struggle, and escaped to Europe, whence he returned in 1868. He died in Lexington, May 17, 1875. Breckinridge, Joseph Cahell, an American military officer, born in Baltimore, Md., Jan. 14, 1842; a cousin of Gen. John C. Breckenridge of the Confederate army. He prac- ticed law in Danville, Ky., till the be- ginning of the Civil War, when he joined the Union army. He was made a First Lieutenant in the Regular army Aug. 1, 1863, a Captain in 1874, Brigadier and Inspector-General in 1889, and Major-General of Volun- teersj May 4, 1898. He served in the Santiago campaign and had a horse shot under him. Breckinridge, Robert Jeffer- son, a Presbyterian clergyman and theological writer, born at CabelPs Dale, Ky., March 8, 1800. He was originally a lawyer. He was Presi- dent of Jefferson College in 1845- 1847; from 1847 he was pastor at Lexington, Ky. He was a leader in the division of the Presbyterian Church in 1837 into Old and New Schools. He died in Danville, Ky., Dec. 27, 1871. Breda, a town in Holland, Pro- vince of North Brabant, at the conflu- ence of the Merk and the Aa. Breda was once a strong fortress and of fereat military importance as a strat- egical position. From the 16th to the end of the 18th century Breda has an interesting military history of sieges, assaults and captures, with which the names of the most famous generals of their time, the Duke of Parma, Mau- rice of Orange, the Marquis Spinola, Dumouriez, and Pichegru, etc., are connected. It was the residence for a time of the exi^ Charles II. of Eng- land, and it was in the Declaration of Breda that he promised liberty of conscience, a general amnesty, etc., on his restoration. Breech, in firearms and ordnance, the rear portion of a gun ; the portion behind the chamber; in shipbuilding, the outer angle of a knee timber; t*ie inner angle is the throat. Breeches Bible Breeches Bible, a name given to a Bible printed in 1579 ; and so called from the reading of Gen. iii: 7: " They sowed figge tree leaves together and made themselves breeches." Breech Loader, a firearm in which the charge is introduced at the ' rear instead of at the muzzle. Breech. Pin, in firearms, a plug screwed into the rear end of a barrel, { forming the bottom of the charge chamber. Otherwise called a breech plug or breech screw. Breech Screw, in firearms, the plug which closes the rear end of the bore of a firearm barrel. The parts are known as the plug, the face, the tenon, the tang, and the tangscrew I hole. Breech Sight, the hinder sight of a gun. In conjunction with the front i sight, it serves to aim the gun at an object Breeding, the art of improving races or breeds of domestic animals, | or modifying them in certain direc- tions, by continuous attention to their pairing, in conjunction with a similar attention to their feeding and general treatment. No sooner had the Revolutionary War closed than importations of im- proved stock began. This was kept up till the War of 1812 temporarily checked it Mr. Rommel says that the year 1817 will always be memorable in American cattle history. In that year, follow- ing the short-horn importations of 1812, came the beginning of the Devon and Hereford importations, together with still another arrival of short- horns. Growth was slow up to 1827, when there came renewed activity, es- pecially in short-horns. Companies were formed and the improvement of cattle was marked. In point of num- bers the shorthorn breed rapidly as- sumed the foremost position, and till about the year 3880 was the only beef of prominence. The expansion of the cattle business was rapid. Up to the opening of the Union Pacific railroad it was mainly carried on in the part of the country E. of the Missouri river. Then came the discovery of the great opportuni- ties offered by the far Western plains i for grazing. The grrowth in tie cat- , tie raising industry was then abnor- mal. " In the early eighties," says Mr. Rommel, " pure-bred cattle by the thousands were brought from England to supplement the American herds in breeding bulls for the range, and the nearest that the Hereford and Angus breeds ever came to having a boom in this country was at this time. After the collapse, which was bound to fol- low, the cattle business is now on what is thought to be a substantial and healthy foundation. Breed's Hill, a slight elevation in the Charlestown district of Boston, Mass., about 700 yards from Bunker Hill. Although the famous engage- ment of June 17, 1775, is known as the Battle of Bunker Hill, most of the fighting was done on Breed's Hill. Here was located the American re- doubt, against which the British made their three historical charges, and here Warren fell. The Bunker Hill monu- ment stands on Breed's Hill. Breitenf eld, a village of Saxony, 5 miles N. of Leipsic, remarkable for three battles fought in its neighbor- hood. In the first, fought on Sept 17 (old style, 7th), 1631, Gustavus Adol- phus inflicted a decisive defeat upon the imperialists under Tilly, who, as well as his generals, Pappenheim and Furstenberg, was wounded. The sec- ond battle was also a victory of the Swedes under Torstenson over the im- perial forces under the Archduke Leo- pold and Piccolomini, Nov. 2 (old style, Oct 23), 1642. The third bat- tle was one act of the great " Battle of the Nations" at Leipsic, Oct 16, 1813. Bremen, a free city of Germany, an independent member of the Empire, one of the three Hanse towns, on the Weser, about 50 miles from its mouth, in its own small territory of 99 square miles, besides which it possesses the port of Bremerhayen, at the mouth of the river. The city is partly on the right, partly on the left, bank of the Weser, the larger portion being on the former. Its situation renders Bremen the emporium for Hanover, Bruns- wick, Hesse, and other countries tra- versed by the Weser, and next to Ham- burg it is the principal seat of the ex- port and import and emigration trade of Germany. Only small vessels can pass up to the city itself; the great Bremer bulk of the shipping trade centers in Bremerhaven and in Geestemunde. Bremerhaven is now a place of (1910) 24,275 inhabitants, has docks capable of receiving the largest vessels, and is connected by railway with Bremen, where the chief merchants and brokers have their offices. The chief imports are tobacco, raw cotton and cotton goods, wool and woolen goods, rice, coffee, grain, petroleum, etc., which are chiefly re-exported to other parts of Germany and the Continent. Ag- gregate value of imports 1913, $622,- 825,000; of exports, $598,500,000. Population of city (1910) 299,526. Bremer, Fredrika, a Swedish novelist, was born at Tuorla, Finland, Aug. 17, 1801 ; was brought up at Arsta, about 20 miles from Stockholm. She varied her literary labor by long journeys in Italy, England, the United States, Greece, Palestine. She died in Arsta, Dec. 31, 1865. Brennns, the name of two individ- uals known in history. (1) The first was the hero of an early Roman leg- end which relates to the migration of the Gauls into Italy and their march to Clusium and Rome. In the account given by Livy, he figures as the Regu- lus Gallorum, or chieftain of the Gauls. When he' arrived at Clusium, the inhabitants called on the Romans for aid. He engaged with and de- feated the Romans on the banks of the Allia, the name of which river they ever after held in detestation. The whole city was afterward plundered and burned, and the capitol would have been taken but for the bravery of Manlius. At last, induced by fam- ine and pestilence, the Romans agreed that the Gauls should receive 1,000 pounds of gold, on the condition that they would quit Rome and its terri- tory altogether; the barbarian brought false weights, but his fraud was detected. The tribune Sulpicius exclaimed against the injustice of Brennus, who immediately laid his sword and belt on the scale, and said, " Woe to the vanquished." The dicta- tor, Camillus, arrived with his forces at this critical time, annulled the ca- pitulation, and ordered him to prepare tor battle. The Gauls were defeated ; there was a total slaughter, and not a man survived to carry home the news of the defeat. (2) A king of Breslan the Gauls, who, B. c. 279, made an ir- ruption into Macedonia with a force of 150,000 men and 10,000 horses. Pro- ceeding into Greece, he attempted to plunder the temple at Delphi. He engaged in many battles, lost many thousand men, and himself received many wounds. Brent, Charles Henry, an Amer- ican clergyman ; born in Newcastle, Ontario, Canada, in 1862 ; was grad- uated at the University of Trinity Col- lege in 1884 ; ordained deacon in the Protestant Episcopal Church in 1886, priest in 1887 ; consecrated the first bishop of the Protestant Episcopal Church for the Philippine Islands in December, 1901 ; declined the bishop- ric of Washington, 1908, and of New Jersey, 1914. Brent Goose, a wild goose, smaller than the common barnacle goose and of much darker plumage, remarkable for length of wing and extent of mi- gratory power, being a winter bird of passage in the United States, Can- ada, etc. It breeds in high northern latitudes ; it feeds on drifting seaweeds and saline plants, and is considered the most delicate for the table of all the goose tribe. Brescia, a city of Lombardy, North Italy. Brescia is a place of consider- able trade and manufacturing indus- try. Near it are large iron-works, and its firearms are esteemed the best that are made in Italy. It has also silk, linen, and paper factories, tan- yards, and oil mills, and is an impor- tant mart for raw silk. But_ it de- rives its greatest interest from its fine Roman remains, having been at one time the seat of a Roman colony. In 1796 it was taken by the French, and was assigned to Austria by the general treaty signed at Vienna on June 9,. 1815. In 1849 it was involved in the commotions of Continental Europe; its streets were barricaded ; but the city was eventually captured by the Austrians under General Haynau. It was ceded to Sardinia by the treaty of Zurich in 1859. Pop. (1915) 89,- 622. Breslan, a large city of the Ger- man empire, and the second in the Prussian dominions, being excelled in population only by the capital, Ber- lin ; is the capital of the province of Silesia. It is situated in a spacioui Brest plain at the confluence ' of the Qhlau and the Oder, the latter dividing it into two main portions, which, with islands in the river, are connected by a large number of bridges. There are electric and other tramways. The public squares and buildings are hand- some. The fortifications which sur- rounded the old or inner city have been converted into promenades, and the ditch into an ornamental sheet of water. Pop. (1910) 512,105. Brest, a seaport in the N. W. of France, Department of Finistere. It has one of the best harbors in France, and is the chief station of the French marine, having safe roads capable of containing 500 men-of-war in from 8 to 15 fathoms at low water. The en- trance is narrow and rocky, and the coast on both sides is well fortified. The design to make it a naval arsenal originated with Richelieu, and was carried out by Duquesne and Vauban in the reign of Louis XIV., with the result that the town was made almost impregnable. Brest stands on the summit and sides of a projecting ridge, many of the streets being exceedingly steep. Several of the docks have been cut in the solid rock, and a break- water extends far into the roadstead. Pop. (1911) 90,540. Bretagne or Brittany, one of the Provinces into which France was di- vided. It now forms the Departments of Finistere, Cotes-du-Nord, Morbihan, and Loire-Inferieure. In ancient times, under the name of Armorica, it was the central seat of the confeder- ated Armorican tribes, who were of Celtic and Kymric origin. Traces of them still remain in the old Kymric dialect of the three most westerly De- partments, and in the numerous so- called Druidical monuments. The Breton has generally a tinge of melan- choly in his disposition ; but often conceals, under a dull and indifferent exterior, lively imagination and strong feelings. The greater number of the people are found to be ignorant and coarse in their manners, and their ag- riculture is of a very rude character, by no means calculated to develop the natural resources of the country. The Duchy of Bretagne was incor- porated with France in 1532, by Fran- cis I., to whom it had come by mar- riage, and subsequently shared in the Brewer general fortunes of the kingdom, but retained a local parliament until the outbreak of the Revolution. During the Revolution Bretagne, which was intensely loyal, was the arena of san- | guinary conflicts, and especially of the movements of the Chouans, who re- appeared as recently as 1832. The Bretons are also intensely Roman Catholic, and have made violent re- j sistance in 1903 to the enforcement of i the law closing unauthorized religious establishments. Breton, Jules Adolplie, a French ! painter, born in Courrieres in 1827 ; I was educated at St. Omer and at Douai, and trained as a painter under Felix Deyigne at Ghent, and in Droll- ing's atelier at Paris. The subjects of I his earlier pictures are taken from the i French revolutionary period ; but he i soon turned to the scenes from peasant life which he has treated in a most poetic and suggestive manner, with an admirable union of style with real- ism. Breton was also known as a poet and author. Many of his pictures are in this country. He died July 6, 1906. Brets, Brettys, or Brits, Britons, the name given to the Welsh, or an- cient Britons, in general ; also, to those of Strathclyde, as distinguished from the Scots and Picts. Bretten, a town of Baden, Ger- many, the birthplace of Melanchthon, 16 miles E. N. B. of Karlsruhe by rail. The house in which the Reform- er was born belongs now to a founda- tion bearing his name for the support of poor students, established in 1861. A monument was erected in 1867. Breughel, the name of a celebrated Dutch family of painters, the first of whom adopted this name from a vil- lage not far from Breda. Breve, in music, a note or charac- ter of time, equal to two semibrevea or whole notes. It was formerly square in shape, but is now oval. It is the longest note in music. Brewer, David Josiah, an Ameri- can jurist, born in Smyrna, Asia Mi- nor, June 20, 1837 ; graduated at Yale College, 1856. He studied law in the office of his uncle, David Dudley Field, and was admitted to the bar in New York city in 1858. Removing to Kansas, he became prominent in his Brewer profession. He was judge of the Su- preme Court of Kansas, 1870-1881, and was appointed United States Judge for the 8th Circuit in 1884. He rendered a memorable decision on the Kansas Prohibition Law, affirming the right of liquor manufacturers to com- pensation, for which he was severely criticised by the Prohibitionists. Pres- ident Harrison elevated him to the Supreme Court of the United States in 1889. He was made a member of the Venezuelan Commission by Presi- dent Cleveland in 1896, and its chair- man. He died March 28, 1910. Brewer, Thomas Mayo, an American ornithologist, born in Bos- ton, Mass., Nov. 21, 1814; died in Boston, Mass., Jan. 23, 1880. Brewer, William Henry, an American scientist, born in Poughkeep- sie, N. Y., Sept. 14, 1828. He was graduated at Yale Scientific School in 1852. He made important government surveys, and after 1864 was Professor of Agriculture at Sheffield Scientific School (Yale). He died Nov. 2, 1910. Brewing, the operation by which beer is made, including under this term all kinds of liquors produced from gram by fermentation. The name beer, may be given to any drink pro- duced by the fermentation of a fluid consisting of water sweetened with honey, sugar, or molasses; but, strict- ly speaking, the term should only be applied to beverages prepared, either wholly or partially, from malted grain by fermentation. Brewster, Benjamin Harris, an American lawyer, born in Salem Co., N. J., Oct. 13, 1816. He was grad- uated at Princeton in 1834, was ad- mitted to the Philadelphia bar in 1838, and in 1881 became Attorney-General of the United States in President Ar- thur's cabinet, in which capacity he prosecuted the Star Route cases. He died in Philadelphia, Pa., April 4, 1888. Brewster, Sir David, a Scotch natural philosopher, born in Jedburgh in 1781. His discoveries in reference to the properties of light have led to great improvements in the illumina- tion of lighthouses. He died in Mon- trose, Scotland, Feb. 2, 1868. Brewster, William, one of the Massachusetts Pilgrims, born in Brice Scrooby, England, in 1560. He came of a well known family ; was educated at the University of Cambridge, and was for a time postmaster at Scrooby. He accepted the Separatist doctrines taught by Hooker and others, and, in consequence, had to flee to Holland, where he supported himself by print- ing. He was one of the leaders of those who sailed for the New World in the " Mayflower," and, as elder of the church, encouraged his fellow colonists at Plymouth both by his preaching and his example. He died in Plymouth, Mass., April 10, 1644. Brian (surnamed BOROIMHE), King of Ireland, for many years ruled his dominions with vigor and prosperity; but fell in the battle of Clontarf, on Good Friday, 1014. Briand, Aristide, French states* man; born at Nantes, March 281862; became a lawyer and Socialist deputy; Minister of Justice and Public Wor- ship in the Clemenceau Cabinet; ac- quired high reputation for statesman- ship and parliamentary ability by his conduct on the debate on separation of Church and State ; handled with firmness the railroad strike of 1910; was several times premier. Briarens, a famous giant, son of Coelus and Terra, who had 100 hands and 50 heads, and was called by men ^Egeon, and only by the gods Briareus. Bribery, in the United States, the word applied to an attempt to cor- ruptly influence, by means of offers of reward, the course of legislation, the result of an election, the verdict of a jury, the decision of a magistrate, etc. It is not necessary to constitute an in- dictable offence that the bribe be ac- cepted. The tender of the bribe is the essence of the crime. If a bribe be offered a witness to swear falsely the crime is not bribery, but is merged into subordination of perjury. The penalty for bribery is fine or imprison- ment, or both. Brice, Calvin Stewart, an Amer- ican capitalist, born in Denmark, O., Sept. 17, 1845; attended Miami Uni- versity, and while there enlisted in a university company in 1861. In 1862 he resumed his studies and graduated in 1863. He practiced law in Cincin- nati from 1866 to 1880, when he be- came interested in railroad and various Brick other financial undertakings. He was presidential elector on the Tilden tick- et in 1876 and the Cleveland ticket in 1884, and chairman of the Democratic National Committee in 1888. In 1890 he was elected United States Senator from Ohio, and served on the Appro- priations, Pensions, Pacific Railroad, and Public Buildings and Grounds Committees. Shortly before his death, in New York city, Dec. 15, 1898, he formed a syndicate which secured vast railroad and mining concessions in China. Brick, a kind of artificial stone, made of clay, molded in prismatic form, dried in the sun and baked in a kiln. The word is also applied to the block in its previous condition as a molded plastic mass, and as a dried block in which the water hygrometri- cally combined with the clay is driven off. When this condition is accepted as a finality, the block so dried is an adobe. Bricks were made at a re- mote period of antiquity by the Egyp- tians, the Babylonians, the Assyrians, and some of them, being inscribed with written characters, have been of price- less value in conveying historic facts to the present age. In the United States every State and Territory, excepting Alaska, now produces bricks and tiles, and the value of the combined output in 1909 was $92,777,000. The trade classifica- tion is common or building, vitrified paving or block, front, enameled, fancy and ornamental, and fire. Bridge, the short name of a com- paratively recent and increasingly popular form of the card game of whist. Its rules and points are too numerous to be given here, and the reader is referred to special works. Bridge, a structure consisting of an arch or series of arches support- ing a roadway above it, designed to unite two banks of a river or the two sides of an open space. The Brooklyn Suspension bridge, across the East river, between New York and Brooklyn, opened in 1883, is built of steel. It has a central span of 1,595 V feet, and two land spans of 930 feet each ; making, with ap- proaches, a total length of 5,989 feet, or about one mile and one furlong. The anchorage at each end is a solid cubical structure of stone, measuring Bridge 119 feet one way, by 132 feet the other, rising to a height of 90 feet above high water mark, weighing 60,- 000 tons each. The towers are 278 feet high. The weight of the whole structure suspended between the tow- ers is nearly 7,000 tons. The stress of suspension is borne by four cables of 5,296 steel wires each, 15% inches in diameter. The foundations of the towers were laid by means of caissons and compressed air, at a level of about 80 feet below high water mark. The roadway presents five parallel avenues of an average width of 16 feet each. The two outmost avenues, 19 feet wide, are devoted to vehicles ; the cen- tral avenue, 15% feet wide, for foot passengers ; and on the two intermedi- ate avenues are laid railways for car traffic. Cantilever Bridges. A cantilever is a bracket. It is a structure over- hung from a fixed base. The bridge across the river Forth on the North British railway system is one of the largest and most magnificent bridges in the world. The site of the bridge is at Queensferry. At this place, the estuary of the Forth is divided by the Island of Inchgarvie into two chan-. nels, whose depth, as much as 200 feet, precluded the construction of in- termediate piers. Hence, two large spans of 1,700 feet each were adopted. Between these, the central pier is founded on the island midway across, and is known as Inchgarvie pier. There are two other main piers, shore piers, known respectively as the Fife pier and the Queensferry pier. Of these three piers respectively three double lattice work cantilevers like scalebeams, 1,360 feet, or a quarter of a mile in length, are poised in line, reaching toward each other, and con- nected at their extremities by ordi- nary girders 350 feet long, by which the two main spans are completed. The bridge consists of two main spans of 1,700 feet, or nearly one-third of a mile each ; two of 675 feet each, being the shore ends of the outer cantilev- ers; and 15 spans of 168 feet each. The total length of the viaduct, in- cluding piers, is 8,296 feet or a little over 1% miles, of which almost exact- ly one mile is covered by the great cantilevers. The clear headway under the center of the bridge is 152 feet at Bridge high water, and the highest part of the bridge is 361 feet above the same level. There are several of these bridges in the United States, the first of any size being the Niagara cantilever, built in 1883. Its total length is 910 feet, and it is 295 feet above the sur- face of the river, with steel towers 130 feet high. The Hudson river bridge j at Poughkeepsie, built in 1889, has a j length of 6,767 feet and is built in five ! spans ; the first, third and fifth being j true cantilever spans with fixed con- j tinuous spans connecting them. The new East River bridge is also a late example of the suspension bridge. The new Blackwell's Island bridge is an example of the cantilever. ! There are four channel piers, 85 by 45 feet at the base, and 135 feet above j high tide. These piers contain 810,- 000 cubic feet of granite. The bridge is 2 miles in length, with two channel spans of 846 feet each, and a span ; across Blackwell's Island of 613 feet. ! The distance from the floor of the bridge to the top of the girders form- ing the span is 100 feet, making the top of the structure 235 feet above high tide. Other notable cantilever bridges are those across the Colorado river at Red Rock, Cal., and across the Mississippi river at Memphis, Tenn. Bridges in the shape of arches are often built in places where a more artistic structure than a truss is de^ sired. The High Bridge and Washing- ton Bridge across the Harlem river in New York city are examples of this style of bridge. The High Bridge was built to carry the Croton Aqueduct across the Harlem river. It consists of 13 granite arches, the highest one being 116 feet above the river. The bridge, crossing the river and valley, is 1,460 feet long. The Washington Bridge is situated a short distance N. of the High Bridge and consists of nine arches, three of granite on the E. side, four of granite on the W. and two central steel spans connecting them. The entire length of the bridge is 2300 feet, and width, 80 feet; the central spans being each 510 feet long and 135 feet above high water. An- other noted bridge built 1906-07 is the suspension span, 230 ft. long, across the Grand CaQon Gorge, 2,627 ft. above the Arkansas River between Bridgeton Florence and Canon City, Col. The floor is glass set in steel, to allow the view beneath. One of the best examples of Amer- ican long-span iron-bridge construc- tion is the bridge across the Kentucky river on the Cincinnati Southern rail- road, noteworthy for its economical design and comparatively light weight. The iron work of the bridge is 1,138 feet hi length, and it consists of three spans of 375 feet each. It crosses a limestone canon at a height of 280 feet above the bed of the stream. The piers are of stone to a height of 60 feet, to clear the highest recorded floods ; and they are about 34 feet thick at the flood level. Above the stonework the piers are of iron. The iron lattice bridge, so called from having sides constructed with cross bars, like lattice work, is the natural outcome of the tubular bridge for long spans, developing equal strength with considerable economy of material and labor. Lattice girders are now almost universally adopted for iron bridges for long spans. Of the rock formations called nat- ural bridges, the most remarkable is the natural bridge over Cedar Creek, in Virginia, 125 miles W. of Rich- mond. The mass of siliceous lime- stone through which the little river passes is presumably all that remains of a once extensive stratum. The cavern or arch is 200 feet high and 60 feet wide. The solid rock walls are nearly perpendicular, and the crown of the arch is 40 feet thick. Bridge, Sir Frederick, an Eng- lish organist and composer, born in Oldbury, Worcestershire, Dec. 5, 1844; was organist of Trinity Church, Wind- sor, Manchester Cathedral, and, since 1875, full organist of Westminster Abbey. Bridgeport, Conn., a city and port of entry, at the mouth of the Pequon- nock, on an inlet of Long Island Sound, 58 miles N. E. of New York. It has fine buildings, and statues to Elias Howe and P. T. Barnum, prom- inent citizens. Its main importance is due to its large sewing machine, cartridge, and other factories. A large coasting trade also is carried on. Pop. (1910) 102,054. Bridgeton, a city, pprt of entry, summer resort, and capital of Cum- Bridgewater berland .county, N. J.; on the navi- gable Cohansey creek and several railroad, 38 miles S. of Philadelphia. It is the trade center of an extensive farming section, has large fruit and vegetable canning interests, and manufactures foundry and rolling- mill products, glass, nails, woolen goods, machinery, and carriages. Pop. (1910) 14,209. Bridgewater, Francis Egerton, third Duke of, the " Father of In- land Navigation in Great Britain," born in 1736. For the purpose of con- necting the cities of Liverpool and Manchester, he completed a navigable canal, with the assistance of the cele- brated engineer, Brindley, in 1761. He afterward promoted the Grand Trunk Canal navigation. He became ultimately the possessor of immense wealth, realized from the results of his life's labors. He died in London, March 3, 1803. Bridgnian. Frederic Arthur, an American artist, born in Tuskegee, Ala., Nov. 10, 1847. He studied at the Brooklyn Art School and National Academy of Design, and was a pupil of J. L. Gerome, and at the Ecole des Beaux Arts. He has since 1871 had a studio in Paris. He is noted for figure pieces and Oriental and archaeo- logical pictures. Bridgnian, Laura, an American blind mute, born in Hanover, N. H., Dec. 21, 1829. At two years of age both sight and hearing were entirely destroyed by fever. In 1839 Dr. Howe, of Boston, undertook her care and edu- cation at the deaf and dumb school. The first attempt was to give her a knowledge of arbitrary signs, by which she could interchange thoughts with others. Then she learned to read em- bossed letters by touch ; next, em- bossed wprds were attached to differ- ent articles, and she learned to asso- ciate each word with its corresponding object. Her touch grew in accuracy as its power increased ; she learned to. know people almost instantly by the touch alone. In a year or two more she was able to receive lessons in geography, algebra, and history. She learned to write a fair, legible, square hand, and to read with great dexter- ity, and at last even to think deeply, and to reason with good sense and discrimination. She died May 4, 1889. Brig Bridle Bit, a bit connected with a bridle. Such bits are seen in Assyr- ian and Egyptian paintings and sculp- tures, and are subsequently mentioned by Xenophon. Brief, from the Latin brevis, short, a brief or short statement or summary, particularly the summary of a client's case which the solicitor draws up for the instruction of counsel. Briel, or Brielle, sometimes The Brill, a fortified seaport town of South Holland, on the N. side of the Island of Voorne, near the mouth of the Maas. It contains a government arsenal and military magazines, and possesses a good harbor. The tower of St. Peter's Church serves as a light- house. Pop. 5,000, chiefly engaged as pilots and fishermen. Briel may be considered as the nucleus of the Dutch republic, having been taken from the Spaniards by William de la Marck in 1572. This event was the first act of open hostility to Philip II., and paved the way to the complete liberation of the country from a foreign yoke. Brienne, a town of France, in the Department of Aube ; 15 miles N. W. of Bar-sur-Aube. It is remarkable as formerly possessing a military college where the Emperor Napoleon I. re- ceived the first rudiments of his edu- cation. Here also he attacked Blu- cher, Jan. 29, 1814, forcing him from the town, which was reduced to ashes, and compelling him, on the following day, to retreat to Trannes. BBIG. Brig, (contracted from brigantine), a vessel with two masts, square-rigged on both. Brigade Brindisi Brigade, a portion of an army, whether infantry, cavalry, or artil- lery, consisting of two or more regi- ments, under the command of a briga- dier-general. A division consists of two or more brigades under the com- mand of a major-general, and an army corps, the largest division of our army, consists of two or more divi- sions, and is commanded by a major- general. Brigade Major, a staff officer at- tached to the brigade to assist the offi- cer by whom it is commanded. Brigadier, an abbreviation of brig- adier-general. It is in common use in the armies of modern civilized na- tions, the forces being divided into brigades in charge of brigadiers. Brigadier-General, a military officer of intermediate rank between a major-general and a colonel. Brigands, a name originally given to the mercenaries who held Paris during King John's imprisonment (1358), and who made themselves no- torious for their ill behavior. It was applied by Froissart to a kind of ir- regular foot soldiery, and from them was transferred to simple robbers ; it is now used especially of such of these as live in bands in secret mountain or forest retreats. Brigantine, a sailing vessel with two masts, the foremast rigged like a brig's, the main mast rigged like a schooner's. Briggs, Charles Augustus, an American clergymen and religious writer, born in New York city, Jan. 15, 1841. In 1874 he was appointed Professor of Hebrew in Union Theo- logical Seminary in New York city. He was tried for heresy in 1892, but was aquitted. In 1899 he formally severed his connection with the New York Presbytery and was ordained a clergyman of the Protestant Episcopal Church. He died June 8, 1913. Briggs, Henry, an English mathe- matician, born near Halifax, York- shire, in 1561 ; died in Oxford, Jan. 26, 1631. Bright, John, an English states- man, son of Jacob Bright, a Quaker cotton spinner and manufacturer at Rochdale, Lancashire, born in Lan- cashire, Nov. 16, 1811. When the Anti-Corn Law League was formed in 1839 he was one of its leading mem- bers, and, with Mr. Cobden, engaged in an extensive free-trade agitation throughout the kingdom. He was in- cessant, both at public meetings and in Parliament, in his opposition to the Corn Laws. In 1845 he obtained the appointment of a select committee of the House on the Game Laws, and also one on the subject of cotton cul- tivation in India. Elected in 1857 for Birmingham, he seconded the mo- tion against the second reading of the Conspiracy Bill which led to the over- throw of Lord Palmerston's govern- ment. Though he only once held office in the administrations of his time as president of the Board of Trade in 1868 and Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster he is credited with having exercised a greater influence upon the conduct of public affairs in England and abroad than, perhaps, any other man. Died March 27, 1889. Brighton, a borough and chief seaside resort of England; on th pect Park, Brooklyn, and equestrian statues of Gen. Scott and Nathanael Greene for the National Government, etc. He died in Newburg, N. Y., July 10, 1886. Brown, Jacob, an American army officer, born in Bucks county, Pa., May 9, 1775. He was a commander on the Canadian frontier in the War of 1812. In the engagements at Fort Erie he Brown so distinguished himself as to receive the thanks of Congress, Nov. 13, 1814. The city of New York also voted him its freedom. At the close of the war he was in command of the Northern Division of the army, and, in March, 1821, became general-in-chief of the United States army. He died in Washington, D. C., Feb. 24, 1828. Brown, John, an American oppo- i nent of slavery, born in Torrington, Conn., May 9, 1800. He early con- ! ceived a hatred for slavery, and, hay- ing removed to Osawatomie, Kan., in I 1855, he took an active part against the pro-slavery party, the slavery j question there having given rise al- i most to a civil war. In the summer of 1859 he rented a farmhouse about 6 miles from Harper's Ferry, and or- ganized a plot to liberate the slaves of Virginia. On Oct. 16, he, with the aid of about 20 friends, surprised and captured the arsenal at Harper's Fer- ry, but was wounded and taken pris- oner by the Virginia militia next day ; and was tried and executed at Charles- town, Dec. 2, 1859. His fate aroused much sympathy in the North, and un- doubtedly hastened the great anti- slavery conflict. " John Brown's body lies moldering in the grave, But his soul is marching on," was a favorite marching song of the Union troops in the Civil War. Brown, John George, an Anglo- American painter, born in Durham, England, Nov. 11, 1831; was edu- cated in the common schools in New- castle-on-Tyne, and came to the Unit- ed States in 1853. He studied in the schools of the National Academy of Design ; was elected an Academician in 1863 ; received honorable mention at the Paris Exposition in 1899; and in 1900 was president of the American Water Color Society. Died, 1913. Brown, John Hamilton, an American inventor, born in Liber- ty, Me., July 28, 1837. At the age of 18 he was apprenticed to a gunsmith and in 1857 he entered business in Haver- Jiill, Mass. He served in the Civil War as a sharpshooter, and in 1882 was a member of the American Rifle Team at Wimbledon. He began in 1883 to perfect the invention of a weapon for military use later known as the Brown segmental wire-wxmnd Brown gun, which, after numerous Govern- ment tests, was pronounced a success. Brown, John Howard, an Amer- ican editor, born in Rhinebeck, N. Y., Nov. 8, 1840. After studying law in New York city and engaging in jour- nalism in Washington, D. C., and Au- gusta, Ga., he became a publisher in New York city. He. was a member of the American Academy of Political and Social Science ; the Society of American Authors, and the American Social Science Association. D. 1917. Brown, Joseph Emerson, an American statesman, born in Pickens county, S. C., April 15, 1821; edu- cated at Calhoun Academy, and grad- uated at Yale in 1846. He settled in Canton, Ga. ; served in the State Leg- islature, and was elected governor in 1857 ; serving three terms. As war governor he opposed Jefferson Davis in the matter of the conscription laws and raised 10,000 recruits to oppose Sherman's march to the sea ; but would not allow them to leave the State. After the war he gave hearty support to the reconstruction meas- ures, and supported Gen. Grant for the Presidency. He was Chief Jus- tice of Georgia in 1868, and United States Senator in 1880-1891. He died hi Atlanta, Ga., Nov. 30, 1894. Brown, Nicholas, an American merchant, born in Providence, R. I., April 4, 1769 ; best known as the chief patron of Brown University. In hon- or of his gifts, which exceeded $100,- 000, the name of the institution was changed, in 1804, from Rhode Island College to Brown University. He gave also magnificent sums to other public institutions of Providence. He died Oct. 27, 1841. Brown (or Browne), Robert, founder of an English religious sect first called Brownists, and afterward Independents, was born about 1540, and studied at Cambridge, where, in 1580, he began openly to attack the government and liturgy of the Church of England as anti-Christian. Brown, Robert, a Scotch botan- ist, born in Montrose, Dec. 21, 1773. In 1800 he was appointed naturalist to Flinders' surveying expedition to Australia. He returned with nearly 4,000 species of plants. He died in London, June 10, 1858. As a natural- Browning ist Brown occupied the very highest rank among men of science. Browne, Charles Farrar, an American humorist, best known as ABTEMUS WARD, born at Waterford, Me., April 26, 1834. Originally a printer, he became editor of papers in Ohio, where his humorous letters be- came very popular. He subsequently lectured in the United States, and in England, where he contributed to " Punch." He died in Southampton, England, March 6, 1867. Browne, William, an English poet, born in Tavistock, Devonshire, in 1591; died in Ottery St. Mary about 1643. Brownell, Franklin P., a Cana- dian artist, born in New Bedford, Mass. His specialties are portrait and figure painting. He has for some years been principal of the Ottawa Art School. Brownell, Henry Howard, an American poet and historian, born in Providence, R. I., Feb. 6, 1820. His first poetic venture was a spirited ver- sification of Farragut's " General Or ders " to the fleet below New Orleans. Afterward he was appointed to an hon- orary place on the " Hartford," flag- ship, and had opportunity to observe actual naval warfare. In " The Bay Fight " he describes, with truth and force, the battle of Mobile Bay. He died at East Hartford, Conn., Oct 31, 1872. Brownell, William Crary, an American essayist and critic, born in New York city, Aug. 30, 1851. He graduated from Amherst, and devoted himself to critical and editorial work in New York. Brownie, an imaginary being to whom evil properties were attributed; a domestic spirit or goblin, meager, shaggy, and wild, supposed to haunt many old houses, especially those at- tached to farms. Browning, Elizabeth Barrett, a distinguished English poet, regarded by some as the greatest which England has ever produced ; born in London, March 6, 1809. In 1846 she was mar- ried to Robert Browning, and died at Florence, Italy, June 29, 1861. Browning, Robert, one of the greatest of the Victorian poets ; born in Gamberwell, England, May 7, 1812. Brownlow Bruce His father, who was a clerk in a bank, iad the boy educated in a school at Peckham, after which he attended lec- tures at University College. At the age of 20 he traveled on the Conti- nent and resided for some time in Italy, where he made diligent study of its mediaeval history. In 1846 he married Elizabeth Barrett, and settled with her in Florence, where they re- mained for nearly 15 years. Recog- nition of his literary fame, which came slowly, was made in 1867, when he was elected an honorary fellow of Baliol, an M. A. of Oxford, and later an LL. D. of Cambridge. He died in Venice, Dec. 12, 1889. His body was taken from Venice to England, where, in national recognition of his genius, it was buried in Westminster Abbey between Cowley and Chaucer. Bro willow, William Gannaway ("PABSON BBOWNXOW"), an Ameri- can politician, journalist, and author, born in Wythe county, Va., Aug. 29, 1805. During his early career he was an itinerant preacher, editor, and lecturer. He was a Union champion during the Civil War, and was ban- ished from the Confederate lines on that ground. In 1865 he was elected Governor of Tennessee, and was re- elected in 1867. He was United States Senator from 1869 to 1875. He died in Knoxville, Tenn., April 29, 1877. Brown-Sequard, Charles Edon- ard, Franco-American physiologist and physician, was born in Mauritius in 1818, his father being a sea captain from Philadelphia, who married on the island a lady named Sequard. The son studied in Paris, and graduated M. D. in 1846. He devoted himself mainly to physiological research, and received numerous prizes, French and British, for the results of valuable ex- periments on blood, muscular irrita- bility, animal heat, the spinal cord, and the nervous system. In 1864 he became Professor of Physiology at Harvard, but in 1869 returned to Paris as Professor of Pathology in the School of Medicine. In 1873 he be- came a medical practitioner in New York, treating especially diseases of the nervous system ; and in 1878 he succeeded Claude Bernard as Profes- sor of Experimental Medicine at the College de France. He died in Paris, April 1, 1894. Browason, Orestes Augustus, an American author ; born in Stock- bridge, Vt., Sept. 16, 1803; died in Detroit, Mich., April 17, 1876. Brownsville, city, port of entry, and county-seat of Cameron Co., Tex. ; on the Rio Grande and the Rio Grande railroad, opposite Matamoras, Mexico. In the suburbs is Fort Brown, a garrisoned United States post. In May, 1840, Brownsville was occupied and fortified by a small body of United States troops, who main- tained their position in the face of a heavy bombardment that lasted for 160 hours; and in November, 1863, it was taken from the Confederates by a- Federal army under General Banks. Pop. (1910) 10,517. Brown University, a co-educa- tional institution in Providence, R. I. ; organized in Warren in 1764 as Rhode Island College ; removed to Providence in 1770, and renamed in honor of Nicholas Brown in 1804. It has al- ways been affiliated with the Baptist Church, but its management is non- sectarian. Brozik, Vacslav, a Bohemian ar- tist, born in Pilsen in 1852. His pic- ture, " Columbus at the Court of Isa- bella," was presented to the city of New York by Morris K. Jesup, and is in the Metropolitan Museum. He is a pupil of Pilaty and Munkacsy, and is considered the foremost historical painter living. Brace, Catherine Wolfe, an American patron of science, born in New York city. She was a cousin of Catherine Lorillard Wolfe, from whom she inherited a fortune, which she used in furthering astronomical study at Harvard. She gave $50,000 to the Harvard Observatory In 1888. The Bruce Memorial Telescope at Are- quipa, Peru, was her gift. In 1897 she established a gold medal fund for the Astronomical Society of the Pa- cific. She died in New York, March 13, 1900. Bruce, Edward, a brother of Robert I., who, after distinguishing himself in the Scottish War of Inde- pendence, crossed in 1315 to Ireland to aid the native septs against the English. After many successes he Bruce was crowned King of Ireland at Car- rickfergus, but fell in battle near Dun- dalk in 1318. Bruce, James, an African trav- eler, born in Stirling, Dec. 14, 1730. In 1768 he set out for Cairo, navigated the Nile to Syene. crossed the desert to the Red Sea, passed some months in Arabia Felix, and reached Gondar, the capital of Abyssinia, in 1770. In that country he ingratiated himself with the sovereign and other influen- tial persons, and in the same year suc- ceeded in reaching the sources of the Aba'i, then considered the main stream of the Nile. Bruce lost his life by an accident, April 27, 1894. Bruce, Robert, the greatest of the Kings of Scotland, born in 1274. In 1296, as Earl of Carrick, he swore fealty to Edward I., and in 1297 fought on the English side against Wallace. He then joined the Scot- tish army, but in the same year re- turned to his allegiance to Edward until 1298, when he again joined the National party, and became in 1299 one of the four regents of the king- dom. In the three final campaigns, however, he resumed fidelity to Ed- ward, and resided for, some time at his court ; but, learning that the King meditated putting him to death on in- formation given by the traitor Comyn, he fled, in February, 1306, to Scot- land, stabbed Comyn in a quarrel at Dumfries, assembled his vassals at Lochmaben Castle, and claimed the crown, which he received at Scone, March 27. Being twice defeated, he dismissed bis troops, retired to Rath- lin Island, and was supposed to be j dead, when, in the spring of 1307, he j landed on the Carrick coast, defeated the Earl of Pembroke at Loudon Hill, and in two years had wrested nearly the whole country from the English. He then in successive years advanced into England, laying waste the coun- try, and on June 24, 1314, defeated at Bannockburn the English forces ad- vancing under Edward II. to the re- lief of the garrison at Stirling. In 1316 he went to Ireland to the aid of his brother Edward, and, on his re- turn in 1318, in retaliation for inroads made during his absence, he took Ber- wick and harried Northumberland and Yorkshire. Hostilities continued un- til the defeat of Edward near Byland Bruise Abbey in 1323, and though in that year a truce was concluded for 13 years, it was speedily broken. Not until March 4, 1328, was the treaty con- cluded by which the independence of Scotland was fully recognized. Bruce did not long survive the completion of his work, dying at Cardross Castle on June 7, 1329. Bruce, Wallace, an American poet, born in Hillsdale, N. Y., Nov. 10, 1844; graduated at Yale College in 1867 ; and was United States Con- sul at Edinburgh, Scotland, in 1889- 1893. Bruges, a city of Belgium, capital of West Flanders, at the junction of the canals from Ghent, Ostend, and L'Ecluse, 7 miles from the North Sea, and 60 miles N. W. of Brussels. The city has a circumference of nearly 4* miles, and is entered by six gates. Many large and noble ancient man- sions and spacious public edifices pre- sent their pointed gables to the streets, and afford interesting specimens of the ornamental Gothic architecture of the Middle Ages. Among the most re- markable public edifices are the Ca- thedral of Notre Dame (Onser Vrouw), the old Gothic Hospital of St. John, and the elegant church of St. Saviour. In the great square is a lofty Gothic tower or belfry, the most beautiful in Europe, and its chimes are harmonious. In this tower there are 48 bells, some weighing six tons; they are played upon every quarter of an hour by means of an immense cop- per cylinder communicating with the clock, and weighing about nine tons. Pop. (1912) 53,635. The city was oc- cupied by the Germans and greatly damaged by shell-fire on their violation of Belgian sovereignty on Oct. 15, 1914. See APPENDIX : World War. Bruhns, Carl Christian, a re- markable self-taught astronomer, born in Plon, Holstein, Nov. 22, 1830, the son of a locksmith ; died in Leipsic, July 25, 1881. Bruise, or Contusion, signifies an injury inflicted by a blow or sudden pressure, in which the skin is not wounded, and no bone is broken ot dislocated. Both terms, and especial- ly the latter, are employed in surgery to include all such injuries in their widest range, from a black eye to a Brnmaire Brunn thoroughly crushed mass of muscle. j In the slighter forms of this injury, as in ordinary simple bruises, there is no tearing, but only a concussion of I the textures, the utmost damage done i being the rupture of a few small blood j vessels, which occasions the discolora- tion that is always observed in these cases. Brnmaire, the second month of the year in the French Revolutionary calendar. It commenced on the 23d i of October, and ended on the 21st of i November, thus comprising 30 days, i It received its name from the fogs that usually prevail about this time. The 18th of Brumaire, VIII. year (Nov. j 9, 1799), is celebrated for the over- 1 throw of the Directory and the estab- lishment of the sway of Napoleon. Brumniel, George Bryan, (the sometime famous BEAU BBUMMEL) , born in London, June 7, 1778. He was educated at Eton, and there formed intimacies with the younger nobility of the day. On his father's death, inheriting a fortune of about $150,000, he began his career as a man of fashion, and became the inti- ; mate associate of the Prince of Wales '' (afterward George IV.). He it was who inaugurated the reign of dandy- ism, and for a period of 20 years exer- cised almost despotic sway over Eng- 1 lish society in the matter of dress. ! His fortune being soon swallowed up, he maintained his position in society by bis success at play, and the inde- scribable charm of his manner and conversation. After a rupture with the Prince, his influence gradually de- clined ; and oppressed by debt, and the falling off of former friends, he re- tired to Calais, and afterward to Caen, where he was appointed British con- sul, and where he died, March 30, 1840. Brunei, a State in the northern or British part of the Island of Borneo, lying N. E. of Sarawak; area 4,000 j square miles ; pop. estimated at 30,- 000. It was formerly an independent Mohammedan territory, whose sultan i was the overlord of the entire island. Both Brunei and Sarawak were placed under British protection in 1888, and the sultan surrendered the adminis- tration to the British in 1906. Capital. Brunei ; pop. about 12,000. Brunei, Sir Marc Isambard, a French civil engineer, born in Hao queville, near Rouen, April 25, 1769. He entered the mercantile marine, made several voyages to the West In- dies, and, when the French Revolution of 1793 drove him from his country, he went to New York, with the reso- lution of endeavoring to turn his en- gineering skill to some account. Ac- cordingly, he, conjointly with another, surveyed the ground for the canal which now connects the Hudson river at Albany with Lake Champlain. In 1825 he began excavating for the Thames tunnel. This extraordinary work was opened to the public in 1843; but previously, in 1841, the honor of knighthood had been con- ferred upon him. He died in London, Dec. 12, 1849. Brnnel, Isambard Kingdom, son of the above, born in Portsmouth, England, April 9, 1806; was educated at the College of Henri IV., at Caen, France, and began the study of civil engineering under his father. He was the resident engineer of the Thames tunnel, and the designer and civil en- gineer of the " Great Western," the first steamship built to cross the At- lantic. He was also the constructor of the magnificent iron steamship, the " Great Eastern," which was built at Millwall. He died in Westminster, Sept. 15, 1859. Bruneticre, Ferdinand, a French critic ; born in Toulon, July 19. 1849. He was critic of the " Re- vue des Deux Mondes " ; became an Academician 1893; and 1897 lectured in the U. S. He inclined to the ideal- ist as opposed to the naturalist school, and denounced literary fads. He died Dec. 9, 1906. Brunn, Heinrich, a German ar- chaeologist; born in Worlitz, Anhalt, Jan. 23, 1822; became Professor of Archfeology at Munich ; and published seveial works of high repute among scholars. He died in Munich, July 23, 1894. Brnnn, an Austrian city, capital of Moravia, on the railway from Vienna to Prague, nearly encircled by the rivers Schwarzawa and Zwittawa. It is the center of Moravian commerce, a great part of which is carried on by fairs. Near it is the fortress of Spiel- Bruno Brunswick berg, in which Trenck and Silvio Pel- lico were confined. Pop. (1891) 95, 342; (1911) 125,737. Bruno, Giordano, an Italian phil- osopher, one of the boldest and most original thinkers of his age, born in j Kola, about 1550. He became a Dom- inican monk, but his religious doubts, and his censures of the monastic or- , ders, compelled him to quit his mon- astery and Italy. He embraced the doctrines of Calvin at Geneva, but doubt and free discussion not being in favor there, he went, after two years' stay, to Paris. He gave lectures on philosophy there, and, by his avowed opposition to the scholastic system, ' made himself many bitter enemies. He next spent two years in England, and became the friend of Sir Philip Sid- ney. In 1585 he went again to Paris and renewed his public lectures. Af- ter visiting and teaching in various towns in Germany, he returned, in 1592, to Padua, and went afterward to Venice, where he was, in 1598, ar- rested by the Inquisition and sent to Rome. He lay in prison two years, and on Feb. 17, 1600, was burned as a heretic. Brnno the Great, one of the most eminent men of his time, born about 925, the third son of Henry the Fowl- er. He became archbishop of Cologne, and chancellor of the Empire under his brother, Otto I., and afterward, as a reward for his services, Duke of Lorraine. He strove to reform the monasteries and advance the love of learning among the clergy. He died in Rheims, Oct. 11, 965. Brunswick, Duchy of, in Ger- many, consists of five detached por- tions of territory on the rivers Weser, Seine, Ocker and 'Aller. It occupies part of the vast plain which stretches from the foot of the Ha'rtz Mountains and their continuations (the Soiling) to the German Ocean and the Baltic, with a portion of the rise of those chains on the N. side. The largest portion contains the districts of Wolfenbuttel and Schoningen, in which the cities of Brunswick and Wolfenbuttel, and the towns of Kon- igsbutter and Helmstadt, are situated. Two small detached portions of terri- tory, viz., the circles of Theding- hausen on the Weser, and that of Badenburg, are inclosed by the Han- overian territory, and form part, the former of the Weser district, the lat- ter of the Seine district. Finally, the detached circle of Kalvorde, inclosed within the Prussian Province of Sax- ony, belongs to the district of Schon- ingen. The duchy has an area of 1,526 square miles. The inhabitants are mostly engaged in agricultural and mining pursuits. Iron is the chief produce of the mines worked in the three districts of the Hartz, Weser and Blankenburg. Nearly the whole of the inhabitants are members of the Lutheran Church. Pop. (1910) 494,- 339. Brunswick, the capital, is on the Ocker, in a level and fertile district. A fine avenue of linden trees leads to the ducal palace, which, destroyed by fire in 1830 and 1865, was rebuilt in 1869. Pop. (1910) 143,552. Brunswick, Family of, a distin- guished family founded by Albert Azo II., Marquis of Reggio and Mo- dena, a descendant, by the female line, of Charlemagne. In 1047 he married Cunigunda, heiress of the Counts of Altorf, thus uniting the two houses of Este and Guelph. His son Guelph, was created Duke of Bavaria in 1071, and married Judith of Flanders, a de- scendant of Alfred of England. From Guelph was descended George Louis, son of Ernest Augustus and Sophia, granddaughter of James I. of Eng- land, who succeeded his father as Elector of Hanover in 1698, and was called to the throne of Great Britain in 1714 as George I. Brunswick, Friedrich Wil- helm, Duke of, fourth and youngest son of Duke Karl Wilhelm Ferdinand of Brunswick, born in 1771. During the war against France in 1792 and subsequently, he fought in the Prus- sian armies, was twice wounded, and once made prisoner with Blucher at Lubeck. For the campaign of 1809 he raised a free corps in Bohemia, but was compelled to embark his troops for England, where he was received with enthusiasm. His corps immedi- ately entered the British service, and was afterward employed in Portugal and Spain, returning to his hereditary dominions, 1813. The events of 1815 called him again to arms, and he fell at Quatre Bras, 1815. Caroline, wife of George IV., was a sister of this prince. Brush Brutus Brash, Charles Francis, an American scientist ; born in Euclid, near Cleveland, O., March 17, 1849. He was graduated at the University of Michigan, in 1869. He invented the modern arc system of electric lighting and founded the Brush Elec- tric Company. Brussels, the capital of Belgium ; on the river Senne, communicates with Antwerp and the Baltic Sea by means of the Scheldt canal, and railroads connect it with Germany, France, and Holland, as well as with all the prin- cipal towns of Belgium. Pop. (1912) with suburbs, 663,647. On the outbreak of the World War (July, 1914), Germany invaded Bel- gium on its attempted march on Paris. On Aug. 20 the Germans occupied Brussels, on Oct. 9, Antwerp, and on Oct. 15, Ostend. The Belgian Gov- ernment then accepted asylum in Havre, France, and Germany assumed the civil government of the occupied territory. From October, 1915, to October, 1916, the Germans levied on Belgium 480,000,000 francs, payable monthly. See APPENDIX: World War. Brussiloff, Alexei Alexeiviteh, a Russian military officer ; born in the Caucasus of Russian parents, his father being a military officer, in 1848 ; entered the army at an early age, choosing the cavalry branch ; was given an important command in Galicia in the campaign of 1914, se- cured Russia's early successes in the Carpathians, and penetrated the famous Dukla Pass ; was appointed commander-in-chief of the Russian armies in June, 1917; resigned his command on the subsequent defection of the Russian forces facing the Ger- mans ; and later agreed to resume it. It was he who commande_d the bril- liant Russian offensive in Galicia, Volhynia, and Bukowina in the sum- mer of 1916. See APPENDIX : World War. Brains, Lucius Jnnins, a Roman hero ; son of Marcus Junius and the daughter of the elder Tarquin ; saved his life from the persecutions of Tar- quin the Proud by feigning himself insane, on which account he received the surname Brutus (stupid). Dur- ing a plague that broke out at Rome he accompanied the son of Tarquin to the oracle in Delphi. When Lucretia, the wife of Collatinus, plunged a dag- ger into her bosom that she mignt not outlive the insult which she had suf- fered from Sextus, the son of Tarquin, Brutus, being present, threw off his mask. He drew the dagger, all bloody, from the wound, and swore vengeance against the Tarquins. The people submitted to him, and he caused the inhabitants to be assembled, and the body to be publicly exposed. He then urged the banishment of the Tar- quins. After this had been resolved on, Brutus proposed to abolish the regal dignity, and introduce a free government. It was then determined that two consuls should exercise su- preme power for a year, and Junius Brutus and Tarquinius Collatinus were chosen for the first term. Tar- quin, who had seen the gates shut against him, and found himself de- serted by his army, sent ambassadors to Rome to demand a restoration of his private property, and, at the same time, to promise that he would make no attempt against the re- public. His request was granted. The ambassadors, however, set on foot a conspiracy, and drew into it many young men, among whom were the two sons of Brutus and the nephews of Collatinus. But a slave named Vindex discovered the plot. The crim- inals were imprisoned, and the consuls caused the people the next morning to be called to a meeting. All were deep- ly shocked to see the sons of Brutus among the prisoners, and their father on the judgment seat to condemn them. Collatiuus wept, and even the stern Valerius sat silent. But Brutus arose firmly, and, after the crime had been proved beyond a doubt, ordered the lictors to execute the law. Neither the entreaties of the people nor of his sons could alter his resolution. He returned to the Assembly when Col- latinus wished to save his guilty neph- ews. The people condemned them all, and chose Valerius consul in place of Collatinus. In the meantime, Tar- quin, supported by Porsenna, collected an army and marched against Rome. The consuls advanced to meet him. Brutus led the cavalry, Aruns, son of Tarquin, commanded the body opposed to him. They pierced each other with their spears at the same moment, and both fell 509 B. c. The Romans came off conquerors, and Brutus was bur- Brutus ied with great splendor. The women lamented him a whole year, as the avenger of the honor of their sex. The details of the story of Brutus, which may be regarded as a poetical legend, have been shown by Niebuhr to be irreconcilable with history. Brutus, Marcus Junius, one of the most distinguished Romans at the close of the republican period ; born of a plebeian family 85 B. c. He was at first an enemy of Pompey, who had slain his father in Galatia, but for- got his private enmity, and wa recon- ciled to him when he undertook the de- fense of freedom. He did not, how- ever, assume any public station, and, after the unfortunate battle of Phar- salia, surrendered himself to Caesar, who received him generously, allowed him to withdraw from the war, made him in the following year governor of Cisalpine Gaul, and afterward con- ferred on him the government of Ma- cedonia. Notwithstanding these ben- efits, Brutus allowed himself to be drawn into, and made the head of the conspiracy against Caesar. He was led into the conspiracy by Cassius, who, impelled 1 by hatred against Cae- sar, sought, at first by writing, and then by means of his wife, Junia, sis- ter of Brutus, to gain his favor ; and when he thought him prepared for the proposal, disclosed to him verbally the plan of a conspiracy against Caesar, who had now made himself master of the supreme power in the State. Brutus was induced to agree to the de- sign, and his influence led many of the most distinguished Romans to em- brace it also. Caesar was assassinated in the senate house. In public speeches Brutus explained the reasons of this deed, but he could not appease the dissatisfaction of the people, and retired with his party to the capital. He soon after took courage, when the consul, P. Cornelius Dolabella, and the praetor, L. Cornelius Cinna, Caesar's brother-in-law, declared them- selves in his favor. But Antony, whom Brutus had generously spared, was reconciled to him only in appear- ance, and obtained his leave to read Caesar's will to the people. By means of this instrument Antony succeeded in exciting the popular indignation against the murderers of Caesar, and they were compelled to flee from Rome. Bryam Brutus went to Athens and endeav- ored to form a party there among the Roman nobility ; he gained over, also, the troops in Macedonia. He then be- gan to levy soldiers openly, which was the easier for him, as the remain- der of Pompey's troops since the de- feat of their general, had been roving about in Thessaly. Hortensius, the governor of Macedonia, aided him ; and thus Brutus, master of all Greece and Macedonia, in a short time stood at the head of a powerful army. He went now to Asia and joined Cassius, whose efforts had been equally suc- cessful. In Rome, on the contrary, the triumvirs prevailed. All the con- spirators had been condemned and the people had taken up arms against them. Brutus and Cassius having finally with difficulty subdued the Lycians and Rhodians, returned to Europe to oppose the triumvirs. The army passed over the Hellespont, and 19 legions and 20,000 cavalry were as- sembled on the plains of Philippi, in Macedonia, whither also the trium- virs, Antony and Octavianus (after- ward the Emperor Augustus), marched with their legions. Although Roman historians do not agree in their accounts of the battle of Philippi, this much at least seems certain, that Cas- sius was beaten by Antony ; that Bru- tus fought with greater success against the division of the army commanded by Octavianus; that 20 days atter he was induced, by the ardor of his sol- diers, to renew the contest ; and that he was this time totally defeated. He escaped with only a few friends, passed the night in a cave, and as he saw his cause irretrievably ruined, ordered Strato, one of his confidants, to kill him. Strato refused a long time to perform the command ; but, seeing Brutus resolved, he turned away his face, and held his sword, while Brutus fell upon it, and died in 42 B. C. Bryan, William Jennings, an American political leader, born in Salem, 111., March 19, 1860. He was graduated at Illinois College in 1881, preparing subsequently for the bar at Union College, Chicago. In 1887 he removed to Lincoln, Neb., and was elected to Congress in 1890, and again in 1892. Four years later he was nominated for the presidency of the Bryant United States by the Democratic Na- tional Convention at Chicago. He ad- vocated the free and unlimited coin- age of silver by the United States at a ratio of 16 to 1, and was defeated in the presidential campaign. He was Col. of a regt. of volunteers during the Spanish War. In 1900, he was again defeated for the presidency by Wil- liam McKinley. He founded " The Commoner," a weekly political peri- odical which he edits. In 1905-1906 he made a tour of the world, and was received at foreign courts with dis- tinction. In 1908 he was defeated a third time for the Presidency, by Wil- liam H. Taft. In 1913 he was ap- pointed Secretary of State in the Cabinet of President Wilson ; negoti- ated with foreign nations thirty trea- ties providing for an initial investiga- tion of all differences prior to forceful action ; resigned June 9, 1915, because of dissatisfaction with the President's war policy. Bryant, William Cnllen, an American poet ; born Nov. 3, 1794, in Cummington, Mass. His father, a man of great literary culture, practiced as a physician. He prepared, when he was but 14, a collection of poems, which were published in Boston in 1809. In that volume appeared " The Embargo," the only poem dealing with the politics of the day he ever wrote. In the following year Bryant entered Williams College as a student of law, but left without taking a degree in 1815, when he was admitted to the bar. In that year he became a con- tributor to the " North American Re- view," in which appeared the follow- ing year his " Thanatopsis," a poem in blank verse, which received much laud- atory criticism. Six years later he published a second collection of poems which brought him into real fame. He definitely abandoned law for liter- ature in 1825, and went to New York, where he founded the " New York Re- view," and a year after became the editor of the "Evening Post," an old established paper with which he was connected till his death. A complete edition of his poems up to 1855 was published in that year, and in 1863 appeared a small volume entitled " Thirty Poems." His last works of importance are his translations of the " Iliad " (1870) and the " Odyssey " Bubalis (1872, translations which many American critics rank above any that had hitherto appeared, in the English language. Early in 1878 appeared " The Flood of Years," his last poem of any great length. On the occasion of uncovering a statue to Mazzini (May 30, 1878) he had to stand un- covered for about an hour under a burning sun. On his way home he met with an accident which was fol- lowed by concussion of the brain, and on June 12 he expired. Bryce, James, a British diplomat, born in Belfast, May 10, 1838. After graduating at Oxford in 1862, he studied at Heidelberg, and subsequent- ly practiced law in London. From 1870 till 1893 he was Regius Profes- sor of Civil Law in Oxford, and has had a distinguished political career. In 1907-13 was British ambassador to the United States ; and in 1914 was raised to the peerage as Viscount Bryce. He was a voluminous author, his most noted works being " The American Commonwealth" (1888), revised edition (1910), and his report on German atrocities in Belgium, as chairman of a distinguished investi- gating commission (1915). Bryn Mawr College, an educa- tional institution for women, at Bryn Mawr, Pa. ; founded in 1880 by Joseph Taylor. Its standard of admission is very high ; its system of undergraduate studies combines required courses and varied elective groups. Bryppnyllnnt, a genus of plants belonging to the houseleeks. Its na- tive country is the East Indies, whence it has been carried to other places. In Bermuda, where it is naturalized and grows abundantly, it is called life plant. Bnbalis, a genus in the antelope division of hollow horned, even toed ruminants, not to be confused with Buffalo. The species of bubalis are among the more oxlike antelopes, and one of them is supposed to be the bu- balus of the ancients. In this genus the head is elongated, the snout broad, the horns twisted and present in both sexes, the tear pits small, the back sloping off behind, the teats two in number. The bubaline of the North African deserts is a handsome animal of a reddish brown color, standing Bubonic Plague Buccaneer about 5 feet high at the shoulder, liv- ing ir herds, and readily tamed. It is figured oh Egyptian monuments. The hartebeest is found in the S., is per- haps slightly larger, has a general gray browti color (black on the outside of the legs and on middle of forehead, with large white spots on haunches), and is at home on the mountains. The sassaby, the bastard hartebeest of the Cape Colonists, is slightly smaller, and is differently colored. The bontebok is a smaller and more beautifully col- ored form of the S. interior, where another species, the violet colored bles- bok, is also abundant. Bubonic Plague, a disease sup- posed to be identical with the plague known as the Black Death, which had its origin in China, and made its first appearance in Europe 543 A. D., at Constantinople. It derives its mod- ern name from the fact that it attacks the lymphatic glands in the neck, arm- pits, groins and other parts of the body. The swollen parts are extreme- ly sensitive to the touch, the patient suffers from headache, vertigo, high fever, vomiting and great prostration. Another feature is the appearance of purple spots and a mottling of the skin. In severe cases death generally ensues in 48 hours, and, at best, re- covery is slow. At the Hoagland laboratory in Brooklyn, N. Y., exten- sive experiments have been made, both in the culture of the germs and in an anti-toxin. The disease has been called " the poor's plague," from the fact that it first attacks the half starved masses who congregate in the slums of the cities. This was the case in Bombay, where so fatal were its ravages that a panic ensued and more than 450,000 people, one-half the pop- ulation, left the city. The first au- thentic description of the bubonic plague is contained in the writings of Rufus of Ephesus, who described the disease as having existed in Northern Africa during the 3d or 4th century B. C. lie presented the testimony of physicians of that period to corrobor- ate his arguments. Since that time the disease has been variously describ- ed by writers tinder the name of Le- vantine, Oriental and Bubonic Plague and the black plague, or black death. These designations are more or less open to criticism and lack scientific foundation. In the reign of Justinian, 542 A. D.. the disease appeared in Egypt, and within a year extended to Constantinople, where it is said to have caused the death of 10,000 per- sons in one day. In 1352 the plague spread through the whole of Europe and nearly one-fourth of the popula- tion died. It is estimated by Hecker that during this reign of terror, out of 2,000,000 inhabitants of Norway, but 300,000 survived. It was estimated by Pope Clement VI. that the mortal- ity from black death for the entire world was 40,000,000. This outbreak lasted about 20 years. During the great plague of London, in 1665, there were 63,596 deaths out of a popula- tion of 460,000. It was believed the infection was introduced by bales of merchandise from the Levant. The sanitary condition of London, at the time, was notoriously bad. It is a significant fact that those who lived out of town and on barges and ships on the Thames did not contract the disease. In 1903 the disease was re- ported in Southern Russia and other eastern regions, and great care was exercised to keep it out of the United States. Buccaneer, an order of men, not quite pirates, yet with decidedly pirat- ical tendencies, who for nearly 200 years infested the Spanish main and the adjacent regions. A bull of Pope Alexander VI., issued in 1493, having granted to Spain all lands which might be discovered W. of the Azores, the Spaniards thought that they possessed a monopoly of all countries in the New World, and that they had a right to seize, and even put to death, all inter- lopers into their wide domain. The association of buccaneers began about 1524, and continued till after the Eng- lish revolution of 1688, when the French attacked the English in the West Indies, and the buccaneers of the two countries, who had hitherto been friends, took different sides, and were separated forever. Thus weakened, they began to be suppressed between 1697 and 1701, and soon afterward ceased to exist, pirates of the normal type, to a certain extent, taking their place. The buccaneers were also called " filibusters," or " filibusters " term which was revived in connec- tion with the adventures of " General " Bucclcugli Walker, who sought to establish him- self as a ruler in Central America. Bnccleugh, the title (now a duke- dom) of one of the oldest families in Scotland, tracing descent from Sir Richard le Scott in the reign of Alex- ander III. Buccntanr, a mythical monster, half man and half ox. The splendid galley in which the Doge of Venice an- nually wedded the Adriatic bore this name, doubtless because of the figure of a bucentaur on her bow. Bucephalus, the celebrated horse of Alexander the Great, whose head resembled that of a bull, whence his name. Alexander was the only one who could mount him. In an engage- ment in Asia, where he received a heavy wound, he immediately hastened out of the battle, and dropped dead as soon as he had set down the King in a safe place. Alexander built on the river Hydaspes, in India, a city which he called after his name. Bncer, Martin, a Protestant re former; born in Schlestadt, Alsace, in 1491. In 1521 he left the Dominican Order, and became a convert to Lu- theranism. He was at first preacher at the court of Frederick, the Elector of the Palatinate; afterward in Stras- burg ; and at the same time professor in the university there for 20 years. He died in Cambridge in 1551. In 1557 Queen Mary caused his bones to be burned,* to show her detestation of Protestantism. Buchanan, Andrews Hays, an American educator; born in Washing- ton Co., Ark., June 28, 1828; was graduated at Cumberland University in 1853 ; and took a special course in civil engineering and mathematics in Lincoln University ; taught civil engi- neering in 1854-1861 ; was military topographical engineer in the Confed- erate army during the Civil War; and became Professor of Mathematics and Civil Engineering in Cumberland Uni- versity in 1860. He was the author of "_Plane and Spherical Trigonom- etry " ; etc. He died in August, 1914. Buchanan, James, an American statesman, 15th President of the Unit- ed States, born near Mercersburg, Pa., April 23, 1791; graduated at Dickin- son College in 1809, admitted to the bar in 1812. He supported the War Bucharest of 1S12, although affiliated with the Federalist Party. In 1820 he was elected to Congress, serving successive terms by re-election for 10 years, where he made some reputation in the advocacy of bills for reorganizing the courts and judiciary. In 1828 he sup- ported Andrew Jackson for tfie Presi- dency, who, in turn, appointed him Minister to Russia, where he distin- guished himself by arranging an im- portant commercial treaty. In 1834, he entered the United States Senate, serving there 12 years, where he de- fended the spoils system instituted by Jackson, and declared against the right or power of the Government to inter- fere with slavery in the States. He was appointed Secretary of State by President Polk, after which service he was in retirement for four years. Un- der President Pierce he was sent in 1853 as Minister to England, where his advocacy of the annexation of Cuba by the United States led to his nomination to the Presidency in 1856. His cabinet contained men who sup- ported the secession of South Carolina, and eventually joined the Confeder- acy. He announced in a message (I860) that the President had neither the right nor the constitutional power to prevent a State from seceding. His unwillingness to take decisive action enabled the seceding States to arm and prepare for war before the Gov- ernment did anything to prevent. Af- ter he retired, however, he supported the Union cause. He died in Lancas- ter, Pa., June 1, 1868. Buchanan, Robert Williams, English poet, novelist and playwright ; born in Warwickshire, Aug. 18, 1841 ; died in London, June 10, 1901. Bucharest, the capital of the for- mer principality of Wallachia and of the present kingdom of Rumania, stands 265 feet above sea level, in the fertile but treeless plain of the small, sluggish Dambovitza. A strange meet- ing point of East and West, the town as a whole is but meanly built, but the streets are mostly paved and light- ed with gas and electricity. An elab- orate system of fortification was un- dertaken in 1885. There are some handsome hotels; and the metal plated cupolas of the innumerable Churches gives to the place a pictur- esque aspect. Bucharest is the entre- Bnchner pot for the trade between Austria and the Balkan Peninsula, the chief arti- cles of commerce being textile fabrics. (rain, hides, metal, coal, timber, and cattle. Its manufactures are unim- portant, and the workmen are chiefly Hungarians and Germans. Bucharest has been several times besieged; and between 1798 and 1812 suffered twice from earthquakes, twice from inunda- tions. pace from fire, and twice from pestilence. Important treaties were. signed here, 1812 and 1836. On Aug. 27, 1916, Rumania made its long de- bated declaration of war against the Central Powers, ami at once advanced into Transylvania, but it soon suffered a severe attack by the Germans on all the defences of its capital (Dee. 4), and in a year was practically con- quered. See APPENDIX: World Wur. l',.p. tii'in 345,628. Buchner. Max, a German traveler and scientist, born in Hamburg, April 25, 1846. In 1878 be bore presents from the Emperor to Muatiau the Kingdom of Lunda, in Kju:itorial Africa. After several Tain attempts to break through toward the N., be re- turned to the coast In 1884 be ac- companied Nachtigal in founding the colonies of Togo and Kamerun, in West Africa, where he acted tem- porarily as representative of the Ger- man Kmpire. Bnchtel College, a co-educational institution in Akron. O. ; founded in 1871, nnder the auspices of the Uni- vers.ilist Church. Buck, a name sometimes distinct* Ively appropriated to the adult male of the fallow deer, the female of which is a doe. The term is often also ap- plied to the male of other species of deer, as of the roebuck, although never to that of the red deer, which, when mature, is a stag or a hart. Back. Dudley, an American or- ganist, composer, and author, born in Hartford. Conn.. Marrh 10, 1839t He was widely known through hist instru- mental and vocal music, and besides a number of cantatas, he wrote sev- eral books on musical ..topics. D. 1900. Bnekbe&a, the English name of menyanthes, a genus of plants belong- big to the gentian worts. An infusion of its leave* is bitter. In Sweden two ounces of the leaves are substituted for E. 25 a pound of hops. In Lapland the roots are occasionally powdered and eaten. Buckeye, the American horse chestnut tree. The term is also ap- plied to the State of Ohio. Buckingham, George VUliers. Duke of, favorite of James I. and Charles I., of England, bora in 1590; his father being George VUliers, Knight He was stabbed on Aug. 24, 1628, by John Felton, an ex-lieutenant who had been disappointed in being promoted. Buckingham, James Silk, an English traveler, writer, and lecturer, born near Falmouth, Aug. 25, 1786. After trying several professions, and wandering over a great part of the world, he went to London, where he established the " Athcna>um," well known as a literary journal. Subte- Sently be made a tour of three years the United States. In 1S43 he be- came secretary to the British and For- eign Institute. He also published volumes on his Continental tours and an autobiography. He died in Lon- don, June 30, 1856. Buckingham. William Alfred, an American statesman, bora in Leb- anon, Conn., May 28, 1804; was Mr nine years Governor of Connecticut (1858-1866) ; called the " War Gov- ernor" for his seal in furnishing troops in the Civil War; and was United States Senator from I860 till his death. He was active in the tem- perance cause, and a patron of Yale College. He died in Norwich, Oomv, Feb. 3, 1875. Buckingham Palace, a royal palace in London, facing St James* Park, and forming one of uder- dale, whose initial letters form this word. The use of this word to sig- nify a body of intriguers was not, however, derived from this circum- stance, as some have supposed, for the word cabale, derived frora cabala, was used in that sense in French before this time. Cabala, or Cabbala, (that is, re- ception), a word used by the Jews to denote the traditions of their ances- tors regarding the interpretation of the Scriptures. CabaSas, a town in the Province of Pinar del Rio, Cuba; 35 miles S. W. of Havana; is in a rich sugar- cane section; pop. (1907) 11,552. Cabanel, Alexandra, a French artist, born 1823; died 1889. He was famous for his portraits, one of which, Miss Catherine Wolfe, in the Metropolitan Museum, New York, is a fair specimen of his work. He also painted imaginative subjects. Cabbage, a plant in general culti- vation for culinary purposes, and for feeding cattle. In the Northern parts of the United States, cabbages are sown about September, kept under glass or frames during winter, and planted out in spring. Cabbage Flea, the name some* times given to a small leaping beetle, the larvae of which destroy seedling Cabbage Moth cabbages, as those of an allied species do young turnips. Cabbage Moth, a species of moth the caterpillar of which feeds on cab- bage and turnip leaves, and is some- times very destructive. Cabbage Rose, a species of rose of many varieties, supposed to have been cultivated from ancient times, and eminently fitted for the manufac- ture of rose water and attar from its fragrance. It has a large, rounded, and compact flower. Cabbage Tree, the English name for the palm genus Areca, and special- ly for the cabbage palm of the West Indies. It is so called because the bud at the top of its stem is like a cabbage, and the inner leaves which form this bud are eaten like the vege- table now mentioned, though the re- moval of its bud for the sake of these leaves is the destruction of the mag- nificent tree. Cabeiri, sacred priests or deified heroes, venerated by the ancients as the authors of religion and the foun- ders of the human race. Cabell, "William Lewis, an American lawyer ; born in Danville, Va., Jan. 1, 1827; was graduated at the United States Military Academy in 1850. During the Civil War he served in the Confederate army ; rose to the rank of Brigadier-General ; was captured in Kansas in 1864, and held a prisoner of war till April 28, 1865. After the war he practised law in Fort Smith, Ark., and after 1872 in Dallas, Tex., of which he was mayor four times ; died Feb. 22, 1911. Cabell, James Lawrence, an American sanitarian, born in Nelson county, Va.., Aug. 26, 1813. He was graduated at the University of Vir- ginia in 1833, where he later filled the chair of anatomy. During the Civil War he had charge of military hospi- tals for the Confederate Government. He devised measures to check the yel- low fever epidemic at Memphis and was president of the National Board of Health from 1879 till his death, in Overton, Va., Aug. 13, 1889. Cabei, Etienne, a French com- munist, born in Dijon, Jan. 2, 1788, and educated for the bar, but turned his attention to literature and politics. Cabet sent a French colony to the Red Cabinet river in Texas, but the colonists who went out in 1848 found Texas any- thing but a Utopia. Their ill fortune did not deter Cabet from embarking at the head of a second band of colo- nists. On his arrival he learned that the Mormons had just been expelled from Nauvoo, 111., and that their city was left deserted. The Icarians es- tablished themselves there in 1850. Cabet's efforts, however, were not suc- cessful. He was finally obliged to leave Nauvoo and retire to St. Louis, where he died Nov. 9, 1856. Cabeza, de Vaca, Alvar Nunez, a Spanish explorer, born about 1507. He was second in command in the ill-fated expedition of Panfilo de Nar- vaez to Florida in 1528. After the loss of their commander, Cabesa de Vaca, with a few survivors, landed W. of the mouth of the Mississippi, and after eight years of wandering and captivity among the Indians, he reached a Spanish colony on the Pa- cific with three companions. He re- turned to Spain, and in 1540 was appointed Governor of La Plata. He died about 1564. Cabinet, a deliberative committee of the executive authority, consisting of the principal members of the Gov- ernment. The cabinet of the Presi- dent of the United States is composed of the heads of the several adminis- trative departments of the Govern- ment. They are : 1. The Secretary of State, 2. The Secretary of the Treas- ury. 3. The Secretary of War. 4. The Secretary of the Navy. 5. The Secretary of the Interior. 6. The Postmaster-General. 7. The Attorney- General. 8. The Secretary of Agri- culture. 9. The Secretary of Com- merce. 10. The Secretary of Labor. They are appointed to office by the President, but must be confirmed by the Senate, and they generally hold office until their successors are ap- pointed and confirmed. Contrary to foreign systems, the United States cabinet ministers do not have seats in Congress ; there is no premier, al- though the Secretary of State virtu- ally holds that position as leading cabinet officer. The salary of the members of the cabinet is $12,000 an- nually. In 1917 an enlargement of the cabinet was proposed to better handle war measures. Cable Cable is either a large rope or a chain of iron links. Rope cables are made of the best hemp or of wire, twisted into a mass of great compact- ness and strength. The circumference of hemp rope varies from about 3 inches to 26. A certain number of yarns are laid up left-handed to form a strand; three strands laid up right- handed make a hawser, and three hawsers laid up left-handed make a cable. The strength of a hemp cable of 18 inches circumference is about 60 tons, and for other dimensions the strength is taken to vary according to the cube of the diameter. Wire rope has within recent years largely taken the place of hemp for tow-line and hawsers on board ship. Cable, George Washington, an American novelist; born in New Or- leans, La., Oct. 12, 1844; received a common school education ; entered the volunteer service of the Confederate army in 1863 and served till the close of the war ; when he obtained employ- ment in a mercantile house ; and was on the editorial staff of the New Or- leans " Picayune " in 1865-1879. His sketches of Creole life in " Scribner's Monthly " proved so successful that in 1879 he turned his entire attention to literature. He has contributed numerous sketches to newspapers and magazines ; and published various books. Cabot, George, an American statesman ; born in Salem, Mass., Dec. 3, 1751 ; educated at Harvard College. In 1791 he became United States Sen- ator for Massachusetts, and proved a steadfast friend of the Washington administration. He died in Boston, April 18, 1823. Cabot, John, (It. GIOVANNI CAB- OTO), a Venetian pilot, the discoverer of the mainland of North America, settled as a merchant, probably as early as 1472, in Bristol, England, where he is supposed to have died about 1498. Under letters-patent from Henry VII., dated March 5, 1496, he set sail from Bristol in 1497, with two ships, accompanied by Lewis, Sebastian, and Sancto, his sons, and on June 24th sighted Cape Breton Island and Nova Scotia. Letters- patent were granted Feb. 3, 1498, for a second expedition, but whether any voyages were made under these is Cacerea doubtful. However, they form the last authentic record of his career. The same uncertainty exists as to the birthplace of his second son, SE- BASTIAN, who, it now appears most probable, was born in Bristol in 1474. Sebastian's name is associated with that of his father in the charter of 1496, and in 1499 he appears to have sailed with two ships in search of a Northwest Passage, and followed the American coast from 60 to 30 N. lat. ; but it has been considered doubt- ful whether this voyage also should not be assigned to his father. In 1519 Cabot returned to Spain from Eng- land, and was appointed pilot-major of the kingdom by Charles V., for whom, in 1526, he commanded an ex- pedition which examined the coast of Brazil and La Plata, where he en- deavored to plant colonies. The at- tempt ending in failure, he was im- prisoned for a year in 1530, and ban- ished for two years to Oran, in Af- rica. He seems to have died in Lon- don in 1557. Cabral, Pedro Alvarez, the dis- coverer (or second discoverer) of Bra- zil, a Portuguese, born about 1460. In 1500 he received command of a fleet bound for the East Indies, and sailed from Lisbon, but having taken a course too far to the West he was carried by the South American cur- rent to the coast of Brazil, of which he took possession in the name of Portugal. He died about 1526. Cacao, or Cocoa, the chocolate tree, and also the powder and beverage made with it obtained from the fruit of this tree. The tree is 16 to 18 feet high, a native of trop'cal America, and much cultivated in the tropics of both hemispheres, especially in the West India Islands, Central and South America. Its fruit is contained in pointed, oval, ribbed pods 6 to 10 inches long, each inclosing 50 to 100 seeds in a white, sweetish pulp. The term^ cocoa is a corruption of cacao, but is more commonly used in com- merce : cocoa nuts, however, are ob- tained from an entirely different tree. Caceres, Andres Avelino, a Pe- ruvian military officer and statesman; born in Ayacucho, Nov. 11, 1838. The imprisonment of Calderon, the President, made him acting President of Peru. Afterward, by a general Cachalot Cade election, he was inaugurated Presi- i dent (1886). On the death of Presi- i dent Bermudez in 1894, General Ca- ceres was proclaimed dictator, and, May 10th, was elected President. In ; 1895 he was overthrown in a revolu- tion by ex-Dictator Pierola. He died Nov. 19, 1911. CACAO PLANT. Cachalot, the sperm of sperma- ! ceti whale. The male is from 46 to 60, or even 70 feet long ; the female ; from 30 to 35. They are gregarious, ! and go in what the fishermen call ' schools, sometimes with as many as 500 or 600 individuals. The cachalot inhabits the northern seas, but strag- j gles through a great part of the \ ocean. Cachao. See HANOI. Cacliar, a district of Assam, India ; area, 3,750 square miles. The inhab- itants (313,900) are mainly engaged in rice and tea cultivation. Cache, a hole in the ground for hiding and preserving provisions which it is inconvenient to carry; used by settlers in the Western States and Arctic explorers. Cachet, Lettre de, a name given especially to letters proceeding from and signed by the kings of France, and countersigned by a secretary of state. Cache-long, a beautiful mineral, regarded as a variety of semi-opal. It is sometimes called pearl opal, or mother-of-pearl opal. It is generally of a milk-white color, rarely with a yellowish or reddish tinge. Cactaceae (named from the cac- tus), Indian figs. About 800 are known. The fruit of some species is refreshing and agreeable, that of oth- ers insipid. Cactus, an old and extensive ge- nus of Linnseus. The plant, though now seen all over India, undoubtedly came at first from a foreign and a distant country. It grows very ex- tensively in the western and south- western part of the United States and all over tropical America, usually on arid lands. Once rooted in a place, it spreads so widely abroad that it is difficult to get it out again, and it is believed to impoverish the land of which it takes possession. Caddoan Indians, a family of North American Indians, comprising the Arikari tribe in North Dakota; the four Pawnee villages. Grand, Tap- age, Republican, and Skidi, in the Indian Territory ; and the Caddo, Ki- chai, Wichita, and other tribes, for- merly in Louisiana, Texas, and Ar- kansas. Cade, Jack, the leader of a popu- lar insurrection in the reign of Henry VI. of England. He collected 20,000 followers, chiefly Kentish men, who, in June, 1450, flocked to his standard, that they might claim redress for the grievances so widely felt. Cade de- feated a detachment of the royal for- ces at Seven Oaks, and obtained pos- session of London, the King having retired to Kenilworth ; but having put Lord Say cruelly to death, and laid aside the appearance of moderation Cadence which he had at first assumed, the citizens rose, gave his followers bat- tle, dispersed them, and put Cade to death, 1450. Cadence, a close, the device which in music answers the use of stops in language. Cadenza, a flourish of indefinite form introduced upon a bass note im- mediately preceding a close. Cadet, a younger or youngest son; a junior male member of a noble fam- ily. Also the name or title given to a young man in training for the rank of an officer in the army or navy, or in a military school. In the United States cadets are trained for military life at West Point, N. Y., and for naval life at Annapolis, Md. Cadi, or Kadi, in Arabic, a judge or jurist. Among the Turks cadi sig- nifies an inferior judge, in distinction from the mollah, or superior judge. They belong to the higher priesthood, as the Turks derive their law from their prophet. Cadiz, Spain, an important sea- port city, capital of a province, which forms a part of Andalusia. It reached its highest prosperity after the dis- covery of America, when it became the depot of all the commerce with the New World; declined greatly as a com- mercial city after the emancipation of the Spanish colonies in South America; but again revived, owing partly to the extension of the Span- ish railway system, and partly to the establishment of lines of steamers. Cadiz is one of the most ancient towns in Europe, having been built by the Phoenicians, under the name of Gaddir ("fortress"), about 1100 B. C. It afterwards passed into the bands of the Carthaginians, from whom it was captured by the Ro- mans, who named it Gades, and under them it soon became a city of vast wealth and importance. Occupied af- terward by the Goths and Moors, it was taken by the Spaniards in 1262. In 1898 it was the rendezvous of the vessels of the Spanish navy which, for a time during the war be- tween the United States and Spain, were expected to make a demonstra- tion against some of the principal American cities on the Atlantic sea- board. Pop. (1910) 67,174. Ceesar Cadorna, Luigi, an Italian mili- tary officer, born in Pallawza, Sept. 4, 1850, of a family distinguished in the military history of Italy ; was graduated at the Turin Military Acade- my in 1868 and afterward at the School of War ; was for several years attached to the General Staff ; was appointed its Chief when Italy entered the great war ; and so distinguished himself in the operations against Austria that he was called the Joffre of the Italian army. See APPENDIX: World War. Caduceus, Mercury's rod ; a winged rod entwisted by two serpents borne by Mercury as an ensign of quality and office. Cadwalader, George, an Ameri- can lawyer and soldier ; born in Phila- delphia, in 1804. He practiced law till 1846 ; was made brigadier-general of volunteers ; and won distinction at Chapultepec. He resumed his law practice till 1861 ; became major-gen- eral of State volunteers ; was placed in command at Baltimore; accom- panied Patterson's expedition to Win- chester (1861) ; and, as one of a mili- tary board, directed the United States army operations. He died in Phila- delphia, Pa., Feb. 3, 1879. Cadwalader, John, an American soldier, born in Philadelphia, Jan. 10, 1742. At the outbreak of the Revolu- tion he was placed in command of a battalion and soon became brigadier- general. He fought at Trenton, Brandywine, Germantown, and Mon- mouth. He died in Shrewsbury, Pa., Feb. 10, 1786. Caen, a town of France, in Nor- mandy, chief place in the department of Calvados, 125 miles N. W. of Paris, and about 9 miles from the mouth of the Orne. Two remarkable churches are St. Etienne or Church of the Ab- baye-aux-Hommes, built by _ William the Conqueror, who was buried in it, and La Ste. Trinite or Church of the Abbaye-aux-Dames, founded by the Conqueror's wife. Pop. (1911) 46,- 934. Caerleon, a town of England on the Usk, 18 miles S. of Monmouth. Many fine Roman remains have been, and are still, found here. Caesar, Cains Julius, son of a family of the Julian gens, claiming Caesar Cagliari descent from lulus, son of JEneas. The origin of the name is uncertain. Caesar, Cains Julius, son of a Roman praetor of the same name, was born July 12, 100 B. c., according to Mommsen in 102 B. c. One of the greatest, if not the greatest of mili- tary commanders, he was likewise peerless in his time as politician and statesman. He overcame all his ene- mies in the field, and was the dictator, and virtually the first emperor of Rome. During the year 46 B. C. he conferred a benefit on Rome and on the world by the reformation of the calendar, which had been greatly abused by the pontifical college for political purposes. After quelling an insurrection which broke out in Spain, where Pompey's sons, Cneius and Sex- tus, had collected an army, he received the title of "Father of his Country," and also of imperator, was made dic- tator and prsefectus morum for life, and consul for 10 years; his person was declared sacred, and even divine ; he obtained a body-guard of knights and senators ; his statue was placed in the temples ; his portrait was struck on coins ; the month Quintilis was called Julius in his honor, and on all public occasions he was permitted to wear the triumphal robe. He pro- posed to make a digest of the whole Roman law for public use, to found libraries for the same purpose, to drain the Pontine Marshes, to enlarge the harbor of Ostia, to dig a canal through the Isthmus of Corinth, and to quell the inroads of the barbarians on the E. frontiers; but in the midst of these vast designs he was cut off by assassination on the Ides (15th) of March, 44 B. O. Csesarea, the ancient name of many cities, such as: (1) Caesarea Philippi in Palestine, N. of the Sea of Galilee, rebuilt by Philip, tetrarch of Galilee, son of Herod the Great. (2) Csesarea, on the shores of the Mediterranean, about 55 miles N. W. from Jerusalem, enlarged and beauti- fied by Herod the Great, and named in honor of Caesar Augustus ; the place where St. Paul was imprisoned two years (Acts xxiii-xxv). (3) The capital of Cappadocia, in Asia Minor. Caesarian Operation, the most serious operation in midwifery, and nly resorted to to save life. E. 27. Csesarion, son of Julius Caesar and Cleopatra, put to death by order of Augustus. Caesars, The Era of, also known as the Spanish Era, a period of time reckoned from Jan. 1, 38 B. C., being the year following the conquest of Spain by Augustus. It was much used in Africa, Spain, and the S. of France ; but by a synod held in 1180 its use was abolished in all the church- es dependent on Barcelona. Pedro IV. of Arragon abolished the use of it in his dominions in 1350. John of Castile did the same in 1383. It was used in Portugal till 1415, if not till 1422. The months and days of this era are identical with the Julian cal- endar, and to turn the time into that of our era, subtract 38 from the year ; but if before the Christian era, sub- tract 39. Caesium, an element discovered by Bunsen in I860. The pure metal is rare ; it is similar to potassium, and has such an affinity for oxygen, it will burst into flame when exposed to the air. Caffeine, Theine, or Gnaranine, an alkaloid found in tea, coffee and other plants used as beverages. About 1 per cent, is found in coffee, and from 2 to 4 per cent, in tea. It has no nutritive value. In small doses as in a cUp of tea or coffee it helps the circulation. In large doses, or after prolonged drinking of tea or coffee, it paralyses the heart's action. It is used in medicine for various nervous ailments. It is the element that makes tea and coffee drinking so injurious for some persons. Cagayan, an island of the Philip- pines ; the largest of six small islets, known as the Cagayan-Sulu group. It is 5 miles wide and 8 miles long. Pop. (1903) 2,000. There are moun- tains attaining a height of 1,100 feet. The chief products are tobacco and sugar. There are pearl and shell fish- eries. Cagayan was sold by Spain to , the United States, with Sibutu, in 1900, upon payment of $100,000, hav- ing been inadvertently excluded from the terms of the treaty of peace. Cagliari, Paul, also known under the name of Paul Veronese, a painter of Verona, born 1528; died 1588. See VEBONESE, PAUL. Oagliostro Cagliostro, Alessandro, Count of, (real name GIUSEPPE BALSAMO), a celebrated charlatan ; born in Pa- lermo, Italy, June 8, 1743. The dis- covery of the philosopher's stone, the preparation of a precious elixir vita?, etc.,' were the pretenses by means of which he extracted considerable sums from credulous people. Died in 1795. Caguas, a town in the department of Guayama, Porto Rico; on the mai'i road between Ponce and San Juan; 18 miles S. E. of the latter; is in a section containing hot springs and valuable quarries of marble and limestone. Pop. (1910) 10,354. Caiaphas, a Jew, was the high- priest at the time when the crucifix- ion took place. He was deposed A. D. 35, and Jonathan, the son of Annas, appointed in his stead. Caicos, a group of islands belong- ing geographically to the Bahamas, but annexed in 1874 to Jamaica. The North, West, East, Grand, and other Caicos, have, together with Turk's Islands, an area of 223 square miles. Pop. (1911) 5,615. Salt and sponges are their chief products. Caillie, Rene or Anguste, a French traveler; born in Poitou, France, Sept. 19, 1799. Having gone to Senegal, he learned about 1826 that the Geographical Society of Paris had offered a premium of 10,000 francs to the first traveler who should reach Timbuctoo. He started from Kakon- dy in Sierra Leone, April 18, 1827, and after some delay caused by ill- ness, reached the mysterious city, April 20, 1828. Caillie died near Paris, May 7, 1839. Cain, the first-born of the human race, and the first murderer. He be- came an outcast, traveling to the E. of Eden, where he built a city and had a son, named Enoch. The Jewish tra- dition is, that he was slain by Enoch. Caine, Thomas Henry Hall, an English novelist and dramatist; born in Runcorn, Cheshire, Eng., May 14, 1853. His novels, which are striking In their pictures of human motives and passions, are read throughout the world. Cairn, a round or conical heap of stones erected as a sepulchral monu- ment. They are found on the hills of England, Wales, and Scotland, and Cajabamha some have assigned to them a peculiar character, as receptacles for the bodies of criminals burnt in the wicker im ages of the Druids, etc. Cairngorm Stone, a mineral ; a variety of quartz of a smoky yellow to smoky brown, and often transpar- ent, but varying to brownish-black, then nearly opaque in thick crystals. Cairo, (Arab. Musr el Kaherah "the victorious capital"), the capital of modern Egypt, situated in a sandy plain between the right bank of the Nile and the ridge of Mokattam, near the point of the delta of the Nile. The remarkable edifices of Cairo comprise many of the finest remains of Arabian architecture, all dating from the time of the ancient sultana of Egypt. Among these, besides mosques, chapels, and Coptic churches, are several of the ancient gates, an aqueduct for conveying water from the Nile to the citadel, the works of the citadel, and the palace and well of Joseph. At Old Cairo are the seven towers, still called the " Granary of Joseph," and serving their ancient purpose. In the island of Rhoda is the celebrated Nilometer. On the S., outside the walls, are the tombs of the Mamelukes, and on the N. E. the obe- lisk of Heliopolis. There are also a magnetic observatory, and the College of El Ahzar, the principal university of the Mohammedan world. Pop. (1914) 726,075. Cairo, city, port of delivery, and capital of Alexander county, 111. ; at junction of the Mississippi and Ohio rivers; on the Illinois Central and other railroads ; 150 miles S. E. of St. Louis. It is the trade center of a large farming section ; has passenger and freight steamer connections with all important river ports ; and has a $3,000,000 steel railroad bridge across the Ohio. Pop. (1910) 14,548. Caisson, a military term, denoting a wooden chest to hold ammunition ; formerly applied to the ammunition- wagon itself. In engineering a cais- son is a wooden case or frame sunk in the beds of rivers, etc., during the laying of the foundations of a bridge. Cajabamba, former name of Rio- bamba, the capital of the province of Chimborazo, in Ecuador, 102 miles S. of Quito, on the arid plateau Cajamarca of Topi, at an elevation of 9,480 feet. Pop. 16,000. The original town of j RIOBAMBA, founded in 1533, was in 1797 overwhelmed by an earthquake in which 30,000 lives were lost. Pop. (1910) 18,000. Cajamarca, a department in the N. W. of Peru, between the W. chain of the Andes and the Amazon. A railway connects it with the Pacific, and there is a large farming and cat- tle-raising industry. Area, 12,538 square miles; pop. (1896) 442,412. Capital, Cajamarca ; pop. 12,000. Calabar, a maritime district of West Africa on the Bight of Biafra, intersected by two rivers, called re- spectively Old and New Calabar, un- der British protection. Duke Town and Creek Town, the chief towns on Old Calabar river, are stations of British missionaries. Calabash, a tree about 30 feet high, found in some places wild, in others cultivated, in the West Indies and other tropical parts of America. The fruit of the tree is inclosed in a shell used by the natives of the Carib- bee Islands for drinking cups, pots, musical instruments, and other do- mestic utensils. Calabash Nutmeg, a tree of the order Anonaceae, introduced into Ja- maica probably from Western Africa. The fruit resembles small calabashes ; hence the name. It is called also American nutmeg, or Jamaica nutmeg. Calabria, a compartmento of Italy (the " toe " of the boot "), between the Ionian and Tyrrhenian seas; di- vided into the provinces of Cosenza. Reggio, and Catanzaro: area 5,819 square miles; pop. 1,471,780. On Dec. 28, 1908, Calabria and Sicily were visited by an earthquake and tidal wave, causing an appalling loss. Caladinm, a genus of endogenous plants, the typical one of the family caladieae. They are cultivated in greenhouses here, and flourish in warmer parts of tae world. The leaves of the caladium are boiled and eaten in the West Indies. Calais, a fortified seaport town of (France, in the department of Pas-de- Calais, on the Strait of, and 25 miles S. E. of Dover, and distant 184 miles by rail from Paris. The Old Town lor Calais proper has a citadel, and Calamus was formerly surrounded by fortifica tions; but the modern suburb of Sfc Pierre les Calais having been amaN gamated with Calais proper, both are now surrounded with forts and other works, to which morasses lend addi- tional strength. In 1347 Calais was taken by Edward III. of England, after a siege of 11 months. In 1558 it was retaken by the Duke of Guise, being the last relic of the French do- minions of the Plantagenets, which at one time comprehended the half of France. Pop. (1911) 72,322. Calamianes, an island group of the Philippine Archipelago. Their surface is mountainous, and richly wooded, producing rice, wool, cacao, and the bird's nests used for food. Busuanga, Calamian and Linacapan are the largest of the islands. Area about 340 square miles; pop. over 20,000. CAL4.DIUK. Calamus, the reed pen which the ancients used in writing, made of the stem of a reed growing in marshy places, of which the best were ob- tained from Egypt. The stem was first softened, then dried, and cut and split with a knife, as quill pens are made. To this day the Orientals gen erally write with a reed. Calamus Calcium Light Calamus, the traditional name of the sweet flag, which is no doubt the " calamus aromaticus " of Roman au- thors, and probably the sweet calamus and sweet cane of Scripture. Galas, Jean, a French victim of fanaticism ; born in 1698. He was a Protestant, and was engaged as a merchant in Toulouse, when his eld- est son committed suicide ; and as he was known to be attached to the Ro- man Catholic faith, a cry arose that he had on that account been murdered by his father. Jean Calas and his whole family were arrested, and a prosecution instituted against him, in support of which numerous witnesses came forward. The parliament of Toulouse condemned him, by eight voices against five, to be tortured and then broken on the wheel, which sen- tence was carried out in 1762, his property being also confiscated. Vol- taire became acquainted with his fam- ily, and procured a revision of the trial, when _ Galas was declared inno- cent, and his widow pensioned. Calatafimi, a town of Sicily near its W. end, with a ruined Saracenic castle. Near it is the scene of Gari- baldi's first victory over the Neapoli- tans in 1860. Calatrava la Viega, a ruined city of Spain, on the Guadiana, 12 miles N. E. of Ciudad Real. Its de- fence against the Moors, undertaken by Raymond, abbot of Fitero, and Die- go Velasquez in 1158, after it had been abandoned by the Templars, is famous on account of its having orig- inated the Order of the Knights of Calatrava, which was instituted at Calatrava in 1158, by King Sancho III. of Castile, and was at several periods associated with the Cistercian monks. Their almost uniform success against the Moors gave rise to rash- ness, and in 1197 they were defeated and nearly exterminated, the survivors transferring the seat to the castle of Salvatierra. Calaveras Grove, Cal., one of the famous groves of big trees, and the nearest to San Francisco, measures 1,100 yards by 70 yards, and con- tains about 100 trees. It is State property. Calcareous, a term applied to sub- stances partaking of the nature of lime, or containing quantities of lime. Thus we speak of calcareous waters, calcareous rocks, calcareous soils. Cal- careous spar (crystallized carbonate of lime) is found crystallized in more than 700 different forms, all having for their primitive form an obtuse rhomboid. The rarest and most beau- tiful crystals are found in Derbyshire, England. Calceolaria, a well known and beautiful genus of plants. The spe- cies, which are numerous, come from South America, chiefly from the west- ern slope or side of the Andes. The greater number have yellow flowers, others are purple, while in a few the two colors are intermingled. Various calceolarias are cultivated in the United States. Calciferols Epoch, one of the subordinate divisions of the Lower Si- lurian System of North America. The division is characterized by the pres- ence of calcareous sandstones and limestones. Calcination, the operation of ex- pelling from a substance by heat, eith- er water or volatile water combined with it. Thus, the process of burning lime, to expel the carbonic acid, is one of calculation. Calcite, Calcareous Spar, or Calc-spar, the name usually given by mineralogists to carbonate of lime, rhombohedral in its crystallization. It differs from aragonite only in crys- tallization. Calcite is one of the com- monest minerals. Calcium, a dyad metallic element. Calcium is a yellowish white, ductile, malleable metal, which oxidizes in damp air; it decomposes water, and dissolves easily in dilute acids. Calcium Carbide, a chemical compound of calcium and carbon. It is a hard, bluish-black, clear crystal- line body, and is impervious to light, and insoluble in all known solvents. It is used generally for the produc- tion of acetylene and the reduction of iron. See ACETYLENE. Calcinm Light, a brilliant light produced by directing the flame of an oxy-hydrogen blow-pipe against a block of compressed quicklime. It has been used on the stage for many years, and by the aid of colored glasses very charming effects are produced. C ale-sinter Caledonia More recently it has been employed in lanterns for projecting photographic and biographic pictures on a screen. Calc-sinter, a carbonate of lime, the substance which forms the stalac- tites and stalagmites that beautify many caves. Calculating Machine, a piece _of mechanism for assisting the human in- tellect hi the performance of arithme- tical operations. Among modern cal- culating machines are the slide-rule and bank and cash registers. Calculus, the medical term for what is popularly known as stone. Calculi vary in size from a pin's head to a pigeon's egg, and even larger, and weigh from a few grains to several ounces. They derive their special name and character as well from the organs of the body in which they are found as from the constituents of which they are composed. Calculus, The Infinitesimal, or Transcendental Analysis, a branch of mathematical science. Calcutta, (literally, the ghaut or landing place of Kali, from a famous shrine of this goddess), capital of British India, and of the presidency and province of Bengal ; situated on the left bank of the Hooghly, a branch of the Ganges, about 80 miles from the Bay of Bengal. The Hooghly is navigable up to the city for vessels of 4,000 tons or drawing 26 feet. The port of Calcutta extends for about 10 miles along the river, and is under the management of a body of commission- ers. Opposite the city it is crossed by a great pontoon bridge, which gives communication with Howrah for vehicles and foot-passengers, and can be opened at one point to let vessels pass up or down. Beside the accommodation for shipping furnished by the river, there are also several docks. The trade is very large, Cal- cutta being the commercial center of India. There is a very extensive in- land trade by the Ganges and its con- nections, as also by railways (the chief of which start from Howrah), while almost the whole foreign trade of this part of India is monopolized by Calcutta. In 1773 Calcutta be- came the seat of British government for the whole of India. Since then the history of Calcutta has been an almost unbroken record of progress and prosperity. Pop. in 1911, with suburbs, 1,222,313; excluding How- rah, 1,043,307. Caldecott, Randolph, an Eng- lish artist ; born in Chester, England, March 22, 1846. He will chiefly be remembered by the admirable " Calde- cott's Picture-books," which began in 1878, with " John Gilpin " and " The House that Jack Built." After vain attempts to restore his health by trips abroad he died in St. Augustine, Fla., Feb. 12, 1886. Calderon, Francisco Garcia, a Peruvian jurist and statesman; born in Arequipa in 1834. He became a member of Congress in 1867 ; 'accept- ed the treasury portfolio in 1868, and, after the Chilean occupation in 1883, became the head of the provisional government. Being captured by the enemy, he was retained as a prisoner at Valparaiso, and, although his elec- tion as President was confirmed, he was unable to take the office. After his release he figured prominently in public affairs. He died Sept. 21, 1905. Caldwell, Charles Henry Bro- medge, an American naval officer; born in Hingham, Mass., June 11, 1828. In the Civil War he command- ed the " Itasca," taking part in the bombardment of Forts Jackson and St. Philip and the Chalmette batter- ies, and in the capture of New Or- leans. He was promoted commodore in 1874. He died in Boston, Mass., Nov. 30, 1877. Caldwell, James, an American patriot; born in Charlotte county, Va., in 1734. During the growing antagonism between the Colonies and Great Britain, he warmly took the side of the former, and when hostili- ties began, became chaplain to the New Jersey brigade. He was shot by a sentinel, at the Point, New York, Nov. 24, 1781, and buried at Eliza- bethtown, N. J., where a costly mar- ble monument covers the remains of the " soldier-parson." Caledonia and Caledonians, the names by which the N. portions of Scotland and its inhabitants first be- came known to the Romans. Caledonia, New, a French island in the Pacific Ocean ; lying some 700 miles E. of Australia. Its length N. Calendar W. to S. E. is 250 miles, the breadth being about 35 miles. It is surround- ed by coral reefs, at a distance of from 5 to 18 miles. New Caledonia was taken possession of by the French on Sept. 24, 1853, and a small colony was formed there. ! During the time of the second empire : it was employed as a place of banish- ment for criminals, a purpose which it still serves. In 1872, by a decree of , the National Assembly at Versailles, New Caledonia was fixed on as the place to which the condemned Com- munists should be transported. The number of the condemned amounted to more than 3,000. In 1911 the total population was 50,608, of whom 13,- 138 were free, 5,671 of convict origin, and 28,075 black. Capital, Noumea; pop. 10,000. Calendar, a systematic division of time into years, months, weeks, and days, or a register of these or similar divisions. The present calendar was adopted in the IGth century, the Ju- lian, or old Roman calendar having^ become^ ;ross]y erroneous. Luigi Lilio Ghiraldi, frequently called Aloysius Lilius, a physician of Verona, projected a plan for amend- ing the calendar, which, after his death, was presented by his brother to Pope Gregory XIII. To carry it into execution, the Pope assembled a num- ber of prelates and learned men. In 1577 the proposed change was adopted by all the Catholic princes ; and in 1582 Gregory issued a brief abolish- ing the Julian calendar in all Catho- lic countries, and introducing in its stead the one now in use, under the name of the Gregorian or reformed calendar, or the " new style," as the other wa great Flood Mansion and grounds, do- nated in 1898, comprise a commercial college endowment. The university receives a handsome sum from the National Government for its agricul- tural experiment station; the State Calixtines adds a large appropriation ; and the whole is spent on four stations and several sub-stations, where many im- portant horticultural experiments are made. The university in 1899 ac- cepted plans for a new set of build- ings to cost about $7,500,000. The principal benefactor of the university, since 1896, has been Mrs. Phoebe A. Hearst, widow of Senator Hearst. Her gifts have reached millions of dollars. As a result of these and other resources of endowment, the in- stitution has become one of the rich- est of American universities. Caligula, Cains Caesar Augus- tus Germanicns, a Roman emperor, son of Germanicus and Agrippina; born A. D. 12, in the camp at Antium. He succeeded Tiberius, A. D. 37, and made himself very popular by his mildness ; but at the end of eight months he was seized with a disorder, caused by his irregular mode of living, which appears to have deranged his in- tellect. After his recovery he sud- denly showed himself the most cruel and unnatural of tyrants. He was assassinated by a band of conspirators A. D. 41. Caliper Compasses, compasses made with arched legs to measure the diameters of cylinders or globular bod- ies, or with straight legs and retracted points to measure the interior diam- eter or bore of anything. Caliph, Calif, or Khalif, the title borne by the successor of Mohammed in temporal and religious authority. Calisaya Bark, a variety of Pe- ruvian or cinchona bark, namely, that of Cinchona calisaya or flava. Calisthenics, or Callisthenics, a name for exercises for promoting gracefulness and strength, and com- prises the more gentle forms of gym- nastics, especially for girls. Calixtines, a Christian sect in Bohemia, the more moderate of the two great sections into which the Hus- sites were divided in 1420. Unlike the Taborjtes the other section they did not seek to subvert the gov- ernment of the Church of Rome, but demanded the restoration of the cup to the people in the celebration of the Supper; the preaching of the Gospel in primitive simplicity and purity; the separation of the priests from Calixtna secular, and their entire devotion to spiritual, concerns ; and, the preven- tion or punishment, by lawful author- ity, of " mortal " sins. The council of Basel, in 1433, to end the disas- trous Bohemian war, invited envoys from the Hussites. Procopius Rasa and others appeared, but the effort failed. Afterward the council sent ^Eneas Sylvius into Bohemia. He, by conceding the use of the cup to the Calixtines, reconciled them to the Church of Rome. Cnlixtus, the name of several Popes. Calixtns (properly CALLISEN), Georg, a German theologian of the Lutheran Church; born in Schleswig in 1586. He wrote against the celi- bacy of the clergy, and proposed a re- union of Catholics and Protestants upon the basis of the Apostles' creed. He died in 1G56. Calkins, Gary Nathan, an Amer- ican scientist ; born in Valparaiso, Ind., Jan. 18, 1869. He was grad- uated at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1890 ; had charge of scientific expeditions to Alaska in 1896 and 1897; and in 1900 was in- structor in Zoology at Columbia Uni- versity. Call ah an, James Morton, an American publicist ; born in Bedford, Ind., Nov. 4, 1864. He was grad- uated at the University of Indiana in 1894, and became lecturer on Ameri- can Diplomatic History at Johns Hop- kins in 1898. Callao, the port of Lima, Peru, lies 7 miles S. W. of Lima by rail, on a small bay. The town possesses a floating dock, and fine harbor works, embracing an area of 520 acres, with extensive pier and dock accommoda- tion ; and the spacious roadstead, shel- tered by the island of San Lorenzo, is one of the safest in the world. The present Callao dates only from 1746, when the original city, a short dis- tance to the S., was destroyed by an earthquake and an invasion of the sea. Callao was bombarded in 1880 during the war between Chile and Peru. By the completion of a direct cable between this port and Mollendo, telegraphic communication has been established with the United States. Pop. (1905) 34,346. Calorie Callender, John, an American historian; born in Boston, Mass., 1706; collected many papers relating to the Baptists in America ; and pub- lished "A Centennial Discourse on the Civil and Religious Affairs of the Col- ony of Rhode Island," which was the only history of that State for more than a century. He died in Newport. R. I., Jan. 26, 174a Calliope, one of the Muses. She presided over eloquence and heroic po- etry, and is said to have been the mother of Orpheus. Calliope, an asteroid, the 22nd found. It was discovered by Hind, on Nov. 16, 1852. Also a series of steam whistles, pitched to produce musical notes ; operated by a keyboard! Callisthenes, a Greek philosopher, born in 365 B. c. He was a grandson of Aristotle, and accompanied Alex- ander the Great in his expedition to Asia. He was accused of conspiracy, and put to death B. c. 328. Calmar, a fortified seaport town of Sweden, on the W. side of a narrow strait of the Baltic, separating the is- land of (Eland from the continent, 90 miles N. E. by E. of Carlskrona. The town, built of wood, stands on the small island of Quarnholm. Here, in 1397, was concluded the famous treaty which united the kingdoms of Sweden, Denmark, and Norway. Here also, in 1520, Gustavus Vasa disembarked to deliver his country from the domi- nation of foreigners and of a san- guinary tyrant. Pop. (1915) 15,917. Calms, Regions of, tracts in the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, on the confines of the trade-winds, where calms of long duration prevail. Calomel, mercury sub-chloride. It is insoluble in water, and blacked by ammonia. It is used in liver com- plaints, and in any of the complaints for w hich mercury internally adminis- ' tered is indicated. Care should be ex- ercised in its use, as it is likely to in- duce salivation. Calorescence, the transmutation of heat rays into light rays. Caloric, the name given to a sup- posed subtle imponderable fluid to which the sensation and phenomena of heat were formerly attributed. Calorimeter Calorimeter, an instrument for measuring the quantity of heat which a body parts with or absorbs when its temperature sinks or rises. Calptropis, a genus of asclepiads, consisting of three species, which form shrubs or small trees, and are natives of the tropics of Asia and Af- rica. Calotype, a process by which paper saturated with iodide of silver is exposed to the action of light, the image being developed and fixed by hyposulphite of soda. Calovins. Abraham, (originally KALAU), the chief representative of controversial Lutheran orthodoxy in the 17th century; born in Mohrungen in East Prussia, April 16, 1612. He waged war incessantly on Arminian, Socinian, Reformed and Catholic doc- trines. He was six times* married, the last time in his 72d year. He died Feb. 25, 1686. Caloyers, Greek monks, belonging to the order of St. Basil, who lead a very austere life. Caltrop, a four-pronged piece of iron, each prong about 4 inches in length, formerly thrown down in war- fare to check the approach of the en- emy. Calninba, or Colombo, used in medicine, a menispermaceous climber of Eastern Africa, which has been in- troduced into India. Sliced and dried, it has a greenish-yellow tint, bitter taste, and a faint aromatic odor. It is a useful mild tonic and stomachic. AMERICAN CALUMBA ROOT is obtained from Frasera Walteri, a gentianaceous biennial, and has properties like those of gentian. Calumet, a pipe used by the North American Indians. The bowl is of stone, and the stem is orna- mented with feathers, etc. The cal- umet is the emblem of peace. To re- fuse it is to make a proclamation of enmity, and to accept is a sign of friendship. Calvados, a French department, part of the old province of Norman- dy, bounded on the N. by the English Channel, and E., W. and S. by the departments Eure, La Manche, and Orne. Area, 2,197 square miles; Calvim Sop. (1911) 396,318; chief town, aen, pop. (1911) 46,934. Calvary, the English designation of the spot upon which the crucifixion of Jesus Christ is recorded as having taken place. It lay beyond the city, and by Captain Conder is identified with the old House of Stoning, or place of public execution, according to the law of Moses, on the top of the remarkable knoll outside the Da- mascus gate, on the N. si^e of Jeru- salem. It is now generally believed to have been the knoll on the north-east of the city, formerly known as the Grotto of Jeremiah near the Damascus Gate. Calve, Emma, a French opera singer; born in 1866. She made her debut at Brussels in Gounod's " Faust." She has made successful tours of the United States in leading roles. Calverley, Charles, an American sculptor ; born in Albany, N. Y., Nov. 1, 1833. He won note with groups and figures and portrait busts of Greeley, Cooper, Howe, etc. He was elected to the National Academy of Design in 1875. He died Feb. 26, 1914. Calvi, a seaport on the island of Corsica, on a peninsula in the Bay of Calvi. It was founded in the 13th century. It was so strongly fortified as to withstand several sieges, but in 1794, after a siege of 51 days, was taken by the English from the Corsi- cans. The following year it was re- taken. Pop. about 2,500. Calvin, John, (so called from Calvinus, the Latinized form of his family name, CAXJVIN, or CHAUVIN), the second great reformer of the 16th century; born in Noyon, Picardy, July 10, 1509. Calvin died May 27, 1564, in the 55th year of his age. He was of a weak constitution, and suf- fered from frequent sickness. In Strasburg he had married a widow, Idelette de Burie, in 1539 ; a son, the fruit of their union, died early. In 1549 he lost his wife, after which he never married again. He was tem- perate and austere, gloomy and in- flexible. His disinterestedness was rare. He had a yearly stipend of 150 frances, 15 measures of corn, and 2 casks of wine; and never received a larger one. Calvin The chief doctrines of Calvin's sys- tem are : Predestination, particular redemption, total depravity, irresisti- ble grace, and the certain perseverance of the saints, denominated the five points. The followers of Calvin in Germany are called the Reformed. In France most Protestants are Cal- vinists. Calvinism is the professed belief of the greatest part of the Pres- byterians ; the Particular Baptists in England and India, and the Associated Baptists in America ; the Independ- ents of every class in England and Scotland, and the Congregationalists of New England. Calvin, Samuel, a Scotch-Ameri- can scientist; born in Wigtonshire, Scotland, Feb. 2, 1840. He came to the United States when a youth and served in the Civil War. He studied geology as a life pursuit, and after 1874 was Professor of Geology at the University of Iowa, and State Geolo- gist of Iowa after 1892. Died in 1911. Calvinistic Methodists, a sec- tion of the Methodists, distinguished by their Calvinistic sentiments from the ordinary Wesleyans, who are Ar- minian. Wesley and Whitfield, the colleagues in the great evangelistic movement which did so much spirit- ually and morally to regenerate Eng- land in the 18th century, differed with regard to the doctrines of grace, Wesley being Arminian, and Whit- field Calvinistic ; the latter revival preacher may be looked on as the father and founder of Calvinistic Methodism. In distinctive form it dates from 1725, but did not complete- ly sever its connection with the Eng- lish Church till 1810. In government it is now Presbyterian. Calvo Doctrine. 'See DRAQO. Calx, properly lime or chalk, but the term is more generally applied to the residuum of a metal or mineral which has been subjected to violent heat, and which is, or may be, re- duced to a fine powder. Calycanttns, a genus of hardy American shrubs, of which one spe- cies, Florida allspice, has yellow flow- ers, and is sweet-scented. Calydonian Boar. According to a Greek myth, CEneus, King of Caly- don. the ancient capital of JEtolia, omitted a sacrifice to Artemis, where- Cambaceres upon the goddess, when he was absent, sent a frightful boar to lay waste his fields. No one dared to face the monster, until Meleager, son of CEneus, with a band of heroes, pur- sued and slew him. The Curetes laid claim to the head and hide, but were driven off by Meleager. Later ac- counts make Meleager summon to the hunt heroes from all parts of Greece, among them the maiden Atalanta, who gave the monster the first wound. Calyx, in botany, the name given to the exterior covering of a flower. Cain, Diogo, a Portuguese ex- plorer of the 15th century, who in 1484 discovered the mouth of tho Kongo. Caniagney, a province and its capital city in Cuba; both formerly known as PUEBTO PEINCIPE. The province extends across the island between the provinces of Santa Clara and Oriente ; has an area of 10.076 square miles; pop. (1914) 154,867; chief products, cattle, sugar cane, wax, honey, timber, and hemp. The city is in the heart of one of the wildest parts of the island, in the center of the province, and manufactures and exports cigars, sugar, tobacco, wax, and honey; pop. (1914) 79,166. Camayeu, or Camaien, a term used in painting where there is only one color, and where the lights and shadows are of gold, wrought on a golden or azure ground. Cambaceres, Jean Jacques de, a French Senator ; born in Montpel- lier, Oct. 18, 1753. During the raign of terror which followed the condem- nation of Louis XVI. Cambaceres en- deavored to check the arbitrary measures of the Assembly. He was a member of the Council of Five Hun- dred, and in 1796 drew up a " Plan of a Civil Code," which became the basis of the " Napoleonic Code." On the abdication of Napoleon, in 1814, Cam- baceres withdrew into private life, but on the return of the emperor from Elba, he was promoted to the office of Minister of Justice. After the over- throw of Napoleon, he was banished from France on the ground of his hay- ing voted for the death of Louis XVI. ; but in 1818 was reinstated in all his civil and political rights ; be died, in Paris, March 8, 1824. Cambert Cambert, Robert, a French musi- cian; born in Paris about 1628. He founded the Royal Academy of Music, now the Paris Grand Opera. He died in London about 1677. Cambodia, or Camboja, a State in Indo-China under a French pro- tectorate, on the lower course of the Mekong, 220 miles from N. E. to S. W., and 150 miles broad, compris- ing an area of 45,000 square miles ; and pop. (1911) 1,634,252. France, on Aug. 11, 1863, concluded a treaty with the King of Cambodia, Noro- dom, whom, from being a viceroy, the French had helped to elevate to the throne, placing Cambodia under a French protectorate. This treaty was superseded by that of June 17, 1884. Capital Pnom-Penh (pop. 62,255). Cambon, Jules Martin, a French diplomatist ; born in Paris, April 5, 1845. He studied for the law and fought in the Franco-Prussian War ; was Ambassador to the United States in 1897, retiring in 1903, and repre- sented Spain in drawing up the Span- ish-American protocol in 1898. Cambrai, a town in N. France, about 23 miles from the Belgian fron- tier and 100 miles from Paris ; on the Scheldt river. Former strong forti- fications have been mostly dismantled. The town contains many beautiful churches. Here the famous " Ladies' Peace " of 1529 was concluded. Cam- brai was in one of the early fighting zones of the great war. See AP- PENDIX: World War. Cambric, originally the name of a fine kind of linen which was manufac- tured principally at Cambrai in French Flanders, but is now applied to a cotton fabric, which is manufac- tured in imitation of the true cambric. Cambridge, a city, and one of the county seats of Middlesex county, Mass., on the Charles river and the Fitcbburg railroad ; opposite to and connected with Boston by four bridges. It was founded in 1630- 1631, under the name of " Newe- Towne," or Newtown." In 1636 the General Court appropriated $2,000 to locate a school in Old Cambridge, which later became Harvard College. The first printing office in the United States was located in Cambridge. Cambridge has now extensive printing Camden establishments. For historical and literary associations, Cambridge is one of the most famous cities in the United States. The venerable Wash- ington elm, under which Washington took command of the American Army, July 3, 1775, still stands. " Craigie House," built by Col. John Vassall in 1759, was Washington's headquarters in 1775-1776, and afterward became the home of the poet Henry W. Long- fellow. On Elm avenue is " Elm- wood," the birthplace and home of James R. Lowell. Pop. (1915) 108,822. Cambridge, city and capital of Guernsey county, O.; on Wills creek and several railroads; 26 miles E. of Zanesville; is in a coal, natural gas, and petroleum region; is a trade center of parts of three counties; and manufactures iron, steel, glass, pot- tery, tin, plate, and iron roofing. Pop. (110) 17,327. Cambridge University, a cele- brated seat of learning and education, dating from English public schools es- tablished in Cambridge in the 7th cen- tury. The first college was founded under royal charter in 1237. Cambyses, (1) a Persian of noble blood, to whom King Astyages gave his daughter Mandane in marriage. (2) The son of Cyrus the Great, be- came, after the death of his father, King of the Persians and Medes, B. c. 529. In the fifth year of his reign he invaded Egypt, conquering the whole kingdom within six months. He died in 521 B. c. Camden, city, port of entry, and county seat of Camden county, N. J. ; on the Delaware river, opposite Phila- delphia, with which it is connected by several ferries. It is noted for its immense market gardens and manu- factures. Pop. (1910) 94,538. Camden, county-seat of Kershaw county, S. C.; 32 miles N. E. of Co- lumbia. It has extensive cotton and grain interests and is a health resort for sufferers from throat and lung troubles. Camden was the site of three noted battles. On Aug. 16, 1780, the American forces under Gen- eral Gates, 3,600 strong, were de- feated by Lord Cornwallis. This end- ed Gates's military career. On April 25, 1781, Greene, who succeeded Gates, was attacked and worsted by Caxnden Lord Rawdon at Hobkirk's Hill, near Camden. On Feb. 24, 1865, Camden was taken by General Sherman after a lively skirmish. Two thousand bales of cotton and a quantity of tobacco were burned. Pop. (1900) 2,441. Camden, Charles Pratt, Mar- quis, an English statesman ; born in 1714. After having studied law, he was called to the bar in 3738. Af- ter nearly 20 years devoted to close study he was appointed attorney-gen- eral, and later lord chief justice. He distinguished himself by his exertions in behalf of the American colonies, and in 1766 rose to the highest legal dignity, that of lord hieh chancellor. He died in London. April 18, 1794. Camel, a genus of ruminant quad- rupeds, characterized by the absence of horns ; a fissure in the upper lip ; a long and arched neck; one or two humps or protuberances on the back ; and a broad elastic foot ending in two small hoofs. The native country of the camel is said to extend from Morocco to China, within a zone of CAMEL. 900 or .1,000 miles in breadth. The comnon camel, having two humps, is found in the N. part of this region, and exclusively from the ancient Bac- tria, now Turkestan, to China. The dromedary, or single-humped camel is found throughout the entire length of this zone. To people residing in the vicinity of the great deserts the camel is an invaluable mode of conveyance. It will travel three days under a load and five days under a rider without Cameo drinking. The camel's power of en- during thirst is partly due to the structure of its stomach, to which are attached pouches capable of straining off and storing water for future use. It can live on little food, and of the coarsest kind. In this it is helped by the fact that its humps are mere ac- cumulations of fat and form a store upon which the system can draw when the outside supply is defective. Camels which carry heavy burdens will do about 25 miles a day; those which are used for speed alone, from 60 to 90 miles a day. The camel is rather passive than docile, but it i very vindictive when injured. It lives from 40 to 50 years. The South American members of the family Camelidse contain the llama and al- paca; they have no humps. Camelopard, a name given to the giraffe, originally from the notion that it was a hybrid between a camel and leopard. Cainelopardalis, one of the N. circumpolar constellations added by Hevelius in 1690. It is a large irreg- ularly shaped constellation, something like the animal, with its head close to the Pole. It contains no stars bright- er than the fourth magnitude. Camelot, a name applied in the mediaeval romances to the " City of Legions " which grew out of the per- manent quarters of the Second Augus- ta Legion at Caerleon-upon-Usk, but was built earlier by the mythical Be- linus. Camel's Hump, one of the peaks of the Green Mountains, in Vermont, 17 miles W. of Montpelier. Camel's Thorn, a name of several plants. They are half-shrubby plants growing in the deserts of the East, and derive their name from the fact that they afford a food relished by camels. Cameo, a term applied to gems of different colors sculptured in relief. The art of engraving on gems boasts of high antiquity, having been prac- tised and was revived in Italy in the 15th century. The cameos of the an- cients were confined to the agate, onyx, and sard, but are occasionally found executed on opal, beryl, or em- erald. Camera Lucida Camoens Camera Lucida, an instrument invented by Wollaston in 1804; de- signed to produce on a plane surface a representation of a landscape or other object, which will enable one to delineate it with accuracy. Camera Obscura, an optical in- strument used to view or sketch ob- jects at a short distance. It consists of a box, formed of two parts sliding in each other, like a telescope, so as to adjust the focus to bodies more or less distant. A tube with a lens is fixed hi one side of it, and is turned to the object to be represented. The rays entering fall on a mirror sloped at an angle of 45, which reflect them upward. It is convenient that they may be made to pass through a hori- zontal plate of glass, on which tracing paper may be placed so as to enable one to draw the figure. Camera, Photographic, a camera obscura so constructed that sensitized plates or films may be placed at the back and receive the image. Camerarius, Rudolph Jakob, a German botanist, born in iWurtem- burg, Feb. 12, 1665. To him is as- cribed the discovery of the sexual re- lation in plants. He died in Tubin- gen, Sept 11, 1721. Camerlengo, ("a chamberlain"), one of the highest officers of the Vati- can court, and who acts as Pope when there is a vacancy on the papal throne. Cameron, Arnold Guypt, an [American educator : born in Princeton, N. J., March 4, 1864; was graduated at Princeton College in 1847, and at department of Greek at Princeton professor of French and German in Miami University; in 1891-1897, as- sistant professor of French in the Sheffield Scientific School of Tale Uni- versity; and in 1897 accepted the chair of French at the John C. Green School of Science, Princeton. Cameron, James Donald, ^ an American capitalist and politician ; born in Middletown, Pa., May 14, 1833 ; oldest son of Simon Cameron ; was graduated at Princeton College in 1852. In 1876 President Grant an- pointed him Secretary of War, and in 1877 he succeeded his father as Unit- ed States Senator from Pennsylvania, retiring from the Senate in 1897. Cameron, Simon, an American, statesman ; born in Maytown, Lancas- ter co., Pa., March 8, 1799 ; began, when 9 years of age, to learn the trade of a printer. In 1820 he was editor of a paper in Doylestown, Pa., and in 1822 he held a similar post in Harris- burg. He then interested himself in banking and the building of railroads. From 1845 to 1849 he was United States Senator from Pennsylvania. He became a member of the Republican party on its formation, and in 1856 he was again elected United States Senator. In 1861 he was appointed Secretary of War by President Lin- coln. In January, 1862, he resigned from the Cabinet, and was appointed minister to Russia. In November of the same year he resigned, and lived in retirement till 1866, when he was again elected to the United States Sen- ate. In 1877 he retired from the Sen- ate in favor of his son, James Don- ald Cameron. He died in Maytown, Pa., June 26, 1889. Camisards, the title given to the Protestant insurgents in the Ceveanes, after the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, from having worn their shirts over their dress by way of disguise, on the occasion of some nocturnal at- tacks. Camoens, Luis de, a Portuguese poet; born in Lisbon, probably in 1524 or 1525. Disappointed in love, he became a soldier, and served in the fleet which the Portuguese sent against Morocco, losine his right eye in a naval engagement before Ceuta. An affray into which he was drawn wis the cause of his embarking in 1553 for India. He landed at Goa, but, being unfavorably impressed with the life led by the ruling Portuguese there, wrote a satire which caused his ban- ishment to Macao (1556). Here he wrote the earlier cantos of his great poem, the " Lusiad." Returning to Goa in 1561, he was shipwrecked and lost all his property except his pre- cious manuscript. After much misfor- tune Camoens in 1570 arrived once more in his native land, poor and without influence, as he had left it. The " Lusiad " was printed nt Lisbon (1572), and celebrating the plories of the Portuguese conquests in India, ac- quired a wide popularity. The king Camomile accepted the dedication of the poem, but the only reward Camoens obtained was a pittance insufficient to save him from poverty. His other works con- sist of sonnets, songs, etc. He died June 18, 1579. Camomile, or Chamomile. The species are annual and perennial herbs, all palaearctic, long known for the medicinal virtues of an infusion of its flowers as a bitter stomachic and tonic. Camorra, a well-organized secret society, once spread throughout all parts of the kingdom of Naples. Camp, the space occupied by an army halted with tents pitched. Campagna di Roma, the coast region of Middle Italy, in which Rome is situated, from 30 to 40 miles wide and 100 long, and forming the undu- lating mostly uncultivated plain which extends from near Civita Vecchia or Viterbo to Terracina, and includes the Pontine Marshes. The soil is very fertile in the lower parts, though its cultivation is much neglected, owing to the malaria which makes residence there during midsummer dangerous. In ancient times the Campagna was well cultivated and populated. Noth- ing of its former prosperity being vis- ible but the ruins of great temples, circuses, and monuments, and long rows of crumbling aqueducts over- grown with ivy and other creeping plants. Campania, anciently a province on the W. coast of Italy, having Capua as its capital, lying between Latium, Samnium, and Lucania. It was one of the most productive plains in the world, yielding in extraordinary abun- dance corn, wine, and oil ; and by both Greek and Roman writers is celebrated for its soft and genial cli- mate, its landscapes, and its harbors. Caiiipani-Alimenis, Matteo, an Italian mechanician. In optics, his greatest achievement was the manu- facture of the object-glasses, through which Cassini discovered two satellites of Saturn. He invented the illum- inated dial for clocks. _ Campanile, a tower for the recep- tion of bells, principally used for church purposes, but now sometimes lor domestic edifices. The most re- Campbell markable of the campaniles is that at Pisa, commonly called the " Lean- ing Tower." It is cylindrical in form, and surrounded by eight stories of columns, placed over one another, each having its entablature. The height is about 150 feet to the plat- form, whence a plumb-line lowered falls on the leaning side nearly 13 feet outside the base of the building. The campanile of St. Mark, dom- inating all the surrounding buildings of St. Mark's Square, Venice, was the most conspicuous landmark of the city for over 1,000 years. The tower was 325 feet high and 42 feet square at the base. On the morning of July 14, 1902, it fell with a great crash into the square. The church of St. Mark and the palace of the Doges were not hurt, but the campanile in falling carried away the Sansovino Loggetta and the library of the Royal Palace. Campbell, Alexander, founder of the sect known as the "Disciples of Christ " ; born near Ballymena, in County Antrim, Ireland, Sept. 12, 1788. He emigrated to the United States in 1807. Though at first a Presbyterian, in 1812 he formed a connection with the Baptists, and for some time he labored as an itinerant preacher. In 1826 he published a translation of the New Testament, in which the words " baptism " and " baptist " gave place to " immersion " and " immerser." By his discussions on public platforms, and his serial publications, as well as his assiduity in preaching tours and training young men for the ministry, Campbell grad- ually formed a large party of follow- ers, who began about 1827 to form themselves into a sect under the des- ignation of " The DISCIPLES OP CHRIST." In 1841 Campbell founded Bethany College in West Virginia, where he died March 4, 1866. _ Campbell, Allan, an American civil engineer; born in Albany, N. Y., in 1815. He laid out the route of the New York and Harlem railroad ; built a railroad from Callao to Lima, Peru ; was appointed engineer of the harbor defenses of New York in the early part of the Civil War; was chief en- gineer in the construction of the Union Pacific railroad; and became Campbell commissioner of public works in New- York (1876). He died in New York city, March 18, 1894. Campbell, Hartley, an American dramatist ; born in Allegheny City, Pa., Aug. 12, 1843. He died in Mid- dletown, N. Y., July 30, 1888. Campbell, Charles, an American historian ; born in Petersburg, Va., May 1, 1807. He died in Staunton, Va., July 11, 1876. Campbell, Sir Colin, Lord Clyde, a British military officer ; born in Glasgow, Oct. 20, 1792. He took part in the expedition to the United States (1814), and then passed nearly 30 years in garrison duty at various places. On the outbreak of the Cri- mean War, in 1854, he was appointed to the command of the Highland Bri- gade ; the victory of the Alma was mainly his ; and his, too, the splendid repulse of the Russians by the " thin red line" in the battle of Balaklava. When, on July 11, 1857, the news reached England of the sepoy mutiny, Lord Palmerston offered him the com- mand of the forces in India. He ef- fected the final relief of Lucknow, and on Dec. 20, 1858 announced to the Viceroy that the rebellion was ended. He died Aug. 14, 1863. Campbell, Douglas Hougliton, an American educator ; born in De- troit, Mich., Dec. 16, 1859 ; was grad- uated at the University of Michigan in 1882 ; then studied in Europe. Re- turning he was Professor of Botany in the University of Indiana till 1891, when he was called to the similar chair in Stanford University in Palo Alto, Cal. Campbell, Helen Stuart, an American sociological writer; born in Lockport, N. Y., July 4, 1839. She has given close attention to the study of social problems. From 1881 till 1884 she was literary editor of " Our Continent," Philadelphia. Campbell, Henry Donald, an American scientist ; born in Lexing- troit, Mich., Dec. 16, 1859; was grad- uated at Washington and Lee Uni- versity in 1882; later studied at Ber- lin and Heidelberg, and in 1887 be- came Professor of Geology and Biol- ogy at Washington and Lee Univer- sity. E. 28. Campero Campbell, John, -a British his- torian; born in Edinburgh, March 8, 1708. From 1755 to the close of his life, he was agent of the British gov- ernment for the province of Georgia. He died Dec. 28, 1775. Campbell, John Pendleton, an American scientist ; born in Cumber- land, Md., Nov. 20, 1863. He be- came Professor of Biology at the University of Georgia in 1888. Campbell, Reginald John, an English clergyman; born in London, Eng., in 1867; entered the Congrega- tional ministry in 1895; became pas- tor of the City Temple, London, in 1903; published "The New Theol- ogy " (1907), which attracted much attention on both continents. Campbell, Thomas, a Scotch poet; born in Glasgow, July 27, 1777. He died in Boulogne, June 15, 1844, and was interred at Poets' Corner, in Westminster Abbey. Campbell, William W., an Amer- ican lawyer and historian ; born in Cherry Valley, N. Y., hi 1806. Set- tled in New York city, he was a judge of the State Supreme Court. He died in Cherry Valley, Sept. 7, 1881. Campbell, William Wilfred, a Canadian poet; born in Western On- tario, Canada, in 1861. Campbellites, the followers of Rev. John McLeod Campbell, of Dumbart- onshire, who was deposed from the Church of Scotland, May 24, 1831, for teaching the universality of the Atone- ment. Campbell's Station, a town in Knox county, Tenn., noted for the battle fought (Nov. 16, 1863) between a Federal army under Burnside and a Confederate one under Longstreet, in which the Confederates were repulsed at nightfall, after sharp fighting. Campeachy, a State, its capital, and a bay of Mexico, on the Gulf ; pop. State (1910) 86,661, town about 18,000. Campero, Narciso, a Bolivian statesman and soldier; born in Tojo (now in Argentina), in 1815. He studied and traveled in Europe, and on his return entered the Bolivian army, and rose to the rank of Briga- dier-General. After the overthrow of Diaz (1880), he was chosen President Ijumpiiausen of Bolivia. Internally, his administra- tion was quiet He died in 1896. Camphausen, Wilhelm, a Ger- man painter ; born in Dussoldorf , Feb. 8, 1818. He was specially famous for battle-pieces. He died in Dusseldorf, June 16, 1885. Camphene, the commercial term for purified oil of turpentine, obtained by distilling the oil over quicklime to free it from resin. Camphor, a powerful diffusible stimulant and antispasmodic. It en- ters into union with opium, as a sed- aditive, under the name of paregoric. Campi, a family of Italian artists who founded what is known in paint- ing as the school of Cremona. Campion, Edmund, an English Jesuit ; born in London, Jan. 25, 1540. He was educated at Oxford, and dis- tinguished himself greatly. Though at first a Roman Catholic, he adopted the Reformed faith, and took deacon's orders in the Church of England ; but he afterward recanted, became a Jes- uit, and attacked Protestantism. He was found guilty of conspiring to raise sedition, and was executed at Tyburn, Dec. 1, 1581. Camp Meetings, gatherings of de- vout persons, held usually in thinly- populated districts, and continued for several days at a time, with the view of securing prolonged and uninterrupt- ed religious exercises. Campo-Formio, a town in Italy, 66 miles N. E. of Venice, famous for the treaty of peace between Austria and France, which was signed in its neighborhood on Oct. 17, 1797. Campos, Arsenio Martinez, a Spanish military officer ; born in Cu- ba in 1834. Appointed a lieutenant in the army in 1858 ; became chief of the battalion in the Morocco cam- paign of 1859; was on duty in Cuba with the rank of colonel in 1864- 1870 ; took part in suppressing the Carlist insurrection and was promoted brigadier-general in 1870; opposed the republic after the abdication of King Amadeus, and was imprisoned as a conspirator. Under a plea for per- mission to be allowed to serve as a private, he was released and given command of a division. With General Jovellar, he called Alphonso XII. to Canaanites the throne; was made commander-in- chief of the Catalonia district, and crushed Don Carlos at Pena de la Plata in 1876. In 1877 he was ap- pointed commander-in-chief in Cuba, and brought the revolution there to a close. In April, 1895, he was appoint- ed governor-general and commander- in-chief in Cuba, and in January, 1896, he was recalled to Spain. On his arrival in Madrid he repeated his belief that the trouble in Cuba could only be ended by granting reforms. He died Sept. 23, 1900. Campo Santo (lit "Holy Field ") t the name given to a bury ing- ground in Italy. Campus Martins (the "Field of Mars"), an extensive plain or mead- ow without the walls of Rome, where the levies of troops were made by the tribunes, where the ballot for the con- scription was drawn, and where all military exercises were performed. It was also a gymnasium for youths. It was here that the great assemblies of the people took place to elect their public officers. Campus Sceleratus, a name given to a spot within the walls of Rome, and close by the Porta Collina, where those of the vestal virgins who had transgressed their vows were entombed alive. Cam Wood, a wood used for making knife-handles and ornamental knobs to furniture. It is called also Barwood and Ringwood. Cana, a town of Palestine celebra- ed in Scripture as the scene of our Lord's first miracle, when he turned water into wine. Canaan, the country W. of the Jordan, called also Chanaan, and the Land of Canaan, after one of the sons of Ham. The Greeks applied the term Cana to the entire region between the Jordan and the Mediterranean up to Sidpn, afterward termed by them Phenicia, a name which by degrees came to be confined to Phenicia proper. Canaanites, The, a word used in two senses: (1) For the tribe of the "Canaanites" only. (2) Applied as a general name to the non-Israelite in- habitants of the land. Instances of this are: Genesis xii : 6; Numbers rxi: 3. Judges i: 10; and Gene- Canada sis xiii : 12. See also Genesis xxiv : 3, 37; comp. xxviii : 2, 6; E?odus, xiii: 11 ; comp. 5. Like the Phoenicians, the Canaanites were probably given to commerce. MAP SHOWING TBIBAL POSSESSIONS. Canada, Dominion of, a Federal Union of Provinces and Territories, comprising all the British possessions in North America, excepting New- foundland ; bounded by the Arctic, Pa- cific, and Atlantic oceans, and the United States; land area, 3,603,910 square miles ; number of Provinces, and Territories, 11 ; population (1901) 5,371,315; (1911) 7,206,643; capital, Ottawa. Extending over so large a territory, Canada presents a great variety of surface. Along the Atlantic coast is a range of hills extending inland from 15 to 20 miles. About 60 miles in- land, the Cobequid mountains, some reaching an altitude of 1,100 feet, ex- tend in a line parallel to the coast from the Bay of Fundy, through Nova Scotia to the Strait of Canso. Nova Scotia is a long fertile plain. A third mountain range crosses New Bruns- wick from the Gulf of St. Lawrence to the State of Maine. An extensive plateau intervenes between these mountains and the Cobequids. The Canada central part of the Dominion consists of a vast undulating plain, extending W. to the foothills of the Rocky Mountains. This section consists of three prairie plateaus. The E., 800 feet high, known as the Red River Valley and Lake Winnipeg region, contains about 7,000 square miles of valuable wheat land. The middle pla- teau has an area of 105,000 squaro miles, altitude, 1,600 feet, and includes the Qu'Appelle and Assiniboia River valleys. The third plateau extends 450 miles E. from the Rocky Moun- tains, and has an average altitude of 3,000 feet. The Rocky Mountains are the most prominent physical features of the Dominion, and stretch from Alaska to California, some of the peaks attaining a height of 16,000 feet. Among the highest are Mt Hooker, 16,760 feet; Mt Brown, 16,- 000 feet, and Mt. Murchison, 15,700 feet The Canadian Pacific railroad crosses the Rockies through the Kick- ing Horse Pass, just S. of Mt Mur- chison, at an altitude of 5,300 feet Between these mountains and the Pa- cific coast are the Selkirk Mountains, the Gold Range, a central plateau, and the Cascade or Coast Range. The Cas- cade or Coast Range is a continuation of the Sierra Nevada of California, reaches an altitude of 7,000 feet, and contains many extinct volcanoes. The Selkirk range has a glacier region of greater extent than that of Switzer- land. The coasts of the Dominion have numerous indentations, the largest of which are the Gulf of St Lawrence, the Gulf of Georgia, the Bay of Fun- dy, and the Bay of Chaleurs. In the N. are many large bays or inland seas, of which Baffin Bay, on the N. E., and Hudson Bay, near the center of the Dominion, are the largest The lakes of Canada are the most exten- sive in the world; besides the Great Lakes, there are many large lakes in the Northwest Territories and Mani- toba. Canada is very rich in its mineral deposits. The most important min- erals found are gold, silver, iron, cop- per, nickel, lead, and coal ; besides manganese, cobalt, asbestos, pyrites, phosphates, building stones, marbles, petroleum, and salt Gold is princi- pally mined in British Columbia, the Canada Canada newly organized Yukon Territory, and Nova Scotia. The Nova Scotia gold district extends over an area of 6,000 square miles, and the metal is ex- tracted from the quartz in a very fine and pure state. Gold is also found in rich deposits in the Northwest Ter- ritories. Extraordinary silver deposits are found in several islands on the N. shore of Lake Superior and in argen- tiferous galena in Quebec, Nova Sco- tia, and British Columbia. Copper abounds in British Columbia, Nova Scotia, Ontario, Quebec, New Bruns- wick, and the Northwest Territories. The copper found on the N. shore of Lake Superior, and in Ontario, is of excellent quality. Iron is found in great quantities at Hull, Ontario, in a bed 90 feet thick. This ore is mag- netic, yielding 70 per cent pure iron. Magnetite is also found in Nova Sco- tia and New Brunswick. Silver-bear- ing lead, tin, zinc, and bismuth are found in many places. Coal exists in Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, British Columbia, and the Northwest Terri- tories. The Nova Scotia and New Brunswick fields are of great extent, and the value of this output in Brit- ish Columbia alone is second only to that of its gold. Anthracite is found in Queen Charlotte and Vancouver Islands. The value of all mineral productions in the calendar year 1912 was $133,- 127,489, the principal ones being gold, $12,559,443 ; silver, $19,425,656 ; cop- per, $12,709,311; lead, $1,597,554; nickel $13,452,463 ; pig iron, $14,550,- 999. The coal output was valued at $36,349,299, and the cement at $9,- 083,216. The greater part of Nova Scotia, Quebec, New Brunswick, Ontario, and Vancouver Island, beside the country lying between Lake Superior and the Rocky Mountains, is admirably adapted to agriculture. And this in- dustry is rapidly developing. The total farm values of the principal grain crops in 1916 were : Wheat, $289,374,000 ; oats, $187,759,000 ; barley, $34,010,000; rye, $3,205,800; peas, $4,816,000; beans, $2,228,000; buckwheat, $6,375,000; mixed grains, $9,076,000; flax seed, $14,581,300; and corn for husking, $6,747,000. Live stock (1912) included 2,336,800 horses, 2,890,100 dairy cows, 4,093,600 other cattle, 2,360,600 sheep, and 2,656,400 swine. Canada has no National system of education, but under the British North America Act, 1867, the right to legis- late on matters respecting education was placed in the hands of the govern- ment of the separate provinces. In Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, British Columbia, and Prince Edward Island, the schools are strictly undenomina- tional. In Manitoba all public schools are non-sectarian. In Quebec and On- tario the schools are non-sectarian, but the Protestants and Roman Cath- olics are allowed separate schools. According to the Dominion census of 1911 the Roman Catholic was the strongest denomination, numerically. In the census year 1911 the manu- facturing industry employed a capital of $1,247,583,609 and 515,203 wage- earners ; paid $241,008,416 for salaries and wages ; and yielded products valued at $1,165,975,639. Commercial reports for the fiscal year 1914-15 showed : Total exports, $490,808,877 ; total imports, $629,444,- 894 ; imports for home consumption, $587,364,363. The trade with the United States was: Exports, $211,- 758,000; imports, $296,633,000. Steam railways in 1914 had a total of 30,795 miles in operation, with a capital liability of $371,863,156, of which $178,834,529 represented direct Federal Government aid. There were 59 electric railways with 1,561 mile- age. Post-offices numbered 13,811 ; mileage of telegraph lines, 46,333; mileage of telephone wire, 1,343,090. In 1915 there were 22 incorporated banks, with about 3,160 branches; capital, $114,759.807; clearing-house transactions (1914) $7,909,212,098; and numerous post-office and ordinary savings banks. The Constitution of Canada is after the model of the mother-country. The Parliament consists of the King, an upper house styled the Senate, and a House of Commons. The King is rep- resented by a governor-general, who exercises his authority with the aid and advice of a council of ministers, styled the King's Privy Council for Canada. The authority of the gov- ernor-general is largely nominal, the government really being carried on by the Prime Minister and Council, who Canada are directly responsible to Parliament. The cabinet must be supported by a majority of the House of Commons, or go out of office. The Senate, under the provisions of an Act of 1915, con- sists of 96 members, chosen by the governor-general, and hold the ap- pointment for life. Among other qual- ifications, a senator must have real property to the value of $4,000, and must be a resident in the province for which he is appointed. The Speaker of the Senate is nominated by the gov- ernor-general. The House of Commons consists of 221 members. The dura- tion of a House of Commons is not to exceed five years. In July, 1885, an Electoral Franchise Act was passed, providing for a uniform franchise for the whole Dominion in elections for the House of Commons. The House of Commons elects its own Speaker. Any bill passed by the Houses of Par- liament, even though assented to by the governor-general in the King's name, may afterward be disallowed by the Imperial Privy Council. Each one of the different provinces also has an executive and a legis- lature of its own, presided over by a lieutenant-governor, and constituted much as before the Union. The lieu- tenant-governor are appointed by the governor-general. In this distribution of legislative power between the gen- eral and the provincial parliaments, certain classes of subjects of a local nature are assigned exclusively to the legislatures of the provinces, while subjects of more general concern are assumed by the Parliament. The debts of the several provinces, at the Union, were assumed (with certain limita- tions) by the Federal Government; and, on the other hand, certain duties and revenues, and certain public works and properties belonging to the several provinces before the Union, were taken possession of to form a consolidated revenue-fund for defraying the inter- est of these debts, and for other ex- penditures of the Federal Government. On Sept. 1, 1905, Alberta and Sas- katchewan, formed from the provi- sional districts of Alberta, Athabaska, Assiniboia and Saskatchewan, were made provinces. The Yukon Terri- tory, of which the Klondike is a small section, was constituted in 1898. Canada The population, census of 1911, by provinces was : Ontario, 2,523,274 ; Quebec, 2,003,232; Manitoba, 455,- 614 ; Saskatchewan, 492,432 ; Alberta, 374,663; British Columbia, 392,480; New Brunswick, 351,889; Nova Sco- tia, 492,338; Prince Edward Island, 93,728 ; Yukon, 8,512 ; Northwest Ter- ritories, 18,481. The largest cities were: Montreal, 470,480; Toronto, 376,538; Winnipeg, 136,035; Van- couver, 100,401; Ottawa, 87,062; Hamilton, 81,969; Quebec, 78,710; Halifax, 46,619 ; London, 46,300. In 1534 Jacques Cartier, a French navigator, entering the St. Law- rence on the festival of the saint of that title, took nominal possession of North America in the name of his king, Francis I. In 1608 Quebec was founded by De Champlain ; in 1623 he built Fort St. Louis, from which stronghold France ruled for 150 years a vast region extending E. to Acadia (now Nova Scotia), W. to Lake Su- perior, and ultimately down the Mis- sissippi as far as Florida and Louis- iana. The Recollet and Jesuit mis- sionaries traversed the country, and underwent incredible hardships in their zeal fqr the conversion of the Indians. These fearless priests were the pioneers of civilization in the far West, and to La Salle is due the dis- covery of the Mississippi valley. In 1670 Charles II. granted the Hudson Bay Company the perpetual exclusive right of trading in the territory wa- tered by all the streams flowing into Hudson Bay. Garrisoned forts were raised at suitable points, and bitter enmity between the French and English traders led to bloody struggles. The wars on the American continent fol- lowed the course of the wars in Eu- rope, until the long struggle between France and England for the suprem- acy in America came to a close on the " Plains of Abraham " in 1759, when General Wolfe defeated Montcalm. Peace was concluded between Great Britain and France, 1763, when Can- ada was formally ceded to England, and Louisiana to Spain. In the same year a small portion of the recently acquired territory was by royal procla- mation organized under English laws. In 1774 the new province was ex- tended by parliamentary enactment, and that under French taws, down the Canai Ohio to its confluence with the Mis- sissippi, and up the latter stream to its source. Finally, Canada receded to its present limits in 1783. In 1791 Canada was divided under separate legislatures into two sections, the E. retaining French institutions, and the W. receiving those of England; and these sections were reunited for legis- lative purposes in 1841. In 1867 Up- per and Lower Canada, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick were united as the Dominion of Canada, and in 1870 the Hudson Bay Company's territory was divided into Manitoba and the Northwest Territories and united to the Dominion. British Columbia en- tered the Union in 1871, and Prince Edward Island in 1873. The division of the Northwest was attended by the rebellions of half-breeds under Louis Riel in 1870 and 1885. Fenian raids in 1866 and 1870-71 also disturbed the peace of the Dominion. In 1893 a court of arbitration on the Bering Sea Seal Fisheries met in Ottawa. In 1896 Quebec's boundaries were ex- tended to Hudson Bay. In 1897 pref- erence was given British goods. In 1903 the Alaskan Boundary dispute was de- cided in favor of the United States. On the outbreak of the great war in Europe, Canada responded promptly and efficiently to the call of the mother country, and maintained a hearty support with men, money, mu- nitions, and other aid. Relationa with the United States speedily became more cordial than ever. Before the United States was forced into the war its government had advanced large sums of money to lighten Canada's great burden, and vast quantities of war supplies were shipped therefrom through Canada for use by the Entente Allies. For details see APPENDIX: United States in the World War; World War. Canada, a Spanish term used to indicate a small canon, or valley with steep rocky walls. Canada Balsam, a pale balsam, obtained by incision from a Canadian tree, the American silver-fir, some- times called the Balm of Gilead fir. Canada Goose, an American wild goose 30 to 35 inches long, brownish above, lighter below, head, neck, bill, and feet black, a white patch on the cheek ; breeds in the N. of the conti- nent and migrates S. when the frost becomes severe. Canada Hemp, a perennial herb, of the dogbane family native of North America. It has a strong fiber, used by the Indians for twine, nets, woven fabrics, etc. Canada Rice, a floating grass growing in lakes and sluggish streams in Canada and the Northern United States, yielding a grain that forms part of the food of the Indians, and is eaten by the whites also. Canadian Pacific Railway, a line of railway which traverses British North America from the St. Law- rence to the Pacific, and opened for general traffic in June, 1886. Com- mencing at Montreal, the line goes to Ottawa, thence round the N. of the Great Lakes to Port Arthur at the head of Lake Superior, and thence to Winnipeg, Manitoba, thence to Stephen in the Rocky mountains, then across British Columbia to Vancouver on the Pacific. The length of the line from Montreal to Vancouver is 2,909 miles. Canadian River, a river that rises in the N. E. part of New Mexico, and runs generally E. through Texas and Indian Territory to the Arkansas. Its length is about 900 miles. Canaigre, a species of dock, grow- ing abundantly in New Mexico and Texas. The rootstock furnishes a ma- terial used in tanning. Canaille, a French word, denoting the most degraded element of the pop- ulace, and applied to an individual as a term of contempt Canal, an artificial water-course or channel, especially used for the passage of boats. The Egyptians very early made a canal connecting the Nile and the Red Sea. Most of the ancient na- tions had canals. The great canal of China was constructed partly in the 7th and partly in the 9th century A. D. ; it is 825 miles long. The first known English canal was cut by the Romans at Caerdike. The Caledonian canal projected in 1803 was opened n 1822. The Erie canal, so important :o New York city, was begun in 1817. and completed in 1825. The Welland canal parallel to Niagara river and cataract, and the United States and ianadiau Sault Ste. Marie canals Canalejas overcoming St. Mary's Falls, were opened in 1833, and 1876, and con- nect for navigation the Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence River basins. The Languedoc, or Canal du Midi, connecting the Atlantic with the Medi- terranean, was completed in 18H1. The Suez canal, connecting the Mediter- ranean and the Red Sea, was opened in 1869. It is 99 miles long; 26 feet deep ; 327 feet wide for 77 miles ; and 196 feet for the remainder. Its success suggested the cutting of the Panama Canal (see article), across the isthmus, to join the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans. This great undertak- ing, begun by the renowned engineer of the Suez canal, M. de Lesseps, was, after a prosecution to a stage near completion, abandoned in 1892, as a result of a terrific scandal. The great Manchester ship canal, extending from Eastham to Manchester, England, was opened Jan. 1, 1894. The Corinth ship canal, across the Isthmus of Corinth, was opened by King George of Greece, Aug. 6, 1893. On June 20, 1895, the great Baltic and North Sea canal was opened by the German Emperor in the presence of a navy representing all na- tions. Work began on the great Chi- cago drainage canal Sept 3, 1892, and by Jan. 1, 1900, it was completed. The main channel is 29 miles long, of which about nine miles was cut through solid rock. In rock the mini- mum depth is 22 feet. See PANAMA CANAI. Canalejas y Mendez, Jos6, a Spanish statesman; became a leader of the Liberal party; editor of " El Heraldo " of Madrid; president of the Academy of Jurisprudence; chief of the Departments of Justice, Fi- nance, Public Instruction, and Pub- lic Works: and Feb. 9, 1910, Prime Minister; was conspicuous in the controversy between Spain and the Vatican. He was assassinated NOT. 12, 1912. Canard, a false report; a silly rumor. Canary Bird, a singing bird, a kind of finch from the Canary Islands. They were introduced into Europe 300 or 400 years ago. Canary Flower, an annual climb- ing plant of the Indian cress family, a Cancer native of New Granada, cultivated in Europe for its showy yellow flowers. Canary Islands, a group of islands belonging to Spain in the Atlantic Ocean, off the N. W. coast of Africa, forming a Spanish province. The group consists of seven large and several small islets, with a joint area of about 2,807 square miles, and a pop. (1913) of 469,768. The principal islands are Lanzarote, Fuerteventura, Gran Ca- naria, Teneriffe, Gomera, Palma, and Hierro or Ferro. The distance from Fuerteventura to the African coast is about 62 V& geographical miles. The coasts are steep and rocky, and the surface is diversified with high moun- tains, narrow gorges, and deep valleys. All the islands are volcanic, and every- where show plain marks of their origin. There are no rivers, and on several of the islands water is scarce. Canberra, site of the permanent capital of the Australian Common- wealth, in the State of New South Wales, selected in 1910, area 900 square miles, being built to order after plans by Walter B. Griffin, of Chicago. Canby, Edward Richard Sprigg, an American army omcer; born \n Kentucky, in 1817. He graduated at West Point in 1839; served in the Mexican War, commanded the United States troops in New York city dur- ing the draft riots of 1863 ; succeeded General Banks in the command of the army in Louisiana, 1864; became Brigadier-General, 1866. He was treacherously shot by an Indian while negotiating for the removal of the Mo- docs from Northern California, April 11, 1873. Cancan, a dance, something of the nature of a quadrille, but accompanied by violent leaps and indecorous contor- tions of the body. Cancer, in astronomy, tbe fourth sign in the zodiac. The sun enters this sign about June 21. He is at hia greatest N. declination on entering, and the point which he reaches is called the summer solstice, because ha appears for the moment to stop hi bis progress N., and turn S. again. Cancer, (derived from the Latin cancer, a crab), or Carcinoma, in medicine and surgery a name which is given to a group of malignant diseases, Cancer Root Candler in consequence of their supposed re- eemblance to a crab. In the treatment of cancer it is necessary to get the dis- ease at an early stage of its growth, so that it may be thoroughly removed. If it is detected and removed at this period of its existence it is curable, but if the neighboring glands have be- come involved in the disease the relief is only temporary. Cancer Root, or Beech Drops, a parasitic herb of the order Oroban- chese, a native of North America, growing on the exposed roots of beech- trees. The whole plant is powerfully astringent, and the root is especially bitter and nauseous. Cancrnm Oris, (literally "sore in the mouth"), known also as Noma, Water-cancer, and Water-canker, a peculiar form of mortification, arising apparently from defective nutrition. The disease seldom occurs except be- tween the 2d and llth years, and is usually preceded by measles, remit- tent or intermittent fever, or some other serious disease. Candace, a name apparently com- mon to the warrior queens of Ethiopia in the later period of the kingdom of Meroe. The most distinguished of them invaded Egypt 22 B. c., was de- feated by the Romans and obliged to sue for peace, which she obtained, with a remission of the tribute imposed on her by Petronius. One of her suc- cessors is mentioned in Acts vii : 27 ; her high treasurer was baptized by Philip the Deacon on the road to Gaza. Candelabrum, a lamp-stand. It6 tripedal form among the ancients is believed to have been derived from the shape of its predecessors braziers or basins for holding fuel, mounted on tripods. Candia, or Crete, (called in the most ancient times Idsea, from Mount Ida, afterward Greta, whence the Turkish name Kirid), one of the most important islands of the Turkish em- pire; situated in the Mediterranean, 81 miles from the S. extremity of the Morea, and 230 from the African coast. Length 160 miles ; breadth 7 to, 35 ; area 3,330 sq. m. ; pop. 310,400. In 1868 a formidable insurrection, fo- mented by Greece, was with difficulty suppressed by the Turks. In conse- quence of this revolt the Turks grant- ed to the Cretans a degree of auton- omy, but Turkish bad faith produced another revolt nine years later. At that time a new constitution of a par- liamentary character was inaugurated, but many of its provisions were an- nulled in 1889. In 1896 there was again a rising against the Turks, in which the Greeks took part. The Greek troops landed on the island were with- drawn at the instance of the Great Powers, who undertook to secure an autonomous government under Turk- ish suzerainty and to cause the Turk- ish troops to be withdrawn. On Sept 6, 1898, the Mohammedans of Candia rose against the Christians, and the fighting resulted in the death of many of the latter, including some British sailors. The leading powers at once demanded the complete withdrawal of the Turkish troops who had abetted the rebels, and ultimately on Oct. 11, the Sultan complied with their de- mand, the troops being soon after withdrawn. Prince George of Greece was high commissioner of the Powers in 1898-1906. Candidate, a term taken from the Latin candidatus, a candidate, liter- ally a person dressed in white, be- cause, among the Romans, a man who solicited an office, such as the prsetorship or consulship, appeared in a bright white garment. Candleberry, a shrub, natural or- der Myricacese, growing from 4 to 18 feet high, and common in North- America, where candles are made from its drupes or berries which are about the size of peppercorns, and covered with a greenish-white wax. Candle Fish, a small fish peculiar to the Pacific coast of the United States. It is so oily that when dried and a wick is drawn through it, it will burn like a candle. Candlemas, the feast of the puri- fication of the Virgin, Feb. 2d; so- called from being formerly celebrated with processions and shows of candles. It was instituted in the 6th century. Candler, Warren A., an Ameri- can clergyman : born in Carroll coun- ty, Ga., Aug. 23, 1857. He was grad- uated at Emory College in 1875, was ordained to the Methodist ministry! Candlish and in 1888 was elected a bishop. He has been President of Emory College since 1888. Candlish, Robert Smith, a Scotch clergyman, born in Edinburgh, March 23, 1806; was educated at Glasgow University. After the death of Chalmers, Candlish was the ruling spirit in the Free Church. He died Oct 19, 1873. Candy, or Kandy, a city of Cey Ion, near the center of the island, 72 miles N. E. of Colombo. Pop. (1911) 29,451. Canea, the capital and chief com- mercial town of Crete, situated on the N. W. coast. It occupies the site of the ancient Cydonia. Pop. 24,399. Canebrake, a colossal reed, which reaches a height of 30 or 40 feet, and forms dense swamp-jungles in marshy places along the banks of the Red river, the Arkansas, the Mississippi, and their tributaries. Canes Venatici, (Latin " the Hunting-dogs," Asterion and Chara), one of the northern constellations added by Hevelius in 1690, between Bootes and Ursa Major. Canfield, James Hulme, an American educator ; born in Delaware, O., March 18, 1847; in 1877-1891 he was Professor of History in the Uni- versity of Kansas, and in 1891-1895 was Chancellor. He then became President of the Ohio State Univer- sity and in 1899 librarian of Colum- bia University. Died in 1909. Cang, Cangue, or Kea, the wood- en collar, weighing from 50 to 60 pounds, and fitting closely round the neck, imposed upon criminals in China. Canicula, the dog-star or Sirius; hence Canincular days, the dog-days. Canidae, a family of mammals, con- taining the dogs, wolves, foxes, and jackals. Canis Major, a constellation of the Southern hemisphere, remarkable as containing Sirius, the brightest star. CANIS MINOR is a constellation in the Northern hemisphere, immedi- ately above Canis Major, the chief star in which is Procyon. Canker, (1) in medicine, a collec- tion of small sloughing ulcers in the Cannon mouth. (2) In horticulture, a disease to which fruit-trees are liable. (3) In farriery, a disease in horses' feet causing a discharge of fetid matter from the cleft in the middle of the frog. Canker-worm, a worm or larva de- structive to trees or plants. Cannel Coal, a variety of bitum- inous coal, containing earthy matters, which render it specifically heavier than water. It varies much in ap- pearance. It is very dense and com- pact, and not easily frangible, break- ing with an uneven fracture, and does not soil the fingers. When burning, it splits and crackles, without melting, and leaves 3 or 4 per cent, of ash. Cannes, a seaport of France, oh the shore of the Mediterranean, in the Department of Alpes-Maritimes ; fam- ous as the place where Napoleon landed when he returned from Elba, March 1, 1815. Pop. 19,500. Cannibalism, the act or practice of eating human flesh by mankind. When America was discovered, canni- balism was found to prevail to a very great extent. It is stated, on excellent authority, to exist in Hayti, and un- doubtedly prevails among certain South American tribes. In many parts of Africa, cannibalism is systematic- ally practised. Canning, George, an English or- ator and statesman ; born in London, April 11, 1770 ; educated at Eton and at Oxford. He was first brought into Parliament by Pitt in 1793, and in 1796 became Under-Secretary of State. In 1797 he projected, with some friends, the " Anti-Jacobin," of which Gifford was appointed editor, and to which Canning contributed the " Knife-grinder " and other poems and articles. In 1798 he supported Wil- berforce's motion for the abolition of the slave-trade. In 1807 he was ap- pointed Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs. As British Minister of For- eign Affairs he earnestly advocated the principles embodied in the Mon- roe Doctrine. April 12, 1827, his ap- pointment to be Prime-Minister was announced. He died in Chiswick, Aug. 8, 1827. Cannon, George Q., born in Liv- erpool, England, Jan. 11, 1827; re- moved to the Salt Lake, where he be- Cannon Canteen came a Mormon leader. He was a member of the Legislative Council of Utah in 1805-1866 and 1869-1872, and was a delegate to Congress from 1865 to 1881. At a Constitutional Convention at Salt Lake City in 1872 he was chosen to present the consti- tution and memorial to Congress for the admission of the Territory into the Union as a State. He died in Monterey, Cal., April 12, 1901. His son, Frank J. Cannon, was elected one of the first United States Senators from Utah, 1896-9. Cannon, Joseph Gnrney, an American legislator ; born in Guilf ord, N. C., May 7, 1836; was admitted to the bar in Illinois in 1858; was State Attorney in 1861-68 ; member of Congress in 1873-91, 1893-1903, 1903-13, and 1915-17 ; Speaker of the House of four Congresses, 1903-11 ; and was a stalwart Republican, famil- iarly known as " Uncle Joe Cannon." Cano, Juan Sebastian del, _ a Spanish navigator, born in Guetaria, Guipuzcoa, about 1460. He was one of the first to circumnavigate the globe (1522). He died on the Pacific, Aug. 4, 1526. Canoe, a boat made of a hollow trunk of a tree, or of the bark shaped and strengthened. They were original- ly used by the North American In- dians. Canon, in its original sense, a cane or reed used as a measure or rule. Specifically, a law or rule in general. In ecclesiastical history a canon is a book containing the rules of a religi- ous order used in monastic institu- tions. A list or catalogue of the can- onized saints of the Roman Catholic Church. A dignitary of the Church ; one who possesses a prebend, or rev- enue allotted for the performances of divine services in a cathedral or col- legiate church. Canon, the Spanish word for tube, funnel, cannon ; applied by the Span- ish Americans, and hence in North America generally, to long and narrow river gorges or deep ravines with pre- cipitous and perpendicular sides. Canonical Hours, certain stated times of the day appropriated by ec- clesiastical law to the offices of prayer and devotion in the Roman Catholic Church- Canonization, a ceremony in the Roman Church, by which deceased persons are declared saints. Canon-law, the body of ecclesias- tical law as laid down by the canons. The oldest canons are called Apostolic canons. The canons of the Councils of Nice (A. n. 325), Constantinople (A. D. 381), Ephesus (A. D. 431), and Chalcedon (A. D. 451), obtained civil sanction by decree of Justinian. Afterward papal decrees of various dates were added to the Roman Cath- olic canon law. Canon of Scripture, the term canon, as applied to the Scriptural writings, has been narrowed in its application to those inspired writings recognized by Christian believers. Canossa, a ruined castle near Reg- gio, Italy, interesting for its historical associations. The Emperor Henry IV., excommunicated by Gregory VII., humbly waited for three days in its courtyard bareheaded, barefooted and fasting, until the Pope reversed his decision. Hence the term " going to Canossa," meaning to yield to papal wishes or demands. Canova, Antonio, an Italian sculptor, born in 1757 ; died 1822. He was largely self-taught, and at 15 years of age produced two statues. He excelled in whatever style he chose, and his versatility is shown in the delicate beauty of his famous " Cupid and Psyche " and the rugged (strength of his colossal " Hercules throwing Lichas into the Sea." Canso, Cape, the E. extremity of Nova Scotia, at the entrance of Ched- abucto Bay. Canso Strait or Gut,. 17% miles long and 2% in average breadth, separates Nova Scotia from the island of Caps Breton. Cantacnzenns, a Greek princely family, which gave two emperors to Constantinople, and a branch of which has been distinguished in the service of Russia. In 1903, a scion married a granddaughter of General Ulysses S. Grant. Canteen, in military language, a regimental establishment managed by a committee of officers, in barracks or forts, for the sale of liquors, tobacco, groceries, etc. The word is also ap- plied to a flat can or metallic bottle used by soldiers for carrying drinking UNITED STATES CANTONMENT! 1 Main thoroughfare at an important camp. 3 General view of a Southern training camp. Photos by Brown Bros. OR ARMY TRAINING 2 Daily rifle practice is the most necessary routine in the training of recruits. Canterbury water. The sale of liquors in the United States army establishments known as canteens was recently pro- hibited by law. Canterbury, a city and parliamen- tary and municipal borough of Eng- land in Kent, 55 miles S. E. of Lon- don. In the 8th, 9th, 10th, and llth centuries the city was dreadfully rav- aged by the Danes, but at the Con- quest its buildings exceeded in extent those of London. The ecclesiastical importance of the place was consum- mated by the murder of Thomas a Becket in the cathedral. Henry VIII. dissolved the priory in 1539, and or- dered the bones of Becket to be burned ; and the troopers of Oliver Cromwell made a stable of the cathe- dral. The cathedral, one of the finest ecclesiastical structures in England, has been built in different ages, the oldest part dating from about 1174. The great tower, 235 feet in height, is a splendid specimen of the Pointed style. Pop. (1911) 24,826. Cantharis, or Spanish Fly. Ex- ternally used as a rubefacient in the form of a liniment, also as a vesicant in the form of the common blister. Canticle, certain detached psalms and hymns used in the service of the Angl'can Church. The word is also applied to that book of the Old Testa- ment also known as the "Song of Solomon." Canton, called also YANG-CHING, city of rams, a large commercial city and port in the south of China, and capital of the province of Kwang- tung, on the N. or left side of the Shu- kiang, or Pearl river, in a rich alluvial plain, 70 miles N. of Macao and 90 N. W. of Hong-kong. The city is sur- rounded by walls 25 to 40 feet high, 20 feet thick, with an esplanade in- side, 6 miles in circumference; and it is divided by a partition wall run- ning E. and W. into two unequal parts. There are 12 outer gates, four gates in partition wall, and two water gates, shut and guarded by night. The entire circuit, including suburbs, is nearly 10 miles. At the S. W. corner of the suburbs S. of the river, are the Hongs or European quarter, divided from the river by a quay, 100 yards wide. The streets, more than 600, are in general less than 8 feet wide, Cantonment and very crooked. The chief exports are tea, silk, and cassia ; chief im- ports, cotton, woolen and metal goods. Pop. est (1916) 900,000. Canton, city and capital of Stark county, O. ; on Nimishillen creek and jthe Baltimore & Ohio and other rail- roads ; 59 miles S. E. of Cleveland ; manufactures steel bridges, steel cars, watches, safes, locks, surgical chairs, steel roofing, and farming implements ; has a large trade in coal, wheat, corn, and oats. Pop. (1910) 50,217. Cantonment, an indefinite area of land, usually in the suburbs of a town or village, set apart for the training or quartering of a military force. After the United States entered the World War, forty-nine cantonments and camps were established in twenty- three States, the principal ones being named after deceased army officers. These reservations comprised sixteen National Army training camps, six- teen National Guard camps, fourteen Navy camps, two Marine Corps camps, and one embarkation camp. The fol- lowing gives the names (in Italic*) and location of the principal canton- ments and camps : National Army Training Camps. Devens, Ayer, Mass. ; Upton, Yap- leank, L. I. ; Dix, Wrightstown, N. J. ; Meade, Annapolis Junction, Md. ; Lee, Petersburg, Va. ; Jackson, Columbia, S. C. ; Gordon, Atlanta, Ga. ; Sher- man, Chillicothe, O. ; Taylor, Louis- ville, Ky. ; Custer, Battle Creek, Mich.; Grant, Rockford. 111.; Pike, Little Rock, Ark. ; Dodge, Des Moines, la. ; Funst on, Fort Riley, Ark. ; Travis, Fort Sam Houston, Tex. ; and Lewis, American Lake, Wash. National Guard Camps. Greene, Charlotte, N. C. ; Wadsworth, Spar- tanburg, S. C. ; Hancock, Augusta, Ga. ; McClellan, Anniston, Ala. ; 8e- vier, Greenville, S. C. ; Wheeler, Macon, Ga. ; McArthur, Waco, Tex. ; Logan, Houston. Tex. ; Cody, Dem- ing, N. M. ; Doniphan, Fort Sill, Okla. ; Bowie, Fort Worth, Tex.; Sheridan, Montgomery, Ala. ; Shelby, Hattiesburg, Miss. ; Beauregard, Alexandria, La. ; Kearny, Linda Vista, Cal. ; and Fre'mont, Palo Alto, Cal. Embarkation Camp. Merritt, Du- mont, N. J. Cap Cap, in ships, a strong piece of timber placed over the head or upper end of a mast, having in it a round hole to receive the top or top-gallant masts. Cape Breton, an island of the Dominion of Canada, separated from Nova Scotia, to which province it be- longs, by the narrow Gut or Strait of Canso ; area 3,120 square miles. Tim- ber, fish, and coal are exported. The island belonged to France from 1632 to 1763, and_ Louisburg, its capital, was long an important military post. It was separate from Nova Scotia be- tween 1784 and 1820. Chief town, Sydney. Pop. of Cape Breton, 83,240. Cape Coast Castle, a settlement of Great Britain in the Gold Coast Colony, in Upper Guinea, 315 miles W. of Lagos. The place lies in a chasm, and is defended by the great castle near the water's edge, and by three small forts on the hills behind. Ceded by the Dutch to the English in 1665, Cape Coast Castle, from 1672, was possessed by several British Afri- can companies tilll843, when it was taken over by government. Pop. 11,- 364. Cape Cod, a peninsula on the S. side of Massachusetts Bay; 65 miles long and from 1 to 20 broad. A ship canal was completed here in 1916, connecting Buzzards Bay and Barn- stable Bay, at a cost of $12,000,000. Cape Colony, former name of a British colony at the S. extremity of Africa; since 1910 a province in the Union of South Africa, renamed CAPE OF GOOD HOPE COLONY; area, 276,- 995 square miles; pop. (1911) 2,564,- 965 ; chief town, Cape Town, pop. (1911) 67,159. The province is better adapted for pasturage than for agriculture. All kinds of vegetables and pot herbs, and all the fruits of temperate climates thrive excellently, and fruits, dried and preserved, are exported. The vine is cultivated, and some excellent wines are made. Sheep-rearing is the most important industry, and wool is the chief export (although surpassed in value by dia- monds). Cattle-breeding is carried on to some extent, especially along the coasts and in the E. and N. districts. There are no manufactures of any im- portance. Capella The European inhabitants consist in part of English, Scottish, and Irish settlers and their descendants, but the majority are of Dutch origin, while there are also a considerable number of German origin. The colored people are chiefly Hottentots, Kaffirs, Be- chuanas, Basutos, Griquas, Malays, and a mixed race, the offspring of black women and white fathers. The province is now divided into 119 mag- isterial districts, 86 fiscal divisions, 123 municipalities, and 79 village management boards. Each division has a council, which looks after roads, boundaries, and beacons, elected tri- ennially by land owners, and each municipality is governed by a mayor or chairman and councillors. There are also 120 school districts and edu- cation is compulsory for youth of European extraction. The Dutch, who had early fixed upon the Cape as a watering-place for their ships, first colonized it under Van Riebeek, in 1652. It was cap- tured by the British in 1795, restored at the peace of Amiens (1802), and again taken in 1806. From this time it has remained in the possession of Great Britain, to which it was for- mally -assigned in 1815, along with Dutch Guiana. Subsequently the area of the colony was gradually enlarged by the annexation of surrounding dis- tricts. See SOUTH AFBICA, UNION OF. Cape Fear River, a river of North Carolina ; navigable for steam- boats for 120 miles from its mouth. Cape Finistere, the westernmost point of Spain, in the province of Co- runna, extending S. W. into the At- lantic. Cape Hatteras, a dangerous cape on the coast of North Carolina off which many wrecks have occurred. Cape Haiti, a town on the N. coast of Haiti. It has an excellent harbor and a pop. of about 30,000. Cape Horn, or The Horn, the ex- tremity of an island of the same name, forming the extreme S. point of South America. It is a dark, precipitous headland, 500 to 600 feet high, run- ning far into the sea. Navigation round it is dangerous on account of frequent tempests. Capella, the name of a star situa- ted in the constellation Auriga, and is of remarkable brilliancy. Cape Matapan Cape Verde Islands Cape Matapan, a promontory of Greece, forming the S. extremity of the Peloponnesus. Capen, Elmer Hewitt, an Amer- ican educator, born in Stoughton, Mass., April 5, 1838; graduated at Tufts College, and became a lawyer and later a Universalist clergyman. From 1875 he was president of Tufts College. He died Mar. 22, 1905. Capen, Nahnm, an American his- torical writer ; born at Canton, Mass., 180-1 ; was postmaster of Boston, Mass. ; introduced street letter-box collections. He died Jan. 4, 1886. Cape Nome, a cape and center of a remarkably rich gold mining region, on the S. face of the peninsular pro- jection of Alaska, which separates Kotzebue Sound on the N. from Ber- ing Sea on the S., and terminates on the W. in Cape Prince of Wales. In a direct line of navigation, it lies about 2,500 miles N. W. of Seattle,' and 175 miles S. E. of Siberia. The nearest settlement of consequence to ' it prior to 1899 was St. Michael, 100 miles to the S. E., but that year vari- ous mining camps built them- selves up in closer range and reduced the distance some 60 miles. The Nome district as settled centers about the lower course of the Snake river, which discharges into the sea at a position 13 miles W. of Cape Nome proper. The first discovery of gold was made hi September, 1898, but it was not un- til July, 1899, that the beach gold was discovered. In the middle of October following Nome City had 5,000 inhabi- tants. The yield of gold has been very great, and the district is being exten- sively exploited. Pop. (1910) 2,600. Cape Nnn, a headland on the W. coast of Morocco, extending into the sea at the S. W. extremity of the At- las range. Cape of Good Hope, a promon- tory near the S. extremity of Africa, at the termination ot a small penin- sula extending S. from Table moun- tain, which overlooks Cape Town. Bartholomew Diaz, who discovered the Cape in 1487, called it Cape of Storms; but John II. of Portugal changed this to its present designation. It was first doubled by Vasco de Gama in 1407. Here is one of the principal astronomical institutions of the world. Cape Ortegal, a rugged promon- tory forming the N. extremity of Spain, extending into the Bay of Bis- cay. Caper, the unopened flower-bud of a low trailing shrub which grows in the countries bordering the Mediter- ranean. Pickled in vinegar and salt they are much used as a condiment. Capercailzie, a species of grouse, of large size, formerly indigenous in the highlands of Scotland, but which became extinct, and had to be re intro- duced from the Scandinavian Penin- sula. Cape River, or Rio de Segovia, a river of Nicaragua, which after a generally N. E. course of nearly 300 miles enters the Caribbean Sea, after forming part of the boundary between Honduras and Nicaragua. Capernaum, a city of Galilee hi Palestine, about 70 miles N. by E. of Jerusalem, situated on the N. W. shore of the Sea of Tiberias. It was here that Jesus Christ began his pub- lic ministry ; and in its neighborhood he delivered the Sermon on the Mount. Capers, Ellison, an American cler- gyman ; born in Charleston, S. C., Oct 14, 1837. He entered the Prot- estant Episcopal ministry in 1867, and was chosen bishop of South Caro- lina in 1893. He died April 22, 1908. Caperton, 'William Banks, an American naval officer; born in Spring Hill, Tenn., June 30, 1855; was graduated at the U. S. Naval Academy in 1875 ; became captain in 1908, and rear-admiral in 1913 ; com- manded the Atlantic Reserve Fleet in 1913-14; was sent to Haiti to sup- press disorders in 1914-15 ; and in 1917 was given command of the Pa- cific fleet. Cape St. Vincent, the S. W. point of Portugal. Cape Town, capital of the Cape of Good Hope Colony, South Africa ; be- came the seat of the Parliament of the I new Union of South Africa in 1910. | Pop. (1911) 67,159. Cape Verde, the most westerly headland of Africa, jutting out into the Atlantic Ocean, between the rivers ; Gambia and Senegal. Cape Verde Islands, a group in , the North Atlantic Ocean, belonging j to Portugal, about 370 miles W. of Cape Wrath Cape Verde, which, as well as the is- lands, derives its name from the green- ish tinge given to the adjoining sea by the abundance of sea-weed. The group consists of 14 islands, besides islets and rocks, having a united area of about 1,480 square miles. They are in general, mountainous, rocky, and very ill supplied with water; all are evidently of volcanic origin. The cli- mate is exceedingly unhealthy, and droughts are of frequent occurrence. The pop. (1913) 147,794 is a mixed race of Portuguese and negroes. These islands were discovered in 1450. Dur- ing the early part of the war between the United States and Spain (189S), the islands were made the rendezvous of the Spanish fleet under Cervera. Cape Wrath, a pyramidal promon- tory of unrivaled wildness and gran- deur, the N. W. extremity of Scotland and running out into the Atlantic. Capillaries. The tubes which con- yey the blood from the left side of the heart to the various parts of the body are called arteries, while those which return it to the right side of the heart are known as veins. The name capil- laries is given to the minute vessels which form the connection between the terminal branches of the arteries and the commencement of the trunks of the veins. Capita, an expression of frequent occurrence in laws regulating the dis- tribution of the estates of persons dy- ing intestate. When all the persons entitled to shares in the distribution are of the same degree of kindred to the deceased person, and claim di- rectly from him in their own right, and not through an intermediate rela- tion, they take per capita, that is, in equal shares, or share and share alike. Capital, the surplus of individual or national wealth which remains af- ter current necessities have been met. It consists of what are popularly called savings. It is available for the employment of new labor, and if this be done judiciously it will produce a further surplus ; or, in other words, the capital will increase. In every well ordered community it tends to do BO indefinitely. Capital and labor mu- tually require each other, and are not natural foes, but natural friends. Capitol Capital Punishment, the pun- ishment of crime by death. In the United States the method is usually by hanging, but in recent years a number of States have adopted elec- trocution. The punishment for mur- der in the first and second degrees varies in the different States and in- cludes hanging, electrocution, shooting (by choice), life imprisonment, limit- ed imprisonment, death or life impris- onment at the discretion of the sen- tencing judge. An insane person and a pregnant woman are immune from capital punishment while the condi- tion lasts. Capitation-grant, a grant of so much per head ; specifically applied to grants from government or governing bodies to schools according to the number of scholars in attendance, or to the number of those passing a cer- tain test examination, and to volun- teer companies on account of such members as reach the stage of "effi- cients." Capitation-tax, a tax or impost upon each head or person. Generally called a poll-tax in the United States. Capito, or Kopfel, Wolfgang Fabricns, an Alsatian reformer ; born in Haguenau in 1478, entered the Benedictine order, and became Profes- sor of Theology at Basel, He approved of Luther's action, but nevertheless in 1519 entered the service of Albert of Mainz ; and it was not till some years later that he finally declared for the Reformation. He died in Strasburg in November, 1541. Capitol. A Roman height on which was erected a famous temple of Jupiter. The word is also applied to the building in which the Congress of the United States holds its sessions. The S. E. corner-stone of the Capi- tol was laid Sept 18, 1793, "by Brother George Washington, assisted by the Worshipful Masters and Free Masons of the surrounding cities, the military, and a large number of peo- ple." The N. wing was ready for oc- cupancy in 1800, the S. wing in 1808; but both were partially destroyed by the British in 1814. The foundation of the main building was laid in 181 (March 24), the restoration of the wings having been commenced thre years earlier; and the whole was com- Capitoline Game! Capron pleted in 1827. July 4, 1851, the cor- ner-stone of the S. extension was laid by President Fillmore, and this was finished in 1857. The N. extension was occupied by the Senate in 1859. The present dome, commenced in 1855, was completed eight years later, and Dec. 12, 1863, the American flag float- ed from its summit. The cost of the entire building was $13,000,000 : main building, $3,000,000; dome, $1,000,- 000; extensions, $8,000,000; miscel- laneous items, $1,000,000. The length of the entire building is 751 feet 4 inches; its greatest breadth, 324 feet, and it covers a little over 3% acres. The distance from the ground to the top of the dome is 307^ feet; the diameter of the dome, 135^ feet The buildings in which state legislatures meet are also called capitols, but in New England usually " State Houses." Capitoline Games, annual public sports, instituted at Rome 387 B. C., in honor of Jupiter Capitolinus, and to commemorate the preservation of the city from the Gauls. Capiz, a province of Panay (Vi- sayas), Philippine Islands; on the N. coast; area, 1,661 square miles; pop. (1903) 230,721; capital, Capiz; pop. 18,525. Capo d'Istrias, loannes An- tonios, Count, was born in Corfu, Feb. 11, 1770; president of the Greek republic from 1828 to 1831. He de- voted himself to political life, and in 1809 entered the diplomatic service of Russia. Here his policy tended to the separation of Greece from Turkey. In 1828 he entered on a seven years' presidency of Greece ; but imbued as he was with Russian ideas, he aroused discontent by his autocratic measures ; and on Oct. 9, 1831, he was assassin- ated in a church at Nauplia. Capote, Domingo Mendez, a Cuban statesman ; born in Cardenas in 1863; spent his youth there; was graduated at the University of Ha- vana, and became one of the best known lawyers in Cuba. Subsequent- ly he was a professor in the Univer- sity of Havana for many years. In December, 1895, 'he joined the insur- gents under Gen. Maximo Gomez ; be- came a Brigadier-General ; and was appointed civil governor of Matanzas and of Las Villas. In November, 1897, he was elected Vice-President of the Cuban Republic. When the Cuban Constitutional Convention appointed a commission of five members to confer with President McKinley and Secre- tary Root concerning the future rela- tions of the United Stales and Cuba, he became its leader. The conference was held in Washington, D. C., in April, IDOL Cappadocia, in antiquity, one of the most important provinces in Asia Minor, the greater part of which is in- cluded in the modern province of Ka- raman. It was conquered by Cyrus, and was ruled by independent kings from the time of Alexander the Great until 17 A. D., when it became a Ro- man province. Capri, an island in the beautiful Gulf of Naples, remarkable for sev- eral remarkable caverns or grottoes in its steep rocky coast. Capricornna " the Goat," one of the 12 signs of the Zojdiac, between Sagittarius and Aquarius ; also the corresponding zodiacal constellation, one of Ptolemy's original 48. Caprimnlgidae, the goat-suckers, a family of birds, nearly allied to the swallow tribe. Caprivi, Georg Leo, Graf Ton sometimes called CAPBIVI DE CAPRARA DE MONTECUCUTJ, a German soldier and statesman; born in Berlin, Feb. 24, 1831; entered the army in 1849; and in 1883 he became commander of his old army corps. Hence he was removed, on the fall of Bismarck, in 1890, to become Imperial Chancellor and Prussian Prime Minister. His principal measures were the army bills of 1892 and 1893, and the com- mercial treaty with Russia in 1894, in which year he resigned. He died at Skyren, Feb. 6, 1899. Capron, Allen Kissam, an Amer- ican military officer (son of Allyn Capron) ; born in Brooklyn, N. Y., June 24, 1871. He enlisted as a pri- vate (1890), and rose to a sec- ond lieutenancy (1893), joining the " Rough Riders " on the outbreak of the war with Spain. He was made a captain for bravery, and was killed at Las Guasimas, Cuba, June 24, 1898. Capron, Allyn, an American mili- tary officer; born in Tampa, Fla., Aug. 27, 1846. He was a son of Capt. Capsicum Erastus A. Capron, killed in the Mex- ican war, and was graduated at West Point in 1867. He rose to the rank of captain (1888), and in the war with Spain led an advance at the battle of Santiago. He further distinguished himself at El Caney. He contracted typhoid in Cuba and died at Fort Myer, Va., Sept. 18, 1898. Capsicum, a genus of plants bear- ing membranous pods containing sev- eral seeds, noted for their hot, pungent qualities. Capstan, a strong, massive appara- tus of wood or iron made to revolve, and thus raise a heavy weight by winding a rope round it. It is espe- cially used on shipboard for weighing the anchor. Carabobo amphitheatre, said to have been capa- ble of containing 100,000 spectators, and of some of its tombs, attest its former splendor and magnificence. It was destroyed by the Saracens, A. D. 840. Capuchin Monkey, a name given to various species of South American monkeys of the genus Cebus. The hair of their heads is so arranged that it has the appearance of a capuchin's cowl, hence the name. Capuchins, a branch of the Fran- ciscan order of monks, founded by Matthew de Baschi, an Italian. So called from their peculiar capuche or cowl a pointed hood attached to the ordinary Franciscan coat, and said to have been worn by St. Francis himself. HALL IN BATHS OF CARACALLA. Captain, one who is at the head or has authority over others, especially : (1) The military officer who com- mands a company, whether of infan- try, cavalry, or artillery. (2) An of- ficer in the navy commanding a ship of war. (3) The master of a mer- chant vessel. Capua (ancient Capoa or Capua), a strongly fortified city of Southern Italy, on the left bank of the Voltur- no, in a fine plain 18 miles N. of Na- ples. The city has a citadel, the work of Vauban, and is reckoned one of the keys of the kingdom. The ancient Ca- pua was situated about 2 1 /& miles from the modern city. The remains of its Capulets and Montagues, the English spelling of the names of the Cappelletti and Montecchi, two noble families of Northern Italy, according to tradition of Verona, chiefly mem- orable from their connection with the legend on which Shakespeare has founded his tragedy of " Romeo and Juliet." Carabobo, a State of Venezuela, between the Caribbean Sea and the State of Zamora ; area, 2,974 square miles; population, 198,021, mostly in- habiting the fertile depression of Lake Valencia, where large crops of coffee, sugar, and excellent cacao are grown. Capital, Valencia. Caracal Caravel Caracal, a species of lynx, of a reddish-brown color, with black ears, tipped with long black hair. It is a native of Africa, India, Persia, and Turkey. Carac alia, Marcus Anrelins An- toninus, eldest son of the Emperor Severus, was born in Lyons, A. D. 188. On the death of his father he succeed- ed to the throne with his brother, An- toninus Geta, whom he speedily mur- dered. To effect his own security up- wards of 20,000 other victims were butchered. He was himself assassin- ated by Macrinus, the pretorian pre- fect, near Eaessa, in 217. Among the buildings of Caracalla in Rome, the baths Thermae Caracallae near Por- ta Capena, were most celebrated, and their ruins are still magnificent. Caracas, the capital of the Repub- lic of Venezuela and of the Federal District, 6 miles (24 by rail) S. of La Guaira, its port. Built on the S. slope of the Avila (8,635 feet), it is 3,025 feet above the tide-level. The streets, built at right angles, are broad and well paved. There are a handsome promenade and numerous public parks and gardens; excellent water and gas plants; street railways; and the ter- mini of several steam railways. Pop- ulation 72,429. Caracci, Ludovico, Agostino, and Annibale, born about the mid- dle of the 16th century, were three of the first painters of Italy, kinsmen, fellow-students, and co-laborers, na- tives of Bologna, and founders of the Bolognese School. Caraccioli, Francesco, an Ital- ian admiral, born in Naples about 1748. When Ruffo took Naples in 1799 Caraccioli was arrested, and, contrary to the terms of capitulation, was condemned to death, and hanged at the yard-arm of a Neapolitan fri- gate, Lord Nelson consenting to his execution, June 29, 1799. Caractacns, a king of the Britons, for nine years (43-50 A. D.) warred gallantly against the Roman invaders, but at length was completely over- thrown by Ostorius in a battle near the border of South Wales. His wife and daughters fell into the hands of the victors, and his brothers surren- dered. Caractacus himself fled to Cartismandua, queen of the Brigan- tes, who delivered him up. He was carried to Rome, 51 A. D., and exhib- ited in a triumphal procession by the Emperor Claudius, who was greatly impressed by his dauntless bearing and language. According to tradition he died in Rome about A. D. 54. Caramel, the name of a certain preparation of candy. Carat, a weight of 3^ grains; the tweny-fourth part of an ounce. It is used by jewelers to express the fine- ness of gold, the whole mass being supposed to be divided into 24 parts, and said to be so many carats fine, according to the number of twenty- fourth parts of pure gold contained in it. Twenty-four carat means all gold, 18 carat three-quarters gold. _ Caransins, a Roman general, a na- tive of Batavia. He was sent by the Emperor Maximilian to defend the At- lantic coasts against the Franks and Saxons ; but foreseeing impending dis- grace, he landed in Britain and had himself proclaimed emperor by his le- gions (287 A. D.). In this province he was able to maintain himself six years, when he was assassinated at York by one of his officers named Al- lectus (293 A. D.). Caravaggio, Michel Angelo Amerighi, or Merighi da, a cele- brated painter, born in Caravaggio in 1569. He died near Rome in 1609. Caravan, a Persian word used to denote large companies which travel together in Asia and Africa for the sake of security from robbers, having in view, principally, trade or pilgrim- ages. Camels are used as a means of conveyance on account of their re- markable powers of endurance. Caravansary, or Caravansera, a large public building, or inn, for the reception and lodgment of caravans in the desert. Though serving instead of inns, there is this essential differ- ence between them, that the traveler finds nothing in the caravansary for the use either of himself or his cattle, but must carry all his provisions and necessaries with him. Caravansaries are also numerous in cities, where they serve not only as inns, but as shops, warehouses, and even ex- changes. Caravel, the name of different kinds of vessels, particularly a small Caraway ship used by the Spaniards and Portu- guese in the 15th and 16th centuries for long voyages. It was in com- mand of three caravels that Columbus crossed the Atlantic and discovered America. Caraway, a plant valued and culti- vated for the sake of the well-known aromatic " caraway seeds " which it bears ; these being, however, in strict- ness not seeds, but the pericarps, into which the fruit in this order splits when ripening. Caraways are chiefly used entire as a spice by bakers and confectioners. Carbide, a compound formed by the union of carbon with an element, as iron or hydrogen. Carbine, a fire-arm used by cav- alry and artillery, shorter in the bar- rel than the ordinary musket or rifle. It was used by light cavalry as early as the 16th century. Carbineers, or Carabineers, for- merly light horsemen, used chiefly to ; watch and harass the enemy, defend j narrow passes, and act as skirmish- ers. Carbolic Acid, obtained by the dry distillation of salicylic acid. It is also formed by the dry distillation of coal, in the coal-tar oil. It is used as a disinfectant, and to preserve meat, etc. Taken internally it soon proves fatal, and its use should therefore b carefully guarded. Carbon, the name of the element which exists, more or less pure, in charcoal, coke, coal and such bodies. Carbonari, the name given to a secret political association in Italy, its professed aim being the reorganiza- tion and reform of the government of that country. Carbondale, a city in Lackawan- na county, Pa.; on the Lacka wanna river and the Delaware & Hudson and other railroads; 16 miles N. E. of Scranton; is noted for its^ great deposits of anthracite coal, its ex- tensive mining interests, and its man- ufactures of silk goods, chemicals, and machinery. Pop. (1910) 17,040. Carboniferous, a term applied to the extensive and thick series of strata with which seams of paleozoic coal are more or less immediately associated. It is applied as well to that great sys- Cardamine tern of formations which yield our main supply of coal, or to some di- visions of that system, such as the Carboniferous limestone and the Car- boniferous slates. It is also applied to the fossils found in any stratum belonging to the system. Carborundum, an artificial abra- sive, composed of carbon and clay fused together at a high temperature. Carboy, a large and somewhat globular bottle of green glass pro- tected by an outside covering of wick- erwork or other material, for carry- ing vitriol or other corrosive liquid. Carbuncle, a beautiful gem of a deep-red color with a mixture of scar- let, found in the East Indies. When held up to the sun it loses its deep tinge, and becomes exactly the color of a burning coal. The carbuncle of the ancients is supposed to have been a garnet. Carbuncle, in surgery, an inflam- mation of the true skin and tissue be- neath it akin to that occurring in boils. It is more extensive than the latter, and instead of one has several cores. It is associated with a bad state of general health, from which condition its danger arises, for it may threaten life by exhaustion or blood poisoning. Carbnretted Hydrogen, the name given to two compounds of carbon and hydrogen, one known as light car- buretted hydrogen, and the other aa olefiant gas. Carcajou, a species of badger found in North America. Carcanet, a necklace or collar of jewels. Carcass, in military language, an iron case, with several apertures, filled with combustible materials, which is discharged from a mortar, howitzer, or gun, and intended to set fire to buildings, ships, and wooden de- fenses. Card, an instrument for combing, opening, and breaking wool, flax, etc., and freeing it from the coarser parts and from extraneous matter. It is made by inserting bent teeth of wire in a thick piece of oblong board to which a handle is attached. Cardamine, a pretty meadow plant, with large pale lilac flowers. Cardamoms Cardinal Virtue* Cardamoms, the aromatic capsules of different species of plants of the natural order gingers employed in medicine as well as an ingredient in auces and curries. Cardboard, pasteboard paper stiffened by several layers being joined together. Cardenas, a seaport of Cuba, on the N. coast, 75 miles E. of Havana, with which it is connected by rail. It has a good harbor, and exports sugar. Pop. (1907) 24,280, mostly whites. During the blockade of the Cuban coast in the war between the United States and Spain a severe engagement : took place here on May 11, 1898. Cardia, the heart ; also the upper j orifice of the stomach, called, on ac- < count of its vicinity to the heart, by the same Greek name. Cardiff, ("the city on the Taff"), a municipal and parliamentary bor- ; ough and seaport, the county town of Glamorganshire, Wales, situated at the mouth of the Taff on the estuary of the Severn. It is a rapidly increas- ing town, and the principal outlet for the mineral produce and manufactures of South Wales. Iron shipbuilding is carried on, and there are iron and other works on a large scale. Pop. (1911) 182.259. Cardiff Giant, the name given to a rude statue 10% feet high, dug up, in 1869, at Cardiff, N. Y., and exhibit- ed for months as a petrifaction. The persons who thus deluded the public at last confessed that the " Giant " had been cut from a block of gypsum quarried at Fort Dodge, la., sculp- tured at Chicago, conveyed to Cardiff, and there buried and " accidentally discovered." Cardigan, James Thomas Brn- denell, seventh Earl of, born in Hampshire, Oct 16, 1797; sat in the House of Commons from 1818 to 1837, when he succeeded his father. He en- tered the army in 1824, am rapidly bought himself into the command of the 15th Hussars, which he resigned in 1833, on the acquittal of an officer whom he had illegally put under ar- rest. He commanded a cavalry bri- gade under Lord Lucan in the Crimea, and led the famous charge of the Six Hundred at Balaklava He was in- spector-general of cavalry. 1855-1860, and died in Deene Park, March 28, 1868. Cardigan Bay, a semicircular bend at St. George's Channel, on the W. coast of Wales, 54 miles wide from N. to S., and 35 miles deep, with a sweep of coast of 130 miles. Cardinal, one of the body of coun- sellors of the Pope who, next to him, hold the highest dignity in the church. According to the present law the appointment of cardinals rests with the Pope, who generally consults the existing cardinals, and often receives proposals from secular governments. The cardinals in Conclave elect the new Pope, have constant access to him, and form his chief council. They have a vote at general councils, and since the 13th century, precedence over all other members. They have had since Urban VIII. the title of " Eminence." The body of cardinals is called the Sacred College. Their insignia are the red cardinal's hat, which is given them by the Pope, and not worn, but suspended in the church of their title, and finally buried with them; the red biretta, the sapphire ring, the mitre of white silk, etc. If a cardinal holds an episcopal see, he must reside there ; otherwise he must not leave Rome without permission. At the head of the college of cardinals stands the dean, who is usually Bishop of Ostia and senior of the cardinal bishops. It is he who consecrates the newly-elected Pope, if not already a bishop. In the United States the first cardinal was McCloskey, of New York, (1875) ; the second, Gibbons, of Bal- timore (1886) ; the third, Farley, of New York (1911) ; the fourth, O'Con- nell, of Boston (1911). Cardinal Bird, a North American bird of the finch family, with a fine red plumage, and a crest on the head. Its song resembles that of the night- ingales, hence one of its common names. Cardinal Points, the N., S., E., and W. points of the horizon; the four intersections of the horizon with the meridian and the prime vertical circle. Cardinal Virtues, or Principal Virtues, in morals, a name applied to justice, prudence, temperance, and fortitude. Carding Carib Carding, the process wool, cotton, flax, etc., undergo previous to spinning to lay the libers all in one direction, and remove all foreign substances. Carditis, inflammation of the heart substance. Cardoon, a perennial plant belong- ing to the same genus as the artichoke, and somewhat resembling it. It is a native of Canada. Cards, oblong pieces of pasteboard, inscribed with certain figures and points, and used in various games of skill and hazard. The origin of this in- vention is obscure. An immense va- riety of games are played with cards, some involving chance only, some combining chance and skill, the best of them furnishing very agreeable and intellectual amusement. Carducci, Giosne, an Italian poet and philologist, born in Valdicastello, Tuscany, July 27, 1836. He was Prof, of Literature at Bologna Univ. from 1860. He died Feb. 15, 1907. Carew, Thomas, an English poet; born in 1598. He stood high in favor with Charles I., and was an intimate friend of the greatest poets and schol- ars of his time. He died in 1639. Carey, Henry Charles, an Amer- ican economist, born in Philadelphia, Dec. 15, 1793 ; trained in his father's publishing house, he accumulated a competence from the business and re- tired to devote himself to study. The "Essay on the Rate of Wages" (1836) and "The Principles of Po- litical Economy" (1837-1840) won him an authoritative international po- sition. He died in Philadelphia, Oct. 13, 1879. Carey, Mathew, an American pub- lisher and prose writer, born in Ire- land, Jan. 28, 1760. The best known of his political writings was his "Olive Branch " (1814). It was an effort to promote harmony among political par- ties during the War of 1812. It passed through ten editions. In 1819 he published his " Irish Vindications," and in 1822, "Essays on Political Economy." He died in Philadelphia, Pa., Sept. 16, 1839. Carey, William, an English Ori- ental scholar and missionary, born in Northamptonshire, Aug. 17, 1761. He w&s early apprenticed to a shoemaker, but having a natural turn for lan- guages, and zeal for the spread of the Gospel, he acquired Latin, Greek, and Hebrew, and likewise studied theology. In 1786 he became pastor of a Bap- tist congregation at Moulton, and in 1787 was appointed to a similar sit- uation in Leicester. In 1793 he sailed for the East Indies as a Baptist mis- sionary, and in 1800, in conjunction with Marshman, Ward, and others, he founded the missionary college at Serampore. Here he had a printing press, and issued various translations of the Scriptures. His first work was a " Bengali Grammar," and later, un- der his direction the whole Bible was translated into 6, and the New Testa- ment into 21 Hindustani dialects. He was long professor of Sanskrit, Mah- ratta, and Bengali, in Calcutta. He died in Serampore, India, June 9, 1834. Carhart, Henry Smith, an American scientist, born in Coeymans, N. Y., March 27, 1844. He was gradu ated at Wesleyan University in 1869 and since then has taught physics and chemistry. Since 1886 he has been Professor of Physics at the University of Michigan. Caria, a country of Asia Minor, whose boundaries have been dissimilar in different ages. Its chief town was Halicarnassus. Cariacon, the Virginia deer. It is somewhat smaller than the common stag. Cariama, a bird, a native of Bra- zil and Paraguay. The head is crested. Carib, the name given by the early European navigators to the inhabi- tants or aborigines found on the small- er of the West India Islands, and also inhabiting some part of the adjacent American continent. The Spaniards, finding them always a bold and de- termined enemy, finally expelled all but a mere remnant from their native possessions. Those who escaped the Spanish sword sought refuge in that part of Southern America near the mouth of the Orinoco, except a few whom the English removed and landed on the island of Ruatan, in the Bay of Honduras. The Ca.rib have always been distinguished from the rest of the American peoples by their athletic stature, firmness, courage, and resolu- tion. Caribbean Sea Carlisle Caribbean Sea, the grandest inlet of the Western hemisphere, separated from the Gulf of Mexico by Yucatan, and from the Atlantic Ocean by the great arch of the Antilles. Caribbees, or Lesser Antilles, usually divided into the Windward and Leeward Islands, a section of the .West India Islands. Cariboo, or Caribou, an animal, the American Woodland Reindeer, the Attehk of the Cree, and Tantseeah of the Copper Indians. It is employed by the Laplanders to draw their sledges. Carica, a genus of plants which contains about ten species, all natives of tropical America. Caricature, a representation of the qualities and peculiarities of an ob- ject, but in such a way that beauties are concealed and peculiarities or de- fects exaggerated, so as to make the person or thing ridiculous, while a general likeness is retained. Caries, a disease of bone analogous to ulceration in soft tissues. The bone breaks down into unhealthy matter, which works its way to the surface and bursts. Caries of the teeth is decay of the dentine or body of the tooth. Carillon, a species of chime, played by hand or clockwork on a number of bells, forming a complete series or Bcale of tones or semi-tones, like those of the organ or harpsichord. Carintbia, a W. duchy or province of Austria, on the borders of Italy; area, 3,989 square miles. It is ex- tremely mounjtainous, generally sterile, and one of the most thinly populated provinces of Austria. The iron, lead, and calamine mines are the main sources of its wealth, though there are several manufactories of woolens, cot- tons, silk stuffs, etc., most of which are in Klagenfurt, the capital. Pop. (1912) 402,813. Carisbrooke, a village near the center of the Isle of Wight, and over- looked by the ruins of its ancient cas- tle, where Charles I. was imprisoned 13 months previous to his trial and execution. Carlen, Emilia Flygare, a Swed- ish novelist, born at Stromstad, Aug. 8, 1807. She died in Stockholm, Feb. 6. 1892. Carlen, Rosa, a Swedish novelist, born in 1836; died in 1883. Carleton, Henry Guy, an Ameri- can journalist and dramatist, born in Fort Union, New Mexico, June 21, 1855. He pursued journalism in New Orleans and New York, and wrote sev- eral plays. He died Dec. 10, 1910. Carleton, Will, an American poet, born in Hudson, Mich., Oct. 21, 1840 ; was best known by his ballads of home life, many of them having great popularity. He died Dec. 18, 1912. Carleton College, a co-educational institution in Northfield, Minn. ; or- ganized in 1866 under the auspices of the Congregational Church. Carli, Giovanni Rinaldo, an Italian economist and archaeologist, born in Capo d'Istria, April 11, 1720 ; died Feb. 22, 1795. Carlisle, Richard, an English Radical, born in Ashburton, Devon- shire, Dec. 8, 1790 ; died Feb. 10, 1843. Carlisle, an ancient city of Eng- land ; th capital of Cumberlandshire ; at the confluence of the Caldew and Eden rivers. Pop. (1911) 46,420. Carlisle, borough and county-seat of Cumberland county, Pa. ; on the Cumberland Valley, and the Gettys- burg and Harrisburg railroads; 18 miles W. of Harrisburg. It is the site of Dickinson College, Metzger Female College, and the United States Indian Training School. It was the headquarters of Washington during the Whiskey Rebellion in 1794, and was bombarded by the Confederates in 1863. Pop. (1910) 10,303. Carlisle, John Griffin, an Amer- ican statesman, born in Kenton coun- ty, Ky., Sept. 5, 1835; received a common-school education, studied law, and was admitted to the bar (1858). He served several terms in the lower house of the State Legislature. Dur- ing the Civil War he actively opposed secession, and in 1866 and 1869 was a member of the State Senate. He was lieutenant-governor of Kentucky (1871-1875), was elected to Congress (1876), and five times reflected. His ability soon made him one of the Democratic leaders. In the 48th, 49th, and 50th Congresses he was chosen Speaker. In 1890 he was elected United States Senator, but re- signed in March, 1893, to accept the Carlists Carlstadt portfolio of Secretary of the Treasury. At the close of his term he settled in New York City to practice law. He died July 31, 1910. Carlists, a Spanish political fac- tion which advocates the claims of Carlos of Bourbon and his descend- ants to the Spanish throne. In 1833 they revolted and held the advantage until 1836, when Espartero inflicted on them a terrific defeat at Luchana. In August, 1839, their commander, Maroto, treacherously made peace, and the remaining Carlists soon fled to France. In 1873 the grandson of the first pretender raised another re- volt, but after several sharp conflicts was defeated, and in 1876 with his chief supporters fled into France. Carll, John Franklin, an Ameri- can geologist, born in Long Island, N. Y., May 7, 1828. He became identified with coal oil development early in life, and has perfected many oil pump- ing devices. After 1874 he was con- nected with the Pennsylvania Geolog- ical Survey. He died in 1904. Carlos, Don, Duke of Madrid, nephew of Don Carlos of Montemolin, born March 30, 1848. On the death of his uncle (1861) he became head of the Carlist party. In 1872 he is- sued a manifesto to the Carlist party at Madrid and appeared in the Basque provinces, but was badly defeated at Oroquieta and fled back to France. In 1873 he reappeared in the N. prov- inces of Spain ; captured the strong- hold Estella, and had soon overrun Navarre, Catalonia, Aragon, and Va- lencia, with the exception of the great cities. By February, 1876, the rebels were hemmed in along the N. coast, and the majority surrendered at Pam- plona. He himself fled over the French border, and has since lived in exile and comparative poverty. During the Spanish-American War he came into notice again, and on April 13, 1898, from his retreat in Switzerland, is- sued a manifesto to his supporters: but he accomplished nothing and again went into retirement. He died July 8, 1909. Carlos I., King of Portugal; born in 1863, formerly known as Duke of Braganza, son of Louis I. He mar- ried, in 1886, Marie Amelie de Bour- bon, daughter of the Count of Paris. On Feb. 1, 1908, b9th the King and Crown Prince Luiz were assassi- nated in Lisbon. He was succeeded by his second son, Manuel II., who was dethroned in 1910. Carlotta, Ex-empress of Mexico, born in Brussels, June 7, 1840, the daughter of Leopold I. of Belgium. She was married to Maximilian, Arch- duke of Austria (1857). She accom- panied her husband to Mexico in 1864, but in 18G6 returned to Europe to so- licit aid from the French Emperor and from the Pope. Her failure and the news of her husband's overthrow unbalanced her mind. She still lives near Brussels. Carlovingians, the second dynasty of the French or Franklin kings, which supplanted the Merovingians, deriving the name from Charles Mar- tel or his grandson Charlemagne (that is, Karl or Charles the Great). Carlsbad, a town in Bohemia, on the Tepl, near its influx to the Eger, 116 miles W. by N. of Prague. It is widely celebrated for its hot mineral springs, and is frequented in summer by visitors from all parts of Europe. Pop., summer, 25,OCK>-30,000. Carlskrona, the capital of the Swedish province, built on five rocky islets in the Baltic, 240 miles S. S. W. of Stockholm. It has a magnificent harbor, with a sufficient depth of water to float the largest vessels. The only practicable entrance is strongly defended. Pop. (1915) 28,127. Carlsruhe, or Karlsruhe, the capital of the grand-duchy of Baden, founded in 1715, and built in the form of a fan, with 32 streets radiating from the palace. Before the palace stands a bronze statue of the city's founder, the Margrave Charles Wil- liam ; and in the market-place is a stone pyramid inclosing his remains. Pop. (1910) 134,313. Carlstadt, a fortified town of Croatia, Austro-Hungary, on the Kul- pa, 32 miles S. W. of Agram by raiL It is the seat of a Greek bishopric, and has a large transit trade. Carl- stadt, in Bavaria, on the Maine, is 15 miles N. N. W. of Wurzburg. Carlstadt, Andreas Rudolf Bo- denstein, a German reformer, born in Carlstadt in 1480. He \vas appointed professor of theology at Wittenberg Carlyle in 1513. About 1517 he became one of Luther's warmest supporters. He was excommunicated by the bull against Luther, and was the first to appeal from the Pope to a general council. In 1524 he declared himself publicly the opponent of Luther, and com- menced the controversy respecting the sacrament, denying the bodily pres- ence of Christ in the sacramental ele- ments. This controversy ended in the separation of the Calvinists and Lutherans. After many misfortunes he settled as vicar and professor of theology at Basel, where he died, Dec. 25, 1541. Carlyle, Jane 'Welsh, wife of Thomas Carlyle; born in Haddington, Scotland, July 14, 1801. She claimed descent from William Wallace and John Knox and was from youth re- markable for beauty, wit and intellect. Her " Letters," edited by her husband, were published in 1883, the work being fiven to the world by J. A. Froude. he died in London, April 21, 1866. Carlyle, Thomas, author, born in Ecclefechan, Dumfriesshire, Scotland, Dec. 4, 1795. lie was the eldest son of James Carlyle, a mason, afterward a farmer, and was intended for the Church, with which object he was carefully educated. His first literary productions were short biographies and other articles for the " Edinburgh En- cyclopaedia." His career as an author may be said to have begun with the issue in monthly portions of his " Life of Schiller " in the London Magazine, in 1823, this work being enlarged and published separately in 1825. The largest and most laborious work of his life was " The History of Fried- rich II. of Prussia, called Frederick the Great," the last two volumes of which appeared in 1865, and after this time little came from his pen. While still in Scotland the sad news reached him that his wife had died suddenly in London. Toward the end of his life he was offered a government pension and a baronetcy, but declined both. Carlyle died in Chelsea, Feb. 5, 1881. Carman, Elbert S., an American editor, born in Hempstead, N. Y., in 1836. He became owner and editor of the " Rural New Yorker " in 1876, in connection with which publication Carminative he established a farm at River Edge, N. J., where he gave much of his time to testing new plants, vines and seeds. He died in New York City, Feb. 28, 1900. Carman, Ezra Ayers, an Ameri- can military officer ; born in Metuchen, N. J., Feb. 27, 1834. He served through the Civil War in the Army of the Potomac and the Army of the Cumberland ; became a Brigadier-Gen- tral, U. S. V. He died Dec. 25, 1909. Carmagnole a dance accompanied by singing. Many of the wildest ex- cesses of the French revolution of 1792 were associated with this dance. It was afterward applied to the bom- bastic reports of the French successes in battle. The name was also given to a sort of jacket worn as a symbol of patriotism. Carmel, a range of hills in Pales- tine. It has a length of about 16 miles, and its highest point is 1,850 feet above the sea. Carmelite, an order of mendicant friars. They claim to be in direct succession from Elijah, but their real founder was Berthold, a Calabrian, who, with a few companions, migrated to Mount Carmel about the middle of the 12th century, and built a humble cottage with a chapel, where he and his associates led a laborious and soli- tary life. The order is divided into two branches, viz., the Carmelites of the ancient observance, called mod- erate or mitigated, and those of the strict observance, who are known as the barefooted Carmelites. Carmen Sylva, the pen-name of Elizabeth, Queen of Rumania, born Dec. 29, 1843 ; the daughter of Prince Hermann of Wied Neuwied, and Maria of Nassau ; married King (then Prince) Charles of Rumania in 1869. Her only child, a daughter, died in 1874, and out of this great sorrow of her life arose her literary activity. In the war of 1877-1878 she endeared herself to her people by her devotion to the wounded soldiers, and afterward diligently fostered the national wom- en's industries. She died March 2, 1916. Carminative, a substance which acts as a stimulant to the stomach, causing expulsion of flatulence, also allaying pain and spasm of the in- testines. Most of the ordinary condi- Carmine ments, as pepper, mustard, ginger, cinnamon, cloves, nutmeg, oil of pep- permint, etc., are carminative. Carmine, the fine red coloring mat- ter or principle of cochineal. It is used in dyeing. Carnac, a village of Brittany, Prance, remarkable for the so-caned Druidical monuments in this vicinity. These consist of 11 rows of unhewn stones, which differ greatly both in size and height, the largest being 22 feet above ground, while some are quite small. These avenues originally extended for several miles, but many of the stones have been cleared away for agricultural improvements. They are evidently of very ancient date, but their origin is unknown. Carnatic, a region on the E. or Coromandel coast of India, now in- cluded in the province of Madras. The Carnatic is no longer an administra- tive division, but is memorable as the theater of the struggle betwen France and England for supremacy in India. Carnation, in the fine arts, flesh color; the parts of a picture which are naked or without drapery, exhibit- ing the natural color of the flesh. Carnation, the popular name of the clove-pink. Carnations are much prized for the beautiful colors of their sweet-scented double flowers. Caraead.es, a Greek philosopher, born in Gyrene, in Africa, about 213 B. c. He studied logic at Athens un- der Diogenes, but became a partisan of the Academy, and an enemy of the Stoics. In 155 B. c., along with Dio- genes and Critolaus, he was sent as ambassador to Rome, but his philoso- phy made him enemies and caused his return. He died at Athens, 129 B. c. Carnegie, Andrew, an American manufacturer and philanthropist, born in Dunfermline, Scotland, Nov. 25, 1835. The elder Carnegie was a master weaver of Dunfermline, Scotland. But the newly invented steam machinery drove him and his four hand looms out of business, and in 1848 he and his wife with their two boys decided to follow some relatives across the ocean to America. Here Andrew began work in a steam cotton factory, tending bobbins. In less than a year he had been taken from the factory by one who had noticed the boy, and, in the Carnegie new works, he learned how to run the engine and was promoted to this work, his salary of 20 cents a day not being increased, until be did clerical work for his employer as well for he had some knowledge of arithmetic and wrote a good hand. He next became a messenger boy in the Ohio Telegraph Company, shortly after which his father died, and at the age of 14 he became the sole support of his mother and younger brother. But the weight on his shoulders was merely a spur to his ambition. He had not been in the office a month when he began to learn telegraphy, and a little friendly in- struction soon had him spending all his spare minutes at the key. Char- acteristically, he was not content with the general custom of receiving by the tape, but doggedly mastered the click- ing tongue of the instrument, until the supposed insecurity of taking mes- sages by sound was found not to ap- ply to him. He became an operator presently at a salary which seemed to him princely, though he augmented even this $25 a month by copying tele- graphic news for the daily papers. When the Pennsylvania railroad needed an operator he was chosen to fill the vacancy. A little later Colonel Scott selected him for his secretary; and before long, when Colonel Scott advanced to the vice-presidency of the road, the young man found himself superintendent of the Pennsylvania's Western Division. One day as the young superinten- dent was examining the line from a rear car, a tall, thin man stepped up to him, introduced himself as T. T. Woodruff, an inventor, and asked if he might show him an idea he had for a car to accommodate passengers at night. Out came a model from a green baize bag. " He had not spoken a minute be- fore, like a flash, the whole range of the discovery burst upon me. ' Yes,' I said, ' this is something which this continent must have.' ' Upon my return I laid it before Mr. Scott, declaring that it was one of the inventions of the age. He re- marked : ' You are enthusiastic, young man, but you may tell the inventor to come and let me see it.' I did so, and arrangements were made to build two trial cars, and run them on the Penn- Carnegie Institution Carnegie Institution $ylvania railroad. I was offered an interest in the venture, which, of course, I gladly accepted. " The notice came that my share of the first payment was $217.50 as far beyond my means as if it had been millions. I was earning $50 per month, however, and had prospects, or at least I always felt that I had. I decided to call on the local banker, and boldly ask him to advance the sum upon my interest in the affair. He put his hand on my shoulder and Baid : ' Why, of course, Andie, you are all right. Go ahead ! Here is the money.' . . . The cars paid the subsequent payments from their earn- ings. I paid my first note from my savings, so much per month, and thus did I get my foot upon fortune's lad- der. It is easy to climb after that. And thus came sleeping-cars into the world." But the man had not yet struck his true vocation. That came presently, when his attention was drawn to the wooden bridges universally used at that time. The Pennsylvania road was experimenting with a cast-iron bridge. Andrew Carnegie went out and formed a company to build iron bridges. He had to raise $1,250, but he had behind him the confidence of a Pittsburg banker, and this proved easy. From this time on the name of An- drew Carnegie is inseparably associat- ed with that astonishing development of American iron and steel, which is among the modern wonders of the world. The Keystone Company built the first great bridge over the Ohio river ; and the Union Iron Mills ap- peared in a few years as the natural outgrowth of this ramifying industry. Then, in 1868, Carnegie went to Eng- land. The Bessemer process of mak- ing steel rails had lately been perfect- ed. The English railways were re- placing their iron rails with steel ones as rapidly as possible. The English manufacturers were beginning to whis- per to each other that they had a firm grip of a gigantic revolutionizing idea. The young Scotchman went back to Pittsburg, and before the Eng- lishmen were well aware of his ex- istence he laid the foundation of the steel works which have now finally beaten them at their own game. The iron-master was now fairly launched on his life work. He bought up the Homestead works, his most formidable rival, and by 1888 he con- trolled seven huge plants, all within five miles of Pittsburg, which he pro- ceeded to forge and amalgamate into a steel-armored giant, called the Car- negie Steel Company. Next to his fame as the "Steel King," Carnegie is undoubtedly most wide- ly known through his remarkable list of public benefactions in the shape of libraries, museums, and other worthy public objects, the total amount of which was estimated in 1910 at over $150,000,000. His most noteworthy gifts were $30,000,000 for public li- braries in the United States; $16,- 000,000 for the Carnegie Institute in Pittsburg, Pa.; $15,000,000 for col- lege professors' pensions; $10,000,000 for the Carnegie Institute in Wash, ington, D. C.; $10,000,000 for li- braries in foreign countries; $10,000,- 000 for Scotch universities; $5,000,- 000 for a Hero Fund in the United States, $1,250,000 for one in Scot- land, and $1,000,000 for one in France; $5,000,000 for Carnegie Steel Company's employes; $5,000,000 for Dunfermline (Scotland) endowment; $7,500,000 for Carnegie Technical In- stitute at Pittsburg; $1,750,000 for Temple of Peace at The Hague; $1,500,000 for the Allied Engineers* Societies in New York; $750,000 for a building for the Bureau of Ameri- can Republics in Washington, D. C.; $18,000,000 to colleges in the United States. In 1911 the Carnegie Corpo- ration of New York was incorporated to take over all of his benefactions, and received from him $125,000,000 for its work. Carnegie Institution, an educa- tional body incorporated Jan. 4, 1902, in Washington, D. C., by John Hay, Secretary of State; Edwin D. White, Justice of the Supreme Court; Daniel C. Oilman, ex-president of Johns Hop- kins University; Charles D. Walcott, superintendent of the United States Geological Survey; Dr. John S. Bill- ings, Director of the New York Pub- lic Library; and Carroll D. Wright, United States Commissioner of Labor. The aims of the university, as ex- pressed by the founder, are: (1) To increase the efficiency of the universi- Carnif ex Ferry ties and other institutions of learn- ing throughput the country by utiliz- ing and adding to their existing facili- ties, and by aiding teachers in the various institutions for the experi- mental and other work in these insti- tutions as far as may be advisable. (2) To discover the exceptional man in every department of study, when- ever and wherever found to enable him by financial aid to make the work for which he seems especially designed his life work. (3) To promote origi- nal research, paying great attention thereto as being one of the chief pur- poses of this institution. (4) To in- crease the facilities for higher educa- tion. (5) To enable such students as may find Washington the best point for their special studies to avail them- selves of such advantages as may be open to them in the museums, librar- ies, laboratories, observatory, meteoro- logical, piscicultural, and forestry schools and kindred institutions of the several departments of the govern- ment. (6) To insure the prompt pub- lication and distribution of the results of scientific investigation, a field con- sidered to be highly important. The board of trustees elected by the corporators of the institution was as follows: The President of the United States (ex-officio), the President of the United States Senate, the Speak- er of the House of Representatives, the Secretary of the Smithsonian In- stitution, the President of the Nation- al Academy of Sciences, and Grover Cleveland (New Jersey), John S. Bill- ings (New York), William N. Frew (Pennsylvania), Lyman J. Gage (Illi- nois), Daniel C. Gilman (Maryland), John Hay (District of Columbia), Abram S. Hewitt (New Jersey), Hen- ry L. Higginson (Massachusetts), Henry Hitchcock (Missouri), Charles L. Hutchinson (Illinois), William Lindsay (Kentucky), Seth Low (New York), Wayne MacVeagh (Pennsyl- vania), D. O. Mills (California), S. Weir Mitchell (Pennsylvania), W. W. Morrow (California), Elihu Root (New York), John C. Spoon er (Wis- consin), Andrew D. White (New York), Edward D. White (Louis- iana), Charles D. Walcott (District of Columbia), and Carroll D. Wright (District of Columbia). The trustees assembled in Washing- Caraot ton on Jan. 29, 1902, received from Mr. Carnegie the deed of gift of $10,- 000,000, and elected Daniel C. Gilman, LL. D., president of the Institution. Carnifex Ferry, a place on the Gauley river, in Nicholas Co., Va. A sharp battle occurred here Sept. 10, 1861, between Federal troops under General Rosecrans and Confederates under General Floyd. After nightfall Floyd retreated across the river. Carnival, the festival celebrated in Roman Catholic countries, and espe- cially in Rome and Naples, with great mirth and freedom during the week before the beginning of Lent. In the United States carnivals are annually celebrated in New Orleans, in St. Louis and in Memphis. That at New Orleans is especially spectacular, the festivities being prolonged three days and attracting thousands of visitors. Carnivora. All animals which prey upon other animals are carniv- orous, but the term Carnivora, as the designation of a group, is now restrict- ed to that order of mammals to which the cat, dog, bear, and seal belong. Carnivorous Plants, plants which derive nourishment directly from the bodies of insects or other small crea- tures entrapped by them in various ways. In all these the apparatus for catching insects consists of a modified leaf or portion of a leaf, and in some the modifications are so curious and the adaptations so perfect that the plant seems almost endowed with in- telligence. Carnochan, John Murray, an American surgeon, famous for his bold and skillful operations ; born in Sa- vannah, Ga., July 4, 1817; studied at Edinburgh and at various European universities; and began his practice in New York city in 1847. In 1851 he became professor of surgery at the New York Medical College, and sur- geon-in-chief to the State Immigrant Hospital. He died in New York, Oct. 28, 1887. Carnot, Lazare Hippolyte a French Democrat, born in St. Omer, April 6, 1801. After the February Revolution (1848) he was appointed Minister of Public Instruction, but soon resigned. He was elected a sen- ator for life hi 1875, and died March 16, 1888. Carnot Caroline Island* Carnot, Lazare Nicolas Mar- guerite, a French statesman, general, and strategist; born in Burgundy, May 13, 1753. In 1791 he was ap- pointed deputy to the constituent as- sembly. In the following March he was sent to the Army of the North, where he took command and success- fully repulsed the enemy. On his re- turn he was made member of the Com- mittee of Public Safety, and directed and organized the French armies with great ability and success. In 1797 Carnot was appointed Minister of War by Napoton (1800). But he remained in principle an inflexible Republican, voted against the consul- ship for life, and protected against Napoleon's assumption of the imperial dignity. For seven years after this Carnot remained in retirement, pub- lishing several valuable military works. In 1814 Napoleon gave him the chief command at Antwerp, and in 1815 the post of Minister of the Interior. After the Emperor's sec- ond fall he retired from France. He died in Magdeburg, Prussia, Aug. 3, 1823. Carnot, Marie Francois Sadi, President of the French Republic; born in Limoges, Aug. 11, 1837 ; a grandson of the famous war minister of the Revolution. During the siege of Paris in 1871 he was made prefect of the Seine-Inferieure and showed great ability as commissary-general. In politics he was an earnest Repub- lican. Elected to the National As- sembly in 1871 by the Cote d'Or, he soon rose to prominence. In 1876 he was chosen secretary of the Chamber of Deputies ; in 1878 Secretary of Public Works. He was Minister of Public Works in 1881-1882 and 1886. In December, 1887, on the resignation of M. Grevy he was chosen President. His policy was one of peace with for- eign nations, careful development of the army and navy, and economy in all departments. While attending an exposition at Lyons, June 24, 1894, he was stabbed by a fanatical Italian Anarchist, from the effect of which he died the next day. Caro, Miguel Antonio, a Colom- bian prose-writer and poet; born in Bogota, Colombia, Nov. 10. 1843. He became an editor and contributor to periodicals. He died Aug. 5, 1909. Carob, a tree, native of the Levant. It is an evergreen, and produces long horn-like pods filled with a mealy, suc- culent pulp of sweetish taste, used for food for horses, and sometimes even for human beings, and called St. John's bread. Carol, a song of praise sung at Christmastide. It originally meant a song accompanied with dancing, in which sense it is frequently 'used by the old poets. Caroline, Queen of England; daughter of the Duke of Brunswick- Wolfenbuttel ; born May 17, 1768. In 1795 she was married to the Prince of Wales, afterward George IV. The marriage was not to his liking, and after the birth of the Princess Char- lotte he separated from her. Many reports were circulated against her honor, and a ministerial committee was formed to inquiie into her con- duct. But the people in general sym- pathized with her, regarding her as an ill-treated wife. When the Prince of Wales ascended the throne in 1820 he offered her an income of 50,000 on condition that she would never return to England. She refused, and in June of the same year entered Lon- don amid public demonstrations of welcome. The government now insti- tuted proceedings against her for adul- tery, but the public feeling and the splendid defense of Brougham obliged the ministry to give up the divorce bill after it had passed the lords. Though banished from the court, the queen then assumed a style suitable to her rank. She died Aug. 7, 1821. Caroline Islands, a group in the Western Pacific, lying between the Marshall and Pelew islands, with an area of about 390 square miles, and a population (1911) of 58,000; but the Pelew group Is now generally in- cluded in the Caroline Archipelago (area, 560 square miles; population 36,000), which thus stretches across 32 of Ion. and 9 of lat There are some 500 small atolls in the archi- pelago, but three-fourths of both' area and population are included In the five volcanic islands of Babeltnouap, Yap, Rouk, Ponape (Ascension), and Kusari (Strong Island) ; these are all fertile and well watered, and many of the low-lying lagoons, though less so, are well wooded and to some ex- Carolns tent inhabited. The climate is moist, but not unhealthy, and is tempered by cooling breezes. The people belong to the brown Polynesian stock. The islands were discovered in 1527 by the Portuguese, and called Sequeira; in 1686 they were annexed and rechrist- ened in honor of Charles II. by the Spaniards, who, however, shortly changed the name to New Philippines. After the failure of several missionary attempts in the 18th century, Spain took little active interest in the group until August, 1885, when the German flag was hoisted on Yap. The sharp dispute which followed was submitted to the Pope as arbitrator, who decided in favor of Spain, but reserved to Germany special trade privileges. In 1887 disturbances broke out at Po- nape, in which the governor, who had arrested one of the American Protes- tant missionaries, was killed by the natives; but the rising was shortly put down. In February, 1899, Ger- many purchased from Spain the Caro- line and Pelew islands, and all of the Ladrones excepting Guam, which had been ceded to the United States in the treaty of peace. Carolinium, an element possess- ing radio-active powers of great inten- sity. With another named Berzelium, it was discovered in 1904, by Prof. C. Baskerville of North Carolina. Carotid, the great arteries of the neck. Carp, a fresh-water fish. It is a native of Asia, but has been extensive- ly introduced into the United States. Carpathian Mountains, (Ger- man, Karpathen), a range of moun- tains in Southern Europe, chiefly in Austria, nearly 800 miles in length. The Carpathians form the water-part- ing between the basins of the Baltic and Black Seas, and a mountain bul- wark from Pressburg on the Danube to Orsova on the Rumanian frontier, a sweep of nearly 800 miles. Early in the great war this entire region be- came a section of strategic impor- tance, and on Aug. 30, 1916, the Ru- manians seized the five principal passes, forcing the Austro-Hungarians to retire. See APPENDIX : World War. Carpeauz, Jean Baptirte, a French sculptor, born in Valenciennes, May 14, 1827 ; died Oct. 11, 1875. Carpenter Carpel, the leaf forming the pistiL Several carpels may enter into the composition of one pistil. Carpentaria, Gulf of, a large gulf on the N. coast of Australia. Carpenter, Charles Carroll, an American naval officer, born in Green- field, Mass., Feb. 27, 1834. He was promoted rear-admiral Nov. 11, 1894; was commander-in-chief of the United States Asiatic squadron from Aug. 27, 1894, till Nov. 9, 1895; and was re- tired on reaching the age-limit, Feb. 28, 1896. During the summer of 1895 he rendered invaluable service in China in protecting American mission- aries and in cooperating with United States Minister Charles Denby and the British and Chinese authorities to preserve peace, particularly after the Kucheng massacre. He died April 1, JEOIWli Carpenter, Esther Bernon, an American prose writer, born in Wake- field, R. I., 1848; died in 1893. Carpenter, Francis Bicknell, an American painter, born in Homer, N. Y., Aug. 6, 1830. In 1852 he be- came an associate of the National Academy. Among his works are a portrait of President Lincoln, in the capitol at Albany, N. Y., and the "Emancipation Proclamation" (1864), in the capitol at Washington. He died in New York city, May 23, 1900. Carpenter, Gilbert Saltonstall, an American military officer, born in Medina, O., April 17, 1836; was ad- mitted to the bar in 1861, and imme- diately afterward entered the Union army. He served through the Civil War, in which he received the brevet of captain for gallantry in the battle at Stone river. Subsequently he ren- dered service in various Indian cam- paigns ; was commissioned a brig- adier-general of volunteers in the war with Spain in 1898; and became col- onel of the 18th United States In- fantry, June 20, 1899. His volunteer appointment was for his gallantry at El Caney, Cuba. Died Aug. 12, 1904. Carpenter, Louis G., an Ameri- can engineer; born in Orion, Mich., March 28, 1861. In 1888 he became Professor of Engineering at the Colo- rado Agricultural College, where he organized the first course in irriga- tion engineering given in any Amer- Carpenter ican college. He founded the Amer- ican Society of Irrigation Engineers to 1891. Carpenter, Louis H., an Ameri- can military officer, born in Glass- boro, N. J., Feb. 11, 1829. He served in the Army of the Potomac through numerous engagements, was an aide- de-camp to General Sheridan, was commissioned colonel of volunteers in 1865, subsequently served in var- ious Indian campaigns, became col- onel of the Fifth United States Cav- alry in 1897, and brigadier-general of volunteers in 1898, and brigadier-gen- eral, U. S. A., Oct. 18, 1899, for ser- vices in the Spanish-American war, and particularly as commander of the Department of Porto Principe, Cuba. He died Jan. 21, 1916. Carpenter, Mary, an English philanthropist, born in Exeter, April 3, 1807. Trained as a teacher, and afterwards a governess, she took an active part in the movement for the reformation of neglected children, and besides advocating their cause in her writings, she founded a ragged school and several reformatories for girls. She founded in 1835 a "working and visiting society," of which she was sec- retary for more than 20 years. She promoted the Industrial Schools Act of 1857, and some of her proposals were adopted in the amended Acts of 1861 and 1866. In the prosecution of her philanthropic labors she vis- ited India four times, and in 1870 in- stituted the National Indian Associa- tion, whose journal she edited. She attended a congress on women's work at Darmstadt as a guest of the Prin- cess Alice, and visited the United States in 1873. She died June 14, 1877. She was the author of a num- ber of popular books. Carpenter, Matthew Hale, an American legislator, born in More- town, Vt., Dec. 22, 1824. He studied at West Point, and was admitted to the bar in 1845. He removed in 1848 to Wisconsin and was sent to the United States Senate from that State in 1869 and in 1879. He died in Washington, D. C., Feb. 24, 1881. Carpenter, Stephen Cutter, an American journalist, born in England. He came to the United States in 1803, and settled in Oharleston, S. C., where Carr he founded and published with John Bristed the "Monthly Register Maga- zine and Review of the United States." His works included: "Memoirs of Jefferson, Containing a Concise His- tory of the United States from the Acknowledgment of Their Indepen- dence, with a View of the Rise and Progress of French Influence and French Principles in that Country." He died about 1820. Carpenter, William Benjamin, an American physiologist, born in Ex- eter, Oct. 29, 1813; died Nov. 13, 1885. Carpenter, William Henry, an American philologist, born in Utica, New York, July 15, 1853. He re- ceived a university education in the United States and Europe. Became professor of Germanic Philology in Columbia University. He has pub- lished numerous works in the line of his specialty. Carpentry, the art of combining pieces of timber to support a weight or sustain pressure. Carpet, a thick fabric, generally composed wholly or principally of wool, for covering floors. They were originally introduced from the East, where they were fabricated in pieces, like the modern rugs. Carpet-bagger, a political ad- venturer, who goes about the country pandering to the prejudices of the ig- norant with the view of getting into place or power, so called because re- garded as having no more property than might fill a carpet-bag. Orig- inally applied to needy adventurers of the Northern States, who tried in this way to gain the votes of the negroes of the Southern States after the close of the Civil War. Carr, Engene Asa, an American army officer, born in Concord, N. Y., March 20, 1830; graduated at the United States Military Academy in 1850. He was in active service throughout the Civil War, command- ing the 4th Division of the Army of the Southwest, and subsequently act- ing as commander of the same army. In December, 1863, he was assigned to the Army of Arkansas. At the close of the war he was promoted to Brig- adier-General, U. S. A., and brevetted Major-General of volunteers. In 1868- Carr Carrillo 1869 he was engaged against the Sioux and Cheyenne Indians, and afterward took part in other expeditions against hostile Indians. He fought in 13 en- gagements with Indians, was four times wounded in action, and received a Congressional Medal of Honor and the thanks of the Legislatures of Ne- braska, Colorado, and New Mexico. He died Dec. 2, 1910. Carr, Joseph Bradford, an American military officer, born in Al- bany, N. Y., Aug. 16, 1828. He joined the militia in 1849. Was later ap- pointed colonel of the 28th New York Volunteers, and led them at the battle of Big Bethel and in McClellan's Peninsular campaign. He took part in the battles of Chancellors- ville and Gettysburg, and for his brav- ery throughout the war he was bre- vetted a Major-General of volunteers. After the war he became prominent in Republican politics in New York State and was elected Secretary of State in 1879, 1881, and 1883. In 1885 he was defeated for lieutenant-governor. He died Feb. 24, 1895. Carr, Laden, an American arch- aeologist, born in Missouri in 1829 ; died Jan. 27, 1915. Carr, Sir Robert, a British com- missioner in New England. In 1664 he was appointed commissioner by Charles II., with Nicolls, Cartwright, i and Maverick. On Aug. 27, Carr and Nicolls captured New Amsterdam and named it New York. They took Fort Orange Sept. 24, and named it Albany. He died June 1, 1667. Carranza, Venustiano, a Mex- ican military officer, born in Cuatro Cienegas, Coahuila, about 1858; re- ceived a liberal education ; studied law ; and acquired large wealth in the wheat, cattle, and rubber indus- tries. After serving several years in the Mexican Senate and as governor of Coahuila, he became an active op- ponent of President Diaz; later af- filiated with the Madero party ; took the field against Victoriana Huerta ; became chief of the Constitutionalist party, and Provisional President, Aug. 14, 1914. See APPENDIX: Mexican Campaign. Carrara, a town of Central Italy, in the province of Massa-Carrara. It is celebrated for the famous Carrara marble, a white saccharine limestone, which derives its value from its tex- ture and purity. The quarries have been wrought from the age of Augus- tus, and seem to be now as inexhaus- tible as ever. Pop. (1911) 49,492. Carreno, Teresa, a Venezuelan pianist, born in Caracas, Dec. 22, 1853. After successful tours in Eng- land, the United States and Germany, she was appointed, in 1893, court pianist to the King of Saxony. Carriage, a general name for any vehicle intended for the conveyance of passengers either on roads or rail- ways. Mounted on wheels. Carrier, a person, corporation, or vehicle regularly employed in carrying goods, messages, or other articles. Carrier, Jean Baptiste, an infa- mous character of the first French revolution, born in 1746. Though an obscure attorney at the beginning of the revolution, he was chosen, in 1792, member of the National Convention. In October, 1793, he was sent to Nan- tes to suppress the civil war, and to finally put down the Vendeans. The prisons were full ; there was dearth of provisions, and Carrier determined to lessen the "useless mouths" by sum- mary measures. He first caused priests to be conveyed to a boat with a perforated bottom, under pretense of transporting them, but instead they were drowned by night. Carrier also caused multitudes of prisoners to be shot without any pretense of trial. Some months before the fall of Robes- 5erre, Carrier was recalled. On the th Thermidor (July 27), 1794, he was apprehended and brought before the revolutionary tribunal, which con- demned him to the guillotine. Carriere, Eugene, a French genre painter, born in 1849; was awarded several medals, and the Legion of Honor. 1889. Died March 27, 1906. Carriere, Moriz, a German phi- losopher, born in Griedel, Hesse, March 5, 1817; died in Munich, Jan. 19, 1895. Carrier Pigeon, a variety of the common domestic pigeon used for the purpose of carrying messages. Carrillo, Branlio, a statesman of Costa Rica, born in Cartago in 1800. He was twice president of the repub- lic (1835-1837 and 1838-1842), and greatly promoted its material prosper- Carrington ity. Carrillo's government was over- turned by Morazan in 1842. He was assassinated in Salvador in 1845. Carrington, Edward, an Ameri- can military officer, born in Virginia, Feb. 11, 1749; was lieutenant-colonel of General Harrison's artillery re-i- inent, quartermaster-general under General Greene, a delegate to the Con- tinental Congress, and foreman of the jury in Aaron Burr's trial for trea- son. He died Oct 28, 1810. Carrington, Henry Beebe, an American military officer, born in Wallingford, Conn., March 2, 1824. He began the practice of law in Co- lumbus, O., in 1848, and took an ac- tive part in the anti-slavery movement. In the convention which met in 1854 to organize the Republican Party, Carrington was on the committee ap- pointed to correspond with the dif- ferent States and make the movement National. In 1861 he was appointed colonel of the 18th United States in- fantry, served through the war, and afterward was in service on the plains till 1869; Professor of Military Sci- ence and Tactics in Wabash College, Ind., after 1870. He died Oct. 26, 1912. Carrington, Paul, an American statesman, born in Charlotte county, Va., Feb. 24, 1733; was graduated at William and Mary College. He was a member of various conventions dur- ing the Revolution, and became a mem- ber of the Court of Appeals, and in the Virginia convention voted for the adoption of the Federal Constitution. He died June 22, 1818. Carrington, Richard Christo- pher, an English astronomer, born in Chelsea, May 26, 1826. Died in Sur- rey, Nov. 26, 1876. Carrion Crow, a name given to a small species of vulture called the Black Vulture. Carroll, Charles, the last surviv- ing signer of the Declaration of Amer- ican Independence, born in Annapolis, Md.. Sept. 20, 1737. He studied at Paris, became a member of the Inner Temple at London, returned to his native country in 1764, was elected to Congress in 1775, and, along with the other members, signed the Declaration on Aug. 2 of the following year. In 1804, he withdrew to private life at Carrollton, his patrimonial estate. He Carty survived by six years all the other signers of the Declaration, and died in Baltimore, Nov. 14, 1832. Carroll, Henry King, an Amer- ican religious editor, born in Dennis- ville, N. J., Nov. 15, 1848. He super- vised the compilation of religious sta- tistics for the Eleventh Census, and in 1898 was chosen by President MeKin- ley to prepare a report on the internal conditions of Porto Rico. Carroll, John, cousin of Charles Carroll, and first Roman Catholic bishop in the United States; born in Upper Marlboro, Md., Jan. 8, 1735. In 1775 he engaged in the duties of a parish priest, and in 1786 he was appointed vicar-general, and settled at Baltimore. In 1790 he was conse- crated, in England, Catholic bishop of the United States, and returned with the title of Bishop of Baltimore. A few years before his death he was created archbishop. He died in Georgetown, D. C., Dec. 3, 1815. Carrot, a biennial umbelliferous plant, cultivated for the table and as a food for cattle. Carson, Christopher, commonly' called Kit, an American trapper and scout, born in Kentucky, Dec. 4, 1809. He served under General Fremont in his Rocky Mountain expeditions, and fought in the Mexican and Civil Wars, attaining the rank of brevet Brigadier-General. He died at Fort Lynn, Col., May 23, 1868. Carson, Hampton Lawrence, an American publicist, born in Philadek phia, Pa., Feb. 21, 1852. He was graduated at the University of Penn sylvania (1871), and is now a Lec> turer on Law at that University. Carson City, the capital of tha State of Nevada. The city is the seat of a United States mint. Pop. (1910) 2,466. Carty, John J., an American elec> trician, born in Cambridge, Mass., April 14, 1861 ; entered the telephone business in 1879 ; laid the longest un derground telephone cable in the world, connecting Boston with New York and Washington ; became chief engineer of the American Telephony and Telegraph Company in 1907 ; and in 1915 perfected a transcontinental line between Washington and Hawaii* nearly 5,000 miles. . Cartagena Cartagena, capital of the State of Bolivar, Republic of Colombia. The streets are narrow, with high houses, but the place is well built, and possess- es a university, a handsome cathedral, and several churches. Pop. about 20,- 000. Cartagena, or Carthagena, a fortified town and seaport of Spain, with a harbor which is one of the lar- gest and safest in the Mediterranean. Pop. (1910) 102,542. Cart ago, (1) a river and almost landlocked bay or lagoon, communi- cating with the Caribbean Sea, near the N. extremity of the Mosquito Coast. (2) A town of Costa Rica, 12 miles E. of the present capital, San Jose, on a plain to the S. of the con- stantly smoking volcano of Irazu ;( 11,500 feet). Founded in 1522, the place had 23,000 inhabitants in 1823, and was capital of the State till 1841, when it was all but destroyed by an earthquake. (3) A town of Cauca, in_ Colombia, founded in 1540, on the Rio Viejo, three miles above its junc- tion with the Cauca, and producing cocoa, tobacco, and coffee. Carte-blanche, a blank sheet of paper to be filled up with such con- ditions as the person to whom it is given may think proper; hence abso- lute freedom of action. Carte-de-visite, a small likeness affixed to a card, so called from photo- graphs of very small size having been originally used as visiting cards. Cartel, an agreement for the deliv- ery of prisoners or deserters ; also, a written challenge to a duel. Cartel- ship, a ship commissioned in time of war to exchange prisoners. Carter, Franklin, an American educator, born in Waterbury, Conn., Sept. 30, 1837; was president of Wil- liams College in 1881-1901. Carter, Samuel Powhatan, an American naval and military officer, born in Elizabethtown, Tenn., Aug. 6, 1819. He fought in the Mexican War in coast attack, and in 1856 took part in the capture of the Barrier forts, Canton, China. All through the Civil War he was of great service to the government, and for his gallantry was brevetted Major-General of volun- teers. In 1882 he was promoted to Rear-Admiral on the retired list. He Carthage died in Washington, D. C., May 26, 1891. Carter, Sir Frederic Bowker Terrington, a Canadian jurist, born in St. John's, Newfoundland, Feb. 12, 1819. He served in the Newfoundland Assembly from 1855 to 1878, and two years later became Chief Justice of Newfoundland. He was knighted in 1878. He died in St John's, Feb. 28, 1900. Carter, Thomas Henry, nil American politician, born in Scioto county, Ohio, Oct. 30, 1854.He re- moved to Montana in 1882, was Mon- tana's first representative in Congress (1891), became United States Senator from that State in 1892, and was chairman of the National Republican Committee in 1892-96. D. in 1911. Carteret, Sir George, one of the proprietors of New Jersey, born on the island of Jersey in 1599. He early manifested an interest in coloniza- tion, and became, with Sir John Ber- keley, one of the proprietors of New Jersey. He died Jan. 14, 1679. Carteret, Philip, an English nav- igator. As commander of the "Swal- low," he joined an exploring expe- dition to the Southern seas, discover- ing Pitcairn, Osnaburg, Queen Char- lotte, Sandwich and Solomon Islands, besides correcting several errors of former surveys. He retired from the navy in 1794, with the honorary rank of Rear-Admiral, and died in South- ampton, July 21, 1796. Carthage, the most famous city of Africa in antiquity, capital of a rich and powerful commercial republic, sit- uated in the territory now belonging to Tunis. The policy of Rome in en- couraging the African enemies of Cartnage occasioned the third Punic war, in which Rome was the aggres- sor. This war, begun B. C. 150, ended B. C. 1*6, in the total destruction of Carthage. After the destruction of Carthage her territory became the Roman province of Africa. Twenty- four years after her fall an unsuccess- ful attempt was made to rebuild Carth- age by Caius Gracchus. This was finally accomplished by Augustus, and Roman Carthage became one of the most important cities of the empire. It was ta^en and destroyed by th Arabs in 638. Carthage Carthage, city and capital of Jasper county, Mo.; near Spring river and on the Missouri Pacific and other railroads; 150 miles S. of Kansas City; is the center of an extensive lead region; and has zinc mines, stone and lime works, flour mills, canneries, woolen mills, and machine and furniture plants. It was the scene of a Civil War battle, July 5. 1861. Pop. (1910) 9,483. Cartier, Sir George Etienne, a Canadian statesman, born in St. An- toine, Quebec, Sept. 6, 1814. He was active in bringing about the estab- lishment of the Dominion of Canada in 1867. He died May 20, 1873. Cartier, Jacques, a French navi- gator, born in St. Malo, Dec. 31, 1494. He commanded an expedition to North America in 1534, entered the Straits of Belle Isle, and took possession of the mainland of Canada in the name of Francis I. He subsequently went to found a settlement in Canada, and built a fort near the site of Quebec. He died about 1554. Cartilage, a texture or substance possessed of elasticity, flexibility, and considerable cohesive power. Tem- porary cartilage is present in place of bone in very early life, afrd as develop- ment goes on ossifies. Permanent car- tilage, on the contrary, retains its character to the last, never ossifying. Cartilaginous Fishes, a general designation for those fishes whose skeleton consists of cartilage instead of bone, and which comprise the sharks and skates or rays. Cartoon, in painting, a drawing intended to be used as a model for a large picture in fresco. In modern times the term is also applied to a pic- torial sketch relating to some notable character or events of the day. Cartoons have become a leading fea- ture of American journalism and of political campaigns, and some " car- toonists " receive large salaries. Cartouch, a tablet intended to re- ceive an inscription which resembles a scroll of paper rolled up at the ends. It is also applied to the modillion that supports the corona of a cornice used in. interior decoration. In military language it is a canvas or leather cartridge-box ; a case for holding musket-balls and powder; a - E.0. Carver wooden bomb; a ticket of leave, or dismissal, given to a soldier. Cartridge, a case of paper, parch- ment, metal, or flannel suited to the bore of firearms, and holding the exact charge, including, in the case of small arms, both powder and bullet. Cartwright, Edmund, an English inventor, born in Marnham, April 24, 1743. In 1785 he brought his inven- tion, the first power-loom, into action. He died in Hastings, Oct. 30, 1823. Cartwright, Peter, an American clergyman, born in Virginia, Sept. 1, 1785; ordained in Kentucky in 1806, and in 1823 removed to Illinois, where he labored for nearly a century. He also sat in the State Legislature there, and in 1846 was defeated by Abraham Lincoln in an election for Congress- man. He died near Pleasant Plains, 111., Sept. 25, 1872. Cartwright, Sir Richard John, a Canadian statesman, born in King- ston, Ont., Dec. 4, 1835. He was Minister of Finance from 1873 until 1878 ; an able speaker and authority on finance ; in 1897 was a member of a commercial commission to the Unit- ed States. He died Sept. 24, 1912. Carupano, a growing port of the Venezuelan State of Bermudez, on the N. coast of the peninsula of Paria, with a lighthouse and good roadstead. Pop. 12,389. Cams, Marcus Aurelius, a Ro- man emperor, born in 222, succeeded to the throne in 282 A. D., after the as- sassination of Probus. He was a good and able ruler and conquered the Sar- matians, wrested Mesopotamia, Seleu- cia, and Ctesiphon from the Persians, and was about to make an invasion be- yond the Tigris when he was killed in 283. Carver, John, a "Pilgrim Father," the first governor of the Ply- mouth colony, born in England about 1575. He joined the Leyden colony of English exiles about 1608, and assisted in securing a charter from the Virginia Company and in selecting and equip- ping the "Mayflower." He was elected governor after the "Mayflower" reached Provincetown, and established by a treaty with the Indians peaceful relations. He was re-elected in March, 1621, but died a few days afterward. Cary His chair and sword are still preserved as Pilgrim relics. Cary, Alice, an American poetess, born near Cincinnati, O., April 20, 1820. In 1852 she, with her sister, Phoebe, removed to New York City. where they lived during the rest of their lives. She died in New York City, Feb. 21, 1871. Cary, Annie Louise, an Ameri- can singer; born in Wayne, Me., Oct. 22, 1842; studied in Milan, made her operatic d6but in Copenhagen in 1868, and returned in 1870 to the United States, where she remained until 1882, when she married Charles M. Ray- mond, and retired from the stage while her voice was still unimpaired. Cary, Edward, an American jour- nalist ; born in Albany, N. Y., June 5, 1840. He has long been connected with the "New York Times." Cary, George Lovell, an Amer- ican theologian ; born in Medway, Mass., May 10, 1830. He was grad- uated at Harvard College in 1852 ; and from 1862 was Professor of New Tes- tament Literature in Meadville The- ological Seminary, of which he also became president. He died in 1910. Cary, Phoebe, an American poetess and prose-writer, sister of Alice ; born in Cincinnati, O., Sept. 4, 1824. She died in Newport, R. I., July 31, 1871. Cary, Samuel Fenton, an Ameri- can politician ; born in Cincinnati, O., Feb. 18, 1814; represented Ohio in Congress in 1867-1869 ; was the only Republican representative to vote against the impeachment of President Johnson ; and was an unsuccessful can- didate for vice-president in 1876, on the "Greenback" ticket, headed by Peter Cooper. He died in 1900. Caryatides, or Caryates, a term used to signify the figures which are sometimes introduced to support a cornice instead of columns. Caryocar, large trees, natives of the hottest parts of South America, much esteemed for their timber. The separated portions of the fruit consti- tute the Souari or Suwarrow nuts of commerce, the kernels of which are de- licious. Caryophyllus, the Clove-tree, a native of the Moluccas. The cloves of commerce are the unexpanded flower- Case buds dried. They form a well-known spice. Carysf ort Reef, a coral reef near the S. extremity of Florida. Casablanca, Louis, a French naval officer, born in Bastia about 1755, and in 1798 was captain of the gship "L'Orient" in the expedition to Egypt. He was mortally wounded at the battle of the Nile, Aug. 1, 1798; the ship caught fire ; his 10-year-old son would not leave him, and both were floating on the wreck of the ship's mast when the final explosion took place. Casanare, a river of the Republic of Colombia, which flows through a re- gion called by the same name, and after an easterly course of 180 miles empties into the Meta. Casareep, or Cassiripe, a sauce or condiment made from the juice of the Bitter Cassava or Manioc root, which also furnishes tapioca. Casas Grandes, an old Indian town of Mexico, in the State of Chi- huahua, 125 miles S. W. of El Paso. Casati, Gaetano, an Italian ex- plorer, born in Monza, in 1838. He explored Bahr-el-Ghazel, and, after long captivity among African tribes- men, was rescued by Stanley. He died in Rome, Italy, March 7, 1902. Casca, Publius Servilius, a Ro- man conspirator, assisting in the as- sassination of Julius Caesar, 44 B. C. Cascade Range, a chain of mount- ains in the States of Oregon and Washington. It takes its name from the cascades formed by the Columbia river breaking through the mountains. Casco Bay, a bay on the S. W. coast of Maine ; is about 20 miles wide and so deep as to constitute one of the best harbors of the world. Case, in grammar, a modification or inflection of a noun, pronoun, or adjective, by which a different shade of meaning is communicated to the word. Case, Augustus Ludlow, an American naval officer, born in New- burg, N. Y., Feb. 3, 1813; entered the navy as a midshipman in 1828, served in the Mexican war. He was a light- house inspector in 1867; chief of bu- reau of ordnance, 1869 ; and command- er of the European squadron in 1873. Case-hardening Ee was retired in 1875, and died in Washington, D. C., Feb. 17, 1893: Case-hardening, the process of converting the surface of malleable- iron goods into steel, thereby making them harder, less liable to rust, and capable of taking on a better polish. Casein, or Caseine, an albuminoid substance found in milk, soluble in alkali. Casey, Silas, an American officer, born in East Greenwich, R. I., July 12, 1807 ; was graduated at the United States Military Academy in 1826; served in the Mexican and Civil Wars. Was given charge of organizing the volunteers near Washington ; brevetted Major-General U. S. A., 1865; and retired in 1868. He died in Brooklyn, N. Y., Jan. 22, 1882. Casey, Thomas Lincoln, an American military engineer, born in Madison Barracks, Sackett's Harbor, N. Y., May 10, 1831; the oldest son of Gen. Silas Casey. He graduated from West Point in 1852, and entered the Engineer Corps of the army. Was placed in charge of the construction of various National buildings; was president of the Board of Engineers for fortifications at New York. He died in Washington, D. C., March 25, 1896. Casgrain, Abbe Henry Ray- mond, a Canadian historical writer ; born in Riviere Quelle, Quebec, Dec. 16, 1831 ; ordained a priest Oct. 5, 1856 ; was professor at St. Anne's College till 1859, and vicar at Quebec Cathedral in 1860-73. Cashel, a town in Tipperary county, Ireland, about 49 miles N. E. of Cork ; containing the most interest- ing ruins in Ireland. These consist of a cathedral, founded in 1169 ; a stone- roofed chapel, built in 1127 ; Hore Abbey, founded in 1260 ; the palace of the Munster Kings ; and a round tower 56 feet in circumference. Pop. (1911) 2,813. Casignran Bay, a considerable in- let on the E. coast of Luzon, Philip- pine Islands, reached through Casig- uran Sound. Casimir-Perier,Jean Paul Pierre, a President of the French Republic, born in Paris, Nov. 8, 1847; was chosen successor of President Carnot on the first ballot (June, 1894). He Cassel resigned the office of President, Jan. 16, 1895, and was succeeded by Felix Faure. He died March 11, 1907. Caspian Gates, a name given to the Russian fortress Dariel, situated in a narrow defile of the Caucasus, on the Terek, 80 miles N. of Tiflis. Caspian Sea, a great salt lake of Western Asia, wholly enclosed, hav- ing no outlet whatever to the ocean, and surrounded by Tartary, Persia, the Caucasian countries, and the Rus- sian governments of Orenburg and Astrakhan. Its greatest length from, N. to S. is 760 miles ; average breadth, 200 ; area, about 120,000 square miles. Cass, Lewis, an American states- man, diplomatist, and soldier, born in Exeter, N. H., Oct. 9, 1782 ; served in the War of 1812; was governor of Michigan Territory (1813-1831) ; Sec- retary of War (1831-1836) ; minister to France (1836-1842) ; United States Senator (1845-1848) ; Presidential candidate (1848) ; United States Sen- ator (1849-1857) ; Secretary of State (1857-1860). He died in Detroit, Mich., June 17, 1866. Cassation, Court of, a French institution which gives the national jurisdiction coherency and uniformity without endangering the independence of the courts. Cassatt, Alexander Johnston, railroad president ; b. Pittsburg, Dec. 8, 1839. He was educated at Heidel- berg Univ. and the Rensselaer Poly- technic Institute ; became a railroad rodman in 1861, and rose through suc- cessive positions to president of the Pennsylvania Railroad Co. in 1899. He died Dec. 28, 1906. Cassatt, Mary, an American figure- painter, born in Pittsburg, Pa. ; stud- ied art in Europe ; and lived some time in Spain and France. As an etcher she ranks among the best. Her studio is at Paris. Cassava, a South American shrub, about 8 feet in height, with broad, shining, and somewhat hand-shaped leaves, and beautiful white and rose- colored flowers. From Cassava the tapioca of commerce is prepared. Cassel, or Kassel, formerly the residence of the Elector of Hesse-Cas- sel, is now the chief town in the prov- ince of Hesse-Nassau, Prussia, on the Fulda, 91 miles N. N. E. of Frank- Cassia fort-on-the-Main. There are many fine walks and public gardens in the vicnity ; among the latter are the gardens of Wilhelmshohe, in which is situated the ex-elector's summer pal- ace, the residence of the late Emper- or Napoleon III., after his being taken prisoner at Sedan, from Sept. 5, 1870, to March 19, 1871. Pop. (1910), 153,196. Cassia, a genus of plants. Be- tween 200 and 300 species are known. They are trees, shrubs, or herbs. They are found in India, Africa and the warmer parts of this country. Sev- eral furnish Senna. Cassianus, Joannes Eremita, or Joannes Massiliensis, an early monk and theologian, born about 360. He died about 448, and was afterward canonized. Cassicus, an American genus of insessorial birds, the Cassicans. The crested oriole, a South American bird, constructs a pouch-shaped nest of the length of 30 inches. Cassini, Count, a Russian diplo- matist, born in St. Petersburg. He was the first Russian ambassador to the United States. Cassiquiari, or Cassiquiare, a large river of South America, in Ven- ezuela, which branches off from the Orinoco and joins the Rio Negro, a tributary of the Amazon. Cassius, full name, Cains Cassius Longimis, one of the assassins of Julius Csesar ; killed himself 42 B. C. Cassock, a close garment resem- bling a long frock coat, worn by clergymen under the surplice or gown. In the Church of Rome they vary in color with the dignity of the wearer ; those of priests being black, bishops puple, cardinals scarlet, and Popes white. Cassowary, a family of birds. The shortness of their wings totally unfits them for flying, and it would seem impossible for nature to have furnished muscular power sufficient to move wings large enough to sustain their great weight in the air. The wings of the ostrich are of some assistance to it in running, but those of the cas- sowary are too short even to be of service in this way. Its whole plum- age IB so poorly supplied with feathers Castilla as to resemble, at a little distance, a coat of coarse or hanging hair. The cassowaries have three toes, all pro- vided with nails. Cast, in the fine arts, an impres- sion taken by means of wax or plaster of Paris from a statue, bust, bas-relief or any other model, animate or inani- mate. Castanet, a small, slightly concave, spoon-shaped instrument of ivory or hard wood, of which a pair are fas- tened to the thumb and beaten to- gether with the middle finger. Caste, an hereditary class of society in India, the members of which are theoretically equal in rank, and, as a rule, follow the same profession or occupation. Through the long ages during which Indian caste has existed, the original four castes have split into an immense multitude. Different castes refuse to eat together or inter- marry. Castellon, Francisco, a Nicara- guan revolutionist, born about 1815. He was the leader in a revolt at Leon in 1853, which was unsuccessful, and fled to Honduras, whence he returned in June of the next year. It was by his invitation that the filibustering ex- pedition under William Walker went from the United States in 1854. He died Sept. 2, 1855. Castile, Spain an ancient kingdom comprising Old Castile and v New Cas- tile, the former extending from the Bay of Biscay southward to New Cas- tile, divided into 8 provinces ; area 25,405 square miles; pop. (1910) 2,- 150,518. New Castile occupied the centre of the peninsula, and is now di- vided into 5 provinces ; area, 28.010 square miles; pop. (1910) 1,851,286. The Kingdom of Castile was united to that of Leon in 1230. Castilla, Ramon, a Peruvian statesman ; born in Tarapaca, Aug. 30, 1796. Early in life he served in the Spanish army, but in 1821 he joined the insurrectionists in Peru and distinguished himself in the successful struggle of that country for independ- ence. In 1845 he was elected Presi- dent of Peru. On the expiration of his term he retired to private life; but as the new President proved tyran- nical, Castilla led a revolt against him, drove him into exile, and in 1855 was Castillon Castle Garden himself re-elected President. He served till 1862. He died in Tarapaca, May 30, 1867. Castillon, a town in the French department of Gironde, on the right bank of the Dordogne, 33 miles E. of Bordeaux by rail. Beneath its walls, on June 13, 1453, the English met with a signal defeat, their leader, Earl Talbot of Shrewsbury, and his son, being slain. Part of the battle is de- scribed in the fourth act of Shake- speare's " King Henry VI.," Part I. Casting, the running of melted metal into a mold prepared for the them in being designed for military purposes only, and not as places of permanent residence. Castlebar, the capital town of County Mayo, Ireland. It is on the Castlebar river, 10 miles N. E. of Westport. In 1641 occurred here the massacre of the English Parliamentary army in the Irish rebellion ; in 1789 Castlebar was held for a fortnight by the French general, Humbert; and in 1846-1847 it suffered greatly from famine. Castle Garden, the former immi- grant depot in New York, at the point '""* A FEUDAL CASTLE AT BOUEN, FBANCE. purpose, so as to produce an article of a certain shape. Cast-iron, the name given to the iron obtained from the blast-furnace by running the fused metal into molds prepared for the purpose. Castle, a building constructed for the purpose of repelling attack. The castella left by the Romans were con- structed on the general model of their stationary encampments, and though they may have suggested the castles of the Middle Ages, they differed from of Manhattan Island, in Battery Park. In the early days of the city the place was a small, fortified island a few feet from the main-land ; later it became a public hall for assemblies and con- certs. Here Jenny Lind made her American debut. Many years ago the' island was incorporated with the gen- eral area of the Battery by filling the intervening space with earth and rock ; new buildings were erected, and the place was devoted to the purpose of landing steerage immigrants. In 1890 it ceased to be used as an immigrant Castletowu depot, and was turned over to the Park Commissioners of the city of New York, and is now an aquarium. Castletown, a seaport and former capital of the Isle of Man, on Castle- town Bay, 11 miles S. W. of Douglas. Castle Kushen, now a prison, occupies the site of a Danish fortress of the 10th century, which was almost wholly demolished by Robert Bruce in 1313. The grounds of Rushen Abbey (llth century), near the station, are now market gardens. Near by is the small building where the House of Keys as- sembled for about 170 years. Castor and Pollux, two demi- gods known by the ancients under the joint name of Dioscuri, that is, sons of Zeus or Jupiter. Mythology makes Jupiter reward their affection by translating the two brothers into con- stellations, under the name of Gemini stars which never appear together, but when one rises the other sets, and so on alternately. Castor Oil, a fixed oil obtained from the seeds of the castor oil plant. Given in doses or one or two teaspoon- fuls, with a little peppermint water, it forms a gentle laxative for habits eas- ily acted on by medicine ; while a dose of a tablespoonful, or a little more, will almost always succeed. Castro, Inez de, a lady of noble birth, secretly married to Pedro, son of Alphonso IV., King of Portugal, after the death of his wife Constantia (1345). The old King Alphonso, fearful that this marriage would in- jure the interests of his grandson Ferdinand, resolved to put Inez to death. Three noblemen, Diego Lopez Pacheco, Pedro Coelho, and Alvarez Gonsalvez, were his counsellors, and carried it out themselves by stabbing Inez within the convent where she lived. Two years after King Alphon- so died, and Pedro, inducing the King of Castile to give up to him two of the murderers, who had taken refuge there (the third, Diego Lopez, man- aged to escape), put them to death with cruel tortures. The king then made public declaration of the mar- riage that had taken place between him and the deceased Inez ; and had her corpse disinterred and placed on a throne, adorned with the diadem and royal robes, to receive the homage of Cat the nobility. The body was then buried with honors. The story of Inez is one of the finest episodes in Camoens's " Lusiad." Castro, Cipriano, President of Venezuela, b. 1858 near Capacho, of peasant parents. 3e .became a coffee grower and politician, and in 1890 took Caracas with a few troops and was elected President. He em- broiled his country with almost every civilized Power; was especially ar- rogant towards the United States; and in 1908-1909 fled the country and was deposed. Castro, Jose Maria, a Costa Rican statesman, born in San Jose, Sept. 1, 1818; educated at the Uni- versity of Leon, Nicaragua, and held positions under the government of Costa Rica. In 1846 he was Vice- President ; in 1847 elected President. After Costa Rica withdrew from the Central American States, he resigned the presidency, but held diplomatic po- sitions. From 1866 to the rise of the Jimenez government (1868), he was again President. He died in 1893. Casuistry, that branch of ethical science which professes to deal with cases of conscience. It lays down rules or canons directing us how to act in all matters of moral doubt. Caswell, Richard, an American lawyer, born in Maryland, Aug. 3, 1729; removed to North Carolina in 1746 ; was president of the Provincial Congress which framed the State Con- stitution (1776), and first governor of the State, three times re-elected; was also a delegate to the convention which framed the Federal Constitu- tion in 1787. He died in Fayette- ville, N. C., Nov. 20, 1789. Cat. The cat is originally from the European forests. In its wild state it differs from the domestic ani- mal in having a shorter tail, a Hatter and larger head, and stronger limbs. At what period cats became inmates of human habitations, it is scarcely possible to determine, but there is good reason to believe that they were at first domesticated in Egypt The varieties of this animal in a domestic state are very numerous. Of all the varieties the Persian, the Angora, and the new, tall and gray Malta variety are the most remarkable. Catacombs Catamarca Catacombs, caverns, grottoes, sub- terraneous caves, destined for the se- pulture of the dead. The name of catacombs, according to Gregory, was at first applied to designate exclusively the cave in which the bodies of St. Peter and St. Paul were buried, and A CATACOMB GRAVE. it was only at a later period that it came to be given to all the subterran- eous passages which were used as pub- lic burying-places. It is now regarded as certain that in times of persecution the early Christians frequently took refuge in the catacombs ; but it is not less certain that the catacombs served also as places of burial to the early Christians, and that in spite of the contrary opinion which prevailed for two centuries, the catacombs were not for the most part abandoned quarries, but were excavated by the Christians themselves. The catacombs of Paris, situated on the left bank of the Seine river, are almost equally celebrated. By the light of wax tapers, a person may de- scend about 70 feet to a world of si- lence, over which the Parisian police keeps watch as strictly as over the world of noise and confusion above. He will then enter a gallery where only two can go abreast. A black streak on the stones of the walls points out the way, which, from the great number of by-passages, it would be dif- ficult for the visitor to retrace with- out this aid or without guides. Catafalque, a temporary and or- namental structure, placed over the coffin of a distinguished person or over a grave. Catalan, a blast furnace for re- ducing ores, extensively used in the N. of Spain, particularly in the province of Catalonia. Catalan!, Angelica, an Italian singer, born in Sinigaglia, near An- cona, in October, 1779 ; in her seventh year she displayed such wonderful vo- cal powers that strangers flocked from all quarters to hear her. She made her debut at Venice in 1797 and ex- perienced a succession of triumphs in every country in Europe for upwards of 30 years. The Italian Opera in Paris was twice under her direction ; but her husband's interference and ex- travagance brought her into much trouble. She died in Paris, June 13, 1849. Catalepsy, a form of mental disor- der, akin to hysteria, which is charac- terized by the person affected falling down suddenly in a state of real or apparent unconsciousness, and, save for some occasional muscular twitch- ings of the face and body, remaining rigid and statue-like for a period of time which varies from one minute to some hours or even days, and then all at once recovering consciousness as if aroused from sleep. Catalonia, an old province of Spain, bounded N. by France, E. and S. E. by the Mediterranean, S. by Va- lencia, and W. by Arragpn. The country is mountainous, but intersect- ed with fertile valleys, while the mountains themselves are covered with valuable woods and fruit-trees. Wheat, wine, oil, flax, hemp, vegetables, and almost every kind of fruit are abund- ant. There *>re mines of lead, iron, alum, etc. Catalonia stands preemi- nent for the industry of its inhabi- tants, who speak the Catalan dialect. It comprises the modern provinces of Tarragona, Gerona, Serida, and Bar- celona ; area, 12,427 square miles ; pop. (1913) 2,084,792. Cat alp a, (from the native Indian name in Carolina, where it was dis- covered by Catesby in 1726), a genus comprising four or five species of trees, natives of North America, the West Indies, Japan, and China. Catamaran, a kind of boat used by the Hindoos of Madras, Ceylon, and the parts adjacent. It is formed of three logs of timber, secured together by means of three spreaders and cross lashings through small holes. Catamarca, a W. province of the Argentine Republic, sinking S. E. from the Andes to the Salt Marshes, which separate it from Cordoba. Area, 36,800 square miles; pop. (1915) Catamount 112,955. Catamarca, the capital, lies 82 miles N..E. of Rioja. Catamount, the North American tiger. Catanduanes, a small island in the Philippine archipelago, E. of Lu- zon, about 90 miles long and 50 miles wide. It is mountainous and said to have rich gold deposits. Pop. (1903) 39,288, all civilized. Catania, a city on the E. coast of Sicily, in the province of Catania, at the foot of Mount Etna. It has been repeatedly visited by tremendous earthquakes, one of the worst of which was in 1093, when 18,000 people were destroyed. Pop. (1915) 217,389. Catapult, a machine of the an- cients for projecting missiles, chiefly Arrows. They may be described as a kind of gigantic cross-bows. Cataract, in medicine, an opacity of the crystalline lens of the eye, or of its capsule, or both. In cataract the lens becomes opaque, loses its trans- parency, and is no longer capable of transmitting the light. The causes of cataract are numerous. The treat- ment of cataract is by a surgical oper- ation on the eye, and different opera- tions have been tried and recommend- ed. They all consist in removing the diseased lens from its situation oppo- site the transparent cornea. Cataract, in geography, a water- fall, called in America briefly " falls." Many cataracts are remarkable for their sublimity, the grandest be'ng the Falls of Niagara, on the Niagara river, between Lakes Erie and On- tario. The river, more than a mile above the falls, is divided by Grand and Navy islands, and has a gradual descent of 57 feet from this place. The banks preserve the level of the country, and in some parts rise 100 feet from the water. At the falls the river is % of a mile broad, and the precipice which breaks its course curves irregularly so as to form nearly a semicircle on the Canadian side, but is straighter on the American side. An island, called Goat island, divides the cataract into two principal portions the American fall on the E. and the Horseshoe on the W., or Canada side. The American fall descends almost perpendicularly from a height of 162 feet, and is about 1,000 feet in width. Cataract The Horseshoe fall is 4 feet less in height, but is wider and surpasses the other much in grandeur. The water rushes over the precipice with such force that it forms a curled sheet, which strikes the river below 50 feet from the base of the precipice, and vis- itors can pass behind the falling sheet of water. The Montmorency river, which joins the St. Lawrence a few miles below Quebec, forms a magnificent cataract, 250 feet in height. The Missouri, in the upper part of its course, descends 357 feet in 16* miles. There are four cataracts, one of 87, one of 19, one of 47, and one of 26 feet in height. The Yosemite river, in California, forms a series of magnificent falls, with a total descent of 2,600 feet. The first of them is a plungfe of 1,500 feet, and is followed, after a series of beautiful cascades, by a final plunge of about 400 feet. Fully 200 miles from the mouth of the Hamilton river in Lab- rador there is a magnificent series of cataracts known as the Grand Falls, the largest cataract having a height of over 300 feet. In the republic of Co- lombia, South America, a magnificent cataract, called that of Tequendama, is formed by the Bogota river. The river precipitates itself through a nar- row chasm, about 36 feet broad, to the depth of over 600 feet. On the Potaro river in British Guiana, is a grand fall known as the Kaieteur Fall, 740 feet high, and about 370 broad, a second fall of 88 feet occurring imme- diately below the principal one. The most remarkable waterfall of Africa is a cataract on the Zambesi ailed Victoria Falls. The stream, about 1,860 yards broad, flowing over a bed of basaltic rock, is suddenly pre- ipitated into a tremendous fissure to the depth of about 370 feet. The Breadth of this fissure or crack is only from 80 to 90 yards, and the pent-up waters are then hurried through a prolongation of the chasm to the left with furious violence. The so-called ! ataracts of the Nile are not, properly speaking, cataracts. A more correct designation for them would be " rap- "ds." The Stanley Falls on the Kon- jo comprise seven cataracts. On the Tugela river, in Natal, there are the Tugela Falls. On the Umgeni river, "n the same country, are the falls of Catarrh. the Great Umgeni (304 feet) and the Kar Kloof Falls (350). There seem to be no waterfalls of more note in Asia than those of the Cavery river of India. One of the grandest falls in Europe is that of the Ruikanfoss ( " smoking fall"), on the Maan river, in Nor- way. The height of the cataract is 805 feet. In Sweden, on the Gotha river, a few miles below its outlet from Lake Wener, are the celebrated falls of Trollhatta, which have a height of over 100 feet. The cascade of Gavar- nie, in the Pyrenees, is reputed the loftiest in Europe, being over 1,300 feet in height. Its volume of water, however, is so small that it is con- verted into spray before reaching the bottom of the fall. Another water fall in the Pyrenees is that of Secu- lejo, in the neighborhood of Bagneres- de-Luchon. It ascends from the Lac d'Espingo, into the Lac -de Seculejo, or d'Oo, a singularly romantic moun- tain reservoir, from a height of 820 feet, and is the most copious of the Pyrenean waterfalls. The Swiss Alps likewise contain some falls of great sublimity. Catarrh, a running or discharge which takes place from the various outlets of the body. Cat Bird, a species of American thrush, which during the summer is found throughout the Middle and New England States, frequenting thickets and shrubberies. Its note is striking- ly similar to the plaint of a kitten in distress. The plumage is a deep slate- color above and lighter below, and it is about 9 inches in length. During the winter it inhabits the extreme S. of the United States. The cat bird frequently attacks the common black snake, which, in the absence of the bird, rifles its nest. Catechism, any compendious sys- tem of teaching drawn up in the form of question and answer. The first Christian catechisms are said to have been composed in the 8th or 9th cen- tury. Luther published a short cate* chism in 1520, and his larger and smaller ones in 1529. The Geneva Catechism was sent forth in 1536. The Church of England Catechism was first published in 1549 or 1551, but in a shorter form than now. The cate- chism of the " orthodox " Greek Catharine Church was published in 1542. In 1566 the Council of Trent produced a catechism ; the Rakovian Catechism, wjiich is Socinian, was put forth in 1574, and the shorter and larger cate- chisms of the Westminster Assembly of Divines appeared, the former in 1647, and the latter in 1648. Cate- chisms of other sects have been pub- lished. Catechu, a gum, is soluble in water ; on exposure to the air the so- lution turns red. Catechu has been used to prevent the formation of boiler incrustations. Catechumen, he who learns the elements of any science ; one who is undergoing a course of religious in- struction with a view to his admission into the Church. Caterpillar, the larvae of butter- flies, moths, and hawk-moths. Cat-fish,, the sea-wolf, a native of the West Indian seas, so called from its round head and large, glaring eyes ; also a fresh-water fish of different spe- cies, the common cat-fish, called also horned pout, and bull-head. Cat-gut, the name given to the material of which the strings of many musical instruments are formed. It is made from the intestines of the sheep, and sometimes from those of the horse, but never from those of the cat. Cathari, a name akin to " Puri- tans," applied at different times to various sects of Christians. It be- came a common appellation of several sects which first appeared in the llth century in Lqmbardy and other coun- tries, and which were violently perse- cuted for their tenets and usages. They had many other local names. The Cathari proper held a community of goods, abstained from war, mar- riage, and the killing of animals, and rejected water baptism. Catharine I., Empress of Russia. The early history of this remarkable woman is uncertain. According to some accounts she was the daughter of a Swedish officer named Rabe, who died shortly after she was born ; ac- cording to others her father was a Catholic peasant in Lithuania, by name Samuel. It is said that she was born in 1686, named Martha, and placed by her parents in the service of a Lutheran clergyman. She re- Catharine moved to Marienburg, and entered the service of a clergyman named Gluek, who caused her to be instructed in the Lutheran religion. Here she was mar- ried to a Swedish dragoon. But a few days after he was obliged to repair to the field, and the Russians, within a short period, took Marienburg in 1702. Martha fell into the hands of General Tcheremetieff, who relinquished her to Prince Menzikoff. While in his pos- session she was seen by Peter the Great, who made her his mistress. She became a proselyte to the Greek Church, and assumed the name of Catharine Alexiewna. In 1712 the em- peror publicly acknowledged Catharine as his wife. Upon the death of Peter she was proclaimed empress and auto- crat of all the Russias. Catharine died suddenly on May 17, 1727, in the 42d year of her age. Catharine II., Empress of Russia ; born in Stettin, May 2, 1729, where her father, Christian Augustus, Prince of Anhalt-Zerbst, and Prussian field- marshal, was governor. The empress Elizabeth of Russia, daughter of Peter the Great, and Catharine I., selected her for wife of Peter, her nephew and heir, and the marriage took place, September 1, 1745. It was not a happy one. Among the friends of her husband Count Soltikoff was distinguished for talent and the graces of his person. He attracted the atten- tion of Catharine, and an intimate con- nection between them was the conse- quence. When Soltikoff grew indiffer- ent a young Pole, Stanislaus Augustus Poniatowski, celebrated both for his good and ill fortune, gained the affec- tions of the grand princess. Their in- timacy was known to the empress, but did not appear to displease her ; and it was at her recommendation that Au- gustus III. appointed Poniatowski his ambassador at the court of St. Peters- burg. This connection created alarm at Paris. In January, 1762, Elizabeth died, and Peter III. ascended the throne. The emperor now became still more alienated from his wife. Peter lived in the greatest dissipation, and on such intimate terms with a lady of the court, named Elizabeth Woronzoff, that it was generally thought that he would repudiate Catharine and marry his mistress. Peter was imprisoned and murdered by the Orloffs, and Cath- Catharine arine became empress. A fit of apo- plexy ended her life on Nov. 17, 1796. Apart from her debauchery she was an enlightened and progressive ruler, and deserves to be remembered grate- fully by Americans for having refused to sell her subjects to George III. to fight in the Revolution. Catharine de' Medici, wife of Henry II., King of France ; born in Florence in 1519, the only daughter of Lorenzo de' Medici, Duke of Urbino, and the niece of Pope Clement VII. Francis I. consented that his son Henry should marry her only because he did not believe she ever would ascend the throne, and because he was in great want of money, with which Lorenzo could furnish him. The mar- riage was celebrated at Marseilles in 1533. The massacre of St. Bartholo- mew was her work. She had two daughters, Elizabeth, married to Philip II. of Spain -in 1559, and Margaret of Valois, married to Henry of Navarre, afterward Henry IV. She died in 1589. Catharine of Arragon, Queen of England, the youngest daughter of Ferdinand of Arragon and Isabella of Castile; born in 1483 or 1485. In 1501 she was married to Arthur, Prince of Wales. Her husband dying about five months after, the king caused her to be contracted to his re- maining son, Henry, and a dispensa- tion was procured from the Pope for that purpose. In his 15th year the prince made a public protest against the marriage; but yielding to the rep- resentations of his council, he con- sented to ratify the contract, and on his accession to the throne in 1509 was crowned with her. The want of male issue proved a source of disquie- tude to him, and scruples, real or pre- tended, at length arose in his mind concerning the legality of their union, which were enforced by a growing pas- sion for Anne Boleyn, one of the queen's maids of honor. He made ap- plication to Rome for a divorce from Catharine. An encouraging answer was returned, and a dispensation promised. Overawed, however, by the power of the Emperor Charles V., Catharine's nephew, the conduct of the pontiff became embarrassed and hesi- tating. Catharine could not be in- duced to consent to an act which Catharine would render her daughter illegiti- mate. Being cited before the papal legates, Cardinals Wolsey and Cam- peggio, she declared that she would not submit her cause to their judg- ment, but appealed to the court of Rome. The subterfuges of the Pope induced the king to decide the affair for himself ; and the resentment ex- pressed on this occasion by the court of Rome provoked him to throw off his submission to it, and declare himself head of the English Church an act of royal caprice more important than most in history. In 1532 he married r Cathedral married Charles II., but her hus- band's infidelities and neglect, and her childlessness were a source of mortifi- cation to her. In 1693 she returned to Portugal, where, in 1704, she was made regent, and in the conduct of affairs during the war with Spain showed marked ability. She died in 1705. Cathartic, having the property or power of cleasing the bowels by pro- moting the evacuations of excrements, etc., purgative. Cathedral. The principal church of a diocese, and the Cathedral city is CATHEDRAL OF ST. JOHN THE Anne Boleyn ; upon which Catharine retired to Ampthill. Cranmer, now raised to the primacy, pronounced the sentence of divorce. She died in January, 1536. Shortly before her death she wrote a letter to the king, recommending their daughter (after- ward Queen Mary) to his protection, praying for the salvation of his soul, and assuring him of hei' forgiveness and unabated affection. Catharine of Braganza, wife of Charles II., King of England, and daughter of John IV., King of Portu- gal, was born in 1638. In 1662 she DIVIDE, NTW TOBY CITY. the seat of the bishop of the diocese, and his throne is placed in the Cathe- dral church, which is the parish church of the whole diocese. The dis- tinction between Cathedral and colle- giate churches consists principally in the see of the bishop being at the for- mer. The governing body of a Cathe- dral is called the dean and chapter. St. Peter's, at Rome, is unequaled hi magnitude and splendor by any other Christian fane in the world. St. Peter's was begun in 1503, and was consecrated in 1626. Milan Cathedral was commenced in 1387, but is still Cathedral Peak Catorce unfinished. The Duomo, Florence, was begun in 1298, and was finished in 1444. The Cathedral at Cologne was begun in the middle of the 13th cen- tury, and only partly finished in 1509, after which work was not resumed on it till 1830. In 1863 the interior was thrown open to the public. In 1880 it was finished. The Cathedral at Strasburg was completed in 1601, and is one of the grandest Gothic struc- tures in Europe. Notre Dame, Paris, was begun about 1163. St. Paul's, London (the present edifice, the first having been destroyed in the great fire of 1666), was begun in 1675, and was finished in 1710. It is built in the form of a Latin cross. The Cathedral of Mexico was begun in 1573, and was finished in 1667. The Cathedral of St. John the Divine (P. B.), in New York, will, when completed, be the most splendid structure of the kind on this continent. Cathedral Peak, a peak of the Sierra Nevada Range, situated in Mariposa county, Cal. Height, 11,000 feet Catherine Harbor, a Russian port in the far N. on the Murman poast of the Kola peninsula. It was formally opened in 1900, the city hav- ing been built by imperial command. Catheter, a term applied in sur- gery to a tube, usually of silver or in- dia-rubber, which is introduced into the bladder through the urethra, for the purpose of drawing off the urine when it cannot be discharged in the natural way. Catholic Benevolent Union, an organization of Roman Catholics in the United States, founded in 1881 as a fraternal and protective order. Catholic Church, the universal Church, the whole body of true be- lievers in Christ ; but the term is often used as equivalent to the Roman or Papal Church. Catholic Epistles, the epistles in the New Testament addressed not to individual men or to individual churches, but to the general body of Christians. They are James, I and II Peter, I John and Jude. Catholic Knights of America, an organization of Roman Catholics in the United States, founded in 1887 as a fraternal and protective order. Catholic University of Amer- ica, an institution in Washington, D. C., founded in 1889, under the auspi- ces of the Roman Catholic Church, for postgraduate study exclusively. Catiline (Lucius Sergins Cati- lina), a Roman conspirator; born about 108 B. c. Disappointed in his ambition he plotted a massacre of his political antagonists, and the destruc- tion of the Roman Republic. Cicero exposed ^the conspiracy, and executed the leading conspirators, except Cati- line, who fell in battle, January 5, 62 B. C., together with his whole army. Cat Island, or Gnanahani, an island of the Bahama group for cen- turies supposed to be identical with the San Salvador of Columbus, a sur- mise now disproved. Length, 36 miles; breadth, 3 to 7 miles; popula- tion, 2,378. Catlin, George, an American au- thor and painter, born in Wilkes- barre, Pa., June 26, 1796. From 1832 till 1839 he traveled and lived among the Indians of America, of whom he painted hundreds of portraits. He died in Jersey City, N. J., Dec. 23, 1872. Cato, Marcus Porcins, a great Roman statesman, called (to distin- guish him from the censor, his great grandfather) Cato of Utica, the place of his death; born 95 B. c. He op- posed Caesar, and upon the triumph of the latter, he killed himself at Utica, Africa, 46 B. C. Cato, Marcus Porcins, the Cen- sor, surnamed Priscus; born in Tus- culum, 234 B. C. He served his first campaign, at the age of 17, under Fabius Maximus, when he beseiged Capua. Five years after he fought under the same commander at the siege of Tarentum. After the capture of this city he became acquainted with the Pythagorean Nearchus, who ini- tiated him into the suLlime doctrines of his philosophy, with which, in prac- tice, he was already conversant. After tie war was ended Cato returned to his farm. Cato was poor and un- known ; but his eloquence and the in- tegrity and strength of his character, soon drew the public attention to him, and he was chosen to the highest of- fices. He died in 149 B. c. Catorce, a mining town of San Luis Potosi, Mexico, which received its ABERDEEN ANGU3 DUTCH 9ELTEO COPYRIGHT, 191U, BY F. E. WRIG.lT STANDARD CATTLE Catskill Mountains Caucus name, signifying 14, from a gang of robbers, formerly a constant menace to its inhabitants. When the French invaded Mexico, a mint was started here, and worked until 1867. The amount coined was about $52,000,000. The population is variable, ranging from 8,000 to 15,000, according to the state of mining. Catskill Mountains, a chain of the Appalachian system, beginning in Greene county, N. Y., on the W. side of the Hudson river. The scenery of these mountains is remarkably pic- turesque and beautiful, while from the higher points may be seen extensive and interesting views, taking in a rad- ius from the Green Mountains of Ver- mont to the West Point Highlands. Cattegat, or Kattegat, the bay or arm of the sea between the E. coast of Jutland and the W. coast of Sweden, to the N. of the Danish is- lands. It is connected with the Baltic Sea by the Great and Little Belt, and by the Sound, and the Skager Rack connects it with the North Sea. The length of the Cattegat is about 150 miles, and its greatest breath 85 miles. What has been pronounced the greatest naval battle in history was fought here on May 31 and June 1, 1916, between the German High Sea Fleet, that for a long time had been inactive at Kiel, and the British Grand Fleet, which included the Brit- ish Battle Cruiser Squadron. The lat- ter was first engaged, and when its support rushed into sight the German ships that were left returned hurriedly to Kiel. The British losses were three battle cruisers, two armored cruisers and eight destroyers. The German losses were reported as three battleships, five light cruisers, six tor- pedo boat destroyers, and one subma- rine. Cattel, James McKeen, an American psychologist, born in Easton, Pa., May 25, 1860, graduated at La- fayette College and studied at Leipsic, Paris, Geneva, and Gottingen, and be- came Professor of Experimental Psy- chology in Columbia University, 1891. Catubig, a small town in the island of Samar, Philippine Islands. The place is garrisoned by United States troops, who, in June, 1900, withstood an attack by 600 insurgents. Pop. (1903) 9,563. Catullus, Valerius (whose pras- nomen is stated by some to be Caius, by other Quintus), a famous Roman poet ; born 86 B. c. The common opin- ion is that he died 57 B. c., in the 30th year of his age, but this is no doubt erroneous, as there are allusions in his own works which prove him to have been alive in the consulship of Vatin- ius as late as 47 B. c. Catnlns, Quintus Lutatius. a Roman general, historian, and poet, born about 152 B. c., died 8. B. c. Cauca, a river of Colombia, in South America, which, after a N. course of 600 miles, falls into the Mag- dalena. Its valley is one of the richest and most populous districts of the con- tinent, and it gives name to the second largest Colombian State ; area, 20,- 403 square miles; population (1912) 211,756. It possesses the most pro- ductive platinum mine in America. Capital, Popayan ; pop. 18,724. Caucasia, a province of the Rus- sian Empire, between the Black and Caspian Seas, and extending from the frontier of Persia on the S. to the Kuma-Manych depression on the N. The Caucasus Mountains divide the territory into Cis-caucasia and Trans- caucasia. The total area of Caucasia, the two parts being nearly equal, is 181,173 square miles, and the popula- tion, in 1914, Trans-caucasia being the most thickly settled, 12,921,800. Caucasian Race, the white man, one of the three more remarkable va- rieties of the species Man, the two others being the Yellow, or Mongolian, and the Black, or Ethiopian. The Caucasian Race occupies all Europe and Western Asia as far as the Gan- ges, likewise Northern Africa and the greater part of America. Caucasus, a chain of mountains be- tween Europe and Asia, extending from S. E. to N. W., and occupying the isthmus between the Black and Caspian seas. The length is computed at 700 miles, the breadth is various; from Mosdok to Tiflis it may be esti- mated at 184 miles. Caucus, in the political nomencla- ture of the United States, a gathering preliminary to a public meeting of Candex citizens for election or for other pur- poses, generally political. Candex, in botany, the stem of a tree, more especially the scaly trunk of palms and tree-ferns. Caudine Forks, a pass of South- ern Italy, in the form of two lofty fork-shaped defiles, in the Apennines (now called the valley of Arpaia), Into which a Roman army was enticed by the Samnites, 321 B. c., and being hemmed in was forced to surrender. Caul, a popular name for a mem- brane investing the viscera, such as the peritoneum or part of it, or the peri- cardium ; also a portion of the amnion or membrane enveloping the fetus, sometimes encompassing the head of a child when born. Cauliflower, an esculent vegetable for which a very rich, light, warm soil is required. The Cauliflower is light, easily digested, and nutritious. Caulking, of a ship, driving a quantity of oakum into the seams of the planks in the ships' decks or sides in order to prevent the entrance of water. After the oakum is driven very hard into these seams 'it is cov- ered with hot melted pitch to keep the water from rotting it. Canra, a river of Venezuela, rises among the sierras of the frontier, and flows N. N. W. to the Orinoco. On both sides stretches the territory of Caura (22,485 square miles-), with im- mense forests of tonka beans. Cans, Canlx, or Canls, Salomon de, a French engineer, born in Dieppe in 1576. At Frankfort, in 1615, ap- peared his "Causes of Kinetic En- ergy." which contains a description of a machine for forcing water to a high level by steam, being the forerunner of the modern steam engine. He died in Paris, June 6, 1626. Canse, that which produces an effect. In law, suit or action. Caustic, a name given to substances which have the property of burning, corroding, or disintegrating animal matter; or of combining with the principles of organized substances and destroying their texture. Cantin, a river in Chile: flows W. through a province named after it, nnd empties into the Pacific Ocean. Its length is about 200 miles. The Cavaignao province of Cautin has an area of 3,127 square miles ; pop. 78,221 ; capi- tal, Temuco; pop. 7,078. Cautionary Towns, four towns in Holland (the Uriel, Flushing, Ram- mekins, and Walcheren), so named be- cause they were given to Queen Eliza- beth in 1585 as security for their re- paying her for assistance in their struggle with Spain. They were re- stored to Holland by James I. Cavaignac, Jacqnes Marie En- gene Godefroy, a French politician, son of Louis Eugene Cavaignac, born Way 22, 1853. In August, 1898, he added to the excitement over the Drey- fus prosecution by forcing Lieutenant- Colonel Henry to confess to a forgery of certain letters bearing on the case, that officer committing suicide shortly after. C. died Sept. 25, 1905. Cavaignac, Louis Eugene, a French general who became famous in connection with the events of 1848; born in Paris, Oct. 15, 1802. Cavaig- nac was in Africa when the revolution of February, 1848, took place. He was offered the portfolio of the minis- ter of war, and accepted it. The meas- ures which he adopted to guard against the crisis which was evidently ap- ? reaching were prompt and decisive, n a few days an army of nearly 30,- 000 men was assembled in and around Paris. On June 23 the terrible Com- munist insurrection burst forth, and for three days Paris presented the most dreadful scene of tumult and bloodshed which had been witnessed there since the massacre of St. Bar- tholomew. About 15,000 persons per- ished, and property was destroyed to the value of upward of $1,000,000. By the energy of General Cavaignac, aided by the loyalty of the army and the na- tional guard, the insurrection was sup- pressed on June 26. On that day the National Assembly delegated the en- tire executive power to Cavaignac as dictator, who resigned it again into its hands on the 29th, and received it anew on the same day. He was de- feated in the elections for the presi- dencv hi the month of December fol- lowing, and Louis Napoleon was pre- ferred to the office. On Dec. 20 he re- signed his dictatorship. The last years of his life were spent at his country- seat, where he expired suddenly of heart disease on Oct. 28, 1857. Cavaille-Coll Cavendish Cavaille-Coll, Aristide, a French organ builder, born in Montpelier, Feb. 2, 1811. He invented the pressure method ror sounding tones of different depths and heights. He died in Paris, Oct. 13, 1899. Cavalier, a horse-soldier; an armed horseman ; a knight ; the name given to the supporters of King Charles L, during the Great Civil War in Eng- land. Cavalier, Jean, a leader of the Camisards, or Protestants of Cevennes, when forced into rebellion against Louis XIV., by the persecutions of the Catholics, born in Cevennes, 1679. He defeated the best generals that came against him, and compelled Marshal de Villars to make a treaty with him. He died in 1740. Cavalotti, Felice, an Italian statesman, born in Milan, Nov. 6, 1842. He fought under Garibaldi and gained celebrity ; was a political jour- nalist. He fought 32 duels, in the last of which he was killed in Rome, March 6, 1898. Cavalry, one of the three great classes of troops. The use of cavalry is probably nearly as ancient as war itself ; but some nations used chariots in war before they became accustomed to fight on horseback. The Egyptians are said to have had cavalry before the time of Moses. The Israelites often had to encounter cavalry, but had none themselves till the time of Solomon. Cavalry are usually armed with straight swords or sabers, pistols, and carbines. In the United States army a cavalry regiment consists of six squadrons of two troops or companies, containing 63 men each. Cave, or Cavern, an opening pro- duced by nature in the solid crust of the earth. Caves are principally met with in limestone rocks, in gypsum, sometimes in sandstone, and in vol- canic rocks (basalt, lava, tufa, etc.). The most celebrated caverns in the United States are Madison's Cave, in Rockingham Co., Va. ; Weyer's Cave, in the same county; Luray Cave, in Page Co., Va. ; and the Mammoth Cave, in Edmondson Co., Ky., which incloses an extent of about 40 miles of subterraneous windings. One of its chambers, called the Temple, is said to cover" a space of nearly 5 acres, and to be surmounted by a dome of solid rock 120 feet in height. The Cumberland mountains, in Tennessee, contain some curious caverns, in one of which, at a depth of 400 feet, a stream was found with a current sufficiently powerful to turn a mill. Another cave in the same State is named Big Bone Cave, from the bones of the mastodon which have there been discovered. In the Rac- coon mountains, near the N. W. ex- tremity of Georgia, is a cave called Nickojack Cave, which has been ex- plored to the distance of 3 miles. A stream of considerable size runs through it, which is interrupted by a fall. Caves are sometimes found which exhale poisonous vapors. The most remarkable known is the Grotto del Cane, a small cave near Naples. In Iceland there are many caves, formed by the lava from its volcanoes. In the volcanic country near Rome there are many natural cavities of great extent and coolness, which are sometimes resorted to as a refuge from the heat. In South America is the cavern of Guacharo, which is said to extend for leagues. Caveat. In the United States this name is given to a notice lodged in the patent-office by a person who wishes to patent an invention, but de- sires to be protected till he has per- fected it. It stands good for a year. Cave Dwellers, prehistoric men dwelling in caves, and cave-dwelling animals of corresponding periods ; also cave-dwelling men of more recent his- toric times. In America, caves with human remains have been investigated in a number of States. There are re- mains that have been deposited within the period of authentic history. There are still cave-dwelling Indians in Northern Mexico. Cavendish, Frederick Charles, Lord, second son of the Duke of De- vonshire, an English statesman ; born in Eastbourne, Nov. 30, 1836. He sat in Parliament from 1865 till 1882, when he succeeded Mr. Forster as chief secretary for Ireland. On May 6, he and Mr. Burke were stabbed to death in the Phoenix Park. Eight months later, twenty "Irish Invinci- bles" were tried for the murder, and, Carey and two others having turned Queen's evidence, five of the rest were hanged, three sentenced to penal servi- Cavendish tude for life, and the remaining nine to various terms of imprisonment. Carey disappeared ; but in July news came from the Cape that he had been shot dead by an Irishman .named O'Donnell. O'Donnell was taken back to London and hanged. Cavendish, or Candish, Thomas, an English circumnavigator in the reign of Elizabeth ; born about 1555. Having collected three small vessels for the purpose of making a predatory voyage to the Spanish colonies, he sailed from Plymouth in 1586, took and destroyed many vessels, ravaged the coasts of Chile, Peru, and New Spain, and returned by the Cape of Good Hope, having circumnavigated the globe in 2 years and 49 days, the shortest period in which it had then been effected. In 1591 he set sail on a similar expedition, during which he died, in 1592. Cave Temple, a cave used as a temple, but the name is especially ap- plied to temples excavated in the solid rock. Caviare, a prepared article of food consisting of the salted roes of several kinds of large fish, chiefly of the com- mon sturgeon. It is prepared chiefly in Russia, where it is greatly esteemed as food. It is used also in America. Cavite, a small seaport of Luzon, Philippine Islands; about 11 miles S. IW. of Manila and fronting directly on the bay; pop. (1903) 4,494. The town dates almost from the first occupa- tion of the Spaniards and was elab- orately fortified with docks and arse- nals in the 18th century. On May 1, 1898, Admiral Dewey won his great victory off Cavit6. The Americans immediately occupied the arsenal, and upon the arrival of American troops Cavite was fortified and made a naval and military base. The province of the same name has an area of 2,188 sauare miles,- DQD. (1903) 134,779. "" Cavonr, Count Camillo Benso di, an Italian statesman, born in Turin, Aug. 10, 1810. He became a member of the Sardinian Chamber of Deputies in 1849. In 1852 he became premier, and took an active part in cementing an alliance with Great Brit- ain and France, and making common cause with these powers against Rus- sia during the Crimean War. This Caxias caused a war with Austria, in which Sardinia was aided by France (1859). In 1860 Garibaldi's expedition to Sicily took place; but toward this Count Cavour was forced to maintain an apparent coldness. He lived to see the meeting of the first Italian Parlia- ment, which decreed Victor Emman- uel king of Italy. He died June 6, 1861. Cavy, a genus of South American rodents. It includes the guinea pig. All have a short tail, or none at all, and bear a slight resemblance to a pig. Cawnpnr, a town, India, North- west Provinces, on the right bank of the Ganges, which is here about a mile wide, 130 miles N. W. from Allahabad, 628 miles N. W. of Calcutta, and 206 miles S. E. of Delhi. Pop. (1911) 178,- 557. In 1857 the native regiments sta- tioned here mutinied and marched off, placing themselves under the command of the notorious Nana Sahib. General Wheeler, the commander of the Euro- pean forces, defended his position for some days, but was induced to surren- der to the rebels on condition of his party being allowed to quit the place uninjured. This was agreed to ; but after the European troops, with the women and children, had been em- barked in boats on the Ganges, they were treacherously fired on by the rebels ; many were killed, and the re- mainder conveyed' back to the city, where the men were massacred and the women and children placed in confine- ment. The approach of General Hav- elock to Cawnpur roused the brutal in- stincts of the Nana, and he ordered his hapless prisoners to be slaughtered, and their bodies to be thrown into a well. The following day he was obliged to retreat to Bithoor. Caxamarca, or Cajamarca, a de- partment and town of Peru ; area of the department 12.538 square miles; pop. (1906, est.) 333,310. The town is situated about 70 miles from the Pacific Ocean, 280 N. of Lima. Pop. 10,000. It was the scene of the im- prisonment and murder of Atahualpa, the last of the Incas. Caxias, (1), a town of Brazil, in the State of Maranhao, on the navi- gable Itapicuru, 190 miles from its mouth, with an active trade in cotton. Pop. 10,000. (2) an Italian agricul- Cazton tural colony in the Brazilian State of Rio Grande do Sul, founded in 1875. Pop. 13,680. Cazton, William, an English printer and scholar, born in the Weald of Kent, about 1422. His " Recuyell (collection) of the Histories of Troy," translated by him from the French, appears to have been printed in 1474, most probably at Bruges in Belgium. It was the first book in English repro- duced by typography. He set up a printing-office in Westminster, 1477 ; and on Nov. 18 of that year issued " The Dictes and Sayings of the Phil- osophers," folio, a work ever memor- able as the first book printed in Eng- land. He printed in all 71 separate works. He died in 1491. Cayenne, a fortified seaport, capi- tal of French Guiana, on an island at the mouth of a river of the same name. Cayenne is chiefly known as a great French penal settlement. The climate is extremely unwholesome for Euro- peans, large numbers of the convicts having been carried off by various ma- lignant fevers. The name of the capi- tal is sometimes used for the whole of French Guiana. Pop. 13,527. Cayenne Pepper, or Capsicum, the name given to the powder formed of the dried and ground fruits, and more especially the seeds, of various species of Capsicum. Cayes, or Aux Cayes, a seaport of Haiti, on the S. W. coast, 95 miles W. S. W. of Port-au-Prince. Pop. 12,000. Cayley, Arthur, an English math- ematician, born in Richmond, Surrey Co., England, Aug. 16, 1821. In 1882 he gave a course of mathematical lec- tures at Johns Hopkins University. He died Jan. 26, 1895. Cayman Islands, three islands sit- uated about 140 miles N. W. of Ja- maica, of which they are dependencies. Grand Cayman, the largest and the only one inhabited, is 20 miles long and from 7 to 10 broad, and has two towns or villages. Pop. about 5,560. The other two islands are Little Cay- man and Cayman Brae. Cayuga Indians, a tribe of In- dians dwelling in New York State, one of those forming the six Nations. They lived around Cayuga Lake, where less than 200 of them remain. E. 31. Cecil Cayuga Lake, a lake of Central New York, noted for the picturesque scenery of its surroundings. Cayuse, or Willetpoo, a tribe of North American Indians who formerly inhabited the region between the Des Chutes river and the Blue Mountains, Oregon, and also parts of Washington, S. of the Yakima river. Cazauran, Angnstns R., a Franco-American author and play- wright, born in Bordeaux, France, Oct. 31, 1820. In 1848 he became impli- cated in an Irish rebellion, fled to the United States, and obtained employ- ment as a reporter. During the Cri- mean War he acted as war correspon- dent to a London daily. When Lin- coln was shot he was at the theater as dramatic critic, and wrote the first ac- count of the assassination. He died in New York, Jan. 27, 1889. Ceara, a State of Brazil, on the N. coast, with an area of 40,247 miles, pop. (1900) 849,127. The interior presents a succession of wooded hills and wide plateaus. The capital, Ceara, had formerly only an open roadstead, but extensive harbor im- provements, with breakwater and via- duct, have been provided. It is the terminus of a railway to Baturite and has a large trade. Pop., 33,000. Cebn, one of the Philippine Islands, between Luzon and Mindanao, 135 miles long, with an extreme width of 30 miles. Sugar cultivation and the manufacture of abaca are the chief in- dustries. Pop. (1903) 592,242. The town of Cebu, on the E. coast, the oldest Spanish settlement in the Phil- ippines, is a place of considerable trade. It is about 60 miles from Ma- nila and has a population of 31,079. Cebus, a genus of American monkeys, characterized by a round head and short muzzle, long thumbs, and a long, prehensile tail, entirely covered with hair. Cecil, Robert, Earl of Salisbury, an English statesman, second son of William Cecil, born about 1563. He went to France as assistant to the English ambassador. On the death of Sir Francis Walsingham he succeeded him as principal secretary. Having secretly supported the interests of James I. previous to his accession to the crown he was continued in office Cecropia Moth Celebes under the new sovereira and raised to the peerage. In 1008 he was made Lord High-Treasurer, an office which he held till his death, in 1612. Cecropia Moth, the largest moth of the United States. It belongs to the silk worm family, and its caterpillar spins a large cocoon from which a coarse silk may be prepared. Cedar, a tree which forms large forests on the mountains of Syria and Asia Minor. It is an evergreen, grows to a great size, and is remarkable for its durability. Of the famous cedars of Lebanon comparatively few now re- main, and the tree does not grow in any other part of Palestine. Cedar timber was formerly much prized, but in modern times is not regarded as of much value, perhaps from the trees not being of sufficient age. The name is also applied to many trees which have no relation to the true cedar, as the Bermuda cedar, used for making pencils, the red or Virginian cedar, the Honduras cedar, and the red cedar of Australia. Cedar Bird, a name given to the American wax-wing, from its fondness for the berries of the red cedar. Cedar Creek, scene of a memorable battle between Union and Confederate armies in the American Civil War, at Alacken, Shenandoah Co., Va. On Oct. 19, 1864, at daylight, during Gen. Sheridan's absence, his army was sur- prised by the Confederates under Early, who turned the left flank and took the camps of the 8th and 19th corps, with 20 guns and some prison- ers. Gen. Wright, in command of the Federals, retreated and reformed their line. Gen. Sheridan arriving 10 A. M., after a famous "ride," celebrated in T. B. Read's poem, repelled an assault, routing the Confederates, retaking what had been lost, capturing 30 guns and 2,000 prisoners. The cavalry pur- sued next day, and in the night Early retreated. Cedar Lake, a lake of Canada, in the Saskatchewan district, a sort of expansion of the Saskatchewan river, receiving the waters of this large stream to pour them over the Grand Rapids into Lake Winnipeg. Between Grand Rapids and Cedar lake is an- other expansion, known as Cross lake. Cedar lake is nearly 30 miles long, and where widest 25 broad ; area about 312 square miles. Cedar Mountain, an elevation in Culpepper Co., Va., where, in the American Civil War, on Aug. 9, 1862, Gen. Banks was defeated by a superior Confederate force under General Jack- son, and retired for reenforcement* from General Pope, with a loss of 1,400 killed and wounded, 400 prison- ers, and many missing. The Confed- erates, who held the field two days and then fell back to meet Lee at Gordons- ville, lost 1,314. Cedar Rapids, a city in Lynii county, la.; on the Cedar river, here spanned by a handsome bridge, and on the Burlington, Cedar Rapids & Northern and other railroads; 89 miles S. W. of Dubuque; has an ex- tensive trade in corn, oats, hay, dairy products, poultry, horses, cat- tle, and swine; manufactures cereal foods, farming implements, wind- mills, cutlery, and furniture; and contains the shops of the Burlington, Cedar Rapids & Northern railroad, large pork-packing plants, Coe Col- lege (Presb.), and College of the Sacred Heart (R. C.). Pop. (1910) 32,811. Celandine, a name given to two plants, the greater celandine and the lesser celandine. Celaya, a town in the Mexican State of Guanajuato, on the Rio Laja, about 150 miles N. W. of the City of Mexico. The burning of its bull-ring, on Easter Sunday, 1888, caused con- siderable loss of life. Population, (1912) 23,062. Celebes, one of the larger islands of the Indian Archipelago, between Borneo on the W. and the Moluccas on the E. It consists mainly of four large peninsulas separated by three deep gulfs; total area, 72,070 square miles. No part of it is more than 70 miles from the sea. Celebes is moun- tainous and has several active vol- canoes. It has also broad grassy plains and extensive forests. Gold is found in all the valleys of the N. peninsula. Copper occurs at various points, and tin also. Diamonds and other precious stones are found. The island is entirely desitute of feline or canine animals, insectivora, the ele- phant, rhinoceros, and tapir, etc. The Celery inhabitants may be classed into two groups: the Mohammedan semi-civil- ized tribes, and the pagans, who are more or less savages. The capital is Macassar, in the S. W. of the island. Pop. (1912, official est.) 2,677,691. Celery, the common English name of a species of parsley. The blanched leaf-stalk of the cultivated varieties is used extensively for salads, etc. Celeste, Madame, a French dancer, born in Paris, Aug. 6, 1814, early showed remarkable talent. She made her d6but in 1827 at New York, and during her residence in the United States married a Mr. Elliott. She re- tired from the stage in 1874, and died at Paris, Feb. 12, 1882. Celestial Empire, The, a popular name for the Chinese Empire, taken from the Chinese words " Tien Chao " (Heavenly Dynasty). Hence 'the name "Celestials," applied to natives of China. Celestial Sphere, the background of sky on which we see all celestial ob- jects projected. It is supposed to be f indefinite radius with the observer at the center. Celestine V., (Pope Pietro di Mon- rone), a Benedictine monk, who founded the order of the Celestines, which was suppressed by Pope Pius VI., 1776-78. He was elected Pope in 1294, after an interregnum of six years. A few months after, he re- signed his office and was succeeded by Boniface VIII., who confined him in the castle of Fumone, where he died. Celestine was canonized in the year 1313 by Clement V. Celibacy, the state of being celi- bate or unmarried ; specially applied to the voluntary life of abstinence from marriage followed by many religious devotees and by some orders of clergy, as those of the Roman Catholic Church. Cell, a term of various applications : '(1) the compartments of a honey- comb, (2) one of the small structures composing the substance of plants, generally indistinguishable by the naked eye, and each at least, for a time, being a whole complete in itself. (3) A term often applied to any small cavity bat properly restricted to a microscopical anatomical element with a nucleus cell-wall and cell-contents Celt when typically formed. (4) The space between the two ribs of a vault, or the space inclosed within the walls of an. ancient temple. (5) A structure in a wrought-iron beam or girder; a tube consisting of four wrought-iron plates riveted to angle-iron at the corners. (6) In electricity, a single jar, con- taining a couple of plates, generally copper and zinc, united to their oppo- site or to each other usually by a wire. Cellini, Benvenuto, Italian sculptor, born in Florence, 1500; died there 1571. His chief works are : the " Perseus " at Florence ; the colossal " Mars " at Fontainebleau ; and a " Christus " in the Escurial Palace. Cellular Tissue, a kind of tissue made of a number of separate cells of minute bags adherent together. It is found filling interstices between the various organs in man and the verte- brated animals. Celluloid, an ivory-like compound, which can be molded, turned, or other- wise manufactured for various pur- poses t for which, before its introduc- tion, ivory and bone were emnloyed. Cellulose, a substance of general occurrence, and constituting the basis of vegetable tissues. Corn pith cellu- lose is an American preparation used as a packing in warships to protect them from sinking when pierced by shot or shell. This packing is placed like a belt three feet in thickness, in- side the steel hull along the water line. Celsius, the name of a Swedish family, several members of which at- tained celebrity in science and liter- ature. The best known is Anders Cel- sius, born in 1701, died in 1744. After being appointed Professor of Astron- omy at the University of Upsal he traveled in Germany, England, France, and Italy, and in 1736 he took part in the expedition of Maupertuis and others for the purpose of measuring a degree of the meridian in Lapland. He is best known as the constructor of the Centigrade thermometer. Celt, the longitudinal and grooved instrument of mixed metal often found in Scotland, also a stone instrument of a wedgelike form found in barrows and other repositories of Celtic antiquar- ian remains. Though the primary ap- plication of the word celt was to the metallic implement, yet the stone celt Celtiberl is believed by archaeologists and geolo- gists to be the older of the two. Celtiberi, a people of ancient Spain supposed to have arisen from a union of the aborigines, the Iberians, and their Celtic invaders. Various limits have been assigned to their country, which included probably all the N. of Spain as far S. as the sources of the Guadalquivir. After 72 B. c. they do not appear in history. Celts, the earliest Aryan settlers in Europe according to common theory. They appear to have been driven west- ward by succeeding waves of Teutons, Slavonians, and others. Herodotus mentions them as mixing with the Iberians who dwelt round tne river Ebro in Spain. At the beginning of the historic period they were the pre- dominant race in Great Britain, Ire- land, France, and elsewhere. The Romans called them generally Galli. They appear to have reached the zenith of their power in the 2d and 3d cen- turies B. c. Some tribes of them set- tled in a part of Asia Minor to which the name of Galatia was given. They finally went down before the power of Rome. At an early date the Celts di- vided into two great branches, speak- ing dialects widely differing from each other, but belonging to the same stock. One of these branches is the Gadhelic or Gaelic, represented by the High- landers of Scotland, the Celtic, Irish, and the Manx; the other is the Cym- ric, represented by the Welsh, the in- habitants of Cornwall, and those of Brittany. The sun seems to have been the principal object of worship among the Celts, and groves of oak and the remarkable circles of stone commonly called "Druidical Circles," their tem- ples of worship. Cements, substances capable of uniting bodies closely. They are va- riously composed according to the na- ture of the surfaces to unite, and their exposure to heat or moisture. Build- ing cement is a strong mortar con- sisting of hydraulic limes which con- tain silica, and set quickly. Cenci, Beatrice, called the beau- tiful parricide, the daughter of Fran- cesco Cenci, a noble Roman, who, after his second marriage, behaved toward the children of his first marriage in the most shocking manner, procured the Censor assassination of two of his sons, on their return from Spain, and abused his youngest daughter Beatrice. She planned and executed the murder of her father and was beheaded in 1599. She is the alleged subject of a painting by Guido, and is the heroine of one of Shelley's most powerful plays. Recent researches have deprived the story of its romantic elements, and have shown Beatrice to be a very commonplace criminal. Her stepmother and brother, who were equally guilty with her, were also executed. Cenis, a mountain belonging to the Graian Alps, between Savoy and Pied- mont, 11,755 feet high. It is famous for the winding road constructed by Napoleon I., which leads over it from France to Italy, and for an immense railway tunnel, which, after nearly fourteen years' labor, was finished in 1871. The Mount Cenis Pass is 6,765 feet above the level of the sea, where- as the elevation of the entrance to the tunnel on the side of Savoy is only 3,801 feet, and that on the side of Piedmont 4,246 feet. The total length of the tunnel is nearly 8 miles. The total cost amounted to about $12,000,- 000. Cenotaph, an empty monument, that is, one raised to a person buried elsewhere. Censer, a vase or pan in which in- cense is burned, or a bottle with a per- forated cap, used for sprinkling odors. Censers were much used in the Hebrew service, but their form is not accurately ascertained. Josephus tells us that King Solomon made 20,000 gold censers for the temple of Jeru- salem to offer perfumes in, and 50,000 others to carry fire in. The censer used in the Roman Catholic Church at mass, vespers, and other offices, is suspended by chains, which are held in the hand, and is tossed in the air, so as to throw the smoke of the incense in all directions. Censor, the title of two Roman magistrates originally appointed for the purpose of taking the census. But their powers were much increased when they had the inspection of pub- lic morals, and authority to remove citizens from their tribes, depriving them of all their privileges except lib- erty. The Censors had also the power of making contracts for public build- Census ings, and the supply of victims for sac- rifices. There is in some countries a censor whose duty it is to inspect and examine books, plays, etc., before they are published, to insure that they shall contain nothing to offend against pub- lic morality or decency. In Russia the office is one of unlimited authority over all publications. An official ap- pointed in time of war, at military headquarters, to supervise and endorse all press dispatches. In China there is a Board of Cen- sors whose members are theoretically superior to the central administration, and have a right to present any remon- strance to the sovereign. It is under- stood that experience with the present empress dowager has made them cautious. Census, a periodical enumeration of the people of any State or country, with such information on other sub- jects as may be desired. The United States census of 1910 was authorized June 29, 1909, by Congress, which limited the inquiries to population, agriculture, manufactures, mines and mining, and directed that it should be taken as of April 15, and that all re- ports be completed within three years from July 1, 1909. This census had at its head E. Dana Durand, Director of the Permanent Census Bureau, who was assisted by 330 district super- visors, 1,600 special agents, 70,000 enumerators, and 3,500 clerks for combining and tabulating the enumer- ators' returns. The total cost, in- cluding publications, was estimated at $13,000,000. The compilation and tabulation were done by means of cards, one for each of the approxi- mately 90,000,000 persons enumerated, which were punched in spaces to show inquiry answers by machines resem- bling typewriters or adding machines, and run through automatic electrical tabulating machines to record the facts. The Bureau of the Census is- sued elaborate reports (1917) on Manufactures in 1914. Cent, or Centime, the name of e, small coin in various countries, so called as being equal to a 100th part of some other coin. In the United States and in Canada the cent is the 100th part of a dollar. In France the centime is the 100th part of a franc. Centipede Similar coins are the centavo of Chili, and the centesimo of Italy, Peru, etc. Centaur, a mythical creature, half man, half horse, said to have sprung from the union of Ixion and a Cloud ; the most celebrated was Chiron. They inhabited Thessaly, and were also called Hippocentaurs. The myth prob- ably arose from some herdsman on horseback, who, being seen by indi- viduals unacquainted with the uses of the horse, was supposed to form, to- gether with his steed, one integral body. It is also the name of a con- stellation in the Southern Hemisphere. Centennial Exhibition, an inter- national exposition held in Philadel- phia from May 10 to Nov. 10, 1876, to celebrate the 100th anniversary of the Declaration of Independence. The various contributions of money amount- ed to $6,800,000. The total attend- ance was 9,910,966, of which 8,004,- 274 were paid. The largest attendance was on Pennsylvania Day (Sept. 28,), when 274,919 persons were on the grounds. Centennial State, Colorado; it was admitted to the Union in 1876, the 100th year of American indepen- dence. Center-Board, a contrivance used in yachts or shallow keelless vessels to counteract the tendency to drift to lee- ward, caused by the absence of a keel. It is lowered through a prepared slit, in the bottom of the craft. Center of Population, the center of gravity of the population of a coun- try, each individual being assumed to have the same weight. The center of population in the United States has clung to the parellel of 39 lat. and 86 long, for many years. In 1910 it was at Bloomington, Ind. Centigrade Thermometer, a thermometer scaled to represent the interval between the freezing and the boiling point of water, divided into 100 equal parts, the freezing-point being taken as zero. Centipede, a worm having a long slender, depressed body, protected by coriaceous plates, 21 pairs of legs, dis- tinct eyes, 4 on each side, and antennae with 17 joints. The name is, how- ever, popularly extended to species of nearly allied genera. Centipedes run Central America Central America nimbly, feed on insects, and pursue them into their lurking-places. GIANT CENTIPEDE. Central America, the narrow tor- tuous strip of land which unites the continents of North and South Amer- ica, extending from about lat. 7 to 18 N. The limits assigned to it in- clude the six republics of Panama, Guatemala, Honduras, San Salva- dor, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica, with British Honduras. It thus has Mex- ico on the N. W., Colombia or New Granada on the S. E., and the Pacific Ocean and Caribbean Sea on either side. Its entire length is about 800 miles, with a breadth varying from be- tween 20 and 30 miles to 350 miles. The area was estimated (1916) 212,- 968 square miles ; the pop. at 5,284,864. Guatemala is remarkable for con- taining, with exception of the island of Java, the greatest number of active volcanoes known to exist within simi- lar limits. The highest in Central America, is Agua, which is said to attain an elevation of 15,000 feet This volcano has obtained its name from its emitting tor- rents of water and stone instead of fire. The mountains of Central Amer- ica do not generally attain an eleva- tion equal to those of the two adjoin- ing continents, with exception of the volcanoes. The coast lands are gen- erally narrow, and in some places the mountains and high lands come close down to the water's edge. The rivers of this territory are small, and have short courses, the longest not exceed- ing from 200 to 300 miles, while many of them are not more than 50. The principal lake is that of Nicaragua, which is upward of 100 miles in length, and about 50 miles in breadth. The other considerable lakes are those of Managua or Leon, Golfo Dolce, Golfete, Peten, Atitlan, Amatitlan, Guija, and Cojutepeque. The climate is exceedingly various, owing to the inequality of the surface. The low grounds on the coast of the Caribbean Sea are exposed to violent tropical heats, and are generally un- healthy; but on the table-lands any temperature, according to altitude, may be obtained all the year round, with a salubrious climate. The dry season lasts from about October to May ; the rest of the year is called the wet season, although the rain falls during the night only, the days being fair and cloudless, and the air pure and refreshing. The vegetable produc- tions are as various as the climate. Various creepers and parasitic plants, and among them beautiful orchids, adorn the forests. The zoology of Central America differs little from that of other parts of tropical Amer- ica. Serpents are numerous, some of them dangerous. Alligators infest some of the streams and lakes, and often attack domestic animals. The rivers, lakes, and seas abound with fish. Of the geology little is known with accuracy. Gold, silver, iron, lead, and mercury are found; but none are worked to any great extent. Jasper and marble are worked in Honduras ; and sulphur is collected near the volcano of Quezaltenango. There are also many salt springs ; and salt is procured in large quantities on the shores of the Pacific. The population consists of three classes whites; mestizoes, or the off- spring of whites and Indians ; and pure-blooded Indians or aboriginal na- tives. The proportions of this popula- tion have been estimated at one- twelfth whites, four-twelfths mixed races, and seven-twelfths Indians. The Roman Catholic religion is professed by all. The chief occupation of the people is agriculture. The chief ex- port is coffee; others include cocoa, fruits, hides, indigo, sugar. The Spaniards in 1524 laid the foundations of the city of Guatemala. After the subjugation of the Quiches, the remaining tribes were subdued with comparative facility, and the do- minion of the conquerors was perma- (Central Falls Century nently established. The government of this country, as constituted by Spain, was subject to the Mexican ; but the dependence was far from being close. It was denominated the kingdom of Guatemala, and governed by a cap- tain-general. Its inhabitants re- mained true to Spain till 1821 when they declared their independence ; and although for a time a large part of the country was joined to Mexico under the rule of Iturbide, yet on his down- fall they recurred to their original purpose of forming a separate repub- lic. A constituent congress was con- voked, which on July 1, 1823, pub- lished a decree declaring the five States already mentioned a republic under the title of the United States of Central America. Civil dissensions were not long in making themselves felt, how- ever, and in 1839 the union between the States was formally dissolved. Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, and San Salvador again formed a union in 1842, but this lasted only till 1845. Since that time several atempts (one in 1898) have been made to unite the States, but without permanent suc- cess. Central America contains antiqui- ties of a very interesting nature, which indicate that the aboriginal inhabi- tants of Jbhe country had even attained a very Respectable proficiency in the knowledge of the arts of life. Ruins of large cities exist in various places, with remains of temples, altars, and ornamental stones, statues of deities, and other works of sculpture. Central Falls, a town in Provi- dence county, R. I.; on the Black- j stone river and the New York, New| Haven & Hartford railroad; 5 miles N. of Providence; is in a farming section; has a laige trade in dairy products; and manufactures cotton, woolen, and hair goods, leather, and trachinery, having fine power from the river. Pop. (1910) 22,754. Central India, the official term for a group of feudatory States in India. The total area is about 77,281 square miles; pop. (1901) 8,628,781. Centralization, a term in a specific sense applied to a system of government where the tendency is to administer by the central government matters which had been previously, or might very well be, under the man- ; agement of local authorities. Central Park, the most noted park in New York City, and contains 840 acres. It was laid out under the di- rection and management of Hon. An- drew H. Green, who for thirteen years had absolute control of the work, and who is known as " The Father of New York." It contains among other ob- jects of interest, the Mall, the Croton Reservoirs, Cleopatra's Needle, the Metropolitan Museum of Art, the Mu- seum of Natural History, and several lakes. Central Powers, a designation as- sumed by Germany and her allies in the world war. Central Provinces, an extensive British territory in India. They be- came a separate administration in 1861, and are under the authority of a chief commissioner. Their total area is 130,997 square miles, of which 99,- 823 square miles are British territory, and 31,174 the territory of native pro- tected states. Pop. (1911) 16,035,043, including 2,177,406 in native States. Berar, leased to the Government, is attached for administration. Central University, a co-educa- tional institution in Pella, la., organ- ized in 1853, under the auspices of the Baptist Church. Central University, an educa- tional institution in Richmond, Ky., organized in 1873, under the auspices of the Presbyterian Church. Central Wesleyan College, a co- educational institution in Warrenton, Mo., organized in 1864, under the auspices of the Methodist Episcopal Church, Centre College, an educational in- stitution in Danville, Ky., organized in 1819, under the auspices of the Presbyterian Church. Centnmviri, judges of ancient Rome, three from each tribe, who de- termined ordinary causes. The extent of their jurisdiction is uncertain. Centnrion, a Roman military of- ficer commanding a company of in- fantry, consisting of 100 men. Century, an aggregate number of 100 of things; a period of 100 years. This is the uniformly accepted sense of the word now. Modern chro- Century-plant nology among Christian nations cen- ters at the birth of Christ, and the cen- turies are numbered according to their order either before or after that era. The word is also applied to a division of the Roman tribes for the election of magistrates, the passing of laws, etc., on which the voting was by cen- turies ; to a sub-division in the Roman army. Century-plant, a popular name of the American aloe. Ceplialonia, an island of Greece, W. of the Morea, at the entrance or. the Gulf of Patras, about 31 miles in length, and from 5 to 12 in breadth; area, 348 square miles ; pop. 80,543. Earthquakes are not infrequent. One of the most destructive was that of the year 1867. Cephalopoda, a class of mollusks, the highest in organization of that di- vision of the animal kingdom. To this class belong the Nautili, Squids, Cuttle-fish, etc. The Cephalopo- da receive their name from hav- ing organs of prehension and and locomotion attached .to the head, an ar- rangement to- ward which a g r a d u al ap- proach may be traced in the highest gastero- pod mollusks. Cephas, a surname given by Christ to Si- mon. In the Greek it is Pet- ros ("a rock"), in Latin, Pe- trus, and in English Peter. Cephens, a king or Ethiopia and husband of Cassiopeia ; his name was given to a constellation of stars in the N. hemisphere surrounded by Cas- siopeia, Ursa Major, Draco, and Cygnus. Ceram, an island in the Moluccas, W. of New Guinea ; area, 6,621 square miles, pop., estimated at 67,- 000. It is about 200 miles long with A CEPIIALOPOD. Cerebro- spinal an average width of 35 miles. Its in- terior is? traversed by mountain ranges from 6,000 to 8.000 feet high. The vegetation is luxuriant. The inhabi- tants of the coast are of Malay origin, the interior being peopled by Alfoo- ries. It is under the Dutch. Ceramic Art, that department of plastic art which comprises all objects made of baked clay, and including all the varieties of earthenware and porcelain which can be regarded as works of art. Cerastes, a genus of African vipers remarkable for their fatal venom, and for two little horns formed by the scales above the eyes. Hence they have received the name of horned vi- pers. The tail is very distinct from the body. Cerate, the name of an external medicament, more or less liquid, hav- ing for its basis wax and oil. Simple cerate consists of 8 ounces of lard and 4 of white wax melted together and stirred till cold. Cerberus, the three-headed dog which guards the entrance of the king- dom of Hades and Persephone. Or- pheus, when he descended into the in- fernal regions in search of Eurydice, lulled him to sleep with his lyre ; and Hercules dragged him from the gate of Hades, when he went after Alceste. Cercis, a handsome Asiatic tree. It has received the name of the Judas- tree, from the tradition that it was upon a specimen of it, near Jerusa- lem, that the traitor Judas hanged himself. Cerdic, a king of the West Saxons, who invaded England about the end of the 5th century, and established the kingdom of Wessex about 516. He died in 534. Cere, the naked skin that covers the base of the bill in some birds, and whicn is supposed to exercise a tactile sense. Cereals, a term derived from Ceres, the goddess of corn, and confined to wheat, barley, rye, oats, and other grasses, cultivated for the sake of their seed as food. Cerebration, exertion or action of the brain, conscious or unconscious. Cerebro-spinal, pertaining to the brain and spinal cord together, looked on as forming one nerve mass. Ceres Ceres, an asteroid, the first found. It was discovered by Piazzi on Jan. 1, 1801. Having observed it at Palermo, in Sicily, he called it Ceres, after the old tutelary divinity of that island. Cerens, the Torch-thistle. The Suwarrow or Saguaro of the Mexi- cans, is the largest and most striking of the genus. It rises to the height of 50 or 60 feet, and looks more like a candelabra than a tree of the normal type. The genus are generally useful as cardiac agents and anti-pyretics. Cerigo (ancient Cythera), a Greek island in the Mediterranean, S. of the Morea, from which it is separated by a narrow strait; area about 100 square miles. Cerinthns, a heretic who lived at the close of the apostolic age, but of whom we have nothing better than un- certain and confuted accounts. Cerium (named by the discoverers after Ceres), a metal found with two other metals, lanthanum and didymi- um, in cerite. Ceroxylon, a genus of South American palms; the wax palm. Cerro Blanco, the highest moun- tain in New Mexico ; summit 14,269 feet. Cerro de Pasco, the capital of the Peruvian department of Junin, stands at an elevation of 14,276 feet, 138 miles N. E. of Lima. Near it are some of the richest silver mines on the continent. The climate is cheerless and inclement. Pop. about 14,000. Cerro Gordo, a mountain-pass in Mexico, through which passes the Na- tional road from Vera Cruz to Jalapa and Mexico. It is celebrated as the scene of a victory by General Scott with 9,000 United States troops over an army of 13,000 Mexicans under Santa Ana, April 17-18, 1847. This victory enabled Scott to take the town of Jalapa the following day. Cerro Gordo de Potosi, a moun- tain in the Andes of Bolivia; S. W. of Potosi ; 16,150 feet in height ; remark- able for its deposits of silver. Cerro Largo, a department in the N. E. of Uruguay, well watered, with large savannahs and forests. A^ea, 5,763 square miles ; pop. 54,005, chiefly engaged in cattle-raising. Cap- ital, Cerro Largo or Melo ; pop. 5,000. Cervidae Cerros, or Cedros Island, an is- land belonging to Mexico, in the Pa- cific Ocean, off the W. coast of Lower California. Certaldo, a town of Central Italy, 19 miles S. W. of Florence. It is noteworthy as the residence of Boccac- cio, who was born and died here. His house is still standing, much as it was in the poet's time. Certiorari, in law, a writ issuing out of a superior court to call up the records of an inferior court or remove a cause there depending, that it may be tried in the superior court. Cervantes Saavedra, Miguel de, author of "Don Quixote," and one of the greatest writers of modern times; born in Alcala de Henares, Oct. 9, 1547. He died April 23, 1616 (on the same day as Shakespeare), in Madrid, where he had resided during the last years of his life. He was buried with- out any ceremony, and no tombstone marks the spot where he rests. Cervera y Topete, Pascnal, a Spanish naval officer; born in the province of Jerez, in 1833. Graduated at the Naval Academy of San Fernan- do ; entered on active service in 1851 ; and was made first lieutenant in 1859 ; captain in 1868 ; and admiral subse- quently. He was a prominent factor in the 10-years' war in Cuba, when he succeeded in blockading the ports ; was sent to London, as a representative of Spain, to take part with other nations in a conference bearing on naval ques- tions of international importance ; and commanded the fleet sent against the American squadron operating in Cu- ban waters after the declaration of war in 1898. He took refuge in the inner harbor of Santiago de Cuba, and when, on July 3, he attempted to es- cape, under imperative orders from his superiors, his entire fleet was destroyed by the squadron under the official com- mand of Rear-Admiral Sampson and the actual command ( in the temporary absence of that officer) of Rear- Ad- miral Schley. Admiral Cervera and his surviving officers were sent to Anna- polis, Md., as prisoners of war, and soon afterward were returned to Spain. He died April 3, 1909. Cervidae, a family of mammals. The males of all the species and also the female of the reindeer have ant- Cervns lers, which are deciduous, this last character completely distinguishing them from the Oxen. The antlers also are solid. The species are widely dis- tributed and well known. None are found in Africa S. of the Sahara or in Australia. Cervns, the genus of animals to which the stag belongs, forming the type of the deer family. Cesnola, Luiga Palma di, an American archasologist, born in Pied- mont, Italy, June 29, 1832. He served in the Italian war with Austria and came to the United States in I860, serving in the Civil War. He was United States Consul at Cyprus, where he made extensive archaeological dis- coveries. Until his death, Nov. 21, 1904, he was director of the Metropol- itan Museum of Art in New York city. Cespedes y Borges, Carlos Man- uel de, a noted Cuban patriot, born in Bayamo, April 18, 1819. Impli- cated in Prim's conspiracy while in Spain, he was banished from there and returned to Cuba. As leader of the revolt of 1868 he was chosen by the insurgents President of the newly proclaimed republic. He was killed in a skirmish with Spaniards, March 22, 1872. Cestoid Worms, the Cestoda, or intestinal worms, consisting of tape worms and other creatures which re- semble them in structure and habits. The number of different kinds is great. Their natural history is important in reference to the health of human be- ings and of the most valuable of do- mesticated animals. Cetacea, aquatic mammals which depart in many important anatomical points from the other members of the class, their structure being so modified as to render them unfit for terrestrial life. The whales, the porpoise, nar- whal, etc., represent the leading divis- ions of the group. The body is fish- like in form, the head passing grad- ually into the trunk, which tapers pos- teriorly and ends in a bil. bate caudal fin which is placed horizontally, not as in the fishes, vertically. The posterior limbs are wanting, and the anterior are converted into broad paddles, with- in which are present representatives of all the bones usually found in the fore limb of mammals. The fish-like aspect Centa is further increased by the presence of a dorsal fin, as in the dolphin and fin- ner whale. The arrangement of the respiratory and circulatory systems, which enable the Cetacea to remain for some time under water, are interesting. The nos- trils open directly upward on the top of the head, and are closed by valvu- lar folds of integument which are un- der the control of the animal. When the animal comes to the surface to breathe it expels the air violently, and the vapor it contains becomes condensed into a cloud. The blood-vessels, es- pecially those of the thorax and spinal canal, break up into extensive plexuses or networks, in which a large amount of oxygenated blood is delayed, and thus the animal is enabled to remain under water. Cetewayo, a Kaffir chief, son of Panda, King of the Zulus. The Natal government secured the recognition of Cetewayo as king in 1873. A dispute which had arisen regarding lands on the frontier was settled in favor of the Zulus ; but on the refusal of Cetewayo to comply with the conditions war was declared against him by the British, and the king made prisoner in 1879. He died Feb. 8, 1884. Cettinje, the capital of the king- dom of Montenegro; situated in a lofty mountain valley, 19 miles E. of Cattaro, with which it is connected by a steep road. Turkish invaders sacked and burnt the town in 1683, 1714, and 1785, but it was each time rebuilt. Montenegro took part in the World War on the side of the Entente Allies. Late in 1915 it was overrun by the Germans and Austrians ; on Dec. 6, the Germans captured Ipek ; on Jan. 13, 1916, the Austrians captured Cet- tinje ; and subsequently the govern- ment removed to Lyons, on invitation of the French Government. Pop. about 5,500. Centa, a fortified port belonging to Spain, on the coast of Morocco, oppo- site Gibraltar. The mixed population number (1913) 23,907. It has resisted several sieges by the Moors, and is still the most important of the four African Presidios. An attempt to strengthen the fortifications was aban- doned (1899) upon representations from the British government to the Cevennes cabinet at Madrid. Many Cuban patriots were prisoners there before Spain gave up its hold on Cuba. Cevennes, the chief mountain range in the S. of France. With its continuations and offsets, it forms the watershed between the river-systems of the Rhone and the Loire and Ga- ronne. Ceylon, (native Singhala, ancient Taprobane), an island belonging to Great Britain in the Indian Ocean, about 60 miles S. E. of the S. ex- tremity of Hindustan, from wh'ch it is separated by the Gulf of Manaar and Palk's Strait. Length, about 270 miles N. to S. ; average breadth, 100 mi)e ; area, 25,332 square miles. Where the jungle has been cleared away and the land drained and culti- vated, the country is perfectly healthy ; where low wooded tracts, and flat marshy lands abound, covered with a rank, luxuriant vegetation, the cli- mate is eminently insalubrious. Most of the animals found on the opposite continent are native to this island, excepting the royal tiger, which does not exist here. Elephants are numerous and are esteemed for their superior strength and docility. Bears, buffaloes, leopards, jackals, monkeys, and wild bogs are numerous. Croco- diles, serpents, and reptiles of all sorts abound. Of the snake tribe, consisting of about 26 different species, six only are venomous. Among the insects are the leaf and stick insects, the ant-lion, jthe white ant, etc. In the luxuriance of its vegetable productions, Ceylon rivals the islands of the Indian Archipelago, and in some respects bears a strong resemblance to them; its most valuable products are tea, rice, coffee, cinnamon, and the cocoanut. Tea is being widely culti- vated. Tobacco is raised principally in the N. district, and is of excellent quality. Indigo grows wild, but is not sought after. Ceylon is one of the British crown colonies, its government being conduct- ed by a governor and two councils, executive and legislative, of both of which the governor is president The first is composed of six members, the other of 17 members. The powers of the councils are limited, being wholly subservient to the governor, who can carry into effect any law without Chadwick their concurrence. All laws must be approved by the Secretary of State foe the Colojiies before they can take ef- fect. Any individual properly quali- fied may be appointed to the most re- sponsible situation, without reference to service, nation or religion, and na- tive Singhalese have occupied some of the highest posts. Of the population (1911) 3,592,883, 2,474,000 were said to be Buddhists, and about 940,000 were of the Hindu religion. On the W. and S. W. coast numbers of the Singhalese profess the Roman Catho- lic religion. There are a number of Episcopal clergy in the island, subor- dinate to the Bishop of Colombo; various other Protestant bodies have places of worship, but the Protestants are less than half the number of the Roman Catholics. The Singhalese have a colloquial language peculiar to themselves, but their classic and sacred writings are either in Pali or Sanskrit. The Mala- bars use the Tamil. English is be- coming more and more common. The principal towns of the island are Colombo, Trincomalee, Kandy, Galle, Gaffna, and Kornegalle. Chacornac, Jean, a French as- tronomer, born in Lyons, June 21, 1823. He is principally known for his discoveries of asteroids, six in number, and most of his work was done at the Paris Observatory under Leverrier. He died in Paris, Sept. 26, 1873. Cliadbourne, Paul Ansel, an American educator and writer, born in North Berwick, Me., Oct. 21, 1823. He was president of the Massachusetts Agricultural College at Amherst; of the University of Wisconsin ; of Will- iams College. He died in New York. Feb. 23, 1883. Cliaddock College, a co-educa- tional institution in Quincy, 111. ; or- ganized in 1857, under the auspices of the Methodist Episcopal Church. Chadwick, French Ensor, an American naval officer, born in Mor- gantown, W. ya., Feb. 29, 1844. Dur- ing the war with Spain he commanded the armored cruiser "New York ;" pro- moted to rear-admiral in 1903 ; retired in 1906. Chadwick, John White, an American writer and Unitarian clergy- man, born in Marblehead, Mass., Oct. Chaeronea 19, 1840. He died in Brooklyn, New York, Dec. 11, 1904. Chaeronea, a city of Boeotia, in ancient Greece, near the Cephissus, on the borders of Phocis. Philip II., King of Macedon, defeated tue united Boeotian and Athenian forces near this place, B. c. 338; and here, also, Sylla defeated the generals of Mithridates ' VI. B. c. 86. Plutarch was born here, A. D. 46. Chafer, a term loosely applied to certain insects of the beetle order, es- pecially such as themselves or their larvae are injurious to plants. Chaffee, Adna Romanza, an American military officer, born in Or- well, O., April 14, 1842. He received a public school education ; entered the regular army as a private, July 22, 1861 ; became a captain, Oct. 12, 1867 ; and colonel of the 8th U. S. Cavalry, May 8, 1899. On May 4, 1898, he was commissioned Brigadier-General of volunteers for the war with Spain ; on July 8, following, was promoted to Major-General ; and on April 13, 1899, was honorably discharged under this commission. On the last mentioned date he was re-appointed a Brigadier- General of volunteers, and on July 19, 1900, the President, having selected him to command the American military forces in China, commissioned him a Major-General of volunteers. He reached Taku, China, on July 28, and led the American contingent of the al- lied force which entered Peking on Aug. 15, and rescued the foreign lega- tioners. General Chaffee made a bril- liant record in the Apache Indian campaigns ; commanded the troops which captured El Caney, in Cuba; and afterward was chief-of-staff to both Generals Brooke and Wood, when governor-general of Cuba. In 1901-2 he commanded the division of the Philippines ; in 1904-6 was Chief of Staff, U. S. A. and lieutenant-general ; in the latter year was retired at his own request after over 40 years' service. He died Nov. 1, 1914. Cliagos Islands, a group of islands in the Indian Ocean belonging to Great Britain; a S. extension of the Maldive Islands. Chagres, a town of the United States of Colombia, on the N. coast of the Isthmus of Panama, at the Chalcedony mouth of the Chagres river. The river of the same name rises about 10 miles N. E. of Panama, makes an immense bend round to the N. E., and enters the Caribbean Sea. Though toward its mouth it varies in depth from 16 to 30 feet, it is yet, by reason at once of its rapidity and its falls, but little available for navigation. The route of the projected Panama canal is by the valley of the Chagres for part of its course, and the canal would cross the river repeatedly. The " Chagres fever " is named after the river. Cliaille-Long, Charles, an Amer- ican explorer, born of French parent- age, in Baltimore, Md., 1843. After serving in the Confederate army he went to Egypt, where he was appoint- ed lieutenant-colonel by the Khedive (1870). Gordon made him chief-of- staff and sent him on a mission to King Mtesa of Uganda. Chain, in surveying, is a measure consisting of 100 links, each 7.92 inch- es in length, and having a total length of 4 rods, o" 66 feet. Chain Armor, coats and other pieces of mail, formed of hammered iron links, constituting a flexible gar- ment which fitted to the person. Chains, series of links interlocked with the adjacent ones, in such a man- ner as to form continuous and flexible lines. Chain Shot, two balls connected either by a bar or chain, formerly used for cutting and destroying the rigging of an enemy's ship. Chair of St. Peter, at Rome, a wooden chair overlaid with ivory work and gold. Chaise, a two-wheeled carriage for two persons, with a top, and usually drawn by one horse. Chalcedon, a Greek city of ancient Bithynia, opposite Byzantium (Con- stantinople), at the entrance of the Black Sea, about 2 miles S. of the modern Scutari. It was finally de- stroyed by the Turks, by whom it was taken, about 1075. Chalcedony, a cryptocrystalline variety of quartz, having the luster nearly of wax, and either transparent or translu,cent. Color, white, grayish, pale brown to dark brown or black; tendon-color common : sometimes deli' Chalcis cate blue. Also of other shades, and then having other names. Chalcis, a Greek town, anciently the chief town of Eubcea, separated by the narrow strait of Euripus from the Boeotian coast, on the mainland of Greece,' with which it was connected by a bridge. Chalcis early became one of the greatest of the Ionic cities, car- rying on an extensive commerce. It was subsequently a place of impor- tance under the Romans. Chaldaea, in ancient geography the regions of Babylonia, or more gener- ally Babylonia. The early history of Chaldsea is obscure. The Chaldaeans were conquered by the Assyrians, with Babylon, and waged frequent wars with the latter power. When the As- syrian power began to wane, the Chal- daeans, being a more warlike and pow- erful people than the Babylonians, be- came supreme ; Chaldaea and Baby- lonia, by their conquests under Nebu- chadnezzar, became one kingdom, and the names Chaldaea and Babylonia be- came synonymous terms. CLaldee Language, a name often given to the Aramean language, one of the principal varieties of the an- cient Semitic. Chaldee literature is usually arranged in two divisions : the Biblical Chaldee, or those portions of the Old Testament which are written in Chaldee, namely, Daniel from ii : 4 to yii: 28; Ezra iv: 8 to vi : 18; and vii : 12-26 ; and Jeremiah x : 11 ; and the Chaldee of the Targums and other later Jewish writings. Chalet, the French-Swiss name for the wooden hut of the Swiss herdsmen on the mountains ; but also extended to Swiss dwelling-houses generally, and to picturesque villas built in imi- tation of them. Chalenr Bay, or Bay of Chal- eurs, an inlet of the Gulf of St. Law- rence, between Quebec and New Brunswick. Chalice, a term generally applied to a communion cup for the wine in the Eucharist, often of artistic and highly ornamental character. Chalk, a well-known earthy lime- stone, of an opaque white color, soft, and admitting no polish. It is an im- pure carbonate of lime, and is used as an absorbent and anti-acid, and for making narks for various purposes. Chamber Challenge, to jurors, is an objec- tion either to the whole panel or ar- ray, or to the jurors individually, and it is either peremptory, or for cause assigned. Challenger Expedition, a cir- cumnavigating scientific exploration of the open sea sent out by the British government in 1872-1876. In 1872 the "Challenger," a corvette of 2,306 tons, was completely fitted out and furnished with every scientific appli- ance for examining the sea from sur- face to bottom. The ship was given in charge to a naval surveying staff, under Captain Nares, and to a scientific staff, with Professor Wyville Thomson at their head, for the purpose of sounding the depths, mapping the basins, and determin- ing the physical and biological con- ditions of the Atlantic, the South- ern and the Pacific Oceans. Be- tween the Admiralty Isles and Japan the " Challenger " made her deepest sounding, on March 23, 1875, 4,575 fathoms, then the deepest sounding on record except two. Chalons-sur-Marne, a town of N. E. France, 107 miles E. of Paris and on the main railway line to Nancy ; normal pop. about 25,000. The prin- cipal industry is brewing. Chalons is a center of much historic interest. The plains nearby were the scene of the defeat of Atilla, the Hun, in the 5th century. Marshal MacMahon formed the great army here which surrendered at Sedan in 1870. The town was conspicuous in the opera- tions in the World War, especially in 1915-16. The entire country between Chalons-sur-Marne and Verdun is full of interest. The town of Valmy, where the French defeated the Allies in 1792, is 33 miles distant, and its Ridge was the scene of desperate fight- ing in the great war. Beyond Sainte Menehould is the famous forest of Argonne. Verdun is 174 miles from Paris. See APPENDIX: World War. Chamber, a word used in many countries to designate a branch of gov- ernment whose members assemble in a common apartment, or applied to bod- ies of various kinds meeting for va- rious purposes. The imperial cham- ber of the old German Empire was a Chamberlain Chambersbnrg court established at Wetzlar, near the Rhine, by Maximilian I. in 1495, to adjust the disputes between the dif- ferent independent members of the German Empire. Chamberlain, an officer charged with the direction and management of the private apartments of a monarch or nobleman. Chamberlain, Joseph, an Eng- lish statesman, born in London in July, 1&}6. In 1808 he was appoint- ed a member of the Birmingham town- council, was mayor of Birmingham from 1873 to 1876, and chairman of the Birmingham school-board from 1874 to 1876. After unsuccessfully contesting Sneffield against Mr. Roe- buck in 1874, he was returned for Bir- mingham without opposition in June, 1876. He soon made his mark in Par- liament, and on the return of the Lib- erals to power in 1880 he was appoint- ed President of the Board of Trade, with a seat in the cabinet. Meanwhile his influence was increasing rapidly outside the House ; he came to be re- garded as the leader of the extreme Radical party. During the last hours of Mr. Gladstone's government he was understood to be opposed to the re- newal of the Irish Crimes Act ; and during the general election of 1886 he was most severe in his strictures on the moderate Liberals, and produced an " unauthorized " programme which included the readjustment of taxation, free schools, and the creation of allot- ments by compulsory purchase. He was returned by the western division of Birmingham. On Feb. 1, 1886, he beame president of the Local Govern- ment Board, but resigned on March 26, because of his strong objections to Mr. Gladstone's Home Rule measures for Ireland. He became leader of the Liberal-Unionists when the Duke of Devonshire went to the Upper House. Lord Salisbury sent him to Washing- ton as commissioner on the Canadian fishery dispute, and in 1895 he was made Colonial minister in the Union- ist Cabinet. As such he had to face the troubles in South Africa, and to cherish closer fellow-feeling with the Colonies. He carried the Australian Federation measure in Parliament (1900), and later had to face opposi- tion from within the Liberal party, la 1888 he was married to Mary, daughter of William C. Endicott, Sec- retary of War in President Cleve- land's first administration. After the Boer war he visited South Africa and made himself personally acquainted with the situation there. His strong advocacy of " fair trade," or a modi- fied protective tariff caused great dis- turbance in the ministry and its sup- porters, and in September, 1903, Mr. Chamberlain resigned from the Cabi- net. He died July 2, 1914. Chamberlain, Joshua Law- rence, an American army officer and educator. He was born in Bangor, Me., Sept. 8, 1828 ; graduated at Bow- doin College in 1852, and entered the volunteer service of the Union in 1862, became a Major-General in 1865, and received the colors of Lee's army on its surrender. After the war he re- turned to the professorship at Bow- doin College which he had previously held. In 1867-1871 was governor of Maine, and in 1871-1883 was presi- dent of Bowdoin. He died Feb. 24, 1914. Chambers, Charles Julius, an American journalist, born in Belle- fontaine, O., Nov! 21, 1850. In 1870 he traveled through the West Indies, Europe, the United States, and Cana- da, as special correspondent of the "New York Herald." In 1876 he published an account of his few weeks of experience in an insane institution, entitled, "A Mad World," which ex- cited great interest. Chambers, Robert, a Scotch prose- writer and publisher, born in Peebles, July 10, 1802. He and his brother began in poverty as small booksellers; issued penny leaflets of useful infor* mation for the people which became very popular, and at last took regular periodical form in " Chambers' Jour- nal," and the great publishing-housa which bears the name of both devel* oped gradually. The " Chambers' Ent cyclopaedia " was the outgrowth of the " Journal." He died in St. Andrews, March 17, 1871. Chambers, William, a Scotch prose-writer and editor, brother and partner of Robert, born in Peebles, April 16, 1800. He died in Edinburgh, May 20, 1883. Chambersbnrg, a borough and county-seat of Franklin county, Pa. Chambers of Commerce Chameleon on the Conecocheague and Falling Creeks and the Cumberland Valley and Western and the Philadelphia and Reading railroads, 52 miles W. S. W. of Harrisburg. In Early's raid in the Civil War General McCausland en- tered Chambersburg with Confederate cavalry, July 30, 1864, and demanded a tribute of $200,000 gold; this not being paid the place was set on fire and two-thirds of it burned, causing a loss of $1,000,000. Chambers of Commerce, bodies of merchants and traders associated for the purpose of promoting the in- terests of their own members, of the city to which the society belongs, and of the community. Of the means by which these objects are sought to be accomplished the following may be mentioned as the most prominent : (1) by representing and urging on the Legislature the views of their members in mercantile affairs; (2) by aiding in the preparation of legislative measures having reference to trade ; (3) by collecting statistics bearing upon the staple trade of the city; (4) in some places by acting as a sort of court of arbitration in mercantile questions ; (5) by attaining by com? bination advantages in trade which might be beyond the reach of individ- ual enterprise. The first institution of the kind in the United States, the New York Chamber of Commerce, was organized in 1768 and incorporated by royal charter from King George III. in 1770. There are similar bodies in every city and town of consequence in the United States. Chambly, Fort, a fort at the out- let of Lake Champlain at the time of the Revolutionary War. It was cap- tured by the Colonists in 1775, and the colors of the 7th Regiment of British regulars was sent to the Con- tinental Congress as trophies of the victory. Chambord, Henri Charles Fer- dinand Marie Diendonne, Comte de, Duke of Bordeaux, the last repre- sentative of the elder branch of the French Bourbon dynasty, called by his partisans Henry V. of France; born in Paris, Sept. 29, 1820, seven months after the assassination of his father. Charles X., after the revolutionary outbreak of 1830, abdicated in his favor, but the young count was com- pelled to leave the country. He lived successively in Scotland, Austria, Italy, and England, keeping a species of court, and occasionally issuing man- ifestos. In 1846 he married the Prin- cess Maria-Theresa, eldest daughter of the Duke of Modena, and in 1851 in- herited the domain of Frohsdorf, near Vienna, where he subsequently resid- ed. He died in Austria, Aug. 24, 1883. Chambre Ardente, the name given in France to a court of law, instituted by Francis I. It was hung with black and lighted with torches, for the purpose of trying and burning heretics; and also to the ex- traordinary commissions established for the examination of poisoners, and under the regent duke of Orleans for the punishment of public officers charged with offenses against the reve- nues, as also of those who were guilty of fraud in the matter of Law's bank. Chambre des Comptes, a great court established in France, prior to the Revolution, for the registration of edicts, ordinances, etc. Chambrnn, Marquis Pierre de, a French politician ; born in Paris, June 11, 1865, grandson of Marquis de Lafayette of Revolutionary fame ; studied law ; since 1898 represented the Department of Lozere in the Chamber of Deputies ; gave special attention to foreign affairs, notably to the cultivation of an interest and pro- gram for a close intercourse between the parliaments and congresses of various countries. In 1917 he was a member of the French War Mission to the United States under the famous Marshal Joffre. Chameleon, a genus of reptiles be- longing to the Saurian or lizard-like order, a native of parts of Asia and Africa. The very remarkable power which these animals possess of chang- ing their color, at a very early period called the attention of observers to their habits. Its skin is composed of a sort of small, scaly grains, and un- der ordinary circumstances is of a greenish gray color. The eyes are capable of moving independently of each other, taking different directions at the same moment. Several species of chameleon are known, and are na- tives of Africa, Madagascar, Southern Chameleon Asia, and the Molucca Islands. They pass their lives altogether upon trees, feeding upon small insects, for which their construction shows them to be perfectly adapted. Chameleon, a Southern constella- tion containing nine stars, lies within the Antarctic Polar Circle. Chamois, a well-known species of the antelope found only in high, moun- tainous regions, where they feed in small flocks or families, on the highest CHAMOIS. cliffs affording vegetation. The cham- ois are exceedingly shy, and have very acute senses, so that it is only by great patience and^ skill that the hunt- er can come sufficiently near to shoot them. Chamois Leather, a leather made from the skin of the Chamois, but the skins of sheep, goats, deer, calves, and the split hides of other animals, are used for making this kind of leather. Chamomile or Camomile, a well- known plant. It is perennial, and has slender, trailing, hairy, and branched stems. The flower is white, with a yellow center. Both leaves and flow- ers are bitter and aromatic. The fra- grance is due to the presence of an es- sential oil, called oil of chamomile, of a light blue color when first ex- tracted. It is cultivated in gardens in the United States, and also found wild Chamemni, or Chamonix, a cele- brated valley in France, department Champion Haute-Savoie, in the Pennine Alps, over 3,000 feet above sea-level. It is about 12 miles long, by 1 to 6 miles broad, its E. side formed by Mount Blanc and other lofty mountains of the same range, and it is traversed by the Arve. The village of Chamouni is much frequented by tourists. Champaign, a city in Champaign county, 111.; on the Illinois Central and other railroads; 33 miles W. of Danville; has manufactures of wind- mills, furnaces, boilers, brick and tile, piano, and iron and steel tools; and is the seat of the University of Illinois. Pop. (1910) 12,421. Champ de Mars, a large, rectan- gular public place in Paris, on the left bank of the Seine, about 3,300 feet long and 1,600 feet wide. At the out- break of the French Revolution the square was constructed by the united efforts of all classes of Paris, and on July 14, 1790, the first anniversary of the taking of the Bastille, was held a grand pageant and festival at which universal pledges of " Liberty, Equal- ity, and Fraternity " were exchanged. This spot was the scene of a bloody massacre July 17, 1791. It is now used chiefly as a parade-ground. In its center is the Eiffel Tower. Champerty, the purchase of an in- terest in a thing in dispute, with the object of maintaining and taking part in the litigation, or assisting another to carry on a suit under an agreement to receive part of the sum or thing to be recovered. Champion, one who combats or fights; specifically, in the Middle Ages, a person who took up the cause and fought in the place of another. Single combat was one of the ways frequently adopted to decide the right of a cause; and women, children, or aged persons were allowed to appear by a representative. At one time the champions were looked upon as dis- reputable, being ready, for hire, to take up any quarrel. At a later per- iod, however, during the ages of chiv- alry, the champion was a knight, who entered the lists on behalf of an in- jured lady, a child, or one incapable of self-defense. The word is also ap- plied to one who earns, or claims, the preeminence in feats of physical prow- ess, or skill, Champion Hills Champion Hills, a place in Hinds county, Miss., near Vicksburg, where, on May 16, 1863, the Union army defeated the Confederates. Cham plain, Lake, a picturesque body of water between the Green and Adirondack mountains, on the | border of the States of Vermont and New York; length about 125 miles, ; maximum depth 280 feet. The waters find an outlet at the N. end ' by the Richelieu or Sorel river, which I empties into the St. Lawrence. Since the construction of the canal, which connects it with the Hudson river ; the lake has become an important medium of commerce between Can- ada and the United States. In July, 1909, the 300th anniversary of the discovery of the lake was celebrated by j the United States, England, France, Canada. New York and Vermont. Champlain, Samuel de, a French navigator, born at Brouage, Saint- onge, about 1570. In 1599 he sailed to the West Indies, Mexico, and Pan- ama. On his return (1601) he pre- pared a record of this cruise, with charts, etc. In March, 1603, he sailed for North America, and explored, by boat, the St. Lawrence river up to the Falls of St. Louis, and down to Gaspe. In May, 1604, he sailed with De Monts along the shores of Nova Scotia, wintered on the island of St. Croix, and founded a colony at Port Royal. From 1604 to 1606 he made careful surveys and charts of the coast as far as Cape Cod. He revisited France in 1607, but sailed again in 1608, and founded Quebec. In 1609 he accompanied an Algonquin and Huron expedition against the Iroquois, and discovered Lake Champlain. From September, 1609, to March, 1610, he was engaged in bringing over French mechanics for his colony. He became lieutenant-governor of New France (Oct. 8, 1612) ; fortified Quebec (1620) ; but was compelled (1629) to surrender to an English fleet, and was taken to England. Released in 1632, he sailed again for New France. He died in Quebec, Dec. 25, 1635. Champlin, John Denis on, an American author, born in Stonington, Conn., Jan. 29, 1834. He wrote many useful and instructive books for the young. He died Jan. 8, 1915. E. 32. Chancellorsville Champney, Elizabeth (Will- iams), an American novelist, born hi Springfield, O., in 1850. Many of her books are illustrated by her husband, J. W. Champney. Champney, James Wells, an American artist, born in Boston, Mass., July 16, 1843. He studied in Europe under Edouard Frere. and in 1882 became a member of the Nation- al Academy. He died in New York in 1903. Champs-Elysees, (Fr. " Elysian Fields"), a place of public resort in Paris, which consists of an avenue and the gardens surrounding it. Chanca, Dr. (believed to have been Diego Alvarez Chanca), a Spanish physician, born in Seville, who be- came a companion of Columbus on his second voyage in 1493. Chancel, the end of a church, in which the altar is placed. It was for- merly divided from the body of the church by a screen and is raised above the level. Chancellor, in ancient times a petty officer stationed at the fence of bars or lattice-work in a law-court, to introduce such functionaries as were entitled to pass inside. The Lord Chancellor of England was originally the king's chief secretary, to whom petitions were referred. He is now the highest judicial functionary in the kingdom. Several of the United States have chancellors, high judicial officers who preside over courts of chancery. The Chancellor of the German Em- pire is an officer, the extent of whose power and influence has never been exactly defined. In modern Germany since the unification of the German Empire the office has been made illus- trious by its association with the name of Bismarck, the first to hold that position under the new regime. In general terms it may be stated that the German Chancellor is an executive of very great powers, being at once the adviser and prime minister of the Emperor. Chancellorsville, Battle of, one of the great battles of the American Civil War, fought at Chancellorsville, Va., May 2 and 3, 1863. Gen. Jo- seph Hooker commanded the Federal force, and Gen. Robert E. Lee the Confederate force. Although Hook- Chancery Chantry er's army was superior in numbers, being about 130,000 against 60,000 of the Confederates, the advantage at the end of the battle lay with the latter. During a flank movement the llth corps of the Federal army, under Gen. O. O. Howard, was surprised and thrown into a panic near nightfall of the first day. The flank movement extended so far that the bullets of the Confederates were turned upon their own troops, and by their fire " Stone- wall " Jackson was mortally wound- ed. The Federal loss was 18,000, the Confederate loss 13,000. Chancery, in law, a court having special defined power. In the United States it is a court having equity jurisdiction. American courts of equi- ty are, hi some instances, distinct from those of law ; in others, the same tribunals exercise the jurisdiction both of courts of law and equity, though their forms of proceeding are different in their two capacities. Chandler, Seth C., an American astronomer, born in Boston, Mass., Sept. 16, 1845 ; well known for his in- vestigations and observations of the phenomena of variable stars, the com- putation of comet orbits, and, in con- nection with J. Ritchie, Jr., of Bos- ton, for devising a system of code- telegrams for announcing astronomical discoveries. He died Dec. 31, 1913. Chandler, William Eaton, an American politician, born in Concord, N. H., Dec. 28, 1835. He was grad- uated at Harvard Law School in 1855, entered the New Hampshire Legisla- ture in 1862, became Judge Advocate General of the Navy Department in 1865, and Secretary of the Navy in 1882, serving three years. In 1887- 1901 he was a United States Senator from New Hampshire. Chang-Chow-Foo, or Chang- Chan, a city of China, about 36 miles S. W. of Amoy, which is its port. It lies in a valley in the province of Fu- Chien, and is surrounded by hills and intersected by a river. It is the center of the Fu-Chien silk industry. Changeling, a child left or taken in the place of another. Chang-Sha, a city of China, capi- tal of the Province of Hu-Nan, on the Hang-Kiang, a tributary of the Yang- tse-Kiang. Chanler, William Astor, an American explorer, born in Newport, R. I., June 11, 1867. He studied at Harvard, but left the university to make explorations in Africa. He was elected to the New York Legislature, and to Congress. He served in the war with Spain. Channel Islands, a group of is- lands in the English Channel, off the W. coast of department La Manche, in France. They belong to Great Brit- ain, and consist of Jersey, Guernsey, Alderney, and Sark, with some de- pendent islets. They are almost ex- empt from taxation, and their inhab- itants enjoy besides all the privileges of British subjects. Area 112 square miles, pop., 88,289. Channing, William Ellery, an American preacher and writer ; born in Newport, R. I., April 7, 1780; studied at Harvard College. His early views are said to have been evangeli- cal, but he soon became a decided Uni- tarian, and by his zeal was termed the " Apostle of Unitarianism." His first appointment as a preacher was in 1803, when he obtained the charge of a congregation in Federal street, Boston. He died in Burlington, Vt, Oct. 2, 1842. Channing, William Ellery, an American poet ; nephew of William E. Channine. the elder; born in Boston, Mass., June 10, 1818; died in 1901. Channing, William Henry, an American Unitarian clergyman and biographer; nephew of W. E. Chan- ning, the elder ; born in Boston, May 25, 1810. Settling in England, he succeeded James Martineau as pastor at Liverpool. His daughter married Sir Edwin Arnold. He died in Lon- don, Dec. 23, 1884. Chantibnn, or Chantahon, an important commercial port of Siam, near the mouth of the Chantibun river, in the Gulf of Siam, occupied by the French as security for the fulfillment of the treaty of 1893. Pop., 30,000. Chantry, a church or chapel en- dowed for the maintenance of one or more priests, for the purpose of sing- ing daily masses for the souls of the endowers, and such others as they may appoint. Also the endowment for the performance of masses for the soul of the donor, or others. Chanzy Clianzy, Antoine Eugene Al- fred, a French General, born in Nou- art (Ardennes), March 18, 1823; en- tered the artillery as a private, re- ceived a commission in the Zouaves. He was elected to the National Assem- bly, and narrowly escaped being shot by the Communists in 1871. In 1873- 1879 he was Governor-General of AJ- geria. Chosen a life Senator in 1875, he was pot forward for the presidency in 1879. He was ambassador at St. Petersburg in 1879-1881, and after- ward commanded the 6th Army Corps at Chalons, where he died suddenly, Jan. 4, 1883. Chao-Chau, a city of China, on the Han-Kiang, in the Province of Kwang-tung, 195 miles N. E. of Hong- Kong. Chapala, a lake in Mexico, on the high plateau of Jalisco, surrounded by steep, bare mountains. Chapel, a place of worship, for- merly distinguished from a church by the worship to be performed; churches being for general use, and chapels for private use. In Roman Catholic churches, portions of the main build- ing, dedicated to particular saints, in honor of whom a service is there per- formed, are called chapels. The word is also applied to an association of union workmen in a printing-office for the purpose of promoting and enforc- ing order among themselves. Chapelle, Placide Louis, an American clergyman, born in Mende, France. Aug. 28, 1842. He came to the United States in 1859, and was ordained a Roman Catholic priest. For five years he was a missionary, and from 1870 to 1891 held pastorates in Baltimore and Washington. He was made coadjutor archbishop of Santa Fe in 1891, archbishop in 1894, and archbishop of New Orleans in 1897; in 1898 he became Apostolic Delegate to Cuba, Porto Rico, and the Philippines. He died Aug. 9, 1905. Chapin, Edwin Hubbell, Amer- ican Universalist divine (1814-80), was the author of valuable moral and ethical works for young people. Chapin, John R., an American illustrator, born in Providence, R. I., in 1823. He received a common school education and studied law, but took up art. He was a pioneer in periodi- Charcot cal illustration in the United States. In 1863 he made the designs for the new series of bills for the National currency. He died Nov. 12, 190-L Chaplain, literally a person who is appointed to a chapel, as a clergy- man not having a parish or similar charge. Chaplains in the United States ansy rank as captains of in- fantry ; in the navy they have the rank of lieutenant, commander and captain, according to length of service. Clia-Poo, or Cha-Pn, a seaport town of China, in the Province of Cheh-Chiang (or Che-Kiang), on the N. side of Hang-Chau Bay, 35 miles from Ning-Po. Chapter, one of the chief divi- sions of a book. As the rules and statutes of ecclesiastical establish- ments were arranged in chapters, so also the assembly of the members of a religious order, and of canons, was called a chapter. Chapter-House, the building at- tached to a cathedral or religious house in which the chapter meets for the transaction of business. Chapultepec, a rocky elevation about 3 miles S. W. of the City of Mexico. During the war with the United States, Gen. Pillow stormed the castle on this hill, Sept 13, 1847. The Emperor Maximilian made Cha- pultepec his principal palace, and it is now occupied by the President, por- tions used by a school and observa- tory being still reserved for them. Charade, a species of enigma, or riddle, the subject of which is a name or word that is proposed for solution from an enigmatical description of its several syllables taken separately as so many individual words, and then from a similar description of the whole name or word. Charcot, Jean Martin, a French physician, born in Paris, Nov. 29, 1825. His specialty was nervous and mental diseases, and he performed many curious and successful experi- ments in hypnotism and mental sug- gestion. He died Aug. 16, 1893. His son, JEAN MABTIN, became an eminent scientist: led an expedition to discover the South Pole in 1908; and while he failed he reached lat. 70 S., and mapped 120 miles of hitherto unknown coast. Chares Charles Chares, a Rhodian sculptor, born in Lindus, Rhodes; lived about 290- 280 B. c. He was a pupil of Lysippus and the sculptor of the Colossus of Rhodes, one of the " seven wonders of the world." Charge d'affaires, a representa- tive of a country at a less important foreign court, inferior to an ambassa- dor, or a minister, to whom is intrust- ed all matters of diplomacy. Charge of the Light Brigade, The, or " Death charge of the 600 at Balaclava," Oct. 25, 1854, a remark- able military movement made by the 13th Light Dragoons, the 17th Lan- cers, the llth Hussars, commanded by Lord Cardigan, the 8th Hussars, and the 4th Light Dragoons. The Rus- sians were advancing in great strength to cut off the Turkish force from the British. Lord Raglan sent an order to Lord Lucan to advance, and Lord Lucan, not understanding what was intended, applied to Captain Nolan, who brought the message, and Nolan replied : " There, my lord, is your enemy." Lucan then gave orders to Lord Cardigan to attack, and the 600 men rode forward into the jaws of death. In 20 minutes 12 officers were killed and 11 wounded; 147 men were killed and 110 wounded, and 325 hors- es were slain. Charing-Cross, the titular center of London, so named from a cross which stood until 1647 at the village of Charing in memory of Eleanor, wife of Edward I. It is now a triangular piece of roadway at Trafalgar Square. Chariot, in ancient times a kind of carriage used either for pleasure or in war. Charivari, an imitative word, hav- ing its origin in slang, describing a mock serenade of discordant music with such accompaniments as tin ket- tles, shouting, whistling, groaning, hissing, and screaming, and the like. Charlemagne, Charles the Great, King of the Franks, and subsequently Emperor of the West, was born in 742, probably at Aix-la-Chapelle. His father was Pepin the Short, King of the Franks. On the decease of his father, in 768, he was crowned king, and divided the kingdom of the Franks with his younger brother Carloman, at whose dath in 771 Charlemagne made himself master of the whole empire. He attracted by his liberality the most distinguished scholars to his court at Aix-la-Chapelle where he died and was buried in 814. Charleroi, a fortified and impor- tant manufacturing town of Belgium, in the province of Hainault, on the navigable river Sambre, 33 miles S. of Brussels. The town is the center of the large coal-basin of Charleroi. It was one of the first places in Belgium to suffer from the German invasion, and sturdily but ineffectually met the attack of Aug. 21-3, 1914. See AP- PENDIX: World War. Charles VII., King of France; born in Paris, Feb. 22, 1403, and though only the fifth son of Charles VI. and Isabella of Bavaria, became, by the successive deaths of his elder brothers, heir-presumptive to the crown. That he should ever succeed to it was then extremely problemati- cal, as Henry V. of England was pur- suing his career of conquest, and short- ly afterward, by the treaty of Troyes, secured to himself the hand of Charles' sister Catharine, and the succession to the French throne after her father's death. On the King of England's death in 1422 his son Henry VI. was proclaimed King of France at Paris, The war with the national party, rep- resented by the Orleanist faction, with the dauphin at their head, was main- tained for several years by the Eng- lish, under the command of the Duke of Bedford. So successfully did the latter conduct operations that Charles was nearly ready to abandon the struggle when his fortunes were re- trieved by one of the most singular in- cidents recorded in history. This was the arrival in his camp of the Maid of Orleans 2 who by the enthusiasm which she inspired turned the tide of success against the English. Through the intervention of the Earl of Suf- folk a marriage was concluded be- tween the young King Henry VI. and Margaret of Anjou, niece of Charles VII. s queen. In the treaty entered into on this occasion the territory of Maine was secretly surrendered to France, and subsequently, on hostili- ties being resumed between the two countries, the troops of Charles con- quered the whole of Guienne, and final- ly expelled the English from all their Charles Charles possessions in France except Calais. The last years of Charles' reign were embittered by domestic broils, in which his son and successor Louis XI. took a prominent part against his father. He died at the castle of Mehun, near Bourges, on July 22, 1401. His share in the treacherous murder of the Duke j of Burgundy, and base abandonment \ to her fate of Joan of Arc, are stains j on his memory which can never be effaced. Charles IX., King of France, born in 1550, ascended the throne at the age of 10 years, after the death of his brother Francis II. During his reign occurred the Massacre of St. Bartholo- mew's Day. Charles died, childless, in I 1574. He was succeeded by his broth- ' er Henry III. Charles X., Comtc d'Artpis, King of France ; born in Versailles in 1757 ; grandson of Louis XV., the youngest son of the dauphin, and brother of Louis XVI. After the downfall of Napoleon he entered France with the title of lieutenant- general of the kingdom, and issued a judicious proclamation, promising the reign of law and an entire oblivion of the past. In 1824 he succeeded his brother, Louis XVIII., under the title of Charles X., and gained a momen- tary popularity by the abolition of the censorship of the press. He was ig- nominiously driven from the throne in 1830. After formally abdicating in favor of his grandson, the Duke de Bordeaux, he revisited England, re- sumed his residence for a short time at Holyrood, and finally settled at Go- ritz in Styria, where he died of chol- era in 1836. Charles V., Emperor of Germany and King of Spain (in the latter ca- pacity he is called Charles I.) ; the eldest son of Philip, Archduke of Aus- tria, and of Joanna, the daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain ; born in Ghent, Feb. 24, 1500. Philip was the son of the Emperor Maximilian and Mary, daughter of Charles the Bo'd, last Duke of Burgundy. Charles birth gave him claim to the fairest countries of Europe. In 1519 Charles, on the death of Maximilian, was elect* ed emperor. The progress of the Reformation in Germany demanded the care of the new emperor, who held a Diet at Worms. Luther, who appeared at this Diet with a safe conduct from Charles, defended his cause with energy and boldness. The emperor kept silent; but after Luther's departure a severe edict appeared against him in the name of Charles, who thought it his interest to declare himself the defend- er of the Roman Church. After the defeat and capture of Francis I. of France the power of Charles became a source of uneasiness to most other princes of Europe. Pope Clement VII. placed himself at the head of a league of the principal States of Italy against the emperor, but their in-directed efforts were pro- ductive of new misfortunes. Rome was taken by storm by the troops of the Constable of Bourbon, sacked, and the Pope himself made prisoner. Charles V. publicly disavowed the proceedings of the Constable, went into mourning with his court, and car- ried his hypocrisy so far as to order prayers for the deliverance of the Pope. On restoring the holy father to liberty he demanded a ransom of 400,- 000 crowns of gold, but was satisfied with a quarter of that sum. He also released, for 2,000,000, the French princes who had been given to him as hostages. Henry VIII. of England now allied himself with the French monarch against Charles, who accused Francis of haying broken his word. The war terminated in 1529 by the treaty of Cambray, of which the con- ditions were favorable to the emperor. Charles soon after left Spain, and was crowned in Bologna as King of Lom- bardy and Roman Emperor. In 1530 he seemed desirous, at the Diet of Augsburg, to reconcile the Reformers to the Roman Church ; but not suc- ceeding, he issued a decree against the Protestants, which they met by the Schmalkaldic League. He also pub- lished, in 1532, a law of criminal pro- ceedure. Having compelled Solyman to retreat, he undertook, in 1535, an ex- pedition against Tunis, reinstated the dey, and released 20.000 Christian slaves. The disturbances caused in Ger- many by the Reformation induced the emperor to accede to the peace of Crespy with France in 1545. The pol- icy of Charles was to reconcile the two parties, and with this view he al- Charles Charles ternately threatened and courted the Protestants. After some show of ne- gotiation the Protestant princes raised the standard of war. The emperor declared in 1546 the heads of the league under the ban of the empire, excited divisions among the confed- erates, collected an army in haste, and obtained several advantages over his enemies. John Frederick, the Elector of Saxony, was taken prisoner in the battle of Muhlberg in 1547. Charles received him sternly, and gave him over to a court-martial consisting of Italians and Spaniards, under the presidency of Alva, which condemned him to death. The elector saved his life only by renouncing his electorate and his hereditary estates, but he re- mained a prisoner. Meanwhile the emperor appeared somewhat more mod- erately inclined toward the vanquished party. On coming to Wittenberg he expressed surprise that the exercise of the Lutheran worship had been dis- continued. The Landgrave of Hesse- Cassel, one of the heads of the Prot- estants, was compelled to sue for mercy. Notwithstanding his promise Charles deprived him of his freedom. After having dissolved the League of Schmalkalden the emperor again occu- pied himself with the plan of uniting all religious parties, and for this pur- pose issued the " Interim," which was as fruitless as the measures proposed by him at the Diet of Augsburg. The fortunes of war changed, and the Protestants dictated the conditions of the treaty of Passau in 1552. Charles saw all his plans frustrated and the number of his enemies increas- ing. He abdicated the imperial throne, and selected for his residence the mon- astery of St. Justus, near Plasencia in Estremadura, and here he ex- changed sovereignty, dominion, and pomp for the quiet and solitude of a cloister. His death took place Sept. 21, 1558. Charles I., King of England and Scotland ; born in Scotland in 1600 ; was the third son of James VI. and Anne of Denmark. Soon after the birth of his son James succeeded to the crown of England, and on the death of Prince Henry in 1612, Rob- ert, the second son, having died in in- fancy, Charles became heir-apparent, but was not created Prince of Wales till 1616. His youth appears to have passed respectably, little being record- ed of him previous to his journey into Spain in company with Buckingham, in order to pay his court in person to the Spanish Infanta. Through the arrogance of Buckingham this match was prevented, and the prince was soon after contracted to Henrietta Maria, daughter of Henry IV. of France. In 1625 he succeeded to the throne on the death of his father. Charles began to employ his threat- ened mode of raising funds by loans, benevolences, and similar unpopular proceedings ; which were wholly op- posed to the rising notions of civil liberty throughout the nation, and to the constitutional doctrine which ren- dered the Commons the guardian and dispenser of the public treasure. Civil war followed, and Charles was defeat- ed and captured. He was tried before a special tribunal on the charge that he had appeared in arms against the Parliamentary forces, and sentence of death was pronounced against him, and only three days were allowed him to prepare for his fate. The interpo- sition of foreign powers was vain. After passing the three days in re- ligious exercises, and in tender inter- views with his friends and family, he was led to the scaffold. His execution took place before the Banqueting House, Whitehall, on Jan. 30, 1649, where the ill-fated king submitted to the fatal stroke, in the 49th year of his age. Charles II., King of England, Ire- land, and Scotland ; son of Charles I. and Henrietta Maria of France ; born in London, May 29, 1630. He was a refugee at The Hague on the death of his father, on which he immediately assumed the royal title. He first in- tended to proceed to Ireland, but was prevented by the progress of Crom- well. He therefore listened to an in- vitation from the Scots, who had pro- claimed him their king on Feb. 5, 1649, and arrived in the Cromarty Firth, June 16, 1650. In 1651 he was crowned at Scone ; but the ap- proach of Cromwell with his conquer- ing army soon rendered his abode in Scotland unsafe. Hoping to be joined by the English royalists, he took the spirited resolution of passing Crom- well and entering England, Carlisle Charles Charles readily throwing open its gates to re- ceive him. He was immediately pur- sued by that active commander, who gained the battle of Worcester, and Charles, after a variety of imminent hazards, being on one occasion shel- tered for 24 hours in the branches of the famous Boscobel oak, reached Shoreham, in Sussex, and effected a passage to France. It is the province of history to state the circumstances that produced the Restoration, which General Monk so conducted that Charles, without a struggle, succeeded at once to all those dangerous prerogatives which it had cost the nation so much blood and treasure, first to abridge and then to abolish. This unrestrictive return was not more injurious to the nation than fatal to the family of the Stu- arts, which, had a more rational pol- icy prevailed, might have occupied the throne at the present time. On May 29, 1660, Charles entered his capital amid universal and almost frantic acclama- tions ; and the different civil and re- ligious parties vred with each other in loyalty and submission. In 1662 he married the Infanta of Portugal, a prudent and virtuous princess, but in no way calculated to acquire the af- fection of a man like Charles. The indolence of his temper and the ex- penses of his licentious way of life soon involved him in pecuniary diffi- culties ; and the unpopular sale of Dunkirk to the French was one of his most early expedients to relieve him- self. After a troubled reign he died from the consequences of an apoplectic fit, in February, 1685, in the 55th year of his age. Charles XII., King of Sweden; born in Stockholm, June 27, 1682; was instructed in the languages, his- tory, geography, and mathematics. On the death of his father in 1697 when he was but 15 years old, he was de- clared of age by the estates. Fred- erick IV. of Denmark, Augustus II. of Poland, and the Czar Peter I. of Rus- sia concluded an alliance which re- sulted in the Northern War. The Danish troops first invaded the terri- tory of the Duke of Holstein-Gottorp. Charles proposed in the Council of State the most energetic measures against Denmark. After making some arrangements respecting the internal administration he embarked at Carls- crona in May, 1700. Thirty ships of the line and a great number of small transports, strengthened by an English and Dutch squadron, appeared before Copenhagen. Arrangements were being made for the disembarkation when Charles, full of impatience, plunged from his boat into the water, and was the first who reached land. The Danes retired before the superior power of the enemy. Copenhagen was on the point of being besieged when the peace negotiated at Travendal was signed (Aug. 8, 1700), by which the Duke of Holstein was confirmed in all the rights of which it had been at- tempted to deprive him. Thus ended the first enterprise of Charles XII., in which he exhibited as much intelli- gence and courage as disinterested- ness. After thus checking Denmark thft attacks of Augustus and Peter were to be repelled. The former was be- sieging Riga, the latter menaced Nar- va and the country situated about the Gulf of Finland. Without returning to his capital, which he never revisit- ed, Charles caused 20,000 men to be transported to Livonia, and went to meet the Russians, whom he found 80,000 strong in a fortified camp un- der the walls of Narva. On Nov. 30, 1700, between 8,000 and 10,000 Swedes placed themselves in order of battle, under the fire of the Russians, and the engagement began. In less than a quarter of an hour the Russian camp was taken by storm. Thirty thousand Russians perished on the field or threw themselves into the Narva ; the rest were taken prisoners or dispersed. After this victory Charles crossed the Dwina, attacked the in- trenchments of the Saxons, and gained a decisive victory. Charles might now have concluded a peace which would have made him the arbiter of the North ; but instead of so doing he pur- sued Augustus to Poland. Augustus attempted in vain to enter into nego- tiations with Charles, who refused to negotiate with him. The war continued ; the Swedes gained a brilliant victory at Clissau ; in 1703 all Poland was in the posses- sion of the conquerors; the cardinal primate declared the throne vacant; and by the influence of Charles the Charles new choice fell on Stanislaus Leczin- sky. Augustus hoped to be secure in Saxony, as Peter had meanwhile oc- cupied Ingria, and founded St. Peters- burg, at the mouth of the Neva. Bat the victor of Narva despised an enemy on whom he hoped, sooner or later, to take an easy revenge, and invaded Saxony. At Altranstadt he dictated the conditions of peace in 1706. The Livonian Patkul, who was the prime mover of the alliance against Sweden, was delivered up to him on his de- mand, and was broken on the wheel. The King of Sweden, however, before he left Germany, required the em- peror to grant to the Lutherans in Si- lesia perfect freedom of conscience ; and the requisition was complied with. In September, 1707, the Swedes left Saxony. They were 43,000 strong, well clothed, well disciplined, and en- riched by the contributions imposed on the conquered. Six thousand men remained for the protection of the King of Poland; with the rest of the army Charles took the shortest route to Moscow. But having reached the region of Smolensk he altered his plan, at the suggestion of the Cossack bet- man Mazeppa, and proceeded to the Ukraine, in the hope that the Cossacks would join him. But Peter laid waste their country, and the proscribed Ma- zeppa could not procure the promised aid. General Lewenhaupt, who was to bring reinforcements and provisions from Livonia, arrived with only a few troops. Pultawa, abundantly fur- nished with stores, was about to be invested when Peter appeared with 70,000 men. Charles, in reconnoiter- ing, was dangerously wounded in the thigh ; consequently, in the battle of July 8, 1709, he was obliged to issue his commands from a litter, without being able to encourage his soldters by his presence. They were obliged to yield to superior force, and the enemy obtained a complete victory. Charles saw the flower of his army fall into the power of those Russians so easily vanquished at Narva. He himself, to- gether with Mazeppa, fled with a small guard, and was obliged to go several miles on foot. He finally found ref- nge and an honorable reception at Bender, in the Turkish territory. After his romantic return from Tur- key to Sweden Charles continued to Charles fight. He was besieging Frederikshall, when, on Nov. 30, 1718, as he was in the trenches, leaning against the para- pet and examining the workmen, he was struck on the head by a cannon ball. He was found dead in the same position, his hand on his sword, in his pocket the portrait of Gustavus Adol- phus and a prayer book. A century afterwards, Nov. 30, 1818, Charles XIV. caused a monument to be erect- ed on the spot where he fell. Charles XIII., King of Sweden; born Oct. 7, 1748; second son of King Adolphus Frederick, and Louisa Ul- rica, sister of Frederick the Great of Prussia. His education was directed chiefly to the learning of naval tactics, for which purpose he engaged in sev- eral cruises in the Cattegat. The death of Adolphus Frederick recalled him to Sweden, where he took an im- portant part in the revolution of 1772. His brother Gustavus III. appointed him governor-general of Stockholm, and Duke of Sundermannland. In 1774 he married Hedwig Elizabeth Charlotte, princess 6f Holstein-Got- torp. In the war with Russia in 1788 he received the command of the fleet, defeated the Russians in the Gulf of Finland, and, in the most dangerous season of the year, brought back his fleet in safety to the harbor of Carls- crona, after which he was appointed governor-general of Finland. After the murder of Gustavus III. in 1792, he was placed at the head of the re- gency, and happily for Sweden, pre- served the country at peace with all other nations. In 1796 he resigned the government to Gustavus Adolphus IV., who had become of age, and re- tired as a private man to his castle of Rosersberg. A revolution hurled Gustavus Adolphus IV., in 1809, from the throne, and placed Charles at the head of the State, as administrator of the realm, and some months after- ward, June 20, 1809, as King of Swe- den, at a very critical period. He had already adopted Prince Christian of Holstein-Sonderburg-Augustenburg as his successor, and after his death, Marshal Bernadotte, who was elected by the Estates, in August, 1810, to take the place of the prince. On him he bestowed his entire confidence. May 27, 1811, he founded the Order of Charles XIII., which is conferred Charles Charles Eniannel solely on Freemasons of high degree. June 21, 1816, he acceded to the holy alliance. His prudent conduct in the war between France and Russia in 1812 procured Sweden an indemnifica- tion for Finland by the acquisition of Norway, Nov. 4, 1814. He died Feb. 5, 1818. Charles, Archduke of Austria; third son of the Emperor Leopold II. ; born in Florence, Sept. 5, 1771. In his 20th year he distinguished himself in the battles of Jemappes and Neer- winden, in both of which the French republican armies were beaten, and was appointed governor-general of Belgium in 1793. In the campaign the following year victory favored the French under Pichegru, and the Neth- erlands were lost. He was appointed in 1796 field-marshal of the empire and commander-in-chief of the Aus- trian army on the Rhine, and after notable victories in the winter of 1797 he captured Kehl, the only position the French occupied in Germany. Meanwhile Bonaparte had finished his conquest of Italy, and was rapidly pushing his way into the heart of Aus- tria. Charles was sent against him ; but it was too late. He was com- pelled to conclude the treaty of Leo- ben (1797), which was followed by the peace of Campo Formio. After the fruitless congress at Rastadt he again put himself at the head of the Rhine army. In the protracted strug- gle in the heart of Germany Napo- leon's genius was on every occasion triumphant, once only, at Aspern, did Charles snatch a victory from him (May 21, 22, 1809), but the bloody battle of Wagram (July 5, 6) laid Austria at the feet of the French em- peror. The military career of Charles closes here. His literary work is com- prised in " Principles of Strategy " (1814). He died April 30, 1847. Charles Edward Stuart, called THE PRETENDER, grandson of James II., King of England, son of James Edward and Clementina, daughter of Prince Sobieski ; born in Rome in 1720. The last scion of the royal house of Stuart, xrom the very cradle he was inspired with an impulse that induced him, at the early age of 22, to attempt the recovery of the throne of his ancestors. Supported by the court of Rome, he went to Paris in 1742, and succeeding in gaining over to his views Louis XV., and an army was on the point of sailing from Dunkirk for England when the Eng- lish Admiral Norris dispersed the whole French fleet before it had gained the open sea. He now resolved to trust to his own exertions. With borrowed money, and seven trusty of- ficers, he landed, July 28, 1745, at Lochnanuadh, Scotland, and found many adherents, who went over to his party. With this he marched for- ward, conquered the British troops and caused himself to be proclaimed Regent of England, Scotland and Ire- land. His force was now 7,000 strong. With this he advanced, and laid siege to Carlisle, Nov. 15, which, after three days, surrendered, and supplied him with arms. He now caused his father to be proclaimed King, and himself Regent of England; removed his headquar- ters to Manchester, and soon found himself within 100 miles of London, where many of his friends awaited his arrival. He was compelled to re- tire in the beginning of 1746. As a final attempt he risked the battle of Culloden, against the Duke of Cum- berland, April 16, 1746, in which his army was defeated and dispersed. Five months later, on Sept. 20, 1746, after much wandering and hardship, he sailed from Scotland, and arrived in France destitute of everything. By the interest of Madame de Pompadour Charles now received an annual pen- sion of 200.000 livres for life ; he had also 12,000 doubloons yearly from Spain. He died Jan. 31, 1788, in the 68th year of his life. His body was car- ried to Frascati, and entombed in a style worthy of a king. A scepter, crown, and sword, and the escutch- eons of England and Scotland adorned his coffin ; and his only brother then living, the Cardinal of York, per- formed the funeral services for "dead King Charles." The Cardinal of York received a pension from Great Britain after 1799, and died in Frascati, July 13, 1807. Charles Emanuel I., Duke of Savoy, surnamed THE GREAT; born at castle of Rivpli in 1562. He proved his courage in the battles of Mon- brun, Vigo, Asti, Chatillon, Ostage, Charles I. Charlton at the siege of Berne, and on the walls of Suza. He died of apoplexy in Savillon, in 1630. Charles Martel, son of Pepin Heristal (mayor of the palace under the last kings of the Merovingian dynasty). His father had governed un- der the weak Kings of France with so much justice that he was enabled to make his office hereditary in his fam- ily. Charles rendered his reign fa- mous by the victory in October, 732, over the Saracens. He died in 741. Charles I., CHAKLES FRANCIS JO- SEPH, Emperor of Austria and King Of Hungary; born Aug. 17, 1887; grand-nephew of Emperor Francis Joseph (died Nov. 21, 1916) ; mar- ried Zita, Princess of Bourbon and Parma, Oct. 21, 1911, succeeded to the crowns on the death of Francis Jo- seph ; heir apparent, Archduke Fran- cis Joseph Otto, born Nov. 20, 1912. Although bound by the league with Germany the young Emperor mani- fested strong desires for peace, and early made himself exceedingly popu- lar by his democratic conduct. Charleston, a city, port of entry, and county-seat of Charleston Co., S. C. ; the first city in population and importance in the State, situated at the confluence of the Ashley and Coop- er rivers, 7 miles from the ocean. Charleston has one of the safest and most commodious harbors in the United States. It is defended by Forts Sumter and Moultrie. Area,, 5% square miles. Pop. (1910) 58,833. Charleston was founded in 1670, re- ceiving from France about 1685 a large influx of Protestant refugees. It was taken by the British in 1780, but evacuated in 1782. It was here that the first open movement was mado in favor of secession. In 1860 and 1861 the harbor was the scene of several conflicts, and Fort Sumter was reduced to ruins. In August, 1863, the city was bombarded, and in February, 1865, after 565 days of continuous military operations, dur- ing which period 2,550 shells reached the city, it was occupied by Federal troops. On Aug. 31 and Sept. 1, 1886, the city was partially destroyed by an earthquake. Earth tremblings continued for some months thereafter, but with indomitable energy the city was soon restored to its former beauty and prosperity. Charleston, city and capital of Kanawha county and of the State of West Virginia; at junction of the Great Kanawha and Elk rivers and on the Chesapeake & Ohio and other railroads; 130 miles S. W. of Wheel- ing. It is an important commercial center, with steamer connections with all Ohio and Mississippi river ports; is in a bituminous coal, salt, iron, petroleum, and natural < gas section; has shipyards and railroad repair shops; and manufactures fire-brick, wire nails, engines, boilers, and woolen goods. Pop. (1910) 22,996. Charlestown, a former city and seaport of Massachusetts, since 1873 part of the municipality of Boston, with which it is connected by bridges across Charles river. Bunker Hill is in its limits, and there is, on the site, a commemorative monument 220 feet high, the cornerstone of which was laid by Lafayette in 1821. Charlestown, a village ar.d county- seat of Jefferson Co., W. Va., noted as being the place of the capture, trial, and execution (Dec. 2, 1859), of John Brown. Pop. (1910) 22,996. Charlotte, a city and county-seat of Mecklenburg Co., N. C.; the center of the Southern cotton mill industry, having 100 mills within a radius of 200 miles. The Mecklenburg Decla- ration of Independence was adopted here in 1775. Pop. (1910) 34.014. Charlottenlmrg, a town of Prus- sia, about 3 miles from Berlin, with a royal palace and park, also a num- ber of industrial and manufacturing establishments. Pop. (1910) 305,978. Charlottesville, a city and county- seat of Albermarle Co., Va. It is the seat of the University of Virginia and of Monticello, the home of Thomas Jefferson. Pop. (1910) 6,765. Charlottetown, a city and capital of Prince Edward Island, Canada, on Hillsborough bay, and the Prince Ed- ward Island railway. Pop. (1911) 11,198. Charlton, John, an English ar- tist, born in Bamborough, Northum- berland, June 28, 1849. Died in 1893. Charlton, John, a Canadian statesman, born near Caledonia, N. Y., Feb. 3, 1829. He removed to Charm Chase Canada in 1849, and entered business and political life. He was elected as a Liberal to the Canadian House of Commons in 1872, and held his seat until his death. He was best known in moral legislation. He died in 1910. Charm, anything believed to pos- sess some occult or supernatural pow- er, such as an amulet, spell, etc. Charnel-house, a chamber or building under or near churches where the bones of the dead are deposited. Charon, the ferryman who conduc- ted the souls of the departed in a boat across the Stygian lake to the infernal regions. Charpoy, in the East Indies, a small, portable bed, consisting of a wooden frame resting on four legs, with bands across to support the bed- ding. Charqni, jerked beef, the Chilian name of which the English term is a corruption. Chart, a representation of a portion of the earth's surface projected on a plane. The term is commonly re- stricted to those intended for navi- gator's use, on which merely outlines of coasts, islands, etc., are represented. A globular chart is a chart construct- ed on a globular projection. A Mer- cator's chart is a chart on the pro- jection of Mercator. A plane chart is a representation of some part of the superficies of the earth, in which the spherical form is disregarded, the meridians drawn parallel, the parallels of latitude at equal distances, and the degrees of latitude and longitude equal. A selengraphical chart is a chart representing the surface of _the moon ; and a topographical chart is a chart of a particular place, or of a small part of the earth. Charter, a written instrument, ex- ecuted with usual forms, given as evi- dence of a grant, contract, or other important transacation between man and man. Charter-house a celebrated school and charitable foundation in London, England. Charter Oak, a tree which for- merly stood in Hartford, Conn., in the hollow trunk of which the colonial charter is said to have been hidden. The story is that when Governor An- dros _went to Hartford in 1687 to de- mand the surrender of the charter, the debate in the Assembly over his demand was prolonged until darkness set in, when the lights were suddenly extinguished, and a patriot, Captain Wadsworth, escaped with the docu- ment and hid it in the oak. The ven- erable tree was preserved with great care until 1856, when it was blown down in a storm. Charter Party, an agreement in writing concerning the hire of a ves- sel and the freight, containing the name and burden of the vessel, the names of the owner, master, and freighter, and every other particular as to rate of freight, duration of voy- age, time of loading and unloading, etc. Chartist, a name given to a politi- cal party in England whose views were embodied in a document called the "People's Charter." The chief points were, universal suffrage, vote by ballot, annual parliaments, pay- ment of members, equal electoral di- visions, and the abolition of property qualification for members. Ciiartres, Robert Philippe Louis Eugene Ferdinand D' Or- leans (Dnc de) grandson of Louis Philippe, King of the French, was born in Paris, Nov. 9, 1840. When only two years old he lost his father, and six years later the Revolution drove him, along with his family, into exile. He joined the Union army in the first campaign of the American Civil War in 1862. Died in 1910. Chartreuse, La Grande, a fa- mous monastery of France, in the de- partment of Isere, 14 miles N. of Grenoble, among lofty mountains, at an elevation of 3,281 feet above sea- level. The access to it is very diffi- cult. It was built in 1084, but hav- ing been several times pillaged and burnt down, the present building was erected after 1676. Charybdis, an eddy or whirlpool in the Straits of Messina, celebrated in ancient times, and regarded as the more dangerous to navigators because in endeavoring to escape it they ran the risk of being wrecked upon Scy- lla, a rock opposite to it. Chase, Ann, an American patriot; born in Ireland in 1809 ; came to the United States in 1818 ; settled in New Chase Orleans in 1832 ; removed to Tampico, Mex., in the following year, where she met and married Franklin Chase, United States consul, in 1836. Dur- ing the War with Mexico, in the ab- sence of her husband, she remained at the consulate to protect the Amer- ican records. On one occasion a mob attempted to pull down the American flag that floated over the consulate, but she protected it with drawn re- volver, and declared that the flag should not be touched except over her dead body. Later through her efforts the city of Tampico was taken. She died in Brooklyn, N. Y.. Dec. 24, 1874. Chase, Salmon Portland, an American jurist ; born in Cornish, N. H., Jan. 13, 1808; educated at Wind- sor, Vt., in his uncle's family at Co- lumbus, O., and in Dartmouth Col- lege; taught school in Washington, while studying law with William Wirt; opened law practice in Cincin- nati. In 1846 he argued the Fugitive Slave Law with William H. Seward, in a celebrated case, and his support of the anti-slavery cause soon made him a leader of the Free Soil and Re- publican parties. In 1849 he was elected to the United States Senate; in 1855 Governor of Ohio; in 1860 was a prominent candidate for the Re- publican presidential nomination ; ap- pointed Secretary of the Treasury by President Lincoln, in 1861, and in 1864 became Chief -Justice, in which office he presided at the impeachment trial of President Johnson. He died in New York city, May 7, 1873. Chase, Samuel, one of the signers of the American Declaration of In- dependence; born in Somerset Co., Md., April 17, 1741. He was admitted to the bar at the age of 20. Having become a member of the colonial legis- lature, he distinguished himself by his bold opposition to the royal governor. He took the lead in denouncing and resisting the famous Stamp Act. His revolutionary spirit placed him at the head of the active adversaries of the British government in his State. The Maryland Convention of June 22, 1774, appointed him to attend the meeting of the General Congress at Philadelphia in September of that year. He was also present at the session of December following, and in the subsequent Congresses during the Chasseni most critical periods of the Revolu- tionary War. That of 1776 deputed him on a mission to Canada along with Dr. Franklin, Charles Carroll, of Carrollton, and the Rev. John Car- roll, afterward Roman Catholic arch- bishop of Baltimore. He signed the Declaration of Independence with promptitude. In June, 1783, the legislature of Maryland sent him to London as a commissioner to recover stock of the Bank of England, and large sums of money which belonged the State. In 1791 he accepted the appointment of chief-justice of the General Court of Maryland. Five years afterward President Washing- ton made him an associate judge of the Supreme Court of the United States. He was impeached by the National House of Representatives. The trial of the judge before the Sen- ate is memorable on account of the excitement which it produced, the ability with which he was defended, and the nature of his acquittal. He continued to exercise his judicial func- tions with the highest reputation till 1811. He died June 19 of that year. Chase, William Henry, an Amer- ican military officer ; born in Massa- chusetts in 1798; was graduated at the United States Military Academy. At the outbreak of the Civil War he entered the Confederate army, and was prominent in the seizure of the Pensacola navy yard. He died in Pensacola, Fla., Feb. 8, 1870. Chase, William Merritt, an American artist, born in Franklin; Ind., Nov. 1, 1849. He studied paint- ing at the National Academy and sub- sequently in Europe with Piloty, and made a specialty of portraits and figure pieces. He died Oct. 25, 1916. Chasing, the art of working decor- ative forms in low-relief in gold, sil- ver, or other metals. Chassaignac, Charles Louis, an American physician ; born in New Orleans, Jan. 5, 1862; was graduated at the Medical Department of the University of Louisiana; and was president and Professor of Genito- Urinary Diseases at the New Orleans Polyclinic in 1902. Chasseur, a male attendant upon persons of distinction, attired in a military dress, and wearing a sword. It is also the name given by the Chastelluj Chattanooga French to bodies of light infantry which act as skirmishers and sharp- shooters. Chastellux, Francois Jean, Chevalier de, a French historian ; born in Paris in 1734 ; entered the army in 1749 ; distinguished himself as colonel in the Seven Years' War, and later served in the American Revolution as major-general under Rochambeau, and gained the friend- ship of Washington. He died in Paris, Oct. 28, 1788. Chasuble, the upper garment worn by a Roman Catholic priest during the celebration of mass. Chatard, Francis: Silas Mare an, an American clergyman; born in Bal- timore, in 1834. He became rector of the American College in Rome, and in 1878 Bishop of Vincennes, Ind. Chateaubriand, Francois Au- gnste, Vicpmte de, a French au- thor and politician; born in St. Malo, Brittany, Sept. 4, 1768; died in Paris, July 4, 1848. Chatham, a town and port of entry in Northumberland county. New Brunswick; on the Miramichi river and the Intercolonial railroad; 82 miles N. W. of Moncton; is the center of a fertile section, with largo grain and livestock interests; and has machine shops and pulp and lumber mills. Pop. (1911) 4,666. Chatham, city, port of entry, and capital of Kent county, Ontario, Can- ada ; on the Thames river and the Canadian Pacific railroad ; 67 miles S. W. of London ; has a large ship- ping trade in lumber and farm prod- ucts ; and is principally engaged in manufacturing. Pop. (1911) 10,770. Chatham, a town, naval arsenal, and seaport of England, county Kent, on the Medway, about 34^ miles by rail from London. The royal dock- yard was founded by Queen Elizabeth previous to the sailing of the Armada. It has been greatly enlarged in re- cent years, and has now capacious docks, in which the heaviest warships can be equipped and sent directly to sea. The town is defended by a strong line of fortifications which also serve as a flank defense for the metropolis. Pop. (1911) 42,250. Chatham, William Pitt, Earl of, one of the most illustrious states- men of Great Britain ; son of Robert Pitt, of Boconnoc, in Cornwall ; born Nov. 15, 1708; educated at Eton and Oxford. On quitting the university he became a cornet in the Blues, and in 1735 represented the borough of Old Sarum in the House of Com- mons, where he attracted universal notice. Pitt uniformly supported the cause of the people. Foreseeing the separation of the American colonies from the mother country if the arbi- trary measures then adopted should be continued ; he advocated, especially in 1766, a conciliatory policy and the repeal of the Stamp Act. In the same year he was invited to assist in form- ing a new ministry, in which he took the office of privy-seal. In 1768 he resigned, as he found himself inade- quately seconded by his colleagues. In the House of Lords he continued to recommend the abandonment of the coercive measures employed against America, particularly in 1774 ; but his warning was rejected, and in 3776 the colonies declared themselves indepen- dent. On April 7, 1778, though la- boring under a severe illness, he re- paired to the House, to attack the unjust and impolitic proceedings of the ministers toward the colonies. At the close of his speech he fainted and was conveyed out of the House, and afterward removed to his country- seat at Hayes, in Kent, where he died May 11. The Parliament annexed an annuity of 4,000 to the earldom of Chatham ; his debts were paid, and he was honored with a public funeral, and a magnificent monument in West- minster Abbey. Another was erected in 1782 in Guildhall. Chatham Islands, a small group in the Pacific, lying 360 miles E. of New Zealand, to which they politically belong. Pop. (1911) 453. Chattanooga, city and county-seat of Hamilton Co., Tenn. It is sit- uated on high grounds at the foot of Lookout Mountain, and in the midst of picturesque scenery. It is the site of a National Soldiers' Cemetery, with over 13,000 graves, and the Chatta- nooga and Chickamauga National Military Park. Chattanooga was set- tled in 1836, and was originally called Ross's landing. It was incorporated in 1851, and in 1863 was occupied and nearly destroyed by Union forces. It Chattels Check was the scene of three of the greatest battles of the Civil War: Chicka- mauga, Missionary Ridge, and Look- out Mountain. Pop. (1899), 29,100; (1900), 32,490; (1910) 44,604. Chattels, property movable and immovable, not being freehold. The word chattels is originally the same word with cattle, all property being reckoned in early periods by the num- ber of heads of cattle possessed, or their equivalent. Chattel-ton, Thomas, an English youth whose genius, eccentricity, and melancholy fate have gained him much celebrity ; born in Bristol in 1752, of poor parents: He died of self-ad- ministered poison in 1770, when not yet 18 years old. Chaucer, Geoffrey, " the father of English poetry ; " born in London probably about 1340. He was the son of a vintner named John Chaucer. His most celebrated work, "The Can- terbury Tales," was written at differ- ent periods between 1373 and 1400. He died in London, Oct. 25, 1400, and was buried in Westminster Abbey. Chauny, a town of N. France, 19 miles S. by W. of St. Quentin by rail and 60 miles from Paris ; normal pop. about 12,000. The town is on the Oise river, which is here navigable, and before the World War contained mirror-polishing and chemical works, sugar factories, metal foundries, and breweries. Its commercial importance was derived from the St. Gobain glass works. Chauny was the scene of much fighting in the Hundred Years' War, and was in the sphere of great operations in the World War in 1917. Chautauqna, a beautiful lake in New York, 18 miles long and 1/3 broad, 726 feet above Lake Erie, from which it is 8 miles distant. On its banks is the village of Chautau- qua, the center of a religious and educational movement of large and growing interest. This originated In 1874, when the village was selected as a summer place of meeting for all interested in Sunday-schools and mis- sions. Since then the Chautauqua Literary and Scientific Circle has taken origin here, consisting of a regular and systematic course of read- ing, extending over four years and entitling the student to a diploma. Cliauveau - Lagarcle, Claude Francois, a French advocate; born in Chartres, in 175G. He studied law in his native town and began to prac- tice in Paris shortly before the out- break of the Revolution. He became celebrated for his eloquent defense of those on trial in the Reign of Terror. He was the advocate of Marie An- toinette at her trial and also of Char- lotte Corday. He died in 1841. Chauvenet, William, an Ameri- can astronomer and mathematician ; born in Milford, Pa., May 24, 1819. He was graduated at Yale and became professor of mathematics and astron- omy at the United States Naval Academy in 1845, and professor of astronomy at Washington University, St. Louis, in 1859. In 1862 he be- came chancellor of the last institu- tion. He died in St. Paul, Minn., Dec. 13, 1870. Chauvinism, a French word do- rived from Nicolas Chauvin, a sol- dier of the French Republic and of the First Empire. His name be- came a synonym for a passionate ad- mirer of Napoleon, and the word Chauvinism was formed to signify the almost idolatrous respect entertained by many for the First Emperor; and now used for exaggerated devotion. Chazars, a people of the Finnic stock known in the 7th century on the shores of the Caspian ; in the 9th century their kingdom occupied the S. E. of Russia from the Caspian and the Volga to the Dnieper. Their capital was long at Astrakhan, called by them Balandshar. They were sin- gularly tolerant of all religions, Jew- ish, Christian, and Moslem ; and a large part of the nation formally adopted the Jewish faith from Jews who fled from the persecutions of the Emperor Leo. The power of the Cha- zars was ultimately broken in the 12th century by the Byzantine em- perors and the Russians. Check, or Cheque, a draft or bill on a bank, payable on presentation. A check may be drawn payable to the bearer, or to the order of some one named ; the first form is transferable without endorsement and payable to any one who presents it; the second must be endorsed, that is the person in whose favor it is drawn must write his name on the back of it. Cheese Cheese, the curd or caseine oi knilk, with variable quantities of but- ter and common salt, pressed into molds and ripened by keeping. Cheetah, the East Indian name for two species of feline animals, the leopard and the hunting leopard, the latter being much used in India for hunting game. Chee-foo (properly the name of the European colony of the Chinese town of Yen-Tai), a treaty port on the N. side of the peninsula of Shan- tung, at the entrance to the Gulf of Pechili, in which it is the only port that remains open throughout the winter. The foreign quarter is in some sense a colony of Shanghai, and, having the best climate of all the treaty ports, it is much resorted to by convalescents. The Chinese town, built on the sandy shore, with exceed- ingly dirty streets, has fortifications, a signal-station, and pop. (1910 est.) 54,000. The port was the scene of a naval demonstration in 1900, when British and American warships th-eatened to bombard the forts if their hostile attitude was not aban- doned. Tfiere were 150 missionaries in the city, whose rescue from peril was thus effected. Cheh-Chiang, or Cheh-Kiang, a maritime province of China proper, of very great commercial importance, containing three treaty ports, Ning- Fo, Wan-Cbau (Wen-Chow), and Hang-Chau ( Hang-Chow) , all of which are to be connected with Shanghai by a projected railway. Cheh-Chiang is famed for its native system of edu- cation. It contains the great relig- ious and literary center of China, Hang-Chow, where thousands of can- didates yearly resort for the public examinations. Hang-Chow is also the capital of the province, which is ruled by a viceroy. Marco Polo visited the province in the 14th century, when it contained beautiful temples, now in ruins. The Italians in 1900 laid claim to part of Cheh-Chiang as a sphere of influence, but failed in their demands. Area 36,670 square miles ; pop. (1910 est.) 17,000,000. Cheironectes, the Frog-fish, a genus, comprising some of those fishes popularly known under the name of anglers. They are most grotesquely and hideously shaped, having the pec- Chemistry toral fins supported like short feet on peduncles, by means of which they can creep over mud or sand when left dry by the receding tide. Cheirotherimn, a name given to a great unknown animal that formed the larger footsteps upon the slabs of the Trias, or upper New Red Sand- stone, and which bears a resemblance to the human hand. Chel-ab-kn-kil, or Ab-kn-kil- chel, an Indian priest who lived in, Yucatan and flourished in the 15th century. His name is mentioned in almost every Yucatanie legend, and fragments of history composed by him are found in documents of Yucatan, and Central American missions. Chelmsf ord, Frederic Augustus Thesiger, Lord, born May 21, 1827, an English soldier; served in the Cri- mea and through the Indian mutiny, and in 1877 was appointed command- er of the forces and lieutenant-gov- ernor of Cape Colony. He restored Kaffraria to tranquillity, and was given the chief command in the Zulu war of 1879. On his return to Eng- land he was made G. C. B. He died April 9, 1905. Chelsea, a city in Suffolk county, Mass., practically a suburb of Bos- ton; on Chelsea harbor, the Mystic river, and the Boston & Maine rail- road; 3 miles from the State house in Boston; is the seat of a United States Naval Hospital, Marine Hos- pital, and Soldiers' Home; and is chiefly engaged in manufacturing. Pop. (1910) 32,452. Chelsea, a borough of London, Eng- land, on the Thames, opposite Bat- tersea, and chiefly distinguished for containing a royal military hospital, originally commenced by James I. as a theological college, but converted by Charles II. for the reception of sick, maimed, and superannuated soldiers. Chelyuskin, Cape, (formerly Northeast Cape, and sometimes called Cape Severe), the extreme N. point of Asia, on a peninsula of the same name, which forms the W. arm of the B. half of the Taimyr peninsula. It is named after a Russian officer who led an expedition thus far in 1742, and here succumbed, with his wife, to the fatigues of the journey. Chemistry, the science treating of the relations and combinations of Chemnitz atoms, or, that branch of natural science which considers the combina- tion of two or more substances to form a third body with properties un- like either of the components; and the separation from a compound sub- stance of the more simple bodies pres- ent in it, each possessing distinct properties. Considering that the steps of the combination and decomposition of substances can never be correctly understood without an ultimate knowl- edge of the properties of substances, it follows that the science of chem- istry must take into notice likewise the description of all the simplest as well as of the most complex bodies. Chemistry ranks as one of the arts as well as one of the sciences, and the division of Practical Chemistry comprehends the rules and processes which must be followed and the me- chanical means for the prosecution of the art. Chemnitz, a town of Saxony, at the base of the Erzgebirge, and at the confluence of the Chemnitz river, with three other streams, 51 miles S. S. E. of Leipsic. It is the principal manu- facturing town of the kingdom, its industry consisting in weaving cot- tons, woolens, and silks, and in print- ing calicoes, chiefly for German con- sumption. It supplies the world with cheap hosiery, and makes mixed fab- rics of wool, cotton, and jute for the markets of Europe and the United States. It has several extensive ma- chine-factories, producing locomotives and other steam-engines, with ma- chinery for flax and wool spinning, weaving, and mining industry. Created a free imperial city as early as 1125, Chemnitz, suffered much during the Thirty Years' War. Pop. (19iO) 287,807. Chemnitz, Martin, a German Protestant theologian ; born in the mark of Brandenburg in 1522. Died at Brunswick in 1586. Chemulpo, Chosen, seaport town (since 1883 a treaty-port), on the W. coast, 25 miles by rail W. S. W. of Seoul, the capital. It was a landing- g)int for the Japanese occupation of orea, during the Russo-Japanese war of 1904, and witnessed the first fight, in the sinking of the Russian warships, the Variag and Korietz. The imports attain a value of $3,- Cherhourg 500,000 in some years; the exports $1,COO,000. Pop. 41,000; the bulk of the 3,000 foreigners are Japanese. Cheney, Charles Edward, an American clergyman ; born in Can- andaigua, N. Y., Feb. 12, 1836. He was ordained a clergyman of the Protestant Episcopal Church in 1858. Becoming rector of Christ Church, Chicago, he incurred censure for het- erodoxy and was tried on that charge and deposed from the priesthood. He at once became a leader in the Re- formed Episcopal movement, and was consecrated bishop of the new denomi- nation in 1873, a post he has since held. Cheney, Ednah Dow (Little- hale), an American writer ; born in Boston in 1824. She became presi- dent of the New England Woman's Club and the Massachusetts Suffrage Association. She died in 1904. Cheney, John Vance, an Ameri- can writer, born in Groveland, N. Y., Dec. 29, 1848. Cheney, Theseus Apoleon, an American historian ; born in Leon, N. Y., March 16, 1830. He died in Starkey, N. Y., Aug. 1878. Chenile, a round fabric or trim- ming made by uniting with two or more sets of warps, a fine filling or weft. The fabric is then twisted, as- suming a cylindrical shape with weft projecting radially from the central line of warps. Cheops, the name given by Herodo- tus to the Egyptian despot whom the Egyptians themselves called Khufu. He belonged to the rulers who had for their capital Memphis ; lived about 2800-2700 B. C., and built the largest of the pyramids. According to He- rodotus he employed 100,000 men on this work constantly for 20 years. Cherbourg, a strongly fortified arsenal and seaport of France, in the department of La. Manche (The Chan- nel), 196 miles W. N. W. of Paris. It is the works by which it- has been converted into a great naval fortress that give it its special importance. These altogether have cost $40,000,- 000, and were chiefly carried out under Napoleon I., Louis Philippe, and Napoleon III. A United States consul is resident at Cherbourg. Pon (1911) 43,731. Cherbuliez Cherbuliez, Victor, a French ro- mancist ; born in Geneva, of a noted family of litterateurs, July 19, 1829. He died in Paris, July 1, 1899. Cherokee Indians, a tribe of the Appalachian family of North _ Amer- ican aborigines, which occupied for centuries the country E. and S. of the Alleghanies. After the coloniza- tion of North America by the whites, a series of wars broke out at periods ranging from 1759 to 1793 ; when, by a treaty entered into with the United States, they ceded their territory in the Southeastern States, in consid- eration of a certain cash payment, and an annual subsidy being continued to them. In 1805 they made further concessions of their lands, and, in 1812, fought bravely on the American side. In 1817-1819 new treaties were made, which resulted in the Cherokees being forced to a reservation of ter- ritory afforded them W. of the Missis- sippi. A remnant of the tribe re- mained, hqwever,Jn the original reser- vation in 'North Carolina. In Okla- homa they occupy at present an area of 7,861 square miles in the N. E. The Cherokee:? have a chief, an assistant, and a legislature, all chosen by vote. They live in dwellings, not in wig- wams. They have an asylum for or- phans, seminaries, and 100 private schools. Their capital is Tahlequah. In the original North Carolina reser- vation the Cherokees number 1,351. They occupy an area of 98,211 acres. Cherry, a fruit-tree of the prune or plum tribe, very ornamental and there- fore much cultivated in shrubberies. The American wild cherry is a fine large tree, the timber of which is much used by cabinet-makers and others. The fruit is somewhat astringent. Cherubini, Luigi Zenobio Sal- vatore, founder of the French Con- servatory and instructor of hundreds of eminent musicians ; born in Flor- ence, Sept. 1, 1760. In the interval from 1780 to 1788, he composed eleven Italian operas, including "Ifigenia in Aulide," the most successful of the series. He died in Paris, March 15, 1842. Chesapeake Bay, in Maryland and Virginia, and dividing the former State into two parts, is the largest inlet on the Atlantic coast of the E. 33. Chess United States, being 200 miles long, and from 4 to 40 broad. Its entrance, 12 miles wide, has on the N. Cape Charles, and on the S. Cape Henry, both promontories being in Virginia. Chess, the most purely intellec- tual of all games of skill, the origin of which has been much disputed, but probably arose Sp India 5,000 years ago, and thence spread through Persia and Arabia, to Europe and America. The game has undergone many modi- fications during its diffusion through- out the world, but retains marked traces of its Oriental origin. The game 'is played by two persons on a board which consists of 64 squares, arranged in 8 rows of 8 squares each, alternately black and white. Each CHESS. player has two sets of pieces of op- posite colors of 16 men each, and of various powers, according to their rank. These sets of men are arrayed opposite each other, and attack, de- fend, and capture like hostile armies. The superior officers occupying the first row on each side are called pieces, the inferior men, all alike, standing on the row immediately in front of the pieces, are called pawns. The chessmen being placed, the play- ers begin the engagement by moving alternately ; each aiming to gain a nu- merical superiority by capturing his opponent's men, as well as such ad- vantages of position as may conduce to victory. Chest Chest, in man and the higher vertebrates, the cavity formed by the breast-bone in front and the ribs and backbone at the sides and behind, shut off from the abdomen below by the diaphragm. It contains the heart, lungs, etc., and the gullet passes through it. Chester, as an independent word, the name given to a circular forti- fication in some parts of Scotland ; as a suffix, it forms part of the names of many towns among English-speak- ing people, as Manchester, and indi- cates that such places were once the sites of Roman encampments. Chester, a city and port of entry in Delaware county, Pa. ; on the Delaware river and several railroads ; 15 miles S. of Philadelphia. It is the oldest city in the State, having been settled by Swedes in 1643 under the name of Upland. It is noted as the site of the famous Roach ship-build- ing yards, where many vessels of the navy were constructed, as the seat of the Crozer Theological Seminary (Bapt.) and the Pennsylvania Mili- tary Academy, and for its diversified manufactures. The Federal census of 1910 credited the city with having 128 factory-system plants, employing $23,928,262 capital, and yielding prod- ucts valued at $19,373,314. Pop. (1910) 38,537. Chester, one of the cathedral cities of England ; 16 miles S. E. of Liver- pool ; has St. John's Church, founded in 698. Pop. (1911) 39.028. Chesterfield, Philip Dormer Stanhope, fourth Earl of, an English statesman and litterateur ; born in London, Sept. 22, 1694. He entered public life in 1715, and took an active part in the petty intrigues and party squabbles which made up the parlia- mentary and court history of the reign of George II. The only writings of this accomplished person that are at all remembered are his " Letters " to his son, remarkable for their ease of style and their knowledge of society, but notoriously reprehensible for the principles of conduct which they in- culcate. He died March 24. 1773. Chesterton, Gilbert Keith, an English journalist and author ; born at Campden Hill, Kensington, in 1874 ; essayed poetry in boyhood ; be- came an artist, more for recreation than profit ; engaged in book-reviewing Chevy Chase for several London magazines ; then launched into authorship. In 1917 he was considered the most conspicuous figure in British journalism, a master of paradox, epigram, and anti-climax, always entertaining, brilliant, and belligerent. Chetah, the hunting leopard of India, a native of Arabia and Asia Minor. It has its specific name (ju- tata, crested or maned) from a short mane-like crest at the back of the head. When used for hunting it is hooded and placed in a car. When a herd of deer is seen, its keeper places its head in the proper direction and removes its hood. It slips from the car, and, approaching its prey in a stealthy man- ner, springs on it with several bounds. It is about the size of a large grey- hound, has a cat-like head, but a body more like a dog's. A slightly different species inhabits Africa. Chevalier, Michel, a French economist ; born in Limoges, Jan. 13,, 1806. He became a councillor of state (1838), professor of political economy in the College de France (1840), member of the chamber of deputies (1846), and a member of the Insti- tute (1851). He died in Montpellier, Nov. 28, 1879. Cheviot, (from the name of a bor- der mountain range in Scotland the Cheviot hills), (1) a variety of moun- tain sheep, named from the Cheviot hills, where they abound ; (2) a kind of coarse woolen cloth used principal- ly for men's clothing. Chevrenl, Michel Eugene, a French chemist ; born in 1786. He wrote various works on chemistrv, dyeing, etc. Died 1889, 103 years old. Chevy Chase, the name of a cele- brated British Border ballad, which is probably founded on some actual encounter which took place between its heroes, Percy and Douglas. There are two versions of the ballad, the old- est, originally called " The Hunting of the Cheviot," being mentioned in the " Complaynt of Scotland," written in 1548, and the later one. believed to date from the reign of Charles II. (1660-1685), which forms the subject of the critique by Addison in Nos. 70 and 74 of the " Spec- tator." The ballad is not historically accurate. CATTLE PENS KNOCKING PENS C.' DRESSED BEEF READY FOR GOVERNMENT INSPECTION STII THE PACKII KILLING DEPARTMENT CATTLE READY FOR HEADING AND SKINNING ! HOGS INDUSTRY CUTTING HAMS Cheyenne Cheyenne, city, capital of the State of Wyoming, is situated on a plateau 6,075 feet above the sea and contains Fort Russell, a United States military post, and the main repair shops of the Union Pacific railroad. Pop. (1910) 11,320. Cheyenne s, a tribe of American Indians, originally of Algonquin or Dakota stock, at one time settled in Wyoming. To the number of 2,069 (1899), they were settled in Okla- homa on a reservation of 529,682 acres. They are in a backward state of civilization and possess a primitive form of tribal government. Cliiang-lisi, or Kiang-si, one of the 18 provinces into which China proper is divided. The area is 69,480 square miles. Pop. (according to 1910 census published by the Government in 1911), 16,255,000. The province contains the treaty port of Kin-Kiang or Chin Chiang, on the Yang-tze- Kiang, a town of 53,000 inhabitants. Here are established famous manu- factories of porcelain. The province produces tea and silk, besides porce- lain. Chiang-Su, or Kiang-Su, an im- portant maritime province of China proper. It has an area of 38,600 square miles (about that of Pennsyl- vania), and a pop. estimated in 1910 at 15,380,000, according to the census published by the Government in 1911. The great commercial importance of this province is denoted by its posses- sion of four treaty ports, Shanghai, Nanking, Su-Chow, and Chin-Kiang. Half the foreign population of China (14,000 in 1900) is established in this province. The capital is Nanking. Commercially the province is con- trolled by the English, who have in- vested largely in railways, mills and government concessions. Chiapas, a State of the Republic of Mexico, on the Pacific slope, having an area of 27,222 square miles and a .)op. (1910) of 438,843. The capital, fuxtla Gutierrez, is also the chief town. The State is in many parts mountainous, and is also in many parts traversed by noble streams, in- cluding the Rio Chiapas. It forms part of the Central American table- land, and has a fine climate, although the whole region is largely clothed in primeval forests. Chicago Chiaro-oscnro, that branch of painting which has for its object the combination and arrangement of the light and shadow of a picture to the best advantage. Cnibcnas, or Muyscas, a tribe of South American Indians who formerly lived E. of the Magdalena river, oc- cupying the region from its head wat- ers to the Sierra Nevada de Merida. They were partially civilized. They were ruled by women as well as men in the line of succession, and believed in a Supreme Being. They were con- ?uered in a war with the Spaniards in 537 and their descendants constitute a large part of the present population of Colombia. Chibouque, a Turkish pipe with a long stem. Chica, or Chicha, the name given in Brazil to a species of Sterculia, the seeds of which are eaten. They are about the size of a pigeon's egg, and have an agreeable taste. Also a red coloring matter used by some tribes of North American Indians to stain the skin. The word is also used as a name of a dance popular among the Spaniards and the South American settlers descended from them. Chicago, city, port of entry, and county-seat of Cook Co., III. ; the sec- ond city in population in the United States. It is built on the S. W. shore of Lake Michigan, about 18 miles N. of its S. extremity. It is the center of the Western and Lake commerce and has a large water front of 30 miles. A portion of the shore is pro- tected by a massive wall. The city is one of the greatest commercial centers in the world, and is connected by steamship and railroad lines with all parts. The lake shore is protected by breakwaters, forming a splendid har- bor at the mouth of the Chicago river. The exterior breakwater is 5,436 feet long, and extends in a N. B. and S. W. direction about one mile from the shore. Piers and breakwaters, built as continuations of the shores of Chi- cago river, form a harbor of about 455 acres, with an average depth of 16 feet. At the mouth of the Calumet river, in South Chicago, is another harbor 300 feet wide between piers. The Erie canal, terminating at Buf- falo, provides a means of commercial communication with the Atlantic Chicago ports. Area 199 square miles ; popu- lation (1890), 1,099,850; (1900), 1,- 698,575; (1916, est.) 2,550,000. The city was built originally on the flat prairie, at an elevation too low to secure proper drainage. When this became apparent the grade of the whole city was raised 7 feet and the streets and buildings brought to the new level. The Chicago river traverses the city, and by its peculiar course divides it into three sections, known as the North, South and West Sides, which are connected by many bridges. The city owns an extensive water works system. It was found that as the city grew, the old water supply became inadequate, and in order to reach a point in tie lake where the water would be uncontaminated by sewage, cribs were built two to four miles out, with a tunnel connecting them with the shore. By 1900 there were five of these cribs, 35 miles of tunnel and 1,802 miles of main. On Jan. 17, 1900, a drainage canal was opened to carry off the city's sewage. It consists of an open drain connect- ing the Chicago and Des Plaines rivers, and extending thence to the Illinois and Mississippi rivers. Chicago is surrounded by some of the largest and finest parks and boule- vards in the country. The park area in 1916 was 4,600 acres and comprised about 80 parks and squares, and the boulevards had a length of about 48 miles within the city limits and large suburban extensions. There are six large parks, Lincoln, Humboldt, Gar- field, Douglas, Washington, and Jack- son, all connected by boulevards. The Sheridan road is a superb driveway running along the lake shore to Fort Sheridan, 25 miles distant. Chicago is noted for the number, size and height of its public and busi- ness buildings, and for their hand- some and complete interior finishings. Among them are : the Auditorium, ten stories high, contains the largest thea- ter and opera house in the world, cap- able of seating 7,000 persons, a great hotel with 400 guest rooms, and also 136 offices and store rooms, cost $2,000,000; the Art Institute, which ranks among the first art museums in the country ; Board of Trade Build- ing; Chicago Stock Exchange, 13 stories high ; the Monadnock building, Chicago 16 stories high, containing 1,600 of- fices and costing $2,500,000 ; the Ma- sonic Temple, 21 stories high and costing $3,500,000 ; the Public Library, a magnificent structure costing $2,- 000,000 and containing a library of 250,000 books ; the Woman's Temple, 12 stories high, containing 300 offices and costing $1,500,000 ; the City Hall and County Court and Criminal Court buildings ; the Newberry Library, and numbers of handsome club buildings, stores and theaters, besides many ele- gant and costly private residences. According to the Federal census of 1914 there were reported 10,114 manu- facturing establishments, employing $1,189,976,000 capital and 386,794 per- sons ; paying $213,351,000 for wages and $901,658,000 for materials; and yielding products of an aggregate value of $1,482,814,000. The principal in- dustries were wholesale slaughtering and meat packing, foundry and ma- chine shop products, men's clothing, in factories ; iron and steel, agricul- tural implements, railroad cars, print- ing and publishing, masonry, and malt liquors ; bakery products, coffee and spices, furniture, electrical supplies, women's clothing, soap and candles, wholesale slaughtering (without meat packing), linseed oil, planing mill products and confectionery. Chicago is the greatest live stock and grain market in the world, as well as the greatest railroad center. At the close of the school year 1914- 15, the children of school census age aggregated 954,413 ; the enrollment in public day schools was 345,512 and in private and parochial schools (large- ly estimated) 114,000, and the average daily attendance in public day schools was 291,255. For higher education there were 23 public high schools, one public normal school, one endowed normal school, 27 private secondary schools, St. Ignatius College (R. C., opened 1869), and the University of Chicago (1892). The principal pri- vate secondary schools were Lewis In- stitute, Chicago Institute, Seminary of the Sacred Heart, De La Salle In- stitute, University School, Harvard School, Kirkland School, St. Xayier's Academy, and Kenwood Institute. There were 30 training schools for nurses, mostly connected with hospit- als. Chicago has 1,183 churches, chap- Chicago Drainage Canal Chicago, University els, and missions. There are 102 hospitals and dispensaries in the city. Among the largest of the former are the Mercy, Cook County, Michael Reese, United States Marine, and the Hahnemann. The benevolent institu- tions include the Old People's Home, Newsboys' Home, Washington Home for the Reformation of Inebriates, Foundlings' Home,, Home for the Friendless, and the Protestant, St. Joseph's and St. Mary's Orphan Asylums. Under the National Banking Act of 1913, Chicago became the central re- serve city of the Sixth Federal Re- serve District, and the exchanges at the clearing-house there, in the year ended Sept. 30, 1916, aggregated $19,- 129,452,000, a gain of $3,725,285,000 in a year. The commercial interests of the city were greatly affected by the World War. In the calendar year 1916 the imports of merchandise had a value of $29,006,276, and the exports $3,990,- 173, a decrease in the total of 1914 of $5,700,314 in the former and $21,992,- 671 in the latter. In 1916 the assessed valuation of all taxable property was $1,042.340,937; the city assets (1915) were $170,741,- 460; and the debt (1916) was $30,- 563,094. The site of Chicago was first visited by Joliet and Marquette, French mis- sionaries and explorers, in 1673. In 1685 a fort was built there, com- manded by an officer in the Canadian service, and before the end of the 17th century the Jesuits made it a mission post. Indian hostilities prevented fur- ther occupation till the United States government established there the fron- tier post of Fort Dearborn in 1804, which was destroyed by Indians in the War of 1812, but rebuilt in 1816, when a permanent settlement began. In 1830 the entire population was only 70 persons, but in 1835 a town was organized, and in 1837 it was incorporated as a city with 4,000 in- habitants and an area of 10 miles. On Oct. 8 and 9, 1871, occurred the mem- orable fire which reduced a large part of the city to ashes, destroyed its entire business center, and swept over an area of more than three square miles, causing a loss of about $190,- 000,000. Nearly 20,000 buildings were consumed, 100,000 people were made homeless, and 200 lives were lost. An- other disastrous fire broke out in 1874 in the heart of the city, which con- sumed 18 blocks and over 600 homes, with a loss of over $4,000,000. In May, 1886, anarchist riots at the Hay- market resulted in the death of six police officers, the wounding of sev- eral others, the conviction of eight rioters, and the execution of four. The World's Columbian Exposition was held in Chicago from May 1 to Oct. 30, 1893. Fully $17,500,000 were ex- pended in the construction of the fair and its operation, and it was visited by 17,000,000 people. In October, 1903, Chicago celebrated the centen- nial of its settlement. Chicago Drainage Canal, a canal intended chiefly for carrying off the sewage of Chicago, but which may be used for commercial purposes ; be- gun in September, 1892 ; completed in January, 1900. The main channel is 29 miles long, extending from Chicago to Lockport on the Illinois river, into which stream it discharges. About 9 miles of the channel is cut through solid rock, with a minimum depth of 22 feet and a width of 160 feet on the botton in rock, which makes it the largest artificial channel in the world. The length of the waterway from the mouth of the Chicago river to its ter- minus S. of Joliet is about 42 miles. The cost of the canal was estimated at about $45,000,000. Chicago, University of, a co-edu- cational (non-sectarian) institution in Chicago, 111., founded by John D. Rockefeller, dating from Sept. 10, 1890, when the institution was incor- porated under the laws of Illinois. A previous institution known as the Uni- versity of Chicago had gone out of ex- istence, owing to financial difficulties, in 1886. A number of Baptists de- sired to have a college in Chicago, and succeeded in interesting John D. Rockefeller in the plan. He promised $600,000 toward the establishment of the college if $400,000 more should be raised by June, 1890. This amount was duly raised, and the plan was enlarged in scope so as to include a university instead of a mere college. Further large gifts were made by Mr. Rockefeller and by others, and the doors were opened for instruction Oct. 1, 1892. Chickadee Chickadee, the popular name of the black-cap titmouse. Chickahominy, a river in Virginia, affluent of the James and running parallel to it for many miles from its source N. W. of Richmond. On and near it occurred many of the most important events of McClellan's Peninsular campaign in 1862. The second battle of Cold Harbor under Grant took place in 1864. CLickamauga, Battle of, an en- gagement fought Sept 19-20, 1863, between the Union army under Rose- crans and the Confederate under Bragg and Longstreet. Out of about 100,000 troops engaged, some 30,000 were reported as killed, wounded and missing a very bloody and prac- tically drawn battle, though claimed as a Confederate victory, and causing the replacement of Rosecrans by Grant. But for the splendid stand made by General George H. Thomas it would have been a Union defeat. CLickasaw, an Indian tribe, occu- pying a reservation near the center of Oklahoma in Grady county. The tribe has a chief and a legislature chosen by popular vote. Chickaslia, city and capital of Grady county, Okl.; near the Wich- ita river and on the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific and other railroads; 39 miles S. of Oklahoma City; was the chief town of the Chickasaw Na- tion in the former Indian Territory; is largely engaged in mercantile and farming interests; and has lumber, flour, cotton, and cotton-seed oil mills, and brick yards. Pop. (1910) 10,320. Chicopee, a city in Hampden county, Mass.; on the Chicopee and Connecticut rivers and the Boston & Maine railroad; 4 miles N. of Spring- field; is an important manufacturing city, with fine water power from Chicopee Falls; chief products, cot- ton and brass goods. Pop. (1910). 25,401. Chief, in heraldry, the upper part of the field cut off by a horizontal line. It generally occupied one-third of the area of the shield. Chief Justice, the title of the chief member of the United States Supreme Court, also of the judges holding simi- lar rank in some of the States. In j Canada it is the title of the leading I Cliignecto Bay judge of the Dominion and Provincial Supreme Courts, and in England the presiding judge in the Queen's Bench Division of the High Court of Justice is called a " Lord Chief Justice." The following is a list of the per- sons appointed as Chief-Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States from its establishment : John Jay, of New York. Oliver Ellsworth, of Connecticut. John Marshall, of Virginia. Roger Brooke Taney, of Maryland. Salmon Portland Chase, of Ohio. Morrison R. Waite, of Ohio. Melville W. Fuller, of Illinois. Edward D. White, of Louisiana. Chigi, a princely Italian family, whose founder was Agostino Chigi (died 1512), of Siena, who in Rome became banker to the popes, and was noted for his pomp and encourage- ment of art. CHICORY. Chignecto Bay, an inlet at the head of the Bay of Fundy, in British North America. It separates Nova Scotia from New Brunswick, is 30 miles long and 8 broad, and has an isthmus of only 14 miles in width be- tween it and Northumberland Strait, in the Gulf of St. Lawrence. In Oc- tober, 1888, work was begun on the Chignon construction of a ship railway across the neck of land connecting Nova Scotia with the main land of Canada. The promoters had spent nearly $4,- 000,000 on the work, when in 1890 a financial depression in London pre- vented them from obtaining further capital. In March, 1901, the under- taking was revived. Chignon, (1) the back of the neck, (2) back hair; the back hair of wo- men, a protuberance of artificial hair on the hinder part of the head, worn by women about 1866-1875. Chigo, Chigre, or Jigger, a West Indian and South American spe- cies of apterous insect of the flea kind, which penetrates the skin and breeds there, unless speedily eradicated. Chihuahua, the largest State of Mexico ; bounded on the N. and N. E. by New Mexico and Texas ; area, 87,- 802 square miles; pop. (1910) 405, 707. The State is better adapted for stock-raising than for agriculture ; the fertile districts are mainly confined to the valleys and river courses. Cot- ton is grown in the S. The silver mines were for centuries among the richest in Mexico, and mining is still the chief industry. The capital, Chi- huahua, 225 miles S. of El Paso, rises like an oasis in the desert, among roses and orange groves. The city and State were frequently raided by the Villa bandits in 1915-17. See AP- PENDIX: Mexican Campaign. Pop. (1910) 39,706. Child, Lydia Maria, an American prose-writer ; born in Medford, Mass., Feb. 11, 1802. She was an ardent abolitionist, and published the first book written on that subject, entitled " Appeal for that class of Americans called African." Dr. Channing went over to Roxbury to thank her for it. She died in Wayland, Mass., Oct. 20, 1880. Children, Societies for the Pre- vention of Cruelty to, organiza- tions that had their origin in New York City, and have since been adopt- ed in most American and many European cities. Children's Crusade, The, a sin- gular movement in 1212, preached in France by Stephen, a peasant boy, and in Germany the same year by Nicholas, also a peasant boy. Some 90,000 children left their mothers and Chile schoolmasters in the spring " to rescue the Holy Land from the infidels." Part perished by shipwreck and the rest were sold into slavery. Childs, George William, an American philanthropist and pub- lisher ; born in Baltimore, Md., May 22, 1829. He published the Philadel- phia " Public Ledger," 1864-1894. He assisted in establishing a home for printers at Colorado Springs. He died in Philadelphia, Feb. 3, 1894. Chile, a Republic of South Amer- ica, bounded on the N. by Peru, E. by Bolivia and the Argentine Repub- lic, S. and W. by the Pacific Ocean ; area, 289,829 square miles; pop. (1914) 3,596,541; principal towns, Santiago (capital), 397,941; Valpa- raiso, 187,240; Concepcion, 69,776; Iquique, 45,012; Talca, 39,526; and Chilian, 39,173. The climate of Chile is temperate. The temperature is remarkably even and pleasant, and always cool at night. The S. wind blows fiercely during many days of summer, dry and cold ; the N. wind brings heat, tempest and rain ; other winds are unknown. Central Chile, between lat. 32 and 36, is fertile. In Southern Chile generally the land is poor, and on account of excessive rain of hardly any value for agriculture, which, in- deed, is carried on in a very primitive fashion, but the soil of the valleys, where large herds of cattle graze, is very fertile. Chile was the first South American State to construct railways. In 1915 there were 5,015 English miles of lines open to traffic, of which the State owned 3,236 miles. The Arica to La Paz railway, with a length of 266 miles, of which 127 are in Chile and 139 in Bolivia, was opened Aug. 6, 1912; cost, $12,250,000. A railway system crossing the Andes has 18 miles in Chile and 88 in the Argentine Republic, connecting the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans from Buenos Ayres to Valparaiso. There were 18,181 miles of telegraph lines with 946 offices, through which 12,596,236 messages were sent in 1914. The government is that of a repub- lic, the chief magistrate being a President, elected for five years, who is thereafter ineligible to immediate reelection. The President has a cab- Chile inet consisting of six members and a Council of State of 11, six of whom are named by Congress. Legislation is conducted by a Chamber of Depu- ties, chosen by popular vote, and who serve three years, renewable by thirds every three years ; and a Senate, mem- bers of which are chosen for nine years. For administrative purposes Chile is divided into 23 provinces and 1 territory, and the provinces in turn into departments, sub-delegations and districts. Each province is governed by an intendant, who also acts as governor of the department in which the capital of the province is situated. The departments are governed by gov- ernors, the minor divisions by sub- delegates and inspectors. The estab- lished religion of Chile is Roman Catholic, but the constitution guaran- tees freedom of worship. Education receives much attention, but is not compulsory. The name of Chile is supposed to be derived from an ancient Peruvian word signifying "snow." The N. por- tion, as far as the river Maule, formed part of the dominions of the Incas of Peru, and the S. was held by the val- iant Araucanians. The first European to land in Chile was the Portuguese discoverer Magellan, at Chiloe, in 1520. After the conquest of Peru by Pizarro, an expedition was made to Chile from that country overland, un- der the leadership of Diego de Alma- gro, in 1535. This expedition pene- trated as far as the Rio Clano, but returned unsuccessful. Another was sent under command of Pedro Val- divia in 1540, which succeeded in an- nexing the territory as far as the river Maipu. Santiago, the capital, was founded by Valdivia in 1542. Dur- ing the colonial period the governors of Chile were appointed by the King of Spain, but were subordinate to the viceroys of Peru. In 1810 a . revolt against the Spanish power broke out, in which Don Bernardo O'Higgins, son of one of the last viceroys of Peru, but a native of Chile, played a con- spicuous part, and finally became the first dictator of the new republic. The conflict between the Spanish troops and the Republican army continued until 1826, when peace was definitely settled and Chile left to govern itself. The first constitutional president was Gen. Blanco Encalada. The govern- Clii-IJ ment was unsettled till 1830. In 1833 the present constitution was adopted. Revolutions broke out in 1851 and 1859, but since then there has been no serious attempt to over- turn the government by force of arms. In 1864 Chile gave Peru very valuable support in her war with Spain. In 1879 Chile declared war against Bo- livia on account of an alleged viola- tion of treaty rights, and immediately after against Peru, with which Bolivia was allied. For a time the Peruvian fleet kept the Chilians in check, but in August, 1879, the Peruvian ironclad " Huascar" was captured by the Chilian men-of-war " Cochrane " and' "Blanco Encalada," both armor- plated. After this event the success of the Chilians was uninterrupted. Peruvian towns were bombarded, and their other warships captured. Final- ly Lima was taken by storm on June 21, 1881. The Chilians occupied Lima and Callao until Oct. 30, 1885, when a treaty of peace was signed between Chile and Peru. Up to 1900 no treaty of peace had been signed by Chile and Bolivia; a treaty of indefinite truce having been agreed to in 1884. In 1885 Jose Manuel Balmaceda, repre- senting the Liberal party, was elected President. The hostile factions or- ganized a rebellion and formed a junta, under whose management the forces of Balmaceda were repeatedly defeated. He committed suicide Sept. 19, 1891. In a riot in Valparaiso some United States marines were set upon and wounded. Reparation was demanded and refused, and . war be- tween Chile and the United States seemed imminent. Two war vessels were sent to Chile to enforce the de- mands of the U. S. and an apology and compensation were given. In 1902 the boundary dispute with Argentina, arbitrated by Great Britain, led later to a treaty of continuous peace. Chi-Li,' or Chin-Li, one of the 18 provinces into which China proper Is divided. It has an area of 115,800 square miles. It is in many respects the most important of the Chinese provinces, containing as it does the imperial capital. Pekin, the treaty port of Tien-Tsin, and the only com- pleted line of railway in the Empire. The Great Wall runs across the whole of the N. part of Chi-Li, while on the coast are the forts of Taku, and the Chilkat Inlet China nearest approach to a naval station belonging to the Chinese government. There are Christian missionaries of many denominations throughout the province. No census has been taken since 1879, when the population was returned as 17,937,000. In 1914 the customs authorities estimated the pop- ulation at 22,970,000. Chi-Li has valuable coal mines at Kai-Ping, and other mineral resources. The soil is fertile. The provincial capital is Tientsin, estimated pop. 800,000. Chilkat Inlet, the W. arm of Lynn Canal, an inlet in Alaska. Chilkat, or Dalton, Pass, a route in Alaska traversed by miners in reaching the gold fields of the Klon- dike. Chilkoot Inlet, the Eastern arm of Lynn Canal, an inlet in Alaska. Chilkoot Pass, a pass over the mountains in the Northern part of Alaska, traversed by thousands of gold-seekers in the Klondike gold fields excitement in 1897-1898. By way of the Chilkoot Pass is the most direct route to Dawson City, the principal starting point to the Klondike region. Chillicothe, Ohio, capital of Ross County, 50 miles S. of Columbus, was the capital of Ohio (1800-10). It is an agricultural and industrial centre. Pop. (1910) 14,508. Chill on, Castle, a fortress of Switzerland, in the canton Vaud, 6 miles S. E. of Vevay. It stands on an isolated rock at the E. end of the Lake of Geneva. It was built in 1238, by Amadeus IV. of Savoy, and was long used as a State prison. Chiloe, the insular province of Chile ; consists of the island of that name on the W. coast, which is 115 miles long, with a maximum breadth of 43 miles, and is separated from the mainland by a narrow strait on the N., and by a gulf 30 miles wide on the E. ; and of a number of neighboring islets, mostly unin- habited ; total area, 6,979 square miles; pop. (1914) 95,756, almost all Indians living on the principal is- land. Chimborazo, a conical peak of the Andes, in Ecuador, 20,517 feet above the sea, but only about 11,000 above the level of the adjacent Quito valley. China, in 1917 alternately a repub- lic, an empire, and again a republic, is the most populous and, excluding Siberia, the largest country in Asia. China Proper is remarkable as the most compact nationality in the world, having an area estimated by the Gov- ernment at 1,532,420 square miles, with a population of 320,000,000. The rest of the country includes the de- pendencies of Manchuria, Mongolia, Inner Tibet, and Turkestan, which cover an area of 2,744,750 square miles, with a population of about 29,- 000,000. The dependencies are described un- der their respective headings, and this article refers to China Proper, ancient Cathay or The Middle King- dom, the centre of power and people. It occupies the E. slope of the table- lands of Central Asia, and is almost in the form of a square. Two-thirds of the interior are estimated to be mountainous ; the central and northern hills are off-shoots of the Kuen-lun range, while in the southeast extensive chains stretch from the Tibetan high- lands to the eastern seaboard. Be- tween these mountain-systems, and al- most parallel flow the two great rivers of China, the Hwang-ho, and the Yang- tze. Besides these rivers and their numerous tributaries, the most notable are the Se-Kiang in the south, and the Pei-ho in the north. The waterways are the highways of China ; joined by a vast network of canals, they form a gigantic system of inland communi- cation, always thronged with craft of every description. The coast-line, an irregular curve of about 2,500 miles, is fringed with islands, the largest of which, Formosa, was ceded to Japan after the war of 1894-5. The greater part of China lies within the temper- ate zone, but the climate is marked by a great range of temperature, from tropical heat in the south, to arctic conditions in the north, according to seasons. The flora, forestry, and fauna, are allied to the climatic con- ditions. China is well supplied with minerals, including gold, silver, cop- Eer, and iron ; there are extensive coal- elds, inexhaustible beds of kaolin, or porcelain earth, and salt is abun- dant. Covering an immense area in the north, is the loess deposit, a brownish-yellow earth of great fertil- ity, wafted thither by the simoons and winds of the ages, from the disin- China tegrating Himalayan plateaux. Agri- culture is held in veneration ; rice as the principal food of the people is the staple crop, but other grains also are grown. The mulberry tree is ex- tensively cultivated for silkworms, while the opium poppy, and the tea- plant, furnish important crops. The chief manufactures are silk, paper, porcelain and cotton goods ; the inven- tiveness of the Chinese is of ancient date, paper-making, printing, gunpow- der, etc., having been discovered by them long before they were known to Occidental nations. Besides an enor- mous domestic trade, a considerable and increasing import and export trade is carried on ; tea, raw and man- ufactured silk being exported, and cot- ton goods, metals, metal goods, and opium being imported. Forty-seven treaty ports were open (1917) to for- eign commerce. The principal cities are, Peking, the capital, with pop. est. in 1912 at 692,500, Canton, Tientsin, Han-kau, Nanking, Shanghai, Ning- po, Fu-chau, Amoy, Swatow, and 30 or 40 more, with a population from 800,000 to 1,320,000. In 1914 5,960 miles of railway were open for traffic, and 2,273 miles more were building; there were nearly 36,500 miles of tele- graph lines, which were being extend- ed throughout the country. Peking is in direct telegraphic and railway com- munication with Europe. China is being gradually opened up to foreign intercourse through missionary and political influence, but a great part of the country is still unknown to for- eigners. The modern development of the export trade, railways, telegraphs, etc., has been due to foreign rivalry for China's trade, and has led to a complication of interests whence have arisen the political catch-phrases, "The Integrity of the Chinese Em- pire," " The Open Door." Various foreign " spheres of influence," and " concessions," recognized and granted by the Chinese Government, are the Russian, British, and French " spheres of influence," and the American and German " concessions," respectively centred the Russian in Manchuria, the British at Wei-hai-Wei and in the Kau-lung Peninsula opposite their in- sular possession, Hongkong ; the French at Pakhoi and the southern provinces of Kwang-si, and Yun-nan, China the American in Han-kau, Wu-chang, and Canton ; and the German in 1897- 1914 at Kiaochau. Ethnologically the Chinese belong to the Mongolian race, with the char- acteristic conformation of the head and face, tawny skin, black and lank hair (which as a sign of subjection to their Tartar conquerors they wear in the form of a queue or "pig-tail"), oblique eyes, high-cheek bones, and monosyllabic language. They are peaceable and domesticated ; capable of a high degree of organization and local self-government, thrifty, sober, industrious, literary but unimagina- tive, and thoroughly imbued with a practical, commercial spirit. The prin- ciple of filial piety, and ancestral wor- ship form the basis of Chinese society. Vacillation, duplicity, and insincerity, largely the result of excessive polite- ness and the desire to please, gam- bling, and opium smoking, are among their vicious traits. Education is general, and is largely fostered by the Chinese executive system which is based on those noteworthy competi- tive examinations, which are intended to sift out from the millions of edu- cated Chinese, the best and ablest for the public service. Many young men of the higher classes are sent to the United States and Europe for instruc- tion in English and the sciences. In 1898 an " Imperial University of China" was established by imperial decree. Dr. William A. P. Martin, an American missionary and educator, was appointed first president of this institution, and three of its professors are from the United States. The Confucian, the Buddhist, and the Taoist, are the chief forms of re- ligion ; Confucianism and Taoism are indigenous, but Buddhism was intro- duced from India. Confucianism, the basis of their social and political systems, has been professed by all their greatest men, and is still the sole belief of the educated classes. For many years the Empress Dow- ager ruled the empire as regent or as practical empress. She died No- vember 15, 1908, the Emperor Kuang- Hsu haying died November 9, Pu- Yi, a child emperor two years old, suc- ceeded, the government being placed in the hands of a regent. The provincial governor or national delegate possesses China the power of life or death, and under him are the superintendent of provin- cial finances, the provincial criminal judge, and the provincial educational examiner ; each communicates through the governor with his especial board in Peking. China has (on paper) an enormous army, each of the 18 prov- inces being supposed to provide a mil- itary force or corps of 8,000 to about 68,000 men, and aggregating from 540,- 000 to 660,000, known as the Ying Ping or National Army, and called also the Green Flags and the Five Camps five being the unit of sub-di- vision. The elite of the army is the Shen-Che-Yeng (Black Flags), the for- eign-drilled Tientsin Army corps, about 35,000 strong, and the Pa-ki or Eight Banners containing about 300.000 Manchu warrior-descendants. Since the Chino- Japanese War (1894^95), there is no effective Chinese fleet, al- though a few swift cruisers have been added to the Chen-Hai and the Kang- Chi which alone remained of the Pei- Yang squadron. The national revenue is derived" from land and property tax- es, customs, and excise, and in 1916 the budget for ordinary and extraor- dinary revenue and expenditure was $325,000,000. Prior to the Boxer troubles (1900-1901), the external debt amounted to about $270,000,000 ; to this was added in 1901 the in- demnity of $375,000,000; estimated debt in 1914 $960,000,000. China's authentic history begins i with the Chow dynasty founded by ! Woo-wang, which lasted from 1100 , B. c. to 258 B. c. Confucius was born under Ling-wang of this dynasty about 550 B. c. Chow-siang, the founder of the Tsin dynasty, from which China takes its name, overcame all rivals, and died in 251 B. o. Che-Hoang-ti, his great-grandson, was the first to assume the title of "Hoang" (em- peror) ; during his reign, in 214 B. c., the great wall was begun as a protection against marauding Tar- tars. The Mongols under Genghis Khan and his son Ogdai conquered China in the 13th century, and in 1259 Kublai Khan, a nephew, ascended the throne and founded the Mongol dynasty. In the 13th century Marco Polo, the Venetian traveler, visited China, and published in Europe the earliest au- China thentic account of the country. In 1368 the native Ming dynasty in the person of Hungwu gained the ascend- ency, which it retained until replaced in 1618 by the present Manchu dynas- ty, in the person of Tungchi. Diplo- matic connections with Occidental na- tions did not commence until the Brit- ish embassy of Lord Macartney ar- rived at Peking in 1792, and it was not until after the war with Great Britain in 1840, occasioned by the de- plorable imposition of the opium traf- fic on China, that commercial treaties opened the country to foreign trade. The first treaty with the United States was negotiated by Caleb Gushing in 1844. .War with Great Britain again occurred in 1856 over the Chinese seiz- ure of a Hongkong vessel, France joining in, to secure better protection for missionaries and trade. From 1850 to 1865 southern China was disturbed by the Taiping Rebellion. In 1894-95 occurred the war with Japan over Korea, which resulted in a series of brilliant land and naval victories for Japan, and the payment of a large in- demnity by China. In 1898 Russia and Germany acquired Chinese con- cessions of land. In 1900 occurred the Boxer troubles, when a belligerent section of the natives exasperated by the continued encroachments of the " foreign devils " and " barbarians," murdered the German ambassador, and besieged the foreign legations in Peking for two months until relieved by the allied forces of Russia, Ger- many, Great Britain, the United States, and Japan. The Emperor Kuang-Hsu died Nov. 9, 1908 ; his two-year old nephew, P'u-yi, succeeded nominally, but the Empress Dowager was the actual ruler till her death, Nov. 15, 1908. On Feb. 12, 1912, the oldest of monarchies became a republic, the young Emperor abdicating the same day. In 1915 an attempt was made to restore the mon- archy, but the act of eight provinces declaring their independence checked the movement. On July 2, 1917, the monarchy was restored tinder the boy Emperor; and on Aug. 10 following all the foreign ministers in Pekin rec- ognized the restoration of the repub- lic under President Feng-Kwo-Chang. China severed diplomatic relations with Germany, March 22, 1917, and Chinchilla declared war on Germany and Aus- tria-Hungary, Aug. 14 following. Chinchilla, a genus of South Amer- ica herbivorous rodents very closely allied to the rabbit, which they resem- ble in the general shape of the body, CHINCHHXA. in the limbs being longer behind than before, and by the nature of the fur, which is more woolly than silky. Chinchon, a town of Spain, 25 miles S. E. of Madrid, named for the Countess of Chinchon, wife of the Governor of Peru in 1638. Peruvian bark was named " Chinchona," now habitually misspelled " Cinchona." Chinese -fire, a pyrotechnic compo- sition, consisting of gunpowder, 16 ; niter, 8 ; charcoal, 3 ; sulphur, 3 ; cast- iron borings (small), 10. Chinese Lantern, a lantern made of thin paper, usually variously col- ored and much used in illuminations. Chinese Swallows' Nests, curi- ous productions, which sell at a high price in China, though they have no special points of recommendation be- yond many other gelatinous ingredients in soups. They are formed of a secre- tion from the mouth of the bird itself. Chinese Tartary, an old name of Turkestan. Ching, a Chinese prince ; born in Peking about 1840. He was related to the Chinese imperial family. He was at the head of the Tsung-li-Yamen, but was deposed in 1900 for his efforts to protect the legations in Peking, during which he attacked the Boxers. Ching-hai, or Chin-hai, a sea- port of China, in the province of Cheh- Chiang (Cheh-Kiang), 9 miles from the treaty port of Ning-Po. Chin-Kiang, or Chin-Chiang, a city of China in the province of Kiang- Chippeways Su (or Chiang-Su), about 490 miles S. of Tieu-Tsin. Chin-Kiang became a treaty port in 1861. Pop. (1914) 86,120. Chinon, an antique town in the French department of Indre-et-Loire. Crowning a lofty rock are the ruins of its vast old castle, the " French Wind- sor " of the Plantagenets, the death- place of Henry II. ; and later the resi- dence of several French sovereigns, where, in 1429, Joan of Arc revealed her mission to the Dauphin. Chinooks, a tribe of Indians, now nearly extinct, on the Columbia river, or in Oregon. Chinook Wind, a strong, dry west or south wind in Wyoming and Mon- tana, which descends from the moun- tains, like the hot winds of Kansas, and the Fohn winds of Switzerland. Chintz, a cotton cloth gaily printed with designs of flowers, etc., in five or six different colors. It was a favor- ite in the time of Queen Anne, long before cotton prints became cheap. The name has since been applied to goods lacking the graceful and artistic char- acter of the genuine article. Chios, (now called by the natives Chio, Italianized into Scio), one of the most beautiful and fertile islands in the -33gean sea, belonging to Greece, 7 miles off the coast of Asia Minor, at the entrance to the Gulf of Smyrna. It has an area of 320 square miles, and a population (1913) of 73,830, almost all Greeks. Earthquakes are, however, not rare, and one in 1881 caused the death of 3,558 persons, and the de- struction of property to the value of over $15,000,000. Chipmunk, a small animal much like a squirrel, known as the striped squirrel. Chippendale, Thomas, an Eng- lish cabinet-maker ; went to London from Worcestershire before 1750. The style of furniture named from him was less heavy and severe than that of his successors, and was rather elaborate, delicate and baroque, with classical tendencies. Chippeways, or Ojibways, a tribe of North American Indians in the United States and Canada. They are distributed in bands round both sides of the basin of Lake Superior, Chiquimula where they once owned vast tracts. They are of the Algonquin stock, tall, active and well formed, subsist chiefly by hunting and fishing and number about 18,000. Chiqnimnla, a small town in the E. of Guatemala, which gives name to a province and to the Isthmus of Chi- quimula. Cliiquinquira, the largest town in the department of Boyaca, Colombia, was an Indian place of pilgrimage be- fore the conquest, and the Spaniards having found here a miraculous image of the Virgin, the church where this is preserved is now visited by some 60,000 pilgrims annually. Cliiquitos, or Naquinoneis ("men"), an Indian tribe of Bolivia, dwelling between the Paraguay and the Madeira. Cliiriqui, the westernmost admin- istrative division of the Republic of Panama, adjoining Costa Rica; area, 6,500 square miles ; pop. 43,000. It is well wooded, and has rich pasturage, especially on the Atlantic coast, where the climate is very moist. Chiron, a centaur, half man and half horse, son of Philyra and Saturn, was famous for his knowledge of mu- sic, medicine and shooting. He taught mankind the use of plants and medic- inal herbs, and be instructed in all the polite arts, the greatest heroes of his age, Achilles, .ZEsculapius, Hercules, etc. Chisholm, William Wallace, Republican politician and Unionist, born in Morgan County, Ga., 1830; was fatally shot by a mob in 1877. CLisleu, the ninth month of the Jewish year, commencing with the new moon in December or the latter part of November. The modern Jews fast on the sixth day of this month. Chitral, a small mountain State in the upper basin of the Kashkar or Kunar, a tributary of the Kabul river, and bordering on Kashmir and Kafiris- tan, is 5.200 feet above sea-level. The people are Moslems, but mostly speak a language close akin to that of their pagan neighbors in Kafiristan. Chittenden, Rnssel Henry, an American educator; born in New Haven, Conn., Feb. 18, 1856. He be- came Professor of Physiological Chem- istry at Yale in 1882, and since 1896 Chlopicki has been director of the Sheffield Scien- tific School. Chittenden, Thomas, an Ameri- can colonial and State governor; born in East Guilford, Conn., Jan. 6, 1730. He was one of the pioneers of Ver- mont, and acquired a fortune from bis lands. In 1778 he became governor of Vermont, before its formal separation from New York was recognized. Dur- ing the Revolutionary War the British and the Continental Congress received" overtures from him, his terms being recognition of Vermont's statehood. He retired from public life in 1796 and died in Williston, Vt., Aug. 24, 1797. Chittim, or Kittim, in the Old Testament, is usually identified with Cyprus. Chitty, Joseph, an English law- yer and legal writer ; born in 1776. He achieved eminence as a barrister in London, but his celebrity rests mainly upon his legal works. He died in London, Feb. 17, 1843. Chinsi, a town of Central Italy, 102 miles N. N. W. of R9me. It is in connection with the discovery of Etruscan antiquities that the place is chiefly heard of. During the 19th century immense quantities of these remains were found in the neighbor- hood in the grottoes that served the ancient Etruscans as tombs. Chivalry, the uses and customs pertaining to the order of knighthood. Chivalry declined and fell with the feu- dal system, of which it was a normal growth. The institution of the mili- tary orders, the Knights Templar, the Knights of St. John and the Teutonic Knights was an interesting develop- ment of chivalry. Chladni, Ernst Flprens Freid- rich, a German physicist; born in Wittenberg, Nov. 30. 1756. Died in Breslau, April 4, 1827. Chlopicki, Joseph, a Polish gen- eral ; born in Galicia, March 24, 1772. He served under Kosciuszko during the first revolt of the Poles (1794), and then engaged in Napoleon's service, un- der whom he took part in the battles of Eylau, Friedland, Smolensk and Moskowa. On the outbreak of the Polish revolution of 1830 he was elect- ed Dictator, but soon resigned that office, fought at Grochow and Wavre, and after the cessation of hostilities Chloral Chocolate retired into private life. He died in Cracow, Sept. 30, 1854. Chloral, produced by the action of chlorine on alcohol, since the discov- ery of its anaesthetic effects by Dr. O. Liebrich in 1869, is extensively employed medicinally in the form of chloral hydrate. Chlorine, a gas. From its wide affinities and great activity in the free state, chlorine is one of the most use- ful and powerful instruments with which the chemist deals. By it such metals as platinum and gold are at- tacked and made soluble in water, while its power over organic sub- stances is very great. Chlorine is largely consumed in the arts. Thus it is used in the manufac- ture of potassic chlorate for making lucifer matches; in the conversion of the yellow to the red prussiate of pot- ash, in the preparation of chloride of sulphur for the vulcanizing process, and above all as a bleaching and dis- infecting agent. Chloroform, is formed by the ac- tion of the sun's rays on a mixture of chlorine and marsh gas; also by the action of caustic potash on chloral or chloracetic acid, or by the action of nascent hydrogen on tetrachloride of carbon. It is prepared on a large scale by distilling water and alcohol with bleaching powder. Chloroform is a colorless, mobile, heavy, ethereal liquid. The vapor of chloroform, when in- haled for some time, produces a tem- porary insensibility to pain. Inhaled in small doses it produces pleasurable inebriation, followed by drowsiness ; in larger doses it causes loss of voluntary motion, suspension of mental faculties, with slight contraction of the muscles and rigidity of the limbs ; then if the inhalation is continued a complete re- 1 laxation of the voluntary muscles takes place, but if carried too far it ' causes dangerous symptoms of apnoea or of syncope, and the patient must be restored by artificial respiration. Chlorosis, one of the most formid- able diseases to which plants are liable, and often admitting of no remedy. Many forms of the disease exist, of which those of clover, onions, cucum- bers and melons are best known. In medical practice an affection in which the skin of the body, and es- pecially that of the face, assumes a peculiar greenish cast, and hence is popularly known as green-sickness. Choate, Joseph Hodges, an Amer- ican diplomatist; born in Salem, Mass., Jan. 24, 1832. He is a descen- dant of John Choate, who came from England in 1640. He was graduated at Harvard College in 1852 ; admitted to the bar in Boston in 1855 ; removed in 1856 to New York, where he be- came a partner in the law firm of Evarts, Choate & Beaman. His abil- ity as a lawyer and public speaker gave him a reputation seldom equaled among leaders of the New York bar. In 1899-1905 he was Ambassador to Great Britain. He died May 14, 1917. Choate, Ruf us, an American law- yer ; born in Essex, Mass., Oct. 1, 1799; was graduated at Dartmouth College in 1819; taught there for one year ; was admitted to the bar and began practice in Danvers in 1823 ; removed to Salem in 1828; was a member of Congress in 1830-1834, re- signing in the latter year; removed to Boston ; was successor of Daniel Web- ster in the United States Senate in 1841-1845; returned to Boston in the latter year and resumed practice. He traveled in Europe in 1850 ; was a delegate to the Whig National Con- vention in Baltimore in 1852. After Webster's death Mr. Choate was ac- knowledged the leader of the Massa- chusetts bar. He made many political speeches, the most brilliant, while a United States Senator, including those on the Oregon Boundary, the Tariff, the Fiscal Bank Bill, the Smithsonian Institution, and the Annexation of Texas. He gave much attention to lit- erary studies. He died in Halifax, N. S., Julv 13, 1858. Chocolate, a preparation of the seeds of Tneobroma Cacao, made by grinding the seeds mixed with water to a very fine paste. It was intro- duced from America to Europe by the Spaniards. It is highly nutritious, containing a large proportion of nitro- genous flesh-forming material. On this account it is used as portable food by many mountaineers. In the solid form, mixed with much sugar, cream, and various confections, Chocolate is largely used as a sweetmeat, and is introduced in pastry. Choctaw* Chorazln Choctaws, an Indian tribe that now occupies a reservation in the S. E. portion of Oklahoma; area, 10,450 square miles. The chief and legisla- ture are chosen by popular vote. Grain, cotton and fruit are raised bv the tribe, which maintains schools and orphan homes. They number aboiit 18,456. A number of denom- inations maintain mission schools. The tribe's trust funds aggregate over $549,500. There are numerous Choctaw physicians, lawyers and clergymen, but the tribe is not as civilized as some others. Choir, an organized body of singers in church services. In ecclesiastical architecture the choir is the part of the building in a cathedral or colle- giate chapel set apart for the per- formance of the ordinary daily ser- vice. Choke-cherry, a species of cherry, so called from the astringent nature of the fruit ; it is indigenous to North America, the true choke-cherry being the Prunus Virginiana ; the fruit is smfll and hangs in racemes. Choke-damp, the name given by miners to the fire-damp resulting from an explosion of gas in mines. Choking, the effect caused by a morsel of food, liquid, or other obstruc- tion, passing into the larnyx or up- per opening of the windpipe, instead of the gullett. It results generally from a breath being suddenly drawn in coughing or laughing, while food or fluid is in the mouth ; and a violent fit of coughing follows till the offending substance is expelled from the wind- pipe. Sometimes, however, a larger mass is drawn into the opening of the windpipe, completely blocking it and arresting respiration altogether. This condition is one of extreme danger and the sufferer, if not at once relieved, will certainly and quickly die of suffo- cation. Cholera, a Greek term now univer- sally employed in medicine as indicat- ing one of two or three forms of dis- ease, characterized by vomiting and purging, followed by great prostration of strength, amounting in severe cases to fatal collapse. The milder forms of Cholera occur almost every summer and autumn, even in temperate lati- tudes, while the more devastating and fatal forms of the disease are general- ly supposed to originate only in tropi- cal countries. The very fatal forms of the disease are commonly called Asia- tic, Oriental, or Epidemic Cholera. What is called Cholera morbus is a bilious disease, long known in most countries, and is characterized by co- pious vomiting and purging, with vio- lent griping, cramps of the muscles of the abdomen and lower extremities, and great depression of strength. It is the most prevalent at the end of summer or the beginning of autumn. Cholera infantum (infants' cholera) is the name sometimes given to a se- vere and dangerous diarrhoea to which infants are liable in hot climates or in the hot season. Cliolos, in Peru, the name for those who are partly of white, partly of Indian parentage, the most numerous class of the community. Cholnla, a decayed town of the Mexican State of Puebla. Cortes found in it 40,000 houses and 400 temples, including the great Teocalli. Now the place only contains 9,000 in- habitants. It was a great center of the Aztec religion. Chonos Archipelago, a group of islands lying off the W. coast of Pata- gonia. Two are large, but they are all barren and scantily inhabited. Chopin, Frederic Francois, a Russian pianist and musical composer, of French extraction ; born in Warsaw, March 1, 1809; died Oct. 17, 1894 in Paris, where the best part of his life was spent. His characteristic piano- forte compositions include Nocturnes, Polonaises, Valses, and Preludes. Chop-sticks, the Chinese substi- tute for a knife, fork, and spoon at meals, consisting of two smooth sticks of bamboo, wood, or ivory. Chorale, or Choral, the psalm or hymn tune of the German Protestant churches. Choral Music, vocal music in parts ; music written or arranged for a choir or chorus, and including ora- torios, cantatas, masses, anthems, etc. Choral Service, a service with in- toned responses, and the use of music throughout wherever it is authorized. Chorazin, one of the cities in which Christ's mighty works were done, but Chord named only in his denunciation (Matt xi: 21; Luke x: 13). It was known to St. Jerome, who describes it as on the shore of the lake, 2 miles from Capernaum. Chord, in music, the simultaneous and harmonious union of different sounds, at first intuitively recognized by the ear, and afterwards reduced to a science by the invention of the laws or rules of harmony. Chorea, St. Vitus' dance, a dis- order of the nervous system character- ized by a peculiar convulsive and ir- regular action of the voluntary mus- cles. The name is derived from St. Vitus, who is said to have had the power of curing persons afflicted with that disease. Chorus, originally an ancient Greek term for a troop of singers and dan- cers, intended to heighten the pomp and solemnity of festivals. Chosen, new name given by Japan to Korea on annexation of the latter in 1910. Chosroes I., or Khosron the Great, King of Persia, succeeded Cabades, A. i>. 551. He was fierce and cruel, but possessed many good quali- fies, and encouraged the arts and sci- ences. He concluded a peace with the Romans, but afterward invaded their territories, but was defeated by Tiberius. He died in 579. Chonans, the name popularly given during the Vendean civil war in France, to the peasants of Brittany and Lower Maine. Chontean, Auguste, an American pioneer ; born in New Orleans, La., in 1739. He was from his early youth a fur trader, and with his brother Pierre he founded the city of St. Louis in 1764. He died in St. Louis, Feb. 24, 1829. Chontean, Pierre, an American pioneer; born in New Orleans, in 1749. With his brother Auguste he set out in 1763, joining a government expedition. He stopped in the heart of an unsettled country and founded, with his brother, the city of St. Louis. He died in St. Louis, July 9, 1849. Chontean, Pierre, Jr., an Ameri- can capitalist, son of the preceding; born in St. Louis, Jan. 19, 1789. He worked for his father and began trad- Christ ing in fur early in life. After estab- lishing posts for the sale of skins throughout the trans-Mississippi re- gion he purchased the fur-trading in- terests of John Jacob Astor. He died in St. Louis, Sept. 8, 1865. Chrism, the name given to the oil consecrated on Holy Thursday, in the Roman Catholic and Greek Churches, and used in baptism, confirmation, or- dination, and extreme unction. Christ, the name given as a title of eminence to Jesus our Saviour, whom, in the words of St. Peter (Acts x: 38), "God anointed," as king, priest, and prophet, " with the Holy Ghost and with power." The two names, Jesus Christ, are not analogous to a modern Christian name and surname; in reality the great Being so desig- nated had but one personal appella- tion Jesus ; Christ being added by Jesus himself (John 4: 26) to desig- nate His office, function, or mission. Christ, Disciples of, a denomina- tion of Christians in the United States from which has sprung since 1900 a body known as the CHURCHES OF CHBIST. In September, 1809, Thomas Campbell, a Scotch minister of the seceders' branch of the Presbyterian Church, then living in Western Penn- sylvania, issued a " Declaration and Address " deploring the divided state of the Church, and urging as the only remedy a complete restoration of apostolic Christianity and the rejec- tion of all human creeds and confes- sions of faith. The Christian Asso- ciation of Washington, Pa., was formed for the purpose of promoting the principles set forth in this " dec- laration." It was not the intention of the Campbellites to form a dis- tinct religious body, but to effect the proposed reforms in the churches. The Disciples maintained that having accepted the Bible as their only rule of faith and practice, and the only divine basis for the union of all Christians, they were led to reject in- fant baptism and adopt believers' im- mersion only. They observe the Lord's Supper each-first day of the week, and heartily and practically accept and exalt the doctrine of the divinity of Christ. The two denominations have 8,621 ministers, 11,143 churches, and 1,522,821 communicants, besides sev Oh.ristadelpL.ians Christian Church eral universities and colleges of high rank, and a number of religious pub- lications. Cliristadelphians, a religious body who believe that God will raise all who love Him to an endless life in this world (but that those who do not shall absolutely perish in death) ; that Christ is the Son of God, inheriting moral perfection from the Deity, our human nature from His mother ; and that there is no personal devil. In the United States they had in 1906, 70 or- ganizations with 1,412 members, scat- tered over 25 States and Territories. Their founder was Dr. John Thomas, an Englishman, who came to the United States in 1844. Christ Church, College of, a notable institution in Oxford, England. Christian II., King of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden; son of Hans and grandson of Christian I., King of Denmark, etc. ; born July 2, 1480. Upon rebellion breaking out in Sweden, Christian sent an army com- manded by Otto Krumpen, who defeat- ed the S"wedes in the decisive battle of Bogesund (Ulrikehamn), Jan. 19, 1520, in which Steen Sture the ad- ministrator was killed. Stockholm, under the command of the widow of Sture, stood a siege of four months, during which period the rest of the country was subdued, and on Nov. 4, Christian was crowned King of Sweden. He was one of the most cruel n?onsters of history, and is known as " The Nero of the North." Sweden revolted under Gustavus Vasa, who expelled the Danish garrisons and became king of Sweden, and founder of the illustrious house of Vasa. Chris- tian was dethroned in Denmark, and died in 1559. Christian IX. (of Schleswig-Hol- stein-Sonderburg-Glucksburg) ; born in 1818, succeeded Frederick VII. as King of Denmark, in 1863. The Kings of Greece, of Norway, Queen of Great Britain, Dowager Czarina of Russia, were his children. He died Jan. 29, 1906. Christian X., King of Denmark, born Sept. 26, 1870, son of King Fred- erik VIII. and Queen Louisa ; mar- ried Princess Alexandrine of Mecklen- burg, April 26, 1898 ; succeeded to the throne, May 14, 1912 ; heir apparent, B. 34. Prince Christian Frederik, born March 11, 1899. Christian Church, The, consists of those who have been baptized in the name of Christ and who accept His doctrines and live in harmony with them. The Church, in its broadest sense, consists of true believers in all ages ; but the Christian Church was established through the life and work of Christ Himself, and consists only of His followers. Its first great increase was at Pentecost, where 3,000 souls were converted ; shortly afterward 5,000 were added to the Church. Stephen was the first to suffer martyr- dom. Paul made three great mission- ary tours, and the result was the or- ganic unity of the Church in its firs! period. Christian Churches in America.-" The colonization of North Americ% sprang from religious motives. Th colonists sought freedom here because of the oppressions at home. Periods of American Church History: (1) From 1607-1660, revival and progress. (2) 1660-1720, trial, disputes with Great Britain, religious decline. (3) From 1720-1750, great revivals. (4) From 1750-1783, political agitation, freedom from British rule. (5) From 1783 to the present, extensive revivals, separation of Church and State, abcK lition of slavery, evangelization. The Protestant Episcopal Church was founded by the James River Colony (1607) ; its first General Convention was in 1785; it ratified the Thirty- nine Articles in 1832. The Puritan Pilgrims landed at Plymouth in 1620, and began the development of Congre- gationalism. The Cambridge Plat- form was established in 1648. The Reformed (Dutch) Church was estab- lished in 1628 in New Amsterdam (New York). The first independent organization was in 1771. The Bap- tists began in Providence, R. I., in 1639, through Roger Williams. The Reformed (German) Church was or- ganized in 1741. The Lutherans were established first in New York in 1669 ; the first Synod was held in 1748. The Presbyterians were organized at the close of the 17th century. The first Presbytery was established in Phila- delphia in 1706, and the first General Assembly in 1789. The first Metho- dist Society in the United States was Christiancy established in New York in 1766, and the first Conference was held in Phil- adelphia in 1771. The Reformed Episcopal Church was organized in New York in 1873, under Bishop Cum- mins. The Roman Catholic Church in the United States was first estab- lished in Maryland through immigra- tion in 1632. The Episcopal See of Baltimore was established in 1789. For statistics of the American Churches see the separate articles. Christiancy, Isaac Peckham, an American editor and diplomatist ; born in Johnstown (now Bleeker) , N. Y., March 12, 1812. He was one of the founders of the Republican party. In 1875 be was chosen United States Senator from Michigan, and in 1879 became Minister to Peru. He died in Lansing, Mich., Sept. 8, 1890. Christian Endeavor, Young People's Society of, a society dis- tinctly religious in all its features; organized Feb. 2, 1881, in Williston Church, Portland, Me., by the Rev. Francis E. Clark, D. D. From one small association it has expanded into over 72,000 societies, in all parts of the world, with an aggregate member- ship of over 3,500,000. In addition to the main organizations in the United States it has been found necessary to form branches, among which are the Juniors, organized March 27, 1884, at Tabor, la., by the Rev. J. W. Cowan and Miss Belle Smith ; the Intermedi- ate, organized by the Rev. A. Z. Con- rad, of Worcester, Mass. ; and the Mothers', suggested by Mrs. Amanda B. Fellows, of Chicago, and organized in- April, 1893, at Topeka, Kan., by Mr. F. C. Barton. The first Chris- tian Endeavor Society in England was organized in 1887, and was followed by similar ones in other countries, and the constitution has been printed in over 30 different languages. The movement is not a denominational one. Any society belonging to an evangel- ical Church, which adopts the leading principles asjset forth in the constitu- tion, including the prayer-meeting pledge, and which guarantees these principles by the name Christian En- deavor either alone or in connection with a denominational name is admit- ted to all the privileges of the organ- ization. Christiana The distinctive features in the Christian Endeavor movement are its work among the young people, leading them to consecrate their lives to the active service of God; the weekly prayer-meetings, which each member takes a solemn pledge to attend regu- larly (unless unavoidably detained), and to take part in ; and the reconse- cration meetings held once a month, at which special efforts are made to see if each one has been faithful to his pledges. Christian Era, the era or epoch introduced by the birth of Christ. It was calculated back about the year 532, by a monk, Dionysius Exiguus. It is thought that he fixed the advent too late by four years, and that con- sequently Jesus was born, if the con- tradiction in terms can be permitted, in B. c. 4. Christiania, a city and port, the capital of Norway, at the head of the long narrow inlet called Christiania Fjord, about 60 miles from the open sea. The houses are mostly of brick and stone, generally plain buildings, devoid of architectural pretension. Important public buildings are the royal palace, the house of representa- tives or Storthing, the governor's pal- ace, and the cathedral. The manufac- tures of the city consist of woolen cloth, ironware, tobacco, paper, leather, soap, spirits, glass, etc., and there are extensive breweries. The exports are principally timber and iron. The environs are exceedingly beautiful. Pop. 227,626. Christianity, the religion of which Jesus Christ is not only the founder, but also the object, since it is by Him and in Him that man recovers his union with God by an effective recon- ciliation. Christians, a religious denomina- tion, founded in 1810 from threefold sources, Methodist, Baptist, and Pres- byterian, growing out of secessions from each of those bodies. The de- nomination was first called " The In- dependent Baptist Church." The members discard creeds and adhere closely to Biblical terminology in stat- ing their views. The first General Convention was held in 1819. In 1854 resolutions in regard to slavery were adopted which were offensive to Christian Science Christian Science the Southern members, who withdrew, and formed a Southern Convention. Christian Science, a system of religion, the practice of which consists in the overcoming of sin and the heal- ing of disease. The discoverer and founder of Christian Science was the Rev. MAEY BAKER GIOVEB EDDY (q.v.), of Concord, N. H. It was estab- lished by her in 1866, and has had a remarkable development. It is based upon the Bible and set forth in a work by Mrs. Eddy, entitled " Science and Health, with Key to the Scriptures," first published in 1875. " Science and Health," pages 114 and 358, states that " Christian Science, understood, coin- cides with the Scriptures and sustains logically and demonstratively every point it presents." "Christian Science explains all cause and effect as mental, not physical. It shows the scientific relation of man to God." Christian Science affirms the spiritual personal- ity of God, as opposed to all material theories. God is held to be the divine principle of all being, matter having no actual existence. The spiritual uni- verse manifests but one real mind, God, of whom man is the idea or re- flection. Christian Science is then at once the science of God, of man, and of life. God is absolute good. He has not created nor consented to any form of evil, sickness, or death ; His laws provide for life only. Sin, sickness and death are abnormal conditions of mortal mind and have no existence outside of carnal thought. Disease is a belief, not a reality. When man fully awakes to the fact that bodily ills and mortality are the results of fear, igno- rance and sin, he will be in a position to deal with and master disease on a true scientific basis. Christian Science is thus not only a system of faith, but a method of healing ; disease being in its teaching not an actual fact, but a distorted belief, while th cure begins with discarding a belief in the reality of disease. In attestation of its teach- ings, it points to cures of so-called in- curable diseases, such as cancer, con- sumption, locomotor ataxia, etc., with- out the aid of material remedies, but through strictly metaphysical methods. Mrs. Eddy says in her book, " Retro- spection in Introspection," page 41 : " I claim for healing scientifically the following advantages : 1. It does away with all material medicines and recog- nizes the antidote for all sickness, as well as sin, in the immortal mind ; and mortal mind as the source of all the ills that befall mortals. 2. It is more effectual than drugs, and cures when they fail or only relieve, thus proving the superiority of metaphysics over physics. 3. A person healed by Christian Science is not only healed of his disease, but is advanced morally and spiritually. The mortal body being but the objective state of the mortal mind, this mind must be renovated to improve the body." The services are uniform, consisting of meetings on Sundays and on Wed- nesday evenings. No sermons are preached by a personal pastor, but a sermon made up of selections from the Bible and " Science and Health, with a Key to the Scriptures," written by Mrs. Eddy, is read by two readers, called the first and second readers, gen- erally a man and a woman. At the Wednesday evening meetings testi- monies of healing and remarks on Christian Science are given by the members of the congregation. The absence of creed and dogma in, the Christian Science Church, its free- dom from materialism, mysticism, and superstition, also the simplicity, uni- formity, and impersonality of its form of worship and organization, are among the distinguishing features which characterize this modern relig- ious movement. Hypnotism, mesmer- ism, spiritualism, theosophy, faith-cure and kindred systems are classed by Christian Science as foreign to their form of worship. Those practising these beliefs are denied admission to the Christian Science Church. The rapid growth of this religion, of which we have given only a brief outline, is shown by the increase in the number of its adherents, it having more than 1,000 churches and societies in the United States and foreign lands, while its followers and sympathizers in this country are estimated to be over a million. The First Church of Christ, Scientist, erected at Boston, in 1894, has the enormous membership, resident and non-resident, of over 40,000, and the membership of the branch churches is about the same, many of them being also members of the Mother Church. All Christian Science churches, other Chriitian University Christinas Ship than the Mother Church in Boston, are branches of that church. A spacious auditorium with a seating capacity of 5,000 and built at a cost approaching $2,000,000, has been added to the church at Boston, and was dedicated in June, 1906, 30,000 persons being present on that occasion. Magnificent and costly church buildings have been erected in New York City, Philadel- phia, Chicago and many other cities, including a beautiful granite edifice in Concord, N. H., the gift of Mrs. Eddy, whose home was for years in that city. She now resides in Brookline (New- ton), Mass., a suburb of Boston. There are at present more than 4,000 practitioners of Christian Science healing in the United States. Branch churches exist in many for- eign countries, including Great Britain and Ireland, Canada, Mexico, the Ba- hamas, British West Indies, Cuba, the Hawaiian Islands, Philippine Islands, Sandwich Islands, France, Germany, Norway, Switzerland, Italy, Australia, India, China, and South Africa. Besides the text-book of Christian Science, Mrs. Eddy's principal works are: "People's Idea of God" (1886) ; " Christian Healing " (1886) ; " Unity of Good" (1887); "Retrospection and Introspection" (1891) ; "No and Yes" (1891); "Christ and Christ- mas" (1893); "Pulpit and Press" (1895); "Church Manual" (1895); '* Miscellaneous Writings" (1897); "Christian Science vs. Pantheism" (1898); "Messages to the Mothef Church " ( 1900-1901-1902 ) . The Christian Science Publishing Society publishes " The Christian Sci- ence Journal" (monthly); " Der Herold Der Christian Science" (monthly German) ; "The Christian Science Sentinel" (weekly); "The Christian Science Monitor" (a daily newspaper) ; and numerous pamphlets and tracts in English, French and German. Christian University, a Co-edu- cational institution in Canton, Mo. Christie, William Henry Ma- honey, an English astronomer ; born in Woolwich, Oct. 1, 1845. On the retirement of Airy as Astronomer Royal in 1881, Christie was appointed his successor, a position which he still holds. He is best known for his spec- troscopic work with the Greenwich Equatorial, especially that relating to the motion of stars in the line of sight. Christina, Queen of Sweden ; born in 1626. She was the daughter of the great Gustavus Adolphus, and on her father's death, in 1632, was crowned queen, being then only six years of age, with the five principal ministers of state appointed by Parliament her guardians. Having resolved to aban- don Protestantism, she, in 1654, in an assembly of the states at Upsala, abdi- cated her crown, reserving to herself an annual income of $200,000. She forthwith left Sweden, and traveled in male attire to Brussels, where she made a secret profession of the Roman Catholic faith. At Innsbruck, she made a more formal and public avowal of it. She next rode to Rome, where the reception accorded to her was an ovation. There she did homage to Pope Alexander VII., and received the honor of his name, in addition to her own, being thenceforward styled Chris- tina Alexandra. In 1656 she went to France, where she lived principally at Fontainebleau, Compiegne, and Paris. During the year following, she excited universal horror and disgust by the cruel assassination of her mas- ter of the horse, the Marquis Monal- deschi. In 1660 her successor on the Swedish throne died, and she there- upon repaired to Sweden to claim it for herself ; but her conversion to the Roman Catholic Church proved a bar to her resumption of the crown, and she was compelled to return to Rome, where she died in 1689. Christison, Sir Robert, a Scotch physician, born in Edinburgh, July 18, 1797, attained eminence as a toxicolo- gist, professor of medical jurispru- dence, and author. He died Jan. 27, 1882. Christmas, the festival of the Na- tivity of Christ, observed by the Chris- tian Church yearly on the 25th of De- cember, commonly accepted as the date of the birth of Christ. Christmas Ship, popular name given to the United States naval aux- iliary vessel Jason, which was sent to Europe in November, 1914, laden with over 6,000,000 packages of cloth- ing, toys, and other appropriate ar- Christophe tides from all parts of the country, contributed for Christmas gifts for the children of war sufferers. Christoplie, Henri, a King of Haiti, was an African, slave ; born in Grenada, West Indies, in 1767, who received his freedom as a reward of faithful service. On the outbreak of the negro insurrection in St. Domingo, 1801, he became one of its leaders. After the deposition of Toussaint, Christophe served under his successor, Dessalines. In 1811 Christophe ob- tained undisputed possession of a por- tion of the island with the title of King of Haiti. He committed suicide in 1820. Christopher's, St. (commonly called St. Kitt's), a British island in the West Indies, one of the Leeward Islands, 23 miles in length, and in general about 5 in breadth ; area, 65 square miles. The interior consists of many rugged precipices and barren mountains. The chief town, a seaport with open roadstead, is Basse-Terre. The island has a legislature of its own, with an executive subordinate to the governor of the Leeward Islands. It was discovered by Columbus in 1493. Pop. (1911) 26,283. Christy, Charles, an American minstrel ; born in New York city, in 1828. He was an actor from boyhood, singing on the minstrel stage. He died in Kansas City, Mo., Feb. 13, 1897. Chromium, an element discovered in the native chromate of lead of Si- beria. It was afterward found com- bined with iron. It is the coloring matter of the emerald and beryl, and has received its name from the brill- iant colors of its compounds. Chromium (or Chrome) Steel, steel in which the carbon is replaced by the metal chromium. It is claimed that this steel can sustain a greater degree of heat than ordinary steel. Chromo-Iithography, the art of printing chromo-lithographs. Color printing was not successful till it was combined with lithography, invented between 1796 and 1800 by Alois Sene- felder of Prague. In the art an out- line drawing is first traced, then va- rious stones are taken, one for each color, to which the drawing is trans- ferred. Chronology Chromosphere. During total eclipses it is observed that a red-colored envelope surrounds the sun, and shoots up to great distances from the surface. It seems to have been first recognized by Secchi ; and the projecting portions of it are commonly described as " red- colored protuberances " and " red flames." To this red envelope the name chromosphere was given by Sir J. Norman Lockyer, and till 1868, when M. Janssen and Mr. Lockyer al- most simultaneously pointed out a method of viewing it, it was never seen except during eclipses. Chronicle, an historical account of facts or events disposed chronologically or in the order of time. Most of the historians of the Middle Ages were chroniclers who set down the events which happened within the range of their information, according to the succession of years. In Scriptures, the name of two books, consisting of an abridgement of sacred history from its commencement down to the return of the Jews from the Babylonish captivity. Chronograph, the name given to various devices for measuring and reg- istering very minute portions of time with extreme precision. Chronology, the doctrine of sci- ence of time, or of computing dates: the method of ascertaining the true periods, or years, when past events took place, and arranging them in their proper order, according to their dates. The following are the leading systems of chronology existing among the several nations of the world : Chi- nese and Japanese Chronology: In these calculation is made by cycles of 60 years, each year of the cycle sepa- rately named. Hindu Chronology : (1) Historical : No system is universal in India or exclusive. Two of the chief are the era of Salivahana (A. D. 77), and that of Vicramaditya (B. o. 57). (2) Astronomical: The Hin- dus have four ages. We are now in the Kali Yooga, beginning 3101 B. o. Greek Chronology : In the time of Herodotus, and subsequently in that of Thucydides, the Greeks had no chronology spanning wide intervals of time. It was not till B. c. 194 that Eratosthenes, the "father" of Greek chronology, began to count by Olym- Chronometer piads, the first of which was dated from what we now should call B. c. 776. Roman Chronology: The method of Roman reckoning was by the con- sulships, which, of course, could give no indication of time unless their or- der was carefully preserved, and even then was clumsy. A much simpler and better plan was by calculating years from the building of the city. This Varro placed in what would now be called B. c. 753, while Cato pre- ferred 752. Jewish Chronology: Up till the 15th century the Jews followed the era of the Seleucidae. Since then they have dated from the creation of the world* which they fix 3760 years and three months before the commence- ment of the Christian era. Mohammedan Chronology : Dates are counted from the Hegira, that is, the time of Mohammed's flight from Mecca to Medina, A. D. 622. Christian Chronology: Since the 6th century dates have begun to be reckoned from the birth of Christ, though the system did not become uni- versal in Europe till many centuries subsequently. Chronometer, any instrument that measures time, as a clock, watch, or dial ; but, specifically, this term is ap- plied to those time-keepers which are used for determining the longitude at sea, or for any other purpose where an accurate measure of time is re- quired, with great portability in the instrument. Chrysalis, the last stage through which certain insects pass before be- coming a perfect insect. It is also known by the name, pupa. Chrysanthemum, a genus of her- baceous or slightly shrubby plants, represented in the United States by the well-known ox-eye daisy, and the corn marigold, besides which many va- rieties have been introduced from other countries. Chryseis, the daughter of Chryses, priest of Apollo, famed for beauty and for her skill in embroidery. She fell to Agamemnon's lot in the course of the Trojan War, but was afterward restored, in order to stop a plague among the Grecians, which Apollo had Bent at the request of her father. Chuquisaca Chrysippns, a faraed Greek philos- opher ; about 280-206 B. c. ; born prob- ably at Soli in Cilicia. He attended at Athens the lectures of Cleanthes, the successor of Zeno, and after his death became head of the Stoic school. He wrote over 700 books. Chrysis, the golden wasp, or ruby- tail fly. They are magnificently col- ored with metallic hues. They are parasitic, depositing their eggs in the nests of the solitary mason-bees, on the larvae of which their larvae live. Chrysoberyl, a gem almost as hard as sapphire, and the finer specimens of which are very beautiful, particu- larly those which exhibit an opales- cent play of light. It is of a green color, inclining to yellow, semi-trans- parent, or almost transparent, and has double refraction. Chrysolite, a green-colored ortho- rhombic mineral of a vitreous luster, transparent or translucent. Chrysostom, John, St., (" golden- mouthed "), a celebrated Greek father of the church ; born in Antioch about A. D. 344; died at Comana, in Pontus, in 407. Chub, an American fish, of the genus carp. It is indifferent food, and rarely attains the weight of 5 pounds. Allied European species receive the same name. Chubut, or Chnpat, a colony in Patagonia, so named from a river which drains a large part of its area. The entrance to the river, about 500 miles S. of tfie river Platte, is bad, but the bar can be crossed by vessels of from 7 to 12 feet draught. Its principal interest lies in its Welsh settlement, which has remained almost wholly Welsh-speaking. Chukiang, or Canton River, the " Pearl River " of the Chinese, is the lower part of the Pekiang, and has a navigable channel of about 300 miles. Opposite Canton it is about % mile wide, and is crowded with shipping. Chung-King, a Chinese port in Szechuen, on the Yang-tze-Kiang, at the junction of the Pei river. It was declared open in 1890, and has ac- quired a thriving' trade. Pop. (1910 est.) 598,000. Chnquisaca, or Sucre, a city of South America, the former capital of Church. Bolivia ; well situated on a plateau' between the Amazon and La Plata rivers, 9,343 feet above sea-level. Pop. (1915) 29,686. The province of Chu- quisaca has an area of 36,132 square miles; pop. (1915) 333,226. Church, Benjamin, an American soldier ; born in Duxbury, Mass., in 1639. He commanded forces with dis- tinction in King Philip's War and in the famous battle of 1675 with the Narragansetts won renown. He killed King Philip in 1676; died in January, 1718. Church, Benjamin, an American physician ; born in Massachusetts, about 1710. He was a leader in the " Boston tea-party." He secretly corresponded in cipher with the Brit- ish, and, being detected, failed to ex- culpate himself. He sailed for the West Indies in 1776, and was lost at sea. Church, Francis Pharcellus, an American editor ; born in Rochester, N. Y., Feb. 22, 1839 ; died in 1906. Church, Frederick Edwin, an American landscape-painter ; born in Hartford, Conn., May 4, 1826. His " View of Niagara Falls from the Canadian Shore," is regarded by many as the most successful representation of the great cataract. He died in New York city, April 7, 1900. Church, William Conant, an American journalist ; born in Roches- ter, N. Y., Aug. 11, 1836. Church Army, an English relig- ious organization, founded in London in 1882 having for its objects the training of working men for ecclesi- astical service among the laboring classes. Church Discipline, the practice of the Christian Church in dealing with such of its office-bearers and members as have by public scandal caused hindrance to its common spir- itual life. Church Government, the regula- tion and ordering of spiritual matters, or those pertaining to the discipline and work of the Church. Churchill, Randolph Henry Spencer, Lord, third son of the sev- enth Duke of Marlborough ; born Feb. 13, 1849 ; entered the British Parlia- ment in 1874, and became a leader of the Conservative party. On the defeat Church of Gladstone's Irish Bill in 1886 Churchill became leader of the House of Commons and Chancellor of the Ex- chequer, posts which he unexpectedly resigned in December, 1886. Died in London, Jan. 24, 1895. Lord Ran- dolph married, in 1874, Miss Jennie, daughter of the late Leonard Jerome, of New York City. In 1900, Lady Randolph married George Cornwallis West. Churchill, Winston, an Ameri- can author ; born in St. Louis, Mo., Nov. 10, 1871. He was graduated from the United States Naval Acad- emy in 1894, and became an editor of the "Army and Navy Journal." He wrote "Richard Carvel;" "The Cri- sis;" "The Crossing;" " Coniston." Churchill, Winston Leonard Spencer, an English author, army officer, and public official ; son of the preceding ; born Nov. 30, 1874 ; was educated at Harrow and Sandhurst; entered the army in 1895 ; served in Cuba (1895), India (1897-8), Egypt (1898), South Africa (1899), and in France (1915-17) ; was elected to Parliament in 1900 ; became Parlia- mentary Secretary for the Colonies, 1905 ; was Under Secretary for the Colonies, 1905-8; President of the Board of Trade, 1908-10 ; Home Sec- retary, 1910-11; First Lord of the Admiralty, 1911-15 ; re-entered the army on the changes in the cabinet. Churchill River, a river of the Northwest Territories of Canada, which rises in La Crosse Lake and discharges into Hudson Bay. Church of God, a Christian sect which originated in 1830, in a move- ment in which John Winebrenner, previously a minister in the German Reformed Church, was most promi- nent. It holds the doctrines of the Evangelical churches, with baptism by immersion only, subsequent to faith ; feet-washing ; the administra- tion of the Lord's Supper in the even- ing; all the instrumentalities of revi- vals ; and protests against the traffic in intoxicating drinks. According to the census of 1910 the sect had in the United States in 1906, 518 organiza- tions with 24,356 members. Church, States of the, or Papal States, a territory that stretched from the Po to near Naples, and in 1869 had an area of 15,774 square Church-warden Cilia miles and a pop. of 3,000,000. The war of 1859 and the popular vote of 1860 left the Pope only the Comarca of Rome, the legation of Velletri, and the delegations of Civita Vecchia, j Frosinone, and Viterbo, 4,493 square miles in extent, with a pop. of about 700,000, the rest being united with Italy, and in 1870 the remnant of the Pope's temporal possessions were an- nexed to the kingdom of Italy, of which Rome became the capital. The Pope is, however, still permitted to keep up the state of a sovereign with- in the precincts of the Vatican. Church-warden, one of two Epis- copalian parochial officers chosen an- nually at the Easter vestries, one by the minister and one by the parish- ioners. Also the colloquial name of a very long stemmed clay pipe for smok- ing. Chnrros, the resinous exudation of the leaves and flowers of Indian hemp. It is used by the natives of India as an intoxicating drug. Chnrnbnsco, Battle of, fought in Mexico, Aug. 20, 1847. After the bat- tle of Contreras, fought on the same day, Santa Ana, with some 27,000 , men, made a stand at this hamlet, on the river Churubusco, 6 miles S. of the ; City of Mexico, to resist the advance of the United States army under Gen. Scott Of 8,000 United States troops in the two actions there were 139 killed and 926 wounded ; the Mexicans lost 4,000 killed and wounded, 3.000 prisoners, 37 guns, and much ammuni- tion. Chnsan, the principal of the group of islands known as the Chusan Archi- pelago ; lies about a mile off the E. coast of China, opposite Ningpo. It has an area of over 230 square miles, and a population of 200,000 to 250,- 000. Gibber, Colley, an English dram* atist ; born in London, Nov. 6, 1671 ; was one of the most successful stagers of plays in the history of the theater. In 1730, he was appointed Poet Laure- ate. His autobiographic " Apology " is his best work. He died Dec. 12, 1757. Cibitu, or Sibutu, a southern Philippine island, 14 miles long and 2 miles wide. It is flat, with a conical mountain in the center, 500 feet high. It was sold by Spain (with Caygay- an) to the United States in 1900, upon payment of $100,000, having been overlooked in the terms of the treaty of peace. Pop. (1903) 280. Cicely, a popular name applied to several umbelliferous plants. Sweet Cicely is found hi North American woods from Canada to Virginia. Cicero, Marcus Tnllrns, a Ro- man orator ; born in Arpinum, in the year of Rome 647 (106 B. c.). He was one of the greatest orators the world has known, and a statesman and patriot of singularly pure conduct and motives. He was executed at the in- stance of the Triumvirate Octavian- us, Antony and Lepidus, B. c. 43. Cid, The, Don Rodrigo (Ruy) Diaz, Count of Bivar; born in 1026. The model of the heroic virtues of his age, and the flower of Spanish chiv- alry, styled by his enemies, the Moors of Spain, cid (the lord), and by his king and countrymen Campeador (champion), he continues to live in the poetry of his country. The Cid died at Valencia, in the 74th year of his age (1099). What this hero won, and for many years defended, the united power of Leon and Castile was scarcely able to preserve against the encroachments of the infidels. His dead body was mailed and mounted on his favorite steed and marched out against the enemy, who fled at its ap- proach. Cider, a liquor made from the juice of apples. Cienfuegos, a port and town of Cuba, on the S. coast, at the mouth of lagua bay, 140 miles from Havana. Cienfuegos is the center of the Cuban sugar trade. Pop. (1914) 81,502. Cigar, a small roll of manufactured tobacco leaves carefully made up, and intended to be smoked by lighting at one end and drawing the smoke through it. The cigars of Havana, Cuba, are considered the best brands. Cilia, the hair which grows from the margin of the eyelids. The term is also applied to microscopic fila- ments, or plates which project from animal membranes and are endowed with quick vibratile motion. In most of the lower animals the respiratory function is effected by means of the vibratile cilia. Cillcia Cinchonisae Cilicia, an ancient division of Asia Minor, now included in the Turkish province of Adana. In early ages Cilicia was ruled by its own kings, the people, who were probably akin to Syrians, and Phoenicians, being notori- ous pirates. The country fell succes- sively under Persian, Macedonian, Syrian and Roman rule. Cimarrones, a name used in the Spanish colonies of America for fugi- tive slaves, of whom in the 16th cen- tury many hundreds collected on the Isthmus of Panama, where they built walled towns, attacked the Spanish settlements, and became a terror ail over the country. They finally be- came amalgamated with the Indian tribes. Cimarosa, Dpmenico, an Italian composer ; born in Aversa, Dec. 17, 1749. He became famous when 21 with a comic opera, " The Pretended Parisian." In the ensuing 30 years he wrote over 80 comic operas. As a writer of comic operas Cimarosa has never been surpassed. He died in Venice, Jan. 11, 1801. Cimbri, a Celtic tribe, inhabiting Jutland, having joined with the Teu- tons, and which entered Illyria, where they defeated Cn. Papirius Carbo, at the head of a consular army, B. C. 113. Marius collected a large army and went to oppose them. The Cimbri and Teutones separated into two bod- ies, the former taking the road through Helvetia, and the latter pressing for- ward to assail the Roman army. Their intention was to reunite their forces on the Lombard plains. The Teu- tones were attacked and overwhelmed by the Romans, and 100,000 men are said to have perished on that occasion, B. c. 102. The Cimbri in the mean- time had reached the valley of the Adige, where they defeated the Roman army under Quintus Catulus. He formed a junction with Marius and allured them into an unfavorable po- sition, in which they were defeated and exterminated, B. c. 101. Cimmerian Bosphorns, an an- cient name for the Strait of Kaffa. Cimmerii, or Cimmerians, a no- madic race, inhabiting the Crimea and parts of the neighboring country, hav- ing been expelled by the Scythians, passed along the shores of the Euxine, invaded Asia Minor, and pillaged Sar- dis, the capital of Lydia, B. c. 635. In that country they were said to have remained until about B. c. 617, when they were defeated and driven out of Asia Minor. Cimon, an ancient Athenian gen- eral and statesman, was a son of the great Miltiades. He fought against the Persians in the battle of Salamis (480 B. c.), and shared with Aristides the chief command of the fleet sent to Asia to deliver the Greek colonies from the Persian yoke. He died shortly after, in 449, while besieging Citium in Cyprus. Cinchona, a genus of trees found exclusively on the Andes in Peru and CINCHONA. adjacent countries, and recently intro- duced into India, producing a medic- inal bark of great value known as Pe- ruvian bark. Cinchona Bark, the bark of sev- eral species of trees used in medicine, or for the extraction of the alkaloids, quinine, cinchonine, etc., which they contain. Cinchonism, a group of symptoms, chiefly connected with the nervous sys- tem, produced by the presence of qui- nine in the system. There are noises in the ears. These noises are accom- Cincinnati panied with more or less deafness. Affections of sight are less common. These symptoms usually pass away iu a few days after discontinuing the drug. Cincinnati, a city and county-seat of Hamilton Co., O. It is the second city in the State in population and the thirteenth in the United States, according to the census of 1910. It is built on the N. shore of the Ohio river, directly opposite Covington, Ky. ; and is connected with the Kentucky shore by five bridges ; area 75 square miles ; pop. (census est. 1916) 410,476. The city owns an extensive water- works system, costing $10,291,722. The principal park in Cincinnati is Eden Park, situated on a hill over- looking the city and the Ohio river. It contains 216 acres and two reservoirs, so constructed as to resemble natural lakes. Burnet Woods, in the N. part of the city, contains 170 acres of woodland. Hopkins, Lincoln, and Washington are smaller parks, form- ing magnificent pleasure grounds. Spring Grove Cemetery is one of the most beautiful in the West, and con- tains about 600 acres, well wooded, and many handsome monuments and mausoleums. The public buildings include the (U. S.) Government Building, of granite, cost $5,200.000; (U. S.) Marine Hos- pital ; the Y. M. C. A. Building, cost, $201,063; the County Court House, and jail, built in Romanesque style; the City Hospital; the City Hall, erected at a cost of over $1,000,000; and the Chamber of Commerce. Cin- cinnati is also celebrated as the site of one of the earliest astronomical ob- servatories in the United States, founded about the same time as that of Harvard University and the Naval Observatory at Washington. The ob- servatory has since been moved to Mount Lookout, a suburb of Cincin- nati, and a much better site than that first selected. The institution is best known for the work done there by Prof. Ormond Stone, one of its former directors, on the measurement of double-stars and the discovery of many new ones. It contains an 11-inch re- fractor and a new meridian circle. The University of Cincinnati, opened in 1874. had in the school year 1914-15, 2,292 students, with 229 instructors, Cincinnati and an equipment and endowment val- ued at over $3,000,000. The Federal census of 1910 reported 2,124 manufacturing establishments, employing $150,254,000 capital and 70,473 persons; paying $101,932,000 for stock used and $43,860,000 for wages ; of products and value $194,- 516,000. The Rookwood Pottery (q. v.) is famous for its porcelain. There are many beautiful churches and fine public schools. Among mu- nicipal benevolent and penal institu- tions are the City Infirmary, the Work House and the House of Ref- uge for incorrigible or homeless boys and girls. Besides large public hospi- tals, there are several private ones, and many orphan asylums and homes. Cincinnati, named in honor of the Society of the Cincinnati, was first settled by white men in 1780, and was incorporated as a city in 1819. Mounds containing various relics show that a portion of the site of the city was an- ciently occupied. The first steamboat descending from Pittsburg visited the town in 1811 ; the Miami canal was completed in 1830; the first railway was opened in 1845. Cincinnati, a society or order in the United States, established by the officers of the Revolutionary army in 1783, "to perpetuate their friendship, and to raise a fund for relieving the widows and orphans of those who had fallen during the war." The badge of the society is a bald eagle suspended by a dark-blue ribbon with white bor- ders, symbolizing the union of France and the United States. On the breast of the eagle there is a figure of Cin- cinnatus receiving the military ensigns from the senators, round the whole are the words "Omnia reliquit servare rempublicam." Membership descends to the eldest lineal male descendant, and, in failure of direct male descent, to male descendants through interven- ing female descendants. The general society is composed of the general of- ficers and five delegates from each State society, and meets triennially. In 1854 it ruled that proper descendants of Revolutionary officers who were entitled to original membership, but who never could avail themselves of it, are qualified for hereditary member- ship, if found worthy, on due applica- tion. Circe Cincinnatns, Lucius Quinctius, a wealthy patrician in the early days of the Roman Republic, born about 519 B. c. He succeeded Publicola in the consulship, and then retired to cultivate his small estate beyond the Tiber. The messengers of the senate found him at work on his farm when they came to summon him to the dicta- torship. He rescued the army from its peril, and then returned quietly to his farm. At the age of 80 he was again appointed dictator to oppose the -ambitious designs of Spurius Maelius. Cinematograph, a device for showing pictures of men, animals, etc., in motion. Cinnabar, red sulphide of mercury; the principal ore from which that met- al is obtained, occurring abundantly in California, China, etc. It is of a cochineal-red color, and is used as a pigment under the name of vermilion. Cinnamic Acid, an acid which ex- ists in the free state in the balsams of tolu and Peru, in liquid storax, and in gum benzoin. Cinnamon, an aromatic substance consisting of the bark of a tree, from which the essential oil of Cinnamon is distilled. The oil has aromatic car- minative, and stimulant properties. Cinqne Port*, (Five Ports), the sea-port towns of Dover, Sandwich, Hastings, Hythe, and Romney, Eng- land ; to which three others were af- terward added, viz., Winchelsea, Rye, and Seaford. These towns are incor- porated, with peculiar privileges ; are under the government of a lord war- den, to whom writs for the election of members to parliament from them are directed ; and the members so elected are termed Barons of the Cinque Ports. Cintra, a town in Portugal, 15 miles W. N. W. Lisbon, finely situated on the slope of the Sierra de Cintra. The kings of Portugal have a palace with fine gardens at Cintra. The town is celebrated for the convention en- tered into there in 1808, by which the French, after their defeat at Vimeira, were conveyed to France. Pop. 4,751. Ciphers, signs used to represent numbers, whether borrowed signs, as letters, with which the Greeks desig- nated their numbers, or peculiar char- acters, as the modern or Arabic ones. The ciphers, such as they are at pres- ent, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 0, did no* come into common European use until the llth century. Cipher Writing, a method of sending important intelligence in a manner so effectually disguised that only those for whom the news is in- tended can understand the meaning of what is written. By this method one word may be used to represent an en- tire sentence and thus not only is the cost of transmitting a message mate- rially reduced, but the contents be- come known only to the person for whom it is intended or to the possessor of a key. Cipher codes are employed by the State Departments of all gov- ernments and frequently changed. The special code is entrusted to the per- sonal custody of diplomatic officials embarking on a mission, who retain possession of it and destroy it if their lives are endangered. Cipriani, Giambattista, an Ital- ian history-painter and designer ; born in Florence in 1727, of an old Pistoja family. He died in Hammersmith, England, Dec. 14, 1785. Circassia, or Tcherkessia, a mountainous region in the S. E. of European Russia, lying chiefly on the N. slope of the Caucasus, partly also on the S., and bounded on the W. by the Black Sea, and now forming part of the Lieutenancy of the Caucasus. The mountains are intersected every- where with steep ravines and clothed with thick forests. Its climate is temperate, its inhabitants healthy and long-lived. The Circassians, properly so called, have been estimated to number from 500.000 to 600,000. Circe, a daughter of Sol and Perse, celebrated for her skill in magic and poisonous herbs, who lived on an is- land called ^Ea, on the coast of Italy. Ulysses, on his return from the Trojan war, visited her coast; and all his companions, who ran headlong into pleasure and voluptuousness, were changed by Circe's potions into swine. Ulysses, fortified against all enchant- ments by an herb called moly, which he had received from Mercury, de- manded from Circe the restoration of his companions to their former state. She complied, loading the hero with Circle honors; and, for one whole year, he forgot his glory in his devotion to pleasure. Circle, a plane figure contained by one line, which is called the circumfer- ence, and is such that all straight lines drawn from a certain point (the cen- ter) within the figure to the circum- ference are equal to one another. Circle, Magic, a space in which sorcerers were wont to protect them- selves from the fury of the evil spir- its they had raised. This circle was usually formed on a piece of ground about 9 feet square, in the midst of some dark forest, churchyard, vault, or other lonely and dismal spot. In- side the outer circle was another some- what less, in the center of which the sorcerer had his seat. The spaces be- tween the circles, as well as between the parallel lines which inclosed the larger one, were fillled with all the holy names of God, and a variety of other characters supposed to be po- tent against the powers of evil. With- out the protection of this circle, the magician, it was believed, would have been carried off by the spirits. Circuit Court, a court in the United States next in rank to the United States Supreme Court. The country now has nine circuits, each consisting of several States, and each is allotted to one of the nine justices of the Supreme Court, who must at- tend at least one term of court in each district of his circuit every two years. The judges of each circuit and the jus- tice of the Supreme Court for the cir- cuit constitute a Circuit Court of Ap- peals. Circular Notes, notes or letters of credit furnished by bankers to persons about to travel abroad. Circular Numbers, numbers whose powers end on the same figures as themselves ; as 0, 1, 5, etc. Circulation, in anatomy and physics, the term used to designate the course of the blood from the heart to the most minute blood-vessels (the capillaries), and from these back to the heart. Circulation of Sap, in plants, its ascent from the root to the leaves and bark, and its partial descent after the elaboration, which it undergoes in these organs. Circus Circumcision, an operation con- sisting in removing circularly the pre- puce of infants. God commanded Abraham to use circumcision as a sign of his covenant ; and in obedience to this order, the patriarch at 99 years of age was circumcised, as also his son Ishmael, and all the males of his household (Gen. xvii : 10-12). God repeated the precept to Moses, and or- dered that all who intended to partake of the Paschal sacrifice should receive circumcision, and that this rite should be performed on children on the eighth day after their birth (Ex. xii: 44). The Jews and all the other nations sprung from Abraham, as the Ishmael- ites, the Arabians, etc., have always been very exact in observing this cere- mony. At the present day it is an es- sential rite of the Mohammedan reli- gion, and though not enjoined in the Koran, prevails wherever this religion is found. Circumference, or Periphery, the curve which incloses a circle, el- lipse, oval, or other plane figure. Circumnavigator, one who sails round the globe. The first European known to have circumnavigated the globe was Magellan or Magalhaens, a Portuguese, who accomplished the feat in A. D. 1519. From him the Straits of Magellan derive their name. Circnmpolar Stars, those that ap- pear to move around the pole and per- form their circles without setting. Circumstantial Evidence, evi- dence obtained from circumstances, which necessarily or usually attend facts of a particular nature, from which arises presumption ; any evi- dence not direct and positive. Circnmvallation, or Line of Circumvallation, in military affairs a line of field-works consisting of a rampart or parapet, with a trench surrounding a besieged place, or the camp of a besieging army. Circus, among the Romans, a nearly oblong building without a roof, in which public chariot-races and ex- hibitions of pugilism and wrestling, etc., took place. The modern circus is a place where horses and other animals are trained to perform tricks, and where exhibitions of acrobats and va- rious pageantries, including a large amount of buffoonery, are presented. Cirrhosis City Cirrhosis, a chronic nonsuppura- tive inflammation. The term was orig- inally applied to the liver, and was due to alcoholic indulgence. Cirta, the capital of the ancient Massylii in Numidia. After the defeat of Jugurtha it passed into the hands of the Romans, and was restored by Constantine, who gave it his own name. Cisalpine Republic, a former State in North Italy. After the bat- tle of Lodi, in May, 1796, General Bonaparte proceeded to organize two States one on the S. of the Po, the Cispadane Republic, and one on the N., the Transpadane. These two were on July 9, 1797, united into one under the title of the Cisalpine Republic, which embraced Lombardy, Mantua, Bergamo, Brescia, Cremona, Verona, and Rovigo, the duchy of Modena, the principalities of Massa and Cararra, and the three legations of Bologna, Ferrara, and the Romagna. The re- public had a territory of more than 16,000 square miles, and a population of 3,500,000. Milan was the seat of the government or Directory. In 1802 it took the name of the Italian Re- public, and chose Bonaparte for its president. A deputation from the re- public in 1805 conferred on the Em- peror Napoleon the title of King of Italy ; after which it formed the king- dom of Italy till 1814. Cisleithania, or Cisleithan Provinces, Austria proper or Austria W. of the river Leitha, which partly forms the boundary between it and Hungary. Cisneros-Betanconrt, Salvador, a Cuban patriot ; born in Puerto Prin- cipe in 1832. During the Revolution of 1868-1878, he was president of the Cuban House of Representatives, and during a part of the time president of the Cuban Republic. In 1895 he was re-elected president of the new Cuban Republic. He died Oct. 22, 1910. Cissoid, a curve in geometry, the locus of the vortex of a parabola roll- ing upon equal parabola. Cist, a place of interment of an early or prehistoric period, consisting of a rectangular stone chest or inclos- ure formed of rows of stones set up- right, and covered by similar flat stones. Cistercian, a monastic order in connection with the Roman Catholic Church. Cistern, a tank for holding water. Cisterns differ from wells in; that they do not get their water from natural sources, such as springs, but through channels made by the hand of man. Citation, a summons or official no- tice given to a person to appear in a court as a party or witness in a cause. Cithern, or Cittern, an old instru- ment of the guitar kind, strung with wire instead of gut. Cities of Refuge. Moses, at the command of God, set apart three cities on the E. of Jordan, and Joshua added three others on the W., whither any person might flee for refuge who had killed a human creature inadvertently. The three on the E. of Jordan were Bezer, Ramoth, and Golan ; the three on the W. were Hebron. Shechem, and Kedesh. (Deut. iv: 43; Josh, xx: 1-8.) Cities of the Plain, Sodom and Gomorrah, chief of those five cities which, according to the commonly re- ceived account, were destroyed by fire from heaven, and their sites over- whelmed by the waters of the Dead Sea. Citizen, a member of a State or community, an inhabitant of any State or place. " All persons born or natu- ralized in the United States, and sub- ject to the jurisdiction thereof, are cit- izens of the United States and of the State wherein they reside." Constitu- tion of the United States, Amend, xiv., Sec. 1. Citric Acid, is a very widely dis- tributed acid, being present in most common fruits, such as gooseberries, currants, lemons, citrons, cherries, and many others. Citron, a tree of the genus Citrus. A small evergreen shrub introduced into the S. parts of Europe and Asia. City, a municipal organization char- tered by the sovereign authority, and endowed with certain powers of self government. In remotely ancient times a city was usually itself a cen- ter of sovereign power. This feature survives only in cities like Hamburg and Bremen. It does not exist in American or English cities, which are as much under the control of the State City Manager as the smaller village, and which are in effect simply corporations organized for the better management of corpor- ate affairs, the protection of health, the general safety, and so forth. City Manager, title of a newly- created official in American cities, individually responsible for the entire administrative machinery of a munic- ipality, the director of public affairs under the form of a commission gov- ernment. He appoints the various department heads, subject to ratifica- tion by the commission, and they are accountable only to him and may be removed by him at any time. The in- novation is developing a unique group of public servants, not politicians or transplanted business men, but a new type of specially qualified adminis- trators. Up to June 15, 1916, forty- two cities under commission govern- ment had adopted the city manager plan, and seventeen others not under commission government had done so. See COMMISSION GOYEBNMENT. City Planning, a movement for municipal betterment that has devel- oped wide-spread interest and civic activities in many of the large cities of the United States, especially since 1910. It is claimed that city plan- ning is the application of wise fore- sight to the control of a city's destiny. It attracts industries, commerce, and visitors ; it produces better transpor- tation facilities, improved hygienic conditions, more adequate and less ex- pensive living quarters ; and it includes not only the aesthetic beautification of the city, but the construction and co-ordination of all the elements which go to make the modern city a practical operative mechanism. The straightening of old crooked roads, the elimination of unsightly buildings, and particularly the rebuilding of mu- nicipal and other public buildings in a center approachable from any direc- tion by straight, broad, attractive boulevards, are among the first provi- sions. Chicago, Boston, Kansas City, Lios Angeles, and New York have taken the lead in this movement, and by 1917 nearly 100 cities had begun or were planning civic betterments. Civics, School, a feature of educa- tional methods recently introduced into many of the public and other schools of the United States, especially Civil Service designed to impart to youth a prac- tical conception of the science of gov- ernment. To render the course of study and practice as realistic as possible, a portion of the students is organized into a body similar to that which governs their own city, or in advanced instances, those under commission government. Ordinarily there are a mayor, councilmen or com- missioners, heads of the usual execu- tive departments, and representatives of the leading public activities. These officials are elected by the students from ^ among their number, and are then instructed in the various duties and responsibilities that pertain to their elder prototypes. Cindad-Rodrigo, a fortress in Spain, in Leon, on the river Aguada. In the Peninsular War it was taken by storm by the British under Wel- lington, after a siege of 11 days. The Cortes gave him the title of Duke of Ciiidad-Rodrigo. Civil Service, that branch of the public service which includes the non- military servants of the government. In January, 1883, the United States Congress passed a law to prevent the abuse of the appointing power of the officers of government. The Presi- dent was authorized to appoint, with the advice and consent of the Senate, three civil _ service commissioners, whose duty is to aid the President in preparing suitable rules which shall provide for open competitive examina- tions for testing the fitness of appli- cants for the public service, such ex- aminations to be practical in their character, and so far as may be relat- ing to those matters which will fairly test the relative capacity and fitness of the persons examined to discharge the duties of the service. All the places arranged in classes are to be filled by selections according to grade from among those standing highest as the result of such examinations. m The appointments to the public service in the departments at Washington are to be proportioned upon the basis of pop- ulation of the several States and Ter- ritories and the District of Columbia. The law provides a period of probation before any absolute appointment is made, and exempts all persons in the public service from all obligation to contribute to any political fund or to render any political service. It for- Civil War bids any person in the public service using his official authority to coerce the political action of any other person or body. Non-competitive examina- tions in all proper cases are provided for after notice given of a vacancy, the appointing power to give notice in writing to the civil service commission of the persons selected for appointment among those who have been examined. Power is given this commission to make regulations for, and to have con- trol of, such examinations, subject to the rules made by the President. The civil service commission is required to report annually to the President, for transmission to Congress, its own ac- tion, the rules and regulations, and the exceptions thereto in .force, the practical objects thereof, and any sug- gestions for the more effectual accom- plishment of the purposes of the law. Provision is made for holding exami- nations at convenient places twice each year in every State and Territory of the United States. The statute punishes by fine and imprisonment all in the public service who wilfully defeat, obstruct, or de- ceive any person in respect to his or her right of examination, or who shall corruptly and falsely mark, or report upon the proper standing of any per- son examined, or aid in so doing, or who shall furnish to any person any special or secret information for the purpose of either improving or injur- ing the prospects of any person so ex- amined appointed, employed, or pro- moted. It was provided that after six months from the passing of the act, no officer or clerk was to be appointed until after passing examination, unless specially exempted by the act ; and no person in the habit of using intoxicat- ing beverages to excess is to be ap- pointed to or retained in any employ- ment to which the act applies. Civil War, American, the war in the United States, caused by the at- tempt of the Southern States to estab- lish an independent government under the name of the Confederate States of America. The result of the war was to estab- lish the fact that the United States is a nation, and that no State has the right to secede from the Union. It also resulted in the abolition of slav- ery, and the 13th Amendment to the Clairvoyance Constitution, adopted after the war, extinguished slavery in the United States. During the Civil War there were 2,778,304 men mustered into ser- vice on the Union side and about 600,- 000 on the Confederate. The number of casualties in the volunteer and regu- lar armies of the United States dur- ing the war, according to a statement prepared by the Adjutant-General's of- fice, was as follows : Killed in battle, 07,058; died of wounds, 43,012; died of disease, 199,720 ; other causes, such as accidents, murder, Confederate pris- ons, etc., 40,154; total died, 349,944; total deserted, 199,105. Number of soldiers in the Confederate service who died of wounds or disease (partial statement), 133,821. Deserted (par- tial statement), 104,428. Number of United States troops captured during the war, 212,608; Confederate troops captured, 476,169. Number of United States troops paroled on the field, 16,- 431 ; Confederate troops paroled on the field, 248,599. Number of United States troops who died while prisoners, 30,156; Confederate troops who died while prisoners, 30,152. Claflin, Mary Bucklin, an Amer- ican prose-writer ; born in Hopkinton, Mass., July, 1825. She was the wife of Governor Claflin, of Massachusetts. For 18 years she was a trustee of Bos- ton University ; and of Wellesley Col- lege from its foundation till her death, which occurred in Whitinsville, Mass.. June 13, 1896. Claflin University, a co-educa- tional institution in Orangeburg, S. C. ; organized in 1869, under the aus- pices of the Methodist Episcopal Church, exclusively for the colored race. Clairvanx, a village of France, on the Aube, 10 miles S. E. of Barsur- Aube ; is remarkable as the site of the once famous Cistercian, Abbey, founded in 1115 by St. Bernard, who presided over it till his death in 1153, when he was buried in the church. Clairvoyance, defined as the power of perceiving without the use of the organ of vision or under conditions in which the organ of vision with its nat- ural powers alone would be useless. It comprises the sight of things past, present, or future, and various meth- ods are observed in its performance. Clam Clam, the popular name of certain bivalvular shell-fish of various genera and species. The giant clam has the largest shell known, and the animal is used as food in the Pacific. The com- mon American clam is found in gravel- ly mud, sand, and other soft bottoms, especially between high and low water mark. They are largely used for bait, and are a much-relished article of food. Clan, a tribe or number of families, bearing the same surname, claiming to be descended from the same ancestor and united under a chieftain repre- senting the ancestor. Clapboard, a thin, narrow board commonly used for covering the sides of wooden buildings. Clapperton, Hugh, an African traveler ; born in Dumfriesshire, Scot- land, in 1788. He was the first Euro pean who traversed the whole of Cen- tral Africa from the Bight of Benin to the Mediterranean. He died in Af- rica in April, 1827. Claque, a body of hired applause- makers, openly employed in France and sometimes secretly resorted to elsewhere. Clare, St., bora in 1193, of a noble family of Assisi ; in 1212 retired to the Portiuncula of St. Francis, and in the same year founded the order of Fran- ciscan nuns. She died Aug. 11, 1253. THE NUNS OF THE OEDEE OF ST. CLARA (also called the Poor Clares) at first observed the strictest Benedic- tine rule, but the austerity of this rule was mitigated by St. Francis in 1224, and further modified by Urban IV. in 1265. A large proportion of the nuns adopted Urban's rule. Clarence, Duke of. See GEORGE. DUKE OF CLARENCE. Clarendon, Constitutions of, a code of laws adopted in the 10th year of Henry II. (1164), at a council of prelates and barons held in the village of Clarendon, in Wiltshire, in Janu- ary of the above year. Ten of the ar- ticles were condemned, and six allowed by Pope Alexander III. The six arti- oles approved of were of comparatively slight importance, mostly confirming the privileges of the ecclesiastical order. Clarendon, Edward Hyde, Earl of, Lord High Chancellor of England ; Clark born in Dinton, Wiltshire, in 1608. During the civil wars he zealously at- tached himself to the royal cause, was made successively chancellor of the ex- chequer and privy councillor. After the failure of the royalist arms he took refuge in Jersey, and then joined Prince Charles in Holland. He con- tributed to the Restoration, accom- panied Charles II. to London, and was made Lord Chancellor. His daughter Anne was married to the Duke of York, afterward James II., and two daughters, Anne and Mary, both as- cended the English throne. He died in Rouen in 1674. Claret, a name given to wines of a light-red color. Clarification, the act or process of making any liquor clear and bright by freeing it from visible impurities. It differs from purification in that a liquid, though clear to the sight, may still contain a large amount of im- pure matter. Clarinet, or Clarionet, a musical instrument. It consists essentially of a mouth-piece furnished with a single beating reed, a cylindrical tube ending in a bell, and provided with 18 open- ings in the side, half of which are closed by the fingers and half by the keys. Clark, Abraham, an American patriot ; born in Elizabethtown, N. J., Feb. 15, 1726. He was a dele- gate to the Continental Congress and signed the Declaration of Indepen- dence. He aided in framing the Con- stitution of the United States. He died in Rahway, N. J., Sept. 15, 1794. Clark, Alexander, an American clergyman and writer ; born in Jeffer- son county, Ohio, in 1834. Died in Georgia, July 6, 1879. Clark, Alonzo Howard, an Amer- ican scientist: born in Boston, April 13, 1850. Since 1881 he has been con- nected with the Smithsonian Institu- tion. Clark, Alvan, an American astro- nomical-instrument maker ; born in As.hfield, Mass., March 3, 1804. He was at one time a portrait painter. His attention was turned to telescope making and he achieved a world-wide reputation. He died in Cambridge, Mass., Aug. 9, 1887. His son, Alvan Graham Clark, born in Fall River, fiE 5 For Reference Not to be taken from this room UC SOUTHERN REGIONAL LIBRARY FACILITY A 000 823 981 6